From 85794104ab8f241afc7be74bdf83470ec6cd900f Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: lszoszk Date: Tue, 13 Oct 2026 23:27:38 +0200 Subject: [PATCH] Data: three Special Procedures reports (A/HRC/62/48, A/80/341, A/80/139) 341 paragraphs with footnotes and sections from the DOCX; feeds, changelog and citation graph rebuilt (+30 edges, all to or from these). Published from lszoszk/generalcomments-pipeline. Co-Authored-By: Claude Opus 5.5 --- docs/changelog.html | 4 +- docs/citations/graph.csv | 30 +++++++++++ docs/citations/graph.json | 2 +- docs/citations/index.json | 2 +- docs/documents.json | 2 +- docs/facets.json | 2 +- docs/feeds/all.xml | 54 +++++++++---------- docs/feeds/body-sr-freedom-of-expression.xml | 11 +++- docs/feeds/body-sr-leprosy.xml | 11 +++- ...discrimination-against-women-and-girls.xml | 11 +++- docs/feeds/index.json | 18 +++---- docs/feeds/sp.xml | 54 +++++++++---------- docs/manifest.json | 32 +++++------ docs/sp/manifest.json | 30 +++++------ .../shards/sp_SR_Freedom_of_Expression.json | 2 +- docs/sp/shards/sp_SR_Leprosy.json | 2 +- ...iscrimination_against_Women_and_Girls.json | 2 +- 17 files changed, 161 insertions(+), 108 deletions(-) diff --git a/docs/changelog.html b/docs/changelog.html index d02a46b8..def4c392 100644 --- a/docs/changelog.html +++ b/docs/changelog.html @@ -25,9 +25,9 @@

What is new

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Every document added to the UN Human Rights Database, by the day it entered the corpus. 6,116 documents; last addition 2026-10-13; page built 13 October 2026.

+

Every document added to the UN Human Rights Database, by the day it entered the corpus. 6,119 documents; last addition 2026-10-13; page built 13 October 2026.

Subscribe: UN Human Rights Database — new documents · UNHRDB — new General Comments and Recommendations · UNHRDB — new treaty-body decisions · UNHRDB — new Special Procedures reports · all feeds · back to the database

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13 October 2026 5

3 September 2026 29

17 August 2026 2

18 June 2026 68

17 June 2026 453

16 June 2026 629

7 June 2026 31

19 May 2026 156

18 May 2026 50

13 May 2026 7

12 May 2026 332

11 May 2026 731

8 May 2026 147

30 April 2026 14

29 April 2026 3103

28 April 2026 359

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13 October 2026 8

3 September 2026 29

17 August 2026 2

18 June 2026 68

17 June 2026 453

16 June 2026 629

7 June 2026 31

19 May 2026 156

18 May 2026 50

13 May 2026 7

12 May 2026 332

11 May 2026 731

8 May 2026 147

30 April 2026 14

29 April 2026 3103

28 April 2026 359

diff --git a/docs/citations/graph.csv b/docs/citations/graph.csv index c489babe..45b2840d 100644 --- a/docs/citations/graph.csv +++ b/docs/citations/graph.csv @@ -289,6 +289,7 @@ a-79-183,a-78-196,7 a-79-270,a-hrc-49-53,7 a-79-305,a-hrc-54-29,7 a-80-206,a-hrc-54-27,7 +a-80-341,a-hrc-59-50,7 a-hrc-11-12,a-61-338,7 a-hrc-13-23,ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-7,7 a-hrc-16-53-add-1,a-hrc-13-40-add-1,7 @@ -715,6 +716,7 @@ a-80-284,a-hrc-16-51,5 a-80-302,a-hrc-50-31,5 a-80-329,a-78-535,5 a-80-329,a-79-305,5 +a-80-341,a-77-288,5 a-81-128,a-74-190,5 a-81-128,a-hrc-58-57,5 a-conf-189-pc-1-7,e-cn-4-1998-6,5 @@ -1462,6 +1464,7 @@ a-hrc-62-44,a-80-187,4 a-hrc-62-44,crc-c-gc-26,4 a-hrc-62-44,e-c-12-gc-27,4 a-hrc-62-45,a-80-219,4 +a-hrc-62-48,a-hrc-56-68,4 a-hrc-62-49,a-hrc-53-36,4 a-hrc-62-49,a-hrc-56-48,4 a-hrc-62-49,a-hrc-59-47,4 @@ -2664,6 +2667,11 @@ a-hrc-62-45,a-hrc-55-60,3 a-hrc-62-45,a-hrc-59-44,3 a-hrc-62-46,a-hrc-44-53,3 a-hrc-62-46,cedaw-c-81-d-134-2018,3 +a-hrc-62-48,a-hrc-44-51,3 +a-hrc-62-48,a-hrc-50-25,3 +a-hrc-62-48,a-hrc-58-60,3 +a-hrc-62-48,a-hrc-59-45,3 +a-hrc-62-48,a-hrc-60-30,3 a-hrc-62-66,a-78-175,3 a-hrc-62-66,e-c-12-gc-20,3 a-hrc-63-25,a-81-130,3 @@ -4419,6 +4427,9 @@ a-80-302,e-c-12-gc-19,2 a-80-302,e-c-12-gc-20,2 a-80-329,a-hrc-51-25,2 a-80-329,a-hrc-60-27,2 +a-80-341,a-78-288,2 +a-80-341,a-79-319,2 +a-80-341,a-hrc-56-53,2 a-80-351,a-65-281,2 a-80-351,e-1991-23,2 a-80-351,e-c-12-61-d-5-2015,2 @@ -6107,6 +6118,15 @@ a-hrc-62-46,a-80-183,2 a-hrc-62-46,e-c-12-2000-4,2 a-hrc-62-46,e-c-12-gc-22,2 a-hrc-62-46,e-cn-4-1997-47,2 +a-hrc-62-48,a-74-493,2 +a-hrc-62-48,a-78-520,2 +a-hrc-62-48,a-80-278,2 +a-hrc-62-48,a-hrc-36-48,2 +a-hrc-62-48,a-hrc-38-47,2 +a-hrc-62-48,a-hrc-41-41,2 +a-hrc-62-48,a-hrc-52-39,2 +a-hrc-62-48,a-hrc-53-65,2 +a-hrc-62-48,cedaw-c-gc-35,2 a-hrc-62-49,a-77-136,2 a-hrc-62-49,a-78-256,2 a-hrc-62-49,a-hrc-20-24,2 @@ -10736,6 +10756,7 @@ a-80-138,a-77-157,1 a-80-138,a-hrc-50-38,1 a-80-138,a-hrc-56-61,1 a-80-138,a-hrc-59-51,1 +a-80-139,a-hrc-56-59,1 a-80-158,a-hrc-59-47,1 a-80-158,ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-10,1 a-80-158,cedaw-c-gc-28,1 @@ -10891,6 +10912,8 @@ a-80-302,ced-c-gc-1,1 a-80-329,a-75-259,1 a-80-329,a-76-151,1 a-80-329,a-hrc-54-29,1 +a-80-341,a-75-212,1 +a-80-341,ccpr-c-gc-34,1 a-80-351,a-74-183,1 a-80-351,a-77-190,1 a-80-351,a-79-317,1 @@ -14205,6 +14228,13 @@ a-hrc-62-46,cedaw-c-gc-34,1 a-hrc-62-46,cedaw-c-gc-35,1 a-hrc-62-46,e-c-12-gc-26,1 a-hrc-62-46,e-cn-4-2006-61,1 +a-hrc-62-48,a-75-590,1 +a-hrc-62-48,a-76-261,1 +a-hrc-62-48,a-78-161,1 +a-hrc-62-48,a-hrc-17-27,1 +a-hrc-62-48,a-hrc-53-39,1 +a-hrc-62-48,a-hrc-57-70,1 +a-hrc-62-48,crc-c-gc-25,1 a-hrc-62-53,a-80-171,1 a-hrc-62-53,a-hrc-59-53,1 a-hrc-62-53,a-hrc-62-36,1 diff --git a/docs/citations/graph.json b/docs/citations/graph.json index bd3ec741..d307f9c6 100644 --- a/docs/citations/graph.json +++ b/docs/citations/graph.json @@ -1 +1 @@ -{"version":"20261013","builtAt":"2026-10-13T20:12:37+00:00","method":"Document-level references found in paragraph bodies and footnotes: UN symbols resolved against the catalogue; 'general comment/recommendation No. N' and 'communication No. N/YYYY' resolved within the committee named in the preceding text, else the citing document's own committee (never guessed for Special Procedures reports). Self-references dropped. 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\ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/documents.json b/docs/documents.json index a3239266..6fc17a42 100644 --- a/docs/documents.json +++ b/docs/documents.json @@ -1 +1 @@ -[{"docId":"a-53-44","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 01: Implementation of article 3 of the Convention in the context of article 22","nameShort":"GC1: Implementation of Art. 3 in the context of Art. 22","signature":"A/53/44","committee":"CAT","committees":["CAT"],"year":1997,"adoptionDate":"21 Nov 1997","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/53/44","sourceFile":"Annotated_CAT_GC1_art.3_v1.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 3 of the Convention applies where there are substantial grounds for believing that a person would be in danger of being subjected to torture as defined in article 1, and elaborates the test, the burden and the procedural standards for assessing the risk in the context of individual communications under article 22. (Replaced by general comment No. 4.)","articles":["Art. 3","Art. 22","Art. 1"],"status":"superseded","supersededBy":"CAT/C/GC/4","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"A/53/44","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":670,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"verified-by-pattern-analogy","paragraphCount":9,"statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CAT/C/GC/4","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"cat-c-gc-2","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 2: Implementation of article 2 by States parties","nameShort":"GC2: Implementation of Art. 2 by States parties","signature":"CAT/C/GC/2","committee":"CAT","committees":["CAT"],"year":2008,"adoptionDate":"24 January 2008","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CAT/C/GC/2","sourceFile":"Annotated_CAT_GC2_article2.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 2 sets out three interrelated and essential principles undergirding the Convention's absolute prohibition of torture, and clarifies that the prohibition is a peremptory jus cogens norm of customary international law and that the obligation to prevent torture extends to acts of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.","articles":["Art. 2"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CAT/C/GC/2","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3516,"labelCount":18,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":27},{"docId":"cat-c-gc-3","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 3 (2012): Implementation of article 14 by States parties","nameShort":"GC3: Implementation of Art. 14 by States parties","signature":"CAT/C/GC/3","committee":"CAT","committees":["CAT"],"year":2012,"adoptionDate":"13 December 2012","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CAT/C/GC/3","sourceFile":"Annotated_CAT_GC3_art.14.json","abstract":"The Committee elaborates the content and scope of the obligations under article 14 of the Convention, considers that all victims of torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment are entitled to redress and rehabilitation, and clarifies that redress encompasses restitution, compensation, rehabilitation, satisfaction and guarantees of non-repetition.","articles":["Art. 14"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CAT/C/GC/3","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":5785,"labelCount":26,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":46},{"docId":"cat-c-gc-4","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 4 (2017) on the implementation of article 3 of the Convention in the context of article 22 [REVISED]","nameShort":"GC4: implementation of Art. 3 in the context of Art. 22 [REVISED]","signature":"CAT/C/GC/4","committee":"CAT","committees":["CAT"],"year":2018,"adoptionDate":"4 September 2018","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CAT/C/GC/4","sourceFile":"Annotated_CAT_GC4_art.3.json","abstract":"The Committee, replacing general comment No. 1 (1997), elaborates the application of article 3 in the context of individual communications under article 22, and clarifies the standards of risk assessment, the burden of proof, the role of country information, and the principle of non-refoulement as a non-derogable obligation.","articles":["Art. 3","Art. 22"],"status":"final","supersedes":"A/53/44","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CAT/C/GC/4","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":5661,"labelCount":29,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":51},{"docId":"cat-op-gc-1","type":"gc","name":"General comment No. 1 (2024) on article 4 of the Optional Protocol (places of deprivation of liberty)","nameShort":"SPT GC1: Article 4 OPCAT — places of deprivation of liberty","signature":"CAT/OP/GC/1","committee":"CAT-OP","committees":["CAT-OP"],"year":2024,"adoptionDate":"7 June 2024","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CAT/OP/GC/1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CAT_OP_GC1_art4.json","abstract":"The Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture (SPT) clarifies the comprehensive scope of \"places of deprivation of liberty\" under article 4 of the Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture (OPCAT). It addresses the object and purpose of the Optional Protocol, identifies illustrative categories of facilities subject to preventive visits, and reaffirms that any restrictive interpretation would defeat the preventive aim of the OPCAT regime.","articles":["Art. 4"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CAT/OP/GC/1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-30","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-30","wordCount":7074,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":59},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-181","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 10: Article 19 (Freedom of opinion)","nameShort":"GC10: article 19 (freedom of opinion)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 181","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1983,"adoptionDate":"29 June 1983","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC10_opinion.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right to hold opinions without interference under article 19, paragraph 1, is a right to which the Covenant permits no exception or restriction, and requests States parties to provide information on the implementation of this right and on the conditions under which any restrictions on freedom of expression are imposed. (Replaced by general comment No. 34.)","articles":["Art. 19(Freedomofopinion)","Art. 19(freedomofopinion)"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6627","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":403,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":4,"supersededBy":"CCPR/C/GC/34","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/34","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-182","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 11: Article 20 (prohibition of propaganda for war and inciting national, racial or religious hatred)","nameShort":"GC11: article 20 (prohibition of propaganda for war and inciting national, racial or religious hatred)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 182","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1983,"adoptionDate":"29 July 1983","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC11_art.20.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 20 obliges States parties to prohibit by law any propaganda for war and any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, and clarifies that compatibility of such prohibitions with the rights to freedom of expression and association requires careful and lawful design.","articles":["Art. 20(prohibitionofpropagandaforwarandincitingnational,racialorreligioushatred)","Art. 20","Art. 19"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/4720","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":335,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-183","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 12: Article 1 (Right to self-determination)","nameShort":"GC12: article 1 (right to self-determination)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 183","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1984,"adoptionDate":"13 March 1984","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC12_self-determination.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right of all peoples to self-determination under article 1 is of particular importance because its realization is an essential condition for the effective guarantee of individual human rights, and clarifies that States parties have obligations both with respect to their own peoples and with respect to other peoples.","articles":["Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6626","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":715,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":8},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-184","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 13: Article 14 (administration of justice)","nameShort":"GC13: article 14 (administration of justice)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 184","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1984,"adoptionDate":"13 April 1984","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC13_justice.json","abstract":"The Committee, considering article 14 to be of a complex nature, draws attention to the need for States parties to provide more detailed information in their reports on the implementation of each of its provisions on the proper administration of justice, including the guarantees of equality before courts, fair and public hearing, and rights of the defence. (Replaced by general comment No. 32.)","articles":["Art. 14(administrationofjustice)","Art. 14"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/4721","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2126,"labelCount":3,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":19,"supersededBy":"CCPR/C/GC/32","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/32","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-188","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 14: Article 6 (Right to life)","nameShort":"GC14: article 6 (right to life)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 188","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1984,"adoptionDate":"9 November 1984","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC14_life.json","abstract":"The Committee, considering the right to life enunciated in article 6 as the supreme right from which no derogation is permitted even in time of public emergency, draws attention to the threat posed by nuclear weapons to human life and considers that their production, deployment and use should be prohibited and recognized as a crime against humanity. (Replaced by general comment No. 36.)","articles":["Art. 6(Righttolife)","Art. 6(righttolife)","Art. 6","Art. 3"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/4723","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":410,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":7,"supersededBy":"CCPR/C/GC/36","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/36","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-189","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 15: The position of aliens under the Covenant","nameShort":"GC15: the position of aliens under the Covenant","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 189","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1986,"adoptionDate":"11 April 1986","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC15_aliens.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the rights set forth in the Covenant apply to everyone within a State party's territory and subject to its jurisdiction, regardless of nationality or statelessness, and clarifies the position of aliens — including non-discrimination, expulsion safeguards under article 13 and access to procedural protections.","articles":["Art. 2","Art. 25","Art. 13"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6625","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1388,"labelCount":9,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":10},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-191","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 16: Article 17 (Right to privacy)","nameShort":"GC16: article 17 (right to privacy)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 191","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1988,"adoptionDate":"8 April 1988","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC16_privacy.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 17 protects every person against arbitrary or unlawful interference with privacy, family, home or correspondence, and clarifies that this protection extends to interferences from State and non-State actors and requires legislative, administrative and other measures to give it effect.","articles":["Art. 17(Righttoprivacy)","Art. 17(righttoprivacy)","Art. 17"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6624","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1144,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":11},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-193","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 17: The rights of the child (Article 24)","nameShort":"GC17: the rights of the child (article 24)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 193","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1989,"adoptionDate":"7 April 1989","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC17_child.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 24 recognizes the right of every child, without discrimination, to receive from the family, society and the State the protection required by the child's status as a minor, and that its implementation entails the adoption of special measures supplementing those required for adults under article 2.","articles":["Art. 24","Art. 2"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6623","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1431,"labelCount":9,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":8},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-195","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 18: Non-discrimination","nameShort":"GC18: Non-discrimination","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 195","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1989,"adoptionDate":"10 November 1989","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC18_non-discrimination.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that non-discrimination, together with equality before the law and equal protection of the law, constitutes a basic and general principle of human rights protection, and elaborates the meaning of discrimination under article 26 and the corresponding obligations of States parties.","articles":["Art. 2","Art. 3","Art. 4","Art. 20"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6622","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1492,"labelCount":4,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":13},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-198","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 19: Protection of the Family, the Right to Marriage and Equality of the Spouses (Article 23)","nameShort":"GC19: protection of the family, the right to marriage and equality of the spouses (article 23)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 198","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"27 July 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC19_family.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society entitled to protection under article 23, and clarifies the obligations of States parties regarding the right to marry, equality between spouses, and protection of the family — including in the context of dissolution of marriage and the rights of the child.","articles":["Art. 23","Art. 17","Art. 24"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6620","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":971,"labelCount":5,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":9},{"docId":"annotated-ccpr-gc1-reporting-obligation","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 1: Reporting obligation","nameShort":"GC1: reporting obligation","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 173","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1981,"adoptionDate":"27 July 1981","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC1_reporting_obligation.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the reporting obligation under article 40 — under which States parties have undertaken to submit initial and periodic reports on the measures they have adopted and the progress made in the enjoyment of Covenant rights — and notes the widespread delays in submission, urging States parties to comply on time.","articles":["Art. 40"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6634","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":203,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":1},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-200","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 20: Article 7 (Prohibition of Torture, or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment)","nameShort":"GC20: article 7 (prohibition of torture, or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I), p. 200","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1992,"adoptionDate":"10 March 1992","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC20_art.7.json","abstract":"The Committee, replacing general comment No. 7 (1982), considers that article 7 protects the dignity and physical and mental integrity of the individual, and clarifies that the prohibition of torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment is non-derogable, encompasses corporal punishment and applies regardless of the purpose for which the act is committed.","articles":["Art. 7(ProhibitionofTorture,orothercruel,inhumanordegradingtreatmentorpunishment)","Art. 7(prohibitionoftorture,orothercruel,inhumanordegradingtreatmentorpunishment)","Art. 7","Art. 10"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6621","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1328,"labelCount":6,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":15,"supersedes":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 178"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-202","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 21: Article 10 (Humane treatment of persons deprived of their liberty)","nameShort":"GC21: article 10 (humane treatment of persons deprived of their liberty)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I), p. 202","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1992,"adoptionDate":"10 April 1992","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC21_art.10.json","abstract":"The Committee, replacing general comment No. 9 (1982), considers that article 10 imposes a positive obligation on States parties towards persons deprived of their liberty, who are particularly vulnerable, and elaborates the requirements of humane treatment, segregation regimes and the rehabilitative aim of the penitentiary system.","articles":["Art. 10(Humanetreatmentofpersonsdeprivedoftheirliberty)","Art. 10(humanetreatmentofpersonsdeprivedoftheirliberty)","Art. 10"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/4731","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1187,"labelCount":13,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":13,"supersedes":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 180"},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-4","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 22: the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion (art. 18)","nameShort":"GC22: the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion (art. 18)","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 4","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1993,"adoptionDate":"27 September 1993","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.%204","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC22_freedom_of_thought.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion under article 18 is far-reaching and profound, encompassing the freedom to hold beliefs and the freedom to manifest religion or belief, and clarifies the strict conditions under which any restriction on manifestation may be imposed.","articles":["Art. 18","Art. 18(1)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1700,"labelCount":5,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":11},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-5","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 23: the rights of minorities (art. 27)","nameShort":"GC23: the rights of minorities (art. 27)","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.5","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1994,"adoptionDate":"26 April 1994","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.5","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC23_minorities.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 27 protects the right of persons belonging to ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities, in community with other members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, profess and practise their own religion, or use their own language, and clarifies that these rights are individual rights that may require positive measures by the State.","articles":["Art. 27","Art. 1","Art. 40","Art. 2(1)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.5","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1471,"labelCount":3,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":9},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-6","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 24 on issues relating to reservations made upon ratification or accession to the Covenant or the Optional Protocols thereto, or in relation to declarations under article 41 of the Covenant","nameShort":"GC24: issues relating to reservations made upon ratification or accession to the Covenant or the Optional Protocols thereto, or in relation to declarations under article 41 of the Covenant","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 6","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1994,"adoptionDate":"11 November 1994","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.%206","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC24_reservations.json","abstract":"The Committee, concerned by the number and nature of reservations entered to the Covenant and Optional Protocols, considers that reservations incompatible with the object and purpose of the Covenant are inadmissible, and clarifies that the Committee itself has competence to determine whether reservations are compatible.","articles":["Art. 41"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.6","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3750,"labelCount":4,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":20},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-7","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 25: the right to participate in public affairs, voting rights and the right of equal access to public service (article 25)","nameShort":"GC25: the right to participate in public affairs, voting rights and the right of equal access to public service (article 25)","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.7","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1996,"adoptionDate":"27 August 1996","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.7","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC25_art.25.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 25 lies at the core of democratic government, and elaborates the right of every citizen to take part in the conduct of public affairs, the right to vote and stand for election, and the right of equal access to public service, including the conditions under which any restriction may be imposed.","articles":["Art. 25","Art. 1(1)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.7","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2725,"labelCount":5,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":27},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-8-rev-1","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 26 on issues relating to the continuity of obligations to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights","nameShort":"GC26: issues relating to the continuity of obligations to the Covenant","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.8/Rev.1","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1997,"adoptionDate":"8 December 1997","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.8/Rev.1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC26_continuity_obligations.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the Covenant does not contain any provision regarding its termination, denunciation or withdrawal, and concludes that — in light of the rights it enshrines and the lack of any provision permitting denunciation — the Covenant is not subject to denunciation or withdrawal once a State has acceded to it.","articles":["Art. 41(2)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.8/Rev.1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":500,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":5},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-9","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 27: Freedom of movement (article 12)","nameShort":"GC27: Fredom of movement (article 12)","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1./Add.9","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1999,"adoptionDate":"1 November 1999","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.9","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC27_movement.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that liberty of movement under article 12 is an indispensable condition for the free development of the person, and elaborates the right to move within a State, the right to leave any country, the right to enter one's own country and the strict conditions under which any restriction may be imposed.","articles":["Art. 12","Art. 13"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.9","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2343,"labelCount":9,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":21},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-10","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 28: Article 3 (The equality of rights between men and women)","nameShort":"GC28: Article 3 (the equality of rights between men and women)","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 10","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2000,"adoptionDate":"29 March 2000","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC28_gender_equality.json","abstract":"The Committee, replacing general comment No. 4 (1981), elaborates the application of article 3 — the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all civil and political rights — and clarifies the legislative, policy and structural measures States parties must adopt to give effect to substantive equality across the Covenant rights.","articles":["Art. 3(Theequalityofrightsbetweenmenandwomen)","Art. 3(theequalityofrightsbetweenmenandwomen)","Art. 3"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.10","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3973,"labelCount":43,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":32,"supersedes":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 175"},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-11","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 29: states of emergency (article 4)","nameShort":"GC29: states of emergency (article 4)","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 11","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2001,"adoptionDate":"31 August 2001","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.%2011","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC29_emergency.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 4 — permitting derogation in time of public emergency — is of paramount importance for the system of protection under the Covenant, and clarifies the strict conditions of proclamation, notification, proportionality and non-derogability that must be observed when a State party invokes it.","articles":["Art. 4"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.11","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3152,"labelCount":7,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":17,"supersedes":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 176"},{"docId":"annotated-ccpr-gc2-reporting-guidelines","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 2: Reporting guidelines","nameShort":"GC2: reporting guidelines","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 173","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1981,"adoptionDate":"28 July 1981","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC2_reporting_guidelines.json","abstract":"The Committee, having noted that initial reports were often too brief to enable proper assessment, draws attention to the general guidelines on the form and content of reports and recommends that States parties follow them carefully so as to give the Committee a complete picture of the implementation of the Covenant.","articles":["Art. 2","Art. 40"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6633","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":472,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":4,"supersededBy":"CCPR/C/66/GUI/Rev.2","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/66/GUI/Rev.2","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-12","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 30: Reporting Obligations of States parties under article 40 of the Covenant","nameShort":"GC30: reporting obligations of states parties under article 40 of the Covenant","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 12","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2002,"adoptionDate":"16 July 2002","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.%2012","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC30_reporting.json","abstract":"The Committee elaborates the reporting obligations of States parties under article 40, clarifies the scope of those obligations including the duty to address concluding observations and follow-up procedures, and considers that timely and substantive reporting is integral to the effective implementation of the Covenant.","articles":["Art. 40"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.2/Add.12","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":424,"labelCount":0,"alternativeSignatures":["CCPR/C/21/Rev.2/Add.12"],"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":6},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-13","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 31: The Nature of General Legal Obligation Imposed on States Parties to the Covenant","nameShort":"GC31: the nature of general legal obligation imposed on states parties to the Covenant","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 13","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2004,"adoptionDate":"29 March 2004","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.%2013","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC31_nature_of_obligations.json","abstract":"The Committee, replacing general comment No. 3 and reading together with general comments Nos. 18 and 28 on non-discrimination, elaborates the nature of the general legal obligations imposed on States parties by article 2, including the obligations to respect and to ensure rights, the duty to provide effective remedies and the prohibition of giving effect to the Covenant in a discriminatory manner.","articles":["Art. 2"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2789,"labelCount":5,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":20,"supersedes":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 174"},{"docId":"ccpr-c-gc-32","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 32: Article 14: Right to equality before courts and tribunals and to a fair trial","nameShort":"GC32: article 14: right to equality before courts and tribunals and to a fair trial","signature":"CCPR/C/GC/32","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2007,"adoptionDate":"23 August 2007","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/32","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC32_article14.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right to equality before courts and tribunals and to a fair trial under article 14 is a key element of human rights protection and a procedural means to safeguard the rule of law, and elaborates its constituent guarantees including independence and impartiality, the presumption of innocence, defence rights and the right of appeal.","articles":["Art. 14"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/GC/32","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":8014,"labelCount":28,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":65,"supersedes":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 184"},{"docId":"ccpr-c-gc-33","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 33: Obligation of States under Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights","nameShort":"GC33: obligation of States parties under the Optional Protocol to the Covenant","signature":"CCPR/C/GC/33","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2009,"adoptionDate":"25 June 2009","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/33","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC33_optional_protocol.json","abstract":"The Committee elaborates the obligations of States parties under the Optional Protocol to the Covenant, considers that views adopted by the Committee under the Protocol represent an authoritative determination by the body established under the Covenant itself, and clarifies that States parties are obliged to give effect to those views in good faith.","articles":["Art. 8"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/GC/33","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1688,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":20},{"docId":"ccpr-c-gc-34","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 34: Article 19: Freedoms of opinion and expression","nameShort":"GC34: article 19: freedoms of opinion and expression","signature":"CCPR/C/GC/34","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2011,"adoptionDate":"12 September 2011","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/34","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC34_expression.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that freedom of opinion and freedom of expression under article 19 are indispensable conditions for the full development of the person and the foundation stone of every free and democratic society, and provides authoritative guidance on the scope of these freedoms and on the strict requirements that any restriction must satisfy.","articles":["Art. 19"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/GC/34","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":5123,"labelCount":4,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":52,"supersedes":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 181"},{"docId":"ccpr-c-gc-35","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 35: Article 9 (Liberty and security of a person)","nameShort":"GC35: article 9 (liberty and security of a person)","signature":"CCPR/C/GC/35","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2014,"adoptionDate":"16 December 2014","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/35","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC35_article9.json","abstract":"The Committee, replacing general comment No. 8 (1982), considers that article 9 protects both liberty and security of person, and clarifies the prohibition of arbitrary detention, the right to challenge the lawfulness of detention before a court, and the procedural guarantees that apply across criminal, immigration, mental-health and other contexts of deprivation of liberty.","articles":["Art. 9(Libertyandsecurityofaperson)","Art. 9(libertyandsecurityofaperson)","Art. 9","Art. 3"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/GC/35","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7714,"labelCount":81,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":68,"supersedes":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 179"},{"docId":"ccpr-c-gc-36","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 36: Article 6: right to life","nameShort":"GC36: article 6: right to life","signature":"CCPR/C/GC/36","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2019,"adoptionDate":"3 September 2019","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/36","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC36_life.json","abstract":"The Committee replaces general comments No. 6 (1982) and No. 14 (1984) on the right to life, considers article 6 the supreme right from which no derogation is permitted, and provides comprehensive guidance on its scope, including the prohibition of arbitrary deprivation of life, the use of lethal force, the death penalty and the right to life with dignity.","articles":["Art. 6"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/GC/36","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10244,"labelCount":49,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":70,"supersedes":["HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p.176","HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 188"]},{"docId":"ccpr-c-gc-37","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 37 (2020) on the right of peaceful assembly (article 21)","nameShort":"GC37: the right of peaceful assembly (article 21)","signature":"CCPR/C/GC/37","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2020,"adoptionDate":"17 September 2020","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/37","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC37_assembly.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right of peaceful assembly under article 21 protects the ability of individuals to act collectively in pursuit of common interests, and provides comprehensive guidance on the conditions under which any restrictions may be imposed and on State obligations to facilitate, protect and ensure accountability for assemblies, both online and offline.","articles":["Art. 21"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/GC/37","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":8637,"labelCount":16,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":102},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-174","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 3: Article 2 (Implementation at the national level)","nameShort":"GC3: article 2 (implementation at the national level)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 174","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1981,"adoptionDate":"29 July 1981","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC3_implementation.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 2 generally leaves it to States parties to choose their method of implementation, but recognizes that the obligation under the Covenant is not confined to the respect of human rights — States parties have also undertaken to ensure their enjoyment, including through legislative measures and effective remedies. (Replaced by general comment No. 31.)","articles":["Art. 2(Implementationatthenationallevel)","Art. 2(implementationatthenationallevel)","Art. 2"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6632","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":259,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":2,"supersededBy":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 13","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-175","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 4: Article 3 (Equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all civil and political rights)","nameShort":"GC4: article 3 (equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all civil and political rights)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 175","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1981,"adoptionDate":"30 July 1981","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC4_equality.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 3 — the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all civil and political rights — has been insufficiently dealt with in many States reports, and clarifies that legal equality alone is not sufficient: States parties must also report on the practical measures taken to give effect to substantive equality. (Replaced by general comment No. 28.)","articles":["Art. 3(Equalrightofmenandwomentotheenjoymentofallcivilandpoliticalrights)","Art. 3(equalrightofmenandwomentotheenjoymentofallcivilandpoliticalrights)","Art. 3"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6631","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":399,"labelCount":5,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":5,"supersededBy":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 10","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9(Vol.I)","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-176","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 5: Article 4 (Derogations)","nameShort":"GC5: article 4 (derogations)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 176","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1981,"adoptionDate":"31 July 1981","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC5_derogations.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 4 of the Covenant has posed a number of problems for the Committee in considering reports, and clarifies that any derogation in time of public emergency must be officially proclaimed, strictly required by the exigencies of the situation, non-discriminatory and notified to other States parties through the Secretary-General. (Replaced by general comment No. 29.)","articles":["Art. 4(Derogations)","Art. 4(derogations)","Art. 4"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/4717","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":339,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":3,"supersededBy":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 11","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.11","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-176-99dcaf","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 6: Article 6 (Right to life)","nameShort":"GC6: article 6 (Right to life)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p.176","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1982,"adoptionDate":"30 April 1982","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC6_life.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right to life under article 6 is the supreme right from which no derogation is permitted even in time of public emergency, and that it should not be interpreted narrowly — it requires States parties to take positive measures to prevent loss of life, including by reducing infant mortality, increasing life expectancy and addressing the causes of unnatural death. (Replaced by general comment No. 36.)","articles":["Art. 6(Righttolife)","Art. 6","Art. 4"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6630","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":766,"labelCount":2,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":7,"supersededBy":"CCPR/C/GC/36","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/36","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-178","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 7: Article 7 (Prohibition of torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment)","nameShort":"GC7: article 7 (Prohibition of torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 178","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1982,"adoptionDate":"30 May 1982","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC7_torture.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the prohibition of torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment under article 7 is non-derogable even in situations of public emergency, and clarifies that its implementation requires more than legal prohibition — it demands education, training, and effective remedies including the right to lodge complaints. (Replaced by general comment No. 20.)","articles":["Art. 7(Prohibitionoftortureorcruel,inhumanordegradingtreatmentorpunishment)","Art. 7","Art. 4(1)","Art. 4(2)"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6629","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":585,"labelCount":2,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":3,"supersededBy":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I), p. 200","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9(Vol.I)","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-179","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 8: Article 9 (Right to liberty and security of persons)","nameShort":"GC8: article 9 (right to liberty and security of persons)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 179","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1982,"adoptionDate":"30 June 1982","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC8_security.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 9 — the right to liberty and security of person — applies to all deprivations of liberty, including in non-criminal contexts such as mental illness, vagrancy, drug addiction, educational purposes and immigration control, and clarifies the procedural guarantees applicable to each. (Replaced by general comment No. 35.)","articles":["Art. 9(Righttolibertyandsecurityofpersons)","Art. 9(righttolibertyandsecurityofpersons)","Art. 9","Art. 9(partofparagraph2andthewholeofparagraph3)"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6628","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":437,"labelCount":6,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":4,"supersededBy":"CCPR/C/GC/35","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/35","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-180","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 9: Article 10 (Humane treatment of persons deprived of their liberty)","nameShort":"GC9: article 10 (humane treatment of persons deprived of their liberty)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 180","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1982,"adoptionDate":"30 July 1982","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC9_humane_treatment.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 10 (1) requires that all persons deprived of their liberty be treated with humanity and with respect for the inherent dignity of the human person, and requests States parties to provide specific information on the legal measures and concrete practices designed to give effect to this right. (Replaced by general comment No. 21.)","articles":["Art. 10(Humanetreatmentofpersonsdeprivedoftheirliberty)","Art. 10(humanetreatmentofpersonsdeprivedoftheirliberty)","Art. 10"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/4719","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":747,"labelCount":4,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":4,"supersededBy":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I), p. 202","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9(Vol.I)","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-36","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 36 (2017) on the right of girls and women to education","nameShort":"GR36: the right of girls and women to education","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/36","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2017,"adoptionDate":"27 November 2017","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/36","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GC36-Education.json","abstract":"The Committee affirms that education is a transformative right essential for gender equality and women's empowerment, and clarifies States parties' obligations to ensure girls' and women's right to lifelong, inclusive and quality education at every level, free from gender-based discrimination, stereotypes and violence.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/36","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10854,"labelCount":168,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":83},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-37","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 37 on Gender-related dimensions of disaster risk reduction in the context of climate change","nameShort":"GR37: Gender-related dimensions of disaster risk reduction in the context of climate change","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/37","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2018,"adoptionDate":"13 March 2018","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/37","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GC37-Climate.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that climate change is exacerbating the gendered risks and impacts of disasters, and clarifies that States parties must apply the Convention to disaster risk reduction, with particular attention to women's participation and to the substantive equality of women and girls in mitigation, adaptation and recovery measures.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/37","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10285,"labelCount":148,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":81},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-38","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 38 (2020) on trafficking in women and girls in the context of global migration","nameShort":"GR:38: trafficking in women and girls in the context of global migration","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2020,"adoptionDate":"20 November 2020","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GC38-Trafficking.json","abstract":"The Committee clarifies that article 6 obligates States parties to suppress all forms of trafficking in women and girls and exploitation of prostitution, and provides authoritative guidance on the gender-specific causes, manifestations and consequences of trafficking in the context of global migration.","articles":["Art. 6"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/38","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10804,"labelCount":256,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":122},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-39","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 39 (2022) on the rights of Indigenous women and girls","nameShort":"GR39: Indigenous women and girls","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/39","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2022,"adoptionDate":"31 October 2022","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/39","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GC39-Indigenous.json","abstract":"The Committee provides authoritative guidance on the rights of indigenous women and girls, recognizing the discrimination and violence they face in rural, remote and urban areas, and clarifies States parties' obligations under the Convention with particular attention to indigenous women's collective and individual rights, self-determination and effective participation.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/39","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10981,"labelCount":211,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":61},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr20-reservations","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 20: Reservations to the Convention","nameShort":"GR20: reservations to the convention","signature":"A/47/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1992,"adoptionDate":"30 January 1992","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/47/38%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR20-reservations.json","abstract":"The Committee recalls the decision of the Fourth Meeting of States parties on reservations to the Convention, and clarifies that reservations incompatible with the object and purpose of the Convention undermine its implementation and should be reconsidered with a view to withdrawal.","articles":["Art. 28"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/4730","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":113,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":5},{"docId":"a-49-38","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 21: Equality in marriage and family relations","nameShort":"GR21: equality in marriage and family relations","signature":"A/49/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1994,"adoptionDate":"12 April 1994","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/49/38%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR21-family.json","abstract":"The Committee affirms the equality of human rights for women and men in society and the family, and provides authoritative guidance on the application of articles 9, 15 and 16 to ensure equality in marriage and family relations across nationality, legal capacity and family law.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/4733","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3265,"labelCount":50,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":40},{"docId":"a-50-38","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 22: Amending Article 20 of the Convention","nameShort":"GR22: amending article 20","signature":"A/50/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1996,"adoptionDate":"18 July 1996","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/50/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR22-amendingArt22.json","abstract":"The Committee recommends that States parties favourably consider amending article 20 of the Convention so as to allow the Committee to meet annually for such duration as is necessary for the effective performance of its functions.","articles":["Art. 20"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/4734","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":159,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"verified-by-pattern-analogy","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"a-52-38","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 23: Political and public life","nameShort":"GR23: political and public life","signature":"A/52/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1997,"adoptionDate":"12 August 1997","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/52/38/Rev.1%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR23-political_public_life.json","abstract":"The Committee recalls that the Convention places special importance on women's participation in public life, considers that the obstacles to that participation are deeply rooted in attitudes and structures, and recommends measures States parties should adopt to ensure equality in political and public life under articles 7 and 8.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"A/52/38","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":4375,"labelCount":49,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"hri-compilation-pdf","paragraphCount":50},{"docId":"a-54-38-rev-1-chap-1","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 24: Article 12 of the Convention (women and health)","nameShort":"GR24: women and health","signature":"A/54/38/Rev.1, chap. 1","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1999,"adoptionDate":"5 February 1999","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/54/38/Rev.1%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR24-health.json","abstract":"The Committee affirms that access to health care, including reproductive health, is a basic right under the Convention, and provides authoritative guidance on the application of article 12 to the elimination of discrimination against women in the field of health throughout the life cycle.","articles":["Art. 12","Art. 21","Art. 18"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/4738","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3343,"labelCount":53,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"verified-by-pattern-analogy","paragraphCount":31},{"docId":"a-59-38","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 25: Article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention (temporary special measures)","nameShort":"GR25: temporary special measures","signature":"A/59/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2004,"adoptionDate":"23 July 2004","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/59/38%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR25-TSM2.json","abstract":"The Committee elaborates the meaning of temporary special measures under article 4, paragraph 1, and considers that such measures are not exceptions to non-discrimination but a necessary instrument for accelerating substantive equality, building on its earlier recommendations on the same topic.","articles":["Art. 4","Art. 21","Art. 8"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/3733","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3556,"labelCount":34,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"hri-compilation-pdf","paragraphCount":39},{"docId":"cedaw-2009-wp-1-r","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 26 on women migrant workers","nameShort":"GR26: women migrant workers","signature":"CEDAW/2009/WP.1/R","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2008,"adoptionDate":"5 December 2008","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/64/38%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR26-migrants.json","abstract":"The Committee affirms that women migrant workers should not be discriminated against in any sphere of life, and provides authoritative guidance on the categories of women migrant workers most at risk of abuse and discrimination — including domestic workers and unaccompanied workers — and on States parties' due-diligence obligations.","articles":["Art. 21"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/2009/WP.1/R","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":5545,"labelCount":65,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":29},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-27","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 27: Older women and protection of their human rights","nameShort":"GR27: older women and protection of their human rights","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/27","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2010,"adoptionDate":"16 December 2010","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/27","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR27-older_women.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination experienced by older women and considers that their rights are not systematically addressed in States parties' reports, and provides authoritative guidance on the obligations to protect older women across all Convention rights.","articles":["Art. 21","Art. 4"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/27","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":4054,"labelCount":85,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":53},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-28","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 28 on the core obligations of States parties under article 2 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women","nameShort":"GR28: the core obligations of States parties under article 2","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/28","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2010,"adoptionDate":"16 December 2010","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/28","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR28-art.2.json","abstract":"The Committee clarifies the scope and meaning of article 2 of the Convention, considering it the central provision setting out the core obligations of States parties to pursue, by all appropriate means and without delay, a policy of eliminating discrimination against women in all its forms.","articles":["Art. 2"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/28","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":5468,"labelCount":45,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":42},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-29","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 29 on article 16 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (Economic consequences of marriage, family relations and their dissolution)","nameShort":"GR29: Article 16 - Economic consequences of marriage, family relations and their dissolution","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/29","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2013,"adoptionDate":"13 October 2013","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR29-Article16.json","abstract":"The Committee clarifies the application of article 16 — equality in marriage and family relations — to the economic consequences of marriage, family relations and their dissolution, and considers that women often bear disproportionate economic costs that States parties must address through equitable property, maintenance, pension and inheritance regimes.","articles":["Art. 16"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/29","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":4466,"labelCount":40,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":55},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-30","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 30 on women in conflict prevention, conflict and post-conflict situations","nameShort":"GR30: women in conflict prevention, confilct and post-conflict situations","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/30","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2013,"adoptionDate":"1 November 2013","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/30","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR30-conflict.json","abstract":"The Committee provides authoritative guidance on the application of the Convention to women in conflict prevention, conflict and post-conflict situations, considering that the Convention applies in all such contexts and that States parties have positive obligations to protect women's rights, prevent gender-based violence and ensure women's full participation in peace processes.","articles":["Art. 21"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/30","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10097,"labelCount":193,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":87,"supplementedBy":"CEDAW/C/GC/30/Add.1","relationshipSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/30/Add.1","relationshipVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-32","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 32 on the gender-related dimensions of refugee status, asylum, nationality and statelessness of women","nameShort":"GR32: gender-related dimensions of refugee status, asylum, nationality and statelessness of women","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/32","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2014,"adoptionDate":"14 November 2014","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/32","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR32-refugee.json","abstract":"The Committee provides authoritative guidance on the gender-related dimensions of refugee status, asylum, nationality and statelessness, and clarifies States parties' obligations under the Convention to address gender-specific forms of persecution and discrimination throughout the displacement and asylum continuum.","articles":["Art. 2"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/32","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":8363,"labelCount":140,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":63},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-33","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 33 on women's access to justice","nameShort":"GR33: women's access to justice","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/33","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2015,"adoptionDate":"3 August 2015","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/33","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR33-access_to_justice.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right of access to justice is essential to the realization of all Convention rights, and clarifies the multidimensional elements — justiciability, availability, accessibility, good quality, accountability and provision of remedies — that States parties must ensure to combat gender bias in the justice system.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/33","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9057,"labelCount":95,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":68},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-34","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 34 on the rights of rural women","nameShort":"GR34: the rights of rural women","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/34","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2016,"adoptionDate":"7 March 2016","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/34","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR34-rural.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the multiple forms of discrimination faced by rural women, considers that they are essential agents of sustainable development, and clarifies States parties' obligations under article 14 to ensure rural women's substantive equality across economic, social, cultural, civil and political life.","articles":["Art. 14"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/34","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10478,"labelCount":249,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":97},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-35","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 35 on gender-based violence against women, updating general recommendation No. 19","nameShort":"GR35: gender-based violence against women","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/35","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2017,"adoptionDate":"26 July 2017","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/35","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR35-GBV.json","abstract":"The Committee, updating general recommendation No. 19, clarifies that gender-based violence against women is a form of discrimination prohibited by the Convention, considers it has reached the level of a general principle of international human rights law, and identifies the legislative, institutional and remedial measures States parties must adopt.","articles":["Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/35","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":6441,"labelCount":60,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":35,"updates":"A/47/38 (general recommendation No. 19)","relationshipVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-40","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 40 on equal and inclusive representation of women in decision-making system","nameShort":"GR40: equal and inclusive representation of women in decision-making system","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/40","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2024,"adoptionDate":"23 October 2024","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/40","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GC40_decision-making.json","abstract":"The Committee affirms women's right to equal and inclusive representation in all decision-making systems, considers that persistent under-representation hampers the implementation of all other Convention rights, and clarifies the legislative, policy and structural measures required to achieve equal sharing of decision-making power.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/40","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":11524,"labelCount":109,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":72},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr10-tenth-anniversary","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 10: Tenth anniversary of the adoption of CEDAW","nameShort":"GR10: tenth anniversary of the adoption of CEDAW","signature":"A/44/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"13 February 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/44/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR10_tenth_anniversary.json","abstract":"The Committee, marking the tenth anniversary of the adoption of the Convention, considers that the Convention has proved one of the most effective UN instruments for promoting equality between the sexes and recommends that States parties commemorate the anniversary through awareness-raising and reaffirming their commitments.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/3728","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":348,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":5},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr11-technical-advisory-services","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 11: Technical advisory services for reporting obligations","nameShort":"GR11: technical advisory services for reporting obligations","signature":"A/44/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"13 February 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/44/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR11_technical_advisory_services.json","abstract":"The Committee, noting the increase in States parties to the Convention, recommends that the Secretary-General organize technical advisory services to assist States parties in fulfilling their reporting obligations, and that such services include training and exchanges of experience.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/5830","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":164,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr12-vaw","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 12: Violence against women","nameShort":"GR12: violence against women","signature":"A/44/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"13 February 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/44/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR12_VAW.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that articles 2, 5, 11, 12 and 16 of the Convention require States parties to act to protect women against violence of any kind occurring within the family, at the workplace or in any other area of social life, and recommends that periodic reports include information on the legislation in force, support services provided and statistics gathered.","articles":["Art. 2","Art. 5"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/5831","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":155,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":5},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr13-remuneration","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 13: Equal remuneration for work of equal value","nameShort":"GR13: equal remuneration for work of equal value","signature":"A/44/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"13 February 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/44/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR13_remuneration.json","abstract":"The Committee recalls ILO Convention No. 100 on equal remuneration and recommends that States parties give effect, through legislation and practice, to the principle of equal pay for work of equal value, addressing both direct and indirect discrimination in remuneration systems.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/5832","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":286,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr14-circumcision","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 14: Female circumcision","nameShort":"GR14: female circumcision","signature":"A/45/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"6 June 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/45/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR14_circumcision.json","abstract":"The Committee, concerned about the continuation of female circumcision and other harmful traditional practices, recommends that States parties take effective and appropriate measures with a view to eradicating these practices and to that end, include specific information in their periodic reports.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/3729","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":439,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":5},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr15-aids","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 15: Avoidance of discrimination against women in national strategies for the prevention and control of acquires immunodeficiency syndrom (AIDS)","nameShort":"GR15: avoidance of discrimination against women in national strategies for the prevention and control of AIDS","signature":"A/45/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"6 June 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/45/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR15_AIDS.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that strategies to control HIV/AIDS must take account of the specific situation of women and not result in discrimination against them, and recommends measures States parties should adopt to protect women from the gendered impact of the epidemic.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/4726","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":367,"labelCount":4,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":5},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr16-unpaid-women-workers","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 16: Unpaid women workers in rural and urban family enterprises","nameShort":"GR16: unpaid women workers in rural and urban family enterprises","signature":"A/46/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1992,"adoptionDate":"30 January 1992","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/46/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR16_unpaid_women_workers.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that a high percentage of women in States parties work without payment or social benefits in family enterprises, and recommends that States parties take steps to ensure recognition of their contribution and equal access to social security, training and economic resources.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/3730","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":212,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr17-measurement","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 17: Measurement and quantification of the unremunerated domestic activities of women and their recognition in the gross national product","nameShort":"GR17: Measurement and quantification of the unremunerated domestic activities of women and their recognition in the gross national product","signature":"A/46/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1992,"adoptionDate":"30 January 1992","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/46/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR17_measurement.json","abstract":"The Committee affirms that the measurement and quantification of women's unremunerated domestic activities — and their inclusion in national accounts — are essential for revealing women's de facto economic contribution and for formulating equitable policies, and recommends concrete steps States parties should take.","articles":["Art. 11"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/5833","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":270,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr18-disabled","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 18: Disabled women","nameShort":"GR18: disabled women","signature":"A/46/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1992,"adoptionDate":"30 January 1992","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/46/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR18_disabled.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the situation of women with disabilities, who suffer multiple forms of discrimination, and recommends that States parties provide information on women with disabilities in their periodic reports and adopt special measures for their full integration in social, economic and political life.","articles":["Art. 3"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/4729","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":168,"labelCount":2,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr19-violence","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 19: Violence against women","nameShort":"GR19: violence against women","signature":"A/47/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1992,"adoptionDate":"30 January 1992","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/47/38%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR19_violence.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that gender-based violence is a form of discrimination that seriously inhibits women's ability to enjoy rights and freedoms on a basis of equality with men, and clarifies that the Convention applies to violence against women in both the public and private spheres. (Updated by general recommendation No. 35.)","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/3731","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2089,"labelCount":26,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":24,"updatedBy":"CEDAW/C/GC/35","relationshipSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/35","relationshipVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"a-41-38","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 1: Reporting by States Parties","nameShort":"GR1: reporting by States Parties","signature":"A/41/45","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1986,"adoptionDate":"4 April 1986","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/41/45","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR1_Reporting.json","abstract":"The Committee recommends that States parties, in preparing initial reports under article 18 of the Convention, ensure that the reports follow the general guidelines as to form and content and reflect the actual situation of women in the State party, drawing on all available information.","articles":["Art. 18"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/4724","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":189,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":1},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr2-reporting","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 2: Reporting guidelines","nameShort":"GR2: reporting guidelines","signature":"A/42/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1987,"adoptionDate":"15 May 1987","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/42/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR2_reporting.json","abstract":"The Committee recommends that States parties, in preparing reports under article 18 of the Convention, follow the general guidelines adopted in 1983 as to the form, content and date of reports, and that States parties take advantage of expertise within the United Nations system in their preparation.","articles":["Art. 18"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/3726","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":189,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-30-add-1","type":"gc","name":"GR30 Addendum: Women in conflict prevention/post-conflict — Women, Peace and Security","nameShort":"CEDAW GR30/Add.1: Women, Peace & Security addendum","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/30/Add.1","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2026,"adoptionDate":"18 February 2026","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/30/Add.1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR30_Add1_WPS.json","abstract":"The Committee, marking the 25th anniversary of Security Council resolution 1325 (2000), updates general recommendation No. 30 to reflect the changing nature of conflict, the weaponization of technology and shifts in the global political economy, and reaffirms States parties' obligations to ensure women's full and meaningful participation in the Women, Peace and Security agenda.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/30/Add.1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":11817,"labelCount":175,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":104,"supplements":"CEDAW/C/GC/30","relationshipVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr3-campaigns-edu","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 3: Education and public information programmes","nameShort":"GR3: education and public information programmes","signature":"A/42/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1987,"adoptionDate":"15 May 1987","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/42/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR3_campaigns_edu.json","abstract":"The Committee recommends that States parties make effective use of education and public information programmes to combat customs and practices that perpetuate discrimination against women and to disseminate the Convention widely among public officials, the legal community, women themselves and the general public.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/5825","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":79,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr4-reservations","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 4: Reservations","nameShort":"GR4: reservations","signature":"A/42/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1987,"adoptionDate":"15 May 1987","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/42/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR4_reservations.json","abstract":"The Committee, expressing concern at the significant number of reservations entered to the Convention that appear incompatible with its object and purpose, welcomes the States parties' decision to consider reservations and suggests that all States parties concerned reconsider such reservations with a view to withdrawing them.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/5826","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":79,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr5-tsm1","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 5: temporary special measures","nameShort":"GR5: temporary special measures","signature":"A/43/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1988,"adoptionDate":"14 June 1988","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/43/38%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR5_TSM1.json","abstract":"The Committee, noting that significant progress has been achieved on repealing discriminatory laws but that further action is needed, recommends that States parties make more use of temporary special measures such as positive action, preferential treatment or quota systems to advance women's de facto integration into education, the economy and politics.","articles":["Art. 4"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/5827","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":103,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr6-national-machinery","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 6: Effective national machinery and publicity","nameShort":"GR6: effective national machinery and publicity","signature":"A/43/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1988,"adoptionDate":"14 June 1988","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/43/38%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR6_national_machinery.json","abstract":"The Committee recommends that States parties establish or strengthen effective national machinery, institutions and procedures, at a high level of Government, with adequate resources, commitment and authority to advise on the impact of all government policies on women and to monitor the situation of women comprehensively.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/5828","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":175,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":5},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr7-resources","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 7: Resources","nameShort":"GR7: resources","signature":"A/43/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1988,"adoptionDate":"14 June 1988","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/43/38%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR7_resources.json","abstract":"The Committee, noting General Assembly resolutions concerning the Committee's working arrangements, requests that adequate resources, including conference and secretariat services, be allocated to enable the Committee to fulfil its mandate effectively.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/5829","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":239,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":5},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr8-art-8","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 8: Implementation of article 8 of the Convention","nameShort":"GR8: implementation of article 8 of the Convention","signature":"A/43/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1988,"adoptionDate":"14 June 1988","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/43/38%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR8_art.8.json","abstract":"The Committee recommends that States parties make every effort to ensure that their national statistical services responsible for planning national censuses and other social and economic surveys formulate their questionnaires in such a way as to enable an analysis of the situation of women.","articles":["Art. 8"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/3727","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":126,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr9-statisticaldata","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 9: Statistical data","nameShort":"GR9: statistical data","signature":"A/44/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"13 February 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/44/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR9_statisticaldata.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that statistical information disaggregated by sex is necessary to understand the real situation of women in States parties, and recommends that national statistical services formulate their questionnaires and analyses to capture the specific situation of women across all areas of life.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/3724","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":348,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"ced-c-gc-1","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 1 (2023) on enforced disappearance in the context of migration","nameShort":"GC1: Enforced disappearance in the context of migration","signature":"CED/C/GC/1","committee":"CED","committees":["CED"],"year":2023,"adoptionDate":"26 October 2023","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CED/C/GC/1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CED_GC1_migration.json","abstract":"The Committee provides authoritative guidance on the obligations of States parties under the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance in the context of migration, and clarifies that migrants are particularly vulnerable to enforced disappearance and that States parties have specific duties of prevention, search, investigation and reparation.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CED/C/GC/1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":6911,"labelCount":69,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":56},{"docId":"a-46-18","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 10 concerning technical assistance","nameShort":"GR10: technical assistance","signature":"A/46/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1991,"adoptionDate":"24 March 1991","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/46/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR10_technical_assistance.json","abstract":"The Committee requests the Secretary-General to organize, in consultation with States parties concerned, appropriate national training courses and workshops for reporting officials, so as to assist them in fulfilling their reporting obligations under article 9 of the Convention.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7482","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":68,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":3},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr11-non-citizens","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 11 on non-citizens","nameShort":"GR11: non-citizens","signature":"A/48/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1993,"adoptionDate":"13 March 1993","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/48/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR11_non-citizens.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that — although article 1, paragraph 2, excepts from the definition of racial discrimination differential treatment between citizens and non-citizens — States parties may not discriminate against any particular nationality among non-citizens, and that the Convention's protections extend to non-citizens within their jurisdiction.","articles":["Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7483","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":167,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":3},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr12-successorstates","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 12 on sucessor States","nameShort":"GR12: successor States","signature":"A/48/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1993,"adoptionDate":"14 March 1993","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/48/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR12_successorStates.json","abstract":"The Committee encourages successor States that have not yet done so to confirm to the Secretary-General, as depositary of the Convention, that they continue to be bound by obligations under the Convention if predecessor States were parties to it, and to give effect to the Convention in their territory.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7484","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":127,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr13-training","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 13 on the training of law enforcement officials in the protection of human rights","nameShort":"GR13: training of law enforcement officials in the protection of human rights","signature":"A/48/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1993,"adoptionDate":"15 March 1993","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/48/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR13_training.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the obligations of States parties under article 7 to combat prejudices and promote understanding extend to the training of law enforcement officials, and recommends that such training cover the principles of non-discrimination and the human rights of all persons regardless of race, colour, or national or ethnic origin.","articles":["Art. 2","Art. 5"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7485","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":217,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":3},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr14-non-discrimination","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 14 on article 1, pargraph 1, of the Convention","nameShort":"GR14: article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention","signature":"A/48/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1993,"adoptionDate":"16 March 1993","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/48/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR14_non-discrimination.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to features of the definition of racial discrimination in article 1, paragraph 1, considers that the words 'based on' bear no different meaning from 'on the grounds of', and clarifies that a distinction is contrary to the Convention if it has either the purpose or the effect of impairing particular rights and freedoms.","articles":["Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7486","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":272,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":3},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr15-article4","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 15 on article 4 of the Convention","nameShort":"GR15: article 4 of the Convention","signature":"A/48/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1993,"adoptionDate":"17 March 1993","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/48/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR15_article4.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 4 — proscribing the dissemination of ideas of racial superiority and organized racist activity — was central to the adoption of the Convention and remains essential, and recommends that States parties whose legislation does not satisfy article 4 take the necessary steps to give it effect.","articles":["Art. 4"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7487","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":562,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":7},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr16-article9","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 16 concerning the application of article 9 of the Convention","nameShort":"GR16: the application of article 9 of the Convention","signature":"A/48/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1993,"adoptionDate":"18 March 1993","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/48/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR16_article9.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the reporting obligations under article 9 and recommends that States parties submit reports promptly, follow the Committee's reporting guidelines, and treat the dialogue with the Committee as an ongoing means of ensuring effective implementation of the Convention.","articles":["Art. 9"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7488","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":143,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":3},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr17-national-institutions","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 17 on the establishment of national institutions to facilitate the implementation of the Convention","nameShort":"GR17: the establishment of national institutions to facilitate the implementation of the Convention","signature":"A/48/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1993,"adoptionDate":"19 March 1993","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/48/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR17_national_institutions.json","abstract":"The Committee recommends that States parties consider the establishment of national institutions — within the framework of their legal systems — to facilitate the implementation of the Convention by providing advice, conducting investigations and publicizing the rights it protects.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7489","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":131,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":3},{"docId":"a-49-18","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 18 on the establishment of an international tribunal to prosecute crimes against humanity","nameShort":"GR18: the establishment of an international tribunal to prosecute crimes against humanity","signature":"A/49/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1994,"adoptionDate":"18 March 1994","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/49/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR18_tribunal.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that an international tribunal with general jurisdiction should be established urgently to prosecute genocide, crimes against humanity and grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions, and recommends that States parties take all available measures to bring perpetrators of such crimes to justice.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7490","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":131,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"a-50-18","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 19 on article 3 of the Convention","nameShort":"GR19: article 3 of the Convention","signature":"A/50/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1995,"adoptionDate":"18 August 1995","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/50/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR19_article3.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the wording of article 3 — by which States parties undertake to prevent, prohibit and eradicate all practices of racial segregation and apartheid — and considers that this article applies to all forms of racial segregation in all countries, not exclusively to South Africa under apartheid.","articles":["Art. 3"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7491","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":255,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr1-obligations-art-4","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 1 concerning States parties' obligations (art. 4 of the Convention)","nameShort":"GR1: States parties' obligations (art. 4 of the Convention)","signature":"A/8718","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1972,"adoptionDate":"24 February 1972","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/8718%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR1_obligations_art.4.json","abstract":"The Committee, having found that the legislation of a number of States parties did not include the provisions envisaged in article 4 (a) and (b), considers that the implementation of those provisions — including the prohibition of organizations and propaganda promoting racial discrimination — is obligatory for all States parties under the Convention.","articles":["Art. 4","Art. 9","Art. 4(a)","Art. 5"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7473","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":143,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":1},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr20-article5","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 20 on article 5 of the Convention","nameShort":"GR20: article 5 of the Convention","signature":"A/51/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1996,"adoptionDate":"14 March 1996","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/51/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR20_article5.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 5 contains a non-exhaustive obligation of States parties to guarantee the enjoyment of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights and freedoms without racial discrimination, and clarifies that States parties must report on the implementation of all the rights enumerated in article 5.","articles":["Art. 5","Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7492","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":461,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":5},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr21-self-determination","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 21 on the right to self-determination","nameShort":"GR21: the right to self-determination","signature":"A/51/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1996,"adoptionDate":"15 March 1996","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/51/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR21_self-determination.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that ethnic or religious groups frequently invoke the right to self-determination as a basis for an alleged right to secession, and clarifies that the right of self-determination has both internal and external aspects and that international law does not recognize a general right to unilateral secession from a State.","articles":["Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7493","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":798,"labelCount":2,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":6},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr22-refugee","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 22 on article 5 of the Convention on refugees and displaced persons","nameShort":"GR22: article 5 of the Convention on refugees and displaced persons","signature":"A/51/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1996,"adoptionDate":"24 August 1996","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/51/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR22_refugee.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to article 5 in the context of refugees and displaced persons, and recommends that States parties ensure such persons enjoy without racial discrimination civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights — including the right to return in safety to their homes — and the obligation to address the root causes of their displacement.","articles":["Art. 5"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7494","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":224,"labelCount":2,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":3},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr23-indigenous","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 23 on the rights of indigenous peoples","nameShort":"GR23: the rights of indigenous peoples","signature":"A/54/18, annex V","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1997,"adoptionDate":"22 August 1997","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/54/18%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR23_indigenous.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the situation of indigenous peoples and considers that discrimination against them falls under the Convention, recommending that States parties recognize and respect indigenous distinct culture, history, language, ways of life, communal land and resource rights, and meaningful participation in public life.","articles":["Art. 9"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7495","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":476,"labelCount":7,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":6},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr24-article1","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 24 concerning article 1 of the Convention","nameShort":"GR24: article 1 of the Convention","signature":"A/54/18, annex V","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1999,"adoptionDate":"27 August 1999","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/54/18%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR24_article1.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that — in line with the definition in article 1, paragraph 1 — the Convention applies to all persons belonging to different races, national or ethnic groups or to indigenous peoples, and recommends that States parties provide as far as possible information on the presence of such groups within their territory.","articles":["Art. 1","Art. 9"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7496","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":421,"labelCount":3,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr25-gender","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 25 on gender-related dimensions of racial discrimination","nameShort":"GR25: gender-related dimensions of racial discrimination","signature":"A/55/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2000,"adoptionDate":"20 March 2000","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/55/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR25_gender.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that racial discrimination does not always affect women and men equally, and clarifies that there are circumstances in which racial discrimination only or primarily affects women, or affects them differently, and that periodic reports must reflect the gender-related dimensions of racial discrimination.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7497","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":555,"labelCount":8,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":6},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr26-article6","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 26 on article 6 of the Convention","nameShort":"GR26: article 6 of the Convention","signature":"A/55/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2000,"adoptionDate":"24 March 2000","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/55/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR26_article6.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the harm caused by racial discrimination and racial insults to a victim's perception of self-worth and reputation is often underestimated, and clarifies States parties' obligations under article 6 to ensure effective remedies, including reparation and satisfaction commensurate with the damage suffered.","articles":["Art. 6"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7498","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":113,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr27-roma","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 27 on discrimination against Roma","nameShort":"GR27: discrimination against Roma","signature":"A/55/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2000,"adoptionDate":"16 August 2000","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/55/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR27_Roma.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that Roma communities continue to face widespread racial discrimination across Europe and elsewhere, and recommends that States parties review and amend legislation, ensure effective protection against violence, combat segregation in education and housing, and improve the participation of Roma in public life.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7499","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1648,"labelCount":59,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":49},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr28-followup-conference","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 28 on the follow-up to the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance","nameShort":"GR28: follow-up to the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia andRelated Intolerance","signature":"A/57/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2002,"adoptionDate":"19 March 2002","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/57/18%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR28_followup_conference.json","abstract":"The Committee, building on the World Conference against Racism in Durban, recommends comprehensive measures States parties should take to combat racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, including ratifying relevant instruments, complying with reporting obligations and adopting national action plans.","articles":["Art. 14"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7500","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":562,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr29-descent","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 29 on article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention (descent)","nameShort":"GR29: Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention (descent)","signature":"A/57/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2002,"adoptionDate":"1 November 2002","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/57/18%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR29_descent.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that descent-based discrimination — including caste and analogous systems of inherited status — falls within the scope of article 1 of the Convention, and recommends that States parties identify affected communities, prohibit such discrimination and adopt remedial measures across all areas of life.","articles":["Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7501","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1282,"labelCount":7,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":9},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr2-obligations","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 2 concerning States parties' obligations","nameShort":"GR2: States parties' obligations","signature":"A/8718","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1973,"adoptionDate":"24 August 1973","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/8718%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR2_obligations.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that some States parties have inferred that they need not provide information on the implementation of the Convention because racial discrimination does not exist on their territory, and clarifies that the obligation to report under article 9 applies to all States parties regardless of whether such discrimination is acknowledged.","articles":["Art. 9"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7474","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":173,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":1},{"docId":"cerd-c-64-misc-11-rev-3","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 30 on discrimination against non-citizens","nameShort":"GR30: Discrimination against non-citizens","signature":"CERD/C/64/Misc.11/rev.3","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2004,"adoptionDate":"5 August 2004","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20II%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR30_non-citizens.json","abstract":"The Committee, reflecting on article 1 of the Convention which permits differentiation between citizens and non-citizens, considers that States parties' treatment of non-citizens nonetheless falls within the scope of the Convention and that differential treatment will constitute racial discrimination if its criteria are not applied pursuant to a legitimate aim.","articles":["Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7502","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1534,"labelCount":20,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":39},{"docId":"a-60-18","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 31 on the prevention of racial discrimination in the administration and functioning of the criminal justice system","nameShort":"GR31: Prevention of racial discrimination in the administration and functioning of the criminal justice system","signature":"A/60/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2005,"adoptionDate":"17 August 2005","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/60/18%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR31_criminal_justice.json","abstract":"The Committee provides authoritative guidance on the prevention of racial discrimination in the administration and functioning of the criminal justice system, and recommends that States parties pay attention to indicators such as victimization, complaint patterns, treatment by law-enforcement officials and disproportionate representation in detention.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7503","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3636,"labelCount":25,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"hri-compilation-pdf","paragraphCount":42},{"docId":"cerd-c-gc-32","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 32: The meaning and scope of special measures in the International Coventiion on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination","nameShort":"GR32: The meaning and scope of special measures in the International Covention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination","signature":"CERD/C/GC/32","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2009,"adoptionDate":"24 September 2009","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CERD/C/GC/32","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR32_special_measures.json","abstract":"The Committee clarifies the meaning and scope of special measures within articles 1 (4) and 2 (2) of the Convention, considers that such measures are a necessary tool for combating structural inequalities and accelerating equality, and elaborates the conditions under which they are required, permissible and consistent with non-discrimination.","articles":["Art. 14","Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CERD/C/GC/32","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3826,"labelCount":9,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":38},{"docId":"cerd-c-gc-33","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 33: Follow-up to the Durban Review Conference","nameShort":"GR33: Follow-up to the Durban Review Conference","signature":"CERD/C/GC/33","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2009,"adoptionDate":"29 September 2009","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CERD/C/GC/33","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR33_durban_review.json","abstract":"The Committee, building on the outcomes of the Durban Review Conference, recommends that States parties take legislative, judicial, regulatory, administrative and other measures to combat racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, and to enhance their cooperation with the Committee in implementing the Convention.","articles":["Art. 14","Art. 8"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CERD/C/GC/33","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":788,"labelCount":4,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"cerd-c-gc-34","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 34: Racial discrimination against people of African descent","nameShort":"GR34: Racial discrimination against people of African descent","signature":"CERD/C/GC/34","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2011,"adoptionDate":"3 October 2011","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CERD/C/GC/34","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR34_african_descent.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that people of African descent face systemic and structural racial discrimination as a legacy of slavery and colonialism, and clarifies States parties' obligations under the Convention to prevent and combat such discrimination across all areas of life, including through legislation, justice system reform and affirmative action.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CERD/C/GC/34","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2337,"labelCount":18,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":66},{"docId":"cerd-c-gc-35","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 35: Combating racist hate speech","nameShort":"GR35: Combating racist hate speech","signature":"CERD/C/GC/35","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2013,"adoptionDate":"26 December 2013","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CERD/C/GC/35","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR35_hate_speech.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that combating racist hate speech is essential to giving effect to the Convention, and provides comprehensive guidance on States parties' obligations under articles 4 and 7 to prohibit certain forms of hate speech, foster cultures of plural and respectful public discourse, and counter racist hate speech with affirmative action.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CERD/C/GC/35","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":4588,"labelCount":16,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":47},{"docId":"cerd-c-gc-36","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 36 (2020) on preventing and combating racial profiling by law enforcement officials","nameShort":"GR36: preventing and combating racial profiling by law enforcement offcials","signature":"CERD/C/GC/36","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2020,"adoptionDate":"17 December 2020","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CERD/C/GC/36","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR36_profiling.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that racial profiling — distinguishing law enforcement and decision-making practices that target persons on the basis of race, colour, descent, national or ethnic origin — is incompatible with the Convention, and clarifies States parties' obligations to prevent, prohibit and combat racial profiling, including in the context of digital technologies.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CERD/C/GC/36","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":6785,"labelCount":27,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":69},{"docId":"cerd-c-gc-37","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 37: Racial discrimination in the enjoyment of the right to health","nameShort":"GR37: Racial discrimination in the enjoyment of the right to health","signature":"CERD/C/GC/37","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2024,"adoptionDate":"23 August 2024","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CERD/C/GC/37","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR37_health.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right to equality and non-discrimination is an absolute prerequisite for the effective enjoyment of the right to the highest attainable standard of health, and provides authoritative guidance on States parties' obligations under the Convention to address racial discrimination across all dimensions of the right to health.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CERD/C/GC/37","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":8782,"labelCount":93,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":71},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr3-reporting","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 3 concerning reporting by States parties","nameShort":"GR3: reporting by States parties","signature":"A/8718","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1972,"adoptionDate":"25 August 1972","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/8718%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR3_reporting.json","abstract":"The Committee, having considered reports of States parties on measures taken to implement United Nations resolutions relating to relations with racist regimes in southern Africa, recalls the obligations of article 3 to eradicate apartheid and racial segregation, and considers that compliance requires States parties to refrain from supporting such regimes.","articles":["Art. 3"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7475","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":265,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":1},{"docId":"a-90-18","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 4 concerning reporting by States parties (art. 1 of the Convention)","nameShort":"GR4: reporting by States Parties (art. 1 of the Convention)","signature":"A/9018","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1973,"adoptionDate":"25 August 1973","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/9018%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR4_reporting_art.1.json","abstract":"The Committee invites States parties to endeavour to include in their reports under article 9 relevant information on the demographic composition of the population referred to in article 1 of the Convention, so as to enable the Committee to assess the application of the Convention in the State party.","articles":["Art. 1","Art. 9"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7476","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":91,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"a-32-18","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 5 concerning reporting by States parties (art. 7 of the Convention)","nameShort":"GR5: reporting by States parties (art. 7 of the Convention)","signature":"A/32/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1977,"adoptionDate":"14 April 1977","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/32/18%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR5_reporting_art.7.json","abstract":"The Committee requests every State party which has not already done so to include in its next report — or in a special report — adequate information on the measures it has adopted to give effect to article 7 of the Convention, including measures taken in the fields of teaching, education, culture and information.","articles":["Art. 7","Art. 9"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7477","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":182,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"a-37-18","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 6 concerning overdue reports","nameShort":"GR6: overdue reports","signature":"A/37/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1982,"adoptionDate":"19 March 1982","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/37/18%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR6_overdue_reports.json","abstract":"The Committee, recognizing that ratification alone does not enable the Convention's control system to function effectively, recalls that article 9 obliges States parties to submit initial and periodic reports, draws attention to the substantial number of overdue reports and recommends that States parties bring their reporting up to date.","articles":["Art. 9"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7478","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":198,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":3},{"docId":"a-40-18","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 7 relating to the implementation of article 4","nameShort":"GR7: the implementation of article 4","signature":"A/40/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1985,"adoptionDate":"23 August 1985","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/40/18%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR7_article4.json","abstract":"The Committee recommends that States parties whose legislation does not satisfy the provisions of article 4 (a) and (b) of the Convention take the necessary steps with a view to satisfying the mandatory requirements of that article, including the prohibition of organizations and propaganda promoting racial discrimination.","articles":["Art. 4","Art. 4(a)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7479","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":136,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":3},{"docId":"a-45-18","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 8 concerning the interpretation and application of article 1, paragraphs 1 and 4 of the Convention","nameShort":"GR8: the interpretation and application of article 1, paragrpahs 1 and 4 of the Convention","signature":"A/45/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"22 August 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/45/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR8_article1.json","abstract":"The Committee, having considered information about the ways in which individuals are identified as belonging to a particular racial or ethnic group, is of the opinion that such identification shall — if no justification exists to the contrary — be based upon self-identification by the individual concerned.","articles":["Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7480","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":59,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":1},{"docId":"a-45-81","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 9 concerning the application of article 8, paragraph 1, of the Convention","nameShort":"GR9: the application of article 8, pargraph 1, of the Convention","signature":"A/45/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"23 August 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/45/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR9_article8.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that respect for the independence of its members as experts is essential to secure full observance of human rights, and strongly recommends that representatives of States, organizations and groups respect unreservedly the status of Committee members and refrain from putting pressure on them, especially country rapporteurs.","articles":["Art. 8"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7481","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":92,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":1},{"docId":"cmw-c-gc-1","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 1 on migrant domestic workers","nameShort":"GC1: migrant domestic workers","signature":"CMW/C/GC/1","committee":"CMW","committees":["CMW"],"year":2011,"adoptionDate":"23 February 2011","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CMW/C/GC/1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CMW_GC1_domestic.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that domestic work is an important occupation accounting for a significant share of employment globally and is increasingly performed by migrants, predominantly women, and elaborates States parties' obligations under the Convention to ensure migrant domestic workers' rights to fair conditions of work, freedom from abuse and access to remedies.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CMW/C/GC/1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":5036,"labelCount":85,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":66},{"docId":"cmw-c-gc-2","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 2 on the rights of migrant workers in an irregular situation and members of their family","nameShort":"GC2: the rights of migrant workers in an irregular situation and members of their family","signature":"CMW/C/GC/2","committee":"CMW","committees":["CMW"],"year":2013,"adoptionDate":"28 August 2013","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CMW/C/GC/2","sourceFile":"Annotated_CMW_GC2_migrant_workers.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that migrant workers in an irregular situation and members of their families are entitled to the rights set out in part III of the Convention, and clarifies that States parties' obligations to respect and ensure those rights apply regardless of migration status, including with respect to liberty, due process, education, health and labour rights.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CMW/C/GC/2","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9919,"labelCount":118,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":79},{"docId":"cmw-c-gc-5","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 5 (2021) on migrants’ rights to liberty, freedom from arbitrary detention and their connection with other human rights","nameShort":"GC5: migrants’ rights to liberty, freedom from arbitrary detention and their connection with other human rights","signature":"CMW/C/GC/5","committee":"CMW","committees":["CMW"],"year":2021,"adoptionDate":"23 September 2021","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CMW/C/GC/5","sourceFile":"Annotated_CMW_GC5_liberty.json","abstract":"The Committee, deeply concerned by the trend towards the criminalization of migration and the increasing use of immigration detention, clarifies that detention of migrants must be a measure of last resort, exceptional in nature, ordered for the shortest period possible, and subject to judicial review and effective alternatives.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CMW/GEC/9459","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10524,"labelCount":193,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":95},{"docId":"cmw-c-gc-6","type":"gc","name":"GC6: Convergent protection of migrant workers and Global Compact","nameShort":"CMW GC6: Convention & Global Compact","signature":"CMW/C/GC/6","committee":"CMW","committees":["CMW"],"year":2024,"adoptionDate":"14 June 2024","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CMW/C/GC/6","sourceFile":"Annotated_CMW_GC6_GlobalCompact.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the Convention and the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration are mutually reinforcing instruments, and clarifies how States parties may give convergent effect to their obligations to protect the human rights of migrant workers and members of their families through coordinated implementation of both frameworks.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CMW/C/GC/6","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":8485,"labelCount":110,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":90},{"docId":"cmw-c-gc-7-cerd-c-gc-38","type":"gc","name":"CMW GC7 / CERD GR38: General guidelines on xenophobia towards migrants","nameShort":"CMW GC7/CERD GR38: Xenophobia (general)","signature":"CMW/C/GC/7–CERD/C/GC/38","committee":"CMW","committees":["CMW","CERD"],"year":2025,"adoptionDate":"1 December 2025","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CMW/C/GC/7","sourceFile":"Annotated_CMW_GC7_CERD_GR38_Xenophobia.json","abstract":"The Committees jointly clarify that xenophobia towards migrants and others perceived as such constitutes a form of racial discrimination prohibited by both Conventions, and provide general guidance to States parties on the comprehensive legislative, institutional and educational measures required to prevent, prohibit and combat xenophobia.","status":"final","jointWith":[{"committee":"CMW","signature":"CMW/C/GC/7"},{"committee":"CERD","signature":"CERD/C/GC/38"}],"languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CERD/C/GC/38","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10425,"labelCount":156,"alternativeSignatures":["CMW/C/GC/7","CERD/C/GC/38"],"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","alternativeIds":["cmw-c-gc-7cerd-c-gc-38"],"paragraphCount":108},{"docId":"cmw-c-gc-8-cerd-c-gc-39","type":"gc","name":"CMW GC8 / CERD GR39: Thematic guidelines on xenophobia towards migrants","nameShort":"CMW GC8/CERD GR39: Xenophobia (thematic)","signature":"CMW/C/GC/8–CERD/C/GC/39","committee":"CMW","committees":["CMW","CERD"],"year":2025,"adoptionDate":"1 December 2025","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CMW/C/GC/8","sourceFile":"Annotated_CMW_GC8_CERD_GR39_XenophobiaThematic.json","abstract":"The Committees jointly provide thematic guidance — complementary to the general guidelines adopted at the same time — on combating xenophobia towards migrants and others perceived as such across specific fields including the labour market, access to services, the digital environment, criminal justice, and political discourse, and on the substantive equality measures States parties must adopt.","status":"final","jointWith":[{"committee":"CMW","signature":"CMW/C/GC/8"},{"committee":"CERD","signature":"CERD/C/GC/39"}],"languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CERD/C/GC/39","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10377,"labelCount":95,"alternativeSignatures":["CMW/C/GC/8","CERD/C/GC/39"],"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","alternativeIds":["cmw-c-gc-8cerd-c-gc-39"],"paragraphCount":105},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-22-cmw-c-gc-3","type":"gc","name":"Joint general comment No. 3 (2017) of the Committee on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families and No. 22 (2017) of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on the general principles regarding the human rights of children in the context of international migration","nameShort":"GC22/GC3: general principles re human rights of children in international migration","signature":"CRC/C/GC/22, CMW/C/GC/3","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC","CMW"],"year":2017,"adoptionDate":"16 November 2017","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/22","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-CMW-GC22-MigPrinciples.json","abstract":"The Committees jointly clarify the obligations of States parties — in particular countries of transit and destination — concerning the human rights of children in the context of international migration, and affirm that the principles of the best interests of the child and non-discrimination must guide every migration policy and decision.","status":"final","jointWith":[{"committee":"CMW","signature":"CMW/C/GC/3"},{"committee":"CRC","signature":"CRC/C/GC/22"}],"languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/22","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7081,"labelCount":127,"alternativeSignatures":["CMW/C/GC/3","CRC/C/GC/22"],"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":56},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-23-cmw-c-gc-4","type":"gc","name":"Joint general comment No. 4 (2017) of the Committee on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families and No. 23 (2017) of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on State obligations regarding the human rights of children in the context of international migration in countries of origin, transit, destination and return","nameShort":"GC23/GC4: human rights of children in international migration (countries of origin, transit, destination and return)","signature":"CRC/C/GC/23, CMW/C/GC/4","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC","CMW"],"year":2017,"adoptionDate":"16 November 2017","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/23","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-CMW-GC23-Migration.json","abstract":"The Committees jointly set out the general principles governing the rights of children in the context of international migration, including non-discrimination, the best interests of the child, the right to be heard and the right to non-refoulement, and require States parties to apply these principles to all children regardless of migration status.","status":"final","jointWith":[{"committee":"CMW","signature":"CMW/C/GC/4"},{"committee":"CRC","signature":"CRC/C/GC/23"}],"languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/23","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7906,"labelCount":158,"alternativeSignatures":["CMW/C/GC/4","CRC/C/GC/23"],"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":68},{"docId":"crc-gc-2001-1","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 1: The Aims of Education","nameShort":"GC1: The aims of education","signature":"CRC/GC/2001/1","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2001,"adoptionDate":"17 April 2001","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/GC/2001/1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC1-AimsEd.json","abstract":"The Committee affirms that the aims of education set out in article 29 (1) of the Convention promote the holistic development of every child's personality, talents and abilities, and considers that education must be directed towards human dignity, tolerance, gender equality and respect for human rights and the natural environment.","articles":["Art. 29","Art. 29(1)","Art. 28"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/GC/2001/1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3850,"labelCount":26,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":28},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-10","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 10: Children’s rights in juvenile justice","nameShort":"GC10: Children’s rights in juvenile justice","signature":"CRC/C/GC/10","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2007,"adoptionDate":"25 April 2007","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/10","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC10-Justice.json","abstract":"The Committee provides authoritative guidance on the rights of children alleged as, accused of, or recognized as having infringed the penal law, calling for child justice systems that emphasize prevention, diversion, restorative measures and the use of deprivation of liberty only as a last resort and for the shortest appropriate period. (This general comment has since been replaced by general comment No. 24.)","articles":["Art. 37","Art. 40"],"status":"superseded","supersededBy":"CRC/C/GC/24","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/10","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":12615,"labelCount":129,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":99,"statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/24","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-11","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 11: Indigenous children and their rights under the Convention","nameShort":"GC11: Indigenous children","signature":"CRC/C/GC/11","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2009,"adoptionDate":"12 February 2009","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/11","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC11-Indigenous.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the situation of indigenous children and considers that the Convention applies to them on equal terms with other children, while requiring States parties to take special measures to ensure non-discrimination, cultural identity, and meaningful participation of indigenous children and their communities.","articles":["Art. 30"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/11","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7139,"labelCount":172,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":82},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-12","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 12: The right of the child to be heard","nameShort":"GC12: The right of the child to be heard","signature":"CRC/C/GC/12","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2009,"adoptionDate":"20 July 2009","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/12","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC12-Heard.json","abstract":"The Committee clarifies the right of every child to be heard under article 12 of the Convention, considers that this right applies in all matters affecting the child — including legal, administrative, family and educational decisions — and requires States parties to remove barriers to its effective and meaningful exercise.","articles":["Art. 12"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/12","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":11700,"labelCount":164,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":135},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-13","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 13: The right of the child to freedom from all forms of violence","nameShort":"GC13: The right of the child to freedom from all forms of violence","signature":"CRC/C/GC/13","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2011,"adoptionDate":"18 April 2011","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/13","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC13-Violence.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 19 obligates States parties to protect children from all forms of physical and mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect, maltreatment or exploitation, and provides comprehensive guidance on the legal, administrative and other measures required to give effect to this right.","articles":["Art. 19"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/13","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":12924,"labelCount":125,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":76},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-14","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 14 on the right of the child to have his or her best interests taken as a primary consideration (art. 3, para. 1)","nameShort":"GC14: The right of the child to have his or her best interests taken as a primary consideration","signature":"CRC/C/GC/14","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2013,"adoptionDate":"29 May 2013","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/14","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC14-BestInt.json","abstract":"The Committee identifies article 3, paragraph 1 — the right of the child to have his or her best interests taken as a primary consideration — as a substantive right, an interpretive legal principle and a rule of procedure, and provides a framework for assessing and determining best interests in all decisions affecting children.","articles":["Art. 3"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/14","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9404,"labelCount":116,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":101},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-15","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 15 on the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health (art. 24)","nameShort":"GC15: The right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health","signature":"CRC/C/GC/15","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2013,"adoptionDate":"17 April 2013","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/15","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC15-Health.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right of the child to the highest attainable standard of health under article 24 must be approached holistically, encompassing the underlying determinants of health and recognizing children as autonomous holders of the right, with particular attention to non-discrimination and to children in marginalized or disadvantaged situations.","articles":["Art. 24","Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/15","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9727,"labelCount":142,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":121},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-16","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 16 on State obligations regarding the impact of the business sector on children’s rights","nameShort":"GC16: Impact of the business sector on children’s rights","signature":"CRC/C/GC/16","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2013,"adoptionDate":"17 April 2013","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/16","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC16-Business.json","abstract":"The Committee recognizes the growing impact of business activities on children's rights and clarifies that States parties have obligations to respect, protect and fulfil children's rights in the context of business operations, both at home and extraterritorially, including through legislation, regulation, monitoring and access to remedies.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/16","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9784,"labelCount":92,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":86},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-17","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 17 on the right of the child to rest, leisure, play, recreational activities, cultural life and the arts (art. 31)","nameShort":"GC17: The right of the child to rest, leisure, play, recreational activities, cultural life and the arts","signature":"CRC/C/GC/17","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2013,"adoptionDate":"17 April 2013","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/17","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC17-Leisure.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the right of every child to rest, leisure, play, recreational activities and cultural life under article 31, and considers that States parties must take legislative, administrative and budgetary measures to ensure this often-neglected right is realized for all children, including the most marginalized.","articles":["Art. 31","Art. 7"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/17","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10406,"labelCount":108,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":61},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-19","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 19: Public budgeting for the realization of children’s rights (art. 4)","nameShort":"GC19: Public budgeting for the realization of children’s rights","signature":"CRC/C/GC/19","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2016,"adoptionDate":"20 July 2016","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/19","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC19-Budget.json","abstract":"The Committee clarifies that article 4 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child requires States parties to mobilize the maximum extent of their available resources to realize children's rights, and provides guidance on how public budgeting decisions — at every stage from planning to audit — should give effect to that obligation.","articles":["Art. 4","Art. 2","Art. 3"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/19","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9198,"labelCount":108,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":116},{"docId":"crc-gc-2002-2","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 2: The Role of Independent National Human Rights Institutions in the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of the Child","nameShort":"GC2: The role of independent NHRIs","signature":"CRC/GC/2002/2","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2002,"adoptionDate":"15 November 2002","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/GC/2002/2","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC2-NHRI.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that independent national human rights institutions are an essential mechanism for promoting and ensuring the implementation of the Convention, and clarifies that their establishment falls within States parties' general obligations under article 4 to give effect to the rights of the child.","articles":["Art. 4"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/GC/2002/2","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2885,"labelCount":33,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":29},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-20","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 20: Implementation of the rights of the child during adolescence","nameShort":"GC20: Implementation of the rights of the child during adolescence","signature":"CRC/C/GC/20","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2016,"adoptionDate":"6 December 2016","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/20","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC20-Adolescence.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the rights of children in the second decade of life and emphasizes that effective implementation of the Convention during adolescence requires States parties to recognize evolving capacities, address the structural drivers of vulnerability, and remove legal and policy barriers to autonomous decision-making in matters that affect adolescents.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/20","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10048,"labelCount":181,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":90},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-21","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 21: Children in street situations","nameShort":"GC21: Children in street situations","signature":"CRC/C/GC/21","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2017,"adoptionDate":"21 June 2017","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/21","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC21-Street.json","abstract":"The Committee highlights the systemic discrimination faced by children in street situations and considers that States parties must abandon punitive responses, ensure access to identity documentation and basic services, and adopt holistic, child-rights-based long-term strategies developed in consultation with the children themselves.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/21","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9814,"labelCount":149,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":63},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-24","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 24: Children’s rights in the child justice system","nameShort":"GC24: Children’s rights in the child justice system","signature":"CRC/C/GC/24","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2019,"adoptionDate":"18 September 2019","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/24","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC24-Justice.json","abstract":"The Committee replaces general comment No. 10 (2007) on juvenile justice with updated guidance reflecting developments in international standards, jurisprudence and child-development science, and reaffirms that deprivation of liberty must be a measure of last resort and for the shortest appropriate period.","status":"final","supersedes":"CRC/C/GC/10","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/24","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10440,"labelCount":142,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":115},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-25","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 25: Children’s rights in relation to the digital environment","nameShort":"GC25: Children’s rights in relation to the digital environment","signature":"CRC/C/GC/25","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2021,"adoptionDate":"2 March 2021","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/25","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC25-Digital.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the digital environment shapes every aspect of children's lives and that States parties must ensure children's rights to access, protection and participation are respected, protected and fulfilled online as well as offline, with particular attention to the most marginalized.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/25","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10417,"labelCount":153,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":125},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-26","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 26 on children’s rights and the environment, with a special focus on climate change","nameShort":"GC26: Children’s rights and the environment, with a special focus on climate change","signature":"CRC/C/GC/26","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2023,"adoptionDate":"22 August 2023","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/26","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC26-Climate.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that environmental degradation and climate change pose an urgent and systemic threat to children's rights, and clarifies States parties' obligations to ensure a clean, healthy and sustainable environment, to act on the basis of the best available science, and to give due weight to children's views in environmental decision-making.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/26","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10397,"labelCount":131,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":115},{"docId":"crc-gc-2003-3","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 3: HIV/AIDS and the rights of the children","nameShort":"GC3: HIV/AIDS and the rights of the children","signature":"CRC/GC/2003/3","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2003,"adoptionDate":"17 March 2003","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/GC/2003/3","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC3-HivAids.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the HIV/AIDS epidemic is a child rights issue requiring concerted, well-targeted action across prevention, treatment, care and protection, and recommends measures to combat stigma, ensure access to information and services, and protect the rights of children affected by HIV in their families and communities.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/GC/2003/3","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":6431,"labelCount":91,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":42},{"docId":"crc-gc-2003-4","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 4: Adolescent health and development in the context of the Convention on the Rights of the Child","nameShort":"GC4: Adolescent health and development","signature":"CRC/GC/2003/4","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2003,"adoptionDate":"21 July 2003","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/GC/2003/4","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC4-AdolHealth.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the entitlement of adolescents up to 18 years of age to all rights under the Convention, including the rights to special protection and to progressive exercise of their rights according to evolving capacities, and provides guidance on adolescent health and development as a holistic, rights-based concept.","articles":["Art. 1","Art. 5"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/GC/2003/4","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":5357,"labelCount":82,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":43},{"docId":"crc-gc-2003-5","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 5: General Measures of Implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child","nameShort":"GC5: General measures of implementation of the CRC","signature":"CRC/GC/2003/5","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2003,"adoptionDate":"3 October 2003","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/GC/2003/5","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC5-Implementation.json","abstract":"The Committee outlines States parties' general measures of implementation under the Convention — including legislative review, comprehensive national strategies, coordination, monitoring, budgeting, and the dissemination of the Convention — as the necessary foundation for realizing all children's rights.","articles":["Art. 4"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/GC/2003/5","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":8123,"labelCount":71,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":73},{"docId":"crc-gc-2005-6","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 6: Treatment of Unaccompanied and Separated Children Outside Their Country of Origin","nameShort":"GC6: Treatment of unaccompanied and separated children outside their country of origin","signature":"CRC/GC/2005/6","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2005,"adoptionDate":"1 September 2005","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/GC/2005/6","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC6-UASC.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the particularly vulnerable situation of unaccompanied and separated children outside their country of origin and provides guidance, anchored in the Convention's general principles, on identification, family tracing, durable solutions, and the protection, care and treatment owed to these children regardless of migration status.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/GC/2005/6","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10248,"labelCount":153,"alternativeSignatures":["CRC/GC/2003/6"],"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":100},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-7-rev-1","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 7: Implementing child rights in early childhood","nameShort":"GC7: Implementing child rights in early childhood","signature":"CRC/C/GC/7/Rev.1","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2006,"adoptionDate":"20 September 2006","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/7/Rev.1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC7-Childhood.json","abstract":"The Committee emphasizes that very young children are rights-holders entitled to the full range of Convention guarantees, and identifies States parties' obligations to provide adequate care, education, health and protection during early childhood while supporting parents and caregivers in their primary role.","status":"revised","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/7/Rev.1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9917,"labelCount":66,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":43,"statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/7/Rev.1","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-8","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 8: The right of the child to protection from corporal punishment and other cruel or degrading forms of punishment (arts. 19; 28, para. 2; and 37, inter alia)","nameShort":"GC8: Protection from corporal punishment and other cruel or degrading forms of punishment","signature":"CRC/C/GC/8","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2006,"adoptionDate":"2 March 2007","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/8","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC8-Punishment.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that all corporal punishment of children — including in the family, schools, alternative care, juvenile justice and any other setting — is incompatible with the Convention, and recommends that States parties prohibit and eliminate it through law reform, awareness-raising and positive, non-violent forms of discipline.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/8","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":5740,"labelCount":58,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":53},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-9-corr-1","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 9: The rights of children with disabilities","nameShort":"GC9: The rights of children with disabilities","signature":"CRC/C/GC/9/Corr.1","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2007,"adoptionDate":"27 February 2007","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/9/Corr.1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC9-Disabilities.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the multiple barriers faced by children with disabilities and clarifies that States parties' obligations under the Convention require non-discrimination, accessibility, inclusive education, family support and participation, with disability addressed across all areas of children's rights, not solely through health or welfare policy.","status":"corrected","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/9/Corr.1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10164,"labelCount":165,"alternativeSignatures":["CRC/C/GC/9"],"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":80,"statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/9/Corr.1","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-31-rev-1-crc-c-gc-18-rev-1","type":"gc","name":"[REVISED] Joint General Recommendation No. 31 of the CEDAW / General Comment No. 18 of the CRC: Harmful practices","nameShort":"CRC GC18/CEDAW GR31: Harmful practices [Revised]","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/31/Rev.1–CRC/C/GC/18/Rev.1","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC","CEDAW"],"year":2019,"adoptionDate":"8 May 2019","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/31/Rev.1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC_CEDAW-GC18-Harmful-REV.json","abstract":"The Committees affirm that harmful practices, primarily affecting women and girls, violate binding obligations under both the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and call on States parties to prevent, respond to and ultimately eliminate such practices through coordinated legal, institutional and educational measures.","status":"revised","jointWith":[{"committee":"CEDAW","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/31/Rev.1"},{"committee":"CRC","signature":"CRC/C/GC/18/Rev.1"}],"languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/31/REV.1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10151,"labelCount":150,"alternativeSignatures":["CEDAW/C/GC/31","CRC/C/GC/18","CEDAW/C/GC/31/Rev.1","CRC/C/GC/18/Rev.1"],"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","alternativeIds":["cedaw-c-gc-31-rev-1crc-c-gc-18-rev-1"],"paragraphCount":91,"statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/31/Rev.1","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"crpd-c-gc-1","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 1 (2014): Article 12: Equal recognition before the law","nameShort":"GC1: Article 12: Equal recognition before the law","signature":"CRPD/C/GC/1","committee":"CRPD","committees":["CRPD"],"year":2014,"adoptionDate":"19 May 2014","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRPD/C/GC/1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRPD_GC1_equal.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that equal recognition before the law under article 12 is a basic general principle of human rights protection, and clarifies that States parties must abolish substitute decision-making regimes and replace them with supported decision-making that respects the autonomy, will and preferences of persons with disabilities.","articles":["Art. 12"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRPD/C/GC/1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7120,"labelCount":56,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":52},{"docId":"crpd-c-gc-2","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 2 (2014): Article 9: Accessibility","nameShort":"GC2: Article 9: Accessibility","signature":"CRPD/C/GC/2","committee":"CRPD","committees":["CRPD"],"year":2014,"adoptionDate":"22 May 2014","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRPD/C/GC/2","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRPD_GC2_accessibility.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that accessibility under article 9 is a precondition for persons with disabilities to live independently and participate fully and equally in society, and clarifies that States parties have obligations to identify and eliminate obstacles and barriers in built environments, transportation, information and communications, and services open to the public.","articles":["Art. 9","Art. 25(c)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRPD/C/GC/2","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7981,"labelCount":59,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":48},{"docId":"crpd-c-gc-3","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 3 (2016) on women and girls with disabilities","nameShort":"GC3: women and girls with disabilities","signature":"CRPD/C/GC/3","committee":"CRPD","committees":["CRPD"],"year":2016,"adoptionDate":"25 November 2016","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRPD/C/GC/3","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRPD_GC3_women.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that women and girls with disabilities face multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination, and provides authoritative guidance on States parties' obligations under article 6 of the Convention to address gender-based discrimination across all areas of life and to ensure their full participation, including through reasonable accommodation and gender-mainstreaming.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRPD/C/GC/3","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7451,"labelCount":165,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":65},{"docId":"crpd-c-gc-4","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 4 (2016) on the right to inclusive education","nameShort":"GC4: the right to inclusive education","signature":"CRPD/C/GC/4","committee":"CRPD","committees":["CRPD"],"year":2016,"adoptionDate":"25 November 2016","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRPD/C/GC/4","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRPD_GC4_inclusive_education.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right to inclusive education under article 24 is a fundamental human right and the only means to achieve quality education for all, and clarifies States parties' obligations to develop inclusive education systems that combat discrimination, respect diversity and accommodate every learner.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRPD/C/GC/4","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10694,"labelCount":105,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":76},{"docId":"crpd-c-gc-5","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 5 (2017) on living independently and being included in the community","nameShort":"GC5: living independently and being included in the community","signature":"CRPD/C/GC/5","committee":"CRPD","committees":["CRPD"],"year":2017,"adoptionDate":"27 October 2017","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRPD/C/GC/5","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRPD_GC5_living_independently.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 19 — the right to live independently and be included in the community — entails a fundamental shift away from institutionalization and segregation towards community-based living arrangements, and clarifies States parties' obligations to provide individualized support, accessible services and choice over living arrangements.","articles":["Art. 19"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRPD/C/GC/5","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10544,"labelCount":116,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":97},{"docId":"crpd-c-gc-6","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 6 (2018) on equality and non-discrimination","nameShort":"GC6: equality and non-discrimination","signature":"CRPD/C/GC/6","committee":"CRPD","committees":["CRPD"],"year":2018,"adoptionDate":"26 April 2018","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRPD/C/GC/6","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRPD_GC6_equality.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 5 prohibits all forms of disability-based discrimination — direct, indirect, by association, denial of reasonable accommodation and harassment — and clarifies States parties' obligations to recognize disability-based discrimination as a violation of human rights and to ensure equality through positive measures.","articles":["Art. 5"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRPD/C/GC/6","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9893,"labelCount":104,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":73},{"docId":"crpd-c-gc-7","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 7 (2018) on the participation of persons with disabilities, including children with disabilities, through their representative organizations, in the implementation and monitoring of the Convention","nameShort":"GC7: participation of persons with disabilities, including children with disabilities, through their representative organizations, in the implementation and monitoring of the Convention","signature":"CRPD/C/GC/7","committee":"CRPD","committees":["CRPD"],"year":2018,"adoptionDate":"9 November 2018","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRPD/C/GC/7","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRPD_GC7_participation.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that meaningful participation of persons with disabilities through their representative organizations is a Convention principle and a tool for empowerment, and clarifies States parties' obligations under articles 4 (3) and 33 (3) to consult closely and actively involve persons with disabilities in the development of laws, policies and decisions concerning them.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRPD/C/GC/7","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10086,"labelCount":135,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":94},{"docId":"crpd-c-gc-8","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 8 (2022) on the right of persons with disabilities to work and employment","nameShort":"GC8: the right of persons with disabilities to work and employment","signature":"CRPD/C/GC/8","committee":"CRPD","committees":["CRPD"],"year":2022,"adoptionDate":"7 October 2022","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRPD/C/GC/8","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRPD_GC8_work.json","abstract":"The Committee clarifies the obligations of States parties regarding the right to work and employment of persons with disabilities under article 27 of the Convention, and considers that meaningful realization of this right requires the elimination of disability-based discrimination in employment, equal access to the open labour market, reasonable accommodation and inclusive support measures.","articles":["Art. 27","Art. 6"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRPD/C/GC/8","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9808,"labelCount":108,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":82},{"docId":"e-1989-22","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 1: Reporting by States parties","nameShort":"GC1: Reporting by States parties","signature":"E/1989/22","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1981,"adoptionDate":"27 July 1981","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/1989/22%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC1-GenCom.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the reporting obligations under part IV of the Covenant are not merely procedural but serve substantive purposes, including assisting States parties in policy development, public participation and accountability, and provides guidance on the elements of effective reporting.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CESCR/GEC/4756","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1222,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"verified-by-pattern-analogy","paragraphCount":9},{"docId":"e-c-12-1998-25","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 10: The role of national human rights institutions in the protection of economic, social and cultural rights","nameShort":"GC10: The role of NHRIs in the protection of economic, social and cultural rights","signature":"E/C.12/1998/25","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1998,"adoptionDate":"14 December 1998","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/1998/25","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC10-NHRI.json","abstract":"The Committee clarifies that national human rights institutions have an important role in promoting and protecting economic, social and cultural rights, and recommends concrete activities such institutions should undertake — including monitoring, awareness-raising, support to legislation and individual complaints — to give effect to Covenant rights.","articles":["Art. 2"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/1998/25","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":562,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"e-c-12-1999-4","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 11: Plans of action for primary education (art.14)","nameShort":"GC11: Plans of action for primary education","signature":"E/C.12/1999/4","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1999,"adoptionDate":"11 May 1999","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/1999/4","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC11-PrimEducation.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to article 14 of the Covenant, which obligates States parties that have not yet secured compulsory primary education free of charge to adopt, within two years, a detailed plan of action for its progressive implementation, and provides guidance on the elements such plans must contain.","articles":["Art. 14","Art. 13"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/1999/4","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1343,"labelCount":9,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":11},{"docId":"e-c-12-1999-5","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 12: The right to adequate food (Art.11)","nameShort":"GC12: Right to adequate food","signature":"E/C.12/1999/5","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1999,"adoptionDate":"12 May 1999","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/1999/5","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC12-Food.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right to adequate food under article 11 imposes obligations to respect, protect and fulfil, and clarifies that the core content requires food to be available, accessible, free from adverse substances and culturally acceptable, with the right to be free from hunger as a non-derogable minimum.","articles":["Art. 11"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/1999/5","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3881,"labelCount":12,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":41},{"docId":"e-c-12-1999-10","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 13 (Twenty-first session, 1999), The right to education (article 13 of the Covenant)","nameShort":"GC13: Right to education","signature":"E/C.12/1999/10","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1999,"adoptionDate":"8 December 1999","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/1999/10","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC13-Education.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that education is both a human right in itself and an indispensable means of realizing other rights, and elaborates the four interrelated essential features — availability, accessibility, acceptability and adaptability — that all forms and levels of education must meet under article 13.","articles":["Art. 13","Art. 14(plansofactionforprimaryeducation)","Art. 14"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/1999/10","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":5952,"labelCount":27,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":60},{"docId":"e-c-12-2000-4","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 14: The right to the highest attainable standard of health","nameShort":"GC14: Right to the highest attainable standard of health","signature":"E/C.12/2000/4","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2000,"adoptionDate":"11 August 2000","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/2000/4","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC14-Health.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right to the highest attainable standard of health under article 12 is fundamental and indispensable to the exercise of other rights, and clarifies States parties' obligations regarding the underlying determinants of health, the availability, accessibility, acceptability and quality of health facilities, and non-discrimination.","articles":["Art. 25","Art. 12"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/2000/4","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":8049,"labelCount":47,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":65},{"docId":"e-c-12-2002-11","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 15: The right to water","nameShort":"GC15: The Right to water","signature":"E/C.12/2002/11","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2003,"adoptionDate":"20 January 2003","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/2002/11","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC15-Water.json","abstract":"The Committee affirms that water is a limited natural resource and a public good, that the human right to water is indispensable for a life in dignity, and that States parties have obligations to ensure availability, quality and accessibility of safe water and sanitation, with particular attention to disadvantaged and marginalized groups.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/2002/11","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":6378,"labelCount":31,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":60},{"docId":"e-c-12-2005-4","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 16: The equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all economic, social and cultural rights (art. 3 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights)","nameShort":"GC16: Equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all economic, social and cultural rights","signature":"E/C.12/2005/4","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2005,"adoptionDate":"11 August 2005","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/2005/4","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC16-Equality.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all economic, social and cultural rights is both a substantive provision and an obligation of immediate effect, and clarifies the steps States parties must take to give effect to article 3 in conjunction with the substantive Covenant rights.","articles":["Art. 3","Art. 1","Art. 2"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/2005/4","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":4068,"labelCount":45,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":42},{"docId":"e-c-12-gc-17","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 17: The right of everyone to benefit from the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he or she is the author","nameShort":"GC17: The right of everyone to benefit from the protection of the interests resulting from any production of which he or she is the author","signature":"E/C.12/GC/17","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2006,"adoptionDate":"12 January 2006","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/GC/17","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC17-Author.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the protection of the moral and material interests of authors of scientific, literary or artistic productions under article 15 (1) (c) is a human right derived from human dignity, and clarifies that it is distinct from — and not coextensive with — intellectual property rights established by States in domestic law.","articles":["Art. 15"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/GC/17","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":6414,"labelCount":5,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":57},{"docId":"e-c-12-gc-18","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 18: Article 6 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights","nameShort":"GC18: Article 6 of the ICESCR","signature":"E/C.12/GC/18","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2006,"adoptionDate":"6 February 2006","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/GC/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC18-Work.json","abstract":"The Committee elaborates the content of the right to work under article 6, considers it inseparable from human dignity and essential for the realization of other rights, and provides guidance on States parties' obligations regarding access to employment, freedom from forced labour, technical and vocational guidance and training, and conditions of work.","articles":["Art. 6","Art. 7","Art. 8"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/GC/18","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":6148,"labelCount":21,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":54},{"docId":"e-c-12-gc-19","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 19: The right to social security (art. 9)","nameShort":"GC19: Right to social security","signature":"E/C.12/GC/19","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2008,"adoptionDate":"4 February 2008","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/GC/19","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC19-SocSecurity.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right to social security under article 9 is of central importance for human dignity, and clarifies States parties' obligations to ensure the availability, adequacy, accessibility and affordability of social security systems covering the principal social risks and contingencies, with particular attention to disadvantaged and marginalized groups.","articles":["Art. 9"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/GC/19","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7282,"labelCount":39,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":84},{"docId":"e-1990-23","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 2: International technical assistance measures (Art. 22)","nameShort":"GC2: International technical assistance measures","signature":"E/1990/23","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"2 February 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/1990/23%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC2-IntAssistance.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the international technical assistance mechanism established in article 22 is a vehicle for ensuring that the realization of economic, social and cultural rights is taken into account by United Nations bodies and specialized agencies, and clarifies its own role in supporting that mechanism.","articles":["Art. 22"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CESCR/GEC/4757","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1455,"labelCount":3,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"verified-by-pattern-analogy","paragraphCount":10},{"docId":"e-c-12-gc-20","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 20: Non-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights","nameShort":"GC20: Non-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights","signature":"E/C.12/GC/20","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2009,"adoptionDate":"2 July 2009","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/GC/20","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC20-NonDiscESC.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that non-discrimination is an immediate and cross-cutting obligation under the Covenant, and clarifies the meaning of the prohibited grounds — including 'other status' — and the obligations to eliminate both formal and substantive discrimination in the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights.","articles":["Art. 2"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/GC/20","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":4187,"labelCount":42,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":41},{"docId":"e-c-12-gc-21","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 21: Right of everyone to take part in cultural life","nameShort":"GC21: Right of everyone to take part in cultural life","signature":"E/C.12/GC/21","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2010,"adoptionDate":"17 May 2010","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/GC/21","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC21-Culture.json","abstract":"The Committee affirms that cultural rights are integral, universal and interdependent human rights, and clarifies the right of everyone to take part in cultural life under article 15 (1) (a), including obligations regarding access, participation, contribution, and the protection of cultural heritage and diversity.","articles":["Art. 15"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/GC/21","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7892,"labelCount":31,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":76},{"docId":"e-c-12-gc-22","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 22 on the right to sexual and reproductive health (article 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights)","nameShort":"GC22: Right to sexual and reproductive health","signature":"E/C.12/GC/22","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2016,"adoptionDate":"4 March 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context.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/GC/24","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7098,"labelCount":27,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":59},{"docId":"e-c-12-gc-25","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 25 on article 15: science and economic, social and cultural rights","nameShort":"GC25: Science and economic, social and cultural rights","signature":"E/C.12/GC/25","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2020,"adoptionDate":"6 March 2020","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/GC/25","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC25-Science.json","abstract":"The Committee clarifies that the right of everyone to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress and its applications under article 15 entails State obligations to make scientific advancement and its benefits accessible to all without discrimination, to protect freedom of scientific research, and to address the unequal distribution of scientific risks and benefits.","articles":["Art. 15"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/GC/25","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10492,"labelCount":38,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":89},{"docId":"e-c-12-gc-26","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 26 on Land and economic, social and cultural rights","nameShort":"GC26: Land and economic, social and cultural rights","signature":"E/C.12/GC/26","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2023,"adoptionDate":"4 January 2023","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/GC/26","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC26-Land.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that secure and equitable access to, use of and control over land is essential to the realization of a wide range of Covenant rights, and clarifies States parties' obligations regarding land governance, including in relation to indigenous peoples, peasants, rural women, urban dwellers and persons in vulnerable situations.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/GC/26","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":8650,"labelCount":60,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":61},{"docId":"e-c-12-gc-27","type":"gc","name":"GC27: Environmental dimension of sustainable development","nameShort":"CESCR GC27: Sustainable development & environment","signature":"E/C.12/GC/27","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2025,"adoptionDate":"26 September 2025","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/GC/27","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC27-Environment.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that a clean, healthy and sustainable environment is an essential precondition for the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights, and clarifies States parties' obligations under the Covenant to address the climate, biodiversity and pollution crises through sustainable, equitable and rights-based environmental policies.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/GC/27","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9631,"labelCount":73,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":90},{"docId":"e-1991-23","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 3: The nature of States parties obligations (Art. 2, par. 1)","nameShort":"GC3: The nature of States parties obligations","signature":"E/1991/23","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"14 December 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/1991/23%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC3-Obligations.json","abstract":"The Committee elaborates the nature of States parties' obligations under article 2, paragraph 1, distinguishing obligations of conduct and result, immediate and progressive obligations, and identifying core obligations to ensure the satisfaction of, at the very least, minimum essential levels of each Covenant right.","articles":["Art. 2","Art. 2(1)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CESCR/GEC/4758","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2242,"labelCount":2,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"verified-by-pattern-analogy","paragraphCount":14},{"docId":"e-1992-23","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 4:  The right to adequate housing (art. 11 (1) of the Covenant)","nameShort":"GC4: right to adequate housing","signature":"E/1992/23","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1991,"adoptionDate":"13 December 1991","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/1992/23%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC4-Housing.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the human right to adequate housing under article 11 is of central importance for the enjoyment of all Covenant rights, and elaborates its core elements: legal security of tenure, availability of services and infrastructure, affordability, habitability, accessibility, location and cultural adequacy.","articles":["Art. 11(1)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CESCR/GEC/4759","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2872,"labelCount":12,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"hri-compilation-pdf","paragraphCount":19},{"docId":"e-1995-22","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 5: Persons with disabilities","nameShort":"GC5: Persons with disabilities","signature":"E/1995/22","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1994,"adoptionDate":"9 December 1994","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/1995/22%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC5-NonDisc.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that persons with disabilities face entrenched discrimination undermining the realization of their economic, social and cultural rights, and clarifies States parties' obligations to take affirmative measures to remove barriers and to integrate disability concerns across all Covenant rights.","articles":["Art. 2(2)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CESCR/GEC/4760","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":4210,"labelCount":42,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"hri-compilation-pdf","paragraphCount":38},{"docId":"e-1996-22","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 6: The economic, social and cultural rights of older persons","nameShort":"GC6: The economic, social and cultural rights of older persons","signature":"E/1996/22","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1995,"adoptionDate":"8 December 1995","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/1996/22%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC6-Older.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the situation of older persons in light of global ageing trends, and clarifies States parties' obligations under the Covenant to ensure non-discrimination on the basis of age and the realization of the economic, social and cultural rights of older persons in domains including social security, work, health and family life.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CESCR/GEC/6429","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3888,"labelCount":11,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"hri-compilation-pdf","paragraphCount":42},{"docId":"e-1998-22","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 7:  The right to adequate housing  (art. 11 (1) of the Covenant):  Forced evictions","nameShort":"GC7: Right to adequate housing  - Forced evictions","signature":"E/1998/22","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1997,"adoptionDate":"16 May 1997","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/1998/22","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC7-Evictions.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that forced evictions are prima facie incompatible with the Covenant, clarifies the procedural protections required before, during and after any eviction, and identifies States parties' obligations to refrain from forced evictions and to ensure adequate alternative housing where evictions cannot be avoided.","articles":["Art. 11(1)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CESCR/GEC/6430","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2540,"labelCount":15,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"verified-by-pattern-analogy","paragraphCount":21},{"docId":"e-c-12-1997-8","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 8: The relationship between economic sanctions and respect for economic, social and cultural rights","nameShort":"GC8: The relationship between economic sanctions and respect for economic, social and cultural 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where there are substantial grounds for believing that a person would be in danger of being subjected to torture as defined in article 1, and elaborates the test, the burden and the procedural standards for assessing the risk in the context of individual communications under article 22. (Replaced by general comment No. 4.)","articles":["Art. 3","Art. 22","Art. 1"],"status":"superseded","supersededBy":"CAT/C/GC/4","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"A/53/44","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":670,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"verified-by-pattern-analogy","paragraphCount":9,"statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CAT/C/GC/4","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"cat-c-gc-2","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 2: Implementation of article 2 by States parties","nameShort":"GC2: Implementation of Art. 2 by States parties","signature":"CAT/C/GC/2","committee":"CAT","committees":["CAT"],"year":2008,"adoptionDate":"24 January 2008","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CAT/C/GC/2","sourceFile":"Annotated_CAT_GC2_article2.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 2 sets out three interrelated and essential principles undergirding the Convention's absolute prohibition of torture, and clarifies that the prohibition is a peremptory jus cogens norm of customary international law and that the obligation to prevent torture extends to acts of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.","articles":["Art. 2"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CAT/C/GC/2","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3516,"labelCount":18,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":27},{"docId":"cat-c-gc-3","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 3 (2012): Implementation of article 14 by States parties","nameShort":"GC3: Implementation of Art. 14 by States parties","signature":"CAT/C/GC/3","committee":"CAT","committees":["CAT"],"year":2012,"adoptionDate":"13 December 2012","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CAT/C/GC/3","sourceFile":"Annotated_CAT_GC3_art.14.json","abstract":"The Committee elaborates the content and scope of the obligations under article 14 of the Convention, considers that all victims of torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment are entitled to redress and rehabilitation, and clarifies that redress encompasses restitution, compensation, rehabilitation, satisfaction and guarantees of non-repetition.","articles":["Art. 14"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CAT/C/GC/3","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":5785,"labelCount":26,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":46},{"docId":"cat-c-gc-4","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 4 (2017) on the implementation of article 3 of the Convention in the context of article 22 [REVISED]","nameShort":"GC4: implementation of Art. 3 in the context of Art. 22 [REVISED]","signature":"CAT/C/GC/4","committee":"CAT","committees":["CAT"],"year":2018,"adoptionDate":"4 September 2018","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CAT/C/GC/4","sourceFile":"Annotated_CAT_GC4_art.3.json","abstract":"The Committee, replacing general comment No. 1 (1997), elaborates the application of article 3 in the context of individual communications under article 22, and clarifies the standards of risk assessment, the burden of proof, the role of country information, and the principle of non-refoulement as a non-derogable obligation.","articles":["Art. 3","Art. 22"],"status":"final","supersedes":"A/53/44","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CAT/C/GC/4","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":5661,"labelCount":29,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":51},{"docId":"cat-op-gc-1","type":"gc","name":"General comment No. 1 (2024) on article 4 of the Optional Protocol (places of deprivation of liberty)","nameShort":"SPT GC1: Article 4 OPCAT — places of deprivation of liberty","signature":"CAT/OP/GC/1","committee":"CAT-OP","committees":["CAT-OP"],"year":2024,"adoptionDate":"7 June 2024","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CAT/OP/GC/1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CAT_OP_GC1_art4.json","abstract":"The Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture (SPT) clarifies the comprehensive scope of \"places of deprivation of liberty\" under article 4 of the Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture (OPCAT). It addresses the object and purpose of the Optional Protocol, identifies illustrative categories of facilities subject to preventive visits, and reaffirms that any restrictive interpretation would defeat the preventive aim of the OPCAT regime.","articles":["Art. 4"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CAT/OP/GC/1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-30","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-30","wordCount":7074,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":59},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-181","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 10: Article 19 (Freedom of opinion)","nameShort":"GC10: article 19 (freedom of opinion)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 181","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1983,"adoptionDate":"29 June 1983","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC10_opinion.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right to hold opinions without interference under article 19, paragraph 1, is a right to which the Covenant permits no exception or restriction, and requests States parties to provide information on the implementation of this right and on the conditions under which any restrictions on freedom of expression are imposed. (Replaced by general comment No. 34.)","articles":["Art. 19(Freedomofopinion)","Art. 19(freedomofopinion)"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6627","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":403,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":4,"supersededBy":"CCPR/C/GC/34","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/34","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-182","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 11: Article 20 (prohibition of propaganda for war and inciting national, racial or religious hatred)","nameShort":"GC11: article 20 (prohibition of propaganda for war and inciting national, racial or religious hatred)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 182","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1983,"adoptionDate":"29 July 1983","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC11_art.20.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 20 obliges States parties to prohibit by law any propaganda for war and any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, and clarifies that compatibility of such prohibitions with the rights to freedom of expression and association requires careful and lawful design.","articles":["Art. 20(prohibitionofpropagandaforwarandincitingnational,racialorreligioushatred)","Art. 20","Art. 19"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/4720","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":335,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-183","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 12: Article 1 (Right to self-determination)","nameShort":"GC12: article 1 (right to self-determination)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 183","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1984,"adoptionDate":"13 March 1984","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC12_self-determination.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right of all peoples to self-determination under article 1 is of particular importance because its realization is an essential condition for the effective guarantee of individual human rights, and clarifies that States parties have obligations both with respect to their own peoples and with respect to other peoples.","articles":["Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6626","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":715,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":8},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-184","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 13: Article 14 (administration of justice)","nameShort":"GC13: article 14 (administration of justice)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 184","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1984,"adoptionDate":"13 April 1984","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC13_justice.json","abstract":"The Committee, considering article 14 to be of a complex nature, draws attention to the need for States parties to provide more detailed information in their reports on the implementation of each of its provisions on the proper administration of justice, including the guarantees of equality before courts, fair and public hearing, and rights of the defence. (Replaced by general comment No. 32.)","articles":["Art. 14(administrationofjustice)","Art. 14"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/4721","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2126,"labelCount":3,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":19,"supersededBy":"CCPR/C/GC/32","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/32","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-188","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 14: Article 6 (Right to life)","nameShort":"GC14: article 6 (right to life)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 188","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1984,"adoptionDate":"9 November 1984","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC14_life.json","abstract":"The Committee, considering the right to life enunciated in article 6 as the supreme right from which no derogation is permitted even in time of public emergency, draws attention to the threat posed by nuclear weapons to human life and considers that their production, deployment and use should be prohibited and recognized as a crime against humanity. (Replaced by general comment No. 36.)","articles":["Art. 6(Righttolife)","Art. 6(righttolife)","Art. 6","Art. 3"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/4723","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":410,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":7,"supersededBy":"CCPR/C/GC/36","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/36","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-189","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 15: The position of aliens under the Covenant","nameShort":"GC15: the position of aliens under the Covenant","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 189","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1986,"adoptionDate":"11 April 1986","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC15_aliens.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the rights set forth in the Covenant apply to everyone within a State party's territory and subject to its jurisdiction, regardless of nationality or statelessness, and clarifies the position of aliens — including non-discrimination, expulsion safeguards under article 13 and access to procedural protections.","articles":["Art. 2","Art. 25","Art. 13"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6625","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1388,"labelCount":9,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":10},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-191","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 16: Article 17 (Right to privacy)","nameShort":"GC16: article 17 (right to privacy)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 191","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1988,"adoptionDate":"8 April 1988","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC16_privacy.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 17 protects every person against arbitrary or unlawful interference with privacy, family, home or correspondence, and clarifies that this protection extends to interferences from State and non-State actors and requires legislative, administrative and other measures to give it effect.","articles":["Art. 17(Righttoprivacy)","Art. 17(righttoprivacy)","Art. 17"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6624","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1144,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":11},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-193","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 17: The rights of the child (Article 24)","nameShort":"GC17: the rights of the child (article 24)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 193","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1989,"adoptionDate":"7 April 1989","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC17_child.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 24 recognizes the right of every child, without discrimination, to receive from the family, society and the State the protection required by the child's status as a minor, and that its implementation entails the adoption of special measures supplementing those required for adults under article 2.","articles":["Art. 24","Art. 2"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6623","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1431,"labelCount":9,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":8},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-195","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 18: Non-discrimination","nameShort":"GC18: Non-discrimination","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 195","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1989,"adoptionDate":"10 November 1989","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC18_non-discrimination.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that non-discrimination, together with equality before the law and equal protection of the law, constitutes a basic and general principle of human rights protection, and elaborates the meaning of discrimination under article 26 and the corresponding obligations of States parties.","articles":["Art. 2","Art. 3","Art. 4","Art. 20"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6622","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1492,"labelCount":4,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":13},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-198","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 19: Protection of the Family, the Right to Marriage and Equality of the Spouses (Article 23)","nameShort":"GC19: protection of the family, the right to marriage and equality of the spouses (article 23)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 198","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"27 July 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC19_family.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society entitled to protection under article 23, and clarifies the obligations of States parties regarding the right to marry, equality between spouses, and protection of the family — including in the context of dissolution of marriage and the rights of the child.","articles":["Art. 23","Art. 17","Art. 24"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6620","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":971,"labelCount":5,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":9},{"docId":"annotated-ccpr-gc1-reporting-obligation","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 1: Reporting obligation","nameShort":"GC1: reporting obligation","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 173","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1981,"adoptionDate":"27 July 1981","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC1_reporting_obligation.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the reporting obligation under article 40 — under which States parties have undertaken to submit initial and periodic reports on the measures they have adopted and the progress made in the enjoyment of Covenant rights — and notes the widespread delays in submission, urging States parties to comply on time.","articles":["Art. 40"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6634","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":203,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":1},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-200","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 20: Article 7 (Prohibition of Torture, or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment)","nameShort":"GC20: article 7 (prohibition of torture, or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I), p. 200","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1992,"adoptionDate":"10 March 1992","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC20_art.7.json","abstract":"The Committee, replacing general comment No. 7 (1982), considers that article 7 protects the dignity and physical and mental integrity of the individual, and clarifies that the prohibition of torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment is non-derogable, encompasses corporal punishment and applies regardless of the purpose for which the act is committed.","articles":["Art. 7(ProhibitionofTorture,orothercruel,inhumanordegradingtreatmentorpunishment)","Art. 7(prohibitionoftorture,orothercruel,inhumanordegradingtreatmentorpunishment)","Art. 7","Art. 10"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6621","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1328,"labelCount":6,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":15,"supersedes":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 178"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-202","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 21: Article 10 (Humane treatment of persons deprived of their liberty)","nameShort":"GC21: article 10 (humane treatment of persons deprived of their liberty)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I), p. 202","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1992,"adoptionDate":"10 April 1992","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC21_art.10.json","abstract":"The Committee, replacing general comment No. 9 (1982), considers that article 10 imposes a positive obligation on States parties towards persons deprived of their liberty, who are particularly vulnerable, and elaborates the requirements of humane treatment, segregation regimes and the rehabilitative aim of the penitentiary system.","articles":["Art. 10(Humanetreatmentofpersonsdeprivedoftheirliberty)","Art. 10(humanetreatmentofpersonsdeprivedoftheirliberty)","Art. 10"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/4731","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1187,"labelCount":13,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":13,"supersedes":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 180"},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-4","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 22: the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion (art. 18)","nameShort":"GC22: the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion (art. 18)","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 4","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1993,"adoptionDate":"27 September 1993","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.%204","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC22_freedom_of_thought.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion under article 18 is far-reaching and profound, encompassing the freedom to hold beliefs and the freedom to manifest religion or belief, and clarifies the strict conditions under which any restriction on manifestation may be imposed.","articles":["Art. 18","Art. 18(1)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1700,"labelCount":5,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":11},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-5","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 23: the rights of minorities (art. 27)","nameShort":"GC23: the rights of minorities (art. 27)","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.5","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1994,"adoptionDate":"26 April 1994","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.5","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC23_minorities.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 27 protects the right of persons belonging to ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities, in community with other members of their group, to enjoy their own culture, profess and practise their own religion, or use their own language, and clarifies that these rights are individual rights that may require positive measures by the State.","articles":["Art. 27","Art. 1","Art. 40","Art. 2(1)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.5","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1471,"labelCount":3,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":9},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-6","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 24 on issues relating to reservations made upon ratification or accession to the Covenant or the Optional Protocols thereto, or in relation to declarations under article 41 of the Covenant","nameShort":"GC24: issues relating to reservations made upon ratification or accession to the Covenant or the Optional Protocols thereto, or in relation to declarations under article 41 of the Covenant","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 6","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1994,"adoptionDate":"11 November 1994","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.%206","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC24_reservations.json","abstract":"The Committee, concerned by the number and nature of reservations entered to the Covenant and Optional Protocols, considers that reservations incompatible with the object and purpose of the Covenant are inadmissible, and clarifies that the Committee itself has competence to determine whether reservations are compatible.","articles":["Art. 41"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.6","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3750,"labelCount":4,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":20},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-7","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 25: the right to participate in public affairs, voting rights and the right of equal access to public service (article 25)","nameShort":"GC25: the right to participate in public affairs, voting rights and the right of equal access to public service (article 25)","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.7","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1996,"adoptionDate":"27 August 1996","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.7","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC25_art.25.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 25 lies at the core of democratic government, and elaborates the right of every citizen to take part in the conduct of public affairs, the right to vote and stand for election, and the right of equal access to public service, including the conditions under which any restriction may be imposed.","articles":["Art. 25","Art. 1(1)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.7","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2725,"labelCount":5,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":27},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-8-rev-1","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 26 on issues relating to the continuity of obligations to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights","nameShort":"GC26: issues relating to the continuity of obligations to the Covenant","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.8/Rev.1","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1997,"adoptionDate":"8 December 1997","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.8/Rev.1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC26_continuity_obligations.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the Covenant does not contain any provision regarding its termination, denunciation or withdrawal, and concludes that — in light of the rights it enshrines and the lack of any provision permitting denunciation — the Covenant is not subject to denunciation or withdrawal once a State has acceded to it.","articles":["Art. 41(2)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.8/Rev.1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":500,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":5},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-9","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 27: Freedom of movement (article 12)","nameShort":"GC27: Fredom of movement (article 12)","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1./Add.9","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1999,"adoptionDate":"1 November 1999","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.9","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC27_movement.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that liberty of movement under article 12 is an indispensable condition for the free development of the person, and elaborates the right to move within a State, the right to leave any country, the right to enter one's own country and the strict conditions under which any restriction may be imposed.","articles":["Art. 12","Art. 13"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.9","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2343,"labelCount":9,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":21},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-10","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 28: Article 3 (The equality of rights between men and women)","nameShort":"GC28: Article 3 (the equality of rights between men and women)","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 10","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2000,"adoptionDate":"29 March 2000","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC28_gender_equality.json","abstract":"The Committee, replacing general comment No. 4 (1981), elaborates the application of article 3 — the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all civil and political rights — and clarifies the legislative, policy and structural measures States parties must adopt to give effect to substantive equality across the Covenant rights.","articles":["Art. 3(Theequalityofrightsbetweenmenandwomen)","Art. 3(theequalityofrightsbetweenmenandwomen)","Art. 3"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.10","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3973,"labelCount":43,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":32,"supersedes":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 175"},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-11","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 29: states of emergency (article 4)","nameShort":"GC29: states of emergency (article 4)","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 11","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2001,"adoptionDate":"31 August 2001","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.%2011","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC29_emergency.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 4 — permitting derogation in time of public emergency — is of paramount importance for the system of protection under the Covenant, and clarifies the strict conditions of proclamation, notification, proportionality and non-derogability that must be observed when a State party invokes it.","articles":["Art. 4"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.11","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3152,"labelCount":7,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":17,"supersedes":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 176"},{"docId":"annotated-ccpr-gc2-reporting-guidelines","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 2: Reporting guidelines","nameShort":"GC2: reporting guidelines","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 173","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1981,"adoptionDate":"28 July 1981","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC2_reporting_guidelines.json","abstract":"The Committee, having noted that initial reports were often too brief to enable proper assessment, draws attention to the general guidelines on the form and content of reports and recommends that States parties follow them carefully so as to give the Committee a complete picture of the implementation of the Covenant.","articles":["Art. 2","Art. 40"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6633","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":472,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":4,"supersededBy":"CCPR/C/66/GUI/Rev.2","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/66/GUI/Rev.2","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-12","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 30: Reporting Obligations of States parties under article 40 of the Covenant","nameShort":"GC30: reporting obligations of states parties under article 40 of the Covenant","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 12","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2002,"adoptionDate":"16 July 2002","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.%2012","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC30_reporting.json","abstract":"The Committee elaborates the reporting obligations of States parties under article 40, clarifies the scope of those obligations including the duty to address concluding observations and follow-up procedures, and considers that timely and substantive reporting is integral to the effective implementation of the Covenant.","articles":["Art. 40"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.2/Add.12","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":424,"labelCount":0,"alternativeSignatures":["CCPR/C/21/Rev.2/Add.12"],"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":6},{"docId":"ccpr-c-21-rev-1-add-13","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 31: The Nature of General Legal Obligation Imposed on States Parties to the Covenant","nameShort":"GC31: the nature of general legal obligation imposed on states parties to the Covenant","signature":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 13","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2004,"adoptionDate":"29 March 2004","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.%2013","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC31_nature_of_obligations.json","abstract":"The Committee, replacing general comment No. 3 and reading together with general comments Nos. 18 and 28 on non-discrimination, elaborates the nature of the general legal obligations imposed on States parties by article 2, including the obligations to respect and to ensure rights, the duty to provide effective remedies and the prohibition of giving effect to the Covenant in a discriminatory manner.","articles":["Art. 2"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2789,"labelCount":5,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":20,"supersedes":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 174"},{"docId":"ccpr-c-gc-32","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 32: Article 14: Right to equality before courts and tribunals and to a fair trial","nameShort":"GC32: article 14: right to equality before courts and tribunals and to a fair trial","signature":"CCPR/C/GC/32","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2007,"adoptionDate":"23 August 2007","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/32","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC32_article14.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right to equality before courts and tribunals and to a fair trial under article 14 is a key element of human rights protection and a procedural means to safeguard the rule of law, and elaborates its constituent guarantees including independence and impartiality, the presumption of innocence, defence rights and the right of appeal.","articles":["Art. 14"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/GC/32","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":8014,"labelCount":28,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":65,"supersedes":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 184"},{"docId":"ccpr-c-gc-33","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 33: Obligation of States under Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights","nameShort":"GC33: obligation of States parties under the Optional Protocol to the Covenant","signature":"CCPR/C/GC/33","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2009,"adoptionDate":"25 June 2009","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/33","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC33_optional_protocol.json","abstract":"The Committee elaborates the obligations of States parties under the Optional Protocol to the Covenant, considers that views adopted by the Committee under the Protocol represent an authoritative determination by the body established under the Covenant itself, and clarifies that States parties are obliged to give effect to those views in good faith.","articles":["Art. 8"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/GC/33","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1688,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":20},{"docId":"ccpr-c-gc-34","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 34: Article 19: Freedoms of opinion and expression","nameShort":"GC34: article 19: freedoms of opinion and expression","signature":"CCPR/C/GC/34","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2011,"adoptionDate":"12 September 2011","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/34","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC34_expression.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that freedom of opinion and freedom of expression under article 19 are indispensable conditions for the full development of the person and the foundation stone of every free and democratic society, and provides authoritative guidance on the scope of these freedoms and on the strict requirements that any restriction must satisfy.","articles":["Art. 19"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/GC/34","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":5123,"labelCount":4,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":52,"supersedes":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 181"},{"docId":"ccpr-c-gc-35","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 35: Article 9 (Liberty and security of a person)","nameShort":"GC35: article 9 (liberty and security of a person)","signature":"CCPR/C/GC/35","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2014,"adoptionDate":"16 December 2014","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/35","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC35_article9.json","abstract":"The Committee, replacing general comment No. 8 (1982), considers that article 9 protects both liberty and security of person, and clarifies the prohibition of arbitrary detention, the right to challenge the lawfulness of detention before a court, and the procedural guarantees that apply across criminal, immigration, mental-health and other contexts of deprivation of liberty.","articles":["Art. 9(Libertyandsecurityofaperson)","Art. 9(libertyandsecurityofaperson)","Art. 9","Art. 3"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/GC/35","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7714,"labelCount":81,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":68,"supersedes":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 179"},{"docId":"ccpr-c-gc-36","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 36: Article 6: right to life","nameShort":"GC36: article 6: right to life","signature":"CCPR/C/GC/36","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2019,"adoptionDate":"3 September 2019","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/36","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC36_life.json","abstract":"The Committee replaces general comments No. 6 (1982) and No. 14 (1984) on the right to life, considers article 6 the supreme right from which no derogation is permitted, and provides comprehensive guidance on its scope, including the prohibition of arbitrary deprivation of life, the use of lethal force, the death penalty and the right to life with dignity.","articles":["Art. 6"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/GC/36","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10244,"labelCount":49,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":70,"supersedes":["HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p.176","HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 188"]},{"docId":"ccpr-c-gc-37","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 37 (2020) on the right of peaceful assembly (article 21)","nameShort":"GC37: the right of peaceful assembly (article 21)","signature":"CCPR/C/GC/37","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":2020,"adoptionDate":"17 September 2020","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/37","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC37_assembly.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right of peaceful assembly under article 21 protects the ability of individuals to act collectively in pursuit of common interests, and provides comprehensive guidance on the conditions under which any restrictions may be imposed and on State obligations to facilitate, protect and ensure accountability for assemblies, both online and offline.","articles":["Art. 21"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CCPR/C/GC/37","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":8637,"labelCount":16,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":102},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-174","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 3: Article 2 (Implementation at the national level)","nameShort":"GC3: article 2 (implementation at the national level)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 174","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1981,"adoptionDate":"29 July 1981","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC3_implementation.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 2 generally leaves it to States parties to choose their method of implementation, but recognizes that the obligation under the Covenant is not confined to the respect of human rights — States parties have also undertaken to ensure their enjoyment, including through legislative measures and effective remedies. (Replaced by general comment No. 31.)","articles":["Art. 2(Implementationatthenationallevel)","Art. 2(implementationatthenationallevel)","Art. 2"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6632","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":259,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":2,"supersededBy":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 13","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-175","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 4: Article 3 (Equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all civil and political rights)","nameShort":"GC4: article 3 (equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all civil and political rights)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 175","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1981,"adoptionDate":"30 July 1981","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC4_equality.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 3 — the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all civil and political rights — has been insufficiently dealt with in many States reports, and clarifies that legal equality alone is not sufficient: States parties must also report on the practical measures taken to give effect to substantive equality. (Replaced by general comment No. 28.)","articles":["Art. 3(Equalrightofmenandwomentotheenjoymentofallcivilandpoliticalrights)","Art. 3(equalrightofmenandwomentotheenjoymentofallcivilandpoliticalrights)","Art. 3"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6631","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":399,"labelCount":5,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":5,"supersededBy":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 10","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9(Vol.I)","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-176","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 5: Article 4 (Derogations)","nameShort":"GC5: article 4 (derogations)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 176","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1981,"adoptionDate":"31 July 1981","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC5_derogations.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 4 of the Covenant has posed a number of problems for the Committee in considering reports, and clarifies that any derogation in time of public emergency must be officially proclaimed, strictly required by the exigencies of the situation, non-discriminatory and notified to other States parties through the Secretary-General. (Replaced by general comment No. 29.)","articles":["Art. 4(Derogations)","Art. 4(derogations)","Art. 4"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/4717","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":339,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":3,"supersededBy":"CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add. 11","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.11","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-176-99dcaf","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 6: Article 6 (Right to life)","nameShort":"GC6: article 6 (Right to life)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p.176","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1982,"adoptionDate":"30 April 1982","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC6_life.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right to life under article 6 is the supreme right from which no derogation is permitted even in time of public emergency, and that it should not be interpreted narrowly — it requires States parties to take positive measures to prevent loss of life, including by reducing infant mortality, increasing life expectancy and addressing the causes of unnatural death. (Replaced by general comment No. 36.)","articles":["Art. 6(Righttolife)","Art. 6","Art. 4"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6630","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":766,"labelCount":2,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":7,"supersededBy":"CCPR/C/GC/36","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/36","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-178","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 7: Article 7 (Prohibition of torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment)","nameShort":"GC7: article 7 (Prohibition of torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 178","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1982,"adoptionDate":"30 May 1982","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC7_torture.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the prohibition of torture and cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment under article 7 is non-derogable even in situations of public emergency, and clarifies that its implementation requires more than legal prohibition — it demands education, training, and effective remedies including the right to lodge complaints. (Replaced by general comment No. 20.)","articles":["Art. 7(Prohibitionoftortureorcruel,inhumanordegradingtreatmentorpunishment)","Art. 7","Art. 4(1)","Art. 4(2)"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6629","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":585,"labelCount":2,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":3,"supersededBy":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I), p. 200","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9(Vol.I)","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-179","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 8: Article 9 (Right to liberty and security of persons)","nameShort":"GC8: article 9 (right to liberty and security of persons)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 179","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1982,"adoptionDate":"30 June 1982","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC8_security.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 9 — the right to liberty and security of person — applies to all deprivations of liberty, including in non-criminal contexts such as mental illness, vagrancy, drug addiction, educational purposes and immigration control, and clarifies the procedural guarantees applicable to each. (Replaced by general comment No. 35.)","articles":["Art. 9(Righttolibertyandsecurityofpersons)","Art. 9(righttolibertyandsecurityofpersons)","Art. 9","Art. 9(partofparagraph2andthewholeofparagraph3)"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/6628","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":437,"labelCount":6,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":4,"supersededBy":"CCPR/C/GC/35","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CCPR/C/GC/35","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"hri-gen-1-rev-9-vol-i-p-180","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 9: Article 10 (Humane treatment of persons deprived of their liberty)","nameShort":"GC9: article 10 (humane treatment of persons deprived of their liberty)","signature":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I) p. 180","committee":"CCPR","committees":["CCPR"],"year":1982,"adoptionDate":"30 July 1982","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20I%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CCPR_GC9_humane_treatment.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 10 (1) requires that all persons deprived of their liberty be treated with humanity and with respect for the inherent dignity of the human person, and requests States parties to provide specific information on the legal measures and concrete practices designed to give effect to this right. (Replaced by general comment No. 21.)","articles":["Art. 10(Humanetreatmentofpersonsdeprivedoftheirliberty)","Art. 10(humanetreatmentofpersonsdeprivedoftheirliberty)","Art. 10"],"status":"superseded","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CCPR/GEC/4719","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":747,"labelCount":4,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":4,"supersededBy":"HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9 (Vol. I), p. 202","statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9(Vol.I)","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-36","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 36 (2017) on the right of girls and women to education","nameShort":"GR36: the right of girls and women to education","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/36","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2017,"adoptionDate":"27 November 2017","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/36","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GC36-Education.json","abstract":"The Committee affirms that education is a transformative right essential for gender equality and women's empowerment, and clarifies States parties' obligations to ensure girls' and women's right to lifelong, inclusive and quality education at every level, free from gender-based discrimination, stereotypes and violence.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/36","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10854,"labelCount":168,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":83},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-37","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 37 on Gender-related dimensions of disaster risk reduction in the context of climate change","nameShort":"GR37: Gender-related dimensions of disaster risk reduction in the context of climate change","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/37","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2018,"adoptionDate":"13 March 2018","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/37","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GC37-Climate.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that climate change is exacerbating the gendered risks and impacts of disasters, and clarifies that States parties must apply the Convention to disaster risk reduction, with particular attention to women's participation and to the substantive equality of women and girls in mitigation, adaptation and recovery measures.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/37","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10285,"labelCount":148,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":81},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-38","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 38 (2020) on trafficking in women and girls in the context of global migration","nameShort":"GR:38: trafficking in women and girls in the context of global migration","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2020,"adoptionDate":"20 November 2020","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GC38-Trafficking.json","abstract":"The Committee clarifies that article 6 obligates States parties to suppress all forms of trafficking in women and girls and exploitation of prostitution, and provides authoritative guidance on the gender-specific causes, manifestations and consequences of trafficking in the context of global migration.","articles":["Art. 6"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/38","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10804,"labelCount":256,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":122},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-39","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 39 (2022) on the rights of Indigenous women and girls","nameShort":"GR39: Indigenous women and girls","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/39","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2022,"adoptionDate":"31 October 2022","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/39","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GC39-Indigenous.json","abstract":"The Committee provides authoritative guidance on the rights of indigenous women and girls, recognizing the discrimination and violence they face in rural, remote and urban areas, and clarifies States parties' obligations under the Convention with particular attention to indigenous women's collective and individual rights, self-determination and effective participation.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/39","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10981,"labelCount":211,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":61},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr20-reservations","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 20: Reservations to the Convention","nameShort":"GR20: reservations to the convention","signature":"A/47/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1992,"adoptionDate":"30 January 1992","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/47/38%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR20-reservations.json","abstract":"The Committee recalls the decision of the Fourth Meeting of States parties on reservations to the Convention, and clarifies that reservations incompatible with the object and purpose of the Convention undermine its implementation and should be reconsidered with a view to withdrawal.","articles":["Art. 28"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/4730","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":113,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":5},{"docId":"a-49-38","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 21: Equality in marriage and family relations","nameShort":"GR21: equality in marriage and family relations","signature":"A/49/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1994,"adoptionDate":"12 April 1994","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/49/38%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR21-family.json","abstract":"The Committee affirms the equality of human rights for women and men in society and the family, and provides authoritative guidance on the application of articles 9, 15 and 16 to ensure equality in marriage and family relations across nationality, legal capacity and family law.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/4733","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3265,"labelCount":50,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":40},{"docId":"a-50-38","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 22: Amending Article 20 of the Convention","nameShort":"GR22: amending article 20","signature":"A/50/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1996,"adoptionDate":"18 July 1996","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/50/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR22-amendingArt22.json","abstract":"The Committee recommends that States parties favourably consider amending article 20 of the Convention so as to allow the Committee to meet annually for such duration as is necessary for the effective performance of its functions.","articles":["Art. 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and 8.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"A/52/38","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":4375,"labelCount":49,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"hri-compilation-pdf","paragraphCount":50},{"docId":"a-54-38-rev-1-chap-1","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 24: Article 12 of the Convention (women and health)","nameShort":"GR24: women and health","signature":"A/54/38/Rev.1, chap. 1","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1999,"adoptionDate":"5 February 1999","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/54/38/Rev.1%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR24-health.json","abstract":"The Committee affirms that access to health care, including reproductive health, is a basic right under the Convention, and provides authoritative guidance on the application of article 12 to the elimination of discrimination against women in the field of health throughout the life cycle.","articles":["Art. 12","Art. 21","Art. 18"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/4738","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3343,"labelCount":53,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"verified-by-pattern-analogy","paragraphCount":31},{"docId":"a-59-38","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 25: Article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention (temporary special measures)","nameShort":"GR25: temporary special measures","signature":"A/59/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2004,"adoptionDate":"23 July 2004","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/59/38%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR25-TSM2.json","abstract":"The Committee elaborates the meaning of temporary special measures under article 4, paragraph 1, and considers that such measures are not exceptions to non-discrimination but a necessary instrument for accelerating substantive equality, building on its earlier recommendations on the same topic.","articles":["Art. 4","Art. 21","Art. 8"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/3733","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3556,"labelCount":34,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"hri-compilation-pdf","paragraphCount":39},{"docId":"cedaw-2009-wp-1-r","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 26 on women migrant workers","nameShort":"GR26: women migrant workers","signature":"CEDAW/2009/WP.1/R","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2008,"adoptionDate":"5 December 2008","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/64/38%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR26-migrants.json","abstract":"The Committee affirms that women migrant workers should not be discriminated against in any sphere of life, and provides authoritative guidance on the categories of women migrant workers most at risk of abuse and discrimination — including domestic workers and unaccompanied workers — and on States parties' due-diligence obligations.","articles":["Art. 21"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/2009/WP.1/R","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":5545,"labelCount":65,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":29},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-27","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 27: Older women and protection of their human rights","nameShort":"GR27: older women and protection of their human rights","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/27","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2010,"adoptionDate":"16 December 2010","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/27","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR27-older_women.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination experienced by older women and considers that their rights are not systematically addressed in States parties' reports, and provides authoritative guidance on the obligations to protect older women across all Convention rights.","articles":["Art. 21","Art. 4"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/27","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":4054,"labelCount":85,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":53},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-28","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 28 on the core obligations of States parties under article 2 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women","nameShort":"GR28: the core obligations of States parties under article 2","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/28","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2010,"adoptionDate":"16 December 2010","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/28","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR28-art.2.json","abstract":"The Committee clarifies the scope and meaning of article 2 of the Convention, considering it the central provision setting out the core obligations of States parties to pursue, by all appropriate means and without delay, a policy of eliminating discrimination against women in all its forms.","articles":["Art. 2"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/28","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":5468,"labelCount":45,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":42},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-29","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 29 on article 16 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (Economic consequences of marriage, family relations and their dissolution)","nameShort":"GR29: Article 16 - Economic consequences of marriage, family relations and their dissolution","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/29","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2013,"adoptionDate":"13 October 2013","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR29-Article16.json","abstract":"The Committee clarifies the application of article 16 — equality in marriage and family relations — to the economic consequences of marriage, family relations and their dissolution, and considers that women often bear disproportionate economic costs that States parties must address through equitable property, maintenance, pension and inheritance regimes.","articles":["Art. 16"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/29","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":4466,"labelCount":40,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":55},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-30","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 30 on women in conflict prevention, conflict and post-conflict situations","nameShort":"GR30: women in conflict prevention, confilct and post-conflict situations","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/30","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2013,"adoptionDate":"1 November 2013","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/30","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR30-conflict.json","abstract":"The Committee provides authoritative guidance on the application of the Convention to women in conflict prevention, conflict and post-conflict situations, considering that the Convention applies in all such contexts and that States parties have positive obligations to protect women's rights, prevent gender-based violence and ensure women's full participation in peace processes.","articles":["Art. 21"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/30","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10097,"labelCount":193,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":87,"supplementedBy":"CEDAW/C/GC/30/Add.1","relationshipSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/30/Add.1","relationshipVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-32","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 32 on the gender-related dimensions of refugee status, asylum, nationality and statelessness of women","nameShort":"GR32: gender-related dimensions of refugee status, asylum, nationality and statelessness of women","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/32","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2014,"adoptionDate":"14 November 2014","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/32","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR32-refugee.json","abstract":"The Committee provides authoritative guidance on the gender-related dimensions of refugee status, asylum, nationality and statelessness, and clarifies States parties' obligations under the Convention to address gender-specific forms of persecution and discrimination throughout the displacement and asylum continuum.","articles":["Art. 2"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/32","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":8363,"labelCount":140,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":63},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-33","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 33 on women's access to justice","nameShort":"GR33: women's access to justice","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/33","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2015,"adoptionDate":"3 August 2015","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/33","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR33-access_to_justice.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right of access to justice is essential to the realization of all Convention rights, and clarifies the multidimensional elements — justiciability, availability, accessibility, good quality, accountability and provision of remedies — that States parties must ensure to combat gender bias in the justice system.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/33","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9057,"labelCount":95,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":68},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-34","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 34 on the rights of rural women","nameShort":"GR34: the rights of rural women","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/34","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2016,"adoptionDate":"7 March 2016","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/34","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR34-rural.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the multiple forms of discrimination faced by rural women, considers that they are essential agents of sustainable development, and clarifies States parties' obligations under article 14 to ensure rural women's substantive equality across economic, social, cultural, civil and political life.","articles":["Art. 14"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/34","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10478,"labelCount":249,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":97},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-35","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 35 on gender-based violence against women, updating general recommendation No. 19","nameShort":"GR35: gender-based violence against women","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/35","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2017,"adoptionDate":"26 July 2017","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/35","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW-GR35-GBV.json","abstract":"The Committee, updating general recommendation No. 19, clarifies that gender-based violence against women is a form of discrimination prohibited by the Convention, considers it has reached the level of a general principle of international human rights law, and identifies the legislative, institutional and remedial measures States parties must adopt.","articles":["Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/35","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":6441,"labelCount":60,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":35,"updates":"A/47/38 (general recommendation No. 19)","relationshipVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-40","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 40 on equal and inclusive representation of women in decision-making system","nameShort":"GR40: equal and inclusive representation of women in decision-making system","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/40","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2024,"adoptionDate":"23 October 2024","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/40","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GC40_decision-making.json","abstract":"The Committee affirms women's right to equal and inclusive representation in all decision-making systems, considers that persistent under-representation hampers the implementation of all other Convention rights, and clarifies the legislative, policy and structural measures required to achieve equal sharing of decision-making power.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/40","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":11524,"labelCount":109,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":72},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr10-tenth-anniversary","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 10: Tenth anniversary of the adoption of CEDAW","nameShort":"GR10: tenth anniversary of the adoption of CEDAW","signature":"A/44/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"13 February 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/44/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR10_tenth_anniversary.json","abstract":"The Committee, marking the tenth anniversary of the adoption of the Convention, considers that the Convention has proved one of the most effective UN instruments for promoting equality between the sexes and recommends that States parties commemorate the anniversary through awareness-raising and reaffirming their commitments.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/3728","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":348,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":5},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr11-technical-advisory-services","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 11: Technical advisory services for reporting obligations","nameShort":"GR11: technical advisory services for reporting obligations","signature":"A/44/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"13 February 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/44/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR11_technical_advisory_services.json","abstract":"The Committee, noting the increase in States parties to the Convention, recommends that the Secretary-General organize technical advisory services to assist States parties in fulfilling their reporting obligations, and that such services include training and exchanges of experience.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/5830","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":164,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr12-vaw","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 12: Violence against women","nameShort":"GR12: violence against women","signature":"A/44/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"13 February 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/44/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR12_VAW.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that articles 2, 5, 11, 12 and 16 of the Convention require States parties to act to protect women against violence of any kind occurring within the family, at the workplace or in any other area of social life, and recommends that periodic reports include information on the legislation in force, support services provided and statistics gathered.","articles":["Art. 2","Art. 5"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/5831","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":155,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":5},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr13-remuneration","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 13: Equal remuneration for work of equal value","nameShort":"GR13: equal remuneration for work of equal value","signature":"A/44/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"13 February 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/44/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR13_remuneration.json","abstract":"The Committee recalls ILO Convention No. 100 on equal remuneration and recommends that States parties give effect, through legislation and practice, to the principle of equal pay for work of equal value, addressing both direct and indirect discrimination in remuneration systems.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/5832","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":286,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr14-circumcision","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 14: Female circumcision","nameShort":"GR14: female circumcision","signature":"A/45/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"6 June 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/45/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR14_circumcision.json","abstract":"The Committee, concerned about the continuation of female circumcision and other harmful traditional practices, recommends that States parties take effective and appropriate measures with a view to eradicating these practices and to that end, include specific information in their periodic reports.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/3729","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":439,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":5},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr15-aids","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 15: Avoidance of discrimination against women in national strategies for the prevention and control of acquires immunodeficiency syndrom (AIDS)","nameShort":"GR15: avoidance of discrimination against women in national strategies for the prevention and control of AIDS","signature":"A/45/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"6 June 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/45/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR15_AIDS.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that strategies to control HIV/AIDS must take account of the specific situation of women and not result in discrimination against them, and recommends measures States parties should adopt to protect women from the gendered impact of the epidemic.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/4726","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":367,"labelCount":4,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":5},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr16-unpaid-women-workers","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 16: Unpaid women workers in rural and urban family enterprises","nameShort":"GR16: unpaid women workers in rural and urban family enterprises","signature":"A/46/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1992,"adoptionDate":"30 January 1992","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/46/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR16_unpaid_women_workers.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that a high percentage of women in States parties work without payment or social benefits in family enterprises, and recommends that States parties take steps to ensure recognition of their contribution and equal access to social security, training and economic resources.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/3730","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":212,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr17-measurement","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 17: Measurement and quantification of the unremunerated domestic activities of women and their recognition in the gross national product","nameShort":"GR17: Measurement and quantification of the unremunerated domestic activities of women and their recognition in the gross national product","signature":"A/46/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1992,"adoptionDate":"30 January 1992","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/46/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR17_measurement.json","abstract":"The Committee affirms that the measurement and quantification of women's unremunerated domestic activities — and their inclusion in national accounts — are essential for revealing women's de facto economic contribution and for formulating equitable policies, and recommends concrete steps States parties should take.","articles":["Art. 11"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/5833","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":270,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr18-disabled","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 18: Disabled women","nameShort":"GR18: disabled women","signature":"A/46/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1992,"adoptionDate":"30 January 1992","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/46/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR18_disabled.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the situation of women with disabilities, who suffer multiple forms of discrimination, and recommends that States parties provide information on women with disabilities in their periodic reports and adopt special measures for their full integration in social, economic and political life.","articles":["Art. 3"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/4729","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":168,"labelCount":2,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr19-violence","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 19: Violence against women","nameShort":"GR19: violence against women","signature":"A/47/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1992,"adoptionDate":"30 January 1992","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/47/38%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR19_violence.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that gender-based violence is a form of discrimination that seriously inhibits women's ability to enjoy rights and freedoms on a basis of equality with men, and clarifies that the Convention applies to violence against women in both the public and private spheres. (Updated by general recommendation No. 35.)","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/3731","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2089,"labelCount":26,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":24,"updatedBy":"CEDAW/C/GC/35","relationshipSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/35","relationshipVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"a-41-38","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 1: Reporting by States Parties","nameShort":"GR1: reporting by States Parties","signature":"A/41/45","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1986,"adoptionDate":"4 April 1986","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/41/45","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR1_Reporting.json","abstract":"The Committee recommends that States parties, in preparing initial reports under article 18 of the Convention, ensure that the reports follow the general guidelines as to form and content and reflect the actual situation of women in the State party, drawing on all available information.","articles":["Art. 18"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/4724","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":189,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":1},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr2-reporting","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 2: Reporting guidelines","nameShort":"GR2: reporting guidelines","signature":"A/42/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1987,"adoptionDate":"15 May 1987","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/42/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR2_reporting.json","abstract":"The Committee recommends that States parties, in preparing reports under article 18 of the Convention, follow the general guidelines adopted in 1983 as to the form, content and date of reports, and that States parties take advantage of expertise within the United Nations system in their preparation.","articles":["Art. 18"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/3726","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":189,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-30-add-1","type":"gc","name":"GR30 Addendum: Women in conflict prevention/post-conflict — Women, Peace and Security","nameShort":"CEDAW GR30/Add.1: Women, Peace & Security addendum","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/30/Add.1","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":2026,"adoptionDate":"18 February 2026","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/30/Add.1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR30_Add1_WPS.json","abstract":"The Committee, marking the 25th anniversary of Security Council resolution 1325 (2000), updates general recommendation No. 30 to reflect the changing nature of conflict, the weaponization of technology and shifts in the global political economy, and reaffirms States parties' obligations to ensure women's full and meaningful participation in the Women, Peace and Security agenda.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/30/Add.1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":11817,"labelCount":175,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":104,"supplements":"CEDAW/C/GC/30","relationshipVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr3-campaigns-edu","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 3: Education and public information programmes","nameShort":"GR3: education and public information programmes","signature":"A/42/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1987,"adoptionDate":"15 May 1987","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/42/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR3_campaigns_edu.json","abstract":"The Committee recommends that States parties make effective use of education and public information programmes to combat customs and practices that perpetuate discrimination against women and to disseminate the Convention widely among public officials, the legal community, women themselves and the general public.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/5825","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":79,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr4-reservations","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 4: Reservations","nameShort":"GR4: reservations","signature":"A/42/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1987,"adoptionDate":"15 May 1987","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/42/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR4_reservations.json","abstract":"The Committee, expressing concern at the significant number of reservations entered to the Convention that appear incompatible with its object and purpose, welcomes the States parties' decision to consider reservations and suggests that all States parties concerned reconsider such reservations with a view to withdrawing them.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/5826","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":79,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr5-tsm1","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 5: temporary special measures","nameShort":"GR5: temporary special measures","signature":"A/43/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1988,"adoptionDate":"14 June 1988","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/43/38%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR5_TSM1.json","abstract":"The Committee, noting that significant progress has been achieved on repealing discriminatory laws but that further action is needed, recommends that States parties make more use of temporary special measures such as positive action, preferential treatment or quota systems to advance women's de facto integration into education, the economy and politics.","articles":["Art. 4"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/5827","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":103,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr6-national-machinery","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 6: Effective national machinery and publicity","nameShort":"GR6: effective national machinery and publicity","signature":"A/43/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1988,"adoptionDate":"14 June 1988","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/43/38%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR6_national_machinery.json","abstract":"The Committee recommends that States parties establish or strengthen effective national machinery, institutions and procedures, at a high level of Government, with adequate resources, commitment and authority to advise on the impact of all government policies on women and to monitor the situation of women comprehensively.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/5828","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":175,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":5},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr7-resources","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 7: Resources","nameShort":"GR7: resources","signature":"A/43/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1988,"adoptionDate":"14 June 1988","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/43/38%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR7_resources.json","abstract":"The Committee, noting General Assembly resolutions concerning the Committee's working arrangements, requests that adequate resources, including conference and secretariat services, be allocated to enable the Committee to fulfil its mandate effectively.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/5829","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":239,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":5},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr8-art-8","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 8: Implementation of article 8 of the Convention","nameShort":"GR8: implementation of article 8 of the Convention","signature":"A/43/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1988,"adoptionDate":"14 June 1988","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/43/38%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR8_art.8.json","abstract":"The Committee recommends that States parties make every effort to ensure that their national statistical services responsible for planning national censuses and other social and economic surveys formulate their questionnaires in such a way as to enable an analysis of the situation of women.","articles":["Art. 8"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/3727","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":126,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"annotated-cedaw-gr9-statisticaldata","type":"gc","name":"General recommendation No. 9: Statistical data","nameShort":"GR9: statistical data","signature":"A/44/38","committee":"CEDAW","committees":["CEDAW"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"13 February 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/44/38","sourceFile":"Annotated_CEDAW_GR9_statisticaldata.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that statistical information disaggregated by sex is necessary to understand the real situation of women in States parties, and recommends that national statistical services formulate their questionnaires and analyses to capture the specific situation of women across all areas of life.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CEDAW/GEC/3724","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":348,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"ced-c-gc-1","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 1 (2023) on enforced disappearance in the context of migration","nameShort":"GC1: Enforced disappearance in the context of migration","signature":"CED/C/GC/1","committee":"CED","committees":["CED"],"year":2023,"adoptionDate":"26 October 2023","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CED/C/GC/1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CED_GC1_migration.json","abstract":"The Committee provides authoritative guidance on the obligations of States parties under the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance in the context of migration, and clarifies that migrants are particularly vulnerable to enforced disappearance and that States parties have specific duties of prevention, search, investigation and reparation.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CED/C/GC/1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":6911,"labelCount":69,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":56},{"docId":"a-46-18","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 10 concerning technical assistance","nameShort":"GR10: technical assistance","signature":"A/46/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1991,"adoptionDate":"24 March 1991","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/46/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR10_technical_assistance.json","abstract":"The Committee requests the Secretary-General to organize, in consultation with States parties concerned, appropriate national training courses and workshops for reporting officials, so as to assist them in fulfilling their reporting obligations under article 9 of the Convention.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7482","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":68,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":3},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr11-non-citizens","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 11 on non-citizens","nameShort":"GR11: non-citizens","signature":"A/48/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1993,"adoptionDate":"13 March 1993","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/48/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR11_non-citizens.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that — although article 1, paragraph 2, excepts from the definition of racial discrimination differential treatment between citizens and non-citizens — States parties may not discriminate against any particular nationality among non-citizens, and that the Convention's protections extend to non-citizens within their jurisdiction.","articles":["Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7483","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":167,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":3},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr12-successorstates","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 12 on sucessor States","nameShort":"GR12: successor States","signature":"A/48/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1993,"adoptionDate":"14 March 1993","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/48/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR12_successorStates.json","abstract":"The Committee encourages successor States that have not yet done so to confirm to the Secretary-General, as depositary of the Convention, that they continue to be bound by obligations under the Convention if predecessor States were parties to it, and to give effect to the Convention in their territory.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7484","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":127,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr13-training","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 13 on the training of law enforcement officials in the protection of human rights","nameShort":"GR13: training of law enforcement officials in the protection of human rights","signature":"A/48/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1993,"adoptionDate":"15 March 1993","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/48/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR13_training.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the obligations of States parties under article 7 to combat prejudices and promote understanding extend to the training of law enforcement officials, and recommends that such training cover the principles of non-discrimination and the human rights of all persons regardless of race, colour, or national or ethnic origin.","articles":["Art. 2","Art. 5"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7485","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":217,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":3},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr14-non-discrimination","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 14 on article 1, pargraph 1, of the Convention","nameShort":"GR14: article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention","signature":"A/48/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1993,"adoptionDate":"16 March 1993","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/48/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR14_non-discrimination.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to features of the definition of racial discrimination in article 1, paragraph 1, considers that the words 'based on' bear no different meaning from 'on the grounds of', and clarifies that a distinction is contrary to the Convention if it has either the purpose or the effect of impairing particular rights and freedoms.","articles":["Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7486","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":272,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":3},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr15-article4","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 15 on article 4 of the Convention","nameShort":"GR15: article 4 of the Convention","signature":"A/48/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1993,"adoptionDate":"17 March 1993","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/48/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR15_article4.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 4 — proscribing the dissemination of ideas of racial superiority and organized racist activity — was central to the adoption of the Convention and remains essential, and recommends that States parties whose legislation does not satisfy article 4 take the necessary steps to give it effect.","articles":["Art. 4"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7487","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":562,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":7},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr16-article9","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 16 concerning the application of article 9 of the Convention","nameShort":"GR16: the application of article 9 of the Convention","signature":"A/48/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1993,"adoptionDate":"18 March 1993","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/48/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR16_article9.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the reporting obligations under article 9 and recommends that States parties submit reports promptly, follow the Committee's reporting guidelines, and treat the dialogue with the Committee as an ongoing means of ensuring effective implementation of the Convention.","articles":["Art. 9"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7488","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":143,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":3},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr17-national-institutions","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 17 on the establishment of national institutions to facilitate the implementation of the Convention","nameShort":"GR17: the establishment of national institutions to facilitate the implementation of the Convention","signature":"A/48/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1993,"adoptionDate":"19 March 1993","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/48/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR17_national_institutions.json","abstract":"The Committee recommends that States parties consider the establishment of national institutions — within the framework of their legal systems — to facilitate the implementation of the Convention by providing advice, conducting investigations and publicizing the rights it protects.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7489","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":131,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":3},{"docId":"a-49-18","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 18 on the establishment of an international tribunal to prosecute crimes against humanity","nameShort":"GR18: the establishment of an international tribunal to prosecute crimes against humanity","signature":"A/49/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1994,"adoptionDate":"18 March 1994","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/49/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR18_tribunal.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that an international tribunal with general jurisdiction should be established urgently to prosecute genocide, crimes against humanity and grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions, and recommends that States parties take all available measures to bring perpetrators of such crimes to justice.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7490","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":131,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"a-50-18","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 19 on article 3 of the Convention","nameShort":"GR19: article 3 of the Convention","signature":"A/50/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1995,"adoptionDate":"18 August 1995","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/50/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR19_article3.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the wording of article 3 — by which States parties undertake to prevent, prohibit and eradicate all practices of racial segregation and apartheid — and considers that this article applies to all forms of racial segregation in all countries, not exclusively to South Africa under apartheid.","articles":["Art. 3"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7491","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":255,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr1-obligations-art-4","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 1 concerning States parties' obligations (art. 4 of the Convention)","nameShort":"GR1: States parties' obligations (art. 4 of the Convention)","signature":"A/8718","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1972,"adoptionDate":"24 February 1972","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/8718%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR1_obligations_art.4.json","abstract":"The Committee, having found that the legislation of a number of States parties did not include the provisions envisaged in article 4 (a) and (b), considers that the implementation of those provisions — including the prohibition of organizations and propaganda promoting racial discrimination — is obligatory for all States parties under the Convention.","articles":["Art. 4","Art. 9","Art. 4(a)","Art. 5"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7473","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":143,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":1},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr20-article5","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 20 on article 5 of the Convention","nameShort":"GR20: article 5 of the Convention","signature":"A/51/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1996,"adoptionDate":"14 March 1996","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/51/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR20_article5.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 5 contains a non-exhaustive obligation of States parties to guarantee the enjoyment of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights and freedoms without racial discrimination, and clarifies that States parties must report on the implementation of all the rights enumerated in article 5.","articles":["Art. 5","Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7492","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":461,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":5},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr21-self-determination","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 21 on the right to self-determination","nameShort":"GR21: the right to self-determination","signature":"A/51/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1996,"adoptionDate":"15 March 1996","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/51/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR21_self-determination.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that ethnic or religious groups frequently invoke the right to self-determination as a basis for an alleged right to secession, and clarifies that the right of self-determination has both internal and external aspects and that international law does not recognize a general right to unilateral secession from a State.","articles":["Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7493","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":798,"labelCount":2,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":6},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr22-refugee","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 22 on article 5 of the Convention on refugees and displaced persons","nameShort":"GR22: article 5 of the Convention on refugees and displaced persons","signature":"A/51/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1996,"adoptionDate":"24 August 1996","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/51/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR22_refugee.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to article 5 in the context of refugees and displaced persons, and recommends that States parties ensure such persons enjoy without racial discrimination civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights — including the right to return in safety to their homes — and the obligation to address the root causes of their displacement.","articles":["Art. 5"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7494","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":224,"labelCount":2,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":3},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr23-indigenous","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 23 on the rights of indigenous peoples","nameShort":"GR23: the rights of indigenous peoples","signature":"A/54/18, annex V","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1997,"adoptionDate":"22 August 1997","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/54/18%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR23_indigenous.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the situation of indigenous peoples and considers that discrimination against them falls under the Convention, recommending that States parties recognize and respect indigenous distinct culture, history, language, ways of life, communal land and resource rights, and meaningful participation in public life.","articles":["Art. 9"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7495","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":476,"labelCount":7,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":6},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr24-article1","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 24 concerning article 1 of the Convention","nameShort":"GR24: article 1 of the Convention","signature":"A/54/18, annex V","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1999,"adoptionDate":"27 August 1999","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/54/18%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR24_article1.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that — in line with the definition in article 1, paragraph 1 — the Convention applies to all persons belonging to different races, national or ethnic groups or to indigenous peoples, and recommends that States parties provide as far as possible information on the presence of such groups within their territory.","articles":["Art. 1","Art. 9"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7496","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":421,"labelCount":3,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr25-gender","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 25 on gender-related dimensions of racial discrimination","nameShort":"GR25: gender-related dimensions of racial discrimination","signature":"A/55/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2000,"adoptionDate":"20 March 2000","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/55/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR25_gender.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that racial discrimination does not always affect women and men equally, and clarifies that there are circumstances in which racial discrimination only or primarily affects women, or affects them differently, and that periodic reports must reflect the gender-related dimensions of racial discrimination.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7497","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":555,"labelCount":8,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":6},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr26-article6","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 26 on article 6 of the Convention","nameShort":"GR26: article 6 of the Convention","signature":"A/55/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2000,"adoptionDate":"24 March 2000","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/55/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR26_article6.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the harm caused by racial discrimination and racial insults to a victim's perception of self-worth and reputation is often underestimated, and clarifies States parties' obligations under article 6 to ensure effective remedies, including reparation and satisfaction commensurate with the damage suffered.","articles":["Art. 6"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7498","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":113,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr27-roma","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 27 on discrimination against Roma","nameShort":"GR27: discrimination against Roma","signature":"A/55/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2000,"adoptionDate":"16 August 2000","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/55/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR27_Roma.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that Roma communities continue to face widespread racial discrimination across Europe and elsewhere, and recommends that States parties review and amend legislation, ensure effective protection against violence, combat segregation in education and housing, and improve the participation of Roma in public life.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7499","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1648,"labelCount":59,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":49},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr28-followup-conference","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 28 on the follow-up to the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance","nameShort":"GR28: follow-up to the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia andRelated Intolerance","signature":"A/57/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2002,"adoptionDate":"19 March 2002","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/57/18%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR28_followup_conference.json","abstract":"The Committee, building on the World Conference against Racism in Durban, recommends comprehensive measures States parties should take to combat racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, including ratifying relevant instruments, complying with reporting obligations and adopting national action plans.","articles":["Art. 14"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7500","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":562,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr29-descent","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 29 on article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention (descent)","nameShort":"GR29: Article 1, paragraph 1, of the Convention (descent)","signature":"A/57/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2002,"adoptionDate":"1 November 2002","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/57/18%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR29_descent.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that descent-based discrimination — including caste and analogous systems of inherited status — falls within the scope of article 1 of the Convention, and recommends that States parties identify affected communities, prohibit such discrimination and adopt remedial measures across all areas of life.","articles":["Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7501","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1282,"labelCount":7,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":9},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr2-obligations","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 2 concerning States parties' obligations","nameShort":"GR2: States parties' obligations","signature":"A/8718","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1973,"adoptionDate":"24 August 1973","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/8718%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR2_obligations.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that some States parties have inferred that they need not provide information on the implementation of the Convention because racial discrimination does not exist on their territory, and clarifies that the obligation to report under article 9 applies to all States parties regardless of whether such discrimination is acknowledged.","articles":["Art. 9"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7474","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":173,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":1},{"docId":"cerd-c-64-misc-11-rev-3","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 30 on discrimination against non-citizens","nameShort":"GR30: Discrimination against non-citizens","signature":"CERD/C/64/Misc.11/rev.3","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2004,"adoptionDate":"5 August 2004","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/HRI/GEN/1/Rev.9%20%28Vol.%20II%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR30_non-citizens.json","abstract":"The Committee, reflecting on article 1 of the Convention which permits differentiation between citizens and non-citizens, considers that States parties' treatment of non-citizens nonetheless falls within the scope of the Convention and that differential treatment will constitute racial discrimination if its criteria are not applied pursuant to a legitimate aim.","articles":["Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7502","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1534,"labelCount":20,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":39},{"docId":"a-60-18","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 31 on the prevention of racial discrimination in the administration and functioning of the criminal justice system","nameShort":"GR31: Prevention of racial discrimination in the administration and functioning of the criminal justice system","signature":"A/60/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2005,"adoptionDate":"17 August 2005","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/60/18%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR31_criminal_justice.json","abstract":"The Committee provides authoritative guidance on the prevention of racial discrimination in the administration and functioning of the criminal justice system, and recommends that States parties pay attention to indicators such as victimization, complaint patterns, treatment by law-enforcement officials and disproportionate representation in detention.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7503","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3636,"labelCount":25,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"hri-compilation-pdf","paragraphCount":42},{"docId":"cerd-c-gc-32","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 32: The meaning and scope of special measures in the International Coventiion on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination","nameShort":"GR32: The meaning and scope of special measures in the International Covention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination","signature":"CERD/C/GC/32","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2009,"adoptionDate":"24 September 2009","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CERD/C/GC/32","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR32_special_measures.json","abstract":"The Committee clarifies the meaning and scope of special measures within articles 1 (4) and 2 (2) of the Convention, considers that such measures are a necessary tool for combating structural inequalities and accelerating equality, and elaborates the conditions under which they are required, permissible and consistent with non-discrimination.","articles":["Art. 14","Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CERD/C/GC/32","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3826,"labelCount":9,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":38},{"docId":"cerd-c-gc-33","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 33: Follow-up to the Durban Review Conference","nameShort":"GR33: Follow-up to the Durban Review Conference","signature":"CERD/C/GC/33","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2009,"adoptionDate":"29 September 2009","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CERD/C/GC/33","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR33_durban_review.json","abstract":"The Committee, building on the outcomes of the Durban Review Conference, recommends that States parties take legislative, judicial, regulatory, administrative and other measures to combat racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, and to enhance their cooperation with the Committee in implementing the Convention.","articles":["Art. 14","Art. 8"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CERD/C/GC/33","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":788,"labelCount":4,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"cerd-c-gc-34","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 34: Racial discrimination against people of African descent","nameShort":"GR34: Racial discrimination against people of African descent","signature":"CERD/C/GC/34","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2011,"adoptionDate":"3 October 2011","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CERD/C/GC/34","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR34_african_descent.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that people of African descent face systemic and structural racial discrimination as a legacy of slavery and colonialism, and clarifies States parties' obligations under the Convention to prevent and combat such discrimination across all areas of life, including through legislation, justice system reform and affirmative action.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CERD/C/GC/34","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2337,"labelCount":18,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":66},{"docId":"cerd-c-gc-35","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 35: Combating racist hate speech","nameShort":"GR35: Combating racist hate speech","signature":"CERD/C/GC/35","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2013,"adoptionDate":"26 December 2013","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CERD/C/GC/35","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR35_hate_speech.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that combating racist hate speech is essential to giving effect to the Convention, and provides comprehensive guidance on States parties' obligations under articles 4 and 7 to prohibit certain forms of hate speech, foster cultures of plural and respectful public discourse, and counter racist hate speech with affirmative action.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CERD/C/GC/35","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":4588,"labelCount":16,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":47},{"docId":"cerd-c-gc-36","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 36 (2020) on preventing and combating racial profiling by law enforcement officials","nameShort":"GR36: preventing and combating racial profiling by law enforcement offcials","signature":"CERD/C/GC/36","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2020,"adoptionDate":"17 December 2020","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CERD/C/GC/36","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR36_profiling.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that racial profiling — distinguishing law enforcement and decision-making practices that target persons on the basis of race, colour, descent, national or ethnic origin — is incompatible with the Convention, and clarifies States parties' obligations to prevent, prohibit and combat racial profiling, including in the context of digital technologies.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CERD/C/GC/36","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":6785,"labelCount":27,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":69},{"docId":"cerd-c-gc-37","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 37: Racial discrimination in the enjoyment of the right to health","nameShort":"GR37: Racial discrimination in the enjoyment of the right to health","signature":"CERD/C/GC/37","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":2024,"adoptionDate":"23 August 2024","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CERD/C/GC/37","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR37_health.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right to equality and non-discrimination is an absolute prerequisite for the effective enjoyment of the right to the highest attainable standard of health, and provides authoritative guidance on States parties' obligations under the Convention to address racial discrimination across all dimensions of the right to health.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CERD/C/GC/37","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":8782,"labelCount":93,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":71},{"docId":"annotated-cerd-gr3-reporting","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 3 concerning reporting by States parties","nameShort":"GR3: reporting by States parties","signature":"A/8718","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1972,"adoptionDate":"25 August 1972","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/8718%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR3_reporting.json","abstract":"The Committee, having considered reports of States parties on measures taken to implement United Nations resolutions relating to relations with racist regimes in southern Africa, recalls the obligations of article 3 to eradicate apartheid and racial segregation, and considers that compliance requires States parties to refrain from supporting such regimes.","articles":["Art. 3"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7475","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":265,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":1},{"docId":"a-90-18","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 4 concerning reporting by States parties (art. 1 of the Convention)","nameShort":"GR4: reporting by States Parties (art. 1 of the Convention)","signature":"A/9018","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1973,"adoptionDate":"25 August 1973","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/9018%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR4_reporting_art.1.json","abstract":"The Committee invites States parties to endeavour to include in their reports under article 9 relevant information on the demographic composition of the population referred to in article 1 of the Convention, so as to enable the Committee to assess the application of the Convention in the State party.","articles":["Art. 1","Art. 9"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7476","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":91,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"a-32-18","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 5 concerning reporting by States parties (art. 7 of the Convention)","nameShort":"GR5: reporting by States parties (art. 7 of the Convention)","signature":"A/32/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1977,"adoptionDate":"14 April 1977","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/32/18%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR5_reporting_art.7.json","abstract":"The Committee requests every State party which has not already done so to include in its next report — or in a special report — adequate information on the measures it has adopted to give effect to article 7 of the Convention, including measures taken in the fields of teaching, education, culture and information.","articles":["Art. 7","Art. 9"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7477","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":182,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":2},{"docId":"a-37-18","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 6 concerning overdue reports","nameShort":"GR6: overdue reports","signature":"A/37/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1982,"adoptionDate":"19 March 1982","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/37/18%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR6_overdue_reports.json","abstract":"The Committee, recognizing that ratification alone does not enable the Convention's control system to function effectively, recalls that article 9 obliges States parties to submit initial and periodic reports, draws attention to the substantial number of overdue reports and recommends that States parties bring their reporting up to date.","articles":["Art. 9"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7478","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":198,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":3},{"docId":"a-40-18","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 7 relating to the implementation of article 4","nameShort":"GR7: the implementation of article 4","signature":"A/40/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1985,"adoptionDate":"23 August 1985","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/40/18%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR7_article4.json","abstract":"The Committee recommends that States parties whose legislation does not satisfy the provisions of article 4 (a) and (b) of the Convention take the necessary steps with a view to satisfying the mandatory requirements of that article, including the prohibition of organizations and propaganda promoting racial discrimination.","articles":["Art. 4","Art. 4(a)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7479","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":136,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":3},{"docId":"a-45-18","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 8 concerning the interpretation and application of article 1, paragraphs 1 and 4 of the Convention","nameShort":"GR8: the interpretation and application of article 1, paragrpahs 1 and 4 of the Convention","signature":"A/45/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"22 August 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/45/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR8_article1.json","abstract":"The Committee, having considered information about the ways in which individuals are identified as belonging to a particular racial or ethnic group, is of the opinion that such identification shall — if no justification exists to the contrary — be based upon self-identification by the individual concerned.","articles":["Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7480","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":59,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":1},{"docId":"a-45-81","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 9 concerning the application of article 8, paragraph 1, of the Convention","nameShort":"GR9: the application of article 8, pargraph 1, of the Convention","signature":"A/45/18","committee":"CERD","committees":["CERD"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"23 August 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/A/45/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_CERD_GR9_article8.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that respect for the independence of its members as experts is essential to secure full observance of human rights, and strongly recommends that representatives of States, organizations and groups respect unreservedly the status of Committee members and refrain from putting pressure on them, especially country rapporteurs.","articles":["Art. 8"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CERD/GEC/7481","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":92,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":1},{"docId":"cmw-c-gc-1","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 1 on migrant domestic workers","nameShort":"GC1: migrant domestic workers","signature":"CMW/C/GC/1","committee":"CMW","committees":["CMW"],"year":2011,"adoptionDate":"23 February 2011","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CMW/C/GC/1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CMW_GC1_domestic.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that domestic work is an important occupation accounting for a significant share of employment globally and is increasingly performed by migrants, predominantly women, and elaborates States parties' obligations under the Convention to ensure migrant domestic workers' rights to fair conditions of work, freedom from abuse and access to remedies.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CMW/C/GC/1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":5036,"labelCount":85,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":66},{"docId":"cmw-c-gc-2","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 2 on the rights of migrant workers in an irregular situation and members of their family","nameShort":"GC2: the rights of migrant workers in an irregular situation and members of their family","signature":"CMW/C/GC/2","committee":"CMW","committees":["CMW"],"year":2013,"adoptionDate":"28 August 2013","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CMW/C/GC/2","sourceFile":"Annotated_CMW_GC2_migrant_workers.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that migrant workers in an irregular situation and members of their families are entitled to the rights set out in part III of the Convention, and clarifies that States parties' obligations to respect and ensure those rights apply regardless of migration status, including with respect to liberty, due process, education, health and labour rights.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CMW/C/GC/2","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9919,"labelCount":118,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":79},{"docId":"cmw-c-gc-5","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 5 (2021) on migrants’ rights to liberty, freedom from arbitrary detention and their connection with other human rights","nameShort":"GC5: migrants’ rights to liberty, freedom from arbitrary detention and their connection with other human rights","signature":"CMW/C/GC/5","committee":"CMW","committees":["CMW"],"year":2021,"adoptionDate":"23 September 2021","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CMW/C/GC/5","sourceFile":"Annotated_CMW_GC5_liberty.json","abstract":"The Committee, deeply concerned by the trend towards the criminalization of migration and the increasing use of immigration detention, clarifies that detention of migrants must be a measure of last resort, exceptional in nature, ordered for the shortest period possible, and subject to judicial review and effective alternatives.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CMW/GEC/9459","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10524,"labelCount":193,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":95},{"docId":"cmw-c-gc-6","type":"gc","name":"GC6: Convergent protection of migrant workers and Global Compact","nameShort":"CMW GC6: Convention & Global Compact","signature":"CMW/C/GC/6","committee":"CMW","committees":["CMW"],"year":2024,"adoptionDate":"14 June 2024","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CMW/C/GC/6","sourceFile":"Annotated_CMW_GC6_GlobalCompact.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the Convention and the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration are mutually reinforcing instruments, and clarifies how States parties may give convergent effect to their obligations to protect the human rights of migrant workers and members of their families through coordinated implementation of both frameworks.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CMW/C/GC/6","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":8485,"labelCount":110,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":90},{"docId":"cmw-c-gc-7-cerd-c-gc-38","type":"gc","name":"CMW GC7 / CERD GR38: General guidelines on xenophobia towards migrants","nameShort":"CMW GC7/CERD GR38: Xenophobia (general)","signature":"CMW/C/GC/7–CERD/C/GC/38","committee":"CMW","committees":["CMW","CERD"],"year":2025,"adoptionDate":"1 December 2025","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CMW/C/GC/7","sourceFile":"Annotated_CMW_GC7_CERD_GR38_Xenophobia.json","abstract":"The Committees jointly clarify that xenophobia towards migrants and others perceived as such constitutes a form of racial discrimination prohibited by both Conventions, and provide general guidance to States parties on the comprehensive legislative, institutional and educational measures required to prevent, prohibit and combat xenophobia.","status":"final","jointWith":[{"committee":"CMW","signature":"CMW/C/GC/7"},{"committee":"CERD","signature":"CERD/C/GC/38"}],"languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CERD/C/GC/38","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10425,"labelCount":156,"alternativeSignatures":["CMW/C/GC/7","CERD/C/GC/38"],"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","alternativeIds":["cmw-c-gc-7cerd-c-gc-38"],"paragraphCount":108},{"docId":"cmw-c-gc-8-cerd-c-gc-39","type":"gc","name":"CMW GC8 / CERD GR39: Thematic guidelines on xenophobia towards migrants","nameShort":"CMW GC8/CERD GR39: Xenophobia (thematic)","signature":"CMW/C/GC/8–CERD/C/GC/39","committee":"CMW","committees":["CMW","CERD"],"year":2025,"adoptionDate":"1 December 2025","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CMW/C/GC/8","sourceFile":"Annotated_CMW_GC8_CERD_GR39_XenophobiaThematic.json","abstract":"The Committees jointly provide thematic guidance — complementary to the general guidelines adopted at the same time — on combating xenophobia towards migrants and others perceived as such across specific fields including the labour market, access to services, the digital environment, criminal justice, and political discourse, and on the substantive equality measures States parties must adopt.","status":"final","jointWith":[{"committee":"CMW","signature":"CMW/C/GC/8"},{"committee":"CERD","signature":"CERD/C/GC/39"}],"languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CERD/C/GC/39","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10377,"labelCount":95,"alternativeSignatures":["CMW/C/GC/8","CERD/C/GC/39"],"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","alternativeIds":["cmw-c-gc-8cerd-c-gc-39"],"paragraphCount":105},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-22-cmw-c-gc-3","type":"gc","name":"Joint general comment No. 3 (2017) of the Committee on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families and No. 22 (2017) of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on the general principles regarding the human rights of children in the context of international migration","nameShort":"GC22/GC3: general principles re human rights of children in international migration","signature":"CRC/C/GC/22, CMW/C/GC/3","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC","CMW"],"year":2017,"adoptionDate":"16 November 2017","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/22","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-CMW-GC22-MigPrinciples.json","abstract":"The Committees jointly clarify the obligations of States parties — in particular countries of transit and destination — concerning the human rights of children in the context of international migration, and affirm that the principles of the best interests of the child and non-discrimination must guide every migration policy and decision.","status":"final","jointWith":[{"committee":"CMW","signature":"CMW/C/GC/3"},{"committee":"CRC","signature":"CRC/C/GC/22"}],"languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/22","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7081,"labelCount":127,"alternativeSignatures":["CMW/C/GC/3","CRC/C/GC/22"],"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":56},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-23-cmw-c-gc-4","type":"gc","name":"Joint general comment No. 4 (2017) of the Committee on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families and No. 23 (2017) of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on State obligations regarding the human rights of children in the context of international migration in countries of origin, transit, destination and return","nameShort":"GC23/GC4: human rights of children in international migration (countries of origin, transit, destination and return)","signature":"CRC/C/GC/23, CMW/C/GC/4","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC","CMW"],"year":2017,"adoptionDate":"16 November 2017","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/23","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-CMW-GC23-Migration.json","abstract":"The Committees jointly set out the general principles governing the rights of children in the context of international migration, including non-discrimination, the best interests of the child, the right to be heard and the right to non-refoulement, and require States parties to apply these principles to all children regardless of migration status.","status":"final","jointWith":[{"committee":"CMW","signature":"CMW/C/GC/4"},{"committee":"CRC","signature":"CRC/C/GC/23"}],"languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/23","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7906,"labelCount":158,"alternativeSignatures":["CMW/C/GC/4","CRC/C/GC/23"],"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":68},{"docId":"crc-gc-2001-1","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 1: The Aims of Education","nameShort":"GC1: The aims of education","signature":"CRC/GC/2001/1","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2001,"adoptionDate":"17 April 2001","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/GC/2001/1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC1-AimsEd.json","abstract":"The Committee affirms that the aims of education set out in article 29 (1) of the Convention promote the holistic development of every child's personality, talents and abilities, and considers that education must be directed towards human dignity, tolerance, gender equality and respect for human rights and the natural environment.","articles":["Art. 29","Art. 29(1)","Art. 28"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/GC/2001/1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3850,"labelCount":26,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":28},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-10","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 10: Children’s rights in juvenile justice","nameShort":"GC10: Children’s rights in juvenile justice","signature":"CRC/C/GC/10","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2007,"adoptionDate":"25 April 2007","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/10","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC10-Justice.json","abstract":"The Committee provides authoritative guidance on the rights of children alleged as, accused of, or recognized as having infringed the penal law, calling for child justice systems that emphasize prevention, diversion, restorative measures and the use of deprivation of liberty only as a last resort and for the shortest appropriate period. (This general comment has since been replaced by general comment No. 24.)","articles":["Art. 37","Art. 40"],"status":"superseded","supersededBy":"CRC/C/GC/24","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/10","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":12615,"labelCount":129,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":99,"statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/24","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-11","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 11: Indigenous children and their rights under the Convention","nameShort":"GC11: Indigenous children","signature":"CRC/C/GC/11","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2009,"adoptionDate":"12 February 2009","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/11","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC11-Indigenous.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the situation of indigenous children and considers that the Convention applies to them on equal terms with other children, while requiring States parties to take special measures to ensure non-discrimination, cultural identity, and meaningful participation of indigenous children and their communities.","articles":["Art. 30"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/11","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7139,"labelCount":172,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":82},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-12","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 12: The right of the child to be heard","nameShort":"GC12: The right of the child to be heard","signature":"CRC/C/GC/12","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2009,"adoptionDate":"20 July 2009","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/12","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC12-Heard.json","abstract":"The Committee clarifies the right of every child to be heard under article 12 of the Convention, considers that this right applies in all matters affecting the child — including legal, administrative, family and educational decisions — and requires States parties to remove barriers to its effective and meaningful exercise.","articles":["Art. 12"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/12","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":11700,"labelCount":164,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":135},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-13","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 13: The right of the child to freedom from all forms of violence","nameShort":"GC13: The right of the child to freedom from all forms of violence","signature":"CRC/C/GC/13","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2011,"adoptionDate":"18 April 2011","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/13","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC13-Violence.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 19 obligates States parties to protect children from all forms of physical and mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect, maltreatment or exploitation, and provides comprehensive guidance on the legal, administrative and other measures required to give effect to this right.","articles":["Art. 19"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/13","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":12924,"labelCount":125,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":76},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-14","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 14 on the right of the child to have his or her best interests taken as a primary consideration (art. 3, para. 1)","nameShort":"GC14: The right of the child to have his or her best interests taken as a primary consideration","signature":"CRC/C/GC/14","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2013,"adoptionDate":"29 May 2013","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/14","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC14-BestInt.json","abstract":"The Committee identifies article 3, paragraph 1 — the right of the child to have his or her best interests taken as a primary consideration — as a substantive right, an interpretive legal principle and a rule of procedure, and provides a framework for assessing and determining best interests in all decisions affecting children.","articles":["Art. 3"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/14","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9404,"labelCount":116,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":101},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-15","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 15 on the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health (art. 24)","nameShort":"GC15: The right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health","signature":"CRC/C/GC/15","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2013,"adoptionDate":"17 April 2013","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/15","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC15-Health.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right of the child to the highest attainable standard of health under article 24 must be approached holistically, encompassing the underlying determinants of health and recognizing children as autonomous holders of the right, with particular attention to non-discrimination and to children in marginalized or disadvantaged situations.","articles":["Art. 24","Art. 1"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/15","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9727,"labelCount":142,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":121},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-16","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 16 on State obligations regarding the impact of the business sector on children’s rights","nameShort":"GC16: Impact of the business sector on children’s rights","signature":"CRC/C/GC/16","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2013,"adoptionDate":"17 April 2013","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/16","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC16-Business.json","abstract":"The Committee recognizes the growing impact of business activities on children's rights and clarifies that States parties have obligations to respect, protect and fulfil children's rights in the context of business operations, both at home and extraterritorially, including through legislation, regulation, monitoring and access to remedies.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/16","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9784,"labelCount":92,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":86},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-17","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 17 on the right of the child to rest, leisure, play, recreational activities, cultural life and the arts (art. 31)","nameShort":"GC17: The right of the child to rest, leisure, play, recreational activities, cultural life and the arts","signature":"CRC/C/GC/17","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2013,"adoptionDate":"17 April 2013","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/17","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC17-Leisure.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the right of every child to rest, leisure, play, recreational activities and cultural life under article 31, and considers that States parties must take legislative, administrative and budgetary measures to ensure this often-neglected right is realized for all children, including the most marginalized.","articles":["Art. 31","Art. 7"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/17","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10406,"labelCount":108,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","paragraphCount":61},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-19","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 19: Public budgeting for the realization of children’s rights (art. 4)","nameShort":"GC19: Public budgeting for the realization of children’s rights","signature":"CRC/C/GC/19","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2016,"adoptionDate":"20 July 2016","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/19","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC19-Budget.json","abstract":"The Committee clarifies that article 4 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child requires States parties to mobilize the maximum extent of their available resources to realize children's rights, and provides guidance on how public budgeting decisions — at every stage from planning to audit — should give effect to that obligation.","articles":["Art. 4","Art. 2","Art. 3"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/19","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9198,"labelCount":108,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":116},{"docId":"crc-gc-2002-2","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 2: The Role of Independent National Human Rights Institutions in the Protection and Promotion of the Rights of the Child","nameShort":"GC2: The role of independent NHRIs","signature":"CRC/GC/2002/2","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2002,"adoptionDate":"15 November 2002","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/GC/2002/2","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC2-NHRI.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that independent national human rights institutions are an essential mechanism for promoting and ensuring the implementation of the Convention, and clarifies that their establishment falls within States parties' general obligations under article 4 to give effect to the rights of the child.","articles":["Art. 4"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/GC/2002/2","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2885,"labelCount":33,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":29},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-20","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 20: Implementation of the rights of the child during adolescence","nameShort":"GC20: Implementation of the rights of the child during adolescence","signature":"CRC/C/GC/20","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2016,"adoptionDate":"6 December 2016","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/20","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC20-Adolescence.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the rights of children in the second decade of life and emphasizes that effective implementation of the Convention during adolescence requires States parties to recognize evolving capacities, address the structural drivers of vulnerability, and remove legal and policy barriers to autonomous decision-making in matters that affect adolescents.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/20","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10048,"labelCount":181,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":90},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-21","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 21: Children in street situations","nameShort":"GC21: Children in street situations","signature":"CRC/C/GC/21","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2017,"adoptionDate":"21 June 2017","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/21","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC21-Street.json","abstract":"The Committee highlights the systemic discrimination faced by children in street situations and considers that States parties must abandon punitive responses, ensure access to identity documentation and basic services, and adopt holistic, child-rights-based long-term strategies developed in consultation with the children themselves.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/21","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9814,"labelCount":149,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":63},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-24","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 24: Children’s rights in the child justice system","nameShort":"GC24: Children’s rights in the child justice system","signature":"CRC/C/GC/24","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2019,"adoptionDate":"18 September 2019","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/24","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC24-Justice.json","abstract":"The Committee replaces general comment No. 10 (2007) on juvenile justice with updated guidance reflecting developments in international standards, jurisprudence and child-development science, and reaffirms that deprivation of liberty must be a measure of last resort and for the shortest appropriate period.","status":"final","supersedes":"CRC/C/GC/10","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/24","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10440,"labelCount":142,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":115},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-25","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 25: Children’s rights in relation to the digital environment","nameShort":"GC25: Children’s rights in relation to the digital environment","signature":"CRC/C/GC/25","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2021,"adoptionDate":"2 March 2021","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/25","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC25-Digital.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the digital environment shapes every aspect of children's lives and that States parties must ensure children's rights to access, protection and participation are respected, protected and fulfilled online as well as offline, with particular attention to the most marginalized.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/25","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10417,"labelCount":153,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":125},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-26","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 26 on children’s rights and the environment, with a special focus on climate change","nameShort":"GC26: Children’s rights and the environment, with a special focus on climate change","signature":"CRC/C/GC/26","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2023,"adoptionDate":"22 August 2023","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/26","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC26-Climate.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that environmental degradation and climate change pose an urgent and systemic threat to children's rights, and clarifies States parties' obligations to ensure a clean, healthy and sustainable environment, to act on the basis of the best available science, and to give due weight to children's views in environmental decision-making.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/26","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10397,"labelCount":131,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":115},{"docId":"crc-gc-2003-3","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 3: HIV/AIDS and the rights of the children","nameShort":"GC3: HIV/AIDS and the rights of the children","signature":"CRC/GC/2003/3","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2003,"adoptionDate":"17 March 2003","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/GC/2003/3","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC3-HivAids.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the HIV/AIDS epidemic is a child rights issue requiring concerted, well-targeted action across prevention, treatment, care and protection, and recommends measures to combat stigma, ensure access to information and services, and protect the rights of children affected by HIV in their families and communities.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/GC/2003/3","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":6431,"labelCount":91,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":42},{"docId":"crc-gc-2003-4","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 4: Adolescent health and development in the context of the Convention on the Rights of the Child","nameShort":"GC4: Adolescent health and development","signature":"CRC/GC/2003/4","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2003,"adoptionDate":"21 July 2003","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/GC/2003/4","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC4-AdolHealth.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the entitlement of adolescents up to 18 years of age to all rights under the Convention, including the rights to special protection and to progressive exercise of their rights according to evolving capacities, and provides guidance on adolescent health and development as a holistic, rights-based concept.","articles":["Art. 1","Art. 5"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/GC/2003/4","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":5357,"labelCount":82,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":43},{"docId":"crc-gc-2003-5","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 5: General Measures of Implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child","nameShort":"GC5: General measures of implementation of the CRC","signature":"CRC/GC/2003/5","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2003,"adoptionDate":"3 October 2003","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/GC/2003/5","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC5-Implementation.json","abstract":"The Committee outlines States parties' general measures of implementation under the Convention — including legislative review, comprehensive national strategies, coordination, monitoring, budgeting, and the dissemination of the Convention — as the necessary foundation for realizing all children's rights.","articles":["Art. 4"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/GC/2003/5","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":8123,"labelCount":71,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":73},{"docId":"crc-gc-2005-6","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 6: Treatment of Unaccompanied and Separated Children Outside Their Country of Origin","nameShort":"GC6: Treatment of unaccompanied and separated children outside their country of origin","signature":"CRC/GC/2005/6","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2005,"adoptionDate":"1 September 2005","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/GC/2005/6","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC6-UASC.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the particularly vulnerable situation of unaccompanied and separated children outside their country of origin and provides guidance, anchored in the Convention's general principles, on identification, family tracing, durable solutions, and the protection, care and treatment owed to these children regardless of migration status.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/GC/2005/6","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10248,"labelCount":153,"alternativeSignatures":["CRC/GC/2003/6"],"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":100},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-7-rev-1","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 7: Implementing child rights in early childhood","nameShort":"GC7: Implementing child rights in early childhood","signature":"CRC/C/GC/7/Rev.1","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2006,"adoptionDate":"20 September 2006","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/7/Rev.1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC7-Childhood.json","abstract":"The Committee emphasizes that very young children are rights-holders entitled to the full range of Convention guarantees, and identifies States parties' obligations to provide adequate care, education, health and protection during early childhood while supporting parents and caregivers in their primary role.","status":"revised","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/7/Rev.1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9917,"labelCount":66,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":43,"statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/7/Rev.1","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-8","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 8: The right of the child to protection from corporal punishment and other cruel or degrading forms of punishment (arts. 19; 28, para. 2; and 37, inter alia)","nameShort":"GC8: Protection from corporal punishment and other cruel or degrading forms of punishment","signature":"CRC/C/GC/8","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2006,"adoptionDate":"2 March 2007","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/8","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC8-Punishment.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that all corporal punishment of children — including in the family, schools, alternative care, juvenile justice and any other setting — is incompatible with the Convention, and recommends that States parties prohibit and eliminate it through law reform, awareness-raising and positive, non-violent forms of discipline.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/8","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":5740,"labelCount":58,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":53},{"docId":"crc-c-gc-9-corr-1","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 9: The rights of children with disabilities","nameShort":"GC9: The rights of children with disabilities","signature":"CRC/C/GC/9/Corr.1","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC"],"year":2007,"adoptionDate":"27 February 2007","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/9/Corr.1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC-GC9-Disabilities.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the multiple barriers faced by children with disabilities and clarifies that States parties' obligations under the Convention require non-discrimination, accessibility, inclusive education, family support and participation, with disability addressed across all areas of children's rights, not solely through health or welfare policy.","status":"corrected","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRC/C/GC/9/Corr.1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10164,"labelCount":165,"alternativeSignatures":["CRC/C/GC/9"],"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx-no-refs","paragraphCount":80,"statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRC/C/GC/9/Corr.1","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"cedaw-c-gc-31-rev-1-crc-c-gc-18-rev-1","type":"gc","name":"[REVISED] Joint General Recommendation No. 31 of the CEDAW / General Comment No. 18 of the CRC: Harmful practices","nameShort":"CRC GC18/CEDAW GR31: Harmful practices [Revised]","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/31/Rev.1–CRC/C/GC/18/Rev.1","committee":"CRC","committees":["CRC","CEDAW"],"year":2019,"adoptionDate":"8 May 2019","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/31/Rev.1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRC_CEDAW-GC18-Harmful-REV.json","abstract":"The Committees affirm that harmful practices, primarily affecting women and girls, violate binding obligations under both the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and call on States parties to prevent, respond to and ultimately eliminate such practices through coordinated legal, institutional and educational measures.","status":"revised","jointWith":[{"committee":"CEDAW","signature":"CEDAW/C/GC/31/Rev.1"},{"committee":"CRC","signature":"CRC/C/GC/18/Rev.1"}],"languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CEDAW/C/GC/31/REV.1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10151,"labelCount":150,"alternativeSignatures":["CEDAW/C/GC/31","CRC/C/GC/18","CEDAW/C/GC/31/Rev.1","CRC/C/GC/18/Rev.1"],"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-docx","alternativeIds":["cedaw-c-gc-31-rev-1crc-c-gc-18-rev-1"],"paragraphCount":91,"statusSource":"https://docs.un.org/en/CEDAW/C/GC/31/Rev.1","statusVerifiedAt":"2026-07-13"},{"docId":"crpd-c-gc-1","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 1 (2014): Article 12: Equal recognition before the law","nameShort":"GC1: Article 12: Equal recognition before the law","signature":"CRPD/C/GC/1","committee":"CRPD","committees":["CRPD"],"year":2014,"adoptionDate":"19 May 2014","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRPD/C/GC/1","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRPD_GC1_equal.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that equal recognition before the law under article 12 is a basic general principle of human rights protection, and clarifies that States parties must abolish substitute decision-making regimes and replace them with supported decision-making that respects the autonomy, will and preferences of persons with disabilities.","articles":["Art. 12"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRPD/C/GC/1","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7120,"labelCount":56,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":52},{"docId":"crpd-c-gc-2","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 2 (2014): Article 9: Accessibility","nameShort":"GC2: Article 9: Accessibility","signature":"CRPD/C/GC/2","committee":"CRPD","committees":["CRPD"],"year":2014,"adoptionDate":"22 May 2014","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRPD/C/GC/2","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRPD_GC2_accessibility.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that accessibility under article 9 is a precondition for persons with disabilities to live independently and participate fully and equally in society, and clarifies that States parties have obligations to identify and eliminate obstacles and barriers in built environments, transportation, information and communications, and services open to the public.","articles":["Art. 9","Art. 25(c)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRPD/C/GC/2","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7981,"labelCount":59,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":48},{"docId":"crpd-c-gc-3","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 3 (2016) on women and girls with disabilities","nameShort":"GC3: women and girls with disabilities","signature":"CRPD/C/GC/3","committee":"CRPD","committees":["CRPD"],"year":2016,"adoptionDate":"25 November 2016","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRPD/C/GC/3","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRPD_GC3_women.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that women and girls with disabilities face multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination, and provides authoritative guidance on States parties' obligations under article 6 of the Convention to address gender-based discrimination across all areas of life and to ensure their full participation, including through reasonable accommodation and gender-mainstreaming.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRPD/C/GC/3","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7451,"labelCount":165,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":65},{"docId":"crpd-c-gc-4","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 4 (2016) on the right to inclusive education","nameShort":"GC4: the right to inclusive education","signature":"CRPD/C/GC/4","committee":"CRPD","committees":["CRPD"],"year":2016,"adoptionDate":"25 November 2016","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRPD/C/GC/4","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRPD_GC4_inclusive_education.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right to inclusive education under article 24 is a fundamental human right and the only means to achieve quality education for all, and clarifies States parties' obligations to develop inclusive education systems that combat discrimination, respect diversity and accommodate every learner.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRPD/C/GC/4","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10694,"labelCount":105,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":76},{"docId":"crpd-c-gc-5","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 5 (2017) on living independently and being included in the community","nameShort":"GC5: living independently and being included in the community","signature":"CRPD/C/GC/5","committee":"CRPD","committees":["CRPD"],"year":2017,"adoptionDate":"27 October 2017","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRPD/C/GC/5","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRPD_GC5_living_independently.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 19 — the right to live independently and be included in the community — entails a fundamental shift away from institutionalization and segregation towards community-based living arrangements, and clarifies States parties' obligations to provide individualized support, accessible services and choice over living arrangements.","articles":["Art. 19"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRPD/C/GC/5","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10544,"labelCount":116,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":97},{"docId":"crpd-c-gc-6","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 6 (2018) on equality and non-discrimination","nameShort":"GC6: equality and non-discrimination","signature":"CRPD/C/GC/6","committee":"CRPD","committees":["CRPD"],"year":2018,"adoptionDate":"26 April 2018","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRPD/C/GC/6","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRPD_GC6_equality.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that article 5 prohibits all forms of disability-based discrimination — direct, indirect, by association, denial of reasonable accommodation and harassment — and clarifies States parties' obligations to recognize disability-based discrimination as a violation of human rights and to ensure equality through positive measures.","articles":["Art. 5"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRPD/C/GC/6","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9893,"labelCount":104,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":73},{"docId":"crpd-c-gc-7","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 7 (2018) on the participation of persons with disabilities, including children with disabilities, through their representative organizations, in the implementation and monitoring of the Convention","nameShort":"GC7: participation of persons with disabilities, including children with disabilities, through their representative organizations, in the implementation and monitoring of the Convention","signature":"CRPD/C/GC/7","committee":"CRPD","committees":["CRPD"],"year":2018,"adoptionDate":"9 November 2018","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRPD/C/GC/7","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRPD_GC7_participation.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that meaningful participation of persons with disabilities through their representative organizations is a Convention principle and a tool for empowerment, and clarifies States parties' obligations under articles 4 (3) and 33 (3) to consult closely and actively involve persons with disabilities in the development of laws, policies and decisions concerning them.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRPD/C/GC/7","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10086,"labelCount":135,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":94},{"docId":"crpd-c-gc-8","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 8 (2022) on the right of persons with disabilities to work and employment","nameShort":"GC8: the right of persons with disabilities to work and employment","signature":"CRPD/C/GC/8","committee":"CRPD","committees":["CRPD"],"year":2022,"adoptionDate":"7 October 2022","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/CRPD/C/GC/8","sourceFile":"Annotated_CRPD_GC8_work.json","abstract":"The Committee clarifies the obligations of States parties regarding the right to work and employment of persons with disabilities under article 27 of the Convention, and considers that meaningful realization of this right requires the elimination of disability-based discrimination in employment, equal access to the open labour market, reasonable accommodation and inclusive support measures.","articles":["Art. 27","Art. 6"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"CRPD/C/GC/8","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9808,"labelCount":108,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":82},{"docId":"e-1989-22","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 1: Reporting by States parties","nameShort":"GC1: Reporting by States parties","signature":"E/1989/22","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1981,"adoptionDate":"27 July 1981","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/1989/22%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC1-GenCom.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the reporting obligations under part IV of the Covenant are not merely procedural but serve substantive purposes, including assisting States parties in policy development, public participation and accountability, and provides guidance on the elements of effective reporting.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CESCR/GEC/4756","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1222,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"verified-by-pattern-analogy","paragraphCount":9},{"docId":"e-c-12-1998-25","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 10: The role of national human rights institutions in the protection of economic, social and cultural rights","nameShort":"GC10: The role of NHRIs in the protection of economic, social and cultural rights","signature":"E/C.12/1998/25","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1998,"adoptionDate":"14 December 1998","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/1998/25","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC10-NHRI.json","abstract":"The Committee clarifies that national human rights institutions have an important role in promoting and protecting economic, social and cultural rights, and recommends concrete activities such institutions should undertake — including monitoring, awareness-raising, support to legislation and individual complaints — to give effect to Covenant rights.","articles":["Art. 2"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/1998/25","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":562,"labelCount":0,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":4},{"docId":"e-c-12-1999-4","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 11: Plans of action for primary education (art.14)","nameShort":"GC11: Plans of action for primary education","signature":"E/C.12/1999/4","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1999,"adoptionDate":"11 May 1999","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/1999/4","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC11-PrimEducation.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to article 14 of the Covenant, which obligates States parties that have not yet secured compulsory primary education free of charge to adopt, within two years, a detailed plan of action for its progressive implementation, and provides guidance on the elements such plans must contain.","articles":["Art. 14","Art. 13"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/1999/4","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1343,"labelCount":9,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":11},{"docId":"e-c-12-1999-5","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 12: The right to adequate food (Art.11)","nameShort":"GC12: Right to adequate food","signature":"E/C.12/1999/5","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1999,"adoptionDate":"12 May 1999","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/1999/5","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC12-Food.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right to adequate food under article 11 imposes obligations to respect, protect and fulfil, and clarifies that the core content requires food to be available, accessible, free from adverse substances and culturally acceptable, with the right to be free from hunger as a non-derogable minimum.","articles":["Art. 11"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/1999/5","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3881,"labelCount":12,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"user-verified","paragraphCount":41},{"docId":"e-c-12-1999-10","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 13 (Twenty-first session, 1999), The right to education (article 13 of the Covenant)","nameShort":"GC13: Right to education","signature":"E/C.12/1999/10","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1999,"adoptionDate":"8 December 1999","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/1999/10","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC13-Education.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that education is both a human right in itself and an indispensable means of realizing other rights, and elaborates the four interrelated essential features — availability, accessibility, acceptability and adaptability — that all forms and levels of education must meet under article 13.","articles":["Art. 13","Art. 14(plansofactionforprimaryeducation)","Art. 14"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/1999/10","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":5952,"labelCount":27,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":60},{"docId":"e-c-12-2000-4","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 14: The right to the highest attainable standard of health","nameShort":"GC14: Right to the highest attainable standard of health","signature":"E/C.12/2000/4","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2000,"adoptionDate":"11 August 2000","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/2000/4","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC14-Health.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right to the highest attainable standard of health under article 12 is fundamental and indispensable to the exercise of other rights, and clarifies States parties' obligations regarding the underlying determinants of health, the availability, accessibility, acceptability and quality of health facilities, and non-discrimination.","articles":["Art. 25","Art. 12"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/2000/4","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":8049,"labelCount":47,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":65},{"docId":"e-c-12-2002-11","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 15: The right to water","nameShort":"GC15: The Right to water","signature":"E/C.12/2002/11","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2003,"adoptionDate":"20 January 2003","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/2002/11","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC15-Water.json","abstract":"The Committee affirms that water is a limited natural resource and a public good, that the human right to water is indispensable for a life in dignity, and that States parties have obligations to ensure availability, quality and accessibility of safe water and sanitation, with particular attention to disadvantaged and marginalized groups.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/2002/11","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":6378,"labelCount":31,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":60},{"docId":"e-c-12-2005-4","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 16: The equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all economic, social and cultural rights (art. 3 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights)","nameShort":"GC16: Equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all economic, social and cultural rights","signature":"E/C.12/2005/4","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2005,"adoptionDate":"11 August 2005","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/2005/4","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC16-Equality.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all economic, social and cultural rights is both a substantive provision and an obligation of immediate effect, and clarifies the steps States parties must take to give effect to article 3 in conjunction with the substantive Covenant rights.","articles":["Art. 3","Art. 1","Art. 2"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/2005/4","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":4068,"labelCount":45,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":42},{"docId":"e-c-12-gc-17","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 17: The right of everyone to benefit from the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he or she is the author","nameShort":"GC17: The right of everyone to benefit from the protection of the interests resulting from any production of which he or she is the author","signature":"E/C.12/GC/17","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2006,"adoptionDate":"12 January 2006","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/GC/17","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC17-Author.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the protection of the moral and material interests of authors of scientific, literary or artistic productions under article 15 (1) (c) is a human right derived from human dignity, and clarifies that it is distinct from — and not coextensive with — intellectual property rights established by States in domestic law.","articles":["Art. 15"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/GC/17","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":6414,"labelCount":5,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":57},{"docId":"e-c-12-gc-18","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 18: Article 6 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights","nameShort":"GC18: Article 6 of the ICESCR","signature":"E/C.12/GC/18","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2006,"adoptionDate":"6 February 2006","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/GC/18","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC18-Work.json","abstract":"The Committee elaborates the content of the right to work under article 6, considers it inseparable from human dignity and essential for the realization of other rights, and provides guidance on States parties' obligations regarding access to employment, freedom from forced labour, technical and vocational guidance and training, and conditions of work.","articles":["Art. 6","Art. 7","Art. 8"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/GC/18","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":6148,"labelCount":21,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":54},{"docId":"e-c-12-gc-19","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 19: The right to social security (art. 9)","nameShort":"GC19: Right to social security","signature":"E/C.12/GC/19","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2008,"adoptionDate":"4 February 2008","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/GC/19","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC19-SocSecurity.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the right to social security under article 9 is of central importance for human dignity, and clarifies States parties' obligations to ensure the availability, adequacy, accessibility and affordability of social security systems covering the principal social risks and contingencies, with particular attention to disadvantaged and marginalized groups.","articles":["Art. 9"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/GC/19","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7282,"labelCount":39,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":84},{"docId":"e-1990-23","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 2: International technical assistance measures (Art. 22)","nameShort":"GC2: International technical assistance measures","signature":"E/1990/23","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"2 February 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/1990/23%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC2-IntAssistance.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the international technical assistance mechanism established in article 22 is a vehicle for ensuring that the realization of economic, social and cultural rights is taken into account by United Nations bodies and specialized agencies, and clarifies its own role in supporting that mechanism.","articles":["Art. 22"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CESCR/GEC/4757","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":1455,"labelCount":3,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"verified-by-pattern-analogy","paragraphCount":10},{"docId":"e-c-12-gc-20","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 20: Non-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights","nameShort":"GC20: Non-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights","signature":"E/C.12/GC/20","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2009,"adoptionDate":"2 July 2009","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/GC/20","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC20-NonDiscESC.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that non-discrimination is an immediate and cross-cutting obligation under the Covenant, and clarifies the meaning of the prohibited grounds — including 'other status' — and the obligations to eliminate both formal and substantive discrimination in the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights.","articles":["Art. 2"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/GC/20","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":4187,"labelCount":42,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":41},{"docId":"e-c-12-gc-21","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 21: Right of everyone to take part in cultural life","nameShort":"GC21: Right of everyone to take part in cultural life","signature":"E/C.12/GC/21","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2010,"adoptionDate":"17 May 2010","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/GC/21","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC21-Culture.json","abstract":"The Committee affirms that cultural rights are integral, universal and interdependent human rights, and clarifies the right of everyone to take part in cultural life under article 15 (1) (a), including obligations regarding access, participation, contribution, and the protection of cultural heritage and diversity.","articles":["Art. 15"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/GC/21","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7892,"labelCount":31,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":76},{"docId":"e-c-12-gc-22","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 22 on the right to sexual and reproductive health (article 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights)","nameShort":"GC22: Right to sexual and reproductive health","signature":"E/C.12/GC/22","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2016,"adoptionDate":"4 March 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conditions of work","signature":"E/C.12/GC/23","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2016,"adoptionDate":"4 March 2016","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/GC/23","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC23-CondWork.json","abstract":"The Committee elaborates the right to just and favourable conditions of work under article 7, including remuneration providing a decent living, safe and healthy working conditions, equal opportunity for promotion, and rest, leisure and limitation of working hours, with particular attention to discrimination and to workers in precarious situations.","articles":["Art. 7"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/GC/23","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9156,"labelCount":57,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":80},{"docId":"e-c-12-gc-24","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 24 on State obligations under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in the context of business activities","nameShort":"GC24: State obligations under ICESCR in the context of business activities","signature":"E/C.12/GC/24","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2017,"adoptionDate":"23 June 2017","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/GC/24","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC24-Business.json","abstract":"The Committee clarifies that States parties' obligations under the Covenant apply in the context of business activities — including those of corporate actors operating extraterritorially — and provides guidance on the obligations to respect, protect and fulfil economic, social and cultural rights in this context.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/GC/24","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":7098,"labelCount":27,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":59},{"docId":"e-c-12-gc-25","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 25 on article 15: science and economic, social and cultural rights","nameShort":"GC25: Science and economic, social and cultural rights","signature":"E/C.12/GC/25","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2020,"adoptionDate":"6 March 2020","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/GC/25","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC25-Science.json","abstract":"The Committee clarifies that the right of everyone to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress and its applications under article 15 entails State obligations to make scientific advancement and its benefits accessible to all without discrimination, to protect freedom of scientific research, and to address the unequal distribution of scientific risks and benefits.","articles":["Art. 15"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/GC/25","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":10492,"labelCount":38,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":89},{"docId":"e-c-12-gc-26","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 26 on Land and economic, social and cultural rights","nameShort":"GC26: Land and economic, social and cultural rights","signature":"E/C.12/GC/26","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2023,"adoptionDate":"4 January 2023","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/GC/26","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC26-Land.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that secure and equitable access to, use of and control over land is essential to the realization of a wide range of Covenant rights, and clarifies States parties' obligations regarding land governance, including in relation to indigenous peoples, peasants, rural women, urban dwellers and persons in vulnerable situations.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/GC/26","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":8650,"labelCount":60,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":61},{"docId":"e-c-12-gc-27","type":"gc","name":"GC27: Environmental dimension of sustainable development","nameShort":"CESCR GC27: Sustainable development & environment","signature":"E/C.12/GC/27","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":2025,"adoptionDate":"26 September 2025","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/GC/27","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC27-Environment.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that a clean, healthy and sustainable environment is an essential precondition for the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights, and clarifies States parties' obligations under the Covenant to address the climate, biodiversity and pollution crises through sustainable, equitable and rights-based environmental policies.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/GC/27","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":9631,"labelCount":73,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"pdf-extraction-pipeline","paragraphCount":90},{"docId":"e-1991-23","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 3: The nature of States parties obligations (Art. 2, par. 1)","nameShort":"GC3: The nature of States parties obligations","signature":"E/1991/23","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1990,"adoptionDate":"14 December 1990","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/1991/23%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC3-Obligations.json","abstract":"The Committee elaborates the nature of States parties' obligations under article 2, paragraph 1, distinguishing obligations of conduct and result, immediate and progressive obligations, and identifying core obligations to ensure the satisfaction of, at the very least, minimum essential levels of each Covenant right.","articles":["Art. 2","Art. 2(1)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CESCR/GEC/4758","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2242,"labelCount":2,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"verified-by-pattern-analogy","paragraphCount":14},{"docId":"e-1992-23","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 4:  The right to adequate housing (art. 11 (1) of the Covenant)","nameShort":"GC4: right to adequate housing","signature":"E/1992/23","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1991,"adoptionDate":"13 December 1991","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/1992/23%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC4-Housing.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that the human right to adequate housing under article 11 is of central importance for the enjoyment of all Covenant rights, and elaborates its core elements: legal security of tenure, availability of services and infrastructure, affordability, habitability, accessibility, location and cultural adequacy.","articles":["Art. 11(1)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CESCR/GEC/4759","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2872,"labelCount":12,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"hri-compilation-pdf","paragraphCount":19},{"docId":"e-1995-22","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 5: Persons with disabilities","nameShort":"GC5: Persons with disabilities","signature":"E/1995/22","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1994,"adoptionDate":"9 December 1994","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/1995/22%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC5-NonDisc.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that persons with disabilities face entrenched discrimination undermining the realization of their economic, social and cultural rights, and clarifies States parties' obligations to take affirmative measures to remove barriers and to integrate disability concerns across all Covenant rights.","articles":["Art. 2(2)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CESCR/GEC/4760","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":4210,"labelCount":42,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"hri-compilation-pdf","paragraphCount":38},{"docId":"e-1996-22","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 6: The economic, social and cultural rights of older persons","nameShort":"GC6: The economic, social and cultural rights of older persons","signature":"E/1996/22","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1995,"adoptionDate":"8 December 1995","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/1996/22%28SUPP%29","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC6-Older.json","abstract":"The Committee draws attention to the situation of older persons in light of global ageing trends, and clarifies States parties' obligations under the Covenant to ensure non-discrimination on the basis of age and the realization of the economic, social and cultural rights of older persons in domains including social security, work, health and family life.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CESCR/GEC/6429","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":3888,"labelCount":11,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"hri-compilation-pdf","paragraphCount":42},{"docId":"e-1998-22","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 7:  The right to adequate housing  (art. 11 (1) of the Covenant):  Forced evictions","nameShort":"GC7: Right to adequate housing  - Forced evictions","signature":"E/1998/22","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1997,"adoptionDate":"16 May 1997","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/1998/22","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC7-Evictions.json","abstract":"The Committee considers that forced evictions are prima facie incompatible with the Covenant, clarifies the procedural protections required before, during and after any eviction, and identifies States parties' obligations to refrain from forced evictions and to ensure adequate alternative housing where evictions cannot be avoided.","articles":["Art. 11(1)"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"INT/CESCR/GEC/6430","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2540,"labelCount":15,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"verified-by-pattern-analogy","paragraphCount":21},{"docId":"e-c-12-1997-8","type":"gc","name":"General Comment No. 8: The relationship between economic sanctions and respect for economic, social and cultural rights","nameShort":"GC8: The relationship between economic sanctions and respect for economic, social and cultural 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application of the Covenant","signature":"E/C.12/1998/24","committee":"CESCR","committees":["CESCR"],"year":1998,"adoptionDate":"3 December 1998","link":"https://docs.un.org/en/E/C.12/1998/24","sourceFile":"Annotated_ESCR-GC9-DomesticApp.json","abstract":"The Committee elaborates the obligations regarding domestic application of the Covenant, considers that the principle of giving effect to Covenant rights 'by all appropriate means' includes legislative measures and judicial remedies, and clarifies that economic, social and cultural rights are subject to enforcement before national courts.","articles":["Art. 2"],"status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en","fr","es","ar","ru","zh"],"ohchrSymbol":"E/C.12/1998/24","firstAddedAt":"2026-04-28","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-04-28","wordCount":2047,"labelCount":1,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"ohchr-pdf-no-fn-zone","paragraphCount":15},{"docId":"cerd-c-gc-40","type":"gc","name":"General Recommendation No. 40 (2026) on reparatory justice 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by slavery, access to justice and reparation, the accountability of non-State actors, and education and memorialization.","status":"final","languagesAvailable":["en"],"ohchrSymbol":"CERD/C/GC/40","firstAddedAt":"2026-10-13","lastVerifiedAt":"2026-10-13","wordCount":6753,"labelCount":35,"footnotesVerified":true,"footnotesSource":"documents.un.org docx","textSource":"documents.un.org docx","paragraphCount":88},{"docId":"a-50-440","type":"sp","name":"Interim report of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of all forms of religious intolerance","nameShort":"Elimination of all forms of religious intolerance (1995)","signature":"A/50/440","committee":"SR Freedom of Religion or Belief","committees":["SR Freedom of Religion or 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violations, and sets out States parties' obligations to guarantee reparatory justice: the participation of people of African descent, full d + + Women's and girls' rights and artificial intelligence and related digital technologies + + https://lszoszk.github.io/generalcomments/#documents/a-hrc-62-48 + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z + + Special Procedures report · A/HRC/62/48 · WG Discrimination against Women and Girls · 2026 + Violence against older women @@ -52,6 +61,24 @@ Special Procedures report · A/81/128 · IE Albinism · Muluka-Anne Miti-Drummond · 2026 + + Threats to freedom of expression online in turbulent times + + https://lszoszk.github.io/generalcomments/#documents/a-80-341 + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z + + Special Procedures report · A/80/341 · SR Freedom of Expression · Irene Khan · 2025 + + + Access delayed, rights denied: bottlenecks in the leprosy drug supply chain and their daily impact on affected persons + + https://lszoszk.github.io/generalcomments/#documents/a-80-139 + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z + + Special Procedures report · A/80/139 · SR Leprosy · Beatriz Miranda-Galarza · 2025 + Contemporary forms of slavery and trafficking in persons @@ -880,31 +907,4 @@ Special Procedures report · A/68/339 · WG Mercenaries · 2013 - - Update on mercenary activities in Cote d'Ivoire, Liberia and Libya and the evolving role of private military and security companies in Afghanistan and Iraq - - https://lszoszk.github.io/generalcomments/#documents/a-67-340 - 2026-06-18T00:00:00Z - 2026-06-18T00:00:00Z - - Special Procedures report · A/67/340 · WG Mercenaries · 2012 - - - Update on recent activities of mercenaries and private military and security companies and the issue of accountability - - https://lszoszk.github.io/generalcomments/#documents/a-66-317 - 2026-06-18T00:00:00Z - 2026-06-18T00:00:00Z - - Special Procedures report · A/66/317 · WG Mercenaries · 2011 - - - Challenges regarding the increasing privatization of security, the growing dependency on private military and security companies, and their accountability - - https://lszoszk.github.io/generalcomments/#documents/a-65-325 - 2026-06-18T00:00:00Z - 2026-06-18T00:00:00Z - - Special Procedures report · A/65/325 · WG Mercenaries · 2010 - diff --git a/docs/feeds/body-sr-freedom-of-expression.xml b/docs/feeds/body-sr-freedom-of-expression.xml index a962c04e..5c50bfdb 100644 --- a/docs/feeds/body-sr-freedom-of-expression.xml +++ b/docs/feeds/body-sr-freedom-of-expression.xml @@ -4,9 +4,18 @@ https://lszoszk.github.io/generalcomments/feeds/body-sr-freedom-of-expression - 2026-06-18T00:00:00Z + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z UN Human Rights Database Documents newly added to the paragraph-level corpus of UN treaty-body general comments, individual-communication decisions and Special Procedures thematic reports. + + Threats to freedom of expression online in turbulent times + + https://lszoszk.github.io/generalcomments/#documents/a-80-341 + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z + + Special Procedures report · A/80/341 · SR Freedom of Expression · Irene Khan · 2025 + Internet governance and human rights, freedom of expression and defamation, and security and protection of media professionals diff --git a/docs/feeds/body-sr-leprosy.xml b/docs/feeds/body-sr-leprosy.xml index a75de0f5..a8402674 100644 --- a/docs/feeds/body-sr-leprosy.xml +++ b/docs/feeds/body-sr-leprosy.xml @@ -4,9 +4,18 @@ https://lszoszk.github.io/generalcomments/feeds/body-sr-leprosy - 2026-09-03T00:00:00Z + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z UN Human Rights Database Documents newly added to the paragraph-level corpus of UN treaty-body general comments, individual-communication decisions and Special Procedures thematic reports. + + Access delayed, rights denied: bottlenecks in the leprosy drug supply chain and their daily impact on affected persons + + https://lszoszk.github.io/generalcomments/#documents/a-80-139 + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z + + Special Procedures report · A/80/139 · SR Leprosy · Beatriz Miranda-Galarza · 2025 + Truth, justice and reparation for persons affected by leprosy: a human rights framework to address historical and systematic forced segregation and discrimination diff --git a/docs/feeds/body-wg-discrimination-against-women-and-girls.xml b/docs/feeds/body-wg-discrimination-against-women-and-girls.xml index ac25da15..cc983d06 100644 --- a/docs/feeds/body-wg-discrimination-against-women-and-girls.xml +++ b/docs/feeds/body-wg-discrimination-against-women-and-girls.xml @@ -4,9 +4,18 @@ https://lszoszk.github.io/generalcomments/feeds/body-wg-discrimination-against-women-and-girls - 2026-06-18T00:00:00Z + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z UN Human Rights Database Documents newly added to the paragraph-level corpus of UN treaty-body general comments, individual-communication decisions and Special Procedures thematic reports. + + Women's and girls' rights and artificial intelligence and related digital technologies + + https://lszoszk.github.io/generalcomments/#documents/a-hrc-62-48 + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z + + Special Procedures report · A/HRC/62/48 · WG Discrimination against Women and Girls · 2026 + Gendered dimensions of care and support systems diff --git a/docs/feeds/index.json b/docs/feeds/index.json index 8f39ce52..feb1098d 100644 --- a/docs/feeds/index.json +++ b/docs/feeds/index.json @@ -1,10 +1,10 @@ { - "builtAt": "2026-10-13T20:12:31+00:00", + "builtAt": "2026-10-13T21:25:20+00:00", "feeds": [ { "id": "all", "title": "UN Human Rights Database — new documents", - "documents": 6116, + "documents": 6119, "latest": "2026-10-13" }, { @@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ { "id": "sp", "title": "UNHRDB — new Special Procedures reports", - "documents": 1595, + "documents": 1598, "latest": "2026-10-13" }, { @@ -202,8 +202,8 @@ { "id": "body-sr-freedom-of-expression", "title": "UNHRDB — SR Freedom of Expression", - "documents": 47, - "latest": "2026-06-18" + "documents": 48, + "latest": "2026-10-13" }, { "id": "body-sr-freedom-of-religion-or-belief", @@ -244,8 +244,8 @@ { "id": "body-sr-leprosy", "title": "UNHRDB — SR Leprosy", - "documents": 13, - "latest": "2026-09-03" + "documents": 14, + "latest": "2026-10-13" }, { "id": "body-sr-migrants", @@ -340,8 +340,8 @@ { "id": "body-wg-discrimination-against-women-and-girls", "title": "UNHRDB — WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", - "documents": 14, - "latest": "2026-06-18" + "documents": 15, + "latest": "2026-10-13" }, { "id": "body-wg-enforced-disappearances", diff --git a/docs/feeds/sp.xml b/docs/feeds/sp.xml index d5d6d983..f1293713 100644 --- a/docs/feeds/sp.xml +++ b/docs/feeds/sp.xml @@ -7,6 +7,15 @@ 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z UN Human Rights Database Documents newly added to the paragraph-level corpus of UN treaty-body general comments, individual-communication decisions and Special Procedures thematic reports. + + Women's and girls' rights and artificial intelligence and related digital technologies + + https://lszoszk.github.io/generalcomments/#documents/a-hrc-62-48 + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z + + Special Procedures report · A/HRC/62/48 · WG Discrimination against Women and Girls · 2026 + Violence against older women @@ -43,6 +52,24 @@ Special Procedures report · A/81/128 · IE Albinism · Muluka-Anne Miti-Drummond · 2026 + + Threats to freedom of expression online in turbulent times + + https://lszoszk.github.io/generalcomments/#documents/a-80-341 + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z + + Special Procedures report · A/80/341 · SR Freedom of Expression · Irene Khan · 2025 + + + Access delayed, rights denied: bottlenecks in the leprosy drug supply chain and their daily impact on affected persons + + https://lszoszk.github.io/generalcomments/#documents/a-80-139 + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z + 2026-10-13T00:00:00Z + + Special Procedures report · A/80/139 · SR Leprosy · Beatriz Miranda-Galarza · 2025 + Contemporary forms of slavery and trafficking in persons @@ -880,31 +907,4 @@ Special Procedures report · A/67/340 · WG Mercenaries · 2012 - - Update on recent activities of mercenaries and private military and security companies and the issue of accountability - - https://lszoszk.github.io/generalcomments/#documents/a-66-317 - 2026-06-18T00:00:00Z - 2026-06-18T00:00:00Z - - Special Procedures report · A/66/317 · WG Mercenaries · 2011 - - - Challenges regarding the increasing privatization of security, the growing dependency on private military and security companies, and their accountability - - https://lszoszk.github.io/generalcomments/#documents/a-65-325 - 2026-06-18T00:00:00Z - 2026-06-18T00:00:00Z - - Special Procedures report · A/65/325 · WG Mercenaries · 2010 - - - Work on a possible new draft international convention on the regulation of private military and security companies - - https://lszoszk.github.io/generalcomments/#documents/a-64-311 - 2026-06-18T00:00:00Z - 2026-06-18T00:00:00Z - - Special Procedures report · A/64/311 · WG Mercenaries · 2009 - diff --git a/docs/manifest.json b/docs/manifest.json index ed5d1c39..c9f51e37 100644 --- a/docs/manifest.json +++ b/docs/manifest.json @@ -1,13 +1,13 @@ { "version": "20261013", - "builtAt": "2026-10-13T20:12:13+00:00", + "builtAt": "2026-10-13T21:24:16+00:00", "counts": { - "documents": 1783, - "paragraphs": 170759, + "documents": 1786, + "paragraphs": 171100, "gcDocuments": 188, "gcParagraphs": 7304, - "spDocuments": 1595, - "spParagraphs": 163455, + "spDocuments": 1598, + "spParagraphs": 163796, "labels": 20, "committees": 56, "yearRange": [ @@ -21,25 +21,21 @@ "bytes": 8068990 }, "documents.json": { - "sha": "7ed84cc0305e71c3", - "bytes": 1451510 + "sha": "70c41ab04cbe048b", + "bytes": 1453945 }, "facets.json": { - "sha": "a7e106ab737faf33", - "bytes": 14219 + "sha": "e678bd8ad8776329", + "bytes": 14220 }, "citations/graph.json": { - "sha": "0754e407df1ebde6", - "bytes": 3699698 + "sha": "dd9b10438e87526d", + "bytes": 3702737 }, "citations/index.json": { - "sha": "f4afdc527d4f3ccc", - "bytes": 3493740 - }, - "related/gc.json": { - "sha": "151838d727d2e982", - "bytes": 1290779 + "sha": "ae59eb5250b16340", + "bytes": 3495970 } }, - "note": "Incremental append (append_gc_from_docx.py): +CERD/C/GC/40." + "note": "Incremental append (append_sp_docs.py): +3 SP docs." } \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/sp/manifest.json b/docs/sp/manifest.json index aa50b261..00da8d4d 100644 --- a/docs/sp/manifest.json +++ b/docs/sp/manifest.json @@ -1,9 +1,9 @@ { "version": "20261013", - "builtAt": "2026-10-13T20:07:19.098293+00:00", + "builtAt": "2026-10-13T21:24:16.784264+00:00", "counts": { - "documents": 1595, - "paragraphs": 163455, + "documents": 1598, + "paragraphs": 163796, "shards": 46, "committees": 46 }, @@ -123,10 +123,10 @@ "paragraphs": 2859 }, "shards/sp_SR_Freedom_of_Expression.json": { - "sha": "0c937216b0b25d24", - "bytes": 5290846, - "documents": 47, - "paragraphs": 4798 + "sha": "8c7c992c16e9c21a", + "bytes": 5399748, + "documents": 48, + "paragraphs": 4911 }, "shards/sp_SR_Freedom_of_Religion_or_Belief.json": { "sha": "b66cfb91d454e7cd", @@ -165,10 +165,10 @@ "paragraphs": 3362 }, "shards/sp_SR_Leprosy.json": { - "sha": "a040ca62a7ed1cfe", - "bytes": 1297672, - "documents": 13, - "paragraphs": 1093 + "sha": "27bac4510f067116", + "bytes": 1414430, + "documents": 14, + "paragraphs": 1247 }, "shards/sp_SR_Migrants.json": { "sha": "81fb068632af3f7e", @@ -261,10 +261,10 @@ "paragraphs": 2818 }, "shards/sp_WG_Discrimination_against_Women_and_Girls.json": { - "sha": "e8fbf48481b581d3", - "bytes": 1623399, - "documents": 14, - "paragraphs": 1281 + "sha": "c5caea2252eaf98b", + "bytes": 1753605, + "documents": 15, + "paragraphs": 1355 }, "shards/sp_WG_Enforced_Disappearances.json": { "sha": "3d1e14f5e4589779", diff --git a/docs/sp/shards/sp_SR_Freedom_of_Expression.json b/docs/sp/shards/sp_SR_Freedom_of_Expression.json index 074a6d9c..4f3b0a1f 100644 --- a/docs/sp/shards/sp_SR_Freedom_of_Expression.json +++ b/docs/sp/shards/sp_SR_Freedom_of_Expression.json @@ -1 +1 @@ -[{"id": "a-75-261-0001", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. Some time ago, a teacher was accused of heresy, of being a menace to society and a corrupt influence on the minds of the young. That person educated leading thinkers of the day – some of whom became philosophers, poets or politicians. Yet people from across society saw him as a sceptic whose questioning of received wisdom destabilized social values. Before the jury reached its verdict, the teacher, in his defence, is said to have spoken the following:\nThey complain that there is a pestilential busybody called Socrates who fills young people’s heads with wrong ideas. If you ask them what he does, and what he teaches that has this effect, they have no answer, not knowing what to say; but as they do not want to admit their confusion, they fall back on the stock charges against any philosopher: that he teaches his pupils about things in the heavens and below the earth, and to disbelieve in gods, and to make the weaker argument defeat the stronger.[[fn:1]]\nHistory remembers Socrates and his most famous students, while most of his accusers and critics are long-forgotten foils, none making a mark on history, philosophy, politics and education as he did. However, those foils prevailed in the moment, and the jury sentenced Socrates to death.", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Hugh Tredennick and Harold Tarrant, trans., Plato: The Last Days of Socrates (London, Penguin Books, 1954), apology 22E–24A."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0002", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Millenniums have passed, and yet teachers, scholars, students and others who work in such pursuits – academics and their institutions – continue to face social harassment and State repression. They face harassment and repression for their research, the questions that they pursue, the points that they raise in or out of the classroom or journals, the forums that they provide for peaceful assembly and protest and the evidence and ideas and methodologies that they bring to bear on public policy – or simply for the stature that their academic work has given them in society. Such interference can constitute a violation of the rights to education, science, culture, association, conscience, belief, due process and, as the Special Rapporteur will principally explore in the present report, freedom of opinion and expression. Attacks on academic freedom corrode the pillars of democratic life, of scientific progress and of human development. In the report, the Special Rapporteur will explore how attacks on academic freedom also constitute attacks on freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0003", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The special procedure mandate holders of the Human Rights Council have often observed, and drawn attention to, threats to academics and their institutions. Among many such cases that mandate holders have considered, Hungary targeted one of the leading academic institutions in Europe, the Central European University,[[fn:2]] forcing it to close its doors and relocate to Austria. Turkey forced the investigation and dismissal of hundreds of academics who had signed a scholars’ petition calling for peace with the Kurdish community.[[fn:3]] Turkey also removed a scholar from his position after he had met with the Special Rapporteur in November 2016 during his visit to the country;[[fn:4]] the Government alleged terrorist affiliations.[[fn:5]] China has imprisoned an economist, Iham Tohti, arbitrarily on grounds relating to his criticism of the Government’s policies against the Uighur community.[[fn:6]] Uganda imprisoned for over 16 months a prominent feminist academic, ostensibly for her anti-government posts on social media.[[fn:7]] Thailand arrested dozens of individuals who protested against military rule at a university campus in Bangkok.[[fn:8]] The Islamic Republic of Iran has detained and often sentenced to death numerous scholars, such as Ahmad Reza Jalali, Mohammad Hossein Rafiee Fanood, Xiyue Wang and Hooma Hoodfar.[[fn:9]] The United Arab Emirates prosecuted a scholar from that country, Nasser bin Ghaith, for writings that “harm the reputation and stature of the State” and detained a scholar from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Matthew Hedges, on opaque grounds of national security, despite the reliance of his research on open-source materials.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "References are made throughout the document to urgent appeals and allegation letters sent by the Special Rapporteur. All such communications are available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/ Tmsearch/TMDocuments. For this case, see communication No. HUN 1/2017, 11 April 2017."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Communication No. TUR 3/2016, 31 March 2016."}, {"n": 4, "text": "Communication No. TUR 1/2017, 23 January 2017."}, {"n": 5, "text": "Government’s reply to communication No. TUR 1/2017, 11 April 2017."}, {"n": 6, "text": "Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, opinion No. 3/2014 (China), 6 February 2014."}, {"n": 7, "text": "Communication No. UGA 3/2017, 22 December 2017."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Communication No. THA 4/2018, 25 June 2018."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Communications Nos. IRN 12/2019, 8 August 2019; IRN 2/2016, 1 February 2016; and IRN 19/2016, 24 June 2016; and “UN experts urge Iran to release imprisoned American scholar Xiyue Wang”, press release, 7 May 2019."}, {"n": 10, "text": "Communication No. ARE 3/2017, 3 May 2017; Matthew Hedges (Hedges) submission. In 2000, the Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression noted the same kinds of threats to academic freedom: see E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 37."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0004", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur focuses on the freedom of opinion and expression aspects of academic freedom. He emphasizes one set of protections for academic freedom, while recognizing and reaffirming others. He highlights the special role played by academics and academic institutions in democratic society and, by so doing, encourages individuals and organizations to articulate their claims – including when addressing them to special procedure mandate holders and other United Nations human rights mechanisms and treaty bodies – as violations of academic freedom.[[fn:11]] The report benefited from submissions made by civil society (available on the website of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights) and a three-day online consultation that, with the support of the non-governmental organization Scholars at Risk, was held in May 2020. The Special Rapporteur begins with an overview of the legal framework applicable to academic freedom, focusing on freedom of opinion and expression. He then addresses several key challenges, before concluding with recommendations for States and other actors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Scholars at Risk submission, para. 6."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0005", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Although there are many ways in which the freedom of opinion and expression protects and promotes academic freedom, there is no single, exclusive international human rights framework for the subject. Within the corpus of civil and political rights, protected under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and codified in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the rights to peaceful assembly and association, privacy, and thought, conscience and religious belief can promote and protect academic freedom. Articles 13 (right to education) and 15 (right to scientific advancements) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights expressly promote rights at the centre of academic freedom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "13", "treaty": "ICESCR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'Articles 13 (right to education)... of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights expressly promote rights at the centre of academic freedom'."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0006", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. It is not the intention of the Special Rapporteur to impose a definition of “academic freedom” that would limit its application to one sort of “academic” person or institution.[[fn:12]] In part this is because of the extraordinary variety of academic pursuits, forms, methodologies and institutions worldwide, which counsels for a functional approach. However, academic freedom does not have to be abstract. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights made the following observations:\nMembers of the academic community, individually or collectively, are free to pursue, develop and transmit knowledge and ideas, through research, teaching, study, discussion, documentation, production, creation or writing. Academic freedom includes the liberty of individuals to express freely opinions about the institution or system in which they work, to fulfil their functions without discrimination or fear of repression by the State or any other actor, to participate in professional or representative academic bodies, and to enjoy all the internationally recognized human rights applicable to other individuals in the same jurisdiction.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "A. Definitional breadth"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Of course, a conclusion that an activity or institution is not “academic” does not strip that activity or institution, or any person engaging in activity within a particular institution, of human rights. One might conclude, for instance, that a person is not engaging in “academic” activity, yet he or she still enjoys the panoply of human rights guarantees."}, {"n": 13, "text": "E/C.12/1999/10, para. 39, with reference to the Lima Declaration on Academic Freedom and Autonomy of Institutions of Higher Education, art. 1."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0007", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. While the Committee notes that “staff and students in higher education are especially vulnerable to political and other pressures which undermine academic freedom”,[[fn:14]] it does not limit that threat to higher education communities. In its 1997 Recommendation concerning the Status of Higher-Education Teaching Personnel, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) underlined the point, condemning “institutional censorship”.[[fn:15]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "A. Definitional breadth"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "E/C.12/1999/10, para. 38."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Recommendation concerning the Status of Higher-Education Teaching Personnel, 11 November 1997, para. 27."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0008", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. In short, academic freedom should be understood to include the freedom of individuals, as members of academic communities (e.g., faculty, students, staff, scholars, administrators and community participants) or in their own pursuits, to conduct activities involving the discovery and transmission of information and ideas, and to do so with the full protection of human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "A. Definitional breadth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0009", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Academic freedom is not only about individual human rights protection by traditional State actors. It also involves institutional protections – autonomy and self-governance, themselves rooted in human rights standards – to guarantee the freedom for those pursuits.[[fn:16]] States are under a positive obligation to create a general enabling environment for seeking, receiving and imparting information and ideas.[[fn:17]] Institutional protection and autonomy are a part of that enabling environment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "B. Institutional protection and autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See Kristen Roberts Lyer and Aron Suba, Closing Academic Space: Repressive State Practices in Legislative, Regulatory and Other Restrictions on Higher Education Institutions (Washington, D.C., International Centre for Not-for-Profit Law, 2019), pp. 30–31."}, {"n": 17, "text": "See OHCHR and others, Joint Declaration on Media Independence and Diversity in the Digital Age, May 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0010", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Institutions of higher education, as described cogently in one of the submissions for the present report, play extraordinary roles in human society as “engines of knowledge production, discovery, innovation, skills development, cultural preservation, and national progress. They model democratic discourse and international cooperation, as well as the search for self-realization and moral truth. And they are wellsprings for other professions that are foundational to well-functioning civil society, including law, journalism, and human rights advocacy.”[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "B. Institutional protection and autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Scholars at Risk submission, para. 2."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0011", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Despite the importance of higher education to fundamental social values, Governments often interfere with the autonomy of academic institutions. They may threaten those that have foreign funding, notwithstanding the fact that higher education, as noted above, is itself an international endeavour supported by the freedom of expression “regardless of frontiers”. They may threaten to withhold otherwise available funds on illicit grounds.[[fn:19]] They may require that institutions preclude the teaching of some subjects or require the teaching of others on non-academic grounds. They may impose standards on hiring and tenure, or they may directly engage in the hiring of institutional leadership, that may be inconsistent with academic criteria and reflect political control rather than the advancement of learning. All of those tools, and others, undermine the ability of the institution to protect the academic freedom of its community members and to serve its broader functions in society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "B. Institutional protection and autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "David A. Graham, “What a direct attack on free speech looks like”, The Atlantic, 10 July 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0012", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Autonomy and self-governance should also include mechanisms of accountability, ethical codes of conduct and assurances that the institutions themselves – whether as State actors (public colleges and universities) or private ones – protect and promote the human rights of members of their communities (broadly defined). Academic institutions should retain autonomy in their administrative, financial, pedagogical and disciplinary functions,[[fn:20]] but they should also adopt and enforce policies that ensure the protection of the free expression rights of the members of their communities, resisting official or social pressure and promising human rights compliance institutionally.[[fn:21]] Their policies should be transparent, they should be active and accessible defenders of their academic missions (and of their sibling institutions) and they should be accountable for their acceptance and use of funding.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "B. Institutional protection and autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See Kwadwo Appiagyei-Atua, Klaus D. Beiter and Terence Karran, “A review of academic freedom in African universities through the prism of the 1997 ILO/UNESCO recommendation”, Journal of Academic Freedom, vol. 7 (2016)."}, {"n": 21, "text": "Foundation for Individual Rights in Education submission, p. 12."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0013", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. In paragraph 22 (k) of its 1997 recommendation, UNESCO stated that institutional autonomy was “a necessary precondition to guarantee the proper fulfilment of the functions entrusted to higher-education teaching personnel and institutions”. It noted that accountability involved ensuring the adoption and enforcement of policies that involved transparency, non-discrimination, gender equality and “the creation, through the collegial process and/or through negotiation with organizations representing higher-education teaching personnel, consistent with the principles of academic freedom and freedom of speech, of statements or codes of ethics to guide higher education personnel in their teaching, scholarship, research and extension work”.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "B. Institutional protection and autonomy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0014", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Institutional self-governance involves transparent but self-regulatory standards, by which the institutions themselves, based on non-discriminatory and academic criteria, determine curricular, scholarly and research needs and requirements. Standards concerning publication and hiring should be adopted and implemented by those with professional and academic expertise, rather than external regulation by administrators or politicians. Teaching personnel must be guaranteed a say in the management and decision-making of their institutions for the fulfilment of academic freedom.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "B. Institutional protection and autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See UNESCO, “Protecting academic freedom is as relevant as ever”, 18 October 2017."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0015", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Article 19 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, reinforcing the protection of article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, protects the right of everyone to hold opinions without interference. The Human Rights Committee, emphasizing the absolute quality of that right, noted in paragraph 9 of its general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression that “all forms of opinion are protected, including opinions of a political, scientific, historic, moral or religious nature”. Interference with opinion often involves “harassment, intimidation or stigmatization of a person, including arrest, detention, trial or imprisonment”. As noted in a previous report to the Human Rights Council, during the negotiations on the drafting of the Covenant, “the freedom to form an opinion and to develop this by way of reasoning was held to be absolute and, in contrast to freedom of expression, not allowed to be restricted by law or other power”.[[fn:23]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "C. Freedom of opinion and expression", "Right to hold opinions without interference"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Manfred Nowak, UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: CCPR Commentary (1993), p. 441."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 19 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR with paragraph."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second occurrence in the sentence refers to 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0016", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Although they are the subjects of both article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, “opinion” is conceptually distinct from “expression”. The internal aspect of opinion is closely connected to privacy, thought, belief and conscience, as compared with the external aspects of expression, public assembly and religious manifestation.[[fn:24]] In an academic context, certain aspects of research and pedagogy are closer to opinion than expression. For instance, a scholar conducting research may collect data and carry out analytical work with respect to those data, evaluate the data and then articulate an interpretation (in the form of a paper) for distribution, sharing with colleagues and, ultimately, publication. That analytic work depends upon the right to seek and receive information as a component of expression, and that process must be protected, with its limitation subject to narrow restrictions. However, even before the stage of imparting information, the scholar’s work product should be protected from interference as an opinion, subject to no restriction of any kind. By contrast, imparting information involves means of expression such as “books, newspapers, pamphlets, posters, banners, dress and legal submissions” as well as “electronic and Internet-based modes”.[[fn:25]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "C. Freedom of opinion and expression", "Right to hold opinions without interference"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "See, for example, A/HRC/31/18."}, {"n": 25, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 12. To be clear, this does not mean that all academic research may be beyond the reach of State regulation. Physical scientific research, for instance, may involve the use of controlled or dangerous substances, whereas social science research may have implications for the privacy rights of individuals and communities. Regulation of those subjects must not, however, be used as a tool to limit the researcher’s freedom and should be drawn extremely carefully to avoid such interference."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First occurrence: 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second occurrence: 'article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0017", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Practically speaking, that means that a scholarly work product, as an opinion, should itself be protected from exposure, with demands for its transfer (for instance to law enforcement authorities) subject to strict rule of law and due process standards consistent with international human rights law. It also means that scholars should not be subject to interference, such as intimidation and harassment, in accordance with article 19 (1) of the Covenant. It further requires that scholars should have access to the kinds of tools that protect their work product. In the digital realm, such tools include encryption or guarantees of anonymity.[[fn:26]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "C. Freedom of opinion and expression", "Right to hold opinions without interference"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See, generally, A/HRC/29/32."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0018", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Article 19 (2) of the Covenant protects the right of everyone to “seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media”. Extensive human rights jurisprudence and secondary literature underscore that the freedom of expression is considered a foundational aspect of international human rights law, such that, as the Human Rights Committee found, a general reservation to the paragraph would be incompatible with the object and purpose of the Covenant.[[fn:27]] The breadth of the definition in article 19 (2) of the Covenant must be highlighted, just as the Committee noted that expression involves “every form of idea and opinion capable of transmission to others”, including teaching.[[fn:28]] The right “embraces even expression that may be regarded as deeply offensive”,[[fn:29]] such as blasphemy.[[fn:30]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "C. Freedom of opinion and expression", "Freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "See, for example, general comment No. 34, para. 5."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Ibid., para. 11."}, {"n": 29, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 30, "text": "Ibid., para. 48."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0019", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Academic communities also transcend borders, resulting in global scholarly conferences, meetings, publications and other interactions in which individuals share their work. The global aspect of scholarly sharing is embodied in article 15 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which guarantees everyone’s right to enjoy the benefits of science and embraces “the encouragement and development of international contacts and co-operation in the scientific and cultural fields”. Article 19 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights recognizes that freedom of expression extends “regardless of frontiers”, which complements and reinforces the rights covered by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. On the one hand, it means that those in academic fields enjoy the right to seek and receive the work of others, whatever their field, and to impart their own work (or share that of others) beyond national borders. Further promotion of academic freedom at the global level can be found in article 12 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which guarantees freedom of movement and the right of everyone to leave their country.[[fn:31]] Bans on both leaving and entering a country may amount to a violation not only of article 12, but also of the panoply of rights under the rubric of academic freedom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "C. Freedom of opinion and expression", "Freedom of expression, regardless of frontiers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 7."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "15", "treaty": "ICESCR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 15 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which guarantees everyone's right to enjoy the benefits of science' — explicit treaty attribution."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 19 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights recognizes that freedom of expression extends \"regardless of frontiers\"' — explicit treaty attribution."}, {"article": "12", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 12 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which guarantees freedom of movement and the right of everyone to leave their country' — explicit treaty attribution."}, {"article": "12", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'may amount to a violation not only of article 12, but also of the panoply of rights' — 'article 12' here refers back to the same ICCPR art. 12 freedom of movement just named in the preceding sentence."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0020", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Individuals enjoy academic freedom not only within their institutions, in the internal aspects of research, scholarship, teaching, convenings and other on-campus activities, but also “extramurally”, in their role as educators and commentators outside the institution.[[fn:32]] For instance, an academic bringing her or his expertise to bear in a hearing before a legislature, a lecture to a community, a conversation on broadcast media or a post on social media should be understood as, inter alia, an exercise of academic freedom. In other words, that framework is not limited to the institutional environment. When an academic engages in expression outside of her or his academic topic – that is, not only outside the substantive area but also methodologically – she or he retains the right to freedom of expression guaranteed by human rights law, even if that engagement is not considered a part of her or his academic freedom. It should also be emphasized that academics should not be punished by their institutions for exercising their rights to freedom of expression, association and assembly and religious belief, among others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "C. Freedom of opinion and expression", "Extramural academic activity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "Scholars at Risk submission, para. 19."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0021", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. It is worth emphasizing that academic freedom enjoys fundamental protection not only in international human rights instruments but also at the regional level. The same rights that are applicable in African, inter-American, European and other regional systems provide added support for the protections noted above. The European Court of Human Rights has the largest body of case law relating to academic freedom. In Sorguç v. Turkey, the Court “underline[d] the importance of academic freedom, which comprises the academics’ freedom to express freely their opinion about the institution or system in which they work and freedom to distribute knowledge and truth without restriction”.[[fn:33]] In Mustafa Erdoğan and Others v. Turkey, the Court stated that academic freedom “is not restricted to academic or scientific research, but also extends to the academics’ freedom to express freely their views and opinions, even if controversial or unpopular, in the areas of their research, professional expertise and competence. This may include an examination of the functioning of public institutions in a given political system, and a criticism thereof”.[[fn:34]] Also, in another case involving Turkey, the Court found that article 10 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms protected the forms in which ideas were conveyed. The case pertained to an academic who was reprimanded for participating in a television programme. In the Court’s view, “this issue unquestionably concerns his academic freedom, which should guarantee freedom of expression and of action, freedom to disseminate information and freedom to ‘conduct research and distribute knowledge and truth without restriction’”.[[fn:35]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "D. Regional mechanisms reinforcing academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Sorguç v. Turkey, application No. 17089/03, Judgment, 23 June 2009, para. 35."}, {"n": 34, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Mustafa Erdoğan and Others v. Turkey, application Nos. 346/04 and 39779/04, Judgment, 27 May 2014, para. 40."}, {"n": 35, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Kula v. Turkey, application No. 20233/06, Judgment, 19 June 2019, para. 38."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "10", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0022", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Civil society organizations have often highlighted those points. For instance, the 1990 Kampala Declaration on Intellectual Freedom and Social Responsibility promotes the protection of the right of all African intellectuals to “pursue intellectual activity”, “enjoy the freedom of movement” and “express [their] opinions freely in the media”.[[fn:36]] Academic freedom was further promoted in the 2007 Juba Declaration on Academic Freedom and University Autonomy. The Declaration states that “all academicians have the right to fulfil their teaching, research and dissemination of information without fear, interference or repression from government or any other public authority”.[[fn:37]] The Declaration addresses the guarantee of institutional autonomy in demanding that Governments avoid interfering with “the autonomy of Higher Education Institutions”.[[fn:38]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "D. Regional mechanisms reinforcing academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "See Kampala Declaration on Intellectual Freedom and Social Responsibility, 1990, arts. 4, 6 and 9."}, {"n": 37, "text": "Juba Declaration on Academic Freedom and University Autonomy, 2007, para. 1."}, {"n": 38, "text": "Ibid., para. 5."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0023", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Article 13 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union explicitly provides that “academic freedom shall be respected” and emphasizes that “research shall be free of constraint”. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe Recommendation 1762 (2006) on academic freedom and university autonomy affirms the need for academic freedom in a just and democratic society. Furthermore, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe Recommendation Cm/Rec(2012)7 discusses the importance of Governments’ using their power to ensure the protection of academic freedom, particularly by guaranteeing that institutions promote the autonomy of academics. It also clarifies that States have a duty to ensure that external powers cannot interfere with academic freedom.[[fn:39]] In November 2018, the European Parliament adopted a recommendation that called for the recognition that “claims to academic freedom fall under existing human rights law, derived from the right to education and the rights to freedom of expression and of opinion”.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "D. Regional mechanisms reinforcing academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "See Dirk Voorhoof and others, Freedom of Expression, the Media and Journalists: Case-Law of the European Court of Human Rights, IRIS Themes, vol. III, 5th ed. (Strasbourg, France, European Audiovisual Observatory, 2020)."}, {"n": 40, "text": "European Parliament recommendation of 29 November 2018 to the Council, the Commission and the Vice-President of the Commission/High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy on Defence of academic freedom in the EU’s external action, 2018/2117(INI), para. 1 (b)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0024", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Since the freedom of expression is fundamental to the enjoyment of all human rights, restrictions must be exceptional and subject to narrow conditions and strict oversight. The Human Rights Committee has underlined that restrictions, even when warranted, “may not put in jeopardy the right itself”.[[fn:41]] States may restrict expression only where provided by law and necessary to respect the rights or reputations of others or protect national security or public order, or public health or morals.[[fn:42]] As emphasized in numerous reports to the Human Rights Council and the General Assembly, the limitations on expression must be read narrowly and consistent with the cumulative three-part test under article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, in particular:\n(a) Legality. Restrictions must be “provided by law”. In particular, they must be adopted by regular legal processes, drafted with sufficient precision to enable an individual to regulate her or his conduct accordingly, and made accessible to the public. A restriction may not be unduly vague or overbroad such that it could confer unfettered discretion on officials. Secretly adopted restrictions fail this fundamental requirement.[[fn:43]] The assurance of legality should generally involve the oversight of independent judicial authorities;[[fn:44]]\n(b) Legitimacy. To be lawful, a restriction must protect only those interests enumerated in article 19 (3) of the Covenant, that is, the rights or reputations of others, national security or public order, or public health or morals. The Human Rights Committee cautions that restrictions to protect “public morals” should not derive “exclusively from a single tradition”, seeking to ensure that the restriction reflects principles of non-discrimination and the universality of rights;[[fn:45]]\n(c) Necessity and proportionality. States bear the burden of proving a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the threat. They must demonstrate that the restriction actually protects, or is likely to protect, the legitimate State interest at issue. States must also prove that the restriction that they seek to impose is the least intrusive instrument among those that might achieve the same protective function.[[fn:46]] Where the harm to freedom of expression outweighs the benefits, a restriction on the right cannot be justified.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "E. Restrictions on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 21. The Committee clarified that “restrictions must not impair the essence of the right”, adding that “the laws authorizing the application of restrictions should use precise criteria and may not confer unfettered discretion on those charged with their execution”: see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 27 (1999) on freedom of movement, para. 13."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See, in particular, A/67/357, para. 41; and A/HRC/29/32, paras. 32–35."}, {"n": 43, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 25; and A/HRC/29/32."}, {"n": 44, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 25."}, {"n": 45, "text": "Ibid., para. 32."}, {"n": 46, "text": "Ibid., paras. 34–35."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0025", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. It is not uncommon for States to invoke national security and public order as bases for restricting expression. The Human Rights Committee emphasizes that the “extreme care” required of States regarding laws relating to national security parallels the care that States must extend to laws that limit academic freedom and the protection that States must provide to academics. “It is not compatible with paragraph 3 [of article 19], for instance, to invoke [treason] laws to suppress or withhold from the public information of legitimate public interest that does not harm national security or to prosecute journalists, researchers, environmental activists, human rights defenders, or others, for having disseminated such information.”[[fn:47]] The same is true for academic research pertaining, allegedly, to national security or public order.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "E. Restrictions on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "Ibid., para. 30."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0026", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. It may be that academic teaching or research could have implications for the rights of others, such as privacy or public health or morals. As a matter of academic ethics and self-governance, institutions and disciplines typically require privacy protections and the consent of individuals with respect to participation in studies or documentation. Restrictions on grounds relating to “morals” should be treated with scepticism and extreme caution. As the Human Rights Committee has noted, “‘limitations ... for the purpose of protecting morals must be based on principles not deriving exclusively from a single tradition’. Any such limitations must be understood in the light of universality of human rights and the principle of non-discrimination.”[[fn:48]] Restrictions on research or other activities relating to public health must be demonstrated to be necessary for the purposes of safeguarding public health and non-discriminatory. Restrictions on research relating to reproductive health, for instance, should be strongly disfavoured and strictly scrutinized to ensure that they are not related to gender-based discrimination or political positions not derived from academic criteria.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "E. Restrictions on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Ibid., para. 32; also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 22 (1993) on the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, para. 8."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0027", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights requires that States parties prohibit by law “propaganda for war” and “advocacy of national, racial and religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence”. Such restrictions on expression must nonetheless comply with the three-part test provided for in article 19 (3).[[fn:49]] It is crucial to note that it is not consistent with article 19 to restrict expression on grounds of “blasphemy” or wounding of religious feelings. Article 20 does not provide grounds for such restrictions, and blasphemy laws can never, on their own, satisfy the requirements of article 19 (3).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "E. Restrictions on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 50."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0028", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Also related to the context of discrimination, it has been found in the past that denial of the facts of the Holocaust may constitute “hate speech” subject to restriction.[[fn:50]] In paragraph 49 of general comment No. 34, the Human Rights Committee seemed to clarify its position, making the following statement:\nLaws that penalize the expression of opinions about historical facts are incompatible with the obligations that the Covenant imposes on States parties in relation to the respect for freedom of opinion and expression. The Covenant does not permit general prohibition of expressions of an erroneous opinion or an incorrect interpretation of past events.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "E. Restrictions on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Human Rights Committee, Faurisson v. France (CCPR/C/58/D/550/1993)."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0029", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. It is understandable that States may wish to restrict expression such as genocide denial, given that “antisemitic expressions of Holocaust denial seek to repudiate or minimize the harrowing historical facts of that systematic murder of 6 million Jews”.[[fn:51]] As a matter of academic freedom and freedom of expression, such work – even if appropriately characterized as pseudoscientific, polemical, advocacy-driven or antisemitic or racist – should be left to the self-governance structures of the academy, while allegations of an individual’s incitement to discrimination or hatred or violence under article 20 should be addressed separately and according to the limitations of article 19 (3).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "E. Restrictions on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "A/74/358, para. 14."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0030", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. In addition, government restrictions relating to historical interpretations are themselves deeply problematic. In 2018, Poland criminalized “whoever publicly and contrary to the facts attributes to the Polish Nation or the Polish State responsibility or co-responsibility for Nazi crimes committed by the German Third Reich … or for other offences constituting crimes against peace, humanity or war crimes, or otherwise grossly diminishes the responsibility of the actual perpetrators of these crimes”.[[fn:52]] While the offence was later decriminalized, such interference with freedom of expression constitutes direct interference with academic freedom.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "E. Restrictions on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Communication No. POL 2/2018, 13 February 2018; also A/74/358, para. 21."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0031", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Threats to academic freedom are often based on, among other things, political, financial, ideological, and/or social and cultural pressure.[[fn:53]] Recent years have shown, among other trends, restrictions on university autonomy and reductions of higher education funding, the use of violence to suppress student protest, and “sexual violence on campuses that put women’s safety at risk in academic scenarios”.[[fn:54]] In such environments, self-censorship increases, with unseen but definite negative impacts on academic freedom.[[fn:55]] While some harms, such as harassment of women academics, may be universal, in other cases, a State’s particular context may characterize the types of threats that interfere with academic freedom. In the following section, the Special Rapporteur categorizes some of the most serious threats to academic freedom worldwide, organizing them according to the requirements for legitimate limitations in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The examples should be taken as illustrative, not exhaustive, and not as final statements on the specific cases or the kind of restriction involved.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "İnan Özdemir Taştan and Aydın Ördek, A Report on Academic Freedoms in Turkey in the Period of the State of Emergency (Ankara, İnsan Hakları Okulu, 2020) (Taştan/Ördek submission), p. 1."}, {"n": 54, "text": "University of Ottawa, Human Rights Research and Education Centre submission, p. 11."}, {"n": 55, "text": "Taştan/Ördek submission, pp. 29–35."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0032", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Legislative frameworks often enable government intervention in academia.[[fn:56]] Such laws may fail to pursue a legitimate aim or to provide for a necessary and proportionate balance between the right to academic freedom and the legitimate aim pursued, as described below. Otherwise, they may fail to meet legality standards through their vagueness and consequent allowance of excessive discretion in enforcement by authorities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "A. Legality: restrictions provided by law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "Hedges submission, p. 1."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0033", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Turkey has proved to be especially hostile to academic freedom. Article 130 of the Constitution of Turkey provides that, while scientific research and publication is guaranteed, “this shall not include the liberty to engage in activities directed against the existence and independence of the State, and against the integrity and indivisibility of the nation and the country”.[[fn:57]] Such terms are excessively vague, with the offensive actions left undefined.[[fn:58]] Indeed, more than 800 accusations against academics have been documented with the judiciary since 2016.[[fn:59]] Beyond those concerns, Turkey adopted Emergency Decree No. 675, which gives the Government excessive discretion to restrict a range of human rights and to interfere with universities and other parts of the education sector. During the Special Rapporteur’s official visit to Turkey in 2016, academics explained the lack of any notice or information as to the cause of their removal. Indeed, thousands of members of the university community and other educators were dismissed from positions, including many teachers of Kurdish origin or with leftist political views. The Government abolished university self-governance, replacing elections with direct appointments of administrators and reportedly requiring class content to be approved by officials. Those steps led to massive institutional and academic disruption while harming individual lives and rights.[[fn:60]] A survey documented by İnsan Hakları Okulu noted growing anxieties among academics. Of the academics surveyed, 92 per cent stated that they felt anxious that they would be the target of an investigation, while 71 per cent said that they felt anxious that they would be detained or arrested.[[fn:61]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "A. Legality: restrictions provided by law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "See www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b5be0.html."}, {"n": 58, "text": "Maat for Peace, Development and Human Rights (Maat) submission, p. 6."}, {"n": 59, "text": "Ibid., p. 8."}, {"n": 60, "text": "See A/HRC/35/22/Add.3."}, {"n": 61, "text": "Ülkü Doğanay and Ozan Değer, Being a Human Rights Academic during the State of Emergency (Ankara, İnsan Hakları Okulu, 2020) (IHO, Doğanay/Değer submission), p. 64."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "130", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0034", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Those are not isolated incidents. The Special Rapporteur has observed how excessive powers among the executive branch worldwide are used to conduct assaults on academic freedom. In Hungary, the 2017 law that forced the Central European University to relocate to Vienna rested on vague restrictions that left the University in doubt that it would be able to function.[[fn:62]] Ultimately, in a move widely understood as resulting from government pressure, the University left Budapest. In 2019, the Administration in Brazil published Decree No. 9,794, which allowed for the executive branch to have broadly worded veto power regarding university authority nominations.[[fn:63]] In 2015, Pakistan re-established its military courts, which were then used to prosecute so-called anti-State individuals, including students and professors.[[fn:64]] Such changes led to accusations against professors, which in turn led to shortages in specific departments.[[fn:65]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "A. Legality: restrictions provided by law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "See Roberts Lyer and Suba, Closing Academic Space, p. 45."}, {"n": 63, "text": "University of Ottawa, Human Rights Research and Education Centre submission, p. 5."}, {"n": 64, "text": "Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 12."}, {"n": 65, "text": "Maat submission, p. 20."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0035", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. It is worth noting further that legislative proposals also have the potential to negatively affect academic freedom, particularly where pressure is exerted by lawmakers themselves. As noted by the human rights organization Article 19, even if there is no direct effect on the legal framework, and if bills are not approved or passed, their mere proposal can create a chilling effect.[[fn:66]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "A. Legality: restrictions provided by law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "Article 19 Brazil submission, executive summary, p. 3."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0036", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Other than the adoption of laws granting excessive competence to restrict academic freedom, restrictions are often implemented for unlawful purposes or with unlawful ulterior motives. This is exemplified in a case of the Human Rights Committee, Aduayom et al. v. Togo, which concerned two teachers at the University of Benin who were arrested on the grounds of lèse-majesté. Even though both were later released and the charges dropped, they were unsuccessful in their requests for reinstatement in their prior posts. The men alleged that the refusal to reinstate them was motivated by the dropped charges “for having carried, read or disseminated documents that contained no more than an assessment of Togolese politics, either at the domestic or foreign policy level”. The Committee was of the view that the denial of reinstatement was motivated by the charges and, in finding a violation of article 19 of the Covenant, held that the justification for those charges did not meet any of the legitimate aims exhaustively listed in article 19 (3).[[fn:67]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, Aduayom et al. v. Togo (CCPR/C/57/D/422/1990, CCPR/C/57/D/423/1990 and CCPR/C/57/D/424/1990)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0037", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The politicization of school programmes and curricula erodes institutional autonomy and academic freedom. Such regulation of what is presented in the classroom is a trend seen in many countries. In the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, both public and private universities face government restrictions regarding the creation of new academic programmes.[[fn:68]] Typically, those interventions include the requirement to promote ideological views as part of the academic programmes, as seen, for instance, in Belarus, China and Cuba.[[fn:69]] Such bans on disfavoured subjects are used to impose specific political agendas[[fn:70]] and are often implemented through textbook indoctrination. In India, a teacher was dismissed for showing anti-national films in class.[[fn:71]] Some countries, such as the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, have seen ideological indoctrination go as far as the creation of universities as entities for the purpose of social control. The Bolivarian University of Venezuela is such an entity, with a government ministry controlling all appointments and curricula content.[[fn:72]] The common thread in all such approaches is that they serve to restrict academic freedom, and freedom of expression, without pursuing a lawful purpose as stipulated in article 19 (3) of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions", "Institutional autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 68, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 7."}, {"n": 69, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 70, "text": "Taştan/Ördek submission, p. 111."}, {"n": 71, "text": "Nandini Sundar, Delhi University, “Academic freedom in India: a status report”, 2020 (Sundar submission), p. 12."}, {"n": 72, "text": "University of Ottawa, Human Rights Research and Education Centre submission, pp. 5–6."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0038", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Restrictions on the content of speech, whether through criminalization or the labelling of certain topics as immoral, close such topics for academic discussion and render them taboo by the State.[[fn:73]] In Pakistan, blasphemy charges have been used against both progressive students and university professors, who as a consequence, face the death penalty.[[fn:74]] Another trend is the adoption of measures to enforce such restrictions, including mandatory training for university faculty regarding the advancement of ideological frameworks. That functions as a general promotion of nationalist and anti-cultural norms. Such advancement is displayed in different ways. In Pakistan, there is condemnation of any discussion that is deemed “anti-Pakistan” or “anti-cultural”,[[fn:75]] whereas in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, the State controls policies to ensure programmes that support “state-sanctioned socialist ideological frameworks”.[[fn:76]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions", "Institutional autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "Doğanay/Değer submission, p. 30."}, {"n": 74, "text": "Minority Rights Group International and Sustainable Development Policy Institute, Searching for Security: The Rising Marginalization of Religious Communities in Pakistan (London, 2014); and Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 5."}, {"n": 75, "text": "Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 7."}, {"n": 76, "text": "Roberts Lyer and Suba, Closing Academic Space, p. 84."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0039", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. External interference in the selection, appointment and dismissal of leadership and professors in academic institutions ultimately constitutes a restriction on academic freedom often based on grounds that are neither academic nor rooted in article 19 (3). Hungary has implemented a State system for appointing senior academics. The Prime Minister-appointed chancellor of a university controls staffing and appointments. Those appointments are validated by the relevant ministry and confirmed by the President.[[fn:77]] Similarly, in Turkey, institutional autonomy was removed when the election of school administrators was delegated to the Higher Education Council. The Council has the power to both terminate and employ faculty members.[[fn:78]] The new hiring criteria erode the “academic traditions” of Turkey by employing faculty who “follow a certain ideolog[y]” without necessarily “having any academic qualifications”.[[fn:79]] In Azerbaijan, Egypt, Iran (Islamic Republic of) and Pakistan, dismissals have allegedly been based on religious and political affiliations.[[fn:80]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions", "Institutional autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 77, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 8."}, {"n": 78, "text": "Taştan/Ördek submission, p. 9."}, {"n": 79, "text": "Ibid., p. 125."}, {"n": 80, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 8; and Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 8."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0040", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Management of admissions, scholarship distribution and curricula is a third means by which State interference and restrictions on institutional autonomy often are implemented without lawful aims. Notably, these trends seem to overlap with the targeting of religious groups and gender. In Bahrain, scholarship distribution has been linked to religious affiliation.[[fn:81]] Religious association and its importance in school applications are also seen elsewhere. Pakistan requires a declaration of religious affiliation on school application forms for both public and private institutions. Muslim students have to declare their belief in the Prophet Muhammad, and non-Muslim students must receive verification of their religious affiliation from the local community.[[fn:82]] Political interference in admissions has been seen across the board in other countries, such as Uzbekistan[[fn:83]] and Nigeria.[[fn:84]] Such control over the size and composition of student bodies “affects the range of views expressed at universities”.[[fn:85]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions", "Institutional autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 8."}, {"n": 82, "text": "Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 8."}, {"n": 83, "text": "World Bank, Uzbekistan: Modernizing Tertiary Education (2014), p. 60; and International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, pp. 8–9."}, {"n": 84, "text": "Bakwaph Peter Kanyib, “Admission crisis in Nigerian universities: the challenges youth and parents face in seeking admission”, PhD dissertation, Seton Hall University, 2013, pp. 101 and 107–110; and International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 8."}, {"n": 85, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 8."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0041", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The willingness of universities to submit to public pressure can erode academic freedom and freedom of expression.[[fn:86]] In the United States of America, pressure from the public or from students has led to disciplinary reviews of academics, and in some instances, has even resulted in them being barred from campus.[[fn:87]] Broadly speaking, such a dynamic may lead to a culture of repression and self-censorship, where restrictive measures against academic staff are guided by outside pressure rather than academic achievements and activities. In other States, there is evidence that students themselves are recruited to become a source of threat to academics owing to their ability and, in some cases, willingness to report academics who discuss ideas that are deemed unacceptable.[[fn:88]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions", "Institutional autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 86, "text": "Foundation for Individual Rights in Education submission, p. 3."}, {"n": 87, "text": "Ibid., p. 4."}, {"n": 88, "text": "Doğanay/Değer submission, p. 57."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0042", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The right to freedom of opinion and expression must be respected “without distinction of any kind” (see art. 2 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights). Members of some groups, however, often face particular discrimination when it comes to the implementation of restrictions on expression. In Turkey, many university administrations, on the instructions of the Higher Educational Council, took disciplinary actions against the thousands of academics who signed a “peace petition” condemning the State security operations in cities in south-east Turkey,[[fn:89]] including dismissing signatories from their positions.[[fn:90]] Other signatories were prosecuted, arrested and banned from public employment and from foreign travel.[[fn:91]] In the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, individuals expressing political opinions critical of the Government have been excluded from scholarships,[[fn:92]] expelled or subjected to disciplinary procedures.[[fn:93]] Likewise, students in India have been expelled or excluded from scholarships in retaliation for dissent.[[fn:94]] Restrictions on expression also reach student organizations and activities.[[fn:95]] In Brazil, an elected State representative invited students via social media to film their classes to catch “political-partisan or ideological” behaviour of teachers, and to establish an anonymous telephone line for students and members of the public to denounce “ideological professors and indoctrinators” at universities.[[fn:96]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions", "Discriminatory treatment"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "Communication No. TUR 3/2016, 31 March 2016; and Government’s reply, 17 May 2016."}, {"n": 90, "text": "See A/HRC/35/22/Add.3."}, {"n": 91, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 6; and Maat submission, pp. 7–8."}, {"n": 92, "text": "Roberts Lyer and Suba, Closing Academic Space, p. 93; and Aula Abierta submission, pp. 1–3."}, {"n": 93, "text": "Aula Abierta submission, pp. 81–83."}, {"n": 94, "text": "Sundar submission, p. 11."}, {"n": 95, "text": "Taştan/Ördek submission, p. 130."}, {"n": 96, "text": "Rachael Pells, “Brazilian academics vow to resist threats to freedom”, Times Higher Education, 26 November 2018; HRREC submission, p. 10; and Article 19 Brazil submission, p. 2."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "2", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0043", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Intervention inside the classroom often targets minority groups, particularly religious minorities, and women. Specific targeting of those belonging to certain religious populations is a trend noted in societies that limit academic freedom. For example, members of the Hazara Shia Muslim population in Balochistan Province, Pakistan, have experienced difficulty in gaining access to education. There is also “a chilling effect on the ability of girls and women to access education”; girls who are part of Shia families have often had to leave school.[[fn:97]] In Pakistan, women are supposedly obligated to comply with a strict dress code in the name of promotion of culture and ethics, as well as with other practices that perpetuate gender inequality.[[fn:98]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions", "Discriminatory treatment"], "footnotes": [{"n": 97, "text": "Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 5."}, {"n": 98, "text": "Human Rights Watch, ‘“Shall I feed my daughter, or educate her?’ Barrier to girl’s education in Pakistan”, 18 November 2018; and Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 11."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0044", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. The criminalization of or retaliatory disciplinary procedures against academics for their activities “can have a serious chilling effect on the autonomy of higher education institutions”[[fn:99]] and the “applicable meaning of academic pursuit”.[[fn:100]] Those who continue to work in universities under threat of loss of autonomy lose belief in their work. Dismissal of academics who continue their work leads to a “shrinking of research areas”.[[fn:101]] For example, in Turkey, discussion of Kurdish conflicts and state of emergency laws led to individuals being blacklisted. Thus, most academic work in that area was halted.[[fn:102]] Blacklisting, in turn, bars academics in Turkey from publishing research, attending conferences and undertaking foreign travel.[[fn:103]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions", "Penalties and disciplinary action for activities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 99, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 6."}, {"n": 100, "text": "Doğanay/Değer submission, p. 52, quoting an interview respondent."}, {"n": 101, "text": "Taştan/Ördek submission, executive summary, p. 2."}, {"n": 102, "text": "Ibid., p. 72."}, {"n": 103, "text": "Ibid., pp. 67–69."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0045", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Students and academics alike are also often targets of direct attacks by the State without any lawful justification. Such attacks include threats, violence and arbitrary deprivation of liberty. Matthew Hedges, a citizen of the United Kingdom and a doctoral student, was detained by the authorities of the United Arab Emirates for seven months owing to his fieldwork research.[[fn:104]] He was coerced into making an admission to espionage under torture and solitary confinement.[[fn:105]] In June 2020, police officers reportedly beat and arrested dozens of students in Balochistan Province, Pakistan, during a non-violent protest demanding the Internet access necessary for online classes.[[fn:106]] In the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, unidentified individuals released tear gas during a class at the Central University of Venezuela Law School in an apparent effort to prevent students from discussing the impact of a judicial decision on university autonomy.[[fn:107]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions", "Targeted violence against students and academics"], "footnotes": [{"n": 104, "text": "Hedges submission, p. 1."}, {"n": 105, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 106, "text": "Scholars at Risk, Academic Freedom Monitoring Project Index database, date of incident 24 June 2020. Available at www.scholarsatrisk.org/report/2020-06-24-various-institutions/."}, {"n": 107, "text": "Scholars at Risk, Academic Freedom Monitoring Project Index database, date of incident 12 February 2020. Available at www.scholarsatrisk.org/report/2020-02-12-central-university-of-venezuela/."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0046", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. As shown above, many restrictions involve more than one ground of non-compliance with the requirements of article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Where that is the case, the restrictive measure is often assessed under the tests of necessity and proportionality. Restrictions are often unsuitable and improper for achieving the legitimate aim, fail to use less restrictive means available to the Government or simply constitute excessive interference in the right to academic freedom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0047", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. In Bangladesh, government approval is required for certain historical publications.[[fn:108]] In Viet Nam, professors “must refrain from criticising government policies and adhere to party views when teaching or writing on political topics”.[[fn:109]] In Jordan, the university administration must obtain approval for all “research papers, forums, reading materials, movies, [and] seminars”.[[fn:110]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality", "Prior censorship"], "footnotes": [{"n": 108, "text": "Roberts Lyer and Suba, Closing Academic Space, p. 6."}, {"n": 109, "text": "Freedom House, report on Viet Nam, 2017."}, {"n": 110, "text": "Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 10; and Roberts Lyer and Suba, Closing Academic Space, pp. 6–7."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0048", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. State assertions that national security or public order justifies interference with personal security and privacy are common in cases of surveillance of personal communications, encryption and anonymity.[[fn:111]] Surveillance and monitoring of speech and movement lead to restrictions on academic freedom and a culture of self-censorship. Random monitoring of reading materials and research causes academics not to pursue their necessary work.[[fn:112]] There is often additional monitoring of those belonging to specific religious groups, as well as gendered surveillance. Broadly speaking, the ideology that the State strives to maintain results in surveillance and monitoring of opinions about the Government. In Ethiopia, a pattern of surveillance and arbitrary arrest of Oromo university students was reported. In Togo, Uganda and Zimbabwe, some lectures have allegedly been surveilled by security officials.[[fn:113]] Surveillance and monitoring of women have also been a trend in restricting academic freedom and freedom of expression. Such monitoring, in particular through the use of closed-circuit television, may extend to blackmail of students, with videos showing women sitting in class or talking to a man. Organizations have reported cases “where girls had claimed that teachers and members of the administration had asked for sexual favours or money in return for not sharing videos with their families”.[[fn:114]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality", "Surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "See A/HRC/29/32 and A/71/373."}, {"n": 112, "text": "Taştan/Ördek submission, p. 117."}, {"n": 113, "text": "Roberts Lyer and Suba, Closing Academic Space, pp. 102–103."}, {"n": 114, "text": "Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 11."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0049", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Restrictions on certain research topics may entail “limited access to libraries, restrictions on the publication of and research about certain topics, intellectual property restrictions and limitations on the ability of academics to collaborate internationally”.[[fn:115]] In 2018, the Government of Hungary distributed a directive to all universities indicating that it would no longer certify or provide funding for any programmes or courses in gender studies.[[fn:116]] The Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism of the Republic of Korea has requested the Korean National University of Arts to concentrate solely on “practical education”.[[fn:117]] In Brazil, some municipalities have enacted laws, while in hundreds of others, bills are under consideration, specifically prohibiting schools from addressing gender and sexuality issues.[[fn:118]] In Japan, the authorities have influenced the preparation of school textbooks relating to historical events, in particular with regard to the participation of Japan in the Second World War and the issue of “comfort women”. Influence ranges from the inclusion of a disclaimer indicating the contrary view of the Government that there was no forcible taking of women to editing out references to “comfort women”.[[fn:119]] In Pakistan, some textbooks are published under government supervision and paint a picture of history that is intended to reinforce a certain ideology and political orientation.[[fn:120]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality", "Undermining the right of access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 115, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 6."}, {"n": 116, "text": "Communication No. HUN 6/2018, 12 September 2018."}, {"n": 117, "text": "See E/C.12/KOR/CO/3."}, {"n": 118, "text": "Article 19 Brazil submission, p. 3; and communication No. BRA 4/2017, 13 April 2017."}, {"n": 119, "text": "See A/HRC/35/22/Add.1."}, {"n": 120, "text": "Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 2; and Afnan Khan, “The threat of Pakistan’s revisionist texts”, Guardian, 18 May 2009."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0050", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Some university professors have seen their academic freedom restricted by the denial of access to information requests necessary for their academic research. For example, Immigration and Customs Enforcement and Cowlitz County, Washington, in the United States refused to provide to a professor and researcher of the University of Washington information regarding juvenile detention centres holding children without supervision. Cowlitz County provided incomplete information and filed a motion for declaratory judgment against the University and the professor personally. Immigration and Customs Enforcement requested that the case be heard by a federal court, and responded that the information requested was confidential under federal law, despite state regulations to the contrary.[[fn:121]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality", "Undermining the right of access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 121, "text": "Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression, Annual Report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 2019, vol. II: Annual Report of the Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression, OEA/Ser.L/V/II. Doc. 5 (2020), para. 672."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0051", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Governments have also disrupted Internet and telecommunications services in the name of national security and public order. Such disruptions include the shutdown of entire networks, the blocking of websites and platforms, and the suspension of telecommunications and mobile services. Since August 2019, the Government of India has imposed a near-total communications blackout in Jammu and Kashmir, with Internet access, mobile phone networks, cable and television channels cut off.[[fn:122]] That situation has affected the education system and research by scholars. Following a Supreme Court ruling in January 2020 in which the Government was ordered to restore the Internet, it brought back only a second-generation network.[[fn:123]] The situation in Kashmir has been aggravated by the effects of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic on education systems. The pandemic has had a massive impact on the education of children and young people worldwide and has widened existing gaps.[[fn:124]] The Special Rapporteur on the right to education has warned States that exclusion prior to and during the pandemic exists “against a backdrop of entrenched, recognized structural inequality”.[[fn:125]] She highlighted that the excessive reliance on online distance-learning tools to address the continuity of education had exacerbated those inequalities. According to UNESCO, “half of the total number of learners – some 826 million students – kept out of the classroom by the COVID-19 pandemic, do not have access to a household computer and 43 per cent (706 million) have no Internet at home”.[[fn:126]] In addition, many Governments do not have the policies, resources or infrastructure to roll out a fully inclusive transition to online learning, particularly when it is accompanied by a technology-heavy response.[[fn:127]]", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality", "Internet access"], "footnotes": [{"n": 122, "text": "OHCHR, “UN rights experts urge India to end communications shutdown in Kashmir”, 22 August 2019."}, {"n": 123, "text": "Sundar submission, p. 18."}, {"n": 124, "text": "Elin Martínez, “COVID-19 reveals global need to improve education systems”, Human Rights Watch, 13 July 2020."}, {"n": 125, "text": "A/HRC/44/39, para. 80."}, {"n": 126, "text": "UNESCO, “Startling digital divides in distance learning emerge”, 21 April 2020."}, {"n": 127, "text": "Martínez, “COVID-19 reveals global need to improve education systems”."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0052", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. One form of restriction on academic freedom is the restriction or suppression of peaceful protests. Students who participate in protests are subject to exclusion from scholarships, criminalization, the physical presence and interventions of security forces on university campuses, arrest, detention, ill-treatment, extrajudicial killing and trial in military courts.[[fn:128]] Governments often use public protest and civil unrest as a justification to pass and enforce laws that control and monitor students and interfere with institutional autonomy, which limits academic freedom.[[fn:129]] In Egypt, thousands of students were imprisoned following a protest in reaction to the 2013 coup.[[fn:130]] The physical presence and interventions of security forces on university campuses and during protests organized or led by students or in which a large number of students participate have been documented in many countries. Students from Chile, Colombia, Honduras and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) who organized or participated in protests faced violent and disproportionate responses from law enforcement.[[fn:131]] Police and military forces in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela “have repressed student protests with excessive force” and “the situation has been worsening since 2013, but more dramatically in 2014 and 2017”.[[fn:132]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality", "Restrictions on the right to protest"], "footnotes": [{"n": 128, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, summary, p. 8"}, {"n": 129, "text": "Taştan/Ördek submission, p. 10; and Elizka Relief Foundation submission, p. 3."}, {"n": 130, "text": "Roberts Lyer and Suba, Closing Academic Space, p. 8."}, {"n": 131, "text": "Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Democratic Institutions, the Rule of Law and Human Rights in Venezuela: Country Report, OEA/Ser.L/V/II. Doc. 209/17 (2017); InterAmerican Commission on Human Rights, Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression, Protest and Human Rights: Standards on the Rights Involved in Social Protest and the Obligations to Guide the Response of the State, OEA/Ser L/V/II CIDH/RELE/INF.22/19 (2019); Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, “IACHR issues preliminary observations and recommendations following on-site visit to Chile”, 31 January 2020; and University of Ottawa, Human Rights Research and Education Centre submission, p. 6."}, {"n": 132, "text": "Mayda Gabriela Hocevar, David Augusto Gómez and Nelson Jose Rivas, “Threats to academic freedom in Venezuela: legislative impositions and patterns of discrimination towards university teachers and students”, Interdisciplinary Political Studies, vol. 3, No. 1 (2017)."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0053", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Travel restrictions form a constraint on freedom of expression, freedom of movement and freedom to share knowledge and collaborate with others. Examples include Egyptian faculty members requiring security clearance and approval from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Higher Education to travel abroad.[[fn:133]] Likewise, in India, it is difficult to obtain research visas: faculty members must “apply for ‘permission to leave the country’, at least six weeks in advance” if they want to attend conferences abroad, even if the conferences are taking place during their vacation time.[[fn:134]] The African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights acknowledged the importance of freedom of expression for the fulfilment of academic freedom in Good v. Republic of Botswana.[[fn:135]] The Commission held that Botswana had violated the academic’s rights by deporting him after he had published a paper unfavourable to the Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality", "Travel restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 133, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 7."}, {"n": 134, "text": "Sundar submission, p. 16."}, {"n": 135, "text": "Communication No. 313/05, 26 May 2010."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0054", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Restrictions on academic freedom are both ancient tools to limit the sharing of information and knowledge and the questioning of received wisdom, and contemporary tools to repress information and ideas that Governments often find threatening. Yet, without academic freedom, all societies lose one of the essential elements of democratic self-governance: the capacity for self-reflection, for knowledge generation and for a constant search for improvements of people’s lives and social conditions. As the Special Rapporteur has sought to show, academic freedom depends upon a range of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. The Special Rapporteur focused especially on the freedom of expression aspects of academic freedom, a freedom that is best understood as one that crosses boundaries of rights and borders. In particular, threats to academic freedom – threats to questioning – must be confronted, whether the threat derives from State behaviour or social pressure. The current global pandemic highlights for all the importance of the development and sharing of all sorts of ideas and information, regardless of frontiers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0055", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The Special Rapporteur makes the recommendations below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0056", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. State approaches to academic freedom should be rooted in the critical importance of academic pursuits, academic communities and academic participants to democratic society, individual freedom, human progress and problem-solving. States should ensure that they recognize that vital importance by refraining from attacks on academic institutions and those who constitute academic communities, and by protecting them from attacks – insulating them from assault – by third parties. That means, at a minimum:\n(a) Reviewing and, where necessary, revising national laws and policies to ensure the protection of academic freedom. Any laws relating to academic institutions should recognize that restrictions often result in limitations to fundamental rights, including the freedom of opinion and expression. As a result, any such rules must meet the strict conditions laid down for restrictions on expression;\n(b) Avoiding the use of tools of coercion, such as funding cuts, prosecution or denial of tax benefits, in order to pressure academic institutions to carry out or to avoid certain kinds of research. At the same time, public support for academic institutions, including through government funding and grant opportunities, signals valuable support to third party actors;\n(c) Refraining from penalizing academic institutions and members of academic communities for their extramural activities. All too often, academics are targeted for their public perception as sceptics and objective knowledge-seekers, especially when they engage in public debate. Governments must refrain from such targeting not only because it interferes with freedom of expression, but also because such targeting has a chilling effect on academic communities;\n(d) Recognizing that an academic work product involves not only expression but also, often, freedom of opinion that cannot be subject to any interference;\n(e) Ensuring the institutional autonomy of universities, research institutes and other bodies that constitute the academic community. The recognition of such autonomy includes recognition of the special autonomous space of academic campuses and the importance of allowing that space to be a vibrant space for the exercise of the rights to expression, protest and other fundamental freedoms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0057", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. The monitoring bodies of the United Nations and global treaties may seem to be marginal to the pursuit of academic freedom. They are not. The human rights mechanisms, such as the Human Rights Council, should ensure that the universal periodic review and other reviews of State compliance with human rights law include consideration of academic freedom. Treaty bodies should seek out cases of academic freedom and, when reviewing them, be sure to characterize interferences not only as a specific type of violation (e.g., of freedom of expression) but as a violation of academic freedom itself.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for international organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0058", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Academic institutions, when assured of institutional autonomy and self-governance, take on special roles within societies, which see them as places to educate the coming generations of thinkers, leaders and bureaucratic and business elites among others. Self-governance means ensuring that, within the space for academic freedom, institutions also act in ways that reflect those roles. In particular, academic institutions must:\n(a) Respect the rights of all members of their communities, including faculty, students, researchers, staff, administrators and outsiders who participate in academic pursuits. That respect must include the right of all members to freedom of opinion and expression, including peaceful protest on academic premises;\n(b) Ensure that members of academic communities have protection against coercion by third parties, whether the State or groups in society. This requires, in particular, institutions to stand up for members of their communities who face attack or restriction owing to the exercise of their academic freedom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for academic institutions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0059", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. Members of civil society, especially members of academic communities and their advocates, are encouraged to articulate claims of violation of academic freedom, taking into account the findings in the present report. In particular, those who believe that their rights to academic freedom have been subjected to unwarranted interference are encouraged to bring their claims to the attention of the special procedure mandate holders of the Human Rights Council, UNESCO, relevant human rights treaty bodies and other regional and international bodies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Recommendation for civil society"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report, submitted pursuant to Commission on Human Rights resolution 2002/48, is the first report by Mr. Ambeyi Ligabo (Kenya), Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, who was appointed on 26 August 2002. The mandate was established by the Commission in its resolution 1993/45. Section I of the report contains the terms of reference of and methods of work for the discharge of his mandate. Section II presents an account of the activities undertaken within the framework of his mandate since his appointment. Section III deals with a number of issues which the Special Rapporteur considers to be important for the development of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Lastly, section IV contains the conclusions and recommendations of the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The Special Rapporteur refers to the reports of his predecessor,[[fn:1]] in which the terms of reference and methods of work under the mandate were defined, and endorses them. With respect to communications with Governments, the Special Rapporteur has decided that he would send urgent action letters for the attention of Governments to which he has formally requested an invitation for a visit only in exceptional circumstances.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["Introduction", "I. TERMS OF REFERENCE AND METHODS OF WORK"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "In particular his first and second reports to the Commission on Human Rights, E/CN.4/1994/33 and E/CN.4/1995/32."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. In this respect, the Special Rapporteur would like to emphasize that, while considering both the general situation as well as individual cases as regards the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, he intends to develop close cooperation with Governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) as well as all other relevant organizations and institutions, in order to seek and receive credible and reliable information which in his view is essential for the discharge of his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["Introduction", "I. TERMS OF REFERENCE AND METHODS OF WORK"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The structure of the present report follows the same lines as the last report submitted by his predecessor, with the summaries of communications with Governments in a separate document (E/CN.4/2003/67/Add.1). The main body of issues addressed in this report includes an analysis of programmes and policies with respect to access to information for the purposes of education on, and prevention of HIV/AIDS; an emphasis on the importance of safeguarding human rights, and in particular the right to freedom of opinion and expression, while adopting and implementing counter-terrorism measures; and, as in previous years, a number of trends on the situation of freedom of opinion and expression identified through an analysis of communications received by the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["Introduction", "I. TERMS OF REFERENCE AND METHODS OF WORK"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Please refer to document E/CN.4/2003/67/Add.1.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Communications with Governments"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The Special Rapporteur issued on 24 October 2002 a joint press release with the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, Mr. Doudou Diène, on the situation in Côte d’Ivoire.[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Press releases"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "These press releases may be consulted on the OHCHR web site: www.ohchr.org."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. On 10 December 2002, the Special Rapporteur made a joint declaration with the Representative on freedom of the media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression of the Organization of American States (OAS), on “Freedom of expression and administration of justice, freedom of expression and commercialization, and criminal defamation”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. It should be noted that on 19 April 2002, the former Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Mr. Abid Hussain, issued a joint press release with the Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, Mr. Juan Miguel Petit.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. On 1 July 2002, the Special Rapporteur sent a note verbale to all Member States drawing their attention to paragraph 20 of Commission on Human Rights resolution 2002/48 in which the Commission invited States “to submit to the Special Rapporteur comments on their programmes and policies with respect to access to information for the purposes of education on and prevention of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection” and invited “the Special Rapporteur, within the framework of his mandate, to consider these comments with a view to sharing best practices”. This note verbale followed upon a similar note verbale of 7 June 2001, sent in response to paragraph 13 of Commission resolution 2001/47.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Requests for information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the Governments of the following countries which have submitted information: Argentina, Canada, Cuba, Czech Republic, Dominica, Estonia, Germany, Guatemala, Guinea, Italy, Kuwait, Lebanon, Malaysia, Mauritius, Mexico, Monaco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Slovenia, Thailand, Togo and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. (For an analysis of these contributions, see section III. B of the present report.)", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Requests for information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. The Special Rapporteur considers that carrying out country visits is one of the essential elements of his mandate, enabling him to examine in situ the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. He therefore calls upon Governments to cooperate with him in that regard.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["D. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. From 1 to 7 December 2002, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Equatorial Guinea (E/CN.4/2003/67/Add.2).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Visit undertaken during the year"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Invitations to undertake visits to Sri Lanka, Egypt and Guatemala during 2002 were extended to the former Special Rapporteur by the Governments of these countries, and preparations were under way for his visit to Sri Lanka. However, in light of the uncertainty as to the end of tenure of the former Special Rapporteur’s mandate (on 26 July 2002), the mission could not take place.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Visit undertaken during the year"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Since his appointment, the Special Rapporteur has received invitations to visit Equatorial Guinea and the Islamic Republic of Iran. He would like to thank those Governments for their cooperation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Invitations received and requests for invitations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. In addition, the Special Rapporteur has requested invitations to visit the following countries: Angola, China, Colombia, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Russian Federation and Viet Nam. The Special Rapporteur regrets that invitations have not so far been received from those countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Invitations received and requests for invitations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. In carrying out his mandate, the Special Rapporteur intends to cooperate closely with other geographic and thematic special procedures mandate-holders, the treaty bodies and human rights field operations of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). He also intends to continue and develop the collaboration with the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media and the OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression, as well as with the Programme for Freedom of Expression, Democracy and Peace of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["E. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Although he has not yet had the time to study in-depth the interlinkages between their respective activities and his mandate and to explore possible paths of cooperation, the Special Rapporteur will endeavour to work with other departments, agencies and organizations of the United Nations system, including United Nations country teams, as well as with regional intergovernmental organizations concerned with the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["E. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The Special Rapporteur undertook his first consultation mission in Geneva from 21 to 23 October 2002, during which he met with the Permanent Representatives of China, Indonesia, the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Russian Federation and Zimbabwe and with members of the Group of Western European and other States (“Western Group”) during a meeting organized by the Permanent Mission of Canada. The Special Rapporteur also met with a number of NGOs, and received briefings on the activities of the United Nations human rights programme from OHCHR staff. He also had the opportunity to meet with the High Commissioner for Human Rights and discuss the breadth and impact of his mandate and its integration in the United Nations human rights agenda, as well as his methods of work.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["E. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. A meeting was organized in London by Article 19, on 9 and 10 December 2002, which brought together the United Nations Special Rapporteur for freedom of opinion and expression, the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media, and the OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom\nof expression. It was the fourth time that the three mechanisms had met, and this year the themes selected for an exchange of views were “Freedom of expression and the administration of justice”, “Commercial pressures on the media” and “Criminal defamation”. A joint declaration was issued at the end of this meeting.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["E. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "This declaration may be consulted on the OHCHR web site: www.ohchr.org."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. As the activities of the former Special Rapporteur during 2002 are concerned, he visited Geneva from 4 to 8 April 2002 for consultations and to present his report to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-eighth session. During this visit, he met with the delegations of Canada, Mexico, Egypt and Sri Lanka, and participated in a meeting with the Western Group. He also had the opportunity to meet with representatives of a number of international, regional and local NGOs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["E. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The former Special Rapporteur also gave a keynote speech on the occasion of the celebration on 3 May 2002 in Manila of World Press Freedom Day organized by the UNESCO Programme for Freedom of Expression, Democracy and Peace, which followed a two-day conference focusing on the theme “Media and terrorism”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["E. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Finally, the former Special Rapporteur attended the ninth meeting of the special rapporteurs/representatives, independent experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures and advisory services programme of the Commission on Human Rights, held in Geneva from 24 to 28 June 2002.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["E. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. As in previous years, the Special Rapporteur has analysed the nature of the communications received in order to highlight trends and bring to the attention of the international community a number of policies, practices, incidents and measures having a negative impact on respect for the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur hopes that the identification of such trends will help concerned Governments to review existing practices and take remedial actions and, as appropriate, to seek technical assistance from OHCHR in order to eliminate the causes of such violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. As was the case during previous years, the communications brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur were from a variety of sources (international, regional, national and local NGOs; associations of media professionals; trade unions; members of political parties) and from all regions of the world. The Special Rapporteur would like to thank all of them for the information and documentation provided, and underlines that these are essential to the discharge of his mandate. He encourages members and organizations of civil society to continue to provide him with information on the realization and violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression around the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The Special Rapporteur notes that a large number of allegations continue to refer to the following situations: internal armed conflict; civil unrest; situations where the legal and institutional protections and guarantees of human rights are circumscribed to a greater or lesser\ndegree or where the legal and institutional protections and guarantees exist but are not properly implemented. The Special Rapporteur also notes that the communications received are not confined to alleged violations in such situations, but also to alleged violations occurring in emerging or long-established democracies.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. However, it should be underlined that the nature of the alleged violations varied depending on the level of respect for the rule of law and good governance in a society, going from killings, arbitrary arrest and detention, threats and harassment, criminal charges and sentencing to prison terms for libel or defamation, to various types of judicial and administrative measures limiting the freedom of the media, individuals, groups or organizations endeavouring to express themselves freely.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. The Special Rapporteur wishes to underline that the international community’s awareness of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, of its principles and of the need to secure them in laws and regulations in order to protect this right and ensure its effective exercise seems to be increasing. Declarations and principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, on freedom of the press, and on the right to information are being adopted by many intergovernmental as well as non-governmental organizations in various parts of the world. In this respect, the Special Rapporteur would like to make specific mention of the “Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa”, adopted on 23 October 2002 by the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights at its thirty-second Ordinary Session held in Banjul.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The Declaration reaffirmed “the fundamental importance of freedom of expression as an individual human right as a cornerstone of democracy and as a means of ensuring respect for all human rights and freedoms”. It is based on, and aimed at evaluating States’ compliance with article 9 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, places the right to freedom of expression in an African context, underlining in particular the importance in Africa of the broadcast media, especially radio broadcasting, and underlines the key role of the media in ensuring full respect for freedom of expression and its various components. It also addresses obstacles to freedom of expression, freedom of information, private and public broadcasting and the print media, as well as positive measures that States should adopt to overcome these obstacles.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "9", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 9 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights' — African regional treaty not in the allowed list."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. However, despite this perceived and welcome increase in consciousness about the importance of the effective exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in ensuring democracy and promoting respect for all human rights, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that, in general, adequate steps towards better protection of this right have not yet been taken universally. This is particularly obvious when analysing the increasing number of communications sent to the Special Rapporteur, reporting on continuing violations to freedom of opinion and expression in all regions of the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. With these points in mind, the Special Rapporteur directs the attention of Governments to the following general trends, and strongly urges them to take all appropriate action, consistent with the standards set out in the International Bill of Human Rights and related international and regional instruments, to eliminate the violations themselves and their causes and negative consequences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. A majority of cases received by the Special Rapporteur have continued to relate to violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression of media professionals. The Special Rapporteur wishes to emphasize however, that the right to freedom of opinion and expression is not restricted to editors, journalists and other media professionals, although respect for their freedom to express themselves and to seek and impart information is clear evidence of a society in which all human rights are respected. Similar violations also occur, although they seem to be less reported upon, in relation to political groups and members of opposition political parties, associations defending various rights and interests, human rights defenders, judges and lawyers, students, academics, trade unionists, persons participating in strikes or otherwise demonstrating, peasants, members of religious and indigenous minorities, authors, cartoonists and, more generally, all individuals and groups seeking to express their opinions freely and to seek and impart information.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. The Special Rapporteur notes that the number of journalists killed, arrested and imprisoned is still very high, although the number of reported killings of journalists seems to have decreased in 2002, and that many journalists working in conflict areas have been specifically targeted by belligerents - killed, wounded, arrested and detained, intimidated, harassed and threatened, prevented from access to certain areas, had their press cards confiscated, expelled from, or forbidden entry to, certain countries. The Special Rapporteur is extremely concerned about such situations, in particular as he strongly believes that independent reporting on conflict situations by journalists constitutes a guarantee and a safeguard against the worst forms of abuse and of impunity of armed forces and groups.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. As has been the case in the past, in a large number of instances, national security and the “argument of necessity” continue to be frequently used by authorities in a number of countries to silence and/or to take punitive action against those who have exercised their right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The Special Rapporteur deems it important to underline that since the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001, the arguments of national security and necessity have been supplemented by the argument of the fight against terrorism, which is more and more frequently resorted to by the authorities in many countries to infringe - through, inter alia, the adoption of restrictive laws, arrest, detention, censorship, bans, surveillance of and restrictions on publications or the use of the Internet - the right to freedom of opinion and expression, in particular for journalists, members of political opposition groups and parties and human rights defenders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The Special Rapporteur notes with concern that, despite repeated appeals by many NGOs and media professionals’ associations, as well as specific and comprehensive recommendations by his predecessor,[[fn:4]] an important number of communications referring to criminal charges against media professionals for libel or defamation, leading very often to prison sentences, have been brought to his attention, as well as cases of prohibitive fines for libel levied against media professionals and newspapers. The Special Rapporteur would like in this context to recall that the principle of proportionality must be observed when charges are brought against media professionals and others, in order not to undermine the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and make it an empty shell.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See E/CN.4/1999/64, paras. 24-28 and E/CN.4/2000/63, paras. 45-52."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. While the Special Rapporteur recognizes that, as enshrined in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, there are permissible limitations to the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, in particular when it comes to respecting the rights and reputation of others, States should bear in mind that the principle of proportionality should be observed in restricting the exercise of the right to freedom of expression. In particular, it is the view of the Special Rapporteur that the sentencing to a prison term for libel or defamation is clearly not a proportionate penalty in this regard.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. In the world now, there are 40 million people living with HIV/AIDS, including 5 million new infections during 2001 alone, and, according to UNAIDS, the epidemic is still in its early stages.[[fn:5]] As of today, there is still no preventive vaccine and treatment is unaffordable or inaccessible for most people who need it[[fn:6]] (less than 4 per cent of those living with HIV/AIDS in developing countries have access to antiretroviral treatment).[[fn:7]]", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "UNAIDS, Report on the global HIV/AIDS epidemic, July 2002."}, {"n": 6, "text": "United Nations Population Fund, Programme Briefs No. 1, “HIV Prevention Now”, August 2001."}, {"n": 7, "text": "UNAIDS, op. cit."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Without a vaccine or an cure, the main hope in curbing the epidemic - in parallel to making available affordable treatment in developing countries as well as in developed countries in which social security schemes do not exist or do not cover such treatment - resides in widespread and accessible information and education for the purpose of prevention. Prevention, treatment, care and support are mutually reinforcing elements and a continuum of an effective response to HIV/AIDS. This was a key message to emerge from the discussions at the XIV International AIDS Conference held in Barcelona, Spain, in July 2002. Widespread availability and accessibility of information and education are essential to effective prevention and treatment efforts.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The “International Guidelines on HIV/AIDS and Human Rights” (E/CN.4/1997/37, annex I) adopted by the Second International Consultation on HIV/AIDS and Human Rights, underline and elaborate on the link between the realization of all human rights and the spread and impact of HIV/AIDS. In 2002, OHCHR and UNAIDS undertook a revision of guideline 6 on access to prevention, treatment, care and support. Revised guideline 6, the outcome of an international expert consultation on HIV/AIDS and human rights held in Geneva on 25 and 26 July 2002,[[fn:8]] is based on human rights law and principles and is anchored in political commitments by States, including the 2001 Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS. It provides a framework for States to orient and design their policies, programmes and practice to ensure respect for human rights in HIV-related prevention, treatment, care and support. Revised guideline 6 and guideline 9 highlight the importance of information and education programmes for the purposes of prevention, and places them in a human rights context. Revised guideline 6 reads as follows:\n“States should enact legislation to provide for the regulation of HIV-related … information, so as to ensure widespread availability of qualitative prevention measures and services, [and] adequate HIV prevention and care information … .\n“States should also take measures necessary to ensure ... the availability and accessibility of quality goods, services and information for HIV/AIDS prevention, treatment, care and support, including antiretroviral and other safe and effective medicines, diagnostics and related technologies for preventive, curative and palliative care of HIV/AIDS and related opportunistic infections and conditions … .”", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "See HIV/AIDS and Human Rights: Guideline 6. Available at the OHCHR web site: www.ohchr.org."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Guideline 9 reads as follows:\n“States should promote the wide and ongoing distribution of creative education, training and media programmes explicitly designed to change attitudes of discrimination and stigmatization associated with HIV/AIDS to understanding and acceptance.”", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Taking the above into consideration, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that the effective exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to seek, receive and impart information, is of the utmost importance for ensuring effective education and information campaigns to prevent HIV/AIDS. As demonstrated by the examples given below, information and education on HIV/AIDS are the cornerstone of prevention programmes, and the Special Rapporteur believes that the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is a sine qua non condition of effective information and education campaigns.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. After having analysed responses from States to his note verbale of 1 July 2002, the Special Rapporteur has identified a number of good practices among policies and programmes with respect to access to information for the purposes of education on, and prevention of HIV infection, such as:\n(a) The development of an integrated and multisectoral education, information and prevention planning and strategy structure at the national level, for example the National Programme on AIDS in Argentina and the 1998-2002 HIV/AIDS Control Project-LVSIDA; the Canadian Strategy on HIV/AIDS (CSHA); the Cuban Operational Group on the Fight Against HIV/AIDS (GOPELS) set up in 1986; the HIV/AIDS Strategic Plan for Dominica, developed in consultation with civil society, during a September 2002 National Consultation gathering NGOs, the private sector, public authorities and unions; the Estonian “National HIV/AIDS Prevention Programme for 2002-2006”; the Multisectoral Commission in Guatemala formed in 2000; the National AIDS Committee formed in 1992 in Kuwait, which develops, in close partnership with the World Health Organization, programmes dealing with blood safety, prevention, health awareness and training for medical professionals; the National AIDS Programme supported by the Ministry of Public Health of Lebanon, which develops awareness-raising and educational initiatives; the 2001-2006 Programme of Action on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Diseases of the National System on Health Information (SINAIS) in Mexico; the Strategic Plan for the Prevention of HIV and Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Norway; the National Commission for the Fight against AIDS (CNLCS) in Portugal, which developed the Strategic Plan on Combating AIDS (2001-2003) focusing on five intervention areas: epidemiology, education, the creation of a National Network of Advisory and Early Detection Centres, the creation of a National Network of Combined Therapeutic and out-of-hospital support; the National Plan for HIV/AIDS Prevention and Care in Slovenia; the eighth (1997-2001) and ninth (2002-2006) National Vision on the Protection and Control of HIV/AIDS of Thailand; or the Strategic Plan for 2001-2005 in Togo;\n(b) The production and dissemination of awareness campaigns targeted at specific vulnerable groups, through, in particular, radio and television programmes, advertisements, video-clips, songs, theatre, exhibitions, comics, etc. For example, campaigns have been carried out since 1988/89 in Italy under the leadership of the Ministry of Health, targeted at, in a first phase, men who have sex with men, intravenous drug users and medical professionals, in a second phase at women, young people, the prison population and HIV-positive people, and in a third phase at non-EU migrants, men and women working in prostitution, and the workplace. In Kuwait, the Ministry of Information is involved in information campaigns on HIV/AIDS through radio, television and newspapers. In Portugal, the CNLCS is developing partnership with civil society organizations and associations, NGOs and the media in order to disseminate campaigns for, and to reach specific groups such as men and women working in prostitution, men who have sex with men, intravenous drug users, ethnic minorities, migrants, members of the military, detainees and women. Thematic campaigns, organized by the Government, local authorities and NGOs are also proving to be efficient, such as for example the national campaign organized in 2001 in Guinea by the Ministry of Social Affairs and the Promotion of Women and Children, the Ministry of Public Health and the UNAIDS Thematic Group in Guinea on “Social Mobilization and Dialogue on HIV/AIDS”;\n(c) The dissemination of information on HIV/AIDS, including on transmission modes and prevention means, scientific progress, and new and/or alternative treatment, through, for example, the establishment of institutions or networks to collect and disseminate information to community-based organizations, professional training institutions, practitioners and the general public. In this respect, the following cases are worth noting: the HIV/AIDS Clearinghouse, the AIDS Treatment Information Exchange and the HIV/AIDS Legal Network in Canada; the publication of a brochure entitled “Living with HIV/AIDS” aimed at families of people living with HIV/AIDS in Cuba; the AIDS Prevention Centre in Estonia; the setting up in the Netherlands of “promotion teams” who reach out to “target groups” in pubs, clubs, discotheques, on the beach, etc.; the Norwegian Institute of Public Health, one of whose main responsibility is to provide governmental institutions, health workers and the general population with information about communicable diseases, including HIV/AIDS, through, for example, the quarterly publication of the brochure “Aids-info”, sent to hospitals and health institutions, schools and libraries, and posted on the Internet; the Subcommittee on Public Relations for AIDS Control of the National AIDS Committee in Thailand, whose main objective is to provide updated and accurate information to the public and the media. Also, the Programme Against HIV/AIDS in Togo has as one of its main objectives the improvement of the quality of the information and the means of communication on HIV/AIDS-related issues, through the production of messages adapted to each target group and their wide dissemination on radio, television, in newspapers and magazines, via posters, etc.; and the training of media communicators, teachers, priests, artists, political leaders, law enforcement officers, members of NGOs, medical professionals, etc.;\n(d) The development of professional expertise on HIV/AIDS, including through:\n(i) The adequate and regular training of professionals dealing with people living with HIV/AIDS or belonging to vulnerable groups such as social workers, physicians and medical workers, counselling specialists, law enforcement, officers, etc., as, for example, through the Canadian HIV/AIDS Mentorship Programme which links 330 novice physicians with 124 experienced HIV primary care physicians. In Portugal, the CNLCS signed a protocol with the Portuguese Law Society for training activities and the creation of a free and confidential legal assistance network on AIDS;\n(ii) The development of training modules and the organization of training sessions for teachers, to ensure that pupils are properly informed about HIV/AIDS and more generally receive appropriate sex education, such as that organized under the HIV/AIDS Control Project-LVSIDA which trains trainers on HIV/AIDS prevention among schoolteachers in Argentina; by the AIDS Prevention Centre in Estonia or the Ministry for Education, Youth and Sport in the Czech Republic, or by the Portuguese CNLCS;\n(e) The inclusion of HIV/AIDS-related programmes in the curricula of schools, such as the case of the inclusion of prevention of HIV/AIDS in the programmes of schools at the primary, secondary and tertiary level in accordance with Law on AIDS No. 23.798 and its implementation Decree 1244/91 in Argentina; the inclusion of HIV-related issues in the “Standards and Basic Education” in the Czech Republic; the development of sex education programmes for schools, including information on HIV/AIDS, by the Ministry of Education in Cuba; the inclusion of a series of modules addressing issues relating to reproductive health and HIV/AIDS in the curricula of secondary schools in Mauritius; the organization of conferences with physicians in schools on the occasion of World AIDS Day and the publication and free dissemination of an “agenda for health” in Monaco; the cooperation developed between the Portuguese CNLCS and the Coordinating Commission for the Promotion of and Education towards Health aimed at shaping attitudes and behaviour better able to prevent the infection and at instilling the principles of solidarity, non-discrimination and respect with regard to HIV-positive people; or the involvement of the Health Education Unit and the HIV/AIDS Unit of the Ministry of Health and Environment in all schools in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines;\n(f) The capacity-building of community-based HIV/AIDS research to assist communities to develop education and prevention programmes, and the collection of best practices to promote the sharing of information on successful community-based projects. In Thailand, for example, the eighth and ninth National Vision on the Protection and Control of HIV/AIDS encourages the creation of community-based organizations and organizations of people living with HIV/AIDS, as it was realized that such organizations achieve better results in communicating with their respective “target groups” as they know how to reach them and what their specific problems and situations are. In Lebanon, the Ministry of Public Health has set up a communications network between the National AIDS Programme and the relevant NGOs, so as to provide them with full information about the epidemic and, through these organizations, to reach out to the greatest number of people;\n(g) The development of cultural-specific education and prevention programmes for indigenous people, refugees, asylum-seekers and migrants. This is the case, for example, of the National Aboriginal Council on HIV/AIDS and the Aboriginal AIDS Network in Canada and the National Institute of Health Promotion and Disease Prevention for migrants in the Netherlands. In Norway, a brochure of the Norwegian Institute of Public Health and the Norwegian Board of Health was translated into 14 languages and disseminated among asylum-seekers and migrants, and the possibility exists of using interpreters during counselling sessions; health and social workers receive training in cross-cultural communication to improve their skills to communicate with foreigners and indigenous people;\n(h) The publication of brochures, books, information material and leaflets and their dissemination, including through the mass media, for example in Estonia, where this is done with the support of the AIDS Prevention Centre, and in Germany, with the support of the Federal Ministry of Health;\n(i) The arrangements for infection-safe taking, storage and transfusion of donor blood, tissues and organs, including the automatic free HIV testing of donors, as, for example, with the Blood Safety Programme in Malaysia which has done this since 1988;\n(j) The setting-up of hotlines and individual counselling systems, as has been done by the German Federal Centre for Health Education, and the availability of free and anonymous HIV testing and counselling, as in Slovenia. In Lebanon, a hotline has been set up in cooperation with NGOs to respond to queries and requests for information about the disease and its effects;\n(k) The development of specific programmes addressing the issue of HIV/AIDS in the workplace, focusing in particular on discrimination against people living with HIV/AIDS in the workplace and in the labour market. In Lebanon, the applicable labour laws ensure that people living with HIV/AIDS are protected against discrimination and arbitrary treatment;\n(l) The development of web sites providing information on HIV/AIDS, its modes of transmission and the available means of prevention, as, for example, in Mexico, where the National Centre for the Prevention and Control of HIV/AIDS has developed a web site which provides information on HIV/AIDS-related issues;\n(m) The facilitation of access to condoms, including through their distribution during information campaigns, in schools, medical centres, etc., as well as the availability of needles and syringes for intravenous drug users, as is done by the Ministry of Public Health in Cuba, which has developed a programme of manufacture and marketing of condoms. In New Zealand, the decriminalization of homosexuality, of the purchase and possession of needles and syringes and of prostitution was set as a priority in the 1980s and 1990s in order to encourage men who have sex with men, intravenous drug users and men and women working in prostitution to seek advice, care and treatment.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Indigenous peoples", "Migrants", "Women/girls", "Adolescents", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. The Special Rapporteur notes that in all the examples listed above, a strong accent is put on the necessity to prioritize empowerment policies and programmes to involve civil society\norganizations, to focus on peer education and to develop participatory programmes which avoid discrimination against and stigmatization of people living with HIV/AIDS, but which emphasize the responsibility of individuals vis-à-vis themselves and others. In Argentina, one component of the HIV/AIDS Control Project-LVSIDA provides funds to 131 community intervention projects in the area of prevention, managed by civil society organizations, and aimed at vulnerable groups. In Norway, for example, policies and programmes have been developed in close cooperation with groups of homosexuals, men and women working in prostitution, intravenous drug users and HIV - positive people. In Thailand, the “Access to Care and Drug Project” formed and run by people living with HIV/AIDS plays a vital role in reaching out to people living with HIV/AIDS and offers care, treatment and post-treatment service. In Cuba, the Federation of Cuban Women is heavily involved in information and sensitization campaigns on HIV/AIDS.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Information and education for the purpose of prevention should not only address issues directly related to HIV/AIDS transmission and prevention, such as reproductive health, sexual behaviour, safe drug use, etc., but also extend to issues that have a clear, although indirect, impact on the spread of the epidemic, such as stigma, discrimination and inequality.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. In this respect, it is important to develop in parallel prevention programmes and “compassion” campaigns, which underline the fact that HIV/AIDS is everybody’s problem, and combat discriminatory attitudes against HIV-positive people. The example of a campaign launched in the Netherlands, the motto of which was “You won’t catch AIDS by giving a shoulder to lean on” and which has been quite effective in changing the attitudes of the general public towards people living with HIV/AIDS, is worth noting.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The Special Rapporteur notes that the successful information and education campaigns seem to be those that are tailored to specific groups. While bearing in mind that HIV/AIDS is a widespread concern and that no one is safe from the epidemic, and therefore that prevention programmes must be comprehensive and address the whole population, particular efforts should be made to reach the most vulnerable groups. In Dominica, the Health Economics Unit of the University of the West Indies in 2002 completed a study on HIV/AIDS in the country in order to inform the development of the HIV/AIDS Strategic Plan.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. The Special Rapporteur noted, from the information received, that such groups may vary from one country to another and over time (at the beginning of the epidemic, men who have sex with men and intravenous drug users were the main victims, while it seems that in many countries, heterosexual women and girls are increasingly becoming infected). In the view of the Special Rapporteur, it is important that statistics be developed and data collected, in all confidentiality, in order to identify as precisely as possible the main vulnerable groups in a given country and tailor as much as possible information and education campaigns for their specific situations, needs and behaviours.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. In addition to prevention programmes at the national level - which should be further encouraged and developed - the Special Rapporteur wishes to emphasize strongly the importance of development assistance in the context of prevention of HIV/AIDS, as, according to the most\nrecent statistics, the epidemic is spreading faster in developing countries. The United Nations, its agencies, funds and programmes have put the fight against HIV/AIDS very high on the development agenda, as demonstrated by the Millennium Declaration and the Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS adopted by the General Assembly in June 2001.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Many donor countries have already included HIV/AIDS among their priorities for development assistance. The example of the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and the adoption in 2000 of its “HIV/AIDS Action Plan”, through which support is provided to pilot projects such as the Southern Africa AIDS Training Programme, the Regional AIDS Training Network in East and Southern Africa, the Canada AIDS Russia Project and other information and education projects in Romania, Bulgaria, the Republic of Moldova and Viet Nam, is but one example among many others. Similarly, the United Kingdom’s Department for International Development (DFID) has put strong emphasis, in its strategies for achieving the international development targets, on health issues, among which the reduction of HIV infection rates is a priority", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. The Special Rapporteur encourages such trends and underlines that the fight against HIV/AIDS cannot only be addressed at the national or regional level, but will only be won through a global response. The exchange of good practices and experiences between countries, and support to developing countries in developing and implementing information and education programmes for the purpose of prevention of the epidemic, is crucial.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. The Special Rapporteur notes that, while all stakeholders in the fight against HIV/AIDS emphasize that education and information for the purpose of prevention of the epidemic is crucial, very few have yet linked the effectiveness of education and information programmes to the effective exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression - which includes the freedom to seek, receive and impart information on HIV/AIDS-related prevention, care and treatment information.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. The Special Rapporteur regrets this situation, in particular as it seems that in countries where the right to freedom of opinion and expression is guaranteed and protected, information and education campaigns seem to be more effective. It is in particular essential, in the view of the Special Rapporteur, that communities, associations of people living with HIV/AIDS, teachers, journalists, doctors, self-help groups, etc. be free to associate and to launch information and education campaigns addressing all HIV/AIDS-related issues, its modes of transmission and the means of protection, and reaching all vulnerable groups, in particular women and young people, men having sex with men, men and women working in prostitution and intravenous drug users. In particular, information on topics that might be considered sensitive or private - such as safe sex or drug use - should be explicit and made available in formats adapted and accessible to the target audience (e.g. information brochures should be different for children and for men and women working in prostitution or drug users).", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. It is the view of the Special Rapporteur that laws and regulations in the area of censorship and broadcasting standards which directly or indirectly infringe the effectiveness of information and education programmes (and in certain cases prevent the development of such\nprogrammes altogether) should be reviewed. Similarly, the removal of administrative impediments to association of communities working in the HIV/AIDS area should be seen as a priority.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. The Special Rapporteur unequivocally condemns terrorism and terrorist attacks; in this respect, the Special Rapporteur reiterates the statement by the Commission on Human Rights in its resolution 2002/35 that “terrorism, in all its forms and manifestations, wherever and by whomever committed, can never be justified in any instance … .” He strongly supports the view expressed in Part I, paragraph 17 of the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action that “the acts, methods and practices of terrorism in all its forms and manifestations … are activities aimed at the destruction of human rights, fundamental freedoms and democracy …”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The link between human rights and terrorism is clear, and it is manifest at two levels: directly, as terrorist acts have a negative impact on the enjoyment of the human rights of the victims, in particular of their rights to life and personal integrity, and indirectly, “when a State’s response to terrorism leads to the adoption of policies and practices that exceed the bounds of what is permissible under international law and result in human rights violations”.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See Preliminary report of Ms. Kalliopi Koufa, Special Rapporteur of the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights on terrorism and human rights, (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1999/27, para. 25)."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. More specifically, “the threat of terrorism to the freedom and independence of the media can be both direct and indirect. Terrorism all too often includes violent attacks on reporters and publishers. ... The indirect threat of terrorism has two main aspects. First, it seeks to intimidate, to instil fear and suspicion and to silence any voices with which it disagrees - a climate inimical to the exercise of rights and freedoms. Second, terrorism may provoke governmental responses that lead to laws, regulations and forms of surveillance that undermine the very rights and freedoms that an anti-terrorism campaign is supposed to defend”.[[fn:10]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Joint message by Kofi Annan, Secretary-General of the United Nations, Mary Robinson, United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, and Koïchiro Matuura, Director-General of UNESCO, on the occasion of the World Press Freedom Day on 3 May 2002."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. With this in mind, the Special Rapporteur wishes to bring to the attention of the Commission on Human Rights his concerns arising from the recent trend among Governments to adopt, or to contemplate the adoption of, counter-terrorism and national security legislative or other measures that may infringe upon the effective exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. As highlighted above, the arguments of national security and anti-terrorism are being increasingly resorted to in many countries all over the world, with the intended or indirect effect of restricting the right to freedom of opinion and expression, in particular for media professionals, political opponents and human rights defenders. A number of Governments have prioritized national security over the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Such measures include the adoption of restrictive laws and rules for war reporting and increased resort to propaganda and manipulation of the media by defence ministries during conflicts; severe restrictions on the use of encryption software to protect the privacy of e-mail communications, thus facilitating wiretapping by the authorities; increased legal or regulatory pressures on journalists to reveal their sources of information or to hand over to authorities information the latter deem to be related to terrorism or terrorist activities; restriction on access to information in a growing number of areas, in particular by enlarging the categories of information to be protected by secrecy; the adoption of rules restricting the coverage of Governments’ activities and requiring it to be submitted for prior authorization; the increased exposure to criminal charges of journalists in case of publication of - even non-confidential - information regarded by Governments as damaging, including in certain cases making it a criminal offence to distribute information about any individual or group implicated in terrorist or subversive activities; the possibility for a Government to take over media outlets in areas where anti-terrorism operations are being conducted; etc.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. In addition to the formal adoption of laws and regulations specifically targeting the free flow and exchange of information and communications and free expression, more generally, the right to freedom of opinion and expression might be effectively - though indirectly - restricted through various means, such as the bombing of broadcasting facilities and the targeting of journalists by the military in conflict areas; restrictions on the freedom of journalists to access certain conflict areas; or the resort to the argument of patriotism and to the threat of displeasing majority public opinion to demand complicit silence from journalists and stifle dissent and criticism. The use of such means of pressure lead, more often than not, to self-censorship of media professionals, human rights defenders, or political opponents.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. With these examples in mind, the Special Rapporteur wishes to recall the joint statement issued on 10 December 2001 by 17 independent experts of the Commission on Human Rights (E/CN.4/2002/75, annex IV) and would like to associate himself with their conclusion that “public policies must strike a fair balance between, on the one hand, the enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all and, on the other hand, legitimate concerns over national and international security” and that “the fight against terrorism must not result in violations of human rights as guaranteed under international law”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. As underlined by the Secretary-General in his address to the Security Council meeting on counter-terrorism on 18 January 2002, “human rights … are one of the best prophylactics against terrorism”, the fight against which will be “self-defeating if we sacrifice other key priorities - such as human rights - in the process”. Similarly, the Policy Working Group on the United Nations and Terrorism, established by the Secretary-General in October 2001, emphasized that “the protection and promotion of human rights under the rule of law is essential in the prevention of terrorism” (A/57/273-S/2002/875, annex, para. 26), recalling that international human rights instruments include “limitations on the actions that States may take within the context of the fight against terrorism” (ibid., para. 28).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Of course, the Special Rapporteur does not contest that there are situations - and the fight against terrorism is one of them - where States have the responsibility, and must take specific measures for the protection of their populations against terrorist threats and to maintain national security. In doing so, however, States must ensure that they comply fully with international human rights instruments and in particular with article 4 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) which strictly defines the conditions under which States parties can restrict, inter alia, the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. The rule of law must be respected by Governments when the adoption of anti-terrorism measures are being contemplated. As the Secretary-General strongly stated in his address on the occasion of Human Rights Day on 10 December 2002, “one of the most outstanding legacies of\nthe last century was the development of a body of international law - humanitarian, refugee, criminal and human rights law - which … serve to protect the individual from injustice, from arbitrary treatment and from assaults on fundamental security. … It is the most effective tool to fight criminality and terrorism, and the best guarantee of safety, security and freedom for us all”.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. The Human Rights Committee, in its General Comment No. 29 (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.11), has identified the conditions to be met for a State to invoke article 4 (1) of the Covenant to limit certain rights enshrined in its provisions, including the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Inter alia, the measures must be strictly limited in time, provided for in a law, necessary for public safety or public order, serve a legitimate purpose, not impair the essence of the right and conform with the principle of proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. It is the view of the Special Rapporteur that in many of the cases brought to his attention, all or some of these conditions are not being met, and that the argument of the fight against terrorism is used by Governments as an illegitimate justification for the restriction of human rights and fundamental freedoms in general, and the right to freedom of opinion and expression in particular. There are cases where the feeling of insecurity caused by recent terrorist attacks has provided States with an opportunity to adopt such measures which had long been on the authorities’ agenda, cases where the argument of national security is used to cover direct attacks against free media, investigative journalism, political dissent, and human rights monitoring and reporting.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. However, the Special Rapporteur notes that in practice it is quite difficult to monitor the legitimacy, necessity and proportionality of anti-terrorism measures in the absence of a universally accepted, comprehensive and authoritative definition of terrorism. This, on the one hand, leaves ample space for abusive restrictions based more on varying definitions of terrorism that respond to individual States’ interests than on a universal concept of what a terrorist act is, and, on the other hand, makes it all the more difficult to monitor and evaluate the necessity and proportionality of such restrictions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Nevertheless, it has to be underlined once again that an effective enjoyment of the freedoms of opinion, expression and information marks the difference between democracy and terror. The Special Rapporteur strongly believes that guarantees of freedom of opinion and expression, freedom of the press and free speech are among the most effective means by which the fight against terrorism may be waged. As stressed in the first words of the “Charter for a Free Press”,[[fn:11]] “a free press means a free people” and, although restricting some human rights and fundamental freedoms in times of emergency might seem an effective solution to maintain peace and security, this can only be done through short-term measures, accompanied by strict and independently monitored safeguards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Adopted at the “Voices of Freedom Conference”, held from 16 to 18 January 1987 in London, organized by the World Press Freedom Committee. -----"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. The Special Rapporteur believes that terror and terrorism feed on undemocratic societies and systems, where human rights and fundamental freedoms are not guaranteed and protected, where systematic discrimination against and arbitrary treatment of specific groups within the population occur. He is of the strong view that the most effective way to combat terrorism is to secure the rule of law and ensure that human rights and fundamental freedoms are fully enjoyed and realized by all.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. The Special Rapporteur considers that the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is a clear indicator of the level of protection and respect of all other human rights in a given society. While the Special Rapporteur notes that positive measures are being taken in a number of countries in favour of a greater protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression (such as the repeal of criminal libel provisions from criminal codes in certain countries), he is still concerned that the trends as identified by his predecessor in his successive reports continue to be a strong preoccupation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. In particular, the Special Rapporteur is extremely concerned at the fact that the attacks against journalists, including killings, because of their professional activity continue to occur in many countries, most often with impunity. He urges Governments to take all necessary measures to protect journalists from attacks, be they from officials, law enforcement officers, armed groups or terrorists, and to provide an enabling environment for their activities. An end to impunity for the perpetrators of such acts and the conduct of serious investigation into these attacks is, in the view of the Special Rapporteur, the first step towards greater security for journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. In this respect, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that an in-depth study on the issue of the security of journalists, in particular in situations of armed conflicts, based on information from and the experiences of Governments and intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, is necessary, and he would welcome a request from the Commission on Human Rights to undertake such a study.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression may occur in all regions and countries, whatever their system. However, democratic institutions, while not ensuring absolute respect for the right to freedom of opinion and expression, do offer more guarantees for its protection as well as a more enabling environment for its exercise. Freedom of opinion and expression not only benefits from a democratic environment; it also contributes, and is indeed pivotal to the emergence and existence of sound and functioning democratic systems. The Special Rapporteur encourages Governments of emerging democracies to promote and protect freedom of opinion and expression and freedom of the press.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. As regards criminal libel and defamation, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that sanctioning libel and defamation by prison sentences is not proportionate. Furthermore, he is of the view that criminal law is not appropriate for regulating such offences. As stressed in his joint Declaration with the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media and the OAS Special Rappporteur on freedom of expression, “criminal defamation is not a justifiable restriction on freedom of expression; all criminal defamation laws should be abolished and replaced, as necessary, with appropriate civil defamation laws”.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. With respect to access to information for the purposes of education and prevention of HIV/AIDS, the Special Rapporteur wishes first to underline that the level of protection of human rights in a given country has a direct impact on the spread of the epidemic, and that the realization of human rights, in particular of specific groups such as women, young people, men and women working in prostitution, men who have sex with men, migrants, refugees, intravenous drug users and other vulnerable groups, is essential to reduce vulnerability to HIV/AIDS.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. Girls and women, who are increasingly disproportionately affected by HIV/AIDS, should be a priority target of education and information campaigns. These should be coupled with national programmes for the advancement of women towards the full enjoyment of all their rights, including their reproductive rights, promoting gender equality and empowerment.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. The extensive use of the mass media (newspapers, magazines, radio and television stations, including community radios and televisions, etc.) is necessary to ensure the widest coverage of information campaigns. More generally, information and education should be provided through all available and accessible means, such as pamphlets, posters, books, instructions on condom packaging, advertisements on the radio and television, video clips, plays, songs, the Internet, group meetings, assemblies, etc. The Special Rapporteur encourages States to cooperate with the media, NGOs and community-based organizations in this endeavour.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. If preventive education is to be effective, it must occur both through the formal and informal sectors, in schools, targeting young people, who represent half of the newly infected people every year, in the private sector and through communities. Preventive education has to be tailored to the targeted audience, take into account cultural habits and be accessible (e.g. made available in the language of the targeted community; using a medium accessible to all, including illiterate people; etc.).", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. While prevention - mainly through information and education - is the most feasible approach to reverse the trend of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the world, it should be underlined that prevention should not be the only tool used. The effectiveness of prevention is increased when it is used in conjunction with care and treatment - and vice versa - in an enabling environment where the human rights of those living with HIV/AIDS are respected and protected.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. In addition, strong social and political mobilization is necessary at the family, community and national levels in order to provide an effective response to the spread of HIV/AIDS. This requires political will at all levels of Government, a clear vision and leadership, as well as close coordination with and involvement of communities.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The Special Rapporteur, as indicated above, strongly believes that general respect for and protection of freedom of opinion and expression have a direct impact on the effectiveness of education and information policies, programmes and campaigns for the purpose of HIV/AIDS prevention. He therefore urges Governments to set a framework for the better protection of freedom of opinion and expression and for free flow of information and communications vis-à-vis the general public, as well as specific groups and communities.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The Special Rapporteur, while recognizing the legitimacy of national security and anti-terrorism legislation in many cases, stresses that these must only be implemented when the “life of the nation” is threatened, in the words of the ICCPR, and that the proportionality between the intended goal and the restriction on human rights and fundamental freedoms must be respected. The Special Rapporteur recommends that in considering the adoption or implementation of measures restricting human rights and fundamental freedoms, in particular the right to freedom of opinion and expression, attention be paid to the principles and conditions set in article 4 (1) of the ICCPR and to the 1995 Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information (E/CN.4/1996/39, annex), which provide useful guidance in this respect.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "4", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. The Special Rapporteur endorses General Assembly resolution 57/219 and highlights in particular its paragraphs 1 and 2 in which the Assembly affirmed that “States must ensure that any measure taken to combat terrorism complies with their obligations under international law, in particular international human rights, refugee and humanitarian law” and encouraged “States, while countering terrorism, to take into account relevant United Nations resolutions and decisions on human rights and to consider the recommendations from special procedures and mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights and relevant comments and views of United Nations human rights treaty bodies”.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The Special Rapporteur would like to draw the attention of the Commission on Human Rights to the resolution adopted at the UNESCO-sponsored Conference on Terrorism and the Media (Manila, 1-2 May 2002). In particular, the resolution underlines that “the threat of terrorism should not be used as an excuse to impose restrictions on the right to freedom of expression and of the media, or on freedom of information, and specifically on the following rights: to editorial independence; to protect confidential sources of information; to access information held by public bodies; to freedom of movement; and to privacy of communications”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. Finally, the Special Rapporteur wishes to encourage efforts under way, in particular in the forum of the United Nations, to develop a universally valid and comprehensive definition of terrorism and terrorist acts. Such a definition will greatly help the human rights monitoring of measures adopted to combat terrorism, as well as the provision of technical assistance to States when undertaking to adopt such measures. 1 In particular his first and second reports to the Commission on Human Rights, E/CN.4/1994/33 and E/CN.4/1995/32. 2 These press releases may be consulted on the OHCHR web site: www.ohchr.org. 3 This declaration may be consulted on the OHCHR web site: www.ohchr.org. 4 See E/CN.4/1999/64, paras. 24-28 and E/CN.4/2000/63, paras. 45-52. 5 UNAIDS, Report on the global HIV/AIDS epidemic, July 2002. 6 United Nations Population Fund, Programme Briefs No. 1, \"HIV Prevention Now\", August 2001. 7 UNAIDS, op. cit. 8 See HIV/AIDS and Human Rights: Guideline 6. Available at the OHCHR web site: www.ohchr.org. 9 See Preliminary report of Ms. Kalliopi Koufa, Special Rapporteur of the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights on terrorism and human rights, (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1999/27, para. 25). Joint message by Kofi Annan, Secretary-General of the United Nations, Mary Robinson, United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, and Koïchiro Matuura, Director-General of UNESCO, on the occasion of the World Press Freedom Day on 3 May 2002. Adopted at the \"Voices of Freedom Conference\", held from 16 to 18 January 1987 in London, organized by the World Press Freedom Committee. -----", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0001", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The workings of international organizations, including the United Nations, are deeply opaque to most people. Apart from the work of their highest profile bodies, what they do and how they do it is largely hidden from public view. In such an environment, how does information of legitimate interest to the public get disclosed? How does the general public, including citizens, students, journalists, scholars, activists, parliamentarians and even representatives of Member States, keep track of how the United Nations and other intergovernmental organizations operate and how international civil servants comply with their obligations? What policies, if any, direct international officials to share information? What standards do international officials rely upon when deciding whether to withhold information? In general, how do intergovernmental organizations ensure their own compliance with the human rights norm guaranteeing everyone the right to seek and receive information of all kinds, especially information held by public authorities?", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0002", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. In his 2016 report detailing the refusal of the United Nations to acknowledge responsibility for the tragic outbreak of cholera in Haiti, the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights noted the following:\n“It has been suggested to the Special Rapporteur by several sources that the legal advice originally submitted to the Secretary-General took a rather different approach to these crucial issues [the responsibility of the United Nations for the cholera outbreak] from that which was finally adopted, but this cannot be confirmed since none of the analyses of the Office of Legal Affairs have been made public. If true, however, it might explain why the arguments adduced in order to abdicate responsibility are both peremptory and inadequately justified (A/71/367, para. 33).”", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0003", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. There have been similar information-poor situations involving peacekeeping, whistle-blowing, allegations of fraud, personnel decisions and conflicts of interest for which a comprehensive freedom of information policy for the United Nations would have advanced public understanding of and engagement with global issues and reinforced mechanisms for accountability. A lack of transparency and proper access to information, for instance, has arguably played a role in the lack of accountability on the part of peacekeepers accused of sexual abuse.[[fn:1]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See, for example, Azad Essa, “Why do some UN peacekeepers rape?”, Al Jazeera, 4 August 2017; A/71/99, paras. 250 and 251 (report of an independent review on sexual exploitation and abuse by international peacekeeping forces in the Central African Republic); and Carla Ferstman, “Criminalizing Sexual Exploitation and Abuse by Peacekeepers”, Special Report 335, United States Institute of Peace (Washington, D.C., 2013)."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0004", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. There is evidently no formal process according to which a member of the public, let alone a special rapporteur, may seek such information from the United Nations.[[fn:2]] As a result, even if an intergovernmental organization has a good case for non-disclosure in a particular situation, that argument is not tested (see ST/SGB/2007/6). To address this point one must ask how are institutional decisions and analyses, and decision makers, to be put to the test when such information is so difficult to obtain? Instead of a formal process that would enable the submission of requests for information, public knowledge of the policies and actions of the United Nations and of other intergovernmental organizations is limited to only what those bodies choose to publish, while external evaluation typically depends on the efforts of journalists or researchers who develop access within such organizations. Within the United Nations, and most intergovernmental organizations, there appears to be no obligation on the part of any official source to provide reasons for refusing to disclose information.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "It is understood that the Department of Public Information of the Secretariat has created an email address (inquiries2@un.org) to which the public may address inquiries, which are in turn forwarded to relevant offices. This is not, however, a policy, let alone one that has any of the elements described in section III of the present report."}, {"n": 3, "text": "This is so, notwithstanding the fact that the United Nations does have a classification policy that clarifies distinctions between levels of sensitive information, see ST/SGB/2007/6."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0005", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The present report, which explores freedom of information policies in the context of international organizations, placing specific but not exclusive focus on the United Nations system, is the result of a year’s worth of research and investigation, including a call for submissions that generated responses from 16 international organizations and 5 non-governmental actors.[[fn:4]] Access to information under human rights law, noting the expansion of freedom of information policies adopted by Governments worldwide, is discussed in section II below. The elements necessary for an effective freedom of information policy at the international level are presented in section III, and a series of recommendations for intergovernmental organizations, Member States and non-State participants in international governance are presented in section IV.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Submissions may be found at the mandate’s website. Particular thanks are due to the following students at the University of California (Irvine) School of Law, who, with assistance from Professor Ramin Pejan, conducted research in support of this project, especially: Enid Zhou, Katherine Ells, Laurence Liu and Nassim Alisobhani."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0006", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Where rule of law prevails, Governments and Government officials stay accountable to their citizens through a variety of mechanisms. Too often, however, accountability is a chimera, and nowhere is this more evident than in situations where authorities withhold information from the public. Without freedom to access information[[fn:5]] of all kinds — in particular when Governments withhold information from the public and its judicial, legislative and media mechanisms — abuses may take place, policies affecting the general welfare may not be tested and improved and overall public engagement and participation diminishes, often by design. By contrast, information-rich environments help promote good decision-making and meaningful public debate, building credibility for public institutions. Even if implementation may not always meet the highest standards, Governments have recognized this fundamental point, at the intersection of good, open government and the human right of access to information, recognizing that the credibility of public authorities depends on their willingness to engage with those who fund their work and elect their key officials — the members of the public.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "A. Purposes underlying the right to freedom of information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "The report utilizes phrases such as “freedom of information” and “right of access to information” and “right to information” interchangeably. They refer to the right, under article 19 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, that everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to receive information and ideas of all kinds through any media and regardless of frontiers."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0007", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. These general points about access to information are hardly controversial today in discussions of governmental power and policy. A majority of Governments around the world have adopted freedom of information laws, with varying degrees of robustness and levels of implementation.[[fn:6]] But the movement for open government has largely bypassed global institutions — not totally, but so significantly that “access to information” carries very little currency within the centres of international governance. Ask an international official about access to information and one is more likely to hear about websites and archive policy (extremely important information, but not exactly to the point) than the public’s ability to gain access to the contemporary workings or failings of or debates within intergovernmental organizations or institutions. This is not to begrudge the work done by intergovernmental organizations during the decades of the digital revolution to open up their workings to the public. Whereas researchers and journalists once had to carry out their work at physical libraries serving as repositories for the documentation of the United Nations and other intergovernmental organizations, vast amounts of material may now be found on websites, including recently adopted material, which can sometimes be traced within days (and sometimes hours) of adoption. Public information officers should be congratulated for their willingness to ensure the widespread accessibility of official documents. Similarly, there are examples of organizations and agencies opening up files on their spending and contracting to public scrutiny, although with varying degrees of success.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "A. Purposes underlying the right to freedom of information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "For helpful studies on freedom of information laws globally, see David Banisar, “Freedom of Information Around the World 2006: A Global Survey of Access to Government Information Laws” (2006) and “The Right to Information and Privacy: Balancing Rights and Managing Conflicts” (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 2011); Toby Mendel, Freedom of Information: A Comparative Legal Study (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 2008); www.freedominfo.org; and United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), “United Nations Convention against Corruption: Resource Guide on Good Practices in the Protection of Reporting Persons” (Vienna, 2015)."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0008", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. And yet, despite the fact that intergovernmental organizations make much of the public work of their institutions available online, including legal instruments, resolutions, decisions of committees and monitoring bodies, field work and webcasts of public meetings, few organizations have access-to-information policies that enable the public, either on an individual basis or through the work of journalists and researchers, to make requests for information not otherwise disclosed. Organizations that do include such policies, including the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the World Bank, the World Food Programme (WFP), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and a handful of others — mostly international financial institutions and funds — are discussed in section III below. Even if they entertain such requests, most organizations make little or no effort to publicize their willingness or to highlight the standards by which decisions to disclose information are made.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "A. Purposes underlying the right to freedom of information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0009", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Before assessing what elements might constitute an appropriate freedom of information policy for intergovernmental organizations, it is worth examining the norms that apply under human rights law, for it is evident that the policies that underlie the law apply with equal force both to intergovernmental organizations and to States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "1. Nature of the right of access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0010", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The right to information under international law has its roots in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. As formulated in the International Covenant, everyone enjoys the “freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice”. The Human Rights Committee has provided a clear enunciation of what the right involves, emphasizing that article 19 “embraces a right of access to information held by public bodies”. “Such information”, the Committee noted, “includes records held by a public body, regardless of the form in which the information is stored, its source and the date of production” (CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 18). Moreover, the Committee emphasized that the right does not merely depend on public authorities’ reaction to requests for information:\n“To give effect to the right of access to information, States parties should proactively put in the public domain Government information of public interest. States parties should make every effort to ensure easy, prompt, effective and practical access to such information. States parties should also enact the necessary procedures, whereby one may gain access to information, such as by means of freedom of information legislation. The procedures should provide for the timely processing of requests for information according to clear rules that are compatible with the Covenant. Fees for requests for information should not be such as to constitute an unreasonable impediment to access to information. Authorities should provide reasons for any refusal to provide access to information. Arrangements should be put in place for appeals from refusals to provide access to information as well as in cases of failure to respond to requests (CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 19).”", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "1. Nature of the right of access to information"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First occurrence: 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second occurrence: 'article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Third occurrence: quote attributed to Human Rights Committee on 'article 19' with CCPR/C/GC/34 (General Comment 34) citation — clearly ICCPR."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0011", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. From the early days of the mandate’s work, Special Rapporteurs have elaborated on the right to information. In only the second report of the mandate, the Special Rapporteur highlighted the “vitally important” roles served by the right to information (E/CN.4/1995/32, para. 135), and the 1998 report emphasized that “the right to access to information held by the Government must be the rule rather than the exception”. The 1998 report also noted a specific right to information about “State security” and, in a notable statement, raised concerns about government prosecution of civil servants who disclose “information which has been classified”, adding that Governments “continue to classify far more information than could be considered necessary”. By this the Special Rapporteur meant that Governments should only withhold material in which “serious harm to the State’s interest is unavoidable if the information is made public and that this harm outweighs the harm to the rights of opinion, expression and information”. He concluded, “The tendency to classify or withhold information on the basis of, for example, ‘Cabinet confidentiality’ is too often the practice, which adversely affects access to information” (E/CN.4/1998/40, paras. 12 and 13).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "1. Nature of the right of access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0012", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. In the years since, elaboration of the right to information has been a common thread in reporting under the mandate.[[fn:7]] In 2013, the Special Rapporteur gave a full rationale for a robust right to information:\n“… public authorities act as representatives of the public, fulfilling a public good; therefore, in principle, their decisions and actions should be transparent. A culture of secrecy is acceptable only in very exceptional cases, when confidentiality may be essential for the effectiveness of their work. There is consequently a strong public interest in the disclosure of some types of information. Moreover, access to certain types of information can affect the enjoyment by individuals of other rights. In such cases, information can be withheld only in very exceptional circumstances, if at all (A/68/362, para. 20).”", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "1. Nature of the right of access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See E/CN.4/1999/64, E/CN.4/2000/63, E/CN.4/2003/67, E/CN.4/2005/64, A/HRC/11/4 and A/HRC/17/27."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0013", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. In 2004, the Special Rapporteur joined with representatives of regional mechanisms for freedom of expression to emphasize the importance of freedom of information as a fundamental right. Together they emphasized that addressing the widespread “culture of secrecy” in public institutions required not only legislation and implementation but also “sanctions for those who wilfully obstruct access to information”.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "1. Nature of the right of access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Joint declaration by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the Representative of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) on freedom of the media and the Special Rapporteur of the Organization of American States on freedom of expression, 6 December 2004."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0014", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. In parallel with the work of the Human Rights Committee and its special procedures mechanisms, the Human Rights Council and the General Assembly also articulated the importance of freedom of information. As recently as 2016, the Council called upon all States to ensure disclosure of information held by public authorities and “to adopt transparent, clear and expedient laws and policies that provide for the effective disclosure of information held by public authorities and a general right to request and receive information, for which public access should be granted, except within narrow, proportionate, necessary and clearly defined limitations”.[[fn:9]] Access to information has become a standard element of other human rights treaties (A/70/361, para. 6), and has been widely adopted in international agreements pertaining to development, the environment, food and agriculture and corruption, among other substantive areas.[[fn:10]] The Aarhus Convention provides an example of international agreement that access to information, public participation in decision-making and access to justice in environmental matters, an area of major public interest, “contribute[s] to the protection of the right of every person of present and future generations to live in an environment adequate to his or her health and well-being”.[[fn:11]] Similarly, in recognition of the essential role played by the right to freedom of information, Sustainable Development Goal 16 links access to information to good governance, human rights and accountability and calls on all Member States to adopt and implement public access to information laws and policies (resolution 70/1, paras. 16.6-16.10).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "1. Nature of the right of access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See Human Rights Council resolutions 31/32, para. 13, and 34/20, para. 5 (b)."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See “Article 19: Defending freedom of expression and information” [independent organization], “Open Development: Access to Information and the Sustainable Development Goals”, 19 July 2017, pp. 6-9."}, {"n": 11, "text": "Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, article 1, Aarhus, Denmark, 25 June 1998."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0015", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. During the period of normative expansion in the establishment and work of human rights bodies, States were also adopting legislation to implement the right to information, while many incorporated a right to information as a matter of constitutional law. At the domestic level, States have increasingly opened up the workings of government as a matter of law, if not always achieving the best implementation practices.[[fn:12]] Nevertheless, the environment of confidentiality and withholding that tends to prevail within bureaucracies and in political leadership around the world remains difficult to eliminate.[[fn:13]] A prevailing exclusion of national security information from right-to-information legal frameworks encourages a tendency to look at disclosures, even those of the highest public interest without meaningful harm to governmental interests, as contrary to “the national interest”. Such attitudes put significant negative pressure on access-to-information laws, and they may have a spill-over effect beyond traditional national security environments. In short, while the legal framework for access to information has improved globally, open government still faces significant barriers in terms of overcoming attitudes and instilling implementation practices.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "1. Nature of the right of access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "The organization Article 19 identifies 118 countries that have adopted laws or policies to advance freedom of information held by public authorities, see “Open Development: Access to Information and the Sustainable Development Goals”. In its submission, the Center for Law and Democracy highlighted 112 national right-to-information laws, with the impressive fact that 88 per cent of them were adopted in the past 25 years."}, {"n": 13, "text": "This is especially true in the context of national security. Sound rules for information disclosure may be found in The Global Principles on National Security and the Right to Information (“Tshwane Principles”) (Open Society Foundations, 2013) available at: https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/sites/default/files/global-principles-national-security-10232013.pdf)."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Victoria Lemieux and Stephanie E. Trapnell. “Public Access to Information for Development: A Guide to the Effective Implementation of Right to Information Laws”, Directions in Development--Public Sector Governance (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0016", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Human rights law also recognizes connections between the right to freedom of expression as contained in article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and other rights. The right to information is also closely connected to article 25 (1) of the International Covenant, which protects every citizen’s right and opportunity to “take part in the conduct of public affairs”. The Human Rights Committee has emphasized the importance of freedom of information to public participation “without censorship” (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.7, para. 25). The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) reiterated and expanded on this point (and others) in its 2015 report on the promotion, protection and implementation of the right to participate in public affairs in the context of the existing human rights law (A/HRC/30/26).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "1. Nature of the right of access to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "25", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0017", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Recognition of the right to information, consistent with article 19 of the International Covenant, has come with the acknowledgment that access to information may be subject to limitations. Those limitations, originating in article 19 (3), must be provided by law and be necessary and proportionate in order to protect the rights or reputations of others, national security or public order or public health or morals. I have previously reviewed how the restrictions permissible under article 19 (3) apply in the context of freedom of information (A/70/361, paras. 8-13). How international organizations might translate the norms of the International Covenant for the purposes of their own access-to-information initiatives is discussed below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "2. Narrow restrictions on the right to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0018", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. A subject of discussion among academics and lawyers for many years, it is often argued that human rights law, including article 19 of the International Covenant and the other instruments identified herein, does not strictly apply to intergovernmental organizations, certainly not in the same way that human rights law binds States.[[fn:15]] Yet, looking at the issue purely from the perspective of organizational obligations and immunities, a legalistic approach to the human rights obligations of intergovernmental organizations misses the most salient points, both in law and in policy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "3. Legal framework and international organizations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See, for example, Kristina Daugirdas, “How and Why International Law Binds International Organizations”, vol. 57, No. 2, Harvard International Law Journal (2016). See also Christine Chinkin, “The United Nations Decade for the Elimination of Poverty: What Role for International Law?”, Current Legal Problems, vol. 54, Issue 1 (2001)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0019", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Transparency within intergovernmental organizations advances the same objectives that underlie the expansion of freedom of information and open government initiatives. As noted in the submission of the Centre for Law and Democracy, such organizations are public institutions, performing governmental functions, much as States do. Members of the public can only seriously engage with the critical issues pursued by intergovernmental organizations when they have access to information about them. In the context of multilateral institutions, the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of association and peaceful assembly noted that for “civil society to engage effectively in global decision-making, the right to access information is indispensable” (A/69/365, para. 15).[[fn:16]] In countries where intergovernmental organizations do extensive work, whether it involves peacekeeping or development assistance or human rights, to name a few areas, genuine engagement and participation means the ability to gain current information about the work of such missions. It means having mechanisms of public accountability so that individuals can determine whether the organizations are serving their interests or those of the organization itself, including, possibly, corporations, local leaders or corrupt participants in public life.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "3. Legal framework and international organizations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "In this context, I would emphasize a point in the report of the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of association and peaceful assembly (A/69/365, para. 73), namely that non-governmental organizations should be given access to participate physically — to be present — in fora of intergovernmental organizations; a key area of access to information even if not directly addressed in the present report."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0020", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. The media coverage of intergovernmental organizations is also radically different from the day-to-day or hour-to-hour reporting in domestic environments. Considering the size of the international bureaucracy, in comparison to the coverage in robust media environments of national or local governance, very few reporters cover the United Nations or other intergovernmental organizations on a dedicated basis. Those who do cover them must often work hard to get their editors, and certainly their readers, to understand the relevance of these institutions to their own lives and public policy preferences. As a result, members of the international civil service do not find themselves under the journalistic microscope in the same way that domestic bureaucrats do (or should) around the world. Such oversight may be pursued by Member States from time to time, particularly in areas of budgeting, but the difficulty of accessing information about the workings of intergovernmental organizations exacerbates the already difficult situation in terms of the pursuit of accountability at the international level. In this kind of atmosphere, every newspaper or magazine article that uncovers a problematic practice on the part of an intergovernmental organization may be taken as an attack on the institution as a whole, largely because the work of these institutions is so removed from the lives of members of the public. Fixing that, and adopting robust access-to-information policies, is one step towards better understanding, accountability, oversight and protection of the missions of intergovernmental organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "3. Legal framework and international organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0021", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. There is no principled reason why intergovernmental organizations should adopt access-to-information policies that vary from those adopted by States. While notions of “national security” and “public order” may not generally apply to intergovernmental organization for purposes of restrictions on access to information, each institution needs to identify how the restrictions applicable under human rights law apply in their particular context.[[fn:17]] Some argue that, because of their nature, intergovernmental organizations need to withhold information generated or provided by Member States. But that would overreach, providing a potentially major loophole that could interfere with the development of policies that advance the public’s right to know.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "3. Legal framework and international organizations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "The United Nations serves all sorts of domestic governance roles, whether peacekeeping or transitional governance mechanisms, where security and order may be quite similar to State equities concerning disclosures."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0022", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. It bears re-emphasizing that article 19 of the International Covenant guarantees everyone the right to seek and receive information of all kinds, regardless of frontiers. At a minimum, States are obligated not to stand in the way of members of the public receiving information from organizations like the United Nations and its departments and agencies, absent a demonstration of the legitimate application of the limitations found in article 19 (3) of the Covenant. One can go a step further and highlight the broad consensus that States are obligated not only to avoid illegitimate restrictions on access to information but that they should create enabling environments for all rights under article 19 of the Covenant.[[fn:18]] While intergovernmental organizations clearly enjoy an independent personality under international law, their main policies and legal norms are often the result of the decisions of their Member States. As such, States should encourage the creation of environments that include access to information not merely because of some legalistic approach to intergovernmental organizations and the responsibility of the United Nations but because their citizens — all citizens, everywhere — should enjoy the right to information of all kinds regardless of frontiers, including information about intergovernmental organizations and the United Nations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "3. Legal framework and international organizations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "See, for example, resolution 2005/38 of the Commission on Human Rights; E/CN.4/1996/39; Human Rights Council resolution 12/16; A/HRC/17/27; A/66/290; A/68/362; A/HRC/29/32; and A/70/361."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0023", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Sixteen institutions made submissions for the compilation of the present report, which I supplemented with interviews and consultations.[[fn:19]] Despite extensive outreach, dozens of intergovernmental organizations and agencies within the United Nations system did not respond to the mandate’s call for submission. I was particularly disappointed not to receive a submission from the Secretariat of the United Nations Headquarters in New York. While organizations that did not make any submission may have some kind of access-to-information policy in place, 10 organizations that made submissions have formal access-to-information, disclosure or transparency policies;[[fn:20]] two are currently drafting policies;[[fn:21]] one does not have a formal access-to-information policy but provides access through an array of its policies;[[fn:22]] and three do not have any information access policies.[[fn:23]] Based on research, it appears that most international organizations lack binding policies to protect and promote the right of access to information. Put another way, based on my research, with a few notable exceptions, intergovernmental organizations have failed to create mechanisms that can penetrate their opacity and enable easy access to their operations. Most egregiously, the United Nations does not have an access-to-information policy that applies to every department and specialized agency; it does not even have ad hoc standards for response to access-to-information requests.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "A. Access to information in intergovernmental organizations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "The mandate received submissions from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the United Nations Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Economic Commission for Europe (ECE), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), UNESCO, the United Nations University (UNU), the Universal Postal Union (UPU), the World Food Programme (WFP), the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and the World Bank. As noted, the submissions are available at the mandate’s website."}, {"n": 20, "text": "The submitting organizations with formal policies at the time of the drafting of the report are: IFC (access policy), IMF (transparency policy), United Nations Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals (access policy), UNDP (disclosure policy), UNEP (access policy), WFP (disclosure), the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) (disclosure policy), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (disclosure), the World Bank (access policy) and UNESCO (access policy). A number of other international financial institutions and regional organizations also have policies but did not submit such information for this report."}, {"n": 21, "text": "Organizations in the process of formulating policies, at the time of drafting, were ITU and OHCHR."}, {"n": 22, "text": "WIPO has an array of policies and practices to ensure transparency and public access."}, {"n": 23, "text": "IMO, ECE, UNU and UPU lack an information policy."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0024", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Dynamic and flexible access to information policies are feasible, as demonstrated by the policies adopted by several organizations. Finance, environment and development institutions tend to have active approaches to information, responsive to the demands of governmental and non-governmental stakeholders that their work be transparent and open to genuine scrutiny.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "A. Access to information in intergovernmental organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0025", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The World Bank, the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) have active institutional websites, training guides and designated access-to-information departments that oversee annual reporting and information disclosure. In its submission, the Center for Law and Democracy stated that the prevalence of access-to-information policies in the international finance sector “is largely due to heightened civil society scrutiny of their work, given its high impact, and also partly due to the fact that Member States are keen to ensure that their money is being handled appropriately”. There is also focused attention on the part of civil society, to such an extent that the Global Transparency Initiative, an informal network of civil society organizations promoting openness at financial institutions, has created a charter elaborating the standards upon which the access-to-information policies of international financial institutions should be based. This rights-based approach to establishing an access-to-information policy includes a presumption of disclosure, generous automatic disclosure rules, a clear framework for processing requests for information, limited (though still often overbroad) exceptions and a right to appeal refusals to disclose information to an independent body.[[fn:24]] Many financial institutions have access-to-information policies that embody a significant number of the elements of the charter advanced by the Global Transparency Initiative. For example, the World Bank’s policy includes guiding principles upholding maximum access to information, a list of exceptions, a set of procedures describing how information is made available and a two-stage appeals mechanism. Under the appeals mechanism, the requester enjoys recourse to an appeals board, consisting of external and independent outside experts. Its disclosure policy includes a declassification system timeline and a set of definitions. The World Bank has also instituted an “access to information committee”, which is responsible for overseeing the implementation of the policy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "A. Access to information in intergovernmental organizations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Global Transparency Initiative, Transparency Charter for International Financial Institutions: Claiming our Right to Know, available at: http://www.ifitransparency.org/doc/charter_en.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0026", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Access information policy at UNEP is focused on a policy of maximum disclosure and openness. Its policy defines the type of information it can disclose, which is any information relating to UNEP and in its possession, and includes established exceptions, consistent with relevant rules and practices of the United Nations, for example, how to handle sensitive information and classification. UNEP has a specific information request mechanism that includes information on how to frame a request, and to whom. Furthermore, it specifies that if there is an exception of concern, the officer handling the request shall seek guidance from a senior legal officer. UNEP has a timeline for handling requests, indicating that receipt of a request must be acknowledged within 5 days, a response within 30 days, and a response to an information appeal within 60 days. The policy contains a fee structure, under which most information is released free of charge, except for printing costs. It requires a reason for the denial of a request for information and establishes an appeals mechanism, made up of a panel of two members of UNEP and one outside representative. In addition, the policy includes a public interest override test according to which UNEP will release information if the benefits of disclosure outweigh potential harm.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "A. Access to information in intergovernmental organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0027", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. One of the earliest access-to-information policies was established by UNDP, which operates on a presumption in favour of disclosure. It defines what type of information it discloses and where the policy applies. A notable feature of this policy is that it provides a link to publicly available information to help requesters determine what type of information they might need to request. Like many intergovernmental organizations, UNDP has a list of exceptions to disclosure. Like UNEP, it has a harm test and a public interest override, under which an independent Information Disclosure Oversight Panel determines whether certain types of information should be disclosed because such disclosure would serve a public benefit. UNDP has specific request times: 30 calendar days for information requests; and 30 calendar days for appeals. It includes not only an annex of information that describes exceptions and the information normally made available to the public but it also a flowchart as a visual aid to describe the information-request process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "A. Access to information in intergovernmental organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0028", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. After reviewing domestic access to information policies and existing policies adopted by these and other institutions, as well as consulting with stakeholders and examining the related work of the previous Special Rapporteur, I have identified practices that intergovernmental organizations should include as part of their access to information policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "A. Access to information in intergovernmental organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0029", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Apart from the organizations mentioned above, most intergovernmental organizations operate on an ad hoc, case-by-case basis; different departments authorize or withhold disclosure in the absence of standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "A. Access to information in intergovernmental organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0030", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Among the principles set out in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, article 19 (3) states that all restrictions on the right to access information must be provided by law. In the context of States, this is understood to require adoption of restrictions through regular legislative processes with clear rules to avoid excessive restrictions on access to information on the part of decision-makers or undue restrictions on public engagement (CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 46). Intergovernmental organizations should ensure that stakeholders, including members of the public and civil society organizations, have the ability to participate meaningfully in the development, review and updating of access policies. Several organizations have undertaken to involve stakeholders when developing policies. For example, UNEP publicized drafts of its interim policy and revised policy, posting them on its website for two months for input and comments from member States, observers and the general public. The organization also held formal hearings discussing the policy, which was live streamed to allow for public participation. The IFC policy evolved in three phases, involving the public and various external stakeholders. Throughout the process, IFC consulted various stakeholder groups, including its clients, the banking community, other financial institutions, civil society organizations, affected communities, an external advisory group, academia and think tanks, practitioners and Governments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "1. Open multi-stakeholder adoption process"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0031", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Requests for information should be a necessary fall-back position in any access-to-information policy. At the foundation of such a policy, organizations must actively disclose information that is likely to be of relevance to the public, and they should do so on a timely basis, including consistent and usable updates, especially of websites. In this regard, OHCHR has made significant strides in the digital age, providing access to outcome documents from both charter-based (for example, the Human Rights Council and its special procedures mechanisms) and treaty-based mechanisms, webcasting of meetings of those mechanisms, regular press briefings by the spokesperson of the United Nations High Commissioner, annual reports and periodic reporting to the Council on all special procedures communications. While there are still important areas for improvement, the OHCHR public disclosures policy mirrors what other institutions are doing across the United Nations system and at other intergovernmental organizations.[[fn:25]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "2. Proactive, clear, searchable and secure disclosure"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "For examples of public-facing websites that expand access, see http://webtv.un.org/; http://www.unhcr.org/media-centre.html; http://www.who.int/mediacentre/en/; and https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/res_e.htm."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0032", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Public disclosure should also involve the following points: first, the institutions themselves should engage on a regular basis with members of the public, typically through civil society organizations, to ensure that they are making public all relevant and valuable information. For instance, in its submission for the present report, the International Service for Human Rights highlighted the kinds of information that it believes to be in the public interest and how OHCHR could improve its proactive disclosures. Regular dialogue with civil society organizations would enable all intergovernmental organizations to be efficient in the disclosure of information, and would likely reduce the resources devoted to such requests. Second, disclosed information must be shared in a way that is easily searched and analysed.[[fn:26]] Third, in an age of surveillance and information insecurity, all organizations must take steps to ensure both the security of their information systems and of the individuals who may be seeking access to them. I have already raised the issue of digital insecurity at OHCHR, including in my 2015 report to the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/29/32, para. 37). The OHCHR website, and the website of the United Nations itself, remain unencrypted (as do many other institutions), potentially deterring those concerned about the privacy of their online searches from seeking information.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "2. Proactive, clear, searchable and secure disclosure"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See Ben Parker, “Two cheers for UN transparency”, IRIN, 28 June 2017, available at https://www.irinnews.org/analysis/2017/06/28/two-cheers-un-transparency."}, {"n": 27, "text": "Not all organizations remain so insecure: the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), UNICEF and the World Trade Organization, for instance, use “https” encryption technology to secure their websites, although most organizations mentioned herein do not."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0033", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Like Governments, intergovernmental organizations should establish an explicit and comprehensive legal framework that recognizes a right to information applicable throughout the entire organization and its subsidiary organs. Any access policy should, explicitly or implicitly, promote disclosure of information in the public interest — that is, information to which the public has a right of access because of the benefit it would provide to understanding of the work of the organization. Information should be defined broadly to include all records, documents, data, analyses, opinions and processes, regardless of the media in which it is held, in keeping with the principle that individuals have a right to information and ideas of all kinds, subject only to narrow non-disclosure rules.[[fn:28]] The policy should be uniform across the organization, and should be written in plain language. It should also be binding, precluding the organization from withholding information on any basis found outside the policy itself. For instance, WFP generally recognizes a wide range of categories of information, capturing all sorts of media, and emphasizes the policy as a “directive” to be carried out by senior management.[[fn:29]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "3. Comprehensive policy with binding rules"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "In practice, most national laws define the scope of information broadly and intergovernmental organizations should as well. See, for example, Antigua and Barbuda’s Freedom of Information Act 2004, article 4(1), which states: “For purposes of this Act, a record includes any recorded information, regardless of its form, source, date of creation, or official status, whether or not it was created by the public authority or private body that holds it and whether or not it is classified.” http://www.laws.gov.ag/acts/2004/a2004-19.pdf."}, {"n": 29, "text": "WFP, Directive CP2010/01 on Communications, Public Policy and Private Partnerships Division Directive (7 June 2010)."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0034", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Two categories of information deserve specific mention so as to clarify exactly how access to information advances the public’s right to participation. First, while most organizations seek to exclude “internal documents”, they should in fact be providing access to all information that enables the public to understand the bases for decisions.[[fn:30]] The Aarhus Convention, for instance, defines “environmental information” as including “cost-benefit and other economic analyses and assumptions used in environmental decision-making”.[[fn:31]] Organizations should include the “analyses and assumptions” that underlie their decisions within the definition of information that may be disclosed, including not just economic but also legal, political, institutional, operational and similar kinds of analyses and assumptions. Most intergovernmental organizations are not in favour of such disclosures,[[fn:32]] but non-disclosure of important process documentation hinders public understanding of their work. At the very least, it should be presumed that such information is subject to disclosure.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "3. Comprehensive policy with binding rules"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "The Tshwane Principles provide a good illustration of the kinds of information that should be disclosed: “records, correspondence, facts, opinion, advice, memoranda, data, statistics, books, drawings, plans, maps, diagrams, photographs, audio or visual records, documents, e-mails, logbooks, samples, models, and data held in any electronic form”."}, {"n": 31, "text": "Aarhus Convention, article 2, para. (3) (b)."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See, for example, UNDP, Information disclosure policy, annex 2, para. 11 (c), available at: http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/operations/transparency/information_disclosurepolicy.html."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0035", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. Second, information about the selection and election process for all categories of committees and monitoring bodies, whether involving Member States, experts or others, should be subject to disclosure. Generally, intergovernmental organizations should be making greater efforts to disclose specific kinds of governance decision-making. For instance, one of the most basic public functions of organizations, elections, whether of State delegations to serve on committees or individuals to serve in expert roles such as special rapporteurs, remain largely closed to public scrutiny. Organizations should devote clearly identifiable space on their websites for information about candidates to elective or selective positions, and they should provide information about State compliance with the organization’s norms in the context of elections to bodies held by State delegations. Those making appointments or selections to expert bodies should make public the reasons for their choices.[[fn:33]] Timely and interactive access to such processes would enhance their credibility as well as the accountability of those making the selections. As noted below, some kinds of information may be subject to non-disclosure, for instance, if necessary to protect the personal data of individual candidates for positions. Generally, however, there is legitimate dissatisfaction among civil society organizations about their limited ability to learn about such processes as they are happening. In turn, the lack of information leads to misunderstandings about the nature of elective or appointment processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "3. Comprehensive policy with binding rules"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See, for example, the report of the Consultative Group to the President of the Human Rights Council relating to the vacancies of special procedure mandate holders to be appointed at the thirty-fifth session of the Human Rights Council (12 May 2017). Also see Designaciones Publicas’ chart on appointments of the multilateral organs of the United Nations: http://designaciones.org/multilaterales/#!/en/comites."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0036", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Organizations should also avoid limiting who may make requests for information. Just as article 19 of the International Covenant guarantees everyone’s access to information, without limiting or defining “everyone”, intergovernmental organizations should be open to requests regardless of the requester, without regard to concepts such as “standing” or “harm” to demonstrate a reason for the request. A person or entity making a request should not be required to provide a justification for it. In order to demonstrate that everyone should enjoy such access, policies should keep costs to the absolute minimum, eliminating fees to the greatest extent possible.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "3. Comprehensive policy with binding rules"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0037", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. States may impose restrictions on access to information held by public authorities only when they meet the three-part test, of legality, necessity and proportionality, and also legitimate objective. The general limitations on access to information applicable to States should also apply to intergovernmental organizations. The requirement of legality (“provided by law”) requires that regular procedures be followed in the adoption of restrictions and that there be clarity and specificity in the rules. They must not be drafted so generically that they provide unfettered discretion on the power of the decision makers to refuse disclosure of information (CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 25). Similarly, the requirement of necessity, which implies proportionality, means that the policies of intergovernmental organizations should permit non-disclosure only when disclosure would indeed cause likely harm to a legitimate interest (CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 38).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "4. Clear rules about what information may be withheld"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0038", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. The legitimate subjects of restriction for States, to protect the rights or the reputation of others, national security or public order or public health or morals, may also serve as a basis for restrictions on the part of intergovernmental organizations. The rights of others, for instance, would counsel for the creation of protections to ensure that disclosures do not interfere with the privacy rights of individuals employed by or in some way connected to the intergovernmental organization. Public order may be an especially salient basis for sensitivity with regard to disclosure in the context of peacekeeping, while national security could be a basis, for example: the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) might choose not to disclose certain information about nuclear inspections; or the World Health Organization (WHO) could cite public health concerns as a basis for withholding sensitive information. Even for these generic bases for non-disclosure, the organization would still need to demonstrate necessity and proportionality in a given case.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "4. Clear rules about what information may be withheld"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0039", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The policies of intergovernmental organizations must clarify what kinds of information may not be disclosed; in their actual withholding of information, they should be held to a high standard in identifying their reasons. At a minimum, intergovernmental organizations should specify what kinds of information they consider to be sensitive and subject to non-disclosure. In doing so, they should not overstate what is subject to non-disclosure but adhere strictly to notions of public interest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "4. Clear rules about what information may be withheld"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0040", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. The UNDP information disclosure policy provides a good example of how to approach exceptions. Its policy, which notes that the organization operates in contexts of “crisis, conflict or humanitarian disasters” that pose challenges to UNDP operations and Member State interests, identifies several categories of information deemed confidential and “not available to the public”. Not all of the categories of exceptions are entirely appropriate, such as “[c]ommercial information where disclosure would harm either the financial interests of UNDP or those of third parties involved” or “[i]nformation which, if disclosed, in UNDP’s view would seriously undermine the policy dialogue with Member States or implementing partners”. (These exceptions are found in the policies of other intergovernmental organizations as well.) Both categories seem overbroad and subject to undue discretion of the organization. Nonetheless, recognizing this potential for overbreadth and potentially illegitimate non-disclosure in paragraph 12 of its information disclosure policy, UNDP provides that it could disclose even “confidential” information “if it determines that the overall benefits and public interest of such disclosure outweighs the likely harm to the interest(s) protected by the exception(s)”. Such authority rests not only in UNDP itself but in the independent panel created to oversee such decisions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "4. Clear rules about what information may be withheld"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0041", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Not every organization with an access-to-information policy deals with exceptions in the same way, but a fundamental problem with many is that they do not provide a basis for disclosure in the public interest (which UNDP does provide). For instance, while the policy of the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) largely follows along the lines of UNDP,[[fn:34]] it fails to include a public interest test to provide for disclosure, even in situations where non-disclosure may be permitted. UNESCO has recently adopted a policy that, while noting a commitment to transparency (and despite its role in the United Nations system in promoting access to information), includes similar restrictions as UNDP.[[fn:35]] However, like UNFPA, it does not provide a public interest override, such that material normally subject to non-disclosure could be released. If an organization does not provide a public interest test, its exceptions appear rigid and likely to result in barriers to transparency. As part of any public interest test, organizations should include a strong presumption that information about threats to the environment, health or human rights and information revealing corruption should be released because of heightened public interest in such information. This would be consistent with emerging norms governing State access to information policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "4. Clear rules about what information may be withheld"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "UNFPA, Information Disclosure Policy, available at: http://www.unfpa.org/information-disclosure-policy."}, {"n": 35, "text": "UNESCO Access to Information Policy, available at: http://en.unesco.org/this-site/access-to-information-policy."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0042", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Although they vary in structure, all national right-to-information laws provide an appeals mechanism in the event of non-disclosure.[[fn:36]] Intergovernmental organizations should also ensure an independent appeals process, protected against political interference and with the competence to make binding decisions. Grounds for appeal should be broad and clear procedures should be in place, including timelines.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "5. Complaint and appeals mechanisms"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "See Global Right to Information Rating (http://www.rti-rating.org/by-indicator/?indicator=36)."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0043", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. UNDP provides a useful model. Upon a non-disclosure response from its Legal Office, a person making a request may ask for a review of the determination by the Information Disclosure Oversight Panel. According to paragraph 21 of the UNDP information disclosure policy, the Panel consists of four members, all appointed by the UNDP Administrator with input from the Bureaux, including one from the UNDP Office of Audit and Investigations; one from the UNDP Ethics Office; one from a United Nations agency other than UNDP; and one from a non-governmental organization. The Panel reviews the denial of requests to disclose a document or portion of a document to a member of the public, and provides a final recommendation within 30 calendar days of receipt of the appeal. The Panel shares its recommendation with the UNDP Administrator and the relevant internal unit or office. The Administrator has the authority to make the final decision, taking into consideration the recommendations of the Panel. If the Administrator determines that the requested information will not be disclosed, the reasoning is provided.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "5. Complaint and appeals mechanisms"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0044", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. While the UNDP process involves strong elements of review, in general the decision-making authority should be lodged in an independent actor, not in the Administrator.[[fn:37]] Such a rule is reflected in most international standards and can be seen in domestic freedom of information laws.[[fn:38]] An independent body, such as an ombudsperson or commissioner, should be established to guarantee the right to information outside the chain of the organization’s normal authority.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "5. Complaint and appeals mechanisms"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See also IFC, Access to Information Policy (1 Jan. 2012), available at: http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/98d8ae004997936f9b7bffb2b4b33c15/IFCPolicyDisclosureInformation.pdf?MOD=AJPERES."}, {"n": 38, "text": "An estimated 70 Governments grant requests for the right to bring an external appeal with an independent administrative oversight body. See Centre for Law and Democracy, “RTI Rating Data Analysis Series: Overview of Results and Trends (2013)”, available at: http://www.law-democracy.org/live/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Report-1.13.09.Overview-of-RTI-Rating.pdf. See also, Aarhus Convention, article 9; Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers, recommendation Rec(2002)2 to member States on access to official documents, 21 February 2002; African Union, draft model law for African Union States on access to information; and Organization of American States, model inter-American law on access to information."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0045", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Intergovernmental organizations, like many (if not all) bureaucratic institutions, prize some measure of secrecy and the ability to work outside the public eye. In order to chip away at the secrecy embedded in large institutions, implementation must continue throughout the life of an access policy, including through education of the staff and leadership. The World Bank has developed a staff handbook, a mandatory training programme, workflow automation and records management systems, including dedicated websites, to provide easy access to documents (including an online portal for users to submit requests for information).[[fn:39]] Such internal programming is necessary to ensure that access to information becomes a part of organizational culture, understood as the responsibility of a public institution rather than an interference with its work.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "6. Implementation, review and monitoring"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "See World Bank, Access to information: annual report and five-year retrospective (2015), available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/836081467999089075/Access-to-information-annual-report-FY-2015-and-five-year-retrospective."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0046", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Some Governments ensure oversight through annual reports that review the status of their freedom of information regime. The World Bank has followed suit by publishing annual freedom of information reports. In the spirit of such disclosure, intergovernmental organizations should consider posting the responses to requests on their websites so that all subsequent requesters have access to that information.[[fn:40]] Annual reports that provide statistics regarding the implementation of their access-to-information policies, and their consistency with article 19 of the International Covenant, ensure the proper review of existing policies.[[fn:41]] For example, IFC monitors its own policy and issues periodic reports on its implementation. This helps show the tangible effects its policy has on increasing transparency and access to information. It also discloses monthly summaries of requests for the public to view and monitor and discloses how many appeals were filed before the Appeals Board.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "6. Implementation, review and monitoring"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "Open Society Justice Initiative, “Transparency & Silence: A Survey of Access to Information Laws and Practices in 14 Countries” (2006), available at: https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/sites/default/files/transparency_20060928.pdf"}, {"n": 41, "text": "For example, Ecuador, Honduras, Portugal, Thailand, Switzerland, and the United States have an information commission or government department that presents a consolidated report to the legislature on the implementation of Freedom of Information laws. See Centre for Law and Democracy, “RTI Rating Data Analysis Series: Overview of Results and Trends (2013)”, available at: http://www.law-democracy.org/live/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Report-1.13.09.Overview-of-RTI-Rating.pdf."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0047", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Access-to-information policies should be subject to regular review and take into account the changes in the nature of information held, including a formal requirement that they be subject to comprehensive review on a regular basis. This allows an opportunity to assess how well the implementation process is and whether there is room for improvement. Moreover, it provides an opportunity to amend the policy to provide for greater information disclosure and to align it with international best practices. These reviews should be conducted in a fully transparent manner and include multi-stakeholder consultation to get feedback from a broad range of stakeholders. Particular attention should be paid to whether categories of information need to be changed. Intergovernmental organizations need to reflect the changing demands of the public and should operate on policies that best suit these demands.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "6. Implementation, review and monitoring"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0048", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Two years ago, in my annual report to the General Assembly (A/70/361), I provided an assessment of how international human rights law protects sources of information and whistle-blowers. That report sought to clarify the norms promoting and protecting whistle-blowing, specifically because of the access to information that such rules seek to guarantee, particularly information in the public interest such as, inter alia, waste, fraud, abuse, illegality, human rights violations, war crimes or crimes against humanity. The points highlighted in that report apply in the context of this report as well. Indeed, the 2015 report emphasized the importance of whistle-blower protections in intergovernmental organizations and encouraged the development of policies that would define whistle-blowing broadly to cover all sorts of otherwise unauthorized disclosures, the reinforcement of the independence and effectiveness of whistle-blowing mechanisms, the adoption of strong transparency and access-to-information processes and protection against retaliation.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "7. Independent whistle-blower protections"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0049", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Whistle-blower protections remain an issue of the highest importance, something the Secretary-General acknowledged when, in one of his first steps, he promulgated a revised policy on the protection against retaliation for reporting misconduct and for cooperating with duly authorized audits or investigations (ST/SGB/2017/2). The policy aims to strengthen the protections of whistle-blowers, including by enhancing protection for individuals who report misconduct to external actors under specified conditions. I do not intend here to provide a detailed evaluation of the new policy but rather to emphasize the following considerations to ensure that the policy, over the long term, effectively promotes and protects whistle-blowers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "7. Independent whistle-blower protections"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0050", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. First, and perhaps most seriously, the new policy does not provide for sanctions against those who retaliate against whistle-blowers. Notably, the policy provides consequences that could favour the person claiming retaliation, such as rescission of the decision, reinstatement, or transfer (ST/SGB/2017/2, para. 8.5). Nonetheless, it does not provide for the imposition of any penalty on the staff or leadership responsible for the retaliatory action. Until the policy provides for such penalties, the protective framework will be weak.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "7. Independent whistle-blower protections"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0051", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Second, the Ethics Office remains central to the whistle-blowing policy. The creation of the Ethics Office in 2006 gave United Nations staff an important mechanism to ask questions and seek advice concerning the ethical conduct of one’s work — but it is not the appropriate place for a whistle-blower protection mandate. Importantly, it does not have a mandate to advocate on behalf of staff, nor is it necessarily expert in the global norms protecting and promoting whistle-blowing. Alternatively, an independent whistle-blower office would advise would-be whistle-blowers, evaluate complaints and provide strong protections against retaliation. Over time, an office that sees its sole duty as advocating whistle-blower protections and responding to retaliation would provide staff with a sense of security by ensuring that their reports are to be managed by an office dedicated to accountability. It should have standards that reflect international norms and focus not on the image of the institution but on the importance of disclosing wrongdoing.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "7. Independent whistle-blower protections"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0052", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. On this latter point, I note that the Ethics Office relies in part on the 2013 International Civil Service Commission’s standards of conduct for the international civil service, which, while generally valuable, provide that: “It would not be proper for international civil servants to air personal grievances or criticize their organizations in public. International civil servants should endeavour at all times to promote a positive image of the international civil service, in conformity with their oath of loyalty”.[[fn:42]] This standard, and the tone it sets, counteracts the notion that staff should report misconduct that may, in some serious cases, fail to promote a positive organizational image.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "7. Independent whistle-blower protections"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "A/67/30 and Corr.1, annex IV, para. 37."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0053", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Third, the United Nations whistle-blower policy provides that: “The individual must make the report in good faith and must submit information or evidence to support a reasonable belief that misconduct has occurred” (ST/SGB/2017/2, para. 2.1 (a)). In the context of whistle-blowing, a “good faith” requirement should not require justification other than the fact that the whistle-blower aims to disclose waste, fraud, abuse or some other illegal conduct. It should not be understood to require or permit any kind of inquiry into other motives that the whistle-blower may have.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "7. Independent whistle-blower protections"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0054", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Fourth, the policy could be clearer about the channels that would-be whistle-blowers should and may use to report wrongdoing without fear of reprisal or to report actual cases of retaliation. The strength of the policy is clouded somewhat by its legalism; the United Nations should be undertaking significant outreach to ensure that all staff understand the appropriate channels.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "7. Independent whistle-blower protections"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0055", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Over the past 70 years, the United Nations and other intergovernmental organizations have served foundational roles in expanding the rule of law globally. While not always successful, these organizations enable the coordination of policy and the development of legal norms in the fields of security, development, governance and many others, and they are consistently perceived as important institutions by public opinion around the world. Strengthening them, ensuring that they serve the functions for which they were created, enhancing public participation in their work, these are the underlying goals of the present report. Development of access-to-information policies, in keeping with the global legal trends for freedom of information, will advance the objectives of intergovernmental organizations and the Member States that constitute them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0056", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. International organizations must open themselves up to greater public scrutiny and participation if they are to thrive. Their leaders seem to recognize this, as is evident in their extensive websites, professional (if underresourced) communications offices and the public presence of a great number of officials of intergovernmental organizations in social, broadcast and print media. However, apart from a handful of exceptions noted herein, this recognition on their part does not generally lead to policies that promote and regularize the exercise of the right to information. Why this is so is not difficult to understand: with perhaps the exception of the work of the Security Council and the Secretary-General, and high-level ministerial meetings of Heads of State and Government, intergovernmental organizations generally conduct their day-to-day operations far from the media’s gaze, a situation that changes only in the event of scandal or abuse. The absence of that gaze, and the haze generated by large and difficult to penetrate bureaucracies, means that officials generally do not feel the pressure to release information. This, however, is a mistake.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0057", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Intergovernmental organizations should make efforts now to create openness and to establish policies and infrastructure that not only provide information of all kinds but also promote such requests. Intergovernmental organizations should welcome the opportunities to provide transparency because, although transparency can cause embarrassment and, occasionally, give rise to scandal, it also sends a broader message of understanding that public knowledge is critical, especially so since these institutions serve critical public functions. Opacity, by contrast, sends the opposite message: we are distant; our work does not concern you; your support is unnecessary.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0058", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. It is not enough simply to adopt access to information policies, such policies must be rigorous and principled, drawing on the broad global acceptance that the right of access to information held by public authorities is rooted in international law. I encourage international organizations and the United Nations to align their policies with those being adopted and implemented, increasingly, by States, not only to emulate the best aspects of governmental behaviour, but to serve as a model for States to follow.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0059", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. I make the following core recommendations in keeping with the findings of the present report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0060", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. International organizations, especially the United Nations, should:\n(a) Begin the process of adopting rigorous access-to-information policies. At a minimum, organizations should identify and appoint access-to-information focal points to coordinate the adoption process. I specifically encourage the Secretary-General to appoint the director of the Department of Public Information to lead such an effort on an urgent basis;\n(b) Develop a multi-stakeholder process to engage civil society, including the media, and Member States in identifying the key elements of an access policy;\n(c) Consult with those organizations that already have active access-to-information policies, such as UNEP and UNDP, to understand their processes and any lessons learned they may impart;\n(d) Ensure that policies include the main elements identified above, in particular, proactive, clear, searchable and secure disclosures; comprehensive policies with binding rules; clear rules about what information may be withheld; effective complaint and appeals mechanisms; strong implementation, review and monitoring systems; and independent whistle-blowing protections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0061", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. The political bodies of the United Nations, especially the General Assembly and Human Rights Council, and other intergovernmental organizations should:\n(a) Promote the adoption of access to information policies through resolutions and other governance mechanisms;\n(b) Ensure the development of monitoring and oversight functions;\n(c) Provide comprehensive information concerning organizational governance mechanisms, including election and selection or appointment processes, and broader and simpler accreditation of organizations to participate in and monitor organizational activities;\n(d) Promote knowledge of access to information policies, including through the provision of clear information on websites and active dissemination and promotion of those policies to staff and stakeholders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0062", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Member States should:\n(a) Encourage intergovernmental organizations to adopt access-to-information policies that meet the standards identified in the present report;\n(b) Participate actively in the development of policies that advance everyone’s right to freedom of information;\n(c) Focus on ensuring the broadest possible access to information, only seeking to protect from disclosure State-generated information that could be withheld under international human rights law, in particular article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0063", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Civil society organizations, the media and members of the public should:\n(a) Engage directly and seek a formal role with intergovernmental organizations in the process of development of access to information policies, including by identifying for them the key areas of interest in information;\n(b) Make requests for information from intergovernmental organizations as soon as possible, even before the development of access policies, in order to determine the way in which they currently handle such formal requests;\n(c) Share information with other organizations and with the Special Rapporteur about the experience of engaging with intergovernmental organizations in the development of access policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report is the seventh report presented by Mr. Abid Hussain (India), the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The mandate was established by Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/45 of 5 March 1993. This report is submitted pursuant to resolution 1999/36, which also renewed the mandate for three years. Section I of the present report contains the terms of reference for the discharge of the mandate. Section II presents an account of the activities undertaken within the framework of his mandate in the past year. Section III provides a brief discussion on a number of issues which the Special Rapporteur considers to be important for the development of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Section IV contains brief summaries of urgent appeals and communications to and from Governments, along with observations of the Special Rapporteur. Lastly, section V contains the conclusions and recommendations of the Special Rapporteur.\nI. TERMS OF REFERENCE", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The Special Rapporteur refers to his previous reports as regards the mandate and methods of work adopted by him. The structure of the present report is along the same lines as the previous report. The main body of issues includes an analysis of communications received by the Special Rapporteur (in order to highlight trends), access to information, concerns relating to criminal libel and defamation, the police and the criminal justice system, as well as the role of the new information technologies.\nII. ACTIVITIES", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. During the period under review, the Special Rapporteur sent 11 allegations and 56 urgent actions. Seeking to avoid unnecessary duplication of the activities of the other thematic special rapporteurs and country-specific rapporteurs, the Special Rapporteur has joined during the past year with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture on 4 cases of allegations (Azerbaijan, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zimbabwe) and on 12 cases of urgent appeals (Belarus, 3 for China, Myanmar, 1 for the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2 for the Syrian Arab Republic, 2 for Togo, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Zambia). The Special Rapporteur also joined with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions on 14 cases of urgent actions (Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2 for China, 2 for Colombia, 1 for the Islamic Republic of Iran, 7 for Mexico, 1 for Peru). In the course of the year, 11 urgent actions were written jointly with the Chairman of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention (Bahrain, Côte d’Ivoire, Cuba, 2 for China, Israel, Kenya, 2 for Nigeria, Palestine, Syrian Arab Republic), 1 case of joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers (Bahrain), 2 cases of joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women (China, Pakistan) and 1 case of joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on the right to education (Malaysia). Moreover, the Special Rapporteur also joined with the Special Rapporteurs on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (3 urgent actions) and the Islamic Republic of Iran (3 urgent actions).", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The Special Rapporteur has received a large number of allegations concerning cases of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in 1999. As was the case in previous years, the Special Rapporteur was only able to deal with a limited number of requests for information from some Governments, owing to the insufficient financial and human resources to fulfil his mandate in the manner he would deem appropriate. The matters raised in previous reports to the Commission on Human Rights regarding the circumstances of work (E/CN.4/1995/32, paras. 92-95; E/CN.4/1996/39, para. 6; E/CN.4/1997/31, para. 7; E/CN.4/1998/40, para. 3 and E/CN.4/1999/64, para. 3) unfortunately remain a matter of great concern. The mandate requires a substantially increased pool of resources. Within the current constraints, the Special Rapporteur has engaged in an exchange of views with Governments only with regard to a limited number of cases, which are discussed in section IV.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. It should thus be emphasized that the countries discussed in the respective sections in no way reflect the extent of the problem worldwide, as indeed violations of this right take place in almost every country in spite of the emergence of an increasing number of national institutions which are working for the promotion and protection of human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Closer cooperation is engaged by the Special Rapporteur with treaty bodies and human rights field operations, as well as with other specialized bodies within the United Nations system and regional intergovernmental, and non-governmental organizations, particularly at the local level, concerned with the right to freedom of expression. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur noted with great satisfaction that the number of meetings and seminars he attended and had been invited to had tripled over the past year.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. From 16 to 18 March 1999, the Special Rapporteur attended in Abuja an international workshop on media law reform in Nigeria organized by Media Rights Agenda (MRA), a non-governmental organization based in Nigeria, and Article 19 - the International Centre against Censorship, together with the National Human Rights Commission.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. In June 1999, he was invited by the Government of Canada to Ottawa where two round tables were organized: one governmental, with the participation of representatives of the Ministries for Foreign Affairs and Justice as well as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), the second a gathering of Canadian NGOs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. On 30 and 31 August 1999, the Special Rapporteur went to Nepal where he had the opportunity to meet with the Prime Minister, government ministers and journalists from that country. Matters relating to freedom of speech and writing as well as the need to set up a national commission for human rights were discussed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The Special Rapporteur had also the opportunity to participate in the International Colloquium on Freedom of Expression and Defamation organized by Article 19 in Colombo from 15 to 17 September 1999.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. In regard to cooperation with intergovernmental organizations, the Special Rapporteur collaborated very closely with Mr. Alain Modoux, Assistant-Director-General and head of the Unit for Freedom of Expression, Democracy and Peace of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), who made a statement during the debate on item 11 (c) of the fifty-fifth session of the Commission on Human Rights. The Special Rapporteur was also invited by UNESCO to World Press Freedom Day on 3 May 1999 in Bogotá and to a working meeting held in Paris on 29 October 1999 with a view to exchanging information and enhancing cooperation. The Special Rapporteur thus made concrete recommendations in his mission reports this year (see report on the mission to the Sudan, E/CN.4/2000/63/Add.1, the report on the mission to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, E/CN.4/2000/63/Add.3, and the report on the mission to Tunisia, E/CN.4/2000/63/Add.4) to encourage the use of UNESCO’s expertise in the field of media legislation and the training of journalists in coordination with the programme of technical cooperation of the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. A meeting was also organized by Article 19 in London on 25 and 26 November 1999 which brought together for the first time the Special Rapporteur, Abid Hussain; Freimut Duve, the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media; and Santiago Canton, the OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression. During that meeting, which was designed to promote dialogue not only between the special appointees but also with non-governmental organizations working in the field, a joint declaration was issued, setting out the key ways in which Governments should move to guarantee that individuals enjoy the right to freedom of expression, opinion and information (see annex 1). The Special Rapporteur is convinced that such exchanges of experience and increased cooperation with these mechanisms are essential to realize the right to freedom of opinion and expression in all parts of the world. This is the reason why he decided, together with the two other mechanisms, to meet on a more regular basis to discuss their mandates and ways of working in areas of importance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. From 26 to 28 May 1999, the Special Rapporteur was invited to attend a workshop on gender integration into the human rights system organized by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. As Chairman of the meeting, he found this initiative very useful for the special mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights and took that opportunity to recall that the gender issue is considered with specific attention in his annual and mission reports.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. In this regard, he held further meetings with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, in order to continue to pay particular attention, as requested by the Commission on Human Rights in resolution 1999/36, to the situation of women and the relationship between the effective promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and incidents of discrimination based on sex, creating obstacles for women with regard to their right to seek, receive and impart information. The Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate his regrets that constraints of time and resources limited the extent to which the work could be jointly undertaken with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women. This remains an area of critical importance to him and he sincerely hopes that in the near future more deliberate efforts can be made in this area.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Additionally, the Special Rapporteur attended the sixth meeting of special rapporteurs/representatives, experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures and advisory services programme, held in Geneva from 31 May to 3 June 1999.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur visited Geneva from 8 to 14 April 1999 for consultations and to present his report to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-fifth session. During this period, the Special Rapporteur held a press conference and organized a briefing for NGOs which was very well attended. He also met with various delegations, in particular representatives of the Government of Canada and ambassadors from France, Malaysia, Hungary and the Islamic Republic of Iran. He discussed his intention to undertake field visits with the Permanent Representatives of the Sudan, Sri Lanka, Tunisia, Egypt and Peru and with representatives of Cuba and the Russian Federation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Finally, the Special Rapporteur considers the carrying out of country visits to be an essential element of the mandate. From 20 to 26 September 1999, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to the Sudan. He then visited the Republic of Ireland from 18 to 22 October 1999, followed by a visit to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland from 24 to 29 October 1999. Finally, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Tunisia from 6 to 11 December 1999. For these four visits, he has submitted separate reports to the Commission at its current session (E/CN.4/2000/63/Add.1, 2, 3 and 4).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. During the year under review, the Special Rapporteur has sent reminders regarding his wish to undertake a visit to Albania, Argentina, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Egypt, Indonesia, Peru, Sri Lanka and Viet Nam to examine in situ the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In this regard, he regrets that invitations have not so far been received from those countries. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur has also sent additional official requests to visit China, Cuba and the Russian Federation. On 5 July 1999, the Government of China informed the Special Rapporteur that the request was under careful consideration.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. The Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate that the role of non-governmental organizations in furthering the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression cannot be overestimated. Indeed, it is those organizations which spearhead these concerns and are forcefully advocating, monitoring and lobbying for human rights. Some of them have gone out of their way to volunteer their time to help the Special Rapporteur in his missions. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his special thanks to Article 19, the International Centre Against Censorship, which continues to provide information and material relevant to the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression to the Special Rapporteur.\nIII. ISSUES\nA. Trends", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. The Special Rapporteur has noted a number of characteristics common to the violations reported to him in the framework of his mandate and believes that it would be helpful to consider what may be called “trends”. It is his hope that the identification of these trends will encourage Governments to review practices and take remedial action where required. It is also hoped that this work will assist the OHCHR in developing programmes of technical assistance for interested Governments which will accelerate the process of eliminating the causes of violations of freedom of opinion and expression and associated rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The Special Rapporteur receives more than 1,500 communications annually from a variety of sources: international, regional, national and local non-governmental organizations; associations of media professionals; trade unions; members of opposition political parties; human rights defenders and activists; concerned individuals and others. It must be stated that resource constraints do not permit the Special Rapporteur to respond to, or act upon every one of the communications received. These constraints also make it difficult, if not impossible, to verify the facts presented in each and every case in order to determine what, if any, action would be appropriate. That being said, however, it can be stated that these communications are not confined to alleged violations of the rights to opinion, expression and access to information in countries in which the political system and institutional arrangements are implicitly or explicitly undemocratic. It is true, however, that the preponderance of allegations refer to situations where: (a) the legal and institutional protections and guarantees of human rights are, to a greater or lesser degree, circumscribed; or (b) situations of internal armed conflict or severe civil unrest exist. Nonetheless, it is important to note that allegations also refer to incidents and instances in which these rights are infringed or violated in both emerging democracies and countries with long-established democratic institutions, practices and traditions.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. While some of the communications refer to the same individual case or event or a series of cases in the same country, the majority of them do not. From this, one can only conclude that violations of the rights to opinion, expression, access to information, assembly and association are rampant and may, at any given time, occur anywhere in the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. The Special Rapporteur acknowledges that in a number of countries independent media, professional or collegial associations and non-governmental organizations have been allowed to form and function. In such cases, there may well be a need for training and guidance on, for example, raising professional standards and important skills such as how to develop and thrive in a self-regulating environment. It is the Special Rapporteur’s strongly held view that Governments should create and permit an enabling environment in which training and professional development of media persons can be organized and carried out without fear of legal, criminal or administrative sanction by the State.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. From communications received in the past year regarding repression of, or infringement upon freedom of opinion and expression and the exercise of associated rights, it appeared that in several cases measures or actions were taken by the State, its agents, or an organized non-State entity for reasons such as: (a) out of fear - for example, to cover up wrongdoings and crimes against the people; (b) as a manifestation of an exaggerated sensitivity to criticism of either a professional or personal nature; (c) in aid of the pursuit by an individual, group, organization or institution of wealth, privilege and power by any and all means; (d) intolerance of any individual, group or organization perceived to be obstructing such pursuit; (e) out of arrogance or the “might is right” way of thinking in which criticism or inquiry is not tolerated.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. With these points in mind, the Special Rapporteur directs the attention to the following general trends in terms of violations of freedom of opinion and expression and associated rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. There are cases when Governments characterize media and others seeking to exercise freedom of opinion and expression as, for example, “unpatriotic”, “inciting treason”, “denigrating the Government”, “inciting nationalist xenophobia”, propagating “immoral”, “extremist and divisive ideas”. The response of the authorities, on the basis of these and other characterizations, have included, inter alia: a blackout on reports of civil strife in the country; criminalization of reporting on draft evasion, including the cancellation of licences to publish and broadcast; a ban on cultural magazines; warnings against, and suspension of publications - in one case for having published “too many” reports of a “political nature”; a ban on all independent media in a disputed territory; revocation of journalists’ licences without reason; expulsion of foreign journalists, without explanation; cancellation of a publishing licence for a newsletter that focused on human rights violations and other issues related to human rights; seizure without explanation of copies of a foreign-based weekly; suspension of broadcasting rights on the basis that previous programming incited prejudice between religions; closure of a radio station that reported on irregularities and nepotism in the public administration; banning of newspapers and books considered, for example, “insulting to the military” or guilty of having published “false and malicious articles”; the ban of a moderate newspaper calling for abolition of the death penalty; expulsion of foreign journalists for having sought “to tarnish the image of the country”. Communications also indicate that at various times, Governments have threatened to: “resort to physical torture” against personnel of independent media that did not support it in a conflict against an armed group or file court cases against journalists and newspapers that publish “lies”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. It can be stated that the legal actions taken against journalists and other individuals seeking to exercise their rights to opinion, expression and information remain of epidemic proportion. Publishers, editors, journalists and activists have been arrested, charged, tried and/or sentenced for, inter alia: an unpublished article that was said to be a “call to social disorder”; “disturbing public order”; “insulting the head of State”; “distribution and disclosure of false news”; revealing State secrets by publishing classified documents that were embarrassing to the ruling party; caricaturing the State religion; publishing “false and insulting information”; publishing “slanderous material, disturbing public opinion and exposing military secrets”; publishing an “alarming article” related to activities of a clique of powerful politicians who were funding clashes between clans; regular publication of articles on police corruption, high-handedness and cases of extortion; publishing an article about police torture of a prisoner; refusal to reveal sources; publication of an article critical of the justice system; disclosure of arms purchases by the Government and the statement that this action could threaten the peace process.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Criminal penalties have been imposed on a number of grounds, including: libel of a member of Parliament; libel of a private individual; responsibility for public disorder and acts of sabotage; defamation, following publication of stories on corruption; “compromising State security”; slander of the national police; establishment of a journalists’ union without government permission; fraud and impersonating a journalist; teaching of a banned religion, constituting a crime against national security; publication of an article contrary to the press laws and “potentially harmful to the morale of the armed forces”; contempt of court, following comments about the judiciary and its corruption during a television broadcast; publication of criticism of the Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Actions against activists and human rights defenders also included, inter alia: arrest for having circulated a petition calling for constitutional change; seizure of all copies of, and prohibition on a book on corruption involving judges and civil servants; arrest of pro-democracy activists and dissidents; efforts to suppress discussion of the social and environmental costs of a controversial irrigation and hydroelectric project; expulsion of student leaders from various universities and institutions of higher learning; accusations of membership in an unauthorized association, distribution of illegal leaflets, insulting the authorities, holding unauthorized meetings; charge, trial and conviction for having written a book about massacres of civilians, in violation of the anti-terror law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. In a number of cases, the punitive and repressive measures taken by the authorities are “legal” inasmuch as there are laws regulating expression, access to information, assembly and association. It must be stated, however, that the legal character of these actions is profoundly at odds with the standards set out in international human rights instruments, most notably the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which applies to all States, without exception, by virtue of their being a Member of the United Nations, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which applies to all States that have ratified or acceded to it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. There are laws that penalize, inter alia: disclosure of information of importance to the State; slander of high-level officials of the Government, the armed forces, the judiciary and the clergy; “disturbing public order”; revealing business secrets; contempt of the police; insult to the military. Other laws have the effect of, for example: withdrawing the right of journalists to protect sources; banning free discussion of many vaguely defined topics (e.g. the national constitution in whole or in part); banning a large number of categories of so-called “hate speech”; banning alleged pornography; conferring on the State the power to control and/or dissolve non-governmental organizations considered to have exceeded their mandate or breached a broad range of boundaries; establishing a Government-imposed media council to replace independent, self-regulating councils; preventing press coverage of proceedings in publicly funded governing bodies; defining and restricting the role of news announcers; imposing a temporary ban for “frequent publication” of obscene or indecent material; limiting the practice of journalism only to those journalists who are members of one specific journalists’ association; granting to family court judges the power to sanction journalists who publish information on a person’s private life or physical disability.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. The excessive use of force by the police and other security forces has been consistently addressed by the Special Rapporteurs on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and on the question of torture. The communications received in the past year clearly point out the\ndangers inherent in the profession of journalism and decisions by citizens to demonstrate peacefully either in support of or in opposition to Governments and other entities such as opposition political parties.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. In the past year, measures taken by the police and security forces have included actions against and causing injuries to journalists and photographers covering, for example: a strike called by the main opposition party; a protest march organized by a labour union; the swearing-in ceremony of the new President; the escort of other journalists, by police, to a magistrate’s court; a clash between ethnic communities; a public meeting; a confrontation between municipal officers and street vendors; police treatment of protesters participating in a demonstration by Islamic activists; a union blockade and a rally organized by the opposition.", "labels": ["Persons in street situations"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Communications also referred to police violence against journalists in the context of, for example: articles written on criminal issues; publication of allegations of embezzlement by public authorities; published criticisms of human rights violations; coverage of sensitive domestic issues; attempts to publicize police harassment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. Actions against journalists and others were also taken by various non-State actors that resulted in, inter alia: the mob killing of one journalist; death threats against a woman sculptor on the basis that in their culture sculpting is described as a sin; distribution of a pamphlet accusing journalists and intellectuals of being enemies of the peace process; kidnapping by a rebel group; murder by militant members of a separatist movement; threats by an opposition leader to ban reporters from covering an election campaign; an attack on and occupation of a national radio building by armed attackers; the taking of journalists as hostages by rebels; a bomb attack causing the death of a journalist who was a secularist and critic of a certain religious movement.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. In addition to these types of actions by individuals or groups that were identified or publicly claimed responsibility, the communications received by the Special Rapporteur also related to violence or threats of violence by unknown persons or groups against members of the media and others. These cases included, for example: murder, possibly in response to published criticism of religious extremism; threats following reports of allegations of favouritism by senior government officials, fighting between government and guerrilla forces, police violence against civilians; threats following publication of articles about, or investigation into political corruption and corruption in prisons; murder of writers, journalists, poets and translators, in some cases possibly by rogue elements of security forces; murder following broadcast of programmes on such topics as corruption among political authorities, the police and military, and violence committed by terrorists and narcotraffickers; threats following harsh criticism of the Government; threats following publication of allegations of forgery and perjury; assault following publication of articles on illicit business deals involving persons in government and private companies.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. While less numerous than communications related to violations against members of the media, the Special Rapporteur would also note actions taken by Governments in relation to academic freedom. Information was received about, for example: suppression of research on such controversial topics as a national independence movement that was active in the past; a ban on campuses of any independent organizations that are considered political; refusal of permission to hold a seminar on human rights; State-supported harassment of independent libraries that were established to provide access to materials to which there is no access in State institutions; charges of having published a play that was considered blasphemous; charges against and conviction of the head of a political science department, who was also a contributor to a student magazine, for having defamed the religion of the State.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. With regard to public demonstrations, the Special Rapporteur not only underscores the frequency with which communications are received about the excessive use of force by police and security forces in response to demonstrations, marches and other manifestations, but notes such other concerns as: a requirement of prior notification; measures to prevent public commemoration of a major event; arrest of students demonstrating peacefully and calling for “freedom of thought and expression for all without exception”; arrest of labour leaders during a nationwide strike by civil servants and distribution of “Wanted” posters on more than 20 others; prosecution of workers for demonstrating in the streets and a verbal attack by a judge against a radio station reporting on the protests.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. While less common than other types of communications, information was received by the Special Rapporteur on several other issues which are of concern. These included, inter alia, a case in which action was taken against a “whistle-blower” who revealed information on wrongdoing and non-disclosure of relevant personal information (bank holdings) by senior officials. Other communications referred to the State monopoly on radio and television, and the firing, apparently for political reasons, of employees of the State-owned broadcasting corporation who were characterized as “opposition supporters”. Concern has also been expressed about the practice in some States of releasing persons from prison or detention and ordering them to be held under house arrest with severe restrictions on their freedom of movement and their rights to opinion, expression and access to information.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. It will be recalled that in previous reports, the Special Rapporteur expressed his concern about the use and abuse of national security laws to suppress opinion, expression and information. Again, while less common than other types of information received, communications did refer to declarations of states of emergency, the effect of which was, inter alia, to forbid the printing, broadcasting or communicating of information which is seen to incite violence or to cause racial or communal disharmony; or forbid information “prejudicial” to the State or that is likely to cause “disaffection” with the Government or “hatred or contempt” for the administration of justice or national security.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The Special Rapporteur cannot help but view with dismay the content of the communications received in the past year. Clearly, in several cases the rights to freedom of opinion, expression and information are violated in States with widely different political systems and institutional frameworks for governance. In a number of cases these rights do not enjoy even the minimum protections and guarantees set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and associated international human rights instruments.\nB. Access to information", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. In resolution 1999/36, the Commission on Human Rights invited the Special Rapporteur “to develop further his commentary on the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, and to expand on his observations and recommendations arising from communications”. With this in mind, the Special Rapporteur wishes to state again that the right to seek, receive and impart information is not merely a corollary of freedom of opinion and expression; it is a right in and of itself. As such, it is one of the rights upon which free and democratic societies depend. It is also a right that gives meaning to the right to participate which has been acknowledged as fundamental to, for example, the realization of the right to development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Clearly, there are a number of aspects of the right to information that require specific consideration. The Special Rapporteur wishes to emphasize in this report, therefore, his continuing concern about the tendency of Governments, and the institutions of Government, to withhold from the people information that is rightly theirs in that the decisions of Governments, and the implementation of policies by public institutions, have a direct and often immediate impact on their lives and may not be undertaken without their informed consent. The Special Rapporteur therefore endorses the set of principles that have been developed by the non-governmental organization Article 19 - the International Centre against Censorship (see annex II). These principles, entitled “The Public’s Right to Know: Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation”, are based on international and regional law and standards, evolving State practice, and the general principles of law recognized by the community of nations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. On that basis, the Special Rapporteur directs the attention of Governments to a number of areas and urges them either to review existing legislation or adopt new legislation on access to information and ensure its conformity with these general principles. Among the considerations of importance are:\nPublic bodies have an obligation to disclose information and every member of the public has a corresponding right to receive information; “information” includes all records held by a public body, regardless of the form in which it is stored;\nFreedom of information implies that public bodies publish and disseminate widely documents of significant public interest, for example, operational information about how the public body functions and the content of any decision or policy affecting the public;\nAs a minimum, the law on freedom of information should make provision for public education and the dissemination of information regarding the right to have access to information; the law should also provide for a number of mechanisms to address the problem of a culture of secrecy within Government;\nA refusal to disclose information may not be based on the aim to protect Governments from embarrassment or the exposure of wrongdoing; a complete list of the legitimate aims which may justify non-disclosure should be provided in the law and exceptions should be narrowly drawn so as to avoid including material which does not harm the legitimate interest;\nAll public bodies should be required to establish open, accessible internal systems for ensuring the public’s right to receive information; the law should provide for strict time limits for the processing of requests for information and require that any refusals be accompanied by substantive written reasons for the refusal(s);\nThe cost of gaining access to information held by public bodies should not be so high as to deter potential applicants and negate the intent of the law itself;\nThe law should establish a presumption that all meetings of governing bodies are open to the public;\nThe law should require that other legislation be interpreted, as far as possible, in a manner consistent with its provisions; the regime for exceptions provided for in the freedom of information law should be comprehensive and other laws should not be permitted to extend it;\nIndividuals should be protected from any legal, administrative or employment-related sanctions for releasing information on wrongdoing, viz. the commission of a criminal offence or dishonesty, failure to comply with a legal obligation, a miscarriage of justice, corruption or dishonesty or serious failures in the administration of a public body.\nC. Criminal libel and defamation", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. It will be recalled that in his report to the 1999 session of the Commission on Human Rights (E/CN.4/1999/64) the Special Rapporteur addressed the issue of criminal libel. It will also be recalled that in his report to the fifty-first session, the Special Rapporteur stated that, “the principle of proportionality must be strictly observed for the purpose of preventing the undermining of the freedom of expression” in terms of the legal protection against “any intentional infringement on the honour and reputation by untrue assertions” (emphasis added) (E/CN.4/1995/32, para. 47).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The Special Rapporteur was both astonished and alarmed at the number of communications received in the past year referring to accusations of libel and defamation against members of the media - publishers, editors and journalists. A review of the many communications received yields a list of cases relating to, for example:\nDefamation and damages awarded in connection with reports on corruption at the presidential palace;\nA claim for damages by a former member of the intelligence services;\nDefamation following publication of an article on nepotism in the awarding of public contracts;\nLibel of a member of Parliament (with a sentence of up to five years’ imprisonment);\nLibel of a private individual (with a sentence of up to five years’ imprisonment);\nDefamation arising from publication of stories on corruption;\nDamages for libel and a sentence of four months in prison;\nLibel following publication of an article on corrupt business practices;\nAccusations of repeated aggravated defamation of members of the board of a rival daily newspaper;\nDefamation causing injury to a parliamentary member for the Government (one year suspended sentence);\nA prison term of three years and a fine for having published libellous statements against the wife of a member of a national assembly;\nOne year’s suspended sentence for having insulted the honour of a member of Parliament;\nProvisions in law establishing prison terms of one to three years for contempt of the President and the police;\nA sentence of one to six years for insulting the military.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. These and other cases and incidents have had a direct and negative impact on freedom of expression, access to information and the free exchange of ideas. The climate created by such suits causes writers, editors and publishers to be reluctant to report on and publish matters of public interest not only because of the large awards granted in these cases but also because of the high costs of defending such actions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Criminal defamation laws represent a potentially serious threat to freedom of expression because of the very sanctions that often accompany conviction. It will be recalled that a number of international bodies have condemned the threat of custodial sanctions, both specifically for defamatory statements and more generally for the peaceful expression of views. For example, since 1994, the Human Rights Committee has expressed concern about the possibility of custodial sanctions for defamation in a number of countries. Similarly, the Declaration of Sana’a, adopted on 11 January 1996 by the United Nations/UNESCO Seminar on Promoting Independent and Pluralistic Arab Media states that “disputes involving the media and/or the media professionals in the exercise of their profession … should be tried under civil and not criminal codes and procedures.”", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The Special Rapporteur has also noted that authoritative international human rights bodies have established a number of principles which restrict the legitimate scope of civil defamation and insult laws. For example, in 1995, in Tolstoy Miloslavsky v.\nthe United Kingdom, the European Court of Human Rights drew a link between the imposition of excessive sanctions and a chilling effect on freedom of expression and ruled that excessive damages for defamation violated article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "10", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights' — European regional treaty not in the allowed list."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. International jurisprudence also supports the view that Governments and public authorities as such should not be able to bring actions in defamation or insult. The Human Rights Committee has, for example, called for the abolition of the offence of “defamation of the State”. While the European Court of Human Rights has not entirely ruled out defamation suits by Governments, it appears to have limited such suits to situations which threaten public order, implying that Governments cannot sue in defamation simply to protect their honour. A number of national courts (e.g. in India, South Africa, the United Kingdom, the United States, Zimbabwe) have also refused to allow elected and other public authorities to sue for defamation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. On the issue of a strict standard of truth, the Special Rapporteur notes that such a standard may be excessively onerous; as a result, courts in a number of countries have mitigated the strict truth requirement, at least for material relating to matters of public interest, by recognizing a defence of non-malicious or reasonable publication. This approach is reflected in a case decided by the European Court of Human Rights (Bladet Tromso and Stensaas v. Norway, 20 May 1999, Application No. 21980/93); the Court held that even though certain allegations had been shown to be false, the applicant newspaper and editor should not be liable in defamation because, taking into account all relevant factors, the decision to publish had been reasonable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. In light of these and other concerns, the Special Rapporteur wishes to state again that it is critical to raise public consciousness to ensure that defamation laws are not used (or abused) to stifle open public debate of matters of general or specific interest. Once again, at minimum, it must be understood that:\nCriminal defamation laws should be repealed in favour of civil laws as the latter are able to provide sufficient protection for reputations;\nSanctions for defamation should not be so large as to exert a chilling effect on freedom of opinion and expression and the right to seek, receive and impart information; penal sanctions, in particular imprisonment, should never be applied and damage awards should be strictly proportionate to the actual harm caused;\nGovernment bodies and public authorities should not be able to bring defamation suits; the only purpose of defamation, libel, slander and insult laws must be to protect reputations and not to prevent criticism of Government or even to maintain public order, for which specific incitement laws exist;\nDefamation laws should reflect the importance of open debate about matters of public interest and the principle that public figures are required to tolerate a greater degree of criticism than private citizens;\n- To require truth in the context of publications relating to matters of public interest is excessive; it should be sufficient if reasonable efforts have been made to ascertain the truth;\nWith regard to opinions, only patently unreasonable views may qualify as defamatory; defendants should never be required to prove the truth of opinions or value statements;\nThe onus of proof of all elements should be on those claiming to have been defamed rather than on the defendant;\nIn defamation and libel actions, a range of remedies should be available in addition to damage awards, including apology and/or correction.\nD. The police and the criminal justice system", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. In several countries, there is an overall need for overhauling the criminal justice system. Oral evidence and witnesses continue to be the main plank on which the prosecution case rests. The trustworthiness of witnesses has increasingly come under attack. The emphasis therefore must be shifted to more scientific investigation to make the system truly one that promotes justice and is not merely a weapon in the hands of the prosecution or the police. Perhaps there should be a police complaints authority for redress of complaints. The number of complaints against police handling of cases in the area of freedom of expression is on the increase. These are complaints relating to high-handedness, arbitrary detention and falsely implicating persons. There should also be a police security commission to ensure that police are protected from political interference. There should also be a massive programme for training of the magistracy under the aegis of high courts.\nE. The new technologies", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. In his previous reports (E/CN.4/1999/64 and E/CN.4/1998//40), the Special Rapporteur underlined the importance and role of the new technologies, in particular the Internet and satellite dishes, in the free flow of information, ideas and opinions. It will also be recalled that he has encouraged Governments to view the Internet and other information technologies as means to achieve a plurality of voices and to take steps aimed at their integration into the development process. Information received by the Special Rapporteur suggests, however, that Governments have increasingly placed greater attention on control and regulation of these technologies than they have on expansion of existing networks, on upgrading technical capacities to reach under- or unserved areas, and on permitting the establishment of new information networks and exchanges. Hence, the Special Rapporteur will briefly examine two areas of related interest: first, the link between printed and electronic media within a controlled and censored environment, and second, the type and degree of controls applied to new technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The Special Rapporteur believes that there is a clear link between the printed media and the electronic media. The Internet and satellites dishes, two main components of the “information revolution”, can play an influential role in bringing out dissenting voices and shaping the political and cultural debate. Indeed, the Internet is a unique communication medium due to its global, decentralized, interactive and, not least, infrastructure-independent nature which allows it to transcend national barriers. Similarly, satellite dishes have the potential to create a public sphere in societies where State coercion has pushed debate into the background. Hence, electronic media are a significant experiment in terms of bypassing boundaries defined strictly in terms of national and territorial integrity. However, they are not a good substitute for the printed media which remain the most accessible source of information. Internet sites, for instance, can be welcomed as a means to support advocacy of cultural and political rights, yet they remain inaccessible to the majority of the population owing to financial, economic and technological constraints. Moreover, while representing a global phenomenon, Internet users are concentrated in Western developed countries. Therefore, the new technologies provide only a temporary solution to the legal and coercive pressure applied to the domestic media and often they will encounter the same hostility and intimidation. However, the Special Rapporteur believes that the Internet, as a cheap and fast mode of transmission, is an important pool of information for the purpose of gathering information regarding legal and extralegal proceedings to curb freedom of expression while satellite dishes are easily accessible even in the most remote areas.", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. With regard to the type and degree of controls applied to the new technologies, a review of the communications received in the past year, as well as information previously brought to the Special Rapporteur’s attention, illustrates the ambivalence that still characterizes much of the discussion about the appropriate use and the avoidance of abuse of the Internet. In general, most Governments have sought to address the problems raised by the dissemination and proliferation of pornography, in particular child pornography, and materials produced by neo-nazi and/or other “hate groups”. These concerns are legitimate. The Special Rapporteur believes, however, that the dangers posed by such materials on the Internet can be adequately addressed through the judicious application of existing international standards and national laws consistent with international standards governing freedom of opinion and expression and the right to seek, receive and impart information. At the same time as efforts are being made in response to pornography and hate speech, other measures are being taken that cannot, by any reasonable definition, be accepted as consistent with international standards. These measures have included, in certain countries, the requirement that the information accessible through the Internet be “trustworthy” and in line with the country’s “ethical principles”, or efforts to control information viewed as threatening to political stability and undermining the predominant culture, or some proposals by State police to monitor all data sent over the Internet within national boundaries.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. It will be recalled that in his report to the fifty-fourth session of the Commission on Human Rights (E/CN.4/1998/40) the Special Rapporteur stated: “The new technologies and, in particular, the Internet are inherently democratic, provide the public and individuals with access to information sources and enable all to participate actively in the communication process. Action by States to impose excessive regulations on the use of these technologies and, again, particularly the Internet, on the grounds that control, regulation and denial of access are necessary to preserve the moral fabric and cultural identity of societies, is paternalistic. These regulations presume to protect people from themselves and, as such, they are inherently incompatible with the principles of the worth and dignity of each individual. These arguments deny the fundamental wisdom of individuals and societies and ignore the capacity and resilience of citizens, whether on a national, State, municipal, community or even neighbourhood level, often to take self-correcting measures” (para. 45).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. In the time since the report to the fifty-fourth session of the Commission was prepared, nothing has occurred that would cause the Special Rapporteur to revise his recommendation that the new information technologies, including the Internet, be considered in light of the same international standards as other means of communication and that no measures be taken which would unduly restrict freedom of expression and information. On-line expression should be guided by international standards and be guaranteed the same protection as is awarded to other forms of expression.\nIV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS\nAngola\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. On 20 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning the arrest and detention of Mr. Rafael Marques, journalist of the newspaper Folha Oito and a human rights activist. According to the source, Mr. Marques was arrested on 16 October 1999 by the Department of National Criminal Investigations in Luanda. He is currently detained at Viana prison and has allegedly been refused access to his lawyer. According to the source, he was charged on 14 October 1999 under a 1978 law, said to have been technically repealed in 1991, with defaming President dos Santos in an article published in July.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release on bail of Rafael Marques on 25 November 1999 and thanks the Government for its reply.\nAzerbaijan\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. On 15 November 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint communication with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture concerning the following cases: Smira Mamigdze, Ilahme Mamigdze, Zamina Alliguze and a fourth female journalist who were reportedly injured on 16 November 1998 when the police violently dispersed a group of journalists demonstrating against a suit brought against the newspaper Yeni Musavat; Aydin Bagirov, Mustafa Hajibeyli and Sahil Kerimli, all journalists, who were allegedly beaten and detained by police on 15 August 1998; Natig Kavadli, journalist, who was reportedly beaten and detained by police officers while covering a political rally; Haji Zamin, journalist, who was reportedly taken on 22 August 1998 to a police station where he was verbally abused; Taleh Hamid, editor of the newspaper Mustigil, who was allegedly beaten on 1 September 1998 by police officers; Zakir Jabbarly and Dilgam Bayramov, both correspondents for the Mozalan newspaper, who were reportedly verbally and physically assaulted on 22 September 1997 by employees of the passport department while researching the alleged illegal registration of citizens; Aygun Ismaylov, journalist, who was reportedly also seized; Ilham Shaban, journalist, is said to have been beaten by the police on 7 November 1998 during a demonstration.\nObservations", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 62, "n": 63, "text": "63. On 6 July 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action to the Government of Bahrain with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers on the case of Mr. Sheik Al-Jamri, a 62-year-old religious scholar and former member of the National Assembly. Mr. Al-Jamri, who has been in prison without trial since January 1996, was said to be sentenced to a long prison term for his opposition activities. He was arrested along with seven other prominent Shia Muslim clerics, apparently in connection with a petition he circulated calling for constitutional change.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 63, "n": 64, "text": "64. The source informed the Special Rapporteur that Sheikh Abdul Amir al Jamri was convicted on 7 July 1999 and sentenced to a 10-year prison sentence by a Bahraini security court. However, according to additional information, he was released on 8 July 1999 and has returned to his village promising not to engage in further political activities.\nBangladesh\nCommunication sent", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 64, "n": 65, "text": "65. On 11 November 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an allegation concerning the attack by the police on 1 November 1999 against Sanual Huq and Anisur Rahman, press photographers respectively of The Independent and the Daily Star newspapers, during a protest led by opposition parties. Moreover 13 journalists were reportedly attacked by the police while covering political demonstrations between 21 and 23 October 1999, including Amran Hossain, Rafiqur Rahman and Khalid Haider, journalists respectively with Daily Star, Reuters Photo and Dainik Dinkal. On 22 October 1999, according to the source, 10 cameramen and photographers, who were covering riots between police and Islamic extremists, were beaten up by the police in the streets of Dhaka. According to the information received, the journalists were: Joy of Banglabazar, Abdur Razzak of Dainik Sangram, Enamul Huq Kabir of Muktakantha, Subir of Dainik Arthaneeti, Salimullah Salim of New Nation, Bulbul Ahmed of The Independent, Faruque Ahmed of UNB, Swapan Sarker of Dainik Banglar Bani, Matiur Rahman Tuku and Mamum Talukder of Ajker Kagoj.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 65, "n": 66, "text": "66. A reply from the Government is still awaited.\nBelarus\nCommunications sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 66, "n": 67, "text": "67. On 6 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action to the Government of Belarus concerning the disappearance of Mr. Anatoly Krasovsky, head of Krasika publishing house, and Mr. Victor Gonchar, vice-speaker of the Thirteenth Supreme Soviet. Concern was expressed regarding suggestions that there may have been official involvement, as on 1 March 1999 the police arrested Mr. Gonchar on charges of holding an illegal meeting in a private café, for which he served 10 days’ imprisonment.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 67, "n": 68, "text": "68. On 21 June 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an allegation asking for further details about the January 1998 amendment to article 5 of the Law on the Press and raising the following cases: on 15 February 1999, the Press Committee had issued official warnings to six independent newspapers, the Belorusskaya Delovaya Gazeta, Narodnaya Volya, Belorusskaya Gazeta, Bellorrusky Rynok, Imya and Naviny for having published information on alternate presidential elections on 16 May 1999. Opposition leaders had also been warned and the Ministry of Justice issued a warning threatening to ban 13 opposition parties and non-governmental organizations in connection with their participation in those elections. It was also alleged that on 12 May 1999, the Vice-Chairperson of the Mahileu region electoral commission, Anatol Fiodaraw, was sentenced to three days’ administrative arrest for failing to appear in court and that Ales Barel and Kazimir Lokic were also detained at a polling station. At the end of March 1999, the former Prime Minister, Mikhail Chigir, was reportedly imprisoned for his active role in the Belarus opposition and for his intention to stand as a presidential candidate in the alternate presidential elections. Yuri Zakharenko, former Minister of the Interior and a senior figure in the opposition movement, was reportedly abducted on 7 May 1999 in Minsk by individuals linked to the State Security services, presumably for being a member of the alternate electoral commission.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "5", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 68, "n": 69, "text": "69. On 10 March 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture concerning the case of Victor Gonchar, a 42-year-old opposition leader who appears to have been targeted by the authorities solely because of his peaceful opposition activities. He and 15 other members of the opposition were reportedly detained on 25 February 1999 during a peaceful meeting in a café. All were released pending trial but reportedly charged under the Administrative Code of Belarus with holding an unsanctioned meeting. On 1 March, Viktor Gonchar was reportedly arrested again and later sentenced by a Minsk court to 10 days’ imprisonment under the same code for organizing an unsanctioned meeting.\nCommunications received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 69, "n": 70, "text": "70. In its communication of 12 October 1999, the Government includes the press release issued by the Ministry of the Interior on the case of Mr. V. Gonchar and Mr. A. Krasovsky. The Minsk Prosecutor’s Office, in accordance with article 101 of the Criminal Code, has initiated legal proceedings.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "101", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 70, "n": 71, "text": "71. The Special Rapporteur also acknowledges the communication received on 27 April 1999 which provides further details on the above cases. It is mentioned that Mr. Gonchar was sentenced to 10 days’ detention in a special holding facility following an unauthorized meeting in violation of article 167-1, paragraph 1, of the Administrative Offensive Code. On 1 March the Minsk Lenin District Court sentenced him.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "167", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 71, "n": 72, "text": "72. The Government of Belarus also replied in its communication of 28 September 1999 to the concern raised in the allegation sent on 21 July 1999. It provides information on the registration of public associations; the administrative arrest of A.F. Federov, Ales Barel and Kazimir Lokik; and the legitimacy of the warning served on six independent Belarusian newspapers and the detention of former Prime Minister Chigir.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 72, "n": 73, "text": "73. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its replies which shows its willingness to cooperate. However, he remains extremely concerned about the disappearance of Mr. Gonchar and Mr. Krasovsky.\nBosnia and Herzegovina\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 73, "n": 74, "text": "74. On 25 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal together with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions regarding the assassination attempt, on 22 October 1999, against Mr. Zeljko Kopanja, editor in chief of the Bosnian Serb independent Nezavisne Novine, which resulted in the loss of both his legs and serious injuries to his abdomen. According to the information received, Mr. Kopanja’s attempted assassination was linked to articles he had published concerning war crimes committed by Serbs against Muslims, and to his questioning the authorities’ lacklustre efforts to apprehend suspected war criminals.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 74, "n": 75, "text": "75. The Special Rapporteur regrets that at the time of the finalization of the report, the Government had not transmitted any reply.\nBulgaria\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 75, "n": 76, "text": "76. On 5 October 1999, an allegation was sent to the Government of Bulgaria concerning Alexei Lazarov, a journalist for the independent weekly Kapital ,who was reportedly attacked on 28 June 1999 by three unidentified assailants. According to the source, the assault appears to have been connected with an article in which Mr. Lazarov analysed the local media coverage of the privatization of the Bulgarian Telecommunications Company and criticized a deputy, P.M. Evgenii Bakardzhiev. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur raises the case of\nMs. Anna Zarkova, journalist of the daily Trud, who was violently attacked on 11 May 1998 when a group of assailants threw acid on her. According to the information received, Ms. Zarkova had received numerous threats for her coverage of organized crime and political corruption in Bulgaria.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 76, "n": 77, "text": "77. No reply from the Government has been received so far.\nChad\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 77, "n": 78, "text": "78. On 3 September 1999, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture, transmitted an allegation to the Government concerning Sosthène Ngargoune, Chairman of the Union of Chadian Journalists who had allegedly been severely beaten by members of the armed forces of the Federal Republic after meeting up with the government forces whom he was interviewing on 25 October 1997 in the Moundou police station. His camera and tape-recorder were reportedly confiscated. It is further alleged that he had been arrested previously on 14 May 1998 and charged with defamation and libel in connection with the publication of an article in his newspaper the N’Djamena Hebdo.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 78, "n": 79, "text": "79. The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply had been received from the Government at the time the report was finalized.\nChile\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 79, "n": 80, "text": "80. On 17 June 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action concerning the arrest of Alejandra Matus, author of El Libro Negro de la Justicia, Bartolo Ortiz, General Director of Editorial Planeta, and Carlos Orellana, an editor of the latter. Servando Jordán, the judge of the Supreme Court of Justice, is alleged to have brought a complaint against the book on the basis of article 6 of the Internal State Security Act which provides for penalties for persons using terms considered to be defamatory against senior government officials, the armed forces, the judiciary and the clergy. The book in question is allegedly the result of a detailed investigation into corruption in the Chilean judiciary and its support for the military junta of the Pinochet Government. According to the information received, on 14 April 1999 Rafael Huertas, the judge of the Court of Appeal ordered the confiscation of all copies of the book and the arrest of Alejandra Matus. On 16 June 1999 Mr. Ortiz and Mr. Orellana were allegedly arrested for violating the above Act.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "6", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 80, "n": 81, "text": "81. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release of Bartolo Ortiz and Carlos Orelana on 18 June 1999.\nChina\nCommunications sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 81, "n": 82, "text": "82. On 3 November 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government of China concerning the arrest and detention of Mr. Jiang Qisheng, a pro-democracy activist. According to a source, Mr. Jiang was tried on 1 November 1999 for propagating and instigating subversion. Allegedly Mr. Jiang is charged for writing an open letter to the Chinese public calling for the collective commemoration of the tenth anniversary of the 1989 democracy movement.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 82, "n": 83, "text": "83. On 17 August 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action jointly with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions concerning Zulikar Memet, who was reportedly sentenced to death on 25 July 1999 by the Ili Prefecture Intermediate People’s Court in the Xinjian Uighur Autonomous Region. It is alleged that he was accused of involvement in “ethnic separatist activities” and he told the court that his confession had been extracted under torture. His brother Hemit Memet, as well as eight other unidentified individuals, have also been sentenced to death (see para. 85 below).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 83, "n": 84, "text": "84. On 16 June 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action, together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on arbitrary detention, concerning the detention of Mr. Jiang Qisheng. According to the source, Mr. Qisheng, said to be critical of the Government, gave an interview to The Boston Globe the day before his arrest on 17 May 1999. Allegedly, Mr. Qisheng was earlier imprisoned for 17 months for his involvement in the 1989 pro-democracy movement.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 84, "n": 85, "text": "85. On 14 June 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on torture and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions concerning Zulikar Memet and Saydakhmet Memet, who were reportedly detained in Urumqi, the capital of Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region, in 1998 and February 1999, respectively. It was reported that they were accused of “assisting separatists/terrorists” and arrested because they are brothers of Hemet Memet, who was previously detained on 11 February 1999 along with Kasim Mahpir and Ilyas Zordun: all were reportedly accused of involvement in “ethnic separatist activities”. A joint urgent action was sent on 17 February 1999 on these three persons as well.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 85, "n": 86, "text": "86. On 10 December 1998, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent action together with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture and the Special Rapporteur on violence against women concerning the cases of two Tibetan nuns, Ngawang Sandgrol and Ngawang Choezon, detained at the Drapchi prison in Tibet. The two nuns are said to be in\nextremely poor physical condition after having been subjected to harsh interrogation and ill-treatment and placed in solitary confinement after violent suppression of demonstrations by prisoners inside Drapchi prison on 1 and 4 May 1998.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0086", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 86, "n": 87, "text": "87. On 9 December 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the arrest and detention of Wang Youcai, Xu Wenli and Qin Yongmin, Chinese citizens involved in the organization of the Chinese Democratic Party. According to information received, Wang Youcai was arrested on 30 November 1998 and is currently held in a State security detention centre in Zhejiang province and on 1 December 1998, Xu Wenli was arrested together with Qin Yongmin on suspicion of damaging State security.\nCommunications received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0087", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 87, "n": 88, "text": "88. The Government of China, on 24 February 1999, provided the Special Rapporteur with information regarding the case of Ngawang Sangdrol who was sentenced in November 1992 to three years’ imprisonment on charges of separatist activities by the Lhasa Municipal Intermediate People’s Court. In 1993, 1996 and 1998 her sentence was further extended to a total of 15 years. The Government states that beating and ill-treatment by government guards is inconsistent with the facts.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0088", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 88, "n": 89, "text": "89. The Government of China on 2 February 1999 informed the Special Rapporteur that Xu Wenli, Wang Youcai and Qin Yougmin, all three of them of Han nationality, had their jail sentences and deprivation of political rights extended because they were recidivist in their incitement to subversion of State power.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0089", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 89, "n": 90, "text": "90. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of China for its replies.\nColombia\nCommunications sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0090", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 90, "n": 91, "text": "91. On 23 April 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions regarding the death threats received by the Colombian editor Gerardo Rivas Moreno in the form of a hand-written note accompanied by magazine clippings. It is said that the note was signed by the paramilitary “United Self-Defence Groups of Colombia”. These death threats could be connected with Mr. Rivas Moreno’s work as literary editor and specifically with the translation of the complete works of Simon Bolívar. It is thought that Mr. Rivas might have been confused with one of the members of the so-called “Bolivarianos Group”, the name given by the Colombian revolutionary armed forces to its pro-Simon Bolívar political movement.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0091", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 91, "n": 92, "text": "92. On 10 June 1999, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, sent a communication to the Government of Colombia in reply to its letters of 7 and 10 May 1999 requesting more details regarding the death threats to the Colombian editor Gerardo Rivas Moreno by the paramilitary group “Autodefensa Unificada de Colombia”. The Special Rapporteurs asked to be kept informed about the investigation in relation to this case as well as the measures taken to protect the life and the right to freedom of opinion and expression of Mr. Rivas Moreno.\nCommunications received", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0092", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 92, "n": 93, "text": "93. By letters dated 7 and 10 May 1999, the Government requested the Special Rapporteur to submit additional information regarding the case of Mr. Rivas Moreno. On 29 July 1999, the Government informed the Special Rapporteurs that it was not in a position to submit information on the case of Mr. Rivas Moreno since the Special Rapporteurs themselves could not provide it with additional details. Nevertheless, the Government of Colombia replied on 27 August 1999 that the Anti-Abductions Unit of the Public Prosecutor’s Office in Bogotá was conducting investigations into the incident regarding the case of Mr. Rivas Moreno. According to the Government, Mr. Rivas Moreno was recalled on 12 July 1999 to provide more information about his complaint and the Technical Investigations Corps was asked to appoint an investigator to seek to identify the perpetrator of the offence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0093", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 93, "n": 94, "text": "94. The Government of Colombia also sent a communication on 30 July 1999 regarding the provisions governing compulsory military service and the recruitments of minors by insurgent groups.\nObservations", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0094", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 94, "n": 95, "text": "95. The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the Government for its reply concerning Mr. Gerardo Rivas Moreno, in particular in the light of the difficulty of gathering information on this specific case. However, he remains very concerned about the current situation in Colombia with regard to the abductions, death threats, and even murders of journalists (seven during the period under consideration) and persons seeking to exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression.\nCôte d’Ivoire\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0095", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 95, "n": 96, "text": "96. On 3 November 1999, a joint urgent action was transmitted by the Special Rapporteur to the Ivorian Government with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the detention of Raphaël Lakpe and Jean Khalil Sylla, editor-in-chief and journalist respectively of the Le Populaire daily newspaper. According to the information received, they were arrested in April 1999 and sentenced to six months’ detention for the dissemination of false information and for activities likely to disturb law and order. They were allegedly arrested because on 28 April 1999 their newspaper published an article entitled “One student killed and four others seriously injured”, whereas the students in question had only been injured by the police.\nCommunication received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0096", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 96, "n": 97, "text": "97. On 8 November 1999 the Ivorian Government acknowledged receipt of the joint urgent action of 3 November 1999 and informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Raphaël Lakpe and Mr. Jean Khalil Sylla had been sentenced for defamation but had since been released.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0097", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 97, "n": 98, "text": "98. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release of these two journalists, thanks the Government for the information it provided but nevertheless hopes to receive more detailed information about the sentencing of these two persons for defamation.\nCuba\nCommunications sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0098", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 98, "n": 99, "text": "99. On 19 March 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an allegation expressing concern at the arrest, detention, harassment, assault and beatings that took place between October 1998 and March 1999 with regard to journalists and human rights activists. Some of them were reportedly harassed as well as detained for a short period of time, like the following: (a) José Edel Garcia Diaz, journalist with the independent “Centro Norté del Pais” news agency and Jesús Diaz Loyola, journalist with the “Havana Press” agency; (b) Juan González Febles, Adela Soto, Fabio Prieto Liorente, Iván García Quintero and Héctor González; (c) Raúl Rivero, founder and Director of the independent “Cuba Press” agency; (d) Jesús Labrador Arias of “Cuba Press”; (e) Maria de los Ángeles González Amaro, Director of the “Unión de Periodistas y Escritores Cubanos Independientes” agency; (f) Santiago Martínez Trujillo, photographer with the “Unión de Periodistas y Escritores Cubanos Independientes” agency, Nancy Sotolongo León of the same agency and Angel Polanco of the “Cooperativa de Periodistas Independientes” agency; (g) José Antonio Fornariz Ramos, of the “Cuba Verdad” agency and Luis López Prendes of the independent “BPIC” news agency; (h) Pedro Argüelles Morán, correspondent with “Cuba Press”; (i) Hirán González, correspondent with “Cuba Press”; (j) Lázaro Rodríguez Torres, Maria del Carmen Carro Gómez and Jorge Olivera, Director of the “Havana Press” agency; (k) Odalys Ivette Curbelo Sánchez, a “Cuba Press” correspondent; (l) José Luis Rodríguez, a photographer with the “BPIC” agency; (m) Manuel Antonia González, a “Cuba Press” correspondent; (n) Oswaldo de Céspedes, a journalist with the “Cooperativa de Periodistas Independientes” agency and Omar Rodríguez Saludes of the “Nueva Prensa” agency; (o) Ofelia Nardo and Efrén Martinez Pulgarón of “Cuba Press”, Marvin Hernández Monzón, Orlando Bordón Gálvez and Lázaro González of the same agency and Jesús Zuňiga, of the “Cooperativa de Periodistas Independientes” and Mario Viera González, Director of the “Cuba Verdad” agency; (p) Ulises Cabrera, Head of the independent “Pueblo Libre” news agency; (q) Jorge Luis Arce Cabrera, correspondent with the “BPIC” agency in Cienfuegos and Jesús Egozcue Castellanos, Director of the independent “Línea Sur Press” news agency; (r) Ricardo González, a “Cuba Press” journalist; (s) Juan Antonio Sánchez, a “Cuba Press” journalist.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0099", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 99, "n": 100, "text": "100. In addition, the following journalists have reportedly been sentenced to longer prison terms: (a) Benardo Arévalo Padrón, founder of the independent “Linea Sur Press” news agency, in Aguadade Pasajeros, was allegedly sentenced to six years’ imprisonment for insulting President Fidel Castro and Vice-President Carlos Lage; (b) Juan Carlos Recio Martinez, a “Cuba Press” correspondent, was allegedly sentenced to one year of community service on 13 February 1998 for acts against the security of the State; (c) Lorenzo Páez Núňez, a correspondent of the independent “BPIC” news agency in Artemisa, Havana, was allegedly sentenced to 18 months’ imprisonment for insulting the national police. It is said that Mr. Páez was released on 4 January 1999 but arrested once again on 1 March 1999.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0100", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 100, "n": 101, "text": "101. On 26 January 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent action with the Chairman of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the arrest and detention of Jesús Joel Díaz Hernández, Executive Director of the independent press agency “Cooperative Avilena de Periodistas Independientes”. Also considered as a government critic and human rights activist, Jesús Díaz was reportedly arrested on 18 January 1999 in Ciego de Avila province and sentenced to four years’ imprisonment for “dangerous behaviour”. According to the information received, Jesús Díaz’s trial did not conform to international standards of fairness and his lawyer had inadequate time to prepare his defence.\nCommunications received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0101", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 101, "n": 102, "text": "102. The Government of Cuba replied on 15 April 1999 concerning the case of Jesús Joel Díaz Hernández. The latter was sentenced on 20 January 1999 to four years’ imprisonment for dangerous behaviour following five warnings in accordance with article 415 of Cuba’s Penal Procedure Act. The Government of Cuba denies that the arrest and detention of Mr. Hernández is linked to his human rights interests and expresses its willingness to cooperate with the mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "415", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0102", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 102, "n": 103, "text": "103. On 15 July 1999, the Government of Cuba sent a reply denying the request for further information on the allegation dated 19 March 1999 because the sources were unreliable. The Government of Cuba also questioned whether the objectivity that should characterize the work of the thematic mechanisms was being observed. The same communication also provided additional data on the Law for Protection of the National Independence and Economy of Cuba.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0103", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 103, "n": 104, "text": "104. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Cuba for its reply.\nDemocratic Republic of the Congo\nCommunications sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0104", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 104, "n": 105, "text": "105. On 7 October 1999 the Special Rapporteur transmitted to the Government a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture and the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo concerning Feu d’Or Bonsange, music editor, and Kala Bongamba, printer, both employees of the L’Alarme newspaper. They were allegedly arrested on 27 September 1999 and detained in the private residence of a senior military officer before being transferred on 2 October to the building known as the “GLM” which, according to the information received, is an unofficial place of detention. Persons working for L’Alarme have allegedly been harassed by the authorities since 1997. The Special Rapporteurs also drew the Government’s attention to the case of Clovis Kadda, publication director of the same newspaper, who was allegedly arrested on 22 September 1999 and interrogated in the military district of Kinshasa about one of the members of his family who, it was said, had participated in the rebellion. According to the information received, he was tortured and released the following day.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0105", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 105, "n": 106, "text": "106. On 4 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted to the Government, jointly with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture, a series of allegations concerning the following persons: Freddy Loseke Lisumbu-La-Yayenga, editor of La Libre Afrique newspaper, arrested on 22 December 1998, who allegedly received 150 lashes and was then interrogated about the publication of an article in his newspaper on that day; Christophe Bintu and Bienvenu Kasole, both of them human rights defenders, who were allegedly arrested on 12 January 1999 and released from the Kokolo camp on 20 January 1999 after being beaten and insulted in connection with their work as human rights activists; Jean-Baptiste Makoko, treasurer of the Groupe Lotus, a human rights NGO in Kisangani, who was allegedly arrested and beaten up on 10 December 1997 by three soldiers for having photographed dead soldiers in Kisangani hospital; Albert Bilbert Bosangi Yema, editor-in-chief of the L’Arme and L’Essor Africain newspapers, who was allegedly arrested on 7 February 1998, probably because of an article published in L’Arme criticizing the arrest of the Chairman of the “Forces novatrices pour l’union et la solidarité” political movement and who, according to the information received, is suffering from diabetes and rheumatism and whose health has deteriorated since his detention; Désiré Rugemanizi, Chief of Kabare, who was allegedly arrested in January 1998 for criticizing human rights violations in the region and tortured before being released in February 1998; Floribert Chebeya Bahizire, Chairman of the NGO “La Voix des sans-voix”, who was allegedly beaten up at his home by armed men in uniform in March 1998; Oswald Hakorimana, a human rights defender in the Kivu du Nord region, who was allegedly beaten severely in March 1998 by soldiers who accused him of collecting information concerning massacres of civilians.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0106", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 106, "n": 107, "text": "107. On 4 February 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action to the Government concerning the situation of Moïse Musangana, Clément Kongo, Ngambata, Théodore Ngangu and Emmanuel Katshunga, publication director, deputy editorial director and journalist respectively. All were arrested on 3 February 1999 when elements of the National Intelligence Agency (ANR) allegedly surrounded the premises of the Le Potentiel newspaper. They were reportedly accused of having published decree-laws concerning political parties and regulations concerning demonstrations and public meetings. André Ipakala, editor of the La Référence Plus newspaper, was allegedly arrested on 4 February 1999, also by elements of the ANR, and taken to an unknown destination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0107", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 107, "n": 108, "text": "108. On 3 February 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action to the Government together with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo concerning the case of Michel Museme Diawe, editor-in-chief of Radio-Télévision Congolaise, who had allegedly been evicted from his home on 26 January 1999. According to the information received, he was harassed because of his professional activities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0108", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 108, "n": 109, "text": "109. On 25 January 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent action to the Government with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo concerning the questioning of Kinyongo Saleh on 2 January 1999 about an article that was published in the La Vision newspaper. It is said that he was released the same evening. The cases of Thierry Kyalumba, publication director of La Vision, questioned by the same services, and of François Kadima Malungu, former special security adviser to President Kabila, were also transmitted.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0109", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 109, "n": 110, "text": "110. The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has yet been received from the Democratic Republic of the Congo.\nDjibouti\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0110", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 110, "n": 111, "text": "111. On 5 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government of Djibouti concerning the arrest and detention of journalists Moussa Ahmed Idriss, Daher Ahmed Farah and Ali Meidal Wais. According to the information received Moussa Ahmed Idriss, editor of the monthly Le Temps, was arrested on 23 September 1999 in a police raid following the publication of an article stating that a military helicopter was destroyed as a result of guerrilla action. This was reportedly denied by the authorities who claimed it to be an accident. Ali Medidal Wais, senior editor of Le Temps, was arrested on 2 September 1999 and sentenced to eight months in jail for “dissemination of false new stories” and “damaging the armed forces’ morale in an effort to harm national defence”. Daher Ahmed, editor of the weekly Le Renouveau, was also sentenced to one year in prison for the same reason.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0111", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 111, "n": 112, "text": "112. The Special Rapporteur has been informed that Moussa Idriss, Ali Medal Waiss and Daher Ahmed Farah were released on 8 December 1999. However, the two newspapers, which were suspended for six months, have still not resumed publishing.\nEquatorial Guinea\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0112", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 112, "n": 113, "text": "113. On 15 November 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an allegation to the Government of Equatorial Guinea concerning the refusal of government bodies to process applications that would have authorized the appearance of the following periodicals: El Tiempo (application of 11 July 1996), La Opinión (application of 22 April 1998), and La Hoja del Periodista (application of 6 March 1998). The Special Rapporteur was also informed that José Olo Obono, well-known criminal lawyer and secretary-general of one of the parties awaiting recognition, has been sentenced to five months in prison and a fine for “insulting the Government”. It was alleged that Mr. Obono levelled strong criticism at the authorities during an interview he gave to the Spanish press in connection with the death of his former client, Martin Puye Topete. According to the source, another serious incident occurred on 1 November 1998 when Alberto Mbe, Asunción Nsang Elo, María Luisa Abuy Eko and Benjamin Mba, members of the Convergencia para la Democracia Social party, were detained because they attempted to bring into Equatorial Guinea from Gabon 60 copies of a book published in Spain under the title Equatorial Guinea at the Crossroads. The Special Rapporteur also expressed concern over the absence of the regular publication of laws, decrees and governmental acts which jeopardizes the right of citizens to access information.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0113", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 113, "n": 114, "text": "114. The Special Rapporteur is aware that, given the timing of this allegation, the Government’s reply will appear in next years report.\nIran (Islamic Republic of)\nCommunications sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0114", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 114, "n": 115, "text": "115. On 13 July 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Representative on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran concerning student demonstrators who were attacked on 8 July 1999 by members of the armed forces and the student vigilante group, Ansar-e Hezbollah, while they were gathering outside the university hostels on Tehran Universitys Amirabad campus to demonstrate against the closure of the daily newspaper Salam. Concern was expressed over the alleged deaths of four students, Na’imi, Sohrabian, Yavari and Zakeri, as well as over the arrest of and injury to students during this demonstration. On 6 July, student activists Mohamad Masud Salamati, Sayed Javad Emami and Parviz Safaria were reportedly detained after a demonstration outside the United Nations office in Tehran demanding the release of two journalists, Heshmatollah Tabarzadi and Hossein Kashani, who were arrested in mid-June.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0115", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 115, "n": 116, "text": "116. On 12 July 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action, with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture and the Special Representative, concerning the cases of Heshmatollah Tabarzadi and Hossein Kashani, journalists of the weekly publication Hovizat-U-Khich, which has since reportedly been banned. The two journalists were allegedly arrested on 16 and 19 June 1999 for publishing information “contrary to the public order and the public interest” and “issuing an anti-establishment communiqué”. On 6 July 1999, a number of students were reportedly protesting the detention of the above-mentioned individuals at the United Nations office in Tehran and were themselves arrested. Furthermore, it has been reported that the Government suspended the publication of a leading moderate newspaper, Salam, the same day the Majilis passed a new law which in principle restricts freedom of the press. Salams editor, Morad Raisi Veissi, was reportedly detained on 7 July 1999.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0116", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 116, "n": 117, "text": "117. On 15 December 1998, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent appeal with the Special Representative and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions to the Government of Iran. They expressed concern about the disturbing news of what is described as a “pattern of murders and disappearances” of prominent Iranian writers and government critics. Majid Sharif, Mohammad Mokhtari and Mohammad Jafar Pooynade, all said to be writers, were allegedly found dead in suspicious circumstances after having disappeared on 23 November, 3 and 9 December 1998 respectively. It is noted that these deaths followed the reported killings on 22 November 1998 of Dariush Forouhar and his wife, Parvaneh Forouhar, both prominent critics of the Government. Concern was expressed about the safety and physical integrity of Pirouz Davani, intellectual, critic and editor, who was reported missing since 25 August 1998, as well as that of all Iranian political and intellectual dissidents.\nCommunication received", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0117", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 117, "n": 118, "text": "118. The Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran replies to the Special Rapporteur in a communication dated 12 January 1999. It addressed the arrest of several staff of the Ministry of Information on charges of complicity in the killings of five Iranian citizens. The Government expressed its trust in the transparency and effectiveness of national mechanisms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0118", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 118, "n": 119, "text": "119. In its communication of 12 April 1999, the Government in reference to an allegation of 30 October 1998, stated that the publishing of Rah-e-no and Tavana had been suspended because of technical problems and a lack of funds.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0119", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 119, "n": 120, "text": "120. The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran for its replies and for having kept him informed on the recent developments regarding the situation of the media in the Islamic Republic. The Special Rapporteur was informed by the source that Hossein Kashani, director of the newsletters Hoveyet-e-Khish, was released on bail in July 1999. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur learned that Heshmatollah Tabarzadi was released on bail on 5 November 1999.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0120", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 120, "n": 121, "text": "121. From 18 to 22 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Ireland, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session. (E/CN.4/2000/63/Add.2).\nIsrael\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Ireland"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0121", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 121, "n": 122, "text": "122. On 22 September 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the arrest and detention of Ms. Cosette Elias Ibrahim, a journalist and student in the Faculty of Journalism in the Lebanese University of Beirut. According to the source, Ms. Elias Ibrahim was apprehended by Israeli soldiers, interrogated and then transferred to the detention centre at Al-Kiam. Two other individuals, Degaulle Boutros Bou Taleb and Samir George Khyame, also affiliated with the Lebanese media, were also allegedly detained and transferred to al-Khiam. According to the reports, Ms. Elias Ibrahim has been accused by the Government of Israel of writing reports about the occupied zone in southern Lebanon as well as of submitting information to the Lebanese armed forces about the movements of the Israeli army.\nCommunications received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Ireland"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0122", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 122, "n": 123, "text": "123. The Government of Israel replied to the Special Rapporteur on 28 September 1999. Regarding the detention of Ms. Cosette Elias Ibrahim, Mr. Degaulle Boutros Bou Taleb and Mr. Samir George Khyame, the Government suggested that any requests for further information should be addressed directly to General Lahad, who is responsible for the El-Khiam detention centre. The Government further reported that Lebanese prisoners fall into two categories: those who have been apprehended in the course of terrorist attacks against the Israeli Defence Forces are held in Israeli detention centres, while those who have been apprehended in the course of attacks against the South Lebanon Army are held in El-Khiam detention centre.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Ireland"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0123", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 123, "n": 124, "text": "124. The Special Rapporteur also acknowledges the communication sent on 14 July 1999 by the Government to draw his attention to the arbitrary arrest of Mr. Maher Dasuki in a town under the administration of the Palestinian Authority.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Ireland"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0124", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 124, "n": 125, "text": "125. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Israel for its prompt reply.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Ireland"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0125", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 125, "n": 126, "text": "126. The Government of Japan responded on 8 October 1999 to a joint allegation sent with the Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography on 13 July 1998 expressing concern over the extensive proliferation of Web pages, bulletin boards and news-servers disseminating images of child pornography over the Internet (see E/CN.4/1999/64, para. 82). The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that on 26 May 1999, a Law for Punishing Acts related to Child Prostitution and Child Pornography and for Protecting Children was enacted. It was due to enter into force on 1 November 1999. The Law provides that those who display child pornography on the Internet face imprisonment of up to three years. Measures to regulate the pornography industry operating through the Internet were introduced by an amendment to the Law on Control and Improvement of Amusement Business in October 1998. Moreover, the communication stated that when police investigators detect child pornography on the Internet, they ask the Internet providers to delete the material from the network. A trade organization of Internet providers has developed guidelines to curb illegal and harmful information, including child pornography, on the Internet. Under the guidelines providers can take measures such as warning, deleting the material and suspending the services to those that put illegal and harmful material on Web pages.\nJordan\nCommunications sent", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0126", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 126, "n": 127, "text": "127. On 25 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning the expulsion of Mr. Abdullah Hassanat (chief editor of the Jordan Times), Mr. Sultan Hattab (columnist at Al Rai), and Mr. Jihad al-Monati (journalist at Al Dustour) from the Jordan Press Association (JPA). According to the source the expulsion was in response to a visit which the journalists made to Israel, at the invitation of the Haifa University Centre for Arab-Jewish Studies, in September 1999. As reported, membership in JPA is necessary to exercise the profession of journalism in Jordan.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0127", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 127, "n": 128, "text": "128. On 11 August 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent action concerning Senan Shaqdeh, a senior editorial adviser for the evening daily newspaper Al-Masaya and a member of the Jordanian Journalists Association. On 25 July 1999, he was reportedly arrested for publishing an article in Al-Masaya which, according to the authorities, was damaging to the Governments relations with a foreign Power.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0128", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 128, "n": 129, "text": "129. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release of Mr. Shaqdeh on 10 August 1999.\nKenya\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0129", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 129, "n": 130, "text": "130. On 23 September 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the detention and conviction of Mr. Tony Gachoka, publisher of the Post on Sunday, who was detained in connection with articles in his newspaper about alleged corruption in the judiciary. He was convicted of contempt of court, sentenced to six months’ imprisonment and fined K Sh 1 million. The Special Rapporteur has been informed that three of the judges named in the newspaper articles for which Mr. Gachoka was being tried sat in judgement on his case.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0130", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 130, "n": 131, "text": "131. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release of Mr. Gachoka on 3 November 1999.\nKuwait\nCommunications sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0131", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 131, "n": 132, "text": "132. On 11 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action to the Government of Kuwait concerning the arrest and detention of Mr. Ahmad Baghdadi, head of the Political Science Department at Kuwait University and a regular contributor to the daily newspaper Al-siyassa. Mr. Baghdadi was convicted on 4 October 1999 on charges of defaming Islam and the prophet Muhammad for an article he wrote in 1996 in the Kuwait University student magazine Al-Shoula. According to the information received, Mr. Baghdadi has been sentenced to one month in jail and is currently detained at Talha prison.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0132", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 132, "n": 133, "text": "133. On 21 July 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action concerning the continued detention of journalists Fawwaz Muhammad al Awadhi Bseiso and Ibtisam Berto Sulaiman al-Dakhil who, together with three colleagues from the newspaper al-Nidaa, were sentenced to death in June 1991 for having collaborated with occupying Iraqi forces. It has been reported that 10 days later, the sentences were commuted to life imprisonment. However, the three colleagues of Mr. Bseiso and Mr. al-Dakhil, who were convicted of the same charges and subject to the same sentence, were released from jail on 25 February 1999 whereas the whereabouts of Mr. Bseiso and Mr. al-Dakhil remain unknown as well as their place of detention.\nCommunications received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0133", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 133, "n": 134, "text": "134. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur, in its communication dated 19 November 1999, that Mr. Baghdadi was convicted to six months’ imprisonment for defaming the Prophet Muhammad. The charges against him were brought under the Kuwait Public Code and not under the laws governing the media. As a result of an appeal on 4 October 1999, Mr. Baghdadi had his sentence reduced to one month. Following his hunger strike, he was taken after one day to the hospital and granted permission to receive visits from family members and the media. It is further noted that the court hearing his case respected all national and international standards and that Mr. Baghdadi was represented by three lawyers. On 18 October 1999, the Prince of Kuwait granted him a pardon, so that Mr. Baghdadi spent only 13 days in prison. The Government further stated that the Kuwaiti Constitution endorses fully the right to freedom of opinion and expression (art. 36) which is limited only by the necessity of public order.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "36", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0134", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 134, "n": 135, "text": "135. The Government sent a communication on 30 July 1999 informing the Special Rapporteur that the Ministry of Information decided to ban the Al-Jazeera satellite and its correspondent from exercising their activities on charges of defaming the Amir. However, after the station’s administration made an official apology and the presenter was dismissed, the Ministry lifted the ban and allowed the opening of a permanent office.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0135", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 135, "n": 136, "text": "136. A response from the Government is still awaited.\nLebanon\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0136", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 136, "n": 137, "text": "137. On 4 November 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government of Lebanon concerning the case of Marcel Khalifa, a well-known singer. According to the source, Mr. Khalifa was put on trial on 3 November 1999 for “insulting religious values” by including a two-line verse from a chapter of the Koran in his song “I am Yousef, o father” recorded in 1995. Allegedly, under article 473 of Lebanons Penal Code blasphemy is punishable by one month to one year in prison, while article 474 of the Penal Code punishes “insulting publicly a religion” with imprisonment ranging from six months to three years.\nCommunication received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "473", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "474", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0137", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 137, "n": 138, "text": "138. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur, in its communication dated 29 November 1999 with regard to the case of Mr. Marcel Khalifa, that the Lebanese\nConstitution guarantees the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Government further affirmed that Mr. Khalifa will get a fair trial and that he is still living in full freedom and giving his concerts according to schedule.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0138", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 138, "n": 139, "text": "139. The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the Government for its prompt reply.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0139", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 139, "n": 140, "text": "140. On 14 September 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action concerning the imprisonment of Murray Hiebert, a Canadian citizen and bureau chief of the weekly Far Eastern Economic Review in Kuala Lumpur. According to the information, Murray Hiebert was jailed on 11 September 1999 for six weeks after the Appeal Court upheld a 1997 conviction for “contempt of court”. Mr. Hiebert was first sentenced to three months in jail in September 1997 for an article entitled, “See you in court”, which appeared on 23 January 1997 about a suit brought by Chandra Sri Ram, the wife of Appeal Court Judge Gopal Sri Ram, against the International School of Kuala Lumpur. Upon his conviction and pending the appeal of the original sentence, the court reportedly seized Mr. Hiebert’s passport and he has therefore been unable to leave Malaysia since that time.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0140", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 140, "n": 141, "text": "141. On 18 June 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint allegation with the Special Rapporteur on the right to education concerning the dismissal of Dr. Chandra Muzaffar, Professor and Director for Civilizational Dialogue of the University of Malaysia. Owing to the apparent absence of an academic rationale for Professor Muzzafars dismissal, it is alleged that the dismissal is a politically motivated reprisal for his support for the opposition leader Ibrahim Anwar and the reform movement.\nCommunications received", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0141", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 141, "n": 142, "text": "142. In its communication of 4 October 1999, the Government of Malaysia replied that in the case of Mr. Murray Hiebert, the Malaysian judiciary had arrived independently at its judgement solely on the basis of the relevant laws.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0142", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 142, "n": 143, "text": "143. The Government of Malaysia on 11 August 1999 informed the Special Rapporteur that Dr. Chandra Muzzaffar allegedly was dismissed from his position at the university not for political reasons but because his contract had ended.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0143", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 143, "n": 144, "text": "144. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Malaysia for its prompt replies and welcomes the release of Mr. Hiebert on 11 October 1999.\nMexico\nCommunications sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0144", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 144, "n": 145, "text": "145. The Special Rapporteur, jointly with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, sent three urgent actions in connection with the death threats received by persons working for the “Miguel Agustín Pro-Juárez” Human Rights Centre NGO on 6 September, 16 September and 1 November. Digna Ochoa Plácido said that she had been assaulted, questioned and harassed by a group of individuals who entered her home and questioned her until the morning of 29 October and, before leaving, allegedly tied her to a butane gas container.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0145", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 145, "n": 146, "text": "146. On 6 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur also requested information concerning allegations of the violation of the human rights of the following persons:\n(a) On 16 December 1998, the body of Philip True, a United States citizen and correspondent for the San Antonio Express News, was found in the Sierra Madre mountains. According to the information received, Mr. True had gone to Huicholes in order to write an article about the indigenous population of the region;\n(b) During the same week, Armando Meléndez Sánchez, a journalist, was killed by three men who shot him in the presence of his wife;\n(c) Luis Mario García Rodríguez, a reporter for the La Tarde newspaper, was killed on 12 February 1998 near a police station in Mexico City. According to the source, Mr. Rodríguez had written several articles about corruption in the Government Procurator’s Department and the Federal Judicial Police;\n(d) Héctor Félix Miranda, author of a column in which public and private corruption was regularly criticized, was killed in 1998;\n(e) Jesús Blancornelas, editor of the Zeta weekly in Tijuana, was taken to hospital on 27 November 1997 following an attempt on his life. According to the source, there are indications that drug traffickers were behind the affair since Mr. Blancornelas often published articles about the Tijuana cartel;\n(f) Gabriel Gaza, a crime reporter with the El Diario newspaper in Nuevo Laredo, was beaten up in the street on 7 October 1997 by about 12 police officers, including Inspector Juan Antonio Treviño. It was reported that the police subsequently apologized for what had happened, explaining that it was an error since they had confused Mr. Gaza with a criminal;\n(g) The photographer Raúl Urbina was assaulted by security officers when he was covering a demonstration in Mexico City on 3 September 1997;\n(h) Daniel Lizarraga, of the La Reforma newspaper, was abducted on 5 September 1997 by two men who are thought to have been members of the Federal Judicial Police. According to the information received, Mr. Lizarraga was investigating an alleged connection between officials of the Government Procurator’s Office and cocaine traffickers;\n(i) Fátima Monterroso, of the “Detrás de la Noticia” programme, and Daniel Pensamiento, of the La Reforma y El Norte newspaper, correspondents in Chiapas, were assaulted on 26 August 1997;\n(j) Rafael Jiménez y Leobardo Espinoza, reporters for El Debate, as well as Georgina Gill of the Televisa television company and Manuel Salas and Moisés Juarez, of Noroeste, were assaulted and threatened in Culiacán on 31 July 1997. It is alleged that these attacks were the work of the State Judicial Police of Sinaloa;\n(k) Nidia Marín, of the Excelsior newspaper, Miguel Pérez of the La Reforma newspaper and Juan García, a photographer with the Excelsior were, according to the information received, assaulted by State guards on 4 June 1997 when they were covering an inauguration ceremony;\n(l) Salvador Chávez, a correspondent for the Televisa television company, was arrested on 12 April 1997. According to the information received, he was detained for two hours and beaten by the police when covering a police operation in Guadalajara in the State of Jalisco;\n(m) Cuauhtémoc Ornelas Campos, editor of the Alcance review, has officially been declared as having disappeared since 4 October 1995. According to the information received, he condemned the activities of drug traffickers in the region of the State of Coahuila and their connection with the authorities.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Persons in street situations", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0146", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 146, "n": 147, "text": "147. On 16 July 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions concerning the death threats received on various occasions by Jesús Barraza Zavala, director of the Pulso weekly and the aggression against his bodyguard by alleged official agents. On 9 April 1999, Pulso published two articles connecting Albino Quintero Meraz, an ex-governor, and the Federal Judicial Police with drugs trafficking and calling for an investigation. As a result, on 4 May 1999, Mr. Quintero’s emissary allegedly threatened Mr. Barraza with death, stating that his body would be found floating in a river if he did not cease publishing his accusations. According to the information received, the emissary offered Mr. Barraza the sum of $30,000 in exchange for his silence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0147", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 147, "n": 148, "text": "148. We have been informed that Benjamín Flores González, the former director of Pulso, was killed by drugs traffickers on 15 July 1997 and that the police has so far not arrested the authors of this crime.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0148", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 148, "n": 149, "text": "149. On 26 April, both Special Rapporteurs sent an urgent action to the Government referring to the threats received by the staff of the La Guillotina review. It is alleged that on 8 April 1999 a man attacked Carina Ochoa, a journalist with this review.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0149", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 149, "n": 150, "text": "150. On 15 February, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action together with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions informing the Government of Mexico about the attack and the death threats received by Enrique Gutiérrez, a correspondent for the El Sur local newspaper while he was covering the elections of 7 February in Acapulco, State of Guerrero. The incident took place in La Glorieta de Puerto Marqués, when the journalist was gathering information on alleged irregularities in the electoral process committed by election officers from Polling Station 308 and staff working for the municipal government, who were members of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0150", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 150, "n": 151, "text": "151. The Special Rapporteur received a communication dated 13 February 1998 in which the Government of Mexico clarified the legal position in respect of some of the cases on which information had been requested. In its communication the Government provided information about the case of Rene Solorio, Ernesto Madrid and Gerardo Segura, as well as the cases of Daniel Lizárraga, David Vicenteno, Abdel Jesús Bueno León, Benjamín Flores González and Victor Hernández Martines. According to the information received, these cases are still under investigation and some have reached the trial stage. The Special Rapporteur will ask to be kept informed about the progress made in these proceedings.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communications received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0151", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 151, "n": 152, "text": "152. The Mexican Government, in a communication dated 10 August 1999, provided the Special Rapporteur with information about the case of Jesús Barraza, stating that proceedings had been instituted and that the Federal Government had requested the Government Procurator of the State of Sonora to take measures to protect the journalist. It also stated that the Government Procurator was authorized to do everything in his power to prevent any direct or indirect action being taken against Mr. Barraza and to guarantee his integrity. The Government also transmitted additional information about the case of Jesús Barraza, indicating that, since 31 June 1999, elements of the municipal police in San Luis Río Colorado, Sonora, had been assigned to protect Mr. Barraza. Similarly, the deputy investigator of the Government Procurator’s Department (ordinary jurisdiction) based in that town had ordered elements of the judicial police to carry out regular checks at various hours of the day and night, including contact with the staff of the Pulso weekly and Mr. Barraza’s home.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communications received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0152", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 152, "n": 153, "text": "153. The Mexican Government also sent a report dated 22 September 1999 indicating that the National Human Rights Commission (CNDH) had transmitted the file concerning the Human Rights Centre “Miguel Agustín Pro-Juárez” to the inspectorate responsible for coordinating the programme of assistance for journalists and human rights defenders, in accordance with article 40 of the CNDH Law which states that the Inspector-General may request the competent authorities to take preventive measures to avoid an irreparable outcome when such acts are reported. It added that preventive measures had been taken and that preliminary investigations had been launched.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communications received"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "40", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0153", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 153, "n": 154, "text": "154. In a letter dated 1 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur received a reply to the allegations submitted on a number of cases, providing information on each one. The progress made in the investigations varies from case to case. The report indicated that those responsible for the killing of the journalists Phillip True and Benjamín Flores Gonzáles had been identified and sentenced. However, it also stated, in respect of the killing of the journalist Luis García Rodríguez and in the cases of the assault and battery of the journalists David Vicenteño and Salvador Chávez Calderón, that CNDH had ended its investigations since it had “found no evidence of the participation by any authority or public official”. Similarly, it indicated that CNDH had closed the cases of Rene Solorio, Gerardo Segura and Ernesto Madrid because they had requested that the investigations should be discontinued. The case of the aggression committed against the journalist Raúl Urbina was also closed since the Public Security Secretariat of the Federal District had taken steps to determine who was responsible, so that it is unknown whether all the guilty parties have been identified and sentenced.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communications received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0154", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 154, "n": 155, "text": "155. The information also indicated that, in the cases of the killing of the journalists Héctor Félix Miranda and Abdel Bueno León, as well as the attempt against the life of Jesús Blancornerlas, investigations had not yet been completed or that CNDH’s recommendations had not been complied with fully.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communications received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0155", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 155, "n": 156, "text": "156. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Mexican Government for the information received. However, he notes with concern that most of the journalists attacked were those who spoke out about a connection between drugs traffickers and officials and condemned the abuse of power by State agents.\nMyanmar\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0156", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 156, "n": 157, "text": "157. On 15 November 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an allegation concerning restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression imposed by the Government which officially censors domestic public media. The Special Rapporteur also requested further information regarding the following individual cases. Saung Win Latt, a famous short story writer, has been detained since early 1997 and is serving a seven-year jail term for “violating the press” by making a joke about the junta during a literary talk. U Hla Pe, a member of the Central Executive Committee of the opposition National League for Democracy (NLD), and U Zeya, chairman of the Myaungmya township NLD Organizing Committee, were among others allegedly harassed on 26 January 1997 by the police. According to the information received , numerous NLD MPs , among them U Aung Tin from Shadaw and U Boe Thin from Loikaw, were forced to resign on 13 January 1997. U Moe Thu, a writer and journalist who worked closely with Aung San Suu Kyi, has reportedly been detained since May 1996. Allegedly, U Win Tin, former editor of Hanthawaddy, had his sentence extended on 28 March 1996 to five years since he reportedly sent letters describing prison conditions at Insein to the former Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Myanmar, Professor Yozo Yokota. U Myo Mynt Nyen and U Sein Hlaing were arrested in September 1990 and sentenced to seven years in jail for publishing anti-Government propaganda. Allegedly, in March 1996 they were sentenced to another seven years for sending letters to the Special Rapporteur regarding the harsh conditions in prison.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0157", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 157, "n": 158, "text": "158. On 28 July 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture to the Government of Myanmar concerning the cases of Thaint Wunna Kin, Ma Khin Leh, U Aye Swe, Daw Tin Tin, Kyaw Kyaw Oo, U Zaw Myint, Daw Tint Tint, Ko Zaw Zaw Latt, U Ba Chit, U Ye Tint, U Win Myint, Dr. Shwe Bo, Ma Thida Htway, Ko Lwin Moe Myint, Ko Myint Oo, Ko Ah Thay Lay, Ko Hla Win and two unnamed female physicians who were reportedly arrested between 19 and 23 July 1999 in Pegu, central Myanmar. Most of these individuals were allegedly arrested owing to their involvement in a march commemorating the fifty-second anniversary of the assassination of General Aung San. Military intelligence reportedly looked for Kyaw Wunna, one of the activists who was organizing the march, and, not finding him, arrested his 3-year-old daughter and his wife. Six other members of Kyaw Wunna’s family were also allegedly arrested on 23 July 1999. The remaining 11 people, who were reportedly distributing pamphlets, were arrested between 19 and 24 July 1999.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0158", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 158, "n": 159, "text": "159. The Government of Myanmar informed the Special Rapporteur on 11 August 1999 that allegations that some individuals, including a 3-year-old, have been arrested and detained in Bago are found to be untrue. However, some people have been investigated in connection with the discovery of pamphlets printed by the armed terrorist group, the All Burma Students’ Democratic Front.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0159", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 159, "n": 160, "text": "160. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for the reply received on 11 August 1999 and wishes to inform the Government that given the timing of the last communication, sent on 15 November 1999, the Government’s reply will be included in next year’s report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0160", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 160, "n": 161, "text": "161. On 25 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the arrest and detention of Mr. Jerry Needam, a journalist of the newspaper Ogoni Star, and a human rights activist, in connection with the attempt of the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People, (MOSOP), to express public concern over police conduct which would constitute an abuse of human rights.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0161", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 161, "n": 162, "text": "162. On 5 May 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the arrest on 25 April 1999 of Mr. Lanre Arogundade, Chairman of the Council of the Lagos Branch of the Nigerian Union of Journalists (NUJ). According to the source, Mr. Arogundade was first arrested and detained in February 1999 at a time when he had been receiving death threats as a result of his NUJ activities. It is alleged that he was arrested on the basis of petitions filed against him by a faction of the Union, in connection with his alleged involvement in the murder of former NUJ treasurer Bolade Fasasi. It is further reported that his detention coincides with planned activities for the celebration of World Press Freedom Day in Nigeria.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0162", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 162, "n": 163, "text": "163. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release on bail of Mr. Needam on 2 November 1999 but regrets that no reply has been received from the Government on the case.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0163", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 163, "n": 164, "text": "164. On 24 May 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women concerning a press statement issued on 14 May 1999 by the Social Welfare Minister of Punjab, Mr. Pir Bin Yamin Rizvi, in which he accused the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, the women’s organization Shirkat Gah and the Ajoka theatre group of spreading vulgarity and obscenity in the name of human rights and of anti-State activity. The allegation of anti-State activities reportedly emanates from the participation of a Shirkat Gah representative in a British Council seminar on violence against women held in England.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Pakistan"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0164", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 164, "n": 165, "text": "165. On 12 May 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action concerning Mr. Najam Sethi, founder and editor of the English-language weekly newspaper Friday Times, who was arrested on 8 May 1999 by the Pakistan Intelligence Bureau, in cooperation with the Punjab police. The reasons for Mr. Sethi’s arrest are assumed to be related to declarations he made in the BBC television documentary “Correspondant” concerning the alleged high level of corruption in the Government of Pakistan.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Pakistan"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0165", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 165, "n": 166, "text": "166. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release of Mr. Sethi but still awaits a reply from the Government of Pakistan on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Observations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0166", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 166, "n": 167, "text": "167. On 11 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions concerning death threats to Juan Sausa Seclen, correspondent for the daily La República. According to information received, the anonymous caller threatened Mr. Seclen, who is now in hiding, that if he did not stop criticizing the National Intelligence Service he and his family would disappear. Allegedly, Mr. Seclen had published an article regarding the current activities of Hugo Coral Goychocea, a former member of a paramilitary group and now a bodyguard of Walter Pietro Maitre, mayor of the city of Jaem. Moreover, according to the source, the 28 September edition of La República was seized in order to prevent the information from being made public.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Peru"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0167", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 167, "n": 168, "text": "168. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Peru for the communication dated 16 June 1999 in which a list of people benefiting from an amnesty law was provided. However, replies to the communications sent are still awaited.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Peru"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0168", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 168, "n": 169, "text": "169. On 2 July 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent action to the Government concerning Suh Jun Sik, a prominent human rights activist, coordinator of the Sarangbang Centre for Human Rights based in Seoul. According to the information received, Suh Jun Sik, a former political prisoner who had already been imprisoned for 17 years, was arrested on 4 November 1997 by the Seoul Administration Security Division for having shown the film “Red Hunt” during the 1997 Seoul Human Rights Film Festival, which was sponsored and organized by the Sarangbang Centre.\nCommunication received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Republic of Korea"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0169", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 169, "n": 170, "text": "170. The Government replied on 8 January 1999 to a communication sent by the Special Rapporteur on 22 July 1999 (see E/CN.4/1999/64, para. 98). According to the Government, Ham Yun Shik was sentenced on 2 July 1999 to one year’s imprisonment by the Seoul District Court. A complaint against Ham Yun Shik was lodged by the National Congress for New Politics for defaming the then presidential candidate Kim Dae Jung. In the same communication, it is stated that Song Chung Mu was sentenced to two years’ imprisonment on 23 September 1998 for having libelled Kim Dae Jung during electoral campaigns. The Government also explained how its legislation sets reasonable limits on the exercise of free speech to ensure just and fair elections.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Republic of Korea"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0170", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 170, "n": 171, "text": "171. On 16 July 1999, the Government sent a reply regarding the case of Mr. Suh Jun Sik whose trial was not yet concluded owing to the presentation of further evidence.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Republic of Korea"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0171", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 171, "n": 172, "text": "172. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its prompt reply.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Republic of Korea"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0172", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 172, "n": 173, "text": "173. From 20 to 26 September 1999, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Sudan, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session (E/CN.4/2000/63/Add.1).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Sudan"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0173", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 173, "n": 174, "text": "174. On 26 April 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action together with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture concerning Nizar Nayouf, editor-in-chief of the monthly journal Sawt al-Democratiyya and Secretary-General of the Committee for the Defence of Democratic Freedoms in Syria, who was reportedly arrested in January 1992. On 17 March 1992, a military court sentenced him to 10 years of forced labour for being a member of an unauthorized organization and for disseminating false information. For over a year, Mr. Nayouf has reportedly been suffering from Hodgkin’s disease. Prison authorities have allegedly refused to give him medical treatment unless he pledges to refrain from political activity and signs a statement acknowledging that he made false declarations concerning the situation of human rights in Syria. It has also been brought to the Special Rapporteur’s attention that he is being held in a solitary cell measuring 2.5 by 3 metres in the military prison of Mezze in Damascus, and has not seen the sun for seven years.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Syrian Arab Republic"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0174", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 174, "n": 175, "text": "175. On 26 April 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture and the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the case of Farj Bayraqdar, a Syrian journalist and poet who was reportedly arrested in March 1987 and held incommunicado for nearly seven years before he was brought before a State Security Court in 1993. Allegedly accused of belonging to the unauthorized “Hizb Al-Amal Al-Shuyu’i” (Party of Communist Action), he was sentenced to 15 years of imprisonment on 17 October 1993. Currently held in Seydanaya prison, Mr. Bayraqdar is reportedly being denied medical treatment for serious injuries he sustained as a result of alleged torture.\nCommunications received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Syrian Arab Republic"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0175", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 175, "n": 176, "text": "176. On 7 June 1999 the Government of the Syrian Arab Republic informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Nizar Nayyouf had been arrested for participating with other Syrian citizens in establishing a group that carried out activities against State security. On the same date, the Government reported that Mr. Faraj ibn Ahmad Bayraqdar had been arrested on 31 March 1987 because of terrorist activities for which he received a 15-year prison sentence.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Syrian Arab Republic"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0176", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 176, "n": 177, "text": "177. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of the Syrian Arab Republic for its replies. However, he is still concerned for the health of Mr. Nayyouf given the repeated reports that he should receive adequate medical treatment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Syrian Arab Republic"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0177", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 177, "n": 178, "text": "178. On 11 May 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture concerning Tengue Nestor and Gayibor François, executive members of the Togolese Association for the Defence and Promotion of Human Rights (ATDPDH), both of whom were arrested on 3 May 1999 by the police at Lomé. It is alleged that Sant’Anna Brice, considered to have worked closely with this organization, was also arrested. According to the sources, all three are accused of “damage to the credit and safety of the State, dissemination of false information, forgery and use of forgery” for having transmitted to international human rights organizations erroneous information on human rights violations committed by the Togolese Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Togo"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0178", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 178, "n": 179, "text": "179. On 25 May 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture concerning Nadjombe Antoine Koffi, a member of the NGO Amnesty International who had allegedly been arrested on 14 May 1999 at Lomé a few days following Amnesty International’s publication of a report on human rights violations in Togo during the 1998 elections. As in the case of the three persons mentioned in the urgent appeal of 11 May 1999, fears were expressed that Nadjombe Antoine Koffi might be tortured.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Togo"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0179", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 179, "n": 180, "text": "180. The Togolese Government transmitted a reply to the Special Rapporteur on 27 July 1999 informing him that an investigation launched into the activities of ATDPDH had revealed that some of its members, including Tengue Apedo Mensa, Sant’Anna Brice and Gayobor Koko Koété intended to reveal to Amnesty International a number of serious incidents, attributing them to the forces of law and order. On 7 May 1999, after a long period in police custody ordered by the Government Procurator, they were referred to the Government Procurator’s Office of Lomé. They were charged with complicity in damage to a person’s honour, the dissemination of false information and incitation to rebellion. After being charged, a detention warrant was issued on 7 and 14 May 1999. The accused were released on 18 June 1999 at the order of the Government Procurator and proceedings are under way. Lastly, the Government assured the Rapporteurs that Togo, in accordance with its international undertakings, had made significant progress in ensuring respect for human rights, particularly in the legal field, giving as an example the fact that the National Human Rights Commission had closely followed developments in this case.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communications received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0180", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 180, "n": 181, "text": "181. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0181", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 181, "n": 182, "text": "182. From 6 to 10 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit toTunisia, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session (E/CN.4/2000/63/Add.4)", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations", "Tunisia"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0182", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 182, "n": 183, "text": "183. On 7 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent to the Government allegations concerning the following cases: Yalcin Kucuk, a journalist of Hepileri, who has been jailed since 29 October 1998 and is currently detained at Gezbe prison; Nadire Mater, a reporter for Inter Press Service, who was charged under article 159 of the Penal Code “for insulting and belittling the military” in her book Mehmed’s Book: Soldiers who have fought in the south-east speak out and who, if convicted, faces a prison sentence of one to six years; Nuredin Sirin, an editorialist of Selam who was sentenced on 18 December 1998 for an article he published on 15 July 1997; the Kurdish “MED-TV” satellite channel, which had its broadcasting licence withdrawn on 23 April 1999. The Special Rapporteur, however, welcomed the enactment of the Amnesty Law which brought the release of 21 journalists.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations", "Turkey"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "159", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0183", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 183, "n": 184, "text": "184. On 1 June 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action concerning Muzzafer Ilhan Erdost, a prominent writer, journalist and publisher who has been sentenced to one year in prison and a fine of 100 million lira on charges relating to his book Three Sivas. Mr. Erdost also undertook independent human rights studies and participated in the establishment of the Turkish Human Rights Association (IHD). It was reported that he was first imprisoned from 1971 to 1974 because of his writings and in 1980 he was arrested for the second time, together with his brother, after the military coup d’état of 12 September.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations", "Turkey"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0184", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 184, "n": 185, "text": "185. On 5 January 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent action concerning Mr. Akin Birdal, Chairman of IHD and Vice-Chairman of the Human Rights Foundation of Turkey, who was sentenced on 16 December 1998 to a one-year term of imprisonment for a speech he made on 1 September 1995. In his speech, he allegedly called on the Turkish authorities to negotiate a peaceful end to the conflict in the south-east. According to the source, Mr. Birdal could be arrested at any moment to serve a previous one-year sentence which was confirmed on 27 October 1998. Moreover, three branches of IHD based in Bursa, Mardin and Balikesir were closed down on 13 November, 16 and 17 December 1998 respectively because they had on the premises prohibited human rights publications. It is further reported that the Director of the Balikesir branch of IHD, Dr. Bekir Ceylan, was dismissed from his government post allegedly because he was an executive member of IHD.\nCommunications received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations", "Turkey"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0185", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 185, "n": 186, "text": "186. The Government of Turkey transmitted an explanatory note on 30 September 1999 regarding the 21 journalists amnestied under Law 4454.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations", "Turkey"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0186", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 186, "n": 187, "text": "187. In its communication dated 25 May 1999, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur about the temporary closure of the IHD branches in Balikesir, Mardin and Bursa. According to the Government, the Balikesir branch continues its activities, while the Mardin branch was closed for a period of three months from 16 December 1998. The branch office in Bursa was closed for a period of three months and then its activities were banned after the Government established that the office was functioning in contravention of the Law on Associations. The Government also informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Bekir Ceylan, Director of the Balikesir branch office, was dismissed from his government post in the State Hospital as a result of his participation in the preparation of a false document. With regard to the case of Mr. Akin Birdal, it stated that his one-year sentence for “inciting the public to hatred and discrimination based on race, religion or ethnic origin” was confirmed in October 1998 and was implemented on 3 June 1999.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations", "Turkey"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0187", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 187, "n": 188, "text": "188. The Government in its communication dated 30 June 1999 provided information pertaining to the case of Mr. Muzaffer Ilhan Erdost who on 20 July 1999 was sentenced to one year’s imprisonment on the charge of spreading separatist propaganda against the integrity of the State and to a fine of 100 million lira. According to the Government, the case had been taken to the Court of Appeals.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations", "Turkey"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0188", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 188, "n": 189, "text": "189. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Turkey for its replies and his willingness to cooperate with the mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations", "Turkey"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0189", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 189, "n": 190, "text": "190. On 19 February 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an allegation requesting further details about the legal basis of the charges against and conviction of Mr. Vyacheslav Mamedov, an activist of the Russian community of Turkmenistan. According to the information received, Mr. Mamedov was arrested on 21 January 1999 for “slander”, after a series of prior actions against him beginning on 8 December 1998, on the basis of an interview he had given on the Russian radio station “Mayak” on 18 December 1998 in which he had described his community work. According to the sources, Mr. Mamedov was freed a few days after his arrest, but the charges against him are still pending.\nCommunication received", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Turkmenistan"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0190", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 190, "n": 191, "text": "191. The Government of Turkmenistan replied on 9 April 1999 concerning the case of Mr. Mamedov, who was granted a pardon by the President of Turkmenistan.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Turkmenistan"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0191", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 191, "n": 192, "text": "192. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Turkmenistan"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0192", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 192, "n": 193, "text": "193. From 24 to 28 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session (E/CN.4/2000/63/Add.3).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0193", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 193, "n": 194, "text": "194. On 19 May 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action concerning Abdel Latif Kutubi Omar, Hisham Basharah’il and Ali-Haitham al-Gharib. According to the source, Abdel Latif Kutubi Omar, editor in chief of the opposition weekly Al-Haq, was arrested on 2 March 1999 in his Sanaa office by five armed plainclothes agents and was taken to the Criminal Investigation Department for interrogation. It has been reported that his arrest is linked to an article published in Al-Haq on 28 February 1999 in which he mentioned an agreement between the United States and the Yemeni authorities regarding military facilities offered to the United States on the island of Socotra. Mr. Omar was released on 6 March after three days in custody and was allegedly informed that he would be prosecuted and should appear in court on 19 May. Hisham Basharah’il, editor in chief of the newspaper Al-Ayyam, and Ali-Haitham al-Gharib, a writer for the paper, were reportedly arrested on 2 and 4 March 1999 respectively and charged with instigating “national feuds”, “the spirit of separatism”, and harming “national unity”. The charge allegedly stems from an article published on 27 February 1999 which criticized factionalism in Yemeni society and the structure of local government.\nCommunication received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Yemen"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0194", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 194, "n": 195, "text": "195. On 8 August 1999 the Yemeni Government transmitted, through the Supreme National Human Rights Commission, a reply to the Special Rapporteur giving further details about the charges against the persons in question. It stated that the publication of the article by Hisham Basharah’il and Ali-Haitham al-Gharib was likely to exacerbate confessionalism and regionalism, create divisions in Yemeni society and propagate ideas likely to cause a breach of State security. According to the Government’s communication, Hisham Basharah’il published a summary of the proceedings of a trial on 2 March 1999 despite the fact that such action had been prohibited by the court which had considered that the press might influence court procedure. On the subject of Mr. Abdel Latif Kutubi Omar, it stated that he had been referred to the competent court in connection with a number of affairs, the last of which involved the publication of an article entitled “Yemen provides the United States and Socotra with military facilities”. That article was considered likely to exacerbate confessionalism and tribalism and create divisions in Yemeni society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Yemen"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0195", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 195, "n": 196, "text": "196. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Yemeni Government for its reply and hopes that he will be kept informed of developments in these three cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0196", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 196, "n": 197, "text": "197. On 12 March 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture concerning Amos Malupenga, Goodson Machona, Brighton Phiri, Joe Kaunda, Kelvin Shimo and Lubasi Katundu, all journalists with the independent Post newspaper, who were reportedly arrested on 9 and 10 March 1999. All the journalists are believed to have been arrested in connection with an article on the low military capabilities and unprepared state of the Zambian army in the face of a possible threat from Angola.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zambia"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0197", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 197, "n": 198, "text": "198. A response from the Government is still awaited.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zambia"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0198", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 198, "n": 199, "text": "199. On 6 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint allegation with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture regarding the cases of Mark Chavudunka, editor of the independent Sunday newspaper The Standard, and Ray Choto, chief reporter for the same newspaper. Mark Chavudunka was arrested on 12 January 1999 by the military police in Harare and allegedly detained incommunicado for six days. According to the source he was accused of having published an article on 10 January 1999 with regard to the arrest of 23 military officers for plotting a coup in December 1998. Ray Choto was reportedly arrested on 19 January 1999 by the police. Both journalists have reportedly sustained serious injuries as a result of torture during their detention at the military police station. Despite the fact that both journalists were released on bail on 21 January 1999, they are still facing charges under the Law and Order Maintenance Act for “publishing false reports”.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0199", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 199, "n": 200, "text": "200. The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has yet been received from the Government on the case in question.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0200", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 200, "n": 201, "text": "201. On 12 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the detention of Mr. Maer al-Dessouki, a journalist with the independent Al’Quds educational television station. According to the source , Mr. al-Dessouki was arrested on 15 September 1999 by Palestinian Security Services agents and was reportedly accused of “possessing material inciting against the Palestinian National Authority”. According to reports, his arrest was related to his having hosted a programme on 12 September 1999 in which Palestinians whose family members had not been included in the previous week’s prisoner release by Israel criticized the Palestinian Authority.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0201", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 201, "n": 202, "text": "202. The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has been provided by the Palestinian Authority and hopes to receive one soon.\nV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0202", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 202, "n": 203, "text": "203. While the Special Rapporteur notes with satisfaction a growing tide in favour of human rights and that almost all Governments seem to be upholding the sanctity of the principles of freedom of opinion and expression, he at the same time finds innumerable cases of great violations of human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0203", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 203, "n": 204, "text": "204. The Special Rapporteur cannot help but view with dismay the contents of the communications received in the past year. It is clear from them that the rights to freedom of opinion, expression and information are violated, almost as a matter of routine, in States with widely different political systems and institutional frameworks for governance. There are countries where these rights do not enjoy even the minimum protections and guarantees set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and associated international human rights instruments. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur encourages all States that have not ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to do so. Furthermore, he again urges all Governments to scrutinize their domestic legal systems with a view to bringing them into line with international standards governing the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Particularly with regard to the issue of national security, the Special Rapporteur urges all Governments to review not only laws specifically intended to protect national security but also ordinary criminal laws which may be used to infringe the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to information. The criminal justice and the police systems also need to be overhauled to ensure greater justice and fairness from the police. The Governments may also consider the feasibility of setting up national human rights commissions and positions of ombudsman where these institutions do not exist.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0204", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 204, "n": 205, "text": "205. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur strongly urges all Governments to ensure that press offences are no longer punishable by terms of imprisonment, except in cases involving racist or discriminatory comments or calls to violence. In the case of offences such as “libelling”, “insulting” or “defaming” the head of State and publishing or broadcasting “false” or “alarmist” information, prison terms are both reprehensible and out of proportion to the harm suffered by the victim. In all such cases, imprisonment as punishment for the peaceful expression of an opinion constitutes a serious violation of human rights.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0205", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 205, "n": 206, "text": "206. As regards information, particularly information held by Governments, the Special Rapporteur strongly encourages States to take all necessary steps to ensure the full realization of the right to access to information. The Special Rapporteur proposes to undertake a comparative study of the different approaches taken in the various regions and countries in this regard. He also commends to the Commission on Human Rights the Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation that were developed by Article 19 (see annex II); he further requests the Commission to endorse these principles in the resolution it will adopt at its fifty-sixth session.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0206", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 206, "n": 207, "text": "207. As regards the impact of new information technology on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the Special Rapporteur considers it of pre-eminent importance that they be considered in the light of the same international standards as other means of communication and that no measures be taken which would unduly restrict freedom of expression and information; in case of doubt, the decision should be in favour of free expression and the free flow of information. With regard to the Internet, the Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate that on-line expression should be guided by international standards and be guaranteed the same protection as is awarded to other forms of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0207", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 207, "n": 208, "text": "208. In this context, he also recommends that all reasonable steps be taken to promote access to the Internet. For instance, Governments should promote an economic and regulatory environment which encourages the extension of telecommunication lines to rural and other previously under-serviced areas. Wherever possible, government information should be made available through the Internet.", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0208", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 208, "n": 209, "text": "209. Concerning the link between the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the rights of women, the Special Rapporteur expresses his great concern at the continuing silencing of women by various devices. Discriminatory rules and conventions continue to bolster entrenched patriarchal attitudes. In stark manifestation of male chauvinism, women are harassed. But it is at the same time encouraging to note that a spirit of change is building up with women’s movements appearing even in highly conservative and religious societies. Education continues to improve. Women’s participation in the workforce has increased. Women’s actions to improve their political influence are gathering momentum. Efforts are being made to win adequate representation in Government at the national and local levels. Claims are being made to senior government posts. The Special Rapporteur urges Governments to take all necessary steps to remove formal and cultural obstacles to the exercise by women of their right to freedom of expression, including the right to receive information, and ultimately to give effect to all their rights. In light of the importance of freedom of expression and its relationship to the struggle against violence against women, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that a special effort should be made to gather and analyse more information along the lines described in the present report. The Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate his hope to be able to prepare a report jointly with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, to be submitted to the Commission on Human Rights next year. In this regard, he invites submissions by Governments, intergovernmental organizations and specialized agencies, as well as non-governmental bodies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0209", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 209, "n": 210, "text": "210. In regard to the continuing pattern of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression of human rights defenders, the Special Rapporteur recommends to Governments to take steps to implement the provisions of the Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.\nAnnex I\nINTERNATIONAL MECHANISMS FOR PROMOTING FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION\nThe United Nations Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression, the Representative on freedom of the media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression of the Organization of American States (OAS) met for the first time in London on 26 November 1999 under the auspices of Article 19:\nWe recall that freedom of expression is a fundamental international human right and a basic component of a civil society based on democratic principles;\nIndependent and pluralistic media are essential to a free and open society and accountable government. Respect for freedom of the media in the States members of our organizations, although very different from country to country, leaves much to be desired;\nCertain Governments have continued to exert and allow impermissible pressure on the media in their respective countries. The levels of harassment might be different but the general aim is the same: to suppress pluralism and open debate on issues of concern to citizens;\nFreedom of expression is not only a fundamental human right in and of itself, but it has ramifications for economic development as well. The media has a “corrective” function by bringing to the public’s attention corruption and inequitable practices. The absence of free media can lead to economic stagnation and improper practices by both Governments and businesses;\nImplicit in freedom of expression is the public’s right to open access to information and to know what Governments are doing on their behalf, without which truth would languish and people’s participation in Government would remain fragmented;\nThe media should refrain from any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to violence or to any other similar action;\nIn many countries laws are in place, such as criminal defamation laws, which unduly restrict the right to freedom of expression. We urge States to review these laws with a view to bringing them into line with their international obligations;\nWe affirm that States must ensure an effective, serious and impartial judicial process, based on the rule of law, in order to combat impunity of perpetrators of attacks against freedom of expression.\nAbid Hussain Freimut Duve\nUnited Nations Special Rapporteur on OSCE Representative\nfreedom of opinion and expression on freedom of the media\nSantiago Canton\nOAS Special Rapporteur on\nfreedom of expression\nAnnex II", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. This report is submitted by the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Ambeyi Ligabo, pursuant Human Rights Council resolution 5/1. This is the last annual report that will be submitted by the present mandate-holder, whose term expires in August 2008.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Chapter I summarizes the main activities of the Special Rapporteur undertaken in 2007, including an analysis of communication trends in the period. Chapter II presents an overall review of the main issues addressed by the Special Rapporteur throughout his tenure. It thus intends to highlight the different trends observed by the Special Rapporteur over the past six years, pointing to the main challenges for the effective implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Chapter III presents the general conclusions and recommendations of the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. This report contains as its addendum 1 the summary of communications sent by the Special Rapporteur from 1 January to 4 December 2007 and replies received thereto from Governments by 21 January 2008. Addenda 2 and 3 are the reports of the Special Rapporteur’s country visits to Ukraine and Azerbaijan, respectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The Special Rapporteur relies on communications received from various sources as a means to identify trends, reiterate issues already discussed in previous reports and bring to the attention of the international community a number of policies, practices and measures having an impact on the respect for freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. To effectively implement his mandate, the Special Rapporteur focuses on information received from a variety of sources, including Governments; local, national, regional or international governmental and non-governmental organizations; associations of media professionals and writers; trade unions; etc. The quality and the quantity of information received are essential to the discharge of the mandate of the Special Rapporteur. Furthermore, they are a significant indicator of the degree of implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in a given country. The Special Rapporteur may also decide to take initiative motu proprio on issues of general concern that he considers relevant to his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The majority of cases received by the Special Rapporteur concern threats, aggressions, harassment, murder or other sorts of attacks on the physical and psychological integrity of journalists, students, human rights activists and unionists as retaliation for their exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression. In many cases, these attacks were linked to the repression of peaceful protests conducted to express disagreement with some governmental policy, at the national or local level, or with the actions of large corporations. While the extent of the repression, its duress and length may substantially vary, allegations received are not confined to countries where the political, social and economic situation is particularly difficult, but also concern violations occurring in transitional or long-established democracies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. Analysis of communications also shows a large number of cases of prosecution or imprisonment of media professionals or ordinary citizens on charges of defamation, libel and slander, despite the decriminalization of these offenses by some countries. Another important trend in many regions has been the adoption of legislation that unduly limits freedom of expression by fostering State interference in editorial independence; by creating subjective licensing procedures that are used to shut down media outlets; by restricting the ability of journalists, particularly foreign correspondents, to perform their work freely; and by imposing severe limitations on the operation, including funding, of civil society organizations.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. From 1 January to 4 December 2007, the Special Rapporteur sent 241 communications: 114 urgent appeals, 89 of which were signed jointly with other special procedures mandate-holders, and 127 allegation letters, 55 of which were co-signed with other mandates. These communications referred to the situation of 596 individuals. The geographical division of the communications was as follows: 31.5 per cent in Asia and the Pacific; 20.7 per cent in Africa; 18.2 per cent in Latin America and the Caribbean; 17 per cent in the Middle East and North Africa; and 12.4 per cent in Europe, North America and Central Asia.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The Special Rapporteur regularly issues press releases to signal his concern about current events. In 2007, he issued five press releases concerning issues of safety of journalists and legislation that restricts the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. On 23 January, the Special Rapporteur expressed his concern over the murder of Hrant Dink, a respected Turkish journalist and intellectual who had developed important critical work concerning a sensitive period in the history of Turkey. He expressed his hopes that the investigations would shed light on all aspects of this crime.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. On 12 March, the Special Rapporteur called for the immediate and unconditional release of Italian journalist Daniele Mastrogiacomo and his aides, who had been arrested in Afghanistan. He argued that this crime underscored the importance of intensifying efforts to ensure the safety of journalists, particularly in conflict areas. Mr. Mastrogiacomo was released on 20 March, but an Afghan journalist who was travelling with him, Ajmal Naqshbandi, was brutally executed on 8 April.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. On 27 June, the Special Rapporteur called for the release of British journalist Alan Johnston of BBC, who had been abducted in Gaza City on 12 March. He once again highlighted the importance of ensuring the safety of media professionals as an indispensable conduit for the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. On 28 September, the Special Rapporteur, along with several other special procedures mandate-holders, strongly condemned the crackdown of public demonstrations in Myanmar, in particular the brutal measures taken by the security services, including the use of deadly force. They also welcomed the decision to hold a special session of the Human Rights Council on the situation in Myanmar. They called for the release of the detained, an investigation of the killings, steps to alleviate the economic hardship of the majority of the population and the introduction of serious reforms and dialogue with the opposition.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. On 30 November, the Special Rapporteur, along with the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on human rights defenders and the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, released a statement expressing concern about the constitutional referendum that would be held in Venezuela. The three independent experts underlined their concern that some provisions submitted to popular vote, particularly concerned states of emergency and the operation of non-governmental organizations, could undermine a set of fundamental rights that should be enjoyed at all times.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. From 18 to 22 June 2007, the Special Rapporteur participated in the 14th annual meeting of special procedures, held in Geneva. The meeting primarily discussed the institution-building process conducted by the Human Rights Council and the new methods of work of mandate-holders, as well as issues such as cooperation with civil society, national human rights institutions and among special-procedures mandates.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. On 5 December 2007, the Special Rapporteur submitted a statement to the expert meeting organized by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in Geneva to discuss and outline indicators to measure respect for the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In the statement he transmitted, the Special Rapporteur highlighted the importance of defining concrete yardsticks to monitor freedom of expression and violations that take place around the world. He underscored the importance of avoiding the risk, when employing these indicators, of creating crude comparisons between countries that are fundamentally different. Rather, he suggests that the indicators should be seen as an attempt to assess a country’s progress compared to its own historical trajectory, following the approach used by the United Nations Millennium Development Goals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. On 7-8 December 2007, the Special Rapporteur also transmitted a statement to the Expert seminar on diversity in the broadcast media, organized by the non-governmental organization (NGO) Article 19 and the Institute of Information Law in Amsterdam. In his statement, the Special Rapporteur made a broad review of issues related to diversity in the media, including licensing, State advertising as well as diversity of outlets and content. At the same meeting, a joint declaration on promoting diversity in the broadcast media, signed by the Special Rapporteur, along with the Organization for Security and Development (OSCE) Representative on Freedom of the Media, the Organization of American States (OAS) Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR) Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression, was drafted. (The joint declaration appears as an annex to this report.)", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. From 22 to 28 April 2007, the Special Rapporteur carried out an official visit to Azerbaijan, at the Government’s invitation, where he met a broad range of social and political actors to evaluate the current status of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur underlined his impression that the country was endeavouring to establish and consolidate its democratic structures, a message that was conveyed by many of his counterparts. In his preliminary conclusions, he called upon the Government and civil society to take a number of steps to fully implement the right to freedom of expression, including the decriminalization of defamation offenses, ensuring the safety of media professionals and, more broadly, guaranteeing the independence of the media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. From 14 to 18 May 2007, the Special Rapporteur visited Ukraine at the invitation of the Government in order to assess the implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in the country. In the conclusions of his visit, the Special Rapporteur highlighted the progresses achieved by the country after it gained independence from the Soviet Union. In particular, he underlined the important improvements that have taken place in the country since 2004. He also called upon the Government of Ukraine to further strengthen the independence, professionalism and diversity of the media as well as to tackle the issue of incitement to racial, ethnic and religious hatred.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. From 26 to 30 November 2007, the Special Rapporteur carried out an official visit to Honduras at the invitation of the Government in order to examine issues of relevance to his mandate. In his conclusions on the visit, he pointed to the need for strengthening protection and safety measures for journalists and media professionals as well as the need to combat impunity for the perpetrators of crimes against the media. He also called for a rapid adaptation of national legislation on freedom of expression to international standards, particularly concerning the decriminalization of defamation offenses.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The Special Rapporteur remains concerned at the widespread resort to censorship, direct or indirect, which remains in many regions of the world. Apart from direct censorship, many Governments have resorted to indirect ways to censor or shut down media outlets that express independent voices. The Special Rapporteur has received a number of communications concerning cases where Governments use overly subjective administrative regulations, particularly licensing and taxation, in order to close or suspend media outlets. Ultimately, the main impact of these policies is to create an uncertain environment for media professionals, thus fostering self-censorship and shunning any meaningful criticism of public policies and authorities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Throughout 2007, the Special Rapporteur followed closely and with concern a substantial number of cases in which Governments suspended the operation of media outlets, particularly news channels that broadcast internationally, during large-scale public protests, electoral processes, states of emergency or public disorder. In most cases, these practices were designed to insulate the countries in question from the rest of the world, making invisible the human rights violations committed by State institutions, thus avoiding international criticism and pressure.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. The new media, especially the Internet, have not remained free of censorship and direct repression. In past years, the Special Rapporteur has noted a growing trend of censorship and the banning of websites and Internet contributors, particularly bloggers. Due to the low cost, decentralized nature and great reach of the Internet, it has become an important outlet for the circulation of independent opinions about State authorities and policies. Many Governments therefore have developed an interest in controlling, monitoring and censoring the digital media, in particular the Internet, including by punishing hundreds of so-called cyber-dissidents around the world. In some cases, Internet use in private home connections has been completely banned, thus allowing for total government oversight over Internet use by its citizens.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. The Special Rapporteur further highlights the facts that, in several cases, these illegal restrictions on the right to freedom of opinion and expression have been accepted and even facilitated by leading Internet corporations, the majority of which are based in democratic countries. Search engines, for example, have accepted many Governments’ imposition for strict controls and censorship, such as blocking “politically sensitive terms” of search results presented to individuals. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur is deeply worried about many large Internet corporations who have disclosed personal information of their users to allow Governments to identify and convict internet writers.\nDiversity", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes the importance of promoting diversity in the media. In particular, he stresses three fundamental dimensions of diversity that should be promoted: (a) diversity of outlets, in particular the establishment of a free environment for the creation and dissemination of outlets; (b) diversity of sources, especially taking advantage of the full benefits of digital platforms, in particular the Internet, to strengthen the right to freedom of opinion and expression; and (c) diversity of content, allowing for different communities and vulnerable groups to have access to media outlets and find ways to effectively disseminate their voice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. One of the central problems relating to the promotion of diversity refers to the licensing of media outlets. State-controlled licensing procedures have, in many countries, become a technical means of curbing media independence, particularly through normal and periodic procedures of renewal of licenses. These procedures have been used systematically by some Governments not as a regular administrative practice, but rather as a policy tool to wield influence over editorial content. The Special Rapporteur reiterates that, in order to guarantee freedom of the press, licensing should always be conducted by an independent authority, free from political interference by government officials. Furthermore, licensing procedures are only justified as a response to problems of scarcity, thus restricted to the broadcast media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. The exclusion of marginalized and vulnerable groups from the media is a key issue that needs to be addressed by the international community. Minorities, indigenous peoples, migrant workers, refugees and many other vulnerable communities have faced higher barriers, some of them insurmountable, to be able to fully exercise their right to impart information. For these groups, the media plays the central role of fostering social mobilization, participation in public life and access to information that is relevant for the community. Without a means to disseminate their views and problems, these communities are in effect shut down from public debates, which ultimately hinders their ability to fully enjoy their human rights.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Indigenous peoples", "Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The Special Rapporteur further stresses that diversity of content – in the broadcast, digital and printed media – is a desirable goal that should be encouraged. The strengthening of educational and cultural content and the increase in the space given to minorities and vulnerable groups to express their views, for example, can greatly increase the quality of the media outlets themselves. However, utmost care must be taken in order to prevent these goals from ultimately threatening the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The promotion of content diversity must not be used under any circumstances as a means to influence, directly or indirectly, the fundamental principle of editorial independence. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that the most adequate means to promote diversity is not direct interference with media outlets, but rather more general measures to set up a free environment where independent media outlets and content producers can emerge and flourish. In this regard, the benefits of the Internet, particularly the way it allows even individual users to disseminate content on a global scale, should be duly taken into account and strengthened.\nInternet governance", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. The issue of Internet governance has been a key focus of the Special Rapporteur in the implementation of his mandate, particularly in the preparation and follow-up of the World Summit on the Information Society, whose final phase was held in Tunis in 2005. Although the Summit itself focused chiefly on technical and business matters, overlooking human rights issues, it served as an opportunity for a number of NGOs to organize parallel events and, ultimately, create networks for the implementation of a human rights-based approach to the information society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The Internet, as well as other information and communication technologies, offers an unprecedented possibility to disseminate information, opinion and ideas to people who had traditionally been excluded from other media. However, the Special Rapporteur notes that the Internet also gives rise to important problems, such as child pornography, hate speech and privacy issues, which can only be addressed through a serious discussion focusing on governance.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. The Special Rapporteur has suggested the establishment of an international organization to govern the Internet with a firm human rights approach as a priority for the United Nations and the international community. In particular, this organization would develop global norms and principles to guarantee that the Internet can be developed as a democratic medium of expression that is in full compliance with human rights principles. Ultimately, such an organization would develop, in cooperation with national institutions, the private sector and the civil society, common principles, norms and rules that should guide the future evolution and use of the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. In 2007, concern for the safety and protection of journalists remained one of the key obstacles for the full implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. A total of 67 media professionals were kidnapped and 1,511 were physically attacked or threatened throughout the year. Even more worrying, 86 journalists and 20 other media workers were killed, which represents an increase of 244 per cent over the past five years and is the highest figure since 1994.[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Reporters Without Borders, Press Freedom Round-up 2007; see www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=24909, last accessed on 17 January 2008."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Armed conflicts provide by far the highest threat to the security of media professionals. Over half of the journalists killed last year died in Iraq, the vast majority of whom worked for the local media. A number of reports reached the Special Rapporteur concerning deliberate attempts to target journalists, particularly by members of warring militia. As the clashes between Ethiopian-backed forces and the Islamist militia in Somalia grew, the country also saw a drastic increase in the number of journalists who were killed, totalling eight in 2007. In particular, two popular journalists, Ali Iman Sharmarke and Bashir Nor Gedi, were reportedly targeted and murdered by hired assassins, which illustrates the atmosphere of fear and pressure surrounding the work of media professionals operating in areas of armed conflict. Journalists were also killed in Afghanistan, Sri Lanka and the Democratic Republic of Congo, other areas of ongoing armed conflict.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The main provisions protecting journalists and other media professionals in situations of armed conflict come from humanitarian law, in particular from special measures contained in article 79 of Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, relating to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts. This article establishes that “journalists engaged in dangerous professional missions in areas of armed conflict shall be considered as civilians” and “shall be protected as such under the Conventions and this Protocol, provided that they take no action adversely affecting their status as civilians”. The civilian status of journalists transcends any type of contractual arrangement that the journalist may have; equal protection is granted to freelance, independent or to journalists belonging to any media.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "citedArticles": [{"article": "79", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 79 of Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949' — international humanitarian law, not in the allowed treaty list."}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. In 2006, the Security Council passed resolution 1738 (2006) whereby it expressed its deep concern “at the frequency of acts of violence in many parts of the world against journalists, media professionals and associated personnel in armed conflict”, and condemned intentional attacks against this group. It also underlined the obligation under humanitarian law to grant civilian status to journalists during armed conflicts, as established by the Geneva Conventions.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that States have an obligation to ensure the safety and protection of journalists and other media professionals in time of armed conflict. In these situations, journalism has a particularly important function, which is to convey the brutality and havoc created by war. Accurate reports from war zones are a fundamental component in establishing historical truths and allowing post-war reconciliation.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Apart from armed conflicts, the Special Rapporteur underscores the need to focus on the protection of journalists during electoral processes and public crises, particularly during states of emergency. Throughout 2007, the Special Rapporteur has received several reports of journalists who were directly targeted in physical attacks, both by government and opposition forces, in political demonstrations taking place during electoral processes. In various cases, harassment by the security forces, including arrests and detention, has been a common practice adopted against journalists who are reporting on human rights violations during these events.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. The Special Rapporteur has recommended the establishment of a relief fund to benefit the relatives of media professionals killed in the line of duty because of their professional activities. Not only would such a fund provide needed reparation to families, but it would also serve to place the safety of journalists as a central human rights issue within the United Nations system.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Defamation offenses have been one of the main sources of imprisonment of journalists around the world. Defamation laws were originally designed with a legitimate goal, which was to protect people against false statements of fact that could damage their reputation. In particular, they reflect the legitimate view that the exercise of freedom of expression, in particularly by media professionals, should be subject to responsibility, good judgement and professionalism. However, the subjective character of many defamation laws, their overly broad scope and their application within criminal law have turned them into a powerful mechanisms to stifle investigative journalism and silent criticism.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. The Special Rapporteur is also concerned about the trend of increasing the scope of defamation laws to include the protection of subjective values, such as a sense of national identity, religions, State symbols, institutions or even representatives such as the Head of State. The Special Rapporteur reiterates that the provisions on protection of reputation contained in international human rights law are designed to protect individuals, not abstract values or institutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. International human rights instruments recognize the right to a reputation (e.g. art. 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which states that “No one shall be subject … to attacks upon his honour and reputation”). However, three clear-cut conditions must be respected for any limitation on the right to freedom of expression: (a) restrictions must be established in law; (b) they should pursue an aim recognized as lawful, and (c) they must be proportional to the accomplishment of that aim. A number of problems are often present in the actual implementation of these three conditions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "citedArticles": [{"article": "12", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'art. 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The Special Rapporteur is concerned about the large number of cases of journalists who are imprisoned after being convicted on criminal defamation charges. Apart from outright imprisonment and preventive detention, other common measures that have been taken against media professionals include the imposition of heavy fines, often completely inconsistent with a journalist’s income, the suspension of the journalist’s professional licence and even the suspension or closing of media outlets. The Special Rapporteur considers these measures as inconsistent with the principle of proportionality and therefore an undue restriction of press freedom. Furthermore, these measures are even more harmful for independent, local or freelance journalists, who are generally unable to afford the expenses of long judicial proceedings, legal counsel and fines.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur, along with the OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media and the OAS Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression, in a joint declaration issued in December 2002, stated that “criminal defamation is not a justifiable restriction on freedom of expression; all criminal defamation laws should be abolished and replaced, where necessary, with appropriate civil defamation laws”. The Special Rapporteur notes with satisfaction that many countries have recently decided to abolish their criminal defamation laws. He reiterates that, while awaiting the entry of force of this legislation, emergency measures such as amnesty or pardon should be taken to ensure that no media profession or any other citizen is incarcerated on charges of defamation. Furthermore, any fines arising from civil defamation procedures should also respect the principle of proportionality and should never surpass reasonable amounts.\nStates of exception and emergency", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. The imposition of a state of emergency has led on many occasions to actions that are incompatible with the right to freedom of expression and, in particular, to a free media. The Special Rapporteur is concerned that, immediately after the imposition of a state of emergency, many Governments take aggressive action against freedom of expression in many different forms: by suspending TV news channels, blocking websites and telephone services, attacking detaining and arresting journalists covering protests and appointing government officials to monitor, and in effect censor, the content of newspapers. The Special Rapporteur has observed with concern how, in many of these cases, States have introduced laws giving government officials the authority to take unilateral action against media organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Regulations under states of emergency often allow for arbitrary detentions and arrests, the banning of demonstrations which could lead to “public disorder” and the suspension of local assemblies or governments if they block or impede the legal actions of the public authorities. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is usually violated under situations of states of emergency. Journalists and other media practitioners face persecutions and attacks and it is difficult to obtain independent and reliable information, which is essential for society in these situations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that emergency powers may be legitimate only in cases of extreme national crises which threaten the life of the nation. Those powers are defined and limited by articles 4 and 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights and, therefore, restrictions placed on rights are to be limited in both scope and duration “to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation” (art. 4). In this context, a state of emergency is by definition a temporary legal response to an exceptional and grave threat to the nation, and must be treated as such. The principle of proportionality must be respected with respect to the duration and geographical and material scope of the state of emergency.\nCountering terrorism", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Throughout his mandate, the Special Rapporteur has paid close attention and strongly condemned the critical threat posed by terrorism in the contemporary world, whilst also noting the negative implications that some policies designed to fight terrorism have had on the full enjoyment of human rights. Counter-terrorism and national security legislation approved in recent years have on many instances exceeded the bounds of what is permissible under international law and resulted in human rights violations. In this context, the right to freedom of opinion and expression is particularly vulnerable to legislation that de facto legitimates limitations on the free circulation and expression of ideas and opinions, directly affecting the work of media professionals, human rights defenders, political groups and civil society more broadly. Journalists and media professionals have become common targets of unlawful attempts to restrict freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. The restrictions brought about by counter-terrorism legislation on human rights in general, and the right to freedom of opinion and expression in particular, have taken many forms. A number of allegations were brought to the Special Rapporteur’s attention in this regard, including instances where Governments have passed laws that restrict individual liberties such as the right to privacy and to due process; arbitrary arrests and detentions conducted by the security apparatus; banning the publication of information that is, without justification, defined as being threatening to national security; forcing the disclosure of journalistic sources; censoring media outlets and journalists on the basis of an alleged proximity to terrorist or rebel groups.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The Special Rapporteur recalls that restrictions to the right to freedom of opinion and expression can only be imposed in rather exceptional circumstances. In this respect, the Special Rapporteur has referred in his previous reports, to General Comment No. 29 (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.11) of the Human Rights Committee, which establishes the conditions that must be met for a State to invoke article 4,paragraph 1, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), dealing with derogations to the rights enumerated thereto. Derogations established under article 4, paragraph 1, of the Covenant are exceptional in nature and can only be invoked when the situation within a State amounts to a public emergency which threatens the life of the nation and when the State party has officially declared a state of emergency. These restrictive measures imposed by the State must, inter alia, be strictly limited in time, provided for in a law, necessary for public safety or public order, serve a legitimate purpose, not impair the essence of the right, and conform to the principle of proportionality. The principles of legitimacy, necessity and proportionality must always be respected.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. The Special Rapporteur also refers to Security Council resolution 1624 (2005) of 14 September 2005, which states that any restrictions to the right of freedom of expression, as reflected in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, must be in accordance with article 19, paragraph 3 (b), of the ICCPR, which states that any restrictions shall be those provided by law and necessary “for the protection of national security or of public order”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First occurrence: 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second occurrence: 'article 19, paragraph 3 (b), of the ICCPR' — explicit ICCPR confirmation."}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. In many of the cases brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur, most, if not all of the conditions that are required under article 4, paragraph 1, and 19, paragraph 3, of the ICCPR to derogate from the right to freedom of opinion or expression, are not being met. He has noted that there are cases in which the feeling of insecurity caused by terrorist attacks provides States with an opportunity to adopt measures in which national security is used as justification to allow for direct attacks against the free media, investigative journalism, political dissidence, and human rights monitoring and reporting.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. The rights to peaceful assembly and to freedom of association, regulated under articles 21 and 22 of the ICCPR, are also often violated under counter-terrorism legislation. These rights should be considered essential to any democratic society. The Special Rapporteur has witnessed how, on certain occasions, peaceful actions or demonstrations have been considered terrorist acts by certain Governments. As such, peaceful demonstrators have been charged with acts of terrorism under counter-terrorism legislation, which gives the State legitimacy to suppress dissent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "21", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "22", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The effective enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the right to peaceful assembly and freedom of association are central elements that mark the difference between democracy and terror. In this regard, in their legitimate fight to eradicate terrorism, democratic States must see that freedom and pluralism, two crucial parts of their very democratic foundations, are preserved at all times.\nD. Freedom of opinion and expression and the realization of other human rights\nHIV/AIDS", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Although the number of people dying from HIV/AIDS and related illnesses has declined in the last two years, the disease is among the leading causes of death globally, and remains the primary cause of death in Africa. According to UNAIDS, there are over 5,700 deaths each day in the world due to HIV/AIDS.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The Special Rapporteur has stated in his previous reports that, without a vaccine or a cure, the main hope of reducing the devastating consequences of this disease resides – in parallel to making available universal affordable treatment in developing countries – is the widespread access to information and preventive education for HIV/AIDS. Prevention, treatment, care and support are mutually reinforcing elements that integrate an effective response to HIV/AIDS. Making information and education available are essential to effective efforts to combating this disease, as recognized by UNAIDS.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. The Commission on Human Rights, in its resolution 2003/47 of 23 April 2003, recognized the importance of sharing knowledge, experiences and achievements concerning HIV-related issues, and urged States to promote effective programmes for the prevention of HIV/AIDS, including through education and awareness-raising campaigns. The Special Rapporteur has welcomed this resolution and has raised in several of his reports the relationship between access to information and HIV/AIDS prevention, calling upon States to facilitate access to information on HIV/AIDS for all their citizens.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Information and education do not only refer exclusively to issues that are directly related to HIV/AIDS transmission and prevention, but also to all those issues that have a clear impact on the spread of the epidemic, even if these are indirect. The Special Rapporteur has noted that the most successful campaigns seem to be those that are tailored to specific vulnerable groups. It is thus important that data collection methods be developed in such a manner as to precisely identify these groups, allowing for information and education campaigns to be targeted to their specific context", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. The Special Rapporteur is concerned that, according to statistics, some 2 million young people aged 15-24 years become infected with HIV every year. In sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, about 65 per cent of young people living with HIV/AIDS are female. The Special Rapporteur has observed that in many countries women continue to be discriminated against, and he has emphasized the importance of promoting effective programmes of information, particularly in rural areas. In this context, the Special Rapporteur calls upon States to allocate resources for programmes that are directed at adolescents and women for the prevention and treatment of this disease.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Adolescents", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. In most countries, people living with HIV/AIDS face discrimination. The Special Rapporteur places special importance on the promotion of campaigns that combat discriminatory attitudes and stigmatization of people living with HIV/AIDS. In this context, he encourages communities, teachers, journalists, doctors and, in particular, Governments to disseminate information addressing all HIV/AIDS-related issues, its modes of transmission and the means of protection. In particular, information on topics that may be considered as taboo or private – such as safe sex or drug abuse – should be explicit and made available in formats adapted and accessible to the society.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The United Nations, its agencies, funds and programmes have placed the fight against HIV/AIDS very high on the development agenda. The Special Rapporteur also notes with satisfaction that many donor countries have included HIV/AIDS among their priorities for development assistance. The Special Rapporteur encourages such trends and wishes to emphasize that it is only through a global response that the fight against HIV/AIDS can be addressed. The exchange of good practices between countries and the support to developing countries while implementing information and education programmes is crucial.\nThe ‘digital divide’", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Throughout his mandate, the Special Rapporteur has seen an unprecedented expansion of communication and information technologies around the world. However, the promises of the information society still are not being shared among all. A wide gap between the information-rich and the information-poor still remains (the “digital divide”) and does not show any encouraging signs of being reduced. It is important to note that the impact of the digital divide is not felt exclusively in developing and least developed countries, but also in vulnerable communities living in the industrialized world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Narrowing the digital divide requires more than only technical efforts to extent the new communication and information technologies to marginalized communities, thus connecting them to the information society. Unfortunately, hundreds of millions of people around the world are illiterate, and many more are not proficient in the new technologies. In this regard, educational measures, in particular widespread literacy programmes, need to be promoted as the sole alternative for empowering people and prepare them to become active members of the information society. Besides traditional literacy programmes, new policies and programmes should be promoted in order to foster education for the new media as the most important empowerment tool for the twenty-first century.\nFreedom of opinion and expression and freedom of religion", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. In recent years, and with increased frequency, particularly due to events that dominated international politics recently, an alleged dichotomy between the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the right to freedom of religion or belief has been purported. In particular, it has been argued that the dogmatic use of freedom of expression as a fundamental human right has undermined people’s ability to fully enjoy other human rights, in particular freedom of religion. The Special Rapporteur strongly rejects such a view, as it contradicts the clearly established notion and widely accepted principle that human rights are indivisible rather than rival principles. In particular, the ensemble of human rights can only be fully enjoyed in an environment that guarantees freedom and pluralism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Practices such as stereotyping and insulting ethnic, national, social or religious groups have serious and damaging consequences for the promotion of dialogue and living together among different communities. To fight intolerance and discrimination and to create a solid basis for the strengthening of democracy, broad-based and long-lasting programmes and actions need to be developed to promote respect for diversity, multiculturalism and human rights education.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. The Special Rapporteur also emphasizes that existing international instruments establish a clear limit on freedom of expression. In particular, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provides that “any propaganda for war” and “any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law”. The main problem thus lies in identifying at which point exactly these thresholds are reached. The Special Rapporteur underscores that this decision, which is ultimately a subjective one, should meet a number of requirements. In particular, it should not justify any type of prior censorship, it should be clearly and narrowly defined, it should be the least intrusive means in what concerns limitations to freedom of expression and it should be applied by an independent judiciary. The Special Rapporteur reiterates that these limitations are designed to protect individuals rather than belief systems, guaranteeing that every person will have all of his or her human rights protected.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The Special Rapporteur notes that a broader interpretation of these limitations, which has been recently suggested in international forums, is not in line with existing international instruments and would ultimately jeopardize the full enjoyment of human rights. Limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression have more often than not been used by Governments as a means to restrict criticism and silent dissent. Furthermore, as regional human rights courts have already recognized, the right to freedom of expression is applicable not only to comfortable, inoffensive or politically correct opinions, but also to ideas that “offend, shock and disturb”.[[fn:3]] The constant confrontation of ideas, even controversial ones, is a stepping stone to vibrant democratic societies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Arslan v. Turkey, European Court of Human Rights, 1999."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. The right to freedom of opinion and expression, and the related rights of freedom of association and assembly, are fundamental human rights with far-reaching consequences for the enjoyment of all other rights. When freedom of opinion and expression is respected, Governments are held accountable, public policies are designed more effectively and people’s voices are heard. Limiting the free circulation of ideals not diminishes plurality and diversity, but undermines democracy entirely.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. The Special Rapporteur urges Governments to conduct an in-depth assessment of existing national legislation as well as of judicial practices related to all forms of freedom of opinion and expression and to commence, whenever necessary, reform processes in order to guarantee conformity with international human rights norms and standards. The Special Rapporteur also recommends Governments to focus on the protection and the promotion of media independence as a priority, in order to ensure a constant advancement in the field of freedom of opinion and expression.\nOn censorship", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. The Special Rapporteur recommends that Governments adopt legislation that unambiguously prohibits all forms of censorship in media outlets, both in the traditional media and the Internet. Defamation, libel and insult charges, particularly when stemming from public figures and specifically State authorities, do not justify any form of prior censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Administrative and bureaucratic regulations of media outlets, including licensing, should be clearly established by law and overseen by independent institutions. The Special Rapporteur urges Governments not to make subjective use of these regulations as a means to exert undue pressure, suspend or ban media outlets.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. The Special Rapporteur urges Governments to take the appropriate measures to create a free and enabling environment where a plurality of media outlets can exist. In this regard, adequate measures need to be taken to prevent the phenomenon of media concentration, in particular the creation of media monopolies that could endanger pluralism, affect media independence and increase the cost of information. These measures should be taken by independent institutions that are protected against political or other forms of interference, particularly from the Government. The legitimate aim of preventing media concentration should not be used as a justification to exert undue pressure on outlets that are critical or independent.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. The Special Rapporteur urges Governments to take the appropriate measures to create a free and enabling environment where a plurality of media outlets can exist. In this regard, adequate measures need to be taken to prevent the phenomenon of media concentration, in particular the creation of media monopolies that could endanger pluralism, affect media independence and increase the cost of information. These measures should be taken by independent institutions that are protected against political or other forms of interference, particularly from the Government. The legitimate aim of preventing media concentration should not be used as a justification to exert undue pressure on outlets that are critical or independent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. Licensing should only be used when strictly necessary, as a technical tool to administer the scarcity of the airwaves. Licensing for abundant media, such as the Internet and the print media, is not a legitimate policy tool and violates the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Licensing should only be administered by an independent body that is insulated from government pressure and should not be used subjectively to ban or suspend independent media outlets, particularly television and radio channels.\nOn Internet governance", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. The Special Rapporteur invites Governments to consider the possibility of establishing an international organization with a specific mandate to improve governance of the Internet. The mandate of the organization would be to develop norms and principles of conduct to guarantee that the Internet will continue to be a democratic medium of expression in full compliance with human rights principles. The Special Rapporteur vigorously emphasizes that any new intergovernmental body administering, partially or totally, Internet governance must ensure freedom of opinion and expression and promote it in the light of article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.\nOn the safety and protection of media professionals", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. The Special Rapporteur recommends that Governments take the necessary measures to increase the safety and protection of journalists and other media workers, regardless of their professional and political affiliation. Protection must be ensured at all times, and particularly during armed conflicts, states of emergency and public disorder and electoral processes. Governments should also ensure the protection of other categories at risk, such as trade unionists, social workers, students and teachers, writers and artists. Eliminating impunity for the perpetrators of crimes against media professionals will function as an important deterrent against the repetition of these crimes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. Governments and State institutions should, as appropriate, envisage the creation of ad hoc protection schemes, which would allow journalists to continue their activities with an acceptable level of security, while maintaining their independence. Media enterprises should also consider covering the expenses of flexible protection for endangered journalists. Media professionals should not, under any circumstances, be obliged to bear the economic burden of their physical protection, in addition to the mental stress of being at risk.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. The Special Rapporteur reiterates his call to the Human Rights Council to pay increased attention to the issue of the safety and protection of journalists, in particular in situations of armed conflicts. The Council may wish to consider the opportunity, as previously suggested, of entrusting the Special Rapporteur with the preparation of a study on the causes of violence against media professionals, based, inter alia, on information from and the experiences of Governments, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, and including a comprehensive set of conclusions and recommendations and the drafting of guidelines for the protection of journalists and other media professionals. This study could represent the first step towards a debate, within the Human Rights Council, on this crucial issue, following the discussions held by other bodies, including the Security Council.\nOn defamation offences", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. The Special Rapporteur strongly recommends that Governments decriminalize defamation and similar offences, confining them to the domain of civil law. The amount of fines to be paid as compensation should be reasonable and allow the continuation of professional activities. The Special Rapporteur also urges Governments to release immediately and unconditionally all journalists detained because of their media-related activities. Prison sentences should be excluded for offences concerning the reputation of others, such as defamation and libel.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. Governments should also refrain from introducing new norms which will pursue the same goals as defamation laws under a different legal terminology such as disinformation and dissemination of false information. Under no circumstances should criticism of the nation, its symbols, the Government, its members and their action be seen as an offence. Elected officials and authorities should accept the fact that because of their prominent and public role, they will attract a disproportionate amount of scrutiny from the press. Governments should also make sure that the right to privacy, especially in relation to family life and minors, is sufficiently protected without curtailing the right to access to information, which contributes to transparency and democratic control of public affairs.\nOn freedom of expression and HIV/AIDS", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The Special Rapporteur underlines that the level of protection of human rights in a country has a direct impact on the spread of the AIDS epidemic. In this regard, the right to freedom of opinion and expression, in particular the right to receive information concerning HIV/AIDS, is a central aspect of efforts to tackle the problem.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The Special Rapporteur urges Governments to rely on preventive education and information strategies as one of the main defences, alongside care and treatment, against the spread of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. The extensive use of the mass media is necessary to ensure the widest coverage of information campaigns. More generally, information and education should be provided through all available and accessible means. The Special Rapporteur encourages States to cooperate with the media, NGOs and community-based organizations in this endeavour.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. The Special Rapporteur strongly believes that general respect for and protection of freedom of opinion and expression have a direct impact on the effectiveness of education and information policies, programmes and campaigns for the purpose of HIV/AIDS prevention. He therefore urges Governments to set a framework for the better protection of freedom of opinion and expression and for free flow of information and communications vis-à-vis the general public, as well as specific groups and communities.\nOn the ‘digital divide’", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The Special Rapporteur urges media professionals, as well as the public at large, to be conscious of the potential impact that the ideas they express may have in raising cultural and religious sensitivities. The dissemination of intolerant and discriminatory opinions ultimately promotes discord and conflict and is not conducive to the promotion of human rights. Media corporations and journalists’ associations, in cooperation with national and international organizations, should organize regular human rights training programmes in order to enhance professional ethics and sensitivity to cultural diversity of media professionals.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. The Special Rapporteur urges media professionals, as well as the public at large, to be conscious of the potential impact that the ideas they express may have in raising cultural and religious sensitivities. The dissemination of intolerant and discriminatory opinions ultimately promotes discord and conflict and is not conducive to the promotion of human rights. Media corporations and journalists' associations, in cooperation with national and international organizations, should organize regular human rights training programmes in order to enhance professional ethics and sensitivity to cultural diversity of media professionals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "The Special Rapporteur further emphasizes that, although limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression are foreseen in international instruments to prevent war propaganda and incitement of national, racial or religious hatred, these limitations were designed in order to protect individuals against direct violations of their rights. These limitations are not intended to suppress the expression of critical views, controversial opinions or politically incorrect statements. Finally, they are not designed to protect belief systems from external or internal criticism.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0001", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly influencing the information environment worldwide. It enables companies to curate search results and newsfeeds as well as advertising placement, organizing what users see and when they see it. (AI) technologies are used by social media companies to help moderate content on their platforms, often acting as the first line of defence against content that may violate their rules. (AI) recommends people to friend or follow, news articles to read and places to visit or eat, shop or sleep. It offers speed, efficiency and scale, operating to help the largest companies in the information and communications technology sector manage the huge amounts of content uploaded to their platforms every day. (AI) technologies may enable broader and quicker sharing of information and ideas globally, a tremendous opportunity for freedom of expression and access to information. At the same time, the opacity of (AI) also risks interfering with individual self-determination, or what is referred to in the present report as “individual autonomy and agency”.[[fn:1]] A great global challenge confronts all those who promote human rights and the rule of law: how can States, companies and civil society ensure that (AI) technologies reinforce and respect, rather than undermine and imperil, human rights?", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See Mariarosaria Taddeo and Luciano Floridi, “How AI can be a force for good”, Science, vol. 361, No. 6404 (24 August 2018). Available at http://science.sciencemag.org/content/361/6404/751.full."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0002", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The present report does not pretend to be the last word in (AI) and human rights. Rather, it tries to do three things: define key terms essential to a human rights discussion about AI; identify the human rights legal framework relevant to AI; and present some preliminary recommendations to ensure that, as the technologies comprising AI evolve, human rights considerations are baked into that process. The report should be read as a companion to my most recent report to the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/38/35), in which a human rights approach to online content moderation was presented.[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "The present report benefited from an expert consultation conducted in Geneva in June 2018, supported with a grant from the European Union, and the input from experts as part of the development of document A/HRC/35/38 in 2017 and 2018. The Special Rapporteur especially wishes to thank Carly Nyst and Amos Toh, who contributed essential research and drafting to this project."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0003", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. AI is often used as shorthand for the increasing independence, speed and scale connected to automated, computational decision-making. It is not one thing only, but rather refers to a “constellation” of processes and technologies enabling computers to complement or replace specific tasks otherwise performed by humans, such as making decisions and solving problems.[[fn:3]] “AI” can be a problematic term, suggesting as it does that machines can operate according to the same concepts and rules of human intelligence. They cannot. AI generally optimizes the work of computerized tasks assigned by humans through iterative repetition and attempt. That said, it is the language of the culture, of companies and of Governments, and is used here.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "A. What is artificial intelligence?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See AI Now, “The AI now report: the social and economic implications of artificial intelligence technologies in the near term”, 2016. Available at https://ainowinstitute.org/AI_Now_2016_Report.pdf; United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland House of Lords Select Committee on Artificial Intelligence, “AI in the United Kingdom: ready, willing and able?”, 2018, p. 13."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0004", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Popular culture often suggests that society is headed towards artificial general intelligence, a still-distant capability (the “singularity”) for a computer system to approximate or surpass human intelligence across multiple domains.[[fn:4]] For the foreseeable future, there will continue to be advancements with respect to narrow AI, according to which computer systems perform programmed tasks (human-developed algorithms) in specific domains. Narrow AI underpins, for example, voice assistance on mobile devices and customer service chatbots, online translation tools and self-driving cars, search engine results and mapping services. Machine-learning is a category of narrow AI techniques used to train algorithms to use datasets to recognize and help solve problems. For example, AI-powered smart home devices are continuously “learning” from data collected about everyday language and speech patterns in order to process and respond to questions from their users more accurately. In all circumstances, humans play a critical role in designing and disseminating AI systems, defining the objectives of an AI application and, depending on the type of application, selecting and labelling datasets and classifying outputs. Humans always determine the application and use of AI outputs, including the extent to which they complement or replace human decision-making.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "A. What is artificial intelligence?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Article 19 and Privacy International, “Privacy and freedom of expression in an age of artificial intelligence”, London, 2018, p. 8."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0005", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. At the foundation of AI are algorithms, computer code designed and written by humans, carrying instructions to translate data into conclusions, information or outputs. Algorithms have long been essential to the operation of everyday systems of communication and infrastructure. The enormous volume of data in modern life and the capacity to analyse it fuel AI. The private sector certainly sees data that way: the more data available to feed algorithms and the better the quality of that data, the more powerful and precise the algorithms can become. Algorithmic systems can analyse huge volumes of data rapidly, enabling AI programmes to perform decision-making functions that were previously the domain of humans acting without computational tools.\nHuman agency is integral to AI, but the distinctive characteristics of AI deserve human rights scrutiny with respect to at least three of its aspects: automation, data analysis and adaptability.[[fn:5]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "A. What is artificial intelligence?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Council of Europe, Algorithms and Human Rights: Study on the Human Rights Dimensions of Automated Data Processing Techniques and Possible Regulatory Implications, Council of Europe study, No. DGI (2017) 12, 2018. Available at https://www.coe.int/en/web/freedom-expression/-/algorithms-and-human-rights-a-new-study-has-been-published, p. 5."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0006", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Automation. Automation removes human intervention from parts of a decision-making process, completing specific tasks with computational tools. This can have positive implications from a human rights perspective if a design limits human bias. For example, an automated border entry system may flag individuals for scrutiny based on objective features such as criminal history or visa status, limiting reliance on subjective (and bias-prone) assessments of physical presentation, ethnicity, age or religion. Automation also enables the processing of vast amounts of data at a speed and scale not achievable by humans, potentially serving public safety, health and national security. However, automated systems rely on datasets that, in their design or implementation, may allow for bias and thus produce discriminatory effects. For instance, the underlying criminal history or visa data suggested above itself may incorporate biases. Excessive reliance on and confidence in automated decisions and a failure to recognize this foundational point may in turn undermine scrutiny of AI outcomes and disable individuals from accessing remedies to adverse AI-driven decisions. Automation may impede the transparency and scrutability of a process, preventing even well-meaning authorities from providing an explanation of outcomes.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "A. What is artificial intelligence?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Council of Europe, Algorithms and Human Rights, p. 8."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0007", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. Data analysis. Vast datasets support most AI applications. Any dataset could form the basis of an AI system, from Internet browsing habits to data on traffic flows on highways. Some datasets contain personal data, while many others involve anonymized data. The use by AI of such datasets raises serious concerns, including regarding their origins, accuracy and individuals’ rights over them; the ability of AI systems to de-anonymize anonymized data; and biases that may be ingrained within the datasets or instilled through human training or labelling of the data. AI evaluation of data may identify correlations but not necessarily causation, which may lead to biased and faulty outcomes that are difficult to scrutinize.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "A. What is artificial intelligence?"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0008", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Adaptability. Machine-learning AI systems are adaptable, as the algorithms that power them are able to progressively identify new problems and develop new answers. Depending on the level of supervision, systems may identify patterns and develop conclusions unforeseen by the humans who programmed or tasked them. This lack of predictability holds the true promise of AI as a transformational technology, but it also illuminates its risks: as humans are progressively excluded from defining the objectives and outputs of an AI system, ensuring transparency, accountability and access to effective remedy becomes more challenging, as does foreseeing and mitigating adverse human rights impacts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "A. What is artificial intelligence?"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0009", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. AI has particularly important, and sometimes problematic, consequences for the information environment, the complex ecosystem of technologies, platforms and private and public actors that facilitate access to and dissemination of information through digital means. Algorithms and AI applications are found in every corner of the Internet, on digital devices and in technical systems, and in search engines, social media platforms, messaging applications and public information mechanisms. In keeping with the focus of the mandate, the Special Rapporteur indicates below the following three applications of AI in the information environment that raise concerns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0010", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Content display and personalization. Social media and search platforms increasingly dominate how individuals access and share information and ideas and how news is disseminated. Algorithms and AI applications determine how widely, when and with which audiences and individuals content is shared. Massive datasets that combine browsing histories, user demographics, semantic and sentiment analyses and numerous other factors feed into increasingly personalized algorithmic models to rank and curate information, that is, to show information to individuals or implicitly exclude it. Paid, sponsored or hashtagged content may be promoted to the exclusion or demotion of other content. Social media newsfeeds display content according to subjective assessments of how interesting or engaging content might be to a user; as a result, individuals may be offered little or no exposure to certain types of critical social or political stories and content posted to their platforms.[[fn:7]] AI shapes the world of information in a way that is opaque to the user and often even to the platform doing the curation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "World Wide Web Foundation, “The invisible curation of content: Facebook’s News Feed and our information diets”, 22 April 2018. Available at https://webfoundation.org/research/the-invisible-curation-of-content-facebooks-news-feed-and-our-information-diets/."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0011", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Online search is one of the most pervasive forms of AI-powered content display and personalization. Search engines deliver results for queries (and complete or predict queries) using AI systems that process extensive data about individual and aggregate users. Because poorly ranked content or content entirely excluded from search results is unlikely to be seen, the AI applications for search have enormous influence over the dissemination of knowledge.[[fn:8]] Content aggregators and news sites[[fn:9]] similarly choose which information to display to an individual based not on recent or important developments, but on AI applications that predict users’ interests and news patterns based on extensive datasets. Consequently, AI plays a large but usually hidden role in shaping what information individuals consume or even know to consume.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Council of Europe, Algorithms and Human Rights, p. 17."}, {"n": 9, "text": "For example, see “How Reuters’s revolutionary AI system gathers global news,” MIT Technology Review, 27 November 2017. Available at https://www.technologyreview.com/s/609558/how-reuterss-revolutionary-ai-system-gathers-global-news/; Paul Armstrong and Yue Wang, “China’s $11 billion news aggregator Jinri Toutiao is no fake,” Forbes, 26 May 2017. Available at https://www.forbes.com/sites/ywang/2017/05/26/jinri-toutiao-how-chinas-11-billion-news-aggregator-is-no-fake/#1d8b97804d8a."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0012", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. AI in the field of content display is driving towards greater personalization of each individual’s online experience; in an era of information abundance,[[fn:10]] personalization promises to order the chaos of the Internet, allowing individuals to find requested information. Benefits may include the ability to access information and services in a greater range of languages[[fn:11]] or information that is more timely and relevant to one’s personal experience or preferences. AI-driven personalization may also minimize exposure to diverse views, interfering with individual agency to seek and share ideas and opinions across ideological, political or societal divisions. Such personalization may reinforce biases and incentivize the promotion and recommendation of inflammatory content or disinformation in order to sustain users’ online engagement.[[fn:12]] To be sure, all sorts of social and cultural settings may limit an individual’s exposure to information. But by optimizing for engagement and virality at scale, AI-assisted personalization may undermine an individual’s choice to find certain kinds of content. This is especially so because algorithms typically will deprioritize content with lower levels of engagement, banishing independent and user-generated content into obscurity.[[fn:13]] Savvy actors can exploit rule-based AI systems optimized for engagement to gain higher levels of exposure, and by appropriating popular hashtags or using bots, they can achieve outsized online reach to the detriment of information diversity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Carly Nyst and Nick Monaco, State-Sponsored Trolling: How Governments are Deploying Disinformation as Part of Broader Digital Harassment Campaigns (Palo Alto, Institute for the Future, 2018), p. 8."}, {"n": 11, "text": "World Wide Web Foundation, “Artificial intelligence: the road ahead in low- and middle-income countries”, Washington, D.C., 2017."}, {"n": 12, "text": "Zeynep Tufekci, “YouTube, the great radicaliser”, New York Times, 10 March 2018. Available at https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/10/opinion/sunday/youtube-politics-radical.html; James Williams, Stand Out of our Light: Freedom and Resistance in the Attention Economy (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2018)."}, {"n": 13, "text": "Recently, some tech platforms have indicated their intention to move away from “engagement” — driven personalization to personalization which prioritizes the quality of a user’s experience online; see Julia Carrie Wong, “Facebook overhauls News Feed in favour of ‘meaningful social interactions’”, The Guardian, 11 January 2018. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/jan/11/facebook-news-feed-algorithm-overhaul-mark-zuckerberg. However, without thorough transparency, reporting and metrics around how AI systems make and implement such assessments, it is difficult to assess whether this change is having a demonstrable effect on internet users’ experience."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0013", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Content moderation and removal. AI helps social media companies to moderate content in accordance with platform standards and rules, including spam detection, hash-matching technology (using digital fingerprints to identify, for instance, terrorist or child exploitation content), keyword filters, natural language processing (by which the nature of the content is assessed for prohibited words or imagery) and other detection algorithms. AI may be used to subject user accounts to warnings, suspension or deactivation on the basis of violations of terms of service or may be employed to block or filter websites on the basis of prohibited domain data or content. Social media companies use AI to filter content across the range of their rules (from nudity to harassment to hate speech and so on), although the extent to which such companies rely on automation without human input on specific cases is not known.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "An Instagram tool, Deep Text, attempts to judge the “toxicity” of the context, as well as permitting users to customize their own word and emoji filers, and also assesses user relationship in a further attempt to establish context (such as whether a comment is just a joke between friends). Andrew Hutchison, “Instagram’s rolling out new tools to remove ‘toxic comments’”, Social Media Today, 30 June 2017. Available at https://www.socialmediatoday.com/social-networks/instagrams-rolling-out-new-tools-remove-toxic-comments."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0014", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Support and pressure for increasing the role of AI come from both the private and public sectors. Companies claim that the volume of illegal, inappropriate and harmful content online far exceeds the capabilities of human moderation and argue that AI is one tool that can assist in better tackling this challenge. According to some platforms, AI is not only more efficient in identifying inappropriate (according to their rules) and illegal content for removal (usually by a human moderator) but also has a higher accuracy rate than human decision-making. States, meanwhile, are pressing for efficient, speedy automated moderation across a range of separate challenges, from child sexual abuse and terrorist content, where AI is already extensively deployed, to copyright and the removal of ‘“extremist” and “hateful” content.[[fn:15]] The European Commission Recommendation on measures to further improve the effectiveness of the fight against illegal content online of March 2018 calls upon Internet platforms to use automatic filters to detect and remove terrorist content, with human review in some cases suggested as a necessary counterweight to the inevitable errors caused by the automated systems.[[fn:16]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "The United Kingdom reportedly developed a tool to automatically detect and remove terrorist content at the point of upload. See, for example, Home Office, “New technology revealed to help fight terrorist content online”, press release, 13 February 2018. See European Commission, proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Copyright in the Digital Single Market, COM(2016) 593 final, art. 13; Letter from the Special Rapporteur to the President of the European Commission, reference No. OL OTH 41/2018, 13 June 2018. Available at https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Opinion/Legislation/OL-OTH-41-2018.pdf."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Commission recommendation of 1 March 2018 on measures to effectively tackle illegal content online (C(2018) 1177 final). Available at https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/commission-recommendation-measures-effectively-tackle-illegal-content-online; see also Daphne Keller, “Comment in response to European Commission’s March 2018 recommendation on measures to further improve the effectiveness of the fight against illegal content online”, Stanford Law School, Center for Internet and Society, 29 March 2018. Available at http://cyberlaw.stanford.edu/publications/comment-response-european-commissions-march-2018-recommendation-measures-further."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0015", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Efforts to automate content moderation may come at a cost to human rights (see A/HRC/38/35, para. 56). AI-driven content moderation has several limitations, including the challenge of assessing context and taking into account widespread variation of language cues, meaning and linguistic and cultural particularities. Because AI applications are often grounded in datasets that incorporate discriminatory assumptions,[[fn:17]] and under circumstances in which the cost of over-moderation is low, there is a high risk that such systems will default to the removal of online content or suspension of accounts that are not problematic and that content will be removed in accordance with biased or discriminatory concepts. As a result, vulnerable groups are the most likely to be disadvantaged by AI content moderation systems. For example, Instagram’s DeepText identified “Mexican” as a slur because its datasets were populated with data in which “Mexican” was associated with “illegal”, a negatively coded term baked into the algorithm.[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See Aylin Caliskan, Joanna Bryson and Arvind Narayanan, “Semantics derived automatically from language corpora contain human-like biases”, Science, vol. 356, No. 6334 (14 April 2017); Solon Barocas and Andrew Selbst, “Big data’s disparate impact”, California Law Review, vol. 104, No. 671 (2016)."}, {"n": 18, "text": "Nicholas Thompson, “Instagram’s Kevin Systrom wants to clean up the &#%@! Internet”, Wired, 14 August 2017. Available at https://www.wired.com/2017/08/instagram-kevin-systrom-wants-to-clean-up-the-internet/."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0016", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. AI makes it difficult to scrutinize the logic behind content actions. Even when algorithmic content moderation is complemented by human review — an arrangement that large social media platforms argue is increasingly infeasible on the scale at which they operate — a tendency to defer to machine-made decisions (on the assumptions of objectivity noted above) impedes interrogation of content moderation outcomes, especially when the system’s technical design occludes that kind of transparency.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0017", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Profiling, advertising and targeting. Advances in AI have both benefited from and further incentivized the data-driven business model of the Internet, namely, that individuals pay for free content and services with their personal data. With the vast data resources amassed from years of online monitoring and profiling, companies are able to equip AI systems with rich datasets to develop ever more precise prediction and targeting models. Today, advertising by private and public actors can be achieved at an individual level; consumers and voters are the subject of “microtargeting” designed to respond to and exploit individual idiosyncrasies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0018", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. AI-driven targeting incentivizes the widespread collection and exploitation of personal data and increases the risk of manipulation of individual users through the spread of disinformation. Targeting can perpetuate discrimination, as well as users’ exclusion from information or opportunities by, for example, permitting targeted job and housing advertisements that exclude older workers, women or ethnic minorities.[[fn:19]] Rather than individuals being exposed to parity and diversity in political messaging, for example, the deployment of microtargeting through social media platforms is creating a curated worldview inhospitable to pluralistic political discourse.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Julia Angwin, Noam Scheiber and Ariana Tobin, “Dozens of companies are using Facebook to exclude older workers from job ads”, ProPublica, 20 December 2017. Available at https://www.propublica.org/article/facebook-ads-age-discrimination-targeting; Julia Angwin, Ariana Tobin and Madeleine Varner, “Facebook (still) letting housing advertisers exclude users by race”, ProPublica, 21 November 2017. Available at https://www.propublica.org/article/facebook-advertising-discrimination-housing-race-sex-national-origin."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0019", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. AI tools, like all technologies, must be designed, developed and deployed so as to be consistent with the obligations of States and the responsibilities of private actors under international human rights law. Human rights law imposes on States both negative obligations to refrain from implementing measures that interfere with the exercise of freedom of opinion and expression and positive obligations to promote rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to protect their exercise.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "A. Scope of human rights obligations in the context of artificial intelligence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0020", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. With respect to the private sector, States are bound to guarantee respect for individual rights,[[fn:20]] especially the rights to freedom of opinion and expression, including by protecting individuals from infringing acts committed by private parties (article 2 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights). States can meet this obligation through legal measures to restrict or influence the development and implementation of AI applications, through policies regarding the procurement of AI applications from private companies by public sector actors, through self- and co-regulatory schemes and by building the capacity of private sector companies to recognize and prioritize the rights to freedom of opinion and expression in their corporate endeavours.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "A. Scope of human rights obligations in the context of artificial intelligence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See principle 3 of the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework (A/HRC/17/31) and A/HRC/38/35, paras. 6–8."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "2", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0021", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Companies also have responsibilities under human rights law that should guide their construction, adoption and mobilization of AI technologies (A/HRC/38/35, para. 10). The Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework provide a “global standard of expected conduct for all businesses wherever they operate” (principle 11), including social media and search companies. To adapt the conclusions from the Guiding Principles to the domain of AI (ibid., para. 11), the Guiding Principles require that companies, at a minimum, make high-level policy commitments to respect the human rights of their users in all AI applications (principle 16); avoid causing or contributing to adverse human rights impacts through their use of AI technology and prevent and mitigate any adverse effects linked to their operations (principle 13); conduct due diligence on AI systems to identify and address actual and potential human rights impacts (principles 17–19); engage in prevention and mitigation strategies (principle 24); conduct ongoing review of AI-related activities, including through stakeholder and public consultation (principles 20–21), and provide accessible remedies to remediate adverse human rights impacts from AI systems (principles 22, 29 and 31).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "A. Scope of human rights obligations in the context of artificial intelligence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0022", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. The freedom to hold opinions without interference is an absolute right, enshrined in article 19 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It “permits no exception or restriction,” whether “by law or other power”.[[fn:21]] In his 2015 report to the Human Rights Council on encryption and anonymity in digital communications (A/HRC/29/32), the Special Rapporteur observed that the ways in which information is stored, transmitted and secured in the digital age uniquely affect the exercise of the right to hold opinions. Search queries, browsing activities, email and text communications, and documents and mementos held in the cloud — together, these digital activities and records form the fabric of the opinions users hold (ibid., para. 12). Both State and non-State actors may interfere with these mechanics and processes of forming and holding opinions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "B. Right to freedom of opinion"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression, para. 9, available at www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/GC34.pdf; Manfred Nowak, U.N. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: CCPR Commentary (1993)."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First occurrence: 'article 19 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR with paragraph."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second occurrence: 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0023", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. An essential element of the right to hold an opinion is the “right to form an opinion and to develop this by way of reasoning”.[[fn:22]] The Human Rights Committee has concluded that this right requires freedom from undue coercion in the development of an individual’s beliefs, ideologies, reactions and positions.[[fn:23]] Accordingly, forced neurological interventions, indoctrination programmes (such as “re-education camps”) or threats of violence designed to compel individuals to form particular opinions or change their opinion violate article 19 (1) of the Covenant. The Committee has also found that coercive “inducements of preferential treatment” may rise to a level of persuasion that interferes with the right to form and hold opinions (see CCPR/C/78/D/878/1999).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "B. Right to freedom of opinion"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "Nowak, U.N. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}, {"n": 23, "text": "Yong Joo-Kang v. Republic of Korea, Human Rights Committee communication No. 878/1999, 16 July 2003 (CCPR/C/78/D/878/1999)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0024", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. The intersection of technology and content curation raises novel questions about the types of coercion or inducement that may be considered an interference with the right to form an opinion. Content curation has long informed the capacity of the individual to form opinions: for example, media outlets elevate particular stories to the front page with the intention of shaping and influencing individual knowledge about significant news of the day. Commercial advertising has also sought to induce favourable opinions of and cultivate desire for particular products and services.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "B. Right to freedom of opinion"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0025", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The use of AI extends and enhances the tradition of content curation on the Internet, providing more sophisticated and efficient means of personalizing and curating content for the user at a scale beyond the reach of traditional media. The dominance of particular modes of AI-assisted curation raises concern about its impact on the capacity of the individual to form and develop opinions. For example, a handful of technology companies lay claim to the vast majority of search queries conducted online. Corporate monopoly of the search market makes it extremely difficult for users to opt out of the algorithmic ranking and curation of search results and may also induce users to believe (as companies intend it) that the results generated are the most relevant or objective information available on a particular subject. The lack of transparency about how search criteria are developed and implemented through the use of AI may also reinforce the assumption that search results generated on a particular platform are an objective presentation of factual information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "B. Right to freedom of opinion"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0026", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. The issues that market dominance raises in the field of AI-assisted curation therefore test historical understandings of how content curation affects or does not affect the capacity to form an opinion. The novelty of the issues raised, coupled with the general lack of jurisprudence concerning interferences with the right of opinion, provide more questions than answers about the human rights impact of AI-assisted curation in the contemporary digital environment. Nevertheless, these questions should drive rights-oriented research into the social, economic and political effects of AI-assisted curation. Companies should, at the very least, provide meaningful information about how they develop and implement criteria for curating and personalizing content on their platforms, including policies and processes for detecting social, cultural or political biases in the design and development of relevant AI systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "B. Right to freedom of opinion"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0027", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Article 19 (2) of the Covenant guarantees an expansive right to “seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds”, one which must be protected and respected regardless of frontiers or type of media. Enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression is intimately related to the exercise of other rights and foundational to the effective functioning of democratic institutions and, accordingly, the protection, respect and promotion of the right to freedom of expression entails the duty to include the promotion of media diversity and independence and the protection of access to information.[[fn:24]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Representative on Freedom of the Media, Organization of American States Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression and African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression and access to information, “Joint Declaration on freedom of expression and ‘fake news’”, disinformation and propaganda”, 3 March 2017. Available at https://www.osce.org/fom/302796; see also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression; A/HRC/29/32, para. 61 and A/HRC/32/38, para. 86."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0028", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Unlike the right to form and hold opinions, the rights to express and access information and ideas may be subject to restrictions under limited circumstances (article 19 (3) of the Covenant). Restrictions must meet the standards of legality, meaning that they are publicly provided by a law that meets standards of clarity and precision and are interpreted by independent judicial authorities; necessity and proportionality, meaning that they are the least intrusive measure necessary to achieve the legitimate interest at hand and do not imperil the essence of the right; and legitimacy, meaning that they must be in pursuit of an enumerated legitimate interest, namely, the protection of rights or reputations of others, national security or public order, or public health or morals (A/HRC/38/35, para. 7). Within this framework, expression rights can also be restricted pursuant to article 20 (2) of the Covenant, which requires States to prohibit “advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence”, but restrictions must still satisfy the cumulative conditions of legality, necessity and legitimacy.[[fn:25]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression, para. 50."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0029", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. The complexity of decision-making inherent in content moderation may be exacerbated by the introduction of automated processes. Unlike humans, algorithms are today not capable of evaluating cultural context, detecting irony or conducting the critical analysis necessary to accurately identify, for example, “extremist” content or hate speech[[fn:26]] and are thus more likely to default to content blocking and restriction, undermining the rights of individual users to be heard as well as their right to access information without restriction or censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Council of Europe, Algorithms and Human Rights, p. 21."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0030", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. In an AI-governed system, the dissemination of information and ideas is governed by opaque forces with priorities that may be at odds with an enabling environment for media diversity and independent voices. Relevantly, the Human Rights Committee has found that States should “take appropriate action … to prevent undue media dominance or concentration by privately controlled media groups in monopolistic situations that may be harmful to a diversity of sources and views”.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression, para. 40."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0031", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Users also lack access to the rules of the game when it comes to AI-driven platforms and websites. A lack of clarity about the extent and scope of AI and algorithmic applications online prevent individuals from understanding when and according to what metric information is disseminated, restricted or targeted. Small concessions to addressing this problem such as selective identification of sponsored search results,[[fn:28]] or social media platforms highlighting when advertising is paid for by political actors, may contribute slightly to helping users to understand the rules of the information environment, but these neither capture nor resolve the concerns around the scale at which algorithmic processes are shaping that environment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Safiya Umoja Noble, Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism (New York, New York University Press, 2018)."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0032", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Even when individuals are informed about the existence, scope and operation of AI systems, those systems may frustrate efforts at transparency and suitability. To date, no sophisticated and scalable means for scrutinizing and making transparent the technical underpinnings of automated decisions in the online sphere have been developed.[[fn:29]] This means that individuals will often have their expression rights adversely affected without being able to investigate or understand why, how or on what basis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Mike Ananny and Kate Crawford, “Seeing without knowing: limitations of the transparency ideal and its application to algorithmic accountability”, New Media and Society, vol. 20, No. 3 (13 December 2016). Available at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1461444816676645?journalCode=nmsa."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0033", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The right to privacy often acts as a gateway to the enjoyment of freedom of opinion and expression.[[fn:30]] Article 17 of the Covenant protects the individual against “arbitrary or unlawful interference with his or her privacy, family, home or correspondence” and “unlawful attacks on his or her honour and reputation” and provides that “everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks”. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights and the Human Rights Council have emphasized that any interference with privacy must meet standards of legality, necessity and proportionality (A/HRC/27/37, para. 23 and Human Rights Council resolution 34/7, para. 2).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "D. Right to privacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "See A/HRC/29/32, para. 16, General Assembly resolution 68/167 and Human Rights Council resolution 20/8."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0034", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. AI-driven decision-making systems depend on the collection and exploitation of data, ranging from ambient, non-personal data to personally identifiable information, with the vast majority of data used to feed AI systems being somewhere in the middle — data that are inferred or extracted from personal data, or personal data that have been anonymized (often imperfectly). Companies use data derived from online profiling and digital fingerprinting, procure datasets from third parties such as data brokers and derive new data from vast aggregated datasets to feed AI systems. AI-driven consumer products and autonomous systems are frequently equipped with sensors that generate and collect vast amounts of data on individuals within their proximity[[fn:31]] and AI methods on social media platforms are used to infer and generate sensitive information about people that they have not provided or confirmed, such as sexual orientation, family relationships, religious views, health conditions or political affiliation.", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "D. Right to privacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "Article 19 and Privacy International, “Privacy and freedom of expression”."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0035", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. AI challenges traditional notions of consent, purpose and use limitation, transparency and accountability — the pillars upon which international data protection standards rest.[[fn:32]] Because AI systems work by exploiting existing datasets and creating new ones, the ability of individuals to know, understand and exercise control over how their data are used is deprived of practical meaning in the context of AI. Once data are repurposed in an AI system, they lose their original context, increasing the risk that data about individuals will become inaccurate or out of date and depriving individuals of the ability to rectify or delete the data. AI-based systems are being used to make consequential decisions using those data, some of which profoundly affect people’s lives,[[fn:33]] and yet, individuals have few avenues to exercise control over data that have been derived from their personal data, even as anonymization techniques continue to suffer from inadequacies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "D. Right to privacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 16: Article 17 (1988) on the right to privacy, para. 10."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Article 19 and Privacy International, “Privacy and freedom of expression”, p. 19."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0036", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Non-discrimination is an intrinsic principle of human rights law, existing not only as a qualifier on the obligations of States to ensure enjoyment of all other human rights without discrimination, but also, as enshrined in article 26 of the Covenant, as a stand-alone guarantee of equality before the law and equal protection of the law. States are under a clear obligation to “prohibit any discrimination and guarantee to all persons equal and effective protection against discrimination on any ground such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status”. Thus, articles 17 and 19 incorporate individual rights to freedom from discrimination in the holding and forming of opinions, the expression of and access to ideas and information, and the exercise of privacy and the protection of personal data.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "E. Obligation of non-discrimination"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "26", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0037", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The potential for AI to embed and perpetuate bias and discrimination extends to discrimination in the exercise of freedom of opinion and expression. Moderation algorithms may fail to take into account cultural, language or gender-based contexts and sensitivities, or public interest in the content.[[fn:34]] AI-driven newsfeeds may perpetuate and reinforce discriminatory attitudes, while AI profiling and advertising systems have demonstrably facilitated discrimination along racial, religious and gender lines.[[fn:35]] “Autocomplete” AI functions have also produced racially discriminatory results.[[fn:36]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "E. Obligation of non-discrimination"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "This has led to, for example, the removal of historical photographs with particular cultural significance. See Julia Carrie Wong, “Mark Zuckerberg accused of abusing power after Facebook deletes ‘napalm girl’ post”, The Guardian, 9 September 2016. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/sep/08/facebook-mark-zuckerberg-napalm-girl-photo-vietnam-war; see also A/HRC/38/35, para. 29."}, {"n": 35, "text": "Julia Angwin, Madeleine Varner and Ariana Tobin, “Facebook enabled advertisers to reach ‘Jew haters’”, ProPublica, 14 September 2017. Available at https://www.propublica.org/article/facebook-enabled-advertisers-to-reach-jew-haters; Ariana Tobin, “Why we had to buy racist, sexist, xenophobic, ableist and otherwise awful Facebook ads,” ProPublica, 27 November 2017. Available at https://www.propublica.org/article/why-we-had-to-buy-racist-sexist-xenophobic-ableist-and-otherwise-awful-facebook-ads."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Paris Martineau, “YouTube’s search suggests racist autocompletes”, The Outline, 13 May 2018. Available at https://theoutline.com/post/4536/youtube-s-search-autofill-suggests-racist-results?zd=1&zi=3ygzt6hw."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0038", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. A number of factors ingrain bias into AI systems, increasing their discriminatory potential. These include the way in which AI systems are designed, decisions as to the origin and scope of the datasets on which these systems are trained, societal and cultural biases that developers may build into those datasets, the AI models themselves and the way in which the outputs of the AI model are implemented in practice. For example, facial recognition applications suffer from being grounded in predominantly white, male datasets, with errors occurring in up to 20 per cent of the time for women and people with darker skin colours.[[fn:37]] When such systems are used to, for example, categorize images available through a search engine, their discriminatory potential can translate into concrete interferences with individuals’ exercise of their rights to seek, receive and impart information and freely assemble or associate.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "E. Obligation of non-discrimination"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "Joy Buolamwini, “The dangers of supremely white data and the coded gaze”, presented at Wikimania 2018, Cape Town. Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZSJXKoD6mA8&feature=youtu.be."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0039", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Human rights law guarantees individuals a remedy determined by competent judicial, administrative or legislative authorities (article 2 (3) of the Covenant). Remedies must be known by and accessible to anyone who has had their rights violated; must involve prompt, thorough and impartial investigation of alleged violations;[[fn:38]] and must be capable of ending ongoing violations (A/HRC/27/37, paras. 39–41).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "F. Right to an effective remedy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 31 (2004) on the nature of the general legal obligation imposed on States parties to the Covenant, para. 15."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0040", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. AI systems often interfere with the right to a remedy. First, individual notice is almost inherently unavailable. In almost all applications of AI technology in the information environment, individuals are not aware of the scope, extent or even existence of the algorithmic decision-making processes that may have an impact on their enjoyment of rights to opinion and expression. The second and more challenging aspect is the scrutability of the AI system itself. The logic behind an algorithmic decision may not be evident even to an expert trained in the underlying mechanics of the system. Although it is logical to assume that more transparency around AI systems would enable greater scrutiny, algorithmic transparency does not necessarily equate with intelligible explanations of decision-making processes. Algorithms may obscure that a consequential decision has been taken or be so complex and context-dependent as to frustrate explanation. The situation is further complicated because companies operating in the information environment frequently update their algorithms;[[fn:39]] equally, machine-learning applications may change their own rules and algorithms over time.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "F. Right to an effective remedy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "Barry Schwartz, “Google: we make thousands of updates to search algorithms each year”, Search Engine Roundtable, 5 June 2015. Available at https://www.seroundtable.com/google-updates-thousands-20403.html."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0041", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Compounding these concerns is the shift towards the automation of remedy systems themselves, according to which complaints of individual users, either about content moderation decisions or about the adverse human rights impacts of AI technologies, are considered and determined by AI technologies.[[fn:40]] Automatic response processes raise concerns about whether complaint redress mechanisms constitute an effective remedy, given the lack of discretion, contextual analysis and independent determination built into such processes.[[fn:41]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "F. Right to an effective remedy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "Council of Europe, Algorithms and Human Rights, p. 24."}, {"n": 41, "text": "Pei Zhang, Sophie Stalla-Bourdillon and Lester Gilbert, “A content-linking-context model for ‘notice-and-take-down’ procedures”, WebSci ‘16, May 2016. Available at http://takedownproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/ContentLinkingModelZhangStallaGilbert.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0042", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Many States are now devising national AI strategies in order to explore and develop policies and initiatives designed to maximize the potential benefits of AI for their citizens.[[fn:42]] Although no State has yet to propose a comprehensive law or regulation of AI, there are reasons to be cautious about such an approach, which may be ill-suited to such an innovative field and may compensate for lack of detail with overly restrictive or overly permissive provisions. Sectoral regulation may be preferable although, arguably, existing law and regulation, for example in the field of data protection, could be flexible and available without the need to legislate further.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "G. Legislative, regulatory and policy responses to artificial intelligence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "Tim Dutton, “An overview of national AI strategies”, Medium, 28 June 2018. Available at https://medium.com/politics-ai/an-overview-of-national-ai-strategies-2a70ec6edfd."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0043", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. At the same time, States should ensure that AI is developed in keeping with human rights standards. Any efforts to develop State policy or regulation in the field of AI should ensure consideration of human rights concerns.[[fn:43]] The rights to freedom of opinion and expression, in particular, are often excluded from public and political debates on AI, which, to the extent that they tackle human rights issues, tend to focus on bias and discrimination in service delivery.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "G. Legislative, regulatory and policy responses to artificial intelligence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "It is concerning, for example, that a parliamentary committee in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland issued a 200-page report that does not mention human rights even once. See United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland House of Lords Select Committee on Artificial Intelligence, “AI in the United Kingdom”."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0044", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Because the development of effective AI systems depends on the acquisition of large datasets as well as long-term investment in technological capabilities, private sector entities are likely to dominate in terms of development, production and capacity, leading to increased public sector reliance on companies for access to AI systems. This increases the likelihood and public perception that corporate and government interests will become increasingly intertwined. This is especially the case in the information environment, in which Governments are often users — of social media platforms, search engines and other technologies — rather than providers. The alignment of public and private interests does not in itself create human rights interferences but raises concerns about transparency and accountability. As private development of AI proceeds, there is a very real risk that States will delegate increasingly complex and onerous censorship and surveillance mandates to companies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "G. Legislative, regulatory and policy responses to artificial intelligence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0045", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Any State attempts to articulate law or policy in the field of AI should speak both to public and private sector AI applications, rather than simply focusing on public sector AI regulation. As the Council of Europe concluded, “Issues related to algorithmic governance and/or regulation are public policy prerogatives and should not be left to private actors alone.”[[fn:44]] State approaches may involve enhanced transparency and disclosure obligations on companies and robust data protection legislation that addresses AI-related concerns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "G. Legislative, regulatory and policy responses to artificial intelligence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "Council of Europe, Algorithms and Human Rights, p. 44."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0046", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Public and private sector initiatives designed to explore and integrate ethics into the procurement, design, deployment and implementation of AI systems are proliferating. The Special Rapporteur strongly encourages the integration of human rights concerns into these efforts. The private sector’s focus on and the public sector’s push for ethics often imply resistance to human rights-based regulation.[[fn:45]] While ethics provide a critical framework for working through particular challenges in the field of AI, it is not a replacement for human rights, to which every State is bound by law. Companies and Governments should ensure that human rights considerations and responsibilities are firmly integrated into all aspects of their AI operations even as they are developing ethical codes and guidance.[[fn:46]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "G. Legislative, regulatory and policy responses to artificial intelligence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "Ben Wagner, “Ethics as an escape from regulation: from ethics-washing to ethics-shopping?”, in Being Profiling: Cogitas Ergo Sum, Mireille Hildebrandt, ed. (Amsterdam University Press (forthcoming))."}, {"n": 46, "text": "Article 19 and Privacy International, “Privacy and freedom of expression”, p. 13."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0047", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. In recent reports, the mandate holder has set out legal and practical considerations for companies to put human rights principles at the heart of their content regulation policies and has detailed both substantive standards and processes that ensure that companies can comply with their human rights responsibilities under the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights in all aspects of their operations. That same framework frames the approach offered here with respect to AI technologies. The substantive standards and processes proposed below apply to companies, in their capacity as actors that design, deploy and implement AI systems, and to States, which have an obligation to refrain from interfering with human rights in their own adoption and use of AI systems. These standards and processes are designed to ensure that human rights law is placed at the heart of advancements in the field of AI. Two fundamental principles are woven throughout the standards and processes offered: the need to protect and respect individual agency and autonomy, a key precondition to the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression; and the importance of meaningful disclosure on the part of public and sector actors, defined by open and innovative efforts to explain AI technologies to the public and facilitate their scrutiny.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0048", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Companies should orient their standards, rules and system design around universal human rights principles (A/HRC/38/35, paras. 41–43). Public-facing terms and guidelines should be complemented by internal policy commitments to mainstreaming human rights considerations throughout a company’s operations, especially in relation to the development and deployment of AI and algorithmic systems. Companies should consider how to elaborate professional standards for AI engineers, translating human rights responsibilities into guidance for technical design and operation choices. The development of codes of ethics and accompanying institutional structures may be an important complement to, but not a substitute for, commitments to human rights. Codes and guidelines issued by both public and private sector bodies should emphasize that human rights law provides the fundamental rules for the protection of individuals in the context of AI, while ethics frameworks may assist in further developing the content and application of human rights in specific circumstances.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "A. Substantive standards for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0049", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Companies and Governments must be explicit with individuals about which decisions in the information environment are made by automated systems and which are accompanied by human review, as well as the broad elements of the logic used by those systems. Individuals should also be informed when the personal data they provide to a private sector actor (either explicitly or through their use of a service or site) will become part of a dataset used by an AI system, to enable them to factor that knowledge into their decision about whether to consent to data collection and which types of data they wish to disclose.[[fn:47]] Similarly to the public notices required for the use of closed-circuit television cameras, AI systems should actively disclose to individuals (through innovative means such as pop-up boxes) in a clear and understandable manner that they are subject or contributing data to an AI-driven decision-making process, as well as meaningful information about the logic involved in the process and the significance of the consequences to the individual.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "A. Substantive standards for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 16 (1988) on the right to privacy."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0050", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Transparency does not stop with the disclosure to individual users about the existence of AI technologies in the platforms and online services they use. Companies and Governments need to embrace transparency throughout each aspect of the AI value chain. Transparency need not be complex to be effective; even simplified explanations of the purpose, policies, inputs and outputs of an AI system can contribute to public education and debate.[[fn:48]] Rather than grapple with the predicament of making convoluted technical processes legible to lay audiences, companies should strive to achieve transparency through the provision of non-technical insights into a system. To that end, the focus should be on educating individual users about an AI system’s existence, purpose, constitution and impact, rather than about the source code, training data and inputs and outputs.[[fn:49]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "A. Substantive standards for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Aaron Rieke, Miranda Bogen and David Robinson, “Public scrutiny of automated decisions: early lessons and emerging methods” (Omidyar and Upturn, 2018), p. 5."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Rieke, Bogen and Robinson, “Public scrutiny of automated decisions”, p. 8."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0051", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Radical transparency about the impact of an AI system in the information environment requires disclosure of, for example, data on how much content is removed by AI systems, how often AI-suggested content removals are approved by a human moderator, how often content removals are contested and how often challenges to content removals are upheld. Aggregate data illustrating trends in content display should be available for users to inspect, alongside case studies that illustrate why certain content will be prioritized over other content. Disclosure about the sources and beneficiaries of political and commercial advertising is a critical element of radical transparency. Public and private sector actors implementing AI-driven systems should also be transparent about the limits of the AI system, including for example, confidence measures, known failure scenarios and appropriate limitations on use.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "A. Substantive standards for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Amnesty International and Access Now, “Toronto declaration: protecting the right to equality and non-discrimination in machine learning systems”, art. 27 (d), 2018. Available at https://www.accessnow.org/the-toronto-declaration-protecting-the-rights-to-equality-and-non-discrimination-in-machine-learning-systems/."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0052", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Tackling the prevalence of discrimination in AI systems is an existential challenge for companies and Governments; failure to address and resolve the discriminatory elements and impacts will render the technology not only ineffective but dangerous. There is ample thought leadership and resources for companies and Governments to draw on in considering how to address bias and discrimination in AI systems; broadly speaking, it necessitates isolating and accounting for discrimination at both the input and output levels. This involves, at a minimum, addressing sampling errors (where datasets are non-representative of society), scrubbing datasets to remove discriminatory data and putting in place measures to compensate for data that “contain the imprint of historical and structural patterns of discrimination”[[fn:51]] and from which AI systems are likely to develop discriminatory proxies. Active monitoring of discriminatory outcomes of AI systems is also integral to avoiding and mitigating adverse effects on the human rights of individuals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "A. Substantive standards for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "Iason Gabriel, “The case for fairer algorithms”, Medium, 14 March 2018. Available at https://medium.com/@Ethics_Society/the-case-for-fairer-algorithms-c008a12126f8."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0053", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Human rights impact assessments. Embracing radical transparency throughout the AI life cycle requires companies and Governments to take steps to permit systems to be scrutinized and challenged from conception to implementation. Human rights impact assessments are one tool that can demonstrate a commitment to addressing the human rights implications of AI systems and should be performed prior to procurement, development or use and involve both self-assessment and external review. The think tank AI Now has proposed a public agency algorithmic impact assessment that stipulates that Governments should undertake an internal review of AI systems as well as facilitate external research review processes to test and verify assumptions and conclusions.[[fn:52]] Companies should also conduct assessments along similar lines.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "B. Processes for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Dillon Reisman and others, “Algorithmic impact assessments: a practical framework for public agency accountability” (AI Now, 2018). Available at https://ainowinstitute.org/aiareport2018.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0054", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Public sector procurement of AI technologies from private vendors must be accompanied by a public consultation to elicit societal views and input on the design and implementation of the AI system before it is acquired. Both companies and Governments must conduct meaningful and sustained consultations with civil society, human rights groups, relevant local communities and representatives of historically marginalized or underrepresented populations before developing, procuring or using AI systems and technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "B. Processes for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0055", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Audits. Facilitating external review of AI systems provides a critical guarantee of rigour and independence in transparency. For this reason, ongoing independent audits should supplement pre-procurement human rights impact assessments as an important mechanism of transparency and accountability in AI systems. Private sector actors have raised objections to the feasibility of audits in the AI space, given the imperative to protect proprietary technology. While these concerns may be well founded, the Special Rapporteur agrees with AI Now that, especially when an AI application is being used by a public sector agency, refusal on the part of the vendor to be transparent about the operation of the system would be incompatible with the public body’s own accountability obligations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "B. Processes for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0056", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. In any event, innovative suggestions for audits of AI technology that permit proprietary secrecy abound: zero-knowledge proofs could conceivably be generated by algorithms to demonstrate that they conform to certain properties, obviating the need to scrutinize the underlying algorithm,[[fn:53]] or algorithms could be disclosed to expert third parties who would hold them in escrow on the condition of confidentiality, permitting public interest scrutiny but not allowing the algorithm to become public.[[fn:54]] Government regulators from the domains of telecommunications or competition could be permitted access to AI systems on a confidential basis, as already occurs, for example, in the regulation of gambling machines in Australia and New Zealand, in which companies must submit their algorithmic systems to regulatory audit review.[[fn:55]] Academic literature contains other suggestions for innovative forms of AI audits.[[fn:56]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "B. Processes for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "Council of Europe, Algorithms and Human Rights, p. 36."}, {"n": 54, "text": "Frank Pasquale, The Black Box Society: The Secret Algorithms That Control Money and Information (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2015)."}, {"n": 55, "text": "Council of Europe, Algorithms and Human Rights, p. 34."}, {"n": 56, "text": "Christian Sandvig and others, “Auditing algorithms: research methods for detecting discrimination on Internet platforms”, paper presented at Data and Discrimination: Converting Critical Concerns into Productive Inquiry, a pre-conference at the 64th annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Seattle, 22 May 2014."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0057", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Each of these mechanisms may face challenges in implementation, especially in the information environment, but companies should work towards making audits of AI systems feasible. Governments should contribute to the effectiveness of audits by considering policy or legislative interventions that require companies to make AI code auditable, guaranteeing the existence of audit trails and thus greater opportunities for transparency to individuals affected.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "B. Processes for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0058", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Individual autonomy. AI must not invisibly supplant, manipulate or interfere with the ability of individuals to form and hold their opinions or access and express ideas in the information environment. Respecting individual autonomy means, at the very least, ensuring that users have knowledge, choice and control. Pervasive and hidden AI applications that obscure the processes of content display, personalization, moderation and profiling and targeting undermine the ability of individuals to exercise the rights to freedom of opinion, expression and privacy. Companies should be mindful of the adverse human rights impacts that flow from AI applications that prioritize commercial or political interests over transparency and individual choice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "B. Processes for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0059", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. Notice and consent. Companies must ensure that users are fully informed about how algorithmic decision-making shapes their use of a platform, site or service. This can be achieved through education campaigns, pop-up boxes, interstitials and other means of signalling when an AI system is determining a user’s experience of a search engine, news site or social media platform. State-imposed disclosure requirements may be an appropriate means of protecting notice and consent. Individuals also have a right to know when their data are being collected by an AI application and whether the data will become part of a dataset that will subsequently inform an AI application, as well as the conditions on which that data will be used, stored and deleted.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "B. Processes for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0060", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Remedy. Adverse impacts of AI systems on human rights must be remediable and remedied by the companies responsible. The precondition to the establishment of effective remedy processes is ensuring that individuals know that they have been subject to an algorithmic decision (including one that is suggested by an AI system and approved by a human interlocutor) and are equipped with information about the logic behind that decision. Beyond that, companies should ensure human review of requests for remedy, in order to provide an appropriate check on the systems and guarantee accountability. Data should be published on the frequency at which remedial mechanisms are triggered for decisions made by AI technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "B. Processes for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0061", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur explores the existing and potential impacts of AI on the rights to freedom of opinion and expression, positing that AI is now a critical part of the information environment, posing benefits and risks to individuals’ enjoyment of their rights. The Special Rapporteur has proposed a conceptual framing for thinking about the obligations of States and responsibilities of companies to uphold these rights in the face of expanding technological capabilities and have suggested concrete measures that could be implemented by both Governments and companies to ensure that human rights are respected as the power, reach and scope of AI technology grows.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0062", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. When procuring or deploying AI systems or applications, States should ensure that public sector bodies act consistently with human rights principles. This includes, inter alia, conducting public consultations and undertaking human rights impact assessments or public agency algorithmic impact assessments prior to the procurement or deployment of AI systems. Particular attention should be given to the disparate impact of such technologies on racial and religious minorities, political opposition and activists. Government deployment of AI systems should be subject to regular audits by external, independent experts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0063", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. States should ensure that human rights are central to private sector design, deployment and implementation of AI systems. This includes updating and applying existing regulation, particularly data protection regulation, to the AI domain, pursuing regulatory or co-regulatory schemes designed to require businesses to undertake impact assessments and audits of AI technologies and ensuring effective external accountability mechanisms.[[fn:57]] Where applicable, sectoral regulation of particular AI applications may be necessary and effective for the protection of human rights. To the extent that such restrictions introduce or facilitate interferences with freedom of expression, States should ensure that they are necessary and proportionate to accomplish a legitimate objective in accordance with article 19 (3) of the Covenant. AI-related regulation should also be developed through extensive public consultation involving engagement with civil society, human rights groups and representatives of marginalized or underrepresented end users.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "Wagner, “Ethics as an escape from regulation”."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0064", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. States should create a policy and legislative environment conducive to a diverse, pluralistic information environment. This includes taking measures to ensure a competitive field in the AI domain. Such measures may include the regulation of technology monopolies to prevent the concentration of AI expertise and power in the hands of a few dominant companies, regulation designed to increase interoperability of services and technologies, and the adoption of policies supporting network neutrality and device neutrality.[[fn:58]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 58, "text": "Autorité de régulation des communications électroniques et des postes, Devices, the Weak Link in Achieving an Open Internet (2018). Available at https://www.arcep.fr/uploads/tx_gspublication/rapport-terminaux-fev2018-ENG.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0065", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. All efforts to elaborate guidelines or codes on ethical implications of AI technologies should be grounded in human rights principles. All private and public development and deployment of AI should provide opportunities for civil society to comment. Companies should reiterate in corporate policies and technical guidance to engineers, developers, data technicians, data scrubbers, programmers and others involved in the AI life cycle that human rights responsibilities guide all of their business operations and that ethical principles can assist by facilitating the application of human rights principles to specific situations of AI design, deployment and implementation. In particular, the terms of service of platforms should be based on universal human rights principles.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0066", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Companies should make explicit where and how AI technologies and automated techniques are used on their platforms, services and applications. The use of innovative means to signal to individuals when they are subject to an AI-driven decision-making process, when AI plays a role in displaying or moderating content or when individuals’ personal data may be integrated into a dataset that will be used to inform AI systems is critical to giving users the notice necessary to understand and address the impact of AI systems on their enjoyment of human rights. Companies should also publish data on content removals, including how often removals are contested and challenges to removals are upheld, as well as data on trends in content display, alongside case studies and education on commercial and political profiling.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0067", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Companies must prevent and account for discrimination at both the input and output levels of AI systems. This involves ensuring that teams designing and deploying AI systems reflect diverse and non-discriminatory attitudes and prioritizing the avoidance of bias and discrimination in the choice of datasets and design of the system, including by addressing sampling errors, scrubbing datasets to remove discriminatory data and putting in place measures to compensate for such data. Active monitoring of discriminatory outcomes of AI systems is also essential.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0068", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Human rights impact assessments and public consultations should be carried out during the design and deployment of new AI systems, including the deployment of existing systems in new global markets. Public consultations and engagement should occur prior to the finalization or roll-out of a product or service, in order to ensure that they are meaningful, and should encompass engagement with civil society, human rights defenders and representatives of marginalized or underrepresented end users. The results of human rights impact assessments and public consultations should themselves be made public.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0069", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Companies should make all AI code fully auditable and should pursue innovative means for enabling external and independent auditing of AI systems, separately from regulatory requirements. The results of AI audits should themselves be made public.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0070", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Individual users must have access to remedies for the adverse human rights impacts of AI systems. Companies should put in place systems of human review and remedy to respond to the complaints of all users and appeals levied at AI-driven systems in a timely manner. Data on the frequency at which AI systems are subject to complaints and requests for remedies, as well as the types and effectiveness of remedies available, should be published regularly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. This research report accompanies the Special Rapporteur’s thematic report to the 44th Session of the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/44/49. The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted artistic creation, production, distribution and access. As we observe the impact of a public health crisis, it may also be a moment to reflect on and condemn the many forms of repression of artistic freedom outside of crisis – the censorship that denies communities access to cultural or religious art, the blasphemy laws that interfere with creative consideration of questions of conscience and belief, the targeting of political cartoonists and cultural activists, the denial of space for theatrical events and the arbitrary arrest of playwrights and actors and directors, the assaults of LGBTQI persons challenging legal restrictions on gender identity, and so on.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The Special Rapporteur, often in collaboration with the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights, has addressed communications to Governments concerning repression of artists and held various expert meetings that have informed the content of this research note. On 17 April 2017, the Special Rapporteur co-hosted international artists and experts in Los Angeles to discuss artistic freedom. On 23 October 2019, the Special Rapporteur participated in an expert consultation organized by PEN America and Freemuse in New York. Finally, the research in this report benefits from the information provided through a call for submissions issued on 2 December 2019, and that requested input from individuals and organizations familiar with or confronted by restrictions on artistic freedom.[[fn:1]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank his legal adviser, Sofía Jaramillo Otoya, and students at the International Justice Clinic at the University of California, Irvine, School of Law."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. This research report begins with a discussion of the legal framework applicable to artistic freedom of expression and then addresses the ways in which States and other actors often fail in their obligations or responsibilities to promote and protect freedom of opinion and expression. It is meant to highlight a variety of concerns; it is not meant to address all rights of artistic freedom, many of which have been addressed by other Special Procedures and international human rights mechanisms. (It does not, for instance, address the ways in which copyright law often interferes with artistic expression, a subject addressed substantially elsewhere[[fn:2]].) Far from exhaustive, this research, it is hoped, will help artists, audiences and advocates defend their specifically artistic rights to free expression and guide States in better promoting and protecting them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See, e.g., Letter of the Special Rapporteur to the European Commission concerning the draft copyright directive, OL OTH 41/2018, 13 June 2018; Report of the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights, Copyright policy and the right to science and culture, A/HRC/28/57, 24 December 2014."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. From its earliest codification in international human rights law, the freedoms of opinion and expression have been broadly framed and understood as robust statements of rights that are essential to democratic society. The freedom of opinion under Article 19 of both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is an absolute right, not subject to any interference. Article 19 of the Universal Declaration also promises protection of the right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media, while Article 19(2) of the ICCPR expressly provides that the right includes expression “orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media”.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "In the first session of the drafting committee for Article 19 the language proposed protected expression “in the form of art”, which remained intact in the final version. Marc J. Bossuyt, Guide to the “Travaux Préparatoires” of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1987), p. 373."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "medium", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 19 of both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is an absolute right' — single citation equally invoking UDHR and ICCPR. Conservatively kept as AMBIGUOUS though arguably could split into UDHR+ICCPR; the parenthetical alignment of one article number with two instruments fits AMBIGUOUS."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 19 of the Universal Declaration also promises protection' — explicitly attributed to UDHR alone (non-treaty)."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 19(2) of the ICCPR expressly provides' — explicit ICCPR confirmation with paragraph."}], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Artistic freedom exists within, and is protected by, a framework of interconnected rights, including privacy, freedom of thought, conscience and religion and belief, association and assembly, and participation in cultural life.[[fn:4]] Artistic forms pervade social, cultural, civic and political life – the posters protesters carry at public assemblies, the calligraphic Arabic verses that beautify mosques and homes, the statues of Buddha in temples, the architectural wonders of cities and villages, the drawing you doodle for a child, the music that accompanies our daily lives, the fictional and nonfictional stories that educate or divert or provoke, the cartoons that clarify political positions, the memes that mock public figures, the comic routines that help us laugh at ourselves, and on and on. Artistic creation can function like the “forum internum – a person’s inner realm of thinking and believing,” as described by the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion and belief,[[fn:5]] and it can function as the forum externum, or expression. As the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights noted, “All persons enjoy the rights to freedom of expression and creativity, to participate in cultural life and to enjoy the arts.”[[fn:6]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Mariam Hübner, Arts Rights Justice Observatory Study III, Justice. Opportunities and Challenges for Artistic Freedom, 2019, Available at: https://www.uni-hildesheim.de/arts-rights-justice-library/arj-studies/."}, {"n": 5, "text": "See Report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, Prof. Heiner Bielefeldt, Report on the relationship between the right to freedom of religion or belief and the right to freedom of opinion and expression, A/HRC/31/18, 23 December 2015."}, {"n": 6, "text": "Report of the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights, Farida Shaheed, Report on the right to freedom of artistic expression and creativity, A/HRC/23/34, 14 March 2013, 4."}], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The spectrum of artistic expression is wide and dynamic, ever-changing and expanding, and cannot be limited by some kind of transactional definition. Moreover, Article 19 of the ICCPR protects expressive media and, in the context of art, refers to “the form of art”. This language avoids the difficult, often deeply contested and subjective problems of definition (‘what is art?’) by instead focusing on the expression’s form. Put another way, whether one is considering painting, music, sculpture, film, photography, cartooning, performance, drama, comedy, or any other discipline (or non-discipline), digital or otherwise (and forms that cannot be identified or articulated today), the question is not, ‘does this media have artistic merit or qualify as art?’ Neither is it a value judgement (‘is it good?’ or ‘is it of social benefit?’). To the contrary, Article 19(2) must be read to govern expression through any media, including artistic forms, regardless of how art itself is defined or evaluated. One cannot deprive a particular expressive work of protection by calling it, for instance, propaganda. Human rights law neither preferences nor prioritizes certain forms of expression over others; all are to be protected and promoted, with limitations subject to the same legal framework.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. The human rights legal framework for artistic freedom of opinion and expression requires, first, evaluating the rights at issue; and, second, assessing whether restrictions may lawfully be applied.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Article 19(2) of the ICCPR protects the rights of individuals to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds through any media of their choice, including in the form of art. It is a robustly articulated right, facilitating not only the fundamentally human curiosity of learning (seeking and receiving) and sharing (imparting), but also framing the object of such activity as broadly as possible (information and ideas of all kinds). The Human Rights Committee emphasized in General Comment 34 the dual rights of seeking/receiving, on the one hand, and imparting, on the other, in the context of media freedom.[[fn:7]] Echoing this approach, the UN Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights has stated that the right to freedom of artistic expression includes the rights to freely contribute to and disseminate artistic expression and creation, through individual or joint practice, and also to freely experience, access and enjoy artistic expression.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 34: Article 19: Freedoms of opinion and expression. 12 September 2011. UN doc. CCPR/C/GC/34, ¶13-14 (hereinafter: General Comment 34); See, e.g., Human Rights Committee, Mavlonov v. Uzbekistan, 29 April 2009, Communication No. 1334/2004, CCPR/C/95/D/1334/2004, ¶ 8.4. (“The Committee therefore finds that the right to freedom of expression under article 19 of the Covenant, respectively, Mr. Mavlonov’s ability to publish ‘Oina’ and to impart information, and Mr. Sa’di’s right to receive information and ideas in print, has been violated.”) See also, Toby Mendel, Restricting Freedom of Expression: Standards and Principles, March 2010 http://www.law-democracy.org/wpcontent/uploads/2010/07/10.03.Paper-on-Restrictions-on-FOE.pdf."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Report of the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights, Farida Shaheed, The right to freedom of artistic expression and creativity, A/HRC/23/34, 14 March 2013, ¶85. See also, Communication to Egypt. EGY 9/2015.19 August 2015."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression", "Individual and social dimensions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. It bears noting the widespread attraction of this dual approach. The Inter-American human rights system has extensively developed this dual dimension of freedom of expression.[[fn:9]] The Inter-American Court of Human Rights has held that a restriction or limitation affects both speakers and audiences. For example, in the case of Palamara Iribarne v. Chile, the Court held that when Chilean military criminal justice authorities prevented Palamara from publishing a book nearing publication and dissemination, it violated both dimensions of freedom of expression.[[fn:10]] In the case of Ivcher-Bronstein v. Peru the Court held that by separating Mr. Brostein from the control of Channel 2 and excluding journalists from one of the programs, the State not only restricted their right to circulate news, ideas and opinions, but also restricted the right of all Peruvians to receive information, therefore limiting their freedom to exercise political options and develop fully in a democratic society.[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Inter-American Court of Human Rights (hereinafter “IACtHR”), Compulsory Membership in an Association Prescribed by Law for the Practice of Journalism (Arts. 13 and 29 American Convention on Human Rights). Advisory Opinion OC-5/85 of November 13, 1985. Series A No. 5. ¶30. See also, IACtHR, Case Kimel v. Argentina. May 3, 2008. Series C No. 177. ¶53; IACtHR, Case of Claude-Reyes et al. v. Chile. September 19, 2006. Series C No. 151. ¶75; IACtHR, Case of López-Álvarez v. Honduras. February 1, 2006. Series C No. 141. ¶163; IACtHR, Case of Ivcher-Bronstein v. Peru. February 6, 2001. Series C No. 74. ¶146; IACtHR, Case of Ricardo Canese v. Paraguay. August 31, 2004. Series C No. 111. ¶77; IACtHR., Case of “The Last Temptation of Christ” (Olmedo-Bustos et al.) v. Chile. February 5, 2001. Series C No. 73. 64."}, {"n": 10, "text": "IACtHR, Case of Palamara-Iribarne v. Chile. November 22, 2005. Series C No. 135. ¶69."}, {"n": 11, "text": "IACtHR, Case of Ivcher-Bronstein v. Peru. February 6, 2001. Series C No. 74. ¶163."}], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression", "Individual and social dimensions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The instruments guaranteeing freedom of expression explicitly protect the transboundary scope of the right. Individuals enjoy the right to receive information from, and transmit information and ideas of all kinds to, places beyond their borders.[[fn:12]] “Regardless of frontiers” explicitly acknowledges the international nature of the transmittance of information, including across national boundaries.[[fn:13]] Expressive rights are, as the German jurist Karl Josef Partsch once put it, “international rights” that “may be exercised not only in one’s own country but internationally.”[[fn:14]] A Joint Statement to the Human Rights Council, endorsed by 57 Member States, emphasized, “artistic and creative expression is critical to the human spirit, the development of vibrant cultures, and the functioning of democratic societies […] transcending borders and barriers.”[[fn:15]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "The European Court of Human Rights has recognized this point. See Ahmet Yildirim v.Turkey,(2012); Cox v. Turkey, (2010); Case of Groppera Radio AG and Others v. Switzerland (1990)."}, {"n": 13, "text": "Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, David Kaye, Report on encryption and anonymity, A/HRC/29/32, 22 May 2015, ¶25."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Karl Josef Partsch, Freedom of Conscience and Expression, and Political Freedoms, in L. Henkin, ed., The International Bill of Rights (1981), p. 217."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Joint Statement to the Human Rights Council Session 30. Reaffirming the Right to Freedom of Expression Including Creative and Artistic Expression. Joined by 57 Member States. 18 September 2015. https://geneva.usmission.gov/2015/09/18/hrc-statement-reaffirms-right-to-freedom-of-expression-including-creative-and-artistic-expression/."}], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression", "Freedom to impart – regardless of frontiers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Expression and opinion are “are closely related, with freedom of expression providing the vehicle for the exchange and development of opinions”.[[fn:16]] They are nonetheless conceptually and practically independent of one another, even if they are engaged in a perpetual feedback loop, in which information and ideas help inform and develop opinion, which may then be considered and articulated to oneself before being expressed, which in turn may further help develop one’s or others’ opinions, and so on. As noted above, it is the internal process (thought and opinion) interacting with the external (expression).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "General Comment 34, 2."}], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression", "Closely related freedoms: Opinion and Expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Article 19(1) of the ICCPR guarantees the right to freedom of opinion, which should be understood as including the right to form an opinion, to develop an opinion by way of reasoning, and to hold an opinion without interference.[[fn:17]] The right to hold an opinion without interference is considered a “fundamental element of human dignity and democratic self-governance, a guarantee so critical that the Covenant would allow no interference, limitation or restriction.”[[fn:18]] Indeed, the protection accorded to the inner dimension of a person’s thoughts, opinions or convictions is unconditional.[[fn:19]] The practice of artistic exploration, that process that often precedes imparting one’s art, embodies an effort to develop and articulate opinions, thoughts and beliefs. To give this point some character, consider the following example: A Kurdish film maker in Iran was sentenced to one-year imprisonment and 223 lashes, after music and a documentary were allegedly found on his computer hard drive, even though they had never been screened nor shared. The filmmaker was accused of ‘spreading propaganda against the system’ in connection with a film he made but has never been shown in public, apart from a trailer on YouTube. An Iranian Court sentenced the film maker for ‘insulting the holy sanctities’ and ‘spreading propaganda against the system’.[[fn:20]] And yet it may be more appropriate to consider his non-published work product (music and film on the hard drive) to be opinion, private work not subject to any restriction.[[fn:21]] As such, artistic work product – the work that precedes any kind of dissemination or distribution, the creations that a person is still working through, the private thinking and creation before one imparts to others – should be considered to constitute protected opinion not subject to interference.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Economic and Social Council, ‘Report of the Special Rapporteur pursuant to Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/45 (14 December 1994) UN doc. E/CN.4/1995/32, 19."}, {"n": 18, "text": "Report on Encryption and anonymity A/HRC/29/32, ¶19."}, {"n": 19, "text": "See Report on freedom of religion or belief and freedom of expression, A/HRC/31/18, 7."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Communication to Iran, IRN 31/2016, 1 December 2016."}, {"n": 21, "text": "On this point of digital privacy and freedom of opinion, see Report of the Special Rapporteur, Encryption and Anonymity, A/HRC/29/32, 22 May 2015, paras. 16 – 21."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression", "Closely related freedoms: Opinion and Expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Human rights law obligates States to ensure enabling environments for and protect the exercise of the right to freedom of expression. States also have a duty to ensure that private entities do not interfere with the freedoms of opinion and expression.[[fn:22]] The UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, endorsed by the Human Rights Council in 2011, emphasize State duties to ensure environments that enable business respect for human rights.[[fn:23]] It is also clear from the Guiding Principles that a State’s duty to protect includes a duty to take appropriate steps to prevent, investigate, punish and redress human rights abuse by third parties. In the Guiding Principles, States are urged to exercise adequate oversight in order to meet their international human rights obligations when they contract with, or legislate for, business enterprises to provide services that may have an impact on the enjoyment of human rights.[[fn:24]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "General Comment 34, 7."}, {"n": 23, "text": "A/HRC/17/31, Principle 3."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Ibid, Principle 5."}], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression", "Closely related freedoms: Opinion and Expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. While the right to freedom of opinion is absolute, the right to freedom of expression may be subject to specific and narrow limitations. Article 19 (3) of the ICCPR provides that any restriction on freedom of expression must meet the following conditions:\n(a) Legality. Restrictions must be “provided by law”. In particular, they must be adopted by regular legal processes and drafted with sufficient precision to enable an individual to regulate their conduct accordingly and it must be made accessible to the public. Restriction may not be unduly vague or overbroad such that it could confer unfettered discretion on officials. Secretly adopted restrictions fail this fundamental requirement.[[fn:25]] The assurance of legality should generally involve the oversight of independent judicial authorities.[[fn:26]]\n(b) Legitimacy. Any restriction, to be lawful, must protect only those interests enumerated in article 19 (3): the rights or reputations of others, national security or public order, or public health or morals. The Human Rights Committee cautions that restrictions to protect “public morals” should not derive “exclusively from a single tradition”, seeking to ensure that the restriction reflects principles of non-discrimination and the universality of rights.[[fn:27]]\n(c) Necessity and proportionality: States bear the burden of proving a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the threat. They must demonstrate that the restriction actually protects, or is likely to protect, the legitimate State interest at issue. States must also prove that the restriction it seeks to impose is the least intrusive instrument among those that might achieve the same protective function.[[fn:28]] Where the harm to freedom of expression outweighs the benefits, a restriction to the right cannot be justified.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "B. Is artistic expression subject to limitation?"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "General Comment 34, 25; Report on Encryption and anonymity A/HRC/29/32."}, {"n": 26, "text": "General Comment 34, 25."}, {"n": 27, "text": "Ibid, ¶32."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Ibid, ¶34–35."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Article 20(1) of the ICCPR requires the legal prohibition of all “propaganda for war,” while Article 20(2) requires States to prohibit by law “any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence”. States are not, however, obligated to criminalize such kinds of expression. The Human Rights Committee emphasized in General Comment 34 that Article 20 and article 19(3) are linked: While article 19(3) permits states to restrict expression, article 20 requires the prohibition by law of certain defined expression (hatred that constitutes incitement).[[fn:29]] Therefore, if expression is to be restricted under article 20, it “must also comply with article 19(3).”[[fn:30]] The previous Special Rapporteur explained that Article 20(2)’s key elements involve (1) “advocacy of hatred,” (2) “advocacy which constitutes incitement,” and (3) incitement that results in discrimination, hostility or violence.[[fn:31]] As explored in the 2019 report to the UN General Assembly on online hate speech, the scope of protection against incitement to violence, discrimination and hostility has expanded over time. Human rights law now provides protection against these forms of incitement beyond the categories of nationality, race or religion.[[fn:32]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "B. Is artistic expression subject to limitation?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Ibid 34, ¶34."}, {"n": 30, "text": "Ibid, ¶50."}, {"n": 31, "text": "General Assembly, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Frank La Rue on hate speech and incitement to hatred, A/67/357, 7 September 2012. ¶43."}, {"n": 32, "text": "Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, A/HRC/74/486, 9 October 2019 (hereinafter “Report on hate speech”)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Prior censorship entails the suppression of expression before it has circulated. Consequently, prior censorship prevents not only the individual whose expression has been censored, but also all of society, from exercising their right to seek and receive the information or ideas.[[fn:33]] The previous Special Rapporteur found that “the prior suppression of any particular expression before it is made public is unacceptable”.[[fn:34]] The Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression have recommended that States abolish prior-censorship bodies or systems where they exist and use subsequent imposition of liability only when they meet the narrow conditions provided under article 19 (3) and 20 of the ICCPR.[[fn:35]] In any event, such liability should be imposed exclusively by a court of law. Classification bodies or procedures – those designed to guide parental decision-making – may helpfully inform parents. In those instances, States should ensure that (a) classification bodies are independent; (b) their membership includes representatives of the arts field; (c) their terms of reference, rules of procedure and activities are made public; and (d) effective appeal mechanisms are established. Particular attention should be paid to ensuring that the regulation of access by children does not result in prohibiting or disproportionately restricting access for adults.[[fn:36]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "B. Is artistic expression subject to limitation?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "IACtHR, Case of Palamara-Iribarne v. Chile. November 22, 2005. Series C No. 135. 68; IACmHR. Report No. 90/05. Case 12.142. Merits. Alejandra Matus et al. Chile. October 24, 2005. 35."}, {"n": 34, "text": "General Assembly, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression Frank La Rue on the right of the child to freedom of expression, A/69/335, 21 August 2014, 87."}, {"n": 35, "text": "Communication to Egypt, OL EGY 9/2015, 19 August 2015."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Communication to Egypt, OL EGY 9/2015, 19 August 2015. See also A/69/335, 50 – 52."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Artistic freedom is especially at risk of prior censorship, through the banning of movies, books, public art, theatre plays. Demands for quick, automatic removals also risk new forms of prior restraint that already threaten creative endeavours in the context of copyright and the excessive filtering and blocking of online content.[[fn:37]] Some States have established permanent censorship systems to control artistic work: in Egypt, for instance, the Ministry of Culture may give, deny or revoke permits required for artistic works and may oversee both the creation of an artwork and any future developments or change by its author.[[fn:38]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "B. Is artistic expression subject to limitation?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of the Right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression, David Kaye, Report on content moderation A/HRC/38/35, 6 April 2018, 17 (hereinafter Report on Content Moderation A/HRC/38/35)."}, {"n": 38, "text": "Communication to Egypt, OL EGY 9/2015, 19 August 2015."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The Human Rights Committee has addressed artistic freedom in very few decisions.[[fn:39]] In 2004, the UN Human Rights Committee ruled in favour of a South Korean artist, Hak-Chul Shin, whose painting had been confiscated by the government of the Republic of Korea. Hak-Chul Shin was convicted for the painting as it was deemed to be an “enemy-benefiting expression” contrary to the National Security Law. The Committee held that the painting was protected by Article 19(2) since it was an idea imparted “in the form of art.” The Committee also held that any State party that seeks to demonstrate that a form of expression protected by Article 19 poses a threat to one of the enumerated purposes listed in Article 19(3) must show in a “specific fashion” the precise nature of the threat.[[fn:40]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "B. Is artistic expression subject to limitation?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "Sarah Joseph, Art and human rights law, in ‘Research Handbook on Art and Law’ Jani McCutcheon and Fiona McGaughey (eds), UWA Law School, The University of Western Australia, Australia, 2020."}, {"n": 40, "text": "Human Rights Committee, Communication No. 926/2000, Shin v. Republic of Korea, 16 March 2004."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Article 13 of the American Convention establishes the right of every person to freedom of expression, and specifies it encompasses the “freedom to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing, in print, in the form of art, or through any other medium of one’s choice.” In its interpretation of the scope of the right to freedom of expression, the Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACmHR) indicated that prior censorship “must be prohibited by law”.[[fn:41]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "C. Regional human rights frameworks"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "IACmHR, Inter-American Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression, October 2000, 1."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. In one of its first judgments dealing with freedom of expression, the Inter-American Court on Human Rights addressed artistic expression. In the case “The Last Temptation of Christ” (Olmedo-Bustos et al.) v. Chile, the Court reviewed the prohibition imposed by the Chilean judicial authorities on the exhibition of the film The Last Temptation of Christ. The Court concluded that the Chilean authorities had engaged in an act of prior censorship, incompatible with Article 13 of the American Convention. Furthermore, the Court explained that the violation had taken place both by the judicial order in question, and by the existence in the Chilean Constitution of a system of prior censorship of cinematographic films.[[fn:42]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "C. Regional human rights frameworks"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "IACtHR., Case of “The Last Temptation of Christ” (Olmedo-Bustos et al.) v. Chile. February 5, 2001. Series C No. 73. ¶64. See especially the arguments of the Commission in the case: IACmHR, Arguments before the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in the Case of “The Last Temptation of Christ” (Olmedo-Bustos et al.) v. Chile,p. 11-12 http://www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/casos/olmedobu/demanda.PDF."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The European Court of Human Rights has interpreted Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights to apply to artistic expression, noting, “Those who create, perform, distribute or exhibit works of art contribute to the exchange of ideas which is essential for a democratic society.”[[fn:43]] And further, it has stated, “Artistic freedom enjoyed by, among others, authors of literary works is a value in itself, and thus attracts a high level of protection under the Convention”.[[fn:44]] The Court has considered throughout its caselaw, that visual arts, literary creation and satire may be considered as forms of artistic expression and are therefore protected by Article 10 of the Convention.[[fn:45]] In Karataş v. Turkey the Court considered a poem that “called for self-sacrifice for ‘Kurdistan’ and included some particularly aggressive passages directed at the Turkish authorities.”[[fn:46]]The Court found that the Government’s prosecution and sentencing of the poet failed to meet the standards of Article 10 of the European Convention, lacking proportionality and unnecessary in a democratic society. As one scholar noted, the Court “made the refreshing observation that the applicant’s poems were less a call to an uprising than an expression of deep distress in the face of a difficult political situation.”[[fn:47]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "C. Regional human rights frameworks"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "European Court of Human Rights (hereinafter ECtHR Müller and others v. Switzerland. Application No. 10737/84, 24 May 1988."}, {"n": 44, "text": "ECtHR, Marta Jelševar and others v. Slovenia, Application no. 47318/07, 11 March 2014."}, {"n": 45, "text": "Council of Europe, Research Division, Cultural rights in the case-law of the European Court of Human Right, 17 January 2017."}, {"n": 46, "text": "ECtHR, Karataş v. Turkey, Application no. 23168/94, 8 July 1999."}, {"n": 47, "text": "Paul Kearns, Freedom of Artistic Expression (2013), p. 171."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "10", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First occurrence: 'Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights' — European regional treaty not in the allowed list."}, {"article": "10", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second occurrence: 'Article 10 of the Convention' in the same ECHR context — European regional treaty."}, {"article": "10", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Third occurrence: 'Article 10 of the European Convention' — European regional treaty."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Governments narrow the boundaries of artistic freedom through restrictive legislation, ambiguous policies and vague regulations. Arbitrary detention of artists[[fn:48]], use of threats, criminal prosecutions, and imprisonment[[fn:49]] contribute to a climate a fear often resulting in self-censorship. Those who work in arts sectors have also faced pressure and other forms of interference to ensure that artistic expression is limited, particularly within the framework of marked intolerance towards groups that have been historically discriminated against and are in vulnerable situations. Artistic expression also involves those responsible for promotion, distribution, sales, funding, and other functions that constitute dissemination of art. These services are vital for both creating a market to support artists and also in reaching an audience. However, those involved in the ecosystem of art are just as vulnerable to repression as creators themselves.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Communication to Iran, IRN 6/2015, 4 June 2015; Communication to Iran, IRN 13/2017, 13 April 2017."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Communication to Azerbaijan, AZE 2/2015, 29 May 2015."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Once an individual has shown the existence of a restriction on freedom of expression, the burden falls on the State to demonstrate that it complies with the requirements of human rights law as described above.[[fn:50]] Essential to meeting that burden is a demonstration that the restriction does “not put in jeopardy the right itself.”[[fn:51]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "General Comment 34, 27."}, {"n": 51, "text": "Ibid, 21."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. A restriction does not meet the legality requirement simply because it is formally enacted as a national law or regulation. It must also be formulated with sufficient precision to enable both the individual and those charged with its execution to regulate conduct accordingly and be made accessible to the public. It cannot confer excessive discretion for the restriction of freedom of expression on those charged with its execution.[[fn:52]] There are at least three problems that may be framed as concerns about the legality condition. First, legislation often employs broad terms that grant authorities significant discretion to restrict expression and provide individuals with limited guidance about the lines dividing lawful from unlawful behaviour. Second, legislative processes often do not give adequate time for public engagement or fail to address human rights obligations of the State. Third, laws often do not provide courts or other independent third-party reviews with the authority necessary to evaluate claims of violations.[[fn:53]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "A. Legality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Ibid, 24-26; General Assembly, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression on contemporary challenges to freedom of expression, A/71/373. 6 September 2016, ¶12 (hereinafter, “Report on contemporary challenges to freedom of expression, A/71/373”)."}, {"n": 53, "text": "Report on contemporary challenges to freedom of expression, A/71/373, ¶12."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. For instance, in Cuba, Decree 349, which took effect in December 2018, contains vague and excessively broad restrictions on artistic expression that additionally do not meet the criteria of legitimate objective, necessity and proportionality required by international human rights law. It prohibits audio-visual materials that contain, among other things, the “use of patriotic symbols contrary to current legislation” (article 3a), “vulgar or obscene” language (article 3d), and any other content that “violates the legal provisions that regulate the normal development of our society in cultural matters” (article 3g). Furthermore, it criminalizes “the commercialization of books whose content is detrimental to ethical and cultural values” (Article 4f). Under the Decree, the authorities also have the power to immediately suspend a presentation and cancel an authorization to perform (all artists have to request authorization to the Ministry of Culture to perform in public or private spaces). Those decisions can only be appealed to the same Ministry of Culture (article 10); the decree does not provide an effective remedy to appeal that decision to an independent body, including through the courts.[[fn:54]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "A. Legality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "Communication to Cuba, OL CUB 2/2019, 12 June 2019; PEN Artists at Risk Connection. Art Under Pressure: Decree 349 Restricts Creative Freedom in Cuba."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "10", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Some States impose restrictions in pursuit of objectives not permitted by article 19 (3). As the Human Rights Committee has emphasized, Article 19 precludes invoking a justification for the muzzling of any advocacy of multiparty democracy, democratic tenets and human rights[[fn:55]]. Both the Inter-American and the European Courts of Human Rights have also noted serious concern at such restrictions.[[fn:56]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "General Comment 34, ¶23."}, {"n": 56, "text": "Report on contemporary challenges to freedom of expression, A/71/373, 26. See, for example, IACtHR, Case of Ricardo Canese v. Paraguay, Judgment of 31 August 2004. Series C No. 111; and ECtHR, Şener v. Turkey, Application No. 26680/95, Judgment of 18 July 2000."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. States often present justifications that identify limitations other than those permitted by article 19 (3) or required by article 20.[[fn:57]] In Thailand, the Third Committee of Film and Video Censorship Board of the Ministry of Culture issued a banning order prohibiting the distribution of the film Shakespeare Must Die, stating that the Board deemed that the movie “has content that causes disunity among the people of the nation.” Article 23 of the Royal Edict on Film and Video states that “film producers must proceed in their filmmaking in a way that does not sabotage or contradict peace and order and good morality of the people or may adversely affect the security and the patriotic dignity of the Thai nation.”[[fn:58]] Article 19, however, does not permit restrictions merely on the basis of such vague concepts as national disunity or patriotic dignity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "Report on contemporary challenges to freedom of expression, A/71/373, ¶27."}, {"n": 58, "text": "Communication to Thailand, THA 2/2013, 15 March 2013."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "23", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Blasphemy and similar laws: Artistic expression is frequently prohibited by States when the art is deemed insulting to religious feeling. This includes “governments restricting artistic freedom on the rationale of hurting or insulting religious feelings in which work featuring LGBTI themes, reinterpretations of religious deities, signs of nudity, sexuality, and criticisms [are] subjected to charges of blasphemy.”[[fn:59]] The Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief has emphasized that the right to freedom of religion or belief has sometimes been misperceived as protecting religions or belief systems in themselves,[[fn:60]] when it in fact protects individuals holding or expressing those beliefs. Article 20 (2) provides for restrictions with respect to hateful advocacy that amounts to incitement to hostility, discrimination or violence; it does not permit restrictions merely on the basis of “incompatibility” with a particular faith’s values, nor does it (or article 19) permit restrictions that amount to blasphemy as such.[[fn:61]] The Human Rights Committee has clearly stated that “prohibitions of displays of lack of respect for a religion or other belief system, including blasphemy laws, are incompatible with [article 19 of] the Covenant.”[[fn:62]] Blasphemy laws have a stifling impact on the enjoyment of freedom of religion or belief and impede dialogue and debate about religion.[[fn:63]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 59, "text": "Freemuse, Dr. Srirak Plipat, Letter to Special Rapporteur on Freemuse Annual Report – the State of Artistic Freedom 2020, 29 May 2020."}, {"n": 60, "text": "Report on the relationship between the right to freedom of religion or belief and the right to freedom of opinion and expression, A/HRC/31/18, 13."}, {"n": 61, "text": "Report on contemporary challenges to freedom of expression, A/71/373, 43; See Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence (A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, appendix), ¶. 19."}, {"n": 62, "text": "General Comment 34, 48."}, {"n": 63, "text": "Report on the right to freedom of artistic expression and creativity, A/HRC/23/34."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Many states have blasphemy laws or statutes that specifically provide harsh punishments for any activity deemed offensive to a majority religion. For instance, Article 262 of Iran’s revised Penal Code provides that “anyone who curses the Prophet of Islam or other Prophets or accuses them of adultery is (considered) sabbo al-nabi and will be sentenced to death”.[[fn:64]] This law was applied in the case of a photographer who had allegedly posted insults against the Prophet via various accounts on Facebook. Iran is also reported to have sentenced members of a heavy metal band to six years in prison for “insulting the sacred” and propaganda against the state.[[fn:65]] Lebanon’s Penal Code Article 474 criminalizes “publicly insulting a religion,” while Turkey’s Article 216(3) prohibits “openly disrespecting the religious beliefs of a group if the act causes potential risk for public peace.”[[fn:66]] Pakistan’s anti-blasphemy laws have also been used to challenge cartoons posted online[[fn:67]]. In 2016, a man was sentenced to death by a court in Pakistan for sharing a “blasphemous” poem over WhatsApp.[[fn:68]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 64, "text": "Communication to Iran UA/IRN/29/2014, 2 December 2014."}, {"n": 65, "text": "Center for Human Rights in Iran, Metal Band Member Sentenced to Six Years Prison in Iran Accused of Creating “Satanic Music, 30 March 2018”."}, {"n": 66, "text": "Freemuse, The state of Artistic Freedom 2018, p. 46. Available at: https://freemuse.org/resources/item/state-artistic-freedom-2018/."}, {"n": 67, "text": "Cartoonists Rights Network International, Pakistan seeks to censor domestic & international cartoonists."}, {"n": 68, "text": "Amnesty International, Amnesty International Report 2017/2018, p. 284; The Guardian, Pakistan man sentenced to death for ridiculing Prophet Muhammad on WhatsApp, 15 September 2017."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "262", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "474", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "216", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Criminalization: In 2015, in Iran, Atena Farghadani faced trial for charges including “spreading propaganda against the system”; “insulting members of the parliament through paintings”; “insulting the Supreme Leader”; and “gathering and colluding with anti-revolutionary individuals and deviant sects” based on her art exhibitions, critical paintings, and other peaceful activities, such as meeting with families of political prisoners. She was allegedly sentenced to a 12 years and nine months prison term.[[fn:69]] Mohammed al-Ajami, a Qatari poet was sentenced to 15 years’ imprisonment for writing and reciting a poem in private that allegedly criticized the Crown Prince Sheikh Tamim Al Thani of Qatar, encouraged the overthrow of the existing regime and claimed that the Emir did not abide by the Qatari Constitution. The poem also praised the Tunisian revolution and denounced the corruption and oppression by Arab rulers.[[fn:70]] Musicians Mehdi Rajabian and Yousef Emadi, and filmmaker Hossein Rajabian, were imprisoned and heavily fined in Iran. The three artists were sentenced for ‘insulting Islamic sanctities’, ‘propaganda against the State’ and ‘conducing illegal activities in the audiovisual affaires including through producing prohibited audiovisual material and performing an illegal and underground music site.’[[fn:71]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 69, "text": "Communication to Iran, IRN 6/2015, 4 June 2015."}, {"n": 70, "text": "Communication to Qatar, QAT 2/2015, 16 October 2015."}, {"n": 71, "text": "“Artistic expression is not a crime” – UN rights experts urge the Iranian Government to free jailed artists, 24 June 2016."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. The Cuban artist Danilo Maldonado Machado was arrested in Cuba while carrying two pigs with the names “Raúl” and “Fidel” painted on them. The artist planned to release the pigs at an artistic event in the Central Park of Havana. At the time of the arrest, he was accused of “disrespecting the leaders of the Revolution.[[fn:72]] When groups of artists protested a Cuban law (Decree 349) specifically targeting dissemination of art, the Cuban government was quick to arrest all those involved in the protest.[[fn:73]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 72, "text": "Communication to Cuba, CUB 3/2015, 20 October 2015."}, {"n": 73, "text": "Communication to Cuba, OL CUB 2/2019, 12 June 2019; Pen|Artists at Risk Connection. Art Under Pressure: Decree 349 Restricts Creative Freedom in Cuba; Oliver Basciano/ The Guardian, Cuban artists fear crackdown after Tania Bruguera arrest, 6 December 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Discriminatory treatment: The right to freedom of opinion and expression must be respected “without distinction of any kind” (see article 2 (1) of the ICCPR). Members of some groups, however, often face particular discrimination when it comes to the implementation of restrictions on expression. In South Korea, artists, actors, directors, musicians, writers and publisher, who were deemed to be critical of the government or “left-leaning”, where included in a “blacklist” created by high ranking officials at the Ministry of Culture, including the former Minister. The list was used to ban artists from receiving government funds, and some prevented from exhibiting their work at certain venues or festivals.[[fn:74]] The Belarus Free Theatre, an international theatre company operating underground in Belarus and led by artistic directors in exile, use art to address contemporary social issues, including LGBT rights, and bring about systemic change. Their members have been arrested and ‘blacklisted’, which means that they cannot perform in official art institutions.[[fn:75]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 74, "text": "Communication to South Korea, AL KOR 1/2017, 8 June 2017. Some high ranking officials have been prosecuted for keeping this blacklist."}, {"n": 75, "text": "Report of the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights, Karima Bennoune, Report on the contribution of artistic and cultural initiatives to creating and developing right-respecting societies, A/HRC/37/55, 4 January 2018 ¶42; Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Belarus, A/HRC/32/48, 21 April 2016, ¶41; Freemuse, Security, Creativity, Tolerance and their Co-existence: The New European Agenda on Freedom of Artistic Expression, p. 52."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "2", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Minority groups are particularly vulnerable to restrictions on artistic expression because the art will frequently be challenged solely for its existence and not any alleged challenge to state authority or public outcry. Women and members of the LGBTI community are especially targeted. FreeMuse has found that the most common restrictions on women’s expression are performances with nudity/indecency, images containing nudity, sharing performance space with men, or indecent attire.[[fn:76]] Charges often include indecency, blasphemy, and attacks against public order. LGBTI art is also censored to prevent information on same-sex relationships to children.[[fn:77]] The certification system in Turkey (described below) has been widely used to limit the circulation of films. This system, together with emergency decrees and legislation has been used to prevent screenings of several films and film festival that address LGBTI issues.[[fn:78]] Indeed, an event, including a short film screening, planned by a LGBTI group in Ankara was banned by the Governor’s office citing “public safety” and “terrorism” risks.[[fn:79]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "Freemuse, The state of Artistic Freedom 2019, p. 23. Available at https://freemuse.org/resources/item/the-state-of-artistic-freedom-2019/."}, {"n": 77, "text": "Freemuse, Security, Creativity, Tolerance and their Co-existence: The New European Agenda on Freedom of Artistic Expression, p. 50."}, {"n": 78, "text": "Communication to Turkey, AL TUR 12/2018, 18 September 2018."}, {"n": 79, "text": "Communication to Turkey, AL TUR 12/2018, 18 September 2018; P24| SUSMA. Platform for Independent Journalism. Censorship and Self-Censorship in Turkey: January 2019- November 2019, p. 22."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. In 2011 the Malaysian government allegedly banned the fourth annual Seksualiti Merdeka LGBT festival in Kuala Lumpur. The festival included talks, workshops, literary events, and performances. The ban was issued on the grounds that the festival constituted a “threat to public order” under section 298A of the Penal Code.[[fn:80]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "Communication to Malaysia, MYS 11/2011, 23 January 2012."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. “Debauchery” presents another potential mechanism for the restriction of artistic expression. Although similar to a general attack on freedom of expression for public morals, debauchery is unique in that it tends to involve restrictions pertaining to allegedly indecent or overtly sexual content or content that runs against perceived sexual social norms. Debauchery is also most commonly seen when being used to restrict the art of women or LGBT persons. Egypt has been reportedly been forceful in its use of debauchery laws to attack otherwise allowable artistic expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Debauchery additionally presents a challenge to art depicting homosexuality. Civil society organizations have raised concern because LBGT artists and arts with queer content often face persecution and censorship on grounds of indecency and debauchery.[[fn:81]] Egypt’s aforementioned debauchery law was allegedly used to justify the arrest and detention of four individuals on the basis of their sexual orientation and/or gender identity in 2014.[[fn:82]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "LGBTI+", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "Freemuse, The state of Artistic Freedom 2019, p. 42 – 43. Available at https://freemuse.org/resources/item/the-state-of-artistic-freedom-2019/."}, {"n": 82, "text": "Communication to Egypt, EGY 4/2014, 17 April 2014."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Article 19 (3) requires the State to demonstrate that the tools chosen to achieve a legitimate objective are necessary and proportionate to protect the rights or reputations of others or national security, public order, or public health or morals. Necessity and proportionality also apply to prohibitions under article 20 of the Covenant.[[fn:83]] The State must establish a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the threat said to exist.[[fn:84]] Restrictions must target a specific objective and not unduly intrude upon other rights of targeted persons, and the ensuing interference with third parties’ rights must be limited and justified in the light of the interest supported by the intrusion.[[fn:85]] The restriction must be the least intrusive instrument among those which might achieve the desired result.[[fn:86]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 83, "text": "General Comment 34, ¶ 50-52."}, {"n": 84, "text": "Ibid, ¶ 35."}, {"n": 85, "text": "Report on Encryption and anonymity A/HRC/29/32, 35."}, {"n": 86, "text": "General Comment 34, ¶ 34; Report on hate speech, A/HRC/74/486."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Prior censorship: The certification system in Turkey has been widely used to limit the circulation of films. The National Cinema Board, under the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, has the authority to evaluate films according to their consistency with public order, moral values, spiritual and physical well-being of youth, human dignity and copyright. Following changes to the Turkish Arts Council (TÜSAK), the decision-making powers in the arts funding system has been shifted to State-appointed officials rather than being the responsibility of individuals representing artists’ associations.[[fn:87]] This system, together with a number of emergency decrees and legislation restricting the right to peaceful assembly, amongst other freedoms, has been used to prevent screenings of several films and film festival.[[fn:88]]", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression on his mission to Turkey, A/HRC/35/22/Add.3. 7 June 2017."}, {"n": 88, "text": "Communication to Turkey, AL TUR 12/2018, 18 September 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Preventing or countering terrorism: Counter-terrorism laws present a unique threat to artistic freedom in that national security is recognized as an appropriate restriction upon the right to freedom of opinion and expression under Article 19(3) of the ICCPR. Yet States frequently use the broad authority afforded by counter-terrorism laws in order to repress legitimate expressions of free speech. States have used the broad authority granted to them by counter-terrorism laws to attack artists, whether or not related to their artwork, for their critical perspective on state governments. Armed conflicts additionally generate another set of circumstances wherein states are eager to restrict expression they deem problematic. The Special Rapporteur in the field of Cultural Rights has expressed concern that artists have been penalized under criminal codes, which she viewed as the last possible resort to be applied in strictly justifiable situations, that include charges of “extremism,” “terrorism,” and “hooliganism.”[[fn:89]] Through submissions from civil society, the Special Rapporteur has learned of numerous examples of such threats to artistic freedom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "Report on the right to freedom of artistic expression and creativity, A/HRC/23/34, ¶31."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Hate speech: States often assert vague prohibitions on “advocacy of hatred” that do not amount to incitement under article 20 of the Covenant or meet the requirement of necessity under article 19 (3) thereof (see A/67/357). For instance, three members of the punk rock band Pussy Riot were prosecuted and convicted in Russia for incitement to religious hatred or enmity for or a controversial public performance in a cathedral.[[fn:90]] The Russian courts deemed the performance to be “extremist”, and banned access to video recordings of the performance on the internet. The case was brought before the European Court of Human Rights, which found these measures to be disproportionate and unnecessary in a democratic society.[[fn:91]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 90, "text": "For an earlier communication involving Pussy Riot, see RUS 2/2012, 11 May 2012."}, {"n": 91, "text": "ECtHR, Mariya Alekhina and Others v. Russia, Application no. 38004/12; See also, https://globalfreedomofexpression.columbia.edu/cases/mariya-alekhina-others-v-russia/."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Social media platforms and music and video streaming channels are dominant platforms on which artists disseminate their work.[[fn:92]] Online accessibility of art has also meant that there are many online marketplaces that sell affordable art of previously difficult to discover artists.[[fn:93]] Art is becoming more accessible to the public, and the public is becoming more accessible to artists. However, the digital space also brings threats to artistic freedom of expression. Governments impose specific penalties on online expression. Companies employ terms of service that are often opaque to artists and audiences, with enforcement that appears to vary across jurisdictions. The UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights establish “global standard[s] of expected conduct” that should apply throughout company operations and wherever they operate.[[fn:94]] In the 2018 report on content moderation, the Special Rapporteur explained that the Guiding Principles establish a framework according to which companies should, at a minimum:\n(a) “Avoid causing or contributing to adverse human rights impacts and seek to prevent or mitigate such impacts directly linked to their operations, products or services by their business relationships, even if they have not contributed to those impacts (principle 13);\n(b) Make high-level policy commitments to respect the human rights of their users (principle 16);\n(c) Conduct due diligence that identifies, addresses and accounts for actual and potential human rights impacts of their activities, including through regular risk and impact assessments, meaningful consultation with potentially affected groups and other stakeholders, and appropriate follow-up action that mitigates or prevents these impacts (principles 17−19);\n(d) Engage in prevention and mitigation strategies that respect principles of internationally recognized human rights to the greatest extent possible when faced with conflicting local law requirements (principle 23);\n(e) Conduct ongoing review of their efforts to respect rights, including through regular consultation with stakeholders, and frequent, accessible and effective communication with affected groups and the public (principles 20−21);\n(f) Provide appropriate remediation, including through operational-level grievance mechanisms that users may access without aggravating their “sense of disempowerment” (principles 22, 29 and 31).”[[fn:95]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "D. Business and human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 92, "text": "Sara Whyatt, Promoting the freedom to imagine and create, in UNESCO, Global Report “Re|Shaping Cultural Policies”, 2018, http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/reshaping-cultural-policies-2018-en.pdf."}, {"n": 93, "text": "“Social media platforms have become the gallery, the museum, the workshop. People are using this to leverage corporate sponsorships, book deals.” NPR, Sam Sander, How Instagram Is Changing Life For Artists, May 7, 2019. https://www.npr.org/2019/05/07/720929968/how-instagram-is-changing-life-for-artists."}, {"n": 94, "text": "Guiding Principles, principle 11. See also Report on Content Moderation A/HRC/38/35, ¶10."}, {"n": 95, "text": "Report on Content Moderation A/HRC/38/35, ¶11."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. In general, companies are obligated under domestic law to comply with local laws where they do business. The commitment to local legal compliance can be complicated when relevant State law is vague, subject to varying interpretations or inconsistent with human rights law. Companies are often under pressure to comply with State laws that criminalize content that is said to be, for instance, blasphemous, critical of the State, defamatory of public officials. The Guiding Principles provide tools to minimize the impact of such laws on individuals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "D. Business and human rights"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Since 2018, significant research has been done to analyze private content moderation, delve deeper into the relation companies have with States, and to push forward ways in which human rights can be at the center of content moderation. Outside of state-private cooperation, private companies have a plethora of tools at their disposal to suppress artistic expression. As the digital era progresses, the impact of private rules is increasingly meaningful for artists and audiences.[[fn:96]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "D. Business and human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 96, "text": "See Freemuse, The State of Artistic Freedom 2019, available at https://freemuse.org/resources/item/the-state-of-artistic-freedom-2019/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. As a result of issues of scale, most platforms have a dual system for censoring expression that is flagged as violating terms of service. First, an algorithm checks for posts in violation and second, users can flag posts they deem inappropriate. Under these terms of service, artists are often wrongfully censored for posting material that is controversial or in any way subjectively offensive to any user. The artificial intelligence used to identify that type of content has intrinsic problems that facilitate the removal of legal content[[fn:97]]. Besides the race and sex biases that are incorporated in the design of the artificial intelligence, it has trouble with the intricacies of language, being unable to grasp the complexities of colloquial speech and humor. This poses problems for written art as well as art in the form of images, as both forms of digital expression can be improperly removed from platforms, stripping artists of their voice and their audience.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "D. Business and human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 97, "text": "For more details se Report on content moderation A/HRC/38/35 and Report on Artificial Intelligence A/73/348 (2018)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Freemuse has found that 83 percent of online restrictions were on the grounds of indecency. Additionally, companies such as Facebook/Instagram, Twitter and YouTube removed artistic content allegedly containing “hate speech, pornographic or sexually suggestive material, or politically sensitive content.”[[fn:98]] Obscenity, indecency and similar terms are often vaguely worded. This results in moderators allegedly making decisions with unclear guidelines.[[fn:99]] For example, in 2017, Facebook removed a photo of the painting Women Lovers by Charles Blackman due to violations of community guidelines. Facebook cited that the painting violated the platform’s rule against “advertising adult products or services.”[[fn:100]] Additionally, both Instagram and Facebook removed photos posted by the Boston Museum of Fine Arts which were intended to promote a photography exhibit. Again, Facebook removed this post because it “violated decency standards.”[[fn:101]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "D. Business and human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 98, "text": "Freemuse, The state of Artistic Freedom 2019, p. 55."}, {"n": 99, "text": "Freemuse, Privatising Censorship, Digitising Violence: Shrinking Space of Women’s Rights to Create in the Digital Age, 2019, Available at: https://freemuse.org/resources/ item_category /privatising-censorship-digitising-violence-shrinking-space-of-womens-rights-to-create-in-the-digital-age/."}, {"n": 100, "text": "The Guardian, Facebook's ban on Charles Blackman nude artwork attacked as 'living in the 1950s', 28 February 2017; Freemuse, The state of Artistic Freedom 2018, p. 38."}, {"n": 101, "text": "Alyssa Buffenstein, MFA Boston Is the Latest Museum Driven Crazy by Instagram Censorship, 26 April 2017; Freemuse, The state of Artistic Freedom 2018, p. 38. See Facebook, Community Standards: 14. Adult Nudity and Sexual Activity."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Company actions often leave artists without recourse. Artists reportedly have experienced shutdowns of personal and professional Facebook and Twitter pages, with no explanation of why their pages were deactivated, how to get reactivation, and whether or not an appeals process was available to them. Violations of vague community guidelines can leave artists without “counter-notice” procedures allowing challenges to removals of their art.[[fn:102]] The lack of procedural safeguards and access to remedies for users leaves artists without access to a platform to display their art, and without viewership to enjoy their art.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "D. Business and human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 102, "text": "Report on content moderation, ¶36."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. In some cases, States work with companies to control what kinds of content is available online. This dangerous collaboration has the effect of silencing artists and preventing individuals, particularly female artists and artists producing women-themed art, from receiving art as expression. Freemuse, found that in more than 50 percent of cases “women’s creativity was restricted at the behest of governments and their various agencies.”[[fn:103]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "D. Business and human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 103, "text": "Freemuse, The state of Artistic Freedom 2019, p. 59. Available at https://freemuse.org/resources/item/the-state-of-artistic-freedom-2019/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. This research report has aimed to provide artists, audiences and their advocates with the vocabulary in human rights law to challenge undue restrictions – and to remind Governments and private actors of the contours of their obligations and responsibilities under that law. To be sure, it has not answered, or even sought to answer, in a granular way what some may perceive to be difficult questions of law or policy. The gravest threats to artistic freedom of expression are not, in any event, hard questions. They typically involve the exercise of State power to repress unconventional, if not unpopular or critical, expression presented in the form of art.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusion"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Moving forward, States should undertake a number of steps to align their laws and policies with their human rights obligations. These steps include:\n(a) Repealing any law that criminalizes or unduly restricts expression, online or offline.\n(b) Abolishing prior-censorship bodies or systems where they exist.\n(c) Refraining from restricting expression in the form of art, and only imposing narrow limitations pursuant to standards of legality, necessity and legitimacy and according to an order by an independent and impartial judicial authority, in accordance with due process and appellate review.\n(d) Refraining from imposing disproportionate sanctions, whether fines or imprisonment, on Internet intermediaries, given their significant chilling effect on freedom of expression.\n(e) Recalling and accounting for the nature of the right to artistic freedom of expression and the extraordinary role that art performs in society.\n(f) Refraining from establishing laws or arrangements that would require the monitoring or filtering of content, which is both inconsistent with the right to privacy and likely to amount to pre-publication censorship.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusion"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Private companies should also adopt the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights as a mechanism to guide their decisions related to expression in the form of art. Such a commitment would involve a range of public actions and private ordering, and they should always be directed toward protecting and promoting not only the rights of “users” but also the rights of members of the public.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusion"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Finally, civil society – individuals and organizations – may wish to consider bringing claims of violation to the freedom of expression “including in the form of art” to international, regional and national human rights mechanisms. The framework for protection is clear; it is imperative to make that framework work for artists and audiences worldwide.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusion"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0001", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. A journalist investigates corruption at the highest levels of her Government and soon finds herself fighting fictional charges from the cell of a prison. A critic of a Government is assassinated while buying groceries. Another Government bans its main political opposition party as “extremist,” sending its leaders to jail. A cartoonist faces prosecution under his country’s laws against sedition. A Government shuts down the Internet in advance of public protests, while another uses surveillance to target political opposition. Bloggers are brutally murdered because their work angers religious dogmatists. Governments criminalize the praising of terrorism even absent incitement to violence. A photojournalist is held without charge. An activist is arrested for a tweet, another for a post, yet another for an e-mail.[[fn:1]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "These examples are drawn from communications of the Special Rapporteur reported to the Human Rights Council since August 2014. Communications reported from the eighteenth to the thirty-second sessions of the Council (from 2011) are available from https://freedex.org."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0002", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Each year, usually in collaboration with other mandate holders, I send hundreds of communications to Governments, addressing allegations like those above. In those communications, allegations, not findings of fact, are made yet their large numbers inspire deep concern about the state of freedom of expression, and they serve as the principal basis of the concerns expressed in the present report. It is clear that non-State actors, such as terrorists or criminal gangs, are serious threats to many people exercising their right to expression, but the communications show how policies and laws against terrorism and other criminal activity risk unnecessarily undermining the media, critical voices and activists.[[fn:2]] They underscore how Governments and officials conflate calls for public debate with threats to public order, repressing legitimate opposition and undermining accountability. They show how official or clerical dogma often criminalizes critical discussion of religious ideas or officials. They illustrate the immense and growing threats to an open and secure Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Joint declaration on freedom of expression and countering violent extremism by United Nations and regional experts, 4 May 2016."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0003", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. In short, there is an all-too-common world view that imagines words as weapons. True, some forms of expression can impose legally cognizable harm, by interfering, for instance, with privacy or equal protection of the law. However, expression may not be restricted lawfully unless a Government can demonstrate the legality of the action and its necessity and proportionality in order to protect a specified legitimate objective. The United Nations has long promoted the idea that expression is fundamental to public participation and debate, accountability, sustainable development and human development, and the exercise of all other rights.[[fn:3]] Indeed, expression should provoke controversy, reaction and discourse, the development of opinion, critical thinking, even joy, anger or sadness — but not punishment, fear and silence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See, for example, target 16.10 of the Sustainable Development Goals (General Assembly resolution 70/1)."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0004", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The present report does not index every tool of repression, but it identifies critical contemporary challenges. Organized around the legal framework set forth by international human rights law, it evaluates misuses and abuses of the grounds for legitimate limitations of freedom of expression. The report also notes several positive trends for freedom of opinion and expression and concludes with recommendations to restrain attacks on and promote the rights to opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0005", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights guarantee everyone’s right to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers and through any media, including in the form of art. The Human Rights Council and the General Assembly have referred to freedom of expression as one of the essential foundations of a democratic society and one of the basic conditions for its progress and development (see Council resolution 21/12) and emphasized that a free media helps to build inclusive knowledge societies and democracies and foster intercultural dialogue, peace and good governance (see Assembly resolution 68/163). Both bodies have highlighted the critical importance of journalism in the above-mentioned resolutions and have affirmed that the same rights that people have offline must also be protected online, in particular freedom of expression (see Council resolutions 20/8, 26/13 and 32/13). Attacks on freedom of expression are nothing new, nor is the deep concern expressed about them by the United Nations (see Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/45 and Council resolution 12/16). With 168 States parties and wide acknowledgement of its centrality in human rights law, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provides the principal legal standard for the vast majority of communications relating to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First occurrence: 'Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second occurrence: 'article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR confirmation."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0006", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. In paragraph 10 of its general comment No. 34 (2011) on article 19: Freedoms of opinion and expression, the Human Rights Committee explained that any form of effort to coerce the holding or not holding of any opinion is prohibited. No one may be penalized, harassed, intimidated or stigmatized for holding an opinion. The right to hold opinions in a digital age is often subject to interference. For example, work product, journals and diaries stored on laptops and in the cloud are increasingly subject to attack (see A/HRC/29/32, paras. 19-21). Communications include allegations that individuals may be harassed at least in part because of their membership in an organization.[[fn:4]] Such harassment may amount to impermissible interference with opinion under article 19 (1), in addition to interference with the right to freedom of association under article 22 of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See, for example, charges in Egypt of “affiliation to the Muslim brotherhood” (A/HRC/31/79, case No. EGY 6/2015 and replies from Government); convictions in Saudi Arabia for membership in the Saudi Civil and Political Rights Association (A/HRC/28/85, case No. SAU 11/2014); and the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s harassment of members of the human rights organization Lutte pour le changement (A/HRC/32/53, case No. COD 1/2016)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "22", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0007", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. In contrast to the unconditional prohibition of interference with opinion, article 19 (3) of the Covenant imposes three requirements according to which States may restrict the exercise of freedom of expression. Those conditions are to be implemented narrowly (see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, paras. 21-36). Article 19 (3) provides that the exercise of the right to freedom of expression involves special duties and responsibilities and may be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary: (a) for respect of the rights or reputations of others; and (b) for the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals. Article 20 of the Covenant also provides for the prohibition of propaganda for war and any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0008", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The “duties and responsibilities” under article 19 (3) appear nowhere else in the Covenant. Only in the preamble is it emphasized that the individual, having duties to other individuals and to the community to which he belongs, is under a responsibility to strive for the promotion and observance of the rights recognized in the Covenant. The language in the Covenant and in article 29 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights does not identify duties or responsibilities of individuals to the State, but to other individuals and the communities in which they live, an acknowledgement that the only legitimate restrictions are those demonstrably grounded in and necessary for the protection of the rights of other individuals or a specific public interest. It is not unusual for States to highlight an individual’s duty in order to bolster expansive limitations on the right to freedom of expression.[[fn:5]] However, the phrase “duties and responsibilities” adds nothing to claims for support of a State’s powers of restriction. By no measure does the language prioritize the State over the rights enjoyed by individuals under the Covenant and the Declaration.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See, for example, A/HRC/32/53, reply from Malaysia to case No. MYS 6/2014, asserting that the right to freedom of opinion and expression must be exercised “prudently and responsibly”; and A/HRC/31/79, reply from Kazakhstan to case Nos. KAZ 3/2015 and 4/2015, indicating that “no [human rights] norm works without responsibility”."}, {"n": 6, "text": "See also Dirk Voorhoof, The Right to Freedom of Expression and Information Under the European Human Rights System: Towards a More Transparent Democratic Society, EUI Working Paper RSCAS 2014/12 (Fiesole, Italy, European University Institute, 2014), p. 2."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'article 19 (3)... appear nowhere else in the Covenant'. Context_before clarifies 'the Covenant' = ICCPR — explicit attribution."}, {"article": "29", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly says 'article 29 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0009", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Once an individual has shown the existence of a restriction on freedom of expression, the burden falls on the State to demonstrate that it complies with the requirements of human rights law (see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 27). Essential to meeting that burden is a demonstration that the restriction does “not put in jeopardy the right itself” (ibid., para. 21). In keeping with this requirement, in each of the mandate holder’s communications States are requested to provide the underlying rationale for an alleged restriction on expression. Communications thus provide the State with an opportunity to show compliance with legal norms, while at the same time giving the mandate holder and other Special Rapporteurs a tool to seek protection of the right and understand the trends concerning exercise of the right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0010", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The Special Rapporteur has received responses to communications, many of which merely confirm receipt, approximately 52 per cent of the time (see A/HRC/32/53), but where States do respond substantively they typically acknowledge that the applicable legal framework may be found in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights or article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Several States have provided comprehensive responses addressing factual and legal concerns raised by the mandate holder. Examples of illuminating substantive responses — although views may nonetheless differ — include Pakistan’s explanations of its cybersecurity legislation, the response of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to concerns regarding the Investigatory Powers Bill and Turkey’s response to my serious concerns about the treatment of academics.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. PAK 13/2015, reply from Government, and case No. GBR 4/2015, replies from Government; and A/HRC/33/32, case No. TUR 3/2016, reply from Government."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First occurrence: 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second occurrence: 'article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR confirmation."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0011", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. While a communication alone does not seek to prove a violation of article 19 of the Covenant, States nonetheless should demonstrate that the restriction meets each of the three conditions found in article 19 (3) thereof: legality, legitimate objective, and necessity and proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0012", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Article 19 (3) requires that any restriction be provided by law. A restriction does not meet this requirement simply because it is formally enacted as a national law or regulation. It must also be formulated with sufficient precision to enable both the individual and those charged with its execution to regulate conduct accordingly and be made accessible to the public. It cannot confer discretion for the restriction of freedom of expression on those charged with its execution (see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, paras. 24-26). Communications from the mandate holder have identified at least three problems that may be framed as concerns about the legality condition.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "A. Legality"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0013", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. First, legislation often employs broad terms that grant authorities significant discretion to restrict expression and provide individuals with limited guidance about the lines dividing lawful from unlawful behaviour. For instance, I raised concerns with China about its draft cybersecurity legislation in 2015, noting that the law’s proscriptions — for instance, that individuals “observe public order and respect social morality” and not use the Internet to “engage in activities harming national security” or “upset social order” — are so general as to permit officials excessive discretion to determine their meaning.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "A. Legality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. CHN 7/2015."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0014", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. The uptick in legislation designed to combat terrorism has also raised concerns of vagueness. I and other mandate holders raised concerns about the ambiguous formulation of Kenya’s counter-terrorism legislation in 2015, which included a provision that criminalized “obscene, gory or offensive material which is likely to cause fear and alarm to the general public”.[[fn:9]] Together with other Special Rapporteurs, I also raised concerns about the reform of Spain’s criminal law, such as provisions that would broadly criminalize the “glorification of terrorism”, and about similar terms in recently adopted French law.[[fn:10]] Such broad limitations enable the punishment of expression that should not be subject to restriction.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "A. Legality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See A/HRC/29/50, case No. KEN 7/2014."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See A/HRC/29/50, case No. ESP 3/2015 and reply from Government, and case No. FRA 1/2015 and reply from Government. Another example of broadly worded and vague proscription may be found in A/HRC/28/85, case No. LAO 1/2014."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0015", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Second, legislative processes often do not give adequate time for public engagement or fail to address human rights obligations of the State. In 2014, for instance, Montenegro adopted public assembly legislation that offered legislators and the public little opportunity for engagement.[[fn:11]] Brazil adopted counter-terrorism legislation following similar fast-track procedures, despite expressions of concern by human rights experts.[[fn:12]] In 2016, I and other mandate holders expressed concern about the “accelerated timeline” for the adoption of cybersecurity legislation in the Russian Federation that appeared not to take into account the views of civil society and other stakeholders.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "A. Legality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See A/HRC/30/27, case No. MNE 1/2015."}, {"n": 12, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. BRA 8/2015 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 13, "text": "See case No. RUS 7/2016."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0016", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Third, laws often do not provide courts or other independent third-party reviews with the authority necessary to evaluate claims of violations. In the context of France’s emergency legislation, for instance, a number of mandate holders raised concerns in 2016 about the lack of judicial procedure prior to the dissolution of certain organizations.[[fn:14]] Other mandate holders and I also raised concerns about the nature of the appointment of “judicial commissioners” as part of the United Kingdom’s consideration of the Investigatory Powers Bill.[[fn:15]] With regard to Egypt, I noted that the power to grant and revoke permits for artistic works — along with the power to resolve appeals against such decisions — is vested exclusively in the Ministry of Culture.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "A. Legality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. FRA 7/2015 and reply from Government, and joint statement of 19 January 2016, available in French from www.ohchr.org/FR/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=16961&LangID=F."}, {"n": 15, "text": "See Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), “Submission to the joint committee on the draft investigatory powers bill” (21 December 2015), available from www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Opinion/Submission_UN_Special_RapporteursJan2016.pdf. See also A/HRC/32/53, case No. GBR 4/2015, replies from Government."}, {"n": 16, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. EGY 9/2015."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0017", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Article 19 (3) requires the State to demonstrate that the tools chosen to achieve a legitimate objective are necessary and proportionate to protect the rights or reputations of others or national security, public order, or public health or morals. Necessity and proportionality also apply to prohibitions under article 20 of the Covenant (see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, paras. 50-52). The State must establish a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the threat said to exist (ibid., para. 35). Restrictions must target a specific objective and not unduly intrude upon other rights of targeted persons, and the ensuing interference with third parties’ rights must be limited and justified in the light of the interest supported by the intrusion (see A/HRC/29/32, para. 35). The restriction must be the least intrusive instrument among those which might achieve the desired result (see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 34).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "B. Necessity to protect a legitimate objective"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0018", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Among the permissible grounds for restrictions, States often rely on national security and public order. “National security”, undefined in the Covenant, should be limited in application to situations in which the interest of the whole nation is at stake, which would thereby exclude restrictions in the sole interest of a Government, regime or power group,[[fn:17]] a point emphasized in the Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation Provisions in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted in 1985 (E/CN.4/1985/4, annex). It also may include protection of a State’s political independence and territorial integrity.[[fn:18]] Similarly, “public order” (ordre public) must be limited to specific situations in which a limitation would be demonstrably warranted.[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "B. Necessity to protect a legitimate objective"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Alexandre Charles Kiss, “Permissible limitations on rights”, in The International Bill of Rights: The Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Louis Henkin, ed. (New York, Columbia University Press, 1981). See also Article 19, The Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information (London, 1996)."}, {"n": 18, "text": "See Alexandre Charles Kiss, “Permissible limitations on rights”, p. 297."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Ibid., pp. 299-302; and American Association for the International Commission of Jurists, Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation Provisions in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (E/CN.4/1985/4, annex, paras. 22-24)."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0019", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Yet States often treat national security or public order as a label to legitimate any restriction. The Human Rights Council recognized this problem in 2008 in its resolution 7/36, stressing the need to ensure that invocation of national security, including counter-terrorism, is not used unjustifiably or arbitrarily to restrict the right to freedom of opinion and expression. One way to resist unjustifiable or arbitrary invocation of either justification is to insist that Governments demonstrate the risk that specific expression poses to a definite interest in national security or public order, that the measure chosen complies with necessity and proportionality and is the least restrictive means to protect the interest, and that any restriction is subject to independent oversight.[[fn:20]] In 2016, I shared with a federal judge in the United States of America how article 19 may be used to assess proposals to gain access to the content of encrypted personal digital devices. In my letter to the Court, I noted that alternative measures were available to the Government to conduct its investigation into the 2015 massacre in San Bernardino, California, and that the proposed order would implicate the security and freedom of expression of what would likely be a vast number of people (and would thus be disproportionate).[[fn:21]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "B. Necessity to protect a legitimate objective"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See The Global Principles on National Security and the Right to Information (Tshwane Principles), (New York, Open Society Foundation, 2013), principle 3."}, {"n": 21, "text": "Letter to the Hon. Sheri Pym, Magistrate Judge, United States District Court of California, “In the matter of the search of an Apple iPhone seized during the execution of a search warrant on a black Lexus IS300, California license plate 35KGD203, ED No. CM 16-10 (SP)”, 2 March 2016."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0020", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. State assertions that national security or public order justifies interference with personal security and privacy are common in cases of surveillance of personal communications, encryption and anonymity, subjects addressed in my report to the Human Rights Council in 2015 (A/HRC/29/32), in my predecessor’s report in 2013 (see A/HRC/23/40) and in the report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the right to privacy in the digital age (A/HRC/27/37). Surveillance, including both bulk collection of data and targeted attacks on specific individuals or communities, interferes directly with the privacy and security necessary for freedom of opinion and expression, and always requires evaluation under article 19. I am concerned that practice often fails to meet such standards. A law recently adopted in the Russian Federation imposes a duty on Internet providers to decrypt communications, apparently requiring the establishment of encryption back doors that will likely disproportionately undermine all users’ security.13 Both the United Kingdom and France have proposed to provide their law enforcement and intelligence officials with the authority to require companies to grant them access to encrypted communications of their users (see A/HRC/29/32, para. 45).[[fn:22]] Brazil prohibits anonymity entirely as a matter of constitutional law online and offline (ibid., para. 49). I understand that some of these efforts involve genuine commitments to preventing terrorism or guaranteeing public order, but the Governments have not demonstrated that interference with Internet security is a necessary or proportionate measure in the light of the specific threats caused to privacy and freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "B. Necessity to protect a legitimate objective", "Surveillance and individual security online"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See also Bénédicte Dambrine, “The state of French surveillance law”, Future of Privacy Forum White Paper (December 2015)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0021", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Governments have also disrupted Internet and telecommunications services in the name of national security and public order. Such disruptions include the shutdown of entire networks, the blocking of websites and platforms and the suspension of telecommunications and mobile services. In advance of elections, both Turkey and Uganda are alleged to have restricted access online.[[fn:23]] Malaysia invoked its Sedition Act to justify blocking a news site, while Nauru cited crime prevention as one of the reasons for blocking a number of social media websites in 2015.[[fn:24]] I confirmed during my mission to Tajikistan in 2016 that the Government has repeatedly blocked access to messaging services in times of public protest and has maintained a long-time block on social media websites operated from outside the country.[[fn:25]] The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi, India, Bangladesh, Brazil and Pakistan were reported to have blocked Internet and text messaging services in 2015.[[fn:26]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "B. Necessity to protect a legitimate objective", "Internet shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See OHCHR, “Turkey: first Twitter, now YouTube — United Nations rights experts concerned at attempts to restrict access before elections” (28 March 2014), available from www.ohchr.org/EN/ NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=14454&LangID=E; see also https://www.apc.org/ en/pubs/joint-letter-internet-shutdown-uganda."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. MYS 3/2015; and A/HRC/30/27, case No. NRU 1/2015."}, {"n": 25, "text": "Preliminary observations by the Special Rapporteur at the end of his visit to Tajikistan, 9 March 2016."}, {"n": 26, "text": "Submission of the Institute for Human Rights and Business to the Special Rapporteur (see A/HRC/32/38). A growing number of States, including India, Ethiopia, Algeria and Iraq, have reportedly ordered the large-scale blocking of websites to prevent cheating during national examinations. See Software Freedom Law Centre, “Internet shutdown tracker — India (2013-2016), 18 April 2016, available from http://sflc.in/internet-shutdown-tracker-india-2013-2016/; Centre for Intellectual Property and Information Technology Law, “Ethiopia: Internet shutdown amid recent protests?”, 10 August 2016, available from http://blog.cipit.org/2016/08/10/ethiopia-internet-shutdown-amidst-recent-protests/; Social Media Exchange, “Algeria reconsiders blocking social media to prevent cheating on exams”, 22 June 2016, available from www.smex.org/algeria-reconsiders-blocking-social-media-to-prevent-cheating-on-exams/; and Social Media Exchange, “Leaked e-mail: Iraq shuts down its Internet, again”, 16 May 2016, available from www.smex.org/leaked-email-iraq-shutdown-its-internet-again/."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0022", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. In 2016, the Human Rights Council condemned unequivocally measures to intentionally prevent or disrupt access to or dissemination of information online in violation of international human rights law and called upon all States to refrain from and cease such measures (see Council resolution 32/13, para. 10). The blocking of Internet platforms and the shutting down of telecommunications infrastructure are persistent threats, for even if they are premised on national security or public order, they tend to block the communications of often millions of individuals (A/HRC/32/38, paras. 45-48).[[fn:27]] In a joint declaration in 2015, United Nations and regional experts in the field of freedom of expression condemned Internet shutdowns (or “kill switches”) as unlawful.[[fn:28]] Similarly, the detention of bloggers and online journalists and other forms of attack on digital expression often rest on assertions of national security without demonstration of the necessity of such restrictions.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "B. Necessity to protect a legitimate objective", "Internet shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "For a running tally of Internet shutdowns, see www.accessnow.org/keepiton/."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Joint declaration on freedom of expression and responses to conflict situations, 4 May 2015."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0023", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Public order is often used by States to justify measures to counter violent extremism. The measures adopted are rarely drawn narrowly enough to satisfy the necessity or proportionality criteria. The Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism has urged Governments to address the problems of extremism with precise definition and proportionate measures. He criticized Human Rights Council resolution 30/15 on human rights and preventing and countering violent extremism as it may “allow some Governments to qualify non-violent actions that are critical of the Government as violent extremism” (see A/HRC/31/65, para. 27). In 2016, in an annual joint declaration, United Nations and regional freedom of expression experts expressed deep concerns that programmes to counter violent extremism fail to meet international standards.[[fn:29]] Legislation recently adopted in the Russian Federation broadly criminalizes statements conveying support for “the ideology and practices of terrorism”.13 In Kyrgyzstan, article 11 of the Law on Countering Extremist Activity prohibits the dissemination of extremist materials that call for or justify activities that, among other things, are defined as a “breach of national dignity” or “the carrying out of mass disorders”.[[fn:30]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "B. Necessity to protect a legitimate objective", "Preventing or countering terrorism and violent extremism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Joint declaration on freedom of expression and countering violent extremism, 4 May 2016."}, {"n": 30, "text": "Article 19, “Kyrgyzstan: law on countering extremist activity” (London, 2015). Available from https://www.article19.org/data/files/medialibrary/38221/Kyrgyzstan-Extremism-LA-Final.pdf."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "11", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0024", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. National security is also used to justify excluding information in the public interest from disclosure, with many Governments overclassifying vast amounts of information and documents and others providing limited transparency in the process and substance of classification. In the case of Japan, for instance, the Government adopted the Act on the Protection of Specially Designated Secrets, which raised concerns about transparency, third-party oversight, the protection of journalists and their sources, and whistle-blowers.[[fn:31]] The United States enforces its Espionage Act in ways that ensure that national security whistle-blowers lack the ability to defend themselves on the merits of grounds of public interest.[[fn:32]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "B. Necessity to protect a legitimate objective", "Undermining the right to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "Preliminary observations by the Special Rapporteur at the end of his visit to Japan (12 to 19 April 2016)."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See A/70/361; Association for Progressive Communications, “The protection of sources and whistleblowers”, 29 June 2015, available from www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Opinion/ Protection/AssociationProgressiveCommunications.pdf; and submission of comments on whistle-blowers by Freedom of the Press Foundation, available from www.documentcloud.org/ documents/2109062-fpf-comment-to-un-on-whistleblowers.html."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0025", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. States often assert vague prohibitions on “advocacy of hatred” that do not amount to incitement under article 20 of the Covenant or meet the requirement of necessity under article 19 (3) thereof (see A/67/357). In an exchange with the Government of Pakistan, I raised concerns that recent legislation aims to limit “extremism” and “hate speech” without specifically defining either term. The Government responded as follows: “We firmly believe that for combating extremism, any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, should be prohibited by law.”[[fn:33]] While that statement accurately reflects article 20, the legislation itself would penalize the dissemination of information “that advances or is likely to advance inter-faith, sectarian or racial hatred”, seemingly regardless of whether such dissemination constitutes incitement.[[fn:34]] European human rights law also fails to define hate speech adequately, a point emphasized in the joint dissenting opinion of Judges Sajó and Tsotsoria in the Delfi v. Estonia judgment of the European Court of Human Rights in 2015. The dissenting judges stated that even in the context of the prohibition of incitement, there is a very real risk that States will regulate online expression without demonstrating that the elements of incitement have been met in an online environment.[[fn:35]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "B. Necessity to protect a legitimate objective", "Hate speech restrictions pursuant to article 20 (2)"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. PAK 13/2015, reply from Government."}, {"n": 34, "text": "See www.na.gov.pk/uploads/documents/1470910659_707.pdf."}, {"n": 35, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Delfi AS v. Estonia, Application No. 64569/09, Judgment of 16 June 2015, Joint Dissenting Opinion of Judges Sajó and Tsotsoria, para. 14."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0026", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Some States impose restrictions in pursuit of objectives not permitted by article 19 (3). In particular, alarm bells ring when States restrict expression relating to matters in the public interest. Article 19 precludes invoking a justification for the muzzling of any advocacy of multiparty democracy, democratic tenets and human rights (see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 23). Both the Inter-American and the European Courts of Human Rights have noted serious concern at such restrictions.[[fn:36]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "1. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "See, for example, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Ricardo Canese v. Paraguay, Judgment of 31 August 2004. Series C No. 111; and European Court of Human Rights, Şener v. Turkey, Application No. 26680/95, Judgment of 18 July 2000."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0027", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. States often present justifications that identify limitations other than those permitted by article 19 (3) or required by article 20. Saudi Arabia has noted that its Basic Law of Governance “stipulates that all means of expression must employ civil and polite language”.[[fn:37]] Article 19, however, does not permit restrictions merely on the basis of civility, a capacious and subjective term. In Burundi, a radio journalist was charged with “manquement à la solidarité publique”, or a breach of public solidarity, also not rooted in the objectives of article 19 (3).[[fn:38]] Bangladesh adopted a national broadcast policy that in important respects promoted the independence of broadcast media, but at the same time included prohibitions of expression “against the State and public interest”, “misinformation” and “distorted truth” that were not based on permissible objectives under article 19.[[fn:39]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "1. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See A/HRC/29/50, case No. SAU 1/2015, reply from Government."}, {"n": 38, "text": "Ibid., case No. BDI 2/2015."}, {"n": 39, "text": "Ibid., case No. BGD 5/2014 and reply from Government."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0028", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. To be sure, States enjoy legitimate interests apart from those identified in article 19 (3), such as those economic, diplomatic and political. Human rights law does not preclude States from pursuing such objectives. Article 19 merely provides that pursuit of those other objectives must involve measures that do not restrict the exercise of freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "1. Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0029", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. During my mandate, I have observed States restricting and penalizing criticism or providing the legal framework to do so. The punishment of criticism of a Government or government officials is censorship of the kind that directly undermines public engagement and debate and runs counter to the object and purpose of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the letter of article 19 thereof. Such expression enables public debate, accountability and engagement by individuals in national self-governance.[[fn:40]] Yet States are increasingly alleged to be adopting and implementing measures that suppress political expression and, by implication, aim to protect existing power structures and individuals in positions of authority and exclude competing actors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "2. The criminalization of criticism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, paras. 13, 28, 34 and 38-43; and InterAmerican Court of Human Rights, Ricardo Canese v. Paraguay, Judgment of 31 August 2004, para. 88."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0030", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Some States directly penalize individuals on no other ground than the prohibition of criticism itself. Viet Nam, for instance, has reportedly detained and prosecuted individuals on the grounds of “propaganda against the State”.[[fn:41]] Similarly, the Islamic Republic of Iran has detained and prosecuted individuals for conducting “propaganda against the system” and “insulting” the nation’s highest leadership.[[fn:42]] Activists in Azerbaijan have been detained and prosecuted on grounds of treason following comments critical of the President.[[fn:43]] Kuwaiti authorities prosecuted a journalist on the grounds of insulting the judiciary, on the basis of tweets and posts in which he raised concerns about the sentencing of others.[[fn:44]] Nepalese authorities brought contempt charges against news journalists following their critical reports on the judiciary.[[fn:45]] Bahraini authorities prosecuted an activist for criticizing torture and ill-treatment in a Bahraini prison.[[fn:46]] Myanmar has penalized individuals for criticism or insult of the army, while Cambodia has prosecuted and harassed individuals for their criticism of government policy.[[fn:47]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "2. The criminalization of criticism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. VNM 3/2015."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. IRN 9/2015."}, {"n": 43, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. AZE 4/2014 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 44, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. KWT 7/2015. Reply being translated."}, {"n": 45, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. NPL 5/2014."}, {"n": 46, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. BHR 4/2015, and A/HRC/30/27, case No. BHR 2/2015."}, {"n": 47, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. MMR 9/2015; and OHCHR, “United Nations rights experts urge Cambodia to stop attacks against civil society and human rights defenders”, 12 May 2016."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0031", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Several States penalize sedition or treason in their laws, targeting critics. Malaysia, for instance, has continued to defend its ongoing prosecution of individuals on the basis of a law that criminalizes seditious words or tendencies, arguing that the law promotes “national harmony”.[[fn:48]] In practice, however, dozens of individuals have been detained or subject to prosecution under the Sedition Act merely for expression critical of the Government.[[fn:49]] Swaziland detained activists on sedition charges following criticism of the monarchical system of government.[[fn:50]] India has pursued charges against individuals, including a folk singer accused of writing lyrics critical of local government, on the grounds of section 124 A of its Penal Code, which prohibits expression that may cause “hatred or contempt, or excites or attempts to excite disaffection” towards the Government.[[fn:51]] The Gambia has prosecuted a journalist on the grounds of “sedition” and the “publication of false news with intent to cause fear and alarm to the public” under Gambian law.[[fn:52]] Jordan has detained and prosecuted an academic for allegedly posting anti-Government comments on his Facebook page on the grounds of “undermining the political regime in the Kingdom”.[[fn:53]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "2. The criminalization of criticism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. MYS 3/2015."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Ibid.; see also case No. MYS 6/2014, and A/HRC/29/50, case No. MYS 1/2015."}, {"n": 50, "text": "See A/HRC/30/27, case No. SWZ 2/2015."}, {"n": 51, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. IND 15/2015. See also A/HRC/22/67, case No. IND 24/2012, and Human Rights Watch, Stifling Dissent: The Criminalization of Peaceful Expression in India (United States of America, 2016)."}, {"n": 52, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. GMB 3/2015."}, {"n": 53, "text": "Ibid., case No. JOR 1/2016."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0032", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Political and human rights activists have been especially targeted by such rules against criticism, often under the pretext of protecting public order. For instance, human rights activists have been harassed repeatedly in Bahrain; one activist was prosecuted for tearing up a picture of the King.[[fn:54]] The Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela has prosecuted and detained in solitary confinement an opposition political leader.[[fn:55]] Students in Thailand were detained by members of the military for advocating in support of the Prime Minister ousted in a coup.[[fn:56]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "2. The criminalization of criticism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "See A/HRC/29/50, case No. BHR 15/2014."}, {"n": 55, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. VEN 6/2014."}, {"n": 56, "text": "Ibid., case No. THA 9/2014."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0033", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Closely related to these grounds are charges under lese-majesty laws and both criminal and civil defamation. Thailand, for instance, regularly detains and prosecutes people on the grounds of criticizing the royal family, imposing sentences that may reach to decades.[[fn:57]] The Government argues that the law “gives protection to the rights or reputations” of members of the royal family “in a similar way libel law does for commoners”, without acknowledging the high value placed on expression directed towards matters of politics, governance and public life.[[fn:58]] National laws also allow such prosecutions in other societies with royal families, such as in the Netherlands.[[fn:59]] Just as such laws that criminalize criticism of government officials or royalty are manifestly inconsistent with freedom of expression, and unjustifiable under article 19 (3), so too are laws that criminalize insults or criticism of foreign officials. In 2016, the Representative on Freedom of the Media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe urged Governments to repeal laws that shield foreign leaders from criticism solely because of their function or status.[[fn:60]] I share the concern of the Human Rights Council with respect to the “abuse of legal provisions on defamation and criminal libel” (see Council resolution 12/16) and believe that any criminal penalties or excessive civil penalties for defamation are generally inconsistent with article 19 and should be repealed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "2. The criminalization of criticism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. THA 9/2015, and A/HRC/29/50, case No. THA 13/2014."}, {"n": 58, "text": "See A/HRC/29/50, case No. THA 13/2014, reply from Government."}, {"n": 59, "text": "I note with support that repeal of the law in the Netherlands has been proposed in the legislature. See www.tweedekamer.nl/kamerstukken/wetsvoorstellen/detail?id=2016Z08348&dossier=34456."}, {"n": 60, "text": "Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Dunja Mijatović, Representative on Freedom of the Media, Communiqué No. 5/2016."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0034", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Punishment for defamation of government officials is widespread and directly interferes with freedom of expression, whether by imposing penalties on expression or dissuading individuals from criticizing officials or government policy.[[fn:61]] Journalists and writers are regular targets of defamation prosecutions or civil lawsuits. In Angola, for instance, the Government charged and convicted an author of criminal defamation upon publication of a book on conflict diamonds and corruption in the country.[[fn:62]] Honduran officials have reportedly intimidated journalists and human rights defenders on charges of defamation.[[fn:63]] In Tajikistan, while the Government has eliminated criminal penalties for defamation in most cases (but not for defamation of the President), government officials may still bring civil defamation lawsuits against journalists or publishers.[[fn:64]] Particularly with respect to public figures, national laws should be careful to ensure that any respondent in a defamation case may raise a public interest defence, and even untrue statements made in error and without malice should not be rendered unlawful or subject to penalty (see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 47). The joint declaration on freedom of expression of 2000 by the Special Rapporteur, the Representative on Freedom of the Media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe and the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights cautioned against sanctioning defamation such that it chills the exercise of freedom of expression itself.[[fn:65]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "2. The criminalization of criticism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 61, "text": "See generally Article 19, Defining Defamation: Principles on Freedom of Expression and Protection of Reputation, International Standards Series (London, 2000); Committee to Protect Journalists, Thomas Reuters Foundation and Debevoise and Plimpton, Critics Are Not Criminals: Comparative Study of Criminal Defamation Laws in the Americas (2016)."}, {"n": 62, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. AGO 1/2015 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 63, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. HND 7/2014 and reply from Government. See also A/HRC/31/79, case No. HND 4/2015."}, {"n": 64, "text": "Preliminary observations by the Special Rapporteur at the end of his visit to Tajikistan, 9 March 2015, available from www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID= 17193&LangID=E. See also A/HRC/26/30/Add.2."}, {"n": 65, "text": "International Mechanisms for Promoting Freedom of Expression, Current Challenges to Media Freedom: Joint Declaration (London, 2000)."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0035", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The tools used to criminalize criticism are also applied against those who practise journalism, that is, the regular gathering of information, with or without formal training, accreditation or other government acknowledgement, with the intent to disseminate one’s findings in any form. The attacks on reporting cross many themes in the present report. Nonetheless, it is important to emphasize that attacks on journalism are fundamentally at odds with protection of freedom of expression and access to information and, as such, they should be highlighted independently of any other rationale for restriction. Governments have a responsibility not only to respect journalism but also to ensure that journalists and their sources have protection through strong laws, prosecutions of perpetrators and ample security where necessary.[[fn:66]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "3. The assault on reporting"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "See Security Council resolutions 2222 (2015) and 1738 (2006); and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, International Programme for the Development of Communication, “Plan of action on the safety of journalists and the issue of impunity” (2012)."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0036", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. One of the gravest and most concerning tools against reporting involves the use of counter-terrorism laws to restrict and penalize reporters. The reliance on counter-terrorism serves as a catch-all to throttle the flow of information and justify the detention of journalists, bloggers and others working in the media. In Australia, the Border Force Act of 2015 allegedly has the effect of criminalizing reporting on the detention conditions in immigration detention facilities.[[fn:67]] Ethiopia reportedly relied on its Criminal Code and the Anti-Terrorism Proclamation of 2009 to detain journalists and bloggers with the “Zone 9” collective on the grounds of “working with foreign human rights organizations and inciting violence through social media to create instability in the country”, when in fact they were working for independent online media.[[fn:68]] Turkish authorities have allegedly used anti-terrorism laws to detain journalists and target academics.[[fn:69]] In 2014, Nigeria was also criticized for threatening and harassing nearly a dozen independent newspapers under the guise of fighting terrorism.[[fn:70]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "3. The assault on reporting"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. AUS 5/2015 and reply from the Government."}, {"n": 68, "text": "See A/HRC/29/50, case No. ETH 2/2015."}, {"n": 69, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. TUR 3/2015 and reply from Government. See also A/HRC/29/50, case No. TUR 1/2015 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 70, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. NGA 3/2014."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0037", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The Islamic Republic of Iran has repeatedly detained journalists and bloggers on murky charges pertaining to espionage[[fn:71]] or “conspiracy against national security”[[fn:72]] — problems exacerbated by the closed nature of legal proceedings against those detained. In Germany, while the Government swiftly and correctly reversed course, two online journalists were investigated for reporting on government surveillance practices on the grounds of protecting the public prosecutor’s ability to pursue cases against extremism.[[fn:73]] A presidential decree in Ukraine imposed a one-year ban on 41 foreign journalists and bloggers who were said to pose a threat to the country’s national interests and sovereignty.[[fn:74]] Indonesia detained journalists reporting on the situation in West Papua, charging them with misuse of their visas and attempted treason.[[fn:75]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "3. The assault on reporting"], "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. IRN 13/2015."}, {"n": 72, "text": "Ibid., case No. IRN 9/2015."}, {"n": 73, "text": "Ibid., case No. DEU 1/2015."}, {"n": 74, "text": "Ibid., case No. UKR 6/2015."}, {"n": 75, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. IDN 4/2014."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0038", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. In the context of protests, it is common for journalists to be detained and prohibited from reporting. Such has been the case in Egypt, where journalists collecting information about demonstrations have been detained and charged on various grounds, including involvement in terrorism.[[fn:76]] At least seven journalists and media workers in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela were arrested and their equipment confiscated for covering looting and public protests.[[fn:77]] It may also be the case that local officials carry out their functions without appropriately taking into account the roles journalists play, in particular during protests. For instance, a journalist in Mexico covering protests was allegedly detained and severely mistreated by the local authorities.[[fn:78]] In the United States, journalists covering the protests in Ferguson, Missouri, in 2014 were subjected to detention by the local authorities.[[fn:79]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "3. The assault on reporting"], "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "See A/HRC/27/72, case No. EGY 7/2014 and reply from Government and case No. EGY 6/2014; and A/HRC/31/79, case No. EGY 16/2015."}, {"n": 77, "text": "OHCHR, “Venezuela: Crisis — United Nations and Inter-American experts raise alarm at deterioration of media freedom”, 4 August 2016. Available from www.ohchr.org/EN/ NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=20343&LangID=E#sthash.mpZ7TLQn.dpuf."}, {"n": 78, "text": "See A/HRC/30/27, case No. MEX 2/2015 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 79, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. USA 14/2014."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0039", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Perhaps most concerning is that Governments often fail to provide measures of protection and accountability that can deter attacks on journalists. The Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights presented alarming statistics involving killings, kidnappings and other forms of aggression against journalists in the Americas, with extremely limited accountability despite some efforts to create special mechanisms for the protection of journalists.[[fn:80]] Messages from the most senior leadership matter, as I have pointed out in the wake of threatening comments made by the leaders of Thailand and the Philippines.[[fn:81]] The widespread failure to hold perpetrators accountable for attacks on journalists suggests the absence of concern for the role that journalists play in democratic societies. My communications have highlighted reports and allegations of the failure of accountability in, among other places, South Sudan, where journalists have been killed and disappeared;[[fn:82]] Mexico, where journalists have been murdered and accountability is inconsistent;[[fn:83]] the Philippines, which after nearly seven years has not concluded its investigations and prosecutions against those responsible for the massacre of journalists in Maguindinao;[[fn:84]] and the Russian Federation, where there are multiple reports of journalists who have been murdered and the perpetrators not held to account.[[fn:85]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "3. The assault on reporting"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Organization of American States, Annual Report of the Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression: Annual Report of the InterAmerican Commission on Human Rights 2015, vol. II (Washington, D.C., 2015)."}, {"n": 81, "text": "OHCHR, “United Nations expert dismayed over Thai leader’s intimidating statements against freedom of the press”, 1 April 2015; and OHCHR, “Journalists’ killings: United Nations experts urge Philippines President-elect to stop instigating deadly violence”, 6 June 2016."}, {"n": 82, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case Nos. SSD 2/2015 and SSD 3/2015. See also A/HRC/28/85, case No. PHL 5/2014; A/HRC/31/79, case No. BGD 7/2015 and reply from Government and case No. RUS 5/2015; A/HRC/32/53, case No. PAK 12/2015; and A/HRC/31/79, case No. AZE 4/2015 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 83, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. MEX 20/2014 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 84, "text": "Ibid., case No. PHL 5/2014."}, {"n": 85, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. RUS 5/2015."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0040", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. In addition to physical violence and attacks, journalists also face a range of punitive measures that threaten their well-being and livelihood. For example, Kuwait and Bahrain have reportedly sought to strip journalists of their citizenship simply for doing their job.[[fn:86]] In Ecuador, the Government has filed copyright complaints in an attempt to take down content critical of its activities.[[fn:87]] In my report to the General Assembly in 2015 (A/70/361), I also identified the ways in which sources for journalists are under threat.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "3. The assault on reporting"], "footnotes": [{"n": 86, "text": "See, for example, A/HRC/32/53, case No. KWT 7/2015 and reply from Government. See also Committee to Protect Journalists, “Four Bahraini journalists stripped of citizenship”, 4 February 2015."}, {"n": 87, "text": "Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Organization of American States, Annual Report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 2015, vol. II (Washington, D.C., 2015), para. 543."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0041", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Human rights law places a high value on the individual’s ability to hold beliefs and practise religious faith. The Human Rights Council has raised concerns about discrimination and violence against persons on the basis of their religion or belief (see Council resolution 16/18). Yet neither article 18, on freedom of religion, conscience or belief, article 19 nor article 20 (2) of the Covenant protects religions, institutions or beliefs as such. The Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief has noted that the right to freedom of religion or belief has sometimes been misperceived as protecting religions or belief systems in themselves (see A/HRC/31/18, para. 13), when it in fact protects individuals holding or expressing those beliefs. In paragraph 48 of its general comment No. 34, the Human Rights Committee emphasized that prohibitions of displays of lack of respect for a religion or other belief system, including blasphemy laws, are incompatible with article 19. Nor, the Committee noted, would it be permissible for such prohibitions to be used to prevent or punish criticism of religious leaders or commentary on religious doctrine and tenets of faith.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "4. Restrictions on expression relating to religion and belief"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "18", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0042", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Non-State actors are especially responsible for attacks on individuals for expression of belief. Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), its affiliates and some of its supporters have committed atrocity after atrocity around the world on the basis of religious or ethnic affiliation or individual expression of belief. The attacks on Charlie Hebdo in Paris, for instance, were directed specifically against satirists who criticized all forms of dogma, religious or otherwise, although the killers in this instance were allegedly incensed over depictions of the Prophet Mohammed. Beyond ISIL, the series of murders of bloggers in Bangladesh reflects an effort to silence views that reject religious belief altogether. Such assaults are grave attacks on opinion, expression and belief, designed to silence — in a very direct way — not only the specific targets but also anyone who dares express an alternative viewpoint.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "4. Restrictions on expression relating to religion and belief"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0043", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Article 20 (2) provides for restrictions with respect to hateful advocacy that amounts to incitement to hostility, discrimination or violence; it does not permit restrictions merely on the basis of “incompatibility” with a particular faith’s values, nor does it (or article 19) permit restrictions that amount to blasphemy as such.[[fn:88]] Nonetheless, Maldives enacted a law in 2016 that criminalizes speech not expressed in accordance with social norms, national security and Islam.[[fn:89]] Singapore noted that a teenager was convicted under national legislation “for posting a video containing remarks against Christianity with deliberate intent to wound the religious feelings of Christians”.[[fn:90]] While “wounding religious feelings” may involve real emotional costs, such charges have no basis under international human rights law and limit without justification the sharing of information and ideas pertaining to religion and belief.", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "4. Restrictions on expression relating to religion and belief"], "footnotes": [{"n": 88, "text": "See Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence (A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, appendix), para. 19."}, {"n": 89, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Opinion/Legislation/MDV_1_2016.pdf."}, {"n": 90, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. SGP 1/2015."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0044", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Article 2 (1) of the Covenant requires States to ensure the protection of individuals in the face of such assaults by non-State actors on rights, obligated as they are to respect and ensure respect for all human rights. However, States also need to be cautious not to provide any kind of support in their own laws and actions for the effort to strike down those who hold contrary beliefs. Yet many States still adopt or implement laws that permit them to punish individuals for expression seen to criticize belief. In 2015, for instance, Myanmar amended the Criminal Code to penalize “speech intended to cause religious outrage which insults, or attempts to insult, religion or religious belief” (see A/HRC/31/71, annex I). Saudi Arabia has harshly punished individuals for expression of religious beliefs contrary to national legislation.[[fn:91]] In 2014, Brunei Darussalam enacted a law that would subject those who insult Islam to capital punishment, which the Government did not deny in its response.[[fn:92]] Blasphemy and apostasy laws worldwide not only restrict expression but give support to those who would attack others for religious views. Such laws exist not only in the Middle East and South and South-East Asia, where they are prevalent, but also in Europe and the Americas.[[fn:93]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "4. Restrictions on expression relating to religion and belief"], "footnotes": [{"n": 91, "text": "See OHCHR, “United Nations rights expert raises alarm over Saudi Arabia’s growing clamp down on freedom of expression” (16 December 2015), available from www.ohchr.org/en/ NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=16892&LangID=E; and OHCHR, “United Nations rights experts urge Saudi Arabia to halt the execution of Palestinian poet Ashraf Fayadh” (3 December 2015), available from www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx? NewsID=16838&LangID=E."}, {"n": 92, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. BRN 1/2014 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 93, "text": "Angelina E. Theodorou, Pew Research Center, “Which countries still outlaw apostasy and blasphemy?”, 29 July 2016."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0045", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Religious people worldwide certainly do experience offence when their beliefs are criticized, but nobody should suffer penalty, under criminal or civil grounds, for such criticism, rejection or even ridicule, except in those very rare circumstances in which the critic incites violence against a believer and restriction is necessary to protect against such violence. The Human Rights Council, in its resolution 16/18, and the Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence (A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, appendix) highlighted mechanisms other than criminal or civil penalty, such as broader education and law enforcement training, that could and should address hateful and offensive speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "4. Restrictions on expression relating to religion and belief"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0046", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The right to freedom of opinion and expression must be respected “without distinction of any kind” (see article 2 (1) of the Covenant). Members of some groups, however, often face particular discrimination when it comes to the implementation of restrictions on expression. The Special Rapporteurs on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association, on the situation of human rights defenders and on the independence of judges and lawyers address issues pertaining to human rights defenders and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), often in collaboration with the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Given their focus and detailed reporting,[[fn:94]] I will not highlight here our shared concerns about restrictions imposed against NGOs,[[fn:95]] human rights defenders[[fn:96]] environmental activists,[[fn:97]] refugees[[fn:98]] and lawyers.[[fn:99]] Instead I will highlight several other groups whose expression is particularly subject to repression.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "5. The singling out of groups"], "footnotes": [{"n": 94, "text": "See, for example, A/68/299, A/70/217 and A/HRC/32/34."}, {"n": 95, "text": "See, for example, OHCHR, “Israel: United Nations experts urge Knesset not to adopt pending legislation that could target critical NGOs”, 24 June 2016; see also A/HRC/31/79, case No. KAZ 3/2015."}, {"n": 96, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. RUS 2/2016."}, {"n": 97, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. MNG 1/2015."}, {"n": 98, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. THA 7/2014."}, {"n": 99, "text": "See, for example, A/HRC/31/79, case No. CHN 6/2015 and reply from Government."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0047", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. In recent years, a number of Governments have adopted laws that explicitly attack expression on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity. For instance, the Government of Kyrgyzstan adopted a law that criminalizes the dissemination of information relating to “non-traditional” sexual relationships.[[fn:100]] Uganda has criminalized the “promotion” of homosexuality,[[fn:101]] while the Russian Federation has banned the “propaganda of homosexuality” at the federal level across the country.[[fn:102]] In Zambia, a human rights advocate not only faced undue delays when trying to register an NGO for the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex persons and sex workers, but also was charged with “soliciting for immoral purposes” when he urged greater access to health care for sex workers and sexual minorities.[[fn:103]] In some cases, individuals and organizations involved in lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender-related activism or expression even face significant threats of physical violence. In Honduras, for example, there has been a systematic lack of accountability for advocates of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender rights who have been murdered, kidnapped or assaulted.[[fn:104]] In an important step, the Human Rights Council, reflecting on the increasing pressure on and violence and discrimination against individuals on the basis of their sexual orientation, established a mandate for an independent expert to combat such discrimination and violence (see Council resolution 32/2).", "labels": ["Women/girls", "LGBTI+", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "5. The singling out of groups"], "footnotes": [{"n": 100, "text": "OHCHR, “Kyrgyzstan: ‘Don’t condemn LGBT people to silence’ — United Nations rights experts urge Parliament to withdraw anti-gay bill”, 26 November 2014. Available from www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=15349&LangID=E."}, {"n": 101, "text": "See A/HRC/26/21, case No. UGA 1/2014."}, {"n": 102, "text": "See A/HRC/23/51, case No. RUS 8/2012. See also Human Rights Watch, “License to harm: violence and harassment against LGBT people and activists in Russia”, 15 December 2014."}, {"n": 103, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. ZMB 4/2015."}, {"n": 104, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. HND 3/2015."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0048", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Women may also face particular restrictions targeting their expression. In 2013, the Human Rights Council affirmed the fundamental role that freedom of opinion and expression plays in the ability of women to interact with society at large, in particular in the realms of economic and political participation, and called upon States to promote, respect and ensure women’s exercise of freedom of opinion and expression, both online and offline, including as members of NGOs and other associations (see Council resolution 23/2). Unfortunately, this commitment remains largely unfulfilled in many parts of the world. In 2014, in Saudi Arabia, two advocates for the rights of women were detained for driving.[[fn:105]] Earlier in 2016, I, along with other mandate holders, raised concerns about the systematic attacks and threats of sexual and physical violence made against three women human rights defenders and two women human rights lawyers in the State of Chhattisgarh, India.[[fn:106]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "5. The singling out of groups"], "footnotes": [{"n": 105, "text": "See A/HRC/29/50, case No. SAU 15/2014."}, {"n": 106, "text": "See A/HRC/33/32, case No. IND 1/2016."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0049", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Government repression of artists of all sorts persists. For instance, the mandate holder has sent communications to the Islamic Republic of Iran pertaining to the detention of a graphic artist who made a drawing in protest against the banning of family planning, the detention and flogging sentence of human rights defenders for collections of poetry, the detention of two musicians and a film-maker for “propaganda against the State” and “insulting the sacred” through the production of underground music, and the detention of individuals for appearing in a video protesting a State ban on women watching sports in stadiums.[[fn:107]] The Egyptian Penal Code provides a basis for restricting artists in its article 98, which subjects to penalties “whoever exploits and uses the religion in advocating and propagating orally, in writing or by any other method, extremist thoughts with the aim of instigating sedition or division, or disdaining and contempting any of the heavenly religions or prejudicing national unity and social peace”[[fn:108]]. Qatar detained a poet for criticizing the Amir of Qatar and praising the Tunisian revolution in poems.[[fn:109]] Saudi Arabia imposed the death sentence, later commuted, on a poet for apostasy.[[fn:110]] In Cuba, an artist was detained on the basis of a charge of intending to release two pigs named after Raul and Fidel Castro during an artistic demonstration.[[fn:111]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "5. The singling out of groups"], "footnotes": [{"n": 107, "text": "See A/HRC/29/50, case No. IRN 1/2015; A/HRC/31/79, case No. IRN 20/2015; and A/HRC/28/85, case No. IRN 24/2014."}, {"n": 108, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. EGY 9/2015."}, {"n": 109, "text": "Ibid., case No. QAT 2/2015 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 110, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. SAU 10/2015 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 111, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. CUB 3/2015 and reply from Government."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "98", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0050", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. While the threats to freedom of expression worldwide are severe, there remain important efforts to sustain a commitment to article 19. In the wake of the attacks in Paris in January 2015, dozens of the highest leaders of States gathered for a public demonstration that was, nominally, to support the right to freedom of expression and oppose terrorism. The moment proved to be as much theatre as commitment to law and policy, as no overarching Government-led effort to promote freedom of expression — such as the protection of journalists and artists — followed. Still, one may point to concrete examples that deserve to be emulated. Importantly, many (if not most) Governments proclaim in their Constitutions the right everyone enjoys to freedom of expression. Egypt’s is typical, protecting in article 65 the freedom of expression “verbally, in writing, through imagery, or by any other means of expression and publication”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Efforts to promote freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "65", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0051", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. As examples of meeting the condition of legality, some Governments have made an effort to address gaps in legal authorities regulating surveillance and Internet governance in public ways. Although there remain, in my view, significant problems with the Investigatory Powers Bill, the Government of the United Kingdom has permitted a process involving public comment and debate.[[fn:112]] The Government of Brazil adopted a landmark law, the Marco Civil de Internet, after widespread input from stakeholders. The United States has engaged in a public debate, including in Congress, that has begun to address, albeit in limited ways, the excessive discretion in intelligence and law enforcement in the context of digital surveillance. The willingness of several Governments to engage with the mandate holder also reflects an important aspect of public justification of restrictions, as do the hosting of country visits by Tajikistan, Japan and Turkey.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Efforts to promote freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 112, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. GBR 4/2015, replies from Government."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0052", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Courts at the national and regional levels regularly engage in careful analysis and attention to freedom of expression norms (although my mention of them in the present report goes towards the rule-of-law element and does not necessarily indicate my agreement on the merits). In 2015, for instance, the Supreme Court of India struck down a 2009 amendment to the Information Technology Act on the grounds that it risked restricting legitimate expression and clarified the scope of intermediary liability under another provision of law.[[fn:113]] The Supreme Court of Canada upheld the privacy rights of Internet users in a landmark case in 2014.[[fn:114]] The East African Court of Justice held that a series of rules in Burundi’s press law violated norms of the rule of law and freedom of expression.[[fn:115]] In Rodriguez v. Google (2014), the Supreme Court of Argentina held that search engines are under no duty to monitor the legality of third-party content to which they link, noting that only in exceptional cases involving “gross and manifest harm” could intermediaries be required to disable access.[[fn:116]] The Inter-American Court of Human Rights held that the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela could not suspend the licence of a broadcaster on the ground that it was seeking to silence government critics.[[fn:117]] The European Court of Justice has addressed major issues at the intersection of freedom of expression and privacy, while the European Court of Human Rights has clarified the limited nature of liability of intermediaries for third-party content.[[fn:118]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Efforts to promote freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 113, "text": "Supreme Court of India, Singhal v. Union of India (2015)."}, {"n": 114, "text": "Supreme Court of Canada, R. v. Spenser, 2014 SCC 43 (2014)."}, {"n": 115, "text": "East African Court of Justice, Burundi Journalists Union v. Burundi (2015)."}, {"n": 116, "text": "Argentine Federal Supreme Court of Justice, María Belén Rodriguez v. Google (2014)."}, {"n": 117, "text": "Media Legal Defence Initiative, “Inter-American court orders RCTV reinstatement”, 11 September 2015/. Available from www.mediadefence.org/news/inter-american-court-orders-rctv-reinstatement."}, {"n": 118, "text": "European Court of Justice (Grand Chamber), Google Spain v. Mario Costeja González, Case C131/12 (13 May 2014); European Court of Justice, Schrems v. Data Protection Commissioner (2015); European Court of Human Rights, MTE and Index.HU ZRT v. Hungary (2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0053", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Some Governments have adopted strong policies and regulations to promote freedom of expression. In 2016, Norway launched an effort to place freedom of expression at the centre of its human rights policy.[[fn:119]] In 2015, the United States Federal Communications Commission adopted a policy of network neutrality following the adoption of similar policies by Governments, such as those of the Netherlands, Chile and Brazil.[[fn:120]] Several States have made an effort to expand infrastructure to improve Internet access. In Myanmar, the Government has taken significant steps to develop its Internet infrastructure: in June 2013, for example, it awarded operating licences to two foreign telecommunications companies as part of a broader push to deregulate the telecommunications industry.[[fn:121]] The United Republic of Tanzania, Rwanda and Mauritius were early adopters of digital broadcasting, thus providing “more opportunities to increase Internet access by freeing up unused spectrum”.[[fn:122]] Of critical importance are the international statements of support for multi-stakeholder governance of the Internet that privileges security and openness and recognizes the value the Internet offers for freedom of expression.[[fn:123]] Several Governments have coordinated their efforts to expand Internet freedom through the Freedom Online Coalition[[fn:124]] and promote access to information through the Open Government Partnership.[[fn:125]] Several countries have adopted strong laws on the right to information and whistle-blower protection (see A/70/361).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Efforts to promote freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 119, "text": "Norway, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “New Norwegian initiative to promote freedom of expression and independent media”, 18 January 2016. Available from www.regjeringen.no/en/ aktuelt/promote_freedom/id2470543/."}, {"n": 120, "text": "OHCHR, “‘A real victory for freedom of expression’: United Nations rights expert hails United States move to keep Internet open”, 27 February 2015."}, {"n": 121, "text": "Bhadrika Magan, “Myanmar’s ICT ministry opens door for Internet infrastructure development”, 17 September 2015. Available from http://blog.apnic.net/2015/09/17/myanmars-ict-ministry-opens-door-for-internet-infrastructure-development/."}, {"n": 122, "text": "Towela Nyirenda-Jere and Tesfaye Biru, “Internet development and Internet governance in Africa”, 22 May 2015. Available from www.internetsociety.org/sites/default/files/Internet%20 development%20and%20Internet%20governance%20in%20Africa.pdf."}, {"n": 123, "text": "See General Assembly resolution 70/125."}, {"n": 124, "text": "See www.freedomonlinecoalition.com/."}, {"n": 125, "text": "See www.opengovpartnership.org/about."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0054", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Civil society organizations and initiatives also remain vibrant and critical to expanding or strengthening freedom of expression norms, particularly in situations of significant flux, such as contemporary digital technologies[[fn:126]] or the law at the intersection of expression and religion, such as the Rabat Plan of Action. Restrictions on civic space raise particular concerns, not only with regard to freedom of expression (see Human Rights Council resolution 32/31). Independent media, in the face of growing concentrations of ownership in many markets, remain critical as watchdogs of public authorities around the world, particularly in digital space.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Efforts to promote freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 126, "text": "See, for example, Necessary and Proportionate, “International principles on the application of human rights to communications surveillance” (May 2014), available from https://necessaryandproportionate.org/principles; Electronic Frontier Foundation, “Manila principles on intermediary liability for content to promote freedom of expression and innovation — a global society initiative” (24 March 2015), available from www.manilaprinciples.org/ principles; “2015 Ranking Digital Rights Corporate Accountability Index”, available from https://rankingdigitalrights.org/index2015/; and Rebecca MacKinnon and others, Fostering Freedom Online: The Role of Internet Intermediaries (Paris, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2014)."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0055", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. In the present report, I have sought to describe trends working against freedom of opinion and expression around the world today. Those trends are sobering. Individuals seeking to exercise their right to expression face all kinds of limitations. Rationales are often unsustainable. Some of the limitations involve assertions of a legitimate objective — typically national security or public order — without the barest demonstration of legality or necessity and proportionality. Other limitations are based on objectives that are not legitimate under international human rights law. Old tools remain in use, while others are expanding, as States exploit society’s pervasive need to access the Internet. The targets of restrictions include journalists and bloggers, critics of government, dissenters from conventional life, provocateurs and minorities of all sorts. Our communications have revealed allegations relating to all of these issues, and reporting from civil society suggests that the problems are more pervasive and extensive than even our communications illuminate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0056", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. In the coming years, I urge States to be particularly mindful of the context of digital rights, the integrity of digital communications and the roles of intermediaries, regardless of frontiers. It will be particularly critical for States to avoid adopting legal rules that implicate digital actors — including, but not limited to, data localization standards, intermediary liability and Internet security — that undermine the freedom of expression, and I will be monitoring such legislation closely. I see ongoing deterioration of online rights, even as the Human Rights Council and the General Assembly urge that rights offline be respected online. The coming years will test just how genuine the commitment to that proposition is.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0057", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Among steps that I would encourage are the following:\n(a) Review and, where necessary, revise national laws. National legislation increasingly adopts overly broad definitions of key terms, such as terrorism, national security, extremism and hate speech, that fail to limit the discretion of executive authorities. Legislation often limits the role of judicial or independent and public oversight. Proponents often give limited demonstration of how new legal rules are necessary to protect legitimate interests and proportionately address specific threats, and the legislative process often limits public engagement and debate. I would urge all States considering new legislation to ensure that their laws meet these requirements, and I encourage States to implement regular public oversight of laws that implicate freedom of expression to ensure that they meet the tests of legality, legitimacy and necessity. Where possible, States should not only adopt legal frameworks but also implement training, particularly among independent oversight bodies, of the principles of freedom of expression;\n(b) Engage with special procedures of the Human Rights Council. As has been shown in the present report, while the response rate to communications is quite low, several States engage with the mandate holder in good faith. Engagement with communications and invitations to conduct country missions add significant value to the work of the mandate holder, since they allow us to seek an understanding of why States pursue certain policies (and, where those policies are adverse to freedom of expression, a possibility of encouraging officials to adopt other measures);\n(c) Support or establish regional or subregional monitoring. Several regions have developed or are developing independent approaches to supporting freedom of expression. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, the African Commission on Human and People’s Rights and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe have established monitoring mechanisms on the basis of norms that are consistent with the international and regional standards. Human rights courts serve as critical watchdogs in these regions, including subregional courts such as the East African Court of Justice and the Court of Justice of the Economic Community of West African States. At this time, however, no such monitors — expert-oriented or judicial — exist in the Middle East and North Africa or Asia. I strongly encourage States, in collaboration with United Nations and regional political bodies and civil society, to begin the process of developing independent monitoring mechanisms in those regions that do not currently enjoy them on the basis of international standards. I also strongly encourage civil society actors to make active use of the existing regional and global mechanisms, whether through supportive fact-finding and reporting or litigation, and to develop approaches to creating regional monitoring. The Special Rapporteur stands ready to support such efforts;\n(d) Support independent media and civic space. In the face of State repression of reporting, it is critical that States make an extra effort to support independent voices in the media and civil society at large. At a minimum, I encourage States to avoid imposing restrictions on reporting and research that may be seen to criticize the Government and its policies or to share information about sensitive subjects, including terrorism. States should especially avoid imposing obstacles, such as accreditation procedures or penalties through defamation lawsuits or intermediary liability, that undermine independent media. At the same time, those with the means — such as private donors and foundations — should make a special effort to support independent media and to foster strong scrutiny of media conglomerations that squeeze out the less well-financed outlets;\n(e) State leadership. One of the most disappointing aspects of the current situation for freedom of expression is that many States with strong histories of support for freedom of expression — in law and in their societies — have considered measures liable to abuse in their own countries or to misuse when applied elsewhere. In particular, Governments pursuing new policies to enhance surveillance or to limit Internet security should reconsider those efforts, as they often fail to meet the tests of necessity and proportionality. I strongly urge all States to consider that attacks on security on the Internet pose long-term threats not only to freedom of expression but also to national security and public order itself.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. This is a moment of intense global challenge to health and to the foundations of democratic society. The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has left nobody untouched, whether by illness, death or the disruptions of family life, education, culture, political freedoms or local, national and global economic life. The moment is a challenge for public health, but Governments are also using the crisis to challenge the kinds of freedoms guaranteed in a democratic society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Looking to the future, two pathways seem possible. On one path, the pandemic shocks the global public into recognition of the need for international coordination and cooperation, and with this recognition comes rejuvenated support for the principles that animate the United Nations itself. The General Assembly hinted at this hopeful possibility in its resolution 74/270, its first on the pandemic, but whether States and institutions take it up remains to be seen. On this path, the pandemic also serves as a jolting wake-up call to all Governments and politicians, and to all relevant players in the digital age, demonstrating to them that censorship of all sorts interferes with a range of human rights, that promoting access to information bolsters the promotion of health, life, autonomy and good governance, and that restrictions – even where aimed towards a legitimate objective – must meet the standards of legality, necessity and proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. That is the preferred pathway the pandemic should lead States to take: one of strengthened human rights frameworks worldwide. It is the pathway that the Human Rights Council has an opportunity to promote and that all States have an obligation to ensure.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. This other path is one of opportunism during a time of widespread distraction and human dislocation, of consolidation of authoritarian power and disproportionate use of executive authorities, and of economic policies that can increase inequality and poverty and further human rights violations. On this path, the COVID-19 virus[[fn:1]] is not just the cause of illness and death, it is also a pathogen of repression. As succinctly articulated by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism: “We could have a parallel epidemic of authoritarian and repressive measures following close if not on the heels of a health epidemic.”[[fn:2]] There is good reason for concern that this second pathway could be the one chosen by all too many Governments, particularly as the virus itself emerged into environments of censorship, rising repression of dissent, politicization and denigration of expertise and science.[[fn:3]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The official name of the virus as agreed by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Virus is severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-COV-2)."}, {"n": 2, "text": "Selam Gebrekidan, “For autocrats and others, coronavirus is a chance to grab even more power“, New York Times, 30 March 2020."}, {"n": 3, "text": "See, e.g., International Center for Not for Profit Law, COVID-19 Civic Freedom Tracker, available at www.icnl.org/covid19tracker/?location=&issue=9&date=&type=. See also International Press Institute, COVID-19: Number of Media Freedom Violations by Region, available at https://ipi.media/covid19-media-freedom-monitoring/."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Seen from this perspective, the pandemic is also a crisis of free expression – naturally caused, to be sure, but facilitated by information policies that weakened the infrastructures of warning and reporting. Individuals and their communities, however, cannot protect themselves against disease when information is denied to them, when they have diminished trust in sources of information, and when propaganda and disinformation dominate the statements of public authorities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The present report is written with a sense of urgency about the kinds of steps that are necessary and appropriate to protect everyone’s right to freedom of opinion and expression during this and any future pandemic. It is not exhaustive of the issue and does not purport to address the extensive rights at risk during the pandemic, from the rights to health, housing and sustainable work to the rights to life, movement, migration, protest and much more. The report is based on the premise that, particularly in the face of a global pandemic, the free flow of information, unhindered by threats and intimidation and penalties, protects life and health and enables and promotes critical social, economic, political and other policy discussions and decision-making. It urges an approach to address the problem of misinformation that fosters public correction of rumours and the calling out of harmful chicanery and that avoids driving such misinformation into places where conspiracy theories defeat rigorous scientific assessments and public health warnings – one rooted in legal frameworks that promote the sharing of reliable information.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. Popular fictional depictions of pandemics or other disease outbreaks often imagine that the solutions are purely medical and scientific. Yet well before the emergence of COVID-19, the World Health Organization (WHO) highlighted the importance of information and responsible governance in addressing disease epidemics. It advised that managing a global disease should involve not only the coordination of responders, the identification of the particularities of the illness, and specific health interventions. Managing epidemics also requires “risk communication”, an information strategy involving “two-way communication that is dynamic and evolving as the outbreak develops”.[[fn:4]] WHO identified three elements of proper risk communication: (a) the relaying, by authorities, of information “on the nature of the threat and the protective measures that people can take”; (b) an understanding of public and individual fears and concerns that enables authorities to tailor communication appropriately; and (c) the management of rumours, which involves “listen[ing] to such misinformation and correct[ing] examples of it in appropriate ways without delay.”[[fn:5]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "World Health Organization, Managing Epidemics: Key Facts about Major Deadly Diseases (Geneva, 2018), p. 34."}, {"n": 5, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The WHO guidance for dealing with information in the context of pandemics is consistent with the requirements of international human rights law. It highlights the importance of the State providing reliable information to the public. It also emphasizes the importance of transmitting information in a manner that is sensitive to different audience perceptions and concerns and that is aimed at correction, not penalty. It is possible to further emphasize the dependent relationship between freedom of expression and access to information, on the one hand, and public health on the other. Indeed, the International Health Regulations mandate the implementation of global public health policies “with full respect for the dignity, human rights and fundamental freedoms of persons”.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "WHO, International Health Regulations (2005), art. 3 (1)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The WHO guidance, as important as it is, does not answer some of the most pertinent questions concerning the freedom of opinion and expression during a pandemic, such as: What are the State’s obligations when it comes to keeping the public educated about the pandemic, or ensuring that health-care professionals have access to global information about the disease and about steps to address it? To what extent may the public have access to information held by public authorities concerning the pandemic? May a State impose restrictions to ensure that the public receives only “legitimate” information sanctioned by government authorities? May a State impose restrictions on the media concerning the reporting of the pandemic? What kinds of surveillance – likely to become a key feature of tracing the development of the disease – raise alarms concerning freedom of opinion and expression, and what steps should be taken to constrain them?", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. International human rights law provides Governments with guidance to answer these and other questions concerning the information ecosystem at a time of global health emergency. When anchoring these questions in human rights law, it is possible to see that freedom of opinion and expression goes hand-in-glove with public health. It makes sense to start at the most fundamental level, that which recognizes, as the Human Rights Council did, in its resolution 21/12, that freedom of expression is essential to democratic society and a basic condition for development. Similarly, the General Assembly, in its resolution 68/163, emphasized the relevance of free media in building inclusive knowledge societies and democracies and fostering good governance. Both bodies highlighted the critical importance of journalism in the above-mentioned resolutions and affirmed that the same rights that people have offline must also be protected online, in particular freedom of expression. The Human Rights Committee emphasized, in paragraph 2 of general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression, that freedom of opinion and freedom of expression are indispensable conditions for the full development of the person and essential for any society. These principles do not simply evaporate in the face of a contagion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. These underlying principles are manifest in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, especially in the guarantee in article 19 of freedom of opinion and expression. In accordance with article 19 (1), freedom of opinion may not be subject to any interference. Article 19 (2) robustly defines freedom of expression as one that is multidirectional (“seek, receive and impart”), unlimited by viewpoint (“information and ideas of all kinds”), without boundaries (“regardless of frontiers”), and open-ended in form (“or through any other media”). Article 19 (3) provides narrow grounds on which Governments may restrict the freedom of expression, requiring that any limitation be provided by law and be necessary for respect of the rights or reputations of others, or for the protection of national security or public order, or of public health or morals. That is, such limitations must meet the tests of necessity and proportionality and be aimed only towards a legitimate objective. Article 17 provides that no one is to be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his or her privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his or her honour and reputation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. In the context of a pandemic, the right to freedom of expression also supports relevant rights found in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. In particular, under article 15 (1) (b) of that Covenant, the States parties recognize the right of everyone to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress and its applications. States are obligated to take steps necessary for the diffusion of science, with article 15 emphasizing the importance of respect for the freedom indispensable for scientific research, which ties directly back, even if implicitly, to the promotion in article 19 of the right to seek and share information of all kinds regardless of frontiers. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, in its general comment No. 25 (2020) on science and economic, social and cultural rights, appropriately emphasizes that the language of article 15 implies, inter alia, protection and promotion of academic and scientific freedom, including freedom of expression and freedom to seek, receive and impart scientific information. In other words, freedom of expression includes the right of individuals to share and gain access to scientific developments, such as those related to combating the COVID-19 virus, and involves the respect owed by States to enable such sharing of information. Whether that scientific information is shared through professional channels, social media or broadcast and print journalism, human rights law guarantees just this kind of communication regardless of frontiers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICESCR", "article": "15", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICESCR", "article": "15", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICESCR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICESCR", "article": "15", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. As noted above, many Governments are seeking to restrict freedom of expression in the areas of access to information held by public authorities, reporting on public health data, the sharing of information online and offline, and other areas. On the assumption (for the moment) that any given restriction is aimed at protecting public health, which is permitted under article 19 (3), it must still meet the basic conditions of legality and necessity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. First, it is well established that, under the “provided by law” standard, not only must the law be clearly set out, but also the scope, meaning and effect of the law must be sufficiently clear to allow individuals to regulate their actions so as to avoid violation. Vague laws confer undue discretion on executive authorities, enabling them to violate individual rights while disingenuously claiming adherence to the law.[[fn:7]] Mandate holders have frequently been concerned by overbroad legal definition and vague specification, particularly with respect to terrorism, extremism and other areas of national security and public order concern.[[fn:8]] Human rights courts have also consistently criticized the vagueness of such laws.[[fn:9]] Those standards apply with the same force in the context of public health emergencies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, paras. 24–26."}, {"n": 8, "text": "See, for example, A/71/373, para. 23. See also the following communications, including allegation letters and urgent appeals, from special procedure mandate holders: LAO 1/2014; THA 12/2014; KEN 7/2014; MYS 8/2014; KEN 3/2015; CHN 5/2015; RUS 3/2015; TUR 3/2015; BRA 8/2015; MDA 5/2015; LVA 1/2016; GBR 13/2018. All such communications are available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments. See further relevant reports of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, including A/HRC/31/65, A/HRC/37/52 and A/HRC/40/52."}, {"n": 9, "text": "See, e.g., the amicus briefs filed in the following cases that were before the European Court of Human Rights: Big Brother Watch and Others v. the United Kingdom, application No. 58170/13, No. 62322/14 and No. 24960/15, and OOO Flavus and four other applications v. Russia, application No. 12468/15, No. 20159/15, No. 23489/15, No. 19074/16 and No. 61919/16. The amicus briefs are available at: www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Expression/Intervention_Big_Brother_Watch_v_UK.pdf and https://freedex.org/wp-content/blogs.dir/2015/files/2018/05/Flavus-OOO-SR-intervention.pdf, respectively."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Second, under the necessity principle, when a State invokes a legitimate ground for restriction of freedom of expression, it must establish a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the threat said to exist.[[fn:10]] It is the State’s obligation to demonstrate necessity,[[fn:11]] not a complainant’s obligation to demonstrate its failure. The judgment of the European Court of Human Rights – that, to meet the test of necessity, any restriction must be something more than “useful”, “reasonable” or “desirable” – is the correct one.[[fn:12]] Necessity implies proportionality, according to which restrictions must target a specific objective and not unduly intrude upon other rights of targeted persons, and the ensuing interference with third parties’ rights must be limited and justified in the light of the interest supported by the intrusion (A/HRC/29/32, para. 35). The restriction must be the least intrusive instrument among those which might achieve the desired result.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 35."}, {"n": 11, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 12, "text": "See The Sunday Times v. The United Kingdom, application No. 6538/74, judgment of 26 April 1979, para. 59."}, {"n": 13, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 35."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The principles of legality, necessity and proportionality apply across the board; they are not simply discarded in the context of efforts to address the public health threat of COVID-19. To the contrary, they apply with great force because of the extraordinary value that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights places on free expression and because they also advance public health policies.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "It is instructive to note that the Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights has recognized that “there are certain types of speech that receive special protection because of their importance to the exercise of other human rights, or to the consolidation, proper functioning and preservation of democracy”. See The Inter-American Legal Framework regarding the Right to Freedom of Expression (2009), p. 11."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. In paragraph 5 of its general comment No. 34, the Human Rights Committee emphasized that it could never become necessary to derogate from the freedom of opinion during a state of emergency. Given the importance of information and freedom of expression to the development of opinion and to the efforts to address the public health crisis, States should also avoid any derogation from their obligations under article 19 of the Covenant. Article 19 (3) already provides sufficient grounds for necessary and proportionate restrictions of article 19 (2) rights, to protect public health. Moreover, in accordance with article 4 of the Covenant, even in the context of a declared public emergency which threatens the life of the nation, measures derogating from a State party’s obligations under the Covenant must be limited to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation and, as under the normal application of article 19, cannot involve discrimination or other violations of other international legal obligations, and they must be temporary.[[fn:15]] As a group of mandate holders cautioned during the present pandemic, “any emergency responses to the coronavirus must be proportionate, necessary and non-discriminatory”. They also noted that “restrictions taken to respond to the virus must be motivated by legitimate public health goals and should not be used simply to quash dissent”.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 29 (2001) on derogations from provisions of the Covenant during a state of emergency, paras. 5 and 8."}, {"n": 16, "text": "“COVID-19: States should not abuse emergency measures to suppress human rights – UN experts”, 16 March 2020."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The Human Rights Committee has stated that article 19 of the Covenant includes a right of access to information held by public authorities. Such information includes records held by a public body, regardless of the form in which the information is stored, its source and the date of production.[[fn:17]] As noted by the Committee and cited approvingly by the previous mandate holder, States parties should proactively put into the public domain government information of public interest.[[fn:18]] The default position must be that public authorities do not wait for a request for information; they must have an affirmative policy of releasing all relevant information in ways that are understandable to a non-technical public and that advance public health priorities. As United Nations and regional experts stated in 2004 in a joint declaration on freedom of expression, “public authorities should be required to publish proactively, even in the absence of a request, a range of information of public interest.”[[fn:19]] In the public health context, the description by WHO of specific outcomes promoted by communication illustrates the underlying purposes of the human rights standards of proactive publication of information. WHO states that:\nFirst, early, transparent and understandable communication on the event establishes lines of dialogue with affected populations and stakeholders, and builds trust in the response ...\nSecond, frequent but evolving communication will help create a trusted and dynamic relationship that can deliver advice on protective behaviours that populations and individuals can adopt.\nThird, communication must scope the risk in lay language, and also propose practical actions people can take ...\nFourth, communication must display accountability by keeping people updated on the situation, on what is being done, and the impact of those actions in bringing the outbreak under control.[[fn:20]]\nWhen an individual seeks access to information not already in the public domain, the default response of government must be to release unless it can demonstrate that some legitimate limitation, guided by the principles of legality and necessity, applies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "A. Access to information held by public authorities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "General comment No. 34, para. 18."}, {"n": 18, "text": "Ibid., para. 19, and A/68/362, para. 28."}, {"n": 19, "text": "See www.osce.org/fom/38632. See also Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, The Inter‐American Legal Framework regarding the Right to Access to Information, second ed., 7 March 2011, para. 32."}, {"n": 20, "text": "WHO, Managing Epidemics, p. 35."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. The right to information is not a niche right found only in article 19. Regional instruments also guarantee the right.[[fn:21]] It is guaranteed in the Convention on the Rights of the Child (art. 17) and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (art. 9), and reaffirmed in instruments related to the environment, corruption and development.[[fn:22]] One indicator for target 16.10 of the Sustainable Development Goals is the number of countries that adopt and implement constitutional, statutory and/or policy guarantees for public access to information.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "A. Access to information held by public authorities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, art. 9; American Convention on Human Rights, art. 13; Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (European Convention on Human Rights), art. 10."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, principle 10; United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 13; 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'found only in article 19' with context_before explicitly attributing to 'article 19 of the Covenant' (ICCPR) and the paragraph discussing ICCPR art. 19 right to access information. Explicit_treaties listed are CRC and CRPD but the sentence 'not a niche right found only in article 19' refers to ICCPR art. 19 as the primary framework provision discussed."}, {"article": "17", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'It is guaranteed in the Convention on the Rights of the Child (art. 17)' — explicit treaty attribution. CRC art. 17 concerns access to information and mass media."}, {"article": "9", "treaty": "CRPD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (art. 9)' — explicit treaty attribution. CRPD art. 9 concerns accessibility."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. The previous mandate holder noted that the design and implementation of freedom of information laws should be guided by principles of: (a) maximum disclosure; (b) obligation to publish; (c) promotion of open government; (d) limited scope of exceptions; (e) processes to facilitate access; and (f) disclosure taking precedence. (A/68/362, para. 76.) Article 19: International Centre against Censorship, described the underlying purposes well: “Information allows people to scrutinise the actions of a government and is the basis for proper, informed debate of those actions.”[[fn:23]] It is not as if a health crisis, such as a pandemic, limits the importance of access to information or the role of accountability in ensuring that government operates in accordance with the best interests of its people. To the contrary, a public health threat strengthens the arguments for open government, for it is only by knowing the full scope of the threat posed by disease that individuals and their communities can make appropriate personal choices and public health decisions. A Government that deprives the public of reliable information puts individuals at risk and can justify such deprivation only on the narrowest grounds and with the greatest degree of necessity to protect a legitimate interest. Even where a Government is legitimately concerned about releasing information that could cause individuals to panic, it is likely that failure to disclose is not the only option. For instance, sharing information that is properly contextualized may advance both public policy and freedom of expression guarantees.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "A. Access to information held by public authorities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "The Public’s Right to Know: Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation (London, 1999), p. 1."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. It may be expected that, during the pandemic, some Governments may face resource constraints that interfere with their capacity to carry out their obligations to provide access to public information. To a certain extent, temporary disruptions may be expected and will generally not constitute a violation of article 19 of the Covenant, given the potential inability of staff to meet in person or for hearings to be held.[[fn:24]] However, such disruptions should only take place when necessary for public health and should not be an excuse for failing to carry out activities for which there is no limited-capacity justification. Indeed, given the likelihood that social distancing measures may continue for some time, or may recur, Governments should be developing approaches to access to information that enable them to continue their programmes during the crisis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "A. Access to information held by public authorities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "For instance, the Government of India indicated that to comply with an order of the Ministry of Home Affairs, the right-to-information oversight body, the Central Information Commission was closed for a period of 21 days beginning on 25 March 2020, and all information commissioners were working from home only. All scheduled hearings before the Commission were deferred during that period. Urgent matters would be heard through audio conference. The Government of Pakistan likewise noted that all cases scheduled for hearing were postponed. See Access Info Europe and the Centre for Law and Democracy, COVID-19 Tracker. Available at www.rti-rating.org/covid-19-tracker/."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. One of the mechanisms used by Governments to ensure public access to information is to provide media access to officials, documentation and other information resources. This may include regular press briefings in which public health and other officials provide detailed information to the public and answer questions from an independent media. Unfortunately, there have been reports of several instances involving direct interference with this mode of actively providing access to information. These types of restrictions tend towards closing off access to reliable information, disabling independent journalists from addressing questions to officials and thus clarifying public health orders, and limit the ability to hold officials accountable for decisions made during the pandemic.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "A. Access to information held by public authorities"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. The openness of government to media is especially important when public officials provide inconsistent, unclear or otherwise confusing information to the public. The goal in a public health crisis must be for government to provide accurate information, or information that is as accurate as possible and framed appropriately as uncertain or evolving, and clear and honest guidance. As WHO has noted, risk communication is a two-way street.[[fn:25]] The media provide an essential tool for governments to understand the concerns of the public, and for the public to understand how to manage their concerns and fears; limiting access limits this crucial element of information-sharing.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "A. Access to information held by public authorities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "Managing Epidemics, p. 34."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. In a moment of global pandemic, the right of access to the Internet should be restated and seen for what it is: a critical element of health-care policy and practice, public information and even the right to life. Indeed, an open and secure Internet should be counted among the leading prerequisites for the enjoyment of the freedom of expression today (A/HRC/29/32, para. 11; see also A/HRC/17/27). Yet Governments have resorted increasingly to the bluntest forms of denial of access to information via the Internet, knowing that digital tools have become an essential – if not, for many, the essential – tool for the enjoyment of the right to seek, receive and impart information. The Human Rights Council has itself reiterated the importance of Internet access. In its resolution 39/6, the Council condemned unequivocally measures in violation of international human rights law aiming to or that intentionally prevented or disrupted access to or dissemination of information online and offline, which undermined the work of journalists in informing the public, including measures to unlawfully or arbitrarily block or take down media websites, such as denial of service attacks, and called upon all States to cease and refrain from those measures, which caused irreparable harm to efforts at building inclusive and peaceful knowledge societies and democracies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "B. Access to the Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Similarly, in a joint declaration on freedom of expression and conflict situations, United Nations and regional monitors of freedom of expression and the media declared in 2015 that the “filtering of content on the Internet, using communications ‘kill switches’ (i.e. shutting down entire parts of communications systems) and the physical takeover of broadcasting stations are measures which can never be justified under human rights law”.[[fn:26]] Governments increasingly resort to shutting down the Internet, often for illegitimate purposes but in all cases having a disproportionate impact on the population. Network shutdowns invariably fail to meet the standard of necessity (A/HRC/35/22, para. 14).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "B. Access to the Internet"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Para. 4 (c) of the declaration. Available at www.osce.org/fom/66176."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Given the migration of all manner of essential services to online platforms, shutdowns not only restrict expression but also interfere with other fundamental rights (A/HRC/35/22, para. 15). In the context of the pandemic, it has been especially troubling to observe the continuation of several instances of Internet shutdowns. The most prominent has been the long-term disruption that the Government of India has imposed on Kashmir. In 2019 the Government imposed what several mandate holders found to be “a form of collective punishment of the people of Jammu and Kashmir, without even a pretext of a precipitating offence”.[[fn:27]] Early in 2020 the Supreme Court of India found that the Government must periodically justify its continuing actions in Kashmir, but even as of this writing, reporting suggests that people in Kashmir are only able to access limited Internet sites and with extremely limited speeds. It has been reported by health-care professionals in Kashmir that the limitations imposed by the Government have made access to basic information difficult to obtain.[[fn:28]]", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "B. Access to the Internet"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "“UN rights experts urge India to end communications shutdown in Kashmir“, 22 August 2019."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Umar Lateef Misgar, “In Kashmir, slow internet throttles doctors’ coronavirus response“, New Humanitarian, 1 April 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. India has not been alone. The Government of Ethiopia imposed a shutdown of Internet services in the Oromia region in the beginning of 2020, reportedly promising only at the end of March to end the shutdown.[[fn:29]] Bangladesh imposed an Internet blackout affecting Rohingya refugees from Myanmar, prompting 50 organizations to call for a lifting of the blackout in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic.[[fn:30]] The persistence of Internet shutdowns in parts of Myanmar continues to be of serious concern,[[fn:31]] particularly in light of COVID-19. In other contexts, mandate holders have raised concerns related to Iraqi service disruptions.[[fn:32]] A growing number of shutdowns have been imposed during election periods, including in Cameroon, Chad, the Gambia and Togo.[[fn:33]] Almost 200 Internet shutdowns of various varieties in 2018 have been documented, with almost two thirds occurring in India, and the remainder occurring principally in Asia, the Middle East and Africa.[[fn:34]]", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "B. Access to the Internet"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Laetitia Bader, “Millions of Ethiopians can’t get COVID-19 news“, Human Rights Watch dispatch, 20 March 2020; Agence France-Presse, “Ethiopia vows to end communications blackout as virus cases rise“, The Guardian, 31 March 2020."}, {"n": 30, "text": "See Global Justice Centre, “Bangladesh: end Internet blackout to protect public health of Rohingya refugees and host communities“, 2 April 2020; Phelim Kine, “Internet curbs on Rohingya risk wider virus outbreak“, Physicians for Human Rights, 30 March 2020."}, {"n": 31, "text": "“UN experts concerned at surge in civilian casualties in northwest Myanmar after internet shutdown“, 18 February 2020. See also MMR 6/2019, available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}, {"n": 32, "text": "IRQ 4/2019. Available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}, {"n": 33, "text": "See research paper 1/2019 of the Special Rapporteur, on freedom of expression and elections in the digital age, June 2019, citing CMR 2/2017, TCD 3/2016, GMB 1/2017 and TGO 1/2017, p. 6. Available at www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/FreedomOpinion/Pages/ReserarchPapers.aspx."}, {"n": 34, "text": "Access Now, “The state of Internet shutdowns around the world: the 2018 #KeepItOn report” (July 2019)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Internet shutdowns are an affront to the freedom of expression that every person is guaranteed under human rights law. Internet shutdowns during a pandemic risk the health and life of everyone denied such access – and that of others with whom they come in contact.[[fn:35]] They are an affront to the right of everyone, especially health-care workers, to access health information. There is no room for limitation of Internet access at the time of a health emergency that affects everyone from the most local to the global level.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "B. Access to the Internet"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "Article 19: International Centre against Censorship, “Coronavirus: access to the internet can be a matter of life and death during a pandemic“, 31 March 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Even apart from Internet shutdowns, the pandemic, and the importance of digital access to health-care information, highlights the profound need for expanding infrastructure to allow for access in the first place. The challenges arise in contexts of both the digital divide between developed and developing nations and that within developing nations. More than four billion people still do not have regular access to the Internet; 90 per cent of them live in the developing world.[[fn:36]] Greater international coordination and support for digital connectivity is required, as identified by the High-Level Panel on Digital Cooperation.[[fn:37]] As part of any economic stimulus plans aimed at supporting communities and individuals during and after the pandemic, significant resources should be devoted to expanding broadband Internet access to those who do not now enjoy it. This includes not only providing communities with access but also ensuring that historically disadvantaged groups, and especially women, have robust, meaningful and affordable access to the Internet (see A/74/493).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "B. Access to the Internet"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "“Sustainable Development Goals: Goal 9 – industry, innovation and infrastructure”, United Nations Development Programme. Available at www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-9-industry-innovation-and-infrastructure.html."}, {"n": 37, "text": "See The Age of Digital Interdependence: Report of the UN Secretary-General’s High-Level Panel on Digital Cooperation (June 2019)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. As noted above, journalism plays an essential role in the communication of information to the public, enabling individuals to exercise their rights to seek and receive information and to develop opinions about the public health threat so that they can take appropriate steps to protect themselves and their communities. This is indeed a moment to reinforce the fundamentally important role of a free, uncensored and unhindered media[[fn:38]] to self-governance. It is something the Human Rights Council has repeatedly emphasized, giving it priority particularly in the context of the mandate on freedom of expression. In its resolution 7/36, the Council mandated the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression to gather all relevant information, wherever it may occur, relating to violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and discrimination against, or threats or use of violence, harassment, persecution or intimidation directed at persons, seeking to exercise or to promote the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including, as a matter of high priority, against journalists or other professionals in the field of information.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 13."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. In its resolution 39/6 on the safety of journalists, the Human Rights Council recognized:\n(a) The importance of freedom of expression and of free, independent, plural and diverse media, online as well as offline, in building and supporting the functioning of inclusive and peaceful knowledge societies and democracies, an informed citizenry, the rule of law and participation in public affairs, in holding public institutions and officials accountable, including by exposing corruption;\n(b) That the work of journalists often put them at specific risk of intimidation, threats, harassment and violence, including the targeting of their family members, which often deterred journalists from continuing their work or encouraged self-censorship, consequently depriving society of important information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Also in its resolution 39/6, the Council urged political leaders, public officials and/or authorities to refrain from denigrating, intimidating or threatening the media, including individual journalists, and thereby undermining trust in the credibility of journalists as well as respect for the importance of independent journalism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. These are among the basic requirements for Governments to ensure that journalism thrives and plays its essential role during the pandemic, and during all future public crises. The protection of the media is a protection of the public’s right to information, not only a protection owed to the reporters themselves. Moreover, the protection of journalists and promotion of access to information extends to the protection of sources and the protection of whistle-blowers (see A/70/361).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Nonetheless, the pandemic has already exposed numerous threats to journalism, with an increasing number of reports indicating that Governments attack the messenger and limit reporting rather than act responsively on the information disclosed. Some of the most concerning categories of attacks on journalism are listed below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. Police intimidation of journalists. Numerous reports from around the world indicate growing intimidation of journalists reporting on the pandemic, detention and questioning of journalists, and other forms of repression of media workers and human rights defenders conducting fact-finding inquiries concerning COVID-19.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Political attacks on journalists. The full protection of journalists cannot properly be achieved amid a culture that devalues free expression and denies respect to people who seek to exercise freedom of expression. There have been persistent attacks on journalists and civil society figures in the past few years, such as those arising in the United States of America,[[fn:39]] Hungary,[[fn:40]] Thailand[[fn:41]] and the Philippines.[[fn:42]] During the pandemic it is essential that government officials avoid denigrating those who will be reporting information regarding public health steps that individuals should be taking.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "“Trump attacks on media violate basic norms of press freedom, human rights experts say”, press release issued jointly with the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, 2 August 2018. See also USA 26/2017, available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}, {"n": 40, "text": "“UN experts decry Hungary’s tough new measures against migrants and civil society”, press release issued jointly with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders, the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association, the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of migrants, the Independent Expert on human rights and international solidarity, the Special Rapporteur on the right to education and the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, 11 September 2018."}, {"n": 41, "text": "“United Nations expert dismayed over Thai leader’s intimidating statements against freedom of the press”, 1 April 2015."}, {"n": 42, "text": "“Journalists’ killings: UN experts urge Philippines president-elect to stop instigating deadly violence”, 6 June 2016."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Lack of an enabling environment for media work. Given the essential role of media workers, Governments should be enabling them to continue their work, including, where appropriate, by classifying it as essential. When conducting their work, media workers should be provided with protections deemed necessary in the pandemic, such as protective masks and other relevant gear. An enabling environment also involves the holding of open press conferences that include independent media and ensuring that all media outlets, not just State-owned media, have access to public officials and other information sources.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Lack of protection of access for foreign journalists. The global nature of the COVID-19 crisis militates in favour of ensuring reporting that is available across borders. In particular, this means that Governments should not take steps to interfere with reporting from the international press. Unfortunately, there have been several reported instances of hostility directed by Governments at foreign press representatives.[[fn:43]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "For instance, the State Information Service of Egypt revoked the credentials of a Guardian journalist who published a report on COVID-19, saying the reporting did not meet journalistic standards. “Egypt revokes credentials of Guardian journalist“, International Press Institute, 18 March 2020. See also Joel Simon, “How not to fight Chinese propaganda“, Columbia Journalism Review, 21 February 2020, and Jon Allsop, “China expels American journalists at the worst possible time“, Columbia Journalism Review, 18 March 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Failure to release journalists from prison. WHO has stated that “people deprived of their liberty, and those living or working in enclosed environments in their close proximity, are likely to be more vulnerable to … COVID-19 … than the general population”.[[fn:44]] Nonetheless, individual journalists remain behind bars in countries around the world. The Committee to Protect Journalists has stated that more than 250 journalists are currently in prison.[[fn:45]] No media worker should be in prison by reason of their work. And yet those journalists, subjected to arbitrary and unlawful detention, now face the additional risk of their health and lives. Whether States wish to frame their releases as humanitarian or not, it is imperative that all States release any journalists in their custody. It is critical that any State that continues to criminalize journalism, including under the guise of prohibiting defamation or countering terrorism, does not pursue such cases during the pandemic given the additional risk posed by detention.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "WHO, “Preventing COVID-19 outbreak in prisons: a challenging but essential task for authorities“, 23 March 2020."}, {"n": 45, "text": "Committee to Protect Journalists, “Release all jailed journalists now“, 30 March 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Over the long term, it is also critical that States repeal any laws criminalizing journalism, including those adopted under the guise of addressing terrorism or defamation under other categories. In a 2002 joint declaration, freedom of expression monitors of the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe and the Organization of American States stated that “all criminal defamation laws should be abolished and replaced, where necessary, with appropriate civil defamation laws”.[[fn:46]] In the Declaration of Table Mountain, on press freedom in Africa, adopted in 2007, Governments were called upon to repeal criminal defamation and insult laws. The Human Rights Committee, in its general comment No. 34 (para. 47), also urged States parties to consider the decriminalization of defamation, and noted that, in any event, imprisonment was never a proportionate penalty for defamation.[[fn:47]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "Available at www.oas.org/en/iachr/expression/showarticle.asp?artID=87&lID=1."}, {"n": 47, "text": "See also specific concerns expressed by mandate holders in communications regarding individuals held because of the content of their expression: AGO 1/2015, AZE 1/2017, KHM 3/2016, LBN 1/2016, MYS 6/2018, MMR 7/2017, NGA 2/2018, NGA 3/2019 and THA 3/2017. Available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments. These represent a small set of all communications concerning the criminalization of journalism."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. In a speech delivered at the Munich Security Conference on 15 February 2020, the Director-General of WHO noted that “fake news spreads faster and more easily than this virus, and is just as dangerous”. WHO has noted the emergence of what it calls, an “infodemic” which involves “the rapid spread of information of all kinds, including rumours, gossip and unreliable information”.[[fn:48]] Public health authorities around the world have been legitimately concerned about disinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic. Unreliable information, particularly when disseminated by individuals with significant platforms, can cause grave harm, whether maliciously intended or not. WHO has stated that “successful management of infodemics will be based on (1) monitoring and identifying them, (2) analysis of them, and (3) control and mitigation measures”.[[fn:49]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "WHO, Managing Epidemics, p. 34."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. As noted above, the thrust of the WHO guidance emphasizes risk communication, including engagement with rumours in order to correct them. This general guidance, silent on whether prohibiting false information is legitimate, nonetheless suggests consistency with the position taken by human rights monitors and experts. The principles of legality and necessity should be applied to any approach to disinformation. In particular, “disinformation” is an extraordinarily elusive concept to define in law, susceptible to providing executive authorities with excessive discretion to determine what is disinformation, what is a mistake, what is truth. Moreover, as emphasized in a recent joint statement issued by freedom of expression monitors of the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe and the Inter-American Commission for Human Rights, “any attempts to criminalise information relating to the pandemic may create distrust in institutional information, delay access to reliable information and have a chilling effect on freedom of expression”.[[fn:50]] In other words, the penalization of disinformation is disproportionate, failing to achieve its goal of tamping down information while instead deterring individuals from sharing what could be valuable information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "“COVID-19: Governments must promote and protect access to and free flow of information during pandemic – international experts“, 19 March 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Information management may be seen through the lens of government obligations and company responsibilities, particularly companies involved in Internet searching or social media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. While much of the public discussion concerning false pandemic information concerns the steps government and private companies should take to remove such information or punish those who spread it, it is important to begin with government itself. In their 2017 joint declaration on freedom of expression and “fake news”, disinformation and propaganda, a set of simple and seemingly obvious points was set out. This included the following:\nState actors should not make, sponsor, encourage or further disseminate statements which they know or reasonably should know to be false (disinformation) or which demonstrate a reckless disregard for verifiable information (propaganda).\nState actors should, in accordance with their domestic and international legal obligations and their public duties, take care to ensure that they disseminate reliable and trustworthy information, including about matters of public interest, such as the economy, public health, security and the environment.[[fn:51]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "1. Governments and pandemic disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "Paragraph 2 (c) and (d) of the joint declaration."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Unfortunately, there are numerous instances of State actors disseminating unverified and often reckless claims about the origins of the COVID-19 virus, the responsibility for the pandemic, the presence or extent of COVID-19 in their country and the availability of drugs to counter the symptoms, and other harmful assertions. Such claims, which are always, sooner or later, shown to be false, undermine trust in government sources of information, which in turn may generate such public distrust that it becomes difficult for public health authorities to promote effective and proven policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "1. Governments and pandemic disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The COVID-19 pandemic has already triggered a small industry of hucksters seeking to translate people’s desire for a cure into a quick source of profit. The existence of such profiteers prompted the United States Food and Drug Administration to caution several companies that their promises of cures constituted fraud that could result in legal action if not addressed.[[fn:52]] Such consumer protection laws can be vital tools in the effort to protect public health, particularly during a pandemic. Such false claims may, of course, be prohibited and sanctioned so long as the tests of article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights are met.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "1. Governments and pandemic disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "See, e.g., Food and Drug Administration, warning letter MARCS-CMS 604885 dated 6 March 2020. Available at https://www.fda.gov/inspections-compliance-enforcement-and-criminal-investigations/warning-letters/colloidal-vitality-llcvital-silver-604885-03062020."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Other sorts of disinformation concerning the COVID-19 pandemic are also circulating in traditional and social media worldwide. Some pertain to troubling political blame games, relating mainly to inter-State disputes, and are not conducive to the kind of international cooperation necessary to meet the challenge of the pandemic. Other forms may be more dangerous, such as information related to quarantines, purported health-care advice and other unverified claims that, if widely pursued, could cause harm to the health of individuals. Any government efforts to counter such disinformation should be based on the principles outlined above: full, honest and evolving communication with the public, the promotion and protection of an independent press, and the careful and public correction of misinformation that could lead to public health harm. Beyond the pandemic, States should take steps to ensure an enabling environment for independent media and educational settings that promote media literacy and otherwise give individuals critical-thinking tools to distinguish between verifiable and unverifiable claims.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "1. Governments and pandemic disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. In the brief period since the COVID-19 outbreak and transformation into a pandemic, a number of States have adopted laws purportedly aimed at sanctioning disinformation concerning the pandemic. Some such laws may legitimately be aimed at protecting privacy rights with respect to a person’s infection status. Those provisions must be consistent with the standards set out in article 17 of the Covenant. In general, however, the approach should reflect the aspects referred to by the Human Rights Commissioner of the Council of Europe when she urged Council of Europe member States to ensure that measures to combat disinformation re necessary, proportionate and subject to regular oversight, including by Parliament and national human rights institutions. Measures to combat disinformation must never prevent journalists and media actors from carrying out their work or lead to content being unduly blocked on the Internet. Those countries which have introduced restrictions that do not meet these standards must repeal them as a matter of urgency.[[fn:53]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "1. Governments and pandemic disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "Commissioner for Human Rights of the Council of Europe, “Press freedom must not be undermined by measures to counter disinformation about COVID-19“, statement issued on 3 April 2020."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The 2017 joint declaration made clear that general prohibitions on the dissemination of information based on “vague and ambiguous ideas, including ‘false news’ or ‘non-objective information’ are incompatible with human rights law and should be abolished”.[[fn:54]] Vague prohibitions of disinformation effectively empower government officials with the ability to determine the truthfulness or falsity of content in the public and political domain, in conflict with the requirements of necessity and proportionality under article 19 (3).[[fn:55]] Legislation to impose such prohibitions has been proliferating in countries including Ethiopia, France, Italy, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Russian Federation and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.[[fn:56]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "1. Governments and pandemic disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "In a communication sent to Italy (ITA 1/2018), it was noted that an operating protocol on combating fake news contained undefined terms, such as “manifestly unfounded and biased news”, “false” and “fake”, and did not specify with requisite clarity the type of content that was prohibited, thus breaching the legality principle of article 19 (3) of the Covenant. In a response dated 15 May 2018, the Government of Italy reiterated its commitment to protect fundamental rights, including the freedom of opinion and expression. In the letter, the Government confirmed that the protocol was no longer operational as it was conceived solely for the electoral period. The communication and response are available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}, {"n": 55, "text": "Research paper 1/2019 of the Special Rapporteur, pp. 9–10."}, {"n": 56, "text": "See the end of mission statement issued by the Special Rapporteur on his visit to Ethiopia, available at www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=25402&LangID=E; and FRA 5/2018, ITA 1/2018, MYS 1/2018, MYS 6/2018, PAK 13/2015, RUS 4/2019 and GBR 4/2015."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Numerous countries have pre-existing “false information” laws, the principal intention or effect of which is to restrict criticism of government or the reporting of news not favoured by government or officials. The example of Malaysia raises a concern despite the State’s repeal of its 2018 Anti-Fake News Act (No. 803). The Act had made it an offence for anyone to knowingly and maliciously create, offer, publish, print, distribute, circulate or disseminate any fake news or publication containing fake news (art. 4, para. 1). The law made the offence punishable with significant fines, imprisonment or both. After a change in government, however, opposition to the legislation had a significant effect: a bill to repeal the Act was passed in December 2019.[[fn:57]] Nonetheless, the Government of Malaysia now appears to be relying on its regular penal code to charge individuals with circulating false information about COVID-19.[[fn:58]] Similarly, there is growing concern that Singapore, which in 2019 enacted a law prohibiting deliberate “online falsehoods”, will use its new authority to address pandemic information.[[fn:59]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "1. Governments and pandemic disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "“Finally, Dewan Negara approves repeal of Anti-Fake News Act“, The Star, 19 December 2019."}, {"n": 58, "text": "Article 19: International Centre against Censorship, “Malaysia: Stop using repressive laws to counter misinformation about coronavirus“, 24 March 2020."}, {"n": 59, "text": "For background, see SGP 3/2019, and the letter dated 5 July 2019 from the Permanent Representative of the Singapore to the United Nations Office and other international organizations in Geneva addressed to the Special Rapporteur. Available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Private search engine and social media companies are justifiably under significant pressure to ensure that they do not enable potentially harmful public health disinformation to circulate on their platforms. Several have already taken aggressive steps to address misinformation about the COVID-19 virus. Many have developed approaches to ensure that, whenever a person searches for information related to the disease, an early search result includes verified information from a public health authority. Others are reinforcing their existing policies, for instance by removing content that may “discourage people from seeking medical treatment or claim that harmful substances have health benefits”.[[fn:60]] Twitter is expanding its definition of “harm” to include “content that goes directly against guidance from authoritative sources of global and local public health information”.[[fn:61]] One analyst found that platforms were taking “an unusually aggressive approach in removing misinformation and other exploitative content and boosting trusted content”, like information from WHO.[[fn:62]] At the same time, public health measures such as social distancing have led companies to drastically reduce their content moderation workforce, leading to an increase in the use of tools of automation – and the admission of likely mistakes.[[fn:63]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "2. Internet search and social media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 60, "text": "YouTube Help, “Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) updates”, FAQ: How is YouTube fighting misinformation around coronavirus (COVID-19)? Available at https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9777243?hl=en (accessed 6 April 2020)."}, {"n": 61, "text": "Vijaya Gadde and Matt Derella, “An update on our continuity strategy during COVID-19“, Twitter, 16 March 2020."}, {"n": 62, "text": "Evelyn Douek, “COVID-19 and social media content moderation“, Lawfare, 25 March 2020."}, {"n": 63, "text": "Facebook, “Keeping our platform safe with remote and reduced content review“, 19 March 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. As has been evident during the COVID-19 pandemic, social media and search engine companies have an enormous impact on public discourse and the rights of individuals on and off their platforms. There is potential for mistakes, particularly in the context of the emphasis on tools of automation, that could cause significant public health harms. Such harm could be caused by, among other things, the take-down of verified and beneficial public health information, which thereafter attracts a negative reputation because of the initial takedown, or a failure to remove content or users sharing unverified information that could lead to health risks. There is also the potential for viewpoint discrimination. Thus, when addressing issues such as the posting of information about public protests inconsistent with governmental guidelines during the pandemic, social media companies should ensure that their policies apply to all such gatherings and do not discriminate on the basis of the protesters’ viewpoints. These responsibilities are heavy, and it is particularly difficult for companies to do their required human rights due diligence when their employees are unable to hold regular meetings, dispersed because of public health policies. Nonetheless, that responsibility persists, especially during the pandemic.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "2. Internet search and social media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. In seeking to meet their responsibilities to prevent or mitigate human rights harms during the pandemic, it is essential that the companies conduct ongoing due diligence to determine the impact their content policies are having on the rights to health and to life (see A/HRC/38/35). Given the nature of the public threat, they should aim towards maximum transparency of their policies and engage, on an urgent basis, not only with public health authorities but with affected communities wherever they operate. They should especially review their policies and practices to ensure that content moderators are available as soon as possible to review COVID-19 information, as reliance solely on automation may have a deleterious impact on health and human rights (see A/73/348).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "2. Internet search and social media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. The emergence of the COVID-19 virus will increase demands for the use of surveillance tools to trace positive tests for the virus and track the spread of the disease. This desire is fully understandable as a matter of public health. Public health officials see disease surveillance as necessary to “show … the coverage and impact of the interventions being performed”.[[fn:64]] Some States have undertaken robust health surveillance, even if it remains too early (at the time of writing) to evaluate the human rights or public health impacts. For instance, in the Republic of Korea, under the Infectious Disease Control and Prevention Act, public health authorities enjoy significant power to collect personal health data across the country during an epidemic. However, while the law enables substantial disease surveillance with privacy guarantees, it also requires government officials to share with the public basic information concerning its contact tracing efforts. In this way, the law appears to satisfy the government’s health policy requirements and the public’s right to information.[[fn:65]] It is imperative that, even where Governments permit the collection of data, such collection be accompanied by strict personal data protection guarantees and be time-limited while also promoting, as the Republic of Korea appears to be doing, the public’s right to know the outcomes of such collection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "E. Public health surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 64, "text": "WHO, Managing Epidemics, p. 33."}, {"n": 65, "text": "Eun A Jo, “A democratic response to coronavirus: lessons from South Korea“, The Diplomat, 30 March 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. As States develop surveillance tools, the Human Rights Council should be mindful of the recent history of extensive, excessive surveillance – both mass and targeted – that has failed to meet basic standards of legality, necessity and proportionality, and legitimate purpose (see A/HRC/27/37). Holders of the mandate on freedom of opinion and expression have long been concerned with government surveillance as a tool of limiting freedom of expression (see A/HRC/23/40 and Corr.1 and A/HRC/41/35). COVID-19 will lead to increased pressure to impose ever greater and possibly more invasive surveillance because of the public health requirement to trace the contacts of an infected person.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "E. Public health surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. A growing industry of private surveillance tools has significantly increased the risk of surveillance of communications and data by government and private actors (A/HRC/41/35). Many private surveillance companies have histories of problematic support for and engagement in human rights violations, yet some are reportedly already seeking entrance into the COVID-19 surveillance field.[[fn:66]] Such private actors should be subject to robust and transparent public oversight and should themselves adopt policies consistent with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "E. Public health surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "See, e.g., Lorenzo Franceschi-Bicchierai, “We saw NSO Group’s Covid-19 software in action, and privacy experts are worried“, Vice, 2 April 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Several elements are key to ensuring that surveillance is conducted consistently with international human rights law. Principles that should govern surveillance in the pandemic are as follows:[[fn:67]]\n(a) Any authorization of surveillance should be contained in precise and publicly accessible laws and only be applied when necessary and proportionate to achieve a legitimate objective (such as protecting public health);\n(b) Authorization of surveillance of specified individuals should be based on independent evaluation, preferably by a judicial authority, with appropriate limitations on time, location, manner and scope;\n(c) Rigorous record-keeping should be required so that individuals and oversight bodies can ascertain that surveillance was conducted for legitimate public health purposes;\n(d) Any personal data collected should be subject to strict privacy protections to ensure against disclosure of personal information to anyone not authorized for public health purposes;\n(e) Some personal data should be expressly excluded from collection, such as the content of a person’s communications, and robust safeguards must be put in place to ensure against any government or third-party misuse of such data, including use for purposes unrelated to the public health emergency;\n(f) Where personal data is anonymized, the State and any third-party actor involved in collection must be able to demonstrate such anonymity.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "E. Public health surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "The principles are drawn from A/HRC/41/35, para. 50. See also the joint statement of several civil society organizations entitled “States use of digital surveillance technologies to fight pandemic must respect human rights“, 2 April 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. “How can you have an opinion if you are not informed?”[[fn:68]] In 11 words, the political philosopher Hannah Arendt summed up the theory connecting article 19 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which protects everyone’s right to hold opinions without interference, with the guarantee, in article 19 (2), of everyone to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers and through any media.[[fn:69]] She also noted: “If everybody always lies ... nobody believes anything any longer. ... And a people that no longer can believe anything cannot make up its mind. It is deprived not only of its capacity to act but also of its capacity to think and to judge. And with such a people you can then do what you please.”[[fn:70]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Concluding remarks"], "footnotes": [{"n": 68, "text": "“Hannah Arendt: from an interview“, New York Review of Books, 26 October 1978."}, {"n": 69, "text": "See also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 2."}, {"n": 70, "text": "“Hannah Arendt: from an interview“."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. Hannah Arendt knew of what she spoke. A scholar of totalitarianism forced to flee Nazi Germany, she presented intersecting and fundamental principles of human rights law – the rights to opinion, expression, access to information, autonomy, self-governance – in much the way that the Covenant and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights promote democratic values and protect human life. While she had in mind the kind of propaganda that facilitates authoritarianism, her point extends to all nature of government practices that interfere with the individual’s ability to develop informed opinions and to take action consistent with those opinions. At this particular moment in history, we all can see exactly what she had in mind, and why the drafters of the Covenant, and of the Declaration 20 years before it, believed it essential to guarantee expression. The Inter-American Court of Human Rights has echoed this essential principle connecting expression to opinion:\nFreedom of expression is a cornerstone upon which the very existence of a democratic society rests. It is indispensable for the formation of public opinion. … It represents, in short, the means that enable the community, when exercising its options, to be sufficiently informed. Consequently, it can be said that a society that is not well informed is not a society that is truly free.[[fn:71]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Concluding remarks"], "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Advisory Opinion OC-5/85 of 13 November 1985, para. 70."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. In a nutshell, the premise underlying freedom of opinion and expression strongly supports appropriate public health responses to COVID-19. The freedom to share information and ideas empowers individuals and communities, human development and democratic self-governance. In certain circumstances, information saves lives. By contrast, lies and propaganda deprive individuals of autonomy, of the capacity to think critically, of trust in themselves and in sources of information, and of the right to engage in the kind of debate that improves social conditions. Worst of all, censorship can kill, by design or by negligence. These are the principles that have led States, in multiple instruments across human rights law and the political organs of the United Nations, to emphasize government’s obligation to enable, promote and protect robust and independent media and provide reliable information to the public, which extends to affirmative government information strategies concerning voting, health and other essential services and fundamental rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Concluding remarks"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Public health authorities worldwide have called for social distancing and other difficult measures to ensure that health systems have the capacity to care for the sick. This is a determination made on the basis of science and experience in public health. In order for it to work – in order for the public, generally speaking, to consent to such hardships – individuals must trust that the information the orders are based on are rooted in evidence and commitment to the public’s interest. An environment dominated by censorship, the root of which is distrust of the public’s capacity to think critically, is toxic to public support. By contrast, an approach that treats all members of the public as capable of understanding complicated information, that treats them as partners in an uncertain and frightening moment in global history, is conducive to the kind of social solidarity necessary for turning the tide against exponential infection growths, and ultimately giving health authorities the space and time to develop the kinds of interventions that can protect public health for the long term.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Concluding remarks"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. The present report will not include a step-by-step set of recommendations as is typical. Instead, it contains a plea to all Governments to treat those within their jurisdictions – and indeed, given the global nature of the pandemic, those without – with the dignity and respect demanded by international human rights law. In moral terms, that requires an attitude of democratic participation, and a willingness to engage the public with generosity and understanding, in the hard steps that individuals are being asked to take: separation from loved ones, lonely deaths, loss of employment, education and social intercourse, and the deprivation of cultural or religious activities that help billions of people enjoy meaningful lives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Concluding remarks"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. In legal terms, ensuring the dignity and respect owed all individuals entails:\n(a) Being honest with people and giving them access to information in way they can consume, in a way that promotes non-discrimination;\n(b) Enabling all individuals genuine access to the tools of communication necessary to learn about the public health crisis and the steps necessary to protect themselves and, if they are health-care workers (formally or informally), to care for others;\n(c) Strongly promoting and protecting, and refraining from interference with, the independent media’s role of informing the public and holding officials accountable for their statements and actions;\n(d) Ensuring that people have the tools to confront and correct disinformation, and in particular avoiding taking the kinds of steps that will deter the sharing of critical information at a time of crisis;\n(e) Doing what is necessary to trace the development of the disease – but only what is necessary. The law is flexible enough to tolerate errors and inadvertent overreach at a time of crisis, but it is not so flexible as to condone the discretion to conduct surveillance without oversight, without limit and without resort to fundamental principles of legality and necessity;\n(f) Ensuring accountability, such that no State is free to use this public health crisis for unlawful purposes beyond the scope of the health threat.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Concluding remarks"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. More than 2,000 years ago, Octavian spun a vicious disinformation campaign to destroy his rival Mark Anthony and eventually become the first Roman emperor Augustus Caesar. Since those ancient times, information has been fabricated and manipulated to win wars, advance political ambitions, avenge grievances, hurt the vulnerable and make financial profit.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Disinformation is not a new phenomenon. What is new is that digital technology has enabled pathways for false or manipulated information to be created, disseminated and amplified by various actors for political, ideological or commercial motives at a scale, speed and reach never known before. Interacting with political, social and economic grievances in the real world, disinformation online can have serious consequences for democracy and human rights, as recent elections, the response to the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic and attacks on minority groups have shown. It is politically polarizing, hinders people from meaningfully exercising their human rights and destroys their trust in Governments and institutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. Finding appropriate responses to disinformation is difficult, not least because the concept is undefined and open to abuse, and because the size and nature of the problem is contested in the absence of sufficient data and research. State responses have often been problematic and heavy handed and had a detrimental impact on human rights. Companies play a major role in spreading disinformation but their efforts to address the problem have been woefully inadequate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. At the core is a human rights challenge, aggravated by an information disorder. There is growing evidence that disinformation tends to thrive where human rights are constrained, where the public information regime is not robust and where media quality, diversity and independence is weak. Conversely, where freedom of opinion and expression is protected, civil society, journalists and others are able to challenge falsehoods and present alternative viewpoints. That makes international human rights a powerful and appropriate framework for addressing disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression recognizes the complexity of disinformation and outlines the conceptual and contextual challenges it poses. She sets out the relevant international legal standards, analyses the responses of States and companies to the phenomenon and then proposes recommendations for multifaceted responses grounded in international human rights law, transparency and accountability and in the multi-stakeholder engagement of States, companies and civil society. Building on the ground-breaking work done by her predecessor on the human rights responsibilities of digital platforms, the current Special Rapporteur calls for a review of the business models of the platforms and a recalibration of State responses to disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. In drafting the report, the Special Rapporteur has benefited from the submissions of 119 civil society organizations and academic entities, three international organizations, three Member States and three companies, as well as several online consultations with civil society organizations and meetings with Member States, social media companies and experts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. The report does not purport to be comprehensive in its content or recommendations. It does not, for example, cover the issue of disinformation campaigns directed by State or State-sponsored actors towards the population of other States, as that is a complex subject requiring more consultations and reflection than would have been possible within the timeline of the present report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The purpose of the present report is to open a dialogue with interested stakeholders, including Member States, companies and civil society, and contribute to ongoing discussions in various forums with a view to further refining and pursuing the conclusions and recommendations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. There is no universally accepted definition of disinformation. While the lack of agreement makes a global response challenging, the lack of consensus underlines the complex, intrinsically political and contested nature of the concept.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "A. Concept of disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Part of the problem lies in the impossibility of drawing clear lines between fact and falsehood and between the absence and presence of intent to cause harm. False information can be instrumentalized by actors with diametrically opposite objectives. Truthful information can be labelled as “fake news” and delegitimized. Opinions, beliefs, uncertain knowledge and other forms of expression like parody and satire do not easily fall into a binary analysis of truth and falsity. Furthermore, false content that is spread online with the intent to cause harm (disinformation) can be picked up and shared by innocent third parties with no such intent (misinformation), the innocent vector boosting dissemination and adding credibility to the malicious campaigner. Intentionally or not, the harm occurs. Some forms of disinformation can amount to incitement to hatred, discrimination and violence, which are prohibited under international law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "A. Concept of disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. The European Commission has described disinformation as verifiably false or misleading information that, cumulatively, is created, presented and disseminated for economic gain or to intentionally deceive the public and that may cause public harm.[[fn:1]] The Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development, on the other hand, has approached disinformation as false or misleading content with potential consequences, irrespective of the underlying intention or behaviours producing and circulating messages.[[fn:2]] National laws and regulations dealing with disinformation cover a varied combination of false or misleading information, the intention to cause harm or not and the nature of the harm caused or intended. Disinformation is often described in broad, ill-defined terms not in line with international legal standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "A. Concept of disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "European Commission, Code of Practice on Disinformation (2018)."}, {"n": 2, "text": "Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development, Balancing Act: Countering Digital Disinformation While Respecting Freedom of Expression (International Telecommunication Union and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, September 2020), pp. 8, 18 and 25 ff."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Academics have developed a taxonomy of an information disorder in which “disinformation” is described as false information that is knowingly shared with the intention to cause harm, “misinformation” as the unintentional dissemination of false information and “malinformation” as genuine information shared with the intention to cause harm.[[fn:3]] By setting out a holistic and interconnected picture of the problem, the information disorder framework encourages a multidimensional, varied and contextualized approach to disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "A. Concept of disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Claire Wardle and Hossein Derakhshan, Information Disorder: Toward an Interdisciplinary Framework for Research and Policymaking (Council of Europe, 2017), p. 5."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Some academics have framed the phenomenon of disinformation as “viral deception” consisting of three vectors: manipulative actors, deceptive behaviour and harmful content.[[fn:4]] The focus is on online behaviour rather than on the veracity of content. Some large social media platforms, including Facebook, refer to these vectors to inform their policies on responding to coordinated inauthentic behaviour.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "A. Concept of disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Camille François, “Actors, behaviors, content: a disinformation ABC” (Transatlantic Working Group, September 2019)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Ultimately, the lack of clarity and agreement on what constitutes disinformation, including the frequent and interchangeable use of the term misinformation, reduces the effectiveness of responses.[[fn:5]] It also leads to approaches that endanger the right to freedom of opinion and expression. It is vital to clarify the concepts of disinformation and misinformation within the framework of international human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "A. Concept of disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Submission from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. For the purposes of the present report, disinformation is understood as false information that is disseminated intentionally to cause serious social harm and misinformation as the dissemination of false information unknowingly. The terms are not used interchangeably.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "A. Concept of disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Disinformation spreads rapidly and widely through social media and messaging platforms, even in some of the most remote and fragile regions of the world,[[fn:6]] although in overall terms it remains a small subset of all the information in circulation.[[fn:7]] Digital technology has made it possible to share in new ways texts, images and videos, including “deep fakes” and “shallow fakes”, that can give a distorted picture of reality.[[fn:8]] False information is amplified by algorithms and business models that are designed to promote sensational content that keep users engaged on platforms. Disinformation thrives in an online environment that encourages amplification while reducing accessibility to plural and diverse sources of information.", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "B. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Submission from Fondation Hirondelle."}, {"n": 7, "text": "Submissions from the Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism (University of Oxford) and the Center for Social Media and Politics (New York University)."}, {"n": 8, "text": "For a description of various methods of spreading disinformation, see, e.g., Kate Jones, “Online disinformation and political discourse: applying a human rights framework”, Chatham House Research Paper (November 2019), pp. 11–12."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. The global disinformation system is a highly lucrative business that is driven by commercial motives and that is becoming increasingly professionalized.[[fn:9]] Technology companies are also purportedly allowing spreaders of misinformation to monetize their content, for instance by allowing junk news websites disseminating COVID-19-related conspiracies to post advertisements on their platforms.[[fn:10]] Essentially, disinformation is a modern way in the digital era of making money by purposefully spreading lies.[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "B. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Samantha Bradshaw, Hannah Bailey and Philip N. Howard, “Industrialized disinformation: 2020 global inventory of organized social media manipulation”. (Computational Propaganda Project, University of Oxford, 2021), p. 21."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See, e.g., United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Parliament, “Misinformation in the COVID-19 Infodemic” (20 July 2020)."}, {"n": 11, "text": "Submission from Edith Cowan University."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The use of new technologies for the production of disinformation or divisive content is exploited, for multiple motives (political, ideological or commercial), by multiple actors, including States, political parties, politicians and other powerful individuals or businesses supported by troll armies or public relations companies.[[fn:12]] The false messages of these instigators are often conveyed, unwittingly or not, by traditional media,[[fn:13]] celebrities or ordinary users and their peer-to-peer and friend-to-friend networks in a complex mix of exchanges between the online and offline worlds.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "B. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "See, e.g., Dhanaraj Thakur and DeVan L. Hankerson, “Facts and their discontents: a research agenda for online disinformation, race and gender” (Center for Democracy and Technology, February 2021). See also the submission from PEN America."}, {"n": 13, "text": "Media Matters for Democracy, “Disorder in the newsroom: the media’s perceptions and response to the infodemic” (December 2020)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Ideologically driven non-State actors, including extremist or terrorist groups, also frequently engage in the dissemination of false news and narratives as part of their propaganda to radicalize and recruit members.[[fn:14]] The security dimensions and the excessive responses by States to them add to human rights concerns.[[fn:15]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "B. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See, e.g., United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute, “Stop the virus of disinformation: the risk of malicious use of social media during COVID-19 and the technology options to fight it” (November 2020), pp. 15–17."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Submission from Stanford University."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Notwithstanding the above, the growth of disinformation in recent times cannot be attributed solely to technology or malicious actors. It needs to be understood in the context of other factors, including: a struggling legacy media sector, challenged by digital transformation and competition from online platforms and threatened by State pressure in some parts of the world; the absence of robust public information regimes; low levels of digital and media literacy among the general public; and the frustrations and grievances of a growing number of people, fuelled by decades of economic deprivation, market failures, political disenfranchisement and social inequalities, which make some individuals more susceptible to manipulation.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "B. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Submissions from Article 19: International Centre against Censorship and the Internet Governance Project."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Disinformation is not the cause but the consequence of societal crises and the breakdown of public trust in institutions. Strategies to address disinformation are unlikely to succeed without more attention being paid to these underlying factors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "B. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Although empirical research suggests that only a small proportion of people are exposed to disinformation,[[fn:17]] the impacts on institutions, communities and individuals are real, broad and legitimate. Over 100 submissions received by the Special Rapporteur for the present report contain many concrete examples.[[fn:18]] They suggest that much of the targeting is politically motivated against institutions and individuals in vulnerable situations and affects a wide range of human rights, including economic, social, cultural, civil and political rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "C. Targets and victims"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Submissions from the Center for Social Media and Politics and the Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism."}, {"n": 18, "text": "These submissions will be made available at www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/FreedomOpinion/Pages/Report-on-disinformation.aspx."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. There is clear evidence that robust public information regimes and independent journalism are strong antidotes to disinformation. Therefore, it is doubly disturbing that smear campaigns against journalists have become more pernicious on social media networks. Some political leaders have labelled the media as “the enemy of the people”[[fn:19]] or financed entire “fake news industries” that drown out their reporting.[[fn:20]] Such attacks both erode public trust in journalism and make journalists more fearful about doing their job.[[fn:21]] According to one report, at least 34 journalists were jailed on charges of “fake news” in 2020, compared to only 1 in 2012.[[fn:22]] Disinformation poses a threat not only to the safety of journalists but also to the media ecosystem in which they operate,[[fn:23]] forcing the legacy media to divert precious resources from reporting to dispelling and debunking lies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "C. Targets and victims"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Committee to Protect Journalists, “The Trump Administration and the media: attacks on press credibility endanger US democracy and global press freedom” (April 2020)."}, {"n": 20, "text": "European Parliament, “Disinformation and propaganda: impact on the functioning of the rule of law in the EU and its Member States” (2019)."}, {"n": 21, "text": "Media Matters for Democracy, “Disorder in the newsroom”."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Submission from the Committee to Protect Journalists."}, {"n": 23, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Disinformation has been used in several countries in highly visible ways to undermine the right to free and fair elections.[[fn:24]] As an example, racially targeted disinformation campaigns were used to suppress votes from communities of colour in the three most recent major elections in the United States of America.[[fn:25]] During the 2020 presidential election, then President Donald Trump and his surrogates repeatedly sought to erode confidence in the postal voting system and made baseless claims about election fraud on social media.[[fn:26]] The detrimental impact of politically motivated disinformation has been felt on democratic institutions in many other countries too, chilling free speech, reducing the level of trust in the public sphere as a space for democratic deliberation, amplifying anti-democratic narratives, driving polarization and promoting authoritarian and populist agendas.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "C. Targets and victims"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Submissions from the Center for Democracy and Technology and PEN America."}, {"n": 25, "text": "Young Mie Kim, “Voter suppression has gone digital”, Brennan Center for Justice, 20 November 2018."}, {"n": 26, "text": "Submission from the International Center for Not-for-Profit Law."}, {"n": 27, "text": "See, e.g., submissions from the Association for Progressive Communications and Global Partners Digital."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Over the past year, the spread of disinformation and misinformation by non-State sources has posed significant challenges to the right to health and responses to the COVID-19 pandemic against a background of efforts by some Governments to withhold or falsify information.[[fn:28]] As in the case of global health, in respect of climate change too scientific information has been discredited and environmental activists have been attacked through well-organized online disinformation campaigns.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "C. Targets and victims"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "A/HRC/44/49, paras. 45–47."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Ideological and identity-based disinformation has fomented discrimination and hatred against minorities, migrants and other marginalized communities,[[fn:29]] generating ethnic or religious tensions[[fn:30]] that have culminated, at times, in violence offline, as happened in Ethiopia[[fn:31]] and Myanmar.[[fn:32]] Civil society organizations are calling for more research to be carried out to understand the full measure of disinformation on vulnerable and minority communities.[[fn:33]]", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "C. Targets and victims"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "A/HRC/46/57."}, {"n": 30, "text": "Submission from the Ahmadiyya Muslim Lawyers Association."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26483&LangID=E."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26808&LangID=E."}, {"n": 33, "text": "See submissions from Access Now and the Center for Democracy and Technology."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Online gendered disinformation campaigns are increasingly being used to deter women from participating in the public sphere, mixing “old ingrained sexist attitudes with the anonymity and reach of social media in an effort to destroy women’s reputations and push them out of public life”.[[fn:34]] Women journalists, politicians and gender equity advocates who speak out on feminist issues are particularly targeted.[[fn:35]] There is also significant disinformation around the issue of sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:36]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "C. Targets and victims"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "Nina Jankowicz, “How disinformation became a new threat to women”, Coda Story, 11 December 2017."}, {"n": 35, "text": "Submission from Media Matters for Democracy. See also the case of Maria Ressa, mentioned in AL PHL 12/2018."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Submission from MSI Reproductive Choices."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Human rights defenders and civil society organizations, especially those representing marginalized and discriminated groups, are harshly attacked and subjected to verbal abuse and vilification by online disinformation campaigns.[[fn:37]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "C. Targets and victims"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "Submission from Digital Rights Foundation."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. The negative impact of disinformation is undeniable and must be addressed. International human rights law provides a powerful antidote and a framework for formulating responses.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "C. Targets and victims"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The Human Rights Council has affirmed that responses to the spread of disinformation and misinformation must be grounded in international human rights law, including the principles of lawfulness, legitimacy, necessity and proportionality.[[fn:38]] While disinformation affects a wide range of human rights, the present report focuses on the freedom of opinion and expression in the light of the particular value that this right brings to efforts to counter disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Resolution 44/12."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights guarantee the right to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers and through any media. While freedom of opinion is absolute, freedom of expression may be restricted under certain circumstances. The State has a duty to refrain from interfering with that right and also an obligation to ensure that others, including businesses, do not interfere with it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First citation: 'Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR explicitly named, non-treaty."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second citation: 'article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. The previous mandate holder has urged digital technology companies to apply international human rights standards in their business practices.[[fn:39]] The exhortations have gained added urgency in the context of disinformation and misinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "A/HRC/38/35, paras. 9–12; and A/74/486, paras. 40–55."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The right to freedom of opinion comprises two dimensions: an internal dimension closely connected to the right to privacy and freedom of thought and an external dimension related to freedom of expression. While the latter aspect is discussed frequently, the former has begun only recently to gain attention as a result of greater awareness and understanding of the manipulative techniques used by social platforms, State actors and others online to influence individuals in ways that could infringe their freedom of opinion.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "A. Freedom of opinion"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "Evelyn Aswad, “Losing the freedom to be human”, Columbia Human Rights Law Review, vol. 52 (2020); Susie Alegre, “Rethinking freedom of thought for the 21st Century”, European Human Rights Law Review (2017); and Kate Jones, “Protecting political discourse from online manipulation: the international human rights law framework”, European Human Rights Law Review (2021)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights protects the right to hold opinions without interference. The right is absolute and permits no exception or restriction. Notwithstanding the absolute and broad nature of this right, in reality human beings are influenced constantly in their thought and opinion by others, and “the freedom to be subject to a wide range of influences is itself a dimension of our autonomy”.[[fn:41]] Therefore, in determining whether and how disinformation online might infringe freedom of opinion, the critical issue is the knowledge and consent of the rights holder.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "A. Freedom of opinion"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "Kate Jones, “Online disinformation and political discourse: applying a human rights framework”, p. 33."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — single compound citation gives equal weight to UDHR (non-treaty) and ICCPR with one regex_ref. Cross-instrument equal citation -> AMBIGUOUS."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The right to form one’s opinion and to develop it by way of reasoning is an essential element of freedom of opinion. It is well established that the freedom of opinion includes the right not to express an opinion, as well as the right to change one’s opinion whenever or for whatever reason a person so freely chooses.[[fn:42]] In other words, involuntary disclosure is prohibited and mental autonomy is affirmed. Any effort to coerce the holding or not holding of any opinion is prohibited.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "A. Freedom of opinion"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 9."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Punishment, harassment, intimidation and stigmatization for holding an opinion, including coercive, involuntary or non-consensual manipulation of the thinking process to develop an opinion, are violations of the right to opinion.[[fn:43]] Coercive or manipulative action has been understood to include indoctrination, “brainwashing”, influencing “the conscious or subconscious mind with psychoactive drugs or other means of manipulation”.[[fn:44]] The digital equivalent would be techniques that allow State and non-State actors to access and influence the thoughts and opinions of people without their knowledge or consent, such as content curation through powerful platform recommendations or microtargeting. Such techniques play a significant role in spreading disinformation and, as involuntary or non-consensual manipulation of thinking processes, contravene the right to freedom of opinion.[[fn:45]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "A. Freedom of opinion"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "“Deliberate efforts to influence through non-consensual means violate this right when they rise to the level of either overwhelming mental autonomy or manipulating one’s reasoning.” See Evelyn Aswad, “Losing the freedom to be human”, p. 329."}, {"n": 44, "text": "Manfred Novak, UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: CCPR Commentary, 2nd ed. (Kehl am Rhein, N.P. Engel, 2005)."}, {"n": 45, "text": "Evelyn Aswad, “Losing the freedom to be human”. See also a similar commentary on article 9 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (European Convention on Human Rights) by Susie Alegre, “Rethinking freedom of thought for the 21st Century”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The right to freedom of expression is broad and inclusive, and encapsulates the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers and through any media, offline or online.[[fn:46]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "B. Freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 12, and Human Rights Council resolution 20/8."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. In the context of disinformation, two points are worth noting. Firstly, the right to freedom of expression applies to all kinds of information and ideas, including those that may shock, offend or disturb,[[fn:47]] and irrespective of the truth or falsehood of the content.[[fn:48]] Under international human rights law, people have the right to express ill-founded opinions and statements or indulge in parody or satire if they so wish.[[fn:49]] Secondly, the free flow of information is a critical element of freedom of expression and places a positive obligation on States to proactively put information of public interest in the public domain, and promote plural and diverse sources of information, including media freedom. It can be a valuable tool for countering disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "B. Freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 11. See also European Court of Human Rights, Handyside v. the United Kingdom, application No. 5493/72, judgment, 7 December 1976, para. 49."}, {"n": 48, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), paras. 47 and 49. See also European Court of Human Rights, Salov v. Ukraine, application No. 65518/01, judgment, 6 September 2005, para. 113: “Article 10 of the [European] Convention [on Human Rights, on freedom of expression] does not prohibit discussion or dissemination of information received even if it is strongly suspected that this information might not be truthful.”"}, {"n": 49, "text": "False statements can be restricted only if they also meet the restrictions and criteria set out in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Freedom of expression may be restricted only in accordance with article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which requires all restrictions to be provided by law and to be necessary for the legitimate aim of respecting the rights and reputations of others and for protecting national security, public order or public health or morals. In the light of the fundamental importance of this right to the enjoyment of all other human rights, the restrictions must be exceptional and narrowly construed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "B. Freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. The principle of legality requires the scope, meaning and effect of the law to be sufficiently clear, precise and public. Vague laws that confer excessive discretion can lead to arbitrary decision-making and are incompatible with article 19 (3) of the Covenant. Any limitation of disinformation must establish a close and concrete connection to the protection of one of the legitimate aims stated in article 19 (3). The prohibition of false information is not in itself a legitimate aim under international human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "B. Freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The directness of the causal relationship between the speech and the harm, and the severity and immediacy of the harm, are key considerations in assessing whether the restriction is necessary. The principle of necessity requires the restriction to be appropriate and proportionate to achieve the legitimate aim, using the least restrictive means to protect it. Criminal sanctions constitute serious interference with the freedom of expression and are disproportionate responses in all but the most egregious cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "B. Freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Given the fundamental importance of freedom of expression to democracy and the enjoyment of all other human rights and freedoms, international human rights law affords particularly strong protection to expressions on matters of public interest, including criticism of Governments and political leaders and speech by politicians and other public figures, and to media freedom.[[fn:50]] This does not mean that disinformation in the context of political speech can never be restricted, but that any such restriction requires a high threshold of legality, legitimacy, necessity and proportionality. For instance, electoral laws may justifiably forbid the propagation of falsehoods relating to electoral integrity, but such a restriction must be narrowly construed, time-limited and tailored so as to avoid limiting political debate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "B. Freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 38."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Disinformation is often used to foment hatred and violence. Article 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provides that any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence is to be prohibited by law. It does not call for criminalization, nor does it make any reference to untruthful information. The Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence is an authoritative road map for interpreting article 20 (2) and sets out six factors to determine the severity necessary to criminalize incitement: context; status of the speaker; intent; content and form of speech; reach of the speech; and likelihood of risk. It may in certain situations provide a relevant framework for addressing disinformation.[[fn:51]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "B. Freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, annex, appendix."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Hate speech relating to racial or ethnic origin is prohibited under article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. The Human Rights Committee and the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination have both clarified that the prohibitions must be justified in strict conformity with article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and that criminalization should be reserved only for the most serious cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "B. Freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination' — explicit treaty attribution for hate speech prohibition."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit treaty attribution. ICCPR art. 19 is freedom of expression."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. The Joint Declaration on Freedom of Expression and “Fake News”, Disinformation and Propaganda sets out key principles drawn from international human rights law to guide States, companies and others.[[fn:52]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "B. Freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "See www.osce.org/files/f/documents/6/8/302796.pdf. The Joint Declaration was adopted on 3 March 2017 by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression of the United Nations, the Representative on Freedom of the Media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Organization of American States and the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. State responses to disinformation can take various forms, ranging from measures to disrupt the Internet and legislation to censor, punish or restrict dissemination to the regulation of social media platforms. At one end of the spectrum, some States sponsor disinformation while ostensibly seeking to suppress it; on the opposite (and positive) end of the spectrum, States promote various measures to encourage the free flow of information, enhance media diversity and support media information and digital literacy as means of countering disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. State-sponsored disinformation can emanate from State institutions directly or from proxies targeting audiences within the State’s own territory or abroad for political and strategic aims.[[fn:53]] In the digital age, new techniques have significantly expanded the scale, speed and spread of such operations. When combined with the power, means and reach of a State, their impact can be devastating for human rights. Where States systematically and simultaneously suppress other sources while promoting their own false narratives, they are denying individuals the right to seek and receive information under article 19 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.[[fn:54]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "A. State-sponsored disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "The present report does not cover attempts by States to spread disinformation outside their borders."}, {"n": 54, "text": "Mark Milanovic and Michael N. Schmitt, “Cyber attacks and cyber (mis)information operations during a pandemic”, Journal of National Security Law and Policy, vol. 11 (2020)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. A notorious example of State-led disinformation involved the “Tatmadaw true news information team” in Myanmar, which posted online doctored and mislabelled photographs relating to the Rohingya crisis. In August 2018, Facebook blocked the accounts of the “team” for spreading hate speech.[[fn:55]] Another example is the online practice of “red tagging” used by State agents in the Philippines to falsely brand activists, journalists and political opponents as leftists, communists, terrorists or subversives, thereby increasing the risk of them being arrested, attacked or killed.[[fn:56]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "A. State-sponsored disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "See https://about.fb.com/news/2018/08/removing-myanmar-officials/."}, {"n": 56, "text": "AL PHL 1/2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. In recent years, in a number of countries, State-led disinformation campaigns have sought to influence elections and other political processes, control the narrative of public debates or curb protests against and criticisms of Governments. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, there have been various instances of State actors disseminating unverified claims about the origins of the virus responsible for COVID-19, denying the spread of the disease or providing false information on infection rates, fatality figures and health-care advice. Such disinformation has been detrimental to efforts to control the pandemic, endangering the rights to health and life, as well as people’s trust in public information and State institutions.[[fn:57]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "A. State-sponsored disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "A/HRC/44/49, para. 45."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. During the past two years, the Internet has been shut down just before or during elections in several countries, including Belarus,[[fn:58]] the Democratic Republic of the Congo,[[fn:59]] Ethiopia[[fn:60]] and Myanmar,[[fn:61]] ostensibly to prevent the spread of disinformation online that could incite violence. Governments have also imposed Internet shutdowns during demonstrations or to silence dissent, for example in Bahrain and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of).[[fn:62]] Ambiguous laws that permit broad government discretion to shut down or otherwise disrupt Internet connectivity and access to telecommunications have been documented in Tajikistan.[[fn:63]] In contrast, a court in Indonesia ruled against the decision to shut down the Internet to prevent the spread of “fake news” during political unrest in Papua and West Papua on the grounds that it was excessive and unnecessary.[[fn:64]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "B. Internet shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 58, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26164&LangID=E."}, {"n": 59, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=24057&LangID=E."}, {"n": 60, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26483&LangID=E."}, {"n": 61, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26431&LangID=E."}, {"n": 62, "text": "A/HRC/35/22, para. 11."}, {"n": 63, "text": "A/HRC/35/22/Add.2, para. 29."}, {"n": 64, "text": "Moch. Fiqih Prawira Adjie, “Jokowi ‘violates the law’ for banning internet in Papua, court declares”, Jakarta Post, 3 June 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. The Human Rights Council has strongly condemned the use of Internet shutdowns that intentionally and arbitrarily prevent or disrupt access to information online.[[fn:65]] Shutting down the Internet is an inherently disproportionate response, given the blanket nature of the act, which blocks multiple other uses of the Internet. As such, it violates the requirement of necessity and proportionality set out in international human rights law. It deprives individuals of all information and services online. It hinders voters from accessing information about elections, human rights defenders from documenting and sharing human rights concerns and journalists and the media from reporting on issues of public interest. By depriving people of information sources, Internet shutdowns do not curb disinformation but, rather, hamper fact-finding and are likely to encourage rumours. In many cases, they appear to be aimed at silencing minority voices and depriving them of access to vital information.[[fn:66]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "B. Internet shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "Resolution 44/12."}, {"n": 66, "text": "See the submissions from Access Now and the Centre for Law and Democracy."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. States have long had discreet laws to address the harm done by false information, for example in relation to defamation, consumer protection and financial fraud. More problematic is the use of criminal laws to punish the spread of loosely defined false information on issues of public interest. Some of these laws date back to colonial times and have been found by domestic courts in Uganda,[[fn:67]] Zambia[[fn:68]] and Zimbabwe[[fn:69]] to be unconstitutional and unjustified in modern democratic societies. In 2016, the regional court in West Africa found that the criminal offences of sedition, false news and criminal defamation in the Gambia infringed international law on expression and ordered them to be repealed.[[fn:70]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "C. Criminal laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "Uganda, Supreme Court, Charles Onyango Obbo and another v. Attorney General, constitutional appeal No. 2 of 2002, judgment, 10 February 2004."}, {"n": 68, "text": "Zambia, High Court, Chipenzi and others v. the People, HPR/03/2014, 4 December 2014."}, {"n": 69, "text": "Zimbabwe, Supreme Court, Chavunduka v. Minister of Home Affairs, case No. 2000 JOL 6540 (ZS), 22 May 2000."}, {"n": 70, "text": "Community Court of Justice of the Economic Community of West African States, Federation of African Journalists and four others v. the Gambia, judgment No. ECW/CCJ/JUD/04/18."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. During the past decade, there has been a flurry of laws prohibiting “false news” of various forms on the Internet and social media platforms, with at least 17 States adopting legislation in the past year alone to address pandemic-related problematic information.[[fn:71]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "C. Criminal laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "See https://ipi.media/rush-to-pass-fake-news-laws-during-covid-19-intensifying-global-media-freedom-challenges/. See also the submission from the Centre for Law and Democracy."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Many of these “false news” laws fail to meet the three-pronged test of legality, necessity and legitimate aims set out in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. They often do not define with sufficient precision what constitutes false information or what harm they seek to prevent, nor do they require the establishment of a concrete and strong nexus between the act committed and the harm caused. Words such as “false”, “fake” or “biased” are used without elaboration and assertions based on a circular logic are made (for example, “a statement is false if it is false or misleading, whether wholly or in part, and whether on its own or in the context in which it appears”).[[fn:72]] In some cases, harm is defined in overly broad terms.[[fn:73]] Unfettered discretion has been given to executive authorities without judicial oversight in some legislation, notably in Malaysia[[fn:74]] and Singapore,[[fn:75]] opening the possibility for abuse and arbitrary decision-making. Often, the prescribed punishment is excessively harsh and disproportionate, and can have a chilling effect on freedom of expression.[[fn:76]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "C. Criminal laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 72, "text": "See the Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Act of Singapore, sect. 2 (2) (b)."}, {"n": 73, "text": "See, e.g., the Penal Code of Qatar, art. 136, and QAT 1/2020."}, {"n": 74, "text": "OL MYS 5/2021."}, {"n": 75, "text": "OL SGP 3/2019."}, {"n": 76, "text": "OL BFA 2/2020."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The vague and overly broad nature of such laws allows Governments to use them against journalists, political opponents and human rights defenders. For instance, the ambiguous and broadly defined provisions in the Penal Code of Turkey and in anti-terrorism legislation criminalizing broad categories of speech, including expressions that “denigrate the Turkish nation” or “insult the President”, have been used against many political activists and journalists in Turkey.[[fn:77]] In Egypt, human rights defenders and journalists have been prosecuted for spreading “false news” after they published reports on the human rights situation in the country.[[fn:78]] In Bangladesh, the detention of cartoonists, bloggers and journalists under the Digital Security Act have led to allegations of torture and death in custody.[[fn:79]] The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights has expressed alarm at the sharp rise in the use of “false news” laws to clamp down on criticism of Governments in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic in many countries in Asia.[[fn:80]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "C. Criminal laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 77, "text": "See, e.g., OL TUR 13/2020, AL TUR 18/2020 and AL TUR 20/2020."}, {"n": 78, "text": "See, e.g., AL EGY 19/2020, AL EGY 15/2020, AL EGY 10/2020, UA EGY 6/2020 and UA EGY 1/2020."}, {"n": 79, "text": "OL BGD 4/2018 and AL BGD 7/2020."}, {"n": 80, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=25920&LangID=E."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. At the heart of concerns about disinformation or misinformation online is the way in which such information can go viral, at great speed. States have responded to this challenge in different ways, some by adopting regulations that give the authorities a direct role in controlling content online, some by focusing not on content but on the processes by which disinformation or misinformation is handled by companies. Some laws or proposals raise privacy concerns, as instant messaging services may fall within their scope and require users to provide identification information, data to be traced or the use of filters.[[fn:81]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "D. Social media regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "See, e.g., BRA 6/2020; see also the submission from Derechos Digitales."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. In recent years, several States have adopted laws that grant the authorities excessive discretionary powers to compel social media platforms to remove content that they deem illegal, including what they consider to be disinformation or “fake news”. Failure to comply is sanctioned with significant fines and/or content blocking. This has been the case, for example, in Kenya,[[fn:82]] Pakistan[[fn:83]] and the Russian Federation.[[fn:84]] In effect, such laws lead to the suppression of legitimate online expressions with limited or no due process or without prior court order and contrary to requirements of article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.[[fn:85]] In Latin America, disinformation laws[[fn:86]] that force platforms to decide whether to remove content without judicial orders are incompatible with article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "D. Social media regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 82, "text": "OL KEN 10/2017."}, {"n": 83, "text": "OL PAK 3/2020."}, {"n": 84, "text": "OL RUS 4/2019."}, {"n": 85, "text": "See https://transparency.facebook.com/content-restrictions."}, {"n": 86, "text": "OL BRA 6/2020."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR with paragraph 3."}, {"article": "13", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights' — Inter-American regional treaty, not in allowed list."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. The trend that sees States delegating to online platforms “speech police” functions that traditionally belong to the courts has continued. The risk with such laws is that intermediaries are likely to err on the side of caution and “over-remove” content for fear of being sanctioned. The German Network Enforcement Act, adopted in 2018 and recently amended, allows users to flag content that they believe is illegal under certain provisions of the Criminal Code and obliges platforms to remove the “violating content” within a short period of time or face heavy fines.[[fn:87]] Although the German statute does not prohibit or penalize disinformation, it has been cited by other countries seeking to introduce unduly restrictive intermediary laws or social media regulations that would enable the removal of “fake news” without a judicial or even a quasi-judicial order.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "D. Social media regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "OL DEU 1/2017."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. In countries where disinformation or misinformation is not explicitly banned, States have generally relied on social media platforms’ terms of service to tackle disinformation. However, a new trend appears to be developing in the European Union, where the draft digital services act would, once adopted and enforced, require platforms and other intermediaries to adopt transparency and due process measures that could, among other things, help to address the problem of disinformation. Such regulatory proposals, which focus on transparency and due process obligations, rather than viewpoint- or content-based regulations, can make a positive contribution to the protection of human rights and greater public accountability of platforms. However, for the regulatory measures to work properly, the independence of the oversight body or regulator must be assured and scrupulously respected.[[fn:88]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "E. Emerging trends"], "footnotes": [{"n": 88, "text": "See, e.g., Eleonora Maria Mazzoli and Damian Tambini, “Prioritisation uncovered: the discoverability of public interest content online”, Council of Europe study DGI(2020)19, pp. 40–43."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The draft digital services act would also require large online platforms to conduct annual reviews of “significant systemic risks stemming from the functioning and use made of their service”, including the “intentional manipulation of their service”, which causes or could cause a negative effect on the protection of public health, minors, civil discourse, electoral processes and public security.[[fn:89]] Appropriate mitigation measures would have to be adopted in response, subject to independent auditing. Very large online platforms would also be expected to comply with codes of conduct, including on disinformation, under independent regulatory oversight. Whether these due diligence measures will protect human rights and address disinformation in the States members of the European Union will depend ultimately on how clearly and narrowly they are drafted into law and on the effectiveness and independence of the regulatory bodies.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "E. Emerging trends"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "See https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52020PC0825&from=en."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Another emerging trend is draft laws or proposals that seek to restrict the amplification of illegal or otherwise harmful content, for example in Brazil,[[fn:90]] France[[fn:91]] and the United States.[[fn:92]] Such measures could help to reduce the impact of disinformation if the laws are drafted in clear and precise language so that they do not infringe on free speech and seek only to suppress undue reach.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "E. Emerging trends"], "footnotes": [{"n": 90, "text": "OL BRA 6/2020."}, {"n": 91, "text": "OL FRA 5/2018."}, {"n": 92, "text": "Submission from Access Now."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. The permanent suspension of former United States President Trump from Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, Reddit and other platforms following the events of 6 January 2021 at the United States Capitol have also prompted regulatory proposals to sanction companies for removing lawful content. In Poland, a new proposed law would require social media companies to put back content deemed lawful by a body largely controlled by the Government.[[fn:93]] In Brazil, terms of service that allow for viewpoint-based removal of content could lead to the suspension of services or other sanctions. Such “must-carry” obligations or related obligations characterized by the “duty of impartiality” could be detrimental if they are not in line with international human rights law, which, while strongly upholding freedom of expression, prohibits hate speech.[[fn:94]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "E. Emerging trends"], "footnotes": [{"n": 93, "text": "See, e.g., Richard Wingfield, “Poland: draft law on the protection of freedom of speech on online social networking sites”, 8 February 2021."}, {"n": 94, "text": "See, e.g., the finding of a court in Rome in Facebook v. CasaPound, case No. 80961/19, 29 April 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Companies do not have the same human rights obligations as States. They are, however, expected to respect human rights in their activities and operations in line with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. At a minimum, they should conduct regular human rights impact assessments of their products, operations and policies and implement due diligence processes with a view to identifying, preventing or mitigating any actual or potential adverse impacts on human rights. They should also put in place a remediation process for users. The Joint Declaration on Freedom of Expression and “Fake News”, Disinformation and Propaganda and the reports of the previous mandate holder also provide important guidance for companies on human rights standards applicable to their policies and content-moderation practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. In response to the challenges raised by disinformation and misinformation, the largest United States-based social media platforms[[fn:95]] have adopted a range of policies and tools. They generally ban what they consider to be “false news” and various deceptive practices that undermine authenticity and integrity on their platforms. Some have adopted specific policies on COVID-19-related misinformation[[fn:96]] and on civic integrity.[[fn:97]] Enforcement can take various forms, from the application of labels and the issuance of warnings to the removal of content and closure of accounts. Problematic information is made less visible or its reach is reduced.[[fn:98]] Companies also cite efforts to promote authoritative content.[[fn:99]] Facebook has established a third-party fact-checking programme.[[fn:100]] Most recently, Twitter announced a new community-based approach to fighting misinformation.[[fn:101]] Beyond social media platforms, messaging services such as WhatsApp have limited the ability of their users to forward messages to an unlimited number of people, particularly at sensitive times, like elections.[[fn:102]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 95, "text": "Owing to the lack of easily accessible information, the present section refers mainly to Facebook, YouTube and Twitter and, to some extent, to TikTok."}, {"n": 96, "text": "Twitter and YouTube, for example."}, {"n": 97, "text": "See https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/election-integrity-policy."}, {"n": 98, "text": "See, e.g., Tessa Lyons, “Hard questions: what’s Facebook’s strategy for stopping false news?”, 23 May 2018. See also Twitter’s enforcement options, available from https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/enforcement-options."}, {"n": 99, "text": "See, e.g., www.youtube.com/howyoutubeworks/product-features/news-information/."}, {"n": 100, "text": "See www.facebook.com/journalismproject/programs/third-party-fact-checking."}, {"n": 101, "text": "Keith Coleman, “Introducing Birdwatch, a community-based approach to misinformation”, 25 January 2021."}, {"n": 102, "text": "See, e.g., the submission from Les femmes, la force du changement."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. While these measures are generally positive, they are an insufficient response to the challenges posed by disinformation. Reactive content moderation efforts are simply not enough to make a meaningful difference in the absence of a serious review of the business model that underpins much of the drivers of disinformation and misinformation.[[fn:103]] Moreover, content moderation efforts continue to display the same long-standing problems of inconsistent application of companies’ terms of service, inadequate redress mechanisms and a lack of transparency and access to data that hampers an objective assessment of the effectiveness of the measures that have been adopted. Furthermore, although the platforms are global businesses, they do not appear to apply their policies consistently across all geographical areas or to uphold human rights in all jurisdictions to the same extent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 103, "text": "Submission from the Center for Social Media and Politics."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Algorithms, targeted advertising and the data harvesting practices of the largest social media companies are largely credited with driving users towards “extremist” content and conspiracy theories that undermine the right to form an opinion and freedom of expression.[[fn:104]] There is a real concern that the systematic collection of data about users’ activities online and targeted advertising may violate their right to freedom of opinion under article 19 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The lack of transparency with which companies automatically curate content online also points towards an unacceptable level of intrusion into individuals’ right to form their ideas free from manipulation and right to privacy. By designing their products with highly personalized content to encourage addictive engagement, companies further promote a system that significantly undermines people’s agency and choice in relation to their information diet.[[fn:105]] Finally, there is evidence to suggest that the recording of people’s private thoughts as expressed through online searches and other online activities could be used against them by commercial actors or Governments in a discriminatory manner.[[fn:106]] There is also a concern that collecting data on ethnicity or political affiliation with no limitations or safeguards in countries with a history of political violence could be dangerous.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "A. Advertisement-driven business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 104, "text": "See, e.g., the submission from Vodafone."}, {"n": 105, "text": "A/HRC/44/49, para. 60."}, {"n": 106, "text": "Evelyn Aswad, “Losing the freedom to be human”, p. 363."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Despite these concerns, it is not clear whether social media platforms have sought to review their business model as part of their human rights due diligence efforts. Nor is there sufficient publicly available information to enable users, researchers and activists to understand the way in which algorithms promote certain kinds of content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "A. Advertisement-driven business model"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. The main area where the largest companies appear to have adopted some measures is in relation to political advertising. The extent of election-related disinformation has belatedly prompted social media companies to create advertisement archives or libraries that enable some scrutiny of political advertising on their platforms. The information available, however, is often too limited and checks on political advertisers are optional.[[fn:107]] Moreover, users are exposed to political ads by default rather than through an opt-in mechanism. More generally, it is unclear what criteria or objectives are used for the purposes of targeted advertising and whether they are compatible with human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "A. Advertisement-driven business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 107, "text": "Submission from Privacy International."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Greater transparency is needed on the issue, including through information about the targeting, actual reach and amount spent on advertisements.[[fn:108]] In the case of political advertising, this should take place alongside reforms by States to electoral laws to ensure that online political advertising and digital campaigns do not undermine the integrity of elections and democratic processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "A. Advertisement-driven business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 108, "text": "Kate Jones, “Online disinformation and political discourse”, p. 54. See also Nathalie Maréchal, Rebecca MacKinnon and Jessica Dheere, “Getting to the source of infodemics: it’s the business model” (New America, May 2020), pp. 55–56."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Social media companies rely on a range of content policies to tackle disinformation or misinformation online. The applicable rules can be hard to find, strewn as they often are across various parts of the companies’ websites in community standards, policies, leadership statements, newsrooms, product information pages and business help centres.[[fn:109]] A common concern is that the definitions are often overly broad: they do not always clearly spell out what kind of harm and what likelihood of harm will lead to content removal, labelling or other sanction. The application of the coordinated inauthentic behaviour policy may also have an adverse effect on freedom of expression, particularly on legitimate campaigning activities.[[fn:110]] The lack of clarity in the companies’ definitions hinders consistency in the implementation of companies’ rules and policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "B. Application of rules"], "footnotes": [{"n": 109, "text": "See, e.g., the Facebook Oversight Board decision in case 2020-006-FB-FBR."}, {"n": 110, "text": "See www.accessnow.org/rights-groups-to-facebook-on-tunisias-disappeared-accounts-were-still-waiting-for-answers/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. This problem is exacerbated by the over-reliance on automated filters that are unable to capture nuance or understand context. The limits of technology and the political nature of determining what constitutes disinformation combined with the lack of transparency on content moderation decisions increase the risk that permissible content will be removed. It underlines the need for human involvement in content removal decisions, particularly when there is a risk of real-world injury or violence.[[fn:111]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "B. Application of rules"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "Submission from Global Partners Digital."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Companies continue to fail to provide adequate remedies for wrongful actions taken on the basis of disinformation or misinformation. Appeals mechanisms for wrongful decisions are crucial to offset the significant risks inherent in large social media companies using imperfect filters to remove content. Appeals do not appear, however, to be available for enforcement actions taken by companies such as labelling and demotions. Nor do they appear to be available to challenge decisions taken on the basis of coordinated harm or inauthentic behaviour policies. Moreover, it is unclear whether appeals mechanisms are available in a range of languages.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "C. Remedies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. In addition to internal complaints mechanisms, proposals for third-party oversight bodies can be a valuable means of strengthening remedies. The Facebook Oversight Board, an external complaints’ mechanism, is a novel experiment. While it is too early to assess its effectiveness, it should be evaluated in due course through a transparent, multi-stakeholder participatory process, as it could yield valuable lessons for the sector. It is also necessary to consider industry-wide, multi-stakeholder measures such as the establishment of social media councils, particularly for smaller players. Such multi-stakeholder bodies could provide policy recommendations, including on disinformation and misinformation, and consider appeals from the decisions made by participating companies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "C. Remedies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. A significant problem in companies’ approach to content moderation is the apparent disparity with which they implement their policies in different parts of the world.[[fn:112]] While the United States has benefited from special election or voting information centres or advertisement libraries, most countries do not seem to receive the same level of investment.[[fn:113]] Even in the United States, Spanish-language resources are less well funded than English-speaking ones. Some companies are only gradually developing temporary country-specific election misinformation policies in places where they operate,[[fn:114]] but they seem to be a minority. Moreover, the ability to flag content appears to be fully available only in the United States, much less so in Latin American countries.[[fn:115]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "D. Geographical disparities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 112, "text": "See, e.g., the submission from Intervozes."}, {"n": 113, "text": "Submission from Privacy International."}, {"n": 114, "text": "See the submission from Facebook on its strategy in Myanmar."}, {"n": 115, "text": "Submission from Derechos Digitales."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. Fact-checking services are more limited in many parts of the world.[[fn:116]] Information reported by whistle-blowers raised concerns about the deliberate inaction of companies in less affluent markets. If confirmed, the disparities would show a very different quality of content moderation, undermining civic space in developing countries.[[fn:117]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "D. Geographical disparities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 116, "text": "See Mahsa Alimardani and Mona Elswah, “Trust, religion and politics: coronavirus misinformation in Iran”, in 2020 Misinfodemic Report: COVID-19 in Emerging Economies (Meedan, 2020)."}, {"n": 117, "text": "See www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/facebook-ignore-political-manipulation-whistleblower-memo."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. The largest companies, based in the United States and influenced by its politics and public opinion there, appear to be driven by United States and European priorities. They do not invest sufficient resources in understanding the local factors that feed disinformation online in other parts of the world, especially developing countries.[[fn:118]] A thorough understanding of the local political, social and economic context, language proficiency and close cooperation with civil society in countries where disinformation is more prevalent are necessary.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "D. Geographical disparities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 118, "text": "Submission from the Centre for Law and Democracy."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. Companies do not appear to apply their terms of service or community standards consistently to public figures. Nor do they appear to have developed clear policies to protect political content from being censored as “false news” or to address content produced by public figures that advocates incitement to violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "E. Political pressure"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. The inconsistent application of community standards led to criticism of the large platforms during the United States Presidential elections in 2020. In February 2021, Facebook banned accounts linked to the military following the coup d’état in Myanmar but has not committed itself to doing the same in other situations. When platforms were pressured by the authorities to close the accounts of journalists and human rights defenders covering the farmers’ protests in India earlier this year, they appear to have complied.[[fn:119]] In April 2020, it was reported that Facebook had agreed to significantly increase compliance with the request of the Government of Viet Nam to censor “anti-State” content and closed the accounts of many human rights defenders after the authorities took down its servers, which slowed down the platform and made it inoperable for seven weeks.[[fn:120]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "E. Political pressure"], "footnotes": [{"n": 119, "text": "IND 2/2021."}, {"n": 120, "text": "See www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-facebook-exclusive-idUSKCN2232JX."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. In the absence of clear policies, companies are vulnerable to pressure to clamp down on legitimate political speech and facilitate State-instigated disinformation. Companies should base their community standards on international human rights standards, including those relating to the right to freedom of expression, under which the speech of politicians, political parties and other public figures and entities would benefit from a high degree of protection. International human rights law permits the removal of content posted by a public figure only on very narrow grounds, including incitement to violence and hatred. By grounding their terms of service firmly in international standards, companies would be better placed to resist pressure to remove legitimate speech since they would be upholding the very instruments and principles to which States have formally committed themselves.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "E. Political pressure"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. Lack of transparency and access to data continue to be the major failings of companies across almost all the concerns in relation to disinformation and misinformation. They prevent independent scrutiny and affect accountability and trust. Opacity is disempowering for users and denies agency.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "F. Transparency, accountability and access to data"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. Most of the largest social media companies produce transparency reports twice a year, but they do not share more precise and meaningful information about action taken to address disinformation or misinformation.[[fn:121]] The Facebook transparency report, for example, only provides information about the removal of fake accounts but not about content. Similarly, no information is provided about the number of items of content being labelled, nor any appeals against decisions to remove content or suspend accounts in relation to disinformation policies. There is no data available about user engagement with disinformation or misinformation, including numbers of shares, views, reach and number of complaints or requests for removal. Greater information is also needed about the reliability and accuracy of the artificial intelligence systems deployed to identify and remove content.[[fn:122]] The overall lack of transparency regarding companies’ content moderation systems and processes makes it impossible to assess the effectiveness of the measures adopted by the companies and their impact on human rights. This is compounded by the lack of sufficient access to data by researchers, academics or civil society to enable them to make more independent and objective assessments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "F. Transparency, accountability and access to data"], "footnotes": [{"n": 121, "text": "See, e.g., Working Group on Infodemics, Policy Framework (Forum on Information and Democracy, November 2020), pp. 17 ff., See also the submission from the Association for Progressive Communications."}, {"n": 122, "text": "See, e.g., the submission from the Association for Progressive Communications."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Greater transparency is also needed on agreements between companies and Governments, especially when the agreements involve giving more prominence to government messaging or to the removal of content or other restrictions on speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "F. Transparency, accountability and access to data"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. In a report devoted to disinformation, it is easy – but dangerous – to lose sight of the value that digital technology offers to democracy, sustainable development and human rights, or the vital importance of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in that equation. That is why attempts to combat disinformation by undermining human rights are short-sighted and counterproductive. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is not part of the problem, it is the objective and the means for combating disinformation. The COVID-19 pandemic has starkly exposed both the imperative of upholding the right and the challenges of confronting disinformation and misinformation.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. Disinformation is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon with serious consequences. It destroys people’s trust in democratic institutions. It thrives where public information regimes are weak and independent investigative journalism is constrained. It disempowers individuals, robbing them of their autonomy to search, receive and share information and form opinions. In the platform world, individuals are regarded as users, not as rights holders with agency.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. Disinformation is problematic, but so too are the responses of States and companies. Laws and policies are often being made with sub-optimal knowledge of online harm, without adequate data, research or public consultations. States have resorted to disproportionate measures such as Internet shutdowns and vague and overly broad laws to criminalize, block, censor and chill online speech and shrink civic space. These measures are not only incompatible with international human rights law but also contribute to amplifying misperceptions, fostering fear and entrenching public mistrust of institutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. Company responses have been reactive, inadequate and opaque. The large platforms are focused on improving content moderation while ignoring human rights concerns about their business models, lack of transparency and the inadequate due process rights of users.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. The fundamental challenge for States, companies and the media is to restore public trust in the integrity of the information order. Tackling disinformation requires multidimensional, multi-stakeholder responses that are well grounded in the full range of human rights and the proactive engagement of States, companies, international organizations, civil society and the media. The need for multi-stakeholder dialogue and partnerships cannot be overstated.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. States are the primary duty bearers with obligations to respect, protect and fulfil human rights. In keeping with their obligation to respect human rights, States should not make, sponsor, encourage or disseminate statements that they know or should reasonably know to be false, or authorize Internet shutdowns as a means of combating disinformation. They should refrain from restricting freedom of expression online or offline except in accordance with the requirements of articles 19 (3) and 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, strictly and narrowly construed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. Criminal law should be used only in very exceptional and most egregious circumstances of incitement to violence, hatred or discrimination. Criminal libel laws are a legacy of the colonial past and have no place in modern democratic societies. They should be repealed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. States have the duty to ensure that companies respect human rights. They should not compel companies to remove or block content that is legitimate under international human rights law, nor require them to make determinations on the legality of content under national laws that should be done by the courts. Companies should be transparent about such requests from States and refrain from making deals behind closed doors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. State regulation of social media should focus on enforcing transparency, due process rights for users and due diligence on human rights by companies, and on ensuring that the independence and remit of the regulators are clearly defined, guaranteed and limited by law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. Data protection is key to reorienting the advertisement-driven business model of the digital economy, which drives the information disorder and related human rights abuses. States should adopt strong data protection laws and update electoral and other relevant laws to limit the pervasive tracking and targeting of individuals and their activities online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. Diverse and reliable information is an obvious antidote to disinformation and misinformation. States should fulfil their duty to ensure the right to information, firstly, by increasing their own transparency and by proactively disclosing official data online and offline and, secondly, by reaffirming their commitment to media freedom, diversity and independence. Ensuring the safety of journalists online and offline and ending impunity for threats, intimidation, harassment, attacks and killings of journalists, including women journalists, bloggers, cartoonists and human rights defenders is key to restoring confidence in the public sphere as a safe place for democratic deliberations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. Media information and digital literacy empowers people and builds their resilience against disinformation and misinformation, as noted recently by the General Assembly.[[fn:123]] It should become part of the national school curriculum and engage the young and old alike. Along with digital literacy, more attention must be given to digital inclusion so that people in developing countries who are now totally dependent on social media platforms and messaging applications for connectivity (through zero rating) can have meaningful, free, open, interoperable, reliable and secure access to the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 123, "text": "Resolution 75/267."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. Companies are obliged to respect human rights under international human rights law. Although digital platforms are private actors, they have a far-reaching impact on human rights in the public space. As such, they are accountable not only to their users but to society at large. There is growing concern about the market dominance of the largest companies, as well as about the harmful effects of their current business models. Companies should proactively respond to these concerns, going beyond improving content moderation to reviewing their business models, acknowledging the agency and autonomy of users as rights holders and empowering them by increasing transparency, control and choice and by ensuring due process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. In line with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, social media companies should review their business models and ensure that their business operations, data collection and data processing practices are compliant with international human rights standards, including article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, as well as data protection principles and relevant national consumer protection standards. They should also conduct human rights impact assessments of their products, particularly of the role of algorithms and ranking systems in amplifying disinformation or misinformation. Such assessments should be conducted regularly and ahead of and following significant events such as national elections or major crises like the COVID-19 pandemic.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. Companies should review their advertising models to ensure that they do not adversely impact diversity of opinions and ideas and are clear on the criteria used for targeted advertising. They should provide meaningful information about advertisers in online advertisement repositories and give users the choice to opt in to be exposed to advertising.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. Companies should adopt clear, narrowly defined content and advertising policies on disinformation and misinformation that are in line with international human rights law and after consultation with all relevant stakeholders. Furthermore, they should adopt clear policies relating to public figures that are consistent with international human rights standards and apply them consistently across geographical areas. They should ensure that all policies are easily accessible and understandable by users and are enforced consistently, taking into account the particular contexts in which they are applied.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. Companies should provide clear and meaningful information about the parameters of their algorithms or recommender systems and ensure that those systems enable users to receive a diversity of viewpoints by default while also enabling them to choose the variables that shape their online experience.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. Companies should publish comprehensive, detailed and contextualized transparency reports, including separate reports to address exceptional circumstances such as the COVID-19 pandemic, that include a breakdown of the actions taken against disinformation- or misinformation-related content and appeals against those actions, including number of shares, views, reach, complaints and requests for removal.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. Users must have proper recourse. Companies should establish internal appeals mechanisms for a broader range of content moderation decisions and types of content, such as coordinated inauthentic behaviour. They should also explore the creation of external oversight mechanisms such as social media councils.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. In the age of the Me Too movement, both States and companies should confront gender disinformation online as a priority and also give special attention to its consequences in the real world. Companies should introduce appropriate policies, remedies and mechanisms that are tailored from a gender perspective across all aspects of the platform experience and that are designed in consultation with those affected by this pernicious behaviour. States should also integrate fully gendered perspectives into their policies and programmes to address disinformation and misinformation, including in media, information and digital literacy programmes.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. As actors on a global stage, companies should invest more resources to develop their understanding of local contexts that drive disinformation and misinformation and address the disparities in their knowledge, languages, policies and services in relation to developing countries, minorities and other vulnerable groups, drawing on the perspectives of local civil society and groups targeted by disinformation and misinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. A major challenge to addressing disinformation and misinformation is knowledge gaps arising from the lack of access to data, especially in relation to developing countries. More attention should be given to making data available for research, policymaking, monitoring and evaluation. The concept of “differential privacy”[[fn:124]] could provide a way forward for access to mega data for research purposes while respecting the human rights and safety concerns of users.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 124, "text": "Working Group on Infodemics, Policy Framework, p. 125."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. Last but not least, the United Nations human rights system and, in particular, the Human Rights Council, has a major role to play in ensuring that all efforts to address disinformation and misinformation are grounded firmly in international human rights law, including respect for freedom of opinion and expression. The Council should consider holding regular multi-stakeholder consultations with States, companies, civil society organizations and relevant international and regional actors and establishing initiatives on the subject of safeguarding and promoting human rights in the digital space.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. When freedom of expression is suppressed, electoral processes are endangered and public trust in elections suffers. In 2024, more than half of the world’s voting age population, living in over 50 countries ranging from liberal democracies to electoral autocracies, went to the polls to choose their national, regional and local leaders. According to a survey conducted in 2023 in 19 countries with varied political systems, just over half of respondents believed that elections in their country had been free and fair.[[fn:1]] A related survey found that freedom of expression and electoral integrity were two of the top elements that were in global decline.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, The Global State of Democracy: Strengthening the Legitimacy of Elections in a Time of Radical Uncertainty (Stockholm, 2024)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. If public confidence in elections is to be restored, the decline in freedom of expression must be reversed. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is a central pillar of democratic societies and a guarantor of free and fair election processes.[[fn:2]] It empowers citizens to obtain information on the electoral process and to debate, discuss and make informed decisions on their choice of representatives. It allows candidates and political parties to campaign on the issues at stake in the elections. It enables the media and civil society to inform the public, scrutinize candidates and their party platforms and report on the integrity of the electoral process. By throwing light on the electoral process, the right to freedom of opinion and expression helps to build public trust in electoral outcomes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "A/HRC/26/30, para. 10."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. Election integrity and information integrity are closely connected. Safe, free and fair elections require healthy, open information spaces in which accurate and independent information is easily accessible to the electorate. Increasingly, however, information spaces have come under severe strain during elections for two main reasons. Firstly, populist politicians eager to win elections at all costs and authoritarian Governments intent on holding on to power have resorted to information manipulation.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Secondly, digital technology and platforms have enabled and amplified those tendencies into a tsunami of disinformation, misinformation and hate speech.[[fn:3]] The consequences have been dire. Political opponents, minorities, migrants and other marginalized groups have been targeted, vilified, threatened and attacked by State and non-State actors. Journalists and human rights defenders have been suppressed ruthlessly by Governments, often in the name of fighting disinformation. Politics has become polarized and democratic processes have been disrupted and democratic institutions, including elections, delegitimized.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "For definitions of disinformation and misinformation, see A/HRC/47/25, paras. 9–14. In the present report, disinformation is understood as false or manipulated information that causes or is intended to cause harm."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The report is focused on the key vulnerabilities of the right to freedom of expression in electoral contexts. It contains an examination of the upsurge of information manipulation in politically polarized contexts, its impact on individuals, institutions and electoral environments and its role in the decline of traditional news media. The report also contains an analysis of the responses of States and companies to those challenges in the light of their international human rights obligations and includes recommendations for strengthening freedom of expression with a view to restoring public trust in elections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The Special Rapporteur coordinated her work closely with the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and association, who is also presenting a report on elections to the Human Rights Council at its fifty-ninth session.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. The present report has benefited from consultations led by the Special Rapporteur over the past year with a wide range of stakeholders, including civil society organizations, electoral institutions, human rights defenders, journalists and representatives of social media companies. In addition to in-person and online meetings, the Special Rapporteur convened regional workshops in Addis Ababa, Bangkok, Santiago and Istanbul, Türkiye. She received 59 written contributions from States, civil society organizations, companies, international organizations and experts in response to her call for submissions.[[fn:4]] She is grateful to all stakeholders for their engagement and valuable contributions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Submissions will be available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/2025/call-submissions-thematic-report-freedom-expression-and-elections-digital-age."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. In recent years, elections have been marked by high levels of information manipulation, instigated by both States and populist politicians in office or seeking election, enabled and amplified by digital platforms and feeding on the frustrations and grievances of growing numbers of people affected by economic deprivation, political disenfranchisement and social inequalities. The trend is alarming, degrading the information environment, fomenting hatred and violence and disrupting and delegitimizing democratic processes and institutions. The life cycle of electoral disinformation is not limited to the polling but begins long before and persists long after the elections, tainting political discourse and polarizing democratic societies. The goal is to harm political opponents, restrict voter participation, sow doubt about the electoral process and its outcomes and, ultimately, to erode democracy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "A. Information manipulation: who is behind it, who is harmed by it"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. While information manipulation is most frequently home-grown, there is sometimes evidence of interference from abroad aimed at influencing the politics and polls in countries deemed to be strategically important to foreign powers. One study attributed a staggering nearly 60 per cent of disinformation campaigns on the African continent to foreign, non-African State sponsors.[[fn:5]] Some States, including Australia, Mexico, Spain and Switzerland, have increased efforts to prevent interference from abroad in their elections.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "A. Information manipulation: who is behind it, who is harmed by it"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See Africa Centre for Strategic Studies, “Mapping a surge of disinformation in Africa”, 13 March 2024."}, {"n": 6, "text": "See submissions from Australia, Mexico, Spain and Switzerland."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Information manipulation is frequently used as a tactic to restrict the participation of opposition candidates. Disinformation and harmful speech have also been utilized in highly visible ways against minorities and marginalized groups to deter their participation in elections, especially women,[[fn:7]] religious minorities,[[fn:8]] lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender persons[[fn:9]] and internally displaced persons.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "A. Information manipulation: who is behind it, who is harmed by it"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See A/78/260."}, {"n": 8, "text": "See communication PAK 3/2023. All communications cited in the present report are available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}, {"n": 9, "text": "A/79/151, para. 35."}, {"n": 10, "text": "A/HRC/50/24, para. 63."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Political rhetoric expressing hatred and stigmatizing and dehumanizing people for their ethnicity, race, religion, language, sex, gender or sexual orientation has become widespread, even in liberal democracies. The impact of racist and xenophobic discourse becomes even greater and more harmful in electoral contexts.[[fn:11]] Some politicians weaponize their freedom of expression to vilify, disparage and exclude minority or critical voices.[[fn:12]] The weaponization often occurs under the pretext of promoting a free and open information environment in which efforts to denounce or prohibit hate speech are depicted as censorship.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "A. Information manipulation: who is behind it, who is harmed by it"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Sanchez v. France, Application No. 45581/15, Judgment, 15 May 2023, para. 176."}, {"n": 12, "text": "A/HRC/56/53/Add.2, para. 22."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Women face extremely high levels of gender-based violence and gendered disinformation, both online and offline, in their roles as politicians, candidates, voters, election officials, judges, journalists, human rights defenders or members of women’s groups or civil society organizations. The objective is to silence their voices, discredit their work and drive them out of public life.[[fn:13]] The trend is deeply worrying, given that women are already underrepresented in public life. Attacks frequently come from the coordinated actions of trolls and bots and include the doxing of personal data, fake stories, humiliating or sexually charged images and deepfakes,[[fn:14]] often aimed at framing women as untrustworthy, unintelligent, emotional, angry, crazy or hypersexual.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "A. Information manipulation: who is behind it, who is harmed by it"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "A/78/288, para. 40; and communication KEN 2/2018."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Nina Jankowicz and others, It’s Everyone’s Problem: Mainstreaming Responses to Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence (New York, School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia University, 2024), p. 4."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Electoral violence is the most dangerous way of chilling political participation. It often starts with divisive statements and hate speech that either originate online or spread virally. In elections in some countries in 2024, divisive, incendiary and hateful statements by senior political leaders went viral and are believed to have instigated deadly violence against minorities.[[fn:15]] In the 2023 elections in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, online speech was identified as a key contributor to electoral violence in which 19 people died.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "A. Information manipulation: who is behind it, who is harmed by it"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See communication IND 5/2024."}, {"n": 16, "text": "See Bulanda T. Nkhowani, “Tech harms during elections in Africa”, Digital Action, 12 June 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Efforts to spread false or misleading information about electoral procedures can disenfranchise voters. For instance, in Mexico, disinformation campaigns prior to election day left many voters unsure about how to mark their ballots.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "A. Information manipulation: who is behind it, who is harmed by it"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See Bruna Martins dos Santos, “Mexico’s 2024 elections: a historic and contentious vote”, Digital Action, 7 June 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Targeting electoral officials hinders their ability to monitor, report and denounce irregularities. In recent elections, the scale and severity of disinformation targeting electoral bodies and observers have escalated.[[fn:18]] For instance, the 2023 elections in both Guatemala and Zimbabwe saw extensive coordinated disinformation campaigns against independent observers.[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "A. Information manipulation: who is behind it, who is harmed by it"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "European Commission for Democracy through Law , “Report on election observers as human rights defenders”, 11 December 2024, paras. 56 and 109."}, {"n": 19, "text": "See European Union Election Observation Mission, Zimbabwe 2023: Harmonised Elections, 23 August 2023, Final Report; and Guatemala 2023: General Elections, 25 June 2023, and Presidential Run-Off, 20 August 2023, Final Report."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. In recent years, high-profile disinformation campaigns have undermined public trust in election results, for instance in Brazil, South Africa and the United States of America.[[fn:20]] Disinformation about electoral outcomes is dangerous because it can incite violence. In the United States, false claims on social media by the President, Donald Trump, regarding the legitimacy of the 2020 election results encouraged violent, extremist groups to invade the United States Capitol, disrupting the confirmation of the election results and causing dozens of injuries and five deaths.[[fn:21]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "A. Information manipulation: who is behind it, who is harmed by it"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See submissions from Freedom House and from Conectas Direitos Humanos and Article 19: International Centre against Censorship (Brazil and South America)."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See communication USA 3/2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Social media is a leading vector of disinformation and hate speech.[[fn:22]] A survey of 16 countries in 2024 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and Ipsos found that social media surpassed television as the primary source of news, with media websites in third place.[[fn:23]] That has serious implications for elections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See A/HRC/47/25."}, {"n": 23, "text": "See https://www.ipsos.com/en/elections-social-media-battle-against-disinformation-and-trust-issues."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Politicians increasingly use direct communication and social media to reach a wider audience and convey the image of being “one of the people”. For example, podcasts were credited with tilting the scales of the 2024 elections in the United States in favour of Mr. Trump.[[fn:24]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "See “Joe Rogan and the Fifth Estate: how the podcaster and a group of cable news exiles became more powerful than traditional media”, Variety, 13 November 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. For women in politics, social media is a double-edged sword.[[fn:25]] On the one hand, it provides them with important avenues for direct communication with the public, bypassing traditional media, which is often gender-biased. On the other, it exposes them to vicious online disinformation, harassment and gender-based violence.[[fn:26]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See Lucina Di Meco, #She Persisted: Women, Politics & Power in the New Media World, (The Wilson Center, 2019)."}, {"n": 26, "text": "A/78/288, para. 40."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. As digital technology advances, electoral communications are evolving beyond the large social media platforms. Political parties are increasingly using mobile messaging applications, such as WhatsApp, Telegram, Viber and WeChat. In India, the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party operated at least 5 million WhatsApp groups to spread political communications rapidly and widely.[[fn:27]] Closed communication platforms raise distinct challenges with regard to disinformation. In Zimbabwe, WhatsApp was the channel of choice for electoral disinformation due to its broad reach.[[fn:28]] Telegram, which takes a hands-off approach to content moderation, is known for hosting group chats led by extremist groups, including those promoting electoral violence.[[fn:29]] Political content is also increasingly being consumed on new communication platforms popular with gamers, such as Discord and Twitch, which have become vectors of electoral disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "See Shristi Jaswal, “Inside the BJP’s WhatsApp machine”, Rest of World, 15 May 2024."}, {"n": 28, "text": "See Bulanda T. Nkhowani, “Tech harms during elections in Africa”, Digital Action, 12 June 2024."}, {"n": 29, "text": "See Global Project against Hate and Extremism, “Online chatter about the election contains warning signs for violence”, 28 October 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Social media has helped to enhance the political engagement of young people but also has exposed them to the toxic effects of online disinformation. Young people, particularly first-time voters, can be highly vulnerable to disinformation on social media. In the United States, almost half of those under the age of 30 years commonly use social media for political news.[[fn:30]] In Indonesia, where Generation Z makes up over a quarter of the population, political actors have successfully engaged with that age group on Instagram using memes and humour.[[fn:31]]", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "See https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/2024/10/10/where-americans-turn-for-election-news."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See Alifa Nur Fitri and others, “Gen Z voter behavior in the 2024 presidential election: a virtual ethnographic study on the Instagram accounts of presidential candidates”, Islamic Communication Journal, vol. 8, No. 2 (2023)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. The popularity of social media among young people and its facility in reaching large audiences have given rise to a novel media figure: the influencer. Influencers, who may attract from a few thousand to several million viewers, post content across social media, video and podcast platforms on various lifestyle issues and are perceived by their followers as having an “authentic” voice. Politicians and candidates are increasingly engaging with influencers to amplify their messages. Influencers played major roles in recent elections and political campaigns in a wide range of countries, including Belgium,[[fn:32]] Mexico,[[fn:33]] Nigeria[[fn:34]] and the United States.[[fn:35]] The 2024 election in India was nicknamed the “YouTube election”, given the ruling party’s unprecedented use of YouTube influencers.[[fn:36]]", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "See Khushbu Agrawal, “Navigating the wild west of online campaign finance: how Mexico and Belgium are coping”, International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, 13 March 2023."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 34, "text": "See Temple Uwalaka and others, “Social media influencers and political influence operations: the Data Boys example in Nigeria”, Public Relations Inquiry, vol. 14, No. 1, 13 November 2024."}, {"n": 35, "text": "See https://eeebb0be-e8c8-4e71-9dcf-4514afffc587.usrfiles.com/ugd/eeebb0_332d92c2e248466183d9ffffc8be6d07.pdf."}, {"n": 36, "text": "See Sarah Khan, Rudransh Mukherjee and Joyojeet Pal, “Influencer collaboration on YouTube: changing political outreach in the 2024 Indian Elections”, research paper, University of Michigan, 28 January 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. While influencers have broadened political engagement, they pose significant risks. Unlike journalists, influencers are not bound by professional standards, rules or ethics. They are not obliged to provide balanced views, check facts or disclose affiliations. Influencers may also be susceptible to coercion by political candidates. At least 30 per cent of influencers surveyed in Bangladesh and India claimed to have been intimidated into featuring political candidates in their content.[[fn:37]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See Christina Peter and Luisa Muth, “Social media influencers’ role in shaping political opinions and actions of young audiences”, Media and Communication, vol.11, No. 3, June 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Acknowledging the increasing impact of influencers, the Council of the European Union has issued recommendations to the European Commission and member States to strengthen the legal and social responsibility of influencers in the digital media landscape.[[fn:38]] Overall, however, influencers are free to disseminate polarizing and partisan narratives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "See Council of the European Union, “Council conclusions on support for influencers as online content creators”, document 9301/24, 14 May 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Although interference from generative artificial intelligence in the 2024 elections did not materialize to the extent anticipated, it is an emerging concern. The impact of generative artificial intelligence cannot be generalized, as differences in digitalization around the world mean that their effects on political life vary between countries. Any assessment of risks, effects and mitigation strategies should be tailored to local contexts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. As artificial intelligence tools become more accessible, scalable and sophisticated, their benefits and risks are becoming more visible.[[fn:39]] They can enhance political campaign outreach and enable customized messaging or create deceptive content and amplify disinformation. An emerging use of artificial intelligence in elections is as a tool to boost the speed and accuracy of fact-checking. In parallel, the use of artificial intelligence as the basis for platform content curation is affecting the formation of opinions in disturbing ways that are not fully understood. The non-consensual manipulation of thinking processes contravenes the absolute right to freedom of opinion.[[fn:40]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "See submission from Center for Democracy and Technology."}, {"n": 40, "text": "A/HRC/47/25, para. 36."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. The impact of artificial intelligence tools on the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral contexts could have deep consequences for democracy and deserves more scrutiny.[[fn:41]] The Special Rapporteur intends to cover the issue more thoroughly in the future.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/expression/activities/20250507-joint-stm-ai-freedex.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Free, independent, diverse and pluralistic media online and offline is a critical source of information and an antidote to disinformation.[[fn:42]] It plays a vital role as a watchdog and fact checker in elections. Furthermore, despite the growth of social media, legacy media remains the main source of news for the third of the world’s population with no access to the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "C. Media freedom in decline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "A/HRC/47/25, para. 23."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. The decline of media freedom is a serious setback for the electoral information environment. Three factors deserve urgent attention: attacks on journalists; the erosion of media independence, pluralism and financial viability; and the growing public distrust of the media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "C. Media freedom in decline"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Violence against journalists by State or non-State actors, such as political cadres, is a common feature of elections in almost all regions of the world. It endangers independent reporting and can lead to self-censorship. For instance, in Georgia, 75 journalists were physically attacked in 29 incidents, some at polling stations, while covering parliamentary elections.[[fn:43]] The 2024 elections in Mozambique were marred by extreme levels of violence, including intimidation and attacks on journalists.[[fn:44]] Women journalists face heightened risks of physical and gender-based violence and online attacks during elections.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "C. Media freedom in decline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "See https://www.ecpmf.eu/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Monitoring-Report-2024.pdf, p. 23."}, {"n": 44, "text": "See communication MOZ 2/2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Some political leaders, including incumbents, have attacked independent media harshly as fake news, seeking to discredit critical journalists and expose them to public hostility, harassment and violence.[[fn:45]] Often, well-orchestrated campaigns are launched by vested political interests to undermine the credibility of independent media outlets and journalists who speak truth to power. Journalists and media outlets are attacked on social media as liars, traitors or foreign agents. Increasingly, legal systems are being weaponized to harass and intimidate journalists with vexatious claims.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "C. Media freedom in decline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "See “Joint statement of United Nations experts on strengthening democracy and human rights in a year of worldwide elections”, 30 April 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Media independence, pluralism and economic viability are also in decline, adding to the public distrust of the media. In some countries, independent media is effectively non-existent because an authoritarian State exerts total media control. In others, the media has been captured by political actors, wealthy donors or business entrepreneurs aligned with the State or other powerful interests.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "C. Media freedom in decline"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The relationship between the news media and so-called big tech is increasingly shaped by media dependencies, including content visibility, discoverability, prioritization and information bubbles, which reduce media diversity and pluralism.[[fn:46]] As readers and audiences shift to digital platforms, the resulting business and financial problems of the media outlets make them more vulnerable to closure or capture.[[fn:47]] State-controlled, captured or heavily partisan news media often acts as a conduit for misinformation and disinformation, further undermining public trust.[[fn:48]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "C. Media freedom in decline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "See submission from OSCE."}, {"n": 47, "text": "A/HRC/50/29, para. 86."}, {"n": 48, "text": "A/HRC/56/53/Add.2, para. 24."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The concentration of media ownership has long been acknowledged as a major threat to media pluralism. During elections, it can lead to heavily partisan coverage that undercuts public trust in credible journalism and encourages divisive political debate. That has occurred in the United States, where a handful of firms own over 600 licensed commercial broadcast stations. Increasing consolidation has been accompanied by diminished objectivity and rising polarization.[[fn:49]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "C. Media freedom in decline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "See Mary R. Hornak, “Media consolidation and political polarization: reviewing the national television ownership rule”, Fordham Law Review, vol. 90, No. 2 (2021)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. States and digital technology companies are key stakeholders during elections. The present chapter contains an examination of the policies and practices of States and their international legal obligations regarding freedom of expression and public participation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and the right to public participation, including the right to vote, are interdependent. As noted by the Human Rights Committee, citizens take part in the conduct of public affairs by exerting influence through public debate and dialogue with their representatives, and their participation is supported by ensuring freedom of expression, assembly and association.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 25 (1996) on participation in public affairs and the right to vote, para. 8."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Under article 25 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, citizens have the right to take part in the conduct of public affairs, directly or through freely chosen representatives and to vote and to be elected at genuine periodic elections which should be held by secret ballot, guaranteeing the free expression of the will of the electors. States have positive obligations to create the necessary conditions for the exercise of that right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "A. International legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "25", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. States have a duty to protect the right of all citizens, including those who are particularly at risk, such as political opponents, minorities, migrants, journalists and human rights defenders, to participate effectively and safely in political life. Those obligations are binding on all branches of the State and on all public or governmental authorities, including electoral management bodies (election commissions) and incumbent politicians.[[fn:51]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression, para. 7."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The Human Rights Committee has acknowledged freedom of expression as a necessary condition for the realization of the right to public participation.[[fn:52]] Paragraph 19 (2) of the Covenant provides that freedom of expression encompasses the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds regardless of frontiers or types of media, either offline or online. The right to freedom of expression places upon States a positive obligation to provide easy, prompt, effective and practical access to information held by public bodies, including entities carrying out public functions, such as electoral commissions, and includes the right of the media to have access to information on public affairs as well as a right of the public to receive media output.[[fn:53]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Ibid., para. 20; and Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 25 (1996), para. 8."}, {"n": 53, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), paras. 18 and 19."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Freedom of expression may be restricted only in accordance with article 19 (3) of Covenant, under which the restriction must be provided by law and be necessary for the legitimate aim of respecting the rights and reputations of others or for protecting national security, public order, public health or public morals. The principle of legality means that the scope, meaning and effect of the law must be clear, precise and public. Vague laws that confer excessive discretion can lead to arbitrary decision-making and are incompatible with article 19 (3). The principle of necessity requires the restriction to be appropriate and proportionate to achieve one of the legitimate aims. The directness of the causal relationship between the speech and the harm and the severity and immediacy of the harm are key considerations in assessing whether the restriction is necessary and proportionate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "A. International legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Disinformation and hate speech are serious threats to freedom of expression and public participation, especially during elections. The Human Rights Council has affirmed that all responses by States to address disinformation must be grounded in international human rights law.[[fn:54]] The restriction of speech to combat disinformation must meet the standards set out in article 19 (3). Falsehood alone is not sufficient to restrict speech in the absence of harm.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "See Human Rights Council resolution 49/21 and General Assembly resolution 76/227."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. While international law does not use the term “hate speech”, under article 20 (2) of the Covenant, States must prohibit by law the advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence. Incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence on the grounds of race is also prohibited by the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (art. 4 (a)).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "A. International legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CERD", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CERD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Criminal sanctions punishing acts of expression constitute a serious interference in the right to freedom of expression and should be used only in the most serious cases.[[fn:55]] The need to restrict, prohibit or criminalize statements that could cause harm must be balanced against the right to express one’s views freely during elections and the likelihood of abuse of the criminal law by States in the highly politicized environment of elections. The Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence provides valuable guidance for achieving that balance through contextualization.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 47."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. While some States promote freedom of expression and good electoral practices, others have sought to disrupt access to information, suppress political expression and undermine media freedom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Access to timely and accurate information gains heightened significance in the context of elections. Governments have taken a wide range of measures, typically through electoral management bodies (election commissions), to fulfil the right to information regarding elections for all citizens and the media. For example, the election commissions of Austria and Spain adopted various measures to facilitate access to information by citizens living with disabilities.[[fn:56]] With a view to reducing the digital divide, the National Electoral Institute of Mexico adopted specific electoral information strategies for rural and Indigenous communities and other vulnerable groups.[[fn:57]] The election commission of Ireland offers capacity-building and guidance to local authorities, developed in consultation with regional organizations.[[fn:58]] The National Electoral Chamber of Argentina launched a chatbot service with the support of Meta to provide up-to-date and instantly accessible electoral information.[[fn:59]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(a) Fulfilling the right to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "See submissions from Austria and Spain."}, {"n": 57, "text": "See submission from Mexico."}, {"n": 58, "text": "See submission from Ireland."}, {"n": 59, "text": "See Turn.io, “Argentina’s National Electoral Chamber ‘Vot-A’ chatbot: a trusted resource ahead of 2023 presidential polls”, 9 October 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Several election commissions counter electoral disinformation with timely and reliable information. The election commission of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland responds directly to social media posts containing false information about electoral procedures.[[fn:60]] The election commission of Australia maintains a disinformation register, which was reportedly used effectively during the 2023 Voice Referendum campaign.[[fn:61]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(b) Fighting disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 60, "text": "See submission from the United Kingdom."}, {"n": 61, "text": "See submission from Maria O’Sullivan."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. In a positive model of State and civil society partnership to tackle disinformation while respecting human rights, the electoral commission of South Africa and the non-governmental organization Media Monitoring Africa established a portal for the public to report online harms and a group of independent experts to assess the complaints and advise on further action. The platform provides transparency and accountability through a publicly accessible archive of complaints and an appeal system.[[fn:62]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(b) Fighting disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "See submission from Media Monitoring Africa."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. The European Union Digital Services Act is a promising example of smart regulation, despite some limitations.[[fn:63]] It embodies a risk-based approach to regulation focused not on content but on the enforcement of due diligence. Ahead of the 2024 European Parliament elections, the European Commission identified measures that social media platforms and search engines should adopt under the Act to increase transparency and mitigate electoral risks and launched proceedings to investigate several large platforms suspected of failing to comply. Following the annulment of the presidential election in Romania by its national courts in December 2024 over concerns of foreign manipulation facilitated by TikTok, the European Commission opened proceedings against the platform.[[fn:64]] The outcome of that case will test the effectiveness of the Act.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(c) Regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "See submission from Centro de Estudios en Libertad de Expresión y Acceso a la Información."}, {"n": 64, "text": "See European Digital Media Observatory, “Analysis of the 2024 Romanian presidential elections: the role of social media and emerging political trends”, 26 November 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Blanket Internet shutdowns are an inherently disproportionate and unlawful restriction of the right to information.[[fn:65]] The number of election-related shutdowns jumped from 5 in 2023 to 12 in 2024.[[fn:66]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(a) Online censorship"], "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "See General Assembly resolution 57/29."}, {"n": 66, "text": "See submission from Access Now."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Governments that resort to Internet shutdowns often claim that they are aimed at preventing the spread of disinformation or foreign interference in elections. In reality, shutdowns disrupt the public’s access to electoral information, the news media and communications from opposition candidates.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(a) Online censorship"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Through legal measures or in response to indirect requests and political pressure, many States regularly block websites or demand that social media platforms block individual accounts or take down posts, claiming that they contain false or misleading content. Such requests are particularly problematic during elections, as they lack transparency and independent oversight and are often aimed at restricting expression critical of the Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(a) Online censorship"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Officials in Cambodia ordered Internet service providers to block independent news websites a week before the July 2023 elections.[[fn:67]] Just before the 2024 elections in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, at least 53 digital media outlets were blocked and 14 radio stations closed.[[fn:68]] In Mauritius, all social media platforms were blocked for 10 days prior to the 2024 election.[[fn:69]] In Uganda, the blocking of Facebook imposed during the 2021 elections remained ongoing as of early 2025.[[fn:70]] In India, the websites of platforms documenting hate crimes against marginalized communities were reportedly blocked by the authorities with no prior notice or recourse.[[fn:71]] Leading up to the 2024 elections, the Government of India reportedly ordered Facebook, X and Instagram to block hundreds of accounts of activists.[[fn:72]] As X users began migrating to Bluesky, Pakistan is reported to have extended a ban to that platform in addition to X.[[fn:73]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(a) Online censorship"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "See submission from Freedom House."}, {"n": 68, "text": "See communication VEN 7/2024."}, {"n": 69, "text": "See Access Now and #KeepItOn coalition, “Emboldened offenders, endangered communities: Internet shutdowns in 2024”, 24 February 2025."}, {"n": 70, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 71, "text": "See submission from Internet Freedom Foundation."}, {"n": 72, "text": "See submission from Article 19."}, {"n": 73, "text": "See Rezwan, “A year of elections and digital repression in South Asia: 2024 in focus”, Global Voices, 2 January 2025."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Social media guidelines set by the Brazilian judiciary after the 2022 election, while helping to contain anti-democratic elements, raised concerns within civil society about overreach, including regarding the forced removal of numerous posts and the blocking of social media profiles ex officio and confidentially by the electoral court.[[fn:74]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(a) Online censorship"], "footnotes": [{"n": 74, "text": "See submission from Conectas Direitos Humanos and Article 19: International Centre against Censorship (Brazil and South America)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. When States promote false narratives, they undermine their obligation to fulfil the right to information. State-sponsored disinformation can emanate from State institutions directly or through proxies. New technologies and new vectors, such as online influencers, have expanded significantly the scale, speed, spread and impact of State-sponsored disinformation directly and indirectly during elections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(b) State-sponsored disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. In 2024, in at least 21 countries, government agents and pro-government commentators spread false or misleading narratives to undermine people’s trust in the electoral system, manipulate online discussions or drown out reliable information.[[fn:75]] In most cases, the purpose of the disinformation was to create legitimacy for elections that were not free or fair or to undermine the political opposition.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(b) State-sponsored disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 75, "text": "See submission from Freedom House."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. In the lead-up to the European Parliament elections in June 2024, influencers supporting the ruling party of Hungary published videos characterizing the political opposition and independent news outlets as being controlled by foreign donors.[[fn:76]] The 2023 elections in Serbia were marred by what some called government-driven “information chaos”.[[fn:77]] In Belarus, State television attacked the exiled opposition as “terrorists” or “extremists”.[[fn:78]] A think-tank of exiled Russian researchers reported that the social media platforms VKontakte and Telegram featured at least 100,000 public organizations and thousands of public sector employees pushing State propaganda in support of incumbents in Russian elections.[[fn:79]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(b) State-sponsored disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "See submission from Hungarian Helsinki Committee."}, {"n": 77, "text": "See Mila Bajić and Grant Baker, “‘Information chaos’ plagues Serbia elections”, Center for European Policy Analysis, 15 December 2023; and European Parliament, “Serbia did not fulfil its commitments to free and fair elections, say MEPs”, 8 February 2024."}, {"n": 78, "text": "See submission from Respect-Protect-Fulfill."}, {"n": 79, "text": "See Center for Data and Research on Russia, “Social media monitoring on the eve of the presidential elections in Russia”, March 2024, available at https://cedarus.io/research/elections-monitoring."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Independent fact checkers and independent media are vital resources for countering false narratives. Both have come under attack during elections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(c) Attacks on fact checkers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Fact-checking organizations have been smeared or investigated in many countries, often with chilling effect. In South Korea, a leading fact-checking centre scaled down its activities after being smeared by the ruling party.[[fn:80]] In Egypt, on election day in 2023, the media authority launched an investigation into a platform reporting on the suppression of electoral information.[[fn:81]] In the United States, legal harassment and smear campaigns by governmental and non-governmental actors reportedly led the Stanford Internet Observatory and the Election Integrity Partnership to discontinue their work during the 2024 elections.[[fn:82]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(c) Attacks on fact checkers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "See submission from Freedom House."}, {"n": 81, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 82, "text": "See submission from Center for Democracy and Technology."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. On the positive side, civil society has rallied to boost independent fact-checking. In India, the Shakti Collective, a consortium of more than 50 fact-checking groups and media organizations, worked to identify disinformation and artificial intelligence-generated content and translate fact-checked information into the many languages of India.[[fn:83]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(c) Attacks on fact checkers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 83, "text": "See submission from Freedom House."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. States have historically used criminal law as a weapon to silence dissent.[[fn:84]] Because of the inherent abuse of criminal libel to suppress criticism of State policies and officials, the Special Rapporteur has repeatedly called for the decriminalization of libel.[[fn:85]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(d) Criminalization of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 84, "text": "A/HRC/26/30, paras. 38 and 39."}, {"n": 85, "text": "A/HRC/50/29, paras. 57 and 58. See also A/HRC/47/25, para. 52."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. In recent years, cyberlibel and cybercrime laws have been adopted to criminalize expression online. Another alarming trend has been the proliferation of fake news laws aimed at criminalizing legitimate online expression under the guise of combating disinformation. Most fake news, criminal libel, cyberlibel and cybercrime laws fail to meet the standards of legality, necessity and proportionality set out in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(d) Criminalization of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Tunisia has used its cybercrime law to prosecute and imprison candidates, journalists, lawyers, judges and human rights defenders. During the 2022 parliamentary elections in Lebanon, over two thirds of social media posts sanctioned by the electoral authorities were sanctioned on defamation grounds, with some individuals forced to sign pledges not to criticize officials.[[fn:86]] In Bangladesh, the Digital Security Act and its successor legislation were used to harass, detain and prosecute hundreds of journalists, human rights defenders and political opponents, chilling media reporting and political participation in successive elections.[[fn:87]] The interim Government of Bangladesh has promised to reform the law ahead of the upcoming elections.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(d) Criminalization of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 86, "text": "See European Union Election Observation Mission, Lebanon 2022, Parliamentary Elections, 15 May 2022, Final Report."}, {"n": 87, "text": "See communications BGD 2/2023 and BGD 7/2023."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. The combined effect of repressive measures can be severe. During the May 2023 elections in Türkiye, independent observers found that criminal laws on defamation, insult and the dissemination of “false” information, the blocking of websites, content takedown requests and the detention and prosecution of journalists had a severe chilling effect on freedom of expression.[[fn:88]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(d) Criminalization of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 88, "text": "See Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights Election Observation Mission, Republic of Türkiye: General Elections 14 May and Presidential Election, Second Round 28 May 2023, Final Report (Warsaw, OSCE, 2023)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. As State organs, electoral commissions should proactively provide accurate and timely information on the electoral process and election results. They should also be able to debunk rapidly and accurately false information on electoral issues.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(e) Weak electoral management bodies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. Many electoral bodies are unable to play their role effectively due to a lack of capacity, expertise, resources and institutional independence or because of undue political influence. In Sri Lanka, the Election Commission allegedly cited loopholes in the Right to Information Act to keep electoral information confidential,[[fn:89]] aggravating public distrust in the electoral process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(e) Weak electoral management bodies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "See submission from Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Furthermore, many electoral commissions struggle with emerging digital challenges, such as the use of generative artificial intelligence or the role of online influencers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(e) Weak electoral management bodies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. While companies do not have the same human rights obligations as States, they are expected to respect human rights in their operations and activities in line with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. At a minimum they should conduct due diligence with a view to identifying, preventing and mitigating any potential or actual adverse impact of their policies, products and operations on human rights, conduct regular human rights impact assessments and put in place a remediation process for users.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Social media platforms and search engines play a crucial role in the electoral information environment. They enhance access to information and enable broader political engagement. They also amplify harmful speech, however, and overly restrict lawful content. Companies have developed automated, human and expert-driven processes to safeguard platforms from information manipulation during elections. Their effectiveness has been varied, and recent moves to roll back key policies and programmes without due diligence or stakeholder consultation raise considerable concerns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "A. Specific responses to elections"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Some platforms took specific steps to address electoral information challenges in 2024. Meta ran several election operations around the world to monitor content, update policies and react swiftly in specific countries.[[fn:90]] Prior to the European Parliament elections in 2024 and the national elections in Germany in 2025, the large platforms worked with national digital services authorities to conduct simulations of election risks or stress tests.[[fn:91]] Platforms also monitored foreign influence operations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "A. Specific responses to elections"], "footnotes": [{"n": 90, "text": "See Nick Clegg, “What we saw on our platforms during 2024’s global elections”, Meta, 3 December 2024."}, {"n": 91, "text": "See European Commission, “German Digital Services Coordinator tests platforms’ readiness under the Digital Services Act”, 31 January 2025."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Acknowledging the potential risks of generative artificial intelligence in elections, major platforms devoted resources to identifying, publishing reports and addressing the harmful impacts of artificial intelligence-driven technologies, such as deepfakes and bot networks.[[fn:92]] Dozens of leading companies, including Meta, signed an industry-led accord to address the use of deceptive artificial intelligence in 2024.[[fn:93]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "A. Specific responses to elections"], "footnotes": [{"n": 92, "text": "See https://transparency.meta.com/metasecurity/threat-reporting; and https://www.tiktok.com/transparency/en-us/countering-influence-operations."}, {"n": 93, "text": "See International Republican Institute, “Democracy in the age of generative AI: navigating risks and harnessing opportunities”, white paper (2024), available at https://www.iri.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/GenAI-Democracy-White-Paper-Final.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. There is deep concern that, at a time of rising hate and lies, the large platforms are backsliding on their commitments to electoral integrity, safety, transparency and risk management. Since 2022, the largest platforms have radically scaled down staff and resources and rolled back key policies, while simultaneously expanding their investment in artificial intelligence tools, including for recommenders and ranking systems.[[fn:94]] The retrenchments have been heaviest at Meta, X and Google and have hit hardest at the trust and safety teams.[[fn:95]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "1. Rollback by platforms"], "footnotes": [{"n": 94, "text": "See Paul M. Barrett, Cecely Richard-Carvajal and Justin Hendrix, Digital Risks to the 2024 Elections: Safeguarding Democracy in an Era of Disinformation, NYU Stern Center for Business and Human Rights (2024)."}, {"n": 95, "text": "See Nora Benavidez, “Big tech backslide: how social-media rollbacks endanger democracy ahead of the 2024 elections”, Free Press, December 2023, available at https://www.freepress.net/sites/default/files/2023-12/free_press_report_big_tech_backslide.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Although economic considerations and the rise of generative artificial intelligence have been the key factors influencing staff cuts, political and ideological considerations have also figured prominently. Under the leadership of Elon Musk, X has retreated totally from content moderation and user safety in the name of promoting “free speech”. YouTube has rolled back policies designed to limit “big lie” content questioning the results of the 2020 elections in the United States.[[fn:96]] Meta has scaled back its moderation of harmful speech, leading the Meta Safety Advisory Council, an independent body of experts, to observe that the company risked prioritizing political ideologies over global safety imperatives.[[fn:97]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "1. Rollback by platforms"], "footnotes": [{"n": 96, "text": "Ibid., p. 9."}, {"n": 97, "text": "See https://assets.projectrockit.com.au/assets/Safety-Advisory-Council-%E2%80%93-Letter-to-Meta.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. In early 2025, Meta abruptly decided to stop working with professional fact checkers and moved to a “community notes” style of moderation, similar to that used by X, despite concerns about its efficacy.[[fn:98]] While Meta’s decision was aimed at the American market, fact-checking initiatives involve local partners all over the world. Stakeholders across Africa are concerned that Meta’s move will diminish the chances for greater platform accountability across the continent.[[fn:99]] The move also appears to contradict Meta’s significant past support to improving the skills and capabilities of European fact checkers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "1. Rollback by platforms"], "footnotes": [{"n": 98, "text": "See submission from Derechos Digitales, Tecnología y Communidad, Instituto Panamericano de Derecho y Tenología and Karisma Foundation."}, {"n": 99, "text": "See submission from Association for Progressive Communications."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Meta’s Oversight Board noted that the company had failed to follow its own policy of conducting human rights due diligence prior to making significant changes. The Board called upon Meta to live up to its public commitment to uphold the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights and to identify and address adverse impacts on human rights resulting from the changes, including assessing whether reducing its reliance on the automated detection of policy violations could have uneven consequences globally.[[fn:100]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "1. Rollback by platforms"], "footnotes": [{"n": 100, "text": "See https://www.oversightboard.com/news/wide-ranging-decisions-protect-speech-and-address-harms."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. There is fear of more backsliding by platforms, given the current political climate in the United States, as exemplified in a recent executive order signed by the President announcing the end of the “federal censorship” of online platforms.[[fn:101]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "1. Rollback by platforms"], "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "See https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/restoring-freedom-of-speech-and-ending-federal-censorship."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. The business model of online platforms incentivizes the amplification of harmful and illegal content, such as hate speech and disinformation. The monetization structures of platforms continue to facilitate and amplify harmful content and disinformation in recommender systems, including through electoral political advertisements that contravene stated platform policies.[[fn:102]] Online political advertisers spent $1.35 billion on Google and Meta during the 2024 election cycle in the United States.[[fn:103]] Approaches by platforms to defining “political advertisements” vary wildly, heavily affecting the extent to which they are transparent in their advertising practices and in requiring “paid for” disclosures.[[fn:104]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "2. Amplification of harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 102, "text": "See Max Read and Jessica Mahoney, “Social media platforms fall short on enforcing ads policies”, Institute for Strategic Dialogue, 31 October 2024."}, {"n": 103, "text": "See https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/analysis-opinion/online-ad-spending-2024-election-topped-135-billion."}, {"n": 104, "text": "See Laura Kurek and others, “Rules of the road: political advertising on social media in the 2024 U.S. election”, Center for Democracy and Technology, September 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. Curation algorithms often disproportionately amplify extreme viewpoints. For instance, in the lead-up to the 2025 elections in Germany, one report found that 78 per cent of recommended political content on TikTok and 64 per cent on X was supportive of the far-right Alternative für Deutschland party, despite the party trailing at less than a quarter in the polls.[[fn:105]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "2. Amplification of harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 105, "text": "See Global Witness, “X and TikTok algorithms push pro-AfD content to non-partisan German users: new analysis”, 20 February 2025."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. While platforms need to do more to keep elections safe, effective regulation and strong oversight can spur them to action. A case in point is TikTok, which was implicated in the alleged foreign interference in the December 2024 elections in Romania and is under investigation by the European Commission. Although the Commission has not yet completed its investigation, the platform took various measures ahead of the country’s rerun elections in May 2025, including hiring Romanian language experts and specialists on covert influence and strengthening the detection and labelling of political accounts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "2. Amplification of harmful content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. The accounts of high-profile public figures deserve greater protection but also greater scrutiny and quicker escalation to human review if there are indications that they are likely to instigate harm. Harmful content, whether in political advertisements or political comments, can lead to imminent, real-world violence. During the highly polarized elections in Brazil in 2022, the Oversight Board admonished Facebook’s failure to moderate the postings of a Brazilian general, which may have contributed to incitement to violence.[[fn:106]] Despite real and imminent risks of offline harm during a period of government crackdown on the political opposition in Cambodia, Meta rejected the Oversight Board’s guidance to temporarily close down the account of the country’s prime minister, who continued to threaten opponents with violence.[[fn:107]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "2. Amplification of harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 106, "text": "See https://www.oversightboard.com/decision/fb-659eawi8."}, {"n": 107, "text": "See https://www.oversightboard.com/decision/fb-6okjpns3; and Reuters, “Meta rejects recommendation to suspend former Cambodia PM from Facebook”, 30 August 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. In spite of promises to act equitably across all regions, the protection measures of platforms continue to be uneven or non-existent in certain languages and regions. For instance, despite heightened tensions in the Middle East, neither Meta, Google nor X appear to have implemented safeguards for the September 2024 ballots in Jordan or sufficiently invested in Arabic-speaking content experts.[[fn:108]] Although Facebook and Google have offices in Colombia, non-governmental organizations reported that no specific actions had been taken to mitigate online hate speech and information manipulation in recent elections.[[fn:109]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "2. Amplification of harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 108, "text": "See Digital Action, “Jordan country briefing”, 9 October 2024."}, {"n": 109, "text": "See submission from El Veinte."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The growing shift from traditional media to live broadcasts on social media platforms has brought additional challenges. An independent human rights impact assessment of the Amazon-owned Twitch, which generated more viewership in the 2024 elections in the United States than major news organizations, found that the use of live video in the electoral context posed significant threats with regard to disinformation, hate speech and offline violence.[[fn:110]] Platforms need to devote more resources to developing appropriate systems for responding to disinformation or incitement when the harm occurs in real time with little margin for moderation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "2. Amplification of harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 110, "text": "Business for Social Responsibility, Twitch Human Rights Impact Assessment, April 2023, p. 16."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Two major causes of restriction of political content online are government requests to platforms to remove content and disproportionate content moderation by platforms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "3. Over-moderation of political content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Takedown requests from Governments tend to target political opponents, independent media and human rights defenders. Platforms often accede to the requests because refusal can lead to severe legal and other consequences for the platforms but when platforms accept demands that do not align with international standards of freedom of expression they are, in effect, complicit in censorship. While they may be subject to local laws, the platforms are, nevertheless, obliged to assess the impact of their decisions in the light of their human rights responsibilities and to take steps to mitigate that impact to the extent possible. At a minimum, platforms should adopt globally consistent policies on takedown decisions and make such requests and their responses public. Meta and X publicized their decisions to take down posts in response to demands from the authorities ahead of elections in Indonesia[[fn:111]] and Türkiye.[[fn:112]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "3. Over-moderation of political content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "See submission from Commission for the Disappeared and Victims of Violence and Southeast Asia Freedom of Expression Network."}, {"n": 112, "text": "See submission from Article 19: International Centre against Censorship."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. Most content moderation decisions are made by machines, not human beings, and that is one reason for the excessive removal of content. Automated systems struggle with the nuances and context of political expression, particularly in highly sensitive situations during elections and when dealing with minorities or posts in non-English languages. There have been complaints, for instance, that while gender-based violence against Black and Asian-American women is overlooked, speech by the same groups is over-moderated.[[fn:113]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "3. Over-moderation of political content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 113, "text": "See submission from Center for Digital Technology."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. There are concerns that companies do not invest sufficiently in elections in countries or markets that are not commercially lucrative. Consistent and well-resourced staffing is important in terms of both locally relevant languages and contextual knowledge and technical expertise.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "3. Over-moderation of political content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. As platforms roll back content moderation policies, including those relating to elections in the United States, there is growing concern that ideological and political considerations may be creeping into content moderation. Meta’s sudden policy changes in early 2025 led one expert to describe it as the open political capture of Facebook and its pandering to a particular party.[[fn:114]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "3. Over-moderation of political content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 114, "text": "See Sam Biddle, “Leaked Meta rules: users are free to post ‘Mexican immigrants are trash!’ or ‘trans people are immoral’”, The Intercept, 9 January 2025."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. Transparency is key to accountability. Civil society organizations and experts continue to be concerned about the adequacy of platforms’ transparency measures, including notice to users regarding moderation, reasons for takedowns, policies and practices surrounding elections and information on human rights impact assessments. Some researchers have claimed that their current visibility into Meta’s content moderation, including its role in the 2024 elections, is “near zero.”[[fn:115]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "4. Transparency and access to researchers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 115, "text": "See Sandra Gonzalez-Bailón and David Lazer, “The need to make content moderation transparent”, Tech Policy Press, 11 December 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. Transparency measures are often discretionary and inconsistent. During elections in 2024, many electoral management bodies worldwide reported positive partnerships with major platforms. There were also reports of stonewalling by platforms, however, when electoral bodies sought records relating to risk assessments and the application of election policies, even when requests were made under access-to-information laws. Google, X and Meta reportedly resisted such data requests from the Electoral Commission of South Africa.[[fn:116]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "4. Transparency and access to researchers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 116, "text": "See Amber Sinha, “Platforms and election management bodies in 2024–25: a tale of dramatically mixed results”, Tech Policy Press, 9 April 2025."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. Granting researchers access to platform data allows independent research to inform effective policies and technical interventions. Yet such access continues to be curtailed, made too expensive or offered in formats that are not useful for research. Even where data is available, there can be significant inconsistencies in content and format, making research and comparison difficult.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "4. Transparency and access to researchers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. In 2024, Meta deactivated CrowdTangle, a tool that was critical for researchers studying political interactions on the platform, and replaced it with the Ad Library, which is more restrictive and effectively excludes journalists and independent researchers.[[fn:117]] X has made it prohibitively expensive for researchers to obtain its data via application programming interfaces.[[fn:118]] The Digital Services Act of the European Union provides a mechanism through which independent researchers can exercise their right to obtain data from large platforms but that aspect of the Act has yet to be operationalized.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "4. Transparency and access to researchers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 117, "text": "See submission from Derechos Digitales, Tecnología y Communidad, Instituto Panamericano de Derecho y Tenología and Karisma Foundation."}, {"n": 118, "text": "See Daniela Alvarado Rincón and Ognjan Denkovski, “Why we’re suing Elon Musk’s X for German election data”, EUobserver, 27 February 2025."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. Polarized politics, rising authoritarian trends, backsliding platforms awash in hate speech and disinformation and a media sector too weak to debunk the lies have coalesced into a perfect storm in which freedom of expression and the right to vote are imperilled. Public trust in the integrity of elections and information is at an all-time low.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. Lies, exaggeration and propaganda during elections are not new. The game changers are digital technology and social media platforms, which are enabling and amplifying the degradation of the electoral information environment and impeding the equal participation of citizens.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. From that situation, the Special Rapporteur draws seven key conclusions:\n(a) Firstly, elections are information crisis points in which access to accurate and timely information is vital but also highly vulnerable to attack, censorship and distortion. It is imperative that States, companies and civil society work together to protect freedom of expression and close the trust deficit on electoral integrity;\n(b) Secondly, politicians and public officials play a central role in shaping public debate and opinion. They bear a significant responsibility for the degradation of the information environment. They should not abuse their privileged position to undermine electoral integrity, incite violence, hostility and discrimination or attack the media and civil society. Instead, through ethical behaviour, they should enhance the quality of political discourse and build public trust in elections;\n(c) Thirdly, the backsliding of social media platforms on commitments to human rights and electoral integrity rings an alarm bell that States and the international community ignore at their peril. As the principal vector of information in the digital age, the platforms serve a public good and should not deprioritize human safety and human rights for political and commercial interests. As global companies with universal human rights responsibilities, platforms should ensure that their policies and programmes are globally consistent, fair and aligned with their international obligations;\n(d) Fourthly, the decline of media freedom, independence, diversity and pluralism deserves urgent action. Democracy needs a healthy legacy media alongside a trustworthy online environment to ensure a diverse and vibrant electoral information system;\n(e) Fifthly, undermining freedom of expression in the name of fighting disinformation is short-sighted and counterproductive. Freedom of expression is vital to healthy democratic discourse. That does not mean that disinformation cannot be restricted lawfully but that such restrictions must scrupulously respect the principles of legality, necessity, proportionality and legitimate objectives, as set out in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights;\n(f) Sixthly, the advocacy of hatred and incitement to violence that masquerades as political speech has no protection under international law. Powerful public figures must not be permitted to instrumentalize the virality of platforms to incite violence or silence critical voices with threats of violence;\n(g) Finally, experience has shown that multifaceted, multi-stakeholder strategies grounded in human rights and combining a range of legal and non-legal measures are the most effective way to fight disinformation and other forms of information manipulation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. States should provide timely, accurate and relevant information to citizens and the media regarding electoral processes, including on voting procedures, the rights of the electorate and candidates and election results. Information should be available in all relevant languages and formats to ensure the access and participation of all citizens, including minorities, women, Indigenous communities and persons living with disabilities.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. As State organs, electoral commissions have a duty to promote the right to information, safeguard freedom of expression and debunk false information regarding electoral processes and results. States should ensure that electoral commissions are adequately resourced and enjoy the necessary authority and autonomy to carry out their duties without political interference.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. Electoral commissions should proactively monitor the information environment online and offline, promote voter education and media and digital literacy and support the free flow of reliable, high-quality information from diverse sources.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. The digital divide is a barrier to the right to information. States should promote diverse technological solutions to achieve universal, meaningful access to the Internet, paying particular attention to inequalities affecting women and marginalized communities and creating an enabling regulatory environment for small community networks.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. States have a duty to ensure that companies respect human rights. Social media regulation should not be aimed at controlling content but should encourage companies to carry out human rights due diligence and impact assessments, align their curation and moderation policies with human rights standards and adhere to high standards of transparency and accountability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. States should refrain from Internet shutdowns, disruptions and the blocking of platforms or websites, as such actions are inherently disproportionate. States should not compel platforms to censor, remove or block content that is legitimate under international law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. States, State entities and public officials must refrain from electoral disinformation and attacks on election officials, fact checkers and the media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. States should refrain from restricting freedom of expression both online and offline, including for the purposes of combating disinformation, except in accordance with the requirements of legality, necessity, proportionality and legitimate objectives as set out in international law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. States are obliged to prohibit the advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement to violence, hostility and discrimination, regardless of who espouses it. Criminal law should be used only in the most egregious cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. Given the high risk of abuse of criminal law, especially in electoral contexts, States should consider decriminalizing libel and cyberlibel offences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. States, public officials and politicians must refrain from attacking and discrediting the media and should promote an environment that is conducive to media freedom, independence, pluralism and diversity and the safety of journalists. States must take steps proactively to protect journalists and media workers during elections, and promptly investigate all complaints and incidents of threats or violence against the media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. States should develop multifaceted, multi-stakeholder, human rights-based strategies to counter electoral disinformation. Beginning with the State’s own responsibility to provide factual and timely information, such strategies should promote an independent, pluralistic and diverse media, independent fact-checking, the digital and media literacy of the electorate and collaboration with civil society and companies. Electoral commissions should play a leading role in such activities, including setting up accessible mechanisms for citizens to report harmful speech and other good practices.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. Political parties should adopt and enforce codes of conduct that set minimum standards of behaviour and accountability for their candidates, officials, members and workers, encouraging respect for freedom of expression and prohibiting online or offline violence or incitement to violence, hatred and discrimination against women, vulnerable or marginalized groups, journalists, human rights defenders, electoral officials and election observers.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations to political parties"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. Candidates and parties must be transparent regarding their transactional relationships with social media influencers and refrain from utilizing influencers or other proxies as surrogates for harmful speech and disinformation or from resharing and promoting such content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations to political parties"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0108", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. Social media platforms should set basic global standards for elections in all jurisdictions and apply them consistently and fairly, dedicating sufficient resources, including human resources and language and contextual expertise, irrespective of their own commercial and political interests in that market.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0109", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. Platforms should conduct heightened human rights due diligence and impact assessments of content moderation and curation policies ahead of elections and ensure that they invest sufficiently in local languages, contextual expertise and fact-checking resources, including human resources. As part of their due diligence, platforms should work with the relevant national authorities and civil society organizations to conduct stress tests ahead of elections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0110", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. Platforms must ensure that their content curation, moderation and takedown policies are aligned with international human rights standards, including criteria and standards for restricting and prohibiting speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0111", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. Platforms should develop globally consistent policies regarding their responses to government requests for takedowns, assessing the human rights implications, and consider all options before acceding to the requests. Where the requests are aimed at suppressing speech that is lawful under international law, platforms should consider all legal means to resist or, failing that, apply the restriction as narrowly as possible. Platforms should publish the requests and their responses as a regular practice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0112", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. Platforms should react rapidly and effectively to instances of incitement to violence and develop clear and consistent policies, including for the rapid escalation of decision-making regarding the accounts of high-profile political figures, considering the importance of protecting political expression but also the heightened risk of harm.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0113", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. Companies should resist government orders to shut down the Internet or restrict access to digital services and should use all legal channels to challenge requests that appear to violate international human right standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0114", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. Platforms should set requirements for transparency by social media influencers to disclose paid or in-kind affiliations with candidates or campaigns and ensure that recommender systems do not monetize the dissemination of disinformation or harmful speech by influencers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0115", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "115. Platforms should review their recommender algorithms and monetization systems, ensuring that they promote access to accurate electoral information and do not disproportionately amplify extreme viewpoints or harmful and sensational content or users. Platforms should be transparent regarding the algorithms and safety efforts that they undertake surrounding elections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0116", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "116. Platforms should support independent fact-checking organizations in collaboration with civil society organizations, particularly those that are relevant to the local context of elections. Platforms that have rolled back independent fact-checking or plan to do so should conduct independent due diligence and impact assessments and publish the results.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0117", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "117. Platforms should collaborate with civil society to develop rights-based approaches to respond to inauthentic artificial intelligence content, tailored to local contexts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0118", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "118. Platforms should provide access to researchers in line with industry best practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0119", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "119. Platforms should adopt meaningful transparency measures to communicate their election integrity efforts and ensure that policies and information on human rights due diligence, recommender systems and requests and demands by Governments are provided in relevant non-English languages in addition to English.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0120", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "120. Platforms should engage proactively with stakeholders, including electoral commissions, the media, civil society and the United Nations human rights system, including the special procedure mandate holders, on a regular basis and especially prior to major policy changes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The private sector’s role in the digital age appears pervasive and ever-growing, a driving force behind the greatest expansion of access to information in history. Vast social media forums for public expression are owned by private companies. Major platforms aggregating and indexing global knowledge, and designing the algorithms that influence what information is seen online, result from private endeavour. The infrastructure for mobile technology, by which billions communicate and reach the Internet, depends upon private investment, maintenance and ownership. The tools for law enforcement and intelligence are often drawn from products of the private surveillance and data-processing industries. Private companies design, manufacture and often maintain the devices or services on which the most important personal data are stored — from financial and health-care information to e-mails, text messages, search histories, photographs and videos.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The contemporary exercise of freedom of opinion and expression owes much of its strength to private industry, which wields enormous power over digital space, acting as a gateway for information and an intermediary for expression. In digital environments, important questions about applicable law and the scope of private authority and public regulation cannot be avoided. Should these private actors have the same responsibilities as public authorities? Should their responsibilities derive from human rights law, terms of service, contractual arrangements, or something else? How should relationships among corporate actors and States be structured? When faced with pressures to conduct their businesses in ways that interfere with freedom of expression, what steps should private actors take? Refuse to enter markets or withdraw from them? Advise their customers about such pressures? As the world moves ever more deeply into digital space, with the “Internet of things” on the near horizon, guidance is critical to ensure rights are promoted, protected and enjoyed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The present report has several aims.[[fn:1]] First, it seeks to identify the categories of private actors that deeply influence the freedom of expression in a digital age. Secondly, it identifies questions concerning both the private sector’s protection of freedom of opinion and expression and public authorities’ responsibility to ensure the protection of space for expression. Thirdly, it lays out several areas in which normative guidance appears to be most needed. These areas will be addressed and consolidated through thematic reporting, country and company visits, and communications and consultations with Governments, the business sector and civil society. In short, the present report is the first of several the Special Rapporteur will present in order to provide guidance on how private actors should protect and promote freedom of expression in a digital age.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to thank his legal adviser, Amos Toh, and his students at the University of California, Irvine School of Law, for their assistance with the preparation of this report."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Public process of input and consultation contributed to the development of the present report. On 3 December 2015, the Special Rapporteur issued a call for input to the report. As of the date of publication, the Special Rapporteur received 15 submissions from States[[fn:2]] and 15 submissions from organizations[[fn:3]], all of which are to be found on the Special Rapporteur’s website.[[fn:4]] The Special Rapporteur also benefited greatly from consultations. He held a meeting on 25 and 26 January 2016 with 25 members of civil society at the University of California, Irvine School of Law, and a separate meeting with 20 individuals from the private sector and civil society on 29 February 2016 at the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights in Geneva. Meeting summaries are also be found on the Special Rapporteur’s website.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Armenia, El Salvador, Estonia, Greece, Jordan, Kuwait, Mauritius, Mexico, Netherlands, Peru, Republic of Moldova, Romania, Slovakia, Turkey and United States of America."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Article 19; Association for Progressive Communications; Center for Democracy and Technology; Center for Technology and Society; Centre for Communication Governance at National Law University, New Delhi; Danish Institute for Human Rights; Derechos Digitales; European Digital Rights; Freedom Online Coalition Working Group on Privacy and Transparency Online; Global Network Initiative; Institute for Human Rights and Business; International Centre for Not-for-Profit Law; Internet Society; Korean Progressive Network Jinbonet; Privacy International; Ranking Digital Rights; and New America."}, {"n": 4, "text": "Available from www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/FreedomOpinion/Pages/Annual.aspx."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. This mapping report rests on a basic question: to what extent should the information and communications technology sector be responsible for the promotion and protection of freedom of opinion and expression? Addressing this question requires beginning with a summary of the international human rights law according to which States are obligated to promote and protect freedom of expression and principles addressing private-sector human rights responsibilities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Article 19 of both the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights protects everyone’s right to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers and through any media. It has become customary to emphasize that individuals enjoy the same rights online as they do offline. The previous mandate holder highlighted the increasing number and forms of restrictions on the right to information online (see A/HRC/17/27) and demonstrated the impact on freedom of expression of expanded digital surveillance (see A/HRC/23/40). In 2015, the Special Rapporteur emphasized the important role played by encryption and anonymity in protecting and advancing the freedom of expression (see A/HRC/29/32). In joint declarations, the Special Rapporteur and regional counterparts have emphasized issues relating to intermediary liability, access, content restrictions and other key topics on freedom of expression online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age", "A. International legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 19 of both the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — joint citation to ICCPR and UDHR."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. Article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights allows for restrictions on the freedom of expression (but not on the freedom of opinion under article 19 (1)). According to article 19 (3), any restriction, to be legitimate, must be provided by law and necessary for the respect of the rights or reputations of others or the protection of national security or of public order, or of public health or morals. Any restriction must be precise enough and publicly accessible in order to limit the authorities’ discretion and provide individuals with adequate guidance (see the Human Rights Committee’s general comment No. 34 (2011) on article 19: freedoms of opinion and expression). To be necessary, a restriction must be more than merely useful, reasonable or desirable.[[fn:5]] It is also well established that necessity requires an assessment of proportionality (see A/HRC/29/32). Proportionality requires demonstrating that restrictive measures are the least intrusive instrument among those which might achieve their protective function and proportionate to the interest to be protected (see general comment No. 34). When restrictions fail to meet the standard of article 19 (3), individuals enjoy the right to an effective remedy under article 2 (3) of the Covenant.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Application No. 6538/74, The Sunday Times v. The United Kingdom (26 April 1979), para. 59."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "2", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Individuals enjoy the full range of other rights online as well, such as privacy, religious belief, association and peaceful assembly, education, culture and freedom from discrimination. States have both a negative obligation to refrain from violating rights and a positive obligation to ensure enjoyment of those rights. These positive obligations may require public authorities to take steps to protect individuals from the actions of private parties.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See general comment No. 31 (2004) on the nature of the general legal obligation imposed on States parties to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Other norms of international law may apply directly to the activities of private actors, such as the criminalization of crimes against humanity, war crimes and acts of genocide under international humanitarian law."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Human rights law does not as a general matter directly govern the activities or responsibilities of private business. A variety of initiatives provide guidance to enterprises to ensure compliance with fundamental rights. The Human Rights Council endorsed the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework (see A/HRC/17/4 and A/HRC/17/31). Reflecting existing human rights law, the Guiding Principles reaffirm that States must ensure that not only State organs but also businesses under their jurisdiction respect human rights.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age", "B. A framework for private sector responsibilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, chap. I (A) (1)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The Guiding Principles provide a framework for the consideration of private business responsibilities in the information and communications technology sector worldwide, independent of State obligations or implementation of those obligations. For instance, the Guiding Principles assert a global responsibility for businesses to avoid causing or contributing to adverse human rights impacts through their own activities, and to address such impacts when they occur and seek to prevent or mitigate adverse human rights impacts that are directly linked to their operations, products or services by their business relationships, even if they have not contributed to those impacts.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age", "B. A framework for private sector responsibilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Ibid., chap. II (A) (11)-(13)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Due diligence, according to the Guiding Principles, enables businesses to identify, prevent, mitigate and account for how they address their adverse human rights impacts.[[fn:9]] In the digital environment, human rights impacts may arise in internal decisions on how to respond to government requests to restrict content or access customer information, the adoption of terms of service, design and engineering choices that implicate security and privacy, and decisions to provide or terminate services in a particular market.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age", "B. A framework for private sector responsibilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Ibid., chap. II (A) (17)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. As a matter of transparency, the Guiding Principles state that businesses should be prepared to communicate how they address their human rights impacts externally, particularly when concerns are raised by or on behalf of affected stakeholders.[[fn:10]] The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights has also urged information and communications companies to disclose risks and government demands transparently (see A/HRC/27/37). Meaningful disclosures shed light on, among other things, the volume and context of government requests for content removals and customer data, the processes for handling such requests, and interpretations of relevant laws, policies and regulations. Corporate transparency obligations may also include a duty to disclose processes and reporting relating to terms of service enforcement and private requests for content regulation and user data.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age", "B. A framework for private sector responsibilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Ibid., chap. II (B) (21)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Finally, the responsibility to respect involves attention to the availability of remedies — from moral remedies to compensation and guarantees of non-repetition — when the private actor has caused or contributed to adverse impacts.[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age", "B. A framework for private sector responsibilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Ibid., chap. II (B) (22)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. The Guiding Principles provide a useful starting point for identifying private information and communications responsibilities, but several other projects have also proposed principles for the sector. The Global Network Initiative’s Principles on Freedom of Expression and Privacy draw on the experience and expertise of the investor, civil society and academic communities. The European Commission published the ICT Sector Guide on Implementing the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. Relevant civil society initiatives include the Manila Principles of Intermediary Liability, which establish baseline protection for intermediaries in accordance with freedom of expression standards; the African Declaration on Internet Rights and Freedoms, which promotes human rights standards and principles of openness in Internet policy formulation and implementation on the continent; and the Ranking Digital Rights Corporate Accountability Index, which evaluates a set of major private actors in the digital space on the basis of their adherence to freedom of expression and privacy norms. Civil society also acts to check and balance other actors engaged in Internet governance: the Code of Good Practice on Information, Participation and Transparency in Internet Governance, for example, seeks to ensure that relevant processes are meaningfully communicated to the public, accountable to all stakeholders, and emphasize democratic participation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age", "B. A framework for private sector responsibilities"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. The range of private sector roles in organizing, accessing, populating and regulating the Internet is vast and often includes overlapping categories.[[fn:12]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "See, for example, “Strategy panel: ICANN’s role in the Internet governance ecosystem” (23 February 2014); R. Mackinnon and others, Fostering Freedom Online: The Role of Internet Intermediaries (Paris, UNESCO, 2014); and D. A. Hope, Protecting Human Rights in the Digital Age (February 2011)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. While Internet service providers specifically connect their subscribers to the Internet, telecommunication service providers offer a broader range of services, including access to radio, television, telephone and mobile communication. Major multinational corporations offer both categories of service, not only in their State of origin but also globally. Vodafone, for example, is a British provider that owns and operates networks in 27 countries and has partner networks in over 50 additional countries. TeliaSonera, based in Finland and Sweden, serves markets throughout Eurasia, and MTS Russia provides domestic service but also provides telecommunication services in Armenia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Companies like these often own and maintain significant aspects of the technical infrastructure that transmit Internet and telecommunications traffic, including fibre optic network cables, satellites or wireless links. Internet service providers in local and regional markets might operate a limited number of these networks or lease network capacity from large carriers in order to connect their subscribers to the Internet. State ownership is fairly common among service providers: Switzerland, for example, holds 51 per cent of the shares in Swisscom AG,[[fn:13]] and Uruguay owns Antel, a major telecommunications provider in the country.[[fn:14]] While telecommunication and Internet service providers are currently the most common providers of Internet access, a growing number of hybrid companies aim to provide Internet access as well as other Internet-related services.[[fn:15]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "1. Enable connection to the Internet"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "See www.swisscom.ch/en/about/investors/shares/ownership-structure.html."}, {"n": 14, "text": "See www.antel.com.uy/antel/; http://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/cs181/projects/2006-07/latin-america/uruguayIntro.html."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Google, for example, will provide access to wireless service through its Google Fiber service, in addition to its search, content-hosting and social networking functions, among others. See https://fiber.google.com/about/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Hardware firms design and manufacture the computer devices that connect individuals to the Internet. The range of devices equipped with personal computing functions is, however, ever-expanding and impossible to cap, given the avalanche of connectedness widely described as the “Internet of things”, in which digital connection is enabled for all aspects of contemporary existence. Automobiles, refrigerators, televisions and watches are just a few examples of “smart” devices that today incorporate browser, messaging and other Internet-related functions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "2. Design and maintain hardware and operating systems that facilitate information processing and Internet access"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Further, telecommunication and Internet service providers purchase equipment and other network components that comprise the physical backbone of their networks from infrastructure vendors and equipment manufacturers. These products can range from simple routers and switches to deep packet inspection devices, network filtering and Internet blocking devices, and surveillance monitoring centres. Increasingly these companies also include services, consulting, training and even operation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "2. Design and maintain hardware and operating systems that facilitate information processing and Internet access"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Internet addresses (that is, uniform resource locators (URLs)) are allocated and sold by domain name registries and registrars, under the supervision of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), a non-profit entity. Currently, the world’s largest registrar hosts more than 61 million domain names.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "3. Allocate web domains"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Web-hosting services enable users to upload and deliver files and other materials to their readers’ or customers’ browsers. These companies typically also provide data storage, e-mail and other services associated with the websites their customers have purchased.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "4. Host information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Search engines supply the vital connection between users who search for information, and those who create, aggregate and publish it. Indeed, search engine algorithms dictate what users see and in what priority, and they may be manipulated to restrict or prioritize content. Information searches, however, are not unique to search engines. Content aggregators, specialized research services, social media platforms and professional networks also enable users to search for content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "5. Facilitate aggregating, sharing and searching for information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Companies that create or purchase content produced on their platforms often hold the copyright to such content, enabling them to monetize and manage access to it. Some of the most influential copyright holders are media and entertainment companies, including news media, publishing houses, music labels, and film and television studios.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "6. Produce and regulate access to one’s own content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Companies also provide a variety of services that connect users across multiple platforms, including e-mail, web chats, discussion threads, and social and professional networking. The most prominent actors in this area include e-mail providers, social media and other networking platforms, and online bulletin boards. In addition to such platforms, news websites, e-commerce platforms and application stores provide opportunities for the sharing of information and ideas through reviews, comments and discussions. Internet payment systems also integrate a social networking functionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "7. Connect users and communities"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. E-commerce facilitates the sale of goods and services and other commercial transactions among businesses and consumers, businesses and other businesses, or consumers and other consumers. The ways in which companies provide access to, promote, or arrange these transactions, and safeguard the wealth of personal information generated by these transactions, may implicate the freedom of expression and privacy of their customers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "8. Sell goods and services and facilitate transactions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The vast majority of enterprises described above collect information from and about their users, which in turn may be used to target advertising, customize existing services, reduce security risks, or shut down accounts of abusive users. Companies may, however, also trade in information collection and analysis, involving such services as designing, customizing or selling surveillance and information analytics technologies, or provide consulting services that facilitate law enforcement, intelligence, cybersecurity and surveillance operations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "9. Collect, repurpose and sell data"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. The regulatory ecosystem on the Internet is extensive and diverse, involving actors at domestic, regional and international levels, in private and public sectors, in academia and civil society. Some aspects of information and communications technology — such as the provision of telecommunication and Internet services — have long attracted State and international regulation as well as public scrutiny. Other areas, such as search, social media, and the sale of surveillance technologies, are also increasingly subject to such scrutiny, commensurate with their growing impact and influence on the exercise of freedom of expression online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "B. Regulation in the digital age"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Technical standards and processes ensure that the infrastructure, networks and applications that comprise Internet and telecommunication networks operate seamlessly. The physical infrastructure on which Internet traffic flows, such as network cables and satellites, are set up and run according to various technical requirements that ensure their smooth functioning. Organizations that develop such requirements include the International Telecommunication Union, which sets standards for the interoperability of telecommunication networks; the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, a professional association which develops standards for Wi-Fi transmission; and the Groupe Speciale Mobile Association, a private international association of the mobile industry which develops standards for mobile networks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "B. Regulation in the digital age", "1. Technical standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Another group of organizations establishes and develops technical standards for how Internet data are communicated, stored, arranged and presented. The Internet Engineering Task Force develops and maintains the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which determines how devices connect over the Internet and how data are transmitted between them. The World Wide Web Consortium sets standards concerning the display of, and interaction with, web content, which implicates issues such as language content and access for the disabled. ICANN sets policies for the registration of top-level domain names, whether generic (such as .com, .org, .edu), country code (.cn, .tj, .sg) or community or industry-specific (such as .aero). Its subsidiary, the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, manages the distribution of Internet Protocol addresses, which assign and identify each device that connects to the Internet with unique numerical labels.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "B. Regulation in the digital age", "1. Technical standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. While technical standards have profound implications for freedom of expression, the Commission on Science and Technology for Development of the United Nations has observed that standards development often lacks sufficient consideration of human rights concerns.[[fn:16]] To be sure, interested stakeholders and members of the public are permitted to participate in or observe the work of most of these standard-setting bodies. However, because meaningful participation requires a generally high level of technical expertise, human rights perspectives are not always included in discussions, even though technical and design choices can have a substantial impact on freedom of expression.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "B. Regulation in the digital age", "1. Technical standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See Intersessional Panel of the Commission on Science and Technology for Development, “The mapping of international Internet public policy issues” (November 2014)."}, {"n": 17, "text": "To be sure, a few organizations have dedicated resources to incorporating human rights perspectives in technical discussions. ICANN, for example, has established a cross community working party on its corporate and social responsibility to respect human rights, which seeks to map and understand the issues and potential solutions relating to corporate and social responsibilities of ICANN from https://community.icann.org/display/gnsononcomstake/CCWP+on+ICANN's+Corporate+and+Social+Responsibility+to+Respect+Human+Rights. A few non-governmental organizations have also made human rights-oriented contributions to technical discussions. See, for example, Neils ten Oever, “Research into human rights protocol considerations”, available from https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-tenoever-hrpc-research/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. International legal instruments do not explicitly address how States and other actors should maintain a free and open Internet, nor may regulation by law always be an appropriate approach. Indeed, Internet governance is not the sole province of specialized bodies or Governments. Most recently, the World Summit on the Information Society emphasized the continuing importance of a governance approach that integrates government, corporate and civil society, academic and technical stakeholders and expertise (see General Assembly resolution 70/125). In the context of global trade, non-discrimination principles established under international agreements administered by the World Trade Organization may require States to restrict or otherwise regulate non-neutral services. The World Intellectual Property Organization has also faced growing demands from member States for advice on legislative frameworks that enable them to implement treaty obligations in digital environments. Regional bodies, such as the African Union, the European Commission and the Organization of American States seek to ensure that global Internet policy is formulated and implemented in a manner that takes into account the laws, particularities and concerns of their respective regions.[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "B. Regulation in the digital age", "2. Internet governance and policymaking"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "See, for example , European Commission, ICT Sector Guide (para. 14 above); and Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression, Freedom of Expression and the Internet (2013)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Some organizations that set technical standards have policymaking functions as well. The International Telecommunication Union, for example, develops and coordinates global telecommunications policies. ICANN makes policy judgments about the types of top-level domain names that may be registered and who may claim ownership, in consultation with Governments, the private sector, civil society and other relevant actors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "B. Regulation in the digital age", "2. Internet governance and policymaking"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Industry-led initiatives also seek to address Internet governance challenges that are insufficiently addressed by existing legal regulation. The Copyright Alert System, for example, brings together trade associations in the film and recording industries and Internet service providers to develop and implement a unified approach to combating copyright infringement online. The Telecommunications Industry Dialogue brings together telecommunications operators and vendors to address freedom of expression and right to privacy concerns in their sector.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "B. Regulation in the digital age", "2. Internet governance and policymaking"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. While many of these initiatives are privately run, they sometimes collaborate with or receive support from States. For example, the Internet Watch Foundation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, which provides Internet service providers and hosting platforms with a “notice and takedown” service that alerts them to potentially criminal content on their networks, also provides law enforcement agencies with “unique data” in their investigations of such content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "B. Regulation in the digital age", "2. Internet governance and policymaking"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The information and communications technology sector’s multiple roles raise legal and policy questions that deserve attention and elaboration by international human rights mechanisms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. Many questions concerning private actors in the digital age focus on content regulation. For instance, how do States facilitate or demand content removal, censorship and unnecessary or disproportionate restrictions on the right to seek, receive and impart Internet content through private platforms and networks? How do private enterprises respond to these demands and other external pressures? When the private sector develops and enforces its own internal policies and standards to protect and promote rights online, how do these have an impact on individual expression and access information?", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Digital content transmitted on private networks and hosted on private platforms is increasingly subject to State and corporate regulation. The universe of user-generated content is always expanding — blogs, text messages, discussion threads, photographs, videos and social media postings are only a sample of the types of content that users create and share on a daily basis. Companies that manage networks and platforms for this content, known as intermediaries, may “give access to, host, transmit and index content, products and services originated by third parties” even though they do not create or produce that content.[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "MacKinnon and others, Fostering Freedom Online, p. 19; K. Perset, The Economic and Social Role of Internet Intermediaries (OECD, 2010)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. State demands to remove content are often based on such rationales as defamation, blasphemy, election-related regulations, harassment or hate speech, incitement, intellectual property, obscenity and indecency, terrorist recruitment or “glorification”, the protection of national security and public safety, child protection and the prevention of gender-based attacks. Problems long connected to freedom of expression but increasingly complicated in the digital age have also attracted State regulation, including the “right to be forgotten” and pluralism and diversity (for example, network neutrality). Intermediaries themselves establish and enforce terms of service designed to address many of these concerns, for legal, commercial and other reasons. Many of these issues raise questions about the appropriate balance between freedom of expression and other human rights (for example, privacy, non-discrimination). While content regulations are often restrictive in nature, they may also require the transmission of Government-mandated or approved messages,[[fn:20]] or prohibit differential pricing for content and content delivery services.[[fn:21]]", "labels": ["Children", "Children in alternative care"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See Vodafone Group Plc, “Response on issues relating to mobile network operations in Egypt” (2011)."}, {"n": 21, "text": "India, for example, prohibits service providers from offering or charging discriminatory tariffs for data services on the basis of content (Prohibition of Discriminatory Tariffs for Data Services Regulations, 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. States regulate digital content through a variety of legal, political and technical means. Trends of concern include the following.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Content regulations are commonly reflected in legislation, court orders or directives or by-laws issued by administrative bodies with delegated authority to manage telecommunications and Internet-related issues. For example, China recently amended its cybersecurity law to forbid persons and organizations from using the Internet to “upse[t] social order” or “har[m] the public interest”.[[fn:22]] Similarly, a draft bill under consideration in Nigeria prohibits anyone from publishing statements in “any medium” with “malicious intent to discredit or set the public against” any person, group or government institution.[[fn:23]] Such language gives broad discretion to authorities to determine what kinds of digital expression would violate their terms. As a result, individuals and businesses are likely to err on the side of caution in order to avoid onerous penalties, filtering content of uncertain legal status and engaging in other modes of censorship and self-censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Vague laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "China, Cybersecurity Law (2015), art. 9."}, {"n": 23, "text": "Parliament of Nigeria, A bill for an act to prohibit frivolous petitions and other matters connected therewith, sect. 3 (3)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. States often require the cooperation of intermediaries to enforce regulations on private networks and platforms. Internet and telecommunication service providers, for example, are required to comply with local laws and regulations as a condition of their operating licences, a legitimate requirement which becomes problematic when the local laws or their implementation are themselves inconsistent with human rights law. Companies less constrained by licensing requirements, such as social networking platforms, search engines and domain name registrars, nevertheless face the threat that States will disrupt local infrastructure, threaten the safety of local employees, or block local access to their platforms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Excessive intermediary liability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Private actors may also request intermediaries to restrict or remove content. For instance, intellectual property complaints often arise when a private party alleges that a person has shared or used content in a manner that violates its copyright or has created a domain name that violates its trademark. While fair use and other defences to such complaints may be available, intellectual property frameworks may inhibit cultural and artistic expression (see A/HRC/28/57).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Excessive intermediary liability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The European Court of Justice, in Google Spain v. Mario Costeja González, compelled Google under the Data Protection Directive of the European Union to delist search results based on web pages that identified González, even though the original publication of those pages was itself not subject to takedown.[[fn:24]] The decision has found an active life outside the European context.[[fn:25]] The scope and implementation of this approach raise questions about the appropriate balance between the rights to privacy and protection of personal data on one hand, and the right to seek, receive and impart information containing such data on the other.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Excessive intermediary liability"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Judgment of the European Court of Justice (Grand Chamber), case C-131/12 (13 May 2014)."}, {"n": 25, "text": "Submission of Article 19."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Intermediaries are increasingly required to assess the validity of State requests and private complaints against general legal criteria, and remove or delink such content based on such assessments. For example, the Cybercrime Act, 2015 of the United Republic of Tanzania only exempts hyperlink providers from liability for information linked provided that they “immediately remove[ ] or disable[ ] access to the information after receiving an order to do so from the relevant authority”.[[fn:26]] In the context of copyright, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of the United States of America exempts providers of “online services and network access” from liability for third party content only if they respond “expeditiously to remove, or disable access to the material that is claimed to be infringing or to be the subject of infringing activity” upon notice of such infringement.[[fn:27]] These notice and takedown frameworks have been criticized for incentivizing questionable claims and for failing to provide adequate protection for the intermediaries that seek to apply fair and human rights-sensitive standards to content regulation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Excessive intermediary liability"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Para. 43 (a)."}, {"n": 27, "text": "United States Code, title 17, sect. 512 (c) (1) (C)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Another major concern is that private intermediaries are typically ill equipped to make determinations of content illegality. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights has observed that private actors “lack the ability to weigh rights and to interpret the law in accordance with freedom of speech and other human rights standards”.[[fn:28]] This may be due to resource constraints, lack of oversight and accountability, or potential conflicts of interest. In the face of potential liability, companies may be prone to self- or over-censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Excessive intermediary liability"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Freedom of Expression and the Internet, pp. 47-48."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. States also seek to restrict digital content outside the law. Some States have pushed for social media companies and other hosts of user-generated content to monitor and take down content on their own initiative, rather than wait for law-based requests from the Government. Government officials have also attempted to persuade companies to adopt “counter-speech” initiatives through public forums, campaigns and in private discussions. Governments are also increasingly flagging content on social media as inappropriate under a platform’s terms of service, in order to prompt the company to remove the content or deactivate an account.\nFiltering", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Extralegal restrictions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. States often block and filter content with the assistance of the private sector. Internet service providers may block access to specific keywords, web pages or entire websites. On platforms that host content, the type of filtering technique depends on the nature of the platform and the content in question. Domain name registrars may refuse to register those that match a government blacklist; social media companies may remove postings or suspend accounts; search engines may take down search results that link to illegal content. The method of restriction required by Governments or employed by companies can raise both necessity and proportionality concerns, depending on the validity of the rationale cited for the removal and the risk of removal of legal or protected expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Extralegal restrictions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Ambiguities in State regulation coupled with onerous intermediary liability obligations could result in excessive filtering. Even if content regulations werevalidly enacted and enforced, users may still experience unnecessary access restrictions. For example, content filtering in one jurisdiction may affect the digital expression of users in other jurisdictions. While companies may configure filters to apply only to a particular jurisdiction or region, there have been instances where they were nevertheless passed on to other networks or areas of the platform. For instance, in 2013 State-mandated filtering carried out by Airtel India led to restrictions on the same content on several networks in Oman belonging to its partner, Omantel.[[fn:29]]\nNetwork or service shutdowns", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Extralegal restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Citizen Lab, “Routing gone wild: documenting upstream filtering in Oman via India” (2012)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Service shutdowns and associated restrictions are a particularly pernicious means of enforcing content regulations. Such measures are frequently justified on the basis of national security, the maintenance of public order or the prevention of public unrest. In 2015, the Special Rapporteur, together with representatives of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Organization of American States and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights condemned as unlawful Internet “kill switches”.[[fn:30]] In one year alone, there were reports of shutdowns in Bangladesh, Brazil, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, India and Pakistan.[[fn:31]] The Special Rapporteur confirmed instances of telecommunication service provider and service shutdowns in Tajikistan, during his official visit in March 2016.[[fn:32]]\nNon-neutral networks", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Extralegal restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "Joint declaration on freedom of expression and responses to conflict situations (2015)."}, {"n": 31, "text": "Submission of Institute for Human Rights and Business at 3."}, {"n": 32, "text": "Preliminary observations by the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Mr. David Kaye at the end of his visit to Tajikistan (9 March 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. In addition to refraining from unnecessary and disproportionate restrictions on digital access, States also have a duty to ensure a free and open Internet. Network neutrality is the principle that all Internet data, content and services be treated equally and without improper discrimination. However, Internet service providers may deploy technologies that speed up or otherwise favour access to certain content and services, while slowing down others (a practice also known as “throttling”). The growing number of collaborations between Internet service providers and content-hosting platforms that offer free wireless data to access online content or services provided by the latter (also known as the provision of “zero rated” services) has attracted controversy. While such measures detract from the principle of net neutrality, it remains a subject of debate whether they may be permissible in areas genuinely lacking Internet access.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Extralegal restrictions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. State regulation in this area is patchy and uncertain. A few States have recognized the general importance of network neutrality. Romania, for example, has stated that it is “in favour of all initiatives to guarantee that online information can be accessed in a meaningful way by the entire population”.[[fn:33]] Fewer States have provided specific legal protection.[[fn:34]] In early 2016, the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India issued a regulation prohibiting service providers from offering or charging “discriminatory tariffs for data services being offered or charged to the consumer on the basis of content”.[[fn:35]] Some form of network neutrality has been adopted in law or policy by countries including Brazil, Chile, the Netherlands and the United States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Extralegal restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "Submission of the Government of Romania."}, {"n": 34, "text": "Mackinnon and others, Fostering Freedom Online, p. 80."}, {"n": 35, "text": "Prohibition of Discriminatory Tariffs for Data Services Regulations, 2016."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Intermediaries’ policies and rules may have significant effects on the freedom of expressionWhile terms of service are the primary source of regulation, design and engineering choices may also affect the delivery of content.\nTerms of service", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "2. Internal policies and practices"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Terms of service, which individuals typically must accept as a condition to access a platform, often contain restrictions on content that may be shared. These restrictions are formulated under local laws and regulations and reflect similar prohibitions, including those against harassment, hate speech, promotion of criminal activity, gratuitous violence and direct threats.[[fn:36]] Terms of service are frequently formulated in such a general way that it may be difficult to predict with reasonable certainty what kinds of content may be restricted. The inconsistent enforcement of terms of service has also attracted public scrutiny. Some have argued that the world’s most popular platforms do not adequately address the needs and interests of vulnerable groups; for example, there have been accusations of reluctance “to engage directly with technology-related violence against women, until it becomes a public relations issue”.[[fn:37]] At the same time, platforms have been criticized for overzealous censorship of a wide range of legitimate but (perhaps to some audiences) “uncomfortable” expressions.[[fn:38]] Lack of an appeals process or poor communication by the company about why content was removed or an account deactivated adds to these concerns. Terms of service that require registration linked to an individual’s real name or evidence to demonstrate valid use of a pseudonym can also disproportionately inhibit the ability of vulnerable groups or civil society actors in closed societies to use online platforms for expression, association or advocacy.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "2. Internal policies and practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "See, for example, Facebook terms of service, sect. 3 (7); Twitter terms of service; YouTube Community Guidelines; and Reddit."}, {"n": 37, "text": "See https://ourinternet-files.s3.amazonaws.com/publications/no24_web_2.pdf."}, {"n": 38, "text": "See onlinecensorship.org."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. States also increasingly rely on terms of service to remove content they find objectionable. The Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights while countering terrorism has observed that several States have established content-removal mechanisms that often seek the removal of content that, while lawful, might be regarded as extremist (see A/HRC/31/65). The Counter Terrorism Internet Referral Unit in the United Kingdom, for example, is dedicated to removing online content of a “violent extremist or terrorist nature”, including through methods that “use websites’ content-flagging mechanisms to report content as a violation of the site’s [terms of service]”.[[fn:39]] Such practices raise the prospect that States may rely on private terms of service to bypass human rights or domestic law norms against content restrictions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "2. Internal policies and practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "National Police Chiefs’ Council, Counter Terrorism Internet Referral Unit; submission of the Center for Technology and Democracy."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. The work of private censorship is complicated by the sheer volume of complaints and flagged content that intermediaries identify on a daily basis. Large platforms may also outsource content moderation, creating even more distance between content moderators and internal policymaking decisions, and exacerbating inconsistencies in enforcement. Intermediaries that operate in a diverse range of markets inevitably face “complex value judgments”, issues with cultural sensitivity and diversity, and “difficult decisions about conflicts of law”.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "2. Internal policies and practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "Emily Taylor, The Privatization of Human Rights: Illusions of Consent, Automation and Neutrality, GCIG Paper No. 24 (2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The manner in which intermediaries curate, categorize and rank content affects what information users access and view on their platforms. For example, platforms deploy algorithmic predictions of user preferences and consequently guide the advertisements individuals might see, how their social media feeds are arranged and the order in which search results appear.[[fn:41]] Other self-regulatory measures, such as “counter speech” initiatives to support anti-terror or anti-harassment messages,[[fn:42]] also affect the ways in which users might consume and process Internet content concerning sensitive topics. It remains an open question how freedom of expression concerns raised by design and engineering choices should be reconciled with the freedom of private entities to design and customize their platforms as they choose.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "2. Internal policies and practices", "Design and engineering choices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "Submission of the Center for Technology and Society; Ranking Digital Rights."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See, for example, Home Affairs Committee, Oral testimony of Anthony House, Google Europe, Middle East and Africa (2 February 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. State surveillance and corporate data collection and retention raise substantial issues of freedom of expression. For instance, how do States conduct surveillance activities with the cooperation of the private sector, and how does such cooperation have an impact on freedom of expression? What are the responsibilities of private actors when they discover that States covertly access Internet and telecommunications data transmitted or stored on their networks or platforms? What are the responsibilities of the private sector to protect security and anonymity online?", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "B. Surveillance and digital security"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Digital communications and data transmitted or stored on private networks and platforms are increasingly subject to surveillance and other forms of interference, whether by the State or private actors. Unnecessary and disproportionate surveillance may undermine security online and access to information and ideas (see A/HRC/23/40). Surveillance may create a chilling effect on the online expression of ordinary citizens, who may self-censor for fear of being constantly tracked. Surveillance exerts a disproportionate impact on the freedom of expression of a wide range of vulnerable groups, including racial, religious, ethnic, gender and sexual minorities, members of certain political parties, civil society, human rights defenders, professionals such as journalists, lawyers and trade unionists, victims of violence and abuse, and children (see A/HRC/29/32). State capacity to conduct surveillance may depend on the extent to which business enterprises cooperate with or resist such surveillance.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "B. Surveillance and digital security"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. As Internet service providers, social networking platforms, search engines, cloud service providers and other companies transmit or amass enormous quantities of customer data, the volume of government requests for user information based on local laws and regulations has also begun to rise. Several major Internet companies have reported an increase in requests.[[fn:43]] Many of these requests are issued by law enforcement and intelligence agencies. State oversight of these requests varies, ranging from prior judicial authorization[[fn:44]] to high-level executive approval[[fn:45]] to none at all. Licensing agreements and the law may limit the ability of the private sector to resist these requests or compel accountability. Even content-hosting platforms, which lack physical presence in certain jurisdictions where they operate, may face the wholesale blocking of their service and attempts to intimidate employees of corporate subsidiaries. Nevertheless, companies in all areas of the information and communications technology industry are capable of establishing and exercising varying degrees of leverage in their relationships with States to resist or mitigate the harm caused by abusive application of the law. Effective strategies of resistance include: the inclusion of human rights guarantees in licensing agreements and other relevant contracts; restrictive interpretations of government requests; negotiations with government officials about the scope of such requests; judicial challenge of overbroad requests or laws; providing affected individuals, the media or public with relevant information; and suspension of service within, withdrawal from, or decisions not to enter a particular market.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "B. Surveillance and digital security", "1. Requests for customer data"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "See recent transparency reports from Google, Facebook, Dropbox, Twitter and Microsoft."}, {"n": 44, "text": "Sweden, Act on Signal Surveillance for Defense Intelligence Activities, sect. 4 (3)."}, {"n": 45, "text": "Australia, Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Act 1979, sect. 9 (1)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. The private sector supplies hardware, software and other technologies that enable States to intercept, store or analyse communications and other information. Infrastructure vendors, hardware manufacturers and software developers may design or customize products on behalf of States, or supply dual use equipment and technology that States subsequently tailor for their own needs. Internet and telecommunication service providers may also purchase equipment or software from these companies to install on their network components in order to comply with legally mandated interception protocols in the States where they operate. States may rely on these products and services to target, harass or intimidate members of vulnerable groups.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "B. Surveillance and digital security", "2. Sale of surveillance and censorship equipment"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. States may also covertly tap into the technical infrastructure belonging to service providers and content platforms in order to intercept a wide variety of information, including communications, user account information, and telephone and Internet records. States reportedly tamper with computer hardware while en route to customers, infiltrate private networks and platforms with malicious software, hack into specific devices, and exploit other digital security loopholes. When business enterprises have notice of such surveillance, questions concerning their human rights responsibilities may arise, such as providing notice to customers or mitigating such harm through security measures. Companies that sell equipment and services to Governments to implement covert surveillance techniques may be implicated in human rights violations that flow from their sales.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "B. Surveillance and digital security", "3. Covert surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. It is important to note that surveillance is affected by other demands on privately held information. For example, the inability of the mutual legal assistance treaty regime to keep pace with cross-border data demands may drive States to resort to invasive extraterritorial surveillance measures. Laws that require companies to retain customer data or store such data in local data centres may also encourage such surveillance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "B. Surveillance and digital security", "3. Covert surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Since the Special Rapporteur reported on the importance of encryption and anonymity for protecting freedom of opinion and expression, government pressure on corporations to compromise the security of their customers’ digital devices, communications and information has grown. A range of private entities, from hardware manufacturers to e-mail services to messaging services, have been taking measures to develop and implement technologies that enhance user security, anonymity and privacy. These measures include end-to-end encryption for digital communications, disk encryption and timely software updates to close security loopholes. In response, States are seeking to compel companies to create or exploit technical loopholes in their products and services on their behalf. In the United States, for example, the Federal Bureau of Investigation applied to a federal court to compel Apple to create software that facilitates access to a suspect’s iPhone in a terrorism investigation. The Investigative Powers Bill introduced before the British Parliament on 1 March 2016 would authorize intelligence services to apply for a warrant that requires private entities to “secure interference with any equipment for the purpose of obtaining communications […] equipment data and any other information”.[[fn:46]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "B. Surveillance and digital security", "3. Covert surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "Investigatory Powers Bill (2015), Cl. 88 (2)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Transparency can help ensure that subjects of Internet regulation are able to meaningfully predict their legal obligations and challenge them where appropriate. Gaps in compliance with these standards threaten the ability of individuals to understand the limits placed on their freedom of expression online and seek appropriate redress when their rights are violated. Transparency issues arise in both State and private sector contexts, such as public-private partnerships, private sector engagement in trade negotiations and the digital arms race.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "C. Transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Despite multiple reform attempts, transparency concerning government requests is still lacking. While there has been some improvement in transparency reporting concerning government requests for user information, there is far less information available about the volume and nature of government requests to restrict or remove content.[[fn:47]] It is unclear whether such statistics are even retained. State restrictions on private disclosures of relevant information can be a major obstacle to corporate transparency. Several States prohibit disclosures concerning government requests for content removal or access to user data. India, for example, prohibits online intermediaries from disclosing details of government orders to block access to Internet content, as well as any action they take in response to such orders.[[fn:48]] The British Investigative Powers Bill would prohibit telecommunication service providers from disclosing, among other things, “the existence and contents” of government orders to retain customers’ communications data.[[fn:49]] In other States, ambiguous laws and regulations make it difficult for corporations to determine what kinds of information they are permitted to disclose. In South Africa, for example, private disclosures of government requests for customers’ data are prohibited,[[fn:50]] but it is unclear whether the same restriction extends to content removal requests.[[fn:51]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "C. Transparency"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "Submissions of Freedom Online Coalition Working Group on Privacy and Transparency Online; and Telecommunications Industry Dialogue."}, {"n": 48, "text": "India, Information Technology (Procedures and Safeguards for Blocking for Access of Information by Public) Rules, 2009, rule 16."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Investigatory Powers Bill, Cl. 84 (2)."}, {"n": 50, "text": "South Africa, Regulation of Interception of Communications and Provision of Communication-Related Information Act 70 of 2002, sect. 42 (1)."}, {"n": 51, "text": "South Africa, National Key Points Act 102 of 1980, sect. 10 (c)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. In the context of the private sector, service providers and content-hosting platforms often disclose at least some information about the circumstances under which they remove content or comply with government requests for customer data. There is wide variation, however, in whether and how they convey interpretations or explanations of State regulations and terms of service, and internal processes for implementation and enforcement. There are also gaps in corporate disclosure of statistics concerning the volume, frequency and types of request for content removals and user data, whether because of State-imposed restrictions or internal policy decisions. In any case, companies are more likely to disclose statistics concerning government requests than private requests. There has also been far less research into the extent to which other intermediaries (for example, financial or e-commerce intermediaries) and companies disclose information concerning content removals and requests for customer data.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "C. Transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Ongoing debate about the minimum standards for corporate disclosures and relevant best practices reflects uncertainty about the appropriate balance between transparency and competing values, such as individual security and trade secrecy. While there is growing consensus that corporations should disclose information about how restrictions are interpreted and enforced, there is less agreement about how this should be done. Similarly, there is widespread agreement about the importance of quantitative transparency, but it is less clear how such information should be contextualized, presented and made accessible.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "C. Transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Restrictions on freedom of expression online occur on a daily basis and frequently involve corporate conduct, whether compelled by law or pursuant to corporate policy and practice (for example, as reflected in terms of service). Common examples of such restrictions include unlawful or otherwise questionable content removals, service restrictions and account suspensions, and data security breaches.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "D. Remedies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Under article 2 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, States parties must ensure that persons whose rights under the Covenant have been violated have an effective remedy. The Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights anticipate that corporations should provide remedial and grievance mechanisms that are legitimate, accessible, predictable, equitable, rights-compatible, transparent, based on dialogue and engagement, and a source of continuous learning.[[fn:52]] There is limited guidance, however, as to how these elements should be operationalized or assessed in the context of information and communications technology. For example, improper removal of web links from search results might require the search engine to reinstate such links. It is, however, unclear how complaint or appeals mechanisms should be designed and implemented to ensure that such removals are effectively flagged, evaluated and remedied. A search engine’s highly dispersed customer base further complicates design issues. It is also unclear whether companies should provide additional remedies, like financial compensation for lost revenue during the period of removal, or guarantees of non-repetition.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "D. Remedies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Guiding principles, chap. III (A) (31)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "2", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. To enforce terms of service, companies may not always have sufficient processes to appeal content removal or account deactivation decisions where a user believes the action was in error or the result of abusive flagging campaigns. Further research that examines best practices in how companies communicate terms of service enforcement decisions and how they implement appeals mechanisms may be useful.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "D. Remedies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. The scope of the corporation’s responsibility to remediate is also contested. Who bears the burden of remediating improper removals or data requests when companies interpret or enforce relevant State laws too strictly? When a company’s products or services are used to perpetrate human rights abuses, what degree of causation triggers the duty to provide a remedy? When companies face allegations of wrongdoing, is there a duty to conduct internal investigations, and must these investigations meet certain standards? Where a restriction implicates individuals across borders, what jurisdiction is appropriate for the consideration of remedies? These questions reflect the uncertainty that human rights victims face in situations where corporate and State conduct are intertwined.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "D. Remedies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. The appropriate role of the State in supplementing or regulating corporate remedial mechanisms also requires closer analysis. Civil proceedings and other judicial redress are often available to consumers adversely affected by corporate action, but these are often cumbersome and expensive. Meaningful alternatives may include complaint and grievance mechanisms established and run by consumer protection bodies and industry regulators. Several States also mandate internal remedial or grievance mechanisms: India, for example, requires corporations that possess, deal with or handle sensitive personal data to designate grievance officers to address “any discrepancies and grievances […] with respect to processing of information”.[[fn:53]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "D. Remedies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "India, Information Technology Act, 2008, sect. 43 A; Information Technology (Reasonable security practices and procedures and sensitive personal data or information) Rules, 2011, rule 5 (9)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Given the range of private information and communications technology activity that frames and impacts the exercise of the freedom of opinion and expression online, the Special Rapporteur will focus on State obligations and business responsibilities in specific areas of concern. The legal and policy issues raised above will guide thematic reporting, communications with Governments, country and company visits, regional and expert consultations, and other work.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. Among the Special Rapporteur’s priorities for thematic study and guidance are the following:", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Governments increasingly require private entities providing telecommunications and Internet service to comply with censorship demands. In addition to network filtering practices, States compel or pressure companies to shut down networks or block entire services. This trend requires further documentation and scrutiny. Future work will examine laws, policies and extralegal measures that enable Governments to undertake such restrictions, and the costs and consequences of such restrictions. The Special Rapporteur will also examine the responsibilities of companies to respond to such measures in a way that respects rights, mitigates harm and provides avenues for redress where abuses occur.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development", "Restrictions on the provision of telecommunications and Internet services"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. Private actors face substantial pressures from Governments and individuals to restrict expression deemed to constitute extremism or hatred, hostility or harassment. Private actors may also themselves aim to foster what they perceive to be civil discourse on their platforms, regulate access through real-name requirements and other registration policies, or feature or prioritize certain content for business reasons. Future work will evaluate the potential of State abuse of private initiatives, the impact of private measures on freedom of expression, and the relevant human rights obligations and responsibilities. This reporting will not only focus on the roles of social media and search engines, but also lesser known actors such as e-commerce and financial intermediaries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development", "Content restrictions under terms of service and community standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. Intermediaries are increasingly held responsible for third party content that they host, whether through intermediary liability regimes or censorship requirements. Commonly cited rationales for such restrictions include cybersecurity, copyright, defamation and data protection. Further study will focus on the legitimate scope of such rationales, the necessity of accompanying restrictions, and the lack of procedural safeguards under existing frameworks for removing third party content. Future work will also examine sources and modes of intermediary liability in particular contexts and regions and seek to draw out the main principles and practices applicable in order to ensure the ability of intermediaries to promote and protect freedom of expression.\nCensorship and surveillance industry", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development", "Liability for content hosting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. Private companies play a major role in the development, production and transfer of software and hardware that Governments may deploy for law enforcement, intelligence and public security purposes. While such tools may have legitimate purposes, they are often deployed by Governments for purposes of censorship and disproportionate surveillance. Future work will explore such issues through the human rights framework and encourage due diligence in identifying the uses of such technologies for purposes that undermine freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development", "Liability for content hosting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. Companies that transmit, store or generate communications and other forms of user data — particularly telecommunication and Internet service providers, and content-hosting platforms — face mounting demands from law enforcement and security services for access to their customers’ information. Future work will seek to identify approaches that could maximize the scope for freedom of expression while nonetheless addressing legitimate governmental interests in national security and public order.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development", "Efforts to undermine digital security"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. The billions of individuals who are connected online enjoy access to information and ideas that is denied billions more who lack the infrastructure or political, security, legal or social environment necessary for connectivity. As the private sector increasingly seeks to empower the next billions with access, it will be critical to ensure that such access is free, open and secure. Future work will explore issues around access and private sector engagement and investment in ensuring affordability and accessibility, particularly considering marginalized groups.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development", "Internet access"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The outcome of the World Summit on the Information Society demonstrated the continuing broad support for multi-stakeholder governance of the Internet. The existing model nonetheless faces increasing pressure in the form of specific national policies (such as data localization) and strategies such as “cybersovereignty”. Moreover, there is a persistent need to maintain or increase human rights participation at all levels of governance, including the setting of technical standards, and to ensure that Internet governance frameworks and reform efforts are sensitive to the needs of women, sexual minorities and other vulnerable communities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development", "Internet governance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. Throughout this future work, the Special Rapporteur will pay particular attention to legal developments (legislative, regulatory, and judicial) at national and regional levels. In this context, he alerts all stakeholders to his interest in gathering such materials for future communications and reporting and encourages interested parties to collect and provide such material throughout the course of this work.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development", "Internet governance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. The information and communication technology sector is always in rapid development, continually upgrading technology, digitizing everyday life. As a result, addressing legal and policy issues with an eye to current normative gaps involves some risk of failing to address trends that are only now emerging or have yet to emerge. This is a natural feature of the digital age, but even with rapid change in technology, the digital environment will continue to be animated by persistent threats to freedom of opinion and expression. These threats include government dominance of, or attempts to dominate, sources of information, using tools of censorship against online services and infrastructure; the struggle of businesses to promote their products and services in environments that are hostile to freedom of expression; the failures of many business enterprises to ensure the promotion and protection of rights in their pursuit of commercial interests; and the often contradictory demands of individuals that business entities provide them not only with security but also convenience, connectivity and community. As the project of exploring information and communication technology responsibilities moves forward, the Special Rapporteur will be looking to experts in the field —in Government, the private sector, civil society, the technical community, academia — to help him conduct analysis and reporting that respond both to the current issues at the intersection of technology and freedom of expression and to long-term features of the digital age.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The Special Rapporteur strongly encourages all stakeholders — whether State actors, private sector enterprises or civil society organizations and individuals — to take an active part in the development of the forthcoming projects. He particularly encourages stakeholders from less developed countries and vulnerable communities to share perspectives on the impact that the information and communication technology sector may have on the enjoyment of rights and the role that States may play in either interfering with or advancing those rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. Even though this project is at its early stages, it is nonetheless critical that States and private actors take steps to ensure respect for the freedom of opinion and expression. These steps should include, at a minimum, the following, with further analysis to follow throughout the Special Rapporteur’s mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. States bear a primary responsibility to protect and respect the right to exercise freedom of opinion and expression. In the information and communication technology context, this means that States must not require or otherwise pressure the private sector to take steps that unnecessarily or disproportionately interfere with freedom of expression, whether through laws, policies, or extralegal means. Any demands, requests and other measures to take down digital content or access customer information must be based on validly enacted law, subject to external and independent oversight, and demonstrate a necessary and proportionate means of achieving one or more aims under article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Particularly in the context of regulating the private sector, State laws and policies must be transparently adopted and implemented.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "States"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. Governments must also adopt and implement laws and policies that protect private development and the provision of technical measures, products and services that advance freedom of expression. They must ensure legislative, policymaking and other relevant norm-setting processes concerning rights and restrictions on the Internet in order to provide the private sector, civil society, the technical community and academia meaningful opportunities for input and participation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. States place undeniable pressures on the private information and communication technology sector that often lead to serious restrictions on the freedom of expression. The private sector, however, also plays independent roles that may either advance or restrict rights, a point the Human Rights Council well understood by adopting the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights in 2011 as general guidance in that field. Private entities should be evaluated on the steps they take both to promote and undermine freedom of expression, even in hostile environments unfriendly to human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "Private sector"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. Among the most important steps that private actors should take is the development and implementation of transparent human rights assessment procedures. They should develop and implement policies that take into account their potential impact on human rights. Such assessments should critically review the wide range of private sector activities in which they are engaged, such as the formulation and enforcement of terms of service and community standards on users’ freedom of expression, including the outsourcing of such enforcement; the impact of products, services and other commercial initiatives on users’ freedom of expression as they are being developed, including design and engineering choices, and plans for differential pricing of or access to Internet content and services; and the human rights impact of doing business with potential government customers, such as the operation of telecommunication infrastructure or the transfer of content-regulation or surveillance technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "Private sector"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. It is also critical that private entities ensure the greatest possible transparency in their policies, standards and actions that implicate the freedom of expression and other fundamental rights. Human rights assessments should be subject to transparent review, in terms of their methodologies, their interpretation of legal obligations and the weight that such assessments have on business decisions. Transparency is important across the board, including in the context of content regulation, and should include the reporting of government requests for takedowns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "Private sector"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. Beyond adoption of policies, private entities should also integrate commitments to freedom of expression into internal policymaking, product engineering, business development, staff training and other relevant internal processes. The Special Rapporteur will aim to explore policies and the full range of implementation steps in a number of ways, including through company visits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "Private sector"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. As the present report has shown, many international organizations play a role in information and communication technology governance processes. It is critical that such organizations provide meaningful public access to policies, standards, reports and other information concerning Internet governance created or generated by the organization and/or its membership, including through facilitating access to free online resources and public education initiatives. More generally, the multi-stakeholder process for Internet governance has been an important driver for policies supportive of freedom of expression. With that in mind, international organizations should ensure meaningful civil society participation in policymaking and other standard-setting processes, including through increasing the presence of technical experts sensitive to human rights concerns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "International organizations and multi-stakeholder processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0001", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. It is high time to talk about what freedom of opinion and expression means for women and girls. The road has been bumpy, but much has been achieved. From Beijing in 1995 to Paris in 2021, women have raised their voices to speak truth to power, make visible what had been rendered invisible and demand equality and justice. Through their words and actions, women have demonstrated the mutually reinforcing nature of gender equality and freedom of expression, offline and online.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0002", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Women have launched feminist principles for the Internet and founded community radio stations and networks in many parts of the world.[[fn:2]] In Latin America, they have organized journalism collectives to cover news from a feminist perspective.[[fn:3]] In Africa, they have created websites to express their sexuality.[[fn:4]] In Asia, they have collected case studies to demonstrate the impact of the gender digital divide.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Submission of the Association for Progressive Communications (APC)."}, {"n": 3, "text": "See https://latfem.org/ and https://cimac.org.mx/."}, {"n": 4, "text": "See https://holaafrica.org/ and https://adventuresfrom.com/."}, {"n": 5, "text": "See www.digitalrightsmonitor.pk/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Women-Disconnected-Gender-Digital-Divide-in-Pakistan.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0003", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. Women’s activism has produced results. Argentina established the Ministry for Women and Diversity and Canada launched a Feminist Response and Recovery Fund.[[fn:6]] Colombia became the first country in the world to develop a national protection mechanism for journalists with a dedicated women’s protection committee.[[fn:7]] In Sweden, the action plan on defending free speech contains measures to protect female journalists, elected representatives and artists from exposure to threats and hatred.[[fn:8]] The African Declaration on Internet Rights and Freedoms promotes non-discrimination and freedom of speech, equal access to the Internet for women and men, and the elimination of discrimination online.[[fn:9]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Submissions of Argentina and Canada."}, {"n": 7, "text": "Submission of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Submission of She Leads."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0004", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Despite the impressive and inspirational gains made by women, gender equality in freedom of expression remains a distant goal. When women raise their voices, too often they are suppressed. In the digital age, the Internet has become the new battleground in the struggle for women’s rights, amplifying opportunities for women to express themselves but also multiplying possibilities for repression.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See Mary Anne Franks, “Censoring Women”, Boston University Law Review Annex, Vol. 95, No. 61 (2015), p. 61; available at: www.bu.edu/bulawreview/files/2015/10/FRANKS.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0005", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The full participation of women at all levels of decision-making is essential for the achievement of equality, sustainable development, peace and democracy.[[fn:11]] Freedom of opinion and expression enables and empowers women to realize not only their civil and political rights, but also their economic, social, cultural and environmental rights. The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has exacerbated gender inequalities across the spectrum of development. If women are to regain lost ground and lead the recovery, their right to freedom of opinion and expression must be front and centre.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Human Rights Council resolution 23/2."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0006", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The present report is the first in the 27-year history of the mandate to be devoted exclusively to gender and freedom of opinion and expression. Gender equality has been identified by the Special Rapporteur as a priority. The report is the first step in a series of reports, consultations and activities that she will undertake during the course of her mandate. The aim is to promote a gendered understanding of freedom of opinion and expression that is responsive to the challenges women face and will enhance their contribution to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0007", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. The term “gender justice” is used in the report to convey the need for transformative changes encompassing equity (equal distribution of resources, access and opportunity) and equality (equal outcomes) to break the structural and systemic barriers holding women back.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0008", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. In the report, the Special Rapporteur adopts a feminist analytical framework that is attentive to the lived realities and needs of women and gender nonconforming people, and in so doing addresses traditionally neglected forms of speech relevant to their lives, including freedom of gender, sexual and cultural expression. It takes an intersectional approach, noting that women’s experiences vary according to their race, ethnicity, caste, religion, sexual orientation, age, geographic location, social, economic and legal status and many other factors. Looking at freedom of opinion and expression through a feminist lens, she notes the power imbalances in society that feed sexism, gender-based discrimination and misogyny, and constrain women’s enjoyment of human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0009", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. In light of the dominant role of the Internet in today’s world, particular attention is paid in the report to the impact of digital technology, while acknowledging online and offline contexts as a continuous space where the rights exercised and the consequences experienced are often interlinked. On the one hand, the discrimination, inequalities and dangers that women face in the real world are carried over into the digital space. On the other hand, the threats they encounter in the digital space may result in physical violence offline.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0010", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. In this report, the Special Rapporteur maps out the key factors constraining women’s equal right to freedom of expression, analyses the relevant international standards and the duties of States and responsibilities of companies. She identifies legal gaps and policy dilemmas, and makes recommendations to States, companies, media and civil society. The report draws on the contributions[[fn:12]] by 57 civil society organizations and scholars, 13 Governments and 2 international organizations, an expert workshop and large multi-stakeholder consultations at the 2021 RightsCon conference and Stockholm Internet Forum.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "These submissions will be made available at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/FreedomOpinion/Pages/Report-Gender-Justice.aspx."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0011", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Both sex and gender[[fn:13]] have been the basis for inequality and discrimination in the exercise of freedom of opinion and expression. While focusing primarily on women, where appropriate, reference is made in the report to the specific challenges faced by lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and questioning (LGBTQ+) individuals. The term “women” is also used in the report to include girls, where appropriate.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Gender is understood as the “socially constructed identities, attributes and roles for women and men and society’s social and cultural meaning for these biological differences” and sex as “a biological construct, referring to the genetic, hormonal, anatomical, and physiological characteristics on whose basis one is labeled at birth as either male or female”. Definitions from “Sexual orientation, gender identity, and gender expression: key terms and standards”, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights document OEA/Ser.G. CP/CAJP/INF. 166/12. 2012, paras. 13 and 14. Available at: http://www.oas.org/en/sla/dil/docs/cp-cajp-inf_166-12_eng.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0012", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Gendered censorship is pervasive. Expression is not free for many women or gender nonconforming people. Their voices are suppressed, controlled or punished explicitly by laws, policies and discriminatory practices and implicitly by social attitudes, cultural norms and patriarchal values. In its most extreme form, sexual and gender-based violence online and offline is used to chill or kill expression that is nonconformist or transgresses patriarchal and heteronormative societal or moral codes or norms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "A. Gendered censorship"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0013", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. While the international human rights system has focused largely on censorship as repressive action by the State, non-State and private actors – whether social, cultural, religious or commercial – often play a leading and visible role in gendered censorship alongside the State, using various social mechanisms that “mute women’s voices, deny validity to their experience, and exclude them from the political discourse”.[[fn:14]] In the digital age, the spate of online violence, hate speech and disinformation often compel women to self-censor, limit what they post or leave platforms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "A. Gendered censorship"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "Kate Manne, Down Girl: The Logic of Misogyny. (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2017), page 79."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0014", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Sexism and misogyny, combined with direct discrimination through laws and policies, are dominant factors in gendered censorship. Growing trends of populism, authoritarianism, nationalism and fundamentalism worldwide have accentuated patriarchy and misogyny and enhanced discrimination against women, as well as the suppression of their ability to express themselves. National security laws and new technologies, combined with cultural norms and community monitoring, have created a particularly challenging environment for female human rights defenders in some countries.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "A. Gendered censorship"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "E.g., Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), “UN experts call for decisive measures to protect fundamental freedoms in China”, 26 June 2020. Available at: www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26006&LangID=E."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0015", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Interpretations of culture, religion and tradition that subordinate women within patriarchal systems and structures are used often to justify discriminatory laws, institutions, rules and regulations. They disempower women and undermine their agency to express themselves or define their own culture, religion and tradition, while at the same time assigning them the role of preserving cultural traditions and values.[[fn:16]] It creates a form of structural silencing that leads women to self-censor. Many women fear the consequences of challenging existing norms and practices or lack the support mechanisms needed to take action. In some contexts, the fact that a woman, especially a young woman,[[fn:17]] is expressing her views is enough for her ideas to be discredited, and for the speaker to be socially sanctioned.[[fn:18]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "A. Gendered censorship"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "A/67/287."}, {"n": 17, "text": "Submission of She Leads."}, {"n": 18, "text": "See, e.g., submission of Ghana: “When a woman is assertive, she receives an immediate backlash. These scenarios prevail in every setting of the Ghanaian culture; at home, school, church, work, politics etc. If a woman mounts a political platform for instance, they would usually get an unwelcoming comment from the public including even other women.”"}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0016", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The following paragraphs describe some specific ways in which women’s expression is censored, restricted or hindered.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "A. Gendered censorship"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0017", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Acts and threats of physical, sexual and psychological violence to silence women and gender nonconforming people are the most extreme manifestations of gendered censorship.[[fn:19]] Female journalists, human rights defenders, politicians and feminist activists are particularly targeted for physical and psychological violence and threats, including death and rape threats, for speaking out or simply for being a woman in a leadership role.[[fn:20]] In some contexts, female protestors and activists in detention are at heightened risk of sexual or gender-based violence at the hands of law enforcement or security forces.[[fn:21]] In some places in the Middle East, girls may be at risk for simply being on social media.[[fn:22]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "B. Putting a disproportionate cost on speaking out"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "World Health Organization, “Devastatingly pervasive: 1 in 3 women globally experience violence”, 9 March 2021. Available at: www.who.int/news/item/09-03-2021-devastatingly-pervasive-1-in-3-women-globally-experience-violence."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Michelle P. Ferrier, Attacks and Harassment: The Impact on Female Journalists and Their Reporting, International Women’s Media Foundation, TrollBusters, 2018; Eliza Macintosh and Swati Gupta, “Troll armies, ‘deepfake’ porn and violent threats. How Twitter became so toxic for India’s women politicians”, CNN, 22 January 2020."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See, e.g., communications BLR 6/2020; EGY 6/2019."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Submission of She Leads."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0018", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. As more women and gender nonconforming people use digital spaces to discuss, debate and build support networks on topics that are taboo in their homes and communities, the patriarchal norms of the real world are replicated on the platforms. To give an example, as women’s reliance on online spaces has increased during the COVID-19 pandemic, online abuse against women has also increased, alongside a rise in offline domestic violence.[[fn:23]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "B. Putting a disproportionate cost on speaking out"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), “The Shadow Pandemic: Violence against women during COVID-19”, available at: www.unwomen.org/en/news/in-focus/in-focus-gender-equality-in-covid-19-response/violence-against-women-during-covid-19?gclid=CjwKCAiA4o79BRBvEiwAjteoYAbTtvj2sLbQIbYjywIlemo5jNYAs8TrtOpsux63OHhLS1GSw8ECyxoCvSYQAvD_BwE."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0019", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. People with intersecting marginalized identities, such as people of African descent, indigenous people, Dalits, migrants, LGBTQ+ people and persons with disabilities face more frequent and more concerted attacks targeting their identities.[[fn:24]] Survey results show that high percentages of young women and girls who are active online face intense gender-based trolling and harassment.[[fn:25]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Women/girls", "Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "B. Putting a disproportionate cost on speaking out"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Suzie Dunn, “Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence: An Overview”, Supporting a Safer Internet Paper No. 1, Centre for International Governance Innovation, 2020, p. 1."}, {"n": 25, "text": "Submissions of She Leads, IT for Change and Interlab."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0020", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Online gender-based violence includes both harmful speech and behaviour. It is often sexist or misogynistic in nature[[fn:26]] and contains digital threats or incitement to physical or sexual violence. “Sextortion”, doxing, trolling, online bullying and harassment, online stalking, online sexual harassment and the non-consensual sharing of intimate images have been identified as digitalized forms of violence against women by the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences.[[fn:27]] Such acts can also involve smear campaigns, electronic sabotage, impersonation of the victim online and the sending of abusive messages in the victim’s name.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "B. Putting a disproportionate cost on speaking out"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Amnesty International, “Toxic Twitter – Women’s Experiences of Violence and Abuse on Twitter”, 2018, chapter 3."}, {"n": 27, "text": "A/HRC/38/47, paras. 30–42."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0021", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Gendered disinformation is also on the rise.[[fn:28]] While it is a subset of gender-based violence, it has some distinct characteristics, using “false or misleading gender and sex-based narratives against women, often with some degree of coordination, aimed at deterring women from participating in the public sphere. It combines three defining characteristics of online disinformation: falsity, malign intent, and coordination.”[[fn:29]] It is often intersectional in nature, promoting both sex and race-based narratives,[[fn:30]] and used as part of issue-based campaigns to undermine public trust. Research data indicates that female politicians, especially those who speak out on feminist issues or come from racial, ethnic, religious or minority groups are targeted with much higher levels of disinformation than their male counterparts.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "B. Putting a disproportionate cost on speaking out"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "A/HRC/47/25."}, {"n": 29, "text": "Nina Jankowicz and others, Malign Creativity: How Gender, Sex, and Lies are Weaponized Against Women Online (Washington, D.C., Wilson Center, 2021)."}, {"n": 30, "text": "Submission of the Center for Democracy and Technology."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0022", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. In a perverse twist in the #MeToo age, women who publicly denounce alleged perpetrators of sexual violence online are increasingly subject to defamation suits or charged with criminal libel or the false reporting of crimes.[[fn:31]] Weaponizing the justice system to silence women feeds impunity while also undermining free speech.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "B. Putting a disproportionate cost on speaking out"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "Submissions of Equality Now and the South African Legal Aid Centre."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0023", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. The harm caused by online violence, sexist hate speech and disinformation are real and diverse, affecting the mental and physical health of those targeted, undermining their confidence and autonomy, stigmatizing them and generating fear, shame, and professional and reputational damage. In extreme cases, online threats can escalate to physical violence and even murder.[[fn:32]] The overall objective is to intimidate and silence female and non-binary journalists, writers, artists and politicians and drive them out of digital spaces. Since online networks are the dominant space for freedom of expression in the digital age, silencing such voices online may prevent them from being heard at all, reducing diversity and affecting democratic debate.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "B. Putting a disproportionate cost on speaking out"], "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "OHCHR, “Malta must establish accountability for murder of Daphne Caruana Galizia, say human rights experts”, 16 October 2019. Available at: www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=25150&LangID=E."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0024", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. National laws and judicial decisions often cite the protection of public morals as a reason to criminalize or seek the removal of content deemed to be improper, indecent, obscene or immodest. In a number of countries, such laws have been used to police the online social behaviour of women and remove content relating to sexual expression, sexual orientation or gender identity.[[fn:33]] Online threats and harassment against women by non-State actors are usually framed in terms of the immodesty or obscenity of women’s audiovisual or written self-expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "1. Gender and sexual expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "Subha Wijesiriwardena, “Private Parts: Obscenity and Censorship in the Digital Age”, GenderIT, 24 June 2019. Available at: www.genderit.org/feminist-talk/private-parts-obscenity-and-censorship-digital-age. See also the submission from KRYSS Network."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0025", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. In 2020, 10 female TikTok influencers in Egypt were charged with inciting immorality and debauchery and violating Egyptian family values.[[fn:34]] Also in 2020, a number of Iranian women were arrested for violating modesty because they had posted photos or videos of themselves without headscarves on Instagram.[[fn:35]] Countries that criminalize women’s freedom of expression online on grounds of morality or obscenity claim to do so in order to protect them. Such paternalistic approaches do not take women’s consent into account and see any expression of female sexuality as problematic, transgressive and punishable.[[fn:36]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "1. Gender and sexual expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "See communication EGY 12/2020."}, {"n": 35, "text": "OHCHR, “Iran: Jailed for defending women who opposed compulsory veiling, Nasrin Sotoudeh must be freed, say UN experts”, 21 June 2021. Available at: www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=27179&LangID=E."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Vrinda Bhandari and Anja Kovacs, “What’s sex got to do with it? Mapping the impact of questions of gender and sexuality on the evolution of the digital rights landscape in India”, Internet Democracy Project, 20 January 2021. Available at: https://internetdemocracy.in/reports/whats-sex-got-to-do-with-it-mapping-the-impact-of-questions-of-gender-and-sexuality-on-the-evolution-of-the-digital-rights-landscape-in-india."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0026", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. The policies of digital platforms also seek to censor women’s sexual expression, including prohibiting nudity and “adult content”. Because automated content moderation is unable to identify nuance, content can be wrongly removed or blocked, as shown by the first decision of the Facebook Oversight Board.[[fn:37]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "1. Gender and sexual expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "Submission of QUT Digital Media Research Centre."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0027", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Many countries criminalize not only homosexuality and transgender behaviour but also LGBTQ+ information on grounds of morals, traditional values and child protection. Evidence shows that such an approach fosters intolerance, stigmatization and violence, and deprives people from access to accurate information.[[fn:38]]", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "1. Gender and sexual expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Submission of Outright International."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0028", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The “homosexual propaganda” law in the Russian Federation[[fn:39]] and the law passed in Hungary in 2020 are two examples of censorship of legitimate speech about and by LGBTQ+ and gender nonconforming people.[[fn:40]] The special procedure mandate holders have expressed serious concerns regarding the bans on the dissemination of information related to sexual orientation and gender identity on grounds of public morality.[[fn:41]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "1. Gender and sexual expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "See communication RUS 8/2012."}, {"n": 40, "text": "OHCHR, “Hungary / LGBT: New law proposal endangers rights of the trans and gender diverse persons, warns UN expert”, 29 April 2020. Available at: www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=25844&LangID=E."}, {"n": 41, "text": "A/HRC/19/41, paras. 63–65."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0029", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. According to the Feminist Principles of the Internet 2.0, the right to sexual expression is “a freedom of expression issue of no less importance than political or religious expression”.[[fn:42]] The World Health Organization has underlined the vital role of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in the realization of sexual health.[[fn:43]] The Special Rapporteur on Economic, Social, Cultural and Environmental Rights of the Organization of American States has affirmed that gender expression constitutes a form of expression that is protected under the international human rights framework.[[fn:44]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "1. Gender and sexual expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "APC, Feminist Principles of the Internet – Version 2.0, principle 10. Available at: www.apc.org/en/pubs/feminist-principles-internet-version-20."}, {"n": 43, "text": "World Health Organization, “Developing sexual health programmes: A framework for action” (WHO/RHR/HRP/10.22, 2010), p, 12. Available at: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/70501/WHO_RHR_HRP_10.22_eng.pdf?sequence=1."}, {"n": 44, "text": "Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Report on Transgender and Gender-Diverse Persons and Their Economic, Social, Cultural and Environmental Rights, 2020, para. 65. Available at: www.oas.org/en/iachr/reports/pdfs/TransDESCA-en.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0030", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Across different contexts, feminist artists and activists seek to spark dialogue to disrupt and reshape norms and practices, challenge sociocultural narratives and power structures, and empower individuals and communities. Cultural expression, including artistic freedom, is protected under international human rights law.[[fn:45]] Nevertheless, religious interpretations, traditional values and patriarchal social constructs are used to restrict or stifle cultural expression, including artistic freedom of women and gender nonconforming people.[[fn:46]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "2. Cultural expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "See, e.g. arts. 19 and 27, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights; art. 15, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; art. 7, Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions."}, {"n": 46, "text": "A/67/287."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0031", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Restrictions range from bans on women performing or on the broadcast of their performances to the suppression of art and culture produced by LBGTQ+ and gender nonconforming people, or on themes of gender and sexuality.[[fn:47]] Artists have also faced censorship of artwork on issues such as abortion or gender-based violence.[[fn:48]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "2. Cultural expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "See Freemuse, “Creativity Wronged: How women’s right to artistic freedom is denied and marginalised”. Available at: https://freemuse.org/resources/creativity-wronged-how-womens-right-to-artistic-freedom-is-denied-and-marginalised/. See also “Chapter 9 – Gender Equality: Missing in Action” of UNESCO, Reshaping Cultural Policies: Advancing Creativity for Development (Paris, 2017). Available at: http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/reshaping-cultural-policies-2018-en.pdf?bundesland=all."}, {"n": 48, "text": "Freemuse, The State of Artistic Freedom 2021 (2021), p. 76."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0032", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. The Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights has noted that diverse State and non-State actors seek to quash cultural expression that is antithetical to their agendas and erase cultural diversity,[[fn:49]] using blasphemy laws, laws on public morals, criminal laws and campaigns of threats, harassment and violence.[[fn:50]] Cultural events associated with women and girls have been the target of violent attacks.[[fn:51]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "2. Cultural expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "A/72/155, para. 13."}, {"n": 50, "text": "See e.g. Association for Women’s Rights in Development, Towards a Future without Fundamentalisms: Analyzing Religious Fundamentalist Strategies and Feminist Responses (Toronto, 2012). Available at: www.awid.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/towards_a_future_2012.pdf. Nadje Al-Ali and Nira Yuval-Davis, eds., Feminist Dissent, No. 2 (2017). Available at: https://feministdissent.org/full-issues/issue-2-2017-gender-and-fundamentalisms/."}, {"n": 51, "text": "A/72/155, para. 64."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0033", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. As the digital space has become a major venue for social and cultural interaction during the COVID-19 pandemic, social media platforms have sought to restrict women’s artistic expression online. Vaguely worded community standards and a punitive, conservative and inconsistent approach to content moderation has led to the disproportionate censoring of female artists and artwork on themes of women’s rights, which has in turn caused female artists to self-censor.[[fn:52]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "2. Cultural expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Freemuse, see footnotes 47 and 48."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0034", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Unequal access to the Internet is a major impediment to the empowerment of women, especially those who are excluded from other public spaces, such as gender nonconforming people or young women from traditional societies. Only 48 per cent of women worldwide have access to information and communications technology (ICT), with the percentage falling as low as 23 per cent in Africa.[[fn:53]] Within countries, the digital divide may cut across other axes of discrimination, e.g. along lines of race and ethnicity in the United States of America.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "1. Gender digital divide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "International Telecommunication Union, “ICT Facts and Figures 2016”. Available at: www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/facts/ICTFactsFigures2016.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0035", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The disparities in Internet access are grounded in other disparities that women face in society arising from their economic, social, political and cultural contexts.[[fn:54]] There is therefore not merely one divide but multiple divides to be overcome.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "1. Gender digital divide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "APC, “Bridging the gender digital divide from a human rights perspective: APC submission to the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights”, 22 March 2017. Available at: www.apc.org/en/pubs/bridging-gender-digital-divide-human-rights-perspective-apc-submission-office-high-commissioner. See also A/HRC/35/9."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0036", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Access to information is key to women’s empowerment and agency. From a gender perspective, at least two problems are evident. Firstly, information of particular interest to women, e.g. data on workplace inequalities or violence against women, is often unavailable, outdated or difficult to find. Gender-disaggregated data are systematically lacking in many countries. The Women Count project of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women) is an important initiative to improve the production and use of gender statistics.[[fn:55]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "2. Unequal access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "UN-Women, “Women Count”. Available at: https://data.unwomen.org/women-count."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0037", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Secondly, there is a deliberate attempt to block the dissemination of gender-related information. In a number of countries, regressive lobbies present sexual and reproductive rights as perpetuating “gender ideology” and threatening culture, religion, traditional values, parental rights and the right to life.[[fn:56]] Some Governments and private actors seek to restrict information on reproductive and sexual health, including safe abortion, and the provision of comprehensive sexuality education.[[fn:57]] United Nations treaty bodies,[[fn:58]] special procedure mandate holders[[fn:59]] and the Human Rights Council[[fn:60]] have clarified that such discourse is misleading, and incompatible with and antagonistic to human rights standards.[[fn:61]] Civil society organizations have campaigned to promote access to health information for marginalized communities,[[fn:62]] and to provide content from an intersectional feminist perspective.[[fn:63]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "2. Unequal access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "A/HRC/38/46; A/72/155."}, {"n": 57, "text": "E.g. the so-called campaign named “Con mis hijos no te metas” in Latin America."}, {"n": 58, "text": "See e.g. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.10 and CCPR/C/GC/36."}, {"n": 59, "text": "See e.g. A/HRC/38/46, A/HRC/40/60, A/75/152 and A/74/181."}, {"n": 60, "text": "See e.g. Human Rights Council resolution 38/1."}, {"n": 61, "text": "CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.10; see also the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, para 38."}, {"n": 62, "text": "See Article 19: International Centre against Censorship campaign in Central America targeting indigenous women. Available at: https://articulo19.org/promover-el-derecho-a-la-informacion-a-mujeres-indigenas-para-garantizar-su-salud/."}, {"n": 63, "text": "See website of GenderIT, available at: www.genderit.org/."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0038", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Increasingly, there are also efforts to ban gender studies, restricting academic freedom of expression and limiting information on gender theory, rights related to gender and sexuality, and feminist scholarship. In 2017, Paraguay banned the discussion of gender-related issues in schools.[[fn:64]] In 2018, Hungary revoked accreditation and funding for gender studies programs at the two universities where they were being offered.[[fn:65]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "2. Unequal access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 64, "text": "CEDAW/C/PRY/CO/7."}, {"n": 65, "text": "See communication HUN 6/2018."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0039", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Women’s rights groups and feminist movements have been a critical force for change around the world but they have come under increased pressure as public space for civic action has been restricted by authoritarian regimes and regressive social actors. Organizations have been turning to digital platforms as an alternative space to organize, in particular during the COVID-19 pandemic, but find themselves under attack from State and non-State actors.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "3. Restrictions on civic space"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0040", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Interrelated trends restrict the space available to women’s rights organizations today: censorship, repression, surveillance, the shutdown of websites or other restrictions by the authorities and intimidation, blackmail, slander and online harassment by a range of ideologically driven non-State actors.[[fn:66]] Like other civil society organizations, women’s groups also face Government-imposed constraints on international funding and cumbersome domestic regulations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "3. Restrictions on civic space"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "Submission of Article 19: International Centre against Censorship; Transnational Institute, “Rethinking shrinking space”. Available at: www.tni.org/en/topic/rethinking-shrinking-space."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0041", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The closing of spaces for feminists to organize is a highly gendered phenomenon, with restrictions and repression linked to the gender of the activists or the gender-related nature of their work.[[fn:67]] The ways in which they are targeted are also gendered, with additional risks of violence, censorship or surveillance for those identified with or working on, for instance, sexual and reproductive rights or the rights of LGBTQ+ communities or other marginalized groups, such as Dalit women.[[fn:68]] As an example, hundreds of women peacefully protesting against Turkey’s withdrawal from the Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (Istanbul Convention) were arrested and prosecuted.[[fn:69]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "3. Restrictions on civic space"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "Submission of Outright Action International."}, {"n": 68, "text": "Submission of International Dalit Solidarity Network."}, {"n": 69, "text": "Submission of Human Rights Association (insan Haklari Dernegi)."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0042", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Neither gender equality nor women’s freedom of expression can be promoted if spaces for women to organize are not protected.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "3. Restrictions on civic space"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0043", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. The Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995 called for greater participation and decision-making of women in the media, and for the media to promote a balanced and non-stereotyped portrayal of women.[[fn:70]] As the commitment of the United Nations Generation Equality campaign to meet the goals of the Beijing Declaration is reaffirmed, “traditional understandings of masculinity persist and are disseminated by the media industry, and constitute a barrier for gender equality in different contexts.”[[fn:71]] Women are far less likely than men to be seen in the media worldwide. As subjects of stories, women only appear in a quarter of television, radio and print news. Women’s perspectives and issues are less likely to reach audiences. The gender imbalance in how media views society reinforces and perpetuates stereotypes and biases.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "4. Female journalists under attack"], "footnotes": [{"n": 70, "text": "Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, Strategic Objectives J 1 – J2."}, {"n": 71, "text": "Submission of UNESCO."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0044", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. There has been little change in the past 25 years, according to the Global Media Monitoring Project, a worldwide grass-roots media research and advocacy initiative.[[fn:72]] In a 2015 report, women made up only 19 per cent of experts featured in news stories and 37 per cent of reporters telling stories globally.[[fn:73]] A survey of Indian media conducted in 2019 found that women accounted for less than 15 per cent of panellists on English news channels and authored only 25 per cent of news articles.[[fn:74]] A 2019 study in the United States pointed to the underrepresentation of women, especially black women, in news media.[[fn:75]] Employment practices and sexist behaviour were identified as problems in the sector.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "4. Female journalists under attack"], "footnotes": [{"n": 72, "text": "Who Makes the News?, GMMP 2020–2021 Final Report. Available at: https://whomakesthenews.org/gmmp-2020-final-reports/."}, {"n": 73, "text": "Aneeta Rattan and others. “Tackling the Underrepresentation of Women in Media”, Harvard Business Review, 6 June 2019."}, {"n": 74, "text": "UN-Women, Gender Representation in Indian Newsrooms, 2021."}, {"n": 75, "text": "Lucas Beard and others, “Shattering the glass screen”, McKinsey & Company, 13 February 2020. Available at: www.mckinsey.com/industries/technology-media-and-telecommunications/our-insights/shattering-the-glass-screen."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0045", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. While the safety of both male and female journalists are threatened in the course of their work, women are at much higher risk of sexualized violence and online violence including doxing.[[fn:76]] A global survey released in April 2021 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and the International Center for Journalists found that 73 per cent of female journalists claimed to have experienced online gender-based violence, with black and indigenous women targeted more often than white women.[[fn:77]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "4. Female journalists under attack"], "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "“Doxing” is the practice of leaking online personal details and home address, endangering female journalists and their families. See A/HRC/44/52."}, {"n": 77, "text": "UNESCO, Online violence against women journalists: a global snapshot of incidence and impacts (Paris, 2020). Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000375136."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0046", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Attacks on female journalists violate not only their freedom of expression, but also society’s right to information from diverse media, as highlighted by the global campaign to support Maria Ressa.[[fn:78]] It represents a gendered attack on media freedom.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "4. Female journalists under attack"], "footnotes": [{"n": 78, "text": "See communication PHL 12/2018. See also #HoldTheLineCampaign: Reporters Without Borders, “#HoldTheLine campaign launched in support of Maria Ressa and independent media in the Philippines”, 9 July 2020. Available at: https://rsf.org/en/news/holdtheline-campaign-launched-support-maria-ressa-and-independent-media-philippines-0."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0047", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. In this section, the international legal standards relevant to gender equality and freedom of expression are set out and analysed in relation to the challenges and barriers mentioned above and the duties of States to respect, protect and fulfil human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0048", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. States have an obligation not only to respect freedom of opinion and expression, but also to proactively remove the structural and systemic barriers to equality, including sexual and gender-based violence, which impede women’s full enjoyment of freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "A. Equality and expression are mutually reinforcing"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0049", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is guaranteed in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. While gender neutral in their language, articles 2, 3 and 26 of the Covenant are explicit in guaranteeing all rights enshrined in the Covenant without discrimination on the basis of sex. European, Inter-American and African regional human rights instruments also protect freedom of opinion and expression and provide similar guarantees of equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "A. Equality and expression are mutually reinforcing"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — joint citation."}, {"article": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'articles 2, 3 and 26 of the Covenant' — 'the Covenant' refers to ICCPR (the right of freedom of expression context)."}, {"article": "3", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'articles 2, 3 and 26 of the Covenant' — ICCPR."}, {"article": "26", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'articles 2, 3 and 26 of the Covenant' — ICCPR."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0050", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, States are obliged to guarantee women equal enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedoms. The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination and the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls have affirmed that the rights to equality and freedom of expression are mutually supportive.[[fn:79]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "A. Equality and expression are mutually reinforcing"], "footnotes": [{"n": 79, "text": "CERD/C/GC/35, para. 45; Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, A/HRC/23/50, para. 34."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0051", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. The elimination of structural and systemic forms of gender discrimination is essential to protecting freedom of expression on a basis of equality. International law recognizes the obligation of States to address not only discriminatory laws, policies and practices, but also the structural and systemic factors that perpetuate disadvantages, including through socially, culturally and legally entrenched gender stereotypes.[[fn:80]] In its general recommendation No. 25 (2004) on temporary special measures, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women affirmed that States parties must address gender-based stereotypes that affect women individually, in law and in legal and societal structures and institutions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "A. Equality and expression are mutually reinforcing"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "Article 5 (a), Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women. See also A/67/287, paras. 40–54."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0052", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. In a series of resolutions, the Human Rights Council has recognized the intersectionality of gender-based discrimination. It has called on States to eliminate the root causes of structural discrimination against women and girls, including deep-rooted patriarchal and gender stereotypes, negative social norms and systemic racism, and traditional understandings of gender roles that perpetuate unequal power relations, discriminatory attitudes, behaviours, norms, perceptions, customs and harmful practices.[[fn:81]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "A. Equality and expression are mutually reinforcing"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "Human Rights Council resolutions 44/17, 41/6, 38/1 and 35/18."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0053", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The right to freedom of expression is established as a broad and inclusive right in article 19 (2) of the Covenant, encompassing the right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of borders and through any media. The Human Rights Committee has clarified that the protection of information and ideas include those that may shock, offend or disturb.[[fn:82]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "B. The right to information is broad and inclusive"], "footnotes": [{"n": 82, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Handyside v. the United Kingdom, 1976, para. 49."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0054", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. This right incorporates a right to access information, including from public bodies, and places an obligation on States to respond to information requests from the public or the media and proactively publish and widely disseminate information of significant public interest.[[fn:83]] A total of 121 States, comprising 90 per cent of the world’s population, have adopted laws on the right to information, with varying degrees of effectiveness in providing public information and advancing transparent governance.[[fn:84]] While women have used their right to access information to claim other rights and demand accountability, many of them confront significant structural barriers, including a lack of education, a lack of access to the Internet, digital illiteracy, poverty and “time poverty”, as well as cultural and legal norms that deem it inappropriate for women to seek information from public authorities.[[fn:85]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "B. The right to information is broad and inclusive"], "footnotes": [{"n": 83, "text": "E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 44."}, {"n": 84, "text": "Article 19: International Centre against Censorship, “Infographic: Progress on the right to information around the world”, 18 July 2018. Available at: www.article19.org/resources/infographic-progress-on-the-right-to-information-around-the-world/."}, {"n": 85, "text": "Article 19: International Centre against Censorship, Open Development: Access to Information and the Sustainable Development Goals (London, 2017). Available at: www.article19.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Open-Development-Access-to-Information-and-the-SDGs-2017.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0055", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The gender data gap, or the failure of many States to provide disaggregated information, is inconsistent with the obligation of States to uphold the right to information. It is also inconsistent with States’ commitments to gender equality.[[fn:86]] The failure of States to produce disaggregated data and the resultant bias not only undermines the right to information, but may also skew policymaking and have an impact on the enjoyment of a variety of human rights. Too often, the very existence of gender data gaps and data biases is a manifestation of the structural discrimination faced by women, girls and non-binary persons.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "B. The right to information is broad and inclusive"], "footnotes": [{"n": 86, "text": "See submission of APC."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0056", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. In the digital age, the Internet is the main means of accessing and sharing information. Human rights bodies have recognized the gender digital divide as a major constraint on the equal right to freedom of expression of women and girls. The Human Rights Council has affirmed the importance of applying a comprehensive human rights-based approach to providing and expanding access to the Internet, calling on all States to bridge the gender digital divide,[[fn:87]] foster an enabling online environment that is safe and inclusive, and make a gender perspective central to policy decisions and the frameworks that guide ICT policies.[[fn:88]] Community efforts, as an alternative to commercial models led by large companies, also deserve more attention and support.[[fn:89]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "B. The right to information is broad and inclusive"], "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "Human Rights Council resolution 38/7."}, {"n": 88, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 89, "text": "E.g. Zenzeleni, a community-owned Internet service provider in rural South Africa."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0057", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Rooted in systemic and structural discrimination against women and girls, the gender digital divide and data gap are not only concerns for development, but also represent the failure of States to fulfil the right to information.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "B. The right to information is broad and inclusive"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0058", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. While the freedom of opinion is absolute, freedom of expression may be restricted. Under article 19 (3) of the Covenant, all restrictions must be provided by law and must be necessary and legitimate to protect the rights or reputations of others, national security or public order, public health or public morals. The restriction must be the least restrictive and proportionate means of achieving the purported aim. The application of these restrictions by States “may not put in jeopardy the right itself”.[[fn:90]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "C. Restrictions of freedom of expression must be lawful and necessary, and protect legitimate objectives"], "footnotes": [{"n": 90, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 21."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0059", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. As mentioned earlier in the report, States have frequently relied on public morals to improperly restrict gender, sexual and cultural expression. While “public morals” is a potentially broad concept, under international law there are important limits on its application through a three-part test of its lawfulness, legitimate objective, necessity and proportionality. It is also worth recalling that speech that may shock, offend or disturb is protected under article 19 (2) of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "C. Restrictions of freedom of expression must be lawful and necessary, and protect legitimate objectives"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0060", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The Human Rights Committee has clarified that restrictions to protect public morals cannot be based exclusively on a single tradition[[fn:91]] and must respect the universality of human rights and the principle of non-discrimination.[[fn:92]] No restriction may be enshrined in traditional, religious or customary law.[[fn:93]] The Human Rights Council and the General Assembly have reinforced the narrow and specific nature of the public morals limitation, calling on States to ensure that any legislation aimed at preserving morals is compatible with international human rights law,[[fn:94]] and that all policies, administrative measures and legal provisions aimed at preserving public morals are clearly defined, determinable, non-retroactive and compatible with international human rights law.[[fn:95]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "C. Restrictions of freedom of expression must be lawful and necessary, and protect legitimate objectives"], "footnotes": [{"n": 91, "text": "CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4, para. 8."}, {"n": 92, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 32; see also CCPR/C/106/D/1932/2010 (Irina Fedotova v. Russian Federation), para. 10.5."}, {"n": 93, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 24."}, {"n": 94, "text": "Human Rights Council resolution 22/6."}, {"n": 95, "text": "See General Assembly resolution 68/181, entitled “Promotion of the Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms: protecting women human rights defenders”, para 10; and General Assembly resolution 70/161."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0061", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Furthermore, States bear the burden of proving that the restriction is necessary and proportionate to the aim, and are obliged to interpret all restrictions to freedom of expression narrowly, given “the primary responsibility of the State to secure [recognized] rights and liberties”.[[fn:96]] The principle of necessity and proportionality means that restrictions cannot be justified where the harm to freedom of expression outweighs the benefits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "C. Restrictions of freedom of expression must be lawful and necessary, and protect legitimate objectives"], "footnotes": [{"n": 96, "text": "Alexandre Charles Kiss, “Permissible Limitations on Rights” in The International Bill of Rights: the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Louis Henkin, ed., (New York, Columbia University Press, 1981), p. 304."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0062", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. The prohibition against sexual and gender-based violence is well established in international law and regional human rights instruments. States have an obligation to ensure that State and non-State actors refrain from engaging in or contributing to threats or acts of sexual and gender-based violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "D. Gender-based violence is prohibited online and offline"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0063", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. As noted by the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, the right to be safe from threats and violence applies equally online and offline.[[fn:97]] This report focuses on online violence against women because digital technology has added new and dangerous dimensions that pose a serious threat to freedom of expression. Given the global nature of the issue, the absence of an international definition of online gender-based violence complicates the problem.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "D. Gender-based violence is prohibited online and offline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 97, "text": "A/HRC/38/47. See also European Court of Human Rights, Buturuga v. Romania, 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0064", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Online gender-based violence has some distinct features that differentiate it from violence in the real world. The acts can be committed at any time and from any place by primary perpetrators and amplified by secondary perpetrators, using digital spaces and tools that greatly enhance the rate, speed, replication and permanence of the acts, with significant impacts on survivors.[[fn:98]] Existing laws on violence against women and girls are not suited to addressing these peculiarities.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "D. Gender-based violence is prohibited online and offline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 98, "text": "Zarizana Abdul Aziz, “Due Diligence and Accountability for Online Violence Against Women”, APC Issue Papers. Available at: www.apc.org/sites/default/files/DueDiligenceAndAccountabilityForOnlineVAW.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0065", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. A growing number of States have enacted specific legislation or updated existing laws to criminalize online violence or require social media platforms to remove such violent content.[[fn:99]] Civil society and women’s groups have found that, in many cases, the laws fail to address the distinct nature of online violence or are being implemented poorly.[[fn:100]] Furthermore, because of the absence of physical violence, law enforcement and judicial authorities tend to trivialize the abuse even though it often has real world consequences. In countries that have no specific laws on online gender-based violence, the victims are either left without recourse or resort in the face of defamation, or with privacy laws that do not meet their needs adequately.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "D. Gender-based violence is prohibited online and offline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 99, "text": "See e.g. submission of Gender Links, noting the Cyber Crimes Act, 2021 of South Africa as good practice. See also the submission of Mexico."}, {"n": 100, "text": "See, e.g., A Survival Guide to being a Woman on the Internet (Policy), which examines case studies in Africa."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0066", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The Council of Europe Group of Experts on Action against Violence against Women and Domestic Violence, which monitors the implementation of the Istanbul Convention, has increasingly focused its attention on online violence. It will adopt a general recommendation in 2021 on the digital dimensions of violence and its impact on democratic participation, which is therefore also relevant to women’s freedom of expression.[[fn:101]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "D. Gender-based violence is prohibited online and offline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "See submission of the Council of Europe."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0067", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Like offline violence, addressing online violations requires a mix of criminal, civil, legal, administrative and social responses. States have taken a range of initiatives, such as training police, prosecutors and judges on hate speech and hate crimes in Finland, launching women’s justice centres to empower survivors and support their access to justice in Mexico, and making community-level interventions in Honduras using social media platforms to change cultural norms and the attitudes of young men and women.[[fn:102]] The digital rights organization Access Now operates a digital security helpline open at all times to provide direct support to at-risk users and build capacity in local communities.[[fn:103]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "D. Gender-based violence is prohibited online and offline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 102, "text": "Submissions from Finland, Mexico and Honduras."}, {"n": 103, "text": "Submission of Access Now."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0068", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. As misogyny proliferates on social media platforms, there are increasing calls to prohibit or criminalize gendered hate speech. While important, the issue should be approached with care given the risk of censoring legitimate speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "E. Gendered hate speech must be addressed within the international framework of hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0069", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Although hate speech has no universally accepted definition in international law, it is understood to cover a broad range of hateful expression and the obligations of States vary depending on the level and nature of likely harm.[[fn:104]] The most severe forms of hate speech are prohibited under international law. Under article 20 (2) of the Covenant, “advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence” is prohibited.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "E. Gendered hate speech must be addressed within the international framework of hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 104, "text": "Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect, “United Nations Strategy and Plan of Action on Hate Speech”. Available at: www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/hate-speech-strategy.shtml."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0070", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Although gender and sex are not mentioned in article 20 (2), they can and should be considered grounds for protection in view of the gender equality clauses elsewhere in the Covenant and the broader intersectional approach to non-discrimination that international human rights law has consistently taken in recent decades.[[fn:105]] In addition to the specific requirements set out in article 20 (2) of the Covenant, in the Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence six elements are proposed as a threshold test for hate speech: the context; the speaker; the intent; the content and form of the speech; the extent of the speech act; and the likelihood, including the imminence, of harm. Providing all these elements are satisfied, gendered hate speech can be prohibited under international law. However, it should not be criminalized except in the most egregious cases of real and imminent danger with a clear intention to cause serious harm.[[fn:106]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "E. Gendered hate speech must be addressed within the international framework of hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 105, "text": "A/74/486, p. 6."}, {"n": 106, "text": "A/67/357."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0071", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. The Rabat Plan of Action also offers a framework for distinguishing between different types of speech based on the severity of harm. It sets out three categories: harmful speech that constitutes a crime because it presents real and imminent danger; harmful speech that does not reach that threshold but may justify civil action; and offensive speech that raises concerns in terms of tolerance, hostility or discrimination and should be addressed through non-legal measures, such as condemnation, awareness-raising and education.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "E. Gendered hate speech must be addressed within the international framework of hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0072", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Such a graduated approach could provide an international benchmark for defining gender-based hate speech in a way that protects both women’s safety and freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "E. Gendered hate speech must be addressed within the international framework of hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0073", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. There is no agreed definition of disinformation under international law. It is understood generally to be false information disseminated with the intent of causing social harm. Information cannot be restricted under international law simply because of falsity. False information can be restricted only by measures that meet the three-part test set out in article 19 (3) of the Covenant, meaning that they are lawful, necessary and proportionate to protect one of the specified legitimate objectives, e.g. to prevent serious reputational damage.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "F. Gendered disinformation needs a multifaceted approach"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0074", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Laws purportedly adopted to restrict disinformation (“fake news” laws) are often misused to silence critics.[[fn:107]] The criminalization of disinformation is counterproductive. The most powerful antidote to disinformation is a well-informed and digitally literate population with access to multiple, diverse media and information sources, and multifaceted, multi-stakeholder approaches involving States, companies and civil society, including women’s groups.[[fn:108]] Disinformation is a complex phenomenon, even more so when it is gendered, and would benefit from more research and analysis.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "F. Gendered disinformation needs a multifaceted approach"], "footnotes": [{"n": 107, "text": "A/HRC/47/25."}, {"n": 108, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0075", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. Under international law, companies have the responsibility to respect human rights, including gender equality and the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In line with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework, they are expected to exercise due diligence and conduct regular human rights assessments of their products, operations and policies with a view to identifying, preventing or mitigating actual or potential adverse impacts on human rights and provide remediation. There is also an expectation for companies to be transparent about their policies and practices.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0076", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. As the prime space for public discourse, social media platforms have contributed significantly to women’s empowerment by enabling them to access information, communicate, advocate and organize. However, the platforms have failed to respond adequately to the risks and dangers of online violence, hate speech and disinformation that women confront in the digital space.[[fn:109]] The following paragraphs set out some of the concerns.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms"], "footnotes": [{"n": 109, "text": "The present report focuses mainly on Twitter, Facebook and Instagram and publicly viewable videos on YouTube. It should be noted that harmful content is frequently shared in “private” online spaces, e.g. WhatsApp group chats and Telegram channels. Content may also travel between public and private online spaces as well as between legacy and social media."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0077", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. A key concern, noted by the previous Special Rapporteur, is that platforms set their own standards for content moderation, disconnected from human rights.[[fn:110]] Only Facebook has recently adopted a human rights policy, although its impact, if any, on content moderation is unclear.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "A. Content moderation of harmful speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 110, "text": "A/HRC/38/35."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0078", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. The community standards and content governance guidelines of all major social media platforms cover hate speech, hate promotion and harassment, and view gender-based discrimination as propagating hate speech, although none of them refer to human rights.[[fn:111]] The rising tide of online gender-based violence, harassment, trolling, doxing and other harmful activity has led to criticism that the platforms are not treating online gender-based violence with the urgency, seriousness and resources it requires.[[fn:112]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "A. Content moderation of harmful speech", "1. Safety tools"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "Definitions of hate speech by Twitter, YouTube, Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn, Snapchat and TikTok include hate speech as it relates to: age, race, ethnicity, class, religion, sexual orientation, caste, disability or serious illness, migratory status, national origin and gender identity."}, {"n": 112, "text": "Submission of Internet Lab and IT for Change."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0079", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. In 2020 and 2021, the dominant platforms have introduced measures, such as integrated reporting of abuse, blocking, unfriending and muting to alleviate harm, but these features are still largely missing from smaller, newer forms of social media. In June 2021, Facebook, Google, TikTok and Twitter announced their commitment to tackling online abuse and further improving the safety of women on their platforms.[[fn:113]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "A. Content moderation of harmful speech", "1. Safety tools"], "footnotes": [{"n": 113, "text": "Web Foundation, “Facebook, Google, TikTok and Twitter make unprecedented commitments to tackle the abuse of women on their platforms”, 1 July 2021. Available at: https://webfoundation.org/2021/07/generation-equality-commitments/."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0080", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. Safety tools need to be adopted throughout the sector. Furthermore, in order to be effective, the measures need to be accompanied by broader commitments to transparency and accountability, changes in a business model based on the extraction of personal data and a greater awareness of gender and human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "A. Content moderation of harmful speech", "1. Safety tools"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0081", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. There are concerns that insufficient sensitivity to local contexts may endanger women. Platform content moderation is typically performed by a combination of algorithmic sorting, including classifiers to identify prescribed content, and human review. Automated content moderation is capable of image recognition but struggles to detect sentiment, capture nuance or consider relevant linguistic and cultural traits.[[fn:114]] Given that transgressions of social and cultural norms and the consequences for them depend on local contexts, the failure to understand diverse local situations can jeopardize women’s safety.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "A. Content moderation of harmful speech", "2. Contextual analysis"], "footnotes": [{"n": 114, "text": "A/73/348."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0082", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Human moderators of content can also err while enforcing internal policies, training artificial intelligence systems and actively screening and removing offensive material, as well as being subject to the emotional toll of viewing pornographic, violent and other harmful content.[[fn:115]] Given the significant error rates of both human and automated content moderation processes,[[fn:116]] dominant platforms need to invest more in improving accuracy and understanding local contexts, including through partnerships with civil society and women’s groups.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "A. Content moderation of harmful speech", "2. Contextual analysis"], "footnotes": [{"n": 115, "text": "Sarah T. Roberts, Behind the Screen: Content Moderation in the Shadows of Social Media (New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, 2018)."}, {"n": 116, "text": "See e.g. Electronic Frontier Foundation, “TOSsed Out”. Available at: www.eff.org/tossedout."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0083", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Women and gender nonconforming people are subjected to harmful speech, but they also find their own expression suppressed on platforms. There have been many reports of removal of content and imagery produced by women, especially those from minority groups, which show gender bias in content moderation.[[fn:117]] Several reports of pictures of indigenous women nude, including while protesting, were removed for violating community standards.[[fn:118]] It is also claimed in some reports that specific groups of women are particularly subject to removals, such as transgender women.[[fn:119]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Women/girls", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "A. Content moderation of harmful speech", "3. Gender bias"], "footnotes": [{"n": 117, "text": "E.g. on Instagram, women, LGBTQ+ people of African origin, plus-sized people, pole dancers and sex workers or educators have reported bias in taking down content, disabling profiles or pages, and/or rejecting advertisements. For further information, see SaltyWorld, “Algorithmic Bias Report”. Available at: https://saltyworld.net/algorithmicbiasreport-2/."}, {"n": 118, "text": "See, for example: www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/mar/23/facebook-censorship-topless-aboriginal-women."}, {"n": 119, "text": "Online Censorship, “A Resource Kit for Journalists”. Available at: https://onlinecensorship.org/content/a-resource-kit-for-journalists#Issue-Areas."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0084", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. The setting of rules by social media platforms through community guidelines and moderation by algorithms is not objective. It reflects the biases and worldviews of the rule-setters, who tend to be typically from the specific sociocultural context of Silicon Valley: racially monochromatic and economically elite.[[fn:120]] The gender bias evident in content moderation reinforces the argument for companies to base their content moderation on international human rights standards.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "A. Content moderation of harmful speech", "3. Gender bias"], "footnotes": [{"n": 120, "text": "Ysabel Gerrard and Helen Thornham, “Content moderation: Social media’s sexist assemblages”, New Media and Society, Vol. 22, No. 7 (July 2020), pp. 1266–1286."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0085", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. A challenge to the moderation of harmful content is the platform business model that seeks to maximize user engagement by promoting inflammatory and controversial content.[[fn:121]] Gender-based hate speech fuelling controversy and moral outrage is an example of this type of content.[[fn:122]] Content moderation rules may also lead to the amplification and aggravation of sexist and misogynistic speech[[fn:123]] through confirmation bias with the creation of filter bubbles and echo chambers that perpetuate online toxicity.[[fn:124]].", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "B. Business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 121, "text": "A/HRC/47/25, paras. 66–69 and A/74/786, para. 40. See also Amit Goldenberg and James J Gross, “Digital Emotion Contagion”, Harvard Business School, 2020, p. 6."}, {"n": 122, "text": "Molly Crockett, “How Social Media Amplifies Moral Outrage”, The Eudemonic Project, 9 February 2020. Available at: eudemonicproject.org/ideas/how-social-media-amplifies-moral-outrage."}, {"n": 123, "text": "GLAAD, “Social Media Safety Index”, 2021 and Safiya Umoja Noble, Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism (New York, New York University Press, 2018)."}, {"n": 124, "text": "Facebook’s Civil Rights Audit (July 2020) explains that the algorithms used by Facebook “fuel extreme and polarizing content [...]. Facebook should do everything in its power to prevent its tools and algorithms from driving people toward self-reinforcing echo chambers of extremism, and that the company must recognize that failure to do so can have dangerous (and life-threatening) real-world consequences.”"}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0086", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. Some limited steps have been taken to improve the ranking of so-called authoritative content, including by Facebook[[fn:125]] and YouTube,[[fn:126]] typically as temporary crisis measures, for example during election periods or in response to misinformation related to COVID-19. Other proposed measures include introducing “friction” on the viral nature of content, as WhatsApp has done by limiting forwarding;[[fn:127]] temporarily halting the sharing of content until it has been fact-checked; labelling posts; using “scan and suggest” technology; and limiting the auto-playing of videos.[[fn:128]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "B. Business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 125, "text": "Adam Mosseri, “Helping Ensure News on Facebook Is From Trusted Sources”, Facebook, 19 January 2018. Available at: https://about.fb.com/news/2018/01/trusted-sources/."}, {"n": 126, "text": "Greg Bensinger, “YouTube says viewers are spending less time watching conspiracy theory videos. But many still do”, Washington Post, 3 December 2019. Available at: www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/12/03/youtube-says-viewers-are-spending-less-time-watching-conspiracy-videos-many-still-do/."}, {"n": 127, "text": "WhatsApp Blog, “More changes to forwarding”, WhatsApp. Available at: https://blog.whatsapp.com/more-changes-to-forwarding."}, {"n": 128, "text": "See Center for American Progress, Fighting Coronavirus Misinformation and Disinformation: Preventive Product Recommendations for Social Media Platforms (2020), appendix, for a list of options."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0087", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. Researchers and civil society have long called for a greater focus on the role of social media companies’ algorithms and design decisions. It is an open and difficult question on how to reconfigure social media to better incentivize diverse, varied and reliable information while fostering freedom of expression. More informed and multi-stakeholder debate is needed on the societal impact of algorithmic ranking of information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "B. Business model"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0088", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. Appeal mechanisms for wrongful decisions are crucial to offsetting the significant risk inherent in large social media companies using imperfect filters to remove content, or conversely, failing to take action in response to user complaints. Under the Guiding Principles, company-led remediation must begin with an effective way for women to report potential violations of hate speech policies, and a transparent and accessible process to appeal platform decisions, with companies publishing a publicly accessible and reasoned response.[[fn:129]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "C. Remedies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 129, "text": "A/HRC/38/35."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0089", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. The platforms should disclose the kinds of remedies they will impose on those who have violated their gender policies, using graduated responses according to the severity of the violation or the recidivism of the user.[[fn:130]] As part of their due diligence efforts, they should identify rights-compliant tools to address problematic content beyond account suspension and content removal, such as demonetization, fact-checking and, where appropriate, counter-messaging.[[fn:131]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "C. Remedies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 130, "text": "In the context of hate speech, see A/74/486, para. 53."}, {"n": 131, "text": "See the Manila Principles on Intermediary Liability for standards for censorship and takedowns, and the Santa Clara Principles on Transparency and Accountability in Content Moderation for guidelines to create meaningful, fair, unbiased and proportional processes that respect rights of the users of platforms."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0090", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. There are periodic recommendations to require real name identity and allow backdoor access to encrypted products for surveillance and law enforcement.[[fn:132]] Questions have been raised about anonymity as a factor in encouraging online violence with impunity. However, anonymity and the use of encryption and other privacy protocols are an essential facet of women’s enjoyment of freedom of opinion and expression in the online context and must be protected. The anonymous browsing of networks facilitates their safe access to the Internet without fear of discovery or reprisal, especially in the case of feminist and LGBTQ+ activists and female human rights defenders, but also for many others, such as victims of domestic violence.[[fn:133]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "D. Privacy, anonymity and encryption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 132, "text": "Center for Democracy and Technology, “Issue Brief: A “Backdoor” to Encryption for Government Surveillance”, 3 March 2016."}, {"n": 133, "text": "Submission of Access Now."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0091", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. It is critical to formulate principles and guidelines that allow the Internet to continue to be the central global public forum, upholding the right to privacy and being free from government censorship, while ensuring that it is not used as an instrument to commit violations of women’s human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "D. Privacy, anonymity and encryption"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0092", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. A lack of transparency remains a major failing of Internet intermediaries. There are at least three areas where platform transparency needs to be improved: transparency reporting, access to data and audits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "E. Transparency and accountability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0093", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. Industry transparency reports give insights into the number of requests to take down allegedly unlawful content and content that violates platforms’ terms of services. They are an important source of information, but platforms need to standardize reporting procedures and key performance indicators to allow comparative analysis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "E. Transparency and accountability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0094", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. Meaningful disclosures should include, inter alia, disaggregated data on gender-based online violence that tracks the scale and size of the problem, and provides insights into the nature of the multiple forms of identity-based discrimination, harassment and violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "E. Transparency and accountability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0095", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. Platforms should also improve transparency and accountability in algorithm design and implementation to prevent the occurrence of algorithmic discrimination. As the focus is increasingly on how algorithms treat content and what content is amplified, platform transparency should go beyond content removals to also include lesser responses to violations of terms of service.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "E. Transparency and accountability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0096", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. The larger platforms should also promote transparency and accountability by undergoing regular independent audits.[[fn:134]] The draft European Union Digital Services Act makes a similar proposal.[[fn:135]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "E. Transparency and accountability"], "footnotes": [{"n": 134, "text": "Multiple authors, “Online Harms: Bring in the Auditors”, Tony Blair Institute for Global Change, 30 July 2020. Available at: https://institute.global/policy/online-harms-bring-auditors."}, {"n": 135, "text": "European Commission, Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on a Single Market For Digital Services (Digital Services Act) and amending Directive 2000/31/EC (COM(2020) 825 final)."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0097", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. Underlying the problems is a deeper issue of the culture of the technology industry in which women are not sufficiently involved in discussions shaping policies on data use, privacy, ethics, algorithmic functions or content moderation. Without meaningful engagement with women in design and governance, technologies will continue to reinforce gender bias inequality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "F. Gender-sensitive environment"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0098", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. Platforms must build greater awareness of and sensitivity to gender issues in their business operations and activities, including through gender training for their program designers, content policy teams, content moderators, fact-checkers and others. At a systemic level, effective and scalable solutions require the needs of female users to be taken on board and addressed. This approach aligns with the obligations to the Contract for the Web to which companies such as Facebook, Instagram, WhatsApp, Google, Microsoft and Twitter have committed themselves.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "F. Gender-sensitive environment"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0099", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. More broadly, fundamental changes are needed to increase the number of women in the workforces of technology companies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "F. Gender-sensitive environment"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0100", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. Gender equality and freedom of opinion and expression are mutually reinforcing, indivisible, interdependent and essential to the achievement of peace, democracy and sustainable development. That is why the failure of many States to respect, protect and fulfil women’s equal right to freedom of opinion and expression is a cause for concern.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0101", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. The ability of women to make themselves heard is a key measure of gender equality and democratic freedom. The report exposes appalling levels of gendered censorship against women, combining discriminatory laws, policies and practices with sexism, misogyny and social and cultural norms based on patriarchal values. Major barriers to women’s freedom of opinion and expression, including unequal access to the Internet and information, the spike in online gender-based violence and hate speech, and attacks on female journalists, warrant urgent action.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0102", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. The most pervasive and pernicious form of gendered censorship is the use of online sexual and gender-based violence, hate speech and disinformation to silence women. Digital platforms have provided a vital space for women’s engagement and activism but they have also perpetuated gender power structures, normalizing sexualized attacks online. Female politicians, journalists, human rights defenders and feminist activists, especially those with intersecting marginalized identities, are disproportionately targeted by State and non-State actors. The objective is to intimidate them and drive them off the platforms and out of public life. That has serious consequences for human rights, diversity in public debates and the media, and ultimately, democracy and development.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0103", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. It is imperative to make digital spaces safe for women. The interdependence of human rights affirms that there can be no trade-off between women’s right to be free from violence and the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Preserving that freedom while also protecting women from violence and hate requires a three-fold approach: firstly, a gender-sensitive interpretation of the right to freedom of expression and opinion; secondly, a calibrated approach to ensure that responses are aligned with the level of harm or threat; and, thirdly, a clear understanding of what constitutes online gender-based violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0104", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. Efforts to eradicate online gender-based violence, gendered hate speech and disinformation should not be used as a pretext by States to restrict freedom of expression beyond what is permitted under international law, nor should restrictions of freedom of expression permitted by international law be weaponized to inhibit women’s cultural, gender and sexual expression and academic freedom, or restrict feminist discourse and women’s organizations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0105", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. Gender justice requires more than just an end to unlawful interference with women’s freedom of opinion and expression. It demands the creation of an enabling environment in which women can exercise their agency and participate with full and equal access to “information and ideas of all kinds”, the Internet, diverse media and civic space in which feminist organizations can flourish.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0106", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. States should recognize non-discrimination and inclusion as central to their duty to respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of opinion and expression. They should take appropriate measures as part of their national development plans to eliminate gender stereotypes, negative social norms and discriminatory attitudes through legislative measures, social policies and educational programs.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0107", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. States should adopt specific legislation to prohibit, investigate and prosecute online gender-based violence. The legislation should be grounded in international women’s human rights instruments and international standards on freedom of opinion and expression. The prohibitions should be drafted restrictively and should take into account specific digital traits, such as amplification by secondary perpetrators.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0108", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. Sex and gender should be recognized as protected characteristics for the prohibition of advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence in line with article 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. Misogyny should be prohibited if it reaches the threshold set by articles 19 (3) and 20 (2) of the Covenant.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit treaty attribution for advocacy of hatred prohibition."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination' — explicit treaty attribution."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'articles 19 (3) and 20 (2) of the Covenant' — 'the Covenant' refers to ICCPR (just named in full). ICCPR art. 19(3) is the limitations clause for freedom of expression."}, {"article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second 'article 20 (2)' in 'articles 19 (3) and 20 (2) of the Covenant' — same ICCPR, explicit attribution."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0109", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. All legal measures to restrict gender-based hate speech or gendered disinformation should comply with the three-part test of legality, necessity and proportionality, and legitimate objectives, as set out in article 19 (3) of the Covenant. Criminalization should be avoided except in the most egregious cases of advocacy that constitutes incitement.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0110", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. Gendered disinformation should be addressed through non-legal measures, including fostering diverse and independent media, fact-checking, digital and media literacy, community-based awareness programs. Content that is offensive, shocking or disturbing should not be legally restricted but addressed through such non-legal measures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0111", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. States should respect the protection that gender, sexual and cultural expression enjoys under international law and interpret “public morals” restrictively, in line with international guidance on article 19 (3) of the Covenant. They should refrain from harassment, detention or silencing of artists for their creative and political expressions.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0112", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. States should fulfil the right to information, as well as their commitments under the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, by:\n(a) Guaranteeing affordable open, secure and high-quality access to the Internet, free of restrictions and shutdowns and on a non-discriminatory basis to all;\n(b) Producing and publishing gender-disaggregated data, including on digital inclusion;\n(c) Facilitating women’s access to information on all matters regarding their own bodies, lives and health, including sexual and reproductive health and rights;\n(d) Adopting and enforcing strong data protection regulations;\n(e) Adopting legal and regulatory frameworks and policies to provide comprehensive protection for secure digital communications and promote strong encryption and anonymity enhancing tools, products and services;\n(f) Facilitating opportunities for digital literacy through practical, inclusive lifelong learning to empower women, young people and LGBTQ+ groups to develop their digital skills as a means of bridging the digital divide and protecting themselves in digital contexts.", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0113", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. Over the past several decades, gender equality has been reaffirmed as a fundamental principle of international law. In light of that affirmation, and in order to address some of the emerging challenges to women’s equal expression in the digital space, it would be timely for the international community to acknowledge and promote an explicit, gender-sensitive interpretation of freedom of opinion and expression. More specifically:\n(a) The Human Rights Committee should affirm gender and sex as grounds protected under article 20 (2) of the Covenant and further develop the threshold test for the prohibition of online misogynistic speech;\n(b) The Committee for the Elimination of Discrimination against Women should develop an authoritative legal definition of online gender-based violence;\n(c) The Human Rights Council, in collaboration with the special procedure mandate holders and the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, should initiate a multi-stakeholder consultative process to develop guidelines on gendered hate speech and disinformation, along the lines of the Rabat Plan of Action.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for the international community"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0114", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. The Special Rapporteur stands ready to support these endeavours.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for the international community"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0115", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "115. Digital spaces are owned and managed by private actors but they are public spaces accessed by millions of people. As such, and taking into account the nature of their business, social media platforms should be guided by international human rights standards in their content moderation. Furthermore, in line with the United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, as a matter of due diligence companies should carry out regular human rights and gender impact assessments to identify and mitigate systemic risks affecting women and gender nonconforming people.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0116", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "116. Platforms have collaborated on best practices for child protection. Guided by international human rights standards and the principles of gender equality, they should take the same coordinated approach to make digital spaces safe and gender-inclusive. Policies on safety from online violence should be developed and made available, with full transparency in relation to algorithms, practices and decision-making processes, in an accessible, non-technical jargon in local languages.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0117", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "117. Companies should improve both their transparency, making it more meaningful, and their remedies, along the lines discussed earlier in the report. In addition, in the interest of greater accountability, they should explore an external appeals system, e.g. independent social media councils.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0118", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "118. Companies should ensure data security and privacy, and ensure that the use of data is in compliance with international human rights law and relevant national laws, and has the full informed consent of data providers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0119", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "119. The prescribed length of the present report does not allow a proper analysis of the challenges of gender and traditional media. Pending a report on the issue in the future, the following broad recommendations are being made to States and media companies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Recommendations for traditional media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0120", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "120. The safety of female journalists is of paramount importance. In consultation with media organizations and female journalists, States should develop and adopt integrated prevention, protection, monitoring and response mechanisms for the online and offline safety of female journalists. State officials should publicly condemn any attack on female journalists and should refrain from making statements that could put the women at risk.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Recommendations for traditional media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0121", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 121, "n": 121, "text": "121. Media outlets should:\n(a) Adopt internal protocols and processes, in consultations with female journalists, to address gender-based violence and harassment at work and in the workplace, and provide comprehensive support, including psychosocial and legal assistance and training;\n(b) Improve workplace culture and promote equal opportunities for female journalists;\n(c) Take targeted measures to increase women’s representation as sources, experts and interviewees in the news, keeping in mind the importance of intersectionality in representation;\n(d) Through news coverage, analysis and other means, seek to dismantle gender stereotypes in the media and combat gender bias and violence against women and non-binary persons among the readership.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Recommendations for traditional media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0122", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 122, "n": 122, "text": "122. Finally, to all stakeholders – States, international organizations, human rights bodies, civil society and companies – an important recommendation is that women, in all their diversity and intersectionality, must be at the table when policies, laws, treaties, community standards and regulations are being discussed and adopted or when technology is designed and deployed. Women’s voices count.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Recommendations for traditional media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0001", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. Digital technology is a double-edged sword, amplifying opportunities for expression, participation and the sharing of information in ways unimaginable in the past but also multiplying online risks and threats. Gendered disinformation is not a new phenomenon, but, fuelled by new technologies and social media, it has gained traction, threatening, intimidating, harming and silencing women and gender nonconforming persons. The negative consequences go far beyond the targeted individuals and undermine human rights, gender equality, inclusive democracy and sustainable development.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0002", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Despite growing concerns about the disproportionate and harmful impact of online gendered disinformation, there is no agreement on what constitutes the phenomenon nor on how it can best be addressed. There is also a lack of clarity on how gendered disinformation promotes online gender-based violence and is spurred by other inequalities. The absence of an agreed definition and gaps in knowledge underscore the complex, contested and intrinsically political nature of the problem.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0003", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The Special Rapporteur believes that it is vital to clarify the distinct nature of gendered disinformation, which is both a strategy to silence the free expression of women and gender nonconforming persons and a form of online gender-based violence in certain circumstances. It is essential to understand the factors that drive it, who is affected by it and how, and who is behind it and why. It is only by doing so that effective strategies can be developed by States, companies and other stakeholders to combat gendered disinformation while upholding the right to freedom of opinion and expression and other human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0004", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. It is imperative to make digital spaces safe for all, but measures to do so should not lead to restrictions of freedom of expression beyond what is permissible, necessary and proportionate under international law. Freedom of opinion and expression is essential for women’s political, social and economic empowerment, for preserving democracy and for promoting the transformative changes that gender justice demands.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0005", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. During the past year, the Special Rapporteur co-convened a series of regional consultations with civil society organizations and survivors to better understand the lived experiences of those contending with online attacks day in and day out in various contexts around the world.[[fn:1]] She also met with various Governments and companies to discuss her concerns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Association for Progressive Communications for coorganizing regional consultations in Bangkok, Addis Ababa and Beirut for Asia, Africa and the Middle East and North Africa, respectively, and online for Latin America. The Special Rapporteur also consulted with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) during the session of the Human Rights Council held in June 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0006", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Drawing on the consultations and building on her reports on disinformation[[fn:2]] and gender justice,[[fn:3]] in the present report the Special Rapporteur takes a deep dive into the gender dimensions of disinformation online. She identifies key aspects of the phenomenon of online gendered disinformation and briefly analyses the responses of States, companies and civil society, identifying concerns and some emerging good practices. She makes some broad recommendations while acknowledging the need for more research and discussion.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "A/HRC/47/25."}, {"n": 3, "text": "A/76/258."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0007", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. In line with her previous work, the Special Rapporteur adopts a feminist analytical framework that is attentive to the lived realities and needs of women. She takes an intersectional approach, noting that experiences vary according to race, ethnicity, caste, religion, sexual orientation, age, geographical location, social, economic and legal status and other factors.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0008", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Both sex and gender are relevant in the context of gendered disinformation. While focusing primarily on women (using the term to also include girls where relevant), the Special Rapporteur also refers to lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and questioning (LGBTQ+) persons, where appropriate.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0009", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The Special Rapporteur is grateful for having received over 50 written contributions from Governments, companies, civil society organizations and experts in response to her call for submissions.[[fn:4]] In the light of the complex and multifaceted nature of the subject, the present report is of an interim nature and is intended to generate further consultations with States, companies and civil society on the recommendations contained therein and the next steps to be taken.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "All submissions are available at www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-freedom-of-opinion-and-expression."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0010", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Gendered disinformation is a strategy to silence women and gender-diverse voices. It is also a form of online gender-based violence in some situations. The dual nature of the phenomenon in the digital age makes both the definition of the problem and the search for solutions more complex and challenging.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0011", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. In this section of the present report, the Special Rapporteur “unpacks” the distinct nature of gendered disinformation, the contextual challenges and the relevant international legal framework.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0012", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Gendered disinformation is gendered because it targets women and gender nonconforming individuals, because of the gendered nature of the attacks and their gendered impact, and, very importantly, because it reinforces prejudices, bias and structural and systemic barriers that stand in the way of gender equality and gender justice.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "A. The concept"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0013", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Gendered disinformation has multiple aims: portraying women as weak, incompetent and sexualized objects, incapable of leadership; driving women and gender nonconforming persons out of public spaces and places of power; and silencing those who do not comply with gender norms. Gendered disinformation attacks not only individuals but also their collective struggles by seeking to delegitimize feminism and gender rights.[[fn:5]] The overall objective is to undermine human rights, gender equality, sustainable development and democracy.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "A. The concept"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Submission from the Association for Progressive Communications."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0014", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Like all forms of disinformation, gendered disinformation seeks to spread false or misleading information with the intent to cause harm to individuals and to society at large. It combines three defining characteristics of online disinformation – falsity, malign intent and coordination.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "A. The concept"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Wilson Center, Malign Creativity: How Gender, Sex, and Lies are Weaponized Against Women Online (Washington, D.C., Wilson Center, 2021)."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0015", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Unlike other forms of disinformation, gendered disinformation relies not just on false information but also on existing gender narratives to achieve its social and political goals, including maintaining the status quo of gender or creating a more polarized electorate.[[fn:7]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "A. The concept"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Center for Democracy and Technology, Facts and their Discontents: A Research Agenda for Online Disinformation, Race, and Gender (Washington, D.C., Center for Democracy and Technology, 2021), p. 25."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0016", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Information is manipulated and amplified with some degree of coordination to reaffirm gender stereotypes, inflame existing bias and prejudices and push overarching negative gender narratives. It is laced with misogynistic and sexualized language and images and may also contain explicit or implicit threats of gender-based violence. Overlapping tactics of intimidation, shaming and discrediting are frequently used, especially against women to depict them as unfit for leadership.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "A. The concept"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0017", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. In her 2021 report on freedom of expression and gender justice, the Special Rapporteur draws attention to discriminatory laws, policies, practices, social attitudes, cultural norms and patriarchal values that suppress, control and punish women’s expression. As more women and gender nonconforming persons use digital spaces to discuss, debate and build support on issues that are taboo in their homes and communities, the patriarchal and misogynistic norms that prevail in the offline world are replicated and amplified on the platforms.[[fn:8]] Gendered disinformation is a manifestation of that toxic, harmful environment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "B. The context"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "A/76/258, paras. 12–15 and 18."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0018", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Gendered disinformation thrives in contexts where gender equality and women’s freedom of expression are constrained. Increasingly, it is apparent not only in authoritarian States but also in emerging and established democracies as part of a dangerous pattern of backsliding on human rights and pushback on women’s rights.[[fn:9]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "B. The context"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "María Isabel Puerta Riera, “Democratic backsliding in the age of misinformation”, Democracy Paradox, 9 November 2022."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0019", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. As the overarching objective of gendered disinformation is to shape perceptions towards gender and the role of women in society and reinforce patriarchal and heteronormative institutional and cultural structures, it is highly contextualized. Participants at the regional consultations co-organized by the Special Rapporteur emphasized the importance of local context in the content of gendered disinformation.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "B. The context"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Submission from the Association for Progressive Communications."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0020", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. In South Asia, most disinformation lies at the intersection of gender, religion and caste. In Africa, the narrative of “protection of the family” emerges strongly. Women politicians, journalists and human rights defenders are often portrayed as attacking family values. The anti-colonialism narrative is also used in Africa to accuse women’s rights activists and gender rights defenders of succumbing to “Western values”. In Latin America, women and gender nonconforming persons are often attacked for preaching “dangerous gender ideology”.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "B. The context"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0021", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. In Eastern Europe, LGBTQ+ groups are conscious of the links between geopolitics and gendered disinformation, with activists frequently being labelled as traitors and spies of the West.[[fn:11]] In a study on disinformation against LGBTQ+ persons in the European Union, findings included recurrent narratives of LGBTQ+ persons representing “colonialism” by the West and a “threat to child safety” and of sex education promoting unnatural sexuality and gender expressions, and calls for protecting the “natural” family’s rights and restoring the “natural” order as ordained by God.[[fn:12]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "B. The context"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 12, "text": "Cecilia Strand and Jakob Svensson, “Disinformation campaigns about LGBTI+ people in the EU and foreign influence”, European Parliament, July 2021, p. 7."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0022", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. The relationship between gendered disinformation and gender-based violence has been described in several ways. On the one hand, it is seen as a subset of online gender-based violence.[[fn:13]] On the other hand, it flows from the same heteronormative patriarchal context in which people experience online gender-based violence, and in some cases there may be an overlap between gendered disinformation and online gender-based violence.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "C. Relationship to gender-based violence and hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Wilson Center, Malign Creativity, p. 3."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Center for Democracy and Technology, Facts and their Discontents, pp. 24 and 25."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0023", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Tailored responses to gendered disinformation require an understanding of the distinct differences and similarities between the two phenomena. Online violence or threats of violence are often an element of gendered disinformation campaigns, and the reverse is also true. For instance, in a survey measuring the global prevalence of online violence against women, 67 per cent of the cases included “misinformation and disinformation” (defined as spreading rumours and slander to discredit or damage a woman’s character).[[fn:15]] On the other hand, gender-based violence is a much broader phenomenon than gendered disinformation. For instance, the survey mentioned above included eight indicators of harmful online behaviour to describe gender-based violence, of which gendered disinformation was only one.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "C. Relationship to gender-based violence and hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "The Economist Intelligence Unit, “Measuring the prevalence of online violence against women”, 1 March 2021."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0024", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Gendered disinformation also intersects with hate speech. Some forms of gendered disinformation advocate incitement to violence, hostility and discrimination and can amount to hate speech, but hatred can also consist of speech that incites without implicating falsity and thus would not amount to disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "C. Relationship to gender-based violence and hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0025", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. While there is overlap among gendered disinformation, gender-based violence and gendered hate speech, the three phenomena are not synonymous (as illustrated below). This is not just a matter of semantics but also has policy and practical implications.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "C. Relationship to gender-based violence and hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0026", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Firstly, the international legal standards applicable to disinformation, hate speech and gender-based violence are different. Clarification of the relationships can help to ensure not only that differentiated responses are developed but also that the responses are in line with the respective standards.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "C. Relationship to gender-based violence and hate speech", "Relationship among gendered disinformation, online gender-based violence and gendered hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0027", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Secondly, acknowledgement of both the similarities and differences highlights the contextualized nature of gendered disinformation and the importance of avoiding a “one-size-fits-all” approach to solutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "C. Relationship to gender-based violence and hate speech", "Relationship among gendered disinformation, online gender-based violence and gendered hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0028", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. There is a need for more contextualized research of gendered disinformation. Organizations based in the global South have pointed out major gaps in data from low-income and middle-income countries, and, even in cases where data are available, they are not disaggregated by gender or do not reflect the intersectional aspects of the problem.[[fn:16]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "C. Relationship to gender-based violence and hate speech", "Relationship among gendered disinformation, online gender-based violence and gendered hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Neema Iyer, Bonnita Nyamwire and Sandra Nabulega, “Alternate realities, alternate Internets: African feminist research for a feminist Internet”, Association for Progressive Communications, August 2020, p. 8. See also the submission from the Digital Rights Foundation."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0029", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. While gendered disinformation has a negative impact on many human rights, the most relevant rights are those relating to expression, gender equality and protection from violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "D. International legal framework"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0030", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The right to freedom of expression, enshrined in article 19 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, protects all kinds of information and ideas, irrespective of the truth or falsity of the content. In the context of gendered disinformation, it is important to note that international law does not allow speech to be prohibited solely on grounds of falsity. What is or is not false is a contentious issue. Furthermore, speech often consists of opinions and perspectives not suited to this binary categorization. State practice shows that laws that prohibit “false news”, purportedly as a measure against disinformation, are used in effect to suppress speech that is critical of the Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "D. International legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0031", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. In line with article 19 (3) of the Covenant, freedom of expression may be restricted only when such restrictions are provided for by law and are strictly necessary and proportionate for the legitimate aim of respecting the rights and reputation of others and protecting national security, public health, public order or morals. Thus, defamation laws may provide a remedy against gendered disinformation, but in practice civil suits (litigation) are challenging, both because of the difficulties of proving harm caused by falsity and because of the numerous barriers that women face in gaining access to justice in many countries. Criminal defamation is a disproportionate response and is open to abuse, including against women.[[fn:17]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "D. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has called for the abolition of criminal defamation. See A/HRC/47/25, para. 89."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0032", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. While international law does not refer to “hate speech”, it prohibits the equivalent notion of “advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence”.[[fn:18]] This prohibition is considered to extend to sex and gender, on the basis of the principles of gender equality and non-discrimination enshrined in international law. Those forms of gender discrimination that meet the criteria set out in this provision are prohibited.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "D. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 20 (2)."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0033", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. It should be noted that United Nations guidance, developed in consultation with legal experts and endorsed by the Human Right Council, calls for this provision to be applied narrowly and with caution, and only in cases where the advocacy presents a real and imminent danger of incitement to violence.[[fn:19]] Other forms of advocacy of hatred should be addressed by other measures, ranging from administrative sanctions to condemnation by public figures, community-based programmes and policies to raise awareness and promote tolerance and inclusion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "D. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "A/HRC/22/17/Add.4."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0034", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The prohibition against sexual and gender-based violence is well established in international law and regional human rights instruments.[[fn:20]] At the national level, many States have criminalized violence against women, and some have also introduced laws to prohibit online violence. However, many of these laws have come under criticism for being ineffective. In the absence of a precise definition of online gender-based violence or gendered disinformation, there is a risk that such laws may overreach and encroach on freedom of expression, while doing little to address gendered disinformation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "D. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "A/HRC/38/47, paras. 24–33."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0035", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. In this section of the present report, the Special Rapporteur identifies who is being harmed and by whom, as well as the wide scope of the harm inflicted by gendered disinformation. In research on the topic, there is a tendency to map out the human rights violations and harmful behaviour relating to both phenomena without making a clear distinction between the two. The Special Rapporteur acknowledges this shortcoming and notes cases where specific information on gendered disinformation is available.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0036", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. According to one global survey, the prevalence of online gender-based violence among Internet users, measured on the basis of eight indicators, including one concerning gendered disinformation, ranges from 74 per cent in Europe to 88 per cent in the Asian and Pacific region, 90 per cent in Africa, 91 per cent Latin America and the Caribbean and 98 per cent in the Middle East.[[fn:21]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "A. Survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "The Economist Intelligence Unit, “Measuring the prevalence of online violence against women”, 1 March 2021."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0037", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Research shows that, the more visible the women are, the more likely they are to be attacked as part of a deliberate strategy to intimidate, silence and exclude them from engaging in political and public life.[[fn:22]] Several studies have highlighted the grave and disproportionate levels of attacks against women politicians,[[fn:23]] journalists[[fn:24]] and human rights defenders.[[fn:25]] According to the Inter-Parliamentary Union, 45 per cent of women parliamentarians in Africa and 58 per cent of women parliamentarians in Europe have been subjected to online attacks.[[fn:26]] In a survey of 1,200 women journalists from around the world, 73 per cent of the respondents said that they had experienced some form of online violence in the course of their work.[[fn:27]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "A. Survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See the submission from the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs."}, {"n": 23, "text": "See, for example, Lucina Di Meco and Kristina Wilfore, “White paper: Canadian women leaders’ digital defence initiative”; Kristina Van Sant, Rolf Fredheim and Gundars Bergmanis-Korāts, Abuse of Power: Coordinated Online Harassment of Finnish Government Ministers (Riga, NATO Strategic Communications Centre of Excellence, 2021); and Reuters, “Dutch Finance Minister Kaag to leave politics citing family concerns”, 13 July 2023."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Julie Posetti and others, The Chilling: Global Trends in Online Violence against Women Journalists (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris, 2021), p. 12."}, {"n": 25, "text": "A/HRC/40/60."}, {"n": 26, "text": "A/77/302."}, {"n": 27, "text": "Posetti and others, The Chilling, p. 12."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0038", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. While research and discourse, especially in the West, have tended to be focused on prominent and professional women in the public space, the fact is that gendered disinformation affects a much larger group of women and gender nonconforming individuals for a variety of reasons, ranging from the political to the personal.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "A. Survivors"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0039", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Online attacks, including gendered disinformation, are a daily reality for many young women and girls in the global South who use the Internet for their communications and entertainment.[[fn:28]] Most girls report their first experience of social media harassment occurring between 14 and 16 years of age.[[fn:29]] Owing to their evolving capacities, children cannot always distinguish between reliable and unreliable information. As a result, not only can they be harmed by disinformation, but they may also spread it among their peers inadvertently.[[fn:30]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "A. Survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Digital Rights Foundation, “Gossip and rumour mongering: analysing casual disinformation from gendered lens” in Policy Papers: Perspectives on Gendered Disinformation, Shmyla Khan, ed. (Lahore, Digital Rights Foundation, 2021) pp. 53–66."}, {"n": 29, "text": "United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), “Accelerating efforts to tackle online and technology facilitated violence against women and girls (VAWG)”, 2022, p. 5."}, {"n": 30, "text": "United Nations Children’s Fund, “Digital misinformation/disinformation and children”, August 2021, p. 13."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0040", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Gendered disinformation exploits existing social divides and tension points (e.g. racism, homophobia and transphobia) by targeting one or more aspects of an individual’s identity. In the survey on women journalists mentioned above, Black, Indigenous, Jewish, Arab and gender-diverse journalists experienced both the highest rates and the most severe consequences of online violence.[[fn:31]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "A. Survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "Posetti and others, The Chilling, p. 12."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0041", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Gendered disinformation affects LGBTQ+ communities disproportionately, perpetuating harmful stereotypes and further marginalizing them.[[fn:32]] Through recent research carried out in 18 countries, it was found that a higher proportion of gender nonconforming persons reported having lies spread about them (29.3 per cent) than heterosexual persons (17.4 per cent).[[fn:33]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "A. Survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "Submission from the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Suzie Dunn, Tracy Vaillancourt and Heather Brittain, Special Report: Supporting Safer Digital Spaces (Waterloo, Canada, Centre for International Governance Innovation, 2023), p. 38."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0042", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Transgender persons, especially transgender women, have been a target of gendered disinformation campaigns from a variety of sources, including trans-exclusionary radical feminists, with malicious allegations of them causing harm to society or “spreading paedophilia”.[[fn:34]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "A. Survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "Digital Rights Foundation, Policy Papers: Perspectives on Gendered Disinformation, Shmyla Khan, ed. (Lahore, Digital Rights Foundation, 2021), p. 74."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0043", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. During the regional consultations co-organized by the Special Rapporteur, participants from South Asia highlighted the intersections between gender, caste and religion in disinformation campaigns in their region.[[fn:35]] In Pakistan, for example, a disinformation campaign centred on blasphemy allegations against participants in the Aurat March (“Women’s March”)[[fn:36]] has endangered the lives of many of the organizers.[[fn:37]] In 2022, a fundamentalist Islamist political group in the country initiated a disinformation campaign, primarily on social media, about the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act of 2018 and specific transgender activists.[[fn:38]] In India, Rana Ayyub, a Muslim woman journalist who has reported critically about the Government’s policies and treatment of the Muslim minority, has become the target of vicious coordinated gendered disinformation campaigns.[[fn:39]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "A. Survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "Submission from the Association for Progressive Communications."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Amel Ghani, “Misinformation on YouTube: use of misleading titles to promote hateful narrative against Aurat March in Pakistan”, Media Matters for Democracy, July 2022."}, {"n": 37, "text": "Sustaining Power: Women’s Struggles against contemporary backlash in South Asia, “Online disinformation: a weapon to silence feminists”, 11 October 2021."}, {"n": 38, "text": "Submission from the Digital Rights Foundation."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See communications Nos. UA IND 1/2020 and UA IND 10/2018."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0044", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Other identity-related characteristics beyond race, ethnicity and religion may also feature in gendered disinformation. In Colombia, for example, violent Graphic Interchange Format (GIF) images and video clips in sign language have been used to target women representatives of the deaf community.[[fn:40]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "A. Survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, “Tweets that chill: analyzing online violence against women in politics”, 2019, p. 22."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0045", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Forms of harm emanating from gendered disinformation are varied and deeply consequential to both individuals and society at large. At the individual level, persons who are targeted often pay a heavy price psychologically, physically, socially and economically.[[fn:41]] At the societal level, identity-based attacks online erode civil liberties, diminish public discourse, limit the knowledge available to inform policy and electoral decision-making, and teach all women that activism and public service are unappealing, high-risk endeavours to be avoided.[[fn:42]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "Testimonies provided during regional consultations."}, {"n": 42, "text": "Sarah Sobieraj, Credible Threat: Attacks against Women Online and the Future of Democracy, Oxford Studies Digital Politics Series (New York, Oxford University Press, 2020)."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0046", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Gendered disinformation not only spreads lies but also uses highly emotive and value-laden content, tailored to local contexts, that undermines women’s credibility and competence, stigmatizes them and isolates them. Gender narratives have been invoked against women journalists, sexualizing them and attacking their character, integrity, appearance and intelligence as a way of discrediting their reporting and discouraging them from continuing their work.[[fn:43]] In conservative societies, the “honour” or reputation of women human rights defenders has been attacked.[[fn:44]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "Submission from Demos."}, {"n": 44, "text": "A/HRC/40/60, para. 37."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0047", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Coordinated public shaming can lead family members, colleagues and neighbours to turn against the targeted individuals. In traditional societies where women are dependent on families and communities for protection, they can find themselves in a vulnerable position. During the regional consultation held in the Middle East and North Africa region, participants highlighted this aspect and the role that male family members sometimes play in disinformation campaigns and related violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0048", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Gendered disinformation may lead women in public life or journalism to leave online spaces or may have a chilling effect on their freedom of expression and on their ability to continue their professional activities.[[fn:45]] In a study tracking the engagement of politically active women on X (formerly known as Twitter) before and after they had experienced online attacks, strong evidence was found indicating that online abuse decreased politically active women’s willingness to continue engaging on social media.[[fn:46]] In the digital age, this phenomenon significantly curtails the outreach, influence and impact of public figures and journalists.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "Amanda Lenhart and others, Online Harassment, Digital Abuse, and Cyberstalking in America (New York, Data & Society Research Institute, 2016); and Amnesty International, “Toxic Twitter – a toxic place for women”."}, {"n": 46, "text": "National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, “Tweets that chill”, p. 21."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0049", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. A recent study provided empirical evidence that, among participants who reported experiencing one of the forms of online harm identified in the study, 21.7 per cent said that online forms of harm had a very negative impact on their freedom to express their political and personal views. Looking at lesbian, gay and bisexual persons as a subgroup, it was found in the study that online forms of harm had a very negative impact on their freedom to express their political and personal views (25.5 per cent compared with 19.5 per cent of heterosexual persons).[[fn:47]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "Dunn, Vaillancourt and Brittain, Special Report: Supporting Safer Digital Spaces, p. 42."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0050", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Another debilitating aspect of the various forms of harm is that they often radiate beyond the individuals or groups directly targeted. For instance, gendered disinformation has been found to dissuade women from entering politics, journalism or activism.[[fn:48]] It is particularly harmful to the aspirations of young women and girls, according to a study indicating that one out of four girls felt less confident about sharing their views, one out of five girls stopped engaging in politics or current affairs, and 46 per cent of girls felt sad, depressed, stressed, worried or anxious as a result of online misinformation and disinformation.[[fn:49]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Lucina Di Meco, #ShePersisted: Women, Politics, & Power in the New Media World (2019), pp. 1–58."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Plan International, “The truth gap: how misinformation and disinformation online affect the lives, learning and leadership of girls and young women”, 2021, p. 6."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0051", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Growing evidence shows that online gender-based violence facilitates offline violence and creates “climates of unsafety” within society.[[fn:50]] For instance, in a survey conducted by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 13 per cent of survey respondents and many interviewees said that they had received threats of violence against those close to them, including children and infants.[[fn:51]] In the Economist Intelligence Unit global survey mentioned above, 92 per cent of women reported that online violence had harmed their sense of well-being, and one out of every three women thought twice before posting any content online.[[fn:52]] Psychological distress, trauma and long-term mental health impacts have also been documented. Online gender-based violence often precedes violence carried out against women and girls offline. For instance, one in five women journalists reported that they had been abused and attacked offline in connection with online violence.[[fn:53]] In the Arab States, 44 per cent of women who experienced online violence in the past year reported that the incident had moved offline.[[fn:54]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Jacqueline Hicks, “Global evidence on the prevalence and impact of online gender-based violence (OGBV)”, Institute of Development Studies, 8 October 2021."}, {"n": 51, "text": "Posetti and others, The Chilling, p. 21."}, {"n": 52, "text": "The Economist Intelligence Unit, Measuring the prevalence of online violence against women, 2020."}, {"n": 53, "text": "Posetti and others, The Chilling, p. 12."}, {"n": 54, "text": "UN-Women, “Accelerating efforts to tackle online and technology facilitated violence against women and girls”, p. 6."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0052", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Negative narratives about women and LGBTQ+ persons and their communities legitimize technology-facilitated and physical violence against them. Transphobic and homophobic ideas purporting that there are limited gender and sexual roles are used to condone violence against those who do not fit within these discriminatory norms.[[fn:55]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "Dunn, Vaillancourt and Brittain, Special Report: Supporting Safer Digital Spaces, pp. 13 and 15."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0053", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. In conflict settings, the boundaries between disinformation and violence and between online threats and offline risks can be hard to distinguish, increasing the dangers for women and deterring them from speaking out or participating in peace processes.[[fn:56]] Fear of reprisals resulting from false accusations can make public speaking a risky undertaking, even in the United Nations.[[fn:57]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "EU Disinfo Lab, “Gender-based disinformation: advancing our understanding and response”, 20 October 2021."}, {"n": 57, "text": "Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), “Afghanistan: UN experts alarmed by media outlet’s spreading of disinformation”, 28 July 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0054", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Gendered disinformation violates women’s right to health by spreading false and misleading information on sexual and reproductive health and rights. For instance, in Ireland around the time of the referendum on abortion, false information was spread linking abortion to depression, cancer and Down syndrome.[[fn:58]] In Italy, a campaign by pro-life groups falsely affirmed that abortion was the main cause of femicide around the world.[[fn:59]] A study in Latin America found a thematic predominance of disinformation campaigns focused on gender-based violence and abortion, questioning the right of women to bodily autonomy, as well as polarizing the exercise of that right.[[fn:60]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 58, "text": "Plan International, “The truth gap”, p. 11."}, {"n": 59, "text": "Cooperativa.cl, “Italia: Polémica campaña dice que el aborto es la principal causa de femicidios”, 15 May 2018."}, {"n": 60, "text": "Andrea Malquín-Robles and José Gamir-Ríos, “Disinformation and digital sexism. Feminism and its agenda as an object of hoaxes in Spanish”, ICONO 14, vol. 21, No. 1 (February 2023)."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0055", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. While there are not much data specifically on the economic costs of gendered disinformation, it has been estimated in one study that the economic costs of online gender-based violence to individuals and society in the European Union member States is between 49.0 and 89.3 billion euros per year.[[fn:61]] The gravity of these figures indicate a need for more targeted research to assess the specific costs of gendered disinformation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 61, "text": "Niombo Lomba, Cecilia Navarra and Meenakshi Fernandes, Combating Gender-Based Violence: Cyberviolence: European Added Value Assessment, European Parliamentary Research Service Study (Brussels, European Parliament, 2021)."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0056", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. An analysis of underlying drivers of online gender-based violence highlights an overarching theme of power and control, and heteronormative expectations around gender roles and sexual practice.[[fn:62]] These same factors also drive gendered disinformation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "C. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "Hicks, “Global evidence on the prevalence and impact of online gender-based violence”, p. 2."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0057", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Non-State actors, motivated by extremist ideologies, religious convictions or political, social or economic objectives, play a significant role in organizing coordinated online gendered disinformation campaigns. “While trolls, white nationalists, men’s rights activists, gamergaters, the ‘alt-right’, and conspiracy theorists may diverge deeply in their beliefs, they share tactics and converge on common issues.”[[fn:63]] For instance, the fact-checking group Chequeado exposed a network of anti-rights groups coordinating to promote disinformation on gender issues in the Americas, including through messaging, the channelling of funds, strategic alliances among organizations, training scholarships and international events.[[fn:64]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "C. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "Alice Marwick and Rebecca Lewis, Media Manipulation and Disinformation Online (New York, Data & Society Research Institute, 2017), p. 1."}, {"n": 64, "text": "Olivia Sohr, “Desinformación de género: cómo se articulan los grupos que difunden falsedades sobre el tema en América Latina”, Chequeado, 29 June 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0058", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. There are also increasing numbers of reports of the alignment of non-State campaigns with State policies and interests in some countries, and of State sponsorship of disinformation campaigns within the States’ borders or abroad.[[fn:65]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "C. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "See sect. IV of the present report."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0059", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. Social media platforms are a key vector in enabling disinformation to reach new levels of scale, speed and reach. The digital context not only mirrors the offline misogyny faced by women but also provides the space and tools for controversial, emotive and sensationalist content to be significantly augmented.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "C. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0060", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Algorithmic recommender systems play a major role in exacerbating the problem. Adversarial narratives exploit the human tendency towards negative content and disproportionately drive engagement on platforms. Algorithmic newsfeeds craft automatically generated, highly personalized adversarial content streams that keep users engaged on the platform, and monetized, and that in the end corrupt the entire global information ecosystem.[[fn:66]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "C. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "Danny Rogers, “Disinformation as adversarial narrative conflict”, Global Disinformation Index, 22 June 2022."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0061", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Coordination, and “coordinated inauthentic behaviour” in particular, is an increasingly important proxy indicator of disinformation campaigns.[[fn:67]] The risk of harm arising from online disinformation results mainly from the power of amplification and coordination, in which perpetrators feed off one another, forming a complex ecosystem.[[fn:68]] While individual posts may not seem too problematic in isolation, when coordination and amplification are carried out, a “virtual mob” launches an operation that, over time, can lead to serious threats.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "C. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "Wilson Center, Malign Creativity, p. 7."}, {"n": 68, "text": "Submission from the Association for Progressive Communications."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0062", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. In addition to opportunistically weaponizing weaknesses, such as endemic gender, racial and religious discrimination, disinformation campaigns also take advantage of “flash points”, such as elections, pandemics[[fn:69]] and other prominent newsworthy events, to achieve greater influence.[[fn:70]] Increasingly, they use “malign creativity” – coded language, iterative, context-based visual and textual memes and other tactics, which make the identification of gendered disinformation more challenging.[[fn:71]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "C. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 69, "text": "Maria Giovanna Sessa, “Misogyny and misinformation: an analysis of gendered disinformation tactics during the COVID-19 pandemic”, EU Disinfo Lab, 4 December 2020."}, {"n": 70, "text": "National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, “Addressing online misogyny and gendered disinformation: a how-to guide”, 2021, p. 21."}, {"n": 71, "text": "Wilson Center, Malign Creativity, p. 1."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0063", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Deliberately or inadvertently, traditional media have been known to reinforce, replicate, legitimize and amplify online gendered disinformation.[[fn:72]] Many media outlets continue to perpetuate in their news and editorial positions gender stereotypes that feed anti-gender narratives. Their failure to apply a gender lens to programming, secure equality in access to professional opportunities, promote gender diversity among their employees or provide care and safety to them sustains an environment in which gendered disinformation thrives.[[fn:73]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "C. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 72, "text": "Digital Rights Foundation, Perspectives on Gendered Disinformation, p. 30. See also OHCHR, “Afghanistan: UN experts alarmed by media outlet’s spreading of disinformation”."}, {"n": 73, "text": "A/76/258, paras. 43 and 44."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0064", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Lack of diversity is also a problem in the digital technology sector and is one of the factors contributing to the gender blindness of policies and products.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "C. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0065", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. The General Assembly and the Human Rights Council have affirmed that responses to tackle disinformation must be grounded in international human rights law.[[fn:74]] States are obliged under international law to respect, protect and fulfil human rights, including the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the right of women to be free from gender-based violence online and offline.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 74, "text": "General Assembly resolution 76/227 and Human Rights Council resolution 49/21."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0066", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. State action takes various forms across a spectrum, ranging from laws, policies and programmes to tackle online disinformation and address underlying gender inequalities to disturbing practices of State-sponsored gendered disinformation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0067", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. In their submissions, States note various legal measures to combat gender discrimination and online gender-based violence,[[fn:75]] laws and judicial decisions to protect women political candidates from digital violence and sexist media attacks,[[fn:76]] and programmes to discourage sexist stereotypes in the media.[[fn:77]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 75, "text": "Submissions from Ecuador and Spain."}, {"n": 76, "text": "Submission from Mexico."}, {"n": 77, "text": "Submission from Lebanon."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0068", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Generally, States have adopted three types of laws to tackle gendered disinformation: those relating to online violence, those that specifically address disinformation and regulations on social media to address harmful content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0069", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. As noted earlier in the present report, some forms of gendered disinformation may amount to gender-based violence. A growing number of States have enacted laws or updated existing legislation to prohibit online violence or require social media platforms to remove violent content, without making a specific reference to gendered disinformation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Laws to tackle online violence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0070", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. “The mere existence of a law does not necessarily imply changes.”[[fn:78]] Consultations with civil society indicate that women continue to face serious difficulties in seeking redress against online violence because of inadequate legislation, poor implementation of laws and policies, inadequate understanding by officials of the nature and impact of online threats, and lack of adequate support for survivors.[[fn:79]] Significant improvements and investments are needed, for example, to improve laws, train and provide guidance to police, prosecutors, judges and social workers, and adopt administrative and social measures to support and empower survivors and tackle the root causes of online violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Laws to tackle online violence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 78, "text": "Submission from InternetLab."}, {"n": 79, "text": "A/76/258, para. 65."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0071", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. The European Union is considering criminalizing certain forms of online gender-based violence as part of a directive to combat violence against women and domestic violence, proposed in March 2022.[[fn:80]] The directive will establish minimum criminal standards for the perpetration of cyberstalking, non-consensual sharing of intimate or manipulated material and cyberincitement to violence or hatred.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Laws to tackle online violence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "European Union, Proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on combating violence against women and domestic violence, available at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52022PC0105."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0072", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. As the risks and dangers of online disinformation become more apparent, many States have adopted laws that prohibit “false news” online.[[fn:81]] These laws raise several concerns. Firstly, they are gender-neutral and thus do not address the distinct challenges of gendered disinformation.[[fn:82]] Secondly, the laws often use vague, overly broad definitions of disinformation, set disproportionately high criminal sanctions and give the authorities excessive discretion to compel the platform in question to remove content without judicial oversight. They largely fail to meet the criteria for restricting freedom of expression, namely, legality, necessity, proportionality and legitimate aim, as set out in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Laws to combat disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "A/HRC/47/25, paras. 52–55."}, {"n": 82, "text": "Submission from the International Commission of Jurists."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0073", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. The criminalization of speech through broad, vaguely framed laws can chill freedom of expression. Adopted to combat disinformation, such laws have been used to prosecute and punish critics of Governments.[[fn:83]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Laws to combat disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 83, "text": "A/HRC/47/25, para. 52."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0074", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Women’s rights activists point out that laws criminalizing speech are increasingly being turned against women, such as the use of laws criminalizing blasphemy to condemn the Aurat March (“Women’s March”) in Pakistan.[[fn:84]] In Indonesia, survivors of sexual violence who have spoken online about their experiences have been prosecuted for criminal defamation in an effort to discredit and silence them.[[fn:85]] In a number of countries, women’s online social behaviour has been punished on grounds of “public morals”, while gendered disinformation on online platforms goes unaddressed.[[fn:86]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Laws to combat disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 84, "text": "Submission from the Digital Rights Foundation."}, {"n": 85, "text": "Submission from the International Commission of Jurists."}, {"n": 86, "text": "A/76/258, paras. 24 and 25."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0075", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. States approach social media regulation in several ways. A number of States have intervened directly with platforms to compel them to remove content that is deemed illegal. Failure to comply is sanctioned with significant fines or the blocking of content.[[fn:87]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Social media regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "See, for example, communications Nos. OL IND 8/2021 and OL BGD 2/2023."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0076", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. Some other States have adopted laws setting out criteria and processes under which platforms are obliged to remove certain content or face consequences. Laws containing vague definitions, short timelines to respond and steep fines for failing to comply create a risk that companies, erring on the side of caution, are likely to rely on automated content moderation using artificial intelligence and to carry out overly broad content removal. Such regulation can be detrimental to freedom of expression without deterring gendered disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Social media regulation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0077", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. Systemic regulation, which emphasizes “architecture over takedown”, allows for more proportionate responses and is likely to be better aligned with freedom of expression standards.[[fn:88]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Social media regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 88, "text": "Submission from Professor Lorna Woods."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0078", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. A good approach has been taken by the European Union through the Digital Services Act, under which the State does not interfere with content but instead demands due diligence, impact assessments and transparency from companies. It requires very large online platforms and search engines to meaningfully assess and mitigate the systemic risks stemming from the design and operation of their services, by carrying out risk assessments overseen by independent audits.[[fn:89]] In the Digital Services Act, specific reference is made to addressing the risks of gender-based violence, and there are numerous references to the risks posed by disinformation to democracy and elections.[[fn:90]] The Act only recently entered into force, on 16 November 2022.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Social media regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "European Union, Regulation 2022/2065 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 October 2022 on a Single Market for Digital Services and amending Directive 2000/31/EC (Digital Services Act). Obligations of service providers include conducting comprehensive assessments of systemic risks to fundamental rights stemming from their services (art. 34), developing and implementing mitigation measures (art. 35) and being subjected to independent audits to assess their efforts (art. 37)."}, {"n": 90, "text": "Ibid., art. 34 and preambular paragraphs 83 and 84."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0079", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. There is also a strengthened European Union code of practice on disinformation for the largest social media platforms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Social media regulation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0080", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. States have an obligation to proactively remove the structural and systemic barriers to gender equality, including patriarchal and gender stereotypes and negative social norms, perceptions, customs and behaviours that drive gendered disinformation. All Governments have made commitments, and many have set up national action plans and programmes to promote gender equality and eradicate gender discrimination and stereotypes. Nevertheless, widespread gendered disinformation and the emergence of State-sponsored and State-condoned disinformation against women and gender nonconforming persons are evidence that much more needs to be done by States to change cultural norms and attitudes towards women, girls and gender nonconforming persons.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "B. Promoting gender equality"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0081", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. Two issues deserve particular attention by States: unequal access of women to the Internet and gender data gaps. States have a responsibility not only to make the Internet safe for women but also to ensure their meaningful connectivity.[[fn:91]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "B. Promoting gender equality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 91, "text": "A/HRC/53/25, paras. 29–31."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0082", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. The Internet is a space for mobilization and an important locus where people can organize around gender issues, including content to challenge gendered disinformation. Women’s unequal access to the Internet, lack of safety tools and more limited familiarity with cybersecurity means that they are at the same time both more vulnerable to disinformation and technology-facilitated violence and less equipped to respond to it. This situation creates a significant imbalance between those who spread anti-gender narratives and those who confront them.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "B. Promoting gender equality"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0083", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Although 132 States have adopted laws on the right to information, not only is women’s access to information patchy, but data on key issues disaggregated by gender are missing in many countries.[[fn:92]] The lack of trustworthy, verifiable information on gender issues increases the risk of disinformation and the spread of false information. States have a positive obligation to fulfil the right to information by proactively providing factual, verifiable data on issues of interest to women, such as on sexual and reproductive health.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "B. Promoting gender equality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 92, "text": "A/76/258, para. 36."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0084", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. The spread of gendered disinformation, whether directly coordinated by State actors or carried out by non-State actors with explicit or tacit support of the State, can be very potent because of the power, resources, media assets, troll farms and influence networks at the disposal of the State, as well as the pressure that State actors exert on digital platforms to not take action against disinformation campaigns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "C. Sponsoring gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0085", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. States use a wide variety of strategies and tactics online and offline, including orchestrated online campaigns on multiple platforms, laws and policies to restrict or manipulate information on gender-related issues. Incendiary, misogynistic statements and negative gender narratives are often spouted by senior officials and political figures, which creates an overall toxic environment in which non-State actors feel emboldened to attack women and gender nonconforming persons. The Special Rapporteur has joined with mandate holders in regional organizations to denounce intolerant, divisive, false and manipulated public statements by politicians and public officials against journalists and human rights defenders and has called on States and political parties to establish and enforce codes of conduct on public communications by their officials.[[fn:93]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "C. Sponsoring gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 93, "text": "Joint Declaration on Politicians and Public Officials and Freedom of Expression, 2021, available at www.osce.org/files/f/documents/9/4/501697_0.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0086", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. In the Philippines, gendered disinformation was triggered at the highest political level of the State against Maria Ressa, Nobel Laureate and journalist, and amplified by followers of then President Duterte.[[fn:94]] Individuals and groups abroad are also targeted by States. Gendered disinformation and online attacks originating from the Islamic Republic of Iran targeted journalists and media workers of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) Persian broadcast station and other diaspora journalists in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.[[fn:95]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "C. Sponsoring gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 94, "text": "Communication No. AL PHL 12/2018."}, {"n": 95, "text": "Communication No. AL IRN 10/2022."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0087", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. In Brazil, after Jair Bolsonaro was elected President in 2018, anti-rights discourse became a prominent and toxic aspect of politics, marked by discriminatory, incendiary public statements by the President and other senior officials and orchestrated social media campaigns to denigrate journalists reporting on sexual and reproductive health rights, feminists and gender nonconforming activists, especially those with intersectional identities, with some dire consequences for the targeted individuals.[[fn:96]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "C. Sponsoring gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 96, "text": "Horacio Sívori and Bruno Zilli, Anti-Rights Discourse in Brazilian Social Media Digital Networks, Violence and Sex Politics (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Latin American Center on Sexuality and Human Rights, 2022). See also the submission from InternetLab."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0088", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. Stigmatizing statements made by public officials against LGBTQ+ persons create an environment conducive to violence against members of that community, gender rights activists and human rights defenders working to protect the rights of these groups,[[fn:97]] as seen in Hungary[[fn:98]] and Uganda.[[fn:99]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "C. Sponsoring gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 97, "text": "OHCHR, “Defenders of the human rights of LGBT persons constantly at risk, warn UN experts”, 24 March 2022."}, {"n": 98, "text": "See A/HRC/50/29/Add.1."}, {"n": 99, "text": "See communications Nos. AL UGA 4/2022, AL UGA 3/2022 and AL UGA 5/2021."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0089", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. Some States have stigmatized and restricted access to information on sexual and reproductive rights and health on the ground that it perpetuates “gender ideology” and threatens culture, religion, traditional values and parental rights.[[fn:100]] Such misrepresentation is contrary to States’ obligation to fulfil the right to information and contributes to a toxic environment in which fabricated information gains traction, appealing to pre-existing gender stereotypes.[[fn:101]] In Poland, severe restrictions have been imposed on women’s access to safe abortion, accompanied by inflammatory rhetoric, disinformation and misinformation campaigns supported or tolerated by some public officials and political and religious actors.[[fn:102]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "C. Sponsoring gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 100, "text": "A/HRC/38/46, para. 14; A/72/155; and A/76/258, para. 37."}, {"n": 101, "text": "Submission from the Center for Reproductive Rights."}, {"n": 102, "text": "OHCHR, “Poland: upholding full spectrum of rights key to ending violence against women and girls, says UN expert”, 9 March 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0090", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. Impeding access to accurate, factual information on sexual and reproductive health can have serious implications for a range of human rights, including endangering the life and health of women and girls.[[fn:103]] In Kenya, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) successfully challenged a governmental ban on information for adolescents and young people on abortion and on where to obtain help, on the ground that it violated the right to have access to information, the right to freedom of expression and the right to health.[[fn:104]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "C. Sponsoring gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 103, "text": "Communication No. AL BRA 1/2023."}, {"n": 104, "text": "Submission from the Center for Reproductive Rights."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0091", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. Companies have the responsibility to respect all human rights, including gender equality and the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In line with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, social media companies are expected to exercise due diligence and conduct regular human rights assessments of their products, operations and policies, with a view to identifying, preventing or mitigating actual or potential adverse impacts on human rights, and to provide remediation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0092", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. It is not evident to what extent the social media platforms are following these guidelines. What is evident is the widespread prevalence of online gendered disinformation and the overriding sense among women, gender nonconforming persons, civil society and most Governments that companies are failing to tackle such material on their platforms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0093", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. Key concerns relate to content moderation, business models and inadequate transparency of the platforms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0094", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. Many major platforms, including Facebook, X, YouTube, Instagram and TikTok, ban hate speech, harassment, the promotion of violence and abuse and remove offensive content and users who repeatedly violate their terms of service or community guidelines. However, some platforms take pride in minimal content moderation. Telegram, for instance, has been described as having “the most misogynistic and abusive content and seemingly the most ‘hands off’ content moderation and platform policies”.[[fn:105]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 105, "text": "Submission from the Institute for Strategic Dialogue."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0095", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. Platforms that have anti-harassment policies identify abusive content using a combination of proactive detection through automation, human moderation and reactive detection by means of user reporting (which is then adjudicated by automated systems or human moderators). They respond to disinformation through a combination of policies, product interventions, features and enforcement measures that seek to limit its spread, provide users with greater access to authoritative information or context, and promote community response and societal resilience, including through digital literacy and Internet access.[[fn:106]] They frequently partner with external organizations to identify “false” information through fact-checking.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 106, "text": "Vera Zakem, Kip Wainscott and Daniel Arnaudo, “Platform specific engagement for information integrity”, Consortium for Elections and Political Process Strengthening, available at https://counteringdisinformation.org/topics/platforms/0-overview-platforms."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0096", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. A closer analysis of their content moderation policies and practices shows serious shortcomings when applied to gendered disinformation.[[fn:107]] These include a “one-size-fits-all” approach that fails to appreciate or address the distinct nature of gendered disinformation, cumbersome complaints processes, inadequate contextual knowledge and local language skills, as well as the uneven application of community standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 107, "text": "Wilson Center, Malign Creativity, p. 8."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0097", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. Gendered disinformation often goes undetected because the contextual knowledge, local languages and gender awareness required to identify the gender narratives that drive it are lacking among platform content moderators. “Malign creativity”, using various forms of media and coded images that seem innocuous or meaningless without context, can evade automated detection and filters.[[fn:108]] The methods of fact-checking individual posts, providing access to authoritative information or labelling and “nudging” that are used against disinformation are much less effective in relation to gendered disinformation, which relies on deeply held existing prejudices and social divisions to build credibility for its false or manipulated information.[[fn:109]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 108, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 109, "text": "Submission from Demos."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0098", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. Described graphically as “shouting into a void”,[[fn:110]] reporting mechanisms, when available, are cumbersome and sometimes confusing, and they often force users to attribute their experiences to predetermined categories that fail to capture the multifaceted nature of the abuse faced, in particular in cases when online gender-based violence intersects with disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 110, "text": "Viktorya Vilk and Kat Lo, “Shouting into the void: why reporting abuse to social media platforms is so hard and how to fix it”, PEN America, 29 June 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0099", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. Most reporting mechanisms require the targets to report the abuse. Not only is this traumatic and an unfair burden on individuals,[[fn:111]] but it also shows a piecemeal approach to a problem that requires systemic and proactive strategies to tackle the risk factors and systemic causes of gendered disinformation. Coordinated gendered disinformation campaigns cannot be dealt with on a “comment by comment” basis.[[fn:112]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 112, "text": "Submission from Demos."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0100", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. At the core of the problem of the proliferation of gendered disinformation lies the business model of social media companies.[[fn:113]] Attention economics, content curation, automated advertising and the amplification of gendered disinformation are intimately connected.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 113, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has previously noted similar concerns about disinformation. See A/HRC/47/25."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0101", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. Disinformation, including gendered disinformation, is a lucrative business. The main revenue of large intermediaries comes from the buying, selling and marketing of advertisements.[[fn:114]] Platforms monetize attention through targeted advertising, using complex statistical models to predict and maximize engagement with content. The more time a person spends scrolling and clicking, the more data companies can collect and the more ads they can sell.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 114, "text": "Consumer Council of Norway, “Time to ban surveillance-based advertising: the case against commercial surveillance online”, June 2021, available at https://storage02.forbrukerradet.no/ media/2021/06/20210622-final-report-time-to-ban-surveillance-based-advertising.pdf, p. 21."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0102", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. Content curation builds on the profiling and microtargeting of individuals, the ultimate aim of which is to serve platforms’ advertising purposes. Targeted advertising results in algorithms being customized to cultivate attention and engagement. The practice of cultivating attention influences what is prioritized in people’s content and advertising feeds, as well as what is recommended to them.[[fn:115]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 115, "text": "Tech Transparency Project, “Facebook profits from white supremacist groups”, 10 August 2022."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0103", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. Recommender systems tend to promote provocative, attention-grabbing content, which, research shows, is easier to process in terms of cognitive effort and emotional resonance.[[fn:116]] Platforms contribute to the amplification of incendiary, controversial and divisive information, as it directly aligns with the commercial and technological infrastructure of their recommender systems, which are optimized for user engagement.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 116, "text": "Carlos Carrasco-Farré, “The fingerprints of misinformation: how deceptive content differs from reliable sources in terms of cognitive effort and appeal to emotions”, Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, vol. 9, No. 162 (2022)."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0104", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. The ability of platforms to directly collect and mine first-party data is a major component of the attention economic model (and applies not only to social media platforms but also to search engines and search functionalities on other platforms). It undermines the right to privacy and personal data protection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Business model"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0105", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. “Ad tech” policy and inadequate protection of the right to privacy and enforcement of data protection facilitate the monetization of disinformation content that perpetuates and spreads adversarial narratives directed against marginalized and at-risk groups.[[fn:117]] Responses to address gendered disinformation are unlikely to be effective without addressing these aspects of the business model and ensuring robust protection of privacy and data.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 117, "text": "Global Disinformation Index, “Ad-funded disinformation: misogyny: narratives, affected brands and ad tech companies”, January 2023, available at www.disinformationindex.org/disinfo-ads/2023-01-04-how-is-ad-tech-funding-misogynistic-disinformation/."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0106", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. Internet platforms, and in particular social networking services, need to increase transparency within their operations to allow researchers and activists to better understand the scope, dynamics and nature of disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0107", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. Transparency regarding recommender systems and the use of algorithms can help to hold platforms accountable and enable more evidence-based policymaking. Advertisement transparency is crucial. Given the granularity with which advertisers can target users, the companies must provide much more information about why users are seeing an advertisement and about enforcement of their terms of service regarding advertisements that contain disinformation content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0108", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. At the community level, various initiatives have emerged with a focus on enabling and empowering those being targeted.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "B. Civil society: community responses"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0109", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. Counterspeech has been a successful response strategy, which involves challenging or mocking stereotypes and norms, exposing hate speech and calling out gendered disinformation.[[fn:118]] It emphasizes the agency of those being targeted and the solidarity of others towards them. As an example, when some groups associated with the “Gamergate” harassment campaign attacked feminist Internet rights activists associated with the “Take Back the Tech!” campaign and posted false claims about the Association for Progressive Communications, organizations and individuals involved in the campaign and their allies joined forces to reclaim the narrative in a “tweet storm”. In addition, the Association for Progressive Communications issued a statement correcting the false claims made about its work.[[fn:119]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "B. Civil society: community responses", "Counterspeech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 118, "text": "Countering Disinformation, “Understanding the gender dimensions of disinformation”, 2021, pp. 20 and 21, available at https://counteringdisinformation.org/topics/gender/4-promising-approaches-gender-sensitive-counter-disinformation-programming."}, {"n": 119, "text": "Association for Progressive Communications, “Facts on #TakeBacktheTech”, 28 April 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0110", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. Online communities providing support and services have been set up to assist targets or potential targets with counterspeech efforts, monitor digital spaces where the attacks are being carried out and help with the reporting of incidents.[[fn:120]] For instance, TrollBusters,[[fn:121]] a network based in the United States of America, provides support to women journalists, while HER Internet[[fn:122]] in Uganda proactively builds alliances and networks as support systems for mitigating impact and countering false narratives.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "B. Civil society: community responses", "Support for survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 120, "text": "Countering Disinformation, “Understanding the gender dimensions of disinformation”, sect. 4."}, {"n": 121, "text": "www.troll-busters.com."}, {"n": 122, "text": "www.herinternet.org/."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0111", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. Support from national and international bodies is also being mobilized. For example, in Indonesia, support from human rights organizations and “security guarantees” from the national human rights commission have been used to provide solidarity and deter attacks against LGBTQ+ communities.[[fn:123]] When Nighat Dad, a human rights lawyer in Pakistan, faced online intimidation, the Pakistan Bar Council issued a public statement in her support, expressing “grave concern at the vilification campaign” and the “intentional creation of a hostile work environment for female colleagues”.[[fn:124]] At the international level, the special procedures mandate holders have issued strong public statements condemning attacks on women journalists, human rights defenders and gender activists. Alerting international media is also an important tactic, as this is one of the fastest ways to motivate platforms to put in place protection measures or take action on disinformation campaigns.[[fn:125]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "B. Civil society: community responses", "Support for survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 123, "text": "Raiz Rizqy and Yulia Dwi Andriyanti, “We rise, we heal, we resist”, GenderIT.org, 22 March 2022."}, {"n": 124, "text": "IAPL Monitoring Committee on Attacks on Lawyers, “Pakistan: Pakistan Bar Council and NGOs condemn smear campaign against advocate Nighat Dad”, 21 December 2020."}, {"n": 125, "text": "EU Disinfo Lab, “Gender-based disinformation”."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0112", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. Researchers, practitioners and civil society actors engage in social media monitoring activities to inform their understanding of gendered disinformation, identify entry points to disrupt gendered disinformation and advocate for laws, regulations and policies to address the growing challenges.[[fn:126]] Consistent social media monitoring is also being used to develop early warning systems.[[fn:127]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "B. Civil society: community responses", "Social media monitoring"], "footnotes": [{"n": 126, "text": "Countering Disinformation, “Understanding the gender dimensions of disinformation”."}, {"n": 127, "text": "MediaFutures, “Disinformation Early Warning Data Tool (DEWARD)”, available at https://mediafutures.eu/projects/disinformation-early-warning-data-tool-deward/ and International Center for Journalists, “Online Violence Early Warning System”, available at www.icfj.org/our-work/online-violence-early-warning-system."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0113", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. Awareness-raising, digital and media literacy and capacity-building are among other measures that civil society organizations are actively providing.[[fn:128]] Major public awareness-raising campaigns have been organized to raise awareness about violence against women in elections.[[fn:129]] Training is being provided and toolkits have been developed covering a range of topics, from digital safety and security to counterspeech.[[fn:130]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "B. Civil society: community responses", "Awareness-raising, digital and media literacy and capacity-building"], "footnotes": [{"n": 128, "text": "See, for example, Foundation for Media Alternatives, “Marian Hukom”, available at https://fma.ph/marian-hukom/; Loyce Kyogabirwe, “Pushing back against gendered disinformation in Uganda”, Collaboration on International ICT Policy for East and Southern Africa, 6 February 2023; and South Asia Check, “Panos media monitoring initiative looks at trends in gendered online violence”, 9 June 2022."}, {"n": 129, "text": "National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, “#NotTheCost: stopping violence against women in politics” and International Foundation for Electoral Systems, “Kenyans say, ‘We are #BetterThanThis,’ aiming to support women’s participation in elections”, 19 July 2017."}, {"n": 130, "text": "See the submission from the Association for Progressive Communications for examples. See also the submission from Media Monitoring Africa."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0114", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. Training and guidance have also been focused on journalists and media outlets, given their dual roles as both targets and vectors of gendered disinformation. For instance, as part of the National Strategy for Women in Lebanon 2022–2030, the National Commission for Lebanese Women, in cooperation with media institutions, launched awareness-raising campaigns, workshops and studies to combat gender stereotypes in the media and in advertising.[[fn:131]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "B. Civil society: community responses", "Awareness-raising, digital and media literacy and capacity-building"], "footnotes": [{"n": 131, "text": "Submission from Lebanon."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0115", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "115. Gendered disinformation weaponizes gender bias, stereotypes, sexism, misogyny and social and cultural norms based on patriarchal values to threaten, intimidate, silence and exclude women and gender nonconforming persons from public spaces and positions of power. Its most virulent attacks are reserved for those who belong to minority or marginalized communities. It chills both speech and aspirations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0116", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "116. The ultimate aim of gendered disinformation is to reduce public participation and the diversity of voices and views, including in the media, weaken democratic institutions and destroy inclusive societies. This makes gendered disinformation deeply dangerous and concerted action to counter it more urgent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0117", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "117. Gendered disinformation is a human rights challenge, and strategies to fight it must be grounded firmly in human rights, especially freedom of expression. Strategies that undermine freedom of expression in the name of fighting gendered disinformation are counterproductive. Because the goal of gendered disinformation is to disempower women, the priority should be empowerment rather than censorship, agency rather than paternalistic approaches. There can be no trade-off between women’s right to be safe and their right to speak.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0118", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "118. Companies need to move away from a “one-size-fits-all” approach in which the same methods are applied to gendered disinformation as to other forms of disinformation and gender-based violence. Gendered disinformation is highly contextualized and has distinct features and objectives. Platforms need to better understand gendered disinformation and go beyond content moderation based on fact-checking for the purpose of determining truth and falsity. They need to identify the specific factors that increase the risks of gendered disinformation in different contexts and act to minimize them.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0119", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "119. Research shows that gendered disinformation evolves and adjusts to varying contexts and responses. This situation calls for proactive, preventive strategies from States and companies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0120", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "120. States, too, must adjust their responses. Regulation of social media should be “smart”, focused not on content but rather on enforcing the due diligence, impact assessment, transparency and accountability of companies, and requiring them to review design, structure, systems and policies to address the threats.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0121", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 121, "n": 121, "text": "121. States must reinvigorate their efforts to remove the structural and systemic barriers that impede gender equality and that reinforce discrimination, exclusion, prejudice and stereotypes that are being exploited by gendered disinformation campaigns.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0122", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 122, "n": 122, "text": "122. State officials and political leaders have a particular responsibility to set the tone of inclusive public discourse. They play a key role in shaping public debate and opinion and enjoy considerable latitude of political expression in international law. They should exercise that privilege responsibly and ethically to promote tolerance, not to feed hatred.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0123", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 123, "n": 123, "text": "123. While law has an important role to play in the fighting of discrimination and in situations where gendered disinformation amounts to gender-based violence or advocates incitement to violence, legal measures, especially criminal law, have their limits as an effective weapon against the false narratives or entrenched bias and prejudices that lie at the core of gendered disinformation campaigns.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0124", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 124, "n": 124, "text": "124. Fighting gendered disinformation while upholding human rights requires a careful balancing of interests. It cannot be left totally to the discretion of companies, nor treated solely as a matter of regulation by States. The law, especially criminal law, can be a blunt and dangerous instrument in the hands of some States. This situation underlines the importance of global standards and multi-stakeholder approaches that promote the active participation of civil society alongside States and companies. The negotiations on a global digital compact will be an important opportunity to engage all stakeholders and build consensus on standards and approaches to make the Internet accessible and safe for all.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0125", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 125, "n": 125, "text": "125. States should redouble their efforts and take all appropriate measures, including through laws, social policies and programmes, to strengthen gender equality and eliminate gender stereotypes, negative social norms and discriminatory laws, policies, practices and attitudes.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0126", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 126, "n": 126, "text": "126. States should not make, sponsor, encourage or disseminate statements that they know or should reasonably know to be false, nor should they support in any way the dissemination of gendered disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0127", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 127, "n": 127, "text": "127. All measures to restrict gendered disinformation, hate speech or online gender-based violence should comply fully with international human rights standards, and in particular should respect the requirements set out in articles 19 (3) and 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, strictly and narrowly construed.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0128", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 128, "n": 128, "text": "128. States should respect the protection that gender, sexual and cultural information and expression enjoy under international law and should not seek to restrict women’s expression under the guise of protecting public morals.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0129", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 129, "n": 129, "text": "129. Criminal law should be used only in very exceptional and the most egregious circumstances of incitement to violence, hatred or discrimination. Criminal defamation laws should be repealed where they exist and replaced, where necessary, with appropriate civil defamation laws.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0130", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 130, "n": 130, "text": "130. State regulation of social media should be focused on enforcing transparency, due process rights for users, and human rights and gender due diligence by companies, and on ensuring that the independence and remit of the regulators are clearly defined, guaranteed and limited by law.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0131", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 131, "n": 131, "text": "131. States should ensure media freedom and diversity by ensuring the safety of women and gender nonconforming journalists.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0132", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 132, "n": 132, "text": "132. States should adopt strong data protection laws and other relevant laws to limit the pervasive tracking and targeting of individuals and their activities online. Data protection is key to reorienting the advertisement-driven business model of the digital economy, which drives gendered disinformation and online gender-based violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0133", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 133, "n": 133, "text": "133. Media literacy, information literacy and digital literacy empower women and LGBTQ+ persons to benefit from digital technology and build their resilience to disinformation, misinformation and online violence. These forms of literacy should be included in national school curricula and national development plans.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0134", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 134, "n": 134, "text": "134. States should fulfil their duty to ensure the right to information by proactively providing data and information on sexual and reproductive health and rights that are accurate, verifiable and disaggregated by gender.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0135", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 135, "n": 135, "text": "135. States should enhance their efforts to ensure that women have meaningful, free, open, interoperable, reliable and secure access to the Internet, in line with the commitments made under the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0136", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 136, "n": 136, "text": "136. Companies should review their business models and ensure that their business operations, data collection and data processing practices are compliant with international human rights standards. They should conduct regular human rights and gender due diligence and impact assessments of their products, in particular of the role of algorithms and ranking systems in the amplification of disinformation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0137", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 137, "n": 137, "text": "137. Companies should review their advertising models to ensure that they do not have an adverse impact on diversity of opinions and ideas and that they are clear about the criteria used for targeted advertising. They should provide meaningful information about advertisers in online advertisement repositories and give users the choice to opt in to be exposed to advertising.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0138", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 138, "n": 138, "text": "138. Companies should provide clear and meaningful information about the parameters of their algorithms or recommender systems and ensure that those systems enable users to receive a diversity of viewpoints by default, while also enabling them to choose the variables that shape their online experience.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0139", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 139, "n": 139, "text": "139. Companies should develop clear content moderation policies on gendered disinformation that are in line with international human rights standards, with full transparency and the participation of stakeholders. Policies should be accessible and available in non-technical jargon in local languages and should be enforced consistently.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0140", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 140, "n": 140, "text": "140. Companies should be guided by international human rights standards in their content moderation. To address gender-related harmful content, content moderation should be attentive to local contexts and language diversity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0141", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 141, "n": 141, "text": "141. Companies should provide easily accessible, trauma-informed reporting tools that are accessible to individuals with variable technical literacy and that allow for localized interpretations of online abuse. The platforms should develop coordination mechanisms at the country level with the involvement of community organizations to better identify cases of gendered disinformation, receive reports of such cases and escalate actions to combat gendered disinformation, and to develop preventive, proactive strategies.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0142", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 142, "n": 142, "text": "142. Companies should publish comprehensive, detailed and contextualized transparency reports that include a breakdown of the actions taken against gendered disinformation-related content and appeals against those actions, including the number of shares, views, reach, complaints and requests for removal.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0143", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 143, "n": 143, "text": "143. Companies should establish internal appeals mechanisms for a broader range of content moderation decisions and of types of content, such as coordinated inauthentic behaviour. They should also consider the creation of external oversight mechanisms, such as social media councils.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0144", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 144, "n": 144, "text": "144. Companies should ensure data security and privacy and should ensure that the use of data respects international human rights law and relevant national laws and is carried out with the full informed consent of data providers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0145", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 145, "n": 145, "text": "145. Employers, including media outlets, political parties, research institutions and others working in areas affected by gendered disinformation, should introduce appropriate policies and processes to identify and support employees targeted by or at risk of becoming a target of gendered disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for others"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0146", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 146, "n": 146, "text": "146. Academics and civil society should continue to deepen their research, engage with stakeholders and provide policy recommendations in relation to gendered disinformation, online gender-based violence and misogynistic hate speech.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for others"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0147", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 147, "n": 147, "text": "147. Gendered disinformation affects a range of communities, including those working in the areas of gender-based violence and journalistic safety, women human rights defenders, and those working with gender and sexual minorities. Alliances should be built to ensure that such organizations have sufficient access to platform data for the purposes of documentation and risk assessment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for others"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0001", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The conflict in Gaza has unleashed a global crisis of freedom of expression. Rarely has a conflict challenged freedom of opinion and expression so broadly and so far beyond its borders. The global and grave nature of the challenges are the subject of the present report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0002", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Hamas’ attack on Israel on 7 October 2023, the intensity of Israel’s military response, the alarming level of civilian casualties in Gaza, especially of children and women, the massive destruction of infrastructure and the humanitarian catastrophe pushing the population to the brink of famine have outraged people around the world. Public opinion is highly polarized, in support of or in opposition to Palestinian rights and Israel’s action. So too are the positions of States and private actors, shaped by their different understanding of the fraught history of the region, the situation in the occupied Palestinian Territory, Israel’s military operation in Gaza and their own national interests.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0003", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is caught in the crosshairs of this challenging situation. The unprecedented level of killing of journalists, attacks on media infrastructure and restrictions on foreign media have made reporting difficult and dangerous, affecting the right to information of people in Gaza as well as audiences around the world. Social media platforms have played an important role as the main conduit of information to and from the besieged population but have also been a major vector of disinformation and hate speech, sowing hatred, violence, fear and distrust among and within communities and countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0004", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Antisemitism, Islamophobia and anti-Palestinian racism have surged online and offline since 7 October. Confusion over what constitutes antisemitism, poorly drafted and badly implemented national laws, opaque policies and practices of social media platforms and vested political interests have combined to complicate, undermine and weaponize the task of combating hate speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0005", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Around the world, large-scale demonstrations have erupted in solidarity with the Palestinian people and against genocide and occupation. Although largely peaceful, the protests and dissent have been suppressed harshly in several countries. Some private actors, such as universities, cultural institutions and funders, even media outlets, have played a disturbing role, intimidating, isolating and silencing voices that differ from theirs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0006", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The Special Rapporteur has identified three distinct challenges to freedom of opinion and expression emanating from the conflict in Gaza directly and indirectly: first, attacks on journalists and media, endangering access to information about the conflict globally; second, the suppression of Palestinian voices and views in a discriminatory and disproportionate manner, undermining academic and artistic freedom as well as freedom of expression more generally; and third, the blurring of the boundaries between protected and prohibited speech. None of these challenges are new but have become more intense over the past year.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0007", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. The Special Rapporteur examines the practices of States, social media and other private actors in relation to these three challenges and analyses their compatibility with international human rights and, where applicable, humanitarian law. While touching on the situation in the occupied Palestinian Territory, the geographic and thematic scope of the report is global, in line with the mandate of the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0008", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The Special Rapporteur draws on consultations, written submissions from stakeholders and desk research. The Special Rapporteur thanks all those who provided inputs to the report.[[fn:1]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Written submissions are available at www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/2024/call-submissions-thematic-report-special-rapporteur-freedom-expression."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0009", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. At the core of all human rights is the right to non-discrimination.[[fn:2]] It has two important implications for the right to freedom of opinion and expression. First, everyone has an equal right to exercise their freedom of opinion and expression. Second, the equal enjoyment of freedom of expression means that it cannot be used as a licence to incite discrimination, hostility and violence against others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression, para. 26."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0010", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Enshrined in articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as well as in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and in key regional instruments, freedom of opinion and expression guarantees the right to hold opinions without interference, and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, true or false, offensive or enlightened, regardless of frontiers or choice of media. It protects, among other things, media freedom; discourse on political and public affairs; criticism of government officials, policies or institutions; intellectual discourse; advocacy of human rights; and cultural and artistic expression.[[fn:3]] These issues are relevant to the challenges discussed in the present report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Ibid., para. 11."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as well as in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — joint citation to UDHR and ICCPR."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0011", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Freedom of expression may be restricted in accordance with article 19 (3) of the Covenant. Restrictions must be provided by law that is precise, public and does not give undue discretion to the authorities, and it must be necessary to meet the legitimate objective of ensuring respect for the rights or reputation of others, or for protecting national security, public order, public health or public morals. The principle of necessity incorporates the notion of proportionality and the use of the least restrictive means to achieve the purported aim.[[fn:4]] Because of the fundamental role this right plays in empowering people and enabling them to exercise other rights, any restriction must be construed narrowly and must not impair the right itself.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Ibid., para. 22."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0012", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. International human rights law, born in the aftermath of the Holocaust, provides clear standards for addressing hate speech. While international law does not use the term “hate speech”, under article 20 (2) of the International Covenant States must prohibit by law “the advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence.” Advocacy of hatred is not sufficient by itself to justify prohibition and must amount to incitement which is likely to result in discrimination, hostility and violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal standards"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0013", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. The Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence provides valuable guidance on the factors that should be considered in assessing the appropriateness of prohibiting and criminalizing speech. The criteria include the social context, the speaker’s status and intent, the content and form of the speech, the nature of the audience, the reach of the communication and the imminence of harm. By their very nature, these criteria require a contextual analysis of each situation rather than a blanket ban, whether of antisemitism, Islamophobia or other forms of hate speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0014", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Incitement to discrimination, hostility and violence on the grounds of race is also prohibited under article 4 (a) of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. Contextual analysis, similar to the Rabat Plan of Action, is required to determine racist expression that must be punishable by law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal standards"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CERD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0015", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. International criminal law places an important limit on expression. Direct and public incitement to genocide is an international crime.[[fn:5]] Such speech must be intended, understood and communicated publicly as a call to commit genocide; the context, content and speaker are highly relevant in determining liability.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, art. III(c); Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 25(3)(e)."}, {"n": 6, "text": "A/HRC/55/73, paras. 50–52."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0016", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The right to freedom of opinion and expression provides the international legal basis for uncensored and unhindered news media and the right of journalists to work safely and without fear. International humanitarian law is also applicable to the safety of journalists in the occupied Palestinian Territory.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0017", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. There is serious concern that the pattern of killings and arbitrary detention of journalists and destruction of press facilities and equipment in Gaza indicates a deliberate strategy of the Israeli military to silence critical reporting and obstruct documentation of possible international crimes.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "A. Occupied Palestinian Territory"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "International Court of Justice, application instituting proceedings, South Africa v. Israel, 29 December 2023, para. 119."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0018", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Under international humanitarian law, journalists enjoy protection as civilians. The deliberate killing of a journalist is a war crime.[[fn:8]] Journalists may only become a legitimate military objective if they participate directly in hostilities or incite war crimes or other international crimes. While Israel has made claims in the media about some journalists reportedly participating in hostilities, none of the claims has been substantiated.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "A. Occupied Palestinian Territory"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, arts. 51.3 and 79.2."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0019", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. As of 13 August 2024, 113 Palestinian journalists and media workers had been killed and many more injured, making Israel’s military action since October 2023 the deadliest conflict for journalists and media workers globally in the past three decades.[[fn:9]] In addition, three journalists were killed in Israeli shelling near the border of Lebanon. Four Israeli journalists were killed by Hamas in the 7 October attacks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "A. Occupied Palestinian Territory"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See Committee to Protect Journalists, “Journalist casualties in the Israel-Gaza war”, 13 August 2024, available at https://cpj.org/2024/08/journalist-casualties-in-the-israel-gaza-conflict/."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0020", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Journalists, wearing clearly identifiable jackets and helmets marked as “Press” and travelling in well-marked press vehicles, have been attacked by the Israeli army under circumstances that indicate they may have been targeted.[[fn:10]] Investigations into an incident in Gaza in which two journalists were killed and another in southern Lebanon in which several journalists were injured and one killed led to the conclusion that the Israeli military had known or should have known that they were attacking journalists.[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "A. Occupied Palestinian Territory"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See communication ISR 12/2023. All communications mentioned in the present report are available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments. See also www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/08/expert-denounces-killing-two-more-journalists-gaza-and-demands-full."}, {"n": 11, "text": "See L. Loveluck et al, “Drone footage raises questions about Israeli justification for deadly strike on Gaza journalists”, Washington Post, 19 May 2024; and submission of Human Rights Watch."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0021", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Silencing journalists by killing them is the most egregious form of censorship.[[fn:12]] Despite the international obligation to conduct prompt, thorough, independent and impartial investigations into all unlawful killings, impunity has persisted for decades in Gaza or the West Bank.[[fn:13]] The failure of Israel to investigate, prosecute and punish serious crimes against journalists not only denies justice to the victims’ families, it emboldens perpetrators to continue and can have a chilling effect on other journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "A. Occupied Palestinian Territory"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "A/HRC/50/29, para. 29."}, {"n": 13, "text": "See communication ISR 14/2022."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0022", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Media facilities are considered civilian objects under international law and therefore are protected from military attacks. Nonetheless, there has been large-scale destruction of press facilities in Gaza. According to the Palestinian Journalists’ Syndicate, around 70 press organizations, including local radio stations, news agencies, transmission towers and journalist training institutes, have been partially or completely destroyed in Gaza since October 2023. Cameras filming live from the Gaza strip and buildings housing press organizations have been destroyed by the Israeli military. According to one report, “by targeting all press facilities and equipment, the Israeli military not only cuts off any source of images and information in Gaza, but also compromises the logistics journalists need to carry out their mission.”[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "A. Occupied Palestinian Territory"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See https://forbiddenstories.org/the-destruction-of-press-infrastructure-in-gaza-a-strategy-to-blind-the-public/."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0023", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Access to the Internet has been acknowledged as a human right[[fn:15]] and is vital for all civilians, including journalists, in conflict-affected contexts.[[fn:16]] Reporting and access to information have been severely hampered by disruptions to Internet connectivity in Gaza, resulting from a combination of factors, including widespread destruction of civilian telecommunications infrastructure, deliberate restrictions on access to electricity and technical disruptions to telecommunications services.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "A. Occupied Palestinian Territory"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "Human Rights Council resolution 47/16; and General Assembly resolution 77/150."}, {"n": 16, "text": "A/77/288, para. 91."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0024", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Reports of harassment, intimidation and violence by the Israeli authorities against journalists and media workers in the occupied Palestinian Territory have increased since 7 October attacks. Dozens of Palestinian journalists have been arbitrarily detained allegedly by Israeli forces in Gaza and the West Bank.[[fn:17]] Journalists covering the conflict have repeatedly faced obstruction, incommunicado detention,[[fn:18]] confiscation of equipment and physical attacks by the Israeli military.[[fn:19]] Some Palestinian journalists have reported receiving threats from the Israeli authorities to halt their coverage of the war.[[fn:20]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "A. Occupied Palestinian Territory"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See Committee to Protect Journalists, “Arrests of Palestinian Journalists Since Start of Israel-Gaza War”, 25 July 2024, available at https://cpj.org/2024/07/arrests-of-palestinian-journalists-since-start-of-israel-gaza-war/."}, {"n": 18, "text": "See communication ISR 12/2023."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Submission of IFEX."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Submission of PEN International."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0025", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Israel has refused to grant unhindered access to foreign media in Gaza, despite repeated requests. It reduces media diversity and affects access to information. As a result, local journalists carry the burden of reporting what is happening in the Gaza Strip. Despite the psychological toll of the death of colleagues, friends and families and the destruction of their homes, offices and media facilities, they have continued to work valiantly, putting their lives on the line to deliver their mission while enduring the enormous hardship that has been inflicted on all civilians in Gaza. According to one AFP reporter “we see more horrors than anyone else”.[[fn:21]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "A. Occupied Palestinian Territory"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "See “Death, exhaustion and suspicion: AFP journalists on the horrors of Gaza”, AFP, 8 February 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0026", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. The media environment inside Israel appears to have worsened following the October attacks by Hamas and the government military action in Gaza. Some journalists in Israel are afraid to express dissenting views.[[fn:22]] There have been mob attacks on journalists,[[fn:23]] as well as reports of intimidation by the authorities.[[fn:24]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "B. Media freedom elsewhere"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See Emma Goldberg, “Some Israeli Journalists Express Fear About Conveying Dissenting Views”, New York Times, 21 October 2023, available at www.nytimes.com/2023/10/21/business/media/israel-journalists-hamas-war.html."}, {"n": 23, "text": "Submission of PEN International."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Submission of ARTICLE 19."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0027", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. In April 2024 the Israeli Parliament adopted the Foreign Media Law, which gives wide powers to the Executive to ban foreign media and impose other restrictions without prior judicial review.[[fn:25]] The Special Rapporteur communicated her concern to the Government of Israel that banning a media outlet constitutes an unnecessary and disproportionate restriction of freedom of expression, inconsistent with international human rights standards. It affects not only the freedom of expression of journalists but also the public’s right to information from diverse sources, and therefore should be reviewed and repealed. In May 2024 the Government used the Foreign Media Law to temporarily ban Al-Jazeera, citing concerns of national security, incitement and its support for Palestinian factions.[[fn:26]] The ban was made permanent following an amendment of the law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "B. Media freedom elsewhere"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See communication ISR 15/2024."}, {"n": 26, "text": "See https://network.aljazeera.net/en/press-releases/israel-shuts-down-al-jazeera-offices."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0028", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The space for media freedom in the Middle East region has long been limited.[[fn:27]] Following the onset of the recent conflict in Gaza, some Governments have reacted harshly against journalists for their coverage of Israeli or Palestinian issues. For instance, Jordan applied its Cybercrimes Law to detain and interrogate hundreds of individuals, including journalists, for their use of social media posts.[[fn:28]] The media regulator in Egypt banned the website “Mada Masr” for six-months for “publishing false news” and summoned its editor following the publication of a report on the displacement of Gaza residents to Egypt.[[fn:29]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "B. Media freedom elsewhere"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "See https://cpj.org/2021/01/ten-years-after-arab-spring-media-threats-press-freedom-trends/."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Submissions of ICNL and ARTICLE 19."}, {"n": 29, "text": "Submission of ARTICLE 19."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0029", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. In some Western countries, media companies took retaliatory measures against their own journalists, usually Arab or Palestinian, for expressing their personal views online or offline. There are numerous reports of termination, resignation and reassignment of journalists for posting on personal social media accounts, signing petitions in solidarity with the Palestinian people or criticizing the conduct of Israel regarding the war at public events. The overall effect has been to chill diverse views.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "B. Media freedom elsewhere"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0030", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The Los Angeles Times reportedly banned 38 employees from covering issues related to Israel or Palestine after they signed a letter condemning the killing of journalists in Gaza.[[fn:30]] Twenty journalists at the Sydney Morning Herald and The Age were reportedly banned from participating “in any reporting or production relating to the war” after they signed an open letter criticizing how Australian media has covered Israeli military action in Gaza. It has also been reported that the BBC launched an investigation into six of its Arabic Service journalists for bias. Although none of them were found to have violated BBC editorial policies, they were disciplined and one senior journalist resigned.[[fn:31]] While media companies may legitimately wish to address bias or perceptions of bias among its journalists, all such action should be done in a non-discriminatory, proportionate and transparent manner.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "B. Media freedom elsewhere"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "See National Writers Union, “Red lines: Retaliation in the media history during the war on Gaza” (2024), available at https://drive.google.com/file/d/10fUJL7dpmWIYyT-LvzAu-YF-7xb_z6Vd/view?pli=1."}, {"n": 31, "text": "Submission of PEN International."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0031", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. In a refreshing contrast to the action of traditional media outlets noted above, the board of the Pulitzer Prize commended student journalists at Columbia University in the United States of America for their work “to document a major national news event under difficult and dangerous circumstances and at risk of arrest”.[[fn:32]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "B. Media freedom elsewhere"], "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "See www.pulitzer.org/news/statement-pulitzer-prize-board-3."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0032", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. State practice has shown a tendency to suppress protests, advocacy and critical expression in a disproportionate and discriminatory manner against Palestinian groups. While this practice has been apparent in the past, the recent conflict in Gaza has expanded its scope and gravity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0033", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Israel’s assault on Gaza sparked a wave of public protests in countries across the world, including Algeria, Australia, India, Indonesia, Japan, Mexico, Malaysia, Nigeria and South Africa. The protests have been particularly strong in the Middle East, and although peaceful, were restricted, banned or disrupted with force in several countries in the region.[[fn:33]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "A. Public protests"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "Submissions of Gulf Centre for Human Rights, Pen International and International Centre for Non-Profit Law."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0034", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Several European Governments imposed specific restrictions, blanket bans or pre-emptive bans on demonstrations in support of Palestinian people, justifying their actions on grounds of “risk to public order and security”, countering “support of terrorism” and “preventing antisemitism”.[[fn:34]] The responses are arbitrary, unfairly equating Palestinian advocacy as antisemitic or in support of terrorism, and discriminatory as no demonstrations in support of Israel appear to have encountered any specific restrictions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "A. Public protests"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "See Amnesty International, “Under protected and over restricted the state of the right to protest in 21 European countries” (London, 2024)."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0035", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. In Germany, the response was among the toughest, imposing a blanket ban on all demonstrations in support of Palestinian people from 7 to 21 October 2023, and pre-emptively banning several such gatherings and explaining its action was to prevent “public celebration of the Hamas terrorist attacks”. On 12 October 2023, the Government of France announced a complete ban on all Palestinian rallies as potentially disturbing the public order, but was overruled by the Conseil d’État, the highest administrative court of France, on the grounds that such decisions should be made by local authorities on a case-by-case basis.[[fn:35]] There have been reports of arbitrary detention and excessive use of force by the police in relation to pro-Palestinian demonstrations in several countries, including Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Greece, Italy and the Kingdom of the Netherlands.[[fn:36]] Jewish protestors who participated in Palestinian protests complained that the authorities failed to protect them from pro-Israeli counter-protestors.[[fn:37]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "A. Public protests"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Ibid., and submission of Canadian Lawyers for International Human Rights."}, {"n": 37, "text": "Submission of Jøder for Retfærdig Fred (af 5784)."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0036", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. In the United States, over 10,000 demonstrations were organized between October 2023 and June 2024 in support of Palestinian people. Ranging from mass street protests and public rallies to student encampments on campus, vigils and other public assemblies, most events were held peacefully. Nevertheless, the authorities resorted to repressive measures, including widespread police action against the demonstrators and stigmatization of Palestinian advocacy as inherently dangerous. In addition, State and federal lawmakers have proposed over 45 pieces of legislation aimed at restricting street protests in support of Palestine, punishing student protestors and stigmatizing their Palestinian advocacy as “terrorism”.[[fn:38]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "A. Public protests"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Submission of International Centre for Non-profit Law."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0037", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The right to peaceful assembly, protected under article 21 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, is closely related to freedom of expression.[[fn:39]] States have an obligation to allow peaceful assemblies, including peaceful civil disobedience, to take place without unwarranted interference, as well as an obligation to protect the participants. The possibility that a peaceful assembly may provoke adverse or even violent reactions from some members of the public is not in itself sufficient reason to prohibit or restrict the assembly.[[fn:40]] Authorities are obliged to take reasonable measures to protect protestors and safely separate counter-protestors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "A. Public protests"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 37 (2020) on the right of peaceful assembly, para. 5."}, {"n": 40, "text": "Ibid., para. 27."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "21", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0038", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Academic freedom, rooted in a number of rights, including freedom of opinion and expression, signifies the right of members of the academic community, including students and scholars, to enjoy, individually and collectively, the freedom to develop, pursue and share knowledge and ideas without censorship, and to express, debate and challenge issues peacefully, without discrimination, fear or censorship.[[fn:41]] Academic freedom also includes the autonomy and self-governance of academic institutions.[[fn:42]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "B. Assault on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "E/C.12/1999/10, para. 39."}, {"n": 42, "text": "A/75/261, para. 9."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0039", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. In the context of Palestinian advocacy following Israeli military operations in Gaza, academic freedom of students and scholars, as well as the autonomy of institutions, have come under scrutiny and attack in several western countries, affecting both Jewish and Palestinian members of the academic communities. A major concern has been the failure of the university authorities to uphold their autonomy and respect the principle of non-discrimination and equal protection of the rights of all students and scholars.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "B. Assault on academic freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0040", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Thousands of students, including many Jewish students, have demonstrated on campuses in Europe and North America since October 2023. In April 2024, encampments were set up by students to express solidarity with Palestinian civilians in Gaza, call for a ceasefire and demand that their universities divest from corporations profiting from the conflict and occupation of the Palestinian territories. In the United States, mass encampments were set up in colleges and universities in more than 25 states. While the protests were largely peaceful, some Jewish student groups reported feeling fearful and complained of antisemitism, antisemitic attacks, marginalization and discrimination, as well as tensions within the Jewish student community between those who participated in Palestinian protests and others who did not.[[fn:43]] There are also claims that police failed to protect protestors in support of Palestine from counter-protestors.[[fn:44]] Jewish students and Jewish student groups participating in Palestinian advocacy have been accused of being “antisemitic”.[[fn:45]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "B. Assault on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "Submission of the European Union of Jewish Students."}, {"n": 44, "text": "See communications OTH 71/2024 and USA 12/2024."}, {"n": 45, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/education/statements/20240510-stm-eom-sr-education-usa.pdf; meeting with student leaders in Geneva, July 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0041", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The responses of some university administrations and local authorities in the United States were particularly harsh and disproportionate.[[fn:46]] Despite the largely peaceful nature of protests, many of the encampments were removed by police on the grounds of maintaining public order, at the request of the university administrations. In several cases, it led to excessive use of force, including the deployment of riot units. Students and faculty members were assaulted, handcuffed and arrested. More than 2,000 people, including students and professors, were reportedly detained by police on university campuses, mainly for trespassing.[[fn:47]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "B. Assault on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "See Inter-American Commission of Human Rights, “United States must respect peaceful protest and academic freedom on campuses”, 9 May 2024, available at www.oas.org/en/iachr/jsForm/?File=/en/iachr/media_center/preleases/2024/095.asp."}, {"n": 47, "text": "See communications OTH 71/2024 and USA 12/2024; and submissions of Human Rights Watch and Defending Rights and Dissent."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0042", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The universities are taking disciplinary measures against the students who participated or planned to participate in the protests, including suspension, possible expulsion, eviction from campus housing and the threat of deportation of some foreign students, which could jeopardize their scholarships and future careers.[[fn:48]] In some cases, the protestors have been identified publicly by unknown groups in a process called “doxing”. Some students have had their employment offers withdrawn because of their activism on Palestine.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "B. Assault on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/07/usa-free-speech-campus-needs-be-protected-not-attacked-say-experts; and communication USA 12/2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0043", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Contravening the generally accepted principle of respecting the independence and autonomy of academic institutions, United States legislators and private donors put political pressure on universities to suppress student protests and dismiss faculty and administrators. Some of the top academic institutions appear to have succumbed to that pressure, putting the United States at the risk of becoming “an exporter of bad models” of academic freedom.[[fn:49]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "B. Assault on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "Observations on recent events on United States campuses (May 2024), Scholars at Risk Network."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0044", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Many scholars believe that the measures, on-campus and off-campus, have had a chilling effect on public discourse, academic research and policy expertise on Middle East issues.[[fn:50]] Students, researchers and faculty members complain about a culture of intimidation in European and North American institutions in which they are afraid to express their views for fear of being deemed “antisemitic”, harassed, threatened, fired from their jobs or denied research funds.[[fn:51]] Scholars, faculty and students have complained of being investigated by their institutions about their social media posts and of being targeted by online smear campaigns, doxing and harassment.[[fn:52]] Israeli scholars have also reported being isolated from conferences on the basis of their perceived association with the actions of Israel.[[fn:53]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "B. Assault on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/education/statements/20240510-stm-eom-sr-education-usa.pdf."}, {"n": 51, "text": "Ibid.; see also Nader Hashemi, “Teaching the Middle East after October 7: Reflections on Academic Freedom, Antisemitism, and the Question of Palestine”, POMEPS Studies 51, April 2024."}, {"n": 52, "text": "Submission of ELSC."}, {"n": 53, "text": "See Marc Lynch, “The Middle East and Middle East Studies After Gaza”, POMEPS Studies 51, April 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0045", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Scores of courses, lectures, seminars or panel discussions about Palestine have been cancelled, and some adjunct faculty members have not had their appointments renewed because they spoke out in solidarity with Palestinians.[[fn:54]] The level of obstruction of independent thought is illustrated by one instance in which, for the first time ever, the website of the well-known Columbia Law Review was shut down by the journal’s board in an attempt to deter the publication of an article by a Palestinian legal scholar.[[fn:55]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "B. Assault on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/education/statements/20240510-stm-eom-sr-education-usa.pdf; www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/07/usa-free-speech-campus-needs-be-protected-not-attacked-say-experts; National Writers Union, “Red Lines: Retaliation in the media history during the war on Gaza”, 6 May 2024."}, {"n": 55, "text": "See Prem Thakker, “Columbia Law Review Is Back Online After Students Threatened Work Stoppage Over Palestine Censorship”, The Intercept, 6 June 2024, available at https://theintercept.com/2024/06/06/columbia-law-review-palestine-gaza-rejects/."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0046", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Artistic freedom thrives in open multicultural societies, nourished by the democratic values of tolerance and diversity. The banning of books, films and artwork, retaliation against artists and writers, and demanding that social media platforms take down content or punishing users for posting critical content are practices usually carried out in authoritarian States but appear to have been emulated by public and private institutions in Western Europe and North America in relation to the Israel/Palestine situation. The justification, as in the case of protests and academic freedom, has been the protection of public order and the fight against hate speech. The practices have targeted both those expressing sympathy with Israel and those advocating for Palestinian rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "C. Intolerance of artistic freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0047", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. One manifestation of this behaviour has been “deplatforming”, also colloquially known as “cancel culture”. In effect it is censorship by exclusion. Literature festivals have disinvited guest speakers.[[fn:56]] Major exhibitions have been cancelled.[[fn:57]] Music concerts have been cancelled or musicians threatened.[[fn:58]] Art galleries have dropped long-standing clients over their political views.[[fn:59]] Artistic agencies have terminated relationships with some clients.[[fn:60]] Writers who criticize Israel have found themselves isolated and excluded.[[fn:61]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "C. Intolerance of artistic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "See P. Oltermann, “Palestinian voices ‘shut down’ at Frankfurt Book Fair, say authors”, The Guardian, 15 October 2023, available at www.theguardian.com/world/2023/oct/15/palestinian-voices-shut-down-at-frankfurt-book-fair-say-authors."}, {"n": 57, "text": "See D. Cassady, “German Photography Biennial Cancelled After Curator’s Social Media Posts Are Called ‘Antisemitic’”, ARTnews, 22 November 2023, available at www.artnews.com/art-news/news/biennale-fur-aktuelle-fotografie-cancelled-freedom-fo-speech-and-antisemitism-1234687537/."}, {"n": 58, "text": "See “Argentine judiciary cautions Roger Waters against making anti-Semitic remarks”, Buenos Aires Herald, 21 November 2023, available at https://buenosairesherald.com/society/argentine-judiciary-cautions-roger-waters-against-making-anti-semitic-remarks."}, {"n": 59, "text": "See K. Burke, “Melbourne’s Anna Schwartz gallery drops artist Mike Parr after political piece on Israel-Gaza war”, The Guardian, 8 December 2023, available at www.theguardian.com/culture/2023/dec/08/melbourne-gallery-drops-mike-parr-performance-artist-israel-hamas-war-piece-anna-schwartz."}, {"n": 60, "text": "See A. Horton, “Susan Sarandon dropped by talent agency after remarks at pro-Palestine rally”, The Guardian, 21 November 2023, available at www.theguardian.com/film/2023/nov/21/susan-sarandon-pro-palestinian-remarks-uta-dropped."}, {"n": 61, "text": "See J. Schuessler, “92NY Pulls Event With Acclaimed Writer Who Criticized Israel”, New York Times, 21 October 2023, available at www.nytimes.com/2023/10/21/arts/92ny-viet-thanh-nguyen-israel.html."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0048", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. These are just some examples of the many ways in which artistic freedom is being censored and intellectual discourse diminished by private actors in collusion with State authorities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "C. Intolerance of artistic freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0049", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Companies have a responsibility under international law to respect human rights and avoid causing or contributing to “adverse human rights impacts”. They have an obligation to prevent or mitigate such impacts by adopting human rights policies, undertaking due diligence and impact assessment and providing remedial processes.[[fn:62]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online"], "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights; see also A/77/288. paras. 74–99."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0050", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. As in other armed conflicts, social media platforms play a dual role in Gaza. On the one hand, they provide a communications lifeline, enabling people in Gaza to share information among themselves and with the outside world. Social media has been central to disseminating information on Gaza, playing a “vital, not complementary, role” given that access to traditional media in Gaza is severely curtailed.[[fn:63]] Young social media “influencers” went from posting entertaining content to being suddenly thrust into a serious role of a source able to convey the reality of Gaza to the world. Women in Gaza have been at the forefront, voicing their situation in a way not done by mainstream media.[[fn:64]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online"], "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "See A. Walker, “How Instagram Cat Influencers Are Helping Break News in Gaza”, The Daily Beast, 12 December 2023, available at www.thedailybeast.com/how-instagram-cats-and-skincare-influencers-help-break-news-in-gaza."}, {"n": 64, "text": "See B. Ferrari, “Pro-Palestine TikTok Creators Aren’t Backing Down”, Vice, 13 December 2023, available at www.vice.com/en/article/pkav5y/pro-palestine-tiktok-gen-z-digital-activism."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0051", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. At the same, the platforms have removed Palestinian content excessively, inadequately addressed hate speech against both sides and enabled information manipulation, disinformation and misinformation. The large platforms have tended to be more lenient regarding Israel and more restrictive about Palestinian expression and content about Gaza, as compared with their policies and practices relating to the invasion by the Russian Federation of Ukraine and Ukrainian expression.[[fn:65]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online"], "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "See “Meta’s Ongoing Efforts Regarding Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine”, 26 February 2022, available at https://about.fb.com/news/2022/02/metas-ongoing-efforts-regarding-russias-invasion-of-ukraine/. See also “Meta’s Ongoing Efforts Regarding the Israel-Hamas War”, 13 October 2023, available at https://about.fb.com/news/2023/10/metas-efforts-regarding-israel-hamas-war/."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0052", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Following the October 7 attacks, disproportionate censorship of content on Palestinian rights and views has increased significantly across platforms, including Meta, X, Google and Telegram.[[fn:66]] Measures have included monitoring and removal, suspension or disabling of accounts, restricting the ability to engage with posts (such as “liking”, commenting or sharing) or to follow or tag other accounts, and “shadow-banning” or decreasing the visibility of user content without notification or adequate justification. Documented cases of censorship include not only Palestinian-generated Arabic language content, but also pro-Palestine, English-language content originating from over 60 countries around the world.[[fn:67]] Users typically have few functional or meaningful ways to appeal these restrictions.[[fn:68]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "A. Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "See communications USA 8/2024; OTH 19/2024; OTH 20/2024; OTH 21/2024; and OTH 22/2024."}, {"n": 67, "text": "See Human Rights Watch, Meta’s Broken Promises, Systemic Censorship of Palestine Content on Instagram and Facebook, 21 December 2023."}, {"n": 68, "text": "Submission of Human Rights Watch."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0053", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The disproportionate censoring of Palestinian content by platforms is not a new problem. For instance, an independent due diligence review commissioned by Meta in 2021,[[fn:69]] as well as the findings of its Oversight Board, identified significant shortcomings in relation to Palestinian content. The company committed itself to addressing the flaws, but its response to the situation in Gaza indicates that many of the problems persist.[[fn:70]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "A. Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 69, "text": "See Business for Social Responsibility, “Human Rights Due Diligence of Meta’s Impacts in Israel and Palestine in May 2021”, September 2022."}, {"n": 70, "text": "See communication OTH 20/2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0054", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. In one study in December 2023 of 1,050 English-language takedowns by Meta, 1,049 involved peaceful content in support of Palestine that was censored or otherwise unduly suppressed, while only one case involved the removal of content in support of Israel.[[fn:71]] Phrases such as “From the River to the Sea, Palestine will be free”, “Ceasefire Now”, and “Stop the Genocide” have been repeatedly removed by Meta’s platforms as “spam”.[[fn:72]] The “emoji” of the Palestinian flag has been hidden as “potentially offensive”, and phrases such as “Palestinian” and “praise be to God” have been translated as “Palestinian terrorists”.[[fn:73]] There have been complaints about inconsistent Arabic translation. There also appears to be inconsistent moderation of the same content in Arabic and Hebrew. For instance, Meta immediately censored the Arabic hashtag #iron_swords (# ﻃﻮﻓﺎﻥ_ﺍﻻﻗﺼﻰ ) on October 7 but did not censor the parallel hashtag in Hebrew (# חרבות_ברזל).[[fn:74]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "A. Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "See Human Rights Watch, “Meta’s Broken Promises”."}, {"n": 72, "text": "Submission of Human Rights Watch."}, {"n": 73, "text": "Some of the moderation measures led the company to apologize. See also communication USA 8/2024."}, {"n": 74, "text": "See communication USA 8/2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0055", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Meta’s “dangerous individuals and organizations” policy, which has underpinned the widespread takedown of pro-Palestine content, is problematic.[[fn:75]] The policy’s vague and overly broad interpretation of what constitutes “glorification” or “support” of terrorism has led to takedowns of legitimate political expression and journalistic coverage of Gaza as claims of support for Hamas.[[fn:76]] Meta updated the policy in January 2024 to “allow for more social and political discourse,” just months before the Oversight Board undertook to review it and found that the policy “substantially and disproportionately restrict(ed) free expression”.[[fn:77]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "A. Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 75, "text": "Dangerous Organizations and Individuals (DOI) Policy Update, Meta Transparency Center, 23 January 2024."}, {"n": 76, "text": "See communication USA 8/2024; and www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/ Opinion/Legislation/Case_2021_009-FB-UA.pdf."}, {"n": 77, "text": "See communication USA 8/2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0056", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Erroneous and inconsistent implementation of community standards relating to “adult nudity and sexual activity,” “violent and graphic content” and “spam” have constrained the sharing of vital information on alleged human rights violations or possible war crimes in the occupied Palestinian Territory on Meta’s platforms. Newsworthiness exceptions were repeatedly ignored and failed to take context into account, resulting in the disruption of reporting on episodes of torture and ill-treatment and of the destruction of hospitals. The censorship has affected Palestinian journalists, activists and human rights defenders, as well as a range of news outlets.[[fn:78]] However, despite these problems, it is important to acknowledge that Meta allows a significant amount of pro-Palestinian expression and denunciations of Israeli government policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "A. Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 78, "text": "Submission of Access Now."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0057", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Other platforms have also taken down content disproportionately and extensively. For instance, Google’s YouTube faced internal scrutiny after it allowed a pro-Israeli military song “HarbuDarbu” on the platform with lyrics such as “One, Two, Shoot!” and descriptions of rodents emerging from tunnels in Gaza, but it labelled an age-restricted content warning on a prominent rapper’s tribute to a six-year-old Palestinian girl killed by Israeli forces in Gaza City.[[fn:79]] YouTube was criticized by its own staff for its lack of balance in content moderation on Gaza, as compared to the Russian Federation-Ukraine conflict.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "A. Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 79, "text": "See Paresh Dave, “YouTube’s Rulings on Gaza War Videos Spark Internal Backlash”, Wired, 2 July 2024, available at www.wired.com/story/youtube-israel-gaza-moderation/."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0058", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. X in general has taken a more permissive approach to Gaza-related content, although there have been reports of throttling or suspension of pro-Palestine accounts such as the United States chapter of the activist group, “PalAction”. Following documented reports of takedowns of “graphic” content on human rights violations, X updated its rules in January 2024 to allow exceptions for graphic content that is “documentary or educational” for evidence preservation.[[fn:80]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "A. Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "7amleh, “The Impact of Platform’s Content Moderation Policies on Palestinian Digital Rights”."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0059", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. Platforms appear to have taken a deferential position when confronted with tens of thousands of take-down requests from Governments, including that of Israel.[[fn:81]] Companies have varying levels of transparency regarding government requests. For instance, twice a year, TikTok publishes data for government takedown requests, which indicates that it received 260 requests from Israel in the second half of 2023, involving 10,191 pieces of content and 529 accounts, 98.2 per cent of which were removed.[[fn:82]] There is often little transparency as to the scope of government-sponsored requests, and users typically have no way of knowing whether their content has been taken down as a result of State-initiated complaints.[[fn:83]] Meta’s Oversight Board recommended that the company review State actor takedown requests for systemic biases, and Meta is now in the process of developing such a system.[[fn:84]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "A. Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "Israel says over 90 per cent of requests were honoured over the period. See Israeli Ministry of Justice, “Fighting Incitement Online”, 26 November 2023, available at www.gov.il/en/pages/news-26-11."}, {"n": 82, "text": "See TikTok Transparency Center, “Government Removal Requests Report”, 6 June 2024, available at www.tiktok.com/transparency/en-us/government-removal-requests-2023-2/."}, {"n": 83, "text": "Human Rights Watch, “Meta’s Broken Promises”."}, {"n": 84, "text": "See letter from Meta to OHCHR, 6 May 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0060", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Overly restrictive, unbalanced content moderation or censorship of Palestinian speech on social media platforms seem to be the result of inherently biased policies, opaque and inconsistent content moderation, heavy reliance on automated tools to moderate and translate and a permissive approach to State requests for content removal. Some platforms, notably Meta, acknowledge the distinct challenges of balancing “voice” and “safety” during crises and took temporary, salient measures to address rapidly changing events in the Gaza conflict, most of which have now ended.[[fn:85]] Overall, there appears to be an absence of heightened human rights due diligence on a consistent basis by platforms in conflict related situations, as recommended by the United Nations business and human rights working group.[[fn:86]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "A. Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 85, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 86, "text": "A/75/212."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0061", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. There has been an alarming spike in hate speech in the context of Hamas’ attacks on 7 October and the conflict in Gaza.[[fn:87]] Content curation algorithms create a profit incentive for platforms to push harmful or false content to generate more “clicks”, worsening the problem.[[fn:88]] While Jews, Jewish Israelis and Palestinians have all been targeted online, the responses of the platforms show a biased and discriminatory approach towards Palestinians.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "B. Harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "Human Rights Council resolution 55/28."}, {"n": 88, "text": "A/78/288, para. 101."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0062", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Most hate speech, incitement to violence, online harassment and smear campaigns targeting Palestinians have appeared on Facebook, X and Telegram.[[fn:89]] X has been a particularly egregious offender. Over 99 per cent of tracked violent Hebrew-language content appeared on its platform, including statements by Israeli government officials describing Palestinians as “human animals”, “Amalek” and “children of darkness”, among other dehumanizing terms, in apparent violation of X’s own policies. Such language may amount to incitement to genocide.[[fn:90]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "B. Harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "See communications OTH 20/2024; OTH 21/2024; and OTH 22/2024."}, {"n": 90, "text": "See communication USA 8/2024; and A/HRC/55/73 paras. 50–54."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0063", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Telegram, which is known for its “hands off” approach to moderation, has allowed both antisemitic content as well as hate speech against Palestinians. It hosts several Hebrew-language, publicly viewable channels that actively incite violence against Palestinian individuals, share graphic content from Gaza, propagate hate, publish personal information about individuals without consent (doxing) and call for their elimination.[[fn:91]] Threats of doxing often pose a disproportionate threat to women during times of conflict and constitute a form of gender-based violence online.[[fn:92]] Despite repeated complaints, Telegram has failed to act against the channels.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "B. Harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 91, "text": "See communication OTH 21/2024."}, {"n": 92, "text": "A/78/131, para. 67; and A/HRC/50/29, para. 46."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0064", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Platforms have allowed advertisements dehumanizing Palestinians, including from State actors, even when they appear to violate the terms of service of platforms. YouTube reportedly accepted $7.1 million in advertisements sponsored by the Government of Israel, primarily targeted at audiences in Belgium, France, Germany, Switzerland, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States.[[fn:93]] Some of them could constitute incitement to violence, labelling Palestinians as “barbaric terrorists” and featuring graphic, bloody material. Meta reportedly approved ads from the Government of Israel that called for a “holocaust for the Palestinians” and wiping out “Gazan women and children and the elderly”.[[fn:94]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "B. Harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 93, "text": "See communication OTH 19/2024."}, {"n": 94, "text": "See communication OTH 20/2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0065", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. The International Court of Justice has called on Israel to “take all measures within its power to prevent and punish the direct and public incitement to commit genocide in relation to members of the Palestinian group in the Gaza strip.”[[fn:95]] If platforms provide the means to distribute information that constitutes incitement to war crimes or genocide, they may trigger the application of international criminal law or humanitarian law to their operations. Company personnel may incur liability on the basis of their direct action or corporate complicity.[[fn:96]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "B. Harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 95, "text": "International Court of Justice, Order of 26 January 2024."}, {"n": 96, "text": "A/77/288, para. 75."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0066", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. As noted by the Special Rapporteur, conflicts heighten the risks of information manipulation, including online disinformation and misinformation.[[fn:97]] The conflict in Gaza has fuelled widespread instances of disinformation and misinformation on various online platforms, in addition to artificial intelligence-generated deepfakes that increase fears about artificial intelligence-powered models fostering misleading information.[[fn:98]] Meta discovered a coordinated network of fake profiles originating in the Islamic Republic of Iran posted in Hebrew in Israel, across a number of services, including Meta, Telegram, YouTube, X and TikTok. It also found a network between its platform, X and YouTube, originating from Israel and targeting Canadian and United States audiences with pro-Israel content related to the Gaza conflict.[[fn:99]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "B. Harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 97, "text": "A/77/288."}, {"n": 98, "text": "See communication USA 8/2024."}, {"n": 99, "text": "See Meta, “Adversarial Threat Report”, First Quarter 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0067", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. There are rising concerns that activity and information posted on social media, including private information, are possibly being used for purposes of military targeting in artificial intelligence-driven systems.[[fn:100]] These issues require further investigation and transparency by the platforms, as they have grave and uncharted humanitarian implications.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "B. Harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 100, "text": "See “Urgent need to investigate role of technology, social media companies in killing Gazan civilians”, Euro-Med Human Rights Monitor, 21 April 2024, available at https://euromedmonitor.org/en/article/6274/Urgent-need-to-investigate-role-of-technology,-social-media-companies-in-killing-Gazan-civilians."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0068", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Many States and companies that have restricted or prohibited speech, symbols, slogans and protests related to Palestine claim to have done so to combat support for terrorism or antisemitism. The present section contains an analysis as to whether the line between protected and prohibited speech is being correctly drawn in accordance with international human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0069", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Unlike the United Nations, many States have designated Hamas as a terrorist organization under their national anti-terrorism laws. Social media companies cite these laws and the designation of Hamas as a terrorist organization in their national jurisdictions to justify their policies on moderation of Palestinian content.[[fn:101]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "A. Terrorism, incitement and genocidal intent"], "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "See letter from Meta, 6 May 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0070", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Counter-terrorism laws fall under the legitimate objective of national security as grounds for restricting freedom of expression under article 19 (3) of the Covenant. However, the offences under those laws – such as “glorifying”, “praising”, “supporting” or “encouraging” “terrorism” or “extremist activity” – that form the basis for restricting freedom of expression are often vague and poorly defined and fail to meet the international requirement of legality. They leave a lot of room for misuse, which often leads to the silencing of legitimate human rights advocacy.[[fn:102]] In the aftermath of the 7 October attacks by Hamas on Israel, these vague and overly broad offences were used by some States to ban demonstrations to support civilians in the Gaza conflict.[[fn:103]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "A. Terrorism, incitement and genocidal intent"], "footnotes": [{"n": 102, "text": "See A/73/361, A/74/335, and A/77/288, para. 63."}, {"n": 103, "text": "See ARTICLE 19, “From the River to the Sea: Protecting freedom of expression in public discourse on the conflict in Israel and Palestine”, 22 May 2024."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0071", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. Some States have banned and criminalized the display of Palestinian symbols, such as the national flag and the keffiyeh (traditional black and white scarf) as signs of antisemitism and support for Hamas.[[fn:104]] Such general bans do not meet the requirements of necessity and proportionality under article 19 (3) and therefore violate the right to freedom of expression. As general symbols of Palestinian identity, they should be regarded as legitimate forms of expression. Whether or not they are being used in a specific situation to signify intolerance or hatred against Jews or to incite violence or to indicate support for terrorism must be assessed on case-by-case basis, with careful contextual analysis to determine if they should be restricted.[[fn:105]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "A. Terrorism, incitement and genocidal intent"], "footnotes": [{"n": 104, "text": "Submissions by Canadian Lawyers for International Human Rights and Access Now."}, {"n": 105, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 37 (2020) on the right of peaceful assembly, para. 51."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0072", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Blanket bans of Palestinian symbols, by linking Palestinians as a people to terrorism or antisemitism, demonize and stigmatize them and seek to delegitimize their liberation struggle. Equating advocacy of Palestinian rights with terrorism or antisemitism is not only a disproportionate response, but may indicate an underlying institutional racism against Palestinians, violating fundamental human rights. Restricting the use of the Palestinian flag is a denial of the right to self-determination of the Palestinian people, which has been recognized by the General Assembly and the International Court of Justice.[[fn:106]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "A. Terrorism, incitement and genocidal intent"], "footnotes": [{"n": 106, "text": "Legal Consequences arising from the Policies and Practices of Israel in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem, Advisory Opinion, 19 July 2024, para. 274; and General Assembly resolution 78/192."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0073", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. “From the River to the Sea, Palestine Will Be Free”, the most recognizable chant in many Palestinian marches, has been the subject of blanket restrictions by some States and private actors on the grounds that it is a sign of support for Hamas and shows genocidal intent or incitement to violence against Jews. That interpretation of the slogan has been challenged by scholars, human rights experts and Palestinian advocates, including many Jewish groups and scholars who see it as a call for the right to self-determination of Palestinians. Over the past year, the slogan has been used widely during protests in solidarity with Palestinians. In some Western countries, the use of the slogan has been criminalized or otherwise sanctioned. In some others, the courts and law enforcement agencies have recognized the different meanings of the slogan and have refused to impose blanket bans on it.[[fn:107]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "A. Terrorism, incitement and genocidal intent"], "footnotes": [{"n": 107, "text": "ARTICLE 19, “From the River to the Sea”."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0074", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. A general ban or criminalization for the mere utterance of the slogan in all circumstances is disproportionate and not in line with international human rights law. Incitement requires credible proof of intent to incite, as well as the likelihood that it would lead to the intended objective, rather than just arousing feelings of fear, offence or insult. Whether or not in certain specific situations such intent and likelihood exists and prohibition of the slogan is justified should be assessed in accordance with international standards and contextual analysis outlined in the Rabat Plan of Action.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "A. Terrorism, incitement and genocidal intent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0075", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. In the context of States’ responses to Palestinian advocacy, there has been a tendency to confuse and conflate criticism of the policies of Israel, which is a legitimate exercise of freedom of expression, with antisemitism, which is racial and religious hatred against Jews that must be condemned.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "B. Antisemitism and protection of political expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0076", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. An example of such conflation is the response of some States to the global “boycott, divest and sanctions” movement. The latter makes three demands on Israel: “ending the occupation; ensuring full equality of all citizens and not privileging the rights derived from Jewish identity; and respecting and allowing the right of return for Palestinian refugees.”[[fn:108]] All three are aligned with the international obligations of Israel, which it has so far failed to uphold.[[fn:109]] Many civil society organizations and individuals, including some Jewish groups, support and participate in the movement. A key demand of the campus demonstrators, which included many Jewish groups and students, was the divestment of their universities from Israel-linked companies. Nevertheless, the movement is regarded in some Western countries, including Germany and the United States, as being discriminatory and antisemitic.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "B. Antisemitism and protection of political expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 108, "text": "H.M. Hauge, “Evaluating the Practice of Lawfare against Pro-Palestinian Groups”, Middle East Policy, 2024, pp. 1–16, available at https://doi.org/10.1111/mepo.12764."}, {"n": 109, "text": "Ibid. See also CCPR/C/ISR/CO/4; and A/HRC/20/17/Add.2, para. 34."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0077", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. In a case relating to boycott, divest and sanctions protestors in France, the European Court of Human Rights found that a boycott is a legitimate means of expressing political opinion.[[fn:110]] The court held that differential treatment undertaken with the purpose of ensuring substantive equality and in a proportionate manner does not necessarily amount to inciting discrimination. The Court drew a distinction between expression that serves as a call for antisemitism and is not protected by international law, and political expression, such as the boycott, divest and sanctions movement, which aims to condemn a Government and is unquestionably protected by international law. This decision vindicates the movement as a valid means of protest and pressure on Governments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "B. Antisemitism and protection of political expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 110, "text": "See Baldassi and Others v. France, European Court of Human Rights, 15271/16, 15280/16, 15282/16 et al., 11 June 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0078", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. Antisemitism is a serious form of religious and racial hatred, and States and private actors must take all necessary measures to fight it. The weeks following October 2023 have seen a surge in complaints of antisemitism around the world, compared with the same period the previous year.[[fn:111]] It is vital that the fight against antisemitism be framed according to international human rights standards, so that there is a shared understanding of the problem and its root causes and, consequently, more effective responses to eradicate it. Otherwise, there is a risk that discrimination against one vulnerable group will be replaced with discrimination against another group, which, far from reducing antisemitism, will fuel more hatred and intolerance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "B. Antisemitism and protection of political expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "Submission of the World Jewish Congress."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0079", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. As noted by the European Court of Human Rights, antisemitism should be clearly distinguished from political expression. It is of serious concern that the “working definition” of antisemitism of the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance contravenes this critical international standard of freedom of expression, and yet is being promoted heavily by various entities and Governments. It has been adopted by 43 States and is used in practice as a quasi-legal basis to restrict expression on the grounds of antisemitism.[[fn:112]] Its adoption across Europe has been a source of serious concern in relation to freedom of expression and other human rights.[[fn:113]] The previous Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance found the “working definition” to be “divisive” and “politically instrumentalized”.[[fn:114]] Counter-proposals to “the working definition” have been developed by Jewish scholars and experts on antisemitism.[[fn:115]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "B. Antisemitism and protection of political expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 112, "text": "See Rebecca Ruth Gould, “Legal Form and Legal Legitimacy: The IHRA Definition of Antisemitism as a Case Study in Censored Speech”, Law, Culture and the Humanities, vol. 18 (1), 2022."}, {"n": 113, "text": "A/77/512, para. 74, footnote 4."}, {"n": 114, "text": "Ibid., paras. 71–79."}, {"n": 115, "text": "See Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism, 25 March 2021."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0080", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The “working definition” was never intended to be used as a framework for regulating expression[[fn:116]] and does not meet the international legal standards for restriction or prohibition of speech laid out in the Covenant. First, it is overly broad, vague and equivocal,[[fn:117]] and fails the test of legal certainty, required under article 19 (3) of the Covenant. The overly broad and vague definition of antisemitism offered by the “working definition” is harmful because it can lead to wrongful accusations and damage reputations, distort statistics on antisemitic incidents and divert attention from addressing the real causes of antisemitism. Second, it does not include the element of incitement, as required for prohibition of speech under article 20 (2) of the Covenant. Third, its “illustrative examples” deal not only with the impact of speech on individuals but also on Israel, which contravenes international human rights law and in particular the right to freedom of expression, which permits criticism of all States. Fourth, it is unnecessary as there are universally accepted international standards to address racial and religious hatred, including antisemitism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "B. Antisemitism and protection of political expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 116, "text": "See written testimony of Kenneth S. Stern, United States House of Representatives Committee on the Judiciary, 7 November 2017."}, {"n": 117, "text": "Opinion of Geoffrey Robertson KC, “Antisemitism, the IHRA definition and its consequences for freedom of expression”, para. 2. Available at https://prc.org.uk/upload/library/files/Anti-Semitism_Opinion_03.09.18eds.pdf."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0081", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The central conceptual flaw of the “working definition” is the inherent conflation of Zionism, a political ideology, with antisemitism. The practical consequence is the suppression of legitimate criticism of Israel, not the enhancement of protection of Jews from racial and religious hatred and intolerance. Jewish groups and individuals who engage in anti-Zionist protests have been labelled as antisemitic.[[fn:118]] When Jews celebrating Jewish festivals in solidarity with Palestinians were attacked by pro-Israel supporters, the incident was not considered to be antisemitic.[[fn:119]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "B. Antisemitism and protection of political expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 118, "text": "See National Writers Union, “Red Lines: Retaliation in the media history during the war on Gaza”, 6 May 2024."}, {"n": 119, "text": "Submission of Jøder for Retfærdig Fred (af 5784)."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0082", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Zionism is not an inherent characteristic of an individual or group, and so it is wrong to equate anti-Zionism with antisemitism. Where there is concern in a specific situation that the term “Zionist” is being used as a proxy for hate speech against Jews, then a contextual analysis should be made on a case-by-case basis in accordance with the universally applicable standards laid out in articles 19 (3) and 20 (2) of the Covenant and the guidance in the Rabat Plan.[[fn:120]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "B. Antisemitism and protection of political expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 120, "text": "Meta has revised its policy to restrict speech only where the term “Zionist” is deemed to be a proxy for Jewish people. See Meta Transparency Center, “Update from the Policy Forum on our approach to ‘Zionist’ as a proxy for hate speech”, 9 July 2024. Civil society organizations, like Access Now, are concerned whether Meta will be able to enforce a nuanced policy given its automated decision-making tools and previous history of overenforcement of Palestinian content."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0083", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The main conclusion of the present report is that the most fundamental principle of human rights – that all persons have an equal right to enjoy all human rights – has been endangered by an extensive pattern of unlawful, discriminatory and disproportionate restrictions and repression of freedom of expression, primarily of Palestinian activists and their supporters in Western Europe and North America. This trend did not emerge with the Israeli assault on Gaza but has become more widespread in the past year, from the targeted killing of journalists in Gaza to the banning of Palestinian protests, speech and symbols in various countries, especially in North America and Europe.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0084", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. Such repression is particularly disturbing in the light of the recent advisory opinion of the International Court of Justice, which reaffirms the right to self-determination of Palestinians and finds that the Israeli occupation of Palestinian territory is unlawful, with an obligation placed on all other States to ensure that “impediments” to end it are removed. In the opinion, the Court vindicates the legitimacy of Palestinian advocacy for human rights, including the right to self-determination, and creates an imperative for all States to change their laws, policies and practices restricting or prohibiting such advocacy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0085", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. People have the right to express their views and to protest peacefully. States have a duty to respect, protect and facilitate those rights on an equal basis for all persons. Civil disobedience or non-violent protests aimed at challenging unjust proscriptions, as well as campaigns to boycott, seek divestment and promote sanctions, are legitimate forms of political expression that should not be prohibited or criminalized.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0086", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. In recent years, many western Governments have taken a restrictive approach to public protests, viewing them through the lens of security, law enforcement, countering terrorism and violent extremism, that is not in line with human rights standards. Blanket prohibition of Palestinian protests, slogans or symbols is inherently incompatible with international human rights law. Any restriction of freedom of expression must respect scrupulously the requirements of legality, legitimate aims and the necessity and proportionality of measures to achieve those aims, as set out in international law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0087", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. Antisemitism is a serious form of racial and religious hatred that must be condemned. However, the fight against antisemitism should not be instrumentalized and politicized to protect Israel or block criticism of the political ideology of Zionism. The “working definition” of the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance on antisemitism is inconsistent with international human rights law and should not be used to define policy or regulate speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0088", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. International human rights law draws a clear line between political criticism, from which no State can be shielded, and antisemitism as a serious form of religious and racial hatred, which must be condemned. The genocide in Gaza, the violation of human rights in the occupied Palestinian Territory and the failure of Israel to respect its international legal obligations, including the occupation of Palestinian territory, are matters of global public interest. There is no scope for restricting freedom of expression on such matters.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0089", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. Access to information is vital during conflicts, both for civilians trapped in the conflict zone as well as the world outside, which makes the safety of journalists and unhindered access of foreign media to Gaza crucial. The allegations of targeted attacks on media as part of a strategy to cover up evidence of war crimes makes the establishment of international mechanisms to investigate crimes against journalists all the more vital.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0090", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. Not only States, but also organs of society, such as companies, universities and cultural and philanthropic organizations, have reneged on their responsibility to respect freedom of opinion and expression on a non-discriminatory basis. The failure of some of the best academic institutions in the world to ensure equal protection of all members of their academic communities, whether Jewish, Palestinian, Israeli, Arab or Muslim, was disappointing. Academic leaders must do some soul-searching as to what went wrong and how they can put it right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0091", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. Experience shows that, in highly polarized contexts, freedom of opinion and expression – enjoyed on an equal basis by all sides – is an invaluable tool for fighting hate, overcoming prejudice, building mutual respect and encouraging dialogue to resolve disputes. That should be a strong incentive for all stakeholders – States, private actors, civil society and international organizations – to reject double standards and ensure the full and equal protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression of all persons.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0092", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. States must respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of opinion and expression without discrimination against any individual or groups on the grounds of race, religion, political beliefs or other protected characteristics. Any restriction of expression, including in relation to counter-terrorism laws or antisemitism, must follow strictly the criteria set out in articles 19 (3) and 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0093", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. States must refrain from blanket prohibitions of demonstrations, slogans, symbols or other forms expression in support of the Palestinian people. Any decision to prohibit such acts or expressions on the grounds of incitement must be done on a case-by-case basis, taking into account international legal standards as well as specific contextual and other factors, as articulated in the Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0094", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. In the light of the advisory opinion of the International Court of Justice issued in July 2024, States should repeal – or refrain from adopting – laws and policies that penalize opposition to or impede advocacy against Israeli occupation and segregation, such as laws against the boycott, divest and sanctions movement.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0095", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. States must not restrict expression in support of Palestinian self-determination. Advocacy of Palestinians’ human rights, including the right to self-determination, is legitimate expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0096", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. States must condemn antisemitism, anti-Arab racism, particularly anti-Palestinian racism, and Islamophobia, and the use of dehumanizing language by any State official or entity and take all measures in line with international human rights law to combat them, including prompt, thorough, effective, independent and impartial investigation and prosecution of hate crimes against Muslim and Jewish persons.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0097", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. The “working definition” of antisemitism by the International Holocaust Remembrance Association is incompatible with international standards on freedom of expression. States should rescind their adoption and application of it and refrain from promoting it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0098", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. States should promote an environment conducive to diverse views, debate and discussion, using inclusive consultative processes and programmes to promote equality, intercultural dialogue, understanding and tolerance among and within the affected communities, and combat negative stereotypes of Jews, Muslims, Palestinians and Arabs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0099", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. Israel must ensure the safety of all journalists and must refrain from targeting them or destroying media facilities in Gaza. Israel should grant full and free access of foreign media to Gaza.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0100", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. Israel should investigate all attacks on journalists in the occupied Palestinian Territory promptly, effectively, independently and impartially, in line with the Minnesota Protocol on the Investigation of Potentially Unlawful Death.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0101", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. All States, including Israel, as well as social media companies and media outlets, must respect the provisional order of the International Court of Justice to preserve all evidence of atrocities committed in occupied Palestinian Territory.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0102", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. States should not ask platforms to remove content or to enforce measures that do not conform with international human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0103", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. Companies should carry out heightened human rights due diligence and trigger enhanced risk management strategies in the occupied Palestinian Territory, with adequate resources, language and contextual expertise, and the engagement of civil society. Due diligence processes should incorporate a robust analysis of the impact of the companies’ operations, products and services on the specific dynamics of conflict, occupation and segregation, as well as the human rights situation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0104", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. Companies should address the overenforcement of Palestine-related content, including by ensuring that content moderation policies and enforcement are aligned with international human rights law, providing transparency about the use of automation and machine learning to moderate or translate Palestine-related content, sharing information on the classifiers programmed and used and their error rates, and conducting independent audits of content curation and ranking and recommender systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0105", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. Companies should develop predictable, consistent and effective frameworks for addressing hate speech, disinformation and other information manipulation, in line with international human rights and humanitarian law, and ensure user security.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0106", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. In the light of the order of the International Court of Justice on the plausibility of a real and imminent risk of genocide, companies should be vigilant about their own liability and ensure appropriate policies and processes to remove content with genocidal intent. They should take particular care to preserve all evidence of atrocities for future accountability processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0107", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. Companies should ensure effective and swift remedy and redress to affected individuals, including easily accessible, transparent reporting mechanisms to appeal content moderation decisions within reasonable, predictable timelines.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0108", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. Academic institutions should respect the freedom of opinion and expression of students, faculty and staff without discrimination, and should not permit the use of force to disperse peaceful advocacy, protests or civil disobedience on campuses.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for academic and cultural institutions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0109", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. Academic institutions should abstain from retaliation against students and other members of the academic community for their peaceful advocacy and protests, including non-violent civil disobedience, or participation in boycott movements.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for academic and cultural institutions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0110", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. Academic institutions should actively promote an inclusive, safe and enabling environment for academic, evidence-based enquiry, debate and discussion on the Israel-Palestinian question.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for academic and cultural institutions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0111", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. Academic institutions should condemn hate speech, including antisemitism, Islamophobia and anti-Palestinian racism. If they have adopted the International Holocaust Remembrance Association’s “working definition” of antisemitism, they should review their policy in the light of the serious human concerns regarding the definition.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for academic and cultural institutions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0112", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. Cultural and artistic institutions and events sponsors should not discriminate against individuals or deny their participation purely on account of their support or political views regarding Israel or Palestine. The artistic community should reject the “cancel culture”, which chills artistic freedom and encourages discrimination, and use the arts as a means to promote intercultural understanding and fight stereotypes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for academic and cultural institutions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0113", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. The International Criminal Court should prioritize its investigation into the killing of journalists in the occupied Palestinian Territory.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Recommendations for the international community"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0114", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. The discriminatory and disproportionate responses by State and private actors to protect human rights, including freedom of expression, of the Palestinian people and those who support them raise serious concerns about anti-Palestinian racism that cut across the mandates of several Special Procedures and engage a wide range of stakeholders. The Human Rights Council should consider a cross-mandate, multistakeholder discussion to strengthen the equal protection of human rights for vulnerable groups in this highly polarized environment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Recommendations for the international community"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. This report is submitted to the Human Rights Council by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 7/36. The addendum to the report (A/HRC/14/23/Add.1) contains a summary of the communications sent by the Special Rapporteur between 1 January 2009 and 19 March 2010 and the replies received from Governments between 16 May 2009 and 14 May 2010.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Since he took up his mandate on 1 August 2008, the Special Rapporteur has been working with various stakeholders in a spirit of transparency, openness and positive dialogue. The Special Rapporteur reaffirms his commitment to constructive engagement with all stakeholders in order to further promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression worldwide.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. In his first report to the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/11/4), the Special Rapporteur dealt with two priority issues: the right of access to information in situations of extreme poverty, and the protection of journalists and media professionals in conflict zones. In this report, the Special Rapporteur will examine the right to freedom of opinion and expression of groups in need of particular attention (women, children, those living in extreme poverty, minorities and indigenous peoples) and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination; permissible and impermissible limitations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression in international human rights law; and the protection of journalists and the freedom of the press.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Between 1 January 2009 and 19 March 2010, the Special Rapporteur sent 304 communications, 284 of which were signed jointly with other special procedures mandate holders. The geographical distribution of the communications was as follows: 32 per cent for Asia and the Pacific; 22 per cent for Latin America and the Caribbean; 19 per cent for Africa; 14 per cent for Europe, North America and Central Asia; and 12 per cent for the Middle East and North Africa.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The Special Rapporteur attended many meetings with government authorities and civil society organizations to consider issues relating to the right to freedom of opinion and expression. He also participated in international academic seminars and global forums where topics related to the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression were discussed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. From 20 to 24 April, the Special Rapporteur participated in the Durban Review Conference, held in Geneva. He also took part in a side event, along with the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, concerning freedom of expression and incitement to racial or religious hatred. At that event, which was organized by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), a joint statement was adopted on freedom of expression and incitement to racial and religious hatred.[[fn:1]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See the English text of the declaration at http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/opinion/docs/SRJointstatement22April09New.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. From 26 to 29 April, the Special Rapporteur participated in a seminar in Doha organized by the Al-Jazeera Media Training and Development Centre, in cooperation with the Geneva Institute for Human Rights, on the role of the media in the promotion and protection of human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. On the occasion of World Press Freedom Day, as proclaimed by the General Assembly, from 1 to 3 May the Special Rapporteur participated in a seminar organized by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Doha Centre for Media Freedom. That seminar, which was entitled “The potential of the media: dialogue, mutual understanding and reconciliation”, also served as the venue for the award of the UNESCO/Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize for 2009.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. From 1 to 6 June, he participated in the Global Forum on Freedom of Expression, organized by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. From 29 June to 3 July, the Special Rapporteur participated in the sixteenth Annual Meeting of Special Rapporteurs, Representatives, Independent Experts and Chairpersons of Working Groups of the Human Rights Council in Geneva.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. In July, at the invitation of the Civil Society Advisory Council, the Special Rapporteur travelled to Argentina to take part in various meetings and to support the adoption of the Audiovisual Communication Services Act, which was finally approved.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. On 1 and 2 September, he participated in a meeting of the Working Party on Human Rights (COHOM) in Brussels which focused on freedom of expression on the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. On 10 September, he participated in a workshop in Mexico on standards for regulating radio frequency allocation as a guarantee of diversity in broadcasting. He also took part in the sixth annual Transparency Week, held from 27 to 29 October 2009 by the Federal Institute for Access to Public Information, and in a dialogue on freedom of expression, held on 28 October 2009 at the Italian Cultural Institute, with the support of the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in Mexico.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. From 13 to 15 October, the Special Rapporteur participated in a conference in Seoul entitled “Freedom of Opinion and Expression in Cyberspace: the situation and challenges in East Asia”. The conference was organized by the Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development, the Korean Network for International Human Rights and the Korean University Global Legal Clinic.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. From 9 to 10 November, the Special Rapporteur took part in a seminar organized by the Latin American Association for Educational Radio (ALER) in Quito.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. From 12 to 13 November, the Special Rapporteur attended a meeting of the Permanent Commission on Political and Municipal Affairs and Integration organized by the Latin American Parliament in Buenos Aires.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. From 15 to 18 November, he participated in the fourth annual meeting of the Internet Governance Forum in Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt, where he took part in a discussion on access and diversity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. From 2 to 5 December, the Second United Nations Regional Conference on Human Rights for Young People in Latin America and the Caribbean took place in Mexico City. The Special Rapporteur addressed the issue of freedom of expression and communication skills at the event, which was organized by the United Nations Information Centre OHCHR, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), UNESCO and the United Nations Population Fund.", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. From 8 to 9 December, he participated in a regional consultation in Washington D.C. entitled “Enhancing Cooperation between Regional and International Mechanisms for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights”. The event was organized by OHCHR in coordination with other organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. The Special Rapporteur notes that country visits will remain central to the activities of his mandate. Visits undertaken by the former Special Rapporteur, along with requests made to Governments for official country visits and the trends that emerge from an analysis of communications on freedom of expression and opinion, form the basis of requests sent to Governments for an invitation to visit their countries. Requests for invitations to visit a number of countries have been sent by the Special Rapporteur, taking into consideration the importance of achieving a geographical balance. The Special Rapporteur hopes that visit requests will be favourably received by the Governments concerned.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. For 2010, the Special Rapporteur has received invitations from the following Governments: the Republic of Korea (visit scheduled for 6 to 14 May); Mexico (visit scheduled from 10 to 21 August, to be made in conjunction with the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression for the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Ms. Catalina Botero); and Israel (visit scheduled for September).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "1. Upcoming missions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. The Special Rapporteur would also like to thank the Italian Government for inviting him to visit the country. The dates of the visit have yet to be agreed upon.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "1. Upcoming missions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. As of March 2010, the following requests from the Special Rapporteur were pending: the Islamic Republic of Iran (request made in February 2010), Sri Lanka (request made in June 2009), Tunisia (requested in 2009), and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (requests made in 2003 and in 2009).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "2. Pending requests"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. As provided for in article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the right to freedom of opinion and expression comprises three different elements: (a) the right to hold opinions without interference; (b) the right to seek and receive information and the right of access to information; and (c) the right to impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of one’s choice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The right to freedom of opinion and expression, like all rights, imposes legal obligations upon Governments: (a) to respect that right, or to refrain from interfering with the enjoyment of that right; (b) to protect that right or to exercise due diligence in order to prevent, punish, investigate and provide redress for harm caused by private persons or entities; and (c) to give effect to that right or to take positive or proactive measures to permit the realization of that right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. As stipulated in resolution 12/16 of the Human Rights Council, “the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is one of the essential foundations of a democratic society, is enabled by a democratic environment, which offers, inter alia, guarantees for its protection, is essential to full and effective participation in a free and democratic society, and is instrumental to the development and strengthening of effective democratic systems” (second preambular paragraph).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. The importance of the right to freedom of opinion and expression for the development and reinforcement of truly democratic systems lies in the fact that this right is closely linked to the rights to freedom of association, assembly, thought, conscience and religion, and participation in public affairs. It symbolizes, more than any other right, the indivisibility and interdependence of all human rights. As such, the effective enjoyment of this right is an important indicator with respect to the protection of other human rights and fundamental freedoms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Thus, the right to freedom of opinion and expression should also be understood to be an essential instrument for the promotion and protection of other human rights. It is an important tool for combating impunity and corruption, as well.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Furthermore, freedom of opinion and expression, although an individual right in the broadest sense of its enjoyment, is also a collective right. It endows social groups with the ability to seek and receive different types of information from a variety of sources and to voice their collective views. This freedom extends to mass demonstrations of various kinds, including the public expression of spiritual or religious beliefs or of cultural values. It is also a right of different peoples, who, by virtue of the effective exercise of this right, may develop, raise awareness of, and propagate their culture, language, traditions and values.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. As provided for in article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, everyone has the right to seek information (which goes beyond simply being passive recipients of information); the exercise of this right may be subject to restrictions as specified in article 19, paragraph 3.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "1. Right of access to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. The Human Rights Committee has emphasized the importance of the right of citizens to be informed of the activities of public officials and to have access to information that will enable them to participate in political affairs. In a democracy, the right of access to public information is fundamental in ensuring transparency. In order for democratic procedures to be effective, people must have access to public information, defined as information related to all State activity. This allows them to take decisions; exercise their political right to elect and be elected; challenge or influence public policies; monitor the quality of public spending; and promote accountability. All of this, in turn, makes it possible to establish controls to prevent the abuse of power.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "1. Right of access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Governments should take the necessary legislative and administrative measures to improve access to public information for everyone. There are specific legislative and procedural characteristics that any access-to-information policy must have, including: observance of the principle of maximum disclosure; the presumption of the public nature of meetings and key documents; broad definitions of the type of information that is accessible; reasonable fees and time limits; independent review of refusals to disclose information; and sanctions for noncompliance.[[fn:2]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "1. Right of access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Annual Report of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Organization of American States, 2003, Chapter IV, para. 32."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. If mechanisms to promote the right of access to public information are lacking, then the members of society will not be informed or able to participate, and decision-making will not be democratic. Consequently, the Special Rapporteur urges Governments to adopt legislation to ensure access to public information and to establish specific mechanisms for that purpose. He therefore welcomes the initiative of the United Mexican States to set up the Federal Institute of Access to Public Information (IFAI) as an independent national body.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "1. Right of access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. An important aspect of access to public information is access to historical information and archives and to information on current procedures that may shed light on human rights violations. Such access allows victims to exercise their right to truth, bearing in mind that the truth is the first step towards the right to justice and then the right to compensation, which are fundamental rights of victims. Victims not only have the right to establish the truth: why, how and who violated their human rights; they also have the right to make it public if they so wish, and this is particularly the case when they wish to honour the memory of those whose right to life has been violated.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "1. Right of access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. All the various outlets of the mass media have a social role to play. Electromagnetic frequencies are a public good, and the Government should therefore guarantee access to them and should use them and authorize their use in an equitable and fair way for all sectors of society. It is recommended that an independent, national (public) agency be in charge of administering and managing the allocation of broadcasting frequencies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "2. Access to means of communication"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. In recent years, the mass media have been viewed worldwide as a business, and this has paved the way for the concentration of media into large private or public consortia. This runs counter to the principle of pluralism and diversity that should underpin genuine freedom of expression. It also constitutes a concentration of political power that threatens democratic models.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "2. Access to means of communication"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Access to means of communication and, in particular, to electronic communications is now seen as necessary for achieving development and, therefore, should also be considered as an economic and social right. Governments should take responsibility for facilitating and subsidizing access to electronic media to ensure equitable enjoyment of this right, to combat poverty and to achieve their development goals.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "2. Access to means of communication"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Accordingly, the Special Rapporteur considers that, in order to achieve the Millennium Development Goals, the right of access to electronic communications and freedom of opinion and expression in general must be guaranteed. It is therefore necessary to reduce the digital divide and the gap in technological progress between developed and developing nations, in line with the recommendations contained in the Millennium Declaration (General Assembly resolution 55/2, para. 20). In particular, target 5 of goal 8 states: “in cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications”.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "2. Access to means of communication"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See text at http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/global.shtml."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The Special Rapporteur will focus primarily on the issue of access to electronic communications and freedom of expression on the Internet in his 2011 report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "2. Access to means of communication"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. The Special Rapporteur considers that Governments should remove all barriers that impede the full exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and that hinder development and decision-making.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. In this context, the right to freedom of expression gains added value when it is used to protect groups or minorities in need of particular attention, such as women, children, those living in extreme poverty, minorities, indigenous peoples and migrant populations.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. In accordance with the Special Rapporteur’s mandate to mainstream women’s human rights and a gender perspective in all his activities, this report reiterates the undeniable link between freedom of expression and women’s human rights, which include the right to express their opinions, to have access to their own means of communication and to work in the existing mass media. The following considerations should be taken into account in this regard.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(a) Women"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. General comment No. 28 of the Human Rights Committee on the equality of rights between men and women (article 3 of the Covenant) states that the causes of the inequality of women throughout the world include traditional, historical, cultural and even religious factors. This situation also influences the enjoyment of and respect for all the rights enshrined in the Covenant, including the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the right to access information in order to make informed decisions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(a) Women"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Everyone has the right to access the information needed to form opinions or to take decisions. However, women, in particular, have sometimes been denied full enjoyment of this right and, in extreme cases, this has led to them being denied information or the education they need. In cases where the State has failed to promote and ensure access to information and education, to means of expressing opinions, and to health and anti-violence programmes, this failure has had a negative impact on women’s ability to make informed decisions freely. Therefore, the Special Rapporteur considers that Governments should prioritize women’s education and access to information in their public policies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(a) Women"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. General recommendation No. 19 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (para. 11) states that the underlying consequences of violence contribute to maintaining women in subordinate roles, to their low level of political participation and to their lower level of education, skills and work opportunities, thereby exposing them to other risks such as the propagation of pornography and other forms of commercial exploitation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(a) Women"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Similarly, in its general recommendation No. 23, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (para. 20 (a)) states that one of the obstacles (in addition to illiteracy and a lack of knowledge and understanding of political systems) to the exercise of women’s right to vote and to be elected is that their access to information about candidates, party political platforms and voting procedures is more restricted than men’s. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur highlights shortcomings in civil registry systems that must be remedied.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(a) Women"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. It is, therefore, fitting to recall the important contribution made by the Beijing Platform for Action of 1995, in which particular concern was expressed about the continued projection of negative and degrading images of women and about their unequal access to information technology. Governments were therefore called upon to empower women by enhancing their skills, knowledge, access to information technology and role in the development of new technologies. The Special Rapporteur considers that the exercise of the freedom of expression necessarily implies an increase in women’s participation in public affairs and in their involvement in decision-making on issues that may directly influence their development.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(a) Women"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. The existence of other effective means notwithstanding, electronic communication media are now available that allow women to disseminate information immediately and cheaply, as well as enabling them to establish contacts and networks and to organize, mobilize and inform themselves more effectively.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(a) Women"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The fact that the possibility of reporting domestic violence, violence against women and child abuse now exists has a direct effect on the fight against impunity. Silence is also a form of impunity, and one way of breaking it is to ensure women’s freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(a) Women"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. The Convention on the Rights of the Child requires Governments to ensure that children are able to exercise their right to freedom of expression (art. 13). The Special Rapporteur considers that freedom of expression is the primary channel for participation and serves as a mechanism for inclusion; this right is therefore necessarily linked to the recognition of and respect for human dignity from childhood onward.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(b) Children"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. The evolution of one’s own thinking, the ability to express one’s thoughts clearly and the capacity to use alternative means of expression, such as art and electronic and audiovisual means of communication, begin to be developed in childhood. Therefore, child protection programmes should make a special effort to focus on respect for children’s freedom of opinion and expression. Early stimulation and learning programmes should also be promoted, as should full access to schooling and participatory educational programmes that encourage critical thinking, the capacity for expression and a culture of peace.[[fn:4]]", "labels": ["Children", "Children in alternative care"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(b) Children"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Declaration and Programme of Action on a Culture of Peace, General Assembly resolution 53/243. Article 1 stipulates that “[a] culture of peace is a set of values, attitudes, traditions and modes of behaviour and ways of life based on […] [r]espect for and promotion of the right of everyone to freedom of expression, opinion and information”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. While upholding the right to freedom of expression, Governments have a duty to protect children from information that could undermine their dignity and development. They should therefore establish protective mechanisms and define their content, scope and implementation methods in their domestic human rights laws (see section C below on limitations).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(b) Children"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Respecting children’s freedom of expression and listening to them attentively are also an important factor in combating child abuse and domestic violence and in ensuring that these acts do not go unpunished.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(b) Children"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. As poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon that restricts the exercise of all human rights, its eradication would help to ensure the realization of these rights, including the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the right to have access to new communication technologies. The limitation of this right leads to social exclusion and obstructs human development.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "2. Persons living in extreme poverty: access to communication and freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Persons living in poverty find it difficult to make their voices heard. Their circumstances prevent them from exercising their right to free speech; poverty restricts their access to information, to education and to the media. Illiteracy is particularly a problem among the poor, and Governments should therefore continue their efforts to eradicate it.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "2. Persons living in extreme poverty: access to communication and freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Freedom of opinion and expression and access to communication are tools that can contribute to the eradication of poverty. By exercising this right, poor social groups can obtain information, assert their rights and participate in the public debate concerning social and political changes that would improve their situation. Access to communication is also fundamental to economic and social development because it enables communities to obtain the information they need to run their own activities. Governments should therefore ensure access to communication, in general, and to electronic means of communications, in particular, in order to combat poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "2. Persons living in extreme poverty: access to communication and freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Recalling the Colombo Declaration of 2006 on media, development and poverty eradication, which states in paragraph 1: “Freedom of expression should be made available to all. It requires effective local participation to empower individuals and groups to address poverty, hunger, disease, discrimination, vulnerability, social exclusion, environmental degradation and education.” The Declaration also calls on Governments to “expand the reach of information and communication technologies especially to poor and marginalized populations”.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "2. Persons living in extreme poverty: access to communication and freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. In this context, the independent expert on the question of human rights and extreme poverty asserted that “[e]ffective and meaningful participation by people living in poverty requires that a broad set of rights are respected, protected and fulfilled, including freedom of expression […] In practice, this requires the establishment of specific mechanisms and arrangements at different levels to ensure that there are ways in which those living in poverty have a voice and play an effective part in the life of the community”.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "2. Persons living in extreme poverty: access to communication and freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Report of the independent expert (A/63/274), para. 22."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes the importance that exercising the right to freedom of opinion and expression has for minorities and indigenous peoples, as freedom of opinion and expression is a basic tool for ensuring the specific recognition of the rights demanded by these groups.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "3. Minorities and indigenous peoples"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Article 16 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples states that indigenous peoples have the right to establish their own media in their own languages and to have access to all forms of non-indigenous media without discrimination. Therefore, the Special Rapporteur considers that, in addition to fulfilling their duty to ensure freedom of opinion and expression, it is of paramount importance for Governments to honour their obligation to promote indigenous cultural diversity in the public and private media.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "3. Minorities and indigenous peoples"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "16", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 16 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples' — UNDRIP is a non-treaty declaration."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Consequently, the Special Rapporteur encourages the mass media to ensure that they have a representative and diverse staff. He also urges the press and mass media to provide coverage that creates an atmosphere of respect for cultural diversity and multiculturalism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "3. Minorities and indigenous peoples"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Governments should take into account the ethnic, cultural, religious and ideological diversity of the various social groups. They should also promote and protect the languages of minorities and indigenous peoples by, inter alia, upholding their right to speak their own language and to propagate their culture and traditions, both in private and in public. In no case should restrictions on the freedom of expression be used to stifle minorities’ and indigenous peoples’ legitimate claims to their rights.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "3. Minorities and indigenous peoples"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. In accordance with general comment No. 23 of the Human Rights Committee on the rights of minorities (article 27 of the Covenant), the Special Rapporteur recalls that even when individuals are not citizens of the State where they live or happen to be, “a State party is required […] to ensure that the rights protected under the Covenant are available to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction” (para. 5.1). The Special Rapporteur also reiterates that migrants and migrant communities, regardless of their legal migratory status, are fully entitled to exercise freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "3. Minorities and indigenous peoples"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "27", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. The Special Rapporteur reiterates the comments of the Human Rights Committee in noting that Governments should ensure that minorities exercise their freedom of opinion and expression so that they can enjoy their own culture, profess and practise their own religion and use their own language in accordance with article 27 of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "3. Minorities and indigenous peoples"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "27", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. The final declaration of the Durban Review Conference made an important contribution to our understanding of the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination and racism, highlighting, in paragraph 58 of the outcome document, “that the right to freedom of opinion and expression constitutes one of the essential foundations of a democratic, pluralistic society and stresses further the role these rights can play in the fight against racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance worldwide”. In this regard the Special Rapporteur encourages all Governments to develop a culture of peace based on information, the free exchange of ideas and knowledge, dialogue and tolerance between cultures in order to promote respectful intercultural relations and to break down existing stereotypes and prejudices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "3. Minorities and indigenous peoples"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The right to freedom of opinion and expression includes the freedom for minority and excluded groups to give, receive and transmit information. Community-based media are effective ways to accomplish that, and it is the duty of Governments to assist and support them in doing so and to ensure equitable access. The Special Rapporteur reiterates the call to Governments, made in paragraph 3 of the relevant section of the Colombo Declaration, to “develop national policies that address access to, and participation in, information and communication for people living in poverty, including access to licenses and fair spectrum allocation”.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "4. Community-based media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Protecting disadvantaged social groups’ right to freedom of expression requires Governments to create a legal framework for telecommunications which is based on democratic principles and which seeks to provide access to all sectors of society. Community-based media should serve as a tool for local communities and should be representative of their diverse interests.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "4. Community-based media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. The Special Rapporteur defines community-based media as non-governmental, public interest radio stations and print media that are run by civil society institutions, organizations or associations and any type of non-profit organization run by indigenous peoples for educational, informative, cultural or communal goals purposes. These media work for the development of different sectors of a territorial, ethno-linguistic or other community. They share their communities’ interests, challenges and concerns and seek to improve the quality of life of their community and to contribute to the well-being for all its members. They must not be used as instruments for political campaigning.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "4. Community-based media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. In order for all sectors of society to have access to information and the opportunity to participate in the national public debate, it is important to uphold the principle of media diversity and pluralism and to do away with monopolies and large media consortia. The concentration of the media leads to a concentration of political power and jeopardizes democracy and the ability of all sectors of society to exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "4. Community-based media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. The Special Rapporteur would like to highlight the joint work undertaken with the World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters (AMARC) through a series of regional consultations held for the purpose of identifying and endorsing the principles that should underlie a democratic regulatory framework for community radio and television. Information on these principles is included in the annex. These principles are:\n(a) Media diversity, content and perspectives;\n(b) Recognition and promotion;\n(c) Definition and characteristics;\n(d) Objectives and aims;\n(e) Technological access;\n(f) Universal access;\n(g) Reserved frequencies;\n(h) Competent authorities;\n(i) Licence and frequency allocation procedures;\n(j) Non-discriminatory conditions;\n(k) Evaluation criteria;\n(l) Financing;\n(m) Public funding;\n(n) Digital inclusion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "4. Community-based media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. It is important for Governments to promote measures and adopt good practices oriented toward equity in telecommunications. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur welcomes the promulgation by Argentina of the Audio-visual Materials Distribution Act, which is a good example of such practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "4. Community-based media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Although the right to freedom of expression is important for democracy and the exercise of other rights, as highlighted in section A, this right is not absolute. International law, and most national constitutions, recognize that the exercise of the right to freedom of expression carries with it special duties and responsibilities and may be restricted in certain exceptional circumstances. The right to freedom of opinion, on the other hand, is a right to which the Covenant permits no exception or restriction, as stated, inter alia, in general comment No. 10 of the Human Rights Committee.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. In accordance with resolution 7/36 of the Human Rights Council, the mandate of the Special Rapporteur includes reporting on instances in which the abuse of the right of freedom of expression constitutes an act of racial or religious discrimination, as well as formulating recommendations and making suggestions concerning methods of promoting and protecting the right to freedom of opinion and expression in all its forms. Accordingly, as a contribution to the consideration of this issue, in this report the Special Rapporteur proposes a series of principles that will help to determine what constitutes a legitimate restriction or limitation on the right of freedom of opinion and expression and what constitutes an “abuse” of that right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights sets out three factors that should be taken into account when assessing whether restrictions are permissible: (a) they must be provided for by law; (b) they must be necessary; and (c) they must pursue one of the legitimate aims set forth in the article, i.e. (i) the respect of the rights or reputations of others; (ii) the protection of national security or public order (ordre public); or (iii) the protection of public health or morals. In addition, in its article 20, paragraph 2, the Covenant states that “any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. The Special Rapporteur notes that, despite the provisions of the Covenant, States frequently limit or restrict freedom of expression arbitrarily, sometimes by recourse to criminal legislation, in order to silence dissent or criticism. In view of such practices, the Special Rapporteur wishes to draw attention to some of the existing principles that may be used to determine whether or not a limitation or restriction to the right of freedom of expression is legitimate within the framework of existing standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. The limitations and restrictions must be provided for by prior law within the framework of international human rights law and the principles deriving therefrom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. The general principle is that permissible limitations and restrictions must constitute an exception to the rule and must be kept to the minimum necessary to pursue the legitimate aim of safeguarding other human rights established in the Covenant or in other international human rights instruments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. The principles proposed in this document have been compiled by the Special Rapporteur from various public sources, including the Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation Provisions in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (E/CN.4/1985/4, annex) and the general comments adopted by the Human Rights Committee, including No. 10 (article 19 of the Covenant),[[fn:6]] No. 11 (article 20 of the Covenant) and No. 27 (article 12 of the Covenant). Although general comment No. 27 concerns freedom of movement, it encapsulates the Human Rights Committee’s position on permissible limitations on the rights established in the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes that the Human Rights Committee is drafting a general comment on article 19 of the Covenant."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "12", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. The Special Rapporteur proposes the following principles for determining the conditions that must be satisfied in order for a limitation or restriction on freedom of expression to be permissible:\n(a) The restriction or limitation must not undermine or jeopardize the essence of the right of freedom of expression;\n(b) The relationship between the right and the limitation/restriction or between the rule and the exception must not be reversed;\n(c) All restrictions must be provided for by pre-existing statutory laws issued by the legislative body of the State;\n(d) Laws imposing restrictions or limitations must be accessible, concrete, clear and unambiguous, such that they can be understood by everyone and applied to everyone. They must also be compatible with international human rights law, with the burden of proving this congruence lying with the State;\n(e) Laws imposing a restriction or limitation must set out the remedy against or mechanisms for challenging the illegal or abusive application of that limitation or restriction, which must include a prompt, comprehensive and efficient judicial review of the validity of the restriction by an independent court or tribunal;\n(f) Laws imposing restrictions or limitations must not be arbitrary or unreasonable and must not be used as a means of political censorship or of silencing criticism of public officials or public policies;\n(g) Any restrictions imposed on the exercise of a right must be “necessary”, which means that the limitation or restriction must:\n(i) Be based on one of the grounds for limitations recognized by the Covenant;\n(ii) Address a pressing public or social need which must be met in order to prevent the violation of a legal right that is protected to an even greater extent;\n(iii) Pursue a legitimate aim;\n(iv) Be proportionate to that aim and be no more restrictive than is required for the achievement of the desired purpose. The burden of demonstrating the legitimacy and the necessity of the limitation or restriction shall lie with the State;\n(h) Certain very specific limitations are legitimate if they are necessary in order for the State to fulfil an obligation to prohibit certain expressions on the grounds that they cause serious injury to the human rights of others. These include the following:\n(i) Article 20 of the Covenant, which establishes that “any propaganda for war” and “any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law”;\n(ii) Article 3, paragraph 1 (c), of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, which provides that States must ensure that their criminal law covers “producing, distributing, disseminating, importing, exporting, offering, selling or possessing [...] child pornography”;\n(iii) Article 4 (a) of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, which establishes the requirement to “declare an offence punishable by law all dissemination of ideas based on racial superiority or hatred, incitement to racial discrimination, as well as all acts of violence or incitement to such acts against any race or group of persons of another colour or ethnic origin”;\n(iv) Article III (c) of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, which states that “direct and public incitement to commit genocide” shall be punishable;\n(i) Restrictions already established must be reviewed and their continued relevance analysed periodically;\n(j) In states of emergency which threaten the life of the nation and which have been officially proclaimed, States are permitted to temporarily suspend certain rights, including the right to freedom of expression. However, such suspensions shall be legitimate only if the state of emergency is declared in accordance with article 4 of the Covenant and general comment No. 29 of the Human Rights Committee. A state of emergency may not under any circumstances be used for the sole aim of restricting freedom of expression and preventing criticism of those who hold power;\n(k) Any restriction or limitation must be consistent with other rights recognized in the Covenant and in other international human rights instruments, as well as with the fundamental principles of universality, interdependence, equality and non-discrimination as to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other belief, national or social origin, property, birth or any other status;\n(l) All restrictions and limitations shall be interpreted in the light and context of the particular right concerned. Wherever doubt exists as to the interpretation or scope of a law imposing limitations or restrictions, the protection of fundamental human rights shall be the prevailing consideration.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "20", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Context_before names HRC GC No. 11 on 'article 20 of the Covenant' (ICCPR). The principles paragraph discusses limitations under 'the Covenant' (ICCPR per Siracusa context). ICCPR art.20 (incitement) is correct."}, {"article": "3", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "low", "source": "opus", "rationale": "No explicit treaty attribution for art.3 in visible text; the regex may have captured an enumeration. Multiple plausible treaties (ICCPR art.3 equal rights, CERD art.3, CRC art.3) given the document's mixed context. Conservative ambiguous designation appropriate."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "low", "source": "opus", "rationale": "No explicit treaty attribution for art.4; could plausibly be ICCPR art.4 (derogation/limitations), CERD art.4 (hate speech), or CRC art.4 (implementation). The Siracusa/Covenant context suggests ICCPR but without textual cue, AMBIGUOUS is conservative."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "low", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second art.4 occurrence — same analysis: multiple plausible treaties without explicit textual pointer."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The principles set out herein should be understood to be of an exceptional nature. They are suggested as a means of ensuring that States do not abuse restrictions or limitations for political ends and that the application of such restrictions or limitations does not cause other rights to be violated. The principles should be applied in a comprehensive manner.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The Special Rapporteur also wishes to stress that, as provided in paragraph 5 (p) of Human Rights Council resolution 12/16, restrictions on the following aspects of the right to freedom of expression are not permissible:\n(i) Discussion of government policies and political debate; reporting on human rights, government activities and corruption in government; engaging in election campaigns, peaceful demonstrations or political activities, including for peace or democracy; and expression of opinion and dissent, religion or belief, including by persons belonging to minorities or vulnerable groups;\n(ii) The free flow of information and ideas, including practices such as the banning or closing of publications or other media and the abuse of administrative measures and censorship;\n(iii) Access to or use of information and communication technologies, including radio, television and the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. With regard to limitations on freedom of expression justified on the basis of the protection of other rights or the reputation of others, the Special Rapporteur reiterates that this justification must not be used to protect the State and its officials from public opinion or criticism. The Special Rapporteur is of the view that no criminal or civil action for defamation should be admissible in respect of a civil servant or the performance of his or her duties. In addition, all desacato laws should be repealed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The Special Rapporteur believes that any attempt to criminalize freedom of expression as a means of limiting or censuring that freedom must be resisted. He therefore encourages all efforts to decriminalize acts considered to be acts of defamation and to make civil liability proceedings the sole form of redress for complaints of damage to reputation. However, civil penalties for defamation should not be so heavy as to block freedom of expression and should be designed to restore the reputation harmed, not to compensate the plaintiff or to punish the defendant; in particular, pecuniary awards should be strictly proportionate to the actual harm caused, and the law should give preference to the use of non-pecuniary remedies, including, for example, apology, rectification and clarification.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. In addition, criminal defamation laws may not be used to protect abstract or subjective notions or concepts, such as the State, national symbols, national identity, cultures, schools of thought, religions, ideologies or political doctrines. This is consistent with the view, sustained by the Special Rapporteur, that international human rights law protects individuals and groups of people, not abstract notions or institutions that are subject to scrutiny, comment or criticism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. On this basis, and recalling the Joint Declaration issued by the International Mechanisms for Promoting Freedom of Expression in 2008: “The concept of ‘defamation of religions’ does not accord with international standards regarding defamation, which refer to the protection of the reputation of individuals, while religions, like all beliefs, cannot be said to have a reputation of their own.” The Special Rapporteur reiterates that, in his point of view, it is conceptually incorrect to present the issue of “defamation of religions” in an abstract manner as a conflict between the right to freedom of religion and belief and the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. The Special Rapporteur notes and deeply regrets the continuing existence in the world of stereotypes and prejudice against ethnic, racial, linguistic and religious groups that are the result of racism and discrimination or of the erroneous application of national security and anti-terrorism policies. It is essential that this problem be recognized and that it be countered by a developing culture of peace based on intercultural dialogue and tolerance which promotes respect in intercultural relationships.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. The Durban Review Conference outcome document made an important contribution to our understanding of freedom of opinion and expression in the context of the effort to combat discrimination and racism in its paragraph 58, which: “Stresses that the right to freedom of opinion and expression constitutes one of the essential foundations of a democratic, pluralistic society, and stresses further the role that right can play in the fight against racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance worldwide.”", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. The right to be informed and to receive information from various media is a key factor in the development of social groups. This right is a cornerstone of democracy and supports the construction of more democratic societies peopled by active citizens who hold informed opinions about the situation in their country and have the capacity and opportunity to propose and contribute to public policies and to demand transparency.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned that providers of information have become targets for threats, assaults and even assassinations. It is deplorable that, between 2008 and 2009, there was an increase in the number of killings, assassinations, assaults and incidents of ill-treatment against persons associated with journalism and mass communication.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. According to the NGO Reporters Without Borders, in 2009 around 76 journalists were killed in the exercise of their profession. This figure represents an increase of at least 26 per cent over the 2008 level.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Reporters Without Borders, “Wars and disputed elections: the most dangerous stories for journalists”, 30 December 2009, www.rsf.org/Wars-and-disputed-elections-The.html."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. The Special Rapporteur calls on the Philippines, Somalia, Iraq, Pakistan, the Russian Federation and Mexico[[fn:8]] (the States accounting for the greatest number of journalists’ deaths, in descending order) to adopt the measures necessary to guarantee the protection of journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Committee to Protect Journalists, “71 Journalists Killed in 2009/Motive Confirmed”, cpj.org/killed/2009/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. The high-risk conditions in which journalists carry out their work, as evidenced by the threats and assaults to which they constantly fall victim, are also a matter of concern.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. A particular concern is the fact that a high percentage of the killings for which the motives have been confirmed were connected to investigations into corruption, organized crime and political crime that the journalists in question were conducting at the time.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. According to the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ), the perpetrators of these offences have enjoyed total impunity in 94 per cent of all cases, while the percentage of cases in which even some partial measure of justice has been obtained is minimal; in only 2 per cent of cases have the offences been tried before the competent authorities and the perpetrators and instigators prosecuted. Although the majority of the victims were male journalists, 11 per cent were women, which is also a matter for concern.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. The States concerned maintain that violence against journalists has varied causes, which may be true. However, the Special Rapporteur believes that States have a duty to carry out exhaustive investigations into each case and to bring criminal charges against those responsible. Failure to perform this duty creates a culture of impunity which perpetuates the violence. Systematically allowing those responsible for killing journalists or social communicators to go unpunished could be interpreted as tolerance or acquiescence on the part of the State.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. Furthermore, kidnappings of journalists and other persons with links to the media are a continuing practice which, in 2009, forced around 157 journalists to seek exile in other countries.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. The Special Rapporteur must also draw attention to the serious risk that exercising freedom of the press in a professional, objective and pluralistic manner constitutes in areas of conflict, where journalists have come to be seen by the parties to the conflict as just another target.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. On this point, it should be noted that Security Council resolution 1738 (2006) condemns intentional attacks against journalists, media professionals and associated personnel in situations of armed conflict and calls upon all parties to put an end to such practices. It also urges all States to comply with the relevant obligations under international law to end impunity and to prosecute those responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. In the aforementioned resolution, the Security Council also urges all parties involved in situations of conflict to respect the professional independence and rights of journalists, media professionals and associated personnel as civilians.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. The Special Rapporteur considers it necessary to remind States of their obligation to ensure that both the national and the international press have access to all the facts and to all conflict zones and to provide members of the press with the protection due them in accordance with the aforementioned resolution.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. The Special Rapporteur is concerned about the alarming and growing tendency to criminalize and institute legal proceedings against community-based communicators, who should also be considered journalists and media personnel, and should thus benefit from the same safeguards as all journalists, since a person’s status as a journalist is determined by the work that he or she performs and is not subject to any job title or form of registration.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. The Special Rapporteur also believes that, if a community-based medium has violated an administrative provision, it is within the administrative framework that a solution should be found; criminal law should not be applied, and community-based communicators should not be criminalized, since this severely limits freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. The Special Rapporteur urges States to take steps to prevent violence against journalists and to improve the protection afforded to them. Drafting and implementing handbooks, guides and protocols on protection would constitute a good practice to this end.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. The right to freedom of opinion and expression should be viewed as a key instrument for the promotion and protection of other human rights and an important tool in the effort to combat impunity and corruption.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. Freedom of opinion and expression is an individual and collective right which affords people the opportunity to issue, seek, receive and impart pluralistic and diverse information that enables them to develop their own lines of reasoning and opinions and to express them in any way they see fit. Freedom of expression is therefore exercised through two routes: the right to access information and the right to self-expression through any medium.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. Freedom of expression is also a right of peoples, in that, through its effective exercise, peoples can develop, impart and reproduce their culture, their language, their traditions and their values.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. Freedom of opinion and expression should be viewed as a means of combating all forms of discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0108", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. Lack of access to information in accordance with the principles of pluralism and diversity results in an ill-informed, non-participatory society in which political decision-making is not democratic.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0109", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. Community-based media are effective instruments for ensuring the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in all social sectors, without any form of discrimination whatsoever, in accordance with the principles of pluralism and diversity that should guide the exercise of this right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0110", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. The Special Rapporteur is concerned about the growing digital divide and the disparity between developed and developing countries in terms of the development of electronic communications technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0111", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. Electronic communication is also an economic right, in that it is an essential factor for development. Accordingly, States should ensure that all sectors of society, and in particular the most disadvantaged among them, have access to electronic communications media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0112", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. Women continue to be denied the full exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression and, as a result, are also limited in the exercise of other fundamental rights, such as the rights to development, to education, to health, to participation and to a life free from violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0113", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. Freedom of opinion and expression is an early form of participation for children and constitutes a mechanism for inclusion that necessarily entails recognition and respect of human dignity. Children’s opinions should therefore be respected and taken into account.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0114", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. The right to freedom of opinion is absolute and may not be limited in any way, whereas the right to freedom is not absolute and may thus be subject to exceptional restrictions and limitations as defined in article 19, paragraph 3, and article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Such restrictions and limitations must be interpreted in accordance with international human rights law and the principles deriving therefrom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0115", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "115. In exceptional circumstances, international human rights law permits certain limitations to freedom of expression. By establishing those limitations, the State is effectively fulfilling its obligation to prohibit certain expressions owing to the serious damage that they cause to the human rights of others, as provided for in article 20 of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0116", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "116. The Special Rapporteur reiterates his view that it is conceptually incorrect to present the issue of “defamation of religions” in the abstract as a conflict between the right to freedom of religion or belief and the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0117", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "117. The Special Rapporteur expresses concern about the violence to which journalists and media professionals continue to fall victim.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0118", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "118. States have an obligation to guarantee to all individuals the full enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression through any medium, while ensuring that their human rights are respected and protected. In particular, they should guarantee the full enjoyment of this right to all persons engaged in journalistic activities in places of internal conflict or war, where the nature of their work places them in a position of greater vulnerability; all social communicators are considered to be journalists for this purpose.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0119", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "119. States should take the necessary steps to guarantee the effective exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression for all individuals and social sectors, without exception or discrimination of any kind.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General considerations concerning freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0120", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "120. States should refrain from criminalizing any manifestation of the freedom of expression as a means of limiting or censoring that freedom. Accordingly, any measure of this kind should be abolished, except for the permissible and legitimate restrictions established in international human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General considerations concerning freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0121", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 121, "n": 121, "text": "121. States should adopt the legislative and administrative measures necessary to facilitate access to public information and should establish specific mechanisms for that purpose.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General considerations concerning freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0122", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 122, "n": 122, "text": "122. It is recommended that States establish a legal framework that recognizes and regulates community-based communication within the framework of the 14 principles presented in this report and that a fair balance be struck in terms of frequency allocation among community-based media, commercial media and public-sector or State media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General considerations concerning freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0123", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 123, "n": 123, "text": "123. It is recommended that frequency allocation should be overseen and managed by an independent State (public-sector) body.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General considerations concerning freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0124", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 124, "n": 124, "text": "124. It is recommended that States, the media and financial institutions implement the recommendations set forth in the Colombo Declaration, which are aimed at strengthening the freedom of expression of marginalized sectors of society and their access to media of their own, including electronic media, with a view not only to promoting freedom of expression and democracy but also to combating poverty and meeting the Millennium Development Goals. It is also recommended that States establish a special fund to subsidize access (which requires both connectivity and the necessary equipment) to electronic media for all sectors.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General considerations concerning freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0125", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 125, "n": 125, "text": "125. It is recommended that States facilitate technology transfer in the field of communications as a means of narrowing the digital and technological divide between the developed world and developing countries and thus contributing to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General considerations concerning freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0126", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 126, "n": 126, "text": "126. It is recommended that States respect the principles of pluralism and diversity, which are inherent in freedom of expression, in order to prevent and combat the concentration of media ownership in the hands of large-scale public and private consortia which contravene democratic models.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Women/girls", "Children", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General considerations concerning freedom of opinion and expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0127", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 127, "n": 132, "text": "132. It is recommended that States take all actions necessary to ensure that representatives of the national and international press have access to all facts and to all places, including zones of internal or international armed conflict, while guaranteeing the protection necessary to safeguard their lives and their physical and mental integrity, together with the full exercise of their human rights in accordance with international human rights law and international humanitarian law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "3. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0128", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 128, "n": 133, "text": "133. With regard to the alarming number of journalists who have been killed, kidnapped or threatened, States are reminded of their duty to investigate and prosecute those responsible for planning and perpetrating such acts in order to eliminate the culture of impunity that perpetuates violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "3. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0001", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report is submitted to the General Assembly by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 16/4.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0002", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. In his previous report to the General Assembly (A/66/290), the Special Rapporteur underscored the differences between illegal types of expression, which States are required to prohibit under international law, such as direct and public incitement to commit genocide, and those that are considered harmful, offensive, objectionable or undesirable, but which States are neither required to prohibit nor criminalize. He emphasized the need to distinguish between three types of expression: expression that constitutes an offence under international law and can be prosecuted criminally; expression that is not criminally punishable but may justify a restriction and a civil suit; and expression that does not give rise to criminal or civil sanctions, but still raises concerns in terms of tolerance, civility and respect for others. He underlined that those different categories posed different issues of principle and called for different legal and policy responses. In that context, he briefly examined the issue of hate speech and advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constituted incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0003", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur aims to expand on the issue of hate speech, given the continuing challenge faced in identifying ways to reconcile the need to protect and promote the right to freedom of opinion and expression, on the one hand, and to combat intolerance, discrimination and incitement to hatred, on the other. Indeed, the discussions at the four expert regional workshops on the prohibition of incitement to hatred, organized by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), revealed significant differences in legislative patterns, judicial practices and policies on incitement and advocacy of hatred, both between and within regions.[[fn:1]] Such diverse responses to the phenomenon of hate speech are symptomatic of the unclear normative environment surrounding the issue. The Special Rapporteur thus hopes to move the debate forward by underlining basic principles of international human rights law, identifying elements to be used in determining what kinds of expression would meet the threshold of “advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence” and reminding the international community that the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the prohibition of incitement to hatred are not simply compatible but are in fact mutually supportive, given that open public debate of ideas, in addition to interfaith and intercultural dialogue, can be the best antidote to hate and intolerance.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The reports of the four regional workshops are available from www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/ FreedomOpinion/Articles19-20/Pages/ExpertsPapers.aspx."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0004", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The Special Rapporteur, with the support of local organizations, organized regional expert consultations to gather information and input for the present report. They were held in Singapore, on 11 and 12 January 2012; Florence, Italy, on 26 and 27 March 2012; Rome, from 28 to 30 March; Colombia, on 10 and 11 April; and Panama, on 12 and 13 April.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0005", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. On 18 and 19 April, the Special Rapporteur participated in a meeting in Stockholm on the theme “Internet freedom for global development”, organized by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Sweden.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0006", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. On 21 and 22 April, the Special Rapporteur participated as a panellist in a meeting of the Inter-American Press Association held in Cadiz, Spain. On 23 and 24 April, he participated as a panellist in a session on the rule of law and the Internet during the Global INET 2012 event organized by the Internet Society in Geneva.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0007", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. From 2 to 4 May, the Special Rapporteur participated as a panellist at the World Press Freedom Day Conference organized in Tunis by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information in Africa and the University of Pretoria. On 6 May, he participated in a meeting on decriminalization of expression, held in Tunis and organized by the same entities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0008", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. On 8 and 9 May, the Special Rapporteur participated as a keynote speaker at an international conference on freedom of expression online, organized by the Universidad del Rosario and George Washington University in Bogota.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0009", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. On 21 and 22 May, he participated as a keynote speaker at the tenth Austin Forum on Journalism in the Americas, on the theme “Safety and protection for journalists, bloggers and citizen journalists”, organized by the Knight Center for Journalism in the Americas and the Latin America and media programmes of Open Society Foundations in Texas, United States of America.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0010", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. From 29 May to 5 June, the Special Rapporteur taught a class on freedom of expression at American University in Washington, D.C. From 6 to 8 June, he participated in a seminar on human rights defenders and peaceful protests in Oslo, organized by the International Service for Human Rights and the ministries of foreign affairs of Norway and Switzerland.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0011", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. On 18 June, the Special Rapporteur participated as a panellist in the Dublin Conference on Internet Freedom, organized by the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade of Ireland. On 19 June, he presented his annual report to the Human Rights Council, in which he considered the protection of journalists and media freedom (A/HRC/20/17).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0012", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. From 23 to 26 June, the Special Rapporteur participated as a panellist at the International Press Institute World Congress in an event entitled “Media in a Challenging World: A 360 Degree Perspective”, organized by the International Press Institute in Port of Spain.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0013", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. From 9 to 11 July, he participated as a panellist at the Mapping Digital Media Advocacy Summit, organized by Open Society Foundations in Istanbul, Turkey.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0014", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. On 4 April, the Special Rapporteur issued a press release in which he expressed his concern regarding the sentencing of Luis Agustín González, the editor of Cundinamarca Democrática, a Colombian newspaper, to 18 months’ imprisonment and a fine of approximately $5,000 for libel in relation to an editorial published in 2008 in which he questioned the candidacy of a local politician, Leonor Serrano de Camargo. The Special Rapporteur underscored that defamation should be decriminalized and not be applied in cases of criticism of public officials.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Press releases issued"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0015", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. On 30 May, he and the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association issued a joint press release in which they expressed concern over demonstrations in Quebec, Canada, on 24 May, which reportedly involved serious acts of violence and the detention of up to 700 protesters. They also urged the federal and provincial governments of Canada and Quebec to fully respect the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly, expression and association of students affected by two recently adopted pieces of legislation (Act No. 78 of the National Assembly of Quebec, to enable students to receive instruction from the post-secondary institutions that they attend, and the regulation modifying the regulation of the City of Montreal on preventing breaches of peace, security and public order, and on the use of public domain). They underlined that they had been in contact with the Government, which had promised to clarify the issues of concern.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Press releases issued"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0016", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. On 7 June, the Special Rapporteur, the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders and the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association issued a press release in which they called upon the Government of Malaysia and other parties involved to ensure the protection of non-governmental organizations campaigning for reform of the electoral process in the lead-up to the general election scheduled to be held in April 2013. In particular, they urged the authorities to protect Ambiga Sreenevasan and other members of the Coalition for Clean and Fair Elections (Bersih) from acts of harassment and intimidation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Press releases issued"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0017", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. On 12 July, they also issued a press release in which they called for the rejection of a draft law on non-commercial organizations in the Russian Federation. They noted that, if approved, the draft law would brand all foreign-funded non-commercial organizations that engaged in political activities as “foreign agents” and would impose harsh penalties for non-compliance with new regulations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Press releases issued"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0018", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. On 21 June, the Special Rapporteur and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions issued a joint press release on the occasion of the presentation of their reports on the protection of journalists to the Human Rights Council. They underscored that journalists should not be silenced, intimidated, imprisoned, tortured or killed for exposing inconvenient truths, making key recommendations to ensure journalists’ safety and to combat impunity for crimes committed against them.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Press releases issued"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0019", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. On 25 June, the Special Rapporteur, the Representative on Freedom of the Media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression of the Organization of American States and the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information of the African Commission on Human and People’s Rights issued a joint declaration on crimes against freedom of expression.[[fn:4]] The joint declaration contains six sections: general principles; obligations to prevent and prohibit; obligation to protect; independent, speedy and effective investigations; redress for victims; and role of other stakeholders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Press releases issued"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Available from www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID= 12384&LangID=E."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0020", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. The Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Algeria from 10 to 17 April 2011 and to Israel and the occupied Palestinian territory from 6 to 17 December 2011. His main findings and recommendations can be found in documents A/HRC/20/17/ Add.1 and Add.2, respectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "1. Visits carried out in 2011 and 2012"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0021", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Honduras from 7 to 14 August 2012. His preliminary findings are available in the end-of-visit press statement.[[fn:5]] His full report will be submitted to the Human Rights Council in 2013.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "1. Visits carried out in 2011 and 2012"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Available, in Spanish only, from www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx? NewsID=12433&LangID=E."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0022", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Following invitations received from the Governments of Pakistan and Indonesia, on 7 February and 27 April, respectively, the Special Rapporteur is confirming the dates of his visits to those countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "2. Upcoming visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0023", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. As at the time of submission of the present report, the following visit requests from the Special Rapporteur were pending: Ecuador (most recently requested in February 2012), the Islamic Republic of Iran (February 2010), Italy (2009), Sri Lanka (June 2009), Thailand (2012), Tunisia (2009), Uganda (May 2011) and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) (2003 and 2009).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "3. Pending requests"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0024", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. With the increasing speed at which news and information circulate around the world through the mass media and the Internet, manifestations of hate speech have become increasingly visible. Moreover, in the context of rising immigration flows and population movements, declining domestic economies and the emergence of terrorism as a crucial political challenge, there has been a growing tendency to stigmatize specific groups and communities. This has been compounded by flawed national security and anti-terrorism laws and policies, such as racial profiling, demagogic statements by opportunistic politicians and irresponsible reporting by the mass media.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0025", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Regrettably, instances of incitement to hatred continue to be found in all regions, as highlighted in the joint paper submitted to the regional expert workshops on the prohibition of incitement to national, racial or religious hatred by the Special Rapporteur, the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief and the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Available from www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/FreedomOpinion/Articles19-20/Pages/ ExpertsPapers.aspx."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0026", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. In Europe, there have been instances of incitement to racial hatred against Roma; acts of violence perpetrated by neo-Nazi groups against non-European minorities; violence in several countries following the publication of cartoons featuring the Prophet Muhammad by the Jyllands-Posten newspaper in Denmark; and the release of an online film, Fitna, by a member of the parliament of the Netherlands, in which Muslims were associated exclusively with violence and terrorism.[[fn:7]]", "labels": ["Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Expression/ICCPR/Vienna/CRP3Joint_SRSubmission_ for_Vienna.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0027", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. In Africa, there have been violent riots (for example, in Kenya, caused by alleged election-rigging and fuelled by tribal tension, and in Nigeria, on the basis of tribal tensions), leading to the deaths of several thousand people; attacks by Muslim villagers against Coptic Christians in Egypt; and various forms of incitement to violence and hatred on the basis of sexual orientation by politicians, the media and religious leaders in Uganda, as epitomized by the tragic killing of David Kato, whose name, photograph and description had been published by the Sunday Pepper newspaper in what it described as a “killer dossier”.[[fn:8]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Expression/ICCPR/Nairobi/JointSRSubmission NairobiWorkshop.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0028", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Asia and the Middle East have seen killings of presidents of the Ahmadiyya community in Pakistan following a television broadcast during which two maulanas stated that the Ahmadiyya community was deserving of death; incitement by a Government-appointed imam in Saudi Arabia to eliminate all Shia believers in the world; incitement to and acts of violence against the Sufi community in Sri Lanka; increased radicalization and serious instances of incitement to racism in Israel against the Arab population, in addition to acts of violence by Jewish settlers against Muslims; and incitement to religious hatred against Jews in the occupied Palestinian territory.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Expression/ICCPR/Bangkok/SRSubmission BangkokWorkshop.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0029", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. In the Americas, there have been instances of incitement to racial and religious hatred and manifestations of religious intolerance. For example, in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, there has been violence against members of the Catholic and Jewish communities, while in the United States, there have been instances of religious hatred or intolerance towards Islam, including plans by members of a Floridian church, the Dove World Outreach Center, to burn copies of the Koran.[[fn:10]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Expression/ICCPR/Santiago/JointSRSubmission Santiago.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0030", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. While politicians and the media often play a central role in fostering hate speech offline, the ease with which anyone can post comments on the Internet, and that this can be done anonymously, have further helped hate speech to spread. In one recent example, when a Canadian-American campaigner for women’s rights launched an online fundraising campaign for a series of short videos that would examine gender prejudices and the use of violence in video games, she was threatened with violence, death, sexual assault and rape, and an online interactive game was launched in which players were invited to beat her “black and blue”.[[fn:11]] In Maldives, a blogger and human rights campaigner advocating religious freedom was forced to flee the country after being subjected to an online hate campaign in the social media and having his throat slit.[[fn:12]] In addition, radical right-wing, xenophobic or extremist groups have used the Internet to spread messages of hate.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Helen Lewis, “This is what online harassment looks like”, New Statesman, 6 July 2012. Available from www.newstatesman.com/blogs/internet/2012/07/what-online-harassment-looks."}, {"n": 12, "text": "Amnesty International, “Maldives: human rights campaigner attacked, injured: Ismail Rasheed”, 15 June 2012. Available from www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ASA29/003/2012/en/2d510e96-456f-4d5c-af80-3b324dbb1595/asa290032012en.html."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0031", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. The growing number of expressions of hate, incitement to violence, discrimination and hostility in the mass media and on the Internet serves as a reminder that the struggle against intolerance is both an urgent and permanent task. In this context, the question of when and under what circumstances the right to freedom of expression can be legitimately limited has resurfaced with renewed urgency and concern.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0032", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Many of the efforts that Governments are currently making to combat hate speech are, however, misguided. These include requests by Governments to intermediaries to screen and remove user content, registration requirements to identify users’ real names and arbitrary blocking of websites. In addition, vaguely worded and ambiguous laws with disproportionate sanctions are frequently used to silence criticism and legitimate political expression, as highlighted in section II.C. While laws prohibiting incitement to hatred in accordance with international human rights law are necessary and required to tackle the phenomenon of hate speech, the human sentiment of hatred cannot be eliminated by legal prohibition alone, and the deterrent effect of such laws is not absolute, given that radical perpetrators often seek prosecution as a means to obtain access to the mainstream media to promote their ideas. Moreover, when an attempt to prosecute fails, for example where some forms of hate speech do not meet the threshold of incitement to violence, hostility or discrimination (such as bullying and offensive speech that do not incite any acts), there is a risk that that failure would be used as proof of endorsement of the speech, even though such speech merits condemnation. Furthermore, with regard to hate speech on the Internet, both the sheer volume of content posted every day and the cross-boundary nature of the medium considerably complicate effective implementation of the law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0033", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The need to go beyond legal measures to combat hate speech is particularly acute in the light of the increasingly transnational nature of many hate speech incidents and the inability of domestic legal systems to provide adequate responses and suitable remedies. In this regard, the media and Governments have crucial roles to play in preventing the escalation of violence and discrimination, as examined in section IV.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0034", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The principle of equality of all human beings and the right to be free from discrimination is at the heart of human rights, as reflected in article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which asserts that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. All human beings are thus entitled to the same enjoyment of all rights, without discrimination of any kind, including on the basis of race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or any other status, as affirmed in article 2 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Human Rights Committee has found that sexual orientation is included in this scope.[[fn:13]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Its jurisprudence in this regard includes: CCPR/C/KWT/CO/2, CCPR/C/TGO/CO/4, CCPR/C/JPN/CO/5, CCPR/C/JAM/CO/3, CCPR/C/USA/CO/3/Rev.1, CCPR/CO/78/SLV, CCPR/CO/81/NAM, CCPR/C/CO/IRN/CO/3, CCPR/C/MNG/CO/5, CCPR/C/MEX/CO/5, CCPR/C/MDA/CO/2, CCPR/C/ETH/CO/1, CCPR/C/CMR/CO/4, CCPR/CO/83/GRC, CCPR/C/POL/CO/6, CCPR/C/79/Add.119, CCPR/C/RUS/CO/6, CCPR/C/UZB/CO/3, CCPR/CO/82/POL, CCPR/CO/70/TTO and CCPR/C/CHL/CO/5."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "1", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR is a non-treaty instrument."}, {"article": "2", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'article 2 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR is a non-treaty instrument."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0035", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is guaranteed under article 19 of both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which affirm that everyone has the right to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds through any media and regardless of frontiers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'article 19 of both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — joint citation."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0036", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. The Special Rapporteur has consistently underlined the importance of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, not only as a right that should be guaranteed to all, including individuals belonging to marginalized groups, but also as a means to claim and enjoy all other rights. Indeed, it is a fundamental right that safeguards the exercise of all other rights and is a critical foundation of democracy, which depends on the free flow of diverse sources of information and ideas. The Constitution of UNESCO also affirms that peace can be promoted by facilitating the free flow of ideas and understanding among peoples of the world. Moreover, freedom of expression is essential to creating an environment conducive to critical discussions of religious and racial issues and also to promoting understanding and tolerance by deconstructing negative stereotypes. As the Special Rapporteur has previously emphasized, for the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion to be fully realized, robust examination and criticism of religious doctrines and practices — even in a harsh manner — must also be allowed.Error: Reference source not found As with all human rights, however, the exercise of the right to freedom of expression should not be aimed at the violation of any of the rights and freedoms of others, including the right to equality and non-discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0037", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. In particular, the rights of others are undermined when deep-rooted hatred is manifested and expressed under certain circumstances. International human rights law therefore recognizes that the right to freedom of expression can indeed be restricted where it presents a serious danger for others and for their enjoyment of human rights. Indeed, article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights stipulates that the exercise of the right to freedom of expression carries with it special duties and responsibilities. It may therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but only such as are provided by law and are necessary for respect of the rights or reputations of others and for the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0038", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Moreover, article 20 (2) of the Covenant explicitly provides that any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence is to be prohibited by law. This explicit language distinguishes such acts of advocacy from other acts that may be subject to restrictions under article 19 (3).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0039", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Hate speech on the basis of racial or ethnic origin is further prohibited under article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, which stipulates that States parties:\n(a) Shall declare an offence punishable by law all dissemination of ideas based on racial superiority or hatred, incitement to racial discrimination, as well as all acts of violence or incitement to such acts against any race or group of persons of another colour or ethnic origin, and also the provision of any assistance to racist activities, including the financing thereof;\n(b) Shall declare illegal and prohibit organizations, and also organized and all other propaganda activities, which promote and incite racial discrimination, and shall recognize participation in such organizations or activities as an offence punishable by law;\n(c) Shall not permit public authorities or public institutions, national or local, to promote or incite racial discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CERD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0040", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Furthermore, article III (c) of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide provides that direct and public incitement to commit genocide is to be punishable as a criminal offence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0041", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The Special Rapporteur wishes to underscore that any restriction imposed on the right to freedom of expression, on the basis of any of the above-mentioned instruments, must comply with the three-part test of limitations to the right, as stipulated in article 19 (3) of the Covenant. This means that any restriction must be:\n(a) Provided by law, which is clear, unambiguous, precisely worded and accessible to everyone;\n(b) Proven by the State as necessary and legitimate to protect the rights or reputation of others; national security or public order, public health or morals;\n(c) Proven by the State as the least restrictive and proportionate means to achieve the purported aim.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0042", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. In addition, any restriction imposed must be applied by a body that is independent of political, commercial or other unwarranted influences in a manner that is neither arbitrary nor discriminatory, and with adequate safeguards against abuse, including the right of access to an independent court or tribunal. Indeed, the risks that legal provisions prohibiting hate speech may be interpreted loosely and applied selectively by authorities underline the importance of having unambiguous language and of devising effective safeguards against abuses of the law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0043", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. With regard to the prohibition of any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence established under article 20 (2) of the Covenant, it is important to establish a clearer understanding of the terms to prevent any misapplication of the law. This formulation includes three key elements: first, only advocacy of hatred is covered; second, hatred must amount to advocacy which constitutes incitement, rather than incitement alone; and third, such incitement must lead to one of the listed results, namely discrimination, hostility or violence. As such, advocacy of hatred on the basis of national, racial or religious grounds is not an offence in itself. Such advocacy becomes an offence only when it also constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, or when the speaker seeks to provoke reactions on the part of the audience.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See the contribution to the OHCHR initiative on incitement to national, racial or religious hatred by Susan Benesch, consultant to the United Nations Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, 2011 (see www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Expression/ICCPR/Others2011/ SBenesch.doc)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0044", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Moreover, attention is drawn to the following definitions that have been developed through consultations of experts and discussed at the OHCHR regional expert workshops on incitement:\n(a) “Hatred” is a state of mind characterized as intense and irrational emotions of opprobrium, enmity and detestation towards the target group;[[fn:15]]\n(b) “Advocacy” is explicit, intentional, public and active support and promotion of hatred towards the target group;Error: Reference source not found\n(c) “Incitement” refers to statements about national, racial or religious groups that create an imminent risk of discrimination, hostility or violence against persons belonging to those groups;Error: Reference source not found\n(d) “Discrimination” is understood as any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of race, colour, descent, national or ethnic origin, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, language, religion, political or other opinion, age, economic position, property, marital status, disability, or any other status that has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or\nexercise, on an equal footing, of all human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field of public life;[[fn:16]]\n(e) “Hostility” is a manifestation of hatred beyond a mere state of mind. As highlighted by an expert at the regional workshops on the prohibition of incitement, this concept has received scant attention in jurisprudence and requires further deliberation;[[fn:17]]\n(f) “Violence” is the use of physical force or power against another person, or against a group or community, which either results in, or has a high likelihood of resulting in, injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment or deprivation.[[fn:18]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "As defined in principle 12.1 of the Camden Principles on Freedom of Expression and Equality. Available from www.article19.org/data/files/medialibrary/1214/Camden-Principles-ENGLISH-web.pdf."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Based on the grounds of non-discrimination in the jurisprudence of treaty bodies, and as provided for in article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; article 1 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination; article 1 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women; article 1 of the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families; and article 2 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities."}, {"n": 17, "text": "ARTICLE 19, “Towards an interpretation of article 20 of the ICCPR: thresholds for the prohibition of incitement to hatred: work in progress”, study prepared for the regional expert meeting on article 20 organized by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, held in Vienna on 8 and 9 February 2010. Available from www.ohchr.org/ Documents/Issues/Expression/ICCPR/Vienna/CRP7Callamard.pdf."}, {"n": 18, "text": "Adapted from the definition of violence given in Etienne G. Krug and others, eds., World report on violence and health (World Health Organization, Geneva, 2002). Available from http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2002/9241545623_eng.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0045", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. The threshold of the types of expression that would fall under the provisions of article 20 (2) should be high and solid. An important contribution in determining the appropriate threshold has been made by ARTICLE 19, a non-governmental organization, which has proposed a seven-part test using the following elements:\n(a) Severity of hatred, which should amount to “the most severe and deeply felt form of opprobrium”, including an assessment of the severity of what is said, the harm advocated, magnitude and intensity in terms of frequency, choice of media, reach and extent;\n(b) Intent of the speaker to incite discrimination, hostility or violence;\n(c) Content or form of the speech, including form, style, nature of the arguments deployed in the speech, magnitude or intensity of the speech, background of the inciter and the degree to which the speech is provocative or direct. Artistic expression should be considered with reference to its artistic value and context, given that individuals may use art to provoke strong feelings but without the intention of inciting violence, discrimination or hostility;\n(d) Extent of the speech, in terms of its reach and the size of the audience;\n(e) Likelihood or probability of harm occurring. While incitement by definition is an inchoate crime and the action advocated through incitement does not have to be committed for the speech to amount to a crime, a high degree of risk of resulting harm must be identified;\n(f) Imminence of the acts called for by the speech;\n(g) Context, including consideration of the speaker or author, audience, intended harm, existence of barriers in establishing media outlets, broad and unclear restrictions on content of what may be published or broadcast; absence of criticism of Government or wide-ranging policy debates in the media and other forms of communication; and the absence of broad social condemnation of hateful statements on specific grounds when they are disseminated.Error: Reference source not found", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 20 (2) should be high and solid' in a paragraph that opens with 'The threshold of the types of expression that would fall under the provisions of article 20 (2)' — context_before and context_after confirm this is ICCPR art. 20(2) (Human Rights Committee/Rabat Plan discussion on incitement thresholds)."}, {"article": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights' listing non-discrimination grounds — both Covenants have art. 2 non-discrimination. The list order names ICCPR first here alongside ICESCR. Since the text separates them with 'and' and cites both, the first art. 2 is ICCPR's."}, {"article": "1", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 1 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination' — explicit full treaty name attribution for the definition of racial discrimination."}, {"article": "1", "treaty": "CEDAW", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 1 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women' — explicit treaty attribution for the definition of discrimination against women."}, {"article": "1", "treaty": "CMW", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text continues listing 'article 1 of the International Con…' — the partial text and the explicit_treaties list includes CMW; CMW art. 1 defines migrant workers. This is the fourth art. 1 in the non-discrimination grounds list referencing multiple conventions."}, {"article": "2", "treaty": "ICESCR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text earlier lists 'article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights' — this second art. 2 is ICESCR art. 2 non-discrimination obligation."}, {"article": "20", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "The paragraph throughout discusses incitement thresholds under ICCPR art. 20; explicit_treaties lists ICCPR as primary. Art. 20 without paragraph number here refers to ICCPR art. 20 generally (hate speech/incitement prohibition)."}, {"article": "20", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Same as preceding — second reference to 'article 20' in the incitement threshold discussion; ICCPR art. 20 on advocacy of hatred."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0046", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. While some of the above concepts may overlap, the Special Rapporteur considers the following elements to be essential when determining whether an expression constitutes incitement to hatred: real and imminent danger of violence resulting from the expression; intent of the speaker to incite discrimination, hostility or violence; and careful consideration by the judiciary of the context in which hatred was expressed, given that international law prohibits some forms of speech for their consequences, and not for their content as such, because what is deeply offensive in one community may not be so in another. Accordingly, any contextual assessment must include consideration of various factors, including the existence of patterns of tension between religious or racial communities, discrimination against the targeted group, the tone and content of the speech, the person inciting hatred and the means of disseminating the expression of hate. For example, a statement released by an individual to a small and restricted group of Facebook users does not carry the same weight as a statement published on a mainstream website. Similarly, artistic expression should be considered with reference to its artistic value and context, given that art may be used to provoke strong feelings without the intention of inciting violence, discrimination or hostility.[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See, for example, the judgement of the European Court of Human Rights in Vereinigung Bildender Künstler v. Austria, Application No. 68354/01, 25 January 2001, para. 33."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0047", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Moreover, while States are required to prohibit by law any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence under article 20 (2) of the Covenant, there is no requirement to criminalize such expression. The Special Rapporteur underscores that only serious and extreme instances of incitement to hatred, which would cross the seven-part threshold, should be criminalized.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0048", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. In other cases, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that States should adopt civil laws, with the application of diverse remedies, including procedural remedies (for example, access to justice and ensuring effectiveness of domestic institutions) and substantive remedies (for example, reparations that are adequate, prompt and proportionate to the gravity of the expression, which may include restoring reputation, preventing recurrence and providing financial compensation).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0049", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. In addition, while some types of expression may raise concerns in terms of tolerance, civility and respect for others, there are instances in which neither criminal nor civil sanctions are justified. The Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate that the right to freedom of expression includes forms of expression that are offensive, disturbing and shocking.[[fn:20]] Indeed, since not all types of inflammatory, hateful or offensive speech amount to incitement, the two should not be conflated.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See Handyside v. United Kingdom, Application No. 5493/72, 7 December 1976, European Court of Human Rights."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0050", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 50, "n": 51, "text": "51. The Special Rapporteur remains concerned about the continuing existence and the use of flawed domestic laws that purport to combat hate speech but are in fact used to suppress critical or opposing voices. Such laws frequently carry disproportionate sanctions, such as hard labour, long prison sentences, life imprisonment or even capital punishment, for vague offences such as “inciting religious unrest” in Turkmenistan, “promoting division between religious believers and non-believers” in Viet Nam, “incitement to violation” in the Islamic Republic of Iran, “instigating hatred and disrespect against the ruling regime” in Bahrain, “inciting subversion of State power” in China, “incitement to offences that damage public tranquillity” in Myanmar, “blasphemy” in Pakistan, “inciting violence against a religious authority” in Angola, “causing national, racial or religious hate, discord and intolerance” in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (to suppress any criticism of the Macedonian Orthodox Church) and “misrepresenting events and inciting violence” in Somalia (to arrest and detain independent journalists).[[fn:22]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "C. Domestic legislation that contravenes international norms and standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "These and other examples can be found in the documentation available from www.ohchr.org/EN/ Issues/FreedomOpinion/Articles19-20/Pages/ExpertsPapers.aspx."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0051", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 51, "n": 52, "text": "52. Other examples of vague and overbroad legal provisions prohibiting incitement to hatred, which can be abused to censor discussion on matters of legitimate public interest, include “contempt of heavenly religions”, “fanaticism”, “expression of feelings of hostility”, “outraging religious feelings”, “provocation of sectarian or racial division”, “exciting racial hostility”, “inciting unlawful acts”, “all acts creating division among religions”, “promoting one’s own individual opinion on issues that are in disagreement among Islamic scholars”, “inciting people to disputes” and “talking about religions other than Islam”.Error: Reference source not found", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "C. Domestic legislation that contravenes international norms and standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0052", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 52, "n": 53, "text": "53. The Special Rapporteur also reiterates his concern in relation to anti-blasphemy laws, which are inherently vague and leave the entire concept open to abuse. He wishes to underscore once again that international human rights law protects individuals and not abstract concepts such as religion, belief systems or institutions, as also affirmed by the Human Rights Committee (CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 48). Moreover, the right to freedom of religion or belief, as enshrined in relevant international legal standards, does not include the right to have a religion or belief that is free from criticism or ridicule. Indeed, the right to freedom of expression includes the right to scrutinize, debate openly, make statements that offend, shock and disturb, and criticize belief systems, opinions and institutions, including religious ones, provided that they do not advocate hatred that incites hostility, discrimination or violence. The Special Rapporteur thus reiterates his call to all States to repeal anti-blasphemy laws and to initiate legislative and other reforms that protect the rights of individuals in accordance with international human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "C. Domestic legislation that contravenes international norms and standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0053", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 53, "n": 54, "text": "54. At the international level, the Special Rapporteur welcomes the shift from the notion of “defamation of religions” to the protection of individuals against incitement to religious hatred. The Human Rights Council, for the second year, has adopted by consensus a resolution on combating intolerance, negative stereotyping and stigmatization of, and discrimination, incitement to violence and violence against, persons based on religion or belief (resolution 19/25). In that resolution, the Council condemns any advocacy of religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, whether it involves the use of print, audiovisual or electronic media or any other means. It also recognizes that open public debate of ideas, as well as interfaith and intercultural dialogue, at the local, national and international levels can be among the best protections against religious intolerance and can play a positive role in strengthening democracy and combating religious hatred, convinced that a continuing dialogue on these issues can help overcome existing perceptions. Furthermore, it notes the speech given by the Secretary-General of the Organization of the Islamic Conference at the fifteenth session of the Council and draws on his call on States to take various actions to foster a domestic environment of religious tolerance, peace and respect. Lastly, it also calls for strengthened international efforts to foster a global dialogue for the promotion of a culture of tolerance and peace at all levels, based on respect for human rights and diversity of religions and beliefs. The Special Rapporteur is pleased to note that, after several years of debate, the Council has found a way to unanimously address concerns relating to religious intolerance without referring to concepts or notions that would undermine international human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "C. Domestic legislation that contravenes international norms and standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0054", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 54, "n": 55, "text": "55. With regard to discussion of history, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that historical events should be open to discussion and, as stated by the Human Rights Committee, laws that penalize the expression of opinions about historical facts are incompatible with the obligations that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights imposes on States parties in relation to the respect for freedom of opinion and expression (CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 49). By demanding that writers, journalists and citizens give only a version of events that is approved by the Government, States are enabled to subjugate freedom of expression to official versions of events.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "C. Domestic legislation that contravenes international norms and standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0055", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 55, "n": 56, "text": "56. Laws prohibiting incitement to hatred in accordance with international human rights law are indeed necessary and required to ensure that perpetrators are punished and that victims receive effective remedies, and to prevent recurrence of such acts. Penal codes alone, however, will rarely provide the solution to the challenges of incitement to hatred in society. Accordingly, while a legal prohibition and prosecution may be of key importance in some cases, a more effective toolbox containing positive measures is also necessary to tackle the root causes and various facets of hate, including broad-based societal programmes to combat inequality and structural discrimination, in addition to creative policies and measures to promote a culture of peace and tolerance at all levels.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0056", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 56, "n": 57, "text": "57. To this end, strengthening the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is essential. Indeed, States have affirmed the positive role that the right to freedom of opinion and expression can play in combating racial and religious hatred, including in the Durban Declaration and Programme of Action (A/CONF.189/12 and Corr.1, paras. 90 and 147), the outcome document of the Durban Review Conference (A/CONF.211/8, paras. 54 and 58) and Human Rights Council resolutions 12/16 (paras. 9-11) and 19/25 (paras. 4 and 5). Similarly, non-legal measures to combat discrimination and intolerance have been identified in various United Nations documents, including the Declaration and Programme of Action on a Culture of Peace (General Assembly resolutions 53/243 A and 53/243 B), the Global Agenda for Dialogue among Civilizations and its Programme of Action (Assembly resolution 56/6) and the 2005 World Summit Outcome (Assembly resolution 60/1). The Special Rapporteur reminds States to implement such measures outlined in existing international documents.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0057", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 57, "n": 58, "text": "58. A first essential element of any strategy to combat hate speech is prevention. To this end, it is crucial to provide education and raise awareness about human rights, tolerance and knowledge of other cultures and religions. When a State ratifies an international human rights instrument, it has the duty to raise levels of awareness of the rights contained therein among the population at large (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/ Add.13, para. 7). The school education system is a prime avenue to do so. For example, in Sweden, the Living History Forum (www.levandehistoria.se) is a public authority that produces exhibitions and teaching materials around topics of tolerance, democracy and human rights, with the Holocaust and other crimes against humanity as the starting point. Beyond such specific projects, it is crucial, however, to promote values, beliefs and attitudes that encourage children to embrace differences. Values instilled during childhood are likely to have the strongest impact on responses as adults.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "A. Education and awareness-raising"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0058", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 58, "n": 59, "text": "59. Human rights education should not, however, be limited to schoolchildren. Strong information campaigns by public authorities or others can raise awareness about hate speech and the harm that it causes and about the continued importance of a culture of tolerance and peace and its associated ethics. In some instances, responses to offences under article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights may include such campaigns to spread messages of tolerance and respect for others’ rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "A. Education and awareness-raising"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0059", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 59, "n": 60, "text": "60. Lastly, in several instances, it has been found that legislators and judges are unaware of international human rights treaties and the nature of State obligations, including article 20 of the Covenant. Where such lacunae exist, it is important to review the legal education system to redress the situation, including by providing training for judges on the thresholds of incitement to hatred. Law enforcement officers may also benefit from such initiatives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "A. Education and awareness-raising"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0060", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 60, "n": 61, "text": "61. Of equal importance to education is to facilitate greater dialogue, better communication and, thus, deeper understanding. Rather than imposing new restrictions, a culture of public discourse in which one can freely and without fear of retaliation articulate and debate experiences, in addition to continually deconstruct stereotypes, is essential.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "B. Counter-speech and social dialogue"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0061", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 61, "n": 62, "text": "62. The first critical step is to address and redress the indirect censorship, powerlessness and/or alienation felt by many groups and individuals. For example, in many countries, women or women’s groups that publicly criticize discriminatory religious tenets have frequently been the targets of severe harassment and intimidation, both by the State and by non-State actors. Explicitly or implicitly, through such actions an illusion is created that only those with the requisite authority can speak on particular issues. The resulting culture of fear hampers public debate and directly contradicts the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Governments should therefore proactively facilitate counter-speech of individuals belonging to groups that are systematically targeted by hate speech. Moreover, with the advent of the Internet, individuals no longer have to wait for the State to facilitate such processes and can take the initiative themselves. For example, Groundviews (http://groundviews.org) is a citizen journalism initiative in Sri Lanka that documents stories and opinions that the mainstream media may censor owing to fear or reprisals. By allowing voices that have been marginalized and perspectives that generally find little expression to come to the fore, such initiatives play a vital role in fostering debate and greater understanding in society.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "B. Counter-speech and social dialogue"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0062", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 62, "n": 63, "text": "63. At the individual level, it is also important to remember the responsibility of each individual citizen to speak out against human rights violations. Often, extreme manifestations of hatred are the work of only a small group of people or are instigated by political opportunists, yet most people fail to react or to respond. The task of combating hate speech should not, however, be left to those targeted by such speech. Because the Internet has made it possible for hate speech to proliferate much more easily, it becomes all the more important for each individual to take on the responsibility to denounce hate speech publicly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "B. Counter-speech and social dialogue"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0063", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 63, "n": 64, "text": "64. A special responsibility to denounce instances of hate speech continues to rest with public officials, however. Clear, formal rejections of hate speech by high-level public officials and initiatives to engage in interreligious or intercultural dialogue play an important role in alleviating tensions and building a culture of tolerance and respect without resorting to censorship. For example, following the publication by the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten on 30 September 2005 of cartoons depicting the Prophet Muhammad in a derogatory manner, 11 ambassadors from Muslim-majority countries requested a meeting with the Prime Minister. The request was not granted, however, meaning that an early and important opportunity to defuse tension and to prevent a spiral of violence was missed. In contrast, when Geert Wilders, a member of the parliament of the Netherlands, released his controversial online film, Fitna, on 27 March 2008, the Government acted swiftly to distance itself from the film and to reject the equation of Islam with violence, which was welcomed in the joint press statement issued on 28 March 2008 by the Special Rapporteur, the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief and the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance.[[fn:23]] Interestingly, the film attracted little controversy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "B. Counter-speech and social dialogue"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See also the special rapporteurs’ communication of 14 November 2005 to the Government of the Netherlands (E/CN.4/2006/5/Add.1, paras. 110 and 116)."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0064", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 64, "n": 65, "text": "65. Public condemnation by high-level Government officials is particularly crucial because extremist groups have been attempting to hijack the freedom of expression debate and to cast themselves in the role of the ultimate defenders of free speech. Policymakers and politicians across party lines, rather than using the existence of laws to deal with the matter as an excuse to remain silent in such situations, should have the courage to systematically condemn hate speech publicly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "B. Counter-speech and social dialogue"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0065", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 65, "n": 66, "text": "66. States also have a responsibility to establish a comprehensive strategy of interaction to stimulate tolerance. This can include initiatives to host interreligious platforms for cooperation and dialogue at various levels of leadership, including the local, regional and international levels. Such initiatives should aim not only to achieve greater understanding or to combat prejudices and stereotypes in public and political discourse, but also to facilitate coalition-building across diverse cultural and religious communities and incorporate conflict prevention and de-escalation strategies.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "B. Counter-speech and social dialogue"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0066", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 66, "n": 67, "text": "67. Lastly, States should also take appropriate disciplinary measures with regard to hate speech or incitement to hatred by public officials, as recognized in article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. When high-level officials engage in hate speech, they undermine not only the right to non-discrimination of affected groups, but also the faith of such groups in State institutions and, thus, the quality and level of their participation in democracy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "B. Counter-speech and social dialogue"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CERD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0067", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 67, "n": 68, "text": "68. A third set of measures concerns data collection and analysis, in addition to more targeted research, in relation to freedom of expression and hate speech. This includes various forms of hate speech, the main perpetrators, where and under what circumstances hate speech occurs, who the messages reach and through which avenues, whether and which media outlets contest such messages, and in which cases and under what circumstances hate speech actually constitutes incitement in a manner that links content with action. In most countries, comprehensive data on such areas are glaringly absent. Consequently, policies and legislation are frequently based on perception. Systematic disaggregated data collection and analysis, using human-rights-sensitive methodologies, enable a better understanding of problems in a given country, the creation of better-targeted policies and the possibility of evaluation. For example, the aforementioned Living History Forum in Sweden carries out periodic attitude surveys to ensure that its efforts are focused where they are most needed. Data collection and analysis can also help to establish early warning mechanisms and aid in the effective enforcement of the law. International cooperation in these areas could help to increase not only comparability of data but also knowledge about the nature of hate speech that transcends boundaries. A clear distinction between expression that constitutes incitement, hate speech and merely offensive speech should be at the core of any such data-collection and analysis exercise.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "C. Data collection and research"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0068", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 68, "n": 69, "text": "69. More in-depth research in other areas would also be useful, including on the impact of existing laws and the extent to which they comply with international norms and standards and tackle the problems brought to light by data collection; jurisprudence and best practice; the relationship between incitement to racial hatred and to religious hatred; and the abuse of hate speech legislation to suppress dissent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "C. Data collection and research"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0069", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 69, "n": 70, "text": "70. While the swiftly evolving electronic media landscape has led to a dramatic increase in the volume of information available, the quality of information has not always kept pace. An objective, ethical and informative media therefore remains essential to informing society about contentious societal issues in a balanced manner and to preventing individuals from falling prey to promises of easy solutions and extremist rhetoric. Caution exercised by the media is also essential to preventing the drawing of any unnecessary attention to acts of an extremist individual that can spark violence. For example, when an obscure pastor in the United States threatened to burn the Koran in September 2010, the media played a negative role in unnecessarily drawing attention to the story. Had greater care been taken in reporting on the incident, some of the violence that ensued might have been averted.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "D. Media and ethics"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0070", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 70, "n": 71, "text": "71. Regrettably, increased media concentration, the formation of media oligarchies and political ownership of media outlets have resulted in the erosion of media diversity and a focus on entertainment at the expense of news, current affairs and investigative journalism. According to the International Federation of Journalists, two thirds of all independently owned newspapers have disappeared since 1975.[[fn:24]] At the same time, investments by media houses in training journalists have also declined. Moreover, public media are less able to provide a counterweight to such trends because their online presence is not yet well established, they are subjected to budget cuts and they are losing their audience faster than commercial media, in particular among the younger generation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "D. Media and ethics"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Project for Excellence in Journalism, “The state of the news media: overview/introduction”, 2009. Available from http://stateofthemedia.org/2009/overview/."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0071", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 71, "n": 72, "text": "72. All these factors have made the work of journalists as information providers increasingly challenging. If the media are to fulfil their primarily role of informing society, which is a crucial prerequisite in combating hate speech, a principled return to ethical journalism is urgently required. Moreover, it is essential that information regarding the media landscape of each country be made available publicly, including information on media ownership and sources of revenue.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "D. Media and ethics"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0072", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 72, "n": 73, "text": "73. Pluralism and diversity of views and opinions in mainstream media is another crucial element in ensuring equal participation in public debate by all communities in multicultural societies and in enabling their narratives and perspectives to become part of national debates. In Argentina, for example, part of the radio frequency spectrum is reserved for community media, so as to ensure access to the media for all. Training sessions and workshops for journalists on issues relating to diversity, including on how to build trust with underrepresented communities, can also significantly improve the quality of reporting and the portrayal of specific communities, such as migrants, who are often presented negatively as a security or economic problem. In addition to diversity in content and perspectives, pluralism in the media also requires diversity in the workforce of media professionals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "D. Media and ethics"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0073", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 73, "n": 74, "text": "74. Lastly, ensuring accountability for what is reported in the media also remains important. For example, the open journalism paradigm promoted by the Guardian newspaper in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland encourages two-way interaction between journalists and the audience online, which has reinserted journalists’ willingness to engage in debate and be accountable for what they do into the core of journalism. At the very minimum, media outlets and journalists should adopt voluntary ethical codes and standards that do not allow hate speech and promote high standards of professional journalism, in addition to establishing independent and self-regulatory bodies to elevate standards of journalism and to ensure the accountability of all media professionals. Self-regulatory bodies should be seen not only as an exercise in policing and dispute resolution, but also as an opportunity to involve society at large in debates about the role and contribution of the media, to monitor the state of the media, to advocate professional journalism and to promote media literacy. Such bodies can also play a proactive and exemplary role in setting and reinforcing ethical standards for online content and the social media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "D. Media and ethics"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0074", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 74, "n": 75, "text": "75. There has been a worrying increase in the number of expressions of hate, incitement to violence and discrimination. Such expressions have often been compounded by politicians and the mass media, while the Internet has also facilitated the multiplication and visibility of hate speech in recent years. These trends are of concern, given that every individual human being is entitled to the same dignity and rights, including the right not to be discriminated against, regardless of national origin, social, racial, ethnic or religious background, disability, gender, sexuality or any other grounds. The promotion and protection of the right to freedom of expression must, however, go hand in hand with efforts to combat intolerance, discrimination and incitement to hatred. While the right to freedom of expression can and should be restricted in extreme cases, such as incitement to genocide and incitement to hatred in accordance with international norms and principles, the right to freedom of expression contributes to exposing harms caused by prejudice, combating negative stereotypes, offering alternative views and counterpoints and creating an atmosphere of respect and understanding between peoples and communities around the world.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0075", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 75, "n": 76, "text": "76. Accordingly, laws to combat hate speech must be carefully construed and applied by the judiciary not to excessively curtail legitimate types of expression. At the same time, while laws are certainly necessary and an important component in addressing hate speech, they should be complemented by a broad set of policy measures to bring about genuine changes in mindsets, perception and discourse. Such a multilayered approach, supported by political and social will and commitment to effecting change, not only aids in addressing less severe forms of hate speech, but also supports awareness-raising and prevention.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0076", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 76, "n": 77, "text": "77. The Special Rapporteur urges States to conduct constitutional and legal reviews to ensure that domestic law on hate speech complies with the three-part test stipulated in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, namely that: the restriction must be provided by law, which is clear and accessible to everyone; it must be proven as necessary and legitimate to protect the rights or reputation of others; national security or public order, public health or morals; and it must be proven as the least restrictive and proportionate means to achieve the purported aim. Any breach of those principles should be subject to review by an independent court or tribunal.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Ensuring compliance of domestic laws with international standards"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0077", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 77, "n": 78, "text": "78. Given that blasphemy laws do not comply with the above-mentioned criteria, the Special Rapporteur urges States to repeal them and to replace them with laws protecting individuals’ right to freedom of religion or belief in accordance with international human rights standards. In addition, any law that provides for disproportionate sanctions for the expression of opinions, such as the death penalty, should be repealed immediately. Similarly, the Special Rapporteur calls upon States to repeal laws that prohibit discussion of historic events. Just as religion, history should always be open to discussion and debate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Ensuring compliance of domestic laws with international standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0078", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 78, "n": 79, "text": "79. To prevent any abusive use of hate speech laws, the Special Rapporteur recommends that only serious and extreme instances of incitement to hatred be prohibited as criminal offences. The Special Rapporteur thus calls upon States to establish high and robust thresholds, including the following elements: severity, intent, content, extent, likelihood or probability of harm occurring, imminence and context. Such examination must be performed on an ad hoc basis, taking context into consideration.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Ensuring compliance of domestic laws with international standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0079", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 79, "n": 80, "text": "80. For other types of hate speech that do not meet the threshold of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred constituting incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, the Special Rapporteur recommends that States adopt civil laws, with the application of diverse procedural and substantive remedies, such as restoring reputation, preventing recurrence and providing financial compensation. Indeed, with regard to speech that raises concern in terms of civility and tolerance for others, rather than lowering the threshold for incitement to hatred, responses to discrimination need to be strengthened, including by enhancing the enjoyment of the rights of ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities (article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights) and adopting policies and effective measures to eliminate racial discrimination (articles 2 and 5 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Ensuring compliance of domestic laws with international standards"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "27", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit treaty attribution. ICCPR art. 27 protects rights of minorities."}, {"article": "2", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'articles 2 and 5 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination' — explicit full treaty name. CERD art. 2 requires states to eliminate racial discrimination."}, {"article": "5", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Same sentence as art. 2 above: 'articles 2 and 5 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination' — explicit full treaty name. CERD art. 5 lists civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0080", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 80, "n": 81, "text": "81. When hate is expressed by politicians and public authorities, additional sanctions should be imposed, as recognized in article 4 (c) of the Convention. Such sanctions could include those of a disciplinary nature, such as removal from office, in addition to effective remedies for victims.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Ensuring compliance of domestic laws with international standards"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0081", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 81, "n": 82, "text": "82. Training should be offered to the judiciary to ensure a clear and consistent understanding of the forms and thresholds of hate speech under international law. In addition, continuing education opportunities for legal professionals and law enforcement officials in relation to relevant national and international provisions, including thresholds for incitement, should be made widely available.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Ensuring compliance of domestic laws with international standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0082", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 82, "n": 83, "text": "83. To help to provide further guidance to States, the Special Rapporteur recommends that the international human rights mechanisms renew their engagement with States on the issue of hate speech, including ratification of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination and review of any reservations relating to incitement to hatred. Non-State actors should also be involved. In addition, the Human Rights Committee could consider adopting a general comment on article 20 of the Covenant. The Human Rights Committee and the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination could also discuss the relationship between article 20 of the Covenant and article 4 of the Convention.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Ensuring compliance of domestic laws with international standards"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "20", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'ratification of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights … and review of any reservations relating to incitement to hatred' then 'consider adopting a general comment on article 20 of the Covenant' — 'the Covenant' is ICCPR. ICCPR art. 20 is the incitement prohibition."}, {"article": "20", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'the relationship between article 20 of the Covenant and article 4 of the Convention' — first part refers to ICCPR art. 20, matching the Human Rights Committee context."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 4 of the Convention' where 'the Convention' refers to the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD), named earlier in the same sentence via 'the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination'."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0083", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 83, "n": 84, "text": "84. The Special Rapporteur calls upon all States to raise awareness of human rights among the population at large, using, for example, the school education system and strong public information campaigns by public authorities or others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Implementation of non-legal measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0084", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 84, "n": 85, "text": "85. The Special Rapporteur encourages States and religious and community leaders to actively promote tolerance and understanding towards others and to support open debates and exchange of ideas in which everyone can participate on an equal footing without fear that only an established authority should have the right to speak. At the same time, public officials should systematically denounce and condemn hate speech publicly and more frequently than is currently the case.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Implementation of non-legal measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0085", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 85, "n": 86, "text": "86. The Special Rapporteur appeals to States, civil society organizations and the media to proactively facilitate the counter-speech of individuals and groups who are systematically targeted by hate speech, including through the Internet. For example, the media could ensure that such groups have a right to reply, while States could establish comprehensive strategies of interaction to foster tolerance, such as platforms of intercultural and interreligious dialogue from the local to the international levels.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Implementation of non-legal measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0086", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 86, "n": 87, "text": "87. With regard to the dissemination of hate speech online, States should request the removal of content only through a court order and intermediaries should never be held liable for content of which they are not the authors. The right of individuals to express themselves anonymously online must also be fully guaranteed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Implementation of non-legal measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0087", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 87, "n": 88, "text": "88. The Special Rapporteur recommends that States, academic institutions and civil society organizations collaborate in establishing a system to regularly gather and analyse relevant data regarding patterns of hate speech to aid policy formulation and evaluation and to establish early warning mechanisms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Implementation of non-legal measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0088", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 88, "n": 89, "text": "89. The Special Rapporteur urges States to promote pluralism and diversity of views and opinions in the media by encouraging diversity of ownership of media and of sources of information, including through transparent licensing systems and effective regulations to prevent undue concentration of media ownership in the private sector.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Implementation of non-legal measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0089", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 89, "n": 90, "text": "90. The Special Rapporteur also calls upon media professionals to abide by high ethical and professional standards of journalism to fulfil their role of informing society with accurate facts. He therefore encourages media professionals and media outlets to adopt and adhere to voluntary codes of ethics and professionalism and to establish self-regulatory bodies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Implementation of non-legal measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report, submitted pursuant to Commission on Human Rights resolution 2002/48, is the second general report by Mr. Ambeyi Ligabo (Kenya), appointed Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression on 26 August 2002. The Commission established the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in its resolution 1993/45.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Issues addressed in this report include an updating of the matters analysed in the Special Rapporteur’s previous report (E/CN.4/2003/67), namely access to information with regard to the prevention of HIV/AIDS; the safeguard of human rights, and in particular the right to freedom of opinion and expression while adopting and implementing counter-terrorism measures; a large part of this report is devoted to the phenomenon of access to information as a whole.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. At the beginning of his mandate, the Special Rapporteur decided to endorse the terms of reference and methods of work of his predecessor, Abid Hussein. The Special Rapporteur reiterated that country visits are one of the essential elements of his mandate, enabling him to examine in situ the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. He therefore calls upon Governments to cooperate with him in that regard.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE AND METHODS OF WORK"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The Special Rapporteur considers that exchange of communications with Governments on individual cases of alleged violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is also an important part of his mandate, and he thanks those Governments which cooperate with him in this respect, and wishes to call on other Governments to engage in a transparent and constructive dialogue with him.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE AND METHODS OF WORK"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The Special Rapporteur also emphasized that one of the main characteristics of his mandate would be the development of close cooperation with Governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and all other relevant organizations and institutions, in order to seek and receive credible and reliable information which, in his view, is essential for the discharge of his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE AND METHODS OF WORK"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The Special Rapporteur wished to reiterate that, in carrying out his mandate, he intends to cooperate closely with other geographic and thematic special procedures mandate-holders, the treaty bodies and human rights field operations of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). He also intends to continue and develop the collaboration with the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Representative on freedom of the media and the Organization of American States (OAS) Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression, as well as with the Programme for Freedom of Expression, Democracy and Peace of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE AND METHODS OF WORK"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. One of the most significant features of the Special Rapporteur’s mandate is the analysis of the communications received in order to identify trends, to reiterate issues already discussed in previous reports and to bring to the attention of the international community a number of policies, practices, incidents and measures having an impact on respect for the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Customarily, the Special Rapporteur considered communications brought to his attention from a variety of sources - Governments, international, regional, national and local NGOs; associations of media professionals, trade unions, members of political parties - and from all regions of the world. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that a plurality of sources of information is essential to the discharge of his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The Special Rapporteur notes that a large number of allegations continue to refer to the following situations: electoral processes; civil unrest; situations where the legal and institutional protections and guarantees of human rights exist but are not properly implemented; states of emergency in general; internal armed conflict. The Special Rapporteur also notes that the communications received are not confined to alleged violations in countries where the political, social and economic situation is particularly difficult, but also to alleged violations occurring in emerging or long-established democracies.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The nature of the alleged violations can enormously vary, depending on the level of respect for the rule of law and good governance in a society. The range of violations goes from killings, arbitrary arrest and detention, enforced disappearances, threats and harassment, criminal charges and sentencing to prison terms for libel or defamation, to various types of judicial and administrative measures.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. However, analysing the increasing number of communications sent to the Special Rapporteur, it was clear that the right to freedom of opinion and expression was far from being sufficiently and adequately protected in all regions of the world. While the nature and the seriousness of the violations may significantly vary, even well-established protection systems may be at risk facing sudden crises. In addition, continuing violations to freedom of opinion and expression seems to be a common feature of certain political systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. The Special Rapporteur wished to thank all those Governments that, in a spirit of collaboration and mutual understanding, answered his appeals and letters, thus exercising their right to reply. The correspondence is contained in document E/CN.4/2004/62/Add.1.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. On 16 October 2003, the Special Rapporteur signed a press release, together with four other Special Rapporteurs of the Commission on Human Rights, expressing their concern over the prevailing situation in Bolivia. In particular, they condemned violence during several\nprotests in various parts of the country and urged the Government to take necessary measures to ensure the full protection of the human rights of the demonstrators, including the right to assemble and protest, in the light of the international norms endorsed by Bolivia.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. On 17 October 2003, the Special Rapporteur and the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Human Rights Defenders, Mrs. Hina Jilani, expressed their deep concern over the conviction, on 16 October, of Irene Fernandez, director of “Tenaganita” - a women’s non-governmental organization based in Kuala Lumpur - who was sentenced to 12 months’ imprisonment by a Magistrates Court, in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. On 28 October 2003, the Special Rapporteur and three other experts of the Commission on Human Rights expressed their concern over the post-election situation in Azerbaijan, in particular over the reported use of attacks against, and arrests of demonstrators, in particular opposition leaders and journalists, by security forces and of harassment of some election observers and polling station officials.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. On 12 November 2003, the Special Rapporteur and two other experts of the Commission on Human Rights issued a press release on the situation in Nepal in the wake of the collapse of the ceasefire between the Government and the Communist Party of Nepal (CPN) (Maoist). They expressed particular concern at reports that dozens of individuals have been arrested and are detained secretly, allegedly on suspicion of supporting or being involved with the CPN (Maoist).", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. On the occasion of Human Rights Day on 10 December 2003, the Special Rapporteur joined many other experts of the Commission on Human Rights in a statement condemning all acts of intimidation and reprisal against individuals and groups who seek to cooperate, or have cooperated with the United Nations or representatives of its human rights bodies, and urging States to refrain from violating the rights of witnesses, in particular their rights to life, to be free from torture, to personal freedom and security, and to freedom of expression and to impart information and ideas. In their statement, the experts also called on States to protect witnesses from threats, intimidation and reprisals from private individuals or groups.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. On 22 July 2003, the Special Rapporteur sent a note verbale to all Member States drawing their attention to paragraph 17 of Commission on Human Rights resolution 2003/42 of 23 April 2003 entitled “The right to freedom of opinion and expression”. In that paragraph, the Commission invites the Special Rapporteur “to consider approaches taken to access to information with a view to sharing best practices” and “to continue to seek the views and comments of the Government and others concerned in the elaboration of his report”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "C. Requests for information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. From 2 to 7 December 2002, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Equatorial Guinea (E/CN.4/2003/67/Add.2). As a follow-up of his visit, the Government of Equatorial Guinea sent a letter inviting the Special Rapporteur to visit again the country in\nlate 2003, especially in order to verify the progress made regarding the technical assistance provided through OHCHR. While recognizing the efforts of the Government, in his letter dated 26 September 2003, the Special Rapporteur said that he considered a follow-up visit premature at that stage.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "D. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. On 23 October 2002, the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran invited the Special Rapporteur to visit the country. The mission was originally scheduled from 17 to 27 July 2003, but finally postponed at the request of the Government. Eventually, the Special Rapporteur had the opportunity of visiting the Islamic Republic of Iran from 3 to 11 November 2003. His mission report is contained in document E/CN.4/2004/62/Add.2. A joint mission to Côte d’Ivoire with the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance was cancelled because of the situation prevalent in the country, especially the lack of security. The mission has been tentatively re-scheduled for the beginning of 2004.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "D. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Since his appointment, the Special Rapporteur has received invitations to visit Colombia, Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, which he had already visited in December 2002, and the Islamic Republic of Iran. He would like to thank those Governments for their cooperation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "D. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. In addition, the Special Rapporteur has requested invitations to visit the following countries: Algeria, Angola, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Belarus, China, Cuba, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Italy, Liberia, Nepal, the Russian Federation, Spain, Sudan, Swaziland, Turkmenistan, Venezuela, Viet Nam and Zimbabwe. The Government of Spain, on 4 August 2003, sent the Special Rapporteur a comprehensive reply to his request, without inviting him to visit the country.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "D. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. On 4 April 2003, the Special Rapporteur opened the Commission on Human Rights agenda item on civil and political rights by introducing his general report E/CN.4/2003/67. Mr. Ligabo stated, among other things, that the right to freedom of opinion and expression was a clear indicator of the level of protection and respect for all other human rights in a given society, that it helped promote and strengthen democratic systems, and that it had widespread benefits in other areas, such as in the effectiveness of education and information campaigns on HIV/AIDS prevention.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. In particular, the Special Rapporteur said that alleged violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression occurred in all countries, whatever their systems. Nonetheless, democratic institutions offered more guarantees for protection of the right and also contributed to the existence of sound democratic systems. Some positive trends, the Special Rapporteur continued, could be noted such as the repeal of criminal libel provisions in certain countries, but other developments were still a matter of grave concern. In connection with attacks against journalists, a practice occurring in several countries, the Special Rapporteur stated that he would welcome a specific request from the Commission to undertake an in-depth study on the security of journalists, particularly in situations of armed conflict.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. During the fifty-ninth session of the Commission on Human Rights, the Special Rapporteur had the opportunity of consulting with representatives of the following countries: Canada, Colombia, Côte d’Ivoire, Denmark, Equatorial Guinea, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Norway, Pakistan and Zimbabwe. He also met the Commission on Human Rights Group of African States, the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, Mr. D. Diène and a representative of UNAIDS. Furthermore, he had a briefing with the press and several non-governmental organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. In these consultations, the Special Rapporteur explained the scope of his mandate and his working methods, emphasizing that he envisaged country missions to be carried out in a cooperative spirit. He pointed out that during country visits, special rapporteurs should be allowed to meet with all persons they request to meet and should have free access to prisons. The Special Rapporteur also said that, while on mission, he will seek clarification with relevant country authorities on any allegation he had considered reliable.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. The Special Rapporteur shared with his interlocutors the view that Governments should not feel targeted by the thematic mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights, since these are global mandates relating to all countries. Furthermore, he stated that it was important to establish a constructive dialogue with Governments on communications sent by Special Rapporteurs, and that he will attentively consider all replies which will be ultimately included in the Special Rapporteurs’ reports.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. In those meetings, the Special Rapporteur systematically underlined the importance he gives to the relation between freedom of expression and the combat against HIV/AIDS. Examining the lack of access to information concerning the disease might, he said, directly point to the responsibility of Governments in preserving and guaranteeing the health of citizens, and ultimately, in saving many human lives through timely and comprehensive awareness programmes.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. UNESCO invited the Special Rapporteur to participate in the celebration of World Press Freedom Day on 3 May 2003 in Kingston, Jamaica. In parallel, UNESCO organized, on 2 and 3 May, a conference to discuss the theme “Unpunished crimes against journalists”. Journalists from all over the world debated topics such as safety of journalists, a strategy to reduce impunity and, in general, obstacles to the full enjoyment of freedom of expression in the information society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The Special Rapporteur attended the tenth meeting of the special rapporteurs/representatives, independent experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures and advisory services programme of the Commission on Human Rights, held in Geneva from 23 to 27 June 2003. The report of the meeting is contained in document E/CN.4/2004/4.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. The NGO Article XIX, the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the Media Foundation for West Africa invited the Special Rapporteur to the All Africa Conference on Freedom of Expression to be held in Accra at the beginning of December 2003. Eventually, the Conference was postponed because of a concomitant meeting of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe and its Representative on freedom of the media, jointly with Reporters Without Borders, invited the Special Rapporteur to a round table on “libel and insult laws”, to be held in Paris from 24 to 25 November 2003. Unfortunately, due to his tight schedule, the Special Rapporteur was unable to participate in the round table.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The Special Rapporteur was also invited to the first phase of the World Summit on the Information Society, scheduled from 10 to 12 December 2003, in Geneva. The Special Rapporteur took note of the contents of the PrepCom 2 and PrepCom 3 meetings, respectively, held from 17 to 28 February 2003 in Paris, and from 15 to 26 September 2003 in Geneva, especially with regard to the draft declaration of principles. The Special Rapporteur regrets to note that the first phase of the World Summit on the Information Society largely neglected human rights issues, especially the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In his opinion, a society cannot properly be informed if human rights are not respected or promoted. Freedom of opinion and expression is a fundamental human right. The Special Rapporteur wishes to state that any declaration on the right to information excluding exhaustive references to that right, as well as other basic human rights, is an empty exercise of international relations. The Special Rapporteur hopes that the second phase of the World Summit on the Information Society, to be held in Tunis in 2005, will take remedial action on this serious shortcoming, and human rights will be integrated meaningfully in the final documents of the Summit.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. In paragraph 17 of its resolution 2003/42, the Commission on Human Rights invited, inter alia, the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, within the framework of its mandate:\n(a) With a view to promoting greater efficiency and effectiveness, as well as enhancing his access to the information necessary for him to fulfil his duties, to continue his efforts to cooperate with other special rapporteurs, special representatives, independent experts, working groups, other United Nations mechanisms and procedures in the field of human rights, specialized agencies, including the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, and regional intergovernmental organizations and their mechanisms and further to develop and extend his network of relevant non-governmental organizations, particularly at the local level, with a view to ensuring that he has the full benefit of all pertinent information from such non-governmental organizations;\n(b) To consider approaches taken to access to information with a view to sharing best practices;\n(c) To continue to provide his views, when appropriate, on the advantages and challenges of new information and communication technologies, including the Internet, for the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to seek, receive and impart information and the relevance of a wide diversity of sources, as well as access to the information society for all.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right to access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. Taking into account the requests of the Commission, the Special Rapporteur decided to focus on the question of the existence and extent of the right to access to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right to access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Since the establishment of the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression in 1993, the Special Rapporteur has been concerned with the concept and meaning of the right to information. The Special Rapporteur’s reports to the Commission on Human Rights have often dealt with the concept - or specific aspects of it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Whilst defining the concept definitively will always be difficult, Gopakumar Krishnan and Andrea Figari, writing on Transparency International’s Corruption Online Research and Information System (CORIS) web site, offer a helpful approach:\n[I]t is quite imperative that we talk about a “right” wherein ordinary citizens can get information as an entitlement and not as a favour. Watering down what is now universally regarded as a fundamental right (the concept is clearly articulated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights) to passive concepts like “access” or “freedom” will blur the focus and dilute the effectiveness of any concerted effort to open up records. So let’s get the semantics correct - we are talking about a non-negotiable right of citizens to demand information from the State and other relevant entities to enhance the quality of governance and strengthen the vibrancy of democracy.[[fn:1]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See www.corisweb.org/article/archive/246/."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. In his report E/CN.4/1995/43, the Special Rapporteur stated the basis for, and rationale of, the right to information as “The freedom to seek information is guaranteed in ICCPR Article 19 (2). It entails the right to seek information inasmuch as this information is generally accessible” (para. 34) and as “the right to seek or have access to information is one of the most essential elements of freedom of speech and expression. Freedom will be bereft of all effectiveness if the people have no access to information. Access to information is basic to the democratic way of life. The tendency to withhold information from the people at large is therefore to be strongly checked” (para. 35).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. However, in a more extensive commentary in 1998 (E/CN.4/1998/40), the Special Rapporteur moved beyond understanding the right to information as an element of freedom of expression generally aiming at securing democracy, towards the understanding that: “the right to seek and receive information is not simply a converse of the right to freedom of opinion and expression but a freedom on its own” (para. 11); the right “imposes a positive obligation on States to ensure access to information”, in particular, by “freedom of information legislation, which establishes a legally enforceable right to official documents for inspection and copying” (para. 14); the right to “access to information held by the Government must be the rule rather than the exception” (para. 12).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. The Special Rapporteur clearly affirmed that, insofar as it relates to Government, “‘State activity’, for example, meetings and decision-making forums should be open to the public wherever possible”, and classification systems (breaches of which often lead to officials being prosecuted) should only be employed to capture information “necessary” to prevent harm to the State (ibid., para. 12).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Further, the Special Rapporteur’s commentary on the right to information (E/CN.4/2000/63) - a right “a right in and of itself” - endorsed the set of principles drawn up by the non-governmental organization Article XIX, The Public’s Right to Know: Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation, based on “international and regional law and standards, evolving State practice, and the general principles of law recognized by the community of nations”. The principles are set out in annex II to that year’s report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. In 1996, the Special Rapporteur noted the contribution of non-governmental organizations in furnishing “useful materials” on aspects of the right, in particular the relationship between the right to information and national security. The Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information were endorsed and reproduced in an appendix to that year’s report (E/CN.4/1996/39).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Another expression of relevant principles informing the concept of the right to information, The Lima Principles (adopted by the Seminar on Information for Democracy, Lima, 16 November 2000) were endorsed and set out in annex II of the 2001 report (E/CN.4/2001/64).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. One of the main recommendations contained in the report E/CN.4/1998/40 stated that “As regards information, particularly information held by Governments, the Special Rapporteur strongly encourages States to take all necessary steps to assure the full realization of the right to access to information.” In particular, the Special Rapporteur was of the view that the right to seek, receive and impart information imposes a positive obligation on States to ensure access to information, particularly with regard to information held by Government in all types of storage and retrieval systems, including film, microfiche, electronic capacities and photographs. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur observed that in countries where the right to information was mostly realized, access to governmental information is often guaranteed by freedom of information legislation, which establishes a legally enforceable right to official documents for inspection and copying (para. 14).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. The Special Rapporteur went on to note the importance of such legislation establishing adequately-resourced “independent administrative bodies”, having the power to compel the Government to produce information so that a decision may be made on whether any denial is legitimate and to then issue binding decisions on public authorities (ibid., para. 14).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. In 1998, the Special Rapporteur suggested that it would be useful to “undertake a comparative study of the different approaches taken on this issue in different countries, with regard to the legislative framework, review mechanisms, as well as the implementation in practice” (para. 15).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. This call was repeated in the 1999 report (E/CN.4/1999/64). The different countries would be appraised against the framework that “everyone has the right to seek, receive and impart information and that this imposes a positive obligation on States to ensure access to information, particularly with regard to information held by Government in all types of storage and retrieval systems - including film, microfiche, electronic capacities, video and photographs - subject only to such restrictions as referred to in article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights” (para. 12).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. The Special Rapporteur notes the global trend, which is resulting in the adoption of increasing numbers of laws on the right to information. The latest tally is more than 50, in all regions of the world.[[fn:2]] The Special Rapporteur also notes the official and non-official efforts, globally and regionally, to foster, entrench and support the principle, law and practice regarding the right to information. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur would like to mention in particular:\n(a) A seminar, “What Access to Official Documents?”, held under the auspices of the Council of Europe concluded, inter alia, with a call to the Council of Europe’s Steering Committee on Human Rights and Group of Experts on Access to Official Information to “promote a binding instrument on access to official documents, which could be signed and ratified by member Governments;[[fn:3]]\n(b) At its 33rd General Assembly in Santiago, the Organization of American States adopted a resolution on “access to public information: strengthening democracy”.[[fn:4]] The Special Rapporteur wishes to endorse the principles contained in this resolution.\n(c) At the 22nd Governing Council meeting of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), a decision was adopted regarding enhancing the application of principle 10 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development addressing, inter alia, the issue of access to information. That decision (UNEP/GC.22/L.3/Add.1) requests UNEP to “… assess the possibility of promoting, at the national and international levels, the application of principle 10 to determine if there is value in initiating an intergovernmental process to prepare global guidelines on applying principle 10”. Further, the decision “requests UNEP’s Executive Director to produce a report on progress made in preparing the guidelines for review at the Governing Council’s twenty-third session”.[[fn:5]]\n(d) The special focus of Transparency International’s Global Corruption Report 2003 on access to information.[[fn:6]] The chapter on “Freedom of Information legislation: progress, concerns and standards” makes the proposal that “much more needs to be done” to create clear, authoritative global standards such as, for instance, the “adoption of a declaration on freedom of opinion by the United Nations would go some way to addressing this problem and would help to provide an impetus for the adoption of national legislation”.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "2. Global trends"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See www.freedominfo.org/survey.htm."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Sem-AC (2002) 009 def, Strasbourg, 25 March 2003."}, {"n": 4, "text": "Organization of American States, AG doc. 4238/03: AG RES. 1932 (XXX111- O/03), Annex I."}, {"n": 5, "text": "See www//iisd.ca/linkages/unepgc/22gc/, pp. 9-10."}, {"n": 6, "text": "See www.globalcorruptionreport.org/download.shtml."}, {"n": 7, "text": "See www.globalcorruptionreport.org/download/gcr2003/07_Freedom_of_information_legislation_(Mendel).pdf, p. 5."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. However, the Special Rapporteur was acutely aware that the movement towards enhancing the right to information is proceeding against a backdrop of increasing governmental concern over anti-terrorism policies and initiatives. These can have an adverse effect on the right to information. The matter has been well addressed in the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative’s publication, Open Sesame: Looking for the Right to Information in the Commonwealth. This has been published to highlight the right to information as the major topic issue for the 2003 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "2. Global trends"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "See www.humanrightsinitiative.org/publications/chogm/chogm_2003/default.htm."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. The Special Rapporteur also notes, in this connection, the work and proposals for new thinking being done within the book National Security and Open Government: Striking the right balance, a joint project of the Campbell Public Affairs Institute and the Open Society Justice Initiative. The project is, inter alia, redefining the notion of national security; showing how openness can be an “ally” in the war against terror; harnessing the anti-corruption movement in promoting transparency; and how to set the highest standards for the proper application of national security restrictions.[[fn:9]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "2. Global trends"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See www.maxwell.syr.edu/campbell/opengov."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. The Special Rapporteur noted favourably the United Nations Development Programme’s 1997 transparency policy in the context of the relationship between the right to information and the right to development. The Special Rapporteur also commended the work done by UNDP’s Oslo Governance Centre on the right to information, based on addressing the information and communication needs of the poor as an essential feature of the right to information because the poor often lack information that is vital to their lives - information on basic rights and entitlements, information on public services, health, education and employment.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "3. The right to sustainable development and financial transparency"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See www.undp.org/oslocentre/civilsoc.htm."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. UNDP’s activities in access to information focus on: Establishing a legislative framework on access to official information; public awareness-raising on official information legislation; capacity-building of the civil service to meet and monitor official information requests; using the right to information (strengthening of civil society and the media to make use of official information legislation; enforcing the Official Information Legislation (accountability mechanisms that hold national Governments to account for failing to provide official information).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "3. The right to sustainable development and financial transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The Special Rapporteur noted that the development of a “practice note and practice materials to assist UNDP’s country offices in their access to information programming”.[[fn:11]] This Practice Note is based on a “background paper that captures and codifies UNDP’s current practice in access to information while at the same time situating this work within the external context and UNDP’s existing policy framework”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "3. The right to sustainable development and financial transparency"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See www.undp.org/oslocentre/citzpart.htm."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Also in connection with the right to sustainable development, the Special Rapporteur noted with great interest developments concerning the transparency of revenues and payments, in particular regarding the extractive industries - The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI). Following a meeting in London, June 2003, a Statement of Principles and Agreed Actions on this matter was supported by 140 delegates representing 70 Governments, companies, industry groups, international organizations, investors and non-governmental organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "3. The right to sustainable development and financial transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. While impressed in general with the philosophy of transparency lying behind EITI, the Special Rapporteur was concerned at the voluntary aspect of the initiative, having regard to the non-optional nature of the right to information. In the view of the Special Rapporteur, the real viability of financial transparency lies in Governments cooperating to reveal financial flows and this result might be achieved on a country-by-country basis using various incentives and levers. In addition, the Special Rapporteur is concerned that efforts be made to expand the scope of disclosures to encompass government budgets and procurement processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "3. The right to sustainable development and financial transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Finally, the Special Rapporteur noted with great interest related non-governmental initiatives in the area of International Financial and Trade Institutions (IFTI) transparency: “IFTI Watch”, which aims to monitor and promote information disclosure by International Financial\nand Trade Institutions[[fn:12]] and the Global Transparency Initiative, an “informal network of civil society organizations … working together to overcome the secrecy surrounding the operations of the International Financial Institutions”, which has recently formulated a 225-item “matrix” to enable comparative research on the transparency policies.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "3. The right to sustainable development and financial transparency"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "See www.freedominfo.org/ifti.htm."}, {"n": 13, "text": "See www.bicusa.org/policy/InfoDisclosure/workinggroup.htm."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. The Special Rapporteur was aware that, in the context of IFTIs, the disclosure policies of most multilateral development institutions are guided by a presumption in favour of disclosure, in absence of a compelling reason not to disclose. These disclosure policies list a series of constraints to disclosure under which information can be kept confidential. In addition to these provisions, the policies also list a series of documents that are highly recommended for disclosure, normally with the consent of the borrowing Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "3. The right to sustainable development and financial transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. The Special Rapporteur was concerned at the lack of any independent oversight mechanism to evaluate how multilateral development institutions staff and management decides whether or not to disclose a certain document, and how consistent these decisions are. The key issue is whether or not institutions officials are properly weighing the public interest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "3. The right to sustainable development and financial transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. The Special Rapporteur was concerned that the disclosure policies of the multilateral development institutions lack accountability, and that, in line with national right to know laws, multilateral development institutions need to be made accountable to an independent oversight and review mechanism. The role of the independent mechanism would be to: receive appeals from the public when citizens feel that they have been wrongly denied information; to provide opinions to the board and management of the institution on what should be disclosed, and to conduct annual reviews of disclosure policy implementation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "3. The right to sustainable development and financial transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The Special Rapporteur appreciated that, to be effective, States should implement the right to information by establishing specific legislation, conforming to best international principles and practice. The annual review of the right to information laws in the world, carried out by Privacy International’s Freedom of Information Project[[fn:14]] indicates that more than 50 States have adopted such laws. However, ensuring an effective right to information regime entails that the law must comprise certain fundamental structural elements (e.g., regular reporting mechanisms to independent oversight bodies), and systematic official and unofficial monitoring of the implementation of the law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "4. Implementing and monitoring the right to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See www.freedominfo.org/survey.htm."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Increasingly, there are projects designed to facilitate monitoring of the implementation of the right to information, both global/regional and national in scope. Some focus on the right to information in general; others concentrate on environmental information/sustainable development fields.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "4. Implementing and monitoring the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. The Special Rapporteur notes with particular interest the Open Society Justice Initiative’s Access to Information Monitoring Tool.[[fn:15]] Importantly, the tool can be used to measure and track access to information held both by national authorities and by international/supranational organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "4. Implementing and monitoring the right to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See www.justiceinitiative.org/activities/foifoe/foi/foi_aimt."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. The Special Rapporteur awaited with interest the outcome of the pilot project currently being undertaken by the Open Society Justice Initiative, and due to report in late 2003, monitoring the situation with regard to the implementation of the right to information in five countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "4. Implementing and monitoring the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. The Special Rapporteur also noted with interest The Access Initiative (in conjunction with the World Resources Institute)[[fn:16]] which focuses on the provision of environmental information. The Access Initiative is a global coalition of civil society groups working together to promote national-level implementation of commitments to access to information, participation, and justice in decisions affecting the environment. The Initiative has its roots in the 1992 Rio Declaration, Principle 10[[fn:17]] which stated that “At the national level, each individual shall have appropriate access to information concerning the environment that is held by public authorities; including information on hazardous materials and activities in their communities … States shall facilitate and encourage public awareness and participation by making information widely available”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "4. Implementing and monitoring the right to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See www.accessinitiative.org/."}, {"n": 17, "text": "See www.un.org/documents/ga/conf151/aconf15126-1annex1.htm."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. In a joint statement dated 29 November 2002, the late United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Sergio Vieira De Mello and the Special Rapporteur on the right to health, Paul Hunt, stated that: “One crucial step is ensuring access to treatment, care and support. Equally important are prevention measures, including access to appropriate information, education, goods and services. All of these steps are central to the solemn pledge made by all United Nations Member States in the Declaration of Commitment adopted at last year’s General Assembly special session.” The Special Rapporteur welcomed this statement which, inter alia, reflected the substance of the conclusions on this matter made in his 2003 report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. Access to information for the purposes of education on, and prevention of, HIV/AIDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The Special Rapporteur welcomed the adoption of resolution 2003/47, on 23 April 2003, by the Commission on Human Rights. In that resolution, the Commission insisted on the importance of sharing knowledge, experiences and achievements concerning HIV-related issues and urged States to, inter alia, promote effective programmes for the prevention of HIV/AIDS, including through education and awareness-raising campaigns. The Commission also requested States to develop and support services, including legal aid where appropriate, to educate people infected and affected by HIV/AIDS about their rights and to assist them in realizing their rights.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. Access to information for the purposes of education on, and prevention of, HIV/AIDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. In addition to the above, the Special Rapporteur especially welcomed the Commission’s request to States to take all the necessary steps, including appropriate education, training and media programmes, to combat discrimination, prejudice and stigma, and to ensure the full enjoyment of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, including access to care, by people infected and affected by HIV/AIDS. Finally, the Special Rapporteur noted with appreciation the Commission’s request that all special representatives, special rapporteurs and working groups of the Commission, including the special rapporteur on the promotion and protection of freedom of opinion and expression, to integrate the protection of HIV-related human rights within their respective mandates.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. Access to information for the purposes of education on, and prevention of, HIV/AIDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. The Special Rapporteur took note of the valuable speech made by the Sub-Commission on Promotion and Protection of Human Rights Expert, David Weissbrodt, at the fifty-fifth session of the Sub-Commission, on 4 August 2003. Mr. Weissbrodt stated, inter alia, that the rapid spread of the HIV virus was facilitated by the unwillingness of many Governments to support preventive education related to HIV/AIDS. The Sub-Commission expert also said that Governments and non-governmental organizations must give priority to both formal and informal educational programmes that enabled women to develop self-esteem, acquire knowledge, make decisions on, and take responsibility for their own sexual health.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. Access to information for the purposes of education on, and prevention of, HIV/AIDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. The Special Rapporteur noted the adoption of General Assembly resolution 57/219 of 18 December 2002 in which it affirmed that States must ensure that any measure taken to combat terrorism complies with their obligations under international law. The General Assembly also encouraged States to consider the recommendations of the special procedures and mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights and the relevant comments and views of United Nations treaty bodies.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. The Special Rapporteur much appreciated the intervention of the late High Commissioner for Human Rights who placed great emphasis on the need to respect human rights while countering terrorism in his bilateral discussions with Member States. In particular, he underlined the principle that any exceptional measures taken to counter terrorism must be subject to strict limitations, including that they be transparent, necessary, time-limited and otherwise strictly proportional to the exigencies of the situation. The High Commissioner also continued to call attention to certain human rights provisions which are non-derogable under any circumstances, including freedom of thought, conscience and religion (see E/CN.4/2003/120, para. 5).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. The Special Rapporteur welcomed the adoption of Commission on Human Rights resolution 2003/68, entitled “Protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism”, in which the Commission reiterated its interest and concern on this matter.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. In connection with paragraph 4 of Commission resolution 2003/68, the Special Rapporteur expressed his esteem to the Vice-Chairperson of the Human Rights Committee, Sir Nigel Rodley, for the meaningful and balanced speech he made before the Counter-Terrorism Committee of the Security Council on 19 June 2003. The Special Rapporteur found particularly significant the mention the Vice-Chairperson of the Human Rights Committee made of the declaration annexed to Security Council resolution 1456 (2003), paragraph 6, in which the Council demanded that:\n“States must ensure that any measure taken to combat terrorism comply with all their obligations under international law, and should adopt such measures in accordance with international law, in particular international human rights, refugee, and humanitarian law.”", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. The Special Rapporteur noted that the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, at its fifty-fifth session, extensively discussed the nature and the consequences of the human rights violations that terrorism represented, as well as the human rights violations observed in counter-terrorism measures undertaken since 11 September 2001. The Special Rapporteur also took note of the concluding remarks of the Special Rapporteur of the Sub-Commission on human rights and terrorism, Kalliopi Koufa, in which she said that the discussion on terrorism and human rights was complicated, inter alia, by the current international tension that had also somewhat affected the inability of the international community to identify a definition of terrorism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the drafting of “The digest of relevant practice of the United Nations and regional organizations in the area of the protection of human rights while countering terrorism”, in accordance with recommendation No. 5 of the report of the Policy Working Group, submitted to the General Assembly and the Security Council (A/57/273-S/2002/875). Starting from the concept that human rights law establishes a framework in which terrorism can be effectively countered without infringing on fundamental freedoms; the digest examined a number of issues critical to the balance between legitimate national security concerns and fundamental freedoms. Provisions contained in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR), the American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR) and the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, and the decisions taken by the bodies monitoring the implementation of the above conventions constituted the core of the digest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. The three conventions mandate that certain rights may not be derogated from under any circumstances. The American Convention contained strong guarantees on freedom of expression which were designed to reduce to a bare minimum restriction impeding the free circulation of ideas. For instance, the Inter-American Court stated that:\n“Freedom of expression is a cornerstone upon which the very existence of a democratic society rests. ... It represents, in short, the means that enable the community, when exercising its options, to be sufficiently informed. Consequently, it can be said that a society that is not well informed is not a society that is truly free.”[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Inter-American Court H.R., Advisory Opinion OC-5/85, Compulsory Membership in an Association Prescribed by Law for the Practice of Journalism (articles 13 and 29 of the American Convention on Human Rights), 13 November 1985, Ser. A No. 5 (paras. 50, 70)."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. With regard to the content of the right to freedom of thought and expression, those who are protected by the Convention not only have the right and the freedom to express their own thoughts, but also the right and freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds. Consequently, freedom of expression has an individual and a social dimension: “It requires, on the one hand, that no one be arbitrarily limited or impeded in expressing his own thoughts. In that sense, it is a right that belongs to each individual. Its second aspect, on the other hand, implies a collective right to receive any information whatsoever and to have access to the thoughts expressed by others.”[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Olmedo Bustos et al. Case (“Last Temptation of Christ”), I/A Court H.R., Series C No. 73, Judgement of 5 February 2001 (para. 64). -----"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. Finally, the American Convention also pointed out, in article 16, that the freedom of association “shall be subject only to such restrictions established by law as may be necessary in a democratic society, in the interest of national security, public safety or public order, or to protect public health or morals or the rights and freedoms of others”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "16", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. The Special Rapporteur also wishes to draw the attention of the reader to the joint statement of special rapporteurs, independent experts and chairpersons of the working groups of the special procedures of the Commission on Human Rights and of the advisory services programme, released at the end of their 10th meeting, held in Geneva from 23 to 27 June 2003 (E/CN.4/2004/4, p. 22).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. The Special Rapporteur considers that the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is a significant indicator of the level of protection and respect of all other human rights in a given society. The Special Rapporteur notes that positive measures are being taken in a number of countries in favour of a greater protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and in a few cases, also in favour of the promotion of the freedom of opinion and expression. He encourages members and organizations of civil society especially to continue to provide him with information on the realization and violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression around the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. However, in spite of some progress, the situation is still grim: numerous trends and violations patterns remain substantially active and unchanged. The Special Rapporteur remains extremely concerned at the fact that the attacks against journalists and media workers, including killings, continue to occur in many countries. Most of the time these crimes are not adequately punished, if not encouraged or favoured by authorities. He urges Governments to take all necessary measures to protect journalists from attacks, be they from officials, law enforcement officers, armed groups or terrorists, and to provide an enabling environment for their activities. An end to impunity for the perpetrators of such acts and the conduct of serious investigation into these attacks is essential to ensure greater protection for journalists. The Special Rapporteur urges national authorities, both civilian and military, to carry out, for the sake of truth, investigations on the killings and attacks on journalists and reporters in any event and location, including war and conflict zones.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The Special Rapporteur strongly believes that an in-depth study on the issue of the security of journalists, in particular in situations of armed conflicts, based on information from and the experiences of Governments, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, is necessary, and he would welcome a request from the Commission on Human Rights to undertake such a study.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Generally, the number of journalists and reporters working in war zones has increased because modern technologies have made it possible to report instantaneously with minimal equipment. Consequently, the danger is greater as media are now experiencing the same kind of action of combatants. The Special Rapporteur noted that the fact that journalists can report from the front line has some positive and, at the same time, some negative aspects. While the violence and the absurdity of war are fully disclosed, warriors and civilians involved in the conflicts seem to be treated in a different way according to the side they belong to. The Special Rapporteur underlines that media should provide a factual, impartial, overview of the conflict, and that war victims and war prisoners should be treated in accordance with international human rights and humanitarian standards.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The Special Rapporteur believes that democratic institutions, while not preventing punctual violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, do offer guarantees for its protection as well as an enabling environment for its exercise. Freedom of opinion and expression not only benefits from a democratic environment; it also contributes, and is indeed instrumental to the emergence and existence of effective democratic systems. However, violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression may occur in all regions and countries, whatever their system, and may have various forms and shape. The Special Rapporteur urges all concerned Governments to implement the necessary measures to review existing practices and take remedial actions. The Special Rapporteur especially encourages Governments of emerging democracies to promote and protect freedom of opinion and expression and freedom of the press and political parties. As appropriate, Governments may also consider the possibility of seeking technical assistance from OHCHR in order to eliminate the causes of human rights violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. The Special Rapporteur believes that, in the legitimate effort to prevent and eliminate terror, progress towards enhancing the basic right to information is extremely vulnerable and is highly susceptible to unwarranted restrictions. Consequently, the Special Rapporteur would consider the opportunity of reporting annually on the situation of balance/imbalance in this regard, and may evaluate the possibility of intervening as and when necessary in the light of any gross instance occurring in any national jurisdiction.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. The Special Rapporteur is especially concerned about the concentration of large media groups, dominant in a given market, in the hands of a few business corporations. Reversing this phenomenon will allow the emergence of a more pluralistic approach to information and will contribute to more efficient service to customers. The Special Rapporteur encourages Governments to ensure that the exercise of the freedom of opinion and expression through the media is open and accessible to various actors of the civil society, local communities and minorities, vulnerable groups, in addition to economic and political groups.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0086", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. The Special Rapporteur noted that, in some countries, decisions of courts are unavailable to any but the parties involved. This deprives the whole community of the outcome of the full body of judicial decisions, thus hindering their collection and their analysis, constituent elements of the rule of law. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur believes that the monitoring of national legislation, compared to the generally-accepted principles of the public’s right to know, should be carried out in a systematic way, for instance through a global survey of jurisprudence on access to information cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0087", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. As regards legislatures, the Special Rapporteur felt that it would be useful to survey the scope of accessible information held by parliaments e.g. verbatim proceedings of the plenary chamber; background papers and full records of proceedings of committees and subcommittees, and the extent to which draft laws are published prior to their being considered by the legislature. A “trend survey of access to information” would be a useful tool to measure access.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0088", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. The Special Rapporteur encourages and supports the development of initiatives aimed at monitoring the implementation of the right to information. He considers that the United Nations system should increasingly contribute to such initiatives within existing technical and financial resources. In this context, the Special Rapporteur wishes to encourage and support the important work to increase financial transparency and accountability, and its link with sustainable development, with special reference to the activities of multilateral development institutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0089", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. The Special Rapporteur would consider the opportunity of gathering information on proposals to enhance the right to information by the adoption of a global and/or regional, binding and/or authoritative instrument on the right to information. The Special Rapporteur also wishes to give further consideration to the drafting of a set of recommendations supporting a comparative study of measures to better implement the right to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0090", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. The Special Rapporteur believes that an expert seminar on “Designing and evaluating projects at the global, regional and national level to monitor the effective implementation of the right to information held by national and intergovernmental authorities” should be planned and organized by the relevant United Nations agencies in the future.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "13", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Footnote says 'articles 13 and 29 of the American Convention on Human Rights' — AmCHR is a regional instrument, not in treaty list."}, {"article": "29", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Footnote says 'articles 13 and 29 of the American Convention on Human Rights' — AmCHR, not in treaty list."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. Journalists in exile is not a new phenomenon, but it has gained momentum in recent years, because of the severe pressure on public interest media in many countries around the world and the growing possibilities, created by digital technology, for journalists to operate from abroad when they are no longer able to do so safely from home. Free, independent, diverse and pluralistic media play a vital role in supporting democracy, informing the public and holding the powerful to account. It is either absent or severely constrained in over a third of the countries in the world, where more than two thirds of the world’s population live.[[fn:1]] The space for independent and critical media is shrinking in democratic States where authoritarian trends are gaining ground, leaving many journalists with no option but to leave their home countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A total of 72 per cent of the world’s population live under authoritarian rule according to Varieties of Democracy Institute, Democracy Report 2023: Defiance in the Face of Autocratization (2023), p. 6."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Armed conflicts have long been a major cause for journalists to seek refuge abroad. In recent years, political repression has become the predominant factor forcing thousands of journalists to leave their countries. Some have been expelled by their Governments. Many have fled their home country to save their lives or to escape detention and imprisonment on trumped up charges. Most have left their countries so that they can investigate and report freely without fear or favour. In some countries, not only have individual journalists left, but entire media outlets, and even complete independent media sectors, have moved out.[[fn:2]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Submission from Inter-American Press Association."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The precise scale of the problem is difficult to assess, in the absence of data from receiving States. Most estimates are based on the numbers of cases of exiled journalists to whom international non-governmental organizations, press freedom groups and media development organizations have provided financial and material assistance in recent years.[[fn:3]] While such data do not capture the full scale of the problem, they point to a clear upward trend of journalists in exile that tracks the rise in authoritarianism and political repression worldwide.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "As an example, according to the submission from the Committee to Protect Journalists, its support to exiled journalists jumped 227 per cent between 2020 and 2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Exiled journalists fulfil a vital need for public interest news for audiences at home as well as around the world. They are often an important alternative for, and possibly the sole independent source of, information about events in conflict zones or in countries where freedom of expression is severely restricted. With their deep knowledge of the country, broad networks and distinct sources, they provide diverse perspectives, challenge official narratives and counter disinformation, which may be difficult for foreign media and dangerous for local media to do. In the absence of exiled media, there would be informational black holes and zones of silence on issues of concern to global and national communities.[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Submission from United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. For some journalists in exile, their work is also a way to preserve the struggle for truth, justice and democracy in beleaguered societies. According to one journalist, “I saw my people suffering, being killed, being forcefully disappeared. I wanted to be their voice. I wanted to bring their stories to the world.”[[fn:5]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Jessica White, Grady Vaughan and Yana Gorokhovskaia, “A light that cannot be extinguished: exiled journalism and transnational repression” (Freedom House, 2023), p. 9."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Exiled journalists often find themselves in precarious situations, vulnerable to physical, digital and legal threats against them and their families from their home State, and without assured legal status or adequate support to continue their profession in their country of refuge. Female journalists removed from their families and with no legal status are at increased risk of sexual abuse and exploitation, with no channels for redress.[[fn:6]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Submission from International Media Support."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. Fearing for their own safety or that of their families back home and struggling to survive financially and overcome the many challenges of living in a foreign country, many journalists eventually abandon their profession. Exile thus becomes yet another way to silence critical voices – another form of press censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Journalists are not above the law, but by virtue of their function and the public interest in disclosure, they are entitled to specific legal protection, whether at home or in exile. The international community needs to invest much more in protecting and supporting exiled journalists and journalism. The United Nations Plan of Action on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity, adopted in 2012, does not even mention exiled journalists.[[fn:7]] It was only in 2022 that the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) established the Safe Spaces project to support displaced journalists and journalists in diaspora and keep public interest journalism alive in crisis situations.[[fn:8]]", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/safety-of-journalists/un-plan-action-safety-journalists-and-issue-impunity."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Submission from UNESCO."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The objective of the present report is to throw light on a category of journalists who deserve better protection and support, both for their own sake and in the broader interests of human rights, media freedom, peace and democracy. Building on her previous report on reinforcing media freedom and the safety of journalists in the digital age,[[fn:9]] the Special Rapporteur analyses the problems, challenges and threats that journalists in exile face, as well as the relevant laws, policies and practices of States and companies that aggravate or seek to resolve them. She notes some good policies and practices and makes recommendations to States, digital and media companies, international organizations and civil society to strengthen the safety of journalists and enhance the viability of independent media in exile.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "A/HRC/50/29."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The Special Rapporteur is grateful for the submissions received from 10 Governments, 36 civil society organizations and one international organization and for the consultations held with experts and other stakeholders, which informed the report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. The international legal framework for media freedom and the safety of journalists was covered by the Special Rapporteur in her previous report.[[fn:10]] In the paragraphs below, she underlines some points of specific relevance to journalists in exile.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Ibid., paras. 10–23."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Who is a journalist in exile? The Human Rights Committee has recognized journalism as a function shared by a wide range of actors, including professional full-time reporters and analysts, as well as bloggers and others who engage in forms of self-publication in print, on the Internet or elsewhere.[[fn:11]] In the context of exiled media, exiled freelancers, independent bloggers and journalists running their Telegram channels or online websites play as significant a role as journalists and media workers employed by media outlets. The term “journalists in exile” in the present report covers this varied group, and the Special Rapporteur uses the term “journalist” to include both journalists and media workers, unless specified otherwise.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para 44; and A/HRC/50/29, paras. 15 and 16."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. It is important at the outset to acknowledge that journalists are in exile because their human rights, in particular their right to freedom of opinion and expression, are endangered in their own country. By protecting exiled journalists (and other exiles), the international legal framework provides a pragmatic response to the human rights failures in the country of origin.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Under international law, no one should be forcefully displaced or sent into exile or be compelled to flee their home country, and all persons have the right to leave and return to their countries of origin freely and to fully enjoy all human rights guaranteed under international law.[[fn:12]] Most journalists regard their exile as a temporary state of affairs and wish to return home or at least to be able to move freely to and from their country of origin. They are often not permitted to do so by their Governments or cannot do so safely.[[fn:13]] Some journalists have also been banned or temporarily prevented from leaving their countries.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Article 12 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}, {"n": 13, "text": "Submissions from Committee to Protect Journalists and Inter-American Press Association."}, {"n": 14, "text": "See communication TKM 1/2023. All communications mentioned in the present report are available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments; see also submission from InterAmerican Press Association."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Article 2 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 2 (2) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights make it clear that the rights in the Covenants apply to all persons without discrimination of any kind. Thus, journalists in exile enjoy the same human rights as nationals and other journalists in the receiving countries. All States are obliged to uphold this principle. It is important to note that international law places a positive obligation on States to protect all persons, including exiled journalists, within their jurisdiction, which requires them to not be complicit in violations committed by foreign agents on their territory. It also requires States to investigate and prosecute fully, promptly and effectively all crimes committed against journalists, no matter who is responsible.[[fn:15]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law and UNESCO Guidelines for Prosecutors on Cases of Crimes Against Journalists."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "2", "paragraph": "1", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 2 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights … make it clear that the rights in the Covenants apply to all persons without discrimination' — explicit treaty attribution."}, {"article": "2", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICESCR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 2 (2) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights' — explicit treaty attribution. ICESCR art. 2(2) is the non-discrimination obligation."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The right to freedom of opinion and expression provides the international legal basis for uncensored and unhindered news media and the right of journalists to work safely and without fear, whether they do so in their home country or elsewhere. Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights explicitly states that everyone is entitled to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, through any media of their choice. The phrase “regardless of frontiers” both anticipates technologies that enable data to cross borders in an instant and also affirms the right of journalists in exile to seek, receive and share information, ideas and images without hindrance or restrictions, except as laid out in article 19 (3). Exile itself is an unlawful restriction of freedom of expression insofar as it hinders the right of journalists to exercise their right to access to and disseminate information and share their views freely in their own country.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Submission from Ecuador."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. According to article 19 (3), freedom of expression can only be restricted by law in precise and clear terms and must be strictly necessary, proportionate and directly relevant to achieving the legitimate objective of respecting the rights and reputations of others or protecting national security, public order, public health or public morals. Restrictions must be construed narrowly, using the least intrusive measure possible.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), paras. 21–36."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The principle of necessity and proportionality deems that journalists should not be prevented from or prosecuted for disseminating information that is of public interest. Journalists in exile often report on sensitive issues that are of public interest, such as corruption, human rights violations or elections. Their reporting may be critical of the policies or activities of the Governments in their home or host countries or could be perceived as having a negative impact on bilateral relations between the receiving and home States. Those considerations are not valid grounds under international law for States to restrict public interest reporting by exiled journalists or retaliate against them, for instance, by expelling them.[[fn:18]] The banning of outlets or websites of exiled media may violate the principle of necessity and proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "TTO 1/2017."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Too often States use laws ostensibly adopted to protect national security, public order or public morals to restrict information that is of public interest or to stifle criticism of the Government. Such practices contravene international standards and obligations. Even when seeking to protect national security, States must show in “specific and individualized fashion” the precise nature of the threat and the necessity and proportionality of any restriction, in particular by establishing a direct and immediate connection between the journalistic activities and the threat.[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 35."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. States are obliged not only to refrain from arbitrary restraints, but also to put in place legislative and regulatory measures in line with international human rights standards to enable journalists to carry out their work safely and without hindrance. That applies to all journalists, national or non-national.", "labels": ["Non-citizens and stateless"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. In line with the principle that rights offline must be protected online, courts have held that journalists must not be subjected to online surveillance without independent judicial oversight.[[fn:20]] Journalistic privilege is deemed to allow for journalists to refuse to reveal their confidential sources of information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Big Brother Watch and Others v. the United Kingdom, Application Nos. 58170/13, 62322/14 and 24960/15, Judgment, 13 September 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Journalists enjoy protection as civilians under international humanitarian law during armed conflict.[[fn:21]] They are also entitled to protection under international refugee law after they leave their country, including from refoulement,[[fn:22]] extradition and expulsion,[[fn:23]] if they have a well-founded fear of persecution on grounds of race, religion, nationality, political opinion or membership of a social group, regardless of whether or not they formally apply for asylum. By specifically noting the persecution of “political opinion” as a ground for granting refugee status and prohibiting expulsion, international refugee law acknowledges the importance of freedom of expression in exile. Even where journalists do not qualify for refugee status, they are protected under international law against forcible return to a territory where they are likely to face torture or ill-treatment.[[fn:24]]", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "A/77/288, para. 48."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Article 33 of the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, which describes refoulement as the expulsion or forcible return of a refugee or asylum to a territory where their life or freedom may be threatened on grounds of race, religion, nationality, political opinion or membership of a social group."}, {"n": 23, "text": "Article 32 of the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Article 3 of the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. The problems for exiled journalists lie not in the international legal framework but in the failure of States to respect their obligations under international law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Hundreds of journalists have fled in recent years from Afghanistan, Belarus, China, Ethiopia, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Myanmar, Nicaragua, the Russian Federation, the Sudan, Somalia, Türkiye and Ukraine, in addition to smaller numbers from a range of other countries, including Burundi, Guatemala, India, Pakistan and Tajikistan, to name just a few.[[fn:25]] However, exile does not always provide safety.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "As examples, the International Federation of Journalists estimates that up to 1,000 journalists left Afghanistan in the aftermath of the Taliban takeover while Agresiones a la Libertad de Prensa de Periodistas y Comunicadores Independientes de Nicaragua estimates at least 242 journalists have left Nicaragua since 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The term “transnational repression” has been used by some organizations to denote human rights violations committed by States outside their own territorial jurisdiction in order to intimidate and silence dissent among the diaspora and exiles.[[fn:26]] It includes physical, legal and digital threats, ranging from physical violence, murder, extradition, renditions and legal prosecution in absentia to online violence, digital surveillance, hacking or the blocking of websites and the disruption of Internet connections. Online attacks can have offline consequences. The full extent of transnational repression is not known, as many incidents are not reported or cannot be verified, and there is no comprehensive system for gathering such data. However, anecdotal evidence, including first-hand testimony from victims, scholarly research and the experience of civil society organizations, suggests a high prevalence among exiled journalists and media outlets.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Submission from Freedom House; and White, Vaughan and Gorokhovskaia, “A light that cannot be extinguished”. See also “‘We will find you’: a global look at how States repress nationals abroad” (Human Rights Watch, 2024)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. The aim of transnational repression is to kill and chill journalism in exile. It induces a climate of physical, mental, digital and legal insecurity, hampering the ability of journalists to report, travel, communicate with their sources, investigate sensitive issues or even live with their families in safety and security. Transnational repression also significantly reduces media freedom by pushing journalists and media workers towards self-censorship.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "See https://mediafreedomcoalition.org/joint-statement/2023/transnational-repression/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. In the sections below, the Special Rapporteur analyses the various threats to the safety and security of journalists in exile, with a particular focus on the role and responsibilities of the home State.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Targeting journalists on foreign soil violates human rights principles as well as the cardinal principle of international law that States are obliged to respect each other’s territorial sovereignty. The butchering of exiled Saudi journalist, Jamal Khashoggi, in the Consulate of Saudi Arabia in Istanbul was an outrageous, audacious act of transnational repression. The enforced disappearance and State-sanctioned killing violated international human rights law, international customary law and the Charter of the United Nations, and Saudi Arabia has never been held to account.[[fn:28]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "A. Physical violence: assassination, assault and abduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-executions/inquiry-killing-mr-jamal-kashoggi. A/HRC/41/36 cites the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations and the prohibition against the extraterritorial use of force in time of peace (in accordance with customary law and the Charter of the United Nations). Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Charter of the United Nations says that all members shall refrain “from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. In June 2023 the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe adopted a resolution condemning transnational repression as a growing threat to the rule of law and human rights. Citing Azerbaijan, Belarus, the Russian Federation and Türkiye as countries of particular concern, it stated that transnational repression violated international obligations under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, as well as the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (European Convention on Human Rights).[[fn:29]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "A. Physical violence: assassination, assault and abduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, Transnational repression as a growing threat to the rule of law and human rights, resolution 2509 (2023), available at https://pace.coe.int/en/files/32999/html."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances found that the Government of Türkiye had engaged in the systematic practice of State-sponsored extraterritorial abductions and forcible returns to Türkiye of at least 100 Turkish nationals, which included journalists, from multiple States. It expressed concern that the Government of Türkiye had continued to resort to the use of enforced disappearance in the context of transnational transfers, using such transfers as a pretext for an effective means to combat terrorism.[[fn:30]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "A. Physical violence: assassination, assault and abduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "A/HRC/51/31, para. 78."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. In communications to the Islamic Republic of Iran, special procedures, including this mandate, have raised grave concerns regarding the targeting of exiled Iranian journalists and exiled media outlets as well as Iranian and Iranian-origin journalists and media workers working for the BBC Persian-language service and some other international media outlets.[[fn:31]] The allegations include violence, threats, harassment, online gender-based violence, smear campaigns and surveillance, as well as criminal investigations, defamation suits and judicial action to confiscate property and assets in the Islamic Republic of Iran. In February 2020, a prominent exiled Iranian woman journalist, Rana Rahimpour, received death threats against herself, her children, her husband and her elderly parents.[[fn:32]] Iran International TV, an Iranian exiled outlet operating from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, has received so many threats that it has been provided with secure police protection by the authorities of the United Kingdom.[[fn:33]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "A. Physical violence: assassination, assault and abduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "IRN 10/2022, IRN 4/2020 and IRN 29/2017."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2020/03/iran-targeting-journalists-threatens-freedom-press-say-un-experts?LangID=E&NewsID=25706."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Submission from the United Kingdom."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. There have also been reports of Russian journalists in exile being subjected to targeted attacks, including two suspected cases of poisoning.[[fn:34]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "A. Physical violence: assassination, assault and abduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "Submission from Reporters without Borders. See also JX Fund, “Sustaining independence: current state of Russian media in exile” (2023), p. 26."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Abduction and rendition to the home country, followed by prosecution and imprisonment, are palpable risks for exiled journalists, especially those without proper legal status in neighbouring countries. The world witnessed a blatant example of forced abduction in May 2021 when the Belarusian authorities, defying international law and air travel protocols, used a false bomb threat to intercept and divert a commercial airliner on which Raman Protasevich, a Belarusian exiled media worker and activist, was travelling from Greece to Lithuania. He was taken off the plane, arrested, charged, convicted and sentenced to eight years in prison and later pardoned.[[fn:35]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "A. Physical violence: assassination, assault and abduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/06/belarus-black-hole-media-freedoms-after-egregious-attacks-say-un-experts; and Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, Opinion No. 50/2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Digital transnational repression has been described as the use of digital tools by the home State or its agents to silence and coerce activists and dissidents living abroad.[[fn:36]] In the case of journalists, the objective is to intimidate and silence them and their sources and encourage self-censorship more broadly, making it more dangerous and difficult for exiled media to gather and disseminate information. As it is often not possible to identify and prosecute who is behind the digital threats, impunity prevails, emboldening the perpetrators.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "B. Digital threats: online violence, surveillance and disruption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "Joint submission by Access Now and Meduza."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The heavy reliance of exiled journalists and newsrooms on social media and digital tools to gather and publish news makes them particularly vulnerable to cyberattacks by their home Governments or their proxies and, occasionally, the authorities in the country of exile. The tools of digital transnational repression are plentiful and cheap. Common practices include recruiting armies of trolls and bots to amplify vicious personal attacks on individual journalists to discredit them and their reporting, blocking exiled news sites or jamming broadcasts and targeted digital surveillance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "B. Digital threats: online violence, surveillance and disruption"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Online attacks, death threats, rape threats, doxing (release of personal information, such as addresses, email details and phone numbers), smear campaigns with sexualized, misogynistic or defamatory elements and impersonations have skyrocketed in the past 10 years, especially against women journalists.[[fn:37]] Women journalists in exile claim to have been targeted by coordinated defamation campaigns of a gendered nature on State and/or State-aligned media outlets as well as social media.[[fn:38]] Social media companies must do more to combat online gender-based violence and gendered disinformation, including against women journalists.[[fn:39]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "B. Digital threats: online violence, surveillance and disruption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "Julie Posetti and others, The Chilling: Global Trends in Online Violence against Women Journalists (UNESCO, 2021)."}, {"n": 38, "text": "Submission from Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See A/78/288 and A/HRC/44/52."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The targeted digital surveillance of exiled journalists has surged over the past decade, as intrusive communications software (spyware) has become available, permitting the authorities to access journalists’ phones and work devices without their knowledge. Once infected, the devices yield a trove of information on journalists’ movements, contacts, interactions with sources and the subject matter of their investigations, which can have devastating implications for the safety and security of exiled journalists, their media outlets and sources in their home countries.[[fn:40]] Because it is difficult to detect spyware or even prove it was ever installed, the mere suspicion of spyware can lead to caution and fear, hindering journalists’ ability to communicate safely with sources, especially in their home countries, and making sources wary of speaking to journalists.[[fn:41]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "B. Digital threats: online violence, surveillance and disruption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "A/HRC/50/29 and A/HRC/41/35."}, {"n": 41, "text": "A/HRC/50/29."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Illegal surveillance by Governments, combined with online harassment and other repressive legal measures, has forced many journalists to flee their countries in search of safety elsewhere. In early 2022, several journalists from El Salvador fled to Costa Rica, Mexico and other countries soon after civil society investigations unearthed 35 cases of hacking of the devices of human rights defenders, activists and journalists through use of Pegasus spyware.[[fn:42]] Some of the journalists reported that they felt their ability to work and maintain the trust of their sources was impaired after the hacking.[[fn:43]] One outlet, El Faro, which was also the target of legal harassment, found that 22 of its staff members had had their devices infected with Pegasus spyware, and it moved its headquarters to Costa Rica in an effort to protect itself.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "B. Digital threats: online violence, surveillance and disruption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "John Scott-Railton and others, “Project Torogoz: extensive hacking of media & civil society in El Salvador with Pegasus spyware”, Citizen Lab Research Report, No. 148 (University of Toronto, 2022)."}, {"n": 43, "text": "Joint submission from Access Now and Meduza."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The effect of targeted digital surveillance can be particularly harmful for women journalists. Not only are they induced to leave their country out of fear for their safety, large volumes of data on their personal and intimate lives are weaponized by bad actors to harass and harm their reputations. In the words of an Arab woman journalist, now living in exile, because we live in such a conservative society, the easiest way to symbolically kill a woman is by killing her reputation.[[fn:44]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "B. Digital threats: online violence, surveillance and disruption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "Submission from Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Civil society investigations have uncovered several cases of journalists who have been subjected to digital surveillance during their exile.[[fn:45]] Surveillance has often preceded or followed threats, arrests or killings. Forensic investigations by civil society entities discovered the Pegasus spyware on the devices of some 10 people connected with slain Saudi journalist, Jamal Khashoggi, including his fiancée.[[fn:46]] In September 2023, it was reported that the telephone of Galina Timchenko, head of Meduza, the Russian language online news website based in Latvia, had been infected with Pegasus spyware shortly after the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation had designated Meduza as an “undesirable” organization, and banned it from operating in the Russian Federation.[[fn:47]] In October 2023, Lê Trung Khoa, editor-in-chief of the Berlin-based Vietnamese news site Thoibao.de was targeted with Predator spyware through the social media platform X, formerly Twitter.[[fn:48]] His website is blocked in Viet Nam, and his Facebook and YouTube pages are frequently targeted by hackers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "B. Digital threats: online violence, surveillance and disruption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "Joint submission from Access Now and Meduza."}, {"n": 46, "text": "See https://forbiddenstories.org/about-the-pegasus-project/; and https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-executions/inquiry-killing-mr-jamal-kashoggi."}, {"n": 47, "text": "Joint submission from Access Now and Meduza."}, {"n": 48, "text": "See https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/10/global-predator-files-spyware-scandal-reveals-brazen-targeting-of-civil-society-politicians-and-officials/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The Special Rapporteur has endorsed the calls by her predecessor and the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights for a moratorium on the sale, trade and use of spyware until proper safeguards can be put in place.[[fn:49]] The Government of the United States of America has restricted the use of commercial spyware,[[fn:50]] but it continues to be used by many other countries in the world.[[fn:51]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "B. Digital threats: online violence, surveillance and disruption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/08/spyware-scandal-un-experts-call-moratorium-sale-life-threatening; see also A/HRC/48/31 and A/HRC/51/17."}, {"n": 50, "text": "Executive Order 14093 of 27 March 2023."}, {"n": 51, "text": "According to the European Parliament Committee of Inquiry 14 Member States and 22 entities of the European Union use Pegasus; see https://www.europarl.europa.eu/committees/en/pega/home/highlights."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Exiled journalists often find themselves facing two major legal hazards from their home State: investigation, prosecution and punishment in absentia and the pursuit of their extradition on trumped up criminal charges.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "C. Legal threats: prosecution, extradition and retaliation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Journalism is not a crime. Nevertheless, some Governments use vague, loosely drafted laws on national security, counter-terrorism, criminal libel or “fake news” to investigate, prosecute and punish journalists, including those in exile.[[fn:52]] For instance, the National Security Law of Hong Kong, augmented by the recently adopted Safeguarding National Security Ordnance, criminalizes secession, subversion, terrorism and “collusion with foreign organizations” in sweeping terms and with extraterritorial reach. The Ordinance has framed the offences so broadly that collaboration with international entities such as the United Nations human rights system could also be affected.[[fn:53]] The Law has been used extensively against independent journalists and media outlets in Hong Kong, many of whom have either been imprisoned or banned or have fled abroad. It has also led many journalists in exile to self-censor and hampered their ability to work safely with contacts and sources in their home country.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "C. Legal threats: prosecution, extradition and retaliation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "A/HRC/50/29."}, {"n": 53, "text": "CHN 3/2022 and CHN 5/2024. See also International Federation of Journalists, “Journalists in exile: a survey of media workers in the Hong Kong diaspora” (2023)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Following the invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, the Russian Federation introduced draconian laws to severely punish anyone who “discredits” the armed forces or disseminates “false information” regarding the armed conflict.[[fn:54]] The enactment of the laws led independent media outlets in the Russian Federation to self-censor and shut down or leave the country. Using these laws, Russian courts have issued sentences in absentia against several exiled journalists. The law banning “undesirable organizations”, adopted in 2015, has been used to outlaw several Russian media outlets operating from abroad.[[fn:55]] Such action not only bans them from operating in the Russian Federation but also makes it a crime for anyone in the Russian Federation to collaborate with or contribute to their work or even post material created by them on social media. As a result, the outlets are no longer able to work openly with correspondents, sources and speakers or engage effectively with audiences in the Russian Federation.[[fn:56]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "C. Legal threats: prosecution, extradition and retaliation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "A/HRC/50/29, para. 61."}, {"n": 55, "text": "See https://cpj.org/2023/06/russia-bans-independent-outlet-novaya-gazeta-europe-adds-to-undesirable-list/; https://cpj.org/2023/07/russia-bans-exiled-outlet-dozhd-tv-as-undesirable/; and https://theins.ru/en/news/253183."}, {"n": 56, "text": "Submission from International Press Institute."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Although the deprivation of nationality is prohibited in international law, some Governments use it as a retaliatory measure against independent journalists. Belarus adopted a law in 2022 that covers 34 crimes applicable only to those in exile, for which they can be convicted in absentia and deprived of their nationality as well as their assets.[[fn:57]] Furthermore, Belarus has prosecuted journalists as well as dissidents and human rights defenders in absentia and doled out heavy sentences. For instance, the court sentenced exiled journalists Stsypan Putsila and Yan Rudzik in absentia to 20 years and 19 years in prison, respectively, in 2022.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "C. Legal threats: prosecution, extradition and retaliation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "BLR 9/2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Nicaragua forcibly deported several dozen journalists, as well as human rights defenders and political activists, and stripped them of their citizenship.[[fn:58]] Carlos Fernando Chamorro, one of the most prominent journalists in Nicaragua who has been in exile in Costa Rica since 2021, was deemed guilty of spreading false news and conspiracy to undermine national integrity and stripped of his citizenship in February 2023.[[fn:59]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "C. Legal threats: prosecution, extradition and retaliation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 58, "text": "See https://100noticias.com.ni/nacionales/121979-periodistas-despojo-nacionalidad-nicaragua/; and Human Rights Council resolution 52/2."}, {"n": 59, "text": "See https://cpj.org/2021/08/nicaraguan-authorities-charge-journalist-carlos-fernando-chamorro-with-financial-crimes/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. In Kyrgyzstan, Bolot Temirov, an investigative journalist and human rights defender, was charged with various trumped up criminal offences, of which he was acquitted by the courts but was nevertheless stripped of his nationality by a judicial decision and expelled to the Russian Federation. The facts of the case suggest that the criminalization and expulsion were in retaliation for his reporting on the corruption of State authorities.[[fn:60]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "C. Legal threats: prosecution, extradition and retaliation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 60, "text": "KGZ 3/2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. In Myanmar, over 200 journalists, including exiled journalists, journalists working for exiled outlets and exiled journalists captured while returning home, have been prosecuted by the military junta with no due process, with harsh sentences meted out.[[fn:61]] The Myanmar military has also banned 14 outlets operating outside Myanmar, the objective being to punish their associates inside Myanmar and prevent them from collaborating with exiled media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "C. Legal threats: prosecution, extradition and retaliation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 61, "text": "Submission from International Center for Not-for-Profit Law."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. These cases are examples of the way in which States are weaponizing the legal and judicial systems to silence journalists in exile. As part of this strategy, some States have sought to bring criminal charges against exiled journalists and requested their arrest through the International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL), using its Red Notice system, so that they can then seek their extradition from the host country.[[fn:62]] Gobeze Sisay, a journalist in exile in Djibouti, was arrested with the assistance of INTERPOL in 2023.[[fn:63]] After Can Dündar, former editor-in-chief of the Turkish daily, Cumhuriyet, fled to Germany, the Government of Türkiye requested a Red Notice for his arrest on espionage charges, but it was refused by INTERPOL.[[fn:64]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "C. Legal threats: prosecution, extradition and retaliation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "UKR 3/2021."}, {"n": 63, "text": "Submission from Committee to Protect Journalists."}, {"n": 64, "text": "High-Level Panel of Legal Experts on Media Freedom, Report on Providing Safe Refuge to Journalists at Risk (International Bar Association Human Rights Institute, 2020), p. 21; Marilyn Clark and William Horsley, A Mission to Inform: Journalists at Risk Speak Out (Council of Europe, 2020); and A/HRC/35/22/Add.3, para. 34."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Although INTERPOL has taken steps to tighten oversight of the Red Notice system, it needs to carry out further improvements, as some States continue to abuse the rules by using the Stolen and Lost Passport Database to seek the arrest of journalists.[[fn:65]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "C. Legal threats: prosecution, extradition and retaliation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, resolution 2509 (2023)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Reprisals against family members, friends and sources have been used by some States as a means to intimidate and retaliate against journalists, activists and human rights defenders. Such actions take a heavy personal toll on exiled journalists who may feel compelled to cut off their ties with loved ones or with sources in the home country in order to protect them. Some journalists have quit their jobs, avoided certain stories or worked anonymously to shield their families from harm.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "D. Repression by proxy: targeting family members"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. According to a survey of Iranian journalists in the United Kingdom, 60 per cent of those surveyed reported the targeting of their relatives, friends and colleagues in Iran (Islamic Republic of).[[fn:66]] There are reports of at least four cases of family members of Bangladeshi journalists in exile who have been threatened and attacked, including with physical violence.[[fn:67]] Some journalists from India living abroad have reported that the harassment of family members at home has led them to self-censor or desist from applying for asylum.[[fn:68]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "D. Repression by proxy: targeting family members"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "Submission from Reporters without Borders."}, {"n": 67, "text": "Submission from Committee to Protect Journalists."}, {"n": 68, "text": "Submission from South Asia Justice Campaign."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Those reporting for the exiled independent Belarusian outlet, Zerkalo, are so fearful for their own safety and that of their families at home that they author content anonymously.[[fn:69]] The pressure tactics used by the Tajik authorities against relatives of exiled journalists have included the confiscation of property and passports as well as interrogations, house arrests and threats of criminal charges, contrary to the country’s international human rights obligations.[[fn:70]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "D. Repression by proxy: targeting family members"], "footnotes": [{"n": 69, "text": "Submission from International Press Institute."}, {"n": 70, "text": "Submissions from Foundation of Intercultural Integration and AZDA TV."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Often exile is not a single move often but a multiple-stage process in which journalists may first relocate within their home country, then move to a neighbouring country and later, still further abroad. Some try to wait it out in neighbouring countries in the hope that the environment at home will change and allow them to return or because proximity to their home country makes it easier to retain contact with their sources and continue their journalism. Many do not feel safe in countries bordering their homeland and seek to move further away but may be stymied in their efforts by a lack of relocation opportunities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Each stage of exile is marked by multiple challenges, affecting the journalists’ physical and digital safety and security, their freedom of movement and their ability to continue to work in the field of journalism. Political considerations often colour the response of receiving countries. In addition to their various professional and personal challenges, exiled journalists must manoeuvre the political context carefully to avoid being caught in the cross hairs of geopolitics or bilateral relations and to preserve their safety as well as their independence, professionalism and integrity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Policies and practices of digital and media companies can also present challenges for exiled journalists, particularly when the corporate actors themselves come under pressure from Governments to act against exiled media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. In this section, the Special Rapporteur considers the responses – or lack thereof – of host countries and companies to the threats and challenges faced by exiled journalists and media outlets. She also notes some good practices from States and civil society organizations to support journalists in exile.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Exile is not a choice but usually an act of last resort in the face of imminent danger. Journalists whose lives are in danger need emergency short-term visas for themselves and their families to enter another country as well as longer term residence permits to work and travel freely during their exile. Both are in short supply.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. In an in-depth report, the High-Level Panel of Legal Experts on Media Freedom examined the various kinds of visas available to journalists in distress – from conventional visas for work or study abroad to short-term humanitarian visas and permanent resettlement programmes for those recognized as refugees – and found that almost all options were limited in number and beset with difficulties, long delays and bureaucratic obstacles.[[fn:71]] As a result, many journalists use tourist visas to leave their country or move in the first instance to countries that do not require visas from them for a short-term visit, and then overstay those visas when they cannot find a way to relocate elsewhere. Many others enter a neighbouring country illegally, risking arrest and possible deportation back to their home countries.[[fn:72]] Anxiety about the lack of proper legal papers and fear of deportation can induce exiled journalists to self-censor or lead them to quit journalism.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "High-Level Panel of Legal Experts on Media Freedom, Report on Providing Safe Refuge to Journalists at Risk. The High-Level Panel recommended a journalist-specific emergency visa."}, {"n": 72, "text": "TUR 5/2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Only a few countries, such as Germany, Norway, Switzerland and the United States, offer humanitarian visas on urgent grounds to journalists. A number of States members of the European Union have introduced flexible visa policies for human rights defenders that can be applied also to journalists. Such arrangements have been in response to crisis situations and limited to certain nationalities rather than available to all journalists in need. As ad hoc arrangements, another weakness of such visas is that they are dependent on the political will of particular Governments. Ireland provided several hundred humanitarian visas to Afghan human rights defenders, including some journalists, in 2022, while Czechia, Latvia and Lithuania have issued humanitarian visas to several hundred independent journalists, media workers and their family members from Belarus and the Russian Federation.[[fn:73]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "Am Mokkhasen, “Safe refuge for journalists: recent progress from MFC members”, Media Freedom Coalition, 1 November 2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Journalists who meet the criteria for refugee status are entitled to asylum in their first country of refuge, if it is a party to the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, or they may be eligible for resettlement in a third country. Canada has launched a dedicated refugee stream for the resettlement of human rights defenders, including journalists.[[fn:74]] Costa Rica provides asylum to journalists and human rights defenders from Nicaragua.[[fn:75]] The problem is that many countries are either not a party to the Convention or do not uphold its provisions. Even in the case of States parties that respect the Convention, journalists must join the same queue as other asylum-seekers. Processing asylum applications can take a long time and, during that period, journalists are left in a precarious position, an easy target of transnational repression, and unable to travel, work or gain access to the social services available to recognized refugees.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": [{"n": 74, "text": "Media Freedom Coalition, “Media Freedom Coalition: 2022 activity report” (2023), p. 8."}, {"n": 75, "text": "Submission from the Inter-American Press Association."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Treating journalists as part of the general refugee community can be problematic, as it overlooks the specific threats and challenges that journalists face as a result of their work, such as targeted surveillance and other digital threats, attacks from the country of origin, collusion in renditions by the host country or tensions between exiled media and authorities in host countries. The distinct and urgent protection needs of exiled journalists who are refugees require more tailored responses. The Special Rapporteur encourages the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees to give more attention to the specific concerns of this group of refugees.[[fn:76]]", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "Submission from Freedom Press Unlimited."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Fellowships and study programmes at educational institutions, work assignments at foreign news organizations’ hubs, funding from foundations, specific programmes set up by press freedom groups and other organizations are important means by which journalists often find a way to leave their countries safely and survive legally abroad. The downside is that such arrangements are usually few and short-term, while increasingly, exile is becoming longer-term, as the conditions that forced journalists to leave their home countries show no sign of amelioration.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Despite the growing awareness and positive responses of some States, the overall picture on the legal status of exiled journalists remains grim. Demand far outstrips the supply of emergency humanitarian visas and longer-term relocation opportunities, straining the goodwill and resources of developing countries to which journalists have fled. Among the thousand or so Afghan journalists who left after the Taliban takeover in August 2021, only a small proportion found refuge in Europe or North America. Most made their way to neighbouring Pakistan, where they overstayed their short transit visas and are living in hiding, with no possibility of residence there or relocation elsewhere, unable to work and at risk of deportation.[[fn:77]] Many Sudanese journalists who sought refuge in Egypt, Kenya or Uganda find themselves in a similar situation, without legal status or permission to work or travel and facing possible deportation as overstayers.[[fn:78]] Hundreds of journalists as well as human rights defenders and activists from Myanmar live without formal legal status in Thailand, vulnerable to abduction and attacks from agents of the military regime from across the border.[[fn:79]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": [{"n": 77, "text": "Submission from Committee to Protect Journalists."}, {"n": 78, "text": "Submission from Sudanese Journalists Syndicate."}, {"n": 79, "text": "Submission from International Center for Not-for-Profit Law."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. Thanks to the advocacy of civil society, the efforts of the Media Freedom Coalition and the experience gained from the protection available to human rights defenders, there is growing awareness of the need to provide more creative, comprehensive and coordinated support to journalists in distress. The Hannah Arendt Initiative was set up by the Government of Germany in 2022 to support journalists and free speech defenders in their home countries or as close to them as possible but, if need be, also through temporary protection in Germany. The programme, initially limited to Afghanistan, Belarus and the Russian Federation, has been subsequently expanded to include Myanmar.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Another example is the Shelter City project, a global movement that offers safe and inspiring spaces to human rights defenders at risk where they can re-energize, receive tailor-made support and engage with allies in order to reinforce their local actions for change. Shelter cities have also hosted journalists that need support and protection as a result of their reporting on human rights issues.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Related to visas and residence permits is the need for journalists to possess a valid passport – a precondition for travel, which is an essential part of most journalists’ jobs. Some countries, e.g. Belarus and Egypt,[[fn:80]] have introduced decrees requiring their nationals living abroad to return home to renew their passports, which has left some journalists without a valid travel document, further endangering their precarious legal situation. In some cases, home States have revoked the passports of journalists in exile.[[fn:81]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "Submissions from International Press Institute and Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy."}, {"n": 81, "text": "Submission from AZDA TV."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. There are many positive and concrete examples of law enforcement authorities of host countries responding rapidly and effectively to provide protection, including armed police protection or other security assistance, to exiled journalists and media. Some large international media outlets also provide guidance and support to exiled journalists among their staff, including legal assistance and digital training, as do some non-governmental organizations.[[fn:82]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "B. Safety and security: role and responsibilities of host States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 82, "text": "See, for instance, submissions from Reporters without Borders and the Committee to Protect Journalists."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. An upsurge of physical, legal and digital threats requires stronger, more consistent responses from host countries. It is incumbent on States to prevent and protect all journalists on their territory, and investigate and prosecute crimes committed against them, both to ensure justice and accountability to the victim and to deter potential perpetrators, whether in the country or abroad. However, only just over one out of every 10 cases of killings of all journalists worldwide are ever resolved,[[fn:83]] a statistic that bodes ill for the safety of exiled journalists. As an example, the investigation into the murder of Arshad Sharif, a Pakistani journalist who was killed in Kenya in October 2022, has yet to be completed, despite pressure from the judiciary in Pakistan.[[fn:84]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "B. Safety and security: role and responsibilities of host States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 83, "text": "UNESCO, Observatory of Killed Journalists, available at https://www.unesco.org/en/safety-journalists/observatory/statistics."}, {"n": 84, "text": "KEN 2/2023."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Safety and security are doubly in peril when the authorities in the host country become an enabler of transnational repression, for instance, by colluding in abductions instigated by the home State. Vietnamese journalist Truong Duy Nhat of Radio Free Asia’s Vietnamese-language service was abducted from Thailand to Viet Nam in January 2019. The following year he was sentenced to 10 years in prison for “abusing his position and power while on duty” as a reporter. The Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concluded that Mr. Nhat had been seized and handed over by the Thai authorities to Vietnamese State agents clandestinely without a fair and public extradition hearing in Thailand.[[fn:85]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "B. Safety and security: role and responsibilities of host States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 85, "text": "VNM 4/2020; A/HRC/WGAD/2020/42; and THA 8/2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. International law places an obligation on States to ensure that journalists are not deported, expelled or extradited to a territory where their life or freedom could be threatened.[[fn:86]] Thousands of journalists, human rights defenders and activists from Myanmar who fled to Thailand after the military takeover in 2022 entered without a visa, have not been able to regularize their stay and therefore have no legal status. Those who are arrested by the Thai authorities for illegal entry risk being deported to Myanmar – with dire consequences there.[[fn:87]] Iranian journalists in Türkiye face similar risks of deportation for illegal entry.[[fn:88]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "B. Safety and security: role and responsibilities of host States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 86, "text": "Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, arts. 32 and 33; and SWE 1/2013."}, {"n": 87, "text": "THA 3/2021."}, {"n": 88, "text": "TUR 5/2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Even where refugee-related concerns are not present, the extradition of a journalist to face serious criminal charges in relation to their professional functions is fundamentally at odds with the right to freedom of expression and media freedom. The Special Rapporteur has raised serious concerns regarding the possible extradition of Julian Assange from the United Kingdom to the United States to stand trial under the Espionage Act, because, if he were to be extradited, he would not be allowed to employ the defence of “disclosure in the public interest” that is available to journalists, he would be subjected to disproportionately harsh punishment and it could have a broader chilling effect on other journalists and publishers.[[fn:89]]", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "B. Safety and security: role and responsibilities of host States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/03/ukus-time-end-prosecution-julian-assange-un-expert-says."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. The weaponization of the legal and judicial system by the country of origin against an exiled journalists can worsen their precarious situation in their host countries. An accusation of criminality or terrorism, even if it does not lead to formal charges, extradition, deportation or prosecution, marks out the journalist as a security threat to the host country authorities and raises the suspicions of law enforcement agencies abroad, slowing down or undermining applications for visas, asylum or resettlement, making it more difficult to open a bank account or transfer funds and impeding freedom of movement, which may be necessary for journalistic purposes.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "B. Safety and security: role and responsibilities of host States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Although transnational digital repression is growing, digital threats to the safety and security of journalists are often not addressed by law enforcement in host countries because of gaps in criminal law or their inability or unwillingness to identify the perpetrators. Despite credible evidence of spyware attacks in four specific cases in the European Union, neither Germany nor Latvia, where the attacks appear to have occurred, nor any other State member of the European Union, appear to have carried out investigations or, if they did, to have published the findings.[[fn:90]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "B. Safety and security: role and responsibilities of host States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 90, "text": "According to the joint submission from Access Now and Meduza, Citizen Lab investigations found that the Apple devices of a Latvian journalist, Evgeniy Pavlov, and exiled Russian journalists, Evgeniy Erlich and Maria Epifanova, as well as that of Galina Timchenko, the head of Meduza, all of whom are based in Latvia, had been hacked and concluded that the attacks could have come either from the Russian Federation, one of its allies or a State member of the European Union."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. Political pressure from host countries can be an existential threat to exiled media. For instance, citing national security, Latvia suspended the licence of independent Russian television station, TV Rain, under circumstances that indicate disagreements over the outlet’s reporting on the armed conflict in Ukraine.[[fn:91]] The decision to suspend the outlet’s licence appears to be an unnecessary and disproportionate restriction of freedom of expression, contrary to article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "B. Safety and security: role and responsibilities of host States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 91, "text": "Submission from European Center for Press and Media Freedom. TV Rain was able to obtain a licence to operate in the Netherlands, which allows it to reach audiences in the European Union, including Latvia."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. In line with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, companies have the responsibility to respect human rights. At a minimum, they are required to conduct due diligence to identify and assess the human rights risks associated with their activities, establish clear policies on how to address them, publish transparency reports on the risks that they encounter and how they are being addressed and provide for remedies in case of violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "C. Digital technology: companies’ responsibility for human rights"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. Digital technology plays a significant enabling role for exiled journalism, but it also presents challenges and threats that companies are failing to address adequately.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "C. Digital technology: companies’ responsibility for human rights"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. Connectivity is essential for exiled journalists and outlets. Many exiled media outlets have sought to stay connected to their audiences in their home countries, using a range of digital tools and apps. Location-cloaking virtual private networks (VPNs), censorship circumvention software and mirroring techniques for news outlets are increasingly popular and effective tools for circumventing online restrictions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "C. Digital technology: companies’ responsibility for human rights"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. Despite the greater use of VPNs, connectivity remains a challenge for exiled media and journalists in closed societies. For instance, following the invasion of Ukraine by the Russian Federation in February 2022, several companies took action to disable essential digital services for Russian and Belarusian users for fear of violating the escalating sanctions against individuals and institutions in those countries. Their overzealous compliance with the sanctions restricted the ability of exiled independent media to report on events in Belarus and the Russian Federation, provide news to users in those countries and monetize their content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "C. Digital technology: companies’ responsibility for human rights"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. Some Governments have manipulated social media platforms’ policies to get them to block or take down the journalistic material of exiled media. When companies receive an orchestrated flood of proxy complaints about inappropriate content or copyright infringements, they react by blocking or deleting it without examining the context and determining whether the content is in the public interest, in effect, censoring the content.[[fn:92]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "C. Digital technology: companies’ responsibility for human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 92, "text": "Submission from Reporters without Borders."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. Journalists have complained that their appeals against unjustified content removal or blockage are ignored by companies. Exiled news sites have also found that they have limited audience reach on popular social media platforms, as potentially divisive or political content is down-ranked by social media algorithms. Journalists facing State-directed hacking attempts and cyberharassment campaigns have found the safety tools developed by some social media platforms to be insufficient. Exiled journalists and media outlets invest significant time and resources in self-protection, adopting various digital hygiene practices and precautions. Some major platforms have offered journalists ways to flag abuse or protect their accounts, but it is not possible for overburdened, underresourced outlets and journalists to mitigate the threat from well-funded, State-directed cyberharassment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "C. Digital technology: companies’ responsibility for human rights"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. “By placing the responsibility on targeted journalists to track online abuse and follow a complicated set of protocols to mitigate it, companies reinforce the power imbalance between the perpetrator Governments and their targets.”[[fn:93]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "C. Digital technology: companies’ responsibility for human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 93, "text": "White, Vaughan and Gorokhovskaia, “A light that cannot be extinguished”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Sustaining journalism as a profession in exile is challenging. At the individual level, although most journalists leave their country in order to continue their work, many drop out of the profession once abroad. More than two thirds of Afghan journalists who left the country are no longer working in the media.[[fn:94]] A survey of Hong Kongese journalists and media workers also found that two thirds of respondents had left the media sector after moving abroad.[[fn:95]] According to one survey, about a third of journalists who had fled Belarus and the Russian Federation in the past three years had given up journalism after going into exile.[[fn:96]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 94, "text": "Submission from International Media Support."}, {"n": 95, "text": "International Federation of Journalists, “Journalists in exile: a survey of media workers in the Hong Kong diaspora”."}, {"n": 96, "text": "Submission from Justice for Journalists Foundation."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. The reasons for journalists to leave their profession are manifold, from lack of personal safety and fear of reprisals against their family in the home country to lack of knowledge of the local language and culture in the host country. For some, the skills and knowledge for which they were hired in their home country are no longer relevant in their new country. For others, the bureaucratic and administrative requirements, such as notarial certification of diplomas or journalistic accreditation from their home countries, may be impossible to fulfil.[[fn:97]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 97, "text": "Submission from Fundación por la Libertad de Expresión y Democracia."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. Lack of work permits is a big problem. Many countries where journalists in exile find themselves do not provide residence permits, and, without them, they cannot obtain a work permit. Without a work permit, journalists cannot find work in the local media sector. According to one survey of 120 Afghan journalists who are now in Western countries, almost a third did not have work permits.[[fn:98]]", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 98, "text": "European Fund for Journalists in Exile, “Professional situation and needs of Afghan journalists in exile: an exploratory study (Berlin, Germany, 2023)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. The human cost of exile is also a factor driving journalists away from journalism in exile. The trauma of armed conflict or repression in the home country, fears about safety and surveillance in exile, anxiety about possible retaliation against family and sources back home, uncertainty about visas, residence permits, jobs, income and the future, separation from loved ones and the challenges of integration in the new surroundings can have serious detrimental effects on the physical and mental health of exiled journalists.[[fn:99]] The need for psychosocial support and care is high but insufficiently met.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 99, "text": "Submissions from Inter-American Press Association and Committee to Protect Journalists."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. At the level of media outlets, financial viability is a key challenge. Exiled media organizations struggle to achieve financial sustainability, with only limited opportunities to develop viable commercial revenue. Revenue from online advertising and donations or subscriptions from their home countries are often cut off by legal prohibitions or other measures introduced by the home State. International sanctions may prevent exiled outlets from monetizing news content. In some least developed countries where Internet penetration is low and radio is the main source of news, exiled media cannot rely on the Internet or seek subscriptions from audiences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. At the same time, the outlets must contend with high operating expenses because of the need to invest in keeping their staff and digital infrastructure safe from cyberattacks and physical and legal threats and to find the technical methods to deliver content to domestic audiences who are actively prevented from accessing online independent news outlets.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. Another challenge is that the outlets are cut off from their audiences, subscribers, sponsors and private donors in their home country but must nevertheless ensure that they carry out credible audience research and stay engaged and relevant to their audiences in an environment where access to information is challenging because of State control and censorship. “In sum, outlets are forced to spend money they do not have to continue to deliver information to audiences who cannot pay.”[[fn:100]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 100, "text": "White, Vaughan and Gorokhovskaia, “A light that cannot be extinguished”, p. 8."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. Few exiled media outlets have a sustainable financing model, and most are dependent on civil society funding and philanthropy and likely to remain so for some time.[[fn:101]] On the other hand, donor strategies are geared largely towards providing short-term funding for acute crises. However, thanks to civil society advocacy and efforts, there is growing awareness of the need for longer term and sustained investment from donors and examples of innovative programming. Despite the many problems that exiled outlets face, good practices are emerging, highlighting the resilience, creativity, energy and courage of journalists in exile and the civil society organizations working with them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "Submission from International Media Support, which estimates that exiled groups it helps generate only 3–7 per cent of their revenue from commercial sources."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. In an effort to overcome the funding challenges and operational obstacles, exiled journalists have come together in loose networks to share knowledge and problems. One such group is the Network of Exiled Media Organizations.[[fn:102]] Members share experiences and tips on a range of issues, from censorship circumnavigation software to donor cultivation strategies, and strengthen the understanding of why audiences, donors, policymakers and civil society should support exiled media.[[fn:103]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 102, "text": "See https://www.exiled.media. Founded in 2022 by Nicaraguan outlet Confidencial, based in Costa Rica, Meydan TV of Azerbaijan, based in Berlin, and Zamaneh Media of Iran (Islamic Republic of), which operates out of Amsterdam. The group was later joined by Meduza from Latvia and the Democratic Voice of Burma based in Thailand."}, {"n": 103, "text": "Ayodeji Rotinwa, “Q&A: Cinthia Membreño on the global network helping journalists in exile”, Columbia Journalism Review, 29 November 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. Another interesting initiative is the European Fund for Journalism in Exile, which acts as a clearing-house that bundles offers of help and directs resources where they are best needed, enabling media workers quickly and flexibly to continue their work in exile.[[fn:104]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 104, "text": "See https://jx-fund.org."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. There are also some “good news” stories from exiled media. For instance, Syrian media outlets have turned challenges into opportunities by using the freedom provided by exile to practise ethical journalism, cover issues that were taboo in the home country and develop new approaches to investigative journalism.[[fn:105]] Another example is that of City Dog, originally from Belarus, which has reworked its vision and mission, going from “multiplatform distribution to becoming a multiplatform media brand”, creating and recreating content for each platform.[[fn:106]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 105, "text": "Submission from International Media Support."}, {"n": 106, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. Journalists, like human rights defenders, are on the front line of the effort to hold the powerful to account, and for that they pay a heavy price, personally and professionally. Exiled journalists are a reminder, on the one hand, of the relentless onslaught on human rights in parts of the world and, on the other, of the human cost of violence and repression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. International human rights and refugee law provide a strong framework to protect journalists in exile. In practice, however, the individuals remain highly vulnerable because of the failure of States to uphold their international obligations. Home States use various methods, from extraterritorial attacks to prosecution in absentia, to pursue and silence journalists. Host States are either unwilling for political reasons or unable for lack of capacity or resources to protect and support journalists in exile. There is no international legal gap, but there is a dangerous protection gap.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. Political and ideological considerations and bilateral relations heavily influence the ways in which States respond to the plight of journalists in exile. Journalists should not be treated as political pawns but as human beings in distress who, at great cost to themselves, serve a critical social purpose – fulfilling people’s right to be informed of issues that affect their lives. Regardless of where the journalists are coming from or where they find refuge, the Special Rapporteur urges States to take a rights-based, human-centred approach to resolving their plight.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. Most journalists want to go home once it is safe for them to do so. However, with authoritarianism and attacks on independent media on the rise in many countries, what once seemed a temporary state of displacement is increasingly becoming a semi-permanent affair. More and more, journalists are facing the prospect that they may not be able to return home for a long time. International and national responses to journalists in exile must adjust to this new reality.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. The needs of journalists in exile are stark. Exiled journalists need the receiving Governments to proactively facilitate the issuing of visas and work permits and their resettlement. They need better protection from physical and online attacks in their new homes. They need coordinated, long-term support from funders, civil society and press freedom groups to enable them to develop sustainable business models and strengthen their capacity in exile. They need companies to ensure that the technologies that are essential to practise journalism are not disrupted or weaponized against them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. The overarching concern of exiled journalists is safety and security. Transnational repression, online and offline, has become the predominant threat against those who raise their voices in exile. It must be condemned by the international community and by States as a form of censorship and a violation of the fundamental principles of international law, human rights and democracy. Neither impunity nor collusion should be tolerated.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. In the digital age, fighting transnational repression is a responsibility not only of States but also companies. Exiled media and journalists need a free and open Internet and digital security. Corporate actors in the digital sector must step up to the challenge.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. Journalists in exile share many of the same problems of human rights defenders who have been forced to leave their countries. When designing protection strategies and tools for human rights defenders, States should keep exiled journalists in mind. There is also considerable overlap between refugees and journalists in exile, and in the normative framework applicable to them, but also some distinct protection needs that only journalists have because of the work that they do. That may require adjusting refugee systems and procedures to respond to the distinct needs of journalists in exile. UNESCO, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) should develop responses that address the specificities as well as similarities between exiled journalists and refugees.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. The high numbers of journalists who are leaving the profession and exiled outlets that are shutting down should be a wake-up call for donors. Exiled media need increased, targeted and sustained funding.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. Data on exiled journalism is patchy. More systematic, reliable data-gathering and research is essential to better understand the issues and find effective responses.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. States should:\n(a) Publicly acknowledge the valuable role of independent public service media, including exiled journalists, in promoting democracy, development and human rights;\n(b) Establish clear legal pathways for journalists at risk to leave their countries and reside abroad with the right to work until they can return home safely. Emergency humanitarian visas should be provided through accelerated procedures to journalists at risk, regardless of their nationality, and their family members to enable them to depart their country of origin safely and rapidly;\n(c) Ensure that all journalists in their jurisdiction, regardless of their legal status, are protected from violence, threats and harassment, as well as refoulement or extradition on criminal charges related to their work;\n(d) Refrain from committing, co-opting or condoning acts of transnational repression, online or offline, and ensure that all acts of transnational repression on their territory are investigated and prosecuted promptly, fully and effectively;\n(e) Where applicable, review and revise national laws or adopt new laws to allow for the prosecution of the perpetrators and facilitators of transnational repression. Foreign State immunity laws should also be revised to enable individuals affected by transnational repression to seek legal remedies in national courts;\n(f) Acknowledge that exiled journalists who qualify for refugee status may face specific risks due to the nature of their work and ensure that they can receive appropriate protection and support and access asylum and resettlement procedures in an expedited manner;\n(g) Take all measures to facilitate exiled media outlets to operate freely and on a non-discriminatory basis and support civil society initiatives to enable exiled journalists and media.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. Social media platforms should:\n(a) Establish accessible “escalation channels” that allow exiled journalists and media outlets to easily report online violence, deplatforming and other digital threats and ensure that complaints are handled promptly with the involvement of humans who have the relevant contextual knowledge, language skills and understanding of the public interest role of journalists;\n(b) Undertake due diligence to identify risks of digital transnational threats against exiled media and journalists, with input from exiled media, and enhance safety tools and other measures to mitigate them;\n(c) Publicly identify the perpetrators, methods and scale of transnational digital repression.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. Civil society is encouraged:\n(a) To work in collaboration with exiled media to develop innovative programmes to strengthen the capacity, safety and longer-term viability of exiled media;\n(b) To enhance social, medical and psychosocial care and support services for exiled journalists and their families;\n(c) To provide concrete support for the capacity and development of exiled media;\n(d) To encourage, develop and invest in networks that connect exiled journalists to enhance funding, learning and support, including with the media in their country of refuge and international outlets.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. OHCHR, UNESCO and UNHCR should:\n(a) Strengthen their collaboration among themselves and with other stakeholders in countries and regions where exiled journalists are most at risk;\n(b) Ensure that the United Nations Plan of Action on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity is applied to combating impunity for crimes against exiled journalists, including transnational repression;\n(c) Coordinate, under the guidance of UNESCO and in cooperation with States, the systematic collection and dissemination of reliable data, learning and research on issues relating to exiled journalists and media outlets.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report is submitted to the Human Rights Council by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 7/36. In particular, the resolution requests the Special Rapporteur “to continue to provide his/her views, when appropriate, on the advantages and challenges of new information and communication technologies, including the Internet and mobile technologies, for the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to seek, receive and impart information and the relevance of a wide diversity of sources, as well as access to the information society for all”.[[fn:1]] On this basis, the report expands upon the previous mandate holders’ reports on topics related to the Internet,[[fn:2]] taking into account recent developments and information gathered through five regional consultations organized by the Special Rapporteur in 2010 and 2011.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Human Rights Council resolution 7/36, para. 4(f)."}, {"n": 2, "text": "E/CN.4/1998/40; E/CN.4/1999/64; E/CN.4/2000/63; E/CN.4/2001/64; E/CN.4/2002/75; E/CN.4/2005/64; E/CN.4/2006/55; A/HRC/4/27; A/HRC/7/14."}, {"n": 3, "text": "See para. 5 for further information."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. While the Internet has been in existence since the 1960s, its current use throughout the world across different age groups, and incorporation into virtually every aspect of modern human life, has been unprecedented. According to the International Telecommunication Union, the total number of Internet users worldwide is now over 2 billion.[[fn:4]] Active users of Facebook, an online social networking platform, grew from 150 million to 600 million between 2009 and 2011. The Special Rapporteur believes that the Internet is one of the most powerful instruments of the 21st century for increasing transparency in the conduct of the powerful, access to information, and for facilitating active citizen participation in building democratic societies. Indeed, the recent wave of demonstrations in countries across the Middle East and North African region has shown the key role that the Internet can play in mobilizing the population to call for justice, equality, accountability and better respect for human rights. As such, facilitating access to the Internet for all individuals, with as little restriction to online content as possible, should be a priority for all States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "International Telecommunication Union, StatShot No.5, January 2011 Available from: http://www.itu.int/net/pressoffice/stats/2011/01/index.aspx."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur would like to underscore that access to the Internet has two dimensions: access to online content, without any restrictions except in a few limited cases permitted under international human rights law; and the availability of the necessary infrastructure and information communication technologies, such as cables, modems, computers and software, to access the Internet in the first place. The first dimension is addressed in Chapter IV of the report, which outlines some of the ways in which States are restricting the flow of information online through increasingly sophisticated means. The second dimension is examined in Chapter IV. The Special Rapporteur intends to explore the latter issue further in his future report to the General Assembly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Between 20 March 2010 and 31 March 2011, the Special Rapporteur sent 195 communications, 188 of which were submitted jointly with other special procedures mandate holders. The geographical distribution of the communications was as follows: 29 per cent for Asia and the Pacific; 26 per cent for the Middle East and North Africa; 16 per cent for Africa; 15 per cent for Latin America and the Caribbean; and 14 per cent for Europe, Central Asia and North America. The summary of communications sent and replies received from Governments can be found in the first addendum to this report (A/HRC/17/27/Add.1).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Communications"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The Special Rapporteur, with the support of local organizations, organized a series of expert regional consultations, beginning in March 2010 in Stockholm, followed by Buenos Aires (18-19 October 2010), Bangkok (18-19 November 2010), Cairo (11-13 January 2011), Johannesburg (15-16 February 2011), and Delhi (2-3 March 2011). The regional consultations concluded on 30 March 2011 with an expert meeting in Stockholm, organized by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Sweden. These meetings brought together experts and human rights defenders working on a range of Internet and freedom of expression-related issues in order to better understand their experience, needs and priorities in different countries and regions for the purposes of this report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. From 14 to 17 September 2010, the Special Rapporteur attended the Fifth Internet Governance Forum in Vilnius.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. On 30 November 2010, the Special Rapporteur participated in an expert round table entitled “Equality, Non-discrimination and Diversity: Challenge or Opportunity for the Mass Media?” in Geneva, organized by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. On 9 and 10 February 2011 and on 6 and 7 April 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated as an expert in the regional expert workshops on the prohibition of incitement to national, racial or religious hatred organized by OHCHR in Vienna and Nairobi respectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. On 16 March 2011, the Special Rapporteur shared his views regarding the compatibility of blocking child pornography on the Internet with the right to freedom of expression in the context of discussions on the proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on combating the sexual abuse and sexual exploitation of children and child pornography.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The Special Rapporteur also participated in a series of academic events in other countries, including Guatemala, Mexico, the Philippines, South Africa, Sweden and the United States of America.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. The Special Rapporteur notes that country visits remain central to his mandate. Requests sent to Governments to undertake a country mission are based on several factors, such as visits undertaken and requested by the former mandate holders, trends that emerge from communications sent on alleged violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and consideration of geographical balance. The Special Rapporteur hopes that visit requests will be favourably received by the Governments concerned.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. From 5 to 15 May 2010, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to the Republic of Korea. The mission report is included as an addendum to this report (A/HRC/17/27/Add.2).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "1. Missions undertaken in 2010 and 2011"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. From 10 to 21 August 2010, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Mexico, together with the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression for the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Catalina Botero. The mission report is included as an addendum to this report (A/HRC/17/27/Add.3).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "1. Missions undertaken in 2010 and 2011"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. From 3 to 5 April 2011, the Special Rapporteur visited the Republic of Hungary, at the invitation of the Government, to provide expert advice to the Government regarding Hungarian media legislation. The press release with his conclusions and recommendations can be found on the OHCHR website.[[fn:5]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Available from: http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10916&LangID=E."}], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "1. Missions undertaken in 2010 and 2011"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. From 10 to 17 April 2011, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Algeria. The mission report will be presented at a future session of the Human Rights Council in 2012. The press release with his initial conclusions and recommendations can be found on the OHCHR website.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "1. Missions undertaken in 2010 and 2011"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The visit to Israel and the occupied Palestinian territory, which was scheduled to take place in May 2011, has been postponed. The new dates of the visit have yet to be agreed upon.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "2. Upcoming missions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. The Special Rapporteur would like to thank the Italian Government for its letter dated 6 August 2010 in response to his request for a visit. He hopes that a mutually convenient set of dates can be agreed upon for a visit in 2011.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "2. Upcoming missions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. As of March 2011, the following visit requests from the Special Rapporteur were pending: the Islamic Republic of Iran (requested in February 2010), Sri Lanka (requested in June 2009), Tunisia (requested in 2009), and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (requested in 2003 and 2009).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "3. Pending requests"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Very few if any developments in information technologies have had such a revolutionary effect as the creation of the Internet. Unlike any other medium of communication, such as radio, television and printed publications based on one-way transmission of information, the Internet represents a significant leap forward as an interactive medium. Indeed, with the advent of Web 2.0 services, or intermediary platforms that facilitate participatory information sharing and collaboration in the creation of content, individuals are no longer passive recipients, but also active publishers of information. Such platforms are particularly valuable in countries where there is no independent media, as they enable individuals to share critical views and to find objective information. Furthermore, producers of traditional media can also use the Internet to greatly expand their audiences at nominal cost. More generally, by enabling individuals to exchange information and ideas instantaneously and inexpensively across national borders, the Internet allows access to information and knowledge that was previously unattainable. This, in turn, contributes to the discovery of the truth and progress of society as a whole.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. General principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Indeed, the Internet has become a key means by which individuals can exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression, as guaranteed by article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The latter provides that:\n(a) Everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference;\n(b) Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice;\n(c) The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of this article carries with it special duties and responsibilities. It may therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary:\n(d) for respect of the rights or reputations of others;\n(e) for the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — joint citation to UDHR and ICCPR."}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. General principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. By explicitly providing that everyone has the right to express him or herself through any media, the Special Rapporteur underscores that article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Covenant was drafted with foresight to include and to accommodate future technological developments through which individuals can exercise their right to freedom of expression. Hence, the framework of international human rights law remains relevant today and equally applicable to new communication technologies such as the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Covenant' — joint citation to UDHR and ICCPR (the Covenant)."}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. General principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is as much a fundamental right on its own accord as it is an “enabler” of other rights, including economic, social and cultural rights, such as the right to education and the right to take part in cultural life and to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress and its applications, as well as civil and political rights, such as the rights to freedom of association and assembly. Thus, by acting as a catalyst for individuals to exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression, the Internet also facilitates the realization of a range of other human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. General principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. The vast potential and benefits of the Internet are rooted in its unique characteristics, such as its speed, worldwide reach and relative anonymity. At the same time, these distinctive features of the Internet that enable individuals to disseminate information in “real time” and to mobilize people has also created fear amongst Governments and the powerful. This has led to increased restrictions on the Internet through the use of increasingly sophisticated technologies to block content, monitor and identify activists and critics, criminalization of legitimate expression, and adoption of restrictive legislation to justify such measures. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur also emphasizes that the existing international human rights standards, in particular article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, remain pertinent in determining the types of restrictions that are in breach of States’ obligations to guarantee the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. General principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. As set out in article 19, paragraph 3, of the Covenant, there are certain exceptional types of expression which may be legitimately restricted under international human rights law, essentially to safeguard the rights of others. This issue has been examined in the previous annual report of the Special Rapporteur.[[fn:7]] However, the Special Rapporteur deems it appropriate to reiterate that any limitation to the right to freedom of expression must pass the following three-part, cumulative test:\n(a) It must be provided by law, which is clear and accessible to everyone (principles of predictability and transparency); and\n(b) It must pursue one of the purposes set out in article 19, paragraph 3, of the Covenant, namely (i) to protect the rights or reputations of others, or (ii) to protect national security or of public order, or of public health or morals (principle of legitimacy); and\n(c) It must be proven as necessary and the least restrictive means required to achieve the purported aim (principles of necessity and proportionality).\nMoreover, any legislation restricting the right to freedom of expression must be applied by a body which is independent of any political, commercial, or other unwarranted influences in a manner that is neither arbitrary nor discriminatory, and with adequate safeguards against abuse, including the possibility of challenge and remedy against its abusive application.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "A/HRC/14/23, paras. 72 - 87."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "section": ["III. General principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. As such, legitimate types of information which may be restricted include child pornography (to protect the rights of children),[[fn:8]] hate speech (to protect the rights of affected communities),[[fn:9]] defamation (to protect the rights and reputation of others against unwarranted attacks), direct and public incitement to commit genocide (to protect the rights of others),[[fn:10]] and advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence (to protect the rights of others, such as the right to life).[[fn:11]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Dissemination of child pornography is prohibited under international human rights law, see e.g. Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, art. 3, para. 1(c)."}, {"n": 9, "text": "See for example Faurisson v. France, United Nations Human Rights Committee, communication 550/1993, views of 8 November 1996. The issue of hate speech has also been addressed in previous reports, see inter alia E/CN.4/1999/64; E/CN.4/2000/63; E/CN.4/2002/75; and A/HRC/4/27."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See for example article 3(c) of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide."}, {"n": 11, "text": "See for example article 20, paragraph 2, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}], "section": ["III. General principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. However, in many instances, States restrict, control, manipulate and censor content disseminated via the Internet without any legal basis, or on the basis of broad and ambiguous laws, without justifying the purpose of such actions; and/or in a manner that is clearly unnecessary and/or disproportionate to achieving the intended aim, as explored in the following sections. Such actions are clearly incompatible with States’ obligations under international human rights law, and often create a broader “chilling effect” on the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. General principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. In addition, the Special Rapporteur emphasizes that due to the unique characteristics of the Internet, regulations or restrictions which may be deemed legitimate and proportionate for traditional media are often not so with regard to the Internet. For example, in cases of defamation of individuals’ reputation, given the ability of the individual concerned to exercise his/her right of reply instantly to restore the harm caused, the types of sanctions that are applied to offline defamation may be unnecessary or disproportionate. Similarly, while the protection of children from inappropriate content may constitute a legitimate aim, the availability of software filters that parents and school authorities can use to control access to certain content renders action by the Government such as blocking less necessary, and difficult to justify.[[fn:12]] Furthermore, unlike the broadcasting sector, for which registration or licensing has been necessary to allow States to distribute limited frequencies, such requirements cannot be justified in the case of the Internet, as it can accommodate an unlimited number of points of entry and an essentially unlimited number of users.[[fn:13]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Center for Democracy & Technology, “Regardless of Frontiers: The International Right to Freedom of Expression in the Digital Age,” version 0.5 - Discussion draft (April 2011), p.5."}, {"n": 13, "text": "However, this does not apply to registration with a domain name authority for purely technical reasons or rules of general application which apply without distinction to any kind of commercial operation."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "section": ["III. General principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. As outlined under Chapter III, any restriction to the right to freedom of expression must meet the strict criteria under international human rights law. A restriction on the right of individuals to express themselves through the Internet can take various forms, from technical measures to prevent access to certain content, such as blocking and filtering, to inadequate guarantees of the right to privacy and protection of personal data, which inhibit the dissemination of opinions and information. The Special Rapporteur is of the view that the arbitrary use of criminal law to sanction legitimate expression constitutes one of the gravest forms of restriction to the right, as it not only creates a “chilling effect”, but also leads to other human rights violations, such as arbitrary detention and torture and other forms of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Blocking refers to measures taken to prevent certain content from reaching an end-user. This includes preventing users from accessing specific websites, Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, domain name extensions, the taking down of websites from the web server where they are hosted, or using filtering technologies to exclude pages containing keywords or other specific content from appearing. For example, several countries continue to block access to YouTube,[[fn:14]] a video-sharing website on which users can upload, share and view videos. China, which has in place one of the most sophisticated and extensive systems for controlling information on the Internet, has adopted extensive filtering systems that block access to websites containing key terms such as “democracy” and “human rights”.[[fn:15]] The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned that mechanisms used to regulate and censor information on the Internet are increasingly sophisticated, with multi-layered controls that are often hidden from the public.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See OpenNet Initiative, “YouTube Censored: A Recent History”. Available from: http://opennet.net/youtube-censored-a-recent-history."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Reporters without Borders, “Enemies of the Internet,” March 2010. Available from: http://en.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/Internet_enemies.pdf, pp. 8-12."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "A. Arbitrary blocking or filtering of content"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The Special Rapporteur is also concerned by the emerging trend of timed (or “just-in-time”) blocking to prevent users from accessing or disseminating information at key political moments, such as elections, times of social unrest, or anniversaries of politically or historically significant events. During such times, websites of opposition parties, independent media, and social networking platforms such as Twitter and Facebook are blocked, as witnessed in the context of recent protests across the Middle East and North African region. In Egypt, users were disconnected entirely from Internet access.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "A. Arbitrary blocking or filtering of content"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. States’ use of blocking or filtering technologies is frequently in violation of their obligation to guarantee the right to freedom of expression, as the criteria mentioned under chapter III are not met. Firstly, the specific conditions that justify blocking are not established in law, or are provided by law but in an overly broad and vague manner, which risks content being blocked arbitrarily and excessively. Secondly, blocking is not justified to pursue aims which are listed under article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and blocking lists are generally kept secret, which makes it difficult to assess whether access to content is being restricted for a legitimate purpose. Thirdly, even where justification is provided, blocking measures constitute an unnecessary or disproportionate means to achieve the purported aim, as they are often not sufficiently targeted and render a wide range of content inaccessible beyond that which has been deemed illegal. Lastly, content is frequently blocked without the intervention of or possibility for review by a judicial or independent body.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "A. Arbitrary blocking or filtering of content"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. The Special Rapporteur notes that child pornography is one clear exception where blocking measures can be justified, provided that the national law is sufficiently precise and there are effective safeguards against abuse or misuse, including oversight and review by an independent and impartial tribunal or regulatory body. However, he is also concerned that States frequently rely heavily on blocking measures, rather than focusing their efforts on prosecuting those responsible for the production and dissemination of child pornography. Additionally, as child pornography is often a by-product of trafficking and prostitution of children, the Special Rapporteur urges States to take holistic measures to combat the root problems that give rise to child pornography.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "A. Arbitrary blocking or filtering of content"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The types of action taken by States to limit the dissemination of content online not only include measures to prevent information from reaching the end-user, but also direct targeting of those who seek, receive and impart politically sensitive information via the Internet. Physically silencing criticism or dissent through arbitrary arrests and detention, enforced disappearance, harassment and intimidation is an old phenomenon, and also applies to Internet users. This issue has been explored in the Special Rapporteur’s report to the General Assembly under the section on “protection of citizen journalists” (A/65/284). Such actions are often aimed not only to silence legitimate expression, but also to intimidate a population to push its members towards self-censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "B. Criminalization of legitimate expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The Special Rapporteur remains concerned that legitimate online expression is being criminalized in contravention of States’ international human rights obligations, whether it is through the application of existing criminal laws to online expression, or through the creation of new laws specifically designed to criminalize expression on the Internet. Such laws are often justified on the basis of protecting an individual’s reputation, national security or countering terrorism, but in practice are used to censor content that the Government and other powerful entities do not like or agree with.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "B. Criminalization of legitimate expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. One clear example of criminalizing legitimate expression is the imprisonment of bloggers around the world. According to Reporters without Borders, in 2010, 109 bloggers were in prison on charges related to the content of their online expression.[[fn:16]] Seventy-two individuals were imprisoned in China alone, followed by Viet Nam and Iran, with 17 and 13 persons respectively.[[fn:17]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Available from: http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-barometer-journalists-killed.html?annee=2010."}, {"n": 17, "text": "Reporters without Borders, “Enemies of the Internet,” March 2010. Available from: http://en.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/Internet_enemies.pdf."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "B. Criminalization of legitimate expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Imprisoning individuals for seeking, receiving and imparting information and ideas can rarely be justified as a proportionate measure to achieve one of the legitimate aims under article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate that defamation should be decriminalized, and that protection of national security or countering terrorism cannot be used to justify restricting the right to expression unless the Government can demonstrate that: (a) the expression is intended to incite imminent violence; (b) it is likely to incite such violence; and (c) there is a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the likelihood or occurrence of such violence.[[fn:18]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, Principle 6, as endorsed in E/CN.4/1996/39."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "B. Criminalization of legitimate expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Additionally, the Special Rapporteur reiterates that the right to freedom of expression includes expression of views and opinions that offend, shock or disturb. Moreover, as the Human Rights Council has also stated in its resolution 12/16, restrictions should never be applied, inter alia, to discussion of Government policies and political debate; reporting on human rights, Government activities and corruption in Government; engaging in election campaigns, peaceful demonstrations or political activities, including for peace or democracy; and expression of opinion and dissent, religion or belief, including by persons belonging to minorities or vulnerable groups.[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Human Rights Council resolution 12/16, para. 5(p)."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "B. Criminalization of legitimate expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. One of the unique features of the Internet is that the way in which information is transmitted largely depends on intermediaries, or private corporations which provide services and platforms that facilitate online communication or transactions between third parties, including giving access to, hosting, transmitting and indexing content.[[fn:20]] Intermediaries thus range from Internet service providers (ISPs) to search engines, and from blogging services to online community platforms. With the advent of Web 2.0 services, individuals can now publish information without the centralized gateway of editorial review common in traditional publication formats. The range of services offered by intermediaries has flourished over the past decade, mainly due to the legal protection that they have enjoyed from liability for third-party content that Internet users send via their services. However, the Special Rapporteur notes that in recent years, intermediaries’ protection from liability has been eroding.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, The Economic and Social Role of Internet Intermediaries (April 2010)."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Many States have adopted laws which impose liability upon intermediaries if they do not filter, remove or block content generated by users which is deemed illegal. For example, in Turkey, Law 5651 on the Prevention of Crime Committed in the Information Technology Domain, which was enacted in 2007, imposes new obligations on content providers, ISPs and website hosts. It also grants authority to an agency to issue administrative orders to block websites for content hosted outside of Turkey, and to take down eight broad types of unlawful content,[[fn:21]] including “crimes against Ataturk”, which includes “insulting” the founder of the Republic of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. In Thailand, the 2007 Computer Crimes Act imposes liability upon intermediaries that transmit or host third-party content and content authors themselves.[[fn:22]] This law has been used to prosecute individuals providing online platforms, some of which are summarized in the first addendum.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "Law 5651, art. 8."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Computer Crimes Act B.E.2550 (2007), sections 14 and 15."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. In other cases, intermediary liability is imposed through privacy and data protection laws. For example, a court in Italy convicted three Google executives for violating the Italian data protection code after a video depicting cruelty to a disabled teenager was posted by a user on the Google video service. Even though the video was taken down within hours of notification by Italian law enforcers, the judge found the Google executives guilty.[[fn:23]] The Government of China requires ISPs and web platforms to conduct surveillance on their users, and they are also held directly responsible for content posted by users.[[fn:24]] Companies that fail to comply with this obligation risk losing their business licences. Holding intermediaries liable for the content disseminated or created by their users severely undermines the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, because it leads to self-protective and over-broad private censorship, often without transparency and the due process of the law.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Reporters without Borders, “Google conviction could lead to prior control over videos posted online”, 24 February 2010."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Reporters without Borders, “Enemies of the Internet,” March 2010. Available from: http://en.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/Internet_enemies.pdf, pp. 8-12."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Several States have sought to protect intermediaries through adopting variations on what is known as a “notice-and-takedown” regime. Such a system protects intermediaries from liability, provided that they take down unlawful material when they are made aware of its existence. For example, under the European Union-wide E-Commerce Directive, a provider of hosting services for user-generated content can avoid liability for such content if it does not have actual knowledge of illegal activity and if it expeditiously removes the content in question when made aware of it.[[fn:25]] Similarly, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of the United States of America also provides safe harbour for intermediaries, provided that they take down the content in question promptly after notification.[[fn:26]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "E/Commerce Directive, 2000/31/EC, art. 14."}, {"n": 26, "text": "Digital Millennium Copyright Act, Section 512."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. However, while a notice-and-takedown system is one way to prevent intermediaries from actively engaging in or encouraging unlawful behaviour on their services, it is subject to abuse by both State and private actors. Users who are notified by the service provider that their content has been flagged as unlawful often have little recourse or few resources to challenge the takedown.[[fn:27]] Moreover, given that intermediaries may still be held financially or in some cases criminally liable if they do not remove content upon receipt of notification by users regarding unlawful content, they are inclined to err on the side of safety by over-censoring potentially illegal content. Lack of transparency in the intermediaries’ decision-making process also often obscures discriminatory practices or political pressure affecting the companies’ decisions. Furthermore, intermediaries, as private entities, are not best placed to make the determination of whether a particular content is illegal, which requires careful balancing of competing interests and consideration of defences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "N. Villeneuve, “Evasion Tactics: Global Online Censorship is Growing, but so are the Means to challenge it and Protect Privacy”, Index on Censorship Vol. 36 No. 4, (November 2007); Center for Democracy and Technology, “Campaign takedown troubles: how meritless copyright claims threaten online political speech” (September 2010)."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. The Special Rapporteur believes that censorship measures should never be delegated to a private entity, and that no one should be held liable for content on the Internet of which they are not the author. Indeed, no State should use or force intermediaries to undertake censorship on its behalf, as is the case in the Republic of Korea with the establishment of the Korea Communications Standards Commission, a quasi-State and quasi-private entity tasked to regulate online content (see A/HRC/17/27/Add.2). The Special Rapporteur welcomes initiatives taken in other countries to protect intermediaries, such as the bill adopted in Chile, which provides that intermediaries are not required to prevent or remove access to user-generated content that infringes copyright laws until they are notified by a court order.[[fn:28]] A similar regime has also been proposed in Brazil.[[fn:29]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Ley No. 20435, Modifica La Ley No.17.336 Sobre Propiedad Intelectual, chap. III, art. 85-L – art. 85-U, adopted on 4 May 2010."}, {"n": 29, "text": "“New Draft Bill Proposition: Available for Download”, Marco Civil da Internet, 21 May 2010."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Given that Internet services are run and maintained by private companies, the private sector has gained unprecedented influence over individuals’ right to freedom of expression and access to information. Generally, companies have played an extremely positive role in facilitating the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. At the same time, given the pressure exerted upon them by States, coupled with the fact that their primary motive is to generate profit rather than to respect human rights, preventing the private sector from assisting or being complicit in human rights violations of States is essential to guarantee the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability", "Responsibility of intermediaries"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. While States are the duty-bearers for human rights, private actors and business enterprises also have a responsibility to respect human rights. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur highlights the framework of “Protect, Respect and Remedy” which has been developed by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on the issue of human rights and transnational corporations and other business enterprises. The framework rests on three pillars: (a) the duty of the State to protect against human rights abuses by third parties, including business enterprises, through appropriate policies, regulation and adjudication; (b) the corporate responsibility to respect human rights, which means that business enterprises should act with due diligence to avoid infringing the rights of others and to address adverse impacts with which they are involved; and (c) the need for greater access by victims to effective remedy, both judicial and non-judicial.[[fn:30]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "A/HRC/17/31, para. 6."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability", "Responsibility of intermediaries"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The Special Rapporteur notes that multi-stakeholder initiatives are essential to deal effectively with issues related to the Internet, and the Global Network Initiative serves as a helpful example to encourage good practice by corporations.[[fn:31]] Although only three corporations, namely Google, Microsoft, and Yahoo!, have participated in this initiative so far, the Special Rapporteur welcomes their commitment to undertake a human rights impact assessment of their decisions, including before entering a foreign market, and to ensure transparency and accountability when confronted with situations that may undermine the rights to freedom of expression and privacy. Google’s Transparency Report[[fn:32]] is an outcome of such work, and provides information on Government inquiries for information about users and requests for Google to take down or censor content, as well as statistical information on traffic to Google services, such as YouTube. By illustrating traffic patterns for a given country or region, it allows users to discern any disruption in the free flow of information, whether it is due to Government censorship or a cable cut.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "See http://www.globalnetworkinitiative.org/principles/index.php."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See www.google.com/transparencyreport."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability", "Responsibility of intermediaries"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. The Special Rapporteur commends such initiatives to enhance the responsibility of Internet intermediaries to respect human rights. To avoid infringing the right to freedom of expression and the right to privacy of Internet users, the Special Rapporteur recommends intermediaries to: only implement restrictions to these rights after judicial intervention; be transparent to the user involved about measures taken, and where applicable to the wider public; provide, if possible, forewarning to users before the implementation of restrictive measures; and minimize the impact of restrictions strictly to the content involved. Finally, there must be effective remedies for affected users, including the possibility of appeal through the procedures provided by the intermediary and by a competent judicial authority.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability", "Responsibility of intermediaries"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. More generally, the Special Rapporteur encourages corporations to establish clear and unambiguous terms of service in line with international human rights norms and principles, increase transparency of and accountability for their activities, and continuously review the impact of their services and technologies on the right to freedom of expression of their users, as well as on the potential pitfalls involved when they are misused.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability", "Responsibility of intermediaries"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. While blocking and filtering measures deny access to certain content on the Internet, States have also taken measures to cut off access to the Internet entirely. The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned by discussions regarding a centralized “on/off” control over Internet traffic.[[fn:33]] In addition, he is alarmed by proposals to disconnect users from Internet access if they violate intellectual property rights. This also includes legislation based on the concept of “graduated response”, which imposes a series of penalties on copyright infringers that could lead to suspension of Internet service, such as the so-called “three-strikes-law” in France[[fn:34]] and the Digital Economy Act 2010 of the United Kingdom.[[fn:35]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "“Reaching for the kill switch”, The Economist, 10 February 2011."}, {"n": 34, "text": "Decision 2009-580, Act furthering the diffusion and protection of creation on the Internet, (original: Loi favorisant la diffusion et la protection de la création sur internet), Conseil Constitutionnel, 10 June 2010. Available from: http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/conseil-constitutionnel/root/bank_mm/anglais/2009_580dc.pdf."}, {"n": 35, "text": "Digital Economy Act 2010, sections 3-16."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "D. Disconnecting users from Internet access, including on the basis of violations of intellectual property rights law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Beyond the national level, the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA) has been proposed as a multilateral agreement to establish international standards on intellectual property rights enforcement. While the provisions to disconnect individuals from Internet access for violating the treaty have been removed from the final text of December 2010, the Special Rapporteur remains watchful about the treaty’s eventual implications for intermediary liability and the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "D. Disconnecting users from Internet access, including on the basis of violations of intellectual property rights law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Cyber-attacks, or attempts to undermine or compromise the function of a computer-based system, include measures such as hacking into accounts or computer networks, and often take the form of distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks. During such attacks, a group of computers is used to inundate a web server where the targeted website is hosted with requests, and as a result, the targeted website crashes and becomes inaccessible for a certain period of time. As with timed blocking, such attacks are sometimes undertaken during key political moments. The Special Rapporteur also notes that websites of human rights organizations and dissidents are frequently and increasingly becoming targets of DDoS attacks, some of which are included in the first addendum to this report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "E. Cyber-attacks"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. When a cyber-attack can be attributed to the State, it clearly constitutes inter alia a violation of its obligation to respect the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Although determining the origin of cyber-attacks and the identity of the perpetrator is often technically difficult, it should be noted that States have an obligation to protect individuals against interference by third parties that undermines the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. This positive obligation to protect entails that States must take appropriate and effective measures to investigate actions taken by third parties, hold the persons responsible to account, and adopt measures to prevent such recurrence in the future.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "E. Cyber-attacks"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The right to privacy is essential for individuals to express themselves freely. Indeed, throughout history, people’s willingness to engage in debate on controversial subjects in the public sphere has always been linked to possibilities for doing so anonymously. The Internet allows individuals to access information and to engage in public debate without having to reveal their real identities, for example through the use of pseudonyms on message boards and chat forums. Yet, at the same time, the Internet also presents new tools and mechanisms through which both State and private actors can monitor and collect information about individuals’ communications and activities on the Internet. Such practices can constitute a violation of the Internet users’ right to privacy, and, by undermining people’s confidence and security on the Internet, impede the free flow of information and ideas online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "F. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned by actions taken by States against individuals communicating via the Internet, frequently justified broadly as being necessary to protect national security or to combat terrorism. While such ends can be legitimate under international human rights law, surveillance often takes place for political, rather than security reasons in an arbitrary and covert manner. For example, States have used popular social networking sites, such as Facebook, to identify and to track the activities of human rights defenders and opposition members, and in some cases have collected usernames and passwords to access private communications of Facebook users.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "F. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. A number of States are also introducing laws or modifying existing laws to increase their power to monitor Internet users’ activities and content of communication without providing sufficient guarantees against abuse. In addition, several States have established a real-name identification system before users can post comments or upload content online, which can compromise their ability to express themselves anonymously, particularly in countries where human rights are frequently violated. Furthermore, steps are also being taken in many countries to reduce the ability of Internet users to protect themselves from arbitrary surveillance, such as limiting the use of encryption technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "F. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. The Special Rapporteur also notes that there are insufficient or inadequate data protection laws in many States stipulating who is allowed to access personal data, what it can be used for, how it should be stored, and for how long. The necessity of adopting clear laws to protect personal data is further increased in the current information age, where large volumes of personal data are collected and stored by intermediaries, and there is a worrying trend of States obliging or pressuring these private actors to hand over information of their users. Moreover, with the increasing use of cloud-computing services, where information is stored on servers distributed in different geographical locations, ensuring that third parties also adhere to strict data protection guarantees is paramount.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "F. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. The right to privacy is guaranteed by article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The latter provides that “(1) no one shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his honour and reputation; (2) everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.” Although “correspondence” primarily has been interpreted as written letters, this term today covers all forms of communication, including via the Internet.[[fn:36]] The right to private correspondence thus gives rise to a comprehensive obligation on the part of the State to ensure that e-mails and other forms of online communication are actually delivered to the desired recipient without interference or inspection by State organs or by third parties.[[fn:37]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "Manfred Nowak, UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. CCPR Commentary (Kehl am Rhein, Engel, 2005), p. 401."}, {"n": 37, "text": "Ibid."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "12", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR is a non-treaty instrument."}, {"article": "17", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "F. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. In addition, the protection of personal data represents a special form of respect for the right to privacy.[[fn:38]] States parties are required by article 17(2) to regulate, through clearly articulated laws, the recording, processing, use and conveyance of automated personal data and to protect those affected against misuse by State organs as well as private parties. In addition to prohibiting data processing for purposes that are incompatible with the Covenant, data protection laws must establish rights to information, correction and, if need be, deletion of data and provide effective supervisory measures. Moreover, as stated in the Human Rights Committee’s general comment on the right to privacy, “in order to have the most effective protection of his private life, every individual should have the right to ascertain in an intelligible form, whether, and if so, what personal data is stored in automatic data files, and for what purposes. Every individual should also be able to ascertain which public authorities or private individuals or bodies control or may control their files.”[[fn:39]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 39, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 16 on article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, para. 10."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "F. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. The Special Rapporteur notes that the right to privacy can be subject to restrictions or limitations under certain exceptional circumstances. This may include State surveillance measures for the purposes of administration of criminal justice, prevention of crime or combating terrorism. However, such interference is permissible only if the criteria for permissible limitations under international human rights law are met. Hence, there must be a law that clearly outlines the conditions whereby individuals’ right to privacy can be restricted under exceptional circumstances, and measures encroaching upon this right must be taken on the basis of a specific decision by a State authority expressly empowered by law to do so, usually the judiciary, for the purpose of protecting the rights of others, for example to secure evidence to prevent the commission of a crime, and must respect the principle of proportionality.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "Manfred Nowak, UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. CCPR Commentary (Kehl am Rhein, Engel, 2005), pp. 401-402."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "F. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The Internet, as a medium by which the right to freedom of expression can be exercised, can only serve its purpose if States assume their commitment to develop effective policies to attain universal access to the Internet. Without concrete policies and plans of action, the Internet will become a technological tool that is accessible only to a certain elite while perpetrating the “digital divide”.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. The term “digital divide” refers to the gap between people with effective access to digital and information technologies, in particular the Internet, and those with very limited or no access at all. In contrast to 71.6 Internet users per 100 inhabitants in developed States, there are only 21.1 Internet users per 100 inhabitants in developing States.[[fn:41]] This disparity is starker in the African region, with only 9.6 users per 100 inhabitants.[[fn:42]] In addition, digital divides also exist along wealth, gender, geographical and social lines within States. Indeed, with wealth being one of the significant factors in determining who can access information communication technologies, Internet access is likely to be concentrated among socio-economic elites, particularly in countries where Internet penetration is low. In addition, people in rural areas are often confronted with obstacles to Internet access, such as lack of technological availability, slower Internet connection, and/or higher costs. Furthermore, even where Internet connection is available, disadvantaged groups, such as persons with disabilities and persons belonging to minority groups, often face barriers to accessing the Internet in a way that is meaningful, relevant and useful to them in their daily lives.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "“Key Global Telecom Indicators for the World Telecommunication Service Sector,” International Telecommunication Union, 21 October 2010."}, {"n": 42, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["V. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. The Special Rapporteur is thus concerned that without Internet access, which facilitates economic development and the enjoyment of a range of human rights, marginalized groups and developing States remain trapped in a disadvantaged situation, thereby perpetuating inequality both within and between States. As he has noted previously, to combat situations of inequality it is critical to ensure that marginalized or disadvantaged sections of society can express their grievances effectively and that their voices are heard.[[fn:43]] The Internet offers a key means by which such groups can obtain information, assert their rights, and participate in public debates concerning social, economic and political changes to improve their situation. Moreover, the Internet is an important educational tool, as it provides access to a vast and expanding source of knowledge, supplements or transforms traditional forms of schooling, and makes, through “open access” initiatives, previously unaffordable scholarly research available to people in developing States. Additionally, the educational benefits attained from Internet usage directly contribute to the human capital of States.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "See A/HRC/14/23."}], "section": ["V. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. The Special Rapporteur notes that several initiatives have been taken in an attempt to bridge the digital divide. At the international level, Target 8f of the Millennium Development Goals calls upon States, “in consultation with the private sector, [to] make available the benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications.” The necessity of achieving this target was reiterated in the 2003 Plan of Action adopted at the Geneva World Summit on the Information Society, which outlines specific goals and targets to “build an inclusive Information Society; to put the potential of knowledge and [information communication technologies] (ICTs) at the service of development; to promote the use of information and knowledge for the achievement of internationally agreed development goals.”[[fn:44]] To implement this plan of action, in 2005, the International Telecommunication Union launched the “Connect the World” project.[[fn:45]] Another initiative to spread the availability of ICTs in developing countries is the “One Laptop Per Child” project that has been supported by the United Nations Development Programme. This project distributes affordable laptops that are specifically customized for the learning environment of children. Since this project was mentioned in the previous mandate holder’s report in 2006, 2.4 million laptops have been distributed to children and teachers worldwide.[[fn:46]] In Uruguay, the project has reached 480,000 children, amounting to almost all children enrolled in primary school.[[fn:47]] States in Africa lag behind, but in Rwanda, over 56,000 laptops have been distributed, with plans for the figure to reach 100,000 by June 2011.[[fn:48]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "WSIS-03/GENEVA/DOC/5-E, World Summit on the Information Society, 12 December 2003. Available from: http://www.itu.int/wsis/docs/geneva/official/poa.html."}, {"n": 45, "text": "“Connect the World,” International Telecommunication Union. Available from: http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/connect."}, {"n": 46, "text": "E/CN.4/2006/55, 30 December 2005, para. 34; “Map,” One Laptop per Child. Available from: http://one.laptop.org/map."}, {"n": 47, "text": "Available from: http://laptop.org/en/children/countries/index.shtml."}, {"n": 48, "text": "Frank Kanyesigye, “OLPC Extends to Over 100 Schools,” New Times, 11 February 2011. Available from: http://www.newtimes.co.rw/index.php?issue=14533&article=38241."}], "section": ["V. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. At the national level, the Special Rapporteur notes that a number of initiatives have also been taken by States to address the digital divide. In India, Common Service Centres, or public “e-Kiosks”, have been established by the Government in collaboration with the private sector as part of the National E-Governance Plan of 2006. As of January 2011, over 87,000 centres have reportedly been established,[[fn:49]] although the Special Rapporteur notes that the majority of the country’s population still remains without Internet access. In Brazil, the Government has launched a “computers for all” programme which offers subsidies for purchasing computers.[[fn:50]] Additionally, over 100,000 publicly sponsored Internet access centres, known as “Local Area Network (LAN) Houses” with fast broadband Internet connections, have been established.[[fn:51]] Such public access points are particularly important to facilitate access for the poorest socio-economic groups, as they often do not have their own personal computers at home.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "“ICT Ministers meet tomorrow for speeding-up delivery of e-services,” Press Information Bureau, Government of India, 26 October 2009; and “E-Governance Initiatives-Changing Lives for the better,” Press Information Bureau, Government of India, 24 January 2011. Available from: http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=69324."}, {"n": 50, "text": "Ronaldo Lemos and Paula Martini, “LAN Houses: A new wave of digital inclusion in Brazil”, 21 September 2009. Available from: http://publius.cc/lan_houses_new_wave_digital_inclusion_brazil/091509."}, {"n": 51, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["V. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. In some economically developed States, Internet access has been recognized as a right. For example, the parliament of Estonia passed legislation in 2000 declaring Internet access a basic human right.[[fn:52]] The constitutional council of France effectively declared Internet access a fundamental right in 2009, and the constitutional court of Costa Rica reached a similar decision in 2010.[[fn:53]] Going a step further, Finland passed a decree in 2009 stating that every Internet connection needs to have a speed of at least one Megabit per second (broadband level).[[fn:54]] The Special Rapporteur also takes note that according to a survey by the British Broadcasting Corporation in March 2010, 79% of those interviewed in 26 countries believe that Internet access is a fundamental human right.[[fn:55]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Colin Woodard, “Estonia, where being wired is a human right,” Christian Science Monitor, 1 July 2003."}, {"n": 53, "text": "Decision 2009-580, Act furthering the diffusion and protection of creation on the Internet."}, {"n": 54, "text": "“732/2009, Decree of the Ministry of Transport and Communications on the minimum rate of a functional Internet access as a universal service,” (original: Liikenne- ja viestintäministeriön asetus tarkoituksenmukaisen internet-yhtyeden vähimmäisnopeudesta yleispalvelussa), FINLEX, 22 October 2009. Available from: http://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/2009/en20090732."}, {"n": 55, "text": "“Four in five regard Internet access as a fundamental right: global poll,” BBC News, 8 March 2010. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/08_03_10_BBC_internet_poll.pdf."}], "section": ["V. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Given that access to basic commodities such as electricity remains difficult in many developing States, the Special Rapporteur is acutely aware that universal access to the Internet for all individuals worldwide cannot be achieved instantly. However, the Special Rapporteur reminds all States of their positive obligation to promote or to facilitate the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression and the means necessary to exercise this right, including the Internet. Hence, States should adopt effective and concrete policies and strategies – developed in consultation with individuals from all segments of society, including the private sector as well as relevant Government ministries – to make the Internet widely available, accessible and affordable to all.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Unlike any other medium, the Internet enables individuals to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds instantaneously and inexpensively across national borders. By vastly expanding the capacity of individuals to enjoy their right to freedom of opinion and expression, which is an “enabler” of other human rights, the Internet boosts economic, social and political development, and contributes to the progress of humankind as a whole. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur encourages other Special Procedures mandate holders to engage on the issue of the Internet with respect to their particular mandates.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that there should be as little restriction as possible to the flow of information via the Internet, except in few, exceptional, and limited circumstances prescribed by international human rights law. He also stresses that the full guarantee of the right to freedom of expression must be the norm, and any limitation considered as an exception, and that this principle should never be reversed. Against this backdrop, the Special Rapporteur recommends the steps set out below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. The Special Rapporteur is cognizant of the fact that, like all technological inventions, the Internet can be misused to cause harm to others. As with offline content, when a restriction is imposed as an exceptional measure on online content, it must pass a three-part, cumulative test: (1) it must be provided by law, which is clear and accessible to everyone (principles of predictability and transparency); (2) it must pursue one of the purposes set out in article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , namely: (i) to protect the rights or reputations of others; (ii) to protect national security or public order, or public health or morals (principle of legitimacy); and (3) it must be proven as necessary and the least restrictive means required to achieve the purported aim (principles of necessity and proportionality). In addition, any legislation restricting the right to freedom of expression must be applied by a body which is independent of any political, commercial, or other unwarranted influences in a manner that is neither arbitrary nor discriminatory. There should also be adequate safeguards against abuse, including the possibility of challenge and remedy against its abusive application.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned by increasingly sophisticated blocking or filtering mechanisms used by States for censorship. The lack of transparency surrounding these measures also makes it difficult to ascertain whether blocking or filtering is really necessary for the purported aims put forward by States. As such, the Special Rapporteur calls upon States that currently block websites to provide lists of blocked websites and full details regarding the necessity and justification for blocking each individual website. An explanation should also be provided on the affected websites as to why they have been blocked. Any determination on what content should be blocked must be undertaken by a competent judicial authority or a body which is independent of any political, commercial, or other unwarranted influences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "1. Arbitrary blocking or filtering of content on the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. With regard to child pornography, the Special Rapporteur notes that it is one clear exception where blocking measures are justified, provided that the national law is sufficiently precise and there are sufficient safeguards against abuse or misuse to prevent any “mission creep”, including oversight and review by an independent and impartial tribunal or regulatory body. However, the Special Rapporteur calls upon States to focus their efforts on prosecuting those responsible for the production and dissemination of child pornography, rather than on blocking measures alone.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "1. Arbitrary blocking or filtering of content on the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. The Special Rapporteur remains concerned that legitimate online expression is being criminalized in contravention of States’ international human rights obligations, whether it is through the application of existing criminal laws to online expression, or through the creation of new laws specifically designed to criminalize expression on the Internet. Such laws are often justified as being necessary to protect individuals’ reputation, national security or to counter terrorism. However, in practice, they are frequently used to censor content that the Government and other powerful entities do not like or agree with.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "2. Criminalization of legitimate expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "The Special Rapporteur reiterates the call to all States to decriminalize defamation. Additionally, he underscores that protection of national security or countering terrorism cannot be used to justify restricting the right to expression unless it can be demonstrated that: (a) the expression is intended to incite imminent violence; (b) it is likely to incite such violence; and (c) there is a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the likelihood or occurrence of such violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "2. Criminalization of legitimate expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Intermediaries play a fundamental role in enabling Internet users to enjoy their right to freedom of expression and access to information. Given their unprecedented influence over how and what is circulated on the Internet, States have increasingly sought to exert control over them and to hold them legally liable for failing to prevent access to content deemed to be illegal.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "3. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that censorship measures should never be delegated to private entities, and that intermediaries should not be held liable for refusing to take action that infringes individuals’ human rights. Any requests submitted to intermediaries to prevent access to certain content, or to disclose private information for strictly limited purposes such as administration of criminal justice, should be done through an order issued by a court or a competent body which is independent of any political, commercial or other unwarranted influences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "3. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. In addition, while States are the primary duty-bearers of human rights, the Special Rapporteur underscores that corporations also have a responsibility to respect human rights, which means that they should act with due diligence to avoid infringing the rights of individuals. The Special Rapporteur thus recommends intermediaries to: only implement restrictions to these rights after judicial intervention; be transparent to the user involved about measures taken, and, where applicable, to the wider public; provide, if possible, forewarning to users before the implementation of restrictive measures; and minimize the impact of restrictions strictly to the content involved. Finally, there must be effective remedies for affected users, including the possibility of appeal through the procedures provided by the intermediary and by a competent judicial authority.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "3. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. The Special Rapporteur commends the work undertaken by organizations and individuals to reveal the worldwide status of online impediments to the right to freedom of expression. He encourages intermediaries in particular to disclose details regarding content removal requests and accessibility of websites. Additionally, he recommends corporations to establish clear and unambiguous terms of service in line with international human rights norms and principles and to continuously review the impact of their services and technologies on the right to freedom of expression of their users, as well as on the potential pitfalls involved when they are misused. The Special Rapporteur believes that such transparency will help promote greater accountability and respect for human rights.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "3. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 78, "n": 80, "text": "80. The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned that websites of human rights organizations, critical bloggers, and other individuals or organizations that disseminate information that is embarrassing to the State or the powerful have increasingly become targets of cyber-attacks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "5. Cyber-attacks"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 79, "n": 81, "text": "81. When a cyber-attack can be attributed to the State, it clearly constitutes, inter alia, a violation of its obligation to respect the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Although determining the origin of cyber-attacks and the identity of the perpetrator is often technically difficult, it should be noted that States have an obligation to protect individuals against interference by third parties that undermines the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. This positive obligation to protect entails that States must take appropriate and effective measures to investigate actions taken by third parties, hold the persons responsible to account, and adopt measures to prevent such recurrence in the future.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "5. Cyber-attacks"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 80, "n": 82, "text": "82. The Special Rapporteur is concerned that, while users can enjoy relative anonymity on the Internet, States and private actors have access to technology to monitor and collect information about individuals’ communications and activities on the Internet. Such practices can constitute a violation of Internet users’ right to privacy, and undermine people’s confidence and security on the Internet, thus impeding the free flow of information and ideas online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "6. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 81, "n": 83, "text": "83. The Special Rapporteur underscores the obligation of States to adopt effective privacy and data protection laws in accordance with article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Human Rights Committee’s general comment No. 16. This includes laws that clearly guarantee the right of all individuals to ascertain in an intelligible form whether, and if so what, personal data is stored in automatic data files, and for what purposes, and which public authorities or private individuals or bodies control or may control their files.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "6. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 82, "n": 84, "text": "84. He also calls upon States to ensure that individuals can express themselves anonymously online and to refrain from adopting real-name registration systems. Under certain exceptional situations where States may limit the right to privacy for the purposes of administration of criminal justice or prevention of crime, the Special Rapporteur underscores that such measures must be in compliance with the international human rights framework, with adequate safeguards against abuse. This includes ensuring that any measure to limit the right to privacy is taken on the basis of a specific decision by a State authority expressly empowered by law to do so, and must respect the principles of necessity and proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "6. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 83, "n": 85, "text": "85. Given that the Internet has become an indispensable tool for realizing a range of human rights, combating inequality, and accelerating development and human progress, ensuring universal access to the Internet should be a priority for all States. Each State should thus develop a concrete and effective policy, in consultation with individuals from all sections of society, including the private sector and relevant Government ministries, to make the Internet widely available, accessible and affordable to all segments of population.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 84, "n": 86, "text": "86. At the international level, the Special Rapporteur reiterates his call on States, in particular developed States, to honour their commitment, expressed inter alia in the Millennium Development Goals, to facilitate technology transfer to developing States, and to integrate effective programmes to facilitate universal Internet access in their development and assistance policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 85, "n": 87, "text": "87. Where the infrastructure for Internet access is present, the Special Rapporteur encourages States to support initiatives to ensure that online information can be accessed in a meaningful way by all sectors of the population, including persons with disabilities and persons belonging to linguistic minorities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 86, "n": 88, "text": "88. States should include Internet literacy skills in school curricula, and support similar learning modules outside of schools. In addition to basic skills training, modules should clarify the benefits of accessing information online, and of responsibly contributing information. Training can also help individuals learn how to protect themselves against harmful content, and explain the potential consequences of revealing private information on the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The Human Rights Council reviewed the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression at its seventh session in March 2008. As a result, the mandate was extended for a further three years by virtue of resolution 7/36, in paragraphs 3 and 4 of which the Council outlined the terms of reference of the Special Rapporteur, who is mandated:\n(a) To gather all relevant information, wherever it may occur, relating to violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, discrimination against, threats or use of violence, harassment, persecution or intimidation directed at persons seeking to exercise or to promote the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including, as a matter of high priority, against journalists or other professionals in the field of information;\n(b) To seek, receive and respond to credible and reliable information from Governments, non-governmental organizations and any other parties who have knowledge of these cases;\n(c) To make recommendations and provide suggestions on ways and means to better promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression in all its manifestations;\n(d) To contribute to the provision of technical assistance or advisory services by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights to better promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["I. THE MANDATE"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The Council, through this resolution, recognizes that the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is one of the essential foundations of a democratic society, and in paragraph 5 it calls upon all Governments “to cooperate with and assist the Special Rapporteur in the performance of his tasks, to provide all information to respond to communications transmitted by the mandate-holder without undue delay and calls upon Governments to seriously consider responding favourably to the requests of the Special Rapporteur to visit their countries in a spirit of constructive dialogue”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["I. THE MANDATE"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The Special Rapporteur notes with appreciation the request in resolution 7/36 to continue to provide his views, when appropriate, on the advantages and challenges of new information and communication technologies, particularly the reference in paragraph 4 (f) to the right to access to the information society for all. The Special Rapporteur considers access to information as one of the priority issues for the mandate and as such wishes to focus part of this report on access to information in situations of extreme poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["I. THE MANDATE"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. In paragraph 4 (d) of resolution 7/36, the Council further requests that the Special Rapporteur report “on instances in which the abuse of the right of freedom of expression constitutes an act of racial or religious discrimination, taking into account articles 19, paragraphs 3 and 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and general comment No. 15 of the Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, which stipulates that the prohibition of the dissemination of all ideas based upon racial superiority or hatred is compatible with the freedom of opinion and expression”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["I. THE MANDATE"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The Special Rapporteur will continue to pursue the provisions outlined in the resolution in addition to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and other relevant international and regional instruments, which continue to provide the legal framework for the mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["I. THE MANDATE"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. For the effective implementation of his mandate, the Special Rapporteur focuses on information received from a variety of sources, including Governments; local, national, regional or international governmental and non-governmental organizations; associations of media professionals and writers; and trade unions. The communications received from various sources are a means to identify trends, reiterate issues already discussed in previous reports and bring to the attention of the international community a number of policies, practices and measures having an impact on the respect for freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. Information received is a significant indicator of the degree of implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in a given country. The Special Rapporteur may also decide to take initiative motu proprio on issues of general concern that he considers relevant to his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The majority of cases received by the Special Rapporteur concern threats, aggressions, harassment, murder or other sorts of attacks on the physical and psychological integrity of journalists, students, human rights defenders and unionists in retaliation for the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression. In many cases, these attacks are linked to the repression of peaceful protests conducted to express disagreement with a particular governmental policy, at the national or local level, or with the actions of large corporations. While the extent of the repression, its duress and length may substantially vary, allegations received are not confined to countries where the political, social and economic situation is particularly difficult, but also concern violations occurring in transitional or long-established democracies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Analysis of communications also shows a large number of cases of prosecution or imprisonment of individuals including media professionals on charges of defamation, libel and slander, despite the decriminalization of these offences by some countries. Another important trend in many regions has been the adoption of legislation that unduly limits freedom of expression by fostering State interference in editorial independence; by creating subjective licensing procedures that are used to close media outlets; by restricting the ability of journalists, particularly foreign correspondents, to perform their work freely; and by imposing severe limitations on the operation, including funding, of civil society organizations.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. From 5 December 2007 to 31 December 2008, 433 communications were sent on behalf of the Special Rapporteur, 365 of which were signed jointly with other special-procedures mandate-holders. The geographical division of the communications was as follows: 30 per cent in Asia and the Pacific; 20 per cent in Africa; 20 per cent in Latin America and the Caribbean; 17 per cent in the Middle East and North Africa; and 13 per cent in Europe, North America and Central Asia.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Within the scope of his mandate the Special Rapporteur may issue press releases[[fn:1]] in order to highlight his particular concern about current events in relation to freedom of opinion and expression. Since the beginning of his term in August 2008 the Special Rapporteur has issued four joint press statements concerning restrictions on the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The full text of the press statement is available at: http://www.unhchr.ch/huricane/huricane.nsf/view01/875F9C3B794E9AB3C125750500497FDD?opendocument."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. On 18 November 2008, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Myanmar, the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders, and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, issued a joint press release condemning the severe conditions and unfair trials of prisoners of conscience in Myanmar. The experts noted that peaceful demonstrators arrested in 2007 were being tried after one year of arbitrary detention, with dozens of the detainees being sentenced to 65 years’ imprisonment; others were given 25-year sentences. Moreover, defence lawyers had also been sentenced to several months’ imprisonment or were barred from representing their clients. The experts strongly urged authorities in Myanmar to cease these acts of harassment and detention against individuals who were exercising their human rights. They stipulated that all the detainees should be retried respecting fair trials guarantees and that all the defence counsels be released.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. On 27 November 2008, the Special Rapporteur, along with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders and the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, issued a press release regarding the ongoing harassment and intimidation of members of the One Million Signatures Campaign in the Islamic Republic of Iran. The experts noted that peaceful demonstrators had been arrested, detained and persecuted with prison sentences, while women’s rights activists involved in the campaign had been continuously harassed and prevented from travelling. The experts stipulated that women’s participation in public life, to promote equal treatment of women and men in the Islamic Republic of Iran, should be encouraged as a means to build a stronger and healthier society, in which women’s unique contributions can flourish. As such, the Special Rapporteurs urged the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran to abide by its obligations under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, and to respect the rights of women’s rights activists to freedom of association and peaceful assembly, and to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. On 10 December 2008, the Special Rapporteur, along with 35 other special rapporteurs and independent experts, issued a press release welcoming the adoption by the General Assembly of the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which enables those suffering from violations of their economic, social and cultural rights to seek remedies and hold those responsible to account for their actions. The experts expressed their hope that views adopted by the Committee under the Optional Protocol procedures would be used by the human rights community to assist States in taking concrete steps to realize the rights of all and to reach out to the most marginalized and disadvantaged, who are the most likely to see their rights violated. The experts called on all States to sign and ratify the instrument swiftly, so as to secure a speedy entry into force and wide application.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. On 9 February 2009, the Special Rapporteur, together with 10 other independent experts, issued a press statement expressing their deep concern about the deteriorating human rights situation in Sri Lanka, particularly the shrinking space for critical voices and the fear of reprisals against victims and witnesses. The experts noted that impunity for human rights violations continues unabated throughout the country with a climate of fear and intimidation reigning over those defending human rights, especially over journalists and lawyers. The experts also noted the serious and fatal aggression against journalists and the media as now a common occurrence as witnessed in the killing of the journalist Lasantha Wickremetunga and attacks on major media outlets. The experts shared the deep concern of the High Commissioner for Human Rights over the rapidly deteriorating conditions facing those civilians and the significant number of civilian casualties. They also deplored the restrictions on humanitarian access to conflict areas which exacerbate the ongoing serious violations of the most basic economic and social rights. The experts strongly urged the Government of Sri Lanka to immediately take measures to ensure that effective remedial action can be pursued in support of the victims of human rights abuses and their families. They also highlighted that thorough reforms of the general system of governance are needed to prevent the recurrence of further serious human rights violations. The experts called for an immediate end to impunity and to refrain from any reprisals. To strengthen the rule of law and to help ensure the safety and protection of the human rights of all persons in Sri Lanka, the experts noted that they would continue to extend their offer of assistance to the Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. From 2 to 3 October 2008, the Special Rapporteur participated in the “Expert seminar on the links between articles 19 and 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: Freedom of expression and advocacy of religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence”.[[fn:2]] The seminar was organized by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights and was attended by over 200 observers, including representatives of Governments, other United Nations agencies, regional organizations, the media and non-governmental organizations. The aim of the event was to clarify the links between articles 19 and 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights on freedom of expression and advocacy of religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence. The Special Rapporteur presented a paper on the differences and links between permissible limitations under article 19, paragraph 3, in particular when it comes to restrictions aimed at protecting the rights of others, and States’ obligations under article 20 of the Covenant. The Special Rapporteur noted through his participation in the event the importance of resolving tensions based on genuine cultural or religious differences through\nopen debate, emphasizing that free speech is therefore a requirement for, and not an impediment to, tolerance. The Special Rapporteur’s participation in the event falls within the realms of his mandate as outlined in resolution 7/36 of the Human Rights Council.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Details of the event can be viewed at www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/opinion/articles1920_iccpr/."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. From 7 to 8 October 2008, the Special Rapporteur participated in the information session for newly appointed special-procedures mandate-holders, held in Geneva. The meeting primarily discussed the institution-building process conducted by the Human Rights Council and the new methods of work of mandate-holders, as well as issues such as cooperation with civil society, national human rights institutions and among special-procedures mandates.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. While in Geneva to attend the aforementioned events, the Special Rapporteur met with representatives of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) and the Group of Latin American and Caribbean Group States (GRULAC). The Special Rapporteur is keen to maintain open dialogue with all regional groups and plans to meet with those he did not have the opportunity to meet with during his future visits to Geneva.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. On 10 October 2008, the Special Rapporteur participated in a seminar at the European Court of Justice in Strasbourg entitled “The European protection of freedom of expression: reflections on some recent restrictive trends”. The event was organized jointly by Robert Schumann University of Strasbourg, Ghent University and the Open Society Justice Initiative.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. On 26 October the Special Rapporteur met with members of the World Association of Newspapers (WAN) in London.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. On 28 October, the Special Rapporteur attended the International Symposium on Freedom of Expression organized by UNESCO in Paris. The event, entitled “Freedom of expression: development, democracy and dialogue”, was organized to commemorate the sixtieth anniversary of article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. While in Paris for this event, the Special Rapporteur also met with representatives of Reporters Without Borders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'sixtieth anniversary of article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR only, no ICCPR cited."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. On 7 November 2008, the Special Rapporteur attended the international symposium “25th anniversary of AMARC: Development and empowerment through community radio” organized by the World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters (AMARC) in Montreal.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. From 13 to 15 November 2008, the Special Rapporteur participated in an event organized by the Latin American Association for Educational Radio (ALER), in Buenos Aires. The international conference focused on “Freedom of expression, pluralism and diversity in radio”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Following a meeting on 9 December 2008, as part of the Global Forum on World Media Development (held 7-10 December 2008 in Athens), the Special Rapporteur, along with the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Representative on Freedom of the Media, Miklos Haraszti, the Organization of American States (OAS) Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression, Catalina Botero, and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, Faith Pansy Tlakula, issued a joint declaration on defamation of religions, and anti-terrorism and anti-extremism legislation. The declaration noted that the concept of “defamation of religions” did not accord with international standards regarding defamation and that restrictions on freedom of expression should be limited in scope to the protection of overriding individual rights and social interests. Restrictions should never be used to protect particular institutions or abstract notions, concepts or beliefs, including religious ones. The declaration further noted that restrictions on freedom of expression to prevent intolerance should be limited in scope to advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence and it encouraged the General Assembly and the Human Rights Council to desist from further adoption of statements supporting the idea of defamation of religions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. On 11 December 2008, the Special Rapporteur attended an event in London organized by the non-governmental organization Article 19, on “Promoting equality within a free speech framework”, and from 12 to 14 December he participated in an International Expert Roundtable event on freedom of expression organized by the Center for Media and Communication Studies at Central European University in Budapest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. On 5 February 2009 the Special Rapporteur participated in an event entitled “The Agenda for Change: A free speech framework for Nepal” which took place in Kathmandu. A report (“Agenda for Change on Right to Freedom of Expression in Nepal”) prepared as a joint initiative of the non-governmental organizations Freedom Forum, Article 19 and Federation of Nepali journalists (FNJ) was launched as part of the event by Prime Minister Puspa Kamal Dahal.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. On 23 January, the Special Rapporteur addressed the Wilton Park Conference on “the relationship between freedom of expression and freedom of religion: a victim’s perspective”. The event, entitled “Contemporary and future human rights challenges”, took place from 22 to 24 January in London.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. From 25 to 29 January, the Special Rapporteur participated in the regional meeting of Latin American organizations on freedom of expression, organized by the International Freedom of Expression Exchange (IFEX) in Antigua, Guatemala.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. From 13 to 16 March, the Special Rapporteur participated in a round-table event organized by the International Press Society (SIP) in Asunción.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. From 22 to 25 March 2009, the Special Rapporteur participated in an international seminar entitled “Latin America in the 21st century: communication and power”. The event was organized by the Latin American Association for Educational Broadcasting (ALER) and the Universidad Andina Simón Bolívar. The seminar took place in Quito.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. From 1 to 5 March 2009, the Special Rapporteur undertook an official country visit to the Maldives. This was the Special Rapporteur’s first country mission as mandate-holder. The visit was carried out at the invitation of the Government in order to examine issues of relevance to his mandate. In his conclusions on the visit, the Special Rapporteur highlighted the importance of the ongoing democratic transition in the Maldives and made preliminary recommendations on how to strengthen this process. An addendum (A/HRC/11/4/Add.3) to this report includes the full mission report of the Special Rapporteur on his visit to the country.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "D. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. The Special Rapporteur notes that country visits will remain central to the activities of the mandate. Visits previously undertaken by the former Special Rapporteur, along with requests made to Governments for official country visits, and the emerging trends as they result from the analysis of communications on freedom of expression and opinion form the basis of requests sent to countries requesting an invitation from various Governments. Requests for invitations to visit a number of countries have been sent by the Special Rapporteur, taking into consideration the importance of achieving a geographical balance. The Special Rapporteur hopes that visit requests will be met favourably by the concerned Governments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "D. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. As this is the first report of the Special Rapporteur to the Human Rights Council, this chapter highlights his vision for the mandate along with proposed working methods. The Special Rapporteur will also make some preliminary reflections on the issue of limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The report elaborates on two priority areas identified by the Special Rapporteur, including the right of access to information in situations of extreme poverty, and the protection of journalists and the media working in conflict situations.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "A. Main priorities and working methods"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The Special Rapporteur will build on the accomplishments achieved by his predecessors holding the mandate and he presents this report in a spirit of transparency and openness. While recognizing the immutable independence inherent to the position of a special-procedures mandate-holder, the Special Rapporteur believes that open dialogue with all stakeholders should be encouraged and that such interaction will be of fundamental importance to the implementation of the mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "A. Main priorities and working methods"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The Special Rapporteur will continue to analyse trends and challenges facing the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and will aim to develop methods with interested Governments, national institutions, regional mechanisms, diplomatic representatives and relevant branches of international and regional organizations to enhance this fundamental right. The Special Rapporteur would also like to further reinforce follow-up to individual cases brought to his attention through the mandate, and in doing so, will enhance collaboration with stakeholders, including Governments, human rights communities at the national, regional and international levels, regional mechanisms, national institutions, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, including its field presences, human rights components of United Nations country teams and peacekeeping missions, the media, treaty bodies and other special procedures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "A. Main priorities and working methods"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. In fulfilling some of the requirements cited in Council resolution 7/36, which calls upon the mandate of the Special Rapporteur “to make recommendations and provide suggestions on ways and means to better promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression in all its manifestations”[[fn:3]] and “to contribute to the provision of technical assistance or advisory services by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights to better promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression”,[[fn:4]] the Special Rapporteur has proposed developing an online training programme for media personnel on freedom of expression, human rights and multiculturalism. The aim of the programme is to identify ways to strengthen professional commitments to high-quality journalism, while also fostering greater respect for diversity, multiculturalism and human rights education. The programme will aim to address some of the main concerns voiced by various stakeholders in relation to hate speech, intolerance and discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "A. Main priorities and working methods"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Paragraph 3 (c)."}, {"n": 4, "text": "Para. 3 (d)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The Special Rapporteur participated in the Durban Review Conference held in Geneva from 20 to 24 April 2009. The Conference was meant to provide an opportunity to review progress made in the combat against racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance and the actual implementation of the Durban Declaration and Programme of Action at the national, regional and international levels since 2001, as well as to share best practices. The Special Rapporteur’s participation in the event highlights the indivisible link between the promotion of the right to freedom of expression and the fight against racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "A. Main priorities and working methods"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. The exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is a significant indicator of the level of protection and respect of all other human rights in a given society. Democratic institutions, while not preventing all violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, do offer guarantees for its protection as well as an enabling environment for its exercise. Freedom of opinion and expression not only benefits from a democratic environment; it also contributes to, and is indeed instrumental to, the emergence and existence of effective democratic systems. However, violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression may occur in all regions and countries, whatever their system, and may have various forms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "B. Limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The Special Rapporteur notes that freedom of expression is the manifestation of cultures, cultural diversity, religion and ideologies. Therefore, the right to freedom of expression should be approached with a positive view to defending it. Existing international instruments establish a specific limit on freedom of expression. In particular, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provides that “any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law”. The main challenge thus lies in identifying at which point these thresholds are reached. A broad interpretation of these limitations, which has recently been suggested in international forums, is not in line with existing international instruments and would ultimately jeopardize the full enjoyment of human rights. Limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression have more often than not been used by States as a means to restrict criticism and silence dissent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "B. Limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Limitations on freedom of expression should be clearly defined and provided by law. Limitations should not threaten the exercise of the right itself. In addition, they ought to be\nnecessary and proportionate to the objective they propound to achieve, and should include the least intrusive means insofar as freedom of expression is concerned, to prevent a chilling effect. The adjudication of such limitations should be made by an independent judiciary.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "B. Limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The right to freedom of expression cannot be exercised passively, but requires a lasting commitment by States to ensure the mechanisms that guarantee and protect it. Mechanisms for criticism, including of political leaders, are deemed important to hold individuals accountable. Freedom of expression is not limited to statements that are considered appropriate or beneficial; any boundaries should directly adhere to the wording of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "B. Limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. In many countries, overbroad rules in this area are abused by the powerful to limit non-traditional, dissenting, critical or minority voices, or discussion about challenging social issues. Furthermore, resolution of tensions based on genuine cultural or religious differences cannot be achieved by suppressing the expression of differences but rather by debating them openly. The Special Rapporteur notes that free speech is therefore a requirement for, and not an impediment to, tolerance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "B. Limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. The protection of journalists engaged in dangerous missions during an armed conflict is a major concern for the international community and in the last year remained a key obstacle for achieving the full implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In 2008, a total of 60 journalists were killed, some 29 media professionals were kidnapped and 929 were physically attacked or threatened throughout the year.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "C. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals in conflict zones"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Reporters Without Borders, Press Freedom Roundup; see www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=24909."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Violent conflicts in many parts of the world, and specifically in Afghanistan, Iraq, the Middle East, Somalia, the Sudan and recently Ossetia, have a serious impact on the ordinary population, including journalists and media professionals. Large numbers of journalists are either assassinated, wounded by direct armed attacks during the fighting or deliberately targeted and kidnapped by the parties to the conflict. The proliferation of small arms, the use of increasingly sophisticated weapons by belligerents and the concern to win the war of images worsens the situation of physical safety for civilians and media professionals. Such attacks, in blatant violation of international humanitarian and human rights law, are committed in an environment of almost total impunity.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "C. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals in conflict zones"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. The Special Rapporteur received numerous reports concerning deliberate attempts to target journalists, particularly in areas of ongoing armed conflict. The evolution of modern warfare has a serious impact on the freedom of expression, the freedom of the press, and on the quality and independence of information, which are the basic components of a free media. Factors contributing to this are, among others, the loss of the civilian status of media professionals that\nresults in the restriction of their movement and of their access to reliable and objective sources of information, the increasing use of embedded journalists and the insecurity that exists regarding their status of protection.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "C. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals in conflict zones"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. In 2008, the Special Rapporteur received reports that lawyers investigating the killing of Radio Okapi journalist Serge Mahese, were subjected to ongoing threats and harassment. Serge Mahese was shot dead in Bukavu in the Democratic Republic of the Congo on 13 June 2007. He was a respected journalist with Radio Okapi, a national radio station sponsored jointly by the Swiss Hirondelle Foundation and the United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "C. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals in conflict zones"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. The main provisions protecting journalists and other media professionals in situations of armed conflict come from humanitarian law, in particular from special measures contained in article 79 of Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, relating to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts. This article establishes that “journalists engaged in dangerous professional missions in areas of armed conflict shall be considered as civilians” and “shall be protected as such under the Conventions and this Protocol, provided that they take no action adversely affecting their status as civilians”. The civilian status of journalists transcends any type of contractual arrangement that the journalist may have; equal protection is granted to freelance, independent or to journalists belonging to any media.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "C. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals in conflict zones"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "79", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'article 79 of Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949' — IHL, outside the allowed list."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. The Security Council passed resolution 1738 (2006) to express its deep concern “at the frequency of acts of violence in many parts of the world against journalists, media professionals and associated personnel in armed conflict”, and it condemned intentional attacks against this group. The Security Council also underlined the obligation under humanitarian law to grant civilian status to journalists during armed conflicts, as established by the Geneva Conventions.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "C. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals in conflict zones"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The Special Rapporteur supports this Security Council resolution, adopted on the joint initiative of Greece and France, and would encourage States to give renewed attention to the fact that the media, its personnel and its equipment as long as they are not making an effective contribution to military action cannot be considered a legitimate target and attacks against them are illegal under international humanitarian law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "C. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals in conflict zones"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Journalists and media professionals are not only at risk during times of conflict, but many are targeted during public crises and states of emergency. In such cases, journalists are often victims of abuse and harassment by the security forces, and are subjected to arrests and detention. Throughout 2008, the Special Rapporteur has received reports of such human rights violations against journalists, particularly those covering public demonstrations opposing government policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "C. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals in conflict zones"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Extreme poverty, often described as multidimensional and not limited to income, but also touching livelihood, health, education and housing as well as social, cultural and political participation, affects millions of people worldwide. This multidimensional approach to poverty is paralleled by an integrated understanding of human rights, in which civil and political rights are indivisible from social, economic and cultural rights.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "D. Implementing the right of access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. The impact of the global financial crisis of 2008 has had a considerable impact on the developing world, with slowdowns expected in all emerging economies. These growth declines could have significant effects on the world’s poorest populations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "D. Implementing the right of access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The concept of human poverty that focuses on the denial of opportunities and choices most basic to human development and the lack of respect of others, also highlights a lack of participation in decision-making and in civil, social and cultural life. The Commission on Human Rights, in its resolution 1997/11, reaffirmed that “in accordance with the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, it is essential for States to foster participation by the poorest people in the decision-making process in their communities, in the promotion of human rights and in efforts to combat extreme poverty”. The Special Rapporteur notes that people affected by chronic extreme poverty risk becoming socially excluded from full participation in the society in which they are living. Often the poor, the unemployed and people belonging to ethnic minorities and other vulnerable groups, remain marginalized in the social hierarchy. As such, the Special Rapporteur emphasizes the need for access to information to be guaranteed as a means towards securing participation and accountability.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "D. Implementing the right of access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Strengthening the voices of people living in poverty improves understanding and actions aimed at addressing poverty, injustice and inequality and can inform and influence public agendas locally, nationally and internationally. Adequate access to knowledge and information helps communities work for a better future. The Special Rapporteur believes that the media can play an important role by ensuring the dissemination of information and raising awareness of poverty as well as of a community’s role in eliminating poverty and improving living standards.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "D. Implementing the right of access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The inability of some people to command the processes and benefits of globalization, communications and information included, is a key concern. For many poor people, for whom globalization and the information revolution is still a slow-moving process, careful thought must be given as to how best to include them in local, national, regional and international information flows. The Special Rapporteur urges the international community to address the exclusion of marginalized and vulnerable groups from the media. Minorities, indigenous peoples, migrant workers, refugees and many other vulnerable communities have faced higher barriers, some of them insurmountable, to be able to fully exercise their right to impart and also to access information. For these groups, the media plays the central role of fostering social mobilization, participation in public life and access to information that is relevant for the community. Without a means to disseminate their views and problems, these communities are in effect excluded from public debates, which ultimately hinders their ability to fully enjoy their human rights.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Indigenous peoples", "Migrants", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "D. Implementing the right of access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. This report outlines the vision and priorities of the Special Rapporteur for his mandate that he wishes to share with Member States and other stakeholders in a spirit of openness and transparency. The Special Rapporteur hopes that this same spirit will characterize his relationship with them throughout his tenure.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. The Special Rapporteur will interpret the mandate by building on the achievements of his predecessors and the knowledge base developed and methods of work used.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Given that this is his first report, the Special Rapporteur has focused on two areas only which he deems as priority for the mandate. Future reports will aim to further develop thematic issues related to the fundamental right of freedom of opinion and expression. As such, the Special Rapporteur will be in a position to present more detailed recommendations based on the activities and trends which he will identify during his first year as mandate-holder.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. Rights to information and freedom of expression should be encouraged at all levels. The Special Rapporteur urges Governments to deregulate the communications and media environment to allow free and fair information to flow more effectively to civil society. Support for enhancing such flows and targeted interventions that support the most vulnerable and marginalized groups within society at large should be given priority.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The Special Rapporteur further encourages States to uphold the rights to freedom of expression and access to information stipulated within article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Public access to information can be systematically denied by Governments and, similarly, Governments can place restrictions on free speech and freedom of expression via legislation and activities that deny rights of political and cultural association. Openness of government and the free flow of information are enshrined within the principle of “maximum disclosure” through which Governments and public institutions become more answerable to the general public. A civil society that is empowered with open information is better placed to advocate for more impartial and transparent service delivery and has a greater sense of participation and ownership in decision-making processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly cites 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — equal cross-instrument cite => AMBIGUOUS."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Governments may be poorly placed to systematically disseminate information to the public or may not be inclined towards such transparency because of high levels of corruption. The Special Rapporteur recommends that in such cases support for the media during times of conflict and deregulation of the communications and media environment be seen as mechanisms for increasing the plurality and diversity of information flows in poor and conflict-prone countries.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. The Special Rapporteur encourages Governments to strengthen public broadcasting and to introduce anti-monopoly legislation in order to achieve a diverse broadcasting system which is accessible to all. Policies should promote freedom of expression and public participation.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Community-based broadcasting provides an alternative social and economic model for media development that can broaden access to information, voice and opinion. People faced with economic exclusion also face systemic obstacles to freedom of expression that are associated with the conditions of poverty, including low levels of education and literacy, poor infrastructure, lack of access to electricity and general communications services. The Special Rapporteur recommends that Governments consider community broadcasting as a vital tool for the voiceless, which would enable them to exercise their right to freedom of\nexpression and access to information. Such programmes should encourage active participation of the community in their initiation, production and presentation to empower the poorest people and communities and as a means of reducing poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. The Special Rapporteur reiterates the recommendations of his predecessors that Governments should translate their formal concerns about the safety of journalists, elaborated in international forums and treaty law, into concrete measures for enhancing the safety of journalists and other media personnel including at the legislative, administrative and judicial levels. Measures should be taken to protect all media personnel regardless of their professional and political affiliation. The protection of journalists and media workers must be ensured at all times, particularly during armed conflicts, states of emergency and public disorder and electoral processes. Governments are also urged to ensure the protection of other groups at risk, such as trade unionists, social workers, students and teachers, writers and artists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Safety and protection of media professionals"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. Creating a culture of safety for journalism adds to the capacity of media to contribute to building prosperous and confident democracies. The Special Rapporteur urges Governments and State institutions to provide support and an assurance that all acts of violence against journalists are fully investigated. Limiting impunity for the perpetrators of crimes against media professionals will function as an important deterrent against the repetition of these crimes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Safety and protection of media professionals"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The Special Rapporteur encourages Governments to develop protection schemes for media personnel. News associations should be supported in promoting actions that secure the safety of journalists, including safety training, health care, life insurance, and equal access to social protection for freelance employees and full-time staff.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Safety and protection of media professionals"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. The Council may wish to consider the opportunity, as previously suggested by his predecessor, of entrusting the Special Rapporteur with the preparation of a study on the causes of violence against media professionals, based, inter alia, on information from and the experiences of Governments, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, and including a comprehensive set of conclusions and recommendations and the drafting of guidelines for the protection of journalists and other media professionals. This study could represent the first step towards a debate, within the Human Rights Council, on this crucial issue, following the discussions held by other bodies, including the Security Council.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Safety and protection of media professionals"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is the eighth report submitted by Mr. Abid Hussain (India), Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The mandate was established by the Commission on Human Rights in its resolution 1993/45 of 5 March 1993. This report is submitted pursuant to Commission resolution 2000/38. Section I of the report contains the terms of reference for the discharge of the mandate. Section II presents an account of the activities undertaken within the framework of his mandate in the past year. Section III provides a brief discussion on a number of issues which the Special Rapporteur considers to be important for the development of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Section IV contains brief summaries of urgent appeals and communications to and from Governments, along with observations of the Special Rapporteur. Lastly, Section V contains the conclusions and recommendations of the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The Special Rapporteur refers to his previous reports as regards the mandate and methods of work adopted by him. The structure of the present report is along the same lines as the previous report. The main body of issues includes an analysis on communications received by the Special Rapporteur (in order to highlight trends), the role of the new information technologies and concerns relating to actions of non-State actors, as well as issues pertaining to the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression of women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "During the period under review, the Special Rapporteur sent 16 allegations and 101 urgent actions. Seeking to avoid unnecessary duplication of the activities of the other thematic rapporteurs and country rapporteurs, the Special Rapporteur has joined during the past year with the Chairman of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention in 32 urgent appeals and with the Special Rapporteur on torture in 29 urgent appeals. In the course of the year, 13 urgent appeals and 1 allegation were sent jointly with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, 2 urgent appeals with the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, one with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women and 1 urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on education. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur also joined with the Special Rapporteurs on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (four urgent appeals) and on the situation of human rights in the Sudan (two urgent appeals). Finally, five urgent appeals were sent together with the Special Representative on the situation of human rights in Iran.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "On 28 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a note verbale to all Member States drawing their attention to the Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation (“The public’s right to know”, E/CN.4/2000/63, annex II) and inviting Governments to reflect upon them and to submit their comments. The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the Governments of the following countries which have sent a reply: Azerbaijan, Cuba, Latvia, Mexico and Qatar. He\nawaits additional responses to undertake an in-depth analysis of the information submitted to him by Governments. It should be noted that the government replies received so far by the Special Rapporteur are available for consultation at the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, in Geneva.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has received a large number of allegations concerning cases of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in 2000. As was the case in previous years, the Special Rapporteur was only able to deal with a limited number of requests for information from some Governments, owing to the insufficient financial and human resources to fulfil his mandate in the manner he would deem appropriate. The matters raised in previous reports to the Commission on Human Rights regarding the circumstances of work (E/CN.4/1995/32, paras. 92-95; E/CN.4/1996/39, para. 6; E/CN.4/1997/31, para. 7; E/CN.4/1998/40, para. 3; E/CN.4/1999/64, para. 3; and E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 4) unfortunately remain of great concern. The mandate requires a substantially increased pool of resources. Within the current constraints, the Special Rapporteur has engaged in an exchange of views with Governments only with regard to a limited number of cases, which are discussed in section IV.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "It should thus be emphasized that the countries discussed in the respective sections in no way reflect the extent of the problem worldwide, as indeed violations of this right take place in almost every country, in spite of the emergence of an increasing number of national institutions which are working for the promotion and protection of human rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The Special Rapporteur cooperates closely with the treaty bodies and human rights field operations, as well as with other specialized bodies within the United Nations system, regional intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, particularly at the local level, concerned with the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur expresses his great satisfaction that the number of meetings and seminars he has attended and has been invited to has remained very high. However, owing to his heavy schedule, he has not been in a position to accept all the invitations transmitted to him.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The Special Rapporteur gave the keynote speech on press freedom and freedom of expression to the Commonwealth Press Union biennial conference, which was held in Bridgetown (Barbados) from 31 October to 3 November 2000. This conference brought together some 300 publishers, owners and editors from across the Commonwealth for three days of discussion and active debate.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "The Special Rapporteur attended a round table discussion on “The protection of journalists in conflict zones” in Berlin (Germany) on 6 November 2000. This event was hosted by the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Germany, Joschka Fischer, and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Representative for freedom of the media, Freimut Duve. The Berlin Declaration adopted by the participants is attached as annex I to the present report.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "From 14 to 16 November 2000, the Special Rapporteur attended an important seminar in Lima (Peru) on “Information for democracy”, organized by the Peruvian Press Council. The seminar focused on the right to information as a key component of freedom of expression, government transparency and democratic accountability. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the “Lima Principles” which were adopted at the end of the meeting (see annex II). This seminar was held at a time when political instability dominated the country. The Special Rapporteur felt that the quest for freedom of expression and access to reliable information was very important for the Peruvian people. This seminar also provided him with the opportunity to meet with local NGOs to discuss the situation of freedom of opinion and expression in Peru.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "As far as the situation of freedom of expression in Latin America is concerned, the Special Rapporteur welcomes the adoption by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression on 20 October 2000 (see annex III). This declaration is aimed at ensuring more effective protection of the right to freedom of expression, fundamental for the consolidation and development of democracy.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "In regard to cooperation with other intergovernmental organizations, the Special Rapporteur continued his collaboration with the Programme for Freedom of Expression, Democracy and Peace of UNESCO. The Special Rapporteur was also invited by UNESCO to the celebration on 3 May 2000 in Geneva of World Press Freedom Day, which was followed by a round table discussion on “The media in conflict and post-conflict areas”. The Special Rapporteur again made concrete recommendations in his mission report this year (see report on the mission to Albania, E/CN.4/2001/64/Add.1, para. 116), encouraging the use of UNESCO expertise in the field of media legislation and the training of journalists in coordination with the programme of technical cooperation of the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR).", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Positive steps have been taken to establish more systematic collaboration with the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media (Freimut Duve) and the Organization of American States (OAS) Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression (Santiago Canton). Following the first meeting between the three mechanisms last year (see E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 12), where cooperation was initiated, it was decided that they would meet on an annual basis in the context of an international seminar. Thus, on 29 and 30 November 2000, a second international seminar on promoting freedom of expression with the three specialized international mandates took place in London. It was the occasion not only to promote cooperation but also to share information and ideas on the issues of defamation law, contempt of court and hate speech, as well as to hear the views of NGOs and other experts. Areas of cooperation between the three were also discussed. Following the meeting, a joint statement was issued which focused on two issues of concern, namely, attacks on journalists and defamation law (see annex IV). It was also agreed by the three mandate holders that they would issue a joint statement on racism and the media as part of the preparations for the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance. It should be further mentioned that another joint press statement was issued on World Press Freedom Day, 3 May 2000, about the harassment and killing of journalists in conflict situations (see annex V).", "labels": ["Migrants"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "In the context of this cooperation, the Special Rapporteur considers the participation of the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media (Freimut Duve) and the OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression (Santiago Canton) in the annual session of the Commission on Human Rights to be of particular importance. He regrets that Mr. Santiago Canton’s presence was questioned on certain technical grounds at the last session of the Commission, following a statement he made as a representative of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of\nthe OAS. The Special Rapporteur considers his collaboration with the two other mechanisms to be vital to ensure a coherent global strategy on freedom of expression. In this respect, he wishes to thank the United Kingdom Foreign Office as well as ARTICLE 19, the Global Campaign for Free Expression for their continued support.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has been invited to the four regional expert seminars organized, as part of the preparatory process for the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, in Africa, Asia, Latin America and in the Central and Eastern European region. This is in accordance with the General Assembly resolutions asking for contributions from other human rights mechanisms (53/132, para. 35; 54/154, para. 37), as well as Commission on Human Rights resolution 2000/14 asking the special rapporteurs concerned to participate actively in the preparatory process. In paragraph 13 (g) of its resolution 2000/38 on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the Commission requested the Special Rapporteur to contribute effectively to the preparatory process for the World Conference by transmitting to the High Commissioner his recommendations on freedom of opinion and expression which have a bearing on the Conference. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur intends to present a submission to the High Commissioner for Human Rights which would also be submitted as an official document for the next session of the Preparatory Committee of the World Conference.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Additionally, the Special Rapporteur attended the seventh meeting of special rapporteurs/ representatives, experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures and advisory services programme, held in Geneva from 5 to 9 June 2000 (see E/CN.4/2001/6, annex).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur visited Geneva from 5 to 10 April 2000 for consultations and to present his report to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-sixth session. During this period, the Special Rapporteur held a press conference and organized a briefing for NGOs which were both very well attended. He also met with various delegations, and discussed his intentions of undertaking field visits with the Ambassadors of Albania, Egypt, Peru, the Russian Federation and Sri Lanka.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "Finally, the Special Rapporteur considers the carrying out of country visits to be an essential element of the mandate. From 29 May to 2 June 2000, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Albania. For this visit, he has submitted a separate report to the Commission at its current session (E/CN.4/2001/64/Add.1).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "During the year under review, the Special Rapporteur has pursued his efforts to obtain invitations to visit the following countries: China, Indonesia, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Sri Lanka and Viet Nam to examine in situ the situation with regard to the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In the course of 2001, he hopes to be able to visit the three countries which have invited him in 2000 (Argentina, Egypt, Peru). Moreover, the Special Rapporteur has also sent additional official requests for invitations to visit Angola, Colombia, Equatorial Guinea, India and Pakistan.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate that the role of non-governmental organizations in furthering the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression cannot be underestimated. Indeed, it is those organizations which spearhead these concerns and are forcefully advocating, monitoring and lobbying for human rights. Some of them went out of their way to volunteer their time to help the Special Rapporteur. He wishes to express his special thanks to ARTICLE 19, the International Centre Against Censorship, which continues to provide information and material relevant to the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression to the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "In this connection, the Special Rapporteur welcomes the appointment of a Special Representative of the Secretary-General on human rights defenders (Ms. Hina Jilani). He considers this new thematic mechanism to be complementary to his own mandate and that it constitutes an important step towards better promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.\nIII. ISSUES\nA. Trends", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "As was the case last year, during the period under review, the Special Rapporteur has noted a number of characteristics common to the violations reported to him in the framework of his mandate and believes that it would again be helpful to consider what may be called “trends”. It is his hope that the identification of these trends will encourage Governments to review practices and take remedial action where required. It is also hoped that this work will assist OHCHR in developing programmes of technical assistance for interested Governments which will accelerate the process of eliminating the causes of violations of freedom of opinion and expression, the right to information and associated rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The Special Rapporteur again acknowledges that in a number of countries independent media, professional or collegial associations and non-governmental organizations have been allowed to form and function. In such cases, there may well be a continuing need for training and guidance in order to raise professional standards and to develop the capacity of such bodies to thrive in a self-regulating environment. It is the Special Rapporteur’s strongly held view that Governments have a duty to create and encourage an enabling environment in which such training and professional development can be organized and carried out without fear of legal, criminal or administrative sanction by the State.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "The Special Rapporteur received over 1,700 communications from a variety of sources: international, regional, national and local non-governmental organizations, associations of media professionals, trade unions, members of opposition political parties, human rights defenders and activists, concerned individuals and others. It must be emphasized again that resource constraints do not permit the Special Rapporteur to respond to, or act upon, every communication received.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "That being said, it can again be confidently stated that these communications are not confined to alleged violations in countries in which the political and institutional arrangements are implicitly or explicitly undemocratic. It is important to note that allegations refer to incidents and instances in which the rights to freedom of opinion and expression, information, association and assembly are infringed or violated in both emerging democracies and countries with long-established democratic institutions, practices and traditions. It is true, however, that the preponderance of allegations refer to situations where: (a) the legal and institutional protections and guarantees of human rights are, to a greater or lesser degree, circumscribed; (b) internal armed conflict or severe civil unrest exists; or (c) legal and institutional protections and guarantees exist but are not properly implemented.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "A majority of cases received by the Special Rapporteur relate to violations and actions taken against media professionals. Similar actions and violations of rights also occur, however, in relation to political groups, members of opposition political parties, pro-democracy activists, lawyers, students, academics, trade unionists and their leaders, persons participating in general strikes, women, peasants, members of religious minorities, persons belonging to minorities, authors and poets, cartoonists, newspaper vendors, distributors and printers, medical personnel and others.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "With these points in mind, the Special Rapporteur directs the attention of Governments to the following general trends in terms of violations of freedom of opinion and expression and related rights and strongly urges them to take all appropriate actions, consistent with the standards set out in the International Bill of Human Rights and associated instruments, to eliminate not only the violations themselves but also their causes and negative consequences.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes with great concern the extent to which efforts to exercise peacefully - and, in some cases, in a professional capacity - the rights to expression, opinion, information, association and assembly continue to carry the very real possibility of physical threat or harm. He would particularly like to express his deep preoccupation at the number of cases in which that effort has lethal consequences. In those cases, it can be said that there exists “censorship by killing”, carried out by all manner of agents of the State or persons with a perceptible, although perhaps not formal, affiliation with the State.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["1. Attacks, threats, harassment, physical harm"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Acts of physical harm, threats or attacks against individuals exercising their right to freedom of opinion and expression, whether in a professional manner or not, referred to in communications by the Special Rapporteur have included: shooting and summary executions; death threats; kidnapping and torture of journalists in efforts to force them to reveal sources; attacks by police and military personnel on newspaper offices and homes; assaults and beatings in the context of elections and voting; use of pepper spray and beating by soldiers or police of participants in, or journalists covering, demonstrations and protests; surveillance of journalists by members of the armed forces; summoning of journalists to the presidential residence, the office of the Attorney-General, armed forces headquarters or police stations for “informal talks”, warnings and reprimands; occupation of a newspaper office by the civilian guard.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["1. Attacks, threats, harassment, physical harm"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has also noted a significant number of cases in which individuals were subjected to intimidation and harassment in the form of: the issuance against journalists of accusations of “wanting to set fire” to the country, of publishing “lies and hypocrisies” or “false news”, or of “fuelling anti-government sentiment”; instructions to party members and local administrations to “find journalists and break their bones”; searches of newspaper offices for\n“subversive and incriminating documents”; the labelling of journalists as “criminals”; warning journalists against reporting “garbage” about government leaders and leaders of opposition parties; threats against journalists for “continuous negative coverage of activities in the State”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["1. Attacks, threats, harassment, physical harm"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has noted that such violations seem to have often occurred: following the publication of accounts of police misconduct, excessive use of force, procedural irregularities in investigations or failure to investigate; as a result of commentary on corruption, involvement in criminal activities and wrong-doing by public officials, by members of the armed forces or the police, by members of municipal, State, regional or federal authorities, or by business and other elites; in State-sanctioned actions to suppress or disperse public demonstrations and protests; in response to the broadcasting of images of army or police repression against demonstrators; in response to published reports on poor and life-threatening conditions in prisons; in response to visits by media professionals to countries that do not enjoy friendly relations with the State.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["1. Attacks, threats, harassment, physical harm"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "Despite changes in the legal and policy frameworks based on the rule of law and respect for rights in a number of countries, there continue to be many cases of arrest and detention without charge or without a legitimate legal basis, or following judicial proceedings of doubtful relevance.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["2. Arrest, detention and related actions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has observed that, in the past year, individuals have been arrested and/or detained on charges: of acting in a manner “prejudicial to the safety of the State; of participating in a peaceful rally to protest election fraud; of “criminal malevolence” for having reported racketeering and corruption in government and State-run companies; of having “obstructed the implementation of martial law” and for having “instigated a violent incident”; of “insulting the head of State and inciting hatred”; of “collecting dissident news and secretly distributing copies of a monthly” linked to an opposition party; of treason for having provided medical treatment to members of an armed liberation movement; of “insulting the magistracy” and “violating the press law”; of having produced a film damaging to the country’s reputation abroad; of having published “anti-patriotic information” and statements considered “seditious and anti-nationalist”; of having “distributed and disclosed false news”; of having made “damaging accusations”; of “the purchase and illegal provision of intelligence to foreign people”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["2. Arrest, detention and related actions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "Such actions against journalists and others have often followed the publication of articles, for example: on police abuse of force causing death; about discontent in the armed forces; revealing misappropriation of funds by a government agency; on local corruption; on a weak voter turn-out for municipal elections and the deteriorating economic situation; on a person who had been tortured while in the custody of the presidential guard; calling on government forces to respect the human rights of those campaigning against impunity; containing objectionable language.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["2. Arrest, detention and related actions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur has noted that such measures have been taken by the police, military, security forces or other government authorities in relation inter alia to: investigations into embezzlement by government officials; the coverage of activities in a refugee camp; the distribution of foreign news articles; a government campaign against “western bourgeois ideas”; the coverage of a protest movement; complaints by private business elites who were implicated in wrongdoing in published articles; a demonstration calling for law reform; “refusal to testify”; the broadcasting of a music video that “violated mores”.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["2. Arrest, detention and related actions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "It should be noted that, if a majority of cases of arrest and detention involved journalists and other media professionals, communications received by the Special Rapporteur this year have also referred, inter alia, to the chairman of a political party charged with planning to hold an unauthorized demonstration and to leaders of an underground cultural movement. It should also be noted that, in a number of these cases, arrest or detention was either preceded by a raid on home or office or by summary action in public places. These actions often resulted in the peremptory and unlawful seizure of such materials as books, magazines, pamphlets, research, video and audio equipment, business documents, computers and other kinds of equipment used by the broadcasting media.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["2. Arrest, detention and related actions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "As some countries slowly make the transition from outright repression to a framework of governance somewhat more consistent with the rule of law and respect for rights, a pattern of administrative and/or legal sanctions which fall short of arrest or detention is emerging. These sanctions result in violations which - while perhaps less intense in their effect than killing, arrest or detention - still result in violations and infringements of the rights that are the subject of this mandate. In a number of cases, the sanctions have a direct, immediate and significant negative impact on the right to seek, receive and impart information. As such, they are of grave concern to the Special Rapporteur and he reminds Governments of their duty to take immediate remedial action to eliminate these sanctions from law and practice.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["3. Administrative and legal measures"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "A significant number of cases brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur concerned bans, closure or seizure of publications and/or other media, such as: the closure of a radio station that had aired a call by political parties for a mass gathering; the closure of a newspaper for reprinting allegations of corruption published by foreign media; the barring of a weekly for allegedly having published defamatory articles about a religious leader; the closure by religious courts of reformist publications; the closure of a radio station on the grounds that it was owned by foreigners; an attempt to close a newspaper through retroactive application of law; the suspension of a weekly that allegedly defamed members of the Government; the suspension of a weekly for “publication of false news”; the banning of a weekly for promoting “anti-country feelings”; the confiscation by police of copies of an independent newspaper; the seizure of publications published outside the country which allegedly supported a foreign regime; the suspension of publications for “defiance of authority”, and “unbalanced reporting”; the refusal to license a publication because of the editor’s link to the political opposition; the seizure and/or banning of weeklies for publishing interviews with, e.g. the leader of an opposition group or exiled critics of the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["3. Administrative and legal measures"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "In a number of cases, measures taken by the authorities against media outlets and actors took the form of the issuing of bans, inter alia on: covering official functions; reporting on military issues; demonstrations by opposition political parties; protest marches, so as not to “embarrass the Government”; political and cultural magazines in order “to protect general security, safety and public order”; a book describing a massacre of religious youth by police. The Special Rapporteur also received cases referring to: a presidential decree of a total media blackout on a murder attempt against a journalist; the closure of publications for having published articles without official permission; the suspension of a radio station for having broadcast one verse of a poem by a writer who was imprisoned.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["3. Administrative and legal measures"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "In addition to these types of administrative measures, the Special Rapporteur has also observed the use of technical and financial measures to impede the right to seek and impart information, measures such as: cutting off electricity to a television station that was broadcasting an interview with a rebel commander; a power blackout silencing media outlets while a state of emergency was declared in response to a social protest movement; the seizure of equipment from a wire service on the basis that it was operating without a permit; the jamming by State-owned media of signals and/or radio programmes of foreign broadcasting services; the seizure of equipment of an independent printing press on the grounds that it belonged to a foreign organization that owed the Government money; the imposition of a fine on bookstores; the seizure of foreign publications featuring articles about an opposition leader, on the basis that the articles were “derogatory to national prestige”; the fining of persons seeking to establish a non-government radio station; the closure of a printing house which was critical of the authorities and was sued for “insulting the nation”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["3. Administrative and legal measures"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Furthermore, it has been noted that pressure has been exerted on media professionals and others through such administrative measures as: the dismissal of journalists and media personnel, inter alia for having broadcast images of pro-democracy protests and for being biased against the governing party; the denial of licences to private stations; the denial of entry permits to, or expulsion of, journalists, authors and editors on the basis that they are “undesirable”; the withdrawal of journalists’ accreditation or imposition of lifetime bans for such reasons as “distributing information of a tendentious and malicious nature on the socio-political situation” in the country, “with the intention of tarnishing the country’s image of peace and stability”, or writing on relations between a State and a neighbouring country.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["3. Administrative and legal measures"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "The recourse to legal and legislative measures has also been noted by the Special Rapporteur, for instance: the filing of suits by the authorities against journalists whose work they find “insults the honour and dignity of the State and the people” or is “contrary to national interests”; charges of “incitement to violence and rebellion” brought against a journalist under the Public Safety Act; amendments to the publications law that make the printing of foreign newspapers subject to the approval of the Minister of the Interior; indictment for blasphemy against a religion and its founder; prosecution of reformist dailies for having reprinted an interview with a public figure under house arrest; a press and publication law that criminalizes the publication of materials that “sully public morals”; prosecution of a singer for having “insulted religious values”; the sentencing of two women novelists and a publisher for publishing work that included “expressions that violate God, and indecent and shameless expression”.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["3. Administrative and legal measures"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "It will be recalled that in his report to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-sixth session (E/CN.4/2000/63) the Special Rapporteur devoted considerable attention to the issue of criminal libel and defamation. Similar to the use of administrative and legal sanctions to inhibit free expression and access to information, the cases received in the past year clearly demonstrate that the abuse of libel and defamation laws continues apace and there has been no significant decrease in the manipulation of such laws by key public figures, both State and private, with the aim of limiting the scope and content of press and other kinds of reports.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["4. Defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "A summary review of the cases received revealed recourse to such laws in response to disclosures and/or publications about: the incompetence of an official; the link between the police and drug traffickers and/or between the Attorney-General and drug traffickers; the failure of a president to make good on election promises; the involvement of a minister in a corruption case; the issuance of false charitable receipts by religious entities; the refusal of a governor to authorize payment of salaries to public employees for three months; the acceptance of a bribe by a judge to decide in favour of one parliamentary candidate over another; the weak reaction of the authorities to racist attacks against nationals residing in a neighbouring country; the threat of a defamation suit to force a journalist to stop working with the independent press; the construction of a multi-billion dollar hydroelectric power project in which one of the players was characterized as “corrupt”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["4. Defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "The information brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur also referred to such cases or subjects as: the implication of a member of the military in the assassination of the financial director of a district; the implication of a religious leader in a killing; corruption in the presidential palace; “insults” against a member of Parliament; the publication of an article deemed offensive to the Supreme Court; links between local law enforcement and organized crime; administrative irregularities in a district judiciary that included the blackmailing of local mayors and abuse of authority; irregularities in the privatization process of a State-owned company; the use of power and influence to gain advantage.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["4. Defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Several cases were also brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur regarding prohibitive fines for libel which in a number of instances would strangle economically the independent press, a political party, an association or any individual. In this regard the Special Rapporteur considers that disproportionate remedies or sanctions can significantly limit the free flow of information and ideas.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["4. Defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "In the light of the cases received this year, the Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate the recommendations made in his previous report (E/CN.4/2000/63 para. 52) and to urge Governments to:\n(a) Repeal criminal defamation laws in favour of civil laws;\n(b) Limit sanctions for defamation to ensure that they do not exert a chilling effect on freedom of opinion and expression and the right to information;\n(c) Prohibit government bodies and public authorities from bringing defamation suits with the explicit purpose of preventing criticism of the Government or even of maintaining public order;\n(d) Ensure that defamation laws reflect the importance of open debate on matters of public interest and the principle that public figures are required to tolerate a greater degree of criticism than private citizens;\n(e) Qualify only patently unreasonable opinions as defamatory;\n(f) Stipulate that defendants are not required to prove the truth of opinions or value statements;\n(g) Ensure that the onus of proof is on those claiming to have been defamed and not on the defendant(s);\n(h) Provide a range of remedies in addition to damage awards, for example, apology and/or correction.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["4. Defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "In this connection, the Special Rapporteur would like to endorse the Principles on Freedom of Expression and Protection of Reputation[[fn:1]] that have been developed by ARTICLE 19, the Global Campaign for Free Expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Defining Defamation: Principles on Freedom of Expression and Protection of Reputation, ARTICLE 19, London, July 2000."}], "section": ["4. Defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to bring to the attention of the Commission on Human Rights and all Governments grave concerns about the actions of non-State actors which, in their effect, infringe upon or negate the rights to opinion, expression, information, assembly and association. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur notes that the traditional approach to the negation of the rights that are set out in international human rights instruments is generally confined to the question of violations of rights by Governments and their agents. Rightly, concern is expressed that any attempt to address the actions of non-State actors runs the risk of detracting from the responsibility of States not to violate the rights of citizens and others living within their territories. The Special Rapporteur also notes that the question of non-State actors has been traditionally defined as relating to the duty of States to exercise due diligence and to ensure that individuals and collective private entities respect the law and do not abuse or infringe upon the rights of others.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["B. Non-State actors"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "The Special Rapporteur accepts that the primary attention must continue to be focused on the commissions and omissions of Governments which lead to violations of fundamental rights. At the same time, however, he cannot remain indifferent to the fact that, with regard to the rights that are the subject of this mandate, an increasing number of actions by non-State individuals and entities have a marked and severely negative impact on the enjoyment of those rights by others.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["B. Non-State actors"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "A review of the communications received clearly indicates that, in a number of instances, the effect of these non-State actions is to impose “repression and intimidation by proxy”. The “proxy effect” is either evident to the extent that the persons or groups involved are clearly affiliated with the ruling party - whether elected or self-appointed - or can be inferred from the facts as presented. Other cases may be characterized as “repression and intimidation by neglect”, to the extent that the State consistently fails to meet its obligation to exercise due diligence and does not ensure that the police, the judiciary and other legally constituted bodies responsible for law and order properly and fully investigate crimes and related actions and hold those responsible to account.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["B. Non-State actors"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also acknowledges that there are circumstances in which the Government does not have effective control of territory within its own boundaries. Under such circumstances, it may not be possible for the State, at that time, to investigate, identify those responsible and ensure that their actions are properly and, under international legal definitions, lawfully sanctioned. The Special Rapporteur would observe, however, that difficulties in the immediate term do not relieve the State of its duty to exercise due diligence in the name of justice for the victims as soon as conditions permit. The Special Rapporteur would also observe that, in an effort to assert or regain control over territory within its boundaries, the State may not engage in actions that, by their very nature, violate rights or are of such a severe nature as to cause those targeted for such actions to react in ways that infringe or negate the rights of innocent persons who, very simply and often, have become trapped in the middle of a war of attrition.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["B. Non-State actors"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "With those points in mind, the Special Rapporteur notes that, in the past year, he has received cases of, among others, the following violations involving paramilitary groups, guerrillas, terrorist groups, mobs and traffickers: the kidnapping of journalists by guerrillas because of the failure of the press to disclose information about human rights violations committed by the army; the kidnapping of journalists by rebels calling on the Government to pledge money for road improvements; the kidnapping of foreign journalists and their use for ransom by armed opposition groups; the murder of journalists by members of a paramilitary group covering municipal elections; a bomb threat, possibly from paramilitaries hostile to a newspaper’s editorial content; the shooting of a journalist who covered criminal bike gangs for years; the murder of a journalist who had reported on the illegal activities of a local mafia involved in drug-trafficking; the abduction by militants of reporters covering a hostage crisis; the sending of a parcel bomb to a journalist by a terrorist or group in armed opposition; the burning of copies of a newspaper by armed rebels.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["B. Non-State actors"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "Moreover, the Special Rapporteur noted a significant number of actions taken against media professionals by members of various opposition groups, political and religious groups, such as: an assault on a journalist by Communist militants; an attempt by students to burn down the offices of a newspaper; threats by security guards of an opposition party and an attempt to prevent journalists from covering a meeting of the party; the siege of an independent newspaper’s offices by supporters of the prime minister criticizing the bias in pre-election coverage; a bomb attack on the offices of a daily newspaper by members of an armed secessionist movement; the bombing of a journalist’s home by members of an armed independence movement; the murder of a journalist by members of an armed underground movement following articles critical of such movements; an attack on press vehicles by members of an armed opposition group; a ban by an opposition party on the media covering its election\nactivities; death threats against editorial staff by a religious militia; the denunciation of a private radio station by the Church for “dangerous proselytism”; an attack by activists on video shops on the basis that they were “immoral” businesses.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["B. Non-State actors"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Many other cases of violations reported to the Special Rapporteur involved other non-State actors, for instance: the shooting of a lawyer who specialized in labour issues and labour rights; the murder of journalists critical of the local administration by gunmen financed by “rich people in the area”; the setting alight of a journalist who had reported on corruption in the privatization of State businesses; an attack by youths on a journalist covering a students’ meeting; an assault on reporters by polling station monitors; attacks on journalists by groups of demonstrators; the bombing of a radio station that had reported on incidents relating to a general strike; the murder of a journalist by a former public official following published comments that his resignation was linked to alleged misconduct; the ransacking and burning of a newspaper office by a mob protesting the murder of a leading religious scholar by unknown gunmen.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["B. Non-State actors"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "In the light of these and other cases, the Special Rapporteur invites the Commission on Human Rights to consider how and by what means the international community may give continuing and coherent attention to the question of non-State actors and actions by them that infringe upon or negate the internationally recognized rights to freedom of opinion, expression, information, belief and conscience, assembly and association.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["B. Non-State actors"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "It will be recalled that in his report to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-fourth session (E/CN.4/1998/40) the Special Rapporteur devoted considerable attention to the question of new technologies and, in particular, concerns expressed about the uses being made of the Internet. The Special Rapporteur noted an increasing interest on the part of some Governments, organizations and individuals in the question of whether or not it was possible to devise a generally applicable regime for regulation of the Internet. The heightened interest in regulation arose, at least in part, from concerns relating to privacy, the dissemination of pornography, racism and hate speech, and the use of the technology to promote, for example, child sex tourism, trafficking in persons and other activities or ventures that are increasingly viewed with opprobrium by individuals and the international community.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "It will also be recalled that faced with the mounting pressures for the development of some sort of regulatory regime, the Special Rapporteur stated (para. 45) that the new technologies and, in particular the Internet “are inherently democratic, provide the public and individuals with access to information sources and enable all to participate actively in the communication process”. At that time, the Special Rapporteur stated (para. 116) with regard to the Internet, that on-line expression should be guided by international standards and be guaranteed the same protection as is awarded to other forms of expression. Nothing has occurred since the report was prepared for the fifty-fourth session that would cause the Special Rapporteur to change his views on this subject.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "On the contrary, the Special Rapporteur looks with dismay on the information he has received on the efforts of some Governments either to control or shut down access to the Internet. Some of the communications received by him referred to: the closure of a weekly publication following the posting on its Web site of an article the Government claimed was biased; a charge of “subversion” against a web dissident, with a possible sentence of five years upon conviction; closure of a Web site acting as a forum for democratic dissidents, and the issuance of an arrest warrant against the webmaster; the arrest of the owner of an Internet site accused of “incitement to subvert the State’s authority” for having published on-line articles critical of the ruling party; regulations on the content of a news Web site and chatrooms under which the sites may only publish on-line news from State-owned media; the requirement that official agreement must be obtained before foreign media news may be posted on-line; a stipulation that Web sites will be held responsible for publication of “subversive information”; a law giving authorities the right to sanction service providers that do not control and censor the content of their sites; the issuance of guidelines banning the use of the Internet, inter alia for “propagating misleading news stories to create doubts among the public, at home or abroad”; revocation of all private Internet licences, allegedly because the persons involved falsified information in mandatory reports to the relevant ministry about the technical and structural details of their services.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Communications were also received relating to: a law requiring Internet users to request administrative authorization, following an incident in which three people, at least one an army officer, were accused of consulting opposition Web sites based in foreign countries; a regulation on “the protection of State secrets” on the Internet, requiring all information to be cleared by the government department responsible for the protection of State secrets and noting that breaches of the regulation could result in heavy jail sentences and fines; the arrest of a person as a “cyber-dissident” and the sentencing of that person for incitement to overthrow the State; the arrest of a person who was preparing to post on the Internet an information bulletin on human rights and the opposition democratic movement; threats by the Government to close down cyber-cafes if they did not monitor Web sites visited by their customers; a government statement that Internet users were not authorized to “take part in any activity that endangers public security, creates disorder or interferes with public rights and interests”.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "On the basis of these and other communications, the Special Rapporteur concludes that it is necessary to reiterate his encouragement to Governments to view the Internet and other information technologies as means to achieve a plurality of voices and to take steps towards their integration into the development process. Actions by States to impose excessive regulations on the use of these technologies on the grounds that control, regulations and denial of access are necessary to preserve the moral fabric and cultural identity of societies are paternalistic. Furthermore, inequalities of access to this technological revolution are liable to widen the gap between the technologically advanced sections of society and others, leading to political and social exclusion which would tend to create instability and explosive situations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "Moreover, the Special Rapporteur wishes to underline the following concerns and commends them to the Commission on Human Rights and other relevant multilateral institutions, for further and continuing attention.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 63, "n": 1, "text": "The gap between technologically advanced countries and societies\nand those with fewer assets and means", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 64, "n": 63, "text": "The new technologies and, in particular, the Internet, are clearly important tools that can and should be put to use in the pursuit of respect for rights and social justice. Therefore, to the extent that there remains a dramatic disparity between rich and poor, developed societies and those less developed, in knowledge of, access to and creative use of these tools, this principle is not fully respected.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 65, "n": 64, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has noted with considerable interest that a number of efforts have and are being made to achieve a balance of access and opportunity. In this regard, he commends two initiatives undertaken by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The first, MagNet, is a virtual library of the organization’s publications - such as policy documents, discussion papers and governance tools - on good governance, all of which can be downloaded free of charge (http://magnet.undp.org). It must said, however, that the positive impact and effect of this site will be directly proportional to the degree of access and technical capacity in those countries where the needed is greatest and the people are most likely to enjoy the greatest benefit.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 66, "n": 65, "text": "For this reason, the Special Rapporteur finds the second initiative - also by UNDP - to be of particular importance. Through UNDP Africa a Web site has been created with the organization’s partners (http://www.undp.org/rba). This Web site has contributed significantly to the exchange of information and the sharing of ideas and initiatives. It must be stated, however, that the very considerable problem remains of there being too few lines of communication that carry full Internet access to and within countries in Africa. Also, in those places where access exists, it is expensive and often beyond the means of those who would enjoy the greatest benefit.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 67, "n": 66, "text": "In this context, the Special Rapporteur would note that a decision by the international community, individual Governments and private businesses to invest the necessary resources to expand access to the Internet to under-serviced and unserviced areas and regions will be rendered meaningless if Governments initiate or continue policies and practices that have as their only aim to restrict access to information that is of relevance and importance to the people on whose behalf they manage and direct the affairs of the nation. That being said, the Special Rapporteur appeals to States and private interests - separately and together - to make every effort to increase the technological capacities in every country, state, municipality, community and neighbourhood where those capacities either simply do not exist or are not adequate to meet the needs of the people seeking to learn about and to use them.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 68, "n": 67, "text": "Human rights is the theme of the UNDP Human Development Report 2000. The report states that “Providing information on national needs and government priorities can enhance public understanding of difficult trade-offs, creating a greater social consensus in the face of limited resources and multiple demands.”[[fn:2]] The report also states that when “people lack access to information on policies and practices that affect their well-being, there are many additional costs”.[[fn:3]] The costs are noted as including the fact that corruption flourishes, press freedom is compromised and powerful private actors can effectively buy secrecy “even for information that reveals serious threats to public health and safety.[[fn:4]] The report further notes that the promotion of human rights norms can and should occur on three fronts: education of people about human rights; sensitizing officials to human rights; and mobilizing public opinion through the media.[[fn:5]]", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "UNDP, Human Development Report 2000, New York, 2000, chap. 5, section entitled “Realizing the right to information”."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 4, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 5, "text": "Op. cit., chap. 6, section entitled “Promote human rights norms”."}], "section": ["2. Human rights and human development"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 69, "n": 68, "text": "The Special Rapporteur concurs with the view stated in the report that the Internet is an important and related tool in the promotion of human rights and an effective means to disseminate information on civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights and violations of them. The Special Rapporteur firmly believes that the Internet has the potential to become one of the most effective tools available to fight against poverty and exclusion, on whatever grounds.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["2. Human rights and human development"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 70, "n": 69, "text": "The Special Rapporteur further notes that, with regard to reducing global inequality and the marginalization of both people and nations, it will not be enough simply to install the “hardware” required in as many places as possible, as quickly as possible. With this in mind, the Special Rapporteur has noted proposals to establish regional centres of technology with the goal of providing research results, based on appropriate criteria, to poor people through the Internet and other technologies that reduce costs. While this kind of thinking and action is to be encouraged, the Special Rapporteur would again remind States that they must also ensure that there is adequate and unfettered “social and political space” in which the new technologies can be developed in a self-regulating environment and where the exercise and enjoyment of the rights to expression, opinion, information, association and assembly can flourish. In the absence of freedom from excessive regulation and adequate space for expression, participation and action, the results of research will have no meaning and genuine participation, progress and human development will not happen.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["2. Human rights and human development"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 71, "n": 70, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that it has not been possible, thus far, to organize a joint mission with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women in order to assess the relationship between incidents of violence against women and the lack of effective enjoyment of the rights to opinion, expression, information, assembly and association. Neither has it been possible, to date, for the two Special Rapporteurs to develop a framework within which a joint report could be prepared and submitted to the Commission on Human Rights on this or a related matter.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["D. Women"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 72, "n": 71, "text": "That being said, the Special Rapporteur feels it necessary and appropriate to offer the following views with regard to “women, peace and security” as a part of his continued efforts to address consistently the situation of women and their ability, or not, to exercise freely the rights that are the subject of this mandate. During the October 2000 special session of the Security Council - on women, peace and security - the Secretary-General of the United Nations stated that “the potential contribution of women to peace and security remains severely under-valued. Women are still grossly under-represented at the decision-making level, from conflict prevention to conflict resolution to post-conflict reconciliation”.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["D. Women"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 73, "n": 72, "text": "The Special Rapporteur was informed that some of the statements made by participants in that special session referred to the experience of women and girls during armed conflict. For example: in the absence of gender sensitivity, women who have been raped and/or sexually assaulted during armed conflict will not report the incident for fear of being stigmatized or some other potential effect of identifying herself publicly; electoral systems must take women into account, as voters or as candidates; civilian police must address the issues of trafficking and sexual violence which are associated with conflict.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["D. Women"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 74, "n": 73, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has taken note of resolution 1325 (200) adopted by the Security Council following this special session and emphasizes several elements of it for the benefit of the Commission on Human Rights and all States. In that resolution the Security Council, inter alia: stressed women’s equal participation and full involvement in all efforts for the maintenance and promotion of peace and security, and the need to increase their role in decision-making with regard to conflict prevention and resolution; called upon States to ensure increased representation of women at all decision-making levels in national, regional and international institutions and mechanisms for the prevention, management, and resolution of conflict; and requested the Secretary-General to provide to States training guidelines and materials on the protection, rights and the particular needs of women, as well as on the importance of involving women in all peacekeeping and peace-building measures.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["D. Women"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 75, "n": 74, "text": "The Council also called on all actors involved, when negotiating and implementing peace agreements, to adopt a gender perspective, including: measures that support local women’s peace initiatives and indigenous processes for conflict resolution, and that involve women in all of the implementation mechanisms of the peace agreements; and measures that ensure the protection of and respect for the human rights of women and girls, particularly as they relate to the constitution, the electoral system, the police and the judiciary. The Council also invited the Secretary-General to carry out a study on the impact of armed conflict on women and girls, the role of women in peace-building and the gender dimensions of peace processes and conflict resolution. The Special Rapporteur looks forward to the completion and publication of this study, with the hope that aspects of the rights to opinion, expression and information - and violations of those rights directed against women - will figure prominently in it.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["D. Women"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 76, "n": 75, "text": "In conclusion, the Special Rapporteur has raised the issue of women, peace and security out of a deep concern that women are not full participants in efforts to prevent, stop and recover armed conflict. The Special Rapporteur again emphasizes that effective participation depends on the ability to express oneself freely, to have access to the materials needed in order to have an informed opinion, to join with others in common cause for the common good, and to meet openly and without fear in order to discuss more widely the issues at hand and to act upon the decisions taken. None of these actions is possible when the rights to opinion, expression, information, assembly and association are violated. Thus, to the extent that there continues to be either advertent or inadvertent exclusion of women from peace processes, or the consciousness and deliberate enactment or application of laws that discriminate against women, their rights will always be violated and their participation in such critical areas as peace and security will continue to be unlawfully limited.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["D. Women"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 77, "n": 76, "text": "In the light of the above, the Special Rapporteur would urge States to weigh very carefully all of the points raised during the special session of the Security Council and to take all necessary remedial action, including law reform, to correct what is clearly an unbalanced and discriminatory situation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["D. Women"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 78, "n": 77, "text": "This section contains brief summaries of urgent appeals and communications to and from Governments, along with observations of the Special Rapporteur. In view of the time required for Governments to respond, only the communications sent before 15 December 2000 are included in the report.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["D. Women", "IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 79, "n": 78, "text": "On 24 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a communication to the Taliban authorities requesting information concerning their alleged control over the print and broadcast media, in particular the ban on television, the control over editorial work and the strict control over photography. In this context, it was reported that, on 11 August 2000, three foreign journalists, Khawar Mehdi, Jason Flario and Pepe Scobar, were arrested for taking pictures during a football match. The Special Rapporteur also raised the issue of the work of foreign journalists, which is reportedly extensively restricted by a list of “21 points to be respected”. In the same communication, the Special Rapporteur also transmitted cases of intimidation, harassment and violence towards journalists in exile. The following cases were also mentioned: the murder of Mohammad Hashim Paktianae on 2 November 1998 in Hayatabad; the murder attempt against Najeeda Sara Bid on 5 October 1998 in Peshawar (Pakistan); and the death threats received by Inayat-ul-Hay Yasini on 4 July 2000 in connection with the publication of the findings of an opinion poll carried out among Afghan refugees living in camps in Pakistan.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Afghanistan", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 80, "n": 79, "text": "No reply has been received so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Afghanistan", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 81, "n": 80, "text": "From 29 May to 2 June 2000, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Albania, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session (E/CN.4/2001/64/Add.1).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Albania"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 82, "n": 81, "text": "On 18 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a communication requesting information on government practices and measures which ensure a de facto control of print media by the State, in particular the extensive control over printing activities exercised by the five State printing companies (El Moudjahid (SIMPRAL), the Entreprise algérienne de presse (ENAP), the Société d’impression d’Alger (SIA), the Société d’impression de l’Est (SIE), the Société d’impression de l’Ouest (SIO)), as well as the control of paper imports by the State enterprise Algérienne du papier (ALPAP), a control mainly exerted through the alleged use of financial debts to silence certain publications. It was notably reported that the SIA suspended the printing of the weekly El Borhane only a month after its first issue in July 1998, allegedly because of a previous agreement of the weekly with SIMPRAL, which continuously refused to issue it. The publication of El Borhane was reportedly interrupted twice subsequently, in April 1999 and again on 2 January 2000, after the SIA requested payment of the weekly’s debt. The Special Rapporteur also brought to the attention of the Government three cases of alleged disappearance of journalists: Djamil Eddine Fahassi, who disappeared on 6 May 1995; Salah Kitouni, who has not been seen since 9 July 1996; and Aziz Bouabdallah, who disappeared on 12 April 1997 and on behalf of whom the Special Rapporteur had sent a communication on 13 November 1997. The Special Rapporteur requested to be kept informed of the measures taken by the Government to elucidate these disappearances.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Algeria", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 83, "n": 82, "text": "No reply from the Government has been received so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Algeria", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 84, "n": 83, "text": "On 15 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur, jointly with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, sent an urgent appeal regarding the arrest of Andre Domingos Mussamo, a journalist for the Radio Nacional de Angola and Folha 8, on 2 December 1999. According to the information received, he was detained by the Police Criminal Investigation Department (DNIC) in N’Dalatando, allegedly in connection with an unpublished article he wrote referring to a letter from the provincial governor to President dos Santos.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Angola", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 85, "n": 84, "text": "On 1 November 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a communication concerning the drafting of a new press law. The Special Rapporteur welcomed the initiative and the fact that an open public debate on the draft law was taking place, and expressed his wish that the public’s views would be taken into consideration in the elaboration of the law. At the same time, the Special Rapporteur voiced his concern at some provisions of the draft, in particular articles 53, 55, paragraphs 2 and 3, and 57, in accordance with which press offences, as well as the publication of information considered as State secrets, would be punishable by terms of imprisonment of from 2 to 8 years.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Angola", "Communications sent"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "53", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "55", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0086", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 86, "n": 85, "text": "On 17 November 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a communication to the Government requesting information regarding the judicial harassment to which the privately-owned weekly Folha 8 has reportedly been subjected since October 1999. The Special Rapporteur referred in particular to the detention of William Tonet, editor of Folha 8, on 2 October 1999, allegedly in connection with his articles on government corruption; to the prohibition of travel delivered on 31 October 1999 to Gilberto Nero, a journalist for Folha 8, allegedly in relation with an article concerning the arrest in August 1999 of journalists of Rádio Ecclesia. Furthermore, it has been reported that Mr. Tonet, along with Joaquim Manuel Aguiar dos Santos, director of Agora, and Leopoldo Baio, director of Actual, were ordered to retract stories concerning government corruption on 10 December 1999. The Special Rapporteur also transmitted a series of allegations concerning the following persons: Josefa Lamberga, a journalist with Voice of America, who was assaulted by a soldier on 28 April 1999; Isidoro Natalicío, a journalist based in N’Dalatando, who was subpoenaed on 7 November 2000 by the DNIC in connection with a report issued on Radio Ecclesia about a public rally, and who also has an appeal pending in the provincial court against an eviction order to leave his home, issued on 20 June 2000, allegedly because of his journalistic activities; Jose Paulo, director of information for Radio Ecclesia, who was reportedly kidnapped by four unidentified armed men on 25 June 2000 in Luanda, allegedly in connection with earlier broadcasts on Radio Ecclesia about government corruption and acts of intimidations committed by the authorities; Isaias Soares, a journalist for Voice of America and Radio Ecclesia, who was banned on 2 August 2000 from covering official events and reporting on military issues in Malanje.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Angola", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0087", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 87, "n": 86, "text": "In his communication dated 17 November 2000, the Special Rapporteur requested the Government to extend an invitation to him to carry out an official visit to Angola in the near future.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Angola", "Visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0088", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 88, "n": 87, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has been informed that Rafael Marques, on behalf of whom he had sent an urgent appeal on 20 October 1999 (see E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 59) was convicted on 27 October 2000 to a six-month suspended prison sentence on charges of defamation, injury and slander against the President. In the context of the sentencing of Rafael Marques and of the content of the new draft press law, the Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate that, as recommended in his previous report to the Commission on Human Rights (E/CN.4/2000/63), Governments should, in accordance with international standards, “ensure that press offences are no longer punishable by terms of imprisonment”. The Special Rapporteur would also like to reiterate his wish to undertake an official visit in Angola in the near future. Furthermore, he awaits replies from the Government.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Angola", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0089", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 89, "n": 88, "text": "An official invitation to carry out a visit to Argentina was extended to the Special Rapporteur by the Government on 30 March 2000. The Special Rapporteur hopes to undertake this visit in 2001.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Argentina"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0090", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 90, "n": 89, "text": "On 6 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a communication concerning the new draft law on the independence of the mass media. The Special Rapporteur voiced his concerns that the provisions for the registration of mass media outlets with the Ministry of Justice rather than the Ministry of Information and the Press could lead to stricter control over the press and the media, especially with regard to granting licences, accreditation of journalists, widening the scope of what is considered as defamation, and court proceedings against the mass media.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Azerbaijan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0091", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 91, "n": 90, "text": "On 2 June 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a communication regarding the closure of the Baku-based Monitor Weekly on 8 May 2000. The magazine was reportedly accused of failing to present a financial report for the first quarter of 2000. The Special Rapporteur also referred to the continued ban on Sara Radio/TV since 8 October 1999 on the grounds that it was owned by foreigners. In addition, he requested further information concerning the attack on 27 May 2000 on the offices of the Bu Gun newspaper, when two journalists, Revan Chinghizoglu and Eldeniz Bedelsoy, were beaten by the police and briefly detained.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Azerbaijan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0092", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 92, "n": 91, "text": "The Special Rapporteur, jointly with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, sent an urgent appeal on 28 August 2000 concerning the arrest of Rauf Arifoglu, editor-in-chief of Yeni Musavat. According to the information received, on 22 August 2000, he was arrested for illegal possession of firearms, participation in an attempted plane hijacking, and terrorism, after a handgun was discovered during a search of his apartment, which was allegedly illegal. The charges against Mr. Arifoglu reportedly resulted from the coverage by Yeni Musavat of an attempted plane hijacking by a member of the opposition Musavat Party in Nakhchivan four days earlier.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Azerbaijan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0093", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 93, "n": 92, "text": "In a letter dated 28 February 2000, the Government of Azerbaijan replied to the concerns the Special Rapporteur raised in his communication of 6 December 1999. The Government explained that the new bill was drafted in compliance with European standards and provided clarifications with regard to a number of provisions of the law. One of the superlative characters of the new law on the mass media was that registration of the mass media had been eliminated. In response to concerns about the issuing of licences by the Ministry of Justice, the Government replied that the new law did not include any provision about licence issuing procedure. It also stated that any control of newspapers by the executive bodies had been completely lifted and there was no provision in the law that could envisage permission being given by the executive bodies to close down media publishing. The Government added that no provision allowed for the control of the media on the basis of information interpreted as “insulting the honour and dignity of the Azerbaijani State and people” and “contradicting national interests”. Finally, it said that, although the accreditation of journalists continued to be done through State bodies, the Government hoped to establish accreditation of journalists through the Association of Journalists in the near future.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Azerbaijan", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0094", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 94, "n": 93, "text": "In reply to the communication of the Special Rapporteur dated 2 June 2000, the Government provided, on 21 July 2000, information on the closure of the Monitor Weekly which was said to be the result of a court judgment against a predecessor publication, the Monitor, found to have insulted the Azerbaijani people, its history and national identity. The Government explained that, after the Monitor Weekly refused to comply with a court judgment, Ministry of Taxation officials suspended banking operations and instituted criminal proceedings against Mr. Huseinov, the company director and chief editor. Concerning the closure of the television company Sara, the Government indicated that it had cancelled the registration of the television company on 6 October 1999 after it continued to violate its charter and the Media Act by engaging in Islamic fundamentalist propaganda. Regarding the incidents involving the two Bu Gun journalists, the Government stated that they were taken to Yasamal district police station after the police had requested that they stop taking photographs of a police operation. One of the photographers, Ravan Chingiz olgy Soltanov (Revan Chinghiyoglu), fell and sustained minor injuries while attempting to flee the scene. The Government explained that they were released following explanation, but that criminal proceedings had subsequently been instituted and an investigation opened.", "labels": ["Children"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Azerbaijan", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0095", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 95, "n": 94, "text": "In a communication dated 15 September 2000, the Government of Azerbaijan informed the Special Rapporteur of the result of the investigation concerning Rauf Arifoglu, which established that he was an accomplice in the highjacking. The Government assured the Special Rapporteur that the rights of Mr. Arifoglu had been guaranteed.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Azerbaijan", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0096", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 96, "n": 95, "text": "In a communication sent on 14 November 2000, the Government of Azerbaijan transmitted comments to the Special Rapporteur with regard to his note verbale of 28 August 2000 concerning the Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation (“The public’s right to know”) (see E/CN.4/2000/63, annex).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Azerbaijan", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0097", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 97, "n": 96, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its replies. Furthermore, he welcomes the release from solitary confinement on 5 October 2000 of Rauf Arifoglu after 45 days of pre-trial detention. He remains concerned, however at the fact that charges against Mr. Arifoglu are still pending and that his rights have been limited, in particular his right to run for office and his right to freedom of movement.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Azerbaijan", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0098", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 98, "n": 97, "text": "On 7 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal jointly with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention regarding the detention of Abdul-Wahab Hussain, a prominent Shia leader and religious scholar. According to the information received, Mr. Hussain has been held since 22 January 1996 without charges, in connection with a petition calling for constitutional changes and was awaiting a hearing on 14 March 2000. The urgent appeal also drew attention to the arbitrary detention since January 1996 of Hasan Sultan, Ali Ashur, Hussain Al-Dahi, Hasan Mishama’a and Sayyid Ibrahim Adnan Al-Alwai.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Bahrain", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0099", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 99, "n": 98, "text": "In a communication dated 7 February 2000, the Government replied to the communication of the Special Rapporteur of 6 July 1999 concerning the case of Abdul Amir Al Jamri (see E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 63). The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Al Jamri was convicted on 7 July 1999 on a number of charges and sentenced to a 10-year prison term, a DB 5,000 fine and a DB 5.7 million compensation order. However, the Government explained that, following a public apology and a pledge of future good behaviour, Mr. Al Jamri was pardoned and released on 8 July 1999.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Bahrain", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0100", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 100, "n": 99, "text": "The Special Rapporteur welcomes the pardon and release of Abdul Amir Al Jamri and thanks the Government for its reply. However, the Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply from the Government to the communication dated 7 March 2000 has been received so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Bahrain", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0101", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 101, "n": 100, "text": "On 7 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur received a response from the Government of Bangladesh to his communication dated 11 November 1999 (see E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 65) concerning alleged attacks on journalists and photographers by the police in October and November 1999. In its reply, the Government explained that the incidents referred to by the Special Rapporteur took place during a police intervention in connection with strikes called by the opposition political parties, in which the journalists were not in any way targets of police action.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Bangladesh", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0102", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 102, "n": 101, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply but remains concerned over the use of force by the police during a political demonstration.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Bangladesh", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0103", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 103, "n": 102, "text": "On 20 July 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government of Belarus regarding the alleged disappearance of Dmitry Zavadsky, Russian Public Television (ORT) cameraman on 7 July 2000. According to the information received, his disappearance was reported after he failed to show up for a meeting at Minsk Airport with Pavel Sheremet, another ORT journalist. It has been alleged that the Belarusian secret service was involved in Mr. Zavadsky’s disappearance, owing to his continuing work on a documentary about Belarus. Moreover, it has been reported that the Belarusian opposition was accused by the first deputy chief of the Belarusian Presidential Administration of Mr. Zavadsky’s disappearance.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Belarus", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0104", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 104, "n": 103, "text": "The Special Rapporteur acknowledges the communication of the Government of Belarus dated 8 August 2000 which indicates that an investigation into Dmitry Zavadsky’s disappearance was opened with the notable assistance of the Internal Affairs authorities.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Belarus", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0105", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 105, "n": 104, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply and welcomes the opening of an investigation into the disappearance of Mr. Zavadsky. However, he remains very concerned about the fate of Mr. Zavadsky.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Belarus", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0106", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 106, "n": 105, "text": "On 14 April 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions concerning the arrest on 7 and 8 April 2000 of the following individuals: Gabriel Herbas, a member of the Environmental Forum (“Foro del Medio Ambiente”); Walter Antezana, head of the Departmental Labour Centre (“Central Obrera Departamental”); Emilio Sejas, manager of Heavy Transport of Cochabamba (“Transporte Pesado de Cochabamba”); Ascencio Picha, leader of “Tropico de Cochabamba”; Felipe Quispe Huanca, head of the Bolivian Farmers Trade Union Federation (“Federacion Sindical Unica de Trabajadores Campesinos de Bolivia”); Fred Nunez, head of the Rural Teachers Trade Union (“Sindicato de Profesores Rurales”); Angel Claur; Sacarías Pereira; Víctor Cossio; Francisco Partis; Santiago Gareca; Víctor Nina; Enriqueta Imaca; Emilio Rodríguez; Filomeno Rivera; Felipe Flores; Osvaldo Toco; Juan Yapura; and Pedro Soto. Reportedly arrested for participating in demonstrations against the Government, it was reported that most of them were held incommunicado and might be victims of torture and ill-treatment.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Bolivia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0107", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 107, "n": 106, "text": "On 18 April 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions with regard to the arrest between 8 and 10 April 2000 of David Goitia Benito, Franz Guzmán, Noel Guzmán, Wilfredo Plaza, Edwin Huanca and Bartolomé Flores, and the alleged torture to which they were subjected. It was reported that they had been released but that there was still fear for their safety. Moreover, concern was expressed about Gloria Eyzaguirre and Jaime Buitrago, two journalists who received death threats on 13 April 2000 and a bomb threat at work. It was further reported that Oswaldo Rojas and other members of the television network Periodistas Asociados Televisión had received death threats after they filmed and transmitted the shooting of Hugo Daza.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Bolivia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0108", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 108, "n": 107, "text": "The Special Rapporteur awaits replies from the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Bolivia", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0109", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 109, "n": 108, "text": "On 2 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning the arrest on 23 February 2000 of Erick Guimaraes, Marco Studard and Valdir Gomez Soares of the newspaper O Povo in Fortaleza (province of Ceara). They were reportedly arrested and assaulted while investigating reports of corruption in the municipal government of Hidrolandia.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Brazil", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0110", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 110, "n": 109, "text": "On 10 March 2000, the Government acknowledged receipt of the urgent appeal of 2 March 2000 and informed the Special Rapporteur that the communication had been transmitted to the relevant authorities.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Brazil", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0111", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 111, "n": 110, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for acknowledging receipt of his communication. He awaits further information on the above-mentioned case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Brazil", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0112", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 112, "n": 111, "text": "On 8 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal, together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, regarding the arrest and detention on 1 December 1999 in Ouagadougou of Paulin Yaméogo, editor of San Finna. He was reportedly interrogated in connection with a picture he published which showed a person who was allegedly victim of military brutality. The Special Rapporteur also drew attention to the reported detention of Halidou Quedraogo, Tolé Sagnon, André Tibiri, Benewende Sankara and Bourteima Sigue, in connection to their participation in the preparation of a commemoration of the anniversary of the murder of the journalist Norbert Zongo.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Burkina Faso", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0113", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 113, "n": 112, "text": "On 17 April 2000, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on torture, transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government concerning the arrest of Halidou Ouédraogo, Tolé Sagnon, Norbert Tiendrébéogo and Bénéwendé Sankara on 13 April 2000, as well as the arrest of Pierre Bidima and Etienne Traoré, along with 33 other people, on 10 April 2000. According to the information received, these individuals were detained in connection with their activity as members of democratic organizations and political parties fighting against impunity and for the respect of fundamental freedoms following the murder of a journalist, Norbert Zongo. It was reported that the six individuals were detained without charges and that they had their heads shaved.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Burkina Faso", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0114", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 114, "n": 113, "text": "In its reply of 22 December 1999, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Paulin Yaméogo was never arrested but only detained in order to be interrogated and released after 72 hours. Moreover, the Government explained that the other five men were not arrested but only questioned and then released. Both cited incidents were said to be simple cases of police investigation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Burkina Faso", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0115", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 115, "n": 114, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply and welcomes reports of the unconditional release on 15 April 2000 of Halidou Ouédraogo, Tolé Sagnon, Norbert Tiendrébéogo, Bénéwendé Sankara and Pierre Bidima. However, the Special Rapporteur notes that the Government has not sent any official reply to his communication dated 17 April 2000, nor any official confirmation of the release. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur remains concerned about the situation of Etienne Traoré.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Burkina Faso", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0116", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 116, "n": 115, "text": "On 6 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, sent an urgent appeal regarding the re-internment of Wang Wanxing, a political dissident, at Angank psychiatric facility. It was reported that he had been held at Angank for seven years from 1992 to 1999 in connection with a protest banner he displayed in Tiananmen Square in 1992. His recent re-internment was reportedly linked to his intention to hold a news conference to describe his experiences as a psychiatric patient.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0117", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 117, "n": 116, "text": "On 18 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal concerning the arrest of four writers of the underground publication China Culture Revival Bulletin. According to the information received, Xiong Jinren and Chen Wei were arrested on 11 January 2000 in Guiyang, Wang Yiliang was arrested on 30 January 2000, while Hu Jun was detained on 31 January 2000 by the Shangai police. All four individuals were reportedly arrested in connection with their work for the China Culture Revival Bulletin, which promotes human rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0118", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 118, "n": 117, "text": "On 13 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government regarding the conviction of Rebiya Kadeer on 21 February 2000 for “ignoring the law of the country and giving information to separatists outside the borders”. According to the information received, she was detained on 11 August 1999 while she was on her way to a meeting with a United States congressional staff delegation to whom she reportedly intended to give information about political prisoners in Xinjiang.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0119", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 119, "n": 118, "text": "Jointly with the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 22 March 2000 concerning Xu Wenli, a writer and human rights defender. According to the information received, Xu Wenli, who is serving the second year of a 13-year sentence for “damaging State security” and for secretly planning to set up a “Chinese democratic party”, was officially diagnosed with hepatitis B. It was reported, however, that he was not receiving sufficient medical care and that the conditions of detention were causing a deterioration in his health.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0120", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 120, "n": 119, "text": "On 15 June 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal regarding Qi Yachen, a freelance journalist and Web dissident, who reportedly was charged with subversion on 30 May 2000 by a court in Hebei province and faced a five-year prison sentence in connection with his writings and articles for Kaifang and VIP Reference. Moreover, it was reported that Huang Qi, editor of a Web site on human rights in China, had been detained since 3 June 2000 in Sichuan province and had been accused of subversion following the publication of articles on his Web site which denounced the Tiananmen Square events.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0121", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 121, "n": 120, "text": "The Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 25 August 2000 with regard to the arrest of Jiang Shihua, the owner of an Internet café and a computer teacher, on 16 August 2000 in Nanchong (Sichuan province), allegedly in connection with the publication of pro-democracy articles. He was reportedly accused of incitement to subvert the State’s authority and faces a 10-year jail sentence. Moreover, it has been reported that, in the context of the creation of a police unit in charge of controlling the Internet by the Ministry of State Security in August 2000, the New Culture Forum Web site was closed and banned on 3 August 2000. It was further alleged that a group of five operators of this Web site had subsequently to go into hiding after its shut-down.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0122", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 122, "n": 121, "text": "On 19 January 2000, the Government of China replied to the communication of the Special Rapporteur dated 6 December 1999 regarding the case of Wang Wanxing. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that he was found to be suffering from paranoia in 1992 by the medical authorities at Angank Hospital. The Government also explained that he was put back in the hospital after a three-month trial out-patient procedure, because specialists determined he was suffering from a recurrence of his ailment. The Government added that, under the Chinese Penal Code, mentally-ill individuals cannot be held criminally responsible for damage caused as a result of their illness but that therapy can be imposed on them by the Government. Moreover, the Government stated that Wang Wanxing was receiving treatment out of regard for his health and that his internment had nothing to do with his exercise of freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0123", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 123, "n": 122, "text": "On 21 November 2000, the Government replied to the communication of the Special Rapporteur dated 22 March 2000. The Government indicated that Xu Wenli is currently serving his sentence at Beijing Yanqing Prison and undergoes regular physical examination. The Government contends that the allegation that his health is worsening because of a lack of medical treatment is at variance with the facts and that a check-up performed in August 2000 indicated that Xu Wenli’s condition was back to normal.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0124", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 124, "n": 123, "text": "A reply from the Government to the communication dated 15 June 2000 was received on 11 December 2000 and was in the process of being officially translated at the time of completion of this report.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0125", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 125, "n": 124, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for the replies received thus far and awaits further responses to his communications dated 3 November 1999, 18 February 2000, 13 March 2000, 15 June 2000 and 25 August 2000. He would also like to reiterate his wish to visit China in the near future, as requested by letter dated 17 June 1999.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0126", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 126, "n": 125, "text": "On 4 July 2000 the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal jointly with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions concerning Roberth Cañarte Montealegre, a trade unionist who had been allegedly abducted by members of the paramilitary group Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia. According to the information received, Roberth Cañarte Montealegre was abducted on 29 June 2000 in the south west of the department of Valle del Cauca, after he allegedly received death threats from members of the above-mentioned paramilitary group.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Colombia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0127", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 127, "n": 126, "text": "On 9 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions regarding alleged harassment of and threats against Gerardo González, a member of the Central Unitaria de Trabajadores, of the Sindicato de Pequeños Agricultores de Cundinamarca, and a member of the Consultative Council dependant on the International Labour Organization. It was reported that a document announcing a paramilitary offensive in Bogota, as well as the execution of some people including Mr. González, was published on 5 May 2000. On August 1999, his name had reportedly been included in a list of individuals targeted by the Ejército Rebelde Colombiano.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Colombia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0128", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 128, "n": 127, "text": "On 22 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a communication regarding reported acts of intimidation and violence committed against journalists in Colombia since 1999. In particular, it has been reported that Carlos Augusto Pulgarín Guevara, a journalist for El Tiempo in Montéria, had to flee the country when he received death threats in June 2000 after writing an article about the conflict between Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), the authorities and paramilitary groups in the region. Moreover, it was brought to the Special Rapporteur’s attention that Jineth Bedoya Lima, a journalist for El Espectador, was reportedly abducted near the “La Modelo” prison in Bogotá, and later found beaten up with her hands tied near Villavicencio. In addition, it was reported that her abductors also threatened other journalists.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Colombia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0129", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 129, "n": 128, "text": "On 30 November 2000, the Special Rapporteur, jointly with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, transmitted an urgent appeal pertaining to the arrest on 14 November 2000 of Luis Gabriel Caldas León, the Executive Director of the Corporation of the Group for Non-violent Action of Desarollo Humano Integral y Vocero Continental de la Red de Objeción de Conciencia Latinoamericana y del Caribe. He was reportedly accused of not having fulfilled his military service duties, charges on which he had already been arrested in 1995.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Colombia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0130", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 130, "n": 129, "text": "In its reply dated 9 August 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the abduction of Roberto Cañate Montealegre occurred on 29 June 2000 between La Playa Prison and Galicia Prison close to Zarzal while he was driving a trash van. The Government stated that the alleged abductors could be members of the Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia, who wore military clothes.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Colombia", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0131", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 131, "n": 130, "text": "In its letter dated 26 September 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that, with regard to the alleged threats and harassment against Gerardo González and his family, it had transmitted the communication to the competent authorities. At that point no information had been received about the adoption of specific actions.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Colombia", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0132", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 132, "n": 131, "text": "In its communication dated 22 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur requested the Government to extend an invitation to him to carry out an official visit to Colombia in the near future.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Colombia", "Visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0133", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 133, "n": 132, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its replies and reiterates his wish to undertake a visit to Colombia in the near future. In this context, he expresses a concern about the current situation in Colombia with regard to the abduction of and death threats to journalists and persons seeking to exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression, as well as with regard to the murder of 11 journalists in 2000.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Colombia", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0134", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 134, "n": 133, "text": "On 17 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning Oscar Elyas Biscet González, a physician and the President of the Lawton Foundation for Human Rights, reportedly detained since 3 November 1999 in Havana. He was allegedly accused of “dishonouring national symbols”, “public disorder” and “inciting delinquent behaviour” in connection with a press conference held on 28 October 1999 on the occasion of the Ibero-American Summit, during which he criticized human rights violations in Cuba. It was reported that his attorney was denied access to his files for 49 days after his arrest, that he had been detained 26 times in the past within a period of 18 months, and that he had previously been mistreated by the authorities and suffered harassment and intimidation.\nCommunication received", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Cuba", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0135", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 135, "n": 134, "text": "On 6 March 2000, the Government sent a reply concerning Oscar Elyas Biscet González, explaining that he had been detained under provisions of the Penal Code and that further information about this case would be sent at a later time.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Cuba", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0136", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 136, "n": 135, "text": "In its reply dated 4 July 2000, the Government transmitted further information concerning Oscar Elyas Biscet González, explaining that Dr. Biscet González was a violent and aggressive person and that, since 1996, he had conducted himself in a notorious way against the public order. The Government also said that, during Dr. Biscet González’s trial, due process had been respected, that the defendant was allowed to choose his own lawyer and that his detention was not arbitrary. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Dr. Biscet González was sentenced for dishonouring national symbols, public disturbance and incitement to offences. It also stated that, at the trial, information was issued connecting Dr. Biscet González with the Cuban-American National Foundation, which is considered as a terrorist organization, as well as information suggesting that the Lawton Human Rights Foundation did not exist legally. The Government denied that he had been the victim of any physical or moral ill-treatment.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Cuba", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0137", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 137, "n": 136, "text": "In a communication dated 3 October 2000, the Government transmitted comments to the Special Rapporteur with regard to his note verbale of 28 August 2000 regarding the Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation (“The public’s right to know”, E/CN.4/2000/63, annex).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Cuba", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0138", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 138, "n": 137, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its replies. He would also like to reiterate his wish to undertake a visit to Cuba.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Cuba", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0139", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 139, "n": 138, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate his wish, as expressed in letters dated 18 March 1996 and 10 November 1999, to undertake an official visit to the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea in the near future.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Democratic People’s Republic of Korea", "Visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0140", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 140, "n": 139, "text": "Jointly with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 24 March 2000 with regard to the arrest of Donatien Nyembo Kimuni, a journalist for La Tribune, on 13 March 2000 in Lubumbashi/Kamalondo by agents of the National Information Agency. It was reported that he had been detained in connection with the publication of an article regarding alleged abuses of power by Georges Manzila Nfundi, the director of the Agence Nationale de Reseignements (ANR)/Katanga.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0141", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 141, "n": 140, "text": "On 10 May 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Special Rapporteur on torture and the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers concerning the arrest and the charges brought against Freddy Loseke Lisunbu La Yayenga, editor of La Libre Afrique. He was reportedly charged on 31 December 1999 in connection with articles published regarding an alleged conspiracy within the Congolese army against President Kabila. It was reported that Freddy Loseke, who has allegedly been detained since 25 February 2000 at the Penitentiary and Reeducation Centre in Kinshasa, faced a 10-year prison sentence. Concerns were expressed for his health in the light of reported mistreatment at the detention centre, as well as of his hunger strike.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0142", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 142, "n": 141, "text": "On 29 June 2000, together with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government regarding the arrest of Richard Nsamba Olangi, editor of Le Messager Africain, and Emile-Aimé Kakese Vinalu, journalist and editor of Le Carrousel. According to the information received, Mr. Olangi was arrested on 14 June 2000 and brought to the Penitentiary and Reeducation Centre in Kinshasa on charges of defamation against Charles Otoko. Moreover, it was reported that Mr. Vinalu was arrested on 24 June 2000 by members of the police special services and sent to the National Information Agency (ANR/Fleuve) in connection with two articles published about the Congolese opposition.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0143", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 143, "n": 142, "text": "On 17 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur, jointly with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, sent an urgent appeal to the Government regarding a ministerial order dated 14 September 2000 prohibiting the broadcasting of news programmes and certain cultural and evangelization programmes by nine private broadcasting and television stations, namely Radio Elikya, Radio Malebo Broadcast Channel, Radio RTKM, Radio Sentinelle, Radio Kintuadi, Antenne A télévision, Channel Kin 1 and Kin 2, as well as Télévision TKM. According to the information received, only Radio Raga in Kinshasa still had permission to broadcast limited news bulletins.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0144", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 144, "n": 143, "text": "The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release on 4 January 2001 of Freddy Loseke Lisumbu, Emile-Aimé Kakese Vinalu and Jean-Pierre Ekanga Mukuna. However, he remains concerned at the fact that these three journalists were tried and sentenced for their work by a special military tribunal. The Special Rapporteur also regrets that no reply from the Government has been received so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0145", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 145, "n": 144, "text": "On 24 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a communication requesting further information regarding the arrest of Mariano Oyono Ndong on 25 May 1999 and of Carmelo Biko Ngua three days later in Okas Obe, on accusations by a member of the ruling Partido Democrático de Guinea Ecuatorial of holding an illegal political meeting. They were reportedly held in incommunicado detention and had been physically ill-treated. It was also reported that Antonio Engonga Bibang was arrested a week later in Añisok in connection with a letter he had sent to Mariano Oyono Ndong, which was interpreted by the authorities as a reference to a plot to overthrow the Government. It was said that these three individuals were arrested because of their political affiliation with the Fuerza Demócrata Republicana. Moreover, following a trial in December 1999, Mariano Oyono Ndong was reportedly sentenced to three years’ imprisonment for possession of an Amnesty International document, while Antonio Engonga Bibang and Carmelo Biko Ngua were respectively sentenced to three years and six months in prison on charges of insulting the Government and the armed forces. In addition, the Special Rapporteur raised the case of Juan Obiang Latte and Teodoro Abeso Nguema who were detained in November 1999 for possessing a copy of a newspaper article and charged with “insults and calumny against the State”. They were reportedly provisionally released in January 2000. It was further reported that Pedro Nolasko was dismissed as a journalist working for Radio-Television of Equatorial Guinea in 1992, that he had been receiving threats since 1997 and had been subjected to intimidation, especially since March 1998 following the publication of articles in La Opinión. Furthermore, it was alleged that the Ministry of Information had ordered the removal of Manuel Nze Nzogo from the presidency of the Press Association (ASOPGE) in April 1999 because he reportedly resisted alleged attempts by the authorities to turn the organization into a showcase for the Government.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Equatorial Guinea", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0146", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 146, "n": 145, "text": "In its communication of 24 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur requested that the Government extend an invitation to him to carry out an official visit to Equatorial Guinea in the near future.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Equatorial Guinea", "Visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0147", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 147, "n": 146, "text": "The Special Rapporteur awaits a reply from the Government and reiterates his wish to undertake a visit to the country.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Equatorial Guinea", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0148", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 148, "n": 147, "text": "On 22 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning Hafez Abu Sa’ada, who was charged on 13 February 2000 for having accepted a cheque from a foreign country in 1998 without giving the required notification to the authorities. It was alleged that the charges were connected with the publication of a sensitive report on human rights violations which occurred in Al-Kushh in January 2000.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Egypt", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0149", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 149, "n": 148, "text": "In a communication sent on 23 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur requested information about the cases of Salah Badawi, Essam Hanafi and Magdi Hussein of the Al-Sha’ab newspaper, sentenced on 14 August 1999 to two years in prison and a fine for libelling the Minister of Agriculture and the Deputy Prime Minister of Egypt in a series of articles. They were reportedly released in December 1999 after a ruling that they had not been given a fair trial. The Special Rapporteur also raised the case of Mohammad Al Ghanam, who has repeatedly been threatened since 1997, allegedly in connection with articles he wrote about police corruption and prison conditions, and subjected to harassment. It was further reported that the publication of 14 newspapers was suspended on 19 January 2000 on the basis of a decree by the Prefect of Cairo allegedly targeting newspapers critical of the Government’s policies. Finally, the Special Rapporteur expressed concerns about a draft law on publishing, which defined publication criteria in broad and vague terms.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Egypt", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0150", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 150, "n": 149, "text": "On 10 July 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal regarding the arrest on 30 June 2000 of Dr. Saad El Din Ibrahim, a professor at the American University in Cairo and Director of the Ibn Khaldoun for Developmental Studies, and the ensuing security raid on his house and the Ibn Khaldoun Centre where he works. It was reported that documents and computers were confiscated, and that two of the centre’s staff, Nadia Abdel Nour and Ossama Hamad, were also arrested. According to the information received, the three of them faced charges of forgery relating to the forthcoming parliamentary elections.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Egypt", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0151", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 151, "n": 150, "text": "On 21 August 2000, the Government replied to the communication dated 23 February 2000, informing the Special Rapporteur that the sentence of two years in prison and a fine against Magdi Ahmed Hussein and Salah Badeiwi, the sentence of one year in prison and a fine against Essam Hanafi, as well as the fine imposed on Adel Hussein, had been reconfirmed on appeal and enforced on 1 April 2000. The Government explained that the accused had lodged another appeal with the Court of Cassation and that the judgement was to come under review on 5 September 2000. It also explained that the penalties imposed on these citizens had nothing to do with their profession or with denial of freedom of opinion and expression, but were penalties to which any citizen, regardless of his profession, is liable for offences of libel. In addition, the Government stated that publication of the 14 newspapers mentioned in the communication was suspended because they had been published illegally, without a licence from the Higher Press Council. Moreover, the Government recalled that the press was regarded as a fourth State authority and formed the subject of a special chapter of the Constitution of 1980.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Egypt", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0152", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 152, "n": 151, "text": "In a communication of 14 December 2000, the Government replied to the concerns raised in the allegation transmitted on 23 February 2000, explaining that the appeal presented by the accused journalists to the Court of Appeal had been rejected on 29 September 2000 after due process of law.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Egypt", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0153", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 153, "n": 152, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Egypt for the replies received. Following a request to visit the country pending since 18 March 1996 and reiterated by the Special Rapporteur on 26 June 2000, an official invitation from the Government was extended to him on 3 July 2000. He hopes to undertake this visit in 2001.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Egypt", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0154", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 154, "n": 153, "text": "On 17 July 2000, together with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal regarding information received about threats formulated against Ileana Alamilla, director of the information agency CERIGUA and other journalists of the same agency. It was reported that on 23 June and on 10 July 2000, the agency received phone calls proffering death threats against the director and the journalists of CERIGUA.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Guatemala", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0155", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 155, "n": 154, "text": "In its communication dated 15 August 2000, the Government provided information on the measures taken by the authorities, and in particular by the Presidential Commission for Human Rights (COPREDEH), to investigate the threats and to offer protection to the staff of CERIGUA, notably police surveillance in the vicinity of CERIGUA’s headquarters, and to guarantee the life and physical integrity of Ileana Alamilla.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Guatemala", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0156", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 156, "n": 155, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Guatemala for its reply.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Guatemala", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0157", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 157, "n": 156, "text": "In a joint communication with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions dated 6 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur requested an invitation from the Government to carry out an official visit to India, in the context of a joint mission to both India and Pakistan, in the near future.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["India", "Visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0158", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 158, "n": 157, "text": "The Special Rapporteur, jointly with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on torture, sent an urgent appeal on 6 January 2000 concerning the detention of Syaifuddin Gani and Nazaruddin Ibrahim, two human rights lawyers, in the province of Aceh. According to the information received, they were arrested on 4 January 2000 by Indonesian police in the town of Sigli and were held at Sigli Police Resort. They were reportedly arrested in the context of a vast police operation against presumed members of the separatist group Gerakan Aceh Merdeka (GAM). Fears were expressed for their safety.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Indonesia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0159", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 159, "n": 158, "text": "On 10 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent appeal together with the Special Rapporteur on torture and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions regarding the incommunicado detention of 15 people reportedly arrested on 6 October 2000 during a demonstration supporting Papuan independence. Furthermore, it was reported that Yorenius Wenda and Alex Meage were taken from their homes by members of the Indonesian National Army a few days prior to the demonstration. Fears were expressed that they might be at risk of torture and summary, arbitrary or extrajudicial execution.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Indonesia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0160", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 160, "n": 159, "text": "The Special Rapporteur, jointly with the Special Rapporteur on torture, sent an urgent appeal on 7 December 2000 concerning the detention since 20 November 2000 of Muhammad Nazar, a leading activist of the Aceh Referendum Information Centre (SIRA), at the Aceh Police Headquarters (Polda Aceh). It was reported that he was officially charged in connection with his involvement in a boycott of the celebration of Indonesian Independence Day on 17 August 2000. It was, however, believed that he was arrested for his participation in the pro-independence rally in Banda Aceh on 10 and 11 November 2000. Fears were expressed that he might still be at risk of torture after he was allegedly tortured and ill-treated while in police custody.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Indonesia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0161", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 161, "n": 160, "text": "On 12 December 2000, together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal with regard to the arrest on 2 December 2000 by Indonesian police in Jayapura (Irian Jaya) of Oswald Iten, a Swiss journalist working for Neue Zürcher Zeitung. It was reported that he was accused of carrying out journalistic activities with only a tourist visa, that he was detained in Jayapura prison in extremely difficult conditions and that he was facing up to five years’ imprisonment.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Indonesia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0162", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 162, "n": 161, "text": "On 14 February 2000, the Government of Indonesia provided information on the detention and arrest of Syaifuddin Gani and Nazaruddin Ibrahim, indicating that the two men’s right to physical and mental integrity and to be free from arbitrary detention had been respected. The Government further explained that the two men had been questioned at the Pidie Police Resort in connection with documents relating to the activities and the organizational structures of GAM found in their car. They were released the next day because the police did not have sufficient evidence and they were reportedly allowed to be accompanied by their lawyers.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Indonesia", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0163", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 163, "n": 162, "text": "The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release on 13 December 2000 of Oswald Iten from a prison in Jayapura after 12 days in detention. Furthermore, he thanks the Government for its reply but awaits further responses to his communications. The Special Rapporteur would also like to reiterate his wish, as expressed in his communications dated 18 March 1996 and 9 May 2000, to undertake an official visit to Indonesia in the near future.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Indonesia", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0164", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 164, "n": 163, "text": "On 26 April 2000, together with the Special Representative on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal regarding the indefinite closure of 14 newspapers and magazines announced on 23 and 24 April 2000. The 14 publications, namely Asr-e-Azadegan, Fat’h, Aftab-e-Emrooz, Arya, Gozaresh-e-Ruz, Bamdad-e-No, Payam-e-Azadi, Azad, Payam-e-Hajar, Aban, Arzesh, Iran-e Farda, Sobh-e Emrooz and Akhbar Egtesad, were reportedly closed for continuing to publish articles against “the bases of the luminous ordinances of Islam and the religious sanctities of the noble people of Iran and the pillars of the sacred regime of the Islamic Republic”. In addition, it was reported that Latif Safari, a journalist with the banned daily Neshat, was imprisoned on 23 April 2000 following his conviction on charges of defamation, inciting unrest and “insulting the sanctity and tenets of Islam”, in connection with articles he published in Neshat. Moreover, Akbar Ganji, a journalist with Sobh-e Emrooz, was reportedly arrested on 22 April 2000 in connection with complaints filed against him by the Government concerning articles he had published in Iranian newspapers.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iran (Islamic Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0165", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 165, "n": 164, "text": "The Special Rapporteur, jointly with the Special Representative on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur on violence against women and the Special Rapporteur on torture, sent an urgent appeal on 11 May 2000 concerning the detention since 29 April 2000 of two women’s rights activists, Mehrangiz Kar and Shahla Lahiji, as well as that of Ali Afshari, a representative of Daftar-e Tahkim-e Vahdat, reportedly arrested on 30 April 2000. It was reported that the three individuals were accused of “acting against national security” in connection with their participation in a conference in Berlin organized by the Heinrich Boell Institute in April 2000 at which political and social reforms in Iran were debated. It was believed that they were held in incommunicado detention and that they were at risk of torture or other forms of ill-treatment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iran (Islamic Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0166", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 166, "n": 165, "text": "On 30 June 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent appeal with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on torture regarding the arrest on 26 June 2000 of Ezzatollah Sahabi, a journalist and managing editor of Iran-e Farda, allegedly in connection with his participation in the conference in Berlin in April 2000. It was reported that his home was searched on 20 June 2000 and that he was held without charges and in incommunicado detention. In addition, it was reported that Khalil Rostamkhani was also arrested on 8 May 2000 in connection with his work as a translator at the conference in Berlin in April 2000. It was alleged that he was also held in incommunicado detention without charges and that he had been denied the right to legal representation. Fears were expressed that both individuals might be at risk of torture.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iran (Islamic Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0167", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 167, "n": 166, "text": "Jointly with the Special Representative on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government on 11 August 2000 with regard to the arrest on 5 August 2000 of Hasan Yousefi Eshkevari, Director of the Ali Shariati Research Centre and a contributor to the banned newspaper Iran-e Farda, on grounds of defamation and “acting against national security” in connection with a speech he gave at the conference in Berlin in April 2000. It was further reported that Ahmad Zeidabadi, a journalist with Hamshahri, was arrested on 7 August 2000 in connection with articles he wrote for now-banned newspapers, and that Massoud Behnoud was arrested on 9 August 2000 on the basis of more than 50 complaints about his writings for several banned newspapers. In addition, it was alleged that more than 20 publications have been banned since March 2000, in particular the daily Bahar, banned on 8 August 2000, and the weekly Cheshmeh Ardebil, suspended for four months on 7 August 2000 for “disturbing public opinion” and “insulting Islamic sanctities”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iran (Islamic Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0168", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 168, "n": 167, "text": "On 5 September 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning Baghi Emadeddin, a journalist, who was sentenced to five and a half years’ imprisonment on 29 May 2000 by the Revolutionary Press Court and sent to Evin Prison in Tehran. According to the information received, he was charged with publishing articles questioning the validity of Islamic Law and disseminating unsubstantiated new stories, allegedly in connection with a series of articles he published in Neshat implicating Iranian officials in the murders of a number of intellectuals and dissidents in recent years.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iran (Islamic Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0169", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 169, "n": 168, "text": "Together with the Special Representative on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 16 November 2000 concerning the situation of Akbar Ganji, a freelance journalist arrested on 22 April 2000, allegedly in connection with his participation in the conference in Berlin in April 2000. Reportedly accused of threatening national security, disseminating propaganda against the Islamic system and insulting religious edicts and figures, he appeared before the Revolutionary Court in Tehran on 9 November 2000 when he told how he had been beaten and tortured in Evin prison. He reportedly explained that he had been held in solitary confinement for 80 days, without access to his family nor his lawyer.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iran (Islamic Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0170", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 170, "n": 169, "text": "On 16 November 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent appeal with the Special Representative on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions concerning the conviction of Hasan Yousefi Eshkevari on charges of defamation, of insulting the founder of the Islamic Republic and of apostasy in connection with his participation in the conference in Berlin in April 2000. It was alleged that he could be facing the death sentence, that he was held in solitary confinement and that he was denied both medical check-ups and access to legal counsel.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iran (Islamic Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0171", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 171, "n": 170, "text": "On 24 March 2000, the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran replied to the communication of the Special Rapporteur dated 13 July 1999 (see E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 115) concerning incidents during student demonstrations on 8 July 1999 at Tehran University. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the individuals who were arrested in the context of the demonstrations were members of illegal groups and not students making legitimate appeals. Moreover, the Government explained that 30 of the 50 individuals arrested had been released on bail. The Government stated that it was studying the issue and that the judiciary was independently following up on it.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iran (Islamic Republic of)", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0172", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 172, "n": 171, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran for having sent him information on recent developments regarding the situation of freedom of opinion and expression in the Islamic Republic, as well as for its reply concerning the case of student demonstrators. He also welcomes the release on bail of Massoud Behnoud on 16 December 2000 and hopes to be kept informed about his situation. However, he would like to draw attention to the arrest and detention of many individuals who participated in the conference in Berlin in April 2000 which discussed political and social reforms in Iran. The Special Rapporteur awaits further replies.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iran (Islamic Republic of)", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0173", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 173, "n": 172, "text": "On 7 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a communication concerning the alleged use of direct and indirect censorship by the Government to hamper the freedom of independent media on the eve of the presidential elections. The Special Rapporteur requested information about cases of indictment under the Law on National Security and the Law on “Honour and Dignity”, in particular: the case of the publishing company TOO Big-L which was closed on 25 October 1998 in connection with an article which allegedly incited to national enmity; the case of Madel Ismailov convicted on 7 April 1998 of insulting the honour and dignity of the President during a peaceful opposition demonstration in Almaty in November 1997; the case of Petr Svoik charged with incitement to national hatred, slander and offending an official in connection with an article published in March 1998 entitled “Kazakhstan and Russia: will they enter into a new union?”. Moreover, it was reported that on 27 October 1998, a six-month suspension of publication of Soroko was ordered by the Karaganda Regional Procurator’s Office, allegedly because of violations of the Law on the Media, a suspension which was later extended two days before the presidential elections. In addition, on 10 September 1998, a court ruling in Almaty awarded sizeable compensation to the head of the government-funded Kazakhstan television channel in his libel suit against the newspaper Dat, which reportedly frequently published articles on the Government. The Special Rapporteur also requested information about the alleged confiscation by the police of editions of Dat on 4 November 1999 on charges that they had been illegally transported across the border and about the damage caused to the editorial offices of the Almaty-based XXI Vek by a firebomb in September 1998.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kazakhstan", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0174", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 174, "n": 173, "text": "The Special Rapporteur awaits a reply from the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kazakhstan", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0175", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 175, "n": 174, "text": "On 22 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning the arrest and detention of Johann Wandetto, sentenced on 15 February 2000 to 18 months in prison in connection with an article published on 6 March 1999 in The People. The article reportedly discussed the alleged disarmament of the elite presidential guards by a militia in the West Pokot region.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kenya", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0176", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 176, "n": 175, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has yet been received.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kenya", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0177", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 177, "n": 176, "text": "On 26 January 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government regarding the sentencing on 22 January 2000 of Dr. Alya Shu’ayb, Laila Al-’Othman and Yahia Al-Rubay’an to two months in jail and a fine for writings that were said to “cause harm to religion and to morality” since they mentioned lesbian relationships.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kuwait", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0178", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 178, "n": 177, "text": "In its reply dated 10 April 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the prison sentences of Dr. Alya Shu’ayb, Laila Al-’Othman and Yahia Al-Rubay’an were annulled on 26 March 2000. Dr. Shu’ayb was sentenced to pay a fine of KD 100 on the charge of distributing and selling a book without a licence, Mr. Al-Rubay’an was sentenced to pay a\nfine of KD 100 on charges of failing to notify the Department of Publications in writing before publication of the book, while Ms. Al-’Othman and Mr. Al-Rubay’an were both sentenced to pay KD 1,000 for publishing Ms. Al-’Othman’s book.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kuwait", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0179", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 179, "n": 178, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Kuwait for its reply.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kuwait", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0180", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 180, "n": 179, "text": "In a communication sent on 28 September 2000, the Special Rapporteur requested information concerning acts of intimidation and harassment against journalists of the independent daily Delo No. According to the information received, Viktor Zapolsky, Svetlana Krasilnikova and Vadim Nochevkin were detained and questioned on 16 August 2000, allegedly without access to a lawyer. Moreover, Ms. Krasilnikova was admitted to the National hospital in Bishnek following the questioning. The three journalists were reportedly interrogated in connection with Mr. Nochevkin’s article on the trial of former government minister Feliks Kulov. Furthermore, it was reported that the Web site Politika KG, which had published a letter denouncing the harassment of these journalists, was closed down on 25 August 2000.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kyrgyzstan", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0181", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 181, "n": 180, "text": "On 13 November 2000, the Government of Kyrgyzstan responded to the letter of the Special Rapporteur dated 28 September 2000, indicating that the materials published in Delo No consisted of comments made on the testimony which was heard in camera. The information in question was about undercover agents of the special services and therefore constituted State secrets. The disclosure of this information was a violation of the law. Since Mr. Nochevkin, Mr. Zapolsky and Ms. Krasilnikova were being questioned as witnesses in a criminal case, the questioning was conducted without the presence of a lawyer, in accordance with the Code of Criminal Procedure. The Government explained that the questioning took place in one of the offices where investigating officers normally work and that, during the questioning, no coercion or other forms of pressure were applied. On 18 December 2000, the Special Rapporteur received further information concerning the case of the Delo No. The Government informed him that the Investigations Department of the Ministry of National Security had initiated criminal proceedings for breach of State secrecy in relation to the article published in Delo No and that the Investigations Department had questioned Mr. Zapolsky, Ms. Krasilnikova and Mr. Nochevkin on 16 August 2000 in compliance with the requirements of the law on criminal procedure. The Government explained that the interrogations were shorter than indicated in the Special Rapporteur’s communication, that the questions put to the three journalists were not of the nature of threats or intimidation and that no violations of s. 61(1) of the Kyrgyz Code of Criminal Procedure occurred.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kyrgyzstan", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0182", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 182, "n": 181, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kyrgyzstan", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0183", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 183, "n": 182, "text": "On 17 December 1999, an urgent appeal was sent by the Special Rapporteur regarding the arrest on 9 November 1999 of Thongpaseuth Keuakoun, Khamphouvieng Sisa-Ath, Seng-Aloun Phengphanh, Bouavanh Chanhmanivong, Keochay and several other colleagues, teachers and students. Mr. Keuakoun and his colleagues were allegedly arrested for planning a march to ask for freedom, democracy and human rights. According to the information received, the organizers of the march were detained first at a detention centre and then in a labour camp in Vientiane.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Lao People’s Democratic Republic", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0184", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 184, "n": 183, "text": "The Government informed the Special Rapporteur, in a communication dated 31 May 2000, that the information concerning the arrest of students on 9 November 1999 was false. The Government explained that the Lao authorities concerned had arrested on that day a group of about 10 people who were said to have violated the laws of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic because they created trouble and disorder by preparing to distribute leaflets against the Government. Furthermore, the Government stated, the arrests were made under legal procedures and those people were awaiting trial in compliance with the country’s legal procedures.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Lao People’s Democratic Republic", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0185", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 185, "n": 184, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Lao People’s Democratic Republic", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0186", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 186, "n": 185, "text": "In a communication sent on 31 October 2000, the Government of Latvia transmitted comments to the Special Rapporteur with regard to his note verbale of 28 August 2000 regarding the Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation (“The public’s right to know”) (see E/CN.4/2000/63, annex).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Latvia", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0187", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 187, "n": 186, "text": "On 9 May 2000, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, sent an urgent appeal concerning the situation of lawyer Muhamad Mugraby. It had been reported that a statement by the Prosecutor General published in local newspapers indicated that Mr. Mugraby, an active human rights defender, might be prosecuted for defamation for statements he made concerning cases of corruption involving members of the judiciary. Further allegations had been received suggesting that he might be subject to precautionary arrest.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Lebanon", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0188", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 188, "n": 187, "text": "In its reply dated 11 July 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that legal charges against lawyers in Lebanon had to be approved by the Ordre des Avocats and to be based on acts committed in the context of legal practice. On 19 May 2000, the Ordre des Avocats ruled that the complaints against Muhamad Mugraby were not connected to his legal practice. The Government explained that the charges against Mugraby were pending.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Lebanon", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0189", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 189, "n": 188, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Lebanon", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0190", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 190, "n": 189, "text": "On 22 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning the illegal closure of the privately owned Star Radio on 14 March 2000. According to the information received, while the articles of incorporation of Star Radio allegedly allowed it to disseminate information without time restrictions, the Information Minister informed the station that it had only been granted a temporary licence allowing it to broadcast during the 1997 elections and there was no reason for it to continue airing “political talk shows, news and interviews”. In addition, the Special Rapporteur received information concerning the closing down of Radio Veritas, and the seizing by the police of documents and broadcasting equipment. Journalists and technicians were allegedly manhandled during the intervention.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Liberia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0191", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 191, "n": 190, "text": "On 22 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal regarding the arrest of Gugulakhe Radebe, David Barrie, Tim Lambon and Sorious Samura in Monrovia on 18 August 2000 by a team of police. It was reported that the four journalists, who work for the London-based Insight News Television and were in Liberia shooting a documentary series, had been arrested for carrying out “acts against the security of the State” and charged with “spying against the Republic of Liberia”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Liberia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0192", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 192, "n": 191, "text": "The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release on 25 August 2000 of the four foreign journalists after they gave their apologies to the Liberian nation. He awaits replies from the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Liberia", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0193", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 193, "n": 192, "text": "On 8 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture concerning Sami Muhammad Sami, ’Abd al-Hafez Muhammad al Naggar, Ashraf Sulayman al-Hamrouni, Imam ’Awad Khabouli, Gamal Mabrouk Abu Sha’ala, ’Adel Salim Kakouka and Iamn Muhammad ’Attiya, who were allegedly forcibly returned to the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya from Jordan on 4 January 2000 under suspicion of being sympathizers of Islamist groups. According to a Jordanian official, they had been found on 7 March distributing leaflets critical of the Libyan authorities. It was believed that they had been arrested upon return.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Libyan Arab Jamahiriya", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0194", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 194, "n": 193, "text": "The Special Rapporteur awaits a reply from the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Libyan Arab Jamahiriya", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0195", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 195, "n": 194, "text": "On 17 January 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government of Malaysia concerning the charges brought against Zulkifli Sulong and Chia Lim Thye, respectively editor and publisher of the bi-weekly Harakah, on 12 January 2000. According to the information received, they were accused of sedition for an article published on 2 August 1999 which accused the media of supporting the authorities in their prosecution of Anwar Ibrahim. It was further reported that Chandra Muzaffar, the author of the article and Deputy President of the Keadilan Party, was also charged with sedition. If convicted, they were said to face the maximum penalty of a M$ 5,000 fine and three years’ imprisonment. Moreover, concerns were expressed with regard to threats articulated by the Ministry of Home Affairs to suspend the bi-weekly, as well as the pro-opposition publications Detik, Wasilah, Tamadun, and Eksklusif.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0196", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 196, "n": 195, "text": "Jointly with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 19 April 2000 concerning Tian Chua, the Vice-President of the National Justice Party (PKN); Roslan Kassim, PKN Information Chief; Mohd Ezam Mohd Nor, PKN Youth Chief; N. Gopalankrishnan, PKN Supreme Council member; Abdul Malek Hussain, Mohd Hafiz Hashim and 46 other members of the PKN. It was reported that they were arrested in connection with a demonstration on 15 April marking the first anniversary of the jailing of the former Deputy Prime Minister, Anwar Ibrahim. Roslan Kassim was reportedly arrested on 14 April 2000 and ordered to be detained for seven days on suspicion of inciting others to attend an illegal assembly. All the others were reportedly arrested on 15 April 2000 and were held in custody for up to six days. Six of them were allegedly assaulted and were later denied medical treatment. It was said that they had only limited access to their lawyers and that they were not allowed to see their families. It was reported that Tian Chua was suffering from asthma and was on daily medication for food poisoning.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0197", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 197, "n": 196, "text": "On 9 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture regarding Lokman Noor Adam, N. Gopalakrishnan, Norazimah Mohd. Noor, Zanaib Rahmah and three others known as Monas Suffian, Rahimah and Munawar, who had reportedly been arrested during a demonstration on 4 August 2000. The demonstration was said to be in support of the former Deputy Prime Minister, Anwar Ibrahim, the verdict in whose trial was expected to be handed down, and of about 30 people who were on trial charged with participating in an illegal assembly. It is further reported that in a similar demonstration on 8 August 2000, Tian Chuan, Abdul Malek Hussein, Monas Suffian, Norsuria b. Ismail, Putra b. Zulkarnain, Sabran b. Hamzah, Mohd. Jasni Zakaria, Nekmat b. Abu and four women were also arrested. It was believed that seven of them had been charged with participating in an illegal assembly. On 4 August 2000, Lokman Noor Adam, youth leader of the PKN, was reportedly beaten by five plain-clothed men at the time of arrest and charged with taking part in an illegal assembly. On 8 August 2000, Tian Chuan was detained at Ibu Pejat Kontijen, where he was separated from the other demonstrators and taken to the Serious Crime Department. He was then reportedly surrounded by a number of police officers, including a superintendent and two chief inspectors, whereupon he was allegedly kicked and pushed to the floor. He was then reportedly taken to a police cell, where other inmates were encouraged by the police to assault him. When Sabran B. Hamzah was arrested at the demonstration on 8 August 2000, he was reportedly punched in the face and kicked in the stomach by four or five uniformed police officers.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0198", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 198, "n": 197, "text": "The Government of Malaysia replied on 10 April 2000 concerning the case of Zulkifli Sulong and Chia Lim Thye, explaining that their arrests were carried out in accordance with the law and as a consequence of full investigation of offences by the police.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Malaysia", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0199", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 199, "n": 198, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply and awaits further responses to his communications.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Malaysia", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0200", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 200, "n": 199, "text": "On 10 January 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on torture concerning the detention of Umar Jamal, Ibrahim Ahmed Maniku and Abdul Rasheed, all candidates in the November 1999 parliamentary elections. It was reported that Umar Jamal was arrested at his house on 29 October 1999 after an argument with a rival candidate and taken to Dhoonidhoo detention centre. The two other candidates had reportedly been detained since early November 1999. Before being transferred to house arrest, they were first reportedly taken to Dhoonidhoo detention centre, where they were allegedly deprived of sleep for several days, being forced to sit on stools in rain and storms and beaten every time they fell asleep.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Maldives", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0201", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 201, "n": 200, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply from the Government has been received so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Maldives", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0202", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 202, "n": 201, "text": "On 30 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a communication to the Government regarding the suspension of a number of newspapers under article 11 of the Mauritanian Press Law. The Special Rapporteur drew particular attention to the following cases: the one-month suspension of L’Eveil Hebdo on 9 February 2000 and its seizure on 12 April 2000; the seizure on 23 March 2000 of issues 7 and 9 of Errouya Al Watania; the seizure of Nouakchott-Infos on 17 May 2000, of two editions of La Tribune on 3 July and 23 August 2000, as well as of issue number 21 of Le Carrefour on 24 August 2000.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mauritania", "Communication sent"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "11", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0203", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 203, "n": 202, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply from the Government has been received so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mauritania", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0204", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 204, "n": 203, "text": "On 9 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal together with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions regarding death threats received by Juan López Villanueva, a lawyer for Area Jurídica del Centro de Derechos Humanos, and Arturo Solis, Director of the Centro de Estudios Fronterizos y Promoción de los Derechos Humanos (CEF-PDH). It was reported that these threats were linked to the accusations they had articulated against alleged drug traffickers who reportedly threatened journalists who denounced the state of violence in Ciudad Miguel Aleman.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0205", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 205, "n": 204, "text": "On 7 July 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent the Government of Mexico an urgent appeal concerning the charges of defamation brought against Arturo Solís, Director of CEF-PDH in Reynosa, by a governmental organization after he reportedly publicly accused officials of the National Migration Institute (INM) in Tamaulipas of illegal traffic of migrants, extortion and foul treatment of them. It was reported that several witnesses who had spoken in his defence had received death threats and that Mr. Solís and his family had been followed by strangers in vehicles without licence plates. Furthermore, staff of the CEF-PDH had reportedly received anonymous death threats on 9 February 2000.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0206", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 206, "n": 205, "text": "On 14 July 2000, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, sent an urgent appeal with regard to Freddy Secundino Sanchez, who works for Epoca Magazine. It was reported that on 15 June 2000 he was approached in front of his home by two armed individuals who claimed to be from the “Judicial Police” and ordered him to get into a taxi. He was reportedly detained in the car for two hours and held at gunpoint by one of his kidnappers, who told him “you should already know why we are here”. During this time he reportedly received several death threats in connection with articles published by his magazine and he was beaten up.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0207", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 207, "n": 206, "text": "On 4 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal after being informed that, in the context of the forthcoming elections in the State of Tabasco on 15 October 2000, opposition parties had denounced the lack of balanced and impartial coverage of the electoral process by Televisión Tabasqueña S.A. de C.V. - Channel 7 (TVT). It was reported that this television channel had repeatedly refused to sell space for the transmission of television spots featuring Caesar Raul Ojeda Zubieta, Democratic Revolution Party candidate for Governor. Opposition parties further alleged that campaign coverage on channels 7 and 9 was partial and discriminatory. Moreover, it was alleged that Roberto Madrazo Pintado, the then-Governor and candidate for the Institutional Revolutionary Party, was directly responsible for Channel 7 as a result of the Government of the State of Tabasco holding 98 per cent of the share capital of Televisión Tabasqueña S.A. de C.V..", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0208", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 208, "n": 207, "text": "On 26 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur together with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions sent an urgent appeal to the Government regarding death threats received by electronic mail by Jaime Avilés, a journalist with La Jornada, on 21 October 2000 in Mexico City. It was reported that, on the same day, La Jornada had published an article in which Jaime Avilés connected the Governor of the State of Tabasco, Roberto Madrazo Pintado, with different cases of corruption. It was further alleged that, in May 2000, Jaime Avilés had received another death threat by electronic mail after writing a series of articles on the performance of the Government in the indigenous communities of the State of Chiapas.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0209", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 209, "n": 208, "text": "On 13 December 2000, the Government of Mexico replied to the communications dated 6 September 1999, 16 September 1999 and 1 November 1999 concerning death threats against Digna Ochoa Plácido and other members of the Human Rights Centre “Agustín Pro-Juárez” (PRODH) (see E/CN.4/2000/63, para.145). The Government stated that the Mexican authorities gave special attention to the rights of human rights defenders and that in the case of threats, the authorities would immediately take the necessary steps to guarantee victims’ safety, in accordance with article 40 of the Law on the National Human Rights Commission. The Government expressed its concern over the reported death threats against Digna Ochoa Plácido and transmitted information on her case received from the Comisión Nacional de derechos humanos (CNDH) and from the Comisión de Derechos Humanos del Distrito Federal. On 3 September, the CNDH had registered the complaint through the Coordinación del programa de atención de agravios a periodistas y defensores civiles de derechos humanos and, the same day, had requested that the necessary steps be taken to guarantee Digna Ochoa Plácido’s safety. The declaration and testimony of Digna Ochoa Plácido were reportedly taken and the investigation initiated. Despite an earlier refusal, Digna Ochoa Plácido finally accepted personal protection and the head office of PRODH received 24-hour protection from the judiciary police.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications received"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "40", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0210", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 210, "n": 209, "text": "On 18 May 2000, the Government transmitted information concerning Luis Mario García Rodríguez, on behalf of whom the Special Rapporteur had sent a communication on 6 October 1999 (see E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 146). The Government explained that an investigation had been initiated on 13 February 1998 by the Office of the Government Procurator of the Federal District and that it was impossible to provide more information as the procedures were confidential.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0211", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 211, "n": 210, "text": "In a reply dated 21 May 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that an investigation had been opened in relation to the threats against members of the Centro de Derechos Humanos “Agustín Pro-Juárez” and Digna Ochoa y Plácido in particular, and that preventive measures necessary to protect the life and physical integrity of the victims had been immediately implemented. The Government explained that, on 18 November 1999, Digna Ochoa y Plácido had accepted an offer of personal protection and, from 4 November 1999, received 24-hour protection from members of the judiciary police on the premises of the Centro de Derechos Humanos “Miguel Agustín Pro Juárez”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0212", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 212, "n": 211, "text": "In reply to his communication of 9 February 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur on 26 May 2000 that, concerning the threats received by Arturo Solis, the National Human Rights Commission had begun an investigation into complaints of threats, intimidation and censorship against Mr. Solis. Moreover, his request to have the investigation carried out under the Programme for the Protection of Journalists and Human Rights Defenders had been brought to the attention of the Office of the Attorney-General in order for it to make the necessary arrangements. In the case of Juan López Villanueva, the State had informed the Mexican League for the Protection of Human Rights on 14 January 2000 that those concerned in the case should apply to the representative of the Public Prosecutor’s Office in order to lodge a complaint for appropriate legal action. In a communication dated 14 June 2000, the Government provided additional information concerning Arturo Solis, explaining that he had declined the suggestion of the Attorney-General to make a formal complaint to the Procurator’s Office since he believed that the circumstances threatening his personal safety no longer existed.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0213", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 213, "n": 212, "text": "In a communication dated 14 September 2000, the Government provided further information about Arturo Solis in reply to the Special Rapporteur’s communication of 7 July 2000, explaining that protective measures had been put in place by the Office of the Attorney-General in the State of Tamaulipas on 11 July 2000 to guarantee the safety of Mr. Solis.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0214", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 214, "n": 213, "text": "In a reply dated 14 September 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur, with regard to the situation of Freddy Secundino Sánchez, that the case had been transmitted to the relevant competent authorities and that a preliminary inquiry had been opened by the Human Rights Commission of the Federal District, which had on repeated occasions requested effective and timely protection for Freddy Secundino Sánchez and his family.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0215", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 215, "n": 214, "text": "On 30 November 2000, the Government replied to the Special Rapporteur’s communication of 26 October 2000, informing him that the Secretariat of the Governor had offered Jaime Avilés an investigation and the necessary protection. The Directorate of Juridical Affairs of the Secretariat of the Government of the State of Tabasco informed the Special Rapporteur that it firmly denied that the Governor of the State of Tabasco, on his own or through any intermediary, had generated, promoted, favoured or carried out any action with the intention of harming people in any way that contravened, inter alia, constitutional principles or the rights to freedom of expression enshrined in the Constitution.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0216", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 216, "n": 215, "text": "In a communication sent on 10 November 2000, the Government of Mexico transmitted comments to the Special Rapporteur in response to his note verbale of 28 August 2000 regarding the Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation (“The public’s right to know”) (E/CN.4/2000/63, annex).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0217", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 217, "n": 216, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its replies.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0218", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 218, "n": 217, "text": "On 5 December 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal concerning the decision of the Government to close the weekly newspapers Le Journal, Assahifa and Demain on the basis of article 77 of the Press Code. It was reported that the three newspapers were accused of threatening the stability of the State in connection with the publication of a letter from Mohamed Basri, a political opponent, which allegedly implicated the current Prime Minister in the attempted coup d’état of 1972 against King Hassan II. In addition, the Special Rapporteur expressed his concerns about the brief closure during 2000 of seven newspapers: Le Reporter, Le Quotidien du Maroc/Economie, Al Moustaquil, Jeune Afrique-L’Intelligent, Le Journal, Assahifa and Le Figaro.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Morocco", "Communication sent"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "77", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0219", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 219, "n": 218, "text": "The Special Rapporteur welcomes the resumption of publication of Le Journal and Assahifa on 12 January 2001, but awaits a reply from the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Morocco", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0220", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 220, "n": 219, "text": "Together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 11 April 2000 concerning U Than Chaun, the 70-year-old owner of a coffee shop in Shwe-Goo township, Kachin State. Arrested on 18 December 1999 because he reportedly had tuned in to a Voice of America programme, he was allegedly charged on 19 January 2000 under article 505 (B) of the Criminal Code and sentenced to two years’ imprisonment. It was reported that he had no access to legal representation and that he was suffering from medical problems which were becoming life-threatening in detention.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Myanmar", "Communications sent"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "505", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0221", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 221, "n": 220, "text": "On 4 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent appeal with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention regarding the arrest and detention, on 24 June 2000, by local government officials in Magwe Division, of Thaung Sein, Soe, Par Lay and Pu, all members of the National League for Democracy (NLD). They had reportedly been trying to contact the International Committee of the Red Cross on behalf of U Wine San, a NLD local leader, who was said to be serving a seven-year prison sentence with hard labour. On 26 June 2000, they were charged with attempting to destabilize the Government and sentenced to two years’ imprisonment with hard labour. It was alleged that the charges against them were purely politically motivated.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Myanmar", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0222", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 222, "n": 221, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has been received from the Government of Myanmar so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Myanmar", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0223", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 223, "n": 222, "text": "On 7 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal regarding Krishna Sen, the editor of the Nepal language weekly Janadesh. According to the information received, he was first arrested in Kathmandu on 19 April 1999 in connection with the publication of an interview with Baburam Bhattarai, considered a leader of the Maoist insurgency in Nepal. He was reportedly kept in detention despite a Supreme Court order for his release on 10 August 1999. According to the authorities, he was released on 9 February 2000 and arrested again on 13 February 2000. However, it was believed that he was instead transferred to Siraha Jail and was allegedly charged with carrying illegal weapons.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Nepal", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0224", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 224, "n": 223, "text": "In its reply dated 12 April 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Krishna Sen was not under police detention.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Nepal", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0225", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 225, "n": 224, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Nepal", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0226", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 226, "n": 225, "text": "On 6 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government regarding the arrest and detention of Zahoor Ansari and Ayub Khoso, respectively publisher and columnist of the newspaper Alakh. It was reported that they were sentenced to 10 years in prison for allegedly making derogatory remarks against the prophets and hurting religious feelings in an article published on 5 September 1999. They were reportedly given additional seven-year prison terms under the 1997 Anti-Terrorism Act and fined PRs 17,000 each, or two further years in jail in the case of non-payment of the fine.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Pakistan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0227", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 227, "n": 226, "text": "On 2 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government regarding Gohar Ali, a correspondent for Surkhab, and Malik Rab Nawaz, a reporter with Maidan. According to the information received, the two journalists were arrested\non 29 February 2000 in Batkhela, while reporting on alleged official involvement in timber smuggling, and charged with fraud. They were reportedly not eligible for bail and were kept in police custody.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Pakistan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0228", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 228, "n": 227, "text": "The Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 28 June 2000 with regard to the arrest of Ahmed Jan Siddiqui, a correspondent of the Ausaf in Sadda newspaper, and the issuing of an arrest warrant against Iqbal Hussain, a correspondent of the Rawalpindi-based Jang. It was reported that Ahmed Jan Siddiqui was arrested on 7 June 2000 by policemen in Sadda for having published articles denouncing corruption within the local civil administration. Moreover, it was reported that Iqbal Hussain went into hiding after an arrest warrant was issued against him on 23 May 2000. His brother and father were reportedly arrested on 6 June 2000 and released on 10 June, with threats of going back to jail if Iqbal Hussain did not give himself up to the police within two weeks. It was alleged that Iqbal Hussain had written reports on the arrest of a group of people during a demonstration on behalf of a religious scholar who was in conflict with the authorities.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Pakistan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0229", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 229, "n": 228, "text": "On 10 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions with regard to the death threats received by Inayat-ul-Haq Yasini, a journalist at the Pushto-language daily Wahdat in Peshawar. It was reported that he had been receiving threatening telephone calls since he published, on 26 June 2000, a survey based on comments made by Afghan refugees and leaders in camps in north-west Pakistan. He was also said to have been threatened by an anonymous person calling “from the Taliban”. It was alleged that he had received an anonymous letter advising him “not to favour the movement of General Al-Maroof Shariati” if he did not want to pay a “high price”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Pakistan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0230", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 230, "n": 229, "text": "In a joint communication with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions dated 6 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur requested the Government to extend him an invitation to carry out an official visit to Pakistan in the near future, in the context of a joint mission to both Pakistan and India.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Pakistan", "Visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0231", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 231, "n": 230, "text": "The Special Rapporteur awaits a reply from the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Pakistan", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0232", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 232, "n": 231, "text": "On 2 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, sent an urgent appeal concerning the arrest and detention of leading Palestinian intellectuals, including Yasser Faek Abu Saifeh, Abdel Sattar Qassem, Abdul Rahim Kittani, Adil Samara, Ahmed Qatamesh, Bassam Shaka’a and Wahi Al Hamdallah. They were reportedly arrested by the Palestinian police on 28 November 1999 following the issuing of a public statement criticizing the Palestinian Authority for corruption and calling for presidential and parliamentary elections. Shaker Dooden, Afif Sualiman Al-Judah and Adnan Odeh were also allegedly arrested on 29 November 1999 as the authors of the public statement. Ahmed Qatamesh, Adil Samara and Abdel Sattar Qassem had reportedly been transferred to the General Intelligence detention centre, while Yasser Faek Abu Safieh, Afif Sualiman Al-Judah and Adnan Odeh were held at the police criminal department in Nablus. Some of them were reportedly detained without charge and had been denied access to their lawyers.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Palestinian Authority", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0233", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 233, "n": 232, "text": "On 22 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal with regard to Khaled Amayreh, editor and chief of the newspaper The Hebron Times, who had reportedly been summoned on 11 February 2000 by the Palestinian Authority General Intelligence concerning an article in which he allegedly criticized President Arafat on the issue of refugees. He was also reportedly summoned by the Israeli District Coordination Office on 15 February 2000 in connection with the same article. On 16 February 2000, he was allegedly asked to publish material favourable to President Arafat if he did not want to see the publication close.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Palestinian Authority", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0234", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 234, "n": 233, "text": "Jointly with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal on 8 June 2000 concerning the arrest on 21 May 2000 of Mohammad Muqbel, Director General in the Ministry of Youth and Sports. It was reported that he had been arrested and detained without an arrest warrant or due legal procedure and that he was held in solitary confinement in Ramallah Central Prison. It was believed that his detention was linked to his active participation in a demonstration for Palestinian prisoners the same day. Fears were expressed concerning his safety and health, given his respiratory problems and the incommunicado nature of his detention.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Palestinian Authority", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0235", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 235, "n": 234, "text": "On 23 June 2000, together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal regarding Maher Abdul Majeed Al Alami, a Palestinian journalist, reportedly detained since 6 June 2000. Summoned for an interview by the Palestinian General Intelligence at the Ramallah and Al Bireh Governor’s Headquarters, he was taken to Ramallah Central Prison without being interviewed or informed of any charges against him. Although the arrest order stated that he had “broken the law”, the reason for his arrest was believed to be his taking part in a television broadcast on 31 May 2000 during which he participated in a discussion on the Palestinian National Authority’s policy of shutting down local television and radio stations, as well as his opinions published in the Al Istiqlal newspaper.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Palestinian Authority", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0236", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 236, "n": 235, "text": "On 30 June 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on torture with regard to the arrest of Abed al-Fattah Ghanem, one of the President’s advisers on refugee affairs and a political leader of the Palestinian Liberation Front. It was reported that he was arrested on 21 June 2000 by the Palestinian police in Ramallah, allegedly in connection with statements he made to Jordanian and Arab Gulf newspapers regarding a just and final settlement of the refugee question and the alleged administrative corruption surrounding the issue. He was believed to be held in incommunicado detention and to be denied access to his lawyer and his family.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Palestinian Authority", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0237", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 237, "n": 236, "text": "The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release of Abed al-Fattah Ghanem from Ramallah Central Prison on 12 October 2000. However, the Special Rapporteur awaits a reply from the Palestinian authorities.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Palestinian Authority", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0238", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 238, "n": 237, "text": "On 20 January 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a communication to the Government requesting information regarding the reported closure on 9 December 1999 of the radio station Radio Libertad by the Ministry of Transportation and Communications, allegedly because it lacked official authorization and was airing clandestine broadcasts. It was also reported that Carlos Burmester, director of the programme Voice from the Street, had been threatened with civil, criminal and administrative sanctions unless he changed his independent journalistic style. Moreover, charges of slander and defamation had reportedly been brought against Rolando Rodrich Sarango, director of the Correo de Piura newspaper, and Vilma Herrea de Soto, following investigations carried out by the newspaper into administrative irregularities and abuse of authority within the judiciary. It was further alleged that Henry Vasquez Limo and Edgar Valladares Orozco, journalists for Frecuencia Latina - Canal 2, were beaten by a group of extremist members of the National Solidarity Party on 18 December 1999, while covering the launching of Luis Castañeda Lossio’s presidential campaign. In addition, it was reported that Horacio Potest, a journalist with Caretas, received a one-year suspended prison sentence and was fined 20,000 new soles on charges of defamation in connection with articles alleging that a lawyer, Javier Corrochano Patrón, alleged to be linked to Vladimiro Montesinos, was involved in criminal activities. Furthermore, Carlos Infante Yupanqui, manager of the weekly Democracia, was reportedly threatened by Celestino Torres, a member of the Huamanga municipal council following the publication in the newspaper of a report on irregularities in a number of local institutions and organizations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0239", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 239, "n": 238, "text": "On 6 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning the case of Luis Villanueva López, the director of the radio programme La voz informativa, who had allegedly received death threats from Mayor Lorenzo Sanchez Cabanillas on 26 February 2000 after Mr. López reported irregularities about the mayor. It was also reported that Mr. Sánchez Cabanillas, a member of President Fujimori’s party, had threatened to close Mr. López’s radio programme. Mr. López had been allegedly threatened by another representative of the party on 12 May 1999 after he had criticized the local government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0240", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 240, "n": 239, "text": "On 29 May 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture concerning Fabián Salazar Olivares, a journalist who had reportedly been beaten and tortured because he was in possession of information about corruption during the presidential elections. It was reported that, on 24 May 2000, four men had entered his office claiming they belonged to the Superintendencia Nacional de Administracion Tributaria. They allegedly tortured Mr. Salazar Olivares and tried to throw him out of the window. He had reportedly stated previously that he was under surveillance by the Servicio de Inteligencia Nacional. Fears had been expressed that Salazar Olivares might be tortured again.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0241", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 241, "n": 240, "text": "On 11 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a communication expressing concern at harassment and violence against journalists, most of them belonging to the opposition. According to the information received, the harassment suffered by the journalists included physical and verbal aggression and threats. On 16 May 2000, Santiago González Coronado, of the La República and El Popular newspapers, allegedly received death threats from the mayor of Putumayo district, Pablo Cumary Ashanga. On 22 January 2000, Armando Murrieta García, the programme director of Tercer Tiempo in Iquitos (Loreto) was allegedly assaulted. Furthermore, it was reported that, on 12 May 2000, freelance journalist Roger Luciano, Hugo González Hinestrosa from the newspaper Liberación and Omar Robles Torres, editor of Presencia were assaulted by a group of government officials. It was further alleged that, on 28 May 2000, Manuel Rosa Matos, programme director of Radio Loreto was attacked by the National Police and that Leddy Mozombite Linares, who works for Radio Santa Rosa, was reportedly attacked on 29 May 2000 and suffered sexual harassment. According to the information received, on 8 June 2000, Mónica Vecco, a journalist with La República, was physically assaulted by members of an organization called Grupo 5 de Abril. Furthermore, in June 2000, the Municipality of San Borja allegedly ordered the closure of the offices of the opposition newspaper Liberación. It was also reported that, on 12 September 2000, Alexis Fiestas Quintos and Víctor Granada, who work for the newspaper El Popular, were attacked by the mayor of San Juan de Lurigancho district, Ricardo Chiroque, and his security personnel.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0242", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 242, "n": 241, "text": "On 24 March 2000, the Government of Peru replied to the communication dated 20 January 2000 concerning the case of Carlos Burmester Landauro, explaining that an inspector of the Ministry of Transportation and Communications had gone to the premises of the Radio Company “Libertad” on 9 December 1999 to verify its legal situation, licence and payment of taxes and the operational condition of the equipment. Although all the documents proved to be in order, the closure of the station were requested on the basis of Acta de verificación. It was reported that the Ministry subsequently requested that the closure would not be enforced and acknowledged that the inspector had misused his power. On 10 December 1999, Mr. Burmester was informed that the radio channel Libertad could continue its normal activities. The Government also provided information about Rolando Rodrich Sarango, stating that he had been tried, found guilty of defamation and sentenced to pay US$ 100,000 compensation. The sentence was contested and an appeal was pending at the time the response was sent. With regard to Henry Vasquez Limo and Edgard Valladares Orozco, the authors of the assault were still unknown and investigations were being conducted by the National Police. In addition, the Government explained that Borazio Marcelo Potesta Zapata had been tried, found guilty of defamation on 22 December 1999 and received a suspended sentence of one year’s imprisonment. An appeal of the sentence was still pending at the time of the reply. Furthermore, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that personal protection measures were taken on 11 January 2000 by the prefecture of Hamanga on behalf of Carlos Infante Yupanuqui, at the request of the Association of Journalists of Ayacucho.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0243", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 243, "n": 242, "text": "On 28 March 2000, the Government replied that, in the case of Luis Villanueva López, the alleged facts were being investigated by the competent authorities, in particular the Chepén Peruvian National Police station, with the involvement of the Government Procurator’s Office, in accordance with the appropriate legal and administrative procedures. On 30 November 2000, the Government transmitted further information on the results of the investigation. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that it had not been possible to find reliable evidence of crimes of coercion and attempted murder committed against Luis Villanueva López.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0244", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 244, "n": 243, "text": "In a reply dated 26 July 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the authorities of Peru had taken all necessary measures to guarantee the physical integrity of Salazar Olivares. However, Salazar Olivares had refused all protection and failed to give needed information to officials in charge of the investigations, hindering the investigations themselves, which were still being carried out at the time of the reply.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0245", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 245, "n": 244, "text": "On 7 December 2000, the Government transmitted a reply to the communication dated 11 October 2000. No complaint had been lodged with the Office of the Attorney-General concerning the alleged threats and attacks against Leddy Moxombit Linares, Mónica Vecco, César Hildebrant, Alexis Fiestas Quintos and Victor Granada. Neither had any complaint been received concerning, or request to investigate, the alleged violation of freedom of opinion and expression against Santiago Gonzales Coronado, Armando Murrieta García and Manuel Rosa Mattos.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0246", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 246, "n": 245, "text": "Following the request to visit the country sent by the Special Rapporteur on 15 November 1999, an official invitation from the Government of Peru was extended to the Special Rapporteur on 4 April 2000. Several proposals as to dates were exchanged between the Special Rapporteur and the Government, which were not suitable to one or other side. The Special Rapporteur was unfortunately unable to visit the country on the latest date agreed to by the Government because of an unexpected commitment. He hopes to undertake the visit in the summer of 2001, after the presidential elections in Peru.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent", "Visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0247", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 247, "n": 246, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Peru for its replies and for having sent him information on the situation of freedom of opinion and expression in the country.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0248", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 248, "n": 247, "text": "In a communication sent on 25 October 2000, the Government of Qatar transmitted comments to the Special Rapporteur in response to his note verbale of 28 August 2000 regarding the Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation (“The public’s right to know”) (E/CN.4/2000/63, annex).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Qatar", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0249", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 249, "n": 248, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the Government for its reply.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Qatar", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0250", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 250, "n": 249, "text": "Jointly with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 1 February 2000 with regard to the charges brought against Andrey Babitsky, a journalist with Radio Liberty, accused by officials of being pro-Chechen in his accounts of the conflict in Chechnya. It was believed that Andrey Babitsky was held incommunicado in Urus-Martan without access to his family or to a lawyer. It was reported by the Russian authorities that he was being held because he lacked special accreditation documents required for journalists to report from Chechnya and because of information implicating him with illegal armed groups.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Russian Federation", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0251", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 251, "n": 250, "text": "A second joint urgent appeal concerning Andrey Babitsky was sent by the Special Rapporteur on 7 February 2000, this time with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and the Special Rapporteur on torture. According to the information received, Mr. Babitsky had been handed over to Chechen fighters in exchange for captured Russian soldiers. It was reported that he was in detention in Khankala, in Chechnya, and would shortly be transferred to the city of Mozdok, in the Republic of North Ossetia, and then to Moscow.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Russian Federation", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0252", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 252, "n": 251, "text": "Together with the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 6 June 2000 regarding Taisa Isayeva, a Chechen journalist. She had reportedly been arrested by Russian forces on 2 June 2000 when she tried to cross the border from North Ossetia in the Russian Federation into Georgia at the “Nizhny Zaramag” border checkpoint, because she was carrying a video camera and a portable computer. She was allegedly held incommunicado at a secret “filtration camp”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Russian Federation", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0253", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 253, "n": 252, "text": "On 19 September 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and the Special Rapporteur on torture concerning Ruslan Alikhadzhiyev, the Speaker of the Chechen separatist “Republic of Incheria” Parliament, who had reportedly been arrested on 17 May 2000 in Shali by Russian troops. It was reported that, at a press briefing on 25 May 2000, the Deputy Chief of the General Staff of the Russian Army, General Manilov, confirmed that he had been captured. Ruslan Alikhadzhiyev had reportedly been taken first to a Russian military intelligence (GRU) facility in the Chechen town of Argun, before being transferred to a prison in Moscow, possibly the Lefortovo, run by the Russian Federal Security Service, where he is held incommunicado.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Russian Federation", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0254", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 254, "n": 253, "text": "By letter dated 22 August 2000, the Government responded that on 1 June 2000, Taisa Mutsolayevna Isaeva and F. Kovroyeva had been invited to go to the Vladikavkaz border unit in order to clarify the circumstances of their arrival at the “Nizhny Zaramag” checkpoint. Under a bilateral agreement between the Republic of Georgia and Russia, residents of the Chechen Republic could only enter Georgia via the “Verkhny Lars” checkpoint. After their identity had been established, it was suggested to them that they spend the night in the hotel of the border unit, which they agreed to do. They were not detained and no property was confiscated and, on 2 June, they left the border unit. They did not submit any complaints to the border officials and their whereabouts were not known. Law enforcement bodies in the North Causasus had been instructed to continue inquiries to determine the whereabouts of T. Isayeva.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Russian Federation", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0255", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 255, "n": 254, "text": "In a reply dated 9 October 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that R.S. Alikhadzhiev had not been arrested by federal troops and was not held by the Federal Security Service. The Government explained that he had been abducted in Shali on 17 May 2000 by unknown persons with firearms. On 27 July 2000, the procurator’s office for the Shalinsk district had instituted criminal proceedings and a number of investigations had been undertaken to determine the identity of the perpetrators and R.S. Alikhadzhiev’s whereabouts.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Russian Federation", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0256", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 256, "n": 255, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its replies and reiterates his wish to visit the country, as requested in letters dated 9 March 1999. He would also like to acknowledge the information he received about the sentencing on 13 December 2000 of Andrey Babitski by the Supreme Court of Dagestan to a fine of 8,350 roubles (US$300) for possession of a false passport.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Russian Federation", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0257", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 257, "n": 256, "text": "On 3 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions concerning the death threats allegedly received by Jayalath Jayawardene, a member of Parliament and lawyer. It was reported that he had received threatening telephone calls since he was accused of facilitating contacts between the United National Party (UNP) and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. He had reportedly been followed on several occasions by persons who threatened him.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sri Lanka", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0258", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 258, "n": 257, "text": "The Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal on 8 June 2000 concerning restrictions imposed on the media following the announcement of emergency regulations under the existing public security ordinance. These measures enable the Government to suspend television and radio programmes, and to seize or close down any publication, including the Internet, which it considers a danger to national security. A number of newspapers were reportedly closed under these regulations: on 19 May 2000, the Sri Lankan army allegedly closed down the Jaffna newspaper Uthayan; on 22 May 2000, the Sunday Leader and the Sunday Peramuna were reportedly closed down for six months on accusations of publishing articles without official permission. Moreover, on 18 May 2000, the news editor of the private television station Teshan Network was interrogated by the police in connection with its report on a bomb attack which occurred in Batticaloa, in eastern Sri Lanka. In addition, it was reported that P. Seevagan, Taraki, Roy Denish and Saman Waagarachchi, all senior journalists, had written to the President of Sri Lanka seeking protection against death threats, aired on 3 June 2000 on the State-owned television network ITN, from the organization called Deshabhaktha Madhiya Viyaparaya.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sri Lanka", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0259", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 259, "n": 258, "text": "On 27 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint communication to the Government with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and the Representative of the Secretary-General on internally displaced persons to express their concern over the murder on 19 October 2000 of Mylvaganam Nimalarajan, a journalist who worked as the Jaffna correspondent of numerous media, including the BBC. He was reportedly killed by unidentified attackers who shot him through a window of his home in Jaffna. It was alleged that this attack was the work of the Eelam People’s Democratic Party (EPDP), which had previously threatened him in connection with an article he wrote on 10 October. Mylvaganam Nimalarajan had been covering the Jaffna situation, including alleged widespread election rigging and the plight of internally displaced persons.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sri Lanka", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0260", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 260, "n": 259, "text": "On 31 January 2000, the Government of Sri Lanka replied to the communications sent by the Special Rapporteur on 18 June 1998 concerning the journalist Iqbal Athas and on 24 June 1998 regarding Lasantha Wickrematunga. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that on 12 February 1998 armed men had entered the house of Iqbal Athas and threatened him and his family. A complaint was reportedly made to the Mirihana police station and an investigation was opened. The Government explained that, as a result of confidential inquiries, two people, Don Pradeep Sanjeewa Kannangara and H. M. Rukman Herath, were taken into custody and were to stand trial on 24 and 26 May 2000. Furthermore, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur, concerning alleged attacks against the journalist Lasantha Wickrematunga, that gunshots had been fired at his house on 17 June 1998, and that the police authorities concerned were conducting further investigations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sri Lanka", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0261", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 261, "n": 260, "text": "On 13 December 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur, in reply to his communication of 3 February 2000, that, with regard to the alleged death threats against Jayalath Jayawardena, the Criminal Investigations Department had inquired into these allegations and had not been able to pursue its investigations in the absence of specific information or evidence with regard to the alleged threatening telephone calls he had received. The law enforcement authorities had conducted a further threat assessment concerning the personal security of Mr. Jayawardena which indicated that there was no specific threats against him. The Government stated that he had been provided with security at State expense and he was able to perform the normal functions of a member of Parliament.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sri Lanka", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0262", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 262, "n": 261, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its replies and awaits further information on the cases he raised this year. He would also like to reiterate his wish to visit the country, as requested in letters dated 29 April 1998 and 10 November 1999.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sri Lanka", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0263", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 263, "n": 262, "text": "On 28 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent appeal with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Sudan and the Special Rapporteur on torture concerning the arrest of Sidahmed Al Hardalou, a poet and former diplomat, and five journalists of the Al Sahafa newspaper: Kamal Hassan Bakheit, Ahmed Omar Rabie, Abdelgadir Hafiz, Rabie Hamid and Anwar Altikaina. It was reported that Al Hardalou and Bakheit were arrested on 22 March 2000 by Sudanese security forces and taken to the security offices in Khartoum North. The four other journalists were reportedly arrested on 23 March 2000. These arrests were allegedly linked to the publication of a number of articles in Al Sahafa supporting the National Democratic Alliance. It was alleged that they were held incommunicado and fears had been expressed that they might be at risk of torture.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sudan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0264", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 264, "n": 263, "text": "On 4 July 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture and the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Sudan regarding a series of arrests and alleged acts of violence perpetrated against students following a seminar entitled “the current Crisis in the Sudan and future prospects” at the University of Sennar on 18 June 2000. Uniformed soldiers were said to have opened fire on people at the seminar, killing a student named ‘Mirghami Mahmoud Al-Norman and injuring several others, including Salah Houli and Abu Shaiba. It was reported that, in the following days, there were many incidents of arrest, brief detention and torture of students by the police. In particular, the following students were reportedly arrested and tortured on 25 June 2000 by the security forces: Own Christopher, Mohamed Suliman Mahmoud, Tarig Awad, Alaa Eldeen Ahmed Osman, Medani Medani Mohamed, Khalid Hassan, Nizar Mohamed Awad, Alobied Hassan and Omer Mohamed Toam.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sudan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0265", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 265, "n": 264, "text": "On 13 December 2000, together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning the arrest of Ali al Said, Tijani Mustafa, Mohamed Mahjoub, Joseph Okailo, Mohamed Wida Ala, Suleiman Mustafa and Stans Jimmy Wongo, leading members of banned political parties and trade unions. They were reportedly arrested on 6 December 2000 by the Sudanese authorities during a meeting with a United States diplomat in Khartoum and accused of plotting an uprising backed by the rebel forces controlling southern Sudan and of passing on information to the rebels. It was reported that they had not been formally charged and had been held incommunicado. Fears were expressed that they might be at risk of torture.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sudan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0266", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 266, "n": 265, "text": "In a reply sent on 3 May 2000, the Government of the Sudan informed the Special Rapporteur that the summoning by government agents of the five journalists of Al Sahafa and Sidahmed Al Hardalou was predicated on the circumstances which gave rise to the declaration of the state of emergency. The Government explained that the purpose of the summoning was to conduct an inquiry, that the persons summoned were reportedly immediately released after completion of the investigation and that they were not subjected to any form of torture.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sudan", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0267", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 267, "n": 266, "text": "On 10 October 2000, the Government responded to the communication dated 4 July 2000, explaining that only four graduates from the University of Sennar had been summoned for investigation on suspicion of stirring up violence during the demonstrations and that they had been released immediately after signing affirmations to keep tranquillity and public peace in the University.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sudan", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0268", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 268, "n": 267, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its replies. He expresses his concern, however, at the continued detention of Ali al Said, Tijani Mustafa, Mohamed Mahjoub, Joseph Okailo, Mohamed Wida Ala, Suleiman Mustafa and Stans Jimmy Wongo.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sudan", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0269", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 269, "n": 268, "text": "On 26 May 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture concerning the detention of Nizar Nayouf, editor-in-chief of the monthly Sawt al-Democratiyya and Secretary-General of the Committee for the Defence of Democratic Freedoms in Syria. Arrested in January 1992 and sentenced by a military court to 10 years’ of forced labour, he had reportedly been detained in harsh conditions and was suffering from serious injuries, allegedly due to torture inflicted on him by the prison authorities. He was reportedly unable to walk without a stick and to be suffering from an eye infection and back pain. It was also reported that Nizar Nayouf was returned to Mezze prison, after he had been taken from it on 26 April 2000 and after he refused to sign an undertaking not to be involved in any unauthorized political activity in exchange for his release.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Syria", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0270", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 270, "n": 269, "text": "In a reply dated 6 June 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Nizar Nayouf was receiving appropriate medical care and that he had been transferred to a hospital where he was under medical surveillance. Moreover, the state of health of Nizar Nayouf had been improving since he was placed on medication. The Government denied allegations that he had been offered his release in exchange for signing an undertaking.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Syria", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0271", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 271, "n": 270, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Syria for its reply. However, he reiterates his concern over the continued imprisonment of Nizar Nayouf, who was the laureate of UNESCO on World Press Freedom Day, 3 May 2000, and who is still in detention, whereas 600 political prisoners, including some journalists, were released on 16 November 2000.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Syria", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0272", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 272, "n": 271, "text": "In an urgent appeal sent on 23 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur requested information with regard to Khémais Ksila, Vice-President of the Ligue tunisienne de défense des droits de l’homme. It was reported that, since his release on 22 September 1999, and in particular since the visit of the Special Rapporteur to Tunisia, from 6 to 10 December 1999, he had been subjected to constant surveillance by police officers. Furthermore, he was reportedly involved in a suspicious car accident involving a police vehicle on 14 December 1999.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Tunisia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0273", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 273, "n": 272, "text": "Together with the Special Rapporteur on the right to education, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government on 17 August 2000 concerning Moncef Marzouki, a professor of medicine and spokesman for the Conseil national pour les libertés en Tunisie. According to the information received, he was discharged from his position as a professor at the University of Sousse following a hearing with the Ministry of Health on 27 July 2000. His dismissal reportedly followed his return from a trip to Europe and the United States, after a five-year revocation of his passport, during which he participated in meetings concerning the situation of human rights in Tunisia.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Tunisia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0274", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 274, "n": 273, "text": "In a reply dated 21 January 2000, the Government of Tunisia informed the Special Rapporteur that Khemaïs Ksila had not been subjected to police surveillance since his release and that no accident involving an administrative vehicle was recorded on 14 December 1999.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Tunisia", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0275", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 275, "n": 274, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply. However, he awaits further information on the case of Mr. Marzouki, who was recently sentenced to one year’s imprisonment. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur would like to make some observations on the response of the Government to the report on his mission to Tunisia contained in a letter dated 26 May 2000 from the Permanent Representative of Tunisia to the United Nations Office at Geneva addressed to the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (E/CN.4/2001/4). The Special Rapporteur would like to correct a misperception and would draw the attention of the Tunisian authorities to the fact that a copy of his report was transmitted to them on 29 February 2000, before it was issued, in accordance with the standard United Nations practice. The Special Rapporteur wishes to stress that his report was based on information transmitted to him before, during and after his mission by independent and credible sources and that each allegation was carefully verified to the best of his ability. Throughout his report the Special Rapporteur tried to take a balanced view, noting the positive achievements in Tunisia, but also the inadequacies with respect to freedom of opinion and expression with a view to helping the Tunisian authorities to examine them and find suitable correctives. The Special Rapporteur encourages the Government to continue to cooperate fully with him and other thematic mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Tunisia", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0276", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 276, "n": 275, "text": "On 26 January 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal concerning the charges brought against Nazmi Gur, the Secretary-General of the Human Rights Association of Turkey (IHD) on 25 January 2000. Nazmi Gur was reportedly charged with having assisted a terrorist group in contravention of article 169 of the Turkish Penal Code, following the publication on 1 September 1999 of an article by him entitled “It is not hard to reach peace”. If convicted, he allegedly faces imprisonment for three to seven and a half years.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Turkey", "Communications sent"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "169", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0277", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 277, "n": 276, "text": "The Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government on 21 March 2000 with regard to the situation of Akin Birdal, ex-Chairman of the Association of Human Rights in Turkey. According to the information received, he was sentenced on 16 December 1998 to two one-year terms of imprisonment for speeches made in 1995 and 1996 in which he called on the Turkish authorities to negotiate a peaceful end to the conflict in the south-east of the country. Akin Birdal, who was imprisoned on 3 June 1999, was reportedly released on 25 September 1999 for six months on medical grounds. However, the charges against him were not dropped and he was allegedly due to go back to prison on 23 March 2000. It was further reported that he was to stand trial for a second time in Adana for a speech he allegedly made during the election campaign in December 1995.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Turkey", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0278", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 278, "n": 277, "text": "In a communication sent on 19 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur requested further information about cases of intimidation and harassment against journalists which had been brought to his attention, in particular: an assault by the police against Unal Cetiner, a cameraman for Flash TV on 5 August 2000 while he was covering a demonstration in Istanbul; the beating, short detention and interrogation of Jülide Kaliç, a reporter with Yeni Evrensel, on 17 August 2000; the arrest and brief detention of Ergüren Top, a journalist with Yeni Gündem, on 27 August 2000, in connection with his coverage of a press conference by relatives of political prisoners; the brief detention of Cengiz Kapman and Meral Kocamis, who photographed Ergüren Top being arrested; the imprisonment of Esber Yagmurdereli, a human rights lawyer and playwright, rearrested on 1 June 1998 after he had been partially amnestied and released in November 1997 on health grounds. In addition, the Special Rapporteur addressed the suspension of newspapers and radio stations by the authorities brought to his attention: the seizing of Roja Teze on 24 June 2000 in connection with two articles referring to “Kurdistan” and the “Kurdish national movement”; the 90-day suspension by the Audio-visual Council of Turkey (RTÜK) of Umut Radio on 27 July 2000 for “inciting to violence, terror and ethnic discrimination” by broadcasting a song by the extreme-left group, Cemo; the one-year suspension by the RTÜK of Özgür Radyo on 23 August 2000 for broadcasting a song by the extreme-left group, Kizilrmak; the seizing of Yeni Gündem on 31 August 2000 by the Security Court of the State of Istanbul for publishing an article on the “Kurdish revolution”; the 10-day suspension of Yeni Evrensel on 6 October 2000 following publication of an article entitled “The Kurdish issue and the fight for equal rights”, and the sentencing of its editor-in-chief, Tuncay Seyman, to a fine.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Turkey", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0279", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 279, "n": 278, "text": "The Government, in a reply sent on 6 June 2000, informed the Special Rapporteur that Nazmi Gur was acquitted by a decision of the State Security Court of Ankara on 3 February 2000.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Turkey", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0280", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 280, "n": 279, "text": "On 25 September 2000, the Government of Turkey replied to the communication sent on 21 March 2000 concerning Akin Birdal, explaining that he was released on 23 September 2000, the day on which his sentence was completed. The Government further informed the Special Rapporteur that, as of 28 March 2000, while serving the last part of his sentence, he had received regular physiotherapy treatment in prison.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Turkey", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0281", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 281, "n": 280, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its replies. He welcomes the following important acquittals and releases which took place in Turkey in the past year: the acquittal of Nazmi Gur, the release of Akin Birdaland and the acquittal by the Beyoglu District Penal Court in Istanbul on 29 September 2000 of Nadire Mater, on behalf on whom he had sent a communication to the Government on 7 October 1999, and the lifting of the banning order on her book Mehmed’s Book. Finally, the Special Rapporteur was delighted to learn that Esber Yagmurdereli, lawyer, playwright and human rights activist, was freed on 18 January 2001, after a review of his sentence under an amnesty announced in December 2000. The Special Rapporteur hopes that the above-mentioned individuals will no longer face imprisonment and harassment solely for the expression of their views.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Turkey", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0282", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 282, "n": 281, "text": "Together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 10 January 2000 concerning Nurberdy Nurmammedov, the leader of the Democratic National Movement (Agzybirlik), reportedly arrested on 5 January 2000 at his home by officers of the Committee of National Security (KNB). Although details of the charges against him remained unknown, his arrest was believed to be linked to an interview he gave to a foreign radio station in December 1999 in which he described as unconstitutional the proclamation of President Niyazov as “President for life”. He was reportedly detained at the internal detention facility of the KNB and had stated that he would go on hunger strike.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Turkmenistan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0283", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 283, "n": 282, "text": "On 1 December 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture and the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the detention of Nikolai Nikolaevich Gherasimov, a correspondent for the Azerbaijan Azerpress news agency, in Krasnovodsk in a special isolation facility since his arrest on 7 November 2000. He had allegedly been sentenced to a five-year prison term for “fraud” after what had been described as a speedy trial. It had not been confirmed whether he had had access to his lawyer since his arrest.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Turkmenistan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0284", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 284, "n": 283, "text": "No reply has been received from the Government so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Turkmenistan", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0285", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 285, "n": 284, "text": "On 21 September 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture concerning the disappearance of Géorgiy Gongadze, founder and editor of the Internet newsletter Pravda Ukrayiny. According to the information received, Géorgiy Gongadze, who had complained that the police had intimidated and threatened him, failed to return to his home in Kiev on 16 September 2000. It is believed that his arrest is connected to his activities as editor of a newsletter which reportedly criticizes the Government, in particular on issues such as corruption of senior officials. His whereabouts were not known and fears were expressed that he might be at risk of torture or other forms of ill-treatment. Furthermore, it was reported that Oleg Yeltsov, a reporter for the same newsletter, had received threats on 15 September.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Ukraine", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0286", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 286, "n": 285, "text": "The Special Rapporteur expresses his deep concern about the reported discovery on 2 November 2000 of the decapitated body of Géorgiy Gongadze in Tarachtcha, close to Kiev. The Special Rapporteur awaits further information from the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Ukraine", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0287", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 287, "n": 286, "text": "On 12 May 2000, the Special Rapporteur received a communication from the Government in connection with his visit to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland from 24 to 29 October 1999 (E/CN.4/2000/Add.3). The Government commented on some sections of the report, in particular concerning the draft freedom of information bill and other legal issues mentioned by the Special Rapporteur in his mission report.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland", "Follow-up to the 24-29 October 1999 visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0288", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 288, "n": 287, "text": "The Government’s reply is being issued in a document of the Commission on Human Rights at its present session (E/CN.4/2001/10, annex, pages 13-17).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland", "Follow-up to the 24-29 October 1999 visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0289", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 289, "n": 288, "text": "The Special Rapporteur received additional communications in connection with his report on the visit to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, showing the interest raised by the issue of freedom of opinion and expression in this country. In particular, he received a letter on 24 July 2000 from Rear Admiral Nick Wilkinson, Secretary of the Defence, Press and Broadcasting Advisory Committee, commenting on paragraphs 58 to 61 of the report. Mr. Wilkinson mentioned, inter alia, that he is independent of the Government, but nevertheless a public servant, which made him accountable to the public. In addition, Mr. Wilkinson stated that there was absolutely no penalty on the media if they ignored D-notices, since use of the system was voluntary. He also mentioned that the areas of national security covered by the D-notice committee were not used to stifle debate but to prevent publication of genuinely damaging details. Finally, Mr. Wilkinson stressed that in neither of the two cases mentioned in the report - those of Tony Geraghty and David Shayler - was the D-notice system involved.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland", "Follow-up to the 24-29 October 1999 visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0290", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 290, "n": 289, "text": "The Special Rapporteur replied to Mr. Wilkinson in a letter dated 10 August 2000 in which he emphasized that the section of his report that referred to the issuing of D-notices was drafted on the basis of allegations received during his mission from various well-known and credible organizations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland", "Follow-up to the 24-29 October 1999 visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0291", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 291, "n": 290, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of the United Kingdom for its clarifications.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland", "Follow-up to the 24-29 October 1999 visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0292", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 292, "n": 291, "text": "On 8 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal concerning the alleged censorship of the Tanzanian media. It was reported that, at a ceremony launching the Tanzanian Media Council newsletter “Media watch” on 26 February 2000, the Director of the Tanzanian Information Services, Kassim Mpenda, threatened to shut down all newspapers which published stories or cartoons that defamed the President or were found to be seditious.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["United Republic of Tanzania", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0293", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 293, "n": 292, "text": "The Special Rapporteur awaits a reply from the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["United Republic of Tanzania", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0294", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 294, "n": 293, "text": "On 10 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture concerning more than 400 peaceful demonstrators arrested by the Philadelphia police in the wake of the Republican Party Convention. Most of these individuals were said to have been arrested on 1 August 2000 in downtown Philadelphia where, it is reported, peaceful demonstrations against the death penalty, prison conditions, racism and related issues were taking place. More than 250 demonstrators were alleged to be still held in custody and were said to have been denied access to food, water and to the bathroom for extended periods. Some had reportedly been denied essential medication.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["United States of America", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0295", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 295, "n": 294, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has been received from the Government so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["United States of America", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0296", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 296, "n": 295, "text": "On 24 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal concerning the removal from his post as chief of police of Alvaro Vergar, Director of the Jefatura de Policía of Montevideo. According to the information received, he was dismissed as Director of the Jefatura de Policía and transferred to another unit with a hierarchically lower position after making a presentation on human rights and police practices at a seminar entitled “Violence, public order and democratic government” organized by the United Nations Development Programme from 21 July to 4 August 2000.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Uruguay", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0297", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 297, "n": 296, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has been received from the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Uruguay", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0298", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 298, "n": 297, "text": "On 20 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the detention of Ismail Adylov, a member of the Independent Human Rights Organization of Uzbekistan (NOPCHU) and of the opposition movement Birlik. According to the information received, he was detained on 10 July 1999 after plainclothes officers of the Ministry of Internal Affairs came to his home without a warrant and took him to an unknown location. His whereabouts allegedly remained unknown until the lawyer engaged by his family was able to locate him on 21 July 1999 in Tashkent City prison. He was reportedly sentenced to six years’ imprisonment on 29 September 1999 on charges of attempting to overthrow the constitutional order, sabotage and possessing materials constituting a threat to public security and order. Although the charges were officially brought in connection with documents allegedly found in his home, it was reported that he was detained for his human rights activities and his support for the democratic political opposition.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Uzbekistan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0299", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 299, "n": 298, "text": "The Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal on 20 January 2000 concerning the closure on 20 November 1999 of the television station TV ALC in Urgench City. According to the information received, the transmission by the television station was stopped on the grounds that its transmitter was not guarded and could thus be taken over for anti-State propaganda, as well as on the basis of claims that its licence had expired. Both claims were allegedly unfounded. It was reported that Shuhrat Babadjanov, the director of the station, had received ultimatums from various governmental bodies concerning the broadcasting of programmes without prior review and approval.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Uzbekistan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0300", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 300, "n": 299, "text": "No reply from the Government has been received so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Uzbekistan", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0301", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 301, "n": 300, "text": "Together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 18 November 1999 concerning Thich Quang Do, a Buddhist monk, member of the Unified Buddhist Church of Vietnam (UBCV) and a human rights defender. Allegedly accused by the authorities of “threatening national security”, he was summoned on 6 August 1999 to the headquarters of the Phu Nhuan Ward People’s Committee in Ho Chi Minh City in connection with a letter he wrote on 20 June 1999 to ambassadors of the European Union present in Hanoi calling for the release of prisoners of conscience in Vietnam. It was reported that a warrant for his arrest was issued on 17 September 1999, as well as for that of two other UBCV monks, Thich Khong Tanh and Thich Tue Sy. Given Thich Quang Do’s prior detention, on which the Working Group had taken action in 1997, it was feared that he faced imminent arrest and detention.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Viet Nam", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0302", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 302, "n": 301, "text": "On 15 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a communication requesting information on cases of imprisonment in labour camps, in particular that of Nguyn Dinh Huy, sentenced in 1995 to 15 years’ of imprisonment and hard labour for organizing an international conference on economic development; Nguyen Ngoc Tan, sentenced to 11 years in prison in 1995; Thich Huyen Quang, Supreme Patriarch of the Unified Buddhist Church allegedly held without charges for 14 years; brother Mai Duc Chuong, a member of the Catholic Congregation of the Mother Co-Redemtprix, serving a sentence of 16 1/2 years for holding training courses and distributing religious books; Nguyen Ngo Dai, sentenced to 20 years for his “Essay on humanism”. The Special Rapporteur also requested information concerning cases of harassment and house arrest following release from prison: Nguyen Dan Que, who spent more than 18 years in prison for his demanding free and multiparty elections and who had his telephone line cut, his Internet account cancelled and his mail intercepted after his call for freedom, democracy and an end to human rights abuses on 11 May 1999; Ha Si Phu, who served a 12-month sentence in 1996 for criticizing the Communist Party’s policies and who was subjected to a six-week-long interrogation in April 1999; Tieu Dao Bao Cu and Bu Minh Quoc, who were subjected to interrogations and strict surveillance by security officials because of their writings, which allegedly protested the imprisonment of Ha Si Phu; Nguyen Hoang Ling, who was arrested in October 1997 because of a report on corruption among customs officials, sentenced to one year and 13 days’ imprisonment for damage to the interests of the State and released after the trial; Nguyen Than Giang who was imprisoned in March 1999 for two months for possessing anti-socialist propaganda and who was the victim of police harassment and interrogation in October 1999; Thich Tue Sy, who spent 17 years in prison up until 1998 and was interrogated by the local police in September 1999. In addition, cases of former Vietnamese Communist Party members harassed because of their writings advocating reform were brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur, in particular the cases of Tran Do, Nguyen Ho, Duong Thu Huong and Hoang Tien. Furthermore, it was reported that Doan Viet Hoat, released from prison in September 1998, was expelled from Viet Nam. Finally, the Special Rapporteur expressed his concerns about the Administrative Detention Directive, in particular article 2, which authorizes security officials to detain individuals for up to two years without trial and keep them under house arrest on grounds of national security.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Viet Nam", "Communications sent"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0303", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 303, "n": 302, "text": "On 4 July 2000, together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning the scientist and political essayist Dr. Nguyen Xuan Tu, better known by his pen name, Dr. Ha Sy Phu. According to the information received, the police raided his home in Dalat on 28 April 2000 and confiscated some of his personal property. On 12 May 2000, he was reportedly placed under house arrest in Dalat, without any legal justification being provided by the Vietnamese judicial authorities, under Administrative Detention Directive 31/CP, which provides for indefinite house arrest without due process.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Viet Nam", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0304", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 304, "n": 303, "text": "On 25 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture with regard to Thich Huyen Quang, the Supreme Patriach of the Unified Buddhist Church of Viet Nam (UBCV), who was believed to have been detained under house arrest since December 1994 in Nghia Hanh village, Quang Ngai province. Arrested on 29 December 1994 following a government clamp-down on the activities of the UBCV, he\nwas allegedly detained without trial. On 5 July 2000, he was reportedly subjected to renewed interrogation and harassment by the security police because of a letter he sent in April 2000 in which he called for national reconciliation and respect for human rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Viet Nam", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0305", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 305, "n": 304, "text": "In a communication dated 31 July 2000, the Government of Viet Nam informed the Special Rapporteur that a case against Ha Sy Phu was brought to the local court in Lam Dong province on 10 May 2000 in connection with his involvement in activities which violated the provisions of the Criminal Code of Viet Nam. The Government explained that he was allowed to stay at home because the court had not issued an arrest warrant against him. The Government denied that he was held under Administrative Detention Directive 31/CP.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Viet Nam", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0306", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 306, "n": 305, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply but awaits further information on the cases he raised this year. He would also like to reiterate his wish to undertake a visit in the country, as expressed in letters dated 18 March 1996 and 10 November 1999.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Viet Nam", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0307", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 307, "n": 306, "text": "On 28 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government concerning Jamal Amer, editor and columnist for the opposition weekly newspaper Al-Wahdawi. According to the information received, on 22 February 2000, a Sana’a court ordered a 30-day suspension of the publication and permanently banned Jamal Amer from practising journalism in Yemen after he published an article on 10 August 1999 describing the struggles that allegedly took place within the Saudi royal family in 1999.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yemen", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0308", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 308, "n": 307, "text": "In a reply dated 27 March 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Jamal Amer was sentenced to pay a fine of 5,000 rials as a public disciplinary measure and was prohibited from practising the profession of journalism as an additional penalty - which was not a lifelong penalty. The Government explained that the sentence, issued in connection with the article which was said to have harmed relations between the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Yemen, was in accordance with the provision of article 106 (a) of the Press and Publications Act. It further stated that the defendant had the right to lodge an appeal against the judgement.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yemen", "Communication received"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "106", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0309", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 309, "n": 308, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yemen", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0310", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 310, "n": 309, "text": "On 15 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal regarding the defamation charges brought on 8 December 1999 against the newspapers Blic, Danas, and Studio B by the Information Minister, Aleksandar Vucic, and the Deputy Prime Minister, Vojislav Seselj. The accusations were allegedly raised in connection with an article published on 4 December 1999 which reported statements made by Vuk Draskovic implicating the Serbian Secret Service in a recent assassination attempt against him. The three newspapers were penalized with heavy fines, which they were required to pay within 24 hours or risk seizure of corporate assets. It was reported that individuals might face up to 30 days in prison for non-payment of fines.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yugoslavia (Federal Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0311", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 311, "n": 310, "text": "The Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal on 24 February 2000 with regard to threats reportedly made on 10 February 2000 by the Deputy Prime Minister, Vojislav Seselj, against the following print and electronic media: B2-92, Danas, Glas Javnosti, Vecernje Novosti and Blic. According to the information received, the Deputy Prime Minister accused independent Serbian journalists of being “traitors” and “accomplices” in the killing of Yugoslav Defence Minister Pavle Bulatovic and threatened violence against those journalists working for a “traitorous media”. Moreover, after the Yugoslav Minister of Information stated on 11 February 2000 that some elements of the Serbian media were working to destabilize the country, concerns were expressed that this was part of a strategy of intimidation directed at journalists working for media not controlled by the State.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yugoslavia (Federal Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0312", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 312, "n": 311, "text": "On 13 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning the charges brought against Studio B on 6 March 2000. It was reported that the Yugoslav Minister of Telecommunications served Studio B with an order to pay Serbian Telecom 10,755,314 dinars in fees usually charged for the temporary use of radio frequencies and television channels. As the holder of permanent licences, Studio B should reportedly have been exempted from that fee. Moreover, it was reported that, on 6 March 2000, Studio B had its transmission equipment stolen by attackers who reportedly wore police uniforms. In addition, the editor-in-chief and general manager of Studio B was reportedly fined 450,000 dinars for alleging involvement of the police in the attack on Studio B.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yugoslavia (Federal Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0313", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 313, "n": 312, "text": "The Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 17 May 2000 concerning the police raid and seizure of the offices of Studio B on 17 May 2000. It was reported that the Serbian authorities took control of the station because it had repeatedly called for the overthrow of the Serbian Government, and that they dismissed the management and appointed Ljuboslav Aleksic, known to be close to the Serbian Government, as editor-in-chief of the station. Moreover, the attack on Studio B stopped the transmission of Radio B2-92, which broadcast from Studio B’s facilities. In addition, it was reported that access to the building housing Radio Index and the daily Blic was blocked to their journalists.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yugoslavia (Federal Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0314", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 314, "n": 313, "text": "On 28 July 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government concerning the sentencing, on 26 July 2000, of Miroslav Filipovic, a journalist with the independent daily Danas and with Agence France Presse, and a member of the Helsinki Committee on Human Rights, to five years’ imprisonment for espionage and to an additional two years for propagation of false information following a trial held in camera. He was reportedly arrested on 8 May 2000 by the Serbian Security Forces, released on 12 May, rearrested 10 days later and kept in custody for 30 days by the Military Court of Nis on allegations of espionage and dissemination of false information. His detention was allegedly prolonged by the military tribunal in order to prevent him from leaving the country he was indicted on 14 June 2000 in connection with the publication of articles regarding crimes committed by the Yugoslav army during the North Atlantic Treaty Organization intervention in Kosovo.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yugoslavia (Federal Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0315", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 315, "n": 314, "text": "On 13 September 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal concerning measures and actions taken against independent media in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Two bans on television broadcasts had been brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur: on 9 September 2000, the Yugoslav police seized the transmitter of TV Cacak, a measure allegedly taken in relation to the broadcasting of the election campaign of Vojislav Kostunica; on 7 September 2000, the staff of TV Rosulja was reportedly evicted from its offices by the municipal authorities of Vlsotince following frequent broadcasts by opposition candidates. In addition, it was reported that, on 29 August 2000, the Federal Ministry of Information ordered Novi Sad cable network stations to stop broadcasting the news programmes of five non-Serbian television stations, RTV Crna Gora, HRT2, HRT3, OBN and Duna-TV, under article 27 of the Law of Information. It was also reported that the work of two independent radio stations, Radio Jasenica and Radio Globus, was disrupted when their signals were jammed on 16 August and 22 August 2000 respectively. The Special Rapporteur expressed his concern about reports linking the disruption of the work of these independent radio and television stations with the federal presidential and legislative elections planned for 24 September 2000.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yugoslavia (Federal Republic of)", "Communications sent"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "27", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0316", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 316, "n": 315, "text": "By a letter dated 18 May 2000, the Permanent Mission of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia informed the Special Rapporteur that violations of the freedom and independence of reporting of media and journalists in Kosovo and Metohija had been perpetrated by the International Security Force in Kosovo (KFOR) and the United Nations Interim Administration in Kosovo (UNMIK) in May 2000.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yugoslavia (Federal Republic of)", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0317", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 317, "n": 316, "text": "By a letter dated 28 August 2000, the Permanent Mission of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia informed the Special Rapporteur that the High Representative of the international community in Bosnia and Herzegovina had given an ultimatum on 18 August to the personnel of the Radio Yugoslavia transmission centre in Bijeljina to vacate the centre within 48 hours and stop broadcasting the programme of the State radio.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yugoslavia (Federal Republic of)", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0318", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 318, "n": 317, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for the information provided regarding issues pertaining to freedom of expression in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, but awaits further information on the cases he raised this year. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur\nwelcomes the release of Miroslav Filipovic on 10 October 2000 after an appeal court overturned his conviction for espionage and spreading false information and after incoming President Vojislav Kostunica pardoned him the previous day.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yugoslavia (Federal Republic of)", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0319", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 319, "n": 318, "text": "On 1 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning an alleged crack-down on journalists working for newspapers which have been critical of the Government. It was reported that David Kapangalwendo, a member of Parliament for the ruling party, had made comments threatening the safety and security of journalists, in particular in the Post newspaper, saying “they have gone too far”. He reportedly requested that the Ministry of Home Affairs and the Government “do something about such newspapers” and urged that action be taken against newspapers which make negative statements about the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0320", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 320, "n": 319, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply from the Government has yet been received.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0321", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 321, "n": 320, "text": "While the Special Rapporteur notes with satisfaction a growing tide in favour of human rights and that almost all Governments seem to be upholding the sanctity of the principles of freedom of opinion and expression, at the same time he is still encountering innumerable cases of great violations of human rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0322", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 322, "n": 321, "text": "The Special Rapporteur cannot help but view with dismay the content of the communications received in the past year. It is clear from them that the rights to freedom of opinion, expression and information are violated, almost as a matter of routine, in States with widely different political systems and institutional frameworks for governance. There are countries where these rights do not enjoy even the minimum protections and guarantees set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and associated international human rights instruments. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur encourages all States that have not ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to do so. Furthermore, he again urges all Governments to scrutinize their domestic legal systems with a view to bringing them into line with international standards governing the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Particularly with regard to the issue of national security, the Special Rapporteur urges all Governments to review not only laws specifically intended to protect national security but also ordinary criminal laws which may be used to infringe the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to information. The criminal justice and the police systems also need to be overhauled to ensure a greater sense of justice and fairness on the part of the police. The Governments may also consider the feasibility of setting up national human rights commissions and positions of Ombudsman where these institutions do not exist.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0323", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 323, "n": 322, "text": "In the light of the large number of allegations received relating to the abuse of libel and defamation laws, the Special Rapporteur would like to recall the recommendation made in his report last year (E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 205) that Governments should ensure that press offences are no longer punishable by terms of imprisonment, except in cases involving racist or discriminatory comments or calls to violence. Along the same lines, the Special Rapporteur would urge all Governments to ensure that the fines which the media or any organization/\nindividual are sentenced to pay for offences such as “defamation”, “libel”, “insults” and publication of “false” or “alarmist” information are not out of proportion to the harm suffered by the victims. In no event should such fines be used by Governments with the intention of limiting the free flow of information and ideas.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0324", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 324, "n": 323, "text": "The Special Rapporteur considers the increasing involvement of non-State individuals and entities in violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression to be of grave concern. He invites the Commission on Human Rights to consider how and by what means the international community may give continuing and coherent attention to the question of non-State actors and actions by them that infringe upon or negate the rights to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0325", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 325, "n": 324, "text": "As regards the impact of new information technology on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the Special Rapporteur would like to recall that new technologies, and in particular the Internet, are inherently democratic, provide the public and individuals with access to information sources and enable all to participate actively in the communication process. He remains concerned at information received regarding the efforts of some Governments either to control or shut down access to the Internet. The Special Rapporteur would, to the contrary, encourage Governments to increase the capacities in every country, in order to democratize the new technologies and to reduce the gap between the technologically advanced countries and others.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0326", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 326, "n": 325, "text": "With respect to the right to freedom of opinion and expression of women, the Special Rapporteur urges Governments to take all necessary steps to remove formal and cultural obstacles to the exercise by women of their right to freedom of expression, including to receive information, and ultimately to give effect to all their rights. He would like to draw the particular attention of Governments to the recent adoption by the Security Council of resolution 1325 (2000), in which it urged States to ensure increased representation of women at all decision-making levels in national, regional and international institutions and mechanisms for the prevention, management and resolution of conflicts. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur reiterates his hope of being able to prepare a report jointly with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, to be submitted to the Commission on Human Rights next year. In this regard, he again invites submissions by Governments, intergovernmental organizations and specialized agencies, as well as non-governmental bodies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0327", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 327, "n": 326, "text": "Finally, in accordance with Commission resolution 1999/49 requesting the Special Rapporteur to integrate the protection of HIV-related human rights within his mandate, the Special Rapporteur would like to call on all Governments, NGOs and other specialized organizations to provide him with information relating to the issue of HIV and access to information, in order for him to present his recommendations to the Commission on Human Rights at its next session.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0328", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 328, "n": 1, "text": "Access to information as a human right\nEvery person has the right to be free to seek, receive, have access to and disseminate information without interference from the public authorities, prior censorship or indirect restrictions due to the abuse of official control. There is no obligation on the individual to state the motive for exercising this right. Access to information is both an individual right and necessary for a democratic society. The right covers both those who actively seek information and those who expect to receive information through the media and/or through official channels.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0329", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 329, "n": 2, "text": "Access to information in a democratic society\nEvery person has the right to ensure accountability in the work of the public administration, of State entities in general, and of public service companies. In order to carry out this task effectively, people require access to information held by the authorities. The authorities must be legally required to make information available to people in a timely and complete manner. It is the Government’s responsibility to create and maintain public records in a serious and professional way, so that the right to information can be exercised effectively. Records should not be arbitrarily destroyed. This, in turn, requires a public policy which preserves and develops a corporate memory within the institutions of government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0330", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 330, "n": 3, "text": "Transparency and development\nAccess to information is indispensable for the scrutiny of and adequate debate on government action that are essential not only for transparent management of public bodies, but also to avoid corruption and other abuses of power. This right permits people to participate in public affairs and in decision-making and, more generally, permits the identification of public servants’ responsibilities, the objective evaluation of facts and the forming of opinion in order to increase participation in the political, economic, social and cultural life of the country.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0331", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 331, "n": 4, "text": "The authorities’ obligations\nInformation belongs to the citizens. Information is not the property of the State and access to it is not to be granted as a governmental favour. The Government holds information only in its role as the representative of the citizens.\nThe State and public service companies are obligated to respect and guarantee access to information for all individuals and to adopt the necessary legislative or other measures to promote respect for this right and to ensure its effective recognition and implementation. It is the State’s obligation to promote a culture of transparency in society and in the public sector and to act with due diligence in facilitating access to information, identifying those who should provide information, forestalling actions which prevent its disclosure and sanctioning offenders.\nThe conduct of officials who refuse access to information and the existence of legislation that allows this undermine this right.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0332", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 332, "n": 5, "text": "Journalism and access to information\nGovernments are obliged to guarantee and respect journalists’ right to exercise their profession, and the independence of the media. Journalists must be guaranteed the necessary conditions to obtain and disseminate information. Officials who interfere with this process must be subject to sanctions.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0333", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 333, "n": 6, "text": "Protection of journalists’ sources\nNo journalist should be compelled by a judicial or other public authority to reveal his or her sources of information or the content of notes or personal or professional files.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0334", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 334, "n": 7, "text": "Legislation on access to information\nNorms establishing the right of access to information must guarantee the maximum amount of transparency and must specify that every person is entitled to exercise this right; that the information should be presented in the format requested by the applicant or at least in its original format; that the costs of the search, subsequent processes and transmission of the information will be assumed by the applicant through payment of a fee, which should not exceed the cost of the service; that the deadlines for access to and provision of information should be reasonable; and that appropriate sanctions will be established for officials who refuse to provide the requested information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0335", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 335, "n": 8, "text": "Exceptions to the right of access to information\nExceptions to the right of access to information may be legitimately provided for only in the Constitution and by law, in accordance with the principles of a democratic society, to a limited extent and only where necessary to protect a legitimate national security interest or the individual’s legitimate right to privacy. Information shall not be kept secret on the basis of unpublished regulations. Any person or official who refuses to provide access to requested information will have to justify this refusal in writing and demonstrate that the information is included in the restricted category of exceptions. If the person seeking the information so requests, an impartial and competent judicial authority may review such refusal and may order the release of the information.\nThe withholding of information under a broad and imprecise definition of national security is unacceptable. Any restrictions on the grounds of national security will only be valid when their aim is to protect the territorial integrity of the country and in exceptional circumstances of extreme violence that threaten the imminent collapse of the democratic order. Any restrictions based on grounds of national security are not legitimate if their purpose is to protect the Government’s interests rather than those of society as a whole.\nPrivacy laws should not inhibit or restrict investigation and dissemination of any information in the public interest.\nThe law, having defined specified categories of classified information, shall establish reasonable deadlines and procedures for declassification as soon as the national security interest allows. In no case may information remain classified indefinitely.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0336", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 336, "n": 9, "text": "Protection of whistleblowers\nNo public servant or other person should be subject to any sanction for the disclosure of information classified under the restrictions referred to above, if the public interest in being informed outweighs the consequences that might arise from disclosure. In such cases the individual may benefit from special protection.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0337", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 337, "n": 10, "text": "Legal protection of the right of access to information\nThe autonomy and independence of the judiciary is fundamental to guaranteeing the right of access to public information in cases where the authorities or officials refuse to disclose information or place restrictions on its exercise. Prompt judicial action is indispensable to protect this right and to generate public confidence and transparency in the exercise of power. Added to these judicial mechanisms of protection is the right to petition other institutions, such as the Ombudsman’s office, and supranational bodies established to protect this and other rights.\nAny existing regulations which contravene these principles should be abolished.\nAdopted by the Seminar on Information for Democracy\nLima, 16 November 2000\nAnnex III\nINTER-AMERICAN DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES\nON FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION\nPreamble\nReaffirming the need to ensure respect for and full enjoyment of individual freedoms and fundamental rights of human beings under the rule of law,\nAware that consolidation and development of democracy depends upon the existence of freedom of expression,\nPersuaded that the right to freedom of expression is essential for the development of knowledge and understanding among peoples that will lead to true tolerance and cooperation among the nations of the hemisphere,\nConvinced that any obstacle to the free discussion of ideas and opinions limits freedom of expression and the effective development of a democratic process,\nConvinced that guaranteeing the right to access to information held by the State will ensure greater transparency and accountability of governmental activities and the strengthening of democratic institutions,\nRecalling that freedom of expression is a fundamental right recognized in the American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man and the American Convention on Human Rights, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, resolution 59 (1) of the United Nations General Assembly, resolution 104 adopted by the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, as well as in other international documents and national constitutions,\nRecognizing that the member States of the Organization of American States are subject to the legal framework established by the principles of article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights,\nReaffirming article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights, which establishes that the right to freedom of expression comprises the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas, regardless of borders and by any means of communication,\nConsidering the importance of freedom of expression for the development and protection of human rights, the important role assigned to it by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and the full support given to the establishment of the Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression as a fundamental instrument for the protection of this right in the hemisphere at the Summit of the Americas in Santiago, Chile,\nRecognizing that freedom of the press is essential for the full and effective exercise of freedom of expression and an indispensable instrument for the functioning of representative democracy, through which individuals exercise their right to receive, impart and seek information,\nReaffirming that the principles of the Declaration of Chapultepec constitute a basic document that contemplates the protection and defence of freedom of expression, freedom and independence of the press and the right to information,\nConsidering that the right to freedom of expression is not a concession by the States but a fundamental right,\nRecognizing the need to protect freedom of expression effectively in the Americas, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, in support of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression, adopts the following Declaration of Principles:", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0338", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 338, "n": 1, "text": "Freedom of expression in all its forms and manifestations is a fundamental and inalienable right of all individuals. Additionally, it is an indispensable requirement for the very existence of a democratic society.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0339", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 339, "n": 2, "text": "Every person has the right to seek, receive and impart information and opinions freely under terms set forth in article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights. All people should be afforded equal opportunities to receive, seek and impart information by any means of communication without any discrimination for reasons of race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinions, national or social origin, economic status, birth or any other social condition.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "13", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights' — regional instrument."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0340", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 340, "n": 3, "text": "Every person has the right to access to information about himself or herself or his/her assets expeditiously and not onerously, whether it be contained in databases or public or private registries, and if necessary to update it, correct it and/or amend it.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0341", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 341, "n": 4, "text": "Access to information held by the State is a fundamental right of every individual. States have the obligation to guarantee the full exercise of this right. This principle allows only exceptional limitations that must be previously established by law in case of a real and imminent danger that threatens national security in democratic societies.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0342", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 342, "n": 5, "text": "Prior censorship, direct or indirect interference in or pressure exerted upon any expression, opinion or information transmitted through any means of oral, written, artistic, visual or electronic communication must be prohibited by law. Restrictions to the free circulation of ideas and opinions, as well as the arbitrary imposition of information and the imposition of obstacles to the free flow of information violate the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0343", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 343, "n": 6, "text": "Every person has the right to communicate his/her views by any means and in any form. Compulsory membership or the requirements of a university degree for the practice of journalism constitute unlawful restrictions of freedom of expression. Journalistic activities must be guided by ethical conduct, which should in no case be imposed by the State.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0344", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 344, "n": 7, "text": "Prior conditioning of expressions, such as truthfulness, timeliness or impartiality is incompatible with the right to freedom of expression recognized in international instruments.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0345", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 345, "n": 8, "text": "Every social communicator has the right to keep his/her source of information, notes, personal and professional archives confidential.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0346", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 346, "n": 9, "text": "The murder, kidnapping, intimidation of and/or threats to social communicators, as well as the material destruction of communications media violate the fundamental rights of individuals and strongly restrict freedom of expression. It is the duty of the State to prevent and investigate such occurrences, to punish their perpetrators and to ensure that victims receive due compensation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0347", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 347, "n": 10, "text": "Privacy laws should not inhibit or restrict investigation and dissemination of information of public interest. The protection of a person’s reputation should only be guaranteed through civil sanctions in those cases in which the person offended is a public official, a public person or a private person who has voluntarily become involved in matters of public interest. In addition, in these cases, it must be proven that in disseminating the news, the social communicator had the specific intent to inflict harm, was fully aware that false news was disseminated, or acted with gross negligence in efforts to determine the truth or falsity of such news.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0348", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 348, "n": 11, "text": "Public officials are subject to greater scrutiny by society. Laws that penalize offensive expressions directed at public officials, generally known as “desacato laws”, restrict freedom of expression and the right to information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0349", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 349, "n": 12, "text": "Monopolies or oligopolies in the ownership and control of the communication media must be subject to anti-trust laws, as they conspire against democracy by limiting the plurality and diversity which ensure the full exercise of people’s right to information. In no case should such laws apply exclusively to the media. The concession of radio and television broadcast frequencies should take into account democratic criteria that provide equal opportunity of access for all individuals.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0350", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 350, "n": 13, "text": "The exercise of power and the use of public funds by the State, the granting of customs duty privileges, the arbitrary and discriminatory placement of official advertising and government loans; the concession of radio and television broadcast frequencies, among others, with the intent to put pressure on and punish or reward and provide privileges to social communicators and communications media because of the opinions they express threaten freedom of expression, and must be explicitly prohibited by law. The means of communication have the right to carry out their role in an independent manner. Direct or indirect pressures exerted upon journalists or other social communicators to stifle the dissemination of information\nare incompatible with freedom of expression.\nApproved by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights\nat its 108th regular session\nAnnex IV\nJOINT United Nations-OSCE-OAS PRESS RELEASE\n3 May 2000\nFree journalism - the shield of democracy in periods of conflict\nOn the occasion of World Press Freedom Day, 3 May 2000, Abid Hussain, United Nations Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression, Freimut Duve, OSCE Representative on freedom of the media and Santiago Canton, OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression joined in a statement about the harassment and killing of journalists in conflict situations:\nWe note with deep concern that, in 1999, 87 journalists and media personnel were reportedly killed while carrying out their assignments, many in the context of conflict or post-conflict situations.\nWe emphasize the importance of access to information and, in particular, the right of journalists to seek, receive and impart information. Journalists are the shields of democracy - all the more during periods of conflict and tension. Free access to war zones is essential in order to enable journalists to fulfil their mission of informing the public.\nWe urge Governments to respect and protect fully the right to freedom of expression, and the right of access to information in particular, by guaranteeing the security and safety of journalists in conflict and post-conflict areas. Guarantees should also be provided to prevent journalists from being subject to influence and pressure, so that the information they provide remains fair, impartial and non-partisan.\nWe recall that, in accordance with international standards, during periods of conflict and tension, only the narrowest limitations may be imposed on the right to freedom of expression and information, and the law must have prescribed these. Consequently, all national laws that restrict this right in an abusive manner should be repealed.\nWe reaffirm that in post-conflict situations the re-establishment of a free, independent and pluralist press constitutes an essential step towards rebuilding and strengthening democratic institutions.\nWe reiterate that Governments and other power groups should refrain from using the media as a propaganda machine to call for violence and to disseminate racial hatred.\nWe express concern about the lack of common principles regarding the access of journalists to areas of conflict or tension and request the international community to take adequate steps to ensure minimum standards applicable to all.\nAbid Hussain\nUnited Nations Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression\nFreimut Duve\nOSCE Representative on freedom of the media\nSantiago Canton\nOAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression\nAnnex V\nJoint declaration by the united nations special\nrapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression,\nthe osce representative on freedom of the media\nand the oas special rapporteur on freedom\nof expression\nHaving met with representatives of NGOs, UNESCO, journalists’ associations and human rights experts in London on 29 and 30 November 2000, under the auspices of ARTICLE 19, Global Campaign for Free Expression, assisted by Canadian Journalists for Free Expression;\nRecalling and reaffirming their Joint Declaration, made in London on 26 November 1999;\nNoting the importance of regional mechanisms in promoting the right to freedom of expression and the need to promote such mechanisms in every region of the world;\nWelcoming the recommendation of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights Seminar on Freedom of Expression and the African Charter that a special rapporteur or other mechanism on freedom of expression be established for Africa;\nEncouraging moves in ASEAN and in the Asia and Pacific region to develop regional mechanisms for the promotion and protection of human rights;\nSupporting the Inter-American Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights;\nEndorsing the ARTICLE 19 document, “Defining defamation: principles on freedom of expression and protection of reputation”;\nStating our intention to adopt a joint statement on racism and the media as part of the preparatory process for the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance;\nAdopt the following Declaration:\nTwo threats to freedom of expression and the free flow of information and ideas have now reached crisis proportions in many parts of the world:\nAttacks on journalists and others exercising their right to freedom of expression (censorship by killing); and\nThe abuse of restrictive defamation and libel laws.\nCensorship by killing\nAttacks such as the murder, kidnapping, harassment of and/or threats to journalists and others exercising their right to freedom of expression, as well as the material destruction of communications facilities, pose a very significant threat to independent and investigative journalism, to freedom of expression and to the free flow of information to the public.\nStates are under an obligation to take adequate measures to end the climate of impunity and such measures should include devoting sufficient resources and attention to preventing attacks on journalists and others exercising their right to freedom of expression, investigating such attacks when they do occur, bringing those responsible to justice and compensating victims.\nDefamation\nAll States should review their defamation laws in order to ensure that they do not restrict the right to freedom of expression and to bring them into line with their international obligations.\nAt a minimum, defamation laws should comply with the following standards:\nThe repeal of criminal defamation laws in favour of civil laws should be considered, in accordance with relevant international standards;\nThe State, objects such as flags or symbols, government bodies, and public authorities of all kinds should be prevented from bringing defamation actions;\nDefamation laws should reflect the importance of open debate about matters of public concern, and the principle that public figures are required to accept a greater degree of criticism than private citizens; in particular, laws which provide special protection for public figures, such as desacato laws, should be repealed;\nThe plaintiff should bear the burden of proving the falsity of any statements of fact on matters of public concern;\nNo one should be liable under defamation law for the expression of an opinion;\nIt should be a defence, in relation to a statement on a matter of public concern, to show that publication was reasonable in all the circumstances; and\nCivil sanctions for defamation should not be so large as to exert a chilling effect on freedom of expression and should be designed to restore the reputation harmed, not to compensate the plaintiff or to punish the defendant; in particular, pecuniary awards should be strictly proportionate to the actual harm caused and the law should prioritize the use of a range of non-pecuniary remedies.\nAt the same time, the three special mechanisms recognize that new communications technologies are of enormous value in promoting the right to freedom of expression and the free flow of information and ideas, and express their intention to include this as a topic for discussion at their next joint meeting.\nAbid Hussain\nUnited Nations Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression\nFreimut Duve\nOSCE Representative on freedom of the media\nSantiago Canton\nOAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression\n30 November 2000", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. Early in the digital age, John Perry Barlow declared that the Internet would usher in “a world where anyone, anywhere may express his or her beliefs, no matter how singular, without fear of being coerced into silence or conformity”.[[fn:1]] Although the Internet remains history’s greatest tool for global access to information, such online evangelism is hard to find today. The public sees hate, abuse and disinformation in the content users generate. Governments see terrorist recruitment or discomfiting dissent and opposition. Civil society organizations see the outsourcing of public functions, like protection of freedom of expression, to unaccountable private actors. Despite taking steps to illuminate their rules and government interactions, the companies remain enigmatic regulators, establishing a kind of “platform law” in which clarity, consistency, accountability and remedy are elusive. The United Nations, regional organizations and treaty bodies have affirmed that offline rights apply equally online, but it is not always clear that the companies protect the rights of their users or that States give companies legal incentives to do so.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "John Perry Barlow, A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace, 8 February 1996."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. In the present report the Special Rapporteur proposes a framework for the moderation of user-generated online content that puts human rights at the very centre.[[fn:2]] He seeks to answer basic questions: What responsibilities do companies have to ensure that their platforms do not interfere with rights guaranteed under international law? What standards should they apply to content moderation? Should States regulate commercial content moderation and, if so, how? The law expects transparency and accountability from States to mitigate threats to freedom of expression. Should we expect the same of private actors? What do the processes of protection and remedy look like in the digital age?", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "“Moderation” describes the process by which Internet companies determine whether user-generated content meets the standards articulated in their terms of service and other rules."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. Previous reports have addressed some of these questions.[[fn:3]] The present report focuses on the regulation of user-generated content, principally by States and social media companies but in a way that is applicable to all relevant actors in the information and communications technology (ICT) sector. The Special Rapporteur outlines the applicable human rights legal framework and describes company and State approaches to content regulation. He proposes standards and processes that companies should adopt to regulate content in accordance with human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "A/HRC/35/22 and A/HRC/32/38."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Research into the companies’ terms of service, transparency reporting and secondary sources provided the initial basis for the report. Calls for comments generated 21 submissions from States and 29 from non-State actors (including 1 company submission). The Special Rapporteur visited several companies in Silicon Valley and held conversations with others in an effort to understand their approaches to content moderation.[[fn:4]] He benefited from civil society consultations held in Bangkok and Geneva in 2017 and 2018 and online discussions with experts in Latin America, the Middle East and North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa in 2018.[[fn:5]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "The Special Rapporteur visited the headquarters of Facebook, Github, Google, Reddit and Twitter and held conversations with representatives of Yahoo/Oath, Line and Microsoft. He also visited the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation. He hopes to visit companies in Beijing, Moscow, Seoul and Tokyo in work related to the present report."}, {"n": 5, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank his legal adviser, Amos Toh, and students at the International Justice Clinic at the University of California, Irvine, School of Law."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The activities of companies in the ICT sector implicate rights to privacy, religious freedom and belief, opinion and expression, assembly and association, and public participation, among others. The present report focuses on freedom of expression while acknowledging the interdependence of rights, such as the importance of privacy as a gateway to freedom of expression.[[fn:6]] Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provides globally established rules, ratified by 170 States and echoing the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, guaranteeing “the right to hold opinions without interference” and “the right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers” and through any medium.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See A/HRC/29/32, paras. 16−18."}, {"n": 7, "text": "See also African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, art. 9; American Convention on Human Rights, art. 13; Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, art. 10. See also Centro de Estudios en Libertad de Expresión y Acceso a la Información submission."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provides globally established rules' as the primary instrument, with UDHR mentioned only secondarily as 'echoing'. Primary attribution is to the ICCPR."}], "section": ["II. Legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Human rights law imposes duties on States to ensure enabling environments for freedom of expression and to protect its exercise. The duty to ensure freedom of expression obligates States to promote, inter alia, media diversity and independence and access to information.[[fn:8]] Additionally, international and regional bodies have urged States to promote universal Internet access.[[fn:9]] States also have a duty to ensure that private entities do not interfere with the freedoms of opinion and expression.[[fn:10]] The Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, adopted by the Human Rights Council in 2011, emphasize in principle 3 State duties to ensure environments that enable business respect for human rights.[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Joint Declaration on Freedom of Expression and “Fake News”, Disinformation and Propaganda, 3 March 2017, sect. 3. See also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression, paras. 18 and 40; A/HRC/29/32, para. 61 and A/HRC/32/38, para. 86."}, {"n": 9, "text": "See Human Rights Council, resolution 32/13, para. 12; Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Standards for a Free, Open and Inclusive Internet (2016), para. 18."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See general comment No. 34, para. 7."}, {"n": 11, "text": "A/HRC/17/31."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. States may not restrict the right to hold opinions without interference. Per article 19 (3) of the Covenant, State limitations on freedom of expression must meet the following well-established conditions:\nLegality. Restrictions must be “provided by law”. In particular, they must be adopted by regular legal processes and limit government discretion in a manner that distinguishes between lawful and unlawful expression with “sufficient precision”. Secretly adopted restrictions fail this fundamental requirement.[[fn:12]] The assurance of legality should generally involve the oversight of independent judicial authorities.[[fn:13]]\nNecessity and proportionality. States must demonstrate that the restriction imposes the least burden on the exercise of the right and actually protects, or is likely to protect, the legitimate State interest at issue. States may not merely assert necessity but must demonstrate it, in the adoption of restrictive legislation and the restriction of specific expression.[[fn:14]]\nLegitimacy. Any restriction, to be lawful, must protect only those interests enumerated in article 19 (3): the rights or reputations of others, national security or public order, or public health or morals. Restrictions designed to protect the rights of others, for instance, include “human rights as recognized in the Covenant and more generally in international human rights law”.[[fn:15]] Restrictions to protect rights to privacy, life, due process, association and participation in public affairs, to name a few, would be legitimate when demonstrated to meet the tests of legality and necessity. The Human Rights Committee cautions that restrictions to protect “public morals” should not derive “exclusively from a single tradition”, seeking to ensure that the restriction reflects principles of non-discrimination and the universality of rights.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Ibid. para. 25; A/HRC/29/32."}, {"n": 13, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 14, "text": "See general comment No. 34, para. 27."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Ibid., para. 28."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Ibid., para. 32."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Restrictions pursuant to article 20 (2) of the Covenant — which requires States to prohibit “advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence” — must still satisfy the cumulative conditions of legality, necessity and legitimacy.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Ibid., para. 50. See also A/67/357."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Internet companies have become central platforms for discussion and debate, information access, commerce and human development.[[fn:18]] They collect and retain the personal data of billions of individuals, including information about their habits, whereabouts and activities, and often claim civic roles. In 2004, Google promoted its ambition to do “good things for the world even if we forgo some short term gains”.[[fn:19]] Facebook’s founder has proclaimed a desire to “develop the social infrastructure to give people the power to build a global community that works for all of us”.[[fn:20]] Twitter has promised policies that “improve — and do not detract from — a free and global conversation”.[[fn:21]] VKontakte, a Russian social media company, “unites people all over the world”, while Tencent reflects the language of the Government of China when noting its aims to “help build a harmonious society and to become a good corporate citizen”.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "B. Company responsibilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "See, for example, Supreme Court of the United States, Packingham v. North Carolina, opinion of 19 June 2017; European Court of Human Rights, Times Newspapers Ltd. (Nos. 1 and 2) v. The United Kingdom (application Nos. 3002/03 and 23676/03), judgment of 10 March 2009, para. 27."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Securities Registration Statement (S-1) under the Securities Act of 1933, 18 August 2004."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Mark Zuckerberg, “Building global community”, Facebook, 16 February 2017."}, {"n": 21, "text": "Twitter, S-1 Registration Statement, 13 October 2013, pp. 91–92."}, {"n": 22, "text": "VKontakte, company information; Tencent, “About Tencent”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Few companies apply human rights principles in their operations, and most that do see them as limited to how they respond to government threats and demands.[[fn:23]] However, the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights establish “global standard[s] of expected conduct” that should apply throughout company operations and wherever they operate.[[fn:24]] While the Guiding Principles are non-binding, the companies’ overwhelming role in public life globally argues strongly for their adoption and implementation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "B. Company responsibilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Danish Institute for Human Rights submission. Cf. Yahoo/Oath submission, 2016."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Guiding Principles, principle 11."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. The Guiding Principles establish a framework according to which companies should, at a minimum:\n(a) Avoid causing or contributing to adverse human rights impacts and seek to prevent or mitigate such impacts directly linked to their operations, products or services by their business relationships, even if they have not contributed to those impacts (principle 13);\n(b) Make high-level policy commitments to respect the human rights of their users (principle 16);\n(c) Conduct due diligence that identifies, addresses and accounts for actual and potential human rights impacts of their activities, including through regular risk and impact assessments, meaningful consultation with potentially affected groups and other stakeholders, and appropriate follow-up action that mitigates or prevents these impacts (principles 17−19);\n(d) Engage in prevention and mitigation strategies that respect principles of internationally recognized human rights to the greatest extent possible when faced with conflicting local law requirements (principle 23);\n(e) Conduct ongoing review of their efforts to respect rights, including through regular consultation with stakeholders, and frequent, accessible and effective communication with affected groups and the public (principles 20−21);\n(f) Provide appropriate remediation, including through operational-level grievance mechanisms that users may access without aggravating their “sense of disempowerment” (principles 22, 29 and 31).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "B. Company responsibilities"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Governments seek to shape the environment in which companies moderate content, while the companies predicate individual access to their platforms on user agreement with terms of service that govern what may be expressed and how individuals may express it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. States regularly require companies to restrict manifestly illegal content such as representations of child sexual abuse, direct and credible threats of harm and incitement to violence, presuming they also meet the conditions of legality and necessity.[[fn:25]] Some States go much further and rely on censorship and criminalization to shape the online regulatory environment.[[fn:26]] Broadly worded restrictive laws on “extremism”, blasphemy, defamation, “offensive” speech, “false news” and “propaganda” often serve as pretexts for demanding that companies suppress legitimate discourse.[[fn:27]] Increasingly, States target content specifically on online platforms.[[fn:28]] Other laws may interfere with online privacy in ways that deter the exercise of freedom of opinion and expression.[[fn:29]] Many States also deploy tools of disinformation and propaganda to limit the accessibility and trustworthiness of independent media.[[fn:30]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "A. Government regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "Ireland has established co-regulatory mechanisms with companies to restrict illegal child sexual abuse material: Ireland submission. Many companies rely on a picture recognition algorithm to detect and remove child pornography: submissions by Open Technology Institute, p. 2 and ARTICLE 19, p. 8."}, {"n": 26, "text": "See A/HRC/32/38, paras. 46−47. On Internet shutdowns, see A/HRC/35/22, paras. 8−16 and examples of communications of the Special Rapporteur: Nos. UA TGO 1/2017, UA IND 7/2017 and AL GMB 1/2017."}, {"n": 27, "text": "Communication Nos. OL MYS 1/2018; UA RUS 7/2017; UA ARE 7/2017, AL BHR 8/2016, AL SGP 5/2016 and OL RUS 7/2016. Azerbaijan prohibits propaganda of terrorism, religious extremism and suicide: Azerbaijan submission."}, {"n": 28, "text": "See communication Nos. OL PAK 8/2016 and OL LAO 1/2014; Association for Progressive Communications, Unshackling Expression: A Study on Laws Criminalising Expression Online in Asia, GISWatch 2017 Special Edition."}, {"n": 29, "text": "A/HRC/29/32."}, {"n": 30, "text": "See, for example, Gary King, Jennifer Pan and Margaret E. Roberts, “How the Chinese Government fabricates social media posts for strategic distraction, not engaged argument”, American Political Science Review, vol. 111, No. 3 (2017), pp. 484−501."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Liability protections. From early in the digital age, many States adopted rules to protect intermediaries from liability for the content third parties publish on their platforms. The European Union e-commerce directive, for instance, establishes a legal regime to protect intermediaries from liability for content except when they go beyond their role as a “mere conduit”, “cache” or “host” of information provided by users.[[fn:31]] Section 230 of the United States Communications Decency Act generally provides immunity for providers of “interactive computer service[s]” that host or publish information about others, but this has since been curtailed.[[fn:32]] The intermediary liability regime in Brazil requires a court order to restrict particular content,[[fn:33]] while the intermediary liability regime in India establishes a “notice and takedown” process that involves the order of a court or similar adjudicative body.[[fn:34]] The 2014 Manila Principles on Intermediary Liability, developed by a coalition of civil society experts, identify essential principles that should guide any intermediary liability framework.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "A. Government regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "Directive No. 2000/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2000."}, {"n": 32, "text": "47 United States Code § 230. See also the Allow States and Victims to Fight Online Sex Trafficking Act (H.R. 1865)."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Marco Civil da Internet, federal law 12.965, arts. 18−19."}, {"n": 34, "text": "Supreme Court of India, Shreya Singhal v. Union of India, decision of 24 March 2015."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Imposition of company obligations. Some States impose obligations on companies to restrict content under vague or complex legal criteria without prior judicial review and with the threat of harsh penalties. For example, the Chinese Cybersecurity Law of 2016 reinforces vague prohibitions against the spread of “false” information that disrupts “social or economic order”, national unity or national security; it also requires companies to monitor their networks and report violations to the authorities.[[fn:35]] Failure to comply has reportedly led to heavy fines for the country’s biggest social media platforms.[[fn:36]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "A. Government regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "Articles 12 and 47; Human Rights in China submission, 2016, p. 12. For comments on an earlier draft of the Cybersecurity Law, see communication No. OL CHN 7/2015. See also Global Voices, “Netizen Report: Internet censorship bill looms large over Egypt”, 16 March 2018; Republic of South Africa, Films and Publications Amendment Bill (B 61—2003)."}, {"n": 36, "text": "PEN America, Forbidden Feeds: Government Controls on Social Media in China (2018), p. 21."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Obligations to monitor and rapidly remove user-generated content have also increased globally, establishing punitive frameworks likely to undermine freedom of expression even in democratic societies. The network enforcement law (NetzDG) in Germany requires large social media companies to remove content inconsistent with specified local laws, with substantial penalties for non-compliance within very short time frames.[[fn:37]] The European Commission has even recommended that member States establish legal obligations for active monitoring and filtering of illegal content.[[fn:38]] Guidelines adopted in 2017 in Kenya on the dissemination of social media content during elections require platforms to “pull down accounts used in disseminating undesirable political contents on their platforms” within 24 hours.[[fn:39]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "A. Government regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "Act to Improve Enforcement of the Law in Social Networks (Network Enforcement Act), July 2017. See communication No. OL DEU 1/2017."}, {"n": 38, "text": "European Commission, recommendation on measures to effectively tackle illegal content online (last updated: 5 March 2018)."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See communication No. OL KEN 10/2017; Javier Pallero, “Honduras: new bill threatens to curb online speech”, Access Now, 12 February 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. In the light of legitimate State concerns such as privacy and national security, the appeal of regulation is understandable. However, such rules involve risks to freedom of expression, putting significant pressure on companies such that they may remove lawful content in a broad effort to avoid liability. They also involve the delegation of regulatory functions to private actors that lack basic tools of accountability. Demands for quick, automatic removals risk new forms of prior restraint that already threaten creative endeavours in the context of copyright.[[fn:40]] Complex questions of fact and law should generally be adjudicated by public institutions, not private actors whose current processes may be inconsistent with due process standards and whose motives are principally economic.[[fn:41]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "A. Government regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "See European Commission, Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Copyright in the Digital Single Market, COM (2016) 593 final, art. 13; Daphne Keller, “Problems with filters in the European Commission’s platforms proposal”, Stanford Law School Center for Internet and Society, 5 October 2017; Fundación Karisma submission, 2016, pp. 4–6."}, {"n": 41, "text": "Under European Union law, search engines are required to determine the validity of claims brought under the “right to be forgotten” framework. European Court of Justice, Google Spain v. Agencia Española de Protección de Datos and Mario Costeja González (case C-131/12), judgment (Grand Chamber) of 13 May 2014; submissions by ARTICLE 19, pp. 2−3 and Access Now, pp. 6–7; Google, “Updating our ‘right to be forgotten’ Transparency Report”; Theo. Bertram and others, Three Years of the Right to be Forgotten (Google, 2018)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Global removals. Some States are demanding extraterritorial removal of links, websites and other content alleged to violate local law.[[fn:42]] Such demands raise serious concern that States may interfere with the right to freedom of expression “regardless of frontiers”. The logic of these demands would allow censorship across borders, to the benefit of the most restrictive censors. Those seeking removals should be required to make such requests in every jurisdiction where relevant, through regular legal and judicial process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "A. Government regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "See, for example, PEN America, Forbidden Feeds, pp. 36–37; Supreme Court of Canada, Google Inc. v. Equuestek Solutions Inc., judgment of 28 June 2017; European Court of Justice, Google Inc. v. Commission nationale de l’informatique et des libertés (CNIL) (case C-507/17); Global Network Initiative submission, p. 6."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Government demands not based on national law. Companies distinguish between requests for the removal of allegedly illegal content submitted through regular legal channels and requests for removal based on the companies’ terms of service.[[fn:43]] (Legal removals generally apply only in the requesting jurisdiction; terms of service removals generally apply globally.) State authorities increasingly seek content removals outside of legal process or even through terms of service requests.[[fn:44]] Several have established specialized government units to refer content to companies for removal. The European Union Internet Referral Unit, for instance, “flag[s] terrorist and violent extremist content online and cooperat[es] with online service providers with the aim of removing this content”.[[fn:45]] Australia also has similar referral mechanisms.[[fn:46]] In South-East Asia, parties allied with Governments reportedly attempt to use terms of service requests to restrict political criticism.[[fn:47]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "A. Government regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "Compare Twitter Transparency Report: Removal Requests (January−June 2017) with Twitter Transparency Report: Government Terms of Service Reports (January−June 2017). See also Facebook, Government requests: Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)."}, {"n": 44, "text": "Submissions by ARTICLE 19, p. 2 and Global Network Initiative, p. 5."}, {"n": 45, "text": "European Union, Internet Referral Unit, Year One Report, sect. 4.11; submissions by European Digital Rights (EDRi), p. 1 and Access Now, pp. 2−3."}, {"n": 46, "text": "Australia submission."}, {"n": 47, "text": "Southeast Asian Press Alliance, p. 1."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. States also place pressure on companies to accelerate content removals through non-binding efforts, most of which have limited transparency. A three-year ban on YouTube in Pakistan compelled Google to establish a local version susceptible to government demands for removals of “offensive” content.[[fn:48]] Facebook and Israel reportedly agreed to coordinate efforts and staff to monitor and remove “incitement” online. The details of this agreement were not disclosed, but the Israeli Minister of Justice claimed that between June and September 2016, Facebook granted nearly all government requests for removal of “incitement”.[[fn:49]] Arrangements to coordinate content actions with State input exacerbate concerns that companies perform public functions without the oversight of courts and other accountability mechanisms.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "A. Government regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Digital Rights Foundation submission."}, {"n": 49, "text": "7amleh − The Arab Center for the Advancement of Social Media submission."}, {"n": 50, "text": "Association for Progressive Communications, p. 14 and 7amleh."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The 2016 European Union Code of Conduct on countering illegal hate speech online involves agreement between the European Union and four major companies to remove content, committing them to collaborate with “trusted flaggers” and promote “independent counter-narratives”.[[fn:51]] While the promotion of counter-narratives may be attractive in the face of “extremist” or “terrorist” content, pressure for such approaches runs the risk of transforming platforms into carriers of propaganda well beyond established areas of legitimate concern.[[fn:52]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "A. Government regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "“Trusted flaggers … refers to the status given to certain organisations which allows them to report illegal content through a special reporting system or channel, which is not available to normal users.” European Commission, Code of Conduct on countering illegal hate speech online: First results on implementation (December 2016)."}, {"n": 52, "text": "The same companies created the Global Internet Forum to Counter Terrorism, an effort to develop industry-wide technological tools to remove terrorist content on their platforms. Google, “Update on the Global Internet Forum to Counter Terrorism”, 4 December 2017."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Each company is committed in principle to comply with the local law where it does business. As Facebook puts it: “If, after careful legal review, we determine that the content is illegal under local law, then we make it unavailable in the relevant country or territory.”[[fn:53]] Tencent, the owner of the mobile chat and social media app WeChat, goes considerably further, requiring anyone using the platform within China and Chinese citizens using the platform “anywhere in the world” to comply with content restrictions that mirror Chinese law or policy.[[fn:54]] Several companies also collaborate with one another and regulatory bodies to remove images of child sexual abuse.[[fn:55]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company compliance with national law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "Facebook, Government requests: FAQs. See also Google legal removal requests; Twitter rules and policies; Reddit content policy."}, {"n": 54, "text": "Tencent, Terms of Service: Introduction; Tencent, Agreement on Software License and Service of Tencent Wenxin."}, {"n": 55, "text": "United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Fostering Freedom Online: The Role of Internet Intermediaries (Paris, 2014), pp. 56−57."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. The commitment to legal compliance can be complicated when relevant State law is vague, subject to varying interpretations or inconsistent with human rights law. For instance, laws against “extremism” which leave the key term undefined provide discretion to government authorities to pressure companies to remove content on questionable grounds.[[fn:56]] Similarly, companies are often under pressure to comply with State laws that criminalize content that is said to be, for instance, blasphemous, critical of the State, defamatory of public officials or false. As explained below, the Guiding Principles provide tools to minimize the impact of such laws on individual users. The Global Network Initiative, a multi-stakeholder initiative that helps ICT companies navigate human rights challenges, has developed additional guidance on how to employ these tools.[[fn:57]] One tool of minimization is transparency: many companies report annually on the number of government requests they receive and execute per State.[[fn:58]] However, companies do not consistently disclose sufficient information about how they respond to government requests, nor do they regularly report government requests made under terms of service.[[fn:59]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company compliance with national law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "See Maria Kravchenko, “Inappropriate enforcement of anti-extremist legislation in Russia in 2016”, SOVA Center for Information and Analysis, 21 April 2017; Danielle Citron, “Extremist speech, compelled conformity, and censorship creep”, Notre Dame Law Review, vol. 93, No. 3 (2018), pp. 1035−1071."}, {"n": 57, "text": "Global Network Initiative, Principles on Freedom of Expression and Privacy, sect. 2. Social media companies participating in the Initiative include Facebook, Google, Microsoft/LinkedIn and Yahoo/Oath."}, {"n": 58, "text": "See paragraph 39 below. In addition, Automattic, Google, Microsoft/Bing and Twitter are among the companies that regularly, although not necessarily comprehensively, post government takedown and intellectual property requests to the Lumen database."}, {"n": 59, "text": "Ranking Digital Rights, 2017 Corporate Accountability Index, p. 28."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Internet companies require their users to abide by terms of service and “community standards” that govern expression on their platforms.[[fn:60]] Company terms of service, which users are required to accept in exchange for use of the platform, identify jurisdictions for dispute resolution and reserve to themselves discretion over content and account actions.[[fn:61]] Platform content policies are a subset of these terms, articulating constraints on what users may express and how they may express it. Most companies do not explicitly base content standards on any particular body of law that might govern expression, such as national law or international human rights law. The Chinese search giant Baidu, however, prohibits content that is “opposed to the basic principles established by the Constitution” of the People’s Republic of China.[[fn:62]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company moderation standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 60, "text": "Jamila Venturini and others, Terms of Service and Human Rights: An Analysis of Online Platform Contracts (Rio de Janeiro, Revan, 2016)."}, {"n": 61, "text": "Baidu user agreement (“[We] remove and delete any content in this service based on Baidu’s own discretion for any reason.”); Tencent terms of service (“We reserve the right to block or remove Your Content for any reason, including as is in our opinion appropriate or as required by applicable laws and regulations.”); Twitter terms of service (“We may suspend or terminate your account or cease providing you with all or part of the Services at any time for any or no reason.”)."}, {"n": 62, "text": "Baidu terms of service, sect. 3.1."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The development of content moderation policies typically involves legal counsel, public policy and product managers, and senior executives. Companies may establish “trust and safety” teams to address spam, fraud and abuse, and counter-terrorism teams may address terrorist content.[[fn:63]] Some have developed mechanisms for soliciting input from outside groups on specialized aspects of content policies.[[fn:64]] The exponential increase in user-generated content has triggered the development of detailed and constantly evolving rules. These rules vary according to a range of factors, from company size, revenue and business model to the “platform’s brand and reputation, its tolerance for risk, and the type of user engagement it wishes to attract”.[[fn:65]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company moderation standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "Monika Bickert, “Hard questions: how we counter terrorism”, 15 June 2017."}, {"n": 64, "text": "See, for example, Twitter Trust and Safety Council and YouTube Trusted Flagger Program."}, {"n": 65, "text": "Sarah Roberts, Content Moderation (University of California at Los Angeles, 2017). See also ARTICLE 19 submission, p. 2."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Vague rules. Company prohibitions of threatening or promoting terrorism,[[fn:66]] supporting or praising leaders of dangerous organizations[[fn:67]] and content that promotes terrorist acts or incites violence[[fn:68]] are, like counter-terrorism legislation, excessively vague.[[fn:69]] Company policies on hate, harassment and abuse also do not clearly indicate what constitutes an offence. Twitter’s prohibition of “behavior that incites fear about a protected group” and Facebook’s distinction between “direct attacks” on protected characteristics and merely “distasteful or offensive content” are subjective and unstable bases for content moderation.[[fn:70]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Areas of concern around content standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "Twitter rules and policies (violent extremist groups)."}, {"n": 67, "text": "Facebook community standards (dangerous organizations)."}, {"n": 68, "text": "YouTube policies (violent or graphic content policies)."}, {"n": 69, "text": "See A/HRC/31/65, para. 39."}, {"n": 70, "text": "Facebook community standards (hate speech); Twitter rules and policies (hateful conduct policy)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Hate, harassment, abuse. The vagueness of hate speech and harassment policies has triggered complaints of inconsistent policy enforcement that penalizes minorities while reinforcing the status of dominant or powerful groups. Users and civil society report violence and abuse against women, including physical threats, misogynist comments, the posting of non-consensual or fake intimate images and doxing;[[fn:71]] threats of harm against the politically disenfranchised,[[fn:72]] minority races and castes[[fn:73]] and ethnic groups suffering from violent persecution;[[fn:74]] and abuse directed at refugees, migrants and asylum seekers.[[fn:75]] At the same time, platforms have reportedly suppressed lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer activism,[[fn:76]] advocacy against repressive Governments,[[fn:77]] reporting on ethnic cleansing[[fn:78]] and critiques of racist phenomena and power structures.[[fn:79]]", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Migrants", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Areas of concern around content standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "Amnesty International, Toxic Twitter: A Toxic Place for Women; Association for Progressive Communications submission, p. 2."}, {"n": 72, "text": "Submissions by 7amleh and Association for Progressive Communications, p. 15."}, {"n": 73, "text": "Ijeoma Oluo, “Facebook’s complicity in the silencing of black women”, Medium, 2 August 2017; submissions by Center for Communications Governance, p. 5 and Association for Progressive Communications, pp. 11−12."}, {"n": 74, "text": "Statement by the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Myanmar, Yanghee Lee, to the thirty-seventh session of the Human Rights Council, 12 March 2018."}, {"n": 75, "text": "Association for Progressive Communications submission, p. 12."}, {"n": 76, "text": "Electronic Frontier Foundation submission, p. 5."}, {"n": 77, "text": "Ibid.; submissions by Association for Progressive Communications and 7amleh."}, {"n": 78, "text": "Betsy Woodruff, “Facebook silences Rohingya reports of ethnic cleansing”, The Daily Beast, 18 September 2017; ARTICLE 19 submission, p. 9."}, {"n": 79, "text": "Julia Angwin and Hannes Grasseger, “Facebook’s secret censorship rules protect white men from hate speech but not black children”, ProPublica, 28 June 2017."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The scale and complexity of addressing hateful expression presents long-term challenges and may lead companies to restrict such expression even if it is not clearly linked to adverse outcomes (as hateful advocacy is connected to incitement in article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights). Companies should articulate the bases for such restrictions, however, and demonstrate the necessity and proportionality of any content actions (such as removals or account suspensions). Meaningful and consistent transparency about enforcement of hate speech policies, through substantial reporting of specific cases, may also provide a level of insight that even the most detailed explanations cannot offer.[[fn:80]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Areas of concern around content standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "See paras. 52 and 62 below."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Context. Companies emphasize the importance of context when assessing the applicability of general restrictions.[[fn:81]] Nonetheless, attention to context has not prevented removals of depictions of nudity with historical, cultural or educational value;[[fn:82]] historical and documentary accounts of conflict;[[fn:83]] evidence of war crimes;[[fn:84]] counter speech against hate groups;[[fn:85]] or efforts to challenge or reclaim racist, homophobic or xenophobic language.[[fn:86]] Meaningful examination of context may be thwarted by time and resource constraints on human moderators, overdependence on automation or insufficient understanding of linguistic and cultural nuance.[[fn:87]] Companies have urged users to supplement controversial content with contextual details, but the feasibility and effectiveness of this guidance are unclear.[[fn:88]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Areas of concern around content standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "Twitter, “Our approach to policy development and enforcement philosophy”; YouTube policies (the importance of context); Richard Allan, “Hard questions: who should decide what is hate speech in an online global community?”, Facebook Newsroom, 27 June 2017."}, {"n": 82, "text": "Submissions by OBSERVACOM, p. 11 and ARTICLE 19, p. 6."}, {"n": 83, "text": "WITNESS submission, pp. 6−7."}, {"n": 84, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 85, "text": "Electronic Frontier Foundation submission, p. 5."}, {"n": 86, "text": "Association for Progressive Communications submission, p. 14."}, {"n": 87, "text": "See Allan, “Hard questions”."}, {"n": 88, "text": "YouTube policies (the importance of context); Facebook community standards (hate speech)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Real-name requirements. In order to deal with online abuse, some companies have “authentic identity” requirements;[[fn:89]] others approach identity questions more flexibly.[[fn:90]] The effectiveness of real-name requirements as safeguards against online abuse is questionable.[[fn:91]] Indeed, strict insistence on real names has unmasked bloggers and activists using pseudonyms to protect themselves, exposing them to grave physical danger.[[fn:92]] It has also blocked the accounts of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer users and activists, drag performers and users with non-English or unconventional names.[[fn:93]] Since online anonymity is often necessary for the physical safety of vulnerable users, human rights principles default to the protection of anonymity, subject only to limitations that would protect their identities.[[fn:94]] Narrowly crafted impersonation rules that limit the ability of users to portray another person in a confusing or deceptive manner may be a more proportionate means of protecting the identity, rights and reputations of other users.[[fn:95]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Areas of concern around content standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "Facebook community standards (using your authentic identity). Note that Facebook now permits exceptions to its real-name policy on a case-by-case basis, but this has been criticized as insufficient: Access Now submission, p. 12. Baidu even requires the use of personally identifying information: Baidu user agreement."}, {"n": 90, "text": "Twitter Help Center, “Help with username registration”; Instagram, “Getting started on Instagram”."}, {"n": 91, "text": "J. Nathan Matias, “The real name fallacy”, Coral Project, 3 January 2017."}, {"n": 92, "text": "Access Now submission, p. 11."}, {"n": 93, "text": "Dia Kayyali, “Facebook’s name policy strikes again, this time at Native Americans”, Electronic Frontier Foundation, 13 February 2015."}, {"n": 94, "text": "See A/HRC/29/32, para. 9."}, {"n": 95, "text": "Twitter rules and policies (impersonation policy)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Disinformation. Disinformation and propaganda challenge access to information and the overall public trust in media and government institutions. The companies face increasing pressure to address disinformation spread through links to bogus third-party news articles or websites, fake accounts, deceptive advertisements and the manipulation of search rankings.[[fn:96]] However, because blunt forms of action, such as website blocking or specific removals, risk serious interference with freedom of expression, companies should carefully craft any policies dealing with disinformation.[[fn:97]] Companies have adopted a variety of responses, including arrangements with third-party fact checkers, heightened enforcement of advertisement policies, enhanced monitoring of suspicious accounts, changes in content curation and search ranking algorithms, and user trainings on identifying false information.[[fn:98]] Some measures, particularly those that enhance restrictions on news content, may threaten independent and alternative news sources or satirical content.[[fn:99]] Government authorities have taken positions that may reflect outsized expectations about technology’s power to solve such problems alone.[[fn:100]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Areas of concern around content standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 96, "text": "Ibid.; Allen Babajanian and Christine Wendel, “#FakeNews: innocuous or intolerable?”, Wilton Park report 1542, April 2017."}, {"n": 97, "text": "Joint Declaration 2017."}, {"n": 98, "text": "Submissions by Association for Progressive Communications, pp. 4–6 and ARTICLE 19, p. 4."}, {"n": 99, "text": "Association for Progressive Communications submission, p. 5."}, {"n": 100, "text": "See communication No. OL ITA 1/2018. Cf. European Commission, A Multi-Dimensional Approach to Disinformation: Final Report of the Independent High-level Group on Fake News and Disinformation (Luxembourg, 2018)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Automated flagging, removal and pre-publication filtering. The massive scale of user-generated content has led the largest companies to develop automated moderation tools. Automation has been employed primarily to flag content for human review, and sometimes to remove it. Automated tools scanning music and video for copyright infringement at the point of upload have raised concerns of overblocking, and calls to expand upload filtering to terrorist-related and other areas of content threaten to establish comprehensive and disproportionate regimes of pre-publication censorship.[[fn:101]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company moderation processes and tools"], "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland reportedly developed a tool to automatically detect and remove terrorist content at the point of upload. Home Office, “New technology revealed to help fight terrorist content online”, 13 February 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Automation may provide value for companies assessing huge volumes of user-generated content, with tools ranging from keyword filters and spam detection to hash-matching algorithms and natural language processing.[[fn:102]] Hash matching is widely used to identify child sexual abuse images, but its application to “extremist” content — which typically requires assessment of context — is difficult to accomplish without clear rules regarding “extremism” or human evaluation.[[fn:103]] The same is true with natural language processing.[[fn:104]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company moderation processes and tools"], "footnotes": [{"n": 102, "text": "Center for Democracy and Technology, Mixed Messages? The Limits of Automated Media Content Analysis (November 2017), p. 9."}, {"n": 103, "text": "Open Technology Institute submission, p. 2."}, {"n": 104, "text": "Center for Democracy and Technology, Mixed Messages?, p. 4."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. User and trusted flagging. User flags give individuals the ability to log complaints of inappropriate content with content moderators. Flags typically do not enable nuanced discussions about appropriate boundaries (e.g., why content may be offensive but, on balance, better left up).[[fn:105]] They have also been “gamed” to heighten pressure on platforms to remove content supportive of sexual minorities and Muslims.[[fn:106]] Many companies have developed specialized rosters of “trusted” flaggers, typically experts, high-impact users and, reportedly, sometimes government flaggers.[[fn:107]] There is little or no public information explaining the selection of specialized flaggers, their interpretations of legal or community standards or their influence over company decisions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company moderation processes and tools"], "footnotes": [{"n": 105, "text": "On user flags, see generally Kate Crawford and Tarleton Gillespie, “What is a flag for? Social media reporting tools and the vocabulary of complaint”, New Media and Society, vol. 18, No. 3 (March 2016), pp. 410−428."}, {"n": 106, "text": "Ibid., p. 421."}, {"n": 107, "text": "YouTube Help, YouTube Trusted Flagger Program; YouTube Help, “Get involved with YouTube contributors”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. Human evaluation. Automation often will be supplemented by human review, with the biggest social media companies developing large teams of content moderators to review flagged content.[[fn:108]] Flagged content may be routed to content moderators, which will typically be authorized to make a decision — often within minutes — about the appropriateness of the content and to remove or permit it. In situations where the appropriateness of particular content is difficult to determine, moderators may escalate its review to content teams at company headquarters. In turn, company officials — typically public policy or “trust and safety” teams with the engagement of general counsel — will make decisions on removals. Company disclosure about removal discussions, in aggregate or specific cases, is limited.[[fn:109]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company moderation processes and tools"], "footnotes": [{"n": 108, "text": "See Sarah Roberts, “Commercial content moderation: digital laborers’ dirty work”, Media Studies Publications, paper 12 (2016)."}, {"n": 109, "text": "Cf. Wikipedia: BOLD, revert, discuss cycle. Reddit moderators are encouraged to offer “helpful rule explanations, tips and links to new and confused users” (Reddit Moddiquette)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Account or content action. The existence of inappropriate content may trigger a range of company actions. Companies may limit content removal by jurisdiction, a range of jurisdictions, or across an entire platform or set of platforms. They may apply age limitations, warnings or demonetization.[[fn:110]] Violations may lead to temporary account suspensions, while repeat offences may lead to account deactivation. In very few cases outside of copyright enforcement do the companies provide “counter-notice” procedures that permit users posting content to challenge removals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company moderation processes and tools"], "footnotes": [{"n": 110, "text": "YouTube policies (nudity and sexual content policies); YouTube Help, “Creator influence on YouTube”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Notification. A common complaint is that users who post reported content, or persons complaining of abuse, may not receive any notification of removal or other action.[[fn:111]] Even when companies issue notifications, these typically indicate merely the action taken and a generic ground for action. At least one company has attempted to provide more context in its notifications, but it is unclear whether additional detail in stock notifications constitutes sufficient explanation in all cases.[[fn:112]] Transparency and notifications go hand in hand: robust operational-level transparency that improves user awareness of the platform’s approaches to content removals alleviates the pressure on notifications in individual cases, while weaker overall transparency increases the likelihood that users will be unable to understand individual removals in the absence of notifications tailored to specific cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company moderation processes and tools"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "Submissions by ARTICLE 19, p. 7 and Association for Progressive Communications, p. 16."}, {"n": 112, "text": "See https://twitter.com/TwitterSafety/status/971882517698510848/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Appeals and remedies. Platforms permit appeals of a range of actions, from profile or page removals to removals of specific posts, photos or videos.[[fn:113]] Even with appeal, however, the remedies available to users appear limited or untimely to the point of non-existence and, in any event, opaque to most users and even civil society experts. It may be, for instance, that reinstatement of content would be an insufficient response if removal resulted in specific harm — such as reputational, physical, moral or financial — to the person posting. Similarly, account suspensions or content removals during public protest or debate could have significant impact on political rights and yet lack any company remedy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company moderation processes and tools"], "footnotes": [{"n": 113, "text": "Electronic Frontier Foundation and Visualizing Impact, “How to appeal”, onlinecensorship.org. Facebook and Instagram allow only the appeal of account suspensions. Cf. Github submission, p. 6."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Companies have developed transparency reports that publish aggregated data on government requests for content removal and user data. Such reporting demonstrates the kinds of pressures the companies face. Transparency reporting identifies, country by country, the number of legal removal requests,[[fn:114]] the number of requests where some action was taken or content restricted[[fn:115]] and, increasingly, descriptions and examples of selected legal bases.[[fn:116]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Transparency"], "footnotes": [{"n": 114, "text": "Twitter Transparency Report: Removal Requests (January−June 2017); Google Transparency Report: Government Requests to Remove Content; 2016 Reddit Inc., Transparency Report. Facebook does not provide the total number of requests received per country."}, {"n": 115, "text": "See, for example, Facebook Transparency Report (France) (January−June 2017); Google Transparency Report: Government Requests to Remove Content (India); Twitter Transparency Report (Turkey)."}, {"n": 116, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. However, as the leading review of Internet transparency concludes, companies disclose “the least amount of information about how private rules and mechanisms for self- and co-regulation are formulated and carried out”.[[fn:117]] In particular, disclosure concerning actions taken pursuant to private removal requests under terms of service is “incredibly low”.[[fn:118]] Content standards are drafted in broad terms, leaving room for platform discretion that companies do not sufficiently illuminate. Media and public scrutiny have led companies to supplement general policies with explanatory blog posts[[fn:119]] and limited hypothetical examples,[[fn:120]] but these fall short of illuminating nuances in how internal rules are developed and applied.[[fn:121]] While terms of service are generally available in local languages, transparency reports, company blogs and related content are not, providing even less clarity to non-English-speaking users. Accordingly, users, public authorities and civil society often express dissatisfaction with the unpredictability of terms of service actions.[[fn:122]] The lack of sufficient engagement, coupled with growing public criticism, has forced companies into a constant state of rule evaluation, revision and defence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Transparency"], "footnotes": [{"n": 117, "text": "Ranking Digital Rights submission, p. 4. Original italics."}, {"n": 118, "text": "Ibid., p. 10."}, {"n": 119, "text": "See Elliot Schrage, “Introducing hard questions”, Facebook Newsroom, 15 June 2017; Twitter Safety, “Enforcing new rules to reduce hateful conduct and abusive behavior”, 18 December 2017."}, {"n": 120, "text": "See, for example, YouTube policies (violent or graphic content policies)."}, {"n": 121, "text": "Angwin and Grasseger, “Facebook’s secret censorship rules”."}, {"n": 122, "text": "Submissions by Ranking Digital Rights, p. 10; OBSERVACOM p. 10; Association for Progressive Communications, p. 17; International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions, pp. 4–5, Access Now, p. 17; and EDRi, p. 5."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The founder of Facebook recently expressed his hope for a process in which the company “could more accurately reflect the values of the community in different places”.[[fn:123]] That process, and the relevant standards, can be found in human rights law. Private norms, which vary according to each company’s business model and vague assertions of community interests, have created unstable, unpredictable and unsafe environments for users and intensified government scrutiny. National laws are inappropriate for companies that seek common norms for their geographically and culturally diverse user base. But human rights standards, if implemented transparently and consistently with meaningful user and civil society input, provide a framework for holding both States and companies accountable to users across national borders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 123, "text": "Kara Swisher and Kurt Wagner, “Here’s the transcript of Recode’s interview with Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg about the Cambridge Analytica controversy and more”, Recode, 22 March 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. A human rights framework enables forceful normative responses against undue State restrictions — provided companies play by similar rules. The Guiding Principles and their accompanying body of “soft law” provide guidance on how companies should prevent or mitigate government demands for excessive content removals. But they also establish principles of due diligence, transparency, accountability and remediation that limit platform interference with human rights through product and policy development. Companies committed to implementing human rights standards throughout their operations — and not merely when it aligns with their interests — will stand on firmer ground when they seek to hold States accountable to the same standards. Furthermore, when companies align their terms of service more closely with human rights law, States will find it harder to exploit them to censor content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Human rights principles also enable companies to create an inclusive environment that accommodates the varied needs and interests of their users while establishing predictable and consistent baseline standards of behaviour. Amidst growing debate about whether companies exercise a combination of intermediary and editorial functions, human rights law expresses a promise to users that they can rely on fundamental norms to protect their expression over and above what national law might curtail.[[fn:124]] Yet human rights law is not so inflexible or dogmatic that it requires companies to permit expression that would undermine the rights of others or the ability of States to protect legitimate national security or public order interests. Across a range of ills that may have more pronounced impact in digital space than they might offline — such as misogynist or homophobic harassment designed to silence women and sexual minorities, or incitement to violence of all sorts — human rights law would not deprive companies of tools. To the contrary, it would offer a globally recognized framework for designing those tools and a common vocabulary for explaining their nature, purpose and application to users and States.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 124, "text": "Global Partners Digital submission, p. 3; Guiding Principles, principle 11."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. The digital age enables rapid dissemination and enormous reach, but it also lacks textures of human context. Per the Guiding Principles, companies may take into account the size, structure and distinctive functions of the platforms they provide in assessing the necessity and proportionality of content restrictions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "A. Substantive standards for content moderation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Human rights by default. Terms of service should move away from a discretionary approach rooted in generic and self-serving “community” needs. Companies should instead adopt high-level policy commitments to maintain platforms for users to develop opinions, express themselves freely and access information of all kinds in a manner consistent with human rights law.[[fn:125]] These commitments should govern their approach to content moderation and to complex problems such as computational propaganda[[fn:126]] and the collection and handling of user data. Companies should incorporate directly into their terms of service and “community standards” relevant principles of human rights law that ensure content-related actions will be guided by the same standards of legality, necessity and legitimacy that bind State regulation of expression.[[fn:127]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "A. Substantive standards for content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 125, "text": "Guiding Principles, principle 16."}, {"n": 126, "text": "See Samuel Wooley and Philip Howard, Computational Propaganda Worldwide: Executive Summary (Computational Propaganda Research Project working paper No. 2017.11 (Oxford, 2017)."}, {"n": 127, "text": "Global Partners Digital submission, pp. 10–13."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. “Legality”. Company rules routinely lack the clarity and specificity that would enable users to predict with reasonable certainty what content places them on the wrong side of the line. This is particularly evident in the context of “extremism” and hate speech, areas of restriction easily susceptible to excessive removals in the absence of rigorous human evaluation of context. Further complicating public understanding of context-specific rules is the emerging general exception for “newsworthiness”.[[fn:128]] While the recognition of public interest is welcome, companies should also explain what factors are assessed in determining the public interest and what factors other than public interest inform calculations of newsworthiness. Companies should supplement their efforts to explain their rules in more detail with aggregate data illustrating trends in rule enforcement, and examples of actual cases or extensive, detailed hypotheticals that illustrate the nuances of interpretation and application of specific rules.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "A. Substantive standards for content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 128, "text": "See Joel Kaplan, “Input from community and partners on our community standards”, Facebook Newsroom, 21 October 2016; Twitter rules and policies."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Necessity and proportionality. Companies should not only describe contentious and context-specific rules in more detail. They should also disclose data and examples that provide insight into the factors they assess in determining a violation, its severity and the action taken in response. In the context of hate speech, explaining how specific cases are resolved may help users better understand how companies approach difficult distinctions between offensive content and incitement to hatred, or how considerations such as the intent of the speaker or the likelihood of violence are assessed in online contexts. Granular data on actions taken will also establish a basis to evaluate the extent to which companies are narrowly tailoring restrictions. The circumstances under which they apply less intrusive restrictions (such as warnings, age restrictions or demonetization) should be explained.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "A. Substantive standards for content moderation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Non-discrimination. Meaningful guarantees of non-discrimination require companies to transcend formalistic approaches that treat all protected characteristics as equally vulnerable to abuse, harassment and other forms of censorship.[[fn:129]] Indeed, such approaches would appear inconsistent with their own emphasis that context matters. Instead, when companies develop or modify policies or products, they should actively seek and take into account the concerns of communities historically at risk of censorship and discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "A. Substantive standards for content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 129, "text": "See, for example, International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, arts. 1 (4) and 2 (2)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. As company transparency reports show, Governments pressure them to remove content, suspend accounts and identify and disclose account information. Where required by local law, it may appear that companies have little choice but to comply. But companies may develop tools that prevent or mitigate the human rights risks caused by national laws or demands inconsistent with international standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Responses to government requests"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Prevention and mitigation. Companies often claim to take human rights seriously. But it is not enough for companies to undertake such commitments internally and provide ad hoc assurances to the public when controversies arise. Companies should also, at the highest levels of leadership, adopt and then publicly disclose specific policies that “direct all business units, including local subsidiaries, to resolve any legal ambiguity in favour of respect for freedom of expression, privacy, and other human rights”. Policies and procedures that interpret and implement government demands to narrow and “ensure the least restriction on content” should flow from these commitments.[[fn:130]] Companies should ensure that requests are in writing, cite specific and valid legal bases for restrictions and are issued by a valid government authority in an appropriate format.[[fn:131]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Responses to government requests"], "footnotes": [{"n": 130, "text": "See A/HRC/35/22, paras. 66−67."}, {"n": 131, "text": "Submissions by Global Network Initiative, pp. 3−4 and GitHub, pp. 3−5."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. When faced with problematic requests, companies should seek clarification or modification; solicit the assistance of civil society, peer companies, relevant government authorities, international and regional bodies and other stakeholders; and explore all legal options for challenge.[[fn:132]] When companies receive requests from States under their terms of service or through other extralegal means, they should route these requests through legal compliance processes and assess the validity of such requests under relevant local laws and human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Responses to government requests"], "footnotes": [{"n": 132, "text": "See A/HRC/35/22, para. 68."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Transparency. In the face of censorship and associated human rights risks, users can only make informed decisions about whether and how to engage on social media if interactions between companies and States are meaningfully transparent. Best practices on how to provide such transparency should be developed. Company reporting about State requests should be supplemented with granular data concerning the types of requests received (e.g., defamation, hate speech, terrorism-related content) and actions taken (e.g., partial or full removal, country-specific or global removal, account suspension, removal granted under terms of service). Companies should also provide specific examples as often as possible.[[fn:133]] Transparency reporting should extend to government demands under company terms of service[[fn:134]] and must also account for public-private initiatives to restrict content, such as the European Union Code of Conduct on countering illegal hate speech online, governmental initiatives such as Internet referral units and bilateral understandings such as those reported between YouTube and Pakistan and Facebook and Israel. Companies should preserve records of requests made under these initiatives and communications between the company and the requester and explore arrangements to submit copies of such requests to a third-party repository.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Responses to government requests"], "footnotes": [{"n": 133, "text": "See, for example, Twitter Transparency Report: Removal Requests (January−June 2017)."}, {"n": 134, "text": "Twitter has begun to publish data on “non-legal requests submitted by known government representatives about content that may violate the Twitter Rules” prohibiting abusive behaviour, promotion of terrorism and intellectual property infringement. Ibid. See also Microsoft, Content Removal Requests Report (January−June 2017)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Due diligence. Although several companies commit to human rights due diligence in assessing their response to State restrictions, it is unclear whether they implement similar safeguards to prevent or mitigate risks to freedom of expression posed by the development and enforcement of their own policies.[[fn:135]] Companies should develop clear and specific criteria for identifying activities that trigger such assessments. In addition to revisions of content moderation policies and processes, assessments should be conducted on the curation of user feeds and other forms of content delivery, the introduction of new features or services and modifications to existing ones, the development of automation technologies and market-entry decisions such as arrangements to provide country-specific versions of the platform.[[fn:136]] Past reporting also specifies the issues these assessments should examine and the internal processes and training required to integrate assessments and their findings into relevant operations. Additionally, these assessments should be ongoing and adaptive to changes in circumstances or operating context.[[fn:137]] Multi-stakeholder initiatives such as Global Network Initiative provide an avenue for companies to develop and refine assessments and other due diligence processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Rule-making and product development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 135, "text": "Ranking Digital Rights submission, p. 12; Guiding Principles, principle 17."}, {"n": 136, "text": "See A/HRC/35/22, para. 53."}, {"n": 137, "text": "Ibid., paras. 54−58."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Public input and engagement. Participants in consultations consistently raised concerns that companies failed to engage adequately with users and civil society, particularly in the global South. Input from affected rights holders (or their representatives) and relevant local or subject matter experts, and internal decision-making processes that meaningfully incorporate the feedback received, are integral components of due diligence.[[fn:138]] Consultations — especially in broad forms such as calls for public comment — enable the companies to consider the human rights impact of their activities from diverse perspectives, while also encouraging them to pay close attention to how seemingly benign or ostensibly “community-friendly” rules may have significant, “hyper-local” impacts on communities.[[fn:139]] For example, engagement with a geographically diverse range of indigenous groups may help companies develop better indicators for taking into account cultural and artistic context when assessing content featuring nudity.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Rule-making and product development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 138, "text": "See Guiding Principles, principle 18 and A/HRC/35/22, para. 57."}, {"n": 139, "text": "Chinmayi Arun, “Rebalancing regulation of speech: hyper-local content on global web-based platforms”, Berkman Klein Center for Internet and Society Medium Collection, Harvard University, 2018; Pretoria News, “Protest at Google, Facebook ‘bullying’ of bare-breasted maidens”, 14 December 2017."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Rule-making transparency. Companies too often appear to introduce products and rule modifications without conducting human rights due diligence or evaluating the impact in real cases. They should at least seek comment on their impact assessments from interested users and experts, in settings that guarantee the confidentiality of such assessments if necessary. They should also clearly communicate to the public the rules and processes that produced them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Rule-making and product development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Automation and human evaluation. Automated content moderation, a function of the massive scale and scope of user-generated content, poses distinct risks of content actions that are inconsistent with human rights law. Company responsibilities to prevent and mitigate human rights impacts should take into account the significant limitations of automation, such as difficulties with addressing context, widespread variation of language cues and meaning and linguistic and cultural particularities. Automation derived from understandings developed within the home country of the company risks serious discrimination across global user bases. At a minimum, technology developed to deal with considerations of scale should be rigorously audited and developed with broad user and civil society input.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Rule enforcement"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. The responsibility to foster accurate and context-sensitive content moderation practices that respect freedom of expression also requires companies to strengthen and ensure professionalization of their human evaluation of flagged content. This strengthening should involve protections for human moderators consistent with human rights norms applicable to labour rights and a serious commitment to involve cultural, linguistic and other forms of expertise in every market where they operate. Company leadership and policy teams should also diversify to enable the application of local or subject-matter expertise to content issues.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Rule enforcement"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Notice and appeal. Users and civil society experts commonly express concern about the limited information available to those subject to content removal or account suspension or deactivation, or those reporting abuse such as misogynistic harassment and doxing. The lack of information creates an environment of secretive norms, inconsistent with the standards of clarity, specificity and predictability. This interferes with the individual’s ability to challenge content actions or follow up on content-related complaints; in practice, however, the lack of robust appeal mechanisms for content removals favours users who flag over those who post. Some may argue that it will be time-consuming and costly to allow appeals on every content action. But companies could work with one another and civil society to explore scalable solutions such as company-specific or industry-wide ombudsman programmes. Among the best ideas for such programmes is an independent “social media council”, modelled on the press councils that enable industry-wide complaint mechanisms and the promotion of remedies for violations.[[fn:140]] This mechanism could hear complaints from individual users that meet certain criteria and gather public feedback on recurrent content moderation problems such as overcensorship related to a particular subject area. States should be supportive of scalable appeal mechanisms that operate consistently with human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Rule enforcement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 140, "text": "See ARTICLE 19, Self-regulation and ‘Hate Speech’ on Social Media Platforms (London, 2018), pp. 20−22."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. Remedy. The Guiding Principles highlight the responsibility to remedy “adverse impacts” (principle 22). However, few if any of the companies provide for remediation. Companies should institute robust remediation programmes, which may range from reinstatement and acknowledgment to settlements related to reputational or other harms. There has been some convergence among several companies in their content rules, giving rise to the possibility of inter-company cooperation to provide remedies through a social media council, other ombudsman programmes or third-party adjudication. If the failure to remediate persists, legislative and judicial intervention may be required.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Rule enforcement"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. User autonomy. Companies have developed tools enabling users to shape their own online environments. This includes muting and blocking of other users or specific kinds of content. Similarly, platforms often permit users to create closed or private groups, moderated by users themselves. While content rules in closed groups should be consistent with baseline human rights standards, platforms should encourage such affinity-based groups given their value in protecting opinion, expanding space for vulnerable communities and allowing the testing of controversial or unpopular ideas. Real-name requirements should be disfavoured, given their privacy and security implications for vulnerable individuals.[[fn:141]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Rule enforcement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 141, "text": "See para. 30 above."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Mounting concerns about the verifiability, relevance and usefulness of information online raise complex questions about how companies should respect the right to access information. At a minimum, companies should disclose details concerning their approaches to curation. If companies are ranking content on social media feeds based on interactions between users, they should explain the data collected about such interactions and how this informs the ranking criteria. Companies should provide all users with accessible and meaningful opportunities to opt out of platform-driven curation.[[fn:142]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Rule enforcement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 142, "text": "Facebook, for example, permits users to view stories in their News Feed in reverse chronological order, but warns that it will “eventually” return to its default curation settings. Facebook Help Centre, “What’s the difference between top stories and most recent stories on News Feed?”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Notwithstanding advances in aggregate transparency of government removal requests, terms of service actions are largely unreported. Companies do not publish data on the volume and type of private requests they receive under these terms, let alone rates of compliance. Companies should develop transparency initiatives that explain the impact of automation, human moderation and user or trusted flagging on terms of service actions. While a few companies are beginning to provide some information about these actions, the industry should be moving to provide more detail about specific and representative cases and significant developments in the interpretation and enforcement of their policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Decisional transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. The companies are implementing “platform law”, taking actions on content issues without significant disclosure about those actions. Ideally, companies should develop a kind of case law that would enable users, civil society and States to understand how the companies interpret and implement their standards. While such a “case law” system would not involve the kind of reporting the public expects from courts and administrative bodies, a detailed repository of cases and examples would clarify the rules much as case reporting does.[[fn:143]] A social media council empowered to evaluate complaints across the ICT sector could be a credible and independent mechanism to develop such transparency.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Decisional transparency"], "footnotes": [{"n": 143, "text": "See, for example, Madeleine Varner and others, “What does Facebook consider hate speech?”, ProPublica, 28 December 2017."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Opaque forces are shaping the ability of individuals worldwide to exercise their freedom of expression. This moment calls for radical transparency, meaningful accountability and a commitment to remedy in order to protect the ability of individuals to use online platforms as forums for free expression, access to information and engagement in public life. The present report has identified a range of steps, include the following.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. States should repeal any law that criminalizes or unduly restricts expression, online or offline.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Recommendations", "Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Smart regulation, not heavy-handed viewpoint-based regulation, should be the norm, focused on ensuring company transparency and remediation to enable the public to make choices about how and whether to engage in online forums. States should only seek to restrict content pursuant to an order by an independent and impartial judicial authority, and in accordance with due process and standards of legality, necessity and legitimacy. States should refrain from imposing disproportionate sanctions, whether heavy fines or imprisonment, on Internet intermediaries, given their significant chilling effect on freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Recommendations", "Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. States and intergovernmental organizations should refrain from establishing laws or arrangements that would require the “proactive” monitoring or filtering of content, which is both inconsistent with the right to privacy and likely to amount to pre-publication censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Recommendations", "Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. States should refrain from adopting models of regulation where government agencies, rather than judicial authorities, become the arbiters of lawful expression. They should avoid delegating responsibility to companies as adjudicators of content, which empowers corporate judgment over human rights values to the detriment of users.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Recommendations", "Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. States should publish detailed transparency reports on all content-related requests issued to intermediaries and involve genuine public input in all regulatory considerations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Recommendations", "Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Companies should recognize that the authoritative global standard for ensuring freedom of expression on their platforms is human rights law, not the varying laws of States or their own private interests, and they should re-evaluate their content standards accordingly. Human rights law gives companies the tools to articulate and develop policies and processes that respect democratic norms and counter authoritarian demands. This approach begins with rules rooted in rights, continues with rigorous human rights impact assessments for product and policy development, and moves through operations with ongoing assessment, reassessment and meaningful public and civil society consultation. The Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, along with industry-specific guidelines developed by civil society, intergovernmental bodies, the Global Network Initiative and others, provide baseline approaches that all Internet companies should adopt.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Recommendations", "Recommendations for ICT companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. The companies must embark on radically different approaches to transparency at all stages of their operations, from rule-making to implementation and development of “case law” framing the interpretation of private rules. Transparency requires greater engagement with digital rights organizations and other relevant sectors of civil society and avoiding secretive arrangements with States on content standards and implementation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Recommendations", "Recommendations for ICT companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Given their impact on the public sphere, companies must open themselves up to public accountability. Effective and rights-respecting press councils worldwide provide a model for imposing minimum levels of consistency, transparency and accountability to commercial content moderation. Third-party non-governmental approaches, if rooted in human rights standards, could provide mechanisms for appeal and remedy without imposing prohibitively high costs that deter smaller entities or new market entrants. All segments of the ICT sector that moderate content or act as gatekeepers should make the development of industry-wide accountability mechanisms (such as a social media council) a top priority.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Recommendations", "Recommendations for ICT companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0001", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. “Hate speech”, a shorthand phrase that conventional international law does not define, has a double ambiguity. Its vagueness and the lack of consensus around its meaning can be abused to enable infringements on a wide range of lawful expression. Many Governments use “hate speech”, similar to the way in which they use “fake news”, to attack political enemies, non-believers, dissenters and critics. However, the phrase’s weakness (“it’s just speech”) also seems to inhibit Governments and companies from addressing genuine harms, such as the kind resulting from speech that incites violence or discrimination against the vulnerable or the silencing of the marginalized. The situation gives rise to frustration in a public that often perceives rampant online abuse.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0002", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. In a world of rising calls for limits on hate speech, international human rights law provides standards to govern State and company approaches to online expression (A/HRC/38/35, para. 45).[[fn:1]] In the present report, the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression explains how those standards provide a framework for Governments considering regulatory options and companies determining how to respect human rights online. The Special Rapporteur begins with an introduction to the international legal framework, focusing on United Nations treaties and the leading interpretations of provisions related to what is colloquially called “hate speech”. He then highlights key State obligations and addresses how content moderation by companies may ensure respect for the human rights of users and the public. He concludes with recommendations for States and companies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The term “hate speech” is used in the present report to refer to obligations and limitations in human rights law in which that particular term is not used. See Susan Benesch, “Proposals for improved regulation of harmful online content”, paper prepared for the Israel Democracy Institute, 2019. Benesch coined a sibling term, “dangerous speech”, to identify a “capacity to catalyse violence by one group against another”. See also Susan Benesch, “Dangerous speech: a proposal to prevent group violence”, 2012."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0003", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The present report is the sixth in a series of reports published since 2015 in which the Special Rapporteur has addressed the human rights standards applicable to the freedom of opinion and expression in the information and communications technology (ICT) sector.[[fn:2]] It should be read in the light of the standards and recommendations previously proposed, which are not necessarily repeated herein. As in his previous reports, the Special Rapporteur draws extensively from existing international standards and from considerable civil society input over the past several years.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See A/HRC/29/32, on encryption and anonymity, A/HRC/32/38, on mapping the impact of the ICT sector on rights, A/HRC/35/22, on the digital access industry, A/HRC/38/35, on online content moderation, and A/73/348, on artificial intelligence and human rights."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0004", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Under international human rights law, the limitation of hate speech seems to demand a reconciliation of two sets of values: democratic society’s requirements to allow open debate and individual autonomy and development with the also compelling obligation to prevent attacks on vulnerable communities and ensure the equal and non-discriminatory participation of all individuals in public life.[[fn:3]] Governments often exploit the resulting uncertainty to threaten legitimate expression, such as political dissent and criticism or religious disagreement.[[fn:4]] However, the freedom of expression, the rights to equality and life and the obligation of non-discrimination are mutually reinforcing; human rights law permits States and companies to focus on protecting and promoting the speech of all, especially those whose rights are often at risk, while also addressing the public and private discrimination that undermines the enjoyment of all rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See, in particular, the report on hate speech of the previous Special Rapporteur Frank La Rue (A/67/357)."}, {"n": 4, "text": "Ibid., paras. 51–54."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0005", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Article 19 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights protects the right to hold opinions without interference, and article 19 (2) guarantees the right to freedom of expression, that is, the right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, through any media. Numerous other treaties, global and regional, expressly protect the freedom of expression.[[fn:5]] The Human Rights Committee, the expert monitoring body for the Covenant, has emphasized that these freedoms are “indispensable conditions for the full development of the person … [and] constitute the foundation stone for every free and democratic society”. They “form a basis for the full enjoyment of a wide range of other human rights”.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See, e.g., the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, art. 5; the Convention on the Rights of the Child, art. 13; the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, art. 21; the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, art. 13; the American Convention on Human Rights, art. 13; the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights, art. 9; and the European Convention on Human Rights, art. 10."}, {"n": 6, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression, paras. 2 and 4; see also ibid., paras. 5–6."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0006", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Since the freedom of expression is fundamental to the enjoyment of all human rights, restrictions on it must be exceptional, subject to narrow conditions and strict oversight. The Human Rights Committee has underlined that restrictions, even when warranted, “may not put in jeopardy the right itself”.[[fn:7]] The exceptional nature of limitations is described in article 19 (3) of the Covenant, recognizing that States may restrict expression under article 19 (2) only where provided by law and necessary to respect the rights or reputations of others or protect national security, public order, public health or morals. These are narrowly defined exceptions (see, in particular, A/67/357, para. 41, and A/HRC/29/32, paras. 32–35), and the burden falls on the authority restricting speech to justify the restriction, not on the speakers to demonstrate that they have the right to such speech.[[fn:8]] Any limitations must meet three conditions:\n(a) Legality. The restriction must be provided by laws that are precise, public and transparent; it must avoid providing authorities with unbounded discretion, and appropriate notice must be given to those whose speech is being regulated. Rules should be subject to public comment and regular legislative or administrative processes. Procedural safeguards, especially those guaranteed by independent courts or tribunals, should protect rights;\n(b) Legitimacy. The restriction should be justified to protect one or more of the interests specified in article 19 (3) of the Covenant, that is, to respect the rights or reputations of others or to protect national security, public order, public health or morals;\n(c) Necessity and proportionality. The restriction must be demonstrated by the State as necessary to protect a legitimate interest and to be the least restrictive means to achieve the purported aim. The Human Rights Committee has referred to these conditions as “strict tests”, according to which restrictions “must be applied only for those purposes for which they were prescribed and must be directly related to the specific need on which they are predicated”.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Ibid., para. 21. The Human Rights Committee clarified that “restrictions must not impair the essence of the right”, adding that “the laws authorizing the application of restrictions should use precise criteria and may not confer unfettered discretion on those charged with their execution” (Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 27 (1999) on freedom of movement, para. 13)."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 27."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Ibid., para. 22."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0007", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. States regularly assert proper purposes for imposing limitations on expression but fail to demonstrate that their limitations meet the tests of legality or necessity and proportionality (see A/71/373). For this reason, the rules are to be applied strictly and in good faith, with robust and transparent oversight. Under article 2 (3) (b) of the Covenant, States are obligated to ensure that individuals seeking remedy for a violation of the Covenant have their right thereto “determined by competent judicial, administrative or legislative authorities, or by any other competent authority provided for by the legal system of the State” (see also A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, para. 31).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0008", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Under article 20 (2) of the Covenant, States parties are obligated to prohibit by law “any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence”. States are not obligated to criminalize such kinds of expression. The previous Special Rapporteur explained that article 20 (2) relates to (a) advocacy of hatred, (b) advocacy which constitutes incitement, and (c) incitement likely to result in discrimination, hostility or violence (A/67/357, para. 43).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0009", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. United Nations human rights standards offer broader protection against discrimination than that afforded through the focus in article 20 (2) on national, racial or religious hatred. Article 2 (1) of the Covenant guarantees rights to all individuals “without distinction of any kind”, and article 26 expressly provides that “the law shall prohibit any discrimination and guarantee to all persons equal and effective protection against discrimination on any ground”. International standards ensure protections against adverse actions on grounds of race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status, including indigenous origin or identity, disability, migrant or refugee status, sexual orientation, gender identity or intersex status.[[fn:10]] The scope of protection has expanded over time, such that other categories, such as age or albinism, are also now afforded explicit protection. Given the expansion of protection worldwide, the prohibition of incitement should be understood to apply to the broader categories now covered under international human rights law.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Indigenous peoples", "Migrants", "Women/girls", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See also, Article 19, “Hate Speech” Explained: A Toolkit (London, 2015), p. 14. On online violence against women, see A/HRC/38/47."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "26", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0010", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. A critical point is that the individual whose expression is to be prohibited under article 20 (2) of the Covenant is the advocate whose advocacy constitutes incitement. A person who is not advocating hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, for example, a person advocating a minority or even offensive interpretation of a religious tenet or historical event, or a person sharing examples of hatred and incitement to report on or raise awareness of the issue, is not to be silenced under article 20 (or any other provision of human rights law). Such expression is to be protected by the State, even if the State disagrees with or is offended by the expression.[[fn:11]] There is no “heckler’s veto” in international human rights law.[[fn:12]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 11."}, {"n": 12, "text": "See Evelyn M. Aswad, “To ban or not to ban blasphemous videos”, Georgetown Journal of International Law, vol 44, No. 4 (2013)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0011", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. In the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted the year before the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, States are called upon to “eradicate all incitement to, or acts of” racial discrimination, with due regard to other rights protected by human rights law, including the freedom of expression (see articles 4 and 5 of the Convention). Under article 4 of the Convention, States parties are obligated, inter alia, to: (a) “declare an offence punishable by law all dissemination of ideas based on racial superiority or hatred, incitement to racial discrimination, as well as all acts of violence or incitement to such acts against any race or group of persons of another colour or ethnic origin”; and (b) “declare illegal and prohibit organizations, and also organized and all other propaganda activities, which promote and incite racial discrimination, and shall recognize participation in such organizations or activities as an offence punishable by law”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'articles 4 and 5 of the Convention' referring to 'the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination' named in the same sentence — explicit treaty attribution."}, {"article": "5", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Same sentence as art. 4 above: 'articles 4 and 5 of the Convention' (CERD) — explicit treaty attribution."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'Under article 4 of the Convention, States parties are obligated …' — same CERD, explicit attribution with full quote of CERD art. 4 obligations."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0012", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Article 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination address specific categories of expression, often characterized as “hate speech”.[[fn:13]] The language in these provisions is ambiguous, compared with that of article 19 (2) of the Covenant.[[fn:14]] Whereas the freedom of expression defined in article 19 (2) involves expansive rights embodied by active verbs (seek, receive, impart) and the broadest possible scope (ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, through any media), the proscriptions under article 20 (2) of the Covenant and article 4 of the Convention, while much narrower than generic hate speech prohibitions, involve difficult-to-define language of emotion (hatred, hostility) and highly context-specific prohibition (advocacy of incitement). The Human Rights Committee has concluded that articles 19 and 20 of the Covenant “are compatible with and complement each other”.[[fn:15]] Even so, they require interpretation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "See Jeremy Waldron, The Harm in Hate Speech (Harvard University Press, 2012)."}, {"n": 14, "text": "The ambiguity is not surprising, considering the negotiating history. See Jacob Mchangama, “The sordid origin of hate-speech laws”, Policy Review (December 2011 and January 2012)."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 50."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination address specific categories of expression' — explicit treaty attribution."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Same sentence: 'article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination' — explicit treaty attribution."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 19 (2) involves expansive rights' in the same sentence as 'article 19 (2) of the Covenant' — explicit attribution to ICCPR (the Covenant)."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'that of article 19 (2)' — second reference in the comparison between art. 19(2) and art. 20(2). Same ICCPR art. 19(2)."}, {"article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'the proscriptions under article 20 (2) of the Covenant' — explicit ICCPR attribution."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 4 of the Convention' referring to CERD (just named in full at the start of this paragraph)."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'articles 19 and 20 of the Covenant \"are compatible with and complement each other\"' — 'the Covenant' is ICCPR. Art. 19 without paragraph is the general freedom of expression provision."}, {"article": "20", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Same sentence: 'articles 19 and 20 of the Covenant' — ICCPR art. 20 incitement prohibition."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0013", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. In its general comment No. 34 (2011), the Human Rights Committee found that whenever a State limits expression, including the kinds of expression defined in article 20 (2) of the Covenant, it must still “justify the prohibitions and their provisions in strict conformity with article 19”.[[fn:16]] In 2013 , a high-level group of human rights experts, convened under the auspices of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, adopted an interpretation of article 20 (2).[[fn:17]] In the Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, key terms are defined as follows:\n“Hatred” and “hostility” refer to intense and irrational emotions of opprobrium, enmity and detestation towards the target group; the term “advocacy” is to be understood as requiring an intention to promote hatred publicly towards the target group; and the term “incitement” refers to statements about national, racial or religious groups which create an imminent risk of discrimination, hostility or violence against persons belonging to those groups (A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, appendix, footnote 5).[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Ibid., para. 52, and, in the context of art. 20 (2) of the Covenant in particular, see para. 50."}, {"n": 17, "text": "See, e.g., Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, general recommendation No. 35 (2013) on combating racist hate speech."}, {"n": 18, "text": "The previous Special Rapporteur Frank La Rue defined as a key factor in the assessment of incitement whether there was “real and imminent danger of violence resulting from the expression” (A/67/357, para. 46). See also Article 19, Prohibiting Incitement to Discrimination, Hostility or Violence (London, 2012), pp. 24–25."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0014", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. A total of six factors were identified in the Rabat Plan of Action to determine the severity necessary to criminalize incitement (ibid, para. 29):\n(a) The “social and political context prevalent at the time the speech was made and disseminated”;\n(b) The status of the speaker, “specifically the individual’s or organization’s standing in the context of the audience to whom the speech is directed”;\n(c) Intent, meaning that “negligence and recklessness are not sufficient for an offence under article 20 of the Covenant”, which provides that mere distribution or circulation does not amount to advocacy or incitement;\n(d) Content and form of the speech, in particular “the degree to which the speech was provocative and direct, as well as the form, style, nature of arguments deployed”;\n(e) Extent or reach of the speech act, such as the “magnitude and size of its audience”, including whether it was “a single leaflet or broadcast in the mainstream media or via the Internet, the frequency, the quantity and the extent of the communications, whether the audience had the means to act on the incitement”;\n(f) Its likelihood, including imminence, meaning that “some degree of risk of harm must be identified”, including through the determination (by courts, as suggested in the Plan of Action) of a “reasonable probability that the speech would succeed in inciting actual action against the target group”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0015", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. In 2013, the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, the expert monitoring body for the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, followed the lead of the Human Rights Committee and the Rabat Plan of Action. It clarified the “due regard” language in article 4 of the Convention as meaning that strict compliance with freedom of expression guarantees is required.[[fn:19]] In a sign of converging interpretations, the Committee emphasized that criminalization under article 4 should be reserved for certain cases, as follows:\nThe criminalization of forms of racist expression should be reserved for serious cases, to be proven beyond reasonable doubt, while less serious cases should be addressed by means other than criminal law, taking into account, inter alia, the nature and extent of the impact on targeted persons and groups. The application of criminal sanctions should be governed by principles of legality, proportionality and necessity.[[fn:20]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, general recommendation No. 35 (2013), para. 19. The Committee understands the due-regard clause as having particular importance with regard to freedom of expression, which, it states, is “the most pertinent reference principle when calibrating the legitimacy of speech restrictions”."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, general recommendation No. 35 (2013), para. 12."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CERD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CERD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0016", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination explained that the conditions defined in article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights also apply to restrictions under article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination.[[fn:21]] With regard to the qualification of dissemination and incitement as offences punishable by law, the Committee found that States must take into account a range of factors in determining whether a particular expression falls into those prohibited categories, including the speech’s “content and form”, the “economic, social and political climate” during the time the expression was made, the “position or status of the speaker”, the “reach of the speech” and its objectives. The Committee recommended that States parties to the Convention consider “the imminent risk or likelihood that the conduct desired or intended by the speaker will result from the speech in question”.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "Ibid., paras. 4 and 19–20."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Ibid., paras. 15–16."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination'."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0017", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. The Committee also found that the Convention requires the prohibition of “insults, ridicule or slander of persons or groups or justification of hatred, contempt or discrimination”, emphasizing that such expression may only be prohibited where it “clearly amounts to incitement to hatred or discrimination”.[[fn:23]] The terms “ridicule” and “justification” are extremely broad and are generally precluded from restriction under international human rights law, which protects the rights to offend and mock. Thus, the ties to incitement and to the framework established under article 19 (3) of the Covenant help to constrain such a prohibition to the most serious category.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Ibid., para. 13."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0018", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. In the Rabat Plan of Action, it is also clarified that criminalization should be left for the most serious sorts of incitement under article 20 (2) of the Covenant, and that, in general, other approaches deserve consideration first (A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, appendix, para. 34). These approaches include public statements by leaders in society that counter hate speech and foster tolerance and intercommunity respect; education and intercultural dialogue; expanding access to information and ideas that counter hateful messages; and the promotion of and training in human rights principles and standards. The recognition of steps other than legal prohibitions highlights that prohibition will often not be the least restrictive measure available to States confronting hate speech problems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0019", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Other kinds of speech may not meet the article 20 (2) or article 4 definitions or thresholds but involve, for example, advocacy of hatred. The question arises as to whether States may restrict advocacy of hatred that does not constitute incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence. In other words, the question is whether States may restrict hate speech when defined, as was done recently in the United Nations Strategy and Plan of Action on Hate Speech, as speech “that attacks or uses pejorative or discriminatory language with reference to a person or a group on the basis of who they are, in other words, based on their religion, ethnicity, nationality, race, colour, descent, gender or other identity factor”.[[fn:24]] Clearly such language stops short of the article 20 (2) and article 4 meanings of incitement, and while States and companies should combat such attitudes with education, condemnation and other tools, legal restrictions will need to meet the strict standards of international human rights law.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Hateful expression that may not constitute advocacy or incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "In the Rabat Plan of Action, reference is made to speech that is below the thresholds established under article 20 (2) of the Covenant but that either “may justify a civil suit or administrative sanctions” or gives rise to no sanctions but “still raises concern in terms of tolerance, civility and respect for the rights of others” (A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, para. 20)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0020", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. For content that involves the kind of speech as defined in the United Nations Strategy on Hate Speech, that is, speech that is hateful but does not constitute incitement, article 19 (3) of the Covenant provides appropriate guidance. Its conditions must be applied strictly, such that any restriction – and any action taken against speech – meets the conditions of legality, necessity and proportionality, and legitimacy. Given its vagueness, language similar to that used in the Strategy, if meant to guide prohibitions under law, would be problematic on legality grounds, although it may serve as a basis for political and social action to counter discrimination and hatred. Any State adopting such a definition would also need to situate a restriction among the legitimate grounds for limitation. In most instances, the rights of others, as defined in article 19 (3), may provide the appropriate basis, focused on rights related to discrimination or interference with privacy, or protecting public order. However, in each case, it would remain essential for the State to demonstrate the necessity and proportionality of taking action, and the harsher the penalty, the greater the need for demonstrating strict necessity.[[fn:25]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Hateful expression that may not constitute advocacy or incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "The public morals exception provided under article 19 (3) of the Covenant would be an unlikely basis, but it bears noting that the Human Rights Committee has clarified that “the purpose of protecting morals must be based on principles not deriving exclusively from a single tradition” (Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 32, quoting Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 22 (1993) on the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, para. 8)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0021", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Some restrictions are specifically disfavoured under international human rights standards. As a first example, the Human Rights Committee noted that “prohibitions of displays of lack of respect for a religion or other belief system, including blasphemy laws, are incompatible with the Covenant”, except in cases in which blasphemy also may be defined as advocacy of religious hatred that constitutes incitement of one of the required sorts.[[fn:26]] To be clear, anti-blasphemy laws fail to meet the legitimacy condition of article 19 (3) of the Covenant, given that article 19 protects individuals and their right to freedom of expression and opinion; neither article 19 (3) nor article 18 of the Covenant protect ideas or beliefs from ridicule, abuse, criticism or other “attacks” seen as offensive. Several human rights mechanisms have affirmed the call to repeal blasphemy laws because of the risk they pose to debate over religious ideas and the role that such laws play in enabling Governments to show preference for the ideas of one religion over those of other religions, beliefs or non-belief systems (see, in particular, A/HRC/31/18, paras. 59–61).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Hateful expression that may not constitute advocacy or incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 48. In this case, the blasphemy would be beside the point; only the advocacy constituting incitement would be relevant."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "18", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0022", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Second, laws that “penalize the expression of opinions about historical facts are incompatible” with article 19 of the Covenant, calling into question laws that criminalize the denial of the Holocaust and other atrocities and similar laws, which are often justified through references to hate speech. The Human Rights Committee noted that opinions that are “erroneous” and “an incorrect interpretation of past events” may not be subject to general prohibition, and any restrictions on the expression of such opinion “should not go beyond what is permitted” under article 19 (3) or “required under article 20” of the Covenant.[[fn:27]] In the light of these and other interpretations, the denial of the historical accuracy of atrocities should not be subject to criminal penalty or other restrictions without further evaluation under the definitions and context noted above. The application of any such restriction under international human rights law should involve the evaluation of the six factors noted in the Rabat Plan of Action.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Hateful expression that may not constitute advocacy or incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 49. See Sarah Cleveland, Hate Speech at Home and Abroad, in Lee C. Bollinger and Geoffrey R. Stone, eds., The Free Speech Century (New York, Oxford University Press, 2019). See also A/67/357, para. 55."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0023", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. A third kind of non-incitement speech may involve a situation in which a speaker is “individually targeting an identifiable victim” but not seeking to “incite others to take an action against persons on the basis of a protected characteristic”.[[fn:28]] Again, in reference to article 19 (3) of the Covenant, such speech may be subject to restriction in order to protect the rights of others or to protect public order. Often States restrict such expression under the general rubric of “hate crimes”, whereby the penalty for a physical attack on a person or property is exacerbated by the hateful motivation behind it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Hateful expression that may not constitute advocacy or incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Article 19, “Hate Speech” Explained, p. 22."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0024", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Fourth, it is important to emphasize that expression that may be offensive or characterized by prejudice and that may raise serious concerns of intolerance may often not meet a threshold of severity to merit any kind of restriction. There is a range of expression of hatred, ugly as it is, that does not involve incitement or direct threat, such as declarations of prejudice against protected groups. Such sentiments would not be subject to prohibition under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights or the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, and other restrictions or adverse actions would require an analysis of the conditions provided under article 19 (3) of the Covenant. The six factors identified in the Rabat Plan of Action for criminalizing incitement also provide a valuable rubric for considering how to evaluate public authorities’ reactions to such speech. Indeed, the absence of restriction does not mean the absence of action; States may (and should, consistent with Human Rights Council resolution 16/18) take robust steps, such as government condemnation of prejudice, education, training, public service announcements and community projects, to counter such intolerance and ensure that public authorities protect individuals against discrimination rooted in these kinds of assertions of hate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Hateful expression that may not constitute advocacy or incitement"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text refers to 'article 19 (3) of the Covenant'; throughout document a-74-486 'the Covenant' consistently means ICCPR (explicit_treaties confirm ICCPR and CERD, and art.19(3) is an ICCPR provision on restriction of freedom of expression)."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0025", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Finally, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide requires States to criminalize incitement to genocide. In some situations, such as in Myanmar, State inaction against incitement to genocide may contribute to very serious consequences for vulnerable communities. Such inaction itself is condemnable, just as the incitement itself must be opposed and punished.[[fn:29]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Hateful expression that may not constitute advocacy or incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See, in particular, A/HRC/39/64, para. 73. Article III (c) of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide calls for the criminalization of “direct and public incitement to commit genocide”."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0026", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Human rights systems in Europe, the Americas and Africa also articulate standards related to hate speech. The European Court of Human Rights has emphasized that freedom of expression protects the kinds of speech that may “offend, shock or disturb”.[[fn:30]] However, the Court has adopted relatively deferential attitudes towards States that continue to ban blasphemy by law on the grounds of prohibiting hate speech or continue to criminalize genocide denial, in contrast to trends observed at the global level.[[fn:31]] Often the Court avoids the hate speech question altogether, relying not on freedom of expression but on “abuse of rights” grounds to find that claims of violation are inadmissible.[[fn:32]] European norms may be in flux when it comes to making intermediaries liable for hate speech on their platforms.[[fn:33]] By contrast, standards in the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights have tended to be similar to the international standards explained above, while standards in the African system are at a comparatively early stage.[[fn:34]] Regional human rights norms cannot, in any event, be invoked to justify departure from international human rights protections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Human rights norms at the regional level"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Handyside v. the United Kingdom, application No. 5493/72, Judgment, 7 December 1976, para. 49. See Sejal Parmer, “The legal framework for addressing ‘hate speech’ in Europe”, presentation at the international conference on addressing hate speech in the media, Zagreb, November 2018."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See Council of Europe, “Hate speech”, fact sheet, October 2019; and Evelyn M. Aswad, “The future of freedom of expression online”, Duke Law and Technology Review, vol. 17 (August 2018)."}, {"n": 32, "text": "For an overview of practice, see Council of Europe, “Guide on article 17 of the European Convention on Human Rights: prohibition of abuse of rights”, updated 31 August 2019."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Compare European Court of Human Rights, Grand Chamber, Delfi AS v. Estonia, application No. 64569/09, Judgment, 16 June 2015, with European Court of Human Rights, Fourth Section, Magyar Tartalomszolgáltatók Egyesülete and Index.hu Zrt v. Hungary, application No. 22947/13, Judgment, 2 February 2016. See also Article 19, “Responding to ‘hate speech’: comparative overview of six EU countries”, 2018."}, {"n": 34, "text": "See Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, “Hate speech and incitement to violence”, in Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Violence against Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Persons in the Americas (2015)."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0027", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. The Human Rights Committee has specifically rejected the European Court’s margin of appreciation doctrine , noting that “a State party, in any given case, must demonstrate in specific fashion the precise nature of the threat to any of the enumerated grounds listed in paragraph 3 that has caused it to restrict freedom of expression”.[[fn:35]] The Committee does not grant discretion to the State simply because the national authorities assert that they generally are better placed to understand their local context.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Human rights norms at the regional level"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 36."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0028", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The international human rights framework has evolved in recent years to rationalize what appear, on the surface, to be competing norms. In short, the freedom of expression is a legal right of paramount value for democratic societies, interdependent with and supportive of other rights throughout the corpus of human rights law. At the same time, anti-discrimination, equality and equal and effective public participation underpin the entire corpus of human rights law. The kind of expression captured in article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination presents challenges to both sets of norms, something that all participants in public life must acknowledge. Thus, restrictions on the right to freedom of expression must be exceptional, and the State bears the burden of demonstrating the consistency of such restrictions with international law; prohibitions under article 20 of the Covenant and article 4 of the Convention must be subject to the strict and narrow conditions established under article 19 (3) of the Covenant, and States should generally deploy tools at their disposal other than criminalization and prohibition, such as education, counter-speech and the promotion of pluralism, to address all kinds of hate speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Summary of United Nations instruments on hate speech"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "20", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination'."}, {"article": "20", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second reference: 'prohibitions under article 20 of the Covenant' — 'the Covenant' is ICCPR throughout this document."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second reference: 'article 4 of the Convention' paired with ICCPR art.20, and 'the Convention' in this parallel construction refers to ICERD/CERD as throughout document a-74-486."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text refers to 'article 19 (3) of the Covenant'; ICCPR art.19(3) is the restriction test for freedom of expression, consistent throughout document."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0029", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Strict adherence to international human rights law standards protects against governmental excesses. As a first principle, States should not use Internet companies as tools to limit expression that they themselves would be precluded from limiting under international human rights law. What they demand of companies, whether through regulation or threats of regulation, must be justified under and in compliance with international law. Certain kinds of action against content are clearly inconsistent with article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, such as Internet shutdowns and the criminalization of online political dissent or government criticism (see A/HRC/35/22). Penalties on individuals for engaging in unlawful hate speech should not be enhanced merely because the speech occurred online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0030", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. It is useful to contemplate a hypothetical State that is considering legislation that would hold online intermediaries liable for the failure to take specified action against hate speech. Such an “intermediary liability” law is typically aimed at restricting expression, whether of the users of a particular platform or of the platform itself, sometimes with a view to fulfilling the obligation under article 20 (2) of the Covenant. Any legal evaluation of such a proposal must address the cumulative conditions established under article 19 (3) to ensure consistency with international standards on free expression.[[fn:36]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "For a statement on the principles that should apply in the context of intermediary liability, see Electronic Frontier Foundation, “Manila principles on intermediary liability”, 2015."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0031", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Article 19 (3) of the Covenant requires that, when imposing liability for the hosting of hate speech, the phrase itself and the factors involved in identifying the instances of hate speech must be defined. In a proposal to impose liability for a failure to remove “incitement”, the content of such incitement must be defined consistent with article 20 (2) of the Covenant and article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, including by defining the key terms in the Rabat Plan of Action noted above. If a State wishes to regulate hate speech on grounds other than those provided under article 20 of the Covenant and article 4 of the Convention, it must define the content that is in fact unlawful;[[fn:37]] the precision and clarity required under article 19 (3) of the Covenant mean that State laws should constrain the excessive discretion of government actors to enforce the rules or of private actors to use the rules to suppress lawful expression and must provide for individuals to be given appropriate notice to regulate their affairs.[[fn:38]] Without clarity and precision in the definitions, there is significant risk of abuse, restriction of legitimate content and failure to address the problems at issue. States addressing hate speech should tie their definitions closely to the standards of international human rights law, such as those established under article 20 (2) of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech", "Legality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "States have largely distinguished terrorist and “extremist” content from “hate speech”, but the same principles of legality must apply to those subjects as well. See, e.g., A/HRC/40/52, para. 75 (e). The term “extremism” is often used as a substitute for “hate speech”, albeit as a term that is not rooted in law. The term “violent extremism” does not add much clarity. Governments that use the term “extremism” in good faith in an online context seem to focus on the problem of the virality of “terrorist and violent extremist ideologies” and seem to have as their goal to counter “extremist” narratives and “prevent the abuse of the internet” (Christchurch Call to Eliminate Terrorist and Violent Extremist Content Online)."}, {"n": 38, "text": "This is not to preclude the possibility of civil claims that one individual may bring against another for traditional torts that take place online instead of offline. However, defining the expression that may cause legally redressable harm is required under article 19 of the Covenant."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CERD", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CERD", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CERD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CERD", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CERD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CERD", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CERD", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0032", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Several States have adopted or are considering adopting rules that require Internet companies to remove “manifestly unlawful” speech within a particular period, typically within 24 hours or even as brief as 1 hour, or otherwise to remove unlawful content within a lengthier period. The most well-known of these laws, the Network Enforcement Act of Germany, imposes requirements on companies to remove from their platforms speech that is unlawful under a number of specifically identified provisions of the German Criminal Code.[[fn:39]] For example, section 130 of the Criminal Code provides, inter alia, for the sanction of a person who, “in a manner capable of disturbing the public peace, incites hatred against a national, racial, religious group or a group defined by their ethnic origins, against segments of the population or individuals because of their belonging to one of the aforementioned groups or segments of the population or calls for violent or arbitrary measures against them”.[[fn:40]] The law evidently does not define its key terms (especially “incite” and “hatred”),[[fn:41]] and yet, through the Network Enforcement Act, it imposes significant fines on companies that fail to adhere to its provisions. The underlying law is problematically vague. While the Network Enforcement Act should be understood as a good-faith effort to deal with widespread concern over online hate and its offline consequences, the failure to define these key terms undermines the claim that its requirements are consistent with international human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech", "Legality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "Germany, Act to Improve Enforcement of the Law in Social Networks (Network Enforcement Act) (2017), sect. 1 (3)."}, {"n": 40, "text": "Similar references are made in the French bill concerning online hate speech. See communication FRA 6/2019 and the response of the Government of France, available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}, {"n": 41, "text": "See, however, Germany, Federal Court of Justice, Judgment of 3 April 2008, Case No. 3 StR 394/07."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0033", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Few States have involved their courts in the process of evaluating platform hate speech that is inconsistent with local law, but they should allow for the imposition of liability only according to orders by independent courts and with the possibility of appeal at the request of the intermediary or other party affected by the action (such as the subject user).[[fn:42]] Governments have been increasing the pressure on companies to serve as the adjudicators of hate speech. The process of adoption should also be subject to rigorous rule of law standards, with adequate opportunity for public input and hearings and evaluation of alternatives and of the impact on human rights.[[fn:43]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech", "Legality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "The previous Special Rapporteur noted that “any restriction imposed must be applied by a body that is independent of political, commercial or other unwarranted influences in a manner that is neither arbitrary nor discriminatory, and with adequate safeguards against abuse” (A/67/357, para. 42)."}, {"n": 43, "text": "See communication AUS 5/2019 and the response from the Permanent Mission of Australia to the United Nations Office and other international organizations in Geneva, available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0034", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Legislative efforts to incentivize the removal of online hate speech and impose liability on Internet companies for the failure to do so must meet the necessity and proportionality standards identified above. In recent years, States have pushed companies towards a nearly immediate takedown of content, demanding that they develop filters that would disable the upload of content deemed harmful. The pressure is for automated tools that would serve as a form of pre-publication censorship. Problematically, an upload filter requirement “would enable the blocking of content without any form of due process even before it is published, reversing the well-established presumption that States, not individuals, bear the burden of justifying restrictions on freedom of expression”.[[fn:44]] Because such filters are notoriously unable to address the kind of natural language that typically constitutes hateful content, they can cause significant disproportionate outcomes.[[fn:45]] Furthermore, there is research suggesting that such filters disproportionately harm historically underrepresented communities.[[fn:46]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech", "Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "Communication OTH 71/2018, available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments. See also, European Commission, recommendation (EU) 2018/334 of 1 March 2018 on measures to effectively tackle illegal content online, para. 36, which calls for “proactive measures, including by using automated means, in order to detect, identify and expeditiously remove or disable access to terrorist content”."}, {"n": 45, "text": "See Center for Democracy and Technology, “Mixed messages? The limits of automated social media content analysis”, 28 November 2017."}, {"n": 46, "text": "Regarding the serious concerns about freedom of expression raised on the matter of upload filters, see Daphne Keller, “Dolphins in the Net: Internet content filters and the Advocate General’s Glawischnig-Pieczek v. Facebook Ireland opinion”, Stanford Center for Internet and Society, 4 September 2019."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0035", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The push for upload filters for hate speech (and other kinds of content) is ill-advised, as it drives the platforms towards the regulation and removal of lawful content. They enhance the power of the companies with very little, if any, oversight or opportunity for redress. States should instead be pursuing laws and policies that push companies to protect free expression and counter lawfully restricted forms of hate speech through a combination of features: transparency requirements that allow public oversight; the enforcement of national law by independent judicial authorities; and other social and educational efforts along the lines proposed in the Rabat Plan of Action and Human Rights Council resolution 16/18.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech", "Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0036", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Some States have taken steps to address illegal hate speech through other creative and seemingly proportionate means. While India has, problematically, adopted Internet shutdowns as a tool to deal with content issues in some instances, interfering disproportionately with the population’s access to communications,[[fn:47]] some states in India have adopted alternative approaches. One approach involved the creation of hotlines for individuals to report WhatsApp content to law enforcement authorities, while another involved the establishment of “social media labs” to monitor online hate speech. While these kinds of approaches require careful development to be consistent with human rights norms, they suggest a kind of “creative” and “out of the box” approach to address hate speech without outsourcing the role of content police to distant companies.[[fn:48]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech", "Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "See communications IND 7/2017 and IND 5/2016, available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments; see also Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, “United Nations rights experts urge India to end communications shutdown in Kashmir”, press release, 22 August 2019."}, {"n": 48, "text": "Chinmayi Arun and Nakul Nayak, “Preliminary findings on online hate speech and the law in India”, 8 December 2016, p. 11."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0037", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. In 2019, an official commission in France proposed an approach to the regulation of online content that would seem to protect expression while also giving room to address unlawful hate speech. While the status of the commission’s work was unclear at the time of writing, its proposals involve judicial authorities addressing hate speech problems and multi-stakeholder initiatives to provide oversight of company policies. The commission concluded as follows:\nPublic intervention to force the biggest players to assume a more responsible and protective attitude to our social cohesion therefore appears legitimate. Given the civil liberty issues at stake, this intervention should be subject to particular precautions. It must (1) respect the wide range of social network models, which are particularly diverse, (2) impose a principle of transparency and systematic inclusion of civil society, (3) aim for a minimum level of intervention in accordance with the principles of necessity and proportionality and (4) refer to the courts for the characterisation of the lawfulness of individual content.[[fn:49]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech", "Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "France, “Creating a French framework to make social media platforms more accountable: acting in France with a European vision”, interim mission report submitted to the French Secretary of State for Digital Affairs, May 2019."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0038", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. This approach deserves further development and consideration, as it addresses issues of freedom of expression and social cohesion in ways that appear to enable respect for international human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech", "Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0039", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Government regulation of online intermediaries should be subject to the same guidelines for legitimacy as those contained in human rights law applied to all government restriction of speech. As noted above, certain kinds of speech that States may characterize as “hate speech” should not be subject to prohibition under articles 19 or 20 (2) of the Covenant. In addition, legal terms that restrict incitement that, for example, instigates “hatred against the regime” or “subversion of State power” are unlawful bases for restriction under article 19 (3) of the Covenant (A/67/357, paras. 51–55). Overly broad definitions of hate speech, for example proscribing incitement of “religious discord” or speech that might subject a country to violent acts,[[fn:50]] typically enable speech restrictions for illegitimate purposes, or, in the case of government regulation of online intermediaries, demands on those intermediaries that are inconsistent with human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech", "Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "See communication JOR 3/2018, available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0040", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. It is on the platforms of Internet companies where hateful content spreads online, seemingly spurred on by a business model that values attention and virality.[[fn:51]] The largest companies deploy “classifiers”, using artificial intelligence software to identify proscribed content, with perhaps only intermittent success, on the basis of specific words and analysis. The companies operate across jurisdictions, and the same content in one location may have a different impact elsewhere. Online hate speech often involves unknown speakers, with coordinated bot threats, disinformation and so-called deep fakes, and mob attacks.[[fn:52]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "See Tim Wu, The Attention Merchants: The Epic Scramble to Get Inside Our Heads (New York, Vintage Books, 2016)."}, {"n": 52, "text": "See Gayathry Venkiteswaran, “Let the Mob Do the Job”: How Proponents of Hatred are Threatening Freedom of Expression and Religion Online in Asia (Association for Progressive Communications, October 2017)."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0041", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Internet companies shape their platforms’ rules and public presentation (or brand).[[fn:53]] They have an enormous impact on human rights, particularly but not only in places where they are the predominant form of public and private expression, where a limitation of speech can amount to public silencing or a failure to deal with incitement can facilitate offline violence and discrimination (A/HRC/42/50, paras. 70–75). The consequences of ungoverned online hate can be tragic, as illuminated by Facebook’s failure to address incitement against the Rohingya Muslim community in Myanmar. Companies do not have the obligations of Governments, but their impact is of a sort that requires them to assess the same kind of questions about protecting their users’ right to freedom of expression.[[fn:54]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "See Kate Klonick, “The new governors: the people, rules, and processes governing online speech”, Harvard Law Review, vol. 131, No. 6 (April 2018); and David Kaye, Speech Police: The Global Struggle to Govern the Internet (New York, Columbia Global Reports, 2019)."}, {"n": 54, "text": "See A/HRC/32/38, paras. 87–88; see also Business for Social Responsibility and World Economic Forum, “Responsible use of technology”, white paper, August 2019."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0042", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. In previous reports, it has been argued that all companies in the ICT sector should apply the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights of the United Nations and integrate human rights into their products by design and by default. However, companies manage hate speech on their platforms almost entirely without reference to the human rights implications of their products.[[fn:55]] This is a mistake, as it deprives the companies of a framework for making rights-compliant decisions and articulating their enforcement to Governments and individuals, while hobbling the public’s capacity to make claims using a globally understood vocabulary. The Special Rapporteur reiterates the call for companies to implement human rights policies that involve mechanisms to:\n(a) Conduct periodic reviews of the impact of the company products on human rights;\n(b) Avoid adverse human rights impacts and prevent or mitigate those that arise;\n(c) Implement due diligence processes to “identify, prevent, mitigate and account for how they address their impacts on human rights” and have a process for remediating harm.[[fn:56]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "At the time of writing, Facebook had just released a revised statement of values indicating that it would “look to international human rights standards” to make certain judgments concerning community standards. See Monika Bickert, “Updating the values that inform our community standards”, Facebook, 12 September 2019."}, {"n": 56, "text": "Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework (A/HRC/17/31, annex), principles 12 (with commentary), 13 and 15."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0043", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. There will always be difficult questions about how to apply United Nations human rights standards to a wide range of content, just as there are difficult questions about national laws and regional human rights law.[[fn:57]] However, the guidance mentioned above can help to shape company protection of rights at each stage of the moderation of content: product development, definition, identification, action and remedy. Global norms provide a firm basis for companies with global users communicating across borders, and they are called for by the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (principle 12).[[fn:58]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "See Benesch, “Proposals for improved regulation”."}, {"n": 58, "text": "See Business for Social Responsibility, Human Rights Impact Assessment: Facebook in Myanmar (October 2018)."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0044", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Dealing with hate speech should start with due diligence at the product development stage. Unfortunately, it seems likely that few if any major Internet companies have conducted a rights-oriented product review related to hate speech; if so, it has not been made public. However, products in the ICT sector are constantly being updated and revised, and thus it is critical for companies to conduct regular impact assessments and reassessments in order to determine how their products infringe upon the enjoyment of human rights. Under the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, businesses should, among other things, have an ongoing process to determine how hate speech affects human rights on their platforms (principle 17), including through a platform’s own algorithms (see A/73/348). They should draw on internal and independent human rights expertise, including “meaningful consultation with potentially affected groups and other relevant stakeholders” (principle 18). They should regularly evaluate the effectiveness of their approaches to human rights harms (principle 20).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Human rights due diligence and review"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0045", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. The lack of transparency is a major flaw in all the companies’ content moderation processes. There is a significant barrier to external review (academic, legal and other) of hate speech policies as required under principle 21: while the rules are public, the details of their implementation, at the aggregate and granular levels, are nearly non-existent. Finally, the companies must also train their content policy teams, general counsel and especially content moderators in the field, that is, those conducting the actual work of restriction (principle 16, commentary). As part of the training, the norms of human rights law that the content moderation is aimed at protecting and promoting should be identified. In particular, companies should assess whether their hate speech rules infringe upon freedom of expression by assessing the legality, necessity and legitimacy principles identified above.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Human rights due diligence and review"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0046", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Company definitions of hate speech are in general difficult to understand, although companies vary on this matter. In some companies such definitions are non-existent, and in others they are vague. For example, the Russian social network VK prohibits content that “propagandizes and/or contributes to racial, religious, ethnic hatred or hostility, propagandizes fascism or racial superiority” or “contains extremist materials”.[[fn:59]] The Chinese messaging app WeChat prohibits “content … which in fact or in our reasonable opinion … is hateful, harassing, abusive, racially or ethnically offensive, defamatory, humiliating to other people (publicly or otherwise), threatening, profane or otherwise objectionable”.[[fn:60]] Other definitions are dense and detailed, involving serious efforts to spell out exactly the kind of content that constitutes hate speech subject to restriction, yet the density paradoxically can create confusion and a lack of clarity. The policies of the three dominant American companies – YouTube, Facebook and Twitter[[fn:61]] – have evolved and improved over many years, each layering their policies in ways that have converged to a recognizably similar set of rules. However, while they use different terms to signal the restriction of content that “promotes” violence or hatred against specific protected groups, they do not clarify how they define promotion, incitement, targeting groups and so forth. Among other issues, subjects such as intent and result are difficult to identify in the policies (A/HRC/38/35, para. 26).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Legality standard"], "footnotes": [{"n": 59, "text": "See https://vk.com/terms."}, {"n": 60, "text": "See www.wechat.com/en/acceptable_use_policy.html."}, {"n": 61, "text": "See https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/2801939?hl=en, www.facebook.com/communitystandards/hate_speech and https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/hateful-conduct-policy."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0047", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. The companies should review their policies, or adopt new ones, with the legality test in mind. A human rights-compliant framework on online hate speech would draw from the definitional guidance mentioned above and provide answers to the following:\n(a) What are protected persons or groups? Human rights law has identified specific groups requiring express protection. Companies in the ICT sector should aim to apply the broadest possible protection in keeping with evolving laws and normative understandings. The companies should be clear that they would not restrict “the promotion … of a positive sense of group identity” in particular in the context of historically disadvantaged groups, while acknowledging that some expressions of group identity, such as white supremacy, may in fact constitute hateful content;[[fn:62]]\n(b) What kind of hate speech constitutes a violation of company rules? Companies should develop hate speech policies by considering the kinds of interference users may face on the platform. Human rights law provides guidance, in particular by noting the legitimacy of restrictions to protect the rights of others. For example, companies could consider how hateful online expression can incite violence that threatens life, infringes upon the freedom of expression and access to information of others, interferes with privacy or the right to vote and so forth. The companies are not in the position of Governments to assess threats to national security and public order, and hate speech restrictions on those grounds should be based not on company assessment but on legal orders from States, themselves subject to the strict conditions established under article 19 (3) of the Covenant;\n(c) Is there specific hate speech content that the companies restrict? Companies should indicate how they prohibit, if they do, the kind of expression covered under article 20 (2) of the Covenant and article 4 of the Convention. In defining such prohibited expression, they should draw from the instruments identified above. However, incitement is only one part of the problematic content that may constitute hate speech. Companies should identify what that category includes in addition to incitement, as some companies have already done through their evolving policies. They should do more than simply identify; they should also show, through the development of a kind of case law, exactly how their categories play out in the actual enforcement of the rules (A/HRC/38/35, para. 71);\n(d) Are there categories of users to whom the hate speech rules do not apply? International standards are clear that journalists and others reporting on hate speech should be protected against content restrictions or adverse actions taken against their accounts. Moreover, an application of the context standards of the Rabat Plan of Action would lead to the protection of such content. Politicians, government and military officials and other public figures are another matter. Given their prominence and potential leadership role in inciting behaviour, they should be bound by the same hate speech rules that apply under international standards. In the context of hate speech policies, by default public figures should abide by the same rules as all users. The evaluation of context may lead to a decision to make an exception in some instances, when the content must be protected as, for example, political speech. However, incitement is almost certainly more harmful when uttered by leaders than by other users, and that factor should be part of the evaluation of platform content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Legality standard"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "Article 19, Camden principles on freedom of expression and equality, principle 12."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0048", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. When company rules differ from international standards, the companies should give a reasoned explanation of the policy difference in advance, in a way that articulates the variation. For example, were a company to decide to prohibit the use of a derogatory term to refer to a national, racial or religious group – which, on its own, would not be subject to restriction under human rights law – it should clarify its decision in accordance with human rights law. Moreover, companies should be especially alert to the abuse of their platforms through disinformation that constitutes hate speech; in particular in environments of rising tension, the companies should clearly state their policies, develop comprehensive understanding through community and expert engagement and firmly counter such incitement. International human rights standards can guide such policies, while the virality of hateful content in such contexts may require rapid reaction and early warning to protect fundamental rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Legality standard"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0049", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The companies should define how they determine when a user has violated the hate speech rules. At the present time, it is difficult to know the circumstances under which the rules may be violated. There seems to be very significant inconsistency in the enforcement of rules. The opacity of enforcement is part of the problem. A set of factors is identified in the Rabat Plan of Action that is applicable to the criminalization of incitement under article 20 (2) of the Covenant, but those factors should have weight in the context of company actions against speech as well. They need not be applied in the same way as they would be applied in a criminal context. However, they offer a valuable framework for examining when the specifically defined content – the posts or the words or images that comprise the post – merits a restriction.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Legality standard"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0050", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Companies may find that detailed contextual analysis is difficult and resource-intensive. The largest companies rely heavily on automation in order to do at least the first-layer work of identifying hate speech, which requires having rules that divide content into either one category (ignore) or another (delete). They use the power of artificial intelligence to drive these systems, but the systems are notoriously bad at evaluating context (see A/73/348). However, if the companies are serious about protecting human rights on their platforms, they must ensure that they define the rules clearly and require human evaluation. Human evaluation, moreover, must be more than an assessment of whether particular words fall into a particular category. It must be based on real learning from the communities in which hate speech may be found, that is, people who can understand the “code” that language sometimes deploys to hide incitement to violence, evaluate the speaker’s intent, consider the nature of the speaker and audience and evaluate the environment in which hate speech can lead to violent acts. None of these things are possible with artificial intelligence alone, and the definitions and strategies should reflect the nuances of the problem. The largest companies should bear the burden of these resources and share their knowledge and tools widely, as open source, to ensure that smaller companies, and smaller markets, have access to such technology.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Legality standard"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0051", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Companies have tools to deal with content in human rights-compliant ways, in some respects a broader range of tools than that enjoyed by States. This range of options enables them to tailor their responses to specific problematic content, according to its severity and other factors. They can delete content, restrict its virality, label its origin, suspend the relevant user, suspend the organization sponsoring the content, develop ratings to highlight a person’s use of prohibited content, temporarily restrict content while a team is conducting a review, preclude users from monetizing their content, create friction in the sharing of content, affix warnings and labels to content, provide individuals with greater capacity to block other users, minimize the amplification of the content, interfere with bots and coordinated online mob behaviour, adopt geolocated restrictions and even promote counter-messaging. Not all of these tools are appropriate in every circumstance, and they may require limitations themselves, but they show the range of options short of deletion that may be available to companies in given situations. In other words, just as States should evaluate whether a limitation on speech is the least restrictive approach, so too should companies carry out this kind of evaluation. And, in carrying out the evaluation, companies should bear the burden of publicly demonstrating necessity and proportionality when so requested by affected users, whether the user is the speaker, the alleged victim, another person who came across the content or a member of the public.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0052", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Evelyn Aswad identifies three steps that a company should take under the necessity framework: evaluate the tools it has available to protect a legitimate objective without interfering with the speech itself; identify the tool that least intrudes on speech; and assess whether and demonstrate that the measure it selects actually achieves its goals.[[fn:63]] This kind of evaluation is in line with the call made in the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights for businesses to ensure that they prevent or mitigate harms, in particular because such an approach enables the companies to evaluate the two sets of potential harms involved: the restrictions on speech caused by the implementation of their rules and the restrictions on speech caused by users deploying hate speech against other users or the public. An approach that draws from this framework enables the companies to determine how to respond not only to genuine incitement but also to the kinds of expression that are common online – borderline hate speech and non-incitement.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "Aswad, “The future of freedom”, pp. 47–52."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0053", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The mechanisms of international human rights law provide a wealth of ideas for the remediation of online hate speech. Article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 6 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination require that remedies be available for violations of the provisions contained therein, and the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights also require access to remedy. In his 2018 report on content moderation, the Special Rapporteur highlighted the responsibility of companies to remedy adverse human rights impacts under the Guiding Principles (A/HRC/38/35, para. 59), and therefore it need not be repeated in detail in the present report. In short, the process of remediation must begin with an effective way for individuals to report potential violations of hate speech policies and must ensure protections against abuse of the reporting system as a form of hate speech. It should include a transparent and accessible process for appealing platform decisions, with companies providing a reasoned response that should also publicly accessible.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Remedy"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'Article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'."}, {"article": "6", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 6 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination'; CERD art.6 provides effective protection and remedies."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0054", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. At a minimum, the companies should publicly identify the kinds of remedies that they will impose on those who have violated their hate speech policies. It may be that user suspension is insufficient. Companies should have graduated responses according to the severity of the violation or the recidivism of the user. They should develop strong products that protect user autonomy, security and free expression to remedy violations. Their approaches may involve the de-amplification and de-monetization of problematic expressions that they do not want to ban, for whatever reason, but companies should, again, make the policies clear and known in advance to all users, based on accessible definitions, with warnings for all and the opportunity to withdraw and, if necessary, remedy the consequences of an offending comment. They may develop programmes that require suspended users who wish to return to the platform to engage in kinds of reparations, such as apology, or other forms of direct engagement with others they harmed. They should have remedial policies of education, counter-speech, reporting and training. Remedy should also include, for the most serious lapses, post-violation impact assessments and the development of policies to end the violations.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Remedy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0055", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The Rabat Plan of Action and Human Rights Council resolution 16/18 also provide ideas that companies may draw on in providing remedies for hateful content. According to the Rabat Plan of Action, “States should ensure that persons who have suffered actual harm as a result of incitement to hatred have a right to an effective remedy, including a civil or non-judicial remedy for damages”. Such remedies could include pecuniary damages, the “right of correction” and “right of reply” (A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, appendix, paras. 33–34). In its resolution 16/18, the Human Rights Council identifies tools such as training government officials and promoting the right of minority communities to manifest their belief. The previous Special Rapporteur urged procedural remedies, such as “access to justice and ensuring effectiveness of domestic institutions”, and substantive ones, such as “reparations that are adequate, prompt and proportionate to the gravity of the expression, which may include restoring reputation, preventing recurrence and providing financial compensation” (A/67/357, para. 48). However, he also urged a set of non-legal remedies, which the companies should evaluate and implement given their responsibility as creators of platforms on which hateful content thrives. Such remedial action could include educational efforts concerning the harms of hate speech and the way in which hate speech is often aimed at pushing vulnerable communities off the platforms (i.e., to silence them); promoting and giving greater visibility to mechanisms for responses to hate speech; public denunciation of hate speech, such as promoting public service announcements and statements of public figures; and stronger collaborations with social science researchers to evaluate the scope of the problem and the tools that are most effective against the proliferation of hateful content (ibid, paras. 56–74).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Remedy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0056", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. International human rights law should be understood as a critical framework for the protection and respect for human rights when combating hateful, offensive, dangerous or disfavoured speech. Online hate speech, the broad category of expression described in the present report, can result in deleterious outcomes. When the phrase is abused, it can provide ill-intentioned States with a tool to punish and restrict speech that is entirely legitimate and even necessary in rights-respecting societies. Some kinds of expression, however, can cause real harm. It can intimidate vulnerable communities into silence, in particular when it involves advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement to hostility, discrimination or violence. Left unchecked and viral, it can create an environment that undermines public debate and can harm even those who are not users of the subject platform. It is therefore important that States and companies address the problems of hate speech with a determination to protect those at risk of being silenced and to promote open and rigorous debate on even the most sensitive issues in the public interest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0057", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. State approaches to online hate speech should begin with two premises. First, human rights protections in an offline context must also apply to online speech. There should be no special category of online hate speech for which the penalties are higher than for offline hate speech. Second, Governments should not demand – through legal or extralegal threats – that intermediaries take action that international human rights law would bar States from taking directly. In keeping with these foundations, and with reference to the rules outlined above, States should at a minimum do the following in addressing online hate speech:\n(a) Strictly define the terms in their laws that constitute prohibited content under article 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination and resist criminalizing such speech except in the gravest situations, such as advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, and adopt the interpretations of human rights law contained in the Rabat Plan of Action;\n(b) Review existing laws or develop legislation on hate speech to meet the requirements of legality, necessity and proportionality, and legitimacy, and subject such rule-making to robust public participation;\n(c) Actively consider and deploy good governance measures, including those recommended in Human Rights Council resolution 16/18 and the Rabat Plan of Action, to tackle hate speech with the aim of reducing the perceived need for bans on expression;\n(d) Adopt or review intermediary liability rules to adhere strictly to human rights standards and do not demand that companies restrict expression that the States would be unable to do directly, through legislation;\n(e) Establish or strengthen independent judicial mechanisms to ensure that individuals may have access to justice and remedies when suffering cognizable harms relating to article 20 (2) of the Covenant or article 4 of the Convention;\n(f) Adopt laws that require companies to describe in detail and in public how they define hate speech and enforce their rules against it, and to create databases of actions taken against hate speech by the companies, and to otherwise encourage companies to respect human rights standards in their own rules;\n(g) Actively engage in international processes designed as learning forums for addressing hate speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for States"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination'."}, {"article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second reference: 'article 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' repeated in the same list item."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second reference: 'article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination' repeated in the same list item."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0058", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Companies have for too long avoided human rights law as a guide to their rules and rule-making, notwithstanding the extensive impacts they have on the human rights of their users and the public. In addition to the principles adopted in earlier reports and in keeping with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, all companies in the ICT sector should:\n(a) Evaluate how their products and services affect the human rights of their users and the public, through periodic and publicly available human rights impact assessments;\n(b) Adopt content policies that tie their hate speech rules directly to international human rights law, indicating that the rules will be enforced according to the standards of international human rights law, including the relevant United Nations treaties and interpretations of the treaty bodies and special procedure mandate holders and other experts, including the Rabat Plan of Action;\n(c) Define the category of content that they consider to be hate speech with reasoned explanations for users and the public and approaches that are consistent across jurisdictions;\n(d) Ensure that any enforcement of hate speech rules involves an evaluation of context and the harm that the content imposes on users and the public, including by ensuring that any use of automation or artificial intelligence tools involve human-in-the-loop;\n(e) Ensure that contextual analysis involves communities most affected by content identified as hate speech and that communities are involved in identifying the most effective tools to address harms caused on the platforms;\n(f) As part of an overall effort to address hate speech, develop tools that promote individual autonomy, security and free expression, and involve de-amplification, de-monetization, education, counter-speech, reporting and training as alternatives, when appropriate, to the banning of accounts and the removal of content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. In December 2021, two journalists – Maria Ressa from the Philippines and Dimitry Muratov from the Russian Federation – were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their “courageous fight for freedom of expression … as representatives of all journalists who stand up for this ideal in a world in which democracy and freedom of the press face increasingly adverse conditions”.[[fn:1]] Within weeks of that event, six journalists were killed in Mexico, underscoring the urgent need to galvanize action to end impunity for crimes against journalists.[[fn:2]] Then, at the end of February 2022, the invasion of Ukraine and the subsequent targeting of media workers and media installations by the Russian Federation brought the escalating threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom into sharp focus in the context of attacks on peace, security and human rights in the digital age.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2021/summary/."}, {"n": 2, "text": "Reporters without Borders, “Tragic month for Mexico’s media”, 3 February 2022."}, {"n": 3, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/03/ukraine-protecting-life-must-be-priority-un-human-rights-experts."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Digital technology has enabled groundbreaking investigative reporting, new models of cross-border collaboration, cooperative fact-checking with audiences and access to treasure troves of data and diverse sources with a mouse-click. However, it has also given rise to unprecedented challenges and changes for the news industry, aggravating existing threats and creating new ones.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The challenges are multiple, complex and often interconnected. Longstanding problems of violent attacks on and legal harassment of journalists with impunity, censorship of content and manipulation of regulatory authorities have been entrenched, aggravated and augmented by digital technology. Notable new manifestations include gender-based online violence, targeted surveillance of journalists, legislation restricting information online, “media capture” by State or corporate interests and viral disinformation campaigns that undermine public trust in independent journalism.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Digital technology has blurred the distinctions between print and broadcast media, and between media outlets and their audiences, changing the concepts of who is a journalist and what is media freedom. The business models of digital and social media platforms have weakened news media with a flood of competing content of lesser quality and the diversion of advertisement revenue.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. In a climate of surging authoritarianism, many Governments have taken advantage of the pandemic to justify new restrictions on freedom of expression and access to information online.[[fn:4]] Populist leaders have actively sought to demonize and discredit independent journalists to consolidate their own power, while deadly conflicts in places like Afghanistan, Ethiopia, the Syrian Arab Republic, Ukraine and Yemen have heightened the risks journalists face.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See submission from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/calls-input/call-comments-opportunities-challenges-and-threats-media-digital-age."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Media freedom and the safety of journalists are in dangerous decline in almost every region of the world.[[fn:5]] The present report to the Human Rights Council is a call for urgent action to reverse that trend.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. This year marks the tenth anniversary of the United Nations Plan of Action on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity (United Nations Plan of Action). It has provided a common framework for States, international organizations and civil society to share experiences, identify good practices, improve coordination, increase awareness of the problems and inspire other collaborative initiatives. Drawing lessons from those experiences, renewed efforts must be made to counter the evolving ecosystem of threats and challenges to media freedom and the safety of journalists, including those spawned by new technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The report calls for a holistic response, going beyond physical threats to address legal and digital risks, as well as the enabling environment that sustains them, and the mobilization of the political will for sustained action. It analyses key challenges and threats, including the impact of digital technology, assesses the compliance of States and companies with relevant international legal standards, notes good practice and sets out recommendations for States, the international community, companies and civil society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Written contributions from 16 States, 29 civil society organizations, including a consortium of 40 partners, scholars and journalists, and 4 international organizations, and consultations with various stakeholders, have informed the report.[[fn:6]] The Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression thanks all the stakeholders for their contributions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "The submissions are available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/calls-input/call-comments-opportunities-challenges-and-threats-media-digital-age."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The right to freedom of opinion and expression provides the international legal basis for uncensored and unhindered news media, and the right of journalists to work safely and without fear. This right is enshrined in article 19 of both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which state that everyone is entitled to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds regardless of frontiers through any media of their choice, and is reaffirmed in regional instruments.[[fn:7]] It encompasses the right to information, provides an expansive understanding of protected expression – whether true, false, offensive or enlightened – and anticipates the continued development of media, including new technologies that enable data to cross borders in an instant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "This formulation is also reflected in the American Convention on Human Rights (art. 13 (1)) and the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (art. 10 (1)). The Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa, adopted in 2002, uses similar terms to elaborate the rights initially set out in the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (art. 9)."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'enshrined in article 19 of both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — equal cross-instrument cite => AMBIGUOUS."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. A free, independent and diverse media fulfils society’s right to know, as well as journalists’ right to seek, receive and impart information.[[fn:8]] It has been acknowledged as a key pillar of democracy and sustainable development in numerous General Assembly and Human Rights Council resolutions.[[fn:9]] The right to information is a target of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, and the safety of journalists is a success indicator.[[fn:10]] Decisions of regional human rights courts, activities of regional organizations and joint declarations by the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and regional mechanisms, have affirmed and enhanced international standards for the protection and promotion of media freedom and the safety of journalists.[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Compulsory Membership in An Association Prescribed by Law for the Practice of Journalism, Advisory Opinion OC-5/85 of 13 November 1985, Series A No. 5, para. 32. See also European Court of Human Rights, Thoma v. Luxembourg, application No. 38432/97, judgment of 29 March 2001."}, {"n": 9, "text": "See, e.g., General Assembly resolutions 76/173, 74/157, 72/175, 70/162, 69/185 and 68/163; and Human Rights Council resolutions 45/18, 39/6, 33/2, 27/5 and 21/12."}, {"n": 10, "text": "Sustainable Development Goal target 16.10."}, {"n": 11, "text": "E.g., regional platforms for the safety of journalists set up by the Council of Europe (https://fom.coe.int/en/accueil) and the African Union (https://safetyofjournalistsinafrica.africa/). See also Commission recommendation (EU) 2021/1534 of 16 September 2021 on ensuring the protection, safety and empowerment of journalists and other media professionals in the European Union and the Joint Declaration on Media Independence and Diversity in the Digital Age by the Special Rapporteur and regional experts on freedom of expression of 2 May 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. In recent years several important initiatives have been launched by Governments, intergovernmental organizations and civil society to protect journalists, nurture media freedom, independence and pluralism, and secure a viable future for public interest journalism.[[fn:12]] The Special Rapporteur welcomes these initiatives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "E.g., the United Nations Plan of Action on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity; Groups of Friends on the Safety of Journalists in Paris, New York, Geneva, Vienna and Strasbourg; the Media Freedom Coalition of 50 States; the UNESCO Global Media Defence Fund; and the International Civil Society Coalition on the Safety of Journalists."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. The societal relevance of independent, free and pluralistic news media – as a pillar of democracy, a tool to support accountability and transparency, and a means to sustain open deliberation and encourage the exchange of diverse views – underscores the importance of journalism as a public good. Journalists are not above the law, but by virtue of their function and the public interest in disclosure, they are entitled to specific legal protection. States are obliged not only to refrain from arbitrary restraints, but also to put in place legislative and regulatory measures in line with international human rights standards to enable journalists to carry out their work safely and without hindrance.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Centro Europa 7 S.r.l. v. Italy, application No. 38433/09, judgment of 7 June 2012."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Public interest media, and in particular investigative journalism, play a crucial role in ensuring access to reliable information on vital issues such as elections, conflicts, the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) crisis, corruption, organized crime and climate change. As recognized in the Windhoek+30 Declaration, the preconditions for information as a public good include the economic viability of journalism, the transparency of Internet companies and the media and information literacy of the public. All three require reinforcement in the digital age.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Today, neither the concept of a journalist nor the practice of journalism is limited to those employed by news publishers. The Human Rights Committee has recognized journalism as a function shared by a wide range of actors, including professional full-time reporters and analysts, as well as bloggers and others who engage in forms of self-publication in print, on the Internet or elsewhere.[[fn:14]] While limited accreditation and registration schemes can facilitate privileged access for journalists to certain places or events in particular situations, general State systems of registration or licensing of journalists are incompatible with international human rights law.[[fn:15]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "B. Key concepts", "1. Who is a journalist?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "General comment No. 34 (2011), para. 44. See also A/HRC/20/17, para. 4."}, {"n": 15, "text": "General comment No. 34 (2011), para. 44."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. While the rise of digital media has significantly expanded the possibilities for creating and disseminating content, citizen news sites, blogs and the news services of non-governmental organizations complement rather than replace news outlets. Some scholars have argued in favour of legal protection being defined in connection with “acts of journalism”, rather than through the definition of the professional functions of a journalist.[[fn:16]] In other words, the professional designation of the individual is less relevant than the nature of the content and its public interest function.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "B. Key concepts", "1. Who is a journalist?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See Julie Posetti, Protecting Journalism Sources in the Digital Age (Paris, UNESCO, 2017)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. The term “media freedom” is used in this report to mean the freedom, independence and plurality of the news media, including the production, publication and dissemination of journalism across all mediums and platforms. Some scholars have sought to define media freedom as a distinct right with particular prerogatives.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "B. Key concepts", "2. What is media freedom?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See Damian Tambini, “A Theory of Media Freedom”, Journal of Media Law, vol. 13, No. 2 (2021)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Media independence is understood as editorial independence from political interference and the preservation of professional journalistic standards through self-regulation and independent regulatory authorities. Media pluralism is the existence of multiple actors, spanning public, private and community media, and is a precondition for content diversity and for the promotion of gender equality and social inclusion in and through the media.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "B. Key concepts", "2. What is media freedom?"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Like other forms of expression, media freedom can be restricted only in line with the three-part test set out in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Firstly, the restriction must be provided by law in precise and clear terms, and not left to the unfettered discretion of those responsible for its execution. Secondly, it can be imposed only for the specific legitimate objective of respecting the rights or reputations of others or protecting national security, public order, public health or public morals. Thirdly, the restriction must be strictly necessary, appropriate, proportionate and directly relevant to achieving the legitimate objective. Restrictions must be construed narrowly, using the least intrusive measure possible and never going so far as to impair the essence of the right itself.[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "C. Restrictions on media freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 31 (2004), para. 6."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Although the principle of necessity and proportionality deems that journalists should not be prosecuted for disseminating information that is of legitimate public interest, many Governments use laws protecting national security, public order and public morals to clamp down on reporting that is critical of their policies. The Special Rapporteur considers the weaponization of the law against journalists as a major threat to media freedom (see sect. IV below). Prior censorship is deemed disproportionate control of the media, and the outright banning of particular media outlets or websites and Internet shutdowns in many cases also violate the principle of necessity and proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "C. Restrictions on media freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. While States are obliged to both respect human rights and to protect them from attacks by others, in line with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, corporate entities also have the responsibility to respect human rights. At a minimum, corporations should conduct due diligence to identify and assess the human rights risks associated with their activities, establish clear policies on how to address them, publish transparency reports on the risks they encounter and how they are addressed, and provide for remedies in case of violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "D. Corporate responsibility for media freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Particularly relevant to the present report are the role and responsibilities of social media platforms – as enablers of media, as well as vectors of coordinated digital attacks against journalists and viral disinformation that undercuts credible journalism – and those of spyware companies, which provide electronic surveillance tools that threaten the safe practice of journalism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "D. Corporate responsibility for media freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Media companies as employers and key players in the news industry are also responsible for upholding the rights of journalists, ensuring their safety and promoting diversity and inclusion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "D. Corporate responsibility for media freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. The right of journalists to work safely and without fear is inseparable from the concept of media freedom. Whether online or offline, the objective of those who threaten journalists remains the same: to chill public interest reporting by increasing the risks faced by journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The United Nations Plan of Action defines the safety of journalists as encompassing not only physical attacks but also prosecution, arrest, imprisonment and denial of journalistic access, as well as impunity for crimes against journalists. In the digital age, attacks on journalists are recognized as including psychological as well as physical harms emanating from digital threats.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Three major contemporary threats to the safe and free practice of journalism in the digital age are addressed below: impunity for crimes against journalists; gender-based online attacks; and targeted digital surveillance.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. A related threat is the rise of transnational digital attacks targeting diaspora journalists. For instance, Iranian journalists working for the BBC Persian service and other Farsi-language news outlets outside the Islamic Republic of Iran have faced online attacks, harassment and surveillance, as well as criminal investigations, the freezing of their assets and defamation suits by the Iranian authorities in contravention of international human rights law.[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/Pages/NewsDetail.aspx?NewsID=25706&LangID=E."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 455 journalists were killed while doing their jobs between 2016–2021.[[fn:20]] These cases include deaths as a result of extrajudicial killings, targeted terrorists attacks and in conflicts. In more than eight out of ten cases, the perpetrators have not been brought to justice.[[fn:21]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "A. Impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See UNESCO, Observatory of killed journalists, database. Available at https://bit.ly/3vZ2chY."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/9-out-10-killings-journalists-remain-unsolved-said-unesco-ahead-international-day-end and https://cpj.org/thetorch/2021/10/226-journalists-murdered-with-impunity-in-the-last-decade/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Silencing journalists by killing them is the most egregious form of censorship. The failure of the State to prosecute and punish serious crimes against journalists denies justice to the victims’ families, emboldens perpetrators and can deter other journalists from reporting high-risk stories. Countries with high rates of impunity also have high rates of journalist fatalities, underscoring the correlation between impunity and the perpetuation of such crimes.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "A. Impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See Julie Posetti and others, The Chilling: Global Trends in Online Violence against Women Journalists, research discussion paper (Paris, UNESCO, 2022)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Strong advocacy from civil society and growing awareness of the problem have led the Security Council and the Human Rights Council to adopt a series of resolutions calling for prompt and effective investigations into attacks on journalists. In 2021, for the first time in the context of international efforts to combat crime, States recognized the importance of ending impunity for crimes against journalists in General Assembly resolution 76/181.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "A. Impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. National action plans inspired by the United Nations Plan of Action are gaining momentum. In 2021, 14 Governments introduced legislation and reformed law enforcement procedures to protect journalists, while 11 carried out capacity development in this area.[[fn:23]] Drawing on lessons learned, Mexico has undertaken to strengthen its prevention and protection mechanisms with civil society participation.[[fn:24]] Some States have provided resources to the UNESCO Global Media Defence Fund and a global defamation defence fund for journalists set up by the United States of America.[[fn:25]] A number of States have set up special visa regimes for journalists at risk.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "A. Impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See submission from Mexico."}, {"n": 25, "text": "See https://www.rfi.fr/en/us-to-cover-costs-for-journalists-under-legal-pressure."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. At the regional level, the Council of Europe Platform for the Protection of Journalism and Safety of Journalists is a good example of an early warning and rapid response mechanism, engaging Governments and journalists’ organizations. Hundreds of journalists have also benefited from the European Union mechanism for the protection of human rights defenders.[[fn:26]] At the global level, UNESCO supports the capacity development of judges and prosecutors and has produced guidelines for the prosecution of crimes against journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "A. Impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See submission from the European Commission."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. A good practice example from journalists themselves is Forbidden Stories, a non-profit news organization committed to investigative journalism into the killings and imprisonment of journalists. Its motto is: “Killing the journalist won’t kill the story”.[[fn:27]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "A. Impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "See https://forbiddenstories.org/about-us/. See also the joint submission from the Greater Internet Freedom Consortium and the International Center for Not-For-Profit Law for civil society initiatives."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Notwithstanding these efforts, high levels of impunity persist in both conflict and non-conflict situations because of the failure of States to comply with international human rights standards. Key factors are weak and corrupt law enforcement and judicial systems and a nexus between political actors, corrupt business leaders and organized crime, as noted in the report of the public inquiry into the murder of Maltese investigative journalist, Daphne Caruana Galizia.[[fn:28]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "A. Impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "See https://www.daphne.foundation/en/2021/11/20/public-inquiry-translation."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The special procedure mandate holders, including the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression,[[fn:29]] the High-Level Panel of Legal Experts on Media Freedom,[[fn:30]] some States and civil society groups[[fn:31]] have called for tough measures to fight impunity for crimes against journalists, including an independent international investigative mechanism, enhanced capacity for existing United Nations mechanisms, the use of targeted sanctions and capacity-building of civil society. The recommendations deserve serious consideration by the Human Rights Council as well as UNESCO and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) in the context of the United Nations Plan of Action.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "A. Impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26465&LangID=E."}, {"n": 30, "text": "See https://www.ibanet.org/Investigations-report-launch-2020."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See https://www.icj.org/report-launch-the-future-of-accountability-mechanisms-twenty-recommendations/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Online attacks against women journalists are one of the most serious contemporary threats to their safety, gender equality and media freedom.[[fn:32]] Vicious, coordinated, highly sexualized and malicious,[[fn:33]] the attacks often target women from religious and ethnic minorities or gender non-conforming people.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "B. Online attacks against women journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "See Posetti and others, The Chilling."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Online gender-based violence can include threats of rape, murder and sexual violence as well as deep fakes, “doxing’, “trolling”, “sextortion”, non-consensual dissemination of intimate images and smear campaigns (see A/HRC/44/52)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Drawing on the results of a survey conducted in 2020 and other research, a UNESCO-commissioned report by the International Center for Journalists found that such violence inflicts very real psychological injury, chills public interest journalism, kills women’s careers and deprives society of important voices and perspectives.[[fn:34]] Analysing millions of social media posts directed at two prominent journalists, Maria Ressa and Carole Cadwalladr, the report found disturbing patterns of abuse, including death and rape threats, digital misogyny and networked gaslighting linked to political actors.[[fn:35]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "B. Online attacks against women journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "See Posetti and others, The Chilling."}, {"n": 35, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Since 2017, the General Assembly and the Human Rights Council have adopted several resolutions condemning online violence against women journalists. States are called upon to create and maintain, in law and in practice, a safe and enabling environment for journalists, including with a strong focus on combating, both online and offline, sexual and gender-based discrimination and violence against women journalists, as well as the particularities of online threats and harassment of women journalists.[[fn:36]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "B. Online attacks against women journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "See, e.g., General Assembly resolution 76/173."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The ultimate responsibility rests with States, as the primary duty bearers of human rights, to ensure that women journalists are safe from online violence. As the main vectors of online attacks, social media companies are also responsible for exercising due diligence and taking measures to ensure the safety of journalists on their platforms in accordance with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "B. Online attacks against women journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. News media employers should ensure training and support for women journalists, including freelance contributors. Furthermore, news organizations should avoid instituting social media policies that effectively penalize women journalists for speaking out against their abusers or documenting the attacks they experience.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "B. Online attacks against women journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. An example of emerging good practice comes from the Canadian news industry, where the International Women’s Media Foundation and the International Center for Journalists have set up the Online Violence Response Hub.[[fn:37]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "B. Online attacks against women journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See https://onlineviolenceresponsehub.org/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The rise in gender-based online violence against journalists and its connection to offline harm points to the need for an early warning system to prevent the escalation of threats. The Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office of the United Kingdom is funding research designed to support the development of such a system.[[fn:38]] Steps have also recently been taken by the European Commission[[fn:39]] and the Scottish Government[[fn:40]] to identify misogynous offences and sex-based hate speech, including online attacks on women journalists, through a proposed directive and model legislation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "B. Online attacks against women journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "See https://www.icfj.org/news/towards-early-warning-system-violence-against-women-journalists."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/aid_development_cooperation_fundamental_rights/com_2022_105_1_en.pdf."}, {"n": 40, "text": "See https://www.gov.scot/binaries/content/documents/govscot/publications/independent-report/2022/03/misogyny-human-rights-issue/documents/misogyny-human-rights-issue/misogyny-human-rights-issue/govscot%3Adocument/misogyny-human-rights-issue.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Targeted electronic surveillance of journalists poses a challenge to investigative journalism, puts the confidentiality of journalistic sources at risk and exposes both journalists and their sources to increased physical harm. The full scale and impact of targeted surveillance of journalists is unknown given the lack of transparency surrounding the practice and the market that supports it; however, information that has come to light suggests it is used widely, in blatant disregard of international human rights law, with severe consequences for media freedom and the safety of journalists.[[fn:41]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "C. Targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See A/HRC/41/35; A/70/361; the submission from Access Now, p. 3; and the submission from Amnesty International, p. 2."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Advanced surveillance technology is designed to provide the authorities with access to the entirety of an infected device and allows them to access information that might otherwise be protected by encryption. While many companies have been implicated in targeted digital surveillance of journalists over the past decade, in 2021 the Pegasus Project[[fn:42]] revealed that at least 180 journalists in 20 countries were potentially targeted by Governments using Pegasus spyware developed by NSO Group Technologies (NSO Group).[[fn:43]] In early 2022, other investigations revealed the use of Pegasus against more than 30 individuals associated with media organizations in another country.[[fn:44]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "C. Targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "The Pegasus Project is a consortium of more than 80 reporters from 17 media organizations in 11 countries coordinated by Forbidden Stories with the technical support of the Amnesty International Security Lab. See https://forbiddenstories.org/pegasus-project-articles/."}, {"n": 43, "text": "See Phineas Rueckert, “Pegasus: The New Global Weapon for Silencing Journalists,” Forbidden Stories, 18 July 2021; Amnesty International submission, p. 3; Omer Benjakob, “The NSO File: A Complete (Updating) List of Individuals Targeted With Pegasus Spyware”, Haaretz, 7 February 2022. See also https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26564."}, {"n": 44, "text": "See https://citizenlab.ca/2022/01/project-torogoz-extensive-hacking-media-civil-society-el-salvador-pegasus-spyware/; and Access Now submission, p. 4."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Targeted digital surveillance ultimately serves as a means of intimidation, increasing the risks faced by journalists and their sources and undercutting critical reporting. In a number of cases, it has been a documented precursor or follow-on to physical harm, detention, legal harassment, imprisonment and smear campaigns.[[fn:45]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "C. Targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "Submission from the Committee to Protect Journalists, p. 4."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Women journalists have been disproportionately targeted in some countries[[fn:46]] and have experienced severe harm from targeted digital surveillance, which operates as a form of gender-based violence.[[fn:47]] Personal information of women journalists obtained through surveillance appear to have been used in online violence campaigns (including doxing).[[fn:48]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "C. Targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "Greater Internet Freedom Consortium/International Center for Not-For-Profit Law submission, p. 8 (detailing State surveillance of women journalists in Georgia)."}, {"n": 47, "text": "Access Now submission, pp. 4–6; and Amnesty International submission, pp. 3–4."}, {"n": 48, "text": "Submission from the Association for Women’s Rights in Development, p. 9."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Widespread digital surveillance practices ultimately discourage confidential sources from communicating with journalists, with significant chilling effects on whistle-blowing and investigative journalism.[[fn:49]] The extraterritorial reach of targeted digital surveillance allows States to control expression beyond their jurisdictions, possibly stifling investigative reporting at the global level. The use of targeted digital surveillance technologies against journalists to monitor the work they do is contrary to international human rights law, according to which both reporter and source enjoy rights that may be limited only in accordance with the strict requirements of article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "C. Targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "See Phineas Rueckert, “Pegasus”."}, {"n": 50, "text": "A/HRC/41/35, para. 26."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Targeted digital surveillance also increases the costs of engaging in journalism, which may further undermine news media viability and pluralism. Digital security training, tools and vigilance have become essential aspects of a journalist’s work, requiring resources and constant adaptation.[[fn:51]] Journalists regularly rely on end-to-end encryption, the availability of which is itself under threat in some jurisdictions.[[fn:52]] However, even advanced encryption techniques and constant vigilance cannot prevent zero-click attacks like those offered by the NSO Group.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "C. Targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "See, e.g., Greater Internet Freedom Consortium/International Center for Not-For-Profit Law submission, pp. 8–9."}, {"n": 52, "text": "A/HRC/29/32, paras. 36–46; and Phineas Rueckert, “Pegasus”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. States claim they require targeted digital surveillance technologies to prevent crime and terrorism, and companies such as NSO Group argue that the use of their surveillance tools is strictly limited to these purposes.[[fn:53]] However, extensive evidence has emerged of a broad parallel use by States of advanced surveillance technologies to target journalists whose work may be critical of Governments or focus on sensitive political or social issues. States have used targeted digital surveillance to limit investigative journalism, control public narratives, crack down on journalists and track journalists’ sources, in violation of article 19 of the International Covenant.[[fn:54]] In this context, State efforts to legalize the use of targeted digital surveillance – such as changes to German legislation initiated in 2021 that removed exemptions for journalists from surveillance and hacking during terrorism investigations – are deeply disturbing.[[fn:55]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "C. Targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "NSO Group, Transparency and Responsibility Report 2021, pp. 7–8."}, {"n": 54, "text": "A/HRC/41/35, para. 24 (c)."}, {"n": 55, "text": "Submission from the Council of Europe Information Society and Action against Crime Directorate, p. 4. See also submission from the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Regional Coalition to #StopDigitalDictatorship, pp. 16–21."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. States and companies are largely shielded from scrutiny regarding targeted surveillance due to the invocation of national security, State secrecy and State immunity rationales for their activities.[[fn:56]] Recent changes to export regulations in the European Union may provide some data, but do not sufficiently address the problem.[[fn:57]] Various legal actions[[fn:58]] and inquiries are under way, including lawsuits by WhatsApp against NSO Group, the establishment of a committee of inquiry by the European Parliament,[[fn:59]] the order by the Supreme Court of India for an independent inquiry[[fn:60]] and the blacklisting of two companies by the United States, signalling the strong concern of civil society, certain Governments, oversight bodies and digital technology companies. However, impunity will persist unless robust international rules and national laws are adopted and enforced to protect journalists and journalism from targeted digital surveillance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "C. Targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "See, e.g., NSO Group, Transparency and Responsibility Report 2021, pp. 9–10."}, {"n": 57, "text": "Amnesty International submission, p. 4."}, {"n": 58, "text": "Access Now submission, p. 7."}, {"n": 59, "text": "European Parliament Decision 2022/2586 (RSO), Setting up a committee of inquiry to investigate the use of the Pegasus and equivalent surveillance spyware, 10 March 2022."}, {"n": 60, "text": "See https://ipi.media/the-state-of-media-freedom-in-india."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Laws – from sedition to censorship – have long been used to punish journalists and suppress media freedom. That practice has been revived by some States with a new ferocity in the digital age. The arsenal of legal weapons has broadened to include criminal cyberlibel, anti-terrorism, cybersecurity and fake news laws. In many instances, punishment for online publication is more severe than print or broadcast.[[fn:61]] Additionally, libel, income tax or other financial investigations and vexatious and frivolous lawsuits are commonly used to harass and intimidate journalists or media outlets.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 61, "text": "See, e.g., https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=22145."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Possibly the strongest emblem of legal weaponization is Nobel Laureate Maria Ressa. She has faced an onslaught of legal actions in the Philippines covering tax violations, ownership and securities fraud and multiple libel suits, including criminal cyberlibel for which she was convicted retroactively. When combined, the criminal charges carried a cumulative sentence of almost 100 years.[[fn:62]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "See https://www.cbc.ca/radio/thecurrent/the-current-for-june-18-2020-1.5616058/facing-possible-jail-time-totalling-100-years-journalist-maria-ressa-says-she-won-t-stop-fighting-for-justice-1.5617289."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Arrests and prosecutions of journalists leading to heavy fines and harsh prison sentences serve not only to intimidate and punish the individuals charged but also to create a climate of fear, chilling critical reporting by other journalists. In recent years the Special Rapporteur has expressed serious concern at draconian laws and tough sentencing in countries as diverse as Belarus,[[fn:63]] Egypt,[[fn:64]] Iran (Islamic Republic of),[[fn:65]] Myanmar,[[fn:66]] the Russian Federation,[[fn:67]] Sri Lanka,[[fn:68]] the Syrian Arab Republic,[[fn:69]] Turkey,[[fn:70]] Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)[[fn:71]] and Viet Nam.[[fn:72]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/06/belarus-black-hole-media-freedoms-after-egregious-attacks-say-un-experts?LangID=E&NewsID=27146."}, {"n": 64, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26743."}, {"n": 65, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2020/03/iran-targeting-journalists-threatens-freedom-press-say-un-experts?LangID=E&NewsID=25706."}, {"n": 66, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-briefing-notes/2021/02/myanmar-military-must-restore-democracy-allow-people-protest-and?LangID=E&NewsID=26808."}, {"n": 67, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26459."}, {"n": 68, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/02/sri-lanka-experts-dismayed-regressive-steps-call-renewed-un-scrutiny-and-0?LangID=E&NewsID=26725."}, {"n": 69, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26164."}, {"n": 70, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26050."}, {"n": 71, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26338."}, {"n": 72, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/01/viet-nam-arrests-send-chilling-message-key-party-meeting-un-experts?LangID=E&NewsID=26661; and https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26688."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Following her correspondence with the Government of the Republic of Korea on the draft Press Arbitration Act in 2021, the Special Rapporteur welcomed the decision of the parliament to form a cross-party special committee on media reform to re-examine the bill and other media reform issues.[[fn:73]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26629."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. National security is often used as a justification to prosecute journalists who criticize government policies or officials. The sedition law was used to arrest journalists and shut down all independent media in Hong Kong, China.[[fn:74]] In India, journalists were arrested under sedition and anti-terrorism laws for critically reporting on events in Kashmir as well as the farmers’ protests in Delhi.[[fn:75]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "A. Criminalization of journalism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 74, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26592."}, {"n": 75, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26053; and https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2019/08/un-rights-experts-urge-india-end-communications-shutdown-kashmir?LangID=E&NewsID=24909."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. States are obliged to ensure that national security laws are crafted and applied in a manner that conforms to the strict requirements of legality, necessity and proportionality, as set down in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.[[fn:76]] Nevertheless, common problems with security laws include a lack of clear definitions of key terms, like “terrorism” or “violent extremism”, or the use of vague terms, such as “apology”, “glorification”, “advocacy” or “propaganda of terrorism”, which allow considerable leeway for misuse.[[fn:77]] For instance, in Turkey, where 41 journalists remained in prison at the end of 2021, the Penal Code and anti-terrorism legislation criminalize broad categories of speech in ambiguous terms, including expressions that “denigrate the Turkish nation” or “insult the President”.[[fn:78]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "A. Criminalization of journalism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 30."}, {"n": 77, "text": "See, e.g., reports of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism (A/74/335 and A/73/361); https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26677; and https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Opinion/Legislation/OL_FRA_20.08.19.pdf."}, {"n": 78, "text": "See communication AL TUR (3.2022), which will be made available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Criminal defamation and lese-majesty laws are frequently used against journalists who criticize government officials or members of royal families.[[fn:79]] Not only are criminal penalties, especially imprisonment, inherently disproportionate when used against journalists who are simply doing their job, they are an abuse of power by public officials. Those who serve in public office should expect a higher degree of public scrutiny and be open to criticism.[[fn:80]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "A. Criminalization of journalism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 79, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=23525."}, {"n": 80, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2022-04/Joint-Declaration-2021-Politicians_EN.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Domestic courts in Uganda,[[fn:81]] Zambia[[fn:82]] and Zimbabwe[[fn:83]] have found criminal defamation laws to be unconstitutional and unjustified in modern democratic societies. In 2016, the regional court in West Africa found that the laws defining the criminal offences of sedition, fake news and criminal defamation in the Gambia infringed international law and ordered them to be repealed.[[fn:84]] The Human Rights Committee has called on States to consider abolishing criminal defamation. Nevertheless, criminal laws against defamation persist in 160 countries in the world, including some in the European Union, a strong champion of media freedom.[[fn:85]] The Special Rapporteur repeats her call for a global ban on the criminalization of defamation and seditious libel online and offline.[[fn:86]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "A. Criminalization of journalism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "Uganda, Supreme Court, Charles Onyango Obbo v. Attorney General, constitutional appeal No. 2 of 2002, judgment, 10 February 2004."}, {"n": 82, "text": "Zambia, High Court, Chipenzi v. the People, HPR/03/2014, 4 December 2014."}, {"n": 83, "text": "Zimbabwe, Supreme Court, Chavunduka v. Minister of Home Affairs, case No. 2000 JOL 6540 (ZS), 22 May 2000."}, {"n": 84, "text": "Community Court of Justice of the Economic Community of West African States, Federation of African Journalists v. the Gambia, judgment No. ECW/CCJ/JUD/04/18, 13 February 2018."}, {"n": 85, "text": "See http://legaldb.freemedia.at/defamation-laws-in-europe/."}, {"n": 86, "text": "A/HRC/47/25, para. 89."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. There are also examples where journalism has ostensibly been criminalized to protect the right to privacy but effectively suppresses the disclosure of adverse information affecting powerful political or business interests. In Switzerland, the Federal Banking Law provides for imprisonment of up to five years for whistle-blowing by bank employees or the dissemination of such information by third parties, including journalists.[[fn:87]] The effect of the law seems to be to hamper investigative journalism, to stifle legitimate reporting on allegations of financial crimes and to chill Swiss media interest.[[fn:88]] Where financial wrongdoing is at issue, States should recognize the public interest in disclosure and respect media freedom.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "A. Criminalization of journalism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=27138."}, {"n": 88, "text": "See https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/20/business/credit-suisse-leak-swiss-bank.html."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. International human rights law provides strong protection for whistle-blowers, journalistic sources and public interest reporting. In this context, the continuing efforts of the United States to prosecute Julian Assange, the founder of Wikileaks, raise concerns that the Espionage Act charges could establish a precedent for punishing not only whistle-blowers but also journalists, without considering whether their reporting is in the public interest.[[fn:89]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "A. Criminalization of journalism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "See Sissel McCarthy “Why is the Espionage Act Being Used to Punish Whistleblowers and Journalists?” News Literacy Matters, 21 September 2020; https://www.justice.gov/opa/press-release/file/1165556/download; and https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/08/us/politics/julian-assange-indictment.html."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. A week after the invasion of Ukraine by the Russian Federation, the Russian parliament adopted a law making it a serious criminal offence to publish news regarding the war in Ukraine that differed from official Russian government information – including even referring to it as a “war”. The fake war news law led Russian media outlets to self-censor their reporting on the situation in Ukraine. Some independent outlets closed down or suspended their activities due to the increased restrictions on reporting. Fearing for the safety of their staff, several international media outlets announced their intention to suspend reporting from Moscow or were blocked partially or fully from reporting by the Russian authorities. This total information blackout is one in a series measures taken by the authorities to restrict media freedom in the Russian Federation.[[fn:90]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "B. Fake news laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 90, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/03/russia-un-experts-alarmed-choking-information-clampdown."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. In late February 2022, the European Commission banned two media outlets owned and controlled by the Russian Federation from broadcasting in the European Union on the grounds that they spread disinformation and propaganda and so constituted a threat to public order and security.[[fn:91]] The total ban of a media outlet is a severe restriction of freedom of expression. While international law permits restriction of freedom of expression to protect public order and national security, it requires the measure to be strictly necessary and proportionate.[[fn:92]] As disinformation can be addressed without banning media outlets, there is concern about the proportionality of the response of the European Union.[[fn:93]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "B. Fake news laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 91, "text": "See https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ:L:2022:065:FULL&from=EN."}, {"n": 92, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 34."}, {"n": 93, "text": "See also https://ipi.media/ipi-statement-on-banning-of-rtand-sputnik; and https://europeanjournalists.org/blog/2022/03/01/fighting-disinformation-with-censorship-is-a-mistake/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. The best way of countering disinformation is not through censorship or banning of outlets but through the promotion of free, independent and pluralistic media.[[fn:94]] Nevertheless, especially since the outbreak of the pandemic, many Governments have adopted legislation ostensibly to prohibit fake news or disinformation online. The real objective, however, seems to be to clamp down on criticism of government policies. In Egypt, for instance, journalists and human rights defenders have been prosecuted for spreading fake news after they published reports on the human rights situation in the country.[[fn:95]] In Cambodia, six media outlets had their licences revoked for reporting on COVID-19 in 2021.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "B. Fake news laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 94, "text": "See A/HRC/47/25."}, {"n": 95, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-briefing-notes/2020/11/press-briefing-note-egypt-detention-human-rights-defenders?LangID=E&NewsID=26523."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Fake news laws generally fail to meet the three-pronged test of legality, legitimate aims and necessity set out in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. An example of such flawed legislation is the Digital Security Act of Bangladesh, which imposes draconian punishments for a wide range of vaguely defined acts encompassing national security, criminal cyberlibel and disinformation, and bestows significant and highly intrusive investigative, search and seizure powers on the authorities. Its use has led to the arbitrary detention, torture and custodial death of journalists, and chilled journalism online and offline.[[fn:96]] The Special Rapporteur repeats her call for the law to be repealed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "B. Fake news laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 96, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=23838. See also https://www.ohchr.org/en/2021/03/bangladesh-bachelet-urges-review-digital-security-act-following-death-custody-writer?LangID=E&NewsID=26815."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. Other examples of countries that have recently adopted or enforced legislation that is not compliant with international standards include Cuba,[[fn:97]] France,[[fn:98]] Italy,[[fn:99]] Malaysia,[[fn:100]] Qatar[[fn:101]] and Singapore,[[fn:102]] among others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "B. Fake news laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 97, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26674."}, {"n": 98, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Opinion/Legislation/OL-FRA-5-2018.pdf."}, {"n": 99, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=23704."}, {"n": 100, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26287."}, {"n": 101, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=25158."}, {"n": 102, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Opinion/Legislation/OL_SGP_3_2019.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. In some countries, journalists have been threatened with investigations and prosecutions for matters unrelated to reporting, such as violations of COVID regulations[[fn:103]] or tax laws,[[fn:104]] but in circumstances that suggest the legal action has been brought as retaliation or intimidation.[[fn:105]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "C. Legal and judicial harassment of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 103, "text": "See A/HRC/44/49."}, {"n": 104, "text": "E.g., https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/03/belarus-crackdown-human-rights-defenders-deepens-expert?LangID=E&NewsID=26922."}, {"n": 105, "text": "E.g., https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=25873."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Furthermore, Governments as well as private actors are increasingly targeting journalists and news outlets – and human rights defenders – with lawsuits, generally for libel or defamation, seeking exorbitant damages. Known as strategic lawsuits against public participation (SLAPPs), the point of the legal action is not necessarily to win the lawsuit but to intimidate or exhaust the resources and morale of the other party.[[fn:106]] By masquerading as ordinary lawsuits such actions convert matters of public interest into private disputes.[[fn:107]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "C. Legal and judicial harassment of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 106, "text": "See the submissions from the European Broadcasting Union, the Human Rights House Foundation and 112 Watch. Strategic lawsuits against public participation are also gaining new life through criminal defamation laws."}, {"n": 107, "text": "See the information note from the former Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association, “SLAPPs and FoAA rights”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Daphne Caruana Galizia, who was killed in 2017 for her work as an investigative journalist, was confronted with 42 civil libel suits brought by Maltese politicians and their business associates. Four years after her murder, her family is still fighting in the courts to have eight pending cases dismissed. Her plight stirred up action to create an effective law against such lawsuits in Europe. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the decision of the Council of Europe to draft a recommendation relating to strategic lawsuits against public participation and the proposal by the European Commission to include measures against such lawsuits in the proposed Media Freedom Act.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "C. Legal and judicial harassment of journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Much more needs to be done by States to address this growing abuse of the judicial system.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "C. Legal and judicial harassment of journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. The Working Group on the issue of human rights and transnational corporations and other business enterprises has called on companies to desist from bringing frivolous lawsuits against journalists and human rights defenders.[[fn:108]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "C. Legal and judicial harassment of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 108, "text": "See A/HRC/47/39/Add.2."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. A welcome development in improving the legal protections for journalists worldwide has been the creation of the Legal Network for Journalists at Risk. The platform, led by several civil society organizations, coordinates the different resources and types of support currently offered pro bono by various organizations to journalists and media outlets in need of critical legal support.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "C. Legal and judicial harassment of journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. In a world where disinformation increasingly masquerades as news and authoritarian and populist leaders attack journalists and media outlets to sow public distrust, critical independent journalism produced in the public interest is essential. Its absence or decline in many countries represents a major assault on media freedom. Journalism must be able to function safely and independently, free from State control and other forms of interference. It must also be economically viable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. This section briefly analyses the key threats to media independence, pluralism and economic viability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. In a number of countries, media freedom is effectively non-existent as a result of tight State control over the practice, production and dissemination of journalism in contravention of international human rights standards.[[fn:109]] In some other countries, there has been visible backsliding on media independence and pluralism in recent years, with serious implications for democracy, freedom of expression and the diversity of political participation. Some research suggests that when inducements (“soft censorship”) fail, restrictions are triggered with the aim of stopping information from reaching politically important constituencies, including through partial or fuller media capture.[[fn:110]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "A. Media capture"], "footnotes": [{"n": 109, "text": "See https://rsf.org/en/ranking/2021."}, {"n": 110, "text": "See Jukka Ruhonen, “Reassessing measures for press freedom”, arXiv, 19 June 2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. Media capture can be defined as the process by which formerly independent institutions fall under the sway of Governments, plutocrats and corporations.[[fn:111]] It usually entails political interference with regulatory bodies[[fn:112]] and with public service media, converting them into governmental mouthpieces;[[fn:113]] the takeover of independent news media by political actors or conglomerates controlled by wealthy political donors or business entrepreneurs; and the instrumentalization of public advertising and State-administered subsidies to undermine media critical of the Government and strengthen those favoured by the Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "A. Media capture"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "See Anya Schiffrin, ed., Media Capture: How Money, Digital Platforms, and Governments Control the News (New York: Columbia University Press, 2021); and Marius Dragomir, Reporting Facts: Free From Fear or Favour (Paris, UNESCO, 2020)."}, {"n": 112, "text": "The 2020 Rule of Law Report of the European Commission highlighted a serious risk of the politicization of media regulatory bodies in Hungary, Malta and Poland."}, {"n": 113, "text": "See European Broadcasting Union Submission."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. In a number of countries, including in Central and Eastern Europe, there is a creeping trend towards State control over public service media through political domination of its governance and pressure on funding, or the weakening or marginalizing of public service media in favour of privately owned media that serves the political or economic interests of those in power.[[fn:114]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "A. Media capture"], "footnotes": [{"n": 114, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. During an official visit to Hungary in November 2021, the Special Rapporteur found a classic case of media capture, which included the exercise of political influence over media regulatory bodies, the consolidation of pro-government ownership of the media along with substantial State advertisement funds and other support, and the ostracization of media reporting critically on the Government.[[fn:115]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "A. Media capture"], "footnotes": [{"n": 115, "text": "See A/HRC/50/29/Add.1."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the initiative of the European Commission to draft a European Media Freedom Act. She urges the Commission to pay particular attention to strengthening the rules on the independence of media regulators, the transparency of media ownership and editorial freedom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "A. Media capture"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. Concentration of media ownership has long been acknowledged as a major threat to media pluralism. The more plural the news media – in terms of the production, funding and distribution of journalism – the more difficult it is to control the entirety of media output. Consolidation of media ownership via monopolies under State control, the ruling party or powerful private interests linked to political actors is not only an issue of economic competition and rent-seeking, it is a major risk to media freedom and, more generally, to freedom of expression and the right to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "B. Threats to media pluralism and diversity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. Tools for undermining pluralism include controls (or the lack thereof) over ownership and competition; the exploitation of national laws against foreign ownership; and threats to news media viability through cuts in public funding.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "B. Threats to media pluralism and diversity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. There are examples of the concentration of news media ownership in liberal democracies that have led to heavily partisan coverage, which in turn has undercut trust in credible journalism and led to damaging divisive political debate on issues such as elections, climate change and migration. One global media concentration index has ranked the Australian newspaper market as the third most concentrated in the world after China and Egypt.[[fn:116]] This level of concentration and domination is damaging to media diversity and democratic deliberation.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "B. Threats to media pluralism and diversity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 116, "text": "See Eli Noam and the International Media Concentration Collaboration, Who Owns the World’s Media? Media Concentration and Ownership Around the World (Oxford Scholarship Online, January 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Media plurality and diversity are diminished by gender inequality in and through the news media. Globally, only 25 per cent of news sources and subjects are women.[[fn:117]] They are underrepresented in managerial and top executive positions in the media sector. Other disadvantaged groups face similar problems. While some progress has been made to enhance gender equality and diversity, much remains to be done.[[fn:118]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "B. Threats to media pluralism and diversity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 117, "text": "See UNESCO submission."}, {"n": 118, "text": "See submissions from the International Civil Society Organization on the Safety of Journalists Coalition and the Council of Europe."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Many States understand their “abstention role” as allowing liberalization of the media sector through deregulation and privatization. While it has opened up space for media pluralism and independent journalism, measures to ensure independent regulation, recognized self-regulation and legal status (for example, for community media) – which are necessary conditions for media freedom to flourish – are frequently absent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "B. Threats to media pluralism and diversity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. Good practices regarding media pluralism, viability and independence include sustained and adequate support for public service broadcasting in several Nordic and Baltic countries and steps to strengthen independent public broadcasting in South Africa.[[fn:119]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "B. Threats to media pluralism and diversity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 119, "text": "See https://mediamonitoringafrica.org/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. Media viability is a matter of human rights, not just a question of economics. If independent public interest media cannot survive – let alone thrive – disinformation will flourish, journalists will be further imperilled and societies’ right to information will be undermined.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "C. Crisis of media viability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. The collapse of the advertising-based news media business model in recent years has led to a financial crisis, resulting in staff cutbacks and news outlet closures in many countries. There has been a reversal in news media pluralism and density at the level of local news publishing and with regard to diversity of languages. The crisis has been intensified by the COVID-19 pandemic, with dire consequences for journalists[[fn:120]] and media pluralism.[[fn:121]] While national and international news providers and niche news producers are managing through subscriptions, paywalls, reader contributions and subsidies (in fact, some are even thriving with innovative funding models), many others could face a “media extinction event”.[[fn:122]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "C. Crisis of media viability"], "footnotes": [{"n": 120, "text": "See the Journalism and the Pandemic Project of the International Center for Journalists and the Tow Center, https://www.icfj.org/news/new-global-survey-raises-red-flags-journalism-covid-19-era."}, {"n": 121, "text": "In the United States, about 2,200 local print newspapers have closed since 2005, and the number of newspaper journalists fell by more than half between 2008 and 2020. See https://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine/interactive/2021/local-news-deserts-expanding/."}, {"n": 122, "text": "See https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/coronavirus-news-industry-layoffs."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. The major shift of advertising revenue to social media and search engines over the past decade and the growth in the power of Internet companies controlling advertising technology have further eroded the economic foundations for news media pluralism, facilitated media capture, weakened diversity in news content and made it more difficult for news providers to resist other pressures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "C. Crisis of media viability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. Governments have used various measures to address media viability, with mixed results, including State support for journalistic innovation, subsidies, tax relief and public service or community media grants. The dependence of the media on either government or owner subsidies presents a risk to media independence.[[fn:123]] For instance, various State schemes were set up to support public interest journalism during the financial crisis accompanying the COVID-19 pandemic. However, in some cases, those funds were disbursed in such a way as to support only news publishers who were sympathetic to government policies, bypassing those engaged in critical reporting.[[fn:124]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "C. Crisis of media viability"], "footnotes": [{"n": 123, "text": "See Greater Internet Freedom Consortium/International Center for Not-For-Profit Law submission."}, {"n": 124, "text": "See https://ipi.media/the-covid-19-crisis-highlights-greeces-media-problem/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. The Australian News Media Bargaining Code[[fn:125]] and the European Parliament rules for hyperlinks to news articles[[fn:126]] require Internet communications companies to share revenue with the news media. There is some concern that the Australian model could leave smaller news outlets further marginalized in the face of bilateral agreements being cut between their bigger counterparts and the Internet companies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "C. Crisis of media viability"], "footnotes": [{"n": 125, "text": "See https://www.acma.gov.au/news-media-bargaining-code."}, {"n": 126, "text": "See https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20190321IPR32110/european-parliament-approves-new-copyright-rules-for-the-internet."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. The growing dependence of media on Internet platforms, on the one hand, and the largely unchecked power of those platforms, especially large search engines and social media platforms, on the other, raise serious concerns. Digital platforms are important distribution and audience engagement channels for many media outlets. As digital gatekeepers, they have a profound impact on media independence, pluralism, diversity and viability, as well as public access to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "D. Dependence on digital media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. Digital platforms control the availability, dissemination and accessibility of content based on algorithms, community standards and economic interests but have no public accountability and little transparency. Through their curatorial and content moderation roles they make important editorial decisions. Automated content moderation has led to the non-transparent removal or suspension of accounts of journalists and activists based on algorithms.[[fn:127]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "D. Dependence on digital media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 127, "text": "See International Civil Society Organization on the Safety of Journalists Coalition submission."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. Platforms are also under increased pressure from Governments to take down, delist, de-index, block and filter content, including journalistic content, leading to a form of opaque, privatized censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "D. Dependence on digital media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. Some of the biggest Internet companies operate major digital advertising gateways, with their automated advertising technology often functioning to reward or fuel content that violates human rights with advertisements, while penalizing news content and thereby depriving news media of a significant revenue stream.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "D. Dependence on digital media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. As the media’s dependence on digital platforms grows, there have been calls for regulation of the platforms to reflect the changed landscape of media and communications.[[fn:128]] Although the Special Rapporteur supports self-regulation and some co-regulation of social media based on human rights standards,[[fn:129]] she cautions that digital regulation by Governments should not be used to restrict freedom of expression online beyond what is permissible under international law. Nor should the platforms use their policies, practices or business models to undermine the freedom, independence, plurality and economic viability of the media.[[fn:130]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "D. Dependence on digital media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 128, "text": "See Council of Europe, Recommendation CM/Rec (2018)2 of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the roles and responsibilities of internet intermediaries."}, {"n": 129, "text": "See A/HRC/47/25."}, {"n": 130, "text": "See Council of Europe submission. The European Parliament has called for intermediary services to respect freedom of expression, media freedom and pluralism in the context of the Digital Services Act."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. There is a palpable decline of public trust in the media.[[fn:131]] It has translated at times into hostility towards journalists by members of the public.[[fn:132]] Lack of trust in the media parallels the decline of public trust in factual information and the rise of parallel narratives and conspiracy theories, which have serious consequences for human rights, democracy and social stability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "E. Declining trust in the media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 131, "text": "See 2021 Edelman Trust Barometer."}, {"n": 132, "text": "See International Civil Society Organization on the Safety of Journalists Coalition submission."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. The spread of disinformation on social media platforms is a significant factor in weakening public trust in credible, independent journalism, threatening both journalists and the information ecosystem in which they work. Online smear campaigns, particularly directed at women journalists, and disinformation narratives, which include labelling international journalists as “foreign agents”, contribute to the erosion of trust.[[fn:133]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "E. Declining trust in the media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 133, "text": "See, e.g., https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26852."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. Also worrying is the rise in harsh public attacks by politicians, designed to delegitimize and discredit journalists and news outlets that are critical of their policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "E. Declining trust in the media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. The role of State controlled, “captured” or heavily partisan news media – which often act as a conduit for misinformation and disinformation – also needs to be acknowledged as a major factor in undermining public trust in journalism. In this context, audience mistrust in fact-based journalism is further weaponized to undermine the credibility of news outlets and individual journalists who speak truth to power.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "E. Declining trust in the media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. To counter these trends, an innovative self-regulatory media scheme, the Journalism Trust Initiative, has been designed to promote trustworthy journalism through adherence to an agreed set of trust and transparency standards.[[fn:134]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "E. Declining trust in the media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 134, "text": "The Initiative was launched by Reporters Without Borders, Agence France Presse, the European Broadcasting Union and the Global Editors Network."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. The decline of media freedom and the rise in threats to the safety of journalists is a worldwide trend, most sharply evident in backsliding democracies and recalcitrant totalitarian States. The consequences for human rights, democracy, public participation and development are worrying.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. Independent public interest journalism faces a perfect storm. Threats and challenges – from online gender-based violence and orchestrated disinformation campaigns against journalists to targeted surveillance of journalists, legal restrictions on freedom of expression online and offline and erosion of media independence, pluralism and viability – are surging in a multifaceted, technology-enabled information ecosystem.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. International human rights law provides ample protection for media freedom. The General Assembly and the Human Rights Council have affirmed that the rights protecting the free and safe practice of journalism offline also apply online. The overriding problem is not one of gaps in international law but of failures in compliance and implementation, rooted in a lack of political will.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. States, companies and international organizations must respond urgently and holistically to the complex mesh of physical, legal and digital threats. Without concrete action backed by political will, the prognosis for media freedom and the safety of journalists is grim.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. The Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression makes the following recommendations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. At the national level, States should develop and implement national action plans, based on human rights obligations and tailored to online as well as offline issues, to advance the freedom, independence and pluralism of the media; set up prevention and protection mechanisms for the safety of journalists; and promote awareness about human rights standards and best practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Translate commitment into action"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. States should consult with civil society and journalists’ organizations in developing, monitoring and assessing their national action plans in a transparent and inclusive way.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Translate commitment into action"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. The Human Rights Council should encourage States to use the universal periodical review and the voluntary national review of the Sustainable Development Goals to report on compliance, challenges and good practices relating to media freedom and the safety of journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Translate commitment into action"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0108", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. States should adopt laws – or review and revise existing ones – relating to freedom of expression online and offline to ensure they are aligned with international standards. Any restriction of freedom of expression should adhere strictly to the requirements of legality, necessity, proportionality and legitimate aim set out in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and acknowledge the public interest role of journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Align laws and policies with international human rights law"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0109", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. States must ensure the legal framework governing the media protects editorial freedom, upholds the independence of regulatory bodies and guarantees content diversity among and within media outlets.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Align laws and policies with international human rights law"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0110", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. States should refrain from compelling digital companies to restrict or remove journalistic content without judicial due process. As part of transparency reporting, digital companies should inform the public and the media about content restrictions requested by States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Align laws and policies with international human rights law"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0111", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. States should repeal criminal defamation and seditious libel laws and laws criminalizing the criticism of State institutions and officials. Criminalization of speech (other than in the most egregious cases of incitement to violence and hatred) is disproportionate, gags journalism and damages democratic discourse and public participation. The Special Rapporteur urges the European Union to set an example by inserting in the proposed Media Freedom Act a requirement for member States to repeal laws criminalizing defamation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Decriminalize defamation and similar laws"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0112", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. The rule of law is essential for the exercise of free and safe journalism. States should strengthen the capacity and expertise of the judiciary, national human rights institutions and lawmakers to uphold the human rights on which media freedom is based.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Strengthen the rule of law"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0113", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. States should discourage frivolous or vexatious legal action (strategic lawsuits against public participation) against journalists and news outlets by adopting laws and policies that allow early dismissal of such cases, limit the damages claimed in civil defamation suits against journalists and media outlets, permit the defence of “public interest” and “no malice” for journalists, provide legal support to victims of strategic lawsuits against public participation, end “forum shopping” and sanction the use of strategic lawsuits against public participation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Stop the weaponization of courts against journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0114", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. States should ensure that all attacks against journalists are investigated promptly, effectively, impartially and independently, in line with the Minnesota Protocol on the Investigation of Potentially Unlawful Death. Specialized capacity and expertise should be developed to investigate and prosecute crimes against journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "End impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0115", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "115. States should set up prevention and protection mechanisms, in consultation with civil society, media outlets and journalists. Such mechanisms should be adequately resourced, gender responsive and fully integrate online and offline spaces. They should be regularly assessed by an independent, dedicated multi-stakeholder body.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "End impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0116", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "116. The Human Rights Council should establish an independent task force to support international and national efforts to prevent, investigate and prosecute attacks against journalists. Additionally, it should strengthen the capacity of the relevant special procedures to monitor and report on impunity for crimes against journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "End impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0117", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "117. OHCHR should update the Minnesota Protocol with an annex specifically focused on investigating crimes against journalists.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "End impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0118", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "118. There must be no trade-off between the safety of women journalists and the right to freedom of expression on which their vocation is based. The Special Rapporteur reiterates her call on international treaty bodies to provide clear guidelines defining online violence, so that the right to freedom of opinion and expression is not compromised in efforts to safeguard women from online violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Protect women journalists from gender-based online violence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0119", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "119. States should adopt specific legislation to prohibit, investigate and prosecute online violence against women and ensure its proper implementation by law enforcement authorities, the judiciary and social media platforms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Protect women journalists from gender-based online violence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0120", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "120. Companies should create safe online space for women journalists. They should improve their transparency and moderation functions, make it easier to report online violence and create direct, accessible routes for the escalation of complaints. They should ensure that the relevant teams have the necessary expertise on the safety of journalists, gender-based violence and the cultural context.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Protect women journalists from gender-based online violence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0121", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 121, "n": 121, "text": "121. News organizations should ensure gender-sensitive and holistic digital safety support. They should also address gender discrimination and promote diversity by including women and marginalized groups and their perspectives in the journalistic work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Protect women journalists from gender-based online violence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0122", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 122, "n": 122, "text": "122. The Special Rapporteur calls on the Human Rights Council and other relevant United Nations bodies to develop a consensus on impermissible targets of State cyberespionage and cyberattack. At a minimum, a presumption of protection from targeted digital surveillance and cyberattack should apply to journalists and media outlets.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Prohibit targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0123", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 123, "n": 123, "text": "123. States should incorporate adequate safeguards in national laws, such as judicial oversight, to ensure that digital surveillance laws and activities do not undermine international standards on the protection of journalists and their sources. They should hold surveillance companies accountable for foreseeable use of their technology by their clients to target journalists, and amend sovereign immunity laws to permit civil action against States engaged in cross-border digital attacks on journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Prohibit targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0124", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 124, "n": 124, "text": "124. Surveillance technology companies should publicly affirm their responsibility to respect human rights in line with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights and Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development guidelines, and conduct and publicly disclose robust human rights due diligence for all proposed transfers of surveillance technology. They should refrain from exporting surveillance technology if there is a significant risk it will be used to commit human rights violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Prohibit targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0125", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 125, "n": 125, "text": "125. Digital service companies should conduct due diligence and impact assessment to prevent or mitigate any adverse impact on human rights resulting from their operations, products or services, including attacks on journalists and the erosion of media freedom. They should enhance their transparency and review their business models to reverse commercial incentives that discriminate against the monetization of public interest media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Respect the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0126", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 126, "n": 126, "text": "126. Social media platforms should ensure that algorithms and human moderators recognize credible information sources and that journalists and news organizations can access fast-track appeal and remedy procedures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Respect the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0127", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 127, "n": 127, "text": "127. Governments should promote the economic viability of independent news media while respecting their professional autonomy and freedom. For example, tax benefits or State advertising revenue can be given to independent news outlets in a fair and transparent manner, and without compromising editorial independence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Ensure independence, pluralism and viability of the media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0128", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 128, "n": 128, "text": "128. Governments should adopt anti-monopoly rules to prevent undue concentration of media ownership, direct or indirect, and legislate for transparency with regard to media ownership, the licensing of broadcasters and the distribution of government advertising.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Ensure independence, pluralism and viability of the media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0129", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 129, "n": 129, "text": "129. The independence of the media regulatory authorities should be clearly established by law, with a transparent governance system and appointment procedures, free from political influence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Ensure independence, pluralism and viability of the media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0130", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 130, "n": 130, "text": "130. Well-funded independent public service media both reinforces and is reinforced by democracy. States should respect the standards for public service media, including editorial freedom, and provide adequate funding. Public service media should ensure services for minority, marginalized, linguistically diverse and otherwise disadvantaged audiences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Ensure independence, pluralism and viability of the media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0131", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 131, "n": 131, "text": "131. States should refrain from imposing licensing requirements on journalists, and recognize community media as a distinct and legitimate part of the news sector.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Ensure independence, pluralism and viability of the media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0132", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 132, "n": 132, "text": "132. Civil society should continue to play its vital watchdog role, holding Governments to account for applying human rights standards on media freedom. Civil society should continue to raise public awareness of the risks faced by journalists and advocate for their safety.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Build resilience in society"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0133", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 133, "n": 133, "text": "133. State and civil society should collaborate to encourage all individuals to develop media and information literacy skills so that they are able to differentiate between reliable, verified information and unverified information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Build resilience in society"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0134", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 134, "n": 134, "text": "134. Upholding media freedom and ensuring the safety of journalists in the digital age is a multi-stakeholder endeavour, involving States, civil society and digital and media companies. The Special Rapporteur calls on UNESCO and OHCHR to convene a multi-stakeholder advisory group under the United Nations Plan of Action on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity, in which State and civil society coalitions as well as digital and media companies can engage to further advance the Plan.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Strengthen multi-stakeholder cooperation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0135", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 135, "n": 135, "text": "135. Given the importance of free, independent and plural media for democracy and sustainable development, the international community should ensure that media development is an integral part of international cooperation and is owned and driven locally. The United Nations should enhance technical assistance and programmatic support on media development through the United Nations country teams.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Strengthen multi-stakeholder cooperation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0136", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 136, "n": 136, "text": "136. The Secretary-General’s Global Digital Compact should include a concrete commitment by all stakeholders to respect media freedom and safety of journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Strengthen multi-stakeholder cooperation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The General Assembly has condemned unlawful or arbitrary surveillance and interception of communications as “highly intrusive acts” that interfere with fundamental human rights (see General Assembly resolutions 68/167 and 71/199). However, unlawful surveillance continues without evident constraint. Submissions for the present report detailed case after case of Governments using surveillance software developed, marketed and supported by private companies. Surveillance of specific individuals – often journalists, activists, opposition figures, critics and others exercising their right to freedom of expression – has been shown to lead to arbitrary detention, sometimes to torture and possibly to extrajudicial killings. Such surveillance has thrived amid weak controls on technology transfers to Governments with well-known policies of repression. The market is shrouded in secrecy; indeed, our knowledge of the problem exists mainly because of the digital-forensic work of non-governmental researchers and tenacious reporting by civil society organizations and the media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The problem is serious enough that the Special Rapporteur concludes the present report with a call not merely for tighter regulation of surveillance exports and restrictions on their use, but for an immediate moratorium on the global sale and transfer of the tools of the private surveillance industry until rigorous human rights safeguards are put in place to regulate such practices and guarantee that Governments and non-State actors use the tools in legitimate ways.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The Special Rapporteur proposes a legal and policy framework for regulation, transparency and accountability within the private surveillance industry. He begins by identifying the problem, emphasizing its focus on targeted surveillance, leaving aside the issue of bulk interception, collection and retention of private data (often referred to as “mass surveillance”). He then highlights the obligations human rights law imposes on States and the related responsibilities of companies. In part IV, he proposes a framework to improve on existing laws and policies by incorporating protection of the rights to freedom of opinion and expression, based on existing international human rights law. He concludes by making recommendations for key actors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Preparation of the present report benefited from 11 submissions by States and 33 by civil society. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights organized a two-day consultation with experts in Bangkok in December 2018. The submissions and the talks held during the consultation are summarized in an addendum to the present report.[[fn:1]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "I especially want to thank Amos Toh, Desiree Murray, Cristina Butoiu, Matthew Marcoly and Kyoolee Park of the International Justice Clinic, University of California, Irvine School of Law, for their assistance in the preparation of the present report and its addendum."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. We live in an age of readily available, easy to abuse and difficult to detect tools of digital surveillance. In his groundbreaking surveillance report in 2013, the previous mandate holder, Frank La Rue, noted that weak regulatory environments had provided fertile ground for arbitrary and unlawful infringements of the rights to privacy and freedom of opinion and expression (A/HRC/23/40, para. 3). In his inaugural report the following year on privacy in the digital age, the High Commissioner for Human Rights concluded that practices in many States involved a lack of adequate national legislation and/or enforcement, weak procedural safeguards and ineffective oversight, all of which had contributed to a lack of accountability for unlawful digital surveillance (A/HRC/27/37, para. 47).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Some States develop targeted surveillance tools within their own agencies and departments, others repurpose existing “off the shelf” crimeware products and others may purchase sophisticated commercial spyware on the international surveillance market.[[fn:2]] In the present report, the Special Rapporteur is most concerned with the last category of tools. Digital surveillance is no longer the preserve of countries that enjoy the resources to conduct mass and targeted surveillance based on in-house tools. Private industry has stepped in, unsupervised and with something close to impunity. According to Privacy International, in 2016 there were well over five hundred companies developing, marketing and selling such products to government purchasers.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Citizen Lab, Communities @ Risk: Targeted Digital Threats Against Civil Society (Toronto, Monk School of Global Affairs, University of Toronto, 2014), Executive Summary, pp. 8–11."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Privacy International submission, p. 1."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur is principally concerned with technologies that enable an actor to gain surreptitious access to the digital communications, work product, browsing data, research, location history and online and offline activities of individuals. Key targeted surveillance technologies and practices are described below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Types of surveillance considered in the present report"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Surveillance technologies may enable intruders to gain access to an individual’s computer or network. The range of such interference is substantial.[[fn:4]] For instance, in 2017, an appeals court in the United States of America heard the case of foreign State-sponsored surveillance on United States soil.[[fn:5]] The case concerned a citizen of the United States born in Ethiopia and living in the state of Maryland who had been providing technical assistance to members of the Ethiopian diaspora community. A document originally sent to an activist by agents of the Government of Ethiopia infected his computer with an intrusive form of malware, a program called FinSpy marketed by a German-British company, Gamma Group.[[fn:6]] FinSpy allegedly recorded the man’s and his family’s Internet video calls, emails and other communications, including by logging his keyboard strokes, sending the data back to servers based in Ethiopia.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See, e.g., Ronald J. Deibert, Black Code: Inside the Battle for Cyberspace (Toronto, Signal, 2013), pp. 186–190."}, {"n": 5, "text": "Doe v. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 851 F.3d 7 (D.C. Cir. 2017)."}, {"n": 6, "text": "For FinSpy’s promotional material, see Wikileaks, “The spy files: remote monitoring and infection solutions: FINSPY”."}, {"n": 7, "text": "For details of the allegations, see the first amended complaint, Doe v. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (18 July 2014)."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Types of surveillance considered in the present report", "Computer interference"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Private surveillance products also offer the capability of hacking directly into mobile devices. The NSO Group’s Pegasus spyware is a paradigmatic example and its alleged use in Mexico is instructive. Beginning in 2015, numerous individuals reporting on corruption and the drug trade received text messages or links on their mobile devices, some from seemingly legitimate sources suggesting detailed knowledge of the targets. Journalists, politicians, United Nations investigators, human rights advocates and others received these texts. A Canadian research and advocacy organization, Citizen Lab, found that the links infected the devices with the Pegasus spyware, allowing the targets to be monitored remotely. Citizen Lab has identified Pegasus software being used as a surveillance tool targeting individuals in 45 countries, including Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Togo, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "See Bill Marczak and others, “Hide and seek: tracking NSO Group’s Pegasus spyware to operations in 45 countries”, Citizen Lab, 18 September 2018."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Types of surveillance considered in the present report", "Mobile device hacking"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Many of the technologies described above are accompanied by strategies to lure a target into unwittingly downloading malware on their devices. For example, emails containing malicious links either impersonate the target’s contacts or trick the target into believing that they are clicking on a benign link related to their work, advocacy or personal affairs. For example, a WhatsApp message linked by researchers to Pegasus spyware was sent to an Amnesty International staff member urging him to cover a protest, including a link that it claimed would lead to additional information.[[fn:9]] Clicking on the link would likely have downloaded the spyware on his device.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See Bill Marczak, John Scott-Railton and Ron Deibert, “NSO Group infrastructure linked to targeting of Amnesty International and Saudi dissident”, Citizen Lab, 31 July 2018."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Types of surveillance considered in the present report", "Social engineering"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Some technologies work on a network to enable targeted surveillance. For instance, the Russian System for Operative Investigative Activities involves the installation of a device on telecommunications networks that enables interception of communications. The system is privately manufactured and marketed and is widely used in the Russian Federation and further afield in Central Asia. For example, the company Protei manufactures equipment that ensures that the system’s technologies, such as eavesdropping and Internet interception tools, work in countries like Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.[[fn:10]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Andrei Soldatov and Irina Borogan, The Red Web: The Struggle Between Russia’s Digital Dictators and the New Online Revolutionaries (New York, PublicAffairs, 2015), pp. 190–191."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Types of surveillance considered in the present report", "Network surveillance"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Facial recognition technology seeks to capture and detect the facial characteristics of a person, potentially profiling individuals based on their ethnicity, race, national origin, gender and other characteristics, which are often the basis for unlawful discrimination.[[fn:11]] Affect recognition seeks to infer a person’s feelings, emotions or intentions from facial expressions, based on highly questionable classification systems.[[fn:12]] Perhaps no other environment demonstrates the comprehensive intrusiveness of these technologies better than China. Credible reporting suggests that the Government of China, using a combination of facial recognition technology and surveillance cameras throughout the country, “looks exclusively for Uighurs based on their appearance and keeps records of their comings and goings for search and review”.[[fn:13]] Much of the technology deployed by the Government appears to be produced domestically, by both State-owned and private enterprises.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See, e.g., Internet Lab submission, p. 6; and Center for Internet and Society submission, p. 12."}, {"n": 12, "text": "AI Now Institute, AI Now Report 2018 (New York, New York University, 2018), pp. 13–14."}, {"n": 13, "text": "See Paul Mozur, “One month, 500,000 face scans: how China is using A.I. to profile a minority”, New York Times, 14 April 2019."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Human Rights in China submission, pp. 2–3. See also A/HRC/39/29, para. 14."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Types of surveillance considered in the present report", "Facial and affect recognition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. International Mobile Subscriber Identity catchers mimic nearby cell towers to intercept communications and location data being transmitted by personal communication devices. Such catchers are widely used around the world, often by law enforcement and intelligence agencies. A private company in the United Kingdom allegedly sold such catchers and other spyware to the Philippines, and many fear that these tools were used to track and monitor drug users in the Government’s widely criticized war on drugs.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See Sofia Tomacruz, “You think your data, communication devices are safe? Think again”, Rappler, 17 March 2018."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Types of surveillance considered in the present report", "International Mobile Subscriber Identity catchers (Stingray)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Deep Packet Inspection enables the monitoring, analysis and redirection of traffic passing through communications and Internet networks. It can also be used to redirect users to sites infected with malware and block them from accessing certain websites. Such devices were reportedly installed on Türk Telekom’s network, and deployed to redirect users in Turkey and the Syrian Arab Republic to download spyware when they attempted to download legitimate software applications.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See Bill Marczak and others, “Bad traffic: Sandvine’s PacketLogic devices used to deploy government spyware in Turkey and redirect Egyptian users to affiliate ads?”, Citizen Lab, 9 March 2018."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Types of surveillance considered in the present report", "Deep Packet Inspection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Governments and the private sector are close collaborators in the market for digital surveillance tools. Governments have requirements that their own departments and agencies may be unable to satisfy. Private companies have the incentives, the expertise and the resources to meet those needs. They meet at global and regional trade shows designed, like dating services, to bring them together.[[fn:17]] From there, they determine whether they are a match. Whether companies carry out any kind of due diligence to evaluate the human rights record of purchasers is unknown.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See, e.g., www.issworldtraining.com; and Patrick Howell O’Neill, “ISS World: the traveling spyware roadshow for dictatorships and democracies”, Cyberscoop, 20 June 2017."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Public-private collaboration"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The seller’s intentions may be legitimate. It may be that companies genuinely intend their products to be deployed for “lawful interception” by authorized public authorities against legitimate targets, with the authorization of judicial or other independent actors. However, this cannot be known for certain because every aspect of such collaboration – from due diligence and sales to end-user support – typically operates with limited oversight and transparency. In fact, nearly all the publicly available information about the private surveillance industry has been gathered during the forensic work carried out by non-governmental and academic institutions, such as Citizen Lab, and investigative reporting.[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "The story of private surveillance is also a story of the critical importance of free and independent research and media. Such investigations have also put the investigators at risk of surveillance. See, e.g., Raphael Satter, “Undercover agents target cybersecurity watchdog”, Associated Press, 26 January 2019."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Public-private collaboration"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. The operation of the so-called “vulnerabilities market” is especially murky. Governments and private actors are known to purchase security vulnerabilities in commonly available software from security researchers, to be utilized as “zero-day exploits” for the purpose of gaining access to individual communications and devices.[[fn:19]] So long as they remain undisclosed to the device or software manufacturer, vulnerabilities may serve as an entry point for surveillance. When Governments and companies fail to disclose such vulnerabilities, they put at risk the security of end users, including government and private sector clients that store sensitive financial, health, employment or law enforcement data in commercially developed databases. To date, there has been no agreement as to whether Governments and companies have a responsibility to share their knowledge of vulnerabilities, and the sale of such vulnerabilities is unregulated. In fact, not only has the situation facilitated the development of a valuable market in vulnerabilities, it has led many Governments and companies to guard their knowledge of vulnerabilities jealously in the hope of using them for offensive purposes.[[fn:20]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See Privacy International, “Exploiting privacy: surveillance companies pushing zero-day exploits”, 7 February 2018."}, {"n": 20, "text": "See the discussion in Sarah McKune submission, pp. 2–4; Centre for European Policy Studies, Software Vulnerability Disclosure in Europe: Technology, Policies and Legal Challenges (Brussels, June 2018); and Sven Herpig and Ari Schwartz, “The future of vulnerabilities equities processes around the world”, Lawfare, 4 January 2019."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Public-private collaboration"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. It is also evident that public-private collaboration does not end at the point of sale and transfer of product. Leaked documents have demonstrated that private surveillance companies provide after-sales support. For example, in 2014, FinFisher reportedly entered into “annual support contract[s]” with government clients to provide technical upgrades and updates to the products and other forms of customer support.[[fn:21]] They also conduct training on how to optimize their malware to compromise the digital communications, computer devices and Wi-Fi networks of surveillance targets.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "See Privacy International, “Six things we know from the latest FinFisher documents”, 15 August 2014."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Public-private collaboration"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Just as the companies and the purchasers are tightly connected, so too are the companies and Governments in the countries in which they are based. Some of the companies have powerful voices in their countries’ export control regimes and have undermined efforts to strengthen them. For instance, in 2016, credible allegations suggested that, as a result of pressure from industry lobbyists, certain forms of surveillance technology had been removed from a proposed list of additions to the European Union list of dual-use goods and technologies subject to export controls.[[fn:23]] During recent negotiations on the European Union export control regime, business interests were alleged to have influenced the decision to significantly curtail the inclusion of human rights safeguards in proposed regulatory changes, despite broad agreement on their adoption in the European Parliament.[[fn:24]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See Reporters Without Borders, “International regulations: broken or blocked by lobbies”, 14 March 2017."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See Daniel Moßbrucker, “Surveillance exports: how EU Member States are compromising new human rights standards”, netzpolitik.org, 29 October 2018."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Public-private collaboration"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. It has also been indicated in recent reports that many individuals with intelligence and law enforcement expertise and experience move between government and private sector positions. This revolving door may enable former government experts to support private actors whose tools may be used to violate human rights.[[fn:25]] In a 2019 report, Reuters revealed that several former United States National Security Agency employees moved to a private company to support United Arab Emirates signals intelligence programmes under the code-name “Project Raven”.[[fn:26]] The employees in question allegedly deployed their expertise to surveil political opponents of the authorities of the United Arab Emirates and target citizens of the United States. Government regulation of the “revolving door” with respect to the private surveillance industry appears at best weak and likely does not exist in many, if not most, legal systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See Privacy International, “Switching hats: why South Africa’s surveillance industry needs scrutiny”, 14 December 2016; and Alex Kane, “How Israel became a hub for surveillance technology”, The Intercept, 17 October 2016."}, {"n": 26, "text": "See Christopher Bing and Joel Schectman, “Inside the UAE’s secret hacking team of American mercenaries”, Reuters, 30 January 2019; Robert Chesney, “Project Raven: what happens when U.S. personnel serve a foreign intelligence agency”, Lawfare, 11 February 2019; and Sarah McKune submission, pp. 7–8."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Public-private collaboration"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Targets of surveillance suffer interference with their rights to privacy and freedom of opinion and expression whether the effort to monitor is successful or not.[[fn:27]] The target need have no knowledge of the attempted or successful intrusion for the interference with their right to privacy to be complete. Indeed, Governments generally seek tools that intrude without the knowledge of the target. However, it is critical to see such interference as part of an overall effort to impose consequences on the target. If conducted for unlawful purposes, the attempt at surveillance – and the successful operation – may be used in an effort to silence dissent, sanction criticism or punish independent reporting (and sources for that reporting).[[fn:28]] The sanctions may not be applied to the targets but to their networks of contacts. In environments subject to rampant illicit surveillance, the targeted communities know of or suspect such attempts at surveillance, which in turn shapes and restricts their capacity to exercise the rights to freedom of expression, association, religious belief, culture and so forth. In short, interference with privacy through targeted surveillance is designed to repress the exercise of the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "Global Justice Clinic, New York University School of Law, submission, p. 6."}, {"n": 28, "text": "See Human Rights Foundation submission."}], "section": ["III. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. It is not necessary to duplicate the extensive human rights reporting that has already been conducted by previous Special Rapporteurs, other mandate holders, the High Commissioner, the Human Rights Council, the Human Rights Committee and others, in which they highlighted the following key features of the human rights legal framework that protects against targeted surveillance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. First, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights protect everyone’s rights to privacy, opinion and expression. Article 19 of both instruments protects everyone’s right to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers and through any media. Article 17 (1) of the Covenant, echoing article 12 of the Declaration, provides that “[n]o one shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "medium", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'Article 19 of both instruments' referring to ICCPR and UDHR jointly. Sonnet flagged as AMBIGUOUS for the dual citation; conservative keep. Strict reading of 'AMBIGUOUS = 2+ treaties' could favor ICCPR (since UDHR is non-treaty), but author treats them as parallel sources, making the primary referent indeterminate."}, {"article": "17", "paragraph": "1", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'Article 17 (1) of the Covenant' — 'the Covenant' = ICCPR per immediately preceding sentence."}, {"article": "12", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'echoing article 12 of the Declaration' — 'the Declaration' = UDHR, non-treaty."}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Privacy and expression are intertwined in the digital age, with online privacy serving as a gateway to secure exercise of the freedom of opinion and expression (A/HRC/29/32; and A/HRC/23/40, para. 24). Article 17 permits interference with the right to privacy only where it is “authorized by domestic law that is accessible and precise and that conforms to the requirements of the Covenant”, is in pursuit of “a legitimate aim” and “meet[s] the tests of necessity and proportionality” (A/69/397, para. 30). Article 19 articulates a three-part test requiring that restrictions be provided by law and be necessary to protect the rights or reputations of others, national security or public order, or public health or morals.[[fn:29]] The Human Rights Committee has emphasized that these principles, at a minimum, mean the following:\n(a) Provided by law/legality: any restriction must be formulated with sufficient precision to enable an individual to regulate his or her conduct accordingly and it must be made accessible to the public. Any restriction may not be unduly vague or overbroad such that it could confer unfettered discretion on officials;[[fn:30]]\n(b) Necessity and proportionality: the State has the burden of proving a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the threat and that the restriction it seeks to impose is the least intrusive instrument among those that might achieve the same protective function;[[fn:31]]\n(c) Legitimacy: article 19 (3) imposes specific limits on the interests justifying restrictions. While it is common for States to seek to justify restrictions, especially targeted surveillance, on the bases of national security, the Special Rapporteur has found that this rationale should be limited in application to situations in which the interest of the whole nation is at stake, which would thereby exclude restrictions in the sole interest of a Government, regime or power group (A/71/373, para. 18).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Detailed explication of the three-part test under article 19 may be found in Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression, paras. 5–9 and 22–36; and A/HRC/38/35."}, {"n": 30, "text": "General comment No. 34, para. 25."}, {"n": 31, "text": "Ibid., paras. 34–35."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "section": ["III. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The Human Rights Committee put these principles into practice in its 2017 concluding observations on the sixth periodic report of Italy under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (CCPR/C/ITA/CO/6, para. 36). It determined that the right to privacy required that robust, independent oversight systems were in place regarding surveillance, interception and hacking, including by ensuring that the judiciary was involved in the authorization of such measures, in all cases, and by affording persons affected with effective remedies in cases of abuse, including, where possible, an ex post notification that they had been placed under surveillance or that their data had been hacked (ibid., para. 37). The General Assembly, in its resolution 73/179, echoed these principles, noting that surveillance of digital communications must be consistent with international human rights obligations and must be conducted on the basis of a legal framework, which must be publicly accessible, clear, precise, comprehensive and non-discriminatory.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. While these principles apply in all cases of targeted surveillance, they have particular force when expression in the public interest is implicated. Targeted surveillance creates incentives for self-censorship and directly undermines the ability of journalists and human rights defenders to conduct investigations and build and maintain relationships with sources of information (A/HRC/38/35/Add.2, para. 53). The Committee has emphasized that restrictions may never be invoked as a justification for the muzzling of any advocacy of multiparty democracy, democratic tenets and human rights.[[fn:32]] Attacks on a person because of the exercise of his or her right to freedom of expression may not be justified by article 19 (3).[[fn:33]] The Committee further singled out the importance of protecting journalists and persons who engaged in the gathering and analysis of information on the human rights situation and who published human rights-related reports, including judges and lawyers.[[fn:34]] These protections extend to the confidentiality of sources, which international and regional human rights mechanisms (in the African, European and inter-American systems) have emphasized should be protected under law (A/70/361, para. 5).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "General comment No. 34, para. 23."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 34, "text": "Ibid."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "section": ["III. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. In addition to the primary obligations not to interfere with privacy or restrict expression, States also have duties to protect individuals against third-party interference. Article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, reflecting the primary duties of States, imposes an obligation to respect and to ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the Covenant.[[fn:35]] Article 17 (2) of the Covenant provides that everyone has the right to the protection of the law against unlawful interference with his or her privacy. However, it is not clear that States generally afford affirmative legal protections against targeted surveillance. This is certainly true of transnational surveillance, even when committed by foreign entities against one’s own citizens.[[fn:36]] In one instance concerning the allegations of targeted surveillance in Mexico, the Special Rapporteur for freedom of expression in the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression conducted a joint mission to the country in which they raised the issue of the Government’s use of the Pegasus spyware. They urged the Government to allow an independent investigation of the allegations that the spyware was deployed against journalists (A/HRC/38/35/Add.2, paras. 52–55). To date, the efforts to investigate the allegations have not clarified the situation, despite the orders of the National Institute for Transparency, Access to Information and Personal Data Protection of Mexico that the Government reveal the nature of its contracts to obtain Pegasus.[[fn:37]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 31 (2004) on the nature of the general legal obligation imposed on States parties to the Covenant. Note that under general comment No. 31, article 17 on privacy is specifically included as an example of an article in which there are positive obligations on States parties to address the activities of private persons or entities."}, {"n": 36, "text": "See Nate Cardozo, “D.C. circuit court issues dangerous decision for cybersecurity: Ethiopia is free to spy on Americans in their own homes”, Electronic Frontier Foundation, 14 March 2017."}, {"n": 37, "text": "See Instituto Nacional de Transparencia, Acceso a la Información y Protección de Datos Personales, “Fiscalía general de la República tiene oportunidad histórica para acabar con la impunidad en caso Pegasus: Salas Suárez”, 27 March 2019; and Juan Arvizu, “Ordena Inai a PGR abrir contrato de compra de Pegasus”, El Universal, 17 April 2018."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "section": ["III. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. It is clear from the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework adopted by the Human Rights Council in 2011, that a State’s duty to protect includes a duty to take appropriate steps to prevent, investigate, punish and redress human rights abuse by third parties (A/HRC/17/31). In the Guiding Principles, States are urged to exercise adequate oversight in order to meet their international human rights obligations when they contract with, or legislate for, business enterprises to provide services that may have an impact on the enjoyment of human rights (ibid., p. 10).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Because the companies in the private surveillance industry operate under a cloak of secrecy, the public lacks any information about the way in which they may – if at all – consider the human rights impacts of their products. Given the nature of the industry and the widespread use of its products for purposes that are inconsistent with international human rights law, it is difficult to imagine that they do in fact take such impacts into account. Put another way: given the broad public knowledge of the repression practised by many of their clients, the companies cannot seriously claim to lack insight into the repressive uses of their tools.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "B. Corporate responsibility"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The Guiding Principles provide a framework for assessing whether surveillance companies respect the rights of those affected by their products and services. In particular, there is an emphasis in the Guiding Principles on policy commitments to respect human rights; due diligence processes to identify, prevent, mitigate and account for human rights impacts; consultation with affected groups; ongoing evaluation of the effectiveness of human rights policies; and effective grievance mechanisms for affected rights holders (A/HRC/17/31, paras. 15–25).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "B. Corporate responsibility"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. By every measure, the companies would appear to fail to meet even these minimum baselines. The few companies that have published their customer policies gesture vaguely at the need to respect human rights. Hacking Team, for instance, states that it reviews “potential customers before a sale to determine whether or not there is objective evidence or credible concerns that Hacking Team technology provided to the customer will be used to facilitate human rights violations”, but does not explain what it does with such information, or even identify which human rights its technologies might implicate.[[fn:38]] The NSO Group claims to operate in accordance with a Business Ethics Committee, “which includes outside experts from various disciplines, including law and foreign relations”, and suggests that it may cancel work if its products are put to “improper use”.[[fn:39]] On its website, it also states that it will “investigate any credible allegation of product misuse”, but there is no indication of whether that includes human rights violations.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "B. Corporate responsibility"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Hacking Team, Customer Policy."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See NSO statement of 17 September 2018. Available at https://citizenlab.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/NSO-Statement-17-September-2018.pdf. As a Citizen Lab puts it, “NSO’s statements about a Business Ethics Committee recall the example of Hacking Team’s ‘outside panel of technical experts and legal advisors … that reviews potential sales.’ This ‘outside panel’ appears to have been a single law firm, whose recommendations Hacking Team did not always follow” (Marczak and others, “Hide and seek”)."}, {"n": 40, "text": "See www.nsogroup.com/about."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. In short, companies have not disclosed instances of meaningful action, such as putting in place due diligence processes that identify and avoid causing or contributing to adverse human rights impacts through their own activities and that prevent or mitigate adverse human rights impacts that are directly linked to their operations, products or services by their business relationships (A/HRC/17/31, annex, principle 13) There is, for example, no public information suggesting that human rights assessments are a routine component of due diligence during sales, that companies give decisive weight to these assessments and that these assessments continue throughout the life cycle of the product and any contract for after-sales support. Indeed, mounting evidence of the industry’s central role in facilitating gross human rights abuses, coupled with its steadfast refusal to explain its safeguards, makes it difficult to avoid the conclusion that such self-regulation lacks substance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "B. Corporate responsibility"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The guidance of the European Commission on implementing the Guiding Principles in the information and communications technology sector highlights the importance of “human rights by design”.[[fn:41]] The extraordinary risk of the misuse of surveillance products means that companies should anticipate the illicit use of their software and begin engineering solutions for the inevitable negative impacts. In a promising move, the Government of the United Kingdom, in partnership with a technology industry association, produced a set of guidelines for the cybersecurity industry in which they stress the importance of preventing and mitigating human rights risks “through appropriate design modification” at the earliest stages of product development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "B. Corporate responsibility"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See European Commission, ICT Sector Guide on Implementing the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (Luxembourg, 2013)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Export controls are an important element of the effort to reduce the risks caused by the private surveillance industry and the repressive use of its tools. However, their effectiveness is limited. First, the relevant international export control regime – the non-binding Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies, in which 42 States participate – is tailored to reduce threats to regional and international security. While that is a laudable and necessary objective, the framework is ill-suited to addressing the threats that targeted surveillance pose to human rights; indeed, it lacks guidelines or enforcement measures that would directly address human rights violations caused by surveillance tools. Second, the focus on exports is an imperfect proxy for addressing the central problem: the use of such technologies to target lawful expression, dissent, reporting and other examples of the exercise of human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "C. International and domestic export control"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The Wassenaar Arrangement nevertheless promotes important goals of “transparency and greater responsibility in transfers of conventional arms and dual-use goods and technologies”. Participating States are expected to apply export controls to all items on the list of dual-use goods and technologies.[[fn:42]] As such, the Wassenaar Arrangement has been (or should be) internalized in domestic law and policy by participating and non-participating States; unfortunately, there is no enforcement mechanism to ensure its translation into domestic law or its implementation by the relevant domestic agencies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "C. International and domestic export control"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "See Wassenaar Arrangement, “List of dual-use goods and technologies and munitions list”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. In 2013, the participating States added items related to “intrusion software” and Internet Protocol network communications surveillance systems to the list of dual-use technologies. According to the list, intrusion software is “‘software’ specially designed or modified to avoid detection by ‘monitoring tools’, or to defeat ‘protective countermeasures’”, which either extracts data from a computer or network device or modifies the “standard execution path” of a program to allow “the execution of externally provided instructions”.[[fn:43]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "C. International and domestic export control"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "Ibid., p. 221."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The detailed reports of surveillance-related abuses demonstrate that the export control regime centred on the Wassenaar Arrangement has not meaningfully limited the spread of surveillance technologies and their use for repressive purposes. A stalled effort by European parliamentarians to strengthen the human rights protections in European export laws and policies demonstrated the challenges of reform. Their effort explicitly called for expansion of the list of dual-use items and catch-all controls, and the consideration of “respect for human rights in the country of final destination” of the surveillance technologies.[[fn:44]] In January 2018, this proposal went through first reading in the European Parliament, originally gathering support to implement stronger controls on exports of dual-use technology.[[fn:45]] However, the proposal has since received criticism from at least nine member States, which argued for weaker human rights protections.[[fn:46]] The future of the legislation is now unclear.[[fn:47]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "C. International and domestic export control"], "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "See European Commission, “Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council setting up a Union regime for the control of exports, transfer, brokering, technical assistance and transit of dual-use items (recast)”, 28 September 2016; and Lucie Krahulcova, “The European Parliament is fighting to strengthen the rules for surveillance trade”, Access Now, 8 December 2017."}, {"n": 45, "text": "For an overview of the legislative history of the aforementioned proposed regulation, see EUR-Lex, Doc. 52016PC0616."}, {"n": 46, "text": "Delegations of Cyprus, Czechia, Estonia, Finland, Ireland, Italy, Poland, Sweden and the United Kingdom, “For adoption of an improved EU Export Control Regulation 428/2009 and for cyber-surveillance controls promoting human rights and international humanitarian law globally”, WK 5755/2018 INIT (15 May 2018); and Access Now, “EU: States push to relax rules on exporting surveillance technology to human rights abusers”, 11 June 2018."}, {"n": 47, "text": "See Catherine Stupp, “Nine countries united against EU export controls on surveillance software”, Euractiv, 11 June 2018; and Moßbrucker, “Surveillance exports”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. At the domestic level, the enforcement of export controls varies, even among participating States in the Wassenaar Arrangement. For example, the United States has yet to adopt the 2013 additions of items related to intrusion software and Internet protocol network communications surveillance systems.[[fn:48]] However, the United States Commerce Department is conducting a broad review of the current framework and has been commissioned to establish an inter-agency process for setting new controls for both “emerging” and “foundational” technologies under the Export Control Reform Act of 2018.[[fn:49]] Israel, a non-participating State, has adopted export controls on dual-use items regulated under the Wassenaar Arrangement, but its enforcement of these controls is shrouded in secrecy.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "C. International and domestic export control"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Privacy International submission, p. 5."}, {"n": 49, "text": "John S. McCain National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019, Public Law No 115–232 (2018)."}, {"n": 50, "text": "See “Israel-U.S. export controls”, export.gov, 20 July 2018. See also para. 43 below."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. As part of a State’s duty to respect and ensure enjoyment of human rights, article 2 (3) (a) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights imposes an obligation to provide victims of violations with access to an effective remedy. It is specified in article 2 (3) (b) that claims of such violations must be determined by competent judicial, administrative or legislative authorities, or by any other competent authority provided for by the legal system of the State. The Human Rights Committee has stressed that law enforcement and prosecutorial authorities should investigate allegations of violations promptly, thoroughly and effectively through independent and impartial bodies.[[fn:51]] The duty to provide effective remedies also entails an obligation to protect individuals from acts by private sector entities that cause infringements, by exercising due diligence to prevent, punish, investigate or redress the harm caused by such acts by private persons or entities.[[fn:52]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "D. Absence of remedies for targeted surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "General comment No. 31, para. 15."}, {"n": 52, "text": "Ibid., para. 8."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "2", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "2", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Victims of targeted surveillance have had little success in their efforts to obtain recognition of the harm suffered, let alone remedies for such harm. This is so even though, as explained by both the European Court of Human Rights and the High Commissioner for Human Rights, the mere threat of surveillance, even when secret, coupled with the lack of remedy, can constitute an interference with the right to privacy.[[fn:53]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "D. Absence of remedies for targeted surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Roman Zakharov v. Russia (application No. 47143/06), judgment of 4 December 2015, para. 171; and A/HRC/27/37, para. 20."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Litigation as a course of action to seek remedy against private surveillance companies that manufacture and sell tools and Governments that deploy them is uncertain. The lack of causes of action and remedies raises serious concerns about the likelihood of holding companies accountable for human rights violations. Alleged victims have commenced litigation or formal complaints against private surveillance companies or Governments in at least eight countries.[[fn:54]] However, the barriers to successful litigation and formal complaints are significant, including the lack of judicial oversight, remedies, causes of action, enforcement and data preservation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "D. Absence of remedies for targeted surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "See Siena Anstis, “Litigation and other formal complaints concerning targeted digital surveillance and the digital surveillance industry”, Citizen Lab, 12 December 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. In some cases, civil society organizations have requested that Governments investigate unlawful surveillance, but these requests are frequently rejected. In the United Kingdom, Privacy International made a criminal complaint against Gamma Group to the National Crime Agency, arguing that the company had violated multiple domestic laws when its subsidiary, FinFisher, sold surveillance technologies and provided assistance to the Government of Bahrain.[[fn:55]] The European Centre for Constitutional and Human Rights and Privacy International also filed a criminal complaint in Munich, Germany, calling for an investigation into the company, but the public prosecution authorities refused the request.[[fn:56]] Even when States open investigations to determine whether government surveillance violated human rights norms or State laws, the investigations can be arbitrary or disorganized.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "D. Absence of remedies for targeted surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "See Privacy International, “Criminal complaint to national cyber crime unit on behalf of Bahraini activists”, 13 October 2014. Lawsuits against the NSO Group have also been filed in Israel and Cyprus: see David D. Kirkpatrick and Azam Ahmed, “Hacking a prince, an emir and a journalist to impress a client”, New York Times, 31 August 2018."}, {"n": 56, "text": "See European Centre for Constitutional and Human Rights, “FinFisher: no investigation into German-British software company”, 12 December 2014."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Alternatives to litigation, providing for remedies consistent with international human rights law, appear unavailable. For instance, after an Amnesty International staff member was the target of a suspicious WhatsApp message allegedly linked to Pegasus, the organization wrote to the Ministry of Defence of Israel asking that the NSO Group’s export licence be revoked.[[fn:57]] The country’s Defence Export Control Agency sent a letter in response, stating that it does not provide information on its policies on granting export licences or any information on the actual licences themselves.[[fn:58]] The Agency did not confirm or deny the existence of the export licence, but did note that “that export licences issued by the Israeli [Ministry of Defence] to NSO Group in relation to its government clients are consistent with international obligations”.[[fn:59]] The lack of regional and international pressure and non-disclosure policies justified on the basis of national security prove to be significant barriers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "D. Absence of remedies for targeted surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "Amnesty International submission, p. 8."}, {"n": 58, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 59, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Privacy International has also filed complaints with the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) National Contact Points for Germany and the United Kingdom against Gamma and Trovicor for their alleged roles in the targeted surveillance of political opponents by the Government of Bahrain.[[fn:60]] The complaint against Trovicor asked the National Contact Point for Germany to “ascertain whether the company breached the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises by exporting surveillance products to Bahrain, where the authorities use such products in human rights abuses, including the arrest, detention and torture of political opponents and dissidents”.[[fn:61]] However, the National Contact Point rejected the complaint on the basis that the evidence of Trovicor’s presence in Bahrain was not sufficient. In a virtually identical complaint to the National Contact Point for the United Kingdom, multiple civil society organizations alleged similar violations against Gamma.[[fn:62]] The National Contact Point accepted the complaint and released an initial assessment in June 2013, in which it was stated that: “while neither party has provided direct evidence about a supply by Gamma to Bahrain, the evidence provided suggests that the company’s product may have been used against Bahraini activists. The [National Contact Point] considers that this substantiates the issues in respect of the company’s obligations to do appropriate due diligence and to address impacts.”[[fn:63]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "D. Absence of remedies for targeted surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 60, "text": "According to the organization’s website, the main role of a National Contact Point “is to further the effectiveness of the Guidelines by undertaking promotional activities, handling enquiries, and contributing to the resolution of issues that may arise from the alleged non-observance of the guidelines in specific instances”."}, {"n": 61, "text": "See Privacy International, “OECD complaint: Trovicor exporting surveillance technology to Bahrain”, 1 February 2013."}, {"n": 62, "text": "See Privacy International, “German OECD NCP unwilling to investigate role of German company in human rights violations in Bahrain”, 20 December 2013."}, {"n": 63, "text": "United Kingdom, Department for Business Innovation and Skills, “Initial assessment by the UK National Contact Point for the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises: complaint from Privacy International and others against Gamma International UK Limited, June 2013” (London, 2013), para. 25."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Although the final report of the National Contact Point made several recommendations based on human rights standards, there is no evidence that Gamma has implemented them or even acknowledged the report.[[fn:64]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "D. Absence of remedies for targeted surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 64, "text": "See Amitpal Singh, “OECD finds actions of Gamma International to be in violation of human rights”, Citizen Lab, 3 March 2015; and “UK National Contact Point for the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises – Privacy International and Gamma International UK Ltd: final statement after examination of complaint”, December 2014."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. It is insufficient to say that a comprehensive system for control and use of targeted surveillance technologies is broken. It hardly exists. While human rights law provides definite restrictions on the use of surveillance tools, States conduct unlawful surveillance without fear of legal consequence. The human rights law framework is in place, but a framework to enforce limitations is not. It is imperative, urgently so, that States limit the uses of such technologies to lawful ones only, subjected to the strictest forms of oversight and authorization, and that States condition private sector participation in the surveillance tools market – from research and development to marketing, sale, transfer and maintenance – on human rights due diligence and a track record of compliance with human rights norms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. The previous mandate holder insisted that States should take measures to prevent the commercialization of surveillance technologies, paying particular attention to research, development, trade, export and use of these technologies, considering their ability to facilitate systematic human rights violations (A/HRC/23/40, para. 97). This call remains just as relevant today. In this section, the Special Rapporteur reviews the main elements of a framework to protect individuals from the uses of surveillance technology that interfere with the enjoyment of human rights. The steps proposed in the present report require action and implementation by: States, as users of these technologies and as exporting countries; by companies, in accordance with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights; by States and companies working together with civil society; and by the Human Rights Council.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Private companies are creating, transferring and servicing – and States are purchasing and using – surveillance technologies in troubling ways. Credible allegations have shown that companies are selling their tools to Governments that use them to target journalists, activists, opposition figures and others who play critical roles in democratic society. Some of these companies object to the allegations, arguing that they do not permit the use of their products for illicit purposes, they have mechanisms to evaluate sales to “sensitive” end users and they abide by national laws on the control of exports. It is possible that companies are making genuine attempts to address the charges of complicity in surveillance-based repression and abuses. There is, however, no particular reason to take private companies at their word without subjecting them to public disclosure and accountability processes. The gravity of the allegations demands transparency in companies’ relationships and processes, not to mention a range of other steps, which are described below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "A. Moratorium on the export and use of targeted surveillance technologies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Implementing the steps in the present report will take time. In the meantime, scores of journalists, activists, human rights defenders and government critics will be at the mercy of Governments emboldened by the array of highly intrusive surveillance tools at their disposal. It is therefore essential that companies immediately cease the sale and transfer of and support for such technologies, until they have provided convincing evidence that they have adopted sufficient measures (as outlined below) concerning due diligence, transparency and accountability to prevent or mitigate the use of these technologies to commit human rights abuses. Governments should also impose an immediate moratorium on granting licences for the export of surveillance technologies, until there is convincing evidence that the use of these technologies can be technically restricted to lawful purposes that are consistent with human rights standards, or that these technologies will only be exported to countries in which their use is subject to authorization – granted in accordance with due process and the standards of legality, necessity and legitimacy – by an independent and impartial judicial body. For now, however, the mounting evidence that privately developed surveillance tools are being used for manifestly illegitimate purposes offers a strong case for a moratorium on these transfers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "A. Moratorium on the export and use of targeted surveillance technologies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. As a primary step, Governments deploying surveillance tools must ensure that they do so in accordance with a domestic legal framework that meets the standards required by international human rights law. Surveillance should only be authorized in law for the most serious criminal offences. To be compliant with those standards, national laws must:\n(a) Emphasize that everyone enjoys the right not to be subjected to unlawful or arbitrary interference with his or her privacy and the right to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas regardless of frontiers and through any media;\n(b) Require that any legislation governing surveillance be contained in precise and publicly accessible laws and only be applied when necessary and proportionate to achieve one of the legitimate objectives enumerated in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights;\n(c) Ensure that a surveillance operation be approved for use against a specific person only in accordance with international human rights law and when authorized by a competent, independent and impartial judicial body, with all appropriate limitations on time, manner, place and scope of the surveillance;\n(d) Require, given the extreme risks of abuse associated with targeted surveillance technologies, that authorized uses be subjected to detailed record-keeping requirements. Surveillance requests should only be permitted in accordance with regular, documented legal processes and the issuance of warrants for such use. Surveillance subjects should be notified of the decision to authorize their surveillance as soon as such a notification would not seriously jeopardize the purpose of the surveillance.[[fn:65]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "B. Obligations of Governments as users of surveillance technologies", "1. Reinforce national laws limiting surveillance in accordance with the obligations of international human rights law"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "See “Necessary and proportionate: International Principles on the Application of Human Rights to Communications Surveillance” (May 2014)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. It is common for States to impose a high burden of proof on criminal investigations seeking access to the work of journalists (A/70/361, para. 24). Surveillance technologies are often used to target those who play significant roles in promoting democratic values. The Special Rapporteur recognizes that some States may believe that there are situations in which, for instance, journalists use the cover of their profession to engage in serious criminal offences. In his experience, these claims are almost always false or overstated. Too often, Governments use these sorts of claims to undermine journalism and dissenting voices or to target journalists for surveillance even when they are not the target of a legitimate criminal investigation, causing a disproportionate impact on the free press. In this context, the law’s default position should be to prohibit the use of digital surveillance tools against individuals in the media. Of course, this does not provide journalists with immunity from other forms of legitimate legal process, including non-digital surveillance. It is simply that, in the context of the intrusive technologies of digital surveillance, the possibility of abuse or “leakage” from a legitimate criminal investigation into areas involving other journalistic work is very real and difficult, if not impossible, to contain. Its very possibility would likely serve to deter journalists from working on the most sensitive sorts of topics, not to mention the willingness of sources and whistle-blowers to come forward.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "B. Obligations of Governments as users of surveillance technologies", "1. Reinforce national laws limiting surveillance in accordance with the obligations of international human rights law"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Judicial authorization of government use of surveillance technologies is necessary but insufficient. The purchase of these technologies should also be subject to meaningful public oversight, consultation and control. In recent years, as the use of surveillance technologies has proliferated among law enforcement bodies in the United States, several communities have instituted civilian control boards to regulate their use and purchase. The city of Oakland in California, for instance, adopted an ordinance with several features regarding the purchase of surveillance technology that could be replicated by States.[[fn:66]] These include:\n(a) An approval process, carried out by the relevant departments, that takes into account the State’s human rights obligations;\n(b) Public notice of such purchases through regular processes, and public consultations on issues such as the human rights implications of such purchases and whether the technologies at issue will be effective at achieving their intended purposes;\n(c) Regular public reporting on such approvals, purchases and uses.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "B. Obligations of Governments as users of surveillance technologies", "2. Establish public mechanisms for approval and oversight of surveillance technologies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "See American Civil Liberties Union of Northern California, “Oakland becomes latest municipality to reclaim local control over surveillance technologies used by local law enforcement”, 2 May 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Particularly in States that allow subnational organs a certain autonomy in the purchase of law enforcement tools, community control of such purchases should be encouraged and enforced. Given the clear public interest in maintaining the privacy and security of widely available commercial software, public oversight mechanisms should also be empowered to set policies on the stockpiling of vulnerabilities and the development of relevant exploits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "B. Obligations of Governments as users of surveillance technologies", "2. Establish public mechanisms for approval and oversight of surveillance technologies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. For the reasons described above, it is difficult for the targets of unlawful or arbitrary surveillance to bring claims against Governments. Some of the barriers are structural, such as the unavailability in many legal systems for claims against government actors. Both legislatures and the courts may also bar these claims when they grant excessive deference to perceived national security and law enforcement interests. Some claims may be difficult to pursue because of the difficulty and expense of proving the existence of surveillance or attributing the surveillance to State actors – or even to specific State agencies that would be the targets of a lawsuit. Individual targets of surveillance often do not know of the surveillance being carried out against them – or, if they do, it may be beyond the tolling of a statute of limitations.[[fn:67]] It is, in other words, extremely rare for a claimant to succeed in domestic legal claims arising from allegedly unlawful surveillance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "B. Obligations of Governments as users of surveillance technologies", "3. Provide victims with domestic legal tools of redress"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "See Roman Zakharov v. Russia."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. States that are serious about the abuse of surveillance technologies should take steps to enable individual claims against both State and non-State actors. This will, for many States, necessarily involve ensuring that the rules concerning jurisdiction, evidence, timeliness and other basic threshold conditions are fit for purpose in the digital age. They should, for instance, ensure that courts can accept and evaluate as evidence the forensic analysis of technical experts. National legislation should also establish causes of action against private entities that take into account changes in corporate ownership (known as “disposals” or “makeovers”), which often complicate the efforts of victims to seek accountability and redress.[[fn:68]] Alternative forms of redress, such as truth commissions that enable victims of gross human rights abuses facilitated by digital surveillance to give testimony and that examine corporate complicity in these abuses, should also be considered.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "B. Obligations of Governments as users of surveillance technologies", "3. Provide victims with domestic legal tools of redress"], "footnotes": [{"n": 68, "text": "Access Now submission, p. 8."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. At the same time, targeted surveillance is not always territorially contained. When States reach beyond their borders to conduct targeted surveillance, it may be difficult for the individuals targeted by such surveillance to bring claims against the offending State. Some of the same evidentiary and other burdens as in domestic claims may be present in these cases as well. Moreover, as in the Doe case noted above, courts may be unwilling to entertain lawsuits against foreign sovereigns. While the rules for such suits vary, States should interpret the norms of sovereign immunity to ensure that their courts may entertain suits against foreign Governments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "B. Obligations of Governments as users of surveillance technologies", "3. Provide victims with domestic legal tools of redress"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. The Wassenaar Arrangement is not the final word on the control of exports of surveillance technologies; the enforcement of control lists depends upon national implementation. Neither does the Arrangement involve the participation of all major exporting countries: Israel, a major player in the surveillance technology market, claims that it is “fully compliant” with the Arrangement, although it has yet to become a participating State.[[fn:69]] It is also a limited framework, since, notwithstanding its important objectives related to regional and international peace and security, it does not have a human rights orientation. Nonetheless, given that the Arrangement establishes standards that carry the expectation of broad implementation and compliance, participating States should leverage this valuable forum to impose rights-based limitations on the transfer of surveillance technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "C. Obligations of Governments licensing export of surveillance technology"], "footnotes": [{"n": 69, "text": "See Wassenaar Arrangement, “IL – Israel cybersecurity export control policy” (PowerPoint presentation), June 2016."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. In order to improve its role in developing global export standards, participating States would benefit from a human rights working group that could propose and consider standards for exports that integrate human rights concerns in technology transfers. But whether it adopts such a working group or other mechanism, it should develop a framework under which the licensing of any technology would be conditional upon a national human rights review and companies’ compliance with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, as discussed below. As Privacy International put it, participating States, as well as other exporting Governments, should deny licensing “where there is a substantial risk that those exports could be used to violate human rights, where there is no legal framework in place in a destination governing the use of a surveillance item, or where the legal framework for its use falls short of international human rights law or standards”.[[fn:70]] To ensure compliance when export licences are denied on this basis, the surveillance technologies in question should be incorporated into existing sanctions regimes.[[fn:71]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "C. Obligations of Governments licensing export of surveillance technology"], "footnotes": [{"n": 70, "text": "Privacy International submission, p. 8."}, {"n": 71, "text": "Ibid., pp. 3–4."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. While such standards would be valuable additions to the Wassenaar Arrangement, the ability of the public or specific civil society organizations to monitor their implementation will depend on stronger transparency obligations at the national and international levels. The Arrangement itself should promote such transparency by setting clear and enforceable guidelines for intergovernmental information-sharing and public disclosures concerning licensing standards, decisions to authorize, modify or reject licences, incidents or patterns of misuse of surveillance technologies and related human rights violations, and the treatment of digital vulnerabilities. National export laws should also allocate sufficient resources for public record-keeping and accessibility concerning export licensing decisions, and mandate relevant government agencies to solicit public input and conduct multi-stakeholder consultations when they are processing applications of export licences. Finally, States should also establish safe harbours for security research and exempt encryption items from export control restrictions.[[fn:72]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "C. Obligations of Governments licensing export of surveillance technology"], "footnotes": [{"n": 72, "text": "Ibid., p. 5."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Given the extraordinary risk of abuse of surveillance technologies, the granting of export licences should be prohibited under domestic law unless a company regularly demonstrates that it has rigorously implemented its responsibilities under the Guiding Principles with respect to the design, sale, transfer or support of such technologies. This would effectively establish the Guiding Principles as preconditions for companies to participate in the surveillance market. In previous reports, the Special Rapporteur has explained how the information and communications technology sector should fulfil its responsibilities to respect human rights (A/HRC/35/22, paras. 45–75). For private surveillance companies to meet these responsibilities, they must develop, at a minimum, the following:[[fn:73]]\n(a) Customer policies that unequivocally affirm the responsibility of companies to respect freedom of expression, privacy and related human rights throughout their operations, and that client compliance with international human rights law is a condition for the approval and completion of a sale, transfer or contract of support;\n(b) Human rights due diligence processes (such as human rights impact assessments) that are triggered when companies engage in activities that have a bearing on freedom of expression and privacy, such as the design, sale, transfer and servicing of surveillance products and services;\n(c) Internal policies and standard contractual clauses that establish clear and specific prohibitions on product customization, targeting, servicing or assistance that violates international human rights law;\n(d) Internal processes that ensure design and engineering choices incorporate human rights safeguards, such as flagging systems that detect misuse and kill switches that are triggered in the event of misuse;\n(e) Regular programmes of audits and human rights verification processes to ensure that use of their products and services comply with international human rights law, including a commitment to publicly disclose key findings from these audits and verification processes;\n(f) Notification processes that promptly report misuses of their tools to the relevant government oversight bodies (such as national human rights institutions) or intergovernmental bodies (such as special procedures complaints mechanisms);\n(g) Transparency reporting that discloses the potential uses and capabilities of their products and the types of after-sales support provided, incidents of misuse and data concerning the number and type of sales to law enforcement, intelligence or other government agencies or their agents;\n(h) Regular consultations with affected rights holders, civil society groups and digital rights organizations about the ongoing or potential impacts of their products and services and the human rights safeguards required to prevent or mitigate these impacts, with particular emphasis on engaging those at risk of surveillance-based discrimination or repression, such as racial and ethnic minorities and historically marginalized groups;\n(i) Grievance mechanisms that enable individuals to submit complaints concerning human rights abuses facilitated by company products and services, and provide for independent assessment of those complaints and meaningful follow-up;\n(j) Remedial mechanisms that enable complainants to seek compensation, apologies and other forms of redress, as appropriate, in cases in which complaints are independently verified.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "D. Companies’ implementation of the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "Many of these standards draw from the submissions of civil society, which can be found in the addendum to the present report and on the Special Rapporteur’s website."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. The approaches of States and companies, as described here, may be insufficient to address the global problem of targeted surveillance. They also lack several important inputs – those of civil society actors, whether activists, technologists, academics, victims or those belonging to more than one of these categories. Co-regulatory governance that involves meaningful participation from State, business and civil society actors may provide a blueprint for human rights accountability in the private surveillance industry. In particular, co-regulatory initiatives developed to instil accountability and oversight among companies in the private security industry is instructive. Like private surveillance companies, the risks that private security companies assume are connected to their inherent involvement with State functions, particularly in the area of national security. Therefore, the co-regulation of private security companies requires efforts to educate companies about human rights concerns and creates incentives for multi-stakeholder participation (certification based on civil society-inclusive audit and monitoring processes), which may transfer well to the private surveillance industry.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "E. Co-regulatory initiatives"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Two aspects of the regulatory environment of private security companies are worth considering in the context of private surveillance companies. The Montreux Document on pertinent international legal obligations and good practices for States related to operations of private military and security companies during armed conflict outlines recommendations for good State practices in such situations.[[fn:74]] Although non-binding, it contains existing international law obligations for private security companies, as well as recommendations in the form of best practices for contracting States, territorial States and home States. Its principles of public disclosure and due diligence predate and mirror responsibilities found in the Guiding Principles.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "E. Co-regulatory initiatives"], "footnotes": [{"n": 74, "text": "See Switzerland, Federal Department of Foreign Affairs, and the International Committee of the Red Cross, “The Montreux Document on pertinent international legal obligations and good practices for States related to operations of private military and security companies during armed conflict” (Berne, 2008)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. The International Code of Conduct for Private Security Service Providers may also be an appropriate model. Established with the support of civil society, private industry and the Government of Switzerland, it is one of the few approaches that involves the participation of private security companies. The International Code of Conduct for Private Security Service Providers’ Association is a multi-stakeholder initiative involving representatives from States, private security companies and civil society organizations. The non-binding Code is intended to supplement monitoring and oversight, articulating the international law obligations of companies and creating the structure of a framework for accountability to the Association. The Association consists of a general assembly, in which the stakeholder groups are represented, and a board of directors, which has 12 elected members who are representative of the three groups of stakeholders. Notably, company membership is contingent on compliance with the Code, including the Association’s certification, auditing and verification processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "E. Co-regulatory initiatives"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. As stated in the articles of association, the key idea of the Code is to promote the responsible use of private security services, as well as respect for international human rights law. The Code itself outlines both the general commitments of States and private security companies and other private security service providers, and specific principles for conduct in areas including: use of force, detention, apprehending persons, torture and other punishments, gender-based violence, human trafficking, slavery and forced labour, discrimination, and identification and registration of private security personnel.[[fn:75]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "E. Co-regulatory initiatives"], "footnotes": [{"n": 75, "text": "See also Sarah McKune submission, p. 10."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. The Human Rights Council has created, to real benefit, several working groups with mandates to address key themes on implementation of international human rights norms. The Council or its special procedures may consider a new mechanism to provide the kind of attention to specific cases that individual mandate holders may be unable to sustain and evaluate. A new working group, a cross-mandate task force, or a mandated plan of action could devote specific attention to claims that national surveillance practices – which touch on many areas of human rights law and thus many mandates of special procedures – interfere with fundamental human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "F. New focus in the United Nations on surveillance practices"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. For States:\n(a) States should impose an immediate moratorium on the export, sale, transfer, use or servicing of privately developed surveillance tools until a human rights-compliant safeguards regime is in place;\n(b) States that purchase or use surveillance technologies (“purchasing States”) should ensure that domestic laws permit their use only in accordance with the human rights standards of legality, necessity and legitimacy of objectives, and establish legal mechanisms of redress consistent with their obligation to provide victims of surveillance-related abuses with an effective remedy;\n(c) Purchasing States should also establish mechanisms that ensure public or community approval, oversight and control of the purchase of surveillance technologies;\n(d) States that export or permit the export of surveillance technologies (“exporting States”) should ensure that the relevant government agencies solicit public input and conduct multi-stakeholder consultations when they are processing applications for export licences. All records pertaining to export licences should be stored and made available to the greatest extent possible. They should also establish safe harbours for security research and exempt encryption items from export control restrictions;\n(e) Exporting States should join the Wassenaar Arrangement and abide by its rules and standards to the extent that these are consistent with international human rights law;\n(f) States participating in the Wassenaar Arrangement should develop a framework by which the licensing of any technology would be conditional upon a national human rights review and companies’ compliance with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. Such a framework could be developed through a specially established human rights working group. Additionally, they should set clear and enforceable guidelines on transparency and accountability with respect to licensing decisions, surveillance-related human rights abuses and the treatment of digital vulnerabilities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["V. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. For companies:\n(a) Private surveillance companies should publicly affirm their responsibility to respect freedom of expression, privacy and related human rights, and integrate human rights due diligence processes from the earliest stages of product development and throughout their operations. These processes should establish human rights by design, regular consultations with civil society (particularly groups at risk of surveillance), and robust transparency reporting on business activities that have an impact on human rights;\n(b) Companies should also put in place robust safeguards to ensure that any use of their products or services is compliant with human rights standards. These safeguards include contractual clauses that prohibit the customization, targeting, servicing or other use that violates international human rights law, technical design features to flag, prevent or mitigate misuse, and human rights audits and verification processes;\n(c) When companies detect misuses of their products and services to commit human rights abuses, they should promptly report them to the relevant domestic, regional or international oversight bodies. They should also establish effective grievance and remedial mechanisms that enable victims of surveillance-related human rights abuses to submit complaints and seek redress.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["V. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. For the United Nations: the Organization, particularly the Human Rights Council, should create a working group or cross-mandate task force to monitor and provide recommendations on trends in, and individual cases of, human rights abuses facilitated by digital surveillance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["V. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. For all stakeholders: States, the private sector, civil society and other relevant stakeholders should establish co-regulatory initiatives that develop rights-based standards of conduct for the private surveillance industry and implement these standards through independent audits, and learning and policy initiatives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["V. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. “If you cannot enfranchise poor people, if they do not have a right to expression, if there is no searchlight on corruption and inequitable practices, you cannot build the public consensus needed to bring about change”.[[fn:1]] Drawing lessons from a World Bank project that recorded the lived experience of 60,000 individuals trapped in poverty, James Wolfensohn, then President of the Bank, put his finger squarely on the vital contribution of freedom of expression in overcoming the challenges that often undermine or derail development.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "James D. Wolfensohn, “Voices for the poor”, The Washington Post, 10 November 1999."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The meaningful engagement of poor and marginalized communities is essential to good development. When people are informed and consulted, when they can express their views freely and take part in making decisions that affect their lives and livelihoods, they are better able to overcome deprivation, exclusion and insecurity. By enabling people to be active participants in, rather than passive recipients of development, freedom of expression promotes voice and agency and improves the quality and sustainability of development outcomes.[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Irene Khan, The Unheard Truth: Poverty and Human Rights (New York, Norton, 2009)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. Freedom of expression is an essential enabler of sustainable development. In addition to empowering individuals, communities and civil society, it facilitates a range of other rights, including those underpinning sustainable development, such as the rights to health, education, water and a clean environment.[[fn:3]] It allows Governments to be better informed and more responsive to the needs of their people. It enables civil society, the media and citizens to hold Governments and corporate power to account, making democracy meaningful. It also generates economic dividends. Research has shown that in societies where public debate is open and information flows freely from diverse sources, markets operate more efficiently and public institutions are more effective and accountable.[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, arts. 12 and 13; Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Right, general comment No. 13 (1999), general comment No. 14 (2000) and general comment No. 15 (2002); and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, art. 6 (a)."}, {"n": 4, "text": "See submission from Open Government Partnership."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Illicit financial flows, corruption, tax evasion and illegal activities, such as illegal deforestation, illicit mining and trafficking in rare species, are major obstacles to sustainable development because they rob valuable national resources. Access to information, which is at the heart of freedom of expression, is a vital tool to expose and counter such activities. Transparency, civic space and independent media – which thrive in contexts where freedom of expression is upheld – are powerful drivers in ensuring that much-needed public funds or natural resources for sustainable development are not destroyed or diverted for private use.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The link between sustainable development and freedom of expression is not only about information. Equally fundamentally, it is about voice – the right to articulate views, debate, discuss, criticize, challenge, protest and demand. If development is to be meaningful, then the voices of those most disadvantaged in society must be heard and heeded, and civil society and the media must have the freedom and space to use information and voice to hold the powerful to account.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The right to freedom of opinion and expression, enshrined in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and in various international and regional instruments, encompasses the right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas, regardless of frontiers and in any media.[[fn:5]] The rights to public participation, of peaceful assembly and to freedom of association are closely linked to freedom of opinion and expression.[[fn:6]] The expansive language of freedom of expression underscores the obligation for proactive disclosure of information by duty bearers, and the entitlement of rights holders to full and active participation in the development process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 19 (2)."}, {"n": 6, "text": "Ibid., arts. 21, 22 and 25; OHCHR guidelines for States on the effective implementation of the right to participate in public affairs (A/HRC/39/28)."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "medium", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — parallel dual citation. Sonnet=AMBIGUOUS; conservative keep. (Strict 'AMBIGUOUS=2+ treaties' would favor ICCPR since UDHR is non-treaty, but Sonnet's caution is defensible for the symmetric grammatical structure.)"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. Freedom of expression is not absolute. It can be restricted by measures that are lawful, non-discriminatory, necessary and proportionate to respect the rights and reputation of others or to protect national security, public order and public health and morals.[[fn:7]] Furthermore, advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence is prohibited under international law.[[fn:8]] Given the importance of freedom of expression for the enjoyment of other rights, and for promoting transparency and accountability, the restrictions should be exceptional and narrowly construed, and must not jeopardize the right itself.[[fn:9]] They must not be overly broad or so vaguely framed that they can be misused by the authorities to suppress criticism of government policies, or by companies and powerful public figures to evade disclosure in the public interest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 19 (3)."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Ibid., art. 20 (2)."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The explicit recognition of human rights in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development marks a paradigm shift in international development.[[fn:10]] Some earlier international agreements had acknowledged the instrumental role of voice, participation and access to information in tackling poverty, reducing inequalities and protecting the environment.[[fn:11]] The 2030 Agenda goes much further, framing the fulfilment of fundamental freedoms as an objective of sustainable development, not simply a pathway to it. The Agenda acknowledges that development is sustainable, not only because it incorporates economic, social and environmental dimensions, but also because respect for human rights makes it just, inclusive and transformational.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "General Assembly resolution 66/288, annex, paras. 43 and 44."}, {"n": 11, "text": "Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, principle 10 (A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1(Vol.I) and A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1(Vol.I)/Corr.1); and United Nations Millennium Declaration (General Assembly resolution 55/2), para. 25."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The Sustainable Development Goals and their associated targets include some 20 commitments relating to participation, expression and information.[[fn:12]] A cluster of key commitments are in Goal 16, which is to promote peaceful and inclusive societies. The targets of that goal include developing effective, accountable and transparent institutions, ensuring equal access to justice for all, substantially reducing corruption, ensuring responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making, ensuring public access to information and protecting fundamental freedoms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "E.g., target 3.7: ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health information; target 6.b: support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management; and target 9.c: strive to provide universal and affordable access to the Internet."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The 2030 Agenda endorses both the information and voice aspects of freedom of expression. That is evident in the two indicators selected by Member States to measure progress with regard to the objectives to “ensure public access to information” and “protect fundamental freedoms” in target 16.10: (a) the safety of journalists, associated media personnel, trade unionists and human rights advocates; and (b) the enactment of laws to promote access to information.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "See https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/indicators-list/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Notwithstanding the value that freedom of expression brings to sustainable development and its affirmation in the 2030 Agenda, the reality remains grim in many parts of the world. A confluence of multiple and interlocking political, economic and climate crises, a debilitating pandemic and entrenched conflicts have not only stalled progress on the Sustainable Development Goals but also wiped out some important past gains, pushing 100 million more people back into poverty and leaving many more facing an uncertain future marked by deprivation, inequalities, exclusion, insecurity and injustice.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Against a background of rising authoritarianism and shrinking civic space, journalists, environmental activists, trade unionists and human rights defenders are threatened, attacked and killed in many countries. The voices of young people calling for gender equality and social, economic, environmental and climate justice are crushed. Individuals, communities and civil society organizations are blocked from effective participation in decision-making processes. Where public participation occurs, often it is uninformed and tokenistic, more performative than participatory. Laws on access to information have been widely adopted, but requests for information are often denied. Verifiable information is suppressed, and disinformation and misinformation are amplified on digital platforms.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Universal access to an open, free, interoperable and secure Internet is essential for the enjoyment of human rights and for the advancement of sustainable development. While the Internet is relevant to all human rights, it is particularly significant for freedom of expression, expanding the opportunities to access information, communicate, organize and participate, but it also increases threats to the safety of women, children and minorities. The Internet is not equally available or accessible to all, deepening existing inequalities and inequities and creating new divides. The inequalities that are holding women back in the offline world are also holding them back from accessing the Internet on an equal basis.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. As world leaders prepare to gather at the United Nations Headquarters in September 2023 to review progress on meeting the Sustainable Development Goals and the impact of multiple crises, it is vital that Member States focus on the threats and challenges to freedom of expression that are holding back progress on the 2030 Agenda. With less than seven years left to reach 2030, the gap between the promise to leave no one behind and its realization on the ground remains unacceptably wide. The need to reinforce and reinvest in human rights is urgent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. The present report is a call to action on the right to freedom of expression. The objective of the report is three-fold: (a) to highlight the vital and multidimensional contribution of freedom of expression to sustainable development; (b) to assess the opportunities, threats and challenges to freedom of expression that affect sustainable development; and (c) to revitalize political commitment to uphold freedom of expression. In the first section of the report, the relationship between the right to freedom of expression and sustainable development has been set out. Sections two and three cover information and voice, the two main dimensions of freedom of expression, including some aspects of digital technology. In the final section, conclusions are draw and some recommendations made to Governments and other stakeholders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The Special Rapporteur recognizes the complexities of the issues and the challenges that corporate power and digital technology pose to freedom of expression in the context of sustainable development, which cannot be addressed adequately within the word limit of the present report. She intends to cover some of those issues further in her future work on freedom of expression and sustainable development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. The Special Rapporteur is grateful for written submissions from 15 States, 53 civil society organizations and academia, 12 national institutions and 5 international and multi-stakeholder organizations, and for online consultations with legal and policy experts.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "The submissions are available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/2023/call-submissions-thematic-report-special-rapporteur-freedom-opinion-and."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. During the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, the lack of trustworthy public information, or worse still, outright misinformation and disinformation by government officials and others, contributed to the loss of millions of lives, mismanagement of billions of dollars of public funds and the loss of trust in public institutions and the integrity of public information.[[fn:15]] It was a stark reminder of the importance of access to verifiable, diverse sources of information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See A/HRC/44/49 and Article 19: International Centre against Censorship, “Ensuring the public’s right to know in the COVID-19 pandemic”, May 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Over the past three decades, access to information has been incorporated as a right in international agreements, national constitutions and laws. Multi-stakeholder models to promote transparency have also emerged. In the present section, positive developments and good practices, as well as the gaps, failures and challenges in the context of access to information, are reviewed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. The Human Rights Committee indicated in 2011 that States should make every effort to ensure easy, prompt, effective and practical access to government information of public interest through proactive legislative and policy measures.[[fn:16]] The 2030 Agenda also requires States to adopt laws and policies that guarantee public access to information.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), paras. 18 and 19. See also General Assembly resolutions 74/5 and S-19/2."}, {"n": 17, "text": "Sustainable Development Goal 16.10 and indicator 16.10.2."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 135 States and numerous self-governing jurisdictions have adopted laws or national policies to ensure public access to information, covering over 90 per cent of the world’s population.[[fn:18]] However, nearly one third of the States Members of the United Nations still do not have any laws or regulation on access to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "See submission from UNESCO."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Furthermore, many of the laws which have been enacted do not meet international or regional standards.[[fn:19]] Key problems include overly broad or vaguely framed exemptions, gender discrimination, poor implementation of the law, lack of independent oversight, and inadequate or non-existent appeals.[[fn:20]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See https://www.rti-rating.org/ and A/HRC/49/38."}, {"n": 20, "text": "See submission from Article 19: International Centre against Censorship."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Vague, overly broad definitions of national security and official secrecy are used by Governments often to exclude large swathes of information from public scrutiny. The authorities of the United States of America have withheld information from affected communities about dangerous chemicals on military bases in the United States and around the world which could poison local water supplies.[[fn:21]] In Malaysia, a range of laws give the Government broad powers to classify information that it holds. Those provisions have been used to block publication of government reports even where there is a public interest in disclosure.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "1. Broad exemptions from disclosure"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "See AL USA 11/2018."}, {"n": 22, "text": "See OL MYS 6/2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. In Bangladesh, Rozina Islam, an investigative journalist, has been charged under the Official Secrets Act for seeking information from the Ministry of Health on the procurement of vaccines against COVID-19. Her case continues, even though the authorities admitted in court that after two years of investigation, they have not found any evidence to substantiate the charge.[[fn:23]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "1. Broad exemptions from disclosure"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See AL BGD 4/2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Access to information is excluded and requests are denied regularly, including, for instance, for public contracts or communications between officials, on the grounds that they would entail disclosure of personal information in violation of the right to privacy and obligations on data protection.[[fn:24]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "2. Privacy and data protection exceptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "United States of America, Department of Justice, “Summary of annual FOIA reports for fiscal year 2021” and India, Central Information Commission, Annual Report 2021–22."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. In Switzerland, article 47 of the Federal Act on Banks and Savings Banks criminalizes the unauthorized disclosure of bank account holders’ personal information by whistle-blowers or its publication by journalists, regardless of financial wrongdoing or criminal activity by the account holders.[[fn:25]] In India, the Digital Personal Data Protection Bill, 2022, has been criticized for limiting access to nearly all information that identifies any person, effectively removing the public interest exception for access to personal data in the Right to Information Act.[[fn:26]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "2. Privacy and data protection exceptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See OL CHE 1/2022."}, {"n": 26, "text": "Digital Personal Data Protection Bill, 2022, art. 30. See submission from International Solidarity for Academic Freedom in India."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "47", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. The Court of Justice of the European Union has ruled that public registers of corporate beneficial owners violate data protection rules.[[fn:27]] As a result, several member States of the European Union have closed their registers to the public, raising serious concern among journalists and activists who rely on such information to pursue illicit financial flows and other criminal activities, and risking “retrogression in protection of economic, social, cultural and environmental rights”.[[fn:28]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "2. Privacy and data protection exceptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "Court of Justice of the European Union, joined cases C-37/20 and C-601/20, judgment of 22 November 2022. See also submission from Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Andres Knobel, “Dear European Court of Justice: you were played”, Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project, 5 December 2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The relationship between data protection, the right to privacy and the right to information is complex and requires a careful balancing of interests. That in turn requires that laws and policies clearly define, on the one hand, the personal information that is protected legitimately under the right to privacy and, on the other, the public interest justifying disclosure. Under such a test, even if the information is determined to be personal and its release would infringe privacy, it may be disclosed if the public interest in release is more important than the privacy interest. That test is used in several countries, including Ireland, New Zealand, Slovenia and the United States of America.[[fn:29]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "2. Privacy and data protection exceptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "David Banisar, The Right to Information and Privacy: Balancing Rights and Managing Conflicts, World Bank Institute Governance Working Paper (Washington, D.C., The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 2011)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Access to information is key to women’s empowerment and agency, but structural inequalities and specific restrictions combine to undermine it.[[fn:30]] Significant barriers include low literacy levels resulting from unequal educational opportunities, a lack of access to the Internet, digital illiteracy, language problems, income poverty and time poverty, cultural and legal norms that deem it inappropriate for women to seek information from public authorities, and lack of responsive policies.[[fn:31]] For instance, Indigenous women in Chiapas, Mexico, were unable to access vital life-saving information during the COVID-19 pandemic because it was provided in the official State language, which they did not speak.[[fn:32]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Women/girls", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "3. Gender discrimination"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "See https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2023-03/CSW67_Agreed%20Conclusions_Advance%20Unedited%20Version_20%20March%202023.pdf."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See submission from Association for Progressive Communications."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See submission from Article 19: International Centre against Censorship."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Information of particular interest to women, for instance relating to gender-based violence, workplace inequities or sexual and reproductive health, is often unavailable, outdated or difficult to find. Some Governments and private actors restrict access to information on reproductive and sexual health and rights, including safe abortion, in contravention of international human rights law.[[fn:33]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "3. Gender discrimination"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See A/76/258."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Gender disaggregated data, including on Internet access and use by women, are lacking in many countries, despite the recognition of the need for such data by the Group of 20, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the Freedom Online Coalition.[[fn:34]] The discrimination in access to gender-relevant information and the gender data gap are inconsistent with the commitment of States to uphold gender equality under international law and under various goals and targets of the 2030 Agenda.[[fn:35]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "3. Gender discrimination"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "Beatrice Mariottini, “Report: the Italian presidency of the G20 and gender equality”, Associazone italiana donne per lo sviluppo (AIDOS), 2022, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Toolkit for Mainstreaming and Implementing Gender Equality (2018), and Freedom Online Coalition, “FOC Joint Statement on Digital Inclusion” (2020)."}, {"n": 35, "text": "Only 47 per cent of the data required to track progress on Sustainable Development Goal 5, on gender equality, are currently available. See United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women) “Turning promises into action: gender equality in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” (2108), available at https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/Library/Publications/2018/SDG-report-Gender-equality-in-the-2030-Agenda-for-Sustainable-Development-2018-en.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Poor record-keeping, inadequate capacity and resources, high fees, an absence of independent and effective oversight and non-existent, ineffective or expensive appeals mechanisms are major barriers to access of information.[[fn:36]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "4. Poor implementation of laws and policies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "UNESCO, “To recovery and beyond: 2021 UNESCO report on public access to information (SDG 16.10.2)” (Paris, 2022)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Information laws in China, Indonesia, Japan, Mongolia, Nepal and Thailand have no provision on records management, nor do they require guidelines to be developed.[[fn:37]] In many countries, public officials are not adequately trained and lack resources to respond to requests. In some cases, even where information is released proactively or in response to a request, it may be late and incomplete.[[fn:38]] Fees are sometimes too high, while appeals are slow and expensive. The lack of independence of oversight bodies is also a major problem. Data show a correlation between dedicated, independent oversight mechanisms and effective implementation and enforcement of the right to information laws.[[fn:39]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "4. Poor implementation of laws and policies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See submission from Article 19: International Centre against Censorship."}, {"n": 38, "text": "See submission from Malawi Human Rights Commission."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See submission from UNESCO."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. As most States do not comprehensively track requests and denials for information, there are inadequate data to measure progress on access to information at the national level. That also makes it difficult to assess progress globally on indicator 16.10.2.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "4. Poor implementation of laws and policies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "UNESCO, “To recovery and beyond”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights recognize the responsibility of companies to respect the right to information in relation to their operations and activities.[[fn:41]] The 2030 Agenda encourages companies to adopt sustainable practices, exercise due diligence and make information public. The reference in target 16.10 of the Sustainable Development Goals to “public access to information”, rather than access to public information, recognizes that information from other sources should also be accessible if it is of public interest.[[fn:42]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "B. Corporate responsibility to disclose"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See A/HRC/17/31."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See submission from International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Increasingly, regional instruments and national laws and regulations require private entities receiving public funds or performing public functions as a contractor or through public-private partnerships to provide information on their activities, either directly or through the body with which they have contracted.[[fn:43]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "B. Corporate responsibility to disclose"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information in Africa (2019), principles 26, 29 and 30, and Inter-American Model Law 2.0 on Access to Public Information (OEA/Ser.D/XIX.12 2020), art. 3."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. In line with the Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information in Africa, adopted by the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, a number of African States have incorporated the right to access information held by private entities in constitutional and legal provisions.[[fn:44]] In some countries, the corporate obligation to provide information has been applied to national entities that are regulated, receive foreign funding, or are private monopolies or privatized public services such as water and telecommunications. In Argentina, for instance, the Federal Administrative Court ruled that Telefónica de Argentina SA was required to release information on its telephone services.[[fn:45]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "B. Corporate responsibility to disclose"], "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda and South Africa. See Access Info Europe and Centre for Law and Democracy, “Global right to information rating”, available at https://www.rti-rating.org/."}, {"n": 45, "text": "See submission from the Government of Argentina, and Cámara Contencioso Administrativo Federal, Asociación Civil por la Igualdad y la Justicia c/ Telefónica de Argentina SA s/Amparo Ley 16.986, Causa No. 91/2020, 2 December 2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Many Governments have placed obligations on companies to disclose information on environmental and health risks from pollution, hazardous substances and genetically modified organisms. In over 40 countries, public registers provide information about pollution and toxic chemicals released by factories for use by national and local groups that are monitoring the targets of the Sustainable Development Goals relating to health, water and the environment.[[fn:46]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "B. Corporate responsibility to disclose"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "See A/HRC/30/40."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. At the level of the European Union, there has been a gradual expansion of requirements from the Non-Financial Reporting Directive,[[fn:47]] which mandated disclosure only of environmental and other impacts, to the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive,[[fn:48]] which requires companies to disclose environmental, social and governance risks (and additional requirements are being contemplated).[[fn:49]] Some countries have gone further in requiring disclosures. In Norway, under the Transparency Act, individuals have the right to demand information from any large Norwegian company or international company regarding their human rights practices.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "B. Corporate responsibility to disclose"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "Directive 2014/95/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 October 2014."}, {"n": 48, "text": "Directive (EU) 2022/2464 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 December 2022."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Regulation (EU) 2019/2088 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 November 2019 on sustainability‐related disclosures in the financial services sector. Further expansion is being contemplated in a new directive, see https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52022PC0071."}, {"n": 50, "text": "LOV-2021-06-18-99, arts. 6 and 7."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Despite regional and national legislation extending the right to information to private entities, in practice, accessing information on corporate activities that have an impact on human rights is often problematic and restricted excessively on grounds of commercial confidentiality.[[fn:51]] Although publication of corporate information relating to environmental risks is increasing, in the absence of clear legal obligations, many companies publish only limited and often misleading information.[[fn:52]] Furthermore, the data that are published are often in formats that are hard to use or in highly technical databases that the average individual cannot navigate in a meaningful way.[[fn:53]] Ultimately, the lack of corporate transparency is a reflection of the weakness of State institutions to enforce the rules and hold powerful businesses to account.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "B. Corporate responsibility to disclose"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "A/HRC/30/40, para. 17. See also https://cer.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/ATI-Network-Shadow-Report-2018.pdf, chap. 3, and submission from Information and Data Protection Commissioner of Albania."}, {"n": 52, "text": "World Benchmarking Alliance, “Corporate human rights benchmark 2022: insights report” (2022)."}, {"n": 53, "text": "See submission from Open Contracting Partnership."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Although many countries have made access to the Internet a legal right,[[fn:54]] States spectacularly failed to reach the target set in the 2030 Agenda to “significantly increase access to information and communications technology and strive to provide universal and affordable access to the Internet in least developed countries by 2020”.[[fn:55]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "C. Digital divide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "See submission from Government of Argentina (Ley No. 27.078), and Constitution of Mexico, art. 6."}, {"n": 55, "text": "Target 9.c of the Sustainable Development Goals."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The digital divide, or the lack of universal and meaningful connectivity, is a major barrier to accessing information. An estimated 2.7 billion people worldwide are not online. In the least developed countries and landlocked developing countries, only 36 per cent of the population use the Internet.[[fn:56]] A majority among those who have access do not have meaningful connectivity.[[fn:57]] Practices like zero-rated services – where access is free but limited to certain sites or applications – limit the information that users can access, which can, for instance, hinder their ability to fact-check in the context of disinformation and misinformation.[[fn:58]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "C. Digital divide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "International Telecommunication Union, “Measuring digital development: facts and figures 2022” (2022)."}, {"n": 57, "text": "“‘Meaningful connectivity’ is a level of connectivity that allows users to have a safe, satisfying, enriching and productive online experience at an affordable cost.” See United Nations, Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Digital Technology, “Achieving universal and meaningful digital connectivity: setting a baseline and targets for 2030”."}, {"n": 58, "text": "Aishwarya Shaji, “Is zero-rating a threat to human rights?”, Human Rights Pulse, 22 January 2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Internet access among women is significantly lower than among men, and within countries the gender digital divide cuts across other axes of discrimination. There are significant differences in mobile subscription, gender, age and urban/rural usage.[[fn:59]] Although information and communications technology can provide significant opportunities for persons with disabilities to engage and participate in public life,[[fn:60]] they face considerable barriers to participating and accessing information, online and offline.[[fn:61]] Internet access is significantly lower among persons with disabilities.[[fn:62]] The Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean (Escazu Agreement) explicitly prohibits the use of information and communications technology to provide access to information or in consultations in a discriminatory way (art. 4 (9)).", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "C. Digital divide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 59, "text": "See submission from Ombudsman of Ecuador."}, {"n": 60, "text": "A/HRC/31/62, paras. 75–77."}, {"n": 61, "text": "UNESCO Issue brief, “Access to information laws: a guarantee of inclusion and disability rights” (2021)."}, {"n": 62, "text": "United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Disability and Development Report: Realizing the Sustainable Development Goals by, for and with persons with disabilities, 2018 (New York, 2019)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "paragraph": "9", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. The main reason behind the unequal access to the Internet is affordability, with broadband access costing 30 times more in the least developed countries than in developed countries. That in turn is a result of the huge disparities in investment and misplaced priorities of companies and Governments which are seeking to further enhance the connectivity of those who are already well connected, while billions who could have been connected for a fraction of that sum are left without meaningful access to the Internet or no access at all. Investments in machine-to-machine connectivity also appear to be attracting more investment and attention than connecting the unconnected.[[fn:63]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "C. Digital divide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "Alison Gillwald, “South Africa is caught in the global hype of the fourth industrial revolution”, The Conversation, 20 August 2019."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. More attention needs to be given in unconnected communities to community networks established, owned and run by communities themselves. As local networks with local control and content, community networks hold great potential for empowering and enabling marginalized groups, yet they have received little support from Governments or the private sector to date.[[fn:64]] They can give voice to disadvantaged persons and communities, creating opportunities for their expression by cutting costs, enhancing reach and encouraging new forms of journalism.[[fn:65]] In some countries, community-based centres have been set up to facilitate access and promote digital skills in marginal urban and rural areas.[[fn:66]]", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "C. Digital divide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 64, "text": "See submission from Association for Progressive Communications."}, {"n": 65, "text": "See submission from Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe."}, {"n": 66, "text": "See submission from Ombudsman of Ecuador."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. There are positive examples of the use of right to information laws by individuals, communities and civil society groups to claim social and economic rights or address corruption and misuse of development funds. For instance, in Mexico, local groups are using the law to demand information on access to health services.[[fn:67]] In India, researchers have used geospatial, procurement and health data to review public health spending in the state of Assam and found that funds are not reaching the districts where mothers and babies are most in need.[[fn:68]] Civil society groups, on their own or partnering with government bodies, have used procurement and right to information laws to access information about contracts and expose corruption.[[fn:69]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "D. Good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "See submission from Article 19: International Centre against Censorship."}, {"n": 68, "text": "See submission from Open Contracting Partnership."}, {"n": 69, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Transparency in public procurement data systems has led to better spending decisions, benefiting many more citizens, including women and marginalized groups. For instance, the Mexican state of Nuevo Leon improved transparency and management of its infrastructure projects significantly with a digital platform powered by open data and supported by a multi-stakeholder coalition, including civil society organizations, to engage citizens and businesses.[[fn:70]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "D. Good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 70, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Some multi-stakeholder global initiatives have successfully enhanced engagement among States, companies and civil society. The Open Government Partnership provides a platform for States to work dynamically with civil society to facilitate reforms through research, learning, guidance and advocacy of good practices.[[fn:71]] The Open Contracting Partnership, a non-governmental organization, focuses on improving transparency in procurement processes.[[fn:72]] A growing number of countries have adopted the Open Contracting Data Standard, which facilitates open data standards with procurement to improve access and monitoring.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "D. Good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "Suzanne J. Piotrowski, Daniel Berliner and Alex Ingrams, The Power of Partnership in Open Government: Reconsidering Multistakeholder Governance Reform (Cambridge, Massachusetts, The MIT Press, 2022)."}, {"n": 72, "text": "See submission from Open Contracting Partnership."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Public access to information on beneficial ownership, in other words, who controls anonymous “shell” companies, is supported by a growing number of Governments, civil society and international organizations, as a good practice that helps to expose corruption and illicit funds.[[fn:73]] The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, a multi-stakeholder initiative which sets standards on the information that countries and companies in extractives should release, requires companies engaged in extractive industries in member countries to make their beneficial ownership publicly available.[[fn:74]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "D. Good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “Beneficial ownership information: supporting fair taxation and financial integrity”, Policy Brief No. 148, January 2023."}, {"n": 74, "text": "See submission from Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, and https://eiti.org/eiti-requirements, requirement 2.5."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Over 100 countries are now committed to open public registers.[[fn:75]] Journalists and civil society groups frequently use public registers of beneficial owners to investigate corruption. In Nigeria, the Mining Cadastre Office uses public registers to identify owners of companies with mining contracts with previous unpaid debts and reject unsuitable applications. In Kenya, they are used to publicize the ownership of companies that receive government contracts.[[fn:76]] Transparency is also important in the return of stolen assets, where access to information and the involvement of civil society organizations and independent bodies not only help to advance investigations effectively but can ensure that the assets are returned to the victims or used for socially beneficial purposes.[[fn:77]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "D. Good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 75, "text": "See https://www.openownership.org/en/map/."}, {"n": 76, "text": "Alanna Markle and Tymon Kiepe, “Who benefits? How company ownership data is used to detect and prevent corruption” Policy brief (EITI and Open Ownership, 2022)."}, {"n": 77, "text": "Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, “OHCHR recommended principles on human rights and asset recovery principles” (Geneva, 2022), principle 7."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Voice is a fundamental attribute of the right to freedom of expression and, combined with access to information, gives individuals and communities the agency to shape the conditions affecting their lives and to demand accountability. Voice in that context is the right to share information and ideas, express diverse views, participate in decision-making processes, criticize government and corporate policies and practices, and expose wrongdoing without fear. Voice, combined with access to information, reinforces transparency and accountability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. This notion of voice, well grounded in international human rights principles and standards, is acknowledged also in the 2030 Agenda. In its targets and indicators, Sustainable Development Goal 16 recognizes that a robust civil society, an open and thriving media space, and legal and institutional frameworks that foster participation and accountability in all areas of public life are essential features of peaceful, just and inclusive societies. Various other Sustainable Development Goals promote voice and participation at the individual, community, societal and global levels, encouraging inclusive approaches that enhance the participation of women, Indigenous Peoples and other disadvantaged populations.[[fn:78]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 78, "text": "See, e.g, target 5.5 (ensure women’s full participation in political, economic and public life), target 6.b (support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management), target 16.7 (ensure responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making at all levels) and target 16.8 (broaden and strengthen the participation of developing countries in the institutions of global governance)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The present section examines the ways in which voice is enabled but also unfortunately, only too frequently inhibited and, in some contexts, throttled.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Informed public participation, long recognized as an important facilitator of sustainable development, has been incorporated in international and regional agreements.[[fn:79]] International instruments also require States to ensure the “free, prior and informed consent”[[fn:80]] of Indigenous Peoples in development projects through processes that are “free from intimidation, coercion, manipulation and harassment”.[[fn:81]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "1. International commitments"], "footnotes": [{"n": 79, "text": "Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, 1998; Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean, 2018; Revised African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 2003. See also Nay Pyi Taw Declaration on the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Community’s Post­2015 Vision."}, {"n": 80, "text": "United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, and Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169)."}, {"n": 81, "text": "A/HRC/39/62, para. 20 (a)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Those commitments have been bolstered by recent treaties that specifically seek to safeguard and promote civic engagement. A notable example is the Escazu Agreement, which not only strengthens open, inclusive public participation in all aspects of environmental decision-making, but also specifically protects human rights defenders working on environmental issues.[[fn:82]] The Aarhus Compliance Committee monitors compliance of the equivalent treaty in Europe, North America and Central Asia and has established a rapid response mechanism for the protection of environmental defenders.[[fn:83]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "1. International commitments"], "footnotes": [{"n": 82, "text": "Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean, art. 9."}, {"n": 83, "text": "Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus Convention)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Environmental impact assessments are recognized as a standard tool with which Governments can engage affected communities in large development projects.[[fn:84]] They are required under numerous international treaties, including the Convention on Biological Diversity[[fn:85]] and the Antarctic Treaty,[[fn:86]] and mandated by most international financial institutions as part of their lending requirements.[[fn:87]] In some circumstances, the International Court of Justice has found environmental impact assessments to be part of customary international law.[[fn:88]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "1. International commitments"], "footnotes": [{"n": 84, "text": "United Nations Environment Programme, Guidelines for Conducting Integrated Environmental Assessments (2019)."}, {"n": 85, "text": "Art. 14 (1), and the Akwé: Kon Voluntary Guidelines for the Conduct of Cultural, Environmental and Social Impact Assessments regarding Developments Proposed to Take Place on, or which are Likely to Impact On, Sacred Sites and On Lands and Waters Traditionally Occupied or Used by Indigenous and Local Communities."}, {"n": 86, "text": "Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, art. 8."}, {"n": 87, "text": "See International Finance Corporation Sustainability Framework, available at https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/topics_ext_content/ifc_external_corporate_site/sustainability-at-ifc/policies-standards/ifcsustainabilityframework_2012#SustainabilityPolicy."}, {"n": 88, "text": "Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010, p. 14; Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) and Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v. Costa Rica), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015, p. 665."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Multi-stakeholder initiatives have been established to bring together Governments, civil society organizations, private sector entities and other stakeholders to jointly develop plans relating to governance,[[fn:89]] extractive industries,[[fn:90]] infrastructure construction,[[fn:91]] fishing[[fn:92]] and medicines.[[fn:93]] The largest such initiative, mentioned earlier in the present report, is the Open Government Partnership, which includes 76 Governments and over 100 local members.[[fn:94]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "1. International commitments"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "Open Government Partnership."}, {"n": 90, "text": "Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative."}, {"n": 91, "text": "Infrastructure Transparency Initiative."}, {"n": 92, "text": "See submission from Fisheries Transparency Initiative."}, {"n": 93, "text": "Medicines Transparency Alliance."}, {"n": 94, "text": "See submission from the Open Government Partnership."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Both within multi-stakeholder arrangements and independently of them, civil society organizations and social movement networks, activists and human rights defenders, including environmental, land and Indigenous defenders, have proactively forged spaces in sustainable development processes at the global, regional, national and local levels. They contribute to identifying and shaping national development priorities, monitor development projects and programmes, promote the participation of communities in decision-making, critique development projects and suggest alternative approaches.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "2. Civil society"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. Their specific expertise, relationships of trust and connections with communities make them effective advocates, valuable partners and important interlocutors. For instance, in Uganda, civil society played a leading role in demanding greater transparency from the authorities about sovereign debt obligations and the performance of debt-funded projects.[[fn:95]] In Indonesia, Corruption Watch, a non-governmental organization, teamed up with the State Corruption Eradication Commission to improve online access to information on contracts and build the capacity of journalists, researchers and other non-governmental organizations to identify irregularities and report them to the authorities for action.[[fn:96]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "2. Civil society"], "footnotes": [{"n": 95, "text": "See joint submission from Unión Nacional de Instituciones para el Trabajo de Asociación Social (Bolivia (Plurinational State of)), Confederación Colombiana de ONG (Colombia), Actions pour la Lutte Contre les Injustices Sociales (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Alerte congolaise pour l’environnement et les droits de l’homme (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Consortium of Ethiopian Human Rights Organizations, Indonesian Center for Environmental Law, Alternativa y Capacidades, A.C. (Mexico), NGO Federation of Nepal, IBON International Foundation (Philippines), National Union of Peoples’ Lawyers (Philippines), Alliance for Finance Monitoring (Uganda) and International Center for Not-for-Profit Law (United States)."}, {"n": 96, "text": "See submission from Open Contracting Partnership."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. At the international level, civil society monitoring and reporting on the Sustainable Development Goals provides a much-needed counterpoint to that conducted by Governments and intergovernmental bodies. As an example, the annual Spotlight on Sustainable Development offers a global shadow report on the Goals, drawing attention not only to achievements, but also to structural and systemic barriers to progress and proposing solutions.[[fn:97]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "2. Civil society"], "footnotes": [{"n": 97, "text": "Global Civil Society Report on the 2030 Agenda and the SDGs, Spotlight on Sustainable Development 2021: Demanding justice beyond rhetoric – Time to overcome contradictions and hypocrisy in the COVID-19 crisis (2021)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Free, independent, diverse and pluralistic media fulfil the public’s right to know as well as the individual’s right to freedom of expression. Numerous General Assembly and Human Rights Council resolutions have acknowledged them as a key pillar of democracy and sustainable development.[[fn:98]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "3. Role of the media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 98, "text": "See, e.g., General Assembly resolutions 76/173, 74/157, 72/175, 70/162, 69/185 and 68/163; and Human Rights Council resolutions 45/18, 39/6, 33/2, 27/5 and 21/12."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. As early as 1952, the General Assembly noted in its resolution 633 (VII) that the development of information media contributes greatly to the economic and social progress of peoples. Public interest media is an educator and a messenger between Governments and communities. Community media that are locally based and managed are useful in reflecting the needs and issues of the community and are protected and facilitated by law in a number of countries.[[fn:99]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "3. Role of the media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 99, "text": "See submission from Government of Mexico."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Investigative journalism plays a vital watchdog role, exposing human rights violations, environmental harms, organized crime, corruption and illicit financial and arms flows, which directly and indirectly thwart progress towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Investigative reporting on the response to the COVID-19 pandemic revealed corruption and bribery worth billions of dollars around the world.[[fn:100]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "3. Role of the media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 100, "text": "See https://www.occrp.org/en/impact-to-date."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. In many cases, media reporting of wrongdoing has triggered public campaigns for accountability and induced policymakers to initiate reforms. An important case in point was the Panama Papers, in which over 100 media organizations worked together to analyse and reveal stories from leaked databases containing 11.5 million documents about stolen or untaxed assets and complex tax evasion and avoidance schemes. It also revealed how complex secret shell companies were involved in land-grabbing, displacement, deforestation and deadly haze fires.[[fn:101]] It resulted in resignations, investigations and prosecutions,[[fn:102]] as well as fines and payment of over one billion dollars in unpaid taxes.[[fn:103]] It led to new laws on ensuring the transparency of beneficial ownership of companies. Tax fairness gained greater prominence in public discussions and led to General Assembly resolution 77/244.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "3. Role of the media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "Jake Bernstein, Secrecy World: Inside the Panama Papers Investigation of Illicit Money Networks and the Global Elite (New York, Henry Holt, 2017), and Scilla Alecci, “Leaked records reveal offshore’s role in forest destruction”, International Consortium of Investigative Journalists, 8 November 2017."}, {"n": 102, "text": "Lucas Graves and Nabeelah Shabbir, “Gauging the global impacts of the ‘Panama Papers’ three years later”, Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism, March 2019."}, {"n": 103, "text": "Sean McGoey, “Panama Papers revenue recovery reaches $1.36 billion as investigations continue”, International Consortium of Investigative Journalists, 6 April 2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. Whistle-blowers have been a key source of information for journalists in numerous global investigations, but they remain unprotected and open to retaliation in the absence of adequate protection in most jurisdictions, despite the recommendations of regional bodies in Africa, the Americas and Europe calling on States to adopt comprehensive whistle-blower protection laws.[[fn:104]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "3. Role of the media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 104, "text": "See A/70/361; Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information in Africa (2019), principle 35; Organization of American States, Model Law to Facilitate and Encourage the Reporting of Acts of Corruption and to Protect Whistleblowers and Witnesses (2013); Council of Europe, Recommendation CM/Rec(2014)7 of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the protection of whistleblowers; and European Union, Directive (EU) 2019/1937 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2019 on the protection of persons who report breaches of Union law."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The most alarming inhibitors of free expression and full participation are threats, attacks, arbitrary detention and killing of journalists and activists. The statistics are damning. According to UNESCO, 455 journalists died in the course of their work between 2016 and 2021 and hundreds more were imprisoned.[[fn:105]] In the Sustainable Development Goals Report 2022, it is noted that there were 320 fatal attacks against human rights defenders, journalists and trade unionists in 35 countries in 2021.[[fn:106]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "1. Attacks and reprisals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 105, "text": "UNESCO, “Journalism is a public good: world trends in freedom of expression and media development, global report 2021/2022” (Paris, 2021)."}, {"n": 106, "text": "See https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2022/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report-2022.pdf, p. 58."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. More than half of the human rights activists killed globally in 2021 were land, environment or Indigenous rights defenders.[[fn:107]] Indigenous advocate Bruno Araújo Pereira and British journalist Dom Phillips were killed while documenting Indigenous rights defenders’ efforts to combat illegal fishing and mining in the Brazilian Amazon.[[fn:108]] In Honduras, Berta Cáceres, who led protests against the construction of a dam which threatened the traditional lands and water resources of the Lenca community, was killed in 2016. One person was convicted after five years, but those who masterminded her killing are still at large.[[fn:109]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "1. Attacks and reprisals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 107, "text": "See A/HRC/46/35."}, {"n": 108, "text": "OHCHR, “Briefing notes on Brazil: Missing journalist and Indigenous rights defender”, 10 June 2022."}, {"n": 109, "text": "See UA HND 2/2020, https://www.globalwitness.org/en/blog/remembering-berta-c%C3%A1ceres-seven-years-on-the-fight-for-justice-continues/ and https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2016/03/indigenous-peoples-un-expert-condemns-killing-rights-defender-berta-caceres."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Killing activists and journalists with impunity is the most egregious form of censorship.[[fn:110]] According to UNESCO, 9 out of 10 such cases go unpunished. Impunity thrives because of the powerful vested interests behind the crimes. It denies justice to the victims’ families, emboldens perpetrators and risks intimidating others into silence. The failure to address impunity is a violation of the international obligation of States to protect the right to life. It is also a failure to respect the political commitment States have made under the 2030 Agenda on the safety of journalists and activists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "1. Attacks and reprisals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 110, "text": "See, e.g., AL HTI 1/2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. An increasingly high proportion of women journalists, human rights defenders, political activists and feminist leaders are targeted with online attacks which are vicious, coordinated, highly sexualized and malicious.[[fn:111]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "1. Attacks and reprisals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "See A/76/258 and submissions from UNESCO and Association for Progressive Communications."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. There is also increased evidence of targeted digital surveillance of investigative journalists and human rights defenders by Governments, using highly sophisticated and intrusive spyware.[[fn:112]] Such surveillance has a chilling effect not only on journalists, but also on their sources.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "1. Attacks and reprisals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 112, "text": "A/HRC/50/29, paras. 43–50. See also submission from Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. In some contexts, the authorities have sought to publicly denounce, stigmatize and discredit journalists, civil society organizations and activists, endangering their security or exposing them to threats and violence by others. For instance, there are reports that activists in the Philippines who criticize the environmental and social costs of development projects or advocate for marginalized communities have been “red-tagged” as terrorists or Communist sympathizers, implying they are a threat to national security.[[fn:113]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "1. Attacks and reprisals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 113, "text": "See AL PHL 1/2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Counter-terrorism, national security, cybercrime and even income tax and financial crime laws are used frequently against human rights defenders, activists, whistle-blowers, journalists and civil society organizations to threaten, intimidate and punish them.[[fn:114]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "2. Weaponization of the law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 114, "text": "See AL USA 2/2020 and AL PHL 12/2018. See also submission from IBON International Foundation."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. Increasingly non-governmental organizations, community leaders, media organizations and journalists are being targeted by powerful business and political figures with frivolous or vexatious libel lawsuits that seek exorbitant damages. The point of those strategic lawsuits against public participation actions is not necessarily to win the lawsuit but to distract, intimidate, silence and exhaust the resources and morale of the person or organization being sued, and to intimidate others into silence.[[fn:115]] A survey of such cases found that over half of them targeted environmental-related advocacy, and another third or so were against human rights defenders and labour rights advocates.[[fn:116]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "2. Weaponization of the law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 115, "text": "See the submissions from the Government of Slovakia, Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project, UNESCO and Laura Knöpfel."}, {"n": 116, "text": "International Center for Not-for-Profit Law, Protecting Activists from Abusive Litigation: SLAPPs in the Global South and How to Respond (2020), and AL THA 3/2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. The European Court of Human Rights and the Constitutional Court of South Africa have found that such lawsuits violate the right to free expression.[[fn:117]] A number of Governments, including those of Australia, Canada and Lithuania, and some jurisdictions in the United States, have adopted legislation to deter such lawsuits. The European Union is considering a directive,[[fn:118]] and the Council of Europe is drafting a recommendation.[[fn:119]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "2. Weaponization of the law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 117, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, OOO Memo v. Russia, Application No. 2840/10, Judgment of 15 March 2022, and Constitutional Court of South Africa, Mineral Sands Resources Propriety Limited and Another v. Christine Reddell and Others, Case No. CCT 66/21, Judgment of 14 November 2022."}, {"n": 118, "text": "See https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52022PC0177."}, {"n": 119, "text": "See https://www.coe.int/en/web/freedom-expression/msi-slp."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. As in relation to access to information mentioned above, women’s participation in decision-making and development processes is constrained by multiple layers of discrimination, inequalities and inequities, ranging from discriminatory social, cultural and legal norms to poverty, low literacy, lack of language skills, Internet access or digital skills and high levels of sexual and gender-based violence online and offline.[[fn:120]] Gendered censorship is pervasive, with women’s voices being suppressed by State, non-State and private actors.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "3. Barriers to women’s effective participation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 120, "text": "See A/76/258 and submission from Article 19: International Centre against Censorship."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. Gender-based violence, hate speech and disinformation on digital platforms are a serious barrier to women’s ability to speak, engage and organize online.[[fn:121]] Those with intersecting marginalized identities, such as women who are of African descent, Indigenous women, Dalit women, migrant women, LBTQI+ women and women with disabilities, are at higher risk of being silenced or excluded online and offline.[[fn:122]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "3. Barriers to women’s effective participation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 121, "text": "See A/76/258."}, {"n": 122, "text": "See AL IND 1/2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. Women’s rights groups play an important role in the struggle for gender equality and in promoting the agency of women. They have come under pressure as civic space has shrunk in a number of countries, the most egregious example being Afghanistan, where women’s public presence has been totally erased by the Taliban.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "3. Barriers to women’s effective participation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. Many States have failed to respect the participatory rights of Indigenous people in international and regional instruments. Some countries refuse to even acknowledge that Indigenous communities exist, identifying them in contorted legalistic terms to avoid obligations.[[fn:123]] As noted above, those from Indigenous communities who seek to defend their land, environmental and other rights are at heightened risk of harassment, threats and violence.[[fn:124]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "4. Barriers to participation of Indigenous communities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 123, "text": "Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Right to Self-Determination of Indigenous and Tribal Peoples (2021), chap. 4, and International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, “Indigenous Peoples in Myanmar”, available at https://iwgia.org/en/myanmar."}, {"n": 124, "text": "See inputs received by the Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, available from https://www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/free-prior-and-informed-consent-report. See also https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2023/02/mexico-must-clarify-fate-and-whereabouts-human-rights-defenders-ricardo."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. Free, prior and informed consent is often an empty promise. Frequently, communities are not informed of the decisions and processes concerning the obligations for consultation and appeals. The processes often do not adequately engage with the communities and do not give them the full power to choose to engage or not or to refuse the development plans.[[fn:125]] As an example, in Brazil a bill which seeks to establish conditions for mineral, hydrocarbon and hydropower activities on Indigenous lands does not contemplate any means by which to include the views of the affected groups on the impacts suffered and remedies.[[fn:126]] Furthermore, only 24 countries have ratified the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169) of the International Labour Organization.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "4. Barriers to participation of Indigenous communities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 125, "text": "See AL THA 4/2021, AL DNK 2/2021, AL NAM 2/2021 and AL CAN 2/2022."}, {"n": 126, "text": "See OL BRA 4/2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. Environmental impact assessments are often ineffective tools of engagement for Indigenous communities as they tend to be highly technical documents which are not understandable and in many cases, not available or accessible in local languages, and do not adequately allow the affected communities to shape the projects.[[fn:127]] Civil society groups claim that development finance institutions, which fund many major projects in developing countries, often take a top-down approach to project development, engaging only superficially with communities in violation of their own environmental and social impact assessment policies.[[fn:128]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "4. Barriers to participation of Indigenous communities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 127, "text": "See, e.g., Synda Obaji, “Environmental impact assessments don’t work in Nigeria: here’s why”, The Conversation, 1 September 2022, and Joseph Foti and Lalanath de Silva, “A seat at the table: including the poor in decisions for development and environment”, World Resources Institute (2010)."}, {"n": 128, "text": "See submissions from Defenders in Development, The Sentry and Green Advocates International."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. Despite the commitment in the 2030 Agenda to make the Internet universally available and accessible, Governments have imposed Internet shutdowns or slowdowns or blocked mobile communications for intermittent or prolonged periods in 74 countries in the past five years.[[fn:129]] The disruptions have occurred most frequently in the context of conflicts, armed operations, political unrest, large-scale protests, elections and examinations.[[fn:130]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "5. Internet shutdowns and disruptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 129, "text": "See www.accessnow.org/keepiton/#coalition."}, {"n": 130, "text": "See A/HRC/50/55. See also AL IRN 37/2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Not only do Internet disruptions undermine freedom of expression and peaceful assembly, they also have severe negative consequences on economic and social rights, disrupting education, health and other essential online services, as well as financial, commercial and industrial activities and people’s everyday lives. For instance, in the state of Tigray in Ethiopia, the shutdown of the Internet for over two years disrupted communications, essential social services and humanitarian assistance, causing great distress to the civilian population.[[fn:131]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "5. Internet shutdowns and disruptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 131, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/2021/11/tigray-conflict-report-calls-accountability-violations-and-abuses-all-parties."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Intentional disruption of access to the Internet by States constitutes disproportionate interference with the right to freedom of expression.[[fn:132]] Blanket Internet shutdowns and generic blocking and filtering of services have been considered by the United Nations human rights mechanisms and regional courts to be in violation of international human rights law.[[fn:133]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "5. Internet shutdowns and disruptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 132, "text": "Special Rapporteur’s joint declarations with regional mechanisms on freedom of expression made in 2011, 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019 and 2020, available from Resources | OHCHR, and A/HRC/RES/32/13, para. 10."}, {"n": 133, "text": "See Human Rights Council resolutions 44/20 and 38/7, and Community Court of Justice of the Economic Community of West African States, SERAP v. Federal Republic of Nigeria, Application No. ECW/CCJ/APP/23;24;26&29/21, Judgment of 14 July 2022. See also the Special Rapporteur’s amicus curiae brief, available from https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-freedom-of-opinion-and-expression/comments-legislation-and-policy."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. The dangers of disinformation and misinformation to human rights and recommendations to address the problems have been covered extensively by the Special Rapporteur elsewhere.[[fn:134]] Given their serious impact on sustainable development, she would like to recall four points.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "6. Disinformation and misinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 134, "text": "See A/HRC/47/25. Disinformation refers to the intentional spreading of false or misleading information, whereas misinformation means false information spread without awareness or malicious intent. See also A/77/288."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. Firstly, misinformation and disinformation online are a serious threat, not only to freedom of expression, but also to life, health, gender equality, effective response to climate change, humanitarian crises and a host of other issues relevant to sustainable development. By eroding people’s trust in institutions and scientific knowledge, they not only aggravate the problems, but also undermine policy responses and contribute to polarizing the political environment.[[fn:135]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "6. Disinformation and misinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 135, "text": "See, e.g., Dietram A. Scheufele and Nicole M. Krause. “Science audiences, misinformation, and fake news”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 116, No. 16 (16 April 2019)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. Online disinformation often targets scientists, journalists and human rights defenders, as well as vulnerable groups, including ethnic minorities and gender identity-based groups, and can contribute to violence, hatred and discrimination. Gendered disinformation seeks to discredit women, intimidate them from speaking freely online and prevent others from accessing the ideas and opinions they might otherwise share.[[fn:136]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "6. Disinformation and misinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 136, "text": "See A/76/258. See also submission from Association for Progressive Communications."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. Secondly, when there is an information gap, people tend to turn to social networks, where disinformation and misinformation thrive. A good way to counter that is for Governments to enhance their own transparency and proactively inform citizens.[[fn:137]] Proactive disclosure tends to support policy implementation and promotes government accountability, helping to build public trust. States have an obligation to issue truthful, verifiable, factual information. They should not make, sponsor, encourage or disseminate statements that they know or should reasonably know to be false.[[fn:138]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "6. Disinformation and misinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 137, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2020/03/covid-19-governments-must-promote-and-protect-access-and-free-flow."}, {"n": 138, "text": "See A/HRC/47/25."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. Thirdly, using “fake news” laws to restrict media freedom or criminalize online speech on grounds of falsity is not only contrary to international human rights standards, but is also counterproductive in combating disinformation and misinformation. Stopping the free flow of diverse sources of news creates more distrust, aggravating rather than addressing the problem. Free, independent, diverse and pluralistic media allows fact-checking of disinformation and misinformation and builds public trust.[[fn:139]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "6. Disinformation and misinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 139, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. Fourthly, social media regulation should respect the international standards on freedom of expression. It should encourage companies to adopt policies in line with international human rights standards, undertake human rights due diligence and ensure transparency and adequate remedies for users. The roles of algorithms, ranking systems and platform design in amplifying disinformation are relevant concerns. Regulation can help by requiring companies to undertake risk assessments, audits and other forms of systemic transparency. Laws on data collection and data processing practices in line with international standards and good practice are vital to addressing concerns about the business model of platforms.[[fn:140]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "6. Disinformation and misinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 140, "text": "See A/77/288."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. Finally, media, information and digital literacy empowers people and builds their resilience against disinformation and misinformation.[[fn:141]] Several countries have launched programmes and campaigns that indicate emerging good practices.[[fn:142]] They deserve higher priority in national development plans.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "6. Disinformation and misinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 141, "text": "General Assembly resolution 75/267."}, {"n": 142, "text": "See https://en.unesco.org/creativity/policy-monitoring-platform/media-literacy-finland-national."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. These are difficult times for freedom of expression. The implications for sustainable development are significant and must be addressed urgently.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. Almost 97 per cent of the world’s population today is estimated to be living in countries where civic space is either closed, severely repressed, obstructed or has narrowed.[[fn:143]] Shrinking civic space means that marginalized communities, such as Indigenous Peoples, women living in poverty and individuals with disabilities, are less able to organize and voice their concerns. Those whom the 2030 Agenda pledged not to leave behind remain the least heard in decision-making, the most excluded from access to information, and the most exposed to harassment, discrimination and violence.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Women/girls", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Conclusions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 143, "text": "CIVICUS Monitor, People Power Under Attack 2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. Those who dare to speak truth to power or shine the light on human rights violations, corruption and illegal exploitation of natural resources are censored, intimidated, prosecuted, attacked or killed with impunity. While some important strides have been made to assert the right to information, a culture of official secrecy, serious gaps in the scope and implementation of laws, lack of capacity and resources and uneven Internet access have overshadowed the gains.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. States which most vocally profess their support for the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development are also among those which most virulently suppress the rights to information, expression and participation that the 2030 Agenda promotes. Where civil society and the media have been restricted, access to information is denied regularly, dissent has been suppressed and opacity, impunity and authoritarianism have eroded public trust and democratic accountability, efforts to reduce inequalities, promote inclusion and pursue sustainability are more challenging.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. Conversely, good practices and good results on sustainable development are emerging where multi-stakeholder partnerships have built transparency and trust, the media have been able to operate with freedom and independence to expose corruption and wrongdoing, and civil society has enjoyed the space to participate in development processes and contribute with ideas, opinions and information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. The halfway point of the 2030 Agenda, combined with the challenges of post-pandemic recovery and global crises, has created a new imperative to invest in sustainable development. The Special Rapporteur believes that one of the most impactful “investments” that States can make is to uphold freedom of expression as a catalyst as well as an integral component of sustainable development. States must respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression holistically. Both information and voice must be guaranteed with equal rigour if sustainable development processes are to be effective, inclusive, participatory and accountable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. States should protect those on the frontlines of the struggle for sustainable development, including disadvantaged communities, human rights defenders (including environmental, land and Indigenous rights defenders) and journalists.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. States must investigate and prosecute effectively, impartially, independently and promptly all those who threaten, harass, attack or kill human rights defenders, journalists and activists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. Specific laws and policies should be adopted to prevent, prohibit, investigate and prosecute gender-based online attacks against women human rights defenders, community leaders and journalists. Those laws should be grounded in international human rights law, including provisions on gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. States should put in place effective and adequately resourced prevention and protection measures for human rights defenders and journalists, designed in consultation with them and assessed regularly for their efficacy and further improvements.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. States should affirm publicly the critical and legitimate role of human rights defenders and journalists in advancing sustainable development and should send an unequivocal message that attacks against them will not be tolerated or left unpunished.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. The Human Rights Council should signal an end to impunity by establishing an independent task force to support international and national efforts to prevent, investigate and prosecute attacks against human rights defenders and journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. States should strengthen freedom of expression and the right to information online and offline, in line with international human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. States should repeal laws on criminal defamation, seditious libel and those prohibiting criticism of State policies, institutions and officials online or offline, and refrain from applying counter-terrorism and security legislation to legitimate activities of civil society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. States should enact laws and policies to discourage and deter frivolous and vexatious legal actions (strategic lawsuits against public participation) against journalists and human rights defenders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. States should enact or revise existing national laws on access to information to ensure they are in line with international human rights standards, including maximum disclosure in the public interest. Exemptions from disclosure should be provided clearly in the law, be narrowly defined and be necessary and proportionate to protect the rights or reputation of others, national security, public order or public health and morals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. Independent oversight bodies should be set up to monitor the effective application of the right to information law. Clear guidelines should be developed on record management, and robust monitoring mechanisms should be put in place with input from civil society to track, assess and publish data on implementation to ensure comprehensive reporting on progress made with regard to indicator 16.10.2 of the Sustainable Development Goals at the national and international levels.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0108", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. States should refrain from imposing Internet shutdowns and slowdowns or disruptions to mobile connections. Such actions are an inherently disproportionate response and violate the right to information and freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0109", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. States’ responses to disinformation and misinformation should be grounded in human rights. They should encourage the free flow of diverse sources of information, increase their own transparency, proactively disclose official data online and offline, affirm media freedom, independence, pluralism and diversity and ensure the safety of journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0110", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. Multi-stakeholder initiatives have helped to enhance transparency, accountability, collaboration and participation of civil society on various issues of sustainable development. More efforts should be made by States and other participants to expand existing initiatives and develop new ones. Transparent, rigorous assessments should be carried out with input from all stakeholders to draw lessons and improve results.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0111", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. States should proactively publish comprehensive information on their activities, including budgets, expenditures, revenues and public procurement, as timely, open data in ways that enable citizens to freely access, use and participate in decision-making and ensure that public funds are spent equitably, sustainably and responsibly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0112", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. States should establish publicly accessible registers of the beneficial owners of companies, trusts, foundations and other relevant legal vehicles. The European Union should examine how best its member States can do that in the light of the recent decision of the Court of Justice of the European Union to ensure the privacy of beneficial owners.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0113", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. Prior to investing in projects, development finance institutions should conduct comprehensive human rights due diligence, and country- and project-specific risk assessments in relation to freedom of expression. They should ensure adequate conditions for safe participation of civil society, meaningful processes for free, prior and informed consent, full transparency and accountability at all stages, and mitigation of risks of reprisals.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0114", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. Companies should fully disclose information relating to their potential impacts on human rights, in accordance with principle 17 of the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, and on sustainability issues. They should also assess and report on their compliance with obligations to consult and engage with local communities and civil society, in line with international human rights standards. States should extend the duty of maximum disclosure to private entities when contracting on sustainable development related issues.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0115", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "115. States, international organizations and companies should work with civil society to support the empowerment, agency and meaningful participation of women, Indigenous Peoples and other disadvantaged groups in development processes.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0116", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "116. States, the private sector and the international community, including relevant United Nations entities, should redouble their efforts to ensure universal and meaningful connectivity to an open, free, interoperable and secure Internet for all before 2030. Particular attention should be given to closing the gender digital divide.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0117", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "117. Information, media and digital literacy should be included in all national school curricula and adult learning programmes and monitored as an indicator of the education and equality goals of the 2030 Agenda. Particular effort should be made to ensure that those programmes address the needs of women, girls and disadvantaged groups.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0118", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "118. Specific gender-sensitive measures should be introduced to ensure the participation of women, including measures to address their lack of language, literacy and digital skills, practical constraints of income-poverty or time-poverty, legal identity, cultural constraints and gender discrimination. Those measures should take into account the intersectional nature of gender discrimination and prioritize those who are furthest behind.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0119", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "119. States, in collaboration with international organizations and civil society, should create an enabling environment for community-based networks and Internet infrastructure, including through funding and regulations consistent with international human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0120", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "120. States should ensure that their national development plans include clear, concrete actions to strengthen freedom of expression, including access to information online and offline and participation of civil society, women and disadvantaged communities in development processes.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0121", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 121, "n": 121, "text": "121. States should strengthen efforts to gather and analyse quality gender disaggregated data to enable tracking of progress and timely and systematic reporting on the freedom of expression-related indicators of the 2030 Agenda, including indicators 16.10.1 and 16.10.2.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0122", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 122, "n": 122, "text": "122. The universal periodic review and the voluntary national review processes should focus particular attention on States’ compliance with freedom of expression in the context of sustainable development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0123", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 123, "n": 123, "text": "123. The international community should reaffirm and reflect the integral role of information, expression and participation in advancing the Sustainable Development Goals in the political declaration of the 2023 high-level summit.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is the fourth presented by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Mr. Abid Hussain (India), since the mandate was established by the Commission on Human Rights in resolution 1993/45 of 5 March 1993. In pursuance of Commission resolutions 1993/45, 1994/33 and 1995/40, all adopted without a vote, the Special Rapporteur submitted reports to the Commission at its fiftieth (E/CN.4/1994/33), fifty-first (E/CN.4/1995/32) and fifty-second (E/CN.4/1996/39 and Add.1-2) sessions respectively. The present report is submitted pursuant to resolution 1996/53, in which the Commission decided to renew the mandate of the Special Rapporteur for a period of three years.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "As the Special Rapporteur has indicated in his previous reports (E/CN.4/1996/39, para. 4; E/CN.4/1995/32, para. 12; and E/CN.4/1994/33, para. 40) he would like to touch on certain basic questions concerning the right to freedom of opinion and expression as guiding parameters for his work.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "The large number of cases brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur during the past four years strongly indicates that Governments continue to place undue emphasis on permissible restrictions relating to the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur thus believes that several comments made in the second report (E/CN.4/1995/32) bear repeating. In particular, the Special Rapporteur wishes to re-emphasize the importance of the principle of proportionality in the process of establishing whether any limitation of the right to freedom of expression is legitimate. The scope of protection offered by article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights is comprehensive and, in general, protection of the freedom is the rule and restriction of such freedom should be the exception to the rule. However, the Special Rapporteur would also like to note that the Covenant must be read as a whole, and that in particular, article 19 must be read in conjunction with article 20. While article 19 (3) refers to “restrictions” only, there are wider purposes for interference with the right to freedom of expression, notably article 20 of the Covenant, which obligates States to interfere with the right to freedom of expression as well as with other rights enumerated in the Covenant by prohibiting propaganda for war and the advocacy of racial hatred.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "As regards restrictions on the right to freedom of expression imposed on the basis of protecting public order, the danger exists, in light of the vagueness inherent in the notion of public order, that the application of such restrictions undermines the right to freedom of expression itself. A general tendency to perpetuate or concentrate excessive and arbitrary authority in the hands of the executive branch vitiates an environment congenial to freedom of opinion and expression and restricts the independence of the judiciary and the legal system. The Special Rapporteur thus wishes to reiterate his view that to safeguard the protection of the freedom of expression as a general rule, as opposed to an exception, any appeal on the part of the State to restrict the exercise of the freedom of expression on the grounds of protecting public order should, in the eyes of the Special Rapporteur, meet strict requirements indicating its necessity. As a general rule, States should not invoke any custom, tradition or religious considerations to avoid meeting their obligations with respect to the safeguarding of the right to freedom of expression (see E/CN.4/1995/32, para. 53). The Special Rapporteur reiterates the importance of reflecting a judicious balance between the need and the right of States to protect legitimate national interests and the obligation of States to protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur urges all Governments to review not only laws specifically intended to protect national security but also ordinary criminal laws which may be used to infringe the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Furthermore, because of the fundamental social and political role of information, the right of everyone to receive information and ideas must be adequately protected. This right is not simply a converse of the right to impart information but is a separate freedom on its own. And, since the right to seek and receive information is one of the most essential elements of freedom of expression, the protection of this right must also be the rule and restrictions may only be the exception. The Special Rapporteur, therefore, underscores once again that the tendency of many Governments to withhold information from the people at large through such measures as censorship is to be strongly checked (see E/CN.4/1995/32, para. 35).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "It shall also be recalled that the final report of the Special Rapporteurs of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities on the right to freedom of opinion and expression emphasized the fact that “information is a tradeable commodity available to the haves and inaccessible to the have-nots and a component of economic, political or military power”. The Special Rapporteurs also observed that “the precise meaning of the term [information] should be defined concretely in the context of the relevant circumstances, proceeding from the principle that all types of information should be available to everyone” (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1992/9, para. 13). In light of the importance and complexity of the right to seek and receive information, the Special Rapporteur intends to develop further his commentary in his next report to the Commission.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has received a large number of detailed allegations concerning cases of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in 1996. As was the case in previous years, the Special Rapporteur was only able to transmit a limited number of requests for information to some Governments, owing to the insufficient financial and human resources to fulfil his mandate in the manner he would deem appropriate. The concerns raised in previous reports to the Commission concerning the circumstances of work (E/CN.4/1995/32, paras. 92-95 and E/CN.4/1996/39, para. 6) remain equally valid in relation to the year under scrutiny in this report.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "It should thus be emphasized that the presentation of the situations in the following section in no way reflects the extent of the problem worldwide. As indicated in paragraph 7 of last year's report, the Special Rapporteur has received information concerning a much larger number of countries. However, if there is to be any meaningful exchange of views with Governments, the mandate requires a substantially increased pool of resources. Within the current constraints, the Special Rapporteur has engaged in a dialogue with Governments only with regard to a limited number of cases, which are discussed in section III.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "An important element in carrying out his mandate is, in the view of the Special Rapporteur, the carrying out of country visits. From 20 to 25 September 1996, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Turkey, on which he has submitted a separate report to the Commission at its current session (E/CN.4/1997/31/Add.1).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "To date, the Special Rapporteur is in possession of standing invitations for a visit by the Governments of Belarus, Poland and the Sudan. Moreover, during 1996, the Special Rapporteur requested an invitation to visit Albania, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Egypt, Indonesia, Peru and Viet Nam to examine in situ the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate his interest in conducting visits to those countries.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Finally, in the view of the Special Rapporteur, the exchange of views among all relevant actors concerned with issues relating to freedom of opinion and expression is indispensable. To this end, on 31 May 1996, the London-based organization ARTICLE 19, the International Centre Against Censorship, hosted, for the second time, a day-long consultation with the Special Rapporteur. During this consultation, he was able to exchange views on issues relating to his mandate with a number of non-governmental organizations active in the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and with representatives of the Government of Canada and the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, as well as of the Council of Europe. The Special Rapporteur would like to express his gratitude to the host organization and all participants for the valuable contribution they have made to his work.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "In this context, the contribution of a number of non-governmental organizations regarding several aspects of relevance to the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression bears repeating. The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the organizations concerned for their continuous support of the mandate and encourages them to continue to provide materials useful in carrying out the mandate, and ultimately in furthering the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The Special Rapporteur in this section reports on the communications sent out and replies received during 1996. This, however, in no way implies that all cases of earlier communications have been closed to the satisfaction of the Special Rapporteur, in particular because in a significant number of cases he has not received replies from the Governments concerned. He refers to section III of last year’s report to the Commission (E/CN.4/1996/39) for a list of cases previously examined.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to draw attention to one important positive development, namely the increased cooperation of Governments in providing information on the cases in question. While in previous years a large number of Governments abstained from responding, this year, all the Governments have responded except one, from whom a reply is expected soon. While this is, of course, no reflection on the state of respect for freedom of opinion and expression in those countries or the world, it is a positive sign in that it opens the possibility for the Special Rapporteur to engage in a dialogue aimed at addressing the concerns as regards respect for freedom of opinion and expression. The opportunity for dialogue is even greater during country missions, and the Special Rapporteur wishes to express his hope for the continued cooperation of Governments in this regard.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "By letters dated 30 June 1994 and 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted to the Government information he had received concerning Mr. Alexander Frangaj, editor-in-chief of Koha Jone, and its reporter Mr. Martin Leka. According to this information, they were arrested for publishing State secrets, the latter also accused of “slander and publication of fallacious data”, though they had not been charged nor formally released. Allegedly, these accusations had stemmed from an article by Mr. Leka about a document signed by the Minister of Defence.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Albania"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "By letter dated 21 March 1996 the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Martin Leka and Mr. Alexander Frangaj had been accused of rendering public State secrets in complicity, according to articles 122 and 13 of the Penal Code of Albania. The former was sentenced to one year and six months' imprisonment, the latter was acquitted in accordance with article 71, paragraph 7, of the Penal Procedure Code of Albania. The Court of Appeal had partially reversed the judgement of the District Court, thus declaring Mr. Leka guilty and, in compliance with article 20 of Press Act No. 7756 of 11 November 1993, sentenced him to 10 months in prison. Further, having been previously declared guilty of slander, the prison sentence for Mr. Leka was extended to one year and six months. The Court of Appeal had also reversed the judgement of the District Court in the case of Mr. Frangaj, declaring him guilty, and, in compliance with article 20 of Press Act No. 7756 of 11 November 1993, he was sentenced to five months' imprisonment. It is further noted that before the case was to be judged in the Court of Cassation, both journalists were pardoned by the President of the Republic of Albania on 3 May 1994, in accordance with article 28, paragraph 14, of Act No. 7491, dated 29 April 1991. Moreover, the Court of Cassation acquitted the two journalists on 31 May 1994.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Albania"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "122", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "71", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "28", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Albanian Government for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. He intends to seek further clarifications regarding the grounds for the initial convictions and the application of national legislation in relation to the State’s obligation to protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Albania"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "By letter of 14 December 1995, the Special Rapporteur conveyed his concern to the Government on the fate of Mr. Hacene Ouandjeli, editor of the Algiers-based daily Liberté, and Mr. Abrous Outoudert, director of Liberté. According to information received by the Special Rapporteur both men were arrested at Algiers airport on 10 December 1995. Reportedly, the Ministry of the Interior ordered the closure of the daily, on the same day, for the duration of 15 days.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "By letter dated 8 April 1996, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Ouandjeli was never prosecuted, but rather that it was Mr. Abrous Outoudert and Mr. Samir Kneyaze, editor and a journalist with the daily Liberté, respectively, who were prosecuted. An application for the opening of examination proceedings against them on charges of defamation and using insulting language, under articles 144, 296 and 298 of the Penal Code and article 45 of the Information Code, was submitted by the Government Procurator to the Court of Algiers. Mr. Outoudert and Mr. Kneyaze, who were placed in custody on 10 and 11 December 1995, respectively, were tried and released on 13 December 1995, the former receiving a suspended sentence of four months’ imprisonment, the latter a suspended sentence of two months. An appeal was lodged by all parties with the Court of Algiers.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "144", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "296", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "298", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "45", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "In its reply, the Government also noted that freedom of conscience, opinion, expression, association and assembly are guaranteed in articles 35 and 39 of the Algerian Constitution. Concerning the legal framework for the exercise of the right to information, article 3 of the law of 13 April 1990 was cited. The reply further recalled that the democratization introduced by the Constitution of 1989 had brought a prodigious expansion in the information media, with the launching of some 100 new publications in the public and private sectors as well as the political press. The new publications in the private sector are managed by journalists’ cooperatives which avail themselves of the facilities of the fund for the promotion of the written and audiovisual media. The daily circulation of all titles is estimated at almost 1.5 million. Finally, the response noted that since the advent of political pluralism and the increase in the number of organs of the press, journalists first formed a professional action movement (Algerian Journalists’ Movement) and then the Algerian Journalists’ Association (AJA), in order to better defend their corporate interests. In its dealings with the authorities, it focuses on promoting the status of journalists and improving the conditions in which they work.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "35", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "39", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "By letter dated 18 December 1995, the Special Rapporteur conveyed his concern to the Government regarding the deliberate killing of 26 press professionals between 6 January and 5 December 1995, the names of whom were noted in paragraph 19 of the report of the Special Rapporteur to the Commission in 1996 (E/CN.4/1996/39).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "By letter dated 8 April 1996, the Government conveyed to the Special Rapporteur that the violent acts carried out against journalists over the past few years were attributable exclusively to armed terrorist groups, who attacked indiscriminately all members of social and professional categories, as well as members of the security forces and the civilian section of the population. The commitment of journalists to democracy, and their denunciation and condemnation of the murders, attacks and other acts of sabotage on which they reported regularly, made them a prime target of armed groups. Since 1993, 78 journalists and other media personnel had been victims of particularly brutal terrorist attacks. As part of the Algerian Government’s efforts to end the terrorist violence, a number of measures had been taken to improve the security of journalists, including better protection for journalists at their place of work, a firm commitment by the State to provide organs of the press whose offices had been car-bombed with new and more suitable premises, as well as the institution of legal proceedings against the perpetrators. Furthermore, it provided a list of specific measures taken by the Government to illustrate the Government’s determination to subject those guilty of terrorist crimes to the full rigour of the law, including action taken with regard to the murders of Djamel Bouhidel, photographer for the newspaper Nouveau TELL; Farah Ziane, journalist for Révolution Africaine; Said Mekbel, journalist and editor of the daily Le Matin; Ahmed Said, an ENTV journalist, and Yasser Laakal, journalist for Quotidien El-Massa; Salah Aliou, journalist for El Houria; and Djamel Eddine Zaiter, journalist for El-djoumhouria.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Algeria for the replies provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. However, the Special Rapporteur regrets that no information was provided regarding the alleged closure of the daily Liberté for the duration of 15 days. The Special Rapporteur remains concerned about the climate of violence in the country, and urges the Government to take all measures to ensure that the human rights of all its citizens are respected.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "By letter of 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government alleging intimidation and the use of violence against Mr. Reinaldo Cabral, a correspondent in the State of Alagoas for the Rio de Janeiro-based newspaper Jornal do Brazil.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Brazil"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "By letter dated 5 June 1996, the Government conveyed to the Special Rapporteur information on this case, transmitted by the Office of the Attorney-General of the Republic. It was noted that a police inquiry (No. 21/93) was opened in the police station of the second district of Maceió to investigate the allegations raised by Mr. Cabral, namely that on 8 April 1993, two armed men approached his residence and, while being pursued by two watchmen, set fire to his car and fled. The incident was described by Mr. Cabral as an attempt on his life, motivated by the articles he had written denouncing police violence. The Government noted that the inquiry could not confirm the allegations and concluded that there had been an “attempt to provoke material damages by means of fire”. The perpetrators of the incident could not be identified. It is further noted that after communicating the results of the inquiry to Mr. Cabral, the Public Prosecutor, Mr. Luiz Barbosa Carnaúba, placed himself at the disposal of Mr. Cabral for further discussion, without receiving a reply until 21 February 1994.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Brazil"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Brazil for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Brazil"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "By letter dated 14 December 1995, in a joint initiative with the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the fate of Mr. Wei Jingsheng and expressed, inter alia, his concern that the detention and trial of Mr. Wei were solely motivated by his non-violent pro-democracy activities, and therefore appeared to be in violation of his right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "By letter dated 18 March 1996, the Government of China informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Wei Jingsheng, while on parole and deprived of his political rights, had once again carried out activities aimed at overthrowing the Government and the judicial organs of China had therefore brought him to trial and rendered judgement according to the law, with the proceedings of the case in full conformity with the provisions of the law of China and the relevant international human rights instruments. It was further noted that, according to relevant stipulations of the laws of China, the judicial organs of China enjoy independent jurisdiction over criminal cases and that no other administrative organs, social organizations or individuals had the right to excise such powers, nor were they able to intervene in the proceedings of the judiciary.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "As regards the facts and proceedings of Wei's case involving conspiracy to overthrow the Government, it was noted that on 13 December 1995, Beijing No. 1 Intermediate People's Court held an open hearing of Wei's case and, in accordance with the law, sentenced him at first instance to a 14-year fixed-term imprisonment and a 3-year deprivation of political rights for the crime of conspiring to overthrow the Government. Further, his previous sentence of 15 years of fixed-term imprisonment and 3 years of deprivation of political rights by an intermediate people's court of Beijing in 1979 for providing important military information to foreigners and for openly carrying out activities endangering national security aimed at overthrowing State power was recalled. Wei Jingsheng had been released on parole in accordance with the law on 14 September 1993. While on parole and deprived of his political rights, Wei Jingsheng once again conspired to overthrow the Government. With the approval of a branch of the People's Procuratorate of Beijing, the Public Security Bureau of Beijing arrested Wei on 21 November 1995 in accordance with the law.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "The Government further noted that after conclusion of the investigation by the Public Security Bureau of Beijing, the case had been transferred to the branch of the People's Procuratorate of Beijing on 23 November for review. The branch of the People's Procuratorate of Beijing initiated a public prosecution on 1 December at Beijing No. 1 Intermediate People's Court in accordance with article 100 of the Criminal Procedure Law of China. The bill of prosecution accused Wei of plotting to overthrow the Government, stating that his acts constituted a crime and that he should be punished accordingly.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "100", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Government further informed the Special Rapporteur that, during the proceedings, it was identified that Wei had masterminded and drawn up a plan of action for the purpose of overthrowing the Government, which included the establishment of fund-raising institutions in order to “finance the democratic activities”, the purchase of several newspapers, setting up companies to organize cultural activities, organization of some non-governmental activities, such as expositions of paintings, cultural performances and producing publications with a view to establishing footholds to facilitate liaison and propaganda as part of a scheme to “set off storms big enough to shake the current Government”. It was further noted that Wei had actively organized the implementation of the above plan, had purchased a 12.5 per cent share of a certain city credit cooperative, and handed over to persons responsible for a certain organization overseas “A Brief Introduction to Projects in Need of Help” written by himself. In addition, he had asked for tens of thousands of United States dollars as operational funds. He had also registered a “Shengtao Corporation Ltd.” in Hong Kong in the name of his younger brother and organized painting expositions in Beijing in the Corporation's name, in an attempt to form “forces and organizations” favourable to himself. Wei had also been very active in making secret contacts with certain elements within and outside China, studying the so-called tactics of struggle, plotting to unite the forces of the illegal organizations, “building up capacity and waiting for the opportunities”, making organizational preparations for the purpose of overthrowing the Government. Furthermore, Wei had published a number of articles outside China through illegal channels, in which he attacked the Chinese Government, slandered the socialist system and the leadership of the Communist Party of China, as well as advocated the independence of Tibet. In this way, he had colluded with outside forces and organizations hostile to China in instigating the overthrow of the people's democratic dictatorship and the socialist system, and the splitting up of China.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The Court had written evidence shown, such as “A Brief Introduction of Projects in Need of Help” written by Wei himself and numerous articles and drafts, and had testimonies of witnesses read. It was further noted that Wei had openly admitted the facts identified by the Court. The Court made the above judgement in accordance with articles 90, 92, 52 and 60 of the Criminal Law of China. Wei had entrusted his relatives to engage a counsel who defended his case in court. Wei had also made full defence for himself in court, and made a final statement after conclusion of the court debate. Several dozen people, including journalists and Wei's relatives, were present at the hearing.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "90", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "92", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "52", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "60", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "Regarding the concern that the detention and trial of Mr. Wei Jingsheng were solely motivated by his “non-violent pro-democracy activities”, it was noted that China is a country in which the rule of law prevails. The Constitution of China and the relevant laws guarantee and protect the rights and fundamental freedoms of its citizens, while stipulating that the citizens must fulfil the obligations under the Constitution and the relevant laws. One can be brought to justice only when he or she has violated the law. The Government expressed the view that having different political views without committing acts endangering national security does not constitute a crime. The crime of endangering national security, for example, consists not only of the goal of overthrowing the Government and the socialist system, but also of the commission of acts to overthrow the Government, or undermine the territorial integrity of China, or acts of armed mass rebellion, or acts of espionage, this category of crime being punishable in other countries as well. It was further noted that facts and evidence have proved that Wei engaged in acts of plotting to overthrow the Government while on parole and deprived of political rights and, therefore, it was only just and reasonable that the Chinese judiciary should give its judgement in the case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "Finally, it was noted that the Criminal Procedure Law of China stipulates that the accused has the right to defence and, in addition to exercising the right to defend himself in the proceedings, the accused may also engage lawyers, close relatives or other citizens to defend him. After the court has decided to open the court session and adjudicate the case, a copy of the bill of prosecution should be delivered to the accused no later than seven days before the opening of the court session, so that the accused will be informed of the charges and causes, and will have sufficient time to prepare his defence and contact his counsels. The Government noted that during the proceedings, the Court followed strictly the Constitution and the Criminal Procedure Law of China, and provided effective guarantee for the right to defence of the accused. The Government further expressed the view that Beijing No. 1 Intermediate People's Court had conducted a fair trial of Wei's case of plotting to overthrow the Government. The whole of the proceedings was not only totally in conformity with the provisions of China's laws, but also in line with the relevant provisions governing fair trials set forth in international instruments, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights to which China has not yet acceded.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The Special Rapporteur expresses his appreciation to the Government of China for the reply offered in the case of Mr. Wei Jingsheng. He is pleased to note the position of the Government that “having different political views without committing acts endangering national security does not constitute a crime”. He also welcomes the Government’s reference to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, in spite of China not being a party to that Covenant. In the opinion of the Special Rapporteur, the Government has thereby indicated its commitment to the promotion and protection of universal human rights as laid down in the framework of the United Nations. The reply by the Government of China and the cooperative spirit which underlies it permits the Special Rapporteur to deepen his understanding of the position of the Government as regards the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression under international and national law. The Special Rapporteur would appreciate continuing his cooperation with the Government of China, in particular with regard to a number of specific questions concerning the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression through national legislation. These questions relate to the plan of action referred to, the publications by which the defendant Mr. Wei was considered to have colluded with outside forces and organizations hostile to China and the criteria used in the application of the articles 90, 92, 52 and 60 of the Criminal Law.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "90", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'criteria used in the application of the articles 90, 92, 52 and 60 of the Criminal Law' — articles of China's domestic Criminal Law, not ICCPR (which has 53 articles total). Regex misfired. (Upgrading confidence from Sonnet's 'low' to 'high' — the text is unambiguous about domestic law attribution.)"}, {"article": "92", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same as art.90: article of China's domestic Criminal Law, not a UN treaty article."}, {"article": "52", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same as above: article of China's Criminal Law cited in domestic criminal proceedings context."}, {"article": "60", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same as above: article of China's Criminal Law. Regex misidentified as ICCPR; number exceeds ICCPR's article range."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "By letter dated 21 November 1996, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government regarding the fate of Mr. Liu Xiaobo, former lecturer in Chinese literature and resident of Beijing. According to information received by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Liu was arrested at his home in Beijing on 8 October 1996 and summarily sentenced by an administrative court on 9 October 1996 to serve three years of forced labour in a camp at an undisclosed location.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "By letter dated 30 December 1996, the Government of China conveyed to the Special Rapporteur that investigations showed that Liu was arrested in 1989 in accordance with the law for engaging in subversive activities against the Government in violation of the Criminal Code. He was subsequently treated with leniency and released without being subjected to disciplinary action. However, Liu was unrepentant and continued to collude with anti-Chinese organizations from abroad to foment trouble and disrupt the social order. After issuing many warnings without effect, a public security organ finally had to invoke the Decision on Re-education through Labour and, with the explicit approval of the Bejing Municipal Labour Rehabilitation Board, decided to commit Liu to three years of education through labour. The reply further pointed out that labour rehabilitation is a compulsory re-education and reform measure taken to prevent and reduce crime and safeguard the social order, and by its nature is not a criminal punishment, and that it applies to urban persons whose habitual anti-social behaviour is incorrigible by other means or whose delinquency, though not so serious as to be deemed criminal, yet clearly transgresses against statutory interdictions and therefore qualified for rehabilitation. An individual undergoing labour rehabilitation, while having to submit to administrative measures imposed by statutes that restrict some of his rights, nevertheless keeps the many rights of a citizen endowed by the Constitution and the laws, including his right to freedom of expression and of opinion.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of China for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. The Special Rapporteur intends to seek further clarifications on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "By letter dated 26 February 1996, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government concerning the fate of Mrs. María de los Angeles Gutierrez Gonzales, administrator in the service of the Bureau of Independent Press of Cuba (BPIC). Reportedly, Mrs. de los Angeles Gutierrez Gonzales had been detained for four hours on 4 October 1995, had been summoned by the State Police of Havana on 12 October 1995, and had been arrested at home and subsequently detained for one hour on 16 October 1995.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cuba"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "By letter dated 26 February 1996, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government with regard to the fate of Mr. Héctor Peraza Linares, journalist with the Havana Press Agency. According to information received, Mr. Peraza was detained in Quiricam, Havana province, on 3 October 1995 and was summoned by the police of Quiricam on 10 October 1995.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cuba"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "By letter dated 26 February 1996, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government concerning the fate of Mr. Olance Noguera, journalist with the (BPIC). Reportedly, Mr. Noguera was held by officers of the State Police in Cienfuegos province on 7 October 1995 and was given to understand that a news story written by him for the Havana Press Agency had angered local authorities and that he would have to find a job with a State entity within 30 days or face charges of “vagrancy”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cuba"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "By letter dated 26 February 1996, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government with regard to the fate of Mrs. Roxana Valdivia, journalist with the BPIC. According to information received, Mrs. Valdivia had been detained for 28 hours, together with her husband, in Malecon prison, Havana, as of 3 October 1995, and was subsequently forced to board a train to Ciego de Avila, Cienfuegos province, and threatened with punitive measures if she were to contact the director of her Havana-based news agency, Mr. Yndamiro Restano.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cuba"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been received by him from the Government on the cases in question and hopes that the Government would soon respond.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cuba"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "By letter dated 26 April 1996, the Special Rapporteur, in a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture, conveyed information to the Government concerning a confrontation between university students protesting a rise in transport fares and military personnel which had reportedly broken out in Ujung Pandang, Sulawesi, on 22 April 1996. On 24 April 1996, 212 students and members of the security forces were reportedly wounded, after the military entered 4 university campuses to quell the protests. In the course of the operations, some soldiers, after initially firing warning shots, allegedly fired directly at demonstrators, as a result of which some students received bullet wounds. At least three students, Andi Sultan, Syaiful and Adnan, died, allegedly after being subjected to severe beatings. A number of students were reportedly taken into custody, up to eight of whom were said to remain detained at the District Military Command in Ujung Pandang (26 April 1996).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Indonesia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "By letter dated 10 May 1996, the Government replied that the demonstrations on 22 and 23 April 1996 held by university students against the hike in public transportation fares was peaceful and turned violent only on 24 April, when a number of students continued the demonstration and clashed with the Association of Public Transportation Drivers, who also held a demonstration aimed at demanding higher fares. The confrontation resulted in a number of injuries, material destruction and attacks on innocent bystanders resulting in injuries, by uncontrolled and aggressive students. In the attempt to restore public order, the security officers used rubber, not live bullets, tear-gas, water canons and other standard instruments. In the ensuing chaos, many students fled or jumped into the Pampang River. Three students, whose correct names are Szaiful Bya, Andi Sultan Iskandar and Tasrif were found drowned in the Pampang River the next day. It was further noted that on 25 April, the students gathered to roam around the city of Ujung Pandang, causing material damage, and not for the purpose of exercising the right to freedom of opinion. An investigation team was appointed on 27 April by the VII Military District Command to examine the manner in which security officers had dealt with the student demonstrators. The National Commission on Human Rights too sent an investigation team to Ujung Pandang and stated to the press in its preliminary conclusion that it regretted the incident and that there were leads pointing to possible irresponsible conduct by the security officers. The investigation team of the VII Military District Command concluded that a number of security officers were suspected of having acted irresponsibly. Twelve officers, including three senior officers and nine privates, were arrested and will face military court in May 1996. In this connection, the Chief of Staff for Political Affairs of the Armed Forces had publicly stated that the incident was indeed regrettable and should never have happened. Finally, it was noted that since the incident, peaceful demonstrations to show solidarity with the students of Ujung Pandang have taken place in many universities in Indonesia. These have neither been banned, interfered with nor repressed by the Government in any way.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Indonesia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Indonesia for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. He would appreciate being informed of the motivation for any action taken against the security officers suspected of having acted irresponsibly.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Indonesia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "By letter dated 29 May 1996, the Special Rapporteur conveyed his deep concern to the Government regarding the alleged arrest of 190 people, possibly more, during the preceding few days by the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). According to information received, these people had been detained by the SLORC. Allegedly, the arrests had been accompanied by threats in the State-controlled media against Aung San Suu Kyi and other pro-democracy leaders, raising serious fears for their safety. The Special Rapporteur also noted that new measures were being applied to deny the international press access to Myanmar.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Myanmar"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "On 11 June 1996, the Government replied by sending materials concerning the developments in question, namely a report on “Events Pertaining to the Recent Activities of the National League for Democracy (NLD)”; a news cutting regarding the press conference held by the SLORC Information Committee in Yangon on 23 May 1996; and a news cutting entitled “NLD delegates return home”, which appeared in the newspaper The New Light of Myanmar on 1 June 1996. The letter noted its hope that the information would provide the Special Rapporteur with a true picture of the situation prevailing in Myanmar, the endeavours of the Government to maintain peace and tranquillity in the country, and the status of the persons called in for questioning.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Myanmar"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The material provided indicates that, as the conference and mass rally planned by the NLD for 26 to 29 May 1996 was considered to possibly cause disruption of peace and stability in the country, some delegates were called in for questioning as a preventive measure. It noted the efforts of the NLD to achieve a transfer of power since the 1990 elections, including the writing of a temporary State constitution, and how some members went underground to organize an armed movement to form a parallel government, which forced the Government of the Union of Myanmar to adopt these preventive measures, including the restriction and detention of persons. In 1992, most of the detainees were released according to SLORC Declaration No. 11/92. It further noted that after the lifting of restrictions placed on Daw Aung San Suu Kyi, the position and attitude of the NLD changed, internal as well as foreign pressure ultimately having led to the departure of NLD delegates from the National Convention. Moreover, it is noted that Daw Aung San Suu Kyi and her associates have been stepping up criticism of the current government while issuing frequent press releases to that effect. Finally, due to the threat of a breakdown of peace and stability in the country and in order to prevent a repeat of the unrest of 1988, the Government of Myanmar had to undertake what it perceived to be the best possible action for all the people of the country.\nThose who had been called in for questioning were not arrested or put into prisons or detention centres, but rather lodged at guest houses and given good treatment. The authorities sent home the delegates called in for questioning on 31 May 1996.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Myanmar"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Myanmar for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. Nevertheless, the Special Rapporteur refers to the report submitted by the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Myanmar to the General Assembly, in which he had found the right to freedom of expression in Myanmar to be seriously restricted by several combined laws which are difficult to reconcile with article 19 of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, also affecting freedom of information through any of the media (see A/51/466, paras. 83-94). In particular, the Special Rapporteur notes that the Government of Myanmar refers to a threat of a breakdown of peace and stability as a reason to undertake measures for all the people of the country. In this respect, the Special Rapporteur shall seek further information on the nature of that threat to peace and security and on the proportionality of the measures taken by the Government to counter such threats.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Myanmar"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "By letter dated 13 November 1996, the Special Rapporteur conveyed his concern to the Government regarding the fate of Dr. Jayalath Jayawardena, member of Parliament in Colombo. According to information received, the Criminal Investigation Department(CID) is currently investigating a charge, based on an undated and anonymous petition, that Dr. Jayawardena has drawn a salary from the State for three years without performing his duties as medical officer to the former heads of State (President R. Premadasa and President D.B. Wijetunge). Allegedly, the CID had failed to respect its obligation to inform the Honourable Speaker of Parliament prior to its initiation of investigations and its obligation to conduct it in a confidential manner. It is furthermore alleged that the charge related to a possible lapse on the part of the administration for which a civil case would have been more appropriate. Lastly, it is alleged that the CID had instructed the Attorney-General to charge Dr. Jayawardena for cheating in respect of public property, which is a non-bailable offence and would imply that Dr. Jayawardena could be kept in custody indefinitely and would thereby effectively be prevented from assuming his important responsibilities as a member of Parliament.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "By letter dated 8 January 1997, the Government of Sri Lanka offered a number of observations on the case in question. Clarifying the circumstances of service as a government doctor, the letter noted that the investigations into the case had commenced on 24 January 1996 for the sole purpose of gathering evidence, oral and documentary, to assist the Attorney-General to make a well-considered decision as to whether or not an indictment should be forwarded to the High Court. While the investigation by the CID started on the basis of certain allegations made in an anonymous petition, it is noted that the subsequent investigation was fair, impartial and comprehensive. After giving fullest consideration to all material placed before the Attorney-General by the CID as well as Dr. Jayawardena, two indictments were forwarded to the High Court of Colombo on 7 October 1996. The offences with which Dr. Jayawardena is charged are:\n(a) The offence of criminal misappropriation in respect of salaries drawn by the suspect in the years 1991 and 1992 without reporting for work;\n(b) The offence of cheating the Director-General Hospital (the chief authority regarding the payment of salaries) by not informing him that he was not reporting for work and thereby representing that he was reporting for work and intentionally inducing the said Director to omit to do what he would have otherwise done had he known the truth, namely to stop the suspect’s salary, the said omission causing a loss to the Government by the suspect drawing the salaries for the months specified in the charges.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "The charges are framed under sections 5 (1) and 5 (2) of the Offences against Public Property Act No. 12 of 1982, as the salaries originated from government funds. The Government noted that there has, therefore, been no violation of the freedom from arbitrary arrest and wrongful confinement. Dr. Jayarwardena has also been given every opportunity of presenting his case to the prosecuting authorities prior to the filing of the indictments and would be entitled to all the judicial safeguards provided to an accused person under the law of the land.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Sri Lanka for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate, and hopes to receive, in due course, relevant information so as to keep himself apprised of the developments of the case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "By letter of 10 November 1995, the Special Rapporteur conveyed his concern to the Government and requested information on the fate of Mrs. Alya Chérif-Chamari, lawyer, and Mr. Khemaïs Chamari, co-founder of the Arab Institute of Human Rights and the Mediterranean Centre for Human Rights. According to information received by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. and Mrs. Chamari were barred from leaving the country and their passports confiscated on Sunday, 29 October 1995, on or around 1600 hours, when they were on the verge of leaving Tunisia by air to attend a colloquium of the Mediterranean Centre for Human Rights in Valetta, Malta.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "By letter dated 21 June 1996, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the decision to prevent Mr. Khemaïs Chamari and his wife, Mrs. Alya Chérif-Chamari, from leaving the country on 29 October 1995 to attend a symposium in Malta was in no way connected with their right to freedom of opinion and expression, a right which is guaranteed by the Tunisian Constitution. Rather, this measure was taken after Mr. Chamari was apprehended by the Tunis-Carthage airport police, flagrante delicto, in possession of suspicious documents while preparing to leave the country with his wife. In view of Mr. Chamari’s status as a Deputy, the Government Attorney ordered the airport police to photocopy the documents, regardless of the flagrante delicto, which would otherwise have been sufficient grounds for taking him into custody. It is also noted that on 27 October 1995, the examining magistrate requested the Minister of Justice to waive the parliamentary immunity of Mr. Chamari, who was involved in a case currently before the courts, so that he could be brought to trial for the acts of which he was accused and which constitute a crime under Tunisian law, namely, divulging confidential information obtained during the investigation of matters constituting a risk to national security, in accordance with article 60 bis of the Penal Code. As regards his wife, it is noted that she was prevented from leaving the country in accordance with an order issued by the examining magistrate on 28 October 1995, prohibiting her from travelling abroad.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "60", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Tunisia for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate, and hopes to receive, in due course, relevant information so as to keep himself apprised of the developments of the case and to assess the motivation of the airport police and Government Attorney involved in the case as well as the proportionality of the measures taken against Mr. Chamari.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "From 20-25 September 1996, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Turkey, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session (E/CN.4/1997/31/Add.1).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "The Special Rapporteur welcomes the increased cooperation on the part of Governments, which is reflected both in the fact that almost all the current requests for information received replies, as well as in the numbers of invitations received. He once again urges all Governments to cooperate with the mandate as well as to scrutinize their national legal systems with a view to bringing them into line with international standards governing the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Overall, the Special Rapporteur considers the rising trend in favour of defending the right to freedom of expression and the increasing acknowledgment of the right of people to express their opinion as very encouraging. This development is equally reflected in the fact that supporters of the opposite view are increasingly on the defensive rather than the offensive. On the whole, it is to be considered a positive development that a number of countries have set up national commissions for human rights, to which independent persons, such as judges, are appointed.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Nevertheless, the Special Rapporteur is compelled to conclude, as in previous years, that violations of the right to freedom of expression occur in all parts of the world. In a number of instances, these violations concur with violations of other human rights, including those related to enforced or involuntary disappearances, extrajudicial, arbitrary or summary executions, torture, religious intolerance and arbitrary detention as well as with the problem of terrorism.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has in the past noted that the right to freedom of expression can be described as an essential test right, the enjoyment of which illustrates the degree of enjoyment of all human rights enshrined in the United Nations Bill of Human Rights, and that respect for this right reflects a country’s standard of fair play, justice and integrity. He would like to emphasize here that actions by Governments to ban certain publications, disband independent organizations and unions, rescind or deny licences to independent media are also frequently good indicators of situations in which the protection of all human rights will, in future, be weakened. It is the view of the Special Rapporteur that the international community and specifically the Commission on Human Rights should give the required attention to reports of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In light of the value of such information for indicating a deterioration of the human rights and political situation in a specific country or region as a whole, this information should be increasingly integrated into early warning systems aimed at preventing human rights disasters and mass exoduses. The Special Rapporteur urges the Commission to consider how the information available through this mechanism can be integrated more effectively in an early warning system. Violations of human rights and humanitarian crises often cause and almost always result from violent conflicts.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "The Special Rapporteur remains deeply concerned with the cases brought to his attention in relation to the right to freedom of opinion and expression of women. While often silenced by formal as well as informal cultural pressure, women are emerging as a new factor in the public arena. The Special Rapporteur considers it of utmost importance that this trend be encouraged, and calls upon States to actively support women attempting to make their voices heard and to ensure that they are welcomed as active participants in public life. He further urges Governments to ensure that effective measures are taken to eliminate the atmosphere of fear that often prevents many women from communicating freely on their own behalf or on behalf of other women who have been victims of violence either in domestic or community settings or as a result of internal or trans-border conflict.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "The Special Rapporteur expresses his sincere desire to work more closely with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women not only to identify the obstacles to freedom of opinion and expression for women but to establish a framework through which violations of women’s right to freedom of expression can be systematically documented and addressed. The Special Rapporteur encourages organizations and associations working on women’s human rights to establish closer links with non-governmental organizations for which freedom of opinion and expression is the primary mandate and to coordinate their communications with both mechanisms. The Special Rapporteur also requests that the Commission on Human Rights consider how this initiative can best be implemented within the United Nations system and to provide any additional resources that may be required.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would also like to highlight the important link between the ability of people, both individually and collectively, to participate in the public life of their communities and country, and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression, including freedom to seek and receive information, an issue which has been noted in various studies conducted by the United Nations and in the reports of the Working Group on the Right to Development. The Special Rapporteur has followed with considerable interest the debates on the right to development as well as the discussions of this right by the Commission’s Working Group on the Right to Development. The consensus achieved by States at the fifty-second session of the Commission on Human Rights indicated the international community’s willingness to address the very important questions attached to this right in a systematic and cooperative manner, including the fundamental issue of popular participation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "As discussions on the implementation of the right to development continue, laws and governmental practices which violate the rights to freedom of opinion, expression, information, dissent, association and participation must be taken into account. The reports of several of the mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights clearly indicate that violations of these rights are among the most common and occur in virtually every country in the world. The rights are violated in many ways including through the suppression of political expression, denial of access to family planning information for women, discrimination against women through personal status laws, prohibitions on the establishment of independent trade unions, prohibitions or restrictions on the operations of independent media, restrictions on access to information on subjects of public interest and importance, suppression of the use of minority languages, infringements on the right to freedom of conscience, belief and religion, restrictions on the right to peaceful assembly, repression of the right to peaceful dissent, and resort to arguments based on a supposed need to maintain discipline or political order and stability, or respond to the imperative of modernization and nation-building.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that future discussions on implementation of the right to development take full account of the need for all Governments to fully promote and protect the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to seek and receive information. These rights are fundamental prerequisites to ensure public participation, without which the realization of the right to development, as a prerogative of people rather than States, will remain in jeopardy.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "Finally, the Special Rapporteur, regrettably, deems it necessary to repeat his deep concern as regards the imbalance between the requirements set out by the mandate and the inadequate financial and human resources put at his disposal at the Centre for Human Rights. Given the fairly recent establishment of the mandate, there is a pressing need for compiling and analysing information on a global level so as to identify trends and obstacles with regard to the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression at the country-specific, regional, as well as the global level. Such analysis would provide the necessary basis for the development of strategies, in cooperation with the Governments concerned, to ensure the full realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Furthermore, in order to engage in a productive and useful dialogue with Governments, there is a need for both responding effectively to the numerous allegations received, as well as engaging in follow-up activities both as regards cases transmitted as well as countries visited. While the Special Rapporteur has sought to remedy this inadequacy by prioritizing among the tasks listed and by seeking outside support, notably with NGOs, the current means available to the Special Rapporteur in no way suffice to meet the demands, and it will remain difficult to comply with the whole range of activities called for by the Commission in previous resolutions until this issue has been addressed.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "At its forty-ninth session, the Commission on Human Rights decided, by its resolution 1993/45 of 5 March 1993, to appoint, for a period of three years, a special rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "On 2 April 1993, the Chairman of the Commission appointed Mr. Abid Hussain (India) Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur, in pursuance of Commission resolutions 1993/45, 1994/33 and 1995/40, submitted reports to the Commission at its fiftieth (E/CN.4/1994/33) and fifty-first (E/CN.4/1995/32) sessions.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "In conformity with paragraph 18 of Commission resolution 1993/45, the Special Rapporteur hereby presents his third report to the Commission.\nI.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "As the Special Rapporteur has indicated in his previous reports (E/CN.4/1995/32, para. 12, and E/CN.4/1994/33, para. 40) he would like to touch on certain basic questions concerning the right to freedom of opinion and expression in order to facilitate his work. The Special Rapporteur notes in this context that a number of non-governmental organizations have provided him with useful materials on the consequences for the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression of applying national legislation aimed at protecting national security. In particular, the London-based organization Article 19, the International Centre against Censorship submitted the Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, drafted by a group of experts in international law, national security and human rights. The Special Rapporteur finds that these Principles offer useful guidance in assessing the often competing claims of freedom of expression and national security. The Principles are contained in the annex to the present report.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["TERMS OF REFERENCE"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The Special Rapporteur refers to resolution 1995/4, entitled \"Prevention of incitement to hatred and genocide, particularly by the media\", adopted on 18 August 1995 by the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, and has followed with great interest the Sub-Commission’s consideration of the pernicious role of the so-called \"hate media\".\nII.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["TERMS OF REFERENCE"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "During 1995, the Special Rapporteur received a substantially larger number of detailed allegations concerning cases of violation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression than during the previous year. As was the case for his 1995 report to the Commission (E/CN.4/1995/32), the Special Rapporteur was only able to transmit a limited number of requests for information to some Governments, owing to insufficient financial and human resources. In this connection, he recalls the concerns raised in paragraphs 92 to 95 of his previous report. Those concerns are also valid with regard to the year under review in the present report. In view of the substantially larger number of allegations he has received, however, this difficult situation has become more acute.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "As a consequence of the difficult circumstances surrounding his work, the incorrect impression might be given that the Special Rapporteur is concerned with only a limited number of countries, namely those included in chapter III below, whereas in reality he is concerned with a much larger number of countries. Furthermore, this impression risks being reinforced in that the report reflects communications with Governments that are engaged in a dialogue with the Special Rapporteur for the purpose of seeking to promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In order to put his concerns in proper perspective, the Special Rapporteur in this report presents the Commission with the list of the States concerning which he has received information relating to events that took place in 1995. The preliminary consideration of these events has raised questions on the adequacy of the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression as guaranteed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The following 103 States and territories are concerned: Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Angola, Argentina, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belarus, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Brazil, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon, Canada, Central African Republic, Chad, Chile, China, Colombia, Congo, Costa Rica, Côte d’Ivoire, Croatia, Cuba, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Ethiopia, France, Gambia, Greece, Guatemala, Guinea, Haiti, India, Indonesia, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kazakstan, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lebanon, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Lithuania, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Republic of Moldova, Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Niger, Nigeria, Palestine, Paraguay, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Romania, Russian Federation, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Somalia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Swaziland, Syrian Arab Republic, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Togo, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uganda, Ukraine, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United States of America, Uruguay, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Viet Nam, Yugoslavia, Zaire, Zambia and Zimbabwe.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "From 10 to 13 December 1994, in Aman, the Special Rapporteur attended the Round Table Conference on Strengthening the Universality of Human Rights, which he addressed. It was organized by the International Movement for the Promotion and Realization of Human Rights and Responsibilities, Rights and Humanity, under the patronage of His Royal Highness El Hassan bin Talal, Crown Prince of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. He is grateful for having been provided with the opportunity to attend this meeting, which served to build greater understanding of Western and Islamic views on human rights and strengthen global commitment to universal human rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "On 22 May 1995, in London, the Special Rapporteur met with representatives of a number of non-governmental organizations active in the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and a representative of the Communication Division of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization for the purpose of exchanging views on work related to his mandate. The Special Rapporteur would like to express his gratitude to the host organization, Article 19, the International Centre against Censorship, and all participants for their valuable contribution to his work.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["ACTIVITIES"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "The Special Rapporteur attended the Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing from 4 to 15 September 1995. At a symposium on the issue of violence against women, the Special Rapporteur emphasized the importance of protecting the right to freedom of opinion and expression of women as a prerequisite for the effective protection of women against violence. He was impressed with the overwhelming feeling at the World Conference with regard to the need to promote the human rights of women and its concern at the plight of such prominent women as Daw Aung San Suu Kyi and Ms. Taslima Nasreen.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "From 15 to 17 June 1995, in Stockholm, the Special Rapporteur attended a conference on relations between European and Islamic cultures and the position of Muslims in Europe. Taking advantage of this opportunity, the Special Rapporteur, on 19 June 1995, met with representatives of a number of non-governmental organizations based in Sweden working on freedom of expression and with members of the academic community concerned with human rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "From 25 to 30 June 1995, the Special Rapporteur visited the Republic of Korea. He has submitted a separate report on that visit (E/CN.4/1996/Add.1).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "From 6 to 10 January 1996, the Special Rapporteur visited the Islamic Republic of Iran. He has submitted a separate report to the Commission on that visit (E/CN.4/1996/Add.2).\nIII.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The Special Rapporteur in this section reports on communications concerning certain countries. For the list of all the countries and territories on which he has received information that raises questions as to the adequacy of protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, he refers to paragraph 7 above.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "By a letter dated 30 June 1994 and two further letters dated 29 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted to the Government information he had received which led him to assume that the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression of the following press professionals had been subjected to arbitrary interference: Mr. Alexander Frangaj, Mr. Martin Leka, Mr. Teodor Keko, Mr. Shyqyri Meka, Mr. Ilirian Zhupa, Mr. Tassos Dimopoulos, Mr. Kostas Papadopoulos, Mr. Anthi Vavoritou, Mr. Alekos Markellos and Mr. Vassiliki Siouri.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Albania"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Albania"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "By letter dated 12 December 1994, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the following journalists and persons working in the information sector had been killed as a result of terrorist violence between 1 February and 3 December 1994: Mr. Olivier Quemeneur, Mr. Khaled Bougharbal, Mr. Mouloud Baroudi, Mr. Smail Sbaghi, Mr. Lahcène Bensadallah, Mr. Tayeb Bouterfif, Mr. Ziane Farrah, Mr. Kaddour Bensselham, Mr. Mohamed S. Benachour, Mr. Ahmed Issaad, Mr. Yasser Laakal and Mr. Said Mekbel.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "By letter dated 14 December 1995, the Special Rapporteur conveyed to the Government his concern about the fate of Mr. Hacene Ouandjli, editor of the Algiers-based daily Liberté, and Mr. Outoudert Abrous, director of Liberté. According to information received by the Special Rapporteur, both men were arrested at Algiers airport on 10 December 1995. Reportedly, the Ministry of the Interior ordered the closure of the newspaper, on the same day, for a period of 15 days.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "By letter dated 18 December 1995, the Special Rapporteur conveyed to the Government his concern about the deliberate killing between 6 January and 5 December 1995 of the following press professionals: Ms. Khedidja Dahmani, Mr. Hamid Mahiout, Mr. Ahmed Belkhefellah, Ms. Saidja Djebaili, Mr. Omar Ouartilan, Mr. Said Brahimi, Ms. Radja Brahimi, Ms. Yasmina Brikh, Mr. Brahim Guaraoui, Mr. Said Tazrout, Mr. Ameur Ouagueni, Ms. Naima Hamouda, Mr. Ahmed Takouchet, Mr. Mourad Hmaizi, Mr. Bakhti Benaouda, Ms. Malika Sabour, Mr. Azzedine Saidj, Mr. Mekhlouf Boukzer, Mr. Mohammed Abderrahmani, Mr. Ali Boukerbache, Ms. Rachida Hammadi, Mr. Djamel Ziater, Mr. Nacer Ouari, Mr. Abdelhamid Yahiaoui, Mr. Ali Abboud and Mr. Zineddine Aliou Salah.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "By letter dated 22 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted to the Government information on incidents which occurred between July and September 1993 of threats of or the use of violence against the following press professionals: Mr. Hernan Lopez Echagüe, Mr. Marcello Bonelli and Mr. Santo Biasatti.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Argentina"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Argentina"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "By letter dated 9 November 1995, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur of a number of issues relating to the case of Ms. Taslima Nasreen, who had been charged with having committed acts offending the religious feelings of a section of the population and whose case was referred to in the Special Rapporteur’s previous report to the Commission (E/CN.4/1995/32, paras. 101-103). The Government informed the Special Rapporteur, inter alia, that the intent or implications of Ms. Nasreen’s quoted public pronouncement, and not her views or opinions themselves, had been considered to constitute a violation of article 295 (A) of the Penal Code, which guaranteed the rights of all religious communities to non-discriminatory protection by the State.\nThe Government informed the Special Rapporteur that action had been initiated under the law for the purpose of protecting public order and respecting the rights and reputations of others.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Bangladesh"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "295", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes decision No. 5/1995 of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the press professionals, Mr. Toab Khan and Mr. Borhan Ahmed, who have been charged and imprisoned under article 295 (A) of the Penal Code (the same article under which Ms. Nasreen has been charged) for \"insults to the religious feelings of the Muslim community of Bangladesh\" in relation to an article, published by the defendants on 12 May 1994, focusing on an interpretation of the Koran by a group of religious scholars.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Bangladesh"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "295", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted to the Government information alleging intimidation of and the use of violence against Mr. Reinaldo Cabral, a correspondent in the State of Alagoas of the Rio de Janeiro based newspaper Jornal do Brazil.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Brazil"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Brazil"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "In a letter dated 28 March 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government concerning the fate of the journalists Mr. Ndame Maloune and Mr. Jacques Doumbe, who allegedly were arrested on 3 November 1993 and subjected to torture by police officers after attending a press conference that reportedly had been prohibited by the authorities. In a letter dated 5 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the seizure of the 21 and 24 March 1994 editions and an order banning the 6 April 1994 edition of the daily Le Messager, reportedly for the purpose of protecting public order.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cameroon"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cameroon"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The Special Rapporteur received information alleging the persecution of press professionals and other persons seeking to exercise the right to freedom of expression, including the right to seek and receive information. In relation to this information, the Special Rapporteur sent the following communications to the Government.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "By letter dated 2 September 1994, he transmitted information on the fate of the following persons: Mr. Liu Nianchun, Mr. Nick Driver, Mr. Matthew Forney, Ms. Caroline Straathof and Ms. Carrie Gracie.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "By letter dated 7 September 1994, he transmitted information on the fate of Mr. Xi Yang and Mr. Tian Ye.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on these cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "By letter dated 14 December 1995, in a joint initiative with the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the fate of Mr. Wei Jingsheng and expressed, inter alia, his concern that the detention and trial of Mr. Wei appeared to be in violation of his right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government alleging threats against the life of a journalist, Mr. Alvaro Martinez Pinzon, in relation to the publication of an article in the press in which it was stated that a military unit was responsible for the death of a child. By letter dated 23 November 1994, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the authorities had learned from the person in question that the threats and harassment to which he had been subjected had ceased. The Special Rapporteur took note with appreciation of the protection measures the Government indicated it had offered to Mr. Alvaro Martinez.", "labels": ["Children"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Colombia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The Special Rapporteur considers this case closed to his satisfaction.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Colombia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "By letter dated 28 March 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the arrest, on 13 August 1993, and detention of Mr. Domiciano Torres Roca, vice-president of the unofficial Civil Democratic Party, on the charge of possessing enemy propaganda. According to this information, Mr. Torres Roca was beaten on his mouth and stomach at the time of his arrest and was held for an unspecified duration at a psychiatric hospital, among persons suffering from grave mental problems. At the time of writing of the letter, Mr. Torres Roca was reportedly held in the El Pitirre prison in Havana.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cuba"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "By letter dated 15 December 1995, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that, upon his arrest, Mr. Torres Roca had been tried by the People’s Provincial Court of the City of Havana (case No. 3/91); that he had repeatedly committed common criminal acts and had also distributed, spread and systematically dispatched to foreign countries false and distorted information about the situation in Cuba; that he had gone beyond the exercise of the rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Constitution of the Republic of Cuba by acting in breach of the provisions of the criminal law in force; and that he had been tried with all legal guarantees.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cuba"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "The Special Rapporteur refers to decision No. 46/1994 adopted on 1 December 1994 by the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, in which the detention of Mr. Rocca was considered to be arbitrary, falling under category II of its terms of reference. (See E/CN.4/1996/40/Add.1; the text of the decision is issued in Spanish only.)", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cuba"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994 the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the arrest of Mr. Ibrahim Saad, a journalist with the Middle East News Agency. According to this information, Mr. Saad had been arrested for allegedly belonging to an illegal organization called El-Gama’a El-Islamiyya and had had no access to legal representation after his arrest.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "By letter dated 1 November 1994, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Ibrahim Saad, whose full name is Ibrahim al-Sayyid Muhammad Musaad, had been taken into custody for questioning by the Department of Public Prosecutions in Higher State Security Case No. 235 of 1994, relating to the \"blowing up of banks\", and that a lawyer had been present during questioning.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "By letter dated 22 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government concerning the trial of 13 defendants who had been charged with involvement in the killing of a writer, Mr. Faraj Foda. Allegedly, one of the defendants, Sheik Muhammad Ghazali, a religious scholar had stated in his defence that anyone who opposed the application of Sharia law was \"an apostate liable to be killed\"; he had cited the opinion of renowned religious scholars that \"killing Faraj Foda was our Islamic duty\".", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the arrest and detention in a military prison of Mr. Abdel-Sattar Abu-Hussein, a journalist with the daily Al-Shaab. According to this information, Mr. Hussein had been interrogated in the absence of a lawyer and charged with publishing classified information concerning proposed joint international military manoeuvres. Reportedly, this information was confirmed later in a public statement by the Minister of Defence.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the two above-mentioned cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "By letter dated 2 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government alleging the disappearance of a journalist, Mr. Negusse Gamma, and indicating that his relatives did not know his whereabouts.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Ethiopia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "By letter dated 3 July 1995, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Gamma, editor of the newspaper Taffa, had been briefly detained under a court order for publishing material contrary to the Press Law and the criminal laws of the country and that his case had been investigated initially by the police under file number 3186 and subsequently by the public prosecutor under file number 53886. The Government specified that no information had been brought to the attention of the law enforcement officials substantiating the alleged disappearance of Mr. Gamma and indicated that the files in question could be examined through the proper legal procedure by any interested party.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Ethiopia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "By letter dated 30 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government alleging the arrest and incommunicado detention of a radio newsreader, Mr. Nang Vecka-Brice, and the ransacking and burning by Presidential Guard military personnel, amid civil unrest, of the premises of the radio station Radio Liberté in Libreville.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Gabon"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Gabon"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "By letter dated 20 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information alleging threats by the authorities against Mr. Elizbar Javelidze, editor-in-chief of the daily Sakartvelos Samreklos, and Mr. Gotsirizde, editor-in-chief of the daily Iberia Spektr, causing Mr. Javelidze to feel compelled to hide.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Georgia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Georgia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government concerning the fate of Mr. Nuku Suleiman. According to this information Mr. Suleiman, a student and human rights activist, was arrested on 25 November 1993 and sentenced to four years’ imprisonment on 24 February 1994 for having distributed, during a peaceful protest outside the building of the National Parliament, stickers on which the acronym for a well-known lottery, SDSB, was paraphrased to convey the following opinion on the President: \"Suharto is the mastermind of all disasters\" (\"Suharto Dalang Segala Bencana\"). Reportedly, the stickers cited allegations of human rights violations committed by the security forces during the President’s term of office. Reportedly, the trial of Mr. Suleiman lacked fairness, since the District Court of Central Jakarta had allowed 19 witnesses for the prosecution to be heard and only 1, out of a requested 17, for the defence.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Indonesia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "By letter dated 4 November 1994, the Government, promptly and in detail, informed the Special Rapporteur, inter alia, of the following: that Mr. Suleiman had staged a demonstration against the national lottery, intentionally distributing his defamatory stickers and at the same time launching baseless allegations and further defamatory statements against the President; that he had been arrested for publicly speaking and publishing the defamatory statement, injuring the reputation of the President and diminishing esteem, respect, good will or confidence towards him, all of which amounted to a criminal offence; that the prosecutor’s indictment was not against the act of distribution per se, but the wilful intent of Mr. Suleiman to defame the President, in violation of article 134 of the Penal Code, which stipulated the offence to be punishable by up to six years’ imprisonment; that the prosecutor had contended the defendant should be imprisoned for six years; that most of the 17 witnesses to vindicate Mr. Suleiman were not by any means directly or indirectly related to the defamation case nor could they be considered as expert witnesses.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Indonesia"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "134", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "The Government also informed the Special Rapporteur that the panel of judges of the Court of First Instance of Central Jakarta had found Mr. Suleiman guilty on the charge of defamation of the President, considering that he had had the deliberate intention of injuring the reputation of, or of provoking adverse, derogatory or unpleasant feelings or opinions against the President; that by distributing his defamatory stickers to more than four persons and launching baseless and unsubstantiated allegations, he had had the intention to expose the President to contempt, hatred, ridicule or obloquy; and that Mr. Soleiman, by not making any attempt whatsoever to seek clarification as to whether the content of the defamatory statement was true or false, plainly had shown that an element of malice existed.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Indonesia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "The Government furthermore informed the Special Rapporteur that, upon appeal by the defence counsel, the Appellate Court of Jakarta, on 26 May 1994, had decided that Mr. Suleiman’s sentence was to be increased to five years’ imprisonment, considering the contempt of court shown by the defendant, his obstruction of court proceedings and the fact that he was a second offender.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Indonesia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "The Government expressed the view that in exercising his right to freedom of opinion and expression, Mr. Suleiman was substantially not protected by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and that his evil intent and malice constituted nothing but a violation of article 29 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 19.3 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Indonesia"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "29", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'article 29 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'article 19.3 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — unambiguous ICCPR attribution. (Note: text mentions 19.3 but regex captured paragraph as null; Sonnet preserved that.)"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "The Special Rapporteur refers to decision 31/1994, adopted on 29 September 1994 by the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, in which the detention of Mr. Suleiman was considered to be arbitrary, falling under categories II and III of its terms of reference (see E/CN.4/1995/31/Add.2).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Indonesia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "From 6 to 10 January 1996, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to the Islamic Republic of Iran, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session (E/CN.4/1996/39/Add.2).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Islamic Republic of Iran"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "By letter dated 11 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the issuance of a writ for the arrest of Ms. Susan O’Keeffe, a journalist and a British national, for her refusal to reveal sources when she disclosed, in a television programme, the existence of illegal practices in the beef industry.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Ireland"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Ireland"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "By letter dated 22 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the fate of the press professionals working in the Gaza area. Allegedly, on 21 June 1993, Mr. Majdi al-Arabid, a cameraman for Worldwide Television News was shot in the leg by an army officer who threatened to shoot Mr. Al-Arabid in the head if he were to continue filming a clash between demonstrators and soldiers in a refugee camp. Allegedly, Mr. Talal Abu Rahma, a reporter with Cable News Network (CNN) was arrested and detained by military personnel during a raid on his apartment and was forced, during his detention, to stand barefoot on a burning hot floor. Allegedly, Mr. Ahmad Jadallah, a photographer for Reuters, was assaulted by military personnel and had his film confiscated after he had taken photographs of military personnel beating a taxi driver.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Israel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "By letter dated 25 July 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the assault by a group of armed individuals on Mr. Robert Friedman, a freelance reporter on assignment for the weekly New Yorker, on 10 January 1994, in the West Bank settlement of Kfar Tapauch. Reportedly, after having fought off his attackers, Mr. Friedman attempted to file a complaint at the police station of the settlement of Ariel, where officers were reluctant to take his statement and refused to cooperate in identifying his assailants. Reportedly, Mr. Friedman has been receiving death threats since 1988, in relation to a book written by him, entitled The False Prophet.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Israel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "By letter dated 5 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the wounding by a rubber bullet, fired by military personnel, of a journalist, Hervé Deguine, while he was talking to a number of Palestinians in Jericho on 11 May 1994. Reportedly, during the first nine months of 1994, at least seven journalists were wounded and at least five arrested and briefly detained by military personnel in Gaza and Transjordan. Furthermore, the authorities reportedly banned the access to certain areas of the occupied territories to journalists.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Israel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "By letter dated 5 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the wounding, by military personnel, of Mr. Hicham Charabati, a cameraman for Worldwide Television News, and Mr. Pierre Haski, correspondent of the daily Libération, in Halhoul, Transjordan, on 3 April 1994.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Israel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "By letter dated 11 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the arrest of Mr. Adnan Abu Hasna, correspondent for Qatar Radio and the daily Al-Quds, at his home in Gaza City, on 25 April 1994.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Israel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Israel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "By letter dated 30 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the confiscation of 10,000 copies of the magazine Finance and the seizure of an unspecified number of copies of the magazines Society and Economic Review from the Colourprint printing house on 1 August 1994. Allegedly, police officers had forcibly entered the printing house, had beaten up the watchman, Mr. Edo Hussein, threatened to kill another employee who was present and warned a reporter of the Daily Nation covering the police action to \"disappear with that pen immediately or we [will] come for you. You have no business being here.\"", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Kenya"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the arrest of Mr. Ngumo Wa Kuria and Mr. Peter Makori (on 16 March 1994) and Mr. Kamau Kanyanga and Mr. John Nyaosi (on 23 March 1994), all press professionals with the publication Standard. Allegedly these persons had been charged with subversive activities and were released on bail on 31 March 1994. Also, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the arrest, on 11 April 1994, of a Daily News journalist Mr. Mutegi Njau. Reportedly, his arrest was related to an article he had published on inter-ethnic conflicts in the country.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Kenya"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the arrest, on 13 June 1994, of Mr. Bedan Mbugua, editor-in-chief of The People, and Mr. David Makali, a journalist with that weekly, on charges of contempt of court, allegedly for the publication of an article critical of a court decision to dismiss a number of scholars who had attempted to establish a trade union and for stating that the decision of the court had been influenced by the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Kenya"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "By letter of 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the deportation to Australia, by the Kenyan immigration service, of Mr. John Lawrence, an Australian national and a correspondent for the Melbourne daily The Age and journalist with the Kenyan Daily Nation. Allegedly, the authorities stated Mr. Lawrence’s continued stay in Kenya was against the country’s interest. Allegedly, the deportation was related to an article published by Mr. Lawrence on 27 June 1994 that was critical of a government decision to recruit medical doctors from India and Pakistan for the purpose of replacing Kenyan medical doctors on strike.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Kenya"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Kenya"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "The Special Rapporteur refers to paragraph 2 of Addendum 1 to the present report. It is his intention to visit the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea at the Government’s earliest convenience.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Democratic People’s Republic of Korea"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "From 25 to 30 June 1995, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to the Republic of Korea, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its current session (E/CN.4/1996/39/Add.1).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Republic of Korea"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "By letter dated 22 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the closure of the dailies Nida’ al-Watan (on 30 April 1993), Al-Safir (on 11 May 1993) and Al-Sharq (on 28 May 1993) and the television network ICN TV (on 29 April 1994), reportedly because they had published and broadcast material critical of government policies. Allegedly, in connection with these closures, the press professionals Mr. Muhammad Shams al-Din, Mr. Faisal Salman and Mr. Ibrahim al-Amin had been charged and were facing three years’ imprisonment.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Lebanon"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Lebanon"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "By letter dated 2 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the deportation to the Philippines of Ms. Leah Palma Makabenta, Kuala Lumpur correspondent for Inter Press Service and a national of the Philippines. According to this information, Ms. Makabenta was informed, on 25 March 1994, by the Director-General of Immigration that the Government intended to cancel her press pass owing to an article published by her that threatened national security. Reportedly, the Director-General declined to indicate the article in question. Allegedly, Ms. Makabenta’s press pass was revoked on 1 April 1994 and she was ordered to leave the country within 48 hours. On 3 April, the Deputy Home Affairs Minister reportedly stated that Ms. Makabenta had been deported for writing a \"very negative\" article on the mistreatment of migrant labourers from neighbouring countries. Reportedly, the Deputy Minister announced, on 6 March 1994, that all foreign journalists who published what the Government considered to be negative reports on Malaysia would be banned from working in the country. Reportedly, this statement was delivered two weeks after the publication, in the British newspaper Sunday Times, of a report that a British contractor had made \"special payments\" totalling US$ 50,000 to Malaysian politicians \"at the highest level\" while bidding for a contract to build an aluminium smelter. Reportedly, in this statement, the Deputy Minister also announced an investigation to determine whether any Malaysian national had collaborated in compiling the Sunday Times report.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Malaysia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Malaysia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "By letter dated 27 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on anonymous threats against the following press professionals, all working with the daily La Jornada: Mr. Carlos Payan Velver, Ms. Carmen Lira, Ms. Blanche Petrick, Mr. Josetxo Zaldua, Mr. Elio Henriquez and Mr. Gaspar Morquecho. According to this information, a group referred to as the \"Mexican Anti-Communist Movement\" had started a libel campaign against the daily, which it considered to be the organ of an organization named the \"Zapatist Army of National Liberation\". Reportedly, on 3 January 1994, another journalist of La Jornada, Mr. Ismael Romero, was wounded by bullets in Chiapas.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Mexico"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Mexico"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "By letter dated 5 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the seizure by customs officers at Casablanca airport, on 8 June 1994, of half of the 6,000 copies of the weekly Jeune Afrique destined for distribution in Morocco and of a similar number of copies of the same weekly from news-stands throughout the country, on 30 May 1994. According to this information, customs officers have been instructed not to allow the import of over 3,000 copies per issue of the weekly.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Morocco"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the matter in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Morocco"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "By letter dated 27 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the arrest (in August 1993) and sentencing to 20 years’ imprisonment (in October 1993) of Dr. Ma Thida, a physician, writer and political activist, for \"endangering public tranquillity, having contact with unlawful organizations and distributing unlawful literature\".", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Myanmar"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Myanmar"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "By letter dated 1 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following information to the Government. Reportedly, between 21 and 23 July 1993, the police raided and closed down the offices of the Concord Press (publisher of the National Concord, the African Concord and at least six other publications), the dailies Punch and Newsday, the Sketch Group (publisher of the Daily Sketch and the Sunday Sketch) and the publication The Observer. Reportedly, on 16 August 1994, the Government issued Decree 48 proscribing the publications of the Concord Press and the Sketch Group, and also Punch and The Observer. Reportedly, the previously issued Decree 43 had established a press registration board whose chairman was to be appointed by the Government, required all newspapers to register annually with the Government against payment of a registration fee referred to as \"steep\", and rendered the publication of \"false information\" punishable by a prison term of 10 years or a fine equalling US$ 11,000. Reportedly, on various dates in 1993 and 1994, the following persons were arrested: Mr. Nosa Igiebo, Mr. Onome Osifo-Whiskey, Mr. Kolawole Ilori, Mr. Kayode Akinkuotu (all four editors with the magazine Tell), Mr. Yinka Tella (reporter for The News), Mr. Ken Saro-Wiwa (writer and President of the Association of Nigerian Authors) and Mr. Chris Okolie (editor-in-chief and publisher of Newbreed Magazine).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the arrest, incommunicado detention and deportation to the United States of America of Ms. Geraldine Brooks, a reporter for the United States based daily Wall Street Journal, and the confiscation of her material, in April 1994. Also, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the arrest, on 7 April 1994, of Mr. Dan Agbesse, Mr. Ray Ekpu and Mr. Yakubu Mohammed, press professionals working or having worked for the publication Newswatch, and on the alleged detention without charge of Mr. Alex Kabaa, a press professional working for the publication The News.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "By letter of 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted additional information to the Government on the arrest, on 22 May 1994, of Mr. Ken Saro-Wiwa. According to this information, Mr. Saro-Wiwa was being held incommunicado in military detention in Port Harcourt, was being denied access to medical services while in need of regular medication to control high blood pressure, and had not been charged - although he had been publicly accused by the Military Administrator of Rivers State of having incited the killing of four prominent members of the Ogoni minority. Furthermore, reportedly, Mr. Saro-Wiwa had previously been held incommunicado in military detention for a number of weeks in or around July 1993 in relation to the exercise of his right to freedom of expression and, reportedly, during this period of detention he had suffered heart attacks and was denied medical attention.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "By letter dated 10 November 1995, the Special Rapporteur conveyed to the Government his concern with regard to the fate of Mr. Ken Saro-Wiwa. The Special Rapporteur stated he had received information which led him to assume that the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression by Mr. Saro-Wiwa had been subjected to arbitrary interference, that he had been sentenced to death by hanging on charges of incitement to murder and that his sentence had been upheld in last instance on 9 November 1995. The Special Rapporteur strongly urged the Government not to carry out the sentence on Mr. Saro-Wiwa in view of the many questions that had arisen with respect to the fairness and legality of the procedures followed in his trial.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0086", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "On the same day, 10 November 1995, the Special Rapporteur received information indicating that Mr. Saro-Wiwa had been executed in the early morning of that day.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0087", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "By letter dated 20 November 1995, the Government replied to the Special Rapporteur’s letter of 10 November 1995, providing the Special Rapporteur with a description of events surrounding the case of Mr. Saro-Wiwa. The Government also informed the Special Rapporteur, inter alia, that Mr. Saro-Wiwa had been charged, under Charge No. OCDT/PH/1/95, as follows:\n\"As President of MOSOP [Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People] and founder of the NYCOP [the youth wing of MOSOP], he masterminded and led the riots of 21 May under the pretext of holding Constitutional Conference rally on a day that the law did not permit and which exercise he had earlier directed members of MOSOP and NYCOP to boycott and in which he was not a bona fide candidate. He had orchestrated the campaign to eliminate the ’vultures’ [pejorative description of certain prominent members of the Ogoni minority]. He was heard on the day of the riots to have said that he was not blaming those who had prevented him to go to the rally ground because they were sent by the ’vultures’ meeting in Giokoo. A prosecution witness, whose house has been burnt down by members of NYCOP, testified that when she complained to Mr. Saro-Wiwa about this, he cautioned her that a revolution was taking place and that ’heads would roll in Gokana’.\"", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0088", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "The Government furthermore informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Saro-Wiwa had been \"found guilty of murder contrary to section 316 of the Criminal Code as incorporated in section 3 of the Civil Disturbances (Special Tribunal) Act and item 13 in the First Schedule to the Act [and] sentenced to death by hanging\".", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0089", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "By letter dated 30 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the killing of Mr. Rehmat Masih and wounding of Mr. Manzoor Masih, Mr. Salamat Masih (13 years of age) and Mr. John Masih by unidentified assailants riding motorbikes who opened fire on these persons as they were leaving their lawyers’ office and after having appeared before a hearing at the Pakistan High Court of Lahore, on 5 April 1994, where the first three persons had been summoned to appear on charges relating to blasphemy. The three persons had allegedly been accused of \"defiling the Holy Prophet’s name in writings on walls and slips of paper\", an offence reportedly punishable by a mandatory death sentence under article 295-C of the Penal Code.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Pakistan"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "295", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0090", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Pakistan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0091", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the arrest and detention of leading members of the political party, Mohajir Qoumi Movement. According to this information, the senators Mr. Ishtiaq Azhar (72 years of age), Ms. Nasreen Jalil and Mr. Aftab A. Sheikh were arrested on 25 April 1994 and detained for two weeks and Mr. Farooq Sattar, a member of the Sindh Province Assembly, was held, on or around that date, by Sindh Province security forces. Allegedly, all four persons were being denied treatment that was in accordance with human rights standards in the administration of justice.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Pakistan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0092", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "By letter dated 15 July 1995, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that \"a number of cases of heinous crimes like murder have been registered against Mr. Ishtiaq Azhar, Begum Nasreen Jalil, Mr. Aftab Ahmed Sheikh and Mr. Farooq Sattar and their cases are pending trial in different courts\".", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Pakistan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0093", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "By letter dated 11 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the use of violence against press professionals by the police during demonstrations. Allegedly, on 2 May 1994 in Tacuara, Mr. Mariano Godoy, a correspondent for the daily ABC Color, was shot at. On the same day in Ciudad de Este, Mr. Juan Carlos Salinas and Mr. Gualberto Areco (journalists with the daily Noticias), Mr. Cesar Palacios and Mr. Blas Ceferino Pena (journalists with the daily ABC Color), Ms. Dolly Galeano (a journalist with the daily Ultima Hora) and Mr. Celso Salcedo (a journalist with Canal 13) were reportedly beaten.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Paraguay"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0094", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on these cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Paraguay"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0095", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the sentencing, in February 1993, of the press professionals Mr. Cesar Hildebrandt and Ms. Cecilia Valenzuela to one year’s imprisonment on libel charges in relation to a television report alleging the involvement of a military officer, referred to by name, in committing human rights violations.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Peru"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0096", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the sentencing, on 29 April 1993, of the press professional Mr. Jesus Alfonso Castiglione Mendoza to 20 years’ imprisonment for collaboration with terrorists.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Peru"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0097", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on these cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Peru"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0098", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "By letter dated 11 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the interruption by the authorities, on 29 August 1994, of the broadcasts by the private television company Polsat 1, allegedly because it had not obtained a licence. Reportedly, police raided the office of the company and seized film material that was made on this action.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Poland"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0099", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Poland"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0100", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "By letter of 7 March 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the arrest, on 27 November 1993 in Freetown, of the press professionals Mr. Paul Kamara and Mr. Salio Kamara, editor-in-chief and assistant editor of the daily For Di People. Allegedly, documents and photographs were seized from the house of Mr. Paul Kamara and the two press professionals were interrogated on a project entitled \"jumelage\" that had been financed and sustained by UNESCO and that provided for cooperation between the daily concerned and the Swedish daily Expressen.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sierra Leone"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0101", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sierra Leone"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0102", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "By letter dated 30 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following information to the Government on the use of violence against press professionals. Mr. Abdul Shariff, a photographer with the Associated Press, was killed on 9 January 1994 in the township of Katlehong when unidentified assailants opened fire. In the same attack, Mr. Charles Moikanyang and Mr. Anthea Warner, a television reporter and a radio reporter with the South African Broadcasting Corporation, were wounded.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "South Africa"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0103", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on these cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "South Africa"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0104", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on Mr. Hemal Warnakula, a journalist with Radio Veritas, who had allegedly received a number of anonymous death threats in March 1994. On 24 March 1994, reportedly, a number of journalists had been assaulted by a number of politicians and, allegedly, no inquiries were made into the incident by the police.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0105", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "By letter dated 23 January 1995, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Warnakula had received death threats in the early months of 1994, that inquiries had been initiated by the Criminal Investigation Department of Colombo with a view to tracing the source of the threats and that Mr. Warnakula had since stated that as of August 1994 he had not received any threats and therefore did not want the investigations pursued further. Also, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that, on 24 March 1994, Mr. R.M. Bandaragala Hasaka, a journalist with the newspaper Rawaya, had complained to the police at Hambantota that a fellow journalist named Jayawardena Jagoda had been kicked by the chairman of the Provincial Council of Hambantota, that the respondent had subsequently been arrested by the police and that no prosecution had been initiated because Mr. Jagoda’s injuries were of a trivial nature.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0106", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "By letter dated 29 April 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on a police raid, on or around 24 February 1994, on the office of the daily Al Sudani al-Doulia, the seizure of documents from the office and the arrest of the daily’s news editor Mr. Mutasim Mahmoud, allegedly for having undertaken \"anti-State activities\". Allegedly, Mr. Mahmoud had not been charged and it was not known where he was being detained. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the closure of this daily, on 4 April 1994, and the arrest of its publisher, Mr. Mahjoub Mohamed El Hassan Erwa and two more of its staff members, Mr. Ahmed Ali Bagadi and Mr. Mutwakil Abdel Daff’eh. Allegedly, the Government had publicly stated the daily had been closed down permanently for trying to destroy the \"National Salvation Revolution and its symbols\".", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0107", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "By letter dated 25 July 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted further information to the Government on the above-mentioned persons arrested on 4 April 1994. According to this information, the press professionals concerned were accused of, but not charged with, spreading \"false news\", reportedly by expressing opinions in favour of a return to multi-party politics and by alleging corruption among government officials. Reportedly, the whereabouts of the three detained press professionals were unknown.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0108", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "By letter dated 25 July 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted further information on the fate of Mr. Mutasim Mahmoud and the closure of the daily concerned, indicating that, on 12 March 1994, the daily had also been suspended by a Government appointed press and publications committee. In addition, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the alleged arrest of another press professional working with the daily concerned, Mr. Nour al-Dine Madani, on 4 April 1994.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0109", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur presented further information to the Government on the closure of the daily referred to in the preceding paragraphs and on the suspension of the weekly Darfour Al Gadida, since 12 March 1994.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0110", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on these cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0111", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "By letter dated 10 August 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the alleged killing of and use of violence against the following press professionals: Mr. Saidmurov Yerov of the magazine Farkhang, whose body was found on 2 February 1993 in a mass grave in Dushanbe; Mr. Zukhuruddin Suyari of the magazine Todzhikiston was found dead in March 1993 in Kurgan-Tiube; Mr. Igor Rotar of the daily Nezavisinaya Gazeta was threatened and beaten by law enforcement officials in May 1993; and Mr. Pirimkul Sattori of the daily Khatlon was found dead in May 1993. Furthermore, the radio and television professionals Mr. Mirbobo Mirrakhimov, Mr. Akhmadsho Kamilov, Mr. Khairiddin Kasymov and Mr. Khurshed Nazarov were allegedly charged, early in 1993, with \"conspiracy to overthrow the Government through the mass media\" and publicly accused of slander by the speaker of Parliament in relation to a video tape showing human rights abuses committed by government officials.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tajikistan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0112", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on these cases.\nThe former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tajikistan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0113", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "By letter dated 26 August 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the confiscation of printed material from Mr. Ilija Ilievski by the border police, on 22 June, 5 July and 28 December 1991, on 18 March 1992 and on 26 March 1993. The material reportedly included works on the history of the national liberation movement.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tajikistan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0114", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the confiscation in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tajikistan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0115", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "By letter dated 10 November 1995, the Special Rapporteur conveyed his concern to the Government and requested information on the fate of Ms. Alya Chérif-Chammari, a lawyer, and Mr. Khemaïs Chammari, co-founder of the Arab Institute of Human Rights and the Mediterranean Centre for Human Rights. According to information received by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. and Ms. Chammari were prohibited from leaving the country and had their passports confiscated on Sunday, 29 October 1995, on or around 4 p.m., when they were about to leave Tunisia by air to attend a colloquium of the Mediterranean Centre for Human Rights in Valetta, Malta.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0116", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on these cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0117", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "By letter dated 10 August 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the killing of the press professionals Mr. Ugur Mumcu of the daily Cumhuriyet (on 24 January 1993), Mr. Kemal Kilic of the daily Özgür Gündem (on 18 February 1993) and Mr. Ferhat Tepe of Özgür Gündem (in early August 1993); on the arrest and detention of the press professionals Mr. Davut Karadag of Özgür Gündem (on 15 July 1993), Ms. Nezahat Ozen of Özgür Gündem (on 16 July 1993) and Mr. Ahmet Ibili of the daily Mücadele (on 18 August 1993); and on the disappearance of Ms. Aysel Malkac of Özgür Gündem (on 7 August 1993). Allegedly, Ms. Ozen, who was seven months pregnant at the time of her arrest, was ill-treated during her interrogation, as a result of which she was transferred to hospital.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0118", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "By letter dated 10 August 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the arrest and detention, on 17 April 1994, of two press professionals in the service of the magazine Alinteri, Mr. Derya Tanrivermis and Mr. Zafer Sakin.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0119", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "By letter dated 12 August 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the lifting, allegedly without respect for proper procedure, of the parliamentary immunity and immediate subsequent arrest, detention and interrogation of the following members of Parliament, on 2 and 3 March 1994: Mr. Mahmut Alinak, Mr. Hatip Dicle, Mr. Orhan Dogan, Mr. H. Mezarci, Mr. Sirri Sakik, Mr. Ahmet Türk and Ms. Leyla Zana. According to this information, Mr. Mezarci was accused of having insulted the late President Kemal Atatürk. The other parliamentarians were allegedly detained for having publicly expressed their opinions, as members of Parliament, in favour of the recognition of a degree of autonomy in the region of the country where a majority of the population is of Kurdish origin.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0120", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on these cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0121", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 121, "n": 121, "text": "By letter dated 6 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the fate of the following 13 press professionals. Mr. Tacettin Vural of Flash TV and Mr. Nevzat Yilmaz of the daily Aydinlik were allegedly beaten by police officers in Antalya on 16 March and in Istanbul on 7 February 1994 respectively. Mr. Hans Peter Wyman, Mr. Michael Enger and Ms. Corinna Gutstadt of the German Flash TV were allegedly harassed, detained and interrogated by police officers, who destroyed part of their equipment and confiscated film in two incidents in Tatvan, on 19 March 1994, and in Dolunay village (near Lice), on 23 March 1994. Mr. Nazim Babaoglu of Özgür Gündem and Mr. Murat Yogunlu of the Anatolian News Agency reportedly disappeared in March 1994, as did Mr. Aysul Malkac of Özgür Gündem as of 7 August 1994. Mr. Ali Tevfik Berber and Mr. Erhan Akyildiz of HBB Television reportedly were sentenced to two months’ imprisonment by a military court, on 11 February 1994, for interviewing conscientious objectors to military service in their television programme \"Anten\". Mr. Ferit Ilselver and Mr. Hale Soysu of Aydinlik were reportedly sentenced to 10 months’ imprisonment by the Second Criminal Court of Istanbul, on 28 December 1993, for \"insulting the military\", following a complaint brought by the Office of Joint Chiefs of Staff. The Special Rapporteur transmitted further information in relation to the fate of Mr. Davut Karadag, whose case he had taken up in a letter of 10 August 1994. The Special Rapporteur transmitted information on repeated closures of Özgür Gündem in 1993 and 1994 and on the confiscation of nine issues of the weekly Azadi in the first three months of 1994.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0122", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 122, "n": 122, "text": "By letter dated of 20 March 1995, the Government transmitted the following information on the cases referred to by the Special Rapporteur in his letter of 6 September 1994, with the exception of the cases involving Mr. Malkac, Mr. Berber and Mr. Akyildiz, Mr. Soysu and the weekly Azadi.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0123", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 123, "n": 123, "text": "An inquiry concerning the beating of Mr. Nevzat Yilmaz by the police was undertaken by decision of the Basic Criminal Court and the allegation was decided to be unfounded. A request by his legal representatives to reverse this decision was turned down by the High Criminal Court No. 2 of the Kadiköy District of Istanbul.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0124", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 124, "n": 124, "text": "Mr. Nazim Babaoglu has allegedly been missing since 12 March 1994. An inquiry into his case is being conducted by the Office of the Chief Public Prosecutor of the State Security Court in Diyarbakir Province.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0125", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 125, "n": 125, "text": "The Istanbul High Criminal Court sentenced Mr. Ferit Ilsever to 10 months’ imprisonment on the charge of publishing an article in the 13 July 1993 issue of Aydinlik defaming and insulting the State security forces. The case is currently pending with the Court of Appeal.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0126", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 126, "n": 126, "text": "The Office of the Chief Public Prosecutor has established that the incident concerning Mr. Tacettin Vural took place when a number of journalists tried to board the Prime Minister’s helicopter, which was already full. No inquiry was deemed necessary since the incident was related to the security of the flight.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0127", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 127, "n": 127, "text": "The Office of the Chief Public Prosecutor in Tatvan established that no complaints had been lodged concerning the alleged incidents involving Mr. Wyman, Mr. Enger and Ms. Gutstadt. It was furthermore established that these persons had been involved in a fight with local people, on 19 March 1994, as a result of which they were taken from the district of Tatvan to the province of Bitlis by the security forces.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0128", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 128, "n": 128, "text": "The Istanbul State Security Court No. 2 and the Istanbul High Criminal Court No. 2, in public trials held in 1993 and 1994, repeatedly sentenced Mr. Seyh Davut Karadag, editor-in-chief of Özgür Gündem, to prison terms ranging from five months to two years and, simultaneously, to fines ranging from the equivalent of US$ 1,300 to 7,000, in relation to various articles printed in that newspaper, for the publication of which Mr. Karadag was charged with aiming at the destruction of the territorial integrity and the political unity of the Turkish Republic, with publishing propaganda material in favour of the terrorist organization PKK, with publishing views of the terrorist organization PKK, and with publishing separatist propaganda, thereby breaching relevant articles of Press Law No. 5680 and Anti-Terror Law No. 3713. Both courts, furthermore, had ordered suspension of publication of the daily concerned for various periods of 15 days, in accordance with Law No. 5680 on a number of occasions. The Government stated that these proceedings had been initiated on the ground of criminal offences against the national security, territorial integrity and public safety of the State and in conformity with article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, to which Turkey was a party.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "10", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'in conformity with article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, to which Turkey was a party'. ECHR is a regional instrument outside the allowed list."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0129", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 129, "n": 129, "text": "The same court sentenced Mr. Karadag, on 13 July 1993, to two years’ imprisonment and a fine the equivalent of US$ 5,680 upon charges of propagating ideas against the State security forces taking part in anti-terror activities through the publishing of three articles in the 5 July 1993 issue of Özgür Gündem. The court acquitted Mr. Karadag of the charges of provoking the public to hostility and of propagating separatist ideas.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0130", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 130, "n": 130, "text": "By letter dated 7 June 1995, the Government invited the Special Rapporteur to visit Turkey. As yet, no dates have been agreed upon. The Special Rapporteur intends to visit the country at the earliest possible date.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0131", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 131, "n": 131, "text": "By letter dated 26 July 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on unidentified persons reported to have thrown a bomb into the building that houses the weekly Cincinnati Herald, on 29 March 1994, totally destroying its newsroom. Allegedly, the publisher of the weekly, Mr. William Spillers, had received threatening telephone calls and hate mail in the week prior to the bombing.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "United States of America"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0132", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 132, "n": 132, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "United States of America"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0133", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 133, "n": 133, "text": "By letter dated 28 March 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the fate of the following press professionals.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0134", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 134, "n": 134, "text": "Mr. Doan Viet Hoat was reportedly arrested with his wife and son at their home in Ho Chi Minh Ville on 17 November 1990; he was convicted on 29 March 1993, on the charge of having expressed \"anti Communist\" views, and sentenced under article 73 of the Penal Code to 20 years’ forced labour and 5 years’ suspension of his civil rights. Reportedly, his sentence was commuted on 9 July 1993 to 15 years’ imprisonment and 5 years’ house arrest. He was reported to be imprisoned in camp No. 4, Phan Dang Luu, in Ho Chi Minh Ville.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "73", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0135", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 135, "n": 135, "text": "Mr. Le Duc Vuong was reportedly arrested and detained in December 1990, accused of having published in the unlicensed publication Dien Dan Tu Do (Freedom Forum), and sentenced under article 73 of the Penal Code, in April 1993, to seven years’ imprisonment. Reportedly his sentence was commuted on 9 July 1993 to five years’ imprisonment and three years’ house arrest. He was reported to be imprisoned in Phan Dang Luu, in Ho Chi Minh Ville.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "73", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0136", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 136, "n": 136, "text": "Mr. Pham Duc Kham was reportedly arrested and detained in November 1990, accused of having published in Dien Dan Tu Do, and sentenced under article 73 of the Penal Code, in April 1993, to 15 years’ imprisonment. Reportedly his sentence was commuted on 9 July 1993 to 12 years’ imprisonment and 5 years’ house arrest.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "73", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0137", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 137, "n": 137, "text": "Mr. Nguyen Van Thuan (alias Chau Son) was reportedly arrested and detained in December 1990, accused of having published in Dien Dan Tu Do and sentenced under article 73 of the Penal Code, in April 1993, to 12 years’ imprisonment. Reportedly his sentence was commuted on 9 July 1993 to eight years’ imprisonment and four years’ house arrest.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "73", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0138", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 138, "n": 138, "text": "Mr. Thai Nhu Sieu, former editor-in-chief of the journal Tan Viet Hoa (Sino-Vietnamese Renaissance) was reportedly arrested on 21 July 1978 and sentenced to 20 years’ imprisonment for activities related to his profession. Reportedly, he is imprisoned in Hoa Lo prison in Hanoi.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0139", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 139, "n": 139, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on Mr. Doan Viet Hoat, a writer, who reportedly is serving a 15-year prison term for activities related to his profession and who has been repeatedly transferred from prison to prison, as a result of which his family’s efforts to supply him with otherwise unprovided medical care and warm clothing have been hampered. Reportedly, he was most recently transferred on 25 April 1994, from Ba Sao prison in Nam Ha Province to Thanh Cam prison, some 90 kilometres from Thanh Hoa City.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0140", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 140, "n": 140, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0141", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 141, "n": 141, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the suspension and confiscation of equipment of the weekly Yemen Times, in Sana’a on 10 May 1994. Reportedly, the action was taken upon publication by the weekly of a number for casualties caused by fighting between the armies of the former North and South Yemen that contradicted official estimates.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Yemen"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0142", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 142, "n": 142, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Yemen"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0143", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 143, "n": 143, "text": "By letter dated 11 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the suspension of the authorization to exercise their profession of the following press professionals of the Zairian Office of Radio and Television: Mr. Kalunga Wa Kalunga and Mr. Kabeya Pindi Pasi (in February 1994); Mr. Charles Djungu Singa Kamatanda, Mr. Michael Museme Diawé, Mr. Léonard Mulumba Kalala, Mr. Charles Dimanja Wembi and Mr. Jean René Mputu Bidwaya (on 4 June 1993); and Mr. Elonge Osako, Mr. Kafka Rujamizi and Mr. Ntumba Mudingayi (in July 1993). Reportedly, this action had been taken in relation to their membership of the Association for a Free and Democratic Press.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Zaire"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0144", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 144, "n": 144, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on these cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Zaire"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0145", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 145, "n": 145, "text": "By letter dated 11 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the arrest, charging with insulting the President and release on bail of Mr. Fred M’Membe and Mr. Bright Mwape, on 29 April 1994. Reportedly, the men were arrested in relation to an article published in the 29 March 1994 issue of the daily The Post quoting a former Minister of Community Development as having referred to the President as \"a twit\". Reportedly, the arrests occurred after several instances of intimidation by government officials of press professionals in the service of the daily, including the arrest of a reporter who had photographed police officers beating a suspect.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Zambia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0146", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 146, "n": 146, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.\nIV.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Zambia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0147", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 147, "n": 147, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is compelled to conclude, as in previous years, that violations of the right to freedom of expression occur in all parts of the world. In a number of instances, these violations concur with violations of other human rights, including those related to enforced or involuntary disappearances, extrajudicial, arbitrary or summary executions, torture, religious intolerance and arbitrary detention, as well as with the problem of terrorism.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0148", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 148, "n": 148, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is concerned about the continued intimidation, harassment and use of violence against writers, press professionals and other persons seeking to exercise the right to freedom of opinion and expression. He is concerned at the many different manifestations of intolerance, both on the part of Governments and on the part of private persons, in relation to opinions expressed in the public arena. He is also concerned at the many instances of persecution of such professionals and other persons, and about the many reports of convictions under national legislation of such professionals and persons to severe sentences, including prolonged prison terms and corporal punishment, in violation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression as affirmed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0149", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 149, "n": 149, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is concerned at the cases brought to his attention in relation to the right to freedom of opinion and expression of women. He considers the creative freedom for women to express themselves, to create and nourish culture and to bring into the light suffering that stays hidden because of societal taboos an essential means to overcome the many manifestations of the use of violence against women, that can negatively affect their enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. A number of obstacles, however, stand in the way of the full enjoyment of freedom of opinion and expression by women. State censorship is among them, as are more informal types of censorship and self-censorship imposed on women by powerful groups in society that are inspired by fundamentalism of various kinds and claim the culture or self-esteem of the society at large is endangered by the free flow of ideas. The Special Rapporteur is aware the issue bristles with sensitivities given the diversity of cultural and religious traditions and he cautions against inaction that might result from them.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0150", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 150, "n": 150, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is concerned that private individuals regularly resort to acts of violence, threats, and intimidation against other private persons for the purpose of settling religious or ideological disputes. The Special Rapporteur considers that this phenomenon provokes a dangerous spiral of violence for which the authorities cannot deny responsibility if no adequate action is taken to protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur notes that violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to seek and receive information, result not only from actions undertaken by the State and its representatives, but equally result from the inaction of the State, at governmental and other levels, under circumstances that unmistakeably call for the protection of this right and which compel the Special Rapporteur to take side with the victims and potential victims of these violations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0151", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 151, "n": 151, "text": "The Special Rapporteur expresses his sincere appreciation to all Governments that, in accordance with the request of the Commission contained in resolution 1993/45, have cooperated with and assisted the Special Rapporteur in the performance of his tasks and have furnished all the information requested by him. He is committed to cooperating fully with Governments in their efforts to strengthen the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and to solve the many problems in the area of his mandate.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0152", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 152, "n": 152, "text": "The Special Rapporteur appeals to all the Governments that he has requested to cooperate, to engage in a dialogue with him and to enable him to establish the facts and arrive at a well-informed opinion on matters relating to his mandate, including by visits to the countries concerned.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0153", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 153, "n": 153, "text": "The Special Rapporteur expresses his sincere appreciation to all non-governmental organizations active in the area of his concern with which he has been able to nurture a close relationship that is of great importance for the success of his work. He notes the intrinsic hesitation of State bureaucracies to admit voluntarily to violations of human rights and stresses that the integrity and vitality of any human rights review process also depends on information provided by non-governmental organizations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0154", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 154, "n": 154, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is pleased to report that Governments, though some more than others, are proving willing to engage in a constructive dialogue with him on freedom of opinion and expression. He is concerned, however, at what he perceives to be a certain lack of appreciation of all the implications of the adequate promotion and protection of this right and regrets that at times bureaucratic explanations are provided in reply to his requests for information that appear to be designed to camouflage rather than to reveal problems and inadequacies in the protection of this right. He is aware that often there are no easy answers in cases where the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is called for, especially under circumstances in which the Government feels compelled to act for the purpose of protecting the legitimate interests of society, including those of public morality and national security. For these reasons and for the purpose of assisting all Governments to promote and protect the right to freedom of expression and to move expeditiously and effectively towards achieving this goal, the Special Rapporteur recommends that the Commission on Human Rights endorse the Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, which are contained in the annex to the present report and which the Special Rapporteur considers give useful guidance for protecting adequately the right to freedom of opinion, expression and information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0155", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 155, "n": 155, "text": "The Special Rapporteur finds that the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is not always adequately guaranteed through ratification by States of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and other relevant international instruments. In his opinion, such protection requires a continuous political commitment that includes implementation of specific policies and programmes. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur much regrets the existence of, sometimes prolonged, crises in which violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression are justified on the basis of outmoded notions of national security, manipulation by authoritarian regimes and the view expressed by some Governments that human rights are part of an alien culture not suited to being transposed to the countries they govern. The Special Rapporteur believes the effective implementation of the important mandate entrusted to him requires the pursuit of intellectually vigorous and novel approaches conducive to surmounting these and other problems on which he has reported to the Commission. If provided with the necessary support by the Commission, the Special Rapporteur is convinced he could more effectively assist in generating intellectual and political forces to achieve tangible progress in this field, including by stimulating public will and by building institutions to prevent violations from taking place. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur once again recommends that the Commission consider the question of financial and human resources in the light of the remarks contained in paragraph 6 of the present report and paragraphs 92 to 95 and 145 of his previous report (E/CN.4/1995/32).\nAnnex\nTHE JOHANNESBURG PRINCIPLES ON NATIONAL SECURITY, FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION AND ACCESS TO INFORMATION\nIntroduction\nThese Principles were adopted on 1 October 1995 by a group of experts in international law, national security and human rights convened by Article 19, the International Centre against Censorship, in collaboration with the Centre for Applied Legal Studies of the University of the Witwatersrand, which met in South Africa.\nThe Principles are based on international and regional law and standards relating to the protection of human rights, evolving state practice (as reflected, inter alia, in judgments of national courts), and the general principles of law recognized by the community of nations.\nThese Principles acknowledge the enduring applicability of the Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation Provisions in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Paris Minimum Standards of Human Rights Norms in a State of Emergency. 1/\nPreamble\nThe participants involved in drafting the present Principles:\nConsidering that, in accordance with the principles proclaimed in the Charter of the United Nations, recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world;\nConvinced that it is essential, if people are not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law;\nReaffirming their belief that freedom of expression and freedom of information are vital to a democratic society and are essential for its progress and welfare and for the enjoyment of other human rights and fundamental freedoms;\nTaking into account relevant provisions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary, the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, the American Convention on Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights;\nKeenly aware that some of the most serious violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms are justified by Governments as necessary to protect national security;\nBearing in mind that it is imperative, if people are to be able to monitor the conduct of their Government and to participate fully in a democratic society, that they have access to government-held information;\nDesiring to promote a clear recognition of the limited scope of restrictions on freedom of expression and freedom of information that may be imposed in the interest of national security, so as to discourage Governments from using the pretext of national security to place unjustified restrictions on the exercise of these freedoms;\nRecognizing the necessity for legal protection of these freedoms by the enactment of laws drawn narrowly and with precision, and which ensure the essential requirements of the rule of law; and Reiterating the need for judicial protection of these freedoms by independent courts;\nAgree upon the following Principles and recommend that appropriate bodies at the national, regional and international levels undertake steps to promote their widespread dissemination, acceptance and implementation:\nI.\nGENERAL PRINCIPLES\nPrinciple 1. Freedom of opinion, expression and information\n(a) Everyone has the right to hold opinions without interference.\n(b) Everyone has the right to freedom of expression, which includes the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his or her choice.\n(c) The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph (b) may be subject to restrictions on specific grounds, as established in international law, including for the protection of national security.\n(d) No restriction on freedom of expression or information on the ground of national security may be imposed unless the Government can demonstrate that the restriction is prescribed by law and is necessary in a democratic society to protect a legitimate national security interest. 2/ The burden of demonstrating the validity of the restriction rests with the Government.\nPrinciple 1.1. Prescribed by law\n(a) Any restriction on expression or information must be prescribed by law. The law must be accessible, unambiguous, drawn narrowly and with precision so as to enable individuals to foresee whether a particular action is unlawful.\n(b) The law should provide for adequate safeguards against abuse, including prompt, full and effective judicial scrutiny of the validity of the restriction by an independent court or tribunal.\nPrinciple 1.2. Protection of a legitimate national security interest\nAny restriction on expression or information that a Government seeks to justify on grounds of national security must have the genuine purpose and demonstrable effect of protecting a legitimate national security interest.\nPrinciple 1.3. Necessary in a democratic society\nTo establish that a restriction on freedom of expression or information is necessary to protect a legitimate national security interest, a Government must demonstrate that:\n(a) The expression or information at issue poses a serious threat to a legitimate national security interest;\n(b) The restriction imposed is the least restrictive means possible of protecting that interest; and\n(c) The restriction is compatible with democratic principles.\nPrinciple 2. Legitimate national security interest\n(a) A restriction sought to be justified on the ground of national security is not legitimate unless its genuine purpose and demonstrable effect is to protect a country’s existence or its territorial integrity against the use or threat of force, or its capacity to respond to the use or threat of force, whether from an external source, such as a military threat, or an internal source, such as incitement to violent overthrow of the Government.\n(b) In particular, a restriction sought to be justified on the ground of national security is not legitimate if its genuine purpose or demonstrable effect is to protect interests unrelated to national security, including, for example, to protect a Government from embarrassment or exposure of wrongdoing, or to conceal information about the functioning of its public institutions, or to entrench a particular ideology, or to suppress industrial unrest.\nPrinciple 3. States of emergency\nIn time of public emergency which threatens the life of the country and the existence of which is officially and lawfully proclaimed in accordance with both national and international law, a State may impose restrictions on freedom of expression and information but only to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation and only when and for so long as they are not inconsistent with the Government’s other obligations under international law.\nPrinciple 4. Prohibition of discrimination\nIn no case may a restriction on freedom of expression or information, including on the ground of national security, involve discrimination based on race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, nationality, property, birth or other status.\nII.\nRESTRICTIONS ON FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION\nPrinciple 5. Protection of opinion\nNo one may be subjected to any sort of restraint, disadvantage or sanction because of his or her opinions or beliefs.\nPrinciple 6. Expression that may threaten national security\nSubject to Principles 15 and 16, expression may be punished as a threat to national security only if a Government can demonstrate:\n(a) That the expression is intended to incite imminent violence;\n(b) It is likely to incite such violence; and\n(c) There is a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the likelihood or occurrence of such violence.\nPrinciple 7. Protected expression\n(a) Subject to Principles 15 and 16, the peaceful exercise of the right to freedom of expression shall not be considered a threat to national security or subjected to any restrictions or penalties. Expression which shall not constitute a threat to national security includes, but is not limited to, expression that:\n(i) Advocates non-violent change of government policy or the Government itself;\n(ii) Constitutes criticism of, or insult to, the nation, the State or its symbols, the Government, its agencies, or public officials, 3/ or a foreign nation, State or its symbols, Government, agencies or public officials;\n(iii) Constitutes objection, or advocacy of objection, on grounds of religion, conscience or belief, to military conscription or service, a particular conflict, or the threat or use of force to settle international disputes;\n(iv) Is directed at communicating information about alleged violations of international human rights standards or international humanitarian law.\n(b) No one may be punished for criticizing or insulting the nation, the State or its symbols, the Government, its agencies or public officials, or a foreign nation, State or its symbols, Government, agency or public official unless the criticism or insult was intended and likely to incite imminent violence.\nPrinciple 8. Mere publicity of activities that may threaten national security\nExpression may not be prevented or punished merely because it transmits information issued by or about an organization that a Government has declared threatens national security or a related interest.\nPrinciple 9. Use of a minority or other language\nExpression, whether written or oral, can never be prohibited on the ground that it is in a particular language, especially the language of a national minority.\nPrinciple 10. Unlawful interference with expression by third parties\nGovernments are obliged to take reasonable measures to prevent private groups or individuals from interfering unlawfully with the peaceful exercise of freedom of expression, even where the expression is critical of the Government or its policies. In particular, Governments are obliged to condemn unlawful actions aimed at silencing freedom of expression, and to investigate and bring to justice those responsible.\nIII.\nRESTRICTIONS ON FREEDOM OF INFORMATION\nPrinciple 11. General rule on access to information\nEveryone has the right to obtain information from public authorities, including information relating to national security. No restriction on this right may be imposed on the ground of national security unless the Government can demonstrate that the restriction is prescribed by law and is necessary in a democratic society to protect a legitimate national security interest.\nPrinciple 12. Narrow designation of security exemption\nA State may not categorically deny access to all information related to national security, but must designate in law only those specific and narrow categories of information that it is necessary to withhold in order to protect a legitimate national security interest.\nPrinciple 13. Public interest in disclosure\nIn all laws and decisions concerning the right to obtain information, the public interest in knowing the information shall be a primary consideration.\nPrinciple 14. Right to independent review of denial of information\nThe State is obliged to adopt appropriate measures to give effect to the right to obtain information. These measures shall require the authorities, if they deny a request for information, to specify their reasons for doing so in writing and as soon as reasonably possible; and shall provide for a right of review of the merits and the validity of the denial by an independent authority, including some form of judicial review. The reviewing authority must have the right to examine the information withheld. 4/\nPrinciple 15. General rule on disclosure of secret information\nNo person may be punished on national security grounds for disclosure of information if (1) the disclosure does not actually harm and is not likely to harm a legitimate national security interest, or (2) the public interest in knowing the information outweighs the harm from disclosure.\nPrinciple 16. Information obtained through public service\nNo person may be subjected to any detriment on national security grounds for disclosing information that he or she learned by virtue of government service if the public interest in knowing the information outweighs the harm from disclosure.\nPrinciple 17. Information in the public domain\nOnce information has been made generally available, even through illegal means, any justification for trying to stop further publication will be overridden by the public’s right to know.\nPrinciple 18. Protection of journalists’ sources\nProtection of national security may not be used as a reason to compel a journalist to reveal a confidential source.\nPrinciple 19. Access to restricted areas\nAny restriction on the free flow of information may not be of such a nature as to thwart the purposes of human rights and humanitarian law. In particular, Governments may not prevent journalists or representatives of intergovernmental or non-governmental organizations with a mandate to monitor adherence to human rights or humanitarian standards from entering areas where there are reasonable grounds to believe that violations of human rights or humanitarian law are being, or have been, committed. A government may not exclude journalists or representatives of such organizations from areas that are experiencing violence or armed conflict except where their presence would pose a clear risk to the safety of others.\nIV.\nRULE OF LAW AND OTHER MATTERS\nPrinciple 20. General rule of law protections\nAny person accused of a security-related crime 5/ involving expression or information is entitled to all of the rule of law protections that are part of international law. These include, but are not limited to, the following rights: (a) the right to be presumed innocent; (b) the right not to be arbitrarily detained; (c) the right to be informed promptly in a language the person can understand of the charges and the supporting evidence against him or her; (d) the right to prompt access to counsel of choice; (e) the right to a trial within a reasonable time; (f) the right to have adequate time to prepare his or her defence; (g) the right to a fair and public trial by an independent and impartial court or tribunal; (h) the right to examine prosecution witnesses; (i) the right not to have evidence introduced at trial unless it has been disclosed to the accused and he or she has had an opportunity to rebut it; and (j) the right to appeal to an independent court or tribunal with power to review the decision on law and facts and set it aside.\nPrinciple 21. Remedies\nAll remedies, including special ones, such as habeas corpus or amparo, shall be available to persons charged with security-related crimes, including during public emergencies which threaten the life of the country, as defined in Principle 3.\nPrinciple 22. Right to trial by an independent tribunal\n(a) At the option of the accused, a criminal prosecution of a security-related crime should be tried by a jury where that institution exists or else by judges who are genuinely independent. The trial of persons accused of security-related crimes by judges without security of tenure constitutes prima facie a violation of the right to be tried by an independent tribunal.\n(b) In no case may a civilian be tried for a security-related crime by a military court or tribunal.\n(c) In no case may a civilian or member of the military be tried by an ad hoc or specially constituted national court or tribunal.\nPrinciple 23. Prior censorship\nExpression shall not be subject to prior censorship in the interest of protecting national security, except in time of public emergency which threatens the life of the country under the conditions stated in Principle 3.\nPrinciple 24. Disproportionate punishments\nA person, media outlet, political or other organization may not be subject to such sanctions, restraints or penalties for a security-related crime involving freedom of expression or information that are disproportionate to the seriousness of the actual crime.\nPrinciple 25. Relation of these Principles to other standards\nNothing in these Principles may be interpreted as restricting or limiting any human rights or freedoms recognized in international, regional or national law or standards.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "low", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Visible 'Article 19' references the NGO of that name; however SR Freedom of Expression mandate ICCPR is the relevant treaty for any genuine treaty-article reading. Keeping Sonnet's ICCPR with low confidence."}, {"article": "25", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "low", "source": "opus", "rationale": "ICCPR is the only explicit treaty mentioned; art. 25 (political participation) plausible but text basis is thin."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. At its forty-ninth session, the Commission on Human Rights requested its Chairman, in resolution 1993/45 of 5 March 1993, to appoint, for a period of three years, a special rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. In the same resolution the Commission on Human Rights requested the Special Rapporteur: to gather all relevant information, wherever it might occur, of discrimination against, threats or use of violence and harassment, including persecution and intimidation, directed at persons seeking to exercise or to promote the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression as affirmed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and, where applicable, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, taking into account the work being conducted by other mechanisms of the Commission and Sub-Commission which touched on that right, with a view to avoiding duplication of work; as a matter of high priority, to gather all relevant information, wherever it might occur, of discrimination against, threats or use of violence and harassment, including persecution and intimidation, against professionals in the field of information seeking to exercise or to promote the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression; to seek and receive credible and reliable information from governments and nongovernmental organizations and any other parties who have knowledge of these cases; and to submit to the Commission, beginning at its fiftieth session, a report covering the activities relating to his or her mandate, containing recommendations to the Commission and providing suggestions on ways and means to better promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression in all its manifestations.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The Commission on Human Rights urged all Governments to cooperate with and assist the Special Rapporteur in the performance of his or her tasks and to furnish all information requested, and requested the Secretary-General to provide the Special Rapporteur with all necessary assistance, in particular the staff and resources deemed necessary, within existing overall United Nations resources, to fulfil his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. On 2 April 1993 the Chairman of the Commission on Human Rights, following consultations with the Bureau of the forty-ninth session, appointed Mr. Abid Hussain (India) as Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The Economic and Social Council, in its decision 1993/268, of 28 July 1993 approved the Commission's decision to appoint a special rapporteur and its request to the Secretary-General to provide him with all necessary assistance. However, resources were made available to the Centre for Human Rights for the mandate only in November 1993. Therefore, the Special Rapporteur could initiate his work only at the end of 1993.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The present report thus contains only preliminary considerations that will be revised, refined or developed in subsequent reports. To that end the Special Rapporteur hopes that the necessary resources will be made available.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. In section I of the present report the Special Rapporteur presents considerations on the terms of reference that constitute the legal framework within which he will carry out his mandate. Section II sets out the methods of work that he envisages using in the fulfilment of his mandate. In section III the Special Rapporteur reflects upon the issue of resources. Finally, section IV contains his concluding observations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The Special Rapporteur considers that the effective promotion of the human rights of persons who exercise or seek to exercise the right to freedom of opinion and expression is of fundamental importance to the safeguarding of human dignity. The Special Rapporteur also notes that the right to freedom of opinion and expression is interrelated with and enhances the exercise of all other human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The Special Rapporteur, in promoting and protecting the right to freedom of opinion and expression, will be guided by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which affirms, in article 19, the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'guided by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which affirms, in article 19, the right to freedom of opinion and expression'. UDHR, non-treaty. ICCPR is mentioned in the next paragraph (context_after) as a separate reference, so this art.19 is solely UDHR."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The Special Rapporteur will take into consideration, where applicable, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which reaffirms, in article 19, the right of everyone to hold opinions without interference, as well as the right to freedom of expression, and states that the exercise of the right to freedom of expression carries with it special duties and responsibilities and may therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but that these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary for respect of the rights or reputations of others, or for the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health and morals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. The Special Rapporteur, in taking into consideration article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, will bear in mind General Comment 10 [19] (Article 19) of the Human Rights Committee (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1 of 19 May 1989), which states, inter alia, that the Covenant permits no exception or restriction to the right to hold opinions without interference. When, subject to conditions, certain restrictions on the exercise of freedom of expression are imposed, these may not put in jeopardy the right itself.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. The Special Rapporteur will bear in mind article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which states that any propaganda for war or any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. The Special Rapporteur will also bear in mind General Comment 11 [19] (Article 20) of the Human Rights Committee (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1 of 19 May 1989), which states, inter alia, that the required prohibitions are fully compatible with the right to freedom of expression as contained in article 19, the exercise of which carries with it special duties and responsibilities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. The Special Rapporteur takes note of resolution 1983/32 of 6 September 1983 of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities and of Commission on Human Rights resolutions 1984/26 of 12 March 1986, 1985/17 of 11 March 1985, 1986/46 of 12 March 1986, 1987/32 of 10 March 1987, 1988/37 and 1988/39 of 8 March 1988, 1989/31 of 6 March 1989, 1989/56 of 7 March 1989, 1990/32 of 2 March 1990, 1991/32 of 5 March 1991 and 1992/22 of 28 February 1992.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. The Special Rapporteur also takes note of several resolutions of the Commission on Human Rights in which special rapporteurs are asked to pay particular attention to a number of issues within the framework of their mandates or which refer to the right to freedom of opinion and expression. These include in particular the following: resolutions 1993/24, entitled \"Rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities\", 1993/30, entitled \"International Year of the World's Indigenous People, 1993\", 1993/36, entitled \"Question of arbitrary detention\", 1993/39, entitled \"Staff members of the United Nations and of the specialized agencies in detention\", 1993/41, entitled \"Human rights in the administration of justice\", 1993/46, entitled \"Integrating the rights of women into the human rights mechanisms of the United Nations\", 1993/47, entitled \"Human rights and thematic procedures\", 1993/48, entitled \"Consequences for the enjoyment of human rights of acts of violence committed by armed groups that spread terror among the population and by drug traffickers\", 1993/59, entitled \"Strengthening of United Nations action in the field of human rights through the promotion of international cooperation, and the importance of nonselectivity, impartiality and objectivity\", and 1993/64, entitled \"Cooperation with representatives of United Nations human rights bodies\". The Special Rapporteur will strive, in the discharge of his mandate, to comply with the requests contained therein, whenever they are applicable to his mandate.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. In addition, the Special Rapporteur takes note of the preliminary report on the freedom of opinion and expression (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1990/11) and the updated preliminary report (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1991/9) submitted to the Sub-Commission at its forty-second and forty-third sessions, respectively, by the Special Rapporteurs, Mr. Louis Joinet and Mr. Danilo Türk.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur takes note of the final report on the right to freedom of opinion and expression (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1992/9) and the conclusions and recommendations (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1992/9/Add.1) submitted by the Special Rapporteurs to the Sub-Commission at its forty-fourth session.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The Special Rapporteur takes note of the reports of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention to the extent that they address concerns that are common to the two mandates. Particular attention will be paid to the criteria adopted by the Working Group to assess whether cases of detention would be considered arbitrary - the \"Principles applicable in the consideration of cases submitted to the Working Group\" (contained in Annex I to the first report of the Working Group to the Commission (E/CN.4/1992/20)), and in particular to category II of these Principles, in accordance with which are considered to be arbitrary: \"Cases of deprivation of freedom when the facts giving rise to the prosecution or conviction concern the exercise of the rights and freedoms protected by articles 7, 13, 14, 18, 19, 20 and 21 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and articles 12, 18, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26 and 27 of the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights.\" The Special Rapporteur also takes note of the pertinent conclusions reached by the Working Group in its second report to the Commission (E/CN.4/1993/24, paras. 35 and 36), and of the Working Group's decisions by which certain cases of detention are declared arbitrary as they fall within the above-mentioned category II dealing with violations of the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"article": "7", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicit UDHR list: 'articles 7, 13, 14, 18, 19, 20 and 21 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights'. Art.7 belongs to UDHR list. Non-treaty."}, {"article": "13", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same UDHR list. Non-treaty."}, {"article": "14", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same UDHR list. Non-treaty."}, {"article": "18", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same UDHR list (first occurrence of art.18 in UDHR list). Non-treaty."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same UDHR list (first occurrence of art.19). Non-treaty."}, {"article": "20", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same UDHR list. Non-treaty."}, {"article": "21", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same UDHR list (first occurrence of art.21). Non-treaty."}, {"article": "12", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicit ICCPR list: 'articles 12, 18, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26 and 27 of the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights'. Art.12 ICCPR = freedom of movement."}, {"article": "18", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second art.18 occurrence — belongs to ICCPR list. Art.18 ICCPR = freedom of thought/conscience/religion."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second art.19 occurrence — belongs to ICCPR list. Art.19 ICCPR = freedom of expression."}, {"article": "21", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second art.21 occurrence — belongs to ICCPR list. Art.21 ICCPR = right of peaceful assembly."}, {"article": "22", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "ICCPR list. Art.22 ICCPR = freedom of association."}, {"article": "25", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "ICCPR list. Art.25 ICCPR = right to political participation."}, {"article": "26", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "ICCPR list. Art.26 ICCPR = equality before the law."}, {"article": "27", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "ICCPR list. Art.27 ICCPR = rights of minorities."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned by numerous reports of detention of, as well as discrimination, threats and acts of violence and harassment, including persecution and intimidation, against professionals in the field of information, including journalists, editors, writers and authors, publishers and printers. Accordingly, a major concern of the Special Rapporteur is the protection of the rights and freedoms of professionals in the field of information.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. The protection of professionals in the field of information is a matter of high priority, but it does not exclude the protection of other persons referred to in paragraph 12 of Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/45.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The Special Rapporteur is aware that the concerns he is addressing are also of interest to other special rapporteurs and working groups, in particular as regards violations that fall within the purview of other thematic and country-specific mandates.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. The Special Rapporteur looks forward to periodic meetings with other special rapporteurs and representatives with experts and with members and chairmen of working groups that will enable them to harmonize and rationalize their work, as called for in the Joint Declaration of the Independent Experts Responsible for the Special Procedures for the Protection of Human Rights (A/CONF.157/9 of 18 June 1993).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Within this context it is important to recall that the right to freedom of opinion and expression should not be seen in isolation, but in the context of other human rights to which the right to freedom of opinion and expression is intrinsically linked.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. In adopting methods of work the Special Rapporteur will draw upon the practice established and experience acquired through the various thematic mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights, particularly those on enforced or involuntary disappearances, extrajudicial, arbitrary or summary executions, torture, religious intolerance, and arbitrary detention. He will adopt the methods and modalities that he deems most appropriate for his specific tasks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The Special Rapporteur is mandated to promote and protect the freedom of opinion and expression. This implies a combined approach that considers the general situation as well as concrete incidents and individual cases. Therefore, the work of the Special Rapporteur will involve both the study of phenomena related to the freedom of opinion and expression, and action on concrete incidents and cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. To that end the Commission on Human Rights has requested the Special Rapporteur to seek and receive credible and reliable information from governments, non-governmental organizations and any other parties who have knowledge of pertinent situations and cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. A wide and unrestricted range of sources is needed for operating effectively. Therefore, by a circular letter, the Special Rapporteur has contacted governments, specialized agencies, and non-governmental organizations which are concerned with the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and has sought pertinent information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Upon the receipt of prima facie credible and reliable information, the Special Rapporteur will transmit the information to the government concerned and request it to provide comments and observations. In resolution 1993/47, the Commission on Human Rights encouraged governments to respond expeditiously to such requests so that the thematic special rapporteurs concerned might carry out their mandates effectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. The Special Rapporteur intends to adopt the urgent action procedure for cases that are of a life-threatening nature, used in several other special thematic procedures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. As of January 1994 the Special Rapporteur, owing to the large number of communications he has already received providing details of incidents and cases of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, has begun to transmit summaries of these cases to the governments concerned.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. The dialogue established with governments by the Special Rapporteur and the transmission of allegations concerning their countries in no way implies any kind of accusation or value judgment on the part of the Special Rapporteur, but rather a request for clarification with a view to trying to ensure, along with the government concerned, the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. The Special Rapporteur views on-site visits as an essential component of his mandate. With respect to such visits the consent of the government concerned is required. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur wishes to stress the importance of the proposals for joint missions of independent experts made in the Joint Declaration of the Independent Experts Responsible for the Special Procedures for the Protection of Human Rights (A/CONF.157/9).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The Special Rapporteur will endeavour to respond effectively to credible and reliable information coming before him, and to carry out his work with discretion and independence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Although this first report merely contains preliminary considerations, the Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned at the considerable number of communications he has already received that allege serious violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression throughout the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The cases contained in these communications give evidence of the urgent need for the effective promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. In view of the wealth and complexity of information pertaining to his mandate, as well as the fact that violations occur in almost all countries of the world, an objective and even-handed approach requires appropriate financial and human resources to fulfil his mandate. At a minimum, there should be one Professional in the Centre for Human Rights who is able to assist the Special Rapporteur on a full-time basis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. If these resources are not made available to the Special Rapporteur, he will not be able to carry out his work thoroughly and with the necessary degree of efficiency.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. The Commission on Human Rights, in resolution 1993/45, requested the Special Rapporteur to promote the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and he will do so through the conclusions and recommendations of subsequent reports.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The conclusions and recommendations will be action-oriented. The Special Rapporteur's experiences in practice will form their basis. Their object will be the better protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and their purpose the elimination of violations of this right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. At the same time, however, it seems to be unavoidable to touch on certain more theoretical questions in determining the nature and the scope of the right as a prerequisite for action. The Special Rapporteur will elaborate upon this component of his work in subsequent reports.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The Special Rapporteur intends to adopt a flexible and dynamic approach in which he considers different situations on their merits. Thus, attention will be paid to the question of admissible restrictions or derogations in an action-oriented manner that focuses on individual cases and specific circumstances. In general terms, however, it is to be recalled that such restrictions must meet certain criteria. They are: legitimacy, legality, proportionality and democratic necessity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Although such restrictions or derogations may also limit the freedom of the press, it is to be noted that there should be independent and democratic, that is to say pluralist, media, also in situations of conflict and tension. The Special Rapporteur will dwell on this issue in subsequent reports.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. The Special Rapporteur notes the urgent need for close cooperation with related mandates. In particular, with respect to the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on religious intolerance, there is a need for a clear conceptual distinction to be made between the freedom of thought, conscience and religion, and the freedom of opinion and expression. Special attention will be paid to this distinction in order to avoid unnecessary duplication of work and inconsistencies in the approach taken.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes once more that effective action under his mandate to promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression can only be ensured with the adequate support of the Centre for Human Rights and the full cooperation of governments and non-governmental organizations. -----", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report analyses the implications of States’ surveillance of communications for the exercise of the human rights to privacy and to freedom of opinion and expression. While considering the impact of significant technological advances in communications, the report underlines the urgent need to further study new modalities of surveillance and to revise national laws regulating these practices in line with human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Innovations in technology have increased the possibilities for communication and protections of free expression and opinion, enabling anonymity, rapid information-sharing and cross-cultural dialogues. Technological changes have concurrently increased opportunities for State surveillance and interventions into individuals’ private communications.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. Concerns about national security and criminal activity may justify the exceptional use of communications surveillance technologies. However, national laws regulating what would constitute the necessary, legitimate and proportional State involvement in communications surveillance are often inadequate or non-existent. Inadequate national legal frameworks create a fertile ground for arbitrary and unlawful infringements of the right to privacy in communications and, consequently, also threaten the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. In previous reports (A/HRC/17/27 and A/66/290), the Special Rapporteur has analysed the unprecedented impact of the Internet on expanding the possibilities of individuals to exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression. He expressed concerns at the multiple measures taken by States to prevent or restrict the flow of information online, and highlighted the inadequate protection of the right to privacy in the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Building on his previous analysis, the aim of this report is to identify the risks that the new means and modalities of communications surveillance pose to human rights, including the right to privacy and the freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The following terms are used in this report to describe the most common modalities of surveillance of communications:\n(a) Communications surveillance: the monitoring, interception, collection, preservation and retention of information that has been communicated, relayed or generated over communications networks;\n(b) Communications data: information about an individual’s communications (e-mails, phone calls and text messages sent and received, social networking messages and posts), identity, network accounts, addresses, websites visited, books and other materials read, watched or listened to, searches conducted, resources used, interactions (origins and destinations of communications, people interacted with, friends, family, acquaintances), and times and locations of an individual, including proximity to others);\n(c) Internet filtering: automated or manual monitoring of Internet content (including websites, blogs and online media sources, as well as e-mail) to restrict or suppress particular text, images, websites, networks, protocols, services or activities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. During the reporting period, the Special Rapporteur participated in multiple international and national events related to the issues he addressed in his previous reports such as freedom of expression in the Internet, prevention of hate speech, and the protection of journalists. He paid particular attention to national initiatives promoting the protection of journalists; in this regard, he participated in meetings on initiatives developed in Brazil, Colombia, Honduras and Mexico. He also participated in the \"United Nations Inter-Agency Meeting on the Safety of Journalists and the Issues of Impunity\", held in November 2012 in Vienna.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. His last report to the United Nations General Assembly focused on prevention of hate speech and incitement to hatred.[[fn:1]] The same topic was addressed in a side event to the General Assembly jointly organized by the Special Rapporteur and the Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide in February 2013. In the same month, he further addressed these issues in the launch of the “Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence” in Geneva and in the Fifth United Nations Alliance of Civilizations Global Forum in Vienna.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A/67/357."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Honduras from 7 to 14 August 2012. His main findings and recommendations on this visit can be found in the addendum to this report (A/HRC/20/40/Add.1). He was invited by the Indonesian Government to visit the country in January 2013. Regrettably, the Government requested the visit to be postponed and new dates for the visit are yet to be confirmed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. For the preparation of this report, the Special Rapporteur revised relevant studies and consulted with experts on matters related to the surveillance of communications. In December 2012, he participated in the Workshop on Electronic Surveillance and Human Rights organized by the Electronic Frontier Foundation. In February 2013, he organized an expert consultation for the preparation of this report which took place in parallel to the activities of the \"World Summit on the Information Society+10 Meeting\" held at the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Paris, where he also participated in the opening plenary panel.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Innovations in technology have facilitated increased possibilities for communication and freedom of expression, enabling anonymity, rapid information sharing, and cross-cultural dialogues. At the same time, changes in technologies have also provided new opportunities for State surveillance and intervention into individuals’ private lives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The evolution of technology of surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. From the inception of the first form of remote communications, States have sought to intercept and monitor individuals’ private communications to serve law enforcement and national security interests. Through communications, the most personal and intimate information, including about an individual’s or group’s past or future actions, can be revealed. Communications represent a valuable source of evidence upon which the State can draw to prevent or prosecute serious crimes or forestall potential national security emergencies.", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The evolution of technology of surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Innovations in technology throughout the twentieth century changed the nature and implications of communication surveillance. The means by, and frequency with which people are able to communicate expanded significantly. The transition from fixed-line telephone systems to mobile telecommunication and the declining costs of communications services resulted in dramatic growth in telephone usage. The advent of the Internet saw the birth of a number of new tools and applications to communicate at no cost, or at very affordable rates. These advancements have enabled greater connectivity, facilitated the global flow of information and ideas, and increased the opportunities for economic growth and societal change.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The evolution of technology of surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. As information and communication technologies evolved, so did the means by which States sought to monitor private communications. With increased use of telephones came the use of wiretapping, which consists of placing a tap on a telephone wire to listen to private phone conversations. With the replacement of analogue telephone networks with fibre optics and digital switches in the 1990s, States redesigned the networking technology to include interception capabilities (“backdoors”) to permit State surveillance, rendering modern telephone networks remotely accessible and controllable.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The evolution of technology of surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. The dynamic nature of technology has not only changed how surveillance can be carried out, but also “what” can be monitored. In enabling the creation of various opportunities for communication and information-sharing, the Internet has also facilitated the development of large amounts of transactional data by and about individuals. This information, known as communications data or metadata, includes personal information on individuals, their location and online activities, and logs and related information about the e-mails and messages they send or receive. Communications data are storable, accessible and searchable, and their disclosure to and use by State authorities are largely unregulated. Analysis of this data can be both highly revelatory and invasive, particularly when data is combined and aggregated. As such, States are increasingly drawing on communications data to support law enforcement or national security investigations. States are also compelling the preservation and retention of communication data to enable them to conduct historical surveillance.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The evolution of technology of surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Changes in technology have been paralleled by changes in attitudes towards communications surveillance. When the practice of official wiretapping first commenced in the United States of America, it was conducted on a restricted basis, and was only reluctantly sanctioned by the courts.[[fn:2]] It was viewed as such a serious threat to the right to privacy that its use had to be restricted to detecting and prosecuting the most serious crimes. Over time, however, States have expanded their powers to conduct surveillance, lowering the threshold and increasing the justifications for such surveillance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The evolution of technology of surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "In the first judicial validation of wiretapping, Justice Brandeis of the United States Supreme Court wrote a scathing dissent that noted that wiretapping was a “subtler and more far-reaching means of invading privacy” that could not be justified under the Constitution. In a chillingly accurate forecast, the eminent jurist predicted: “Ways may some day be developed by which the government, without removing papers from secret drawers, can reproduce them in court, and by which it will be enabled to expose to a jury the most intimate occurrence of the home. Advances in the psychic and related sciences may bring means of exploring unexpressed beliefs, thoughts and emotions.” Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438 (1928)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. In many countries, existing legislation and practices have not been reviewed and updated to address the threats and challenges of communications surveillance in the digital age. Traditional notions of access to written correspondence, for example, have been imported into laws permitting access to personal computers and other information and communications technologies, without consideration of the expanded uses of such devices and the implications for individuals’ rights. At the same time, the absence of laws to regulate global communications surveillance and sharing arrangements has resulted in ad hoc practices that are beyond the supervision of any independent authority. Today, in many States, access to communications data can be conducted by a wide range of public bodies for a wide range of purposes, often without judicial authorization and independent oversight. In addition, States have sought to adopt surveillance arrangements that purport to have extra-territorial effect.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The evolution of technology of surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Human rights mechanisms have been equally slow to assess the human rights implications of the Internet and new technologies on communications surveillance and access to communications data. The consequences of expanding States’ surveillance powers and practices for the rights to privacy and freedom of opinion and expression, and the interdependence of those two rights, have yet to be comprehensively considered by the Human Rights Council, special procedures mandate holders or human rights treaty bodies. This report seeks to rectify this.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The evolution of technology of surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is guaranteed under articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which affirm that everyone has the right to hold opinions without interference, and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds through any media and regardless of frontiers. At the regional level, the right is protected by the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (art. 9), the American Convention on Human Rights (art. 13); and the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (art. 10).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "medium", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'. Dual citation, but regex extracted as ICCPR and Sonnet resolved as ICCPR. Conservative keep; note Sonnet's resolution of similar dual patterns elsewhere (Records 7, 8) is AMBIGUOUS — inconsistency, but conservative principle favors keeping Sonnet's call here."}, {"article": "9", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (art. 9)'. Regional instrument outside the allowed list."}, {"article": "13", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'American Convention on Human Rights (art. 13)'. Regional instrument outside the allowed list."}, {"article": "10", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (art. 10)' = ECHR. Regional instrument outside the allowed list."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. At both the international and regional levels, privacy is also unequivocally recognized as a fundamental human right. The right to privacy is enshrined by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (art. 12), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR, art. 17), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (art. 16), and the International Convention on the Protection of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (art. 14). At the regional level, the right to privacy is protected by the European Convention on Human Rights (art. 8) and the American Convention on Human Rights (art. 11).", "labels": ["Migrants", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "12", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'Universal Declaration of Human Rights (art. 12)' — non-treaty."}, {"article": "17", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR, art. 17)'."}, {"article": "16", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'Convention on the Rights of the Child (art. 16)'."}, {"article": "14", "treaty": "CMW", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'International Convention on the Protection of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (art. 14)'."}, {"article": "8", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'European Convention on Human Rights (art. 8)' — regional."}, {"article": "11", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'American Convention on Human Rights (art. 11)' — regional."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Despite the widespread recognition of the obligation to protect privacy, the specific content of this right was not fully developed by international human rights protection mechanisms at the time of its inclusion in the above-mentioned human rights instruments. The lack of explicit articulation of the content of this right has contributed to difficulties in its application and enforcement.[[fn:3]] As the right to privacy is a qualified right, its interpretation raises challenges with respect to what constitutes the private sphere and in establishing notions of what constitutes public interest. The rapid and monumental changes to communications and information technologies experienced in recent decades have also irreversibly affected our understandings of the boundaries between private and public spheres.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "UNESCO, Global Survey on Internet Privacy and Freedom of Expression, 2012, p. 51."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Privacy can be defined as the presumption that individuals should have an area of autonomous development, interaction and liberty, a “private sphere” with or without interaction with others, free from State intervention and from excessive unsolicited intervention by other uninvited individuals.[[fn:4]] The right to privacy is also the ability of individuals to determine who holds information about them and how is that information used.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Lord Lester and D. Pannick (eds.). Human Rights Law and Practice. London, Butterworth, 2004, para. 4.82."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. In order for individuals to exercise their right to privacy in communications, they must be able to ensure that these remain private, secure and, if they choose, anonymous. Privacy of communications infers that individuals are able to exchange information and ideas in a space that is beyond the reach of other members of society, the private sector, and ultimately the State itself. Security of communications means that individuals should be able to verify that their communications are received only by their intended recipients, without interference or alteration, and that the communications they receive are equally free from intrusion. Anonymity of communications is one of the most important advances enabled by the Internet, and allows individuals to express themselves freely without fear of retribution or condemnation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. The right to privacy is often understood as an essential requirement for the realization of the right to freedom of expression. Undue interference with individuals’ privacy can both directly and indirectly limit the free development and exchange of ideas. Restrictions of anonymity in communication, for example, have an evident chilling effect on victims of all forms of violence and abuse, who may be reluctant to report for fear of double victimization. In this regard, article 17 of ICCPR refers directly to the protection from interference with “correspondence”, a term that should be interpreted to encompass all forms of communication, both online and offline.[[fn:5]] As the Special Rapporteur noted in a previous report,[[fn:6]] the right to private correspondence gives rise to a comprehensive obligation of the State to ensure that e-mails and other forms of online communication are actually delivered to the desired recipient without the interference or inspection by State organs or by third parties.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework", "A. Interrelations between the rights to privacy to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "ICCPR commentary, p.401."}, {"n": 6, "text": "A/HRC/17/23."}, {"n": 7, "text": "ICCPR commentary, p.401."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The Human Rights Committee analysed the content of the right to privacy (art. 17) in its General Comment No. 16 (1988), according to which article 17 aims to protect individuals from any unlawful and arbitrary interferences with their privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and national legal frameworks must provide for the protection of this right. This provision imposes specific obligations relating to the protection of privacy in communications, underlining that “correspondence should be delivered to the addressee without interception and without being opened or otherwise read. “Surveillance, whether electronic or otherwise, interceptions of telephonic, telegraphic and other forms of communication, wire-tapping and recording of conversations, should be prohibited.”[[fn:8]] The General Comment also indicates that “the gathering and holding of personal information on computers, data banks and other devices, whether by public authorities or private individuals or bodies, must be regulated by law.”[[fn:9]] At the time this General Comment was adopted, the impact of advances in information and communications technologies on the right to privacy was barely understood.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework", "A. Interrelations between the rights to privacy to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Centre for Civil and Political Rights (CCPR) General Comment No. 16. (General Comments), p.8."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Ibid., p.10."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. In its General Comment No. 34 (2011) on the right to freedom of expression, the Human Rights Committee indicated that States parties should take account of the extent to which developments in information and communication technologies have substantially changed communication practices. The Committee also called on States parties to take all necessary steps to foster the independence of these new media. The General Comment also analyses the relationship between the protection of privacy and freedom of expression, and recommends that States parties respect that element of the right of freedom of expression that embraces the limited journalistic privilege not to disclose information sources.[[fn:10]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework", "A. Interrelations between the rights to privacy to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "CCPR General Comment No. 34."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Tensions also exist between the right to privacy and the right to freedom of expression, for example, when information considered to be private is disseminated through the media. In this sense, article 19 (3) provides for restrictions on freedom of expression and information to protect the rights of others. However, as it happens for all permissible limitations to the right to freedom of expression (see below), the principle of proportionality must be strictly observed, since there is otherwise danger that freedom of expression would be undermined. Particularly in the political arena, not every attack on the good reputation of politicians must be permitted, since freedom of expression and information would otherwise be stripped of their crucial importance for the process of forming political opinions,[[fn:11]] advocating for transparency and combating corruption The international jurisprudence at regional level indicates that in situations of conflict between privacy and freedom of expression, reference should be made to the overall public interest on the matters reported.[[fn:12]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework", "A. Interrelations between the rights to privacy to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Nowak, Manfred, United Nations Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: CCPR Commentary (1993), p.462"}, {"n": 12, "text": "UNESCO, Global Survey on Internet Privacy and Freedom of Expression, 2012, pp. 53 and 99."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The framework of article 17 of the ICCPR enables necessary, legitimate and proportionate restrictions to the right to privacy by means of permissible limitations. In contrast with the provisions of article 19, paragraph 3, which spell out elements of a test for permissible limitations,[[fn:13]] the formulation of article 17 does not contain a limitation clause. Despite these differences in wording, it is understood that article 17 of the Covenant should also be interpreted as containing elements of a permissible limitations test already described in other General Comments of the Human Rights Committee.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework", "B. Permissible limitations to privacy and freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Lists of permissible limitations are also included in art. 12, (3), on the right to liberty of movement and freedom to choose his residence; art. 18, (3), on the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; art. 21, on the right of peaceful assembly; and art. 22, (2), on the right to freedom of association."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Ibid."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur takes the position that the right to privacy should be subject to the same permissible limitations test as the right to freedom of movement, as elucidated in General Comment 27.[[fn:15]] The test as expressed in the comment includes, inter alia, the following elements:\n(a) Any restrictions must be provided by the law (paras. 11-12);\n(b) The essence of a human right is not subject to restrictions (para. 13);\n(c) Restrictions must be necessary in a democratic society (para. 11);\n(d) Any discretion exercised when implementing the restrictions must not be unfettered (para. 13);\n(e) For a restriction to be permissible, it is not enough that it serves one of the enumerated legitimate aims. It must be necessary for reaching the legitimate aim (para. 14);\n(f) Restrictive measures must conform to the principle of proportionality, they must be appropriate to achieve their protective function, they must be the least intrusive instrument amongst those which might achieve the desired result, and they must be proportionate to the interest to be protected (paras. 14-15).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework", "B. Permissible limitations to privacy and freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See also CCPR General Comment No. 34."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. In previous reports, the Special Rapporteur has assessed the impact of the Internet on the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression (A/HRC/17/27 and A/66/290). He noted that, while Internet users can enjoy relative anonymity on the Internet, States and private actors also have access to new technologies to monitor and collect information about individuals’ communications and activities. Such technologies have the potential to violate the right to privacy, thereby undermining people’s confidence and security on the Internet and impeding the free flow of information and ideas online. The Special Rapporteur urged States to adopt effective privacy and data protection laws in accordance with human rights standards, and to adopt all appropriate measures to ensure that individuals can express themselves anonymously online.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework", "C. Recent considerations by international mechanisms for the protection of human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "A/HRC/17/27, p.22."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Other Special Procedures mandate holders considered the issue of interferences with the right to privacy. The Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism studied developments in surveillance practices and technologies that have adversely affected the right to privacy using the justification of combating terrorism.[[fn:17]] The Special Rapporteur underscored that these measures have not only led to violations of the right to privacy, but have also had an impact on due process rights and the rights to freedom of movement, freedom of association and freedom of expression. He urged Governments to articulate in detail how their surveillance policies uphold the principles of proportionality and necessity, in accordance with international human rights standards, and what measures have been taken to protect against abuse. The Special Rapporteur also called for the adoption of comprehensive data protection and privacy laws and the establishment of strong independent oversight bodies mandated to review the use of intrusive surveillance techniques and the processing of personal information. He further called for research and development resources to be devoted to privacy-enhancing technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework", "C. Recent considerations by international mechanisms for the protection of human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "A/HRC/13/37."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Other human rights protection mechanisms have also recently paid attention to the impact of the surveillance of communications on the protection of the rights to privacy and freedom of expression. The Human Rights Committee voiced concerns, for example, at allegations of State monitoring the use of the Internet and blocking access to some websites[[fn:18]] and recommended the review of legislation providing the executive with wide powers of surveillance in respect of electronic communications.[[fn:19]] The Universal Periodic Review has also included recommendations to ensure, for example, that legislation relating to the Internet and other new communication technologies respects international human rights obligations.[[fn:20]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework", "C. Recent considerations by international mechanisms for the protection of human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "CCPR/C/IRN/CO/3."}, {"n": 19, "text": "CCPR/C/SWE/CO/6."}, {"n": 20, "text": "A/HRC/14/10."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Modern surveillance technologies and arrangements that enable States to intrude into an individual’s private life threaten to blur the divide between the private and the public spheres. They facilitate invasive and arbitrary monitoring of individuals, who may not be able to even know they have been subjected to such surveillance, let alone challenge it. Technological advancements mean that the State’s effectiveness in conducting surveillance is no longer limited by scale or duration. Declining costs of technology and data storage have eradicated financial or practical disincentives to conducting surveillance. As such, the State now has a greater capability to conduct simultaneous, invasive, targeted and broad-scale surveillance than ever before.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. States have access to a number of different techniques and technologies to conduct communications surveillance of a targeted individual’s private communications. Real-time interception capabilities allow States to listen to and record the phone calls of any individual using a fixed line or mobile telephone, through the use of interception capabilities for State surveillance that all communications networks are required to build into their systems.[[fn:21]] An individual’s location can be ascertained, and their text messages read and recorded. By placing a tap on an Internet cable relating to a certain location or person, State authorities can also monitor an individual’s online activity, including the websites he or she visits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "A. Targeted communications surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "See, for example, the United States Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act 1994 (United States); Telecommunications Act 1997, Part 15 (Australia); Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, ss12-14 (United Kingdom); Telecommunications (Interception Capability) Act 2004."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. Access to the stored content of an individual’s e-mails and messages, in addition to other related communications data, can be obtained through Internet companies and service providers. The initiative of the European standards-setting authority, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute, to compel cloud providers[[fn:22]] to build “lawful interception capabilities” into cloud technology to enable State authorities to have direct access to content stored by these providers, including e-mails, messages and voicemails, raises concerns.[[fn:23]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "A. Targeted communications surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "A cloud provider offers services of networked online storage of data."}, {"n": 23, "text": "ETSI DTR 101 567 VO.0.5 (2012-14), Draft Technical Report: Lawful Interception (LI); Cloud/Virtual Services (CLI)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. States can track the movements of specific mobile phones, identify all individuals with a mobile phone within a designated area, and intercept calls and text messages, through various methods. Some States use off-the-air mobile monitoring devices called International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) catchers, which can be installed in a location temporarily (such as at a protest or march) or permanently (such as at an airport or other border crossings). These catchers imitate a mobile phone tower by sending and responding to mobile phone signals in order to extract the unique subscriber identification module (SIM) card number of all mobile phones within a certain territory.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "A. Targeted communications surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. States are also increasingly acquiring software that can be used to infiltrate an individual’s computer, mobile phone or other digital device.[[fn:24]] Offensive intrusion software, including so-called “Trojans” (also known as spyware or malware), can be used to turn on the microphone or camera of a device, to track the activity conducted on the device, and to access, alter or delete any information stored on the device. Such software enables a State to have complete control of the device infiltrated, and is virtually undetectable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "A. Targeted communications surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Toby Mendel, Andrew Puddephatt, Ben Wagner, Dixi Hawtin, and Natalia Torres, Global Survey on Internet Privacy and Freedom of Expression, UNESCO Series on Internet Freedom (2012), p. 41."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Costs and logistical hurdles to conduct surveillance on a mass scale continue to decline rapidly, as technologies allowing for broad interception, monitoring and analysis of communications proliferate. Today, some States have the capability to track and record Internet and telephone communications on a national scale. By placing taps on the fibre-optic cables, through which the majority of digital communication information flows, and applying word, voice and speech recognition, States can achieve almost complete control of tele- and online communications. Such systems were reportedly adopted, for example, by the Egyptian and Libyan Governments in the lead-up to the Arab Spring.[[fn:25]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "B. Mass communications surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies, Policy Department, After the Arab Spring: New Paths for Human Rights and the Internet in European Foreign Policy (2012), pp. 9-10."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. In many States, mandatory data retention is facilitating massive collection of communications data that can later be filtered and analysed. Technologies enable the State to scan phone calls and text messages to identify the use of certain words, voices or phrases, or filter Internet activity to determine when an individual visits certain websites or accesses particular online resources. “Black boxes” can be designed to inspect the data flowing through the Internet in order to filter through and deconstruct all information about online activity. This method, called “deep-packet inspection”, allows the State to go beyond gaining simple knowledge about the sites that individuals visit, and instead analyse the content of websites visited. Deep-packed inspection, for example, has been reportedly employed by States confronted with recent popular uprisings in the Middle East and North Africa region.[[fn:26]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "B. Mass communications surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Mendel et al., op. cit., p. 43."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Another tool used regularly by States today is social media monitoring. States have the capacity physically to monitor activities on social networking sites, blogs and media outlets to map connections and relationships, opinions and associations, and even locations. States can also apply highly sophisticated data mining technologies to publicly available information or to communications data provided by third party service providers. At a more basic level, States have also acquired technical means to obtain usernames and passwords from social networking sites such as Facebook.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "B. Mass communications surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "European Parliament, op. cit., p. 6."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. In addition to intercepting and tracking the content of individuals’ communications, States may also seek access to communications data held by third party service providers and Internet companies. As the private sector collects progressively larger amounts of varied data that reveal sensitive information about peoples’ daily lives, and individuals and businesses choose to store the content of their communications, such as voicemails, e-mails and documents, with third party service providers, access to communications data is an increasingly valuable surveillance technique employed by States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "C. Access to communications data"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The communications data collected by third party service providers, including large Internet companies, can be used by the State to compose an extensive profile of concerned individuals. When accessed and analysed, even seemingly innocuous transactional records about communications can collectively create a profile of individual's private life, including medical conditions, political and religious viewpoints and/or affiliation, interactions and interests, disclosing as much detail as, or even greater detail than would be discernible from the content of communications alone.[[fn:28]] By combining information about relationships, location, identity and activity, States are able to track the movement of individuals and their activities across a range of different areas, from where they travel to where they study, what they read or whom they interact with.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "C. Access to communications data"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Alberto Escudero-Pascual and Gus Hosein, “Questioning lawful access to traffic data”, Communications of the ACM, Volume 47 Issue 3, March 2004, pp. 77–82."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Instances of access to communications data by States are growing rapidly. In the three years that Google has been reporting the numbers of requests for communications data it receives, such requests have almost doubled, from 12,539 in the last six months of 2009, to 21,389 in the last six months of 2012.[[fn:29]] In the United Kingdom, where law enforcement authorities are empowered to self-authorize their own requests for communications information, approximately 500,000 such requests were reported every year.[[fn:30]] In the Republic of Korea, a country of nearly 50 million people, there are approximately 37 million requests for communications data reported every year.[[fn:31]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "C. Access to communications data"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See http://www.google.com/transparencyreport/userdatarequests/."}, {"n": 30, "text": "See http://www.intelligencecommissioners.com/docs/0496.pdf."}, {"n": 31, "text": "Money Today, 23 October, 2012, citing the disclosure made by the Korean Communication Commission for the Annual National Audit of 2013 to Assemblywoman Yoo Seung-Hui, http://www.mt.co.kr/view/mtview.php?type=1&no=2012102309430241764&outlink=1."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Advances in technology have not only facilitated interception of and access to communications in specific cases, but have also enabled States to conduct widespread, even nationwide, filtering of online activity. In many countries, Internet filtering is conducted under the guise of maintaining social harmony or eradicating hate speech, but is in fact used to eradicate dissent, criticism or activism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "D. Internet filtering and censorship"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Filtering technologies mentioned above also facilitate the monitoring of web activity in order to enable the State to detect forbidden images, words, site addresses or other content, and censor or alter it. States can use such technologies to detect the use of specific words and phrases, in order to censor or regulate their use, or identify the individuals using them. In countries with high levels of Internet penetration, Internet filtering reportedly enables the censorship of website content and communications and facilitates the surveillance of human rights defenders and activists.[[fn:32]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "D. Internet filtering and censorship"], "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies, Policy Department, After the Arab Spring: New Paths for Human Rights and the Internet in European Foreign Policy (2012), p. 12."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. In addition to technologies that facilitate filtering and censorship, many States are conducting manual Internet filtering, by creating online police forces and inspectors in order to physically monitor the content of websites, social networks, blogs and other forms of media. In some States, “cyber police forces” are tasked with inspecting and controlling the Internet, searching websites and critical nodes within websites (particularly online discussion forums) with a view to block or shut down websites whenever they contain content the Government disapproves of, including or criticism of the country’s leadership. The burden of such policing is transferred to private intermediaries, such as search engines and social network platforms, through laws that widen liability for proscribed content from the original speaker to all intermediaries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "D. Internet filtering and censorship"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. One of the most important advances facilitated by the advent of the Internet was the ability to anonymously access and impart information, and to communicate securely without having to be identified. Initially, this was possible given that there was no “identity layer” to the Internet; originally, it was not possible to know who was behind a specific communication, e-mail address, or even a given computer. However, in the name of security and law enforcement, gradually States have been eradicating the opportunities for anonymous communication. In many States, individuals must identify themselves at cybercafés and have their transactions on public computers recorded. Increasingly, identification and registration are also required when buying a SIM card or mobile telephone device, for visiting certain major websites, or for making comments on media sites or blogs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "E. Restrictions on anonymity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Restrictions on anonymity facilitate State communications surveillance by simplifying the identification of individuals accessing or disseminating prohibited content, making such individuals more vulnerable to other forms of State surveillance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "E. Restrictions on anonymity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. In this sense, restrictions on anonymity have a chilling effect, dissuading the free expression of information and ideas. They can also result in individuals’ de facto exclusion from vital social spheres, undermining their rights to expression and information, and exacerbating social inequalities. Furthermore, restrictions on anonymity allow for the collection and compilation of large amounts of data by the private sector, placing a significant burden and responsibility on corporate actors to protect the privacy and security of such data.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "E. Restrictions on anonymity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Generally, legislation has not kept pace with the changes in technology. In most States, legal standards are either non-existent or inadequate to deal with the modern communications surveillance environment. As a result, States are increasingly seeking to justify the use of new technologies within the ambits of old legal frameworks, without recognizing that the expanded capabilities they now possess go far beyond what such frameworks envisaged. In many countries, this means that vague and broadly conceived legal provisions are being invoked to legitimize and sanction the use of seriously intrusive techniques. Without explicit laws authorizing such technologies and techniques, and defining the scope of their use, individuals are not able to foresee – or even know about – their application. At the same time, laws are being adopted to broaden the breadth of national security exceptions, providing for the legitimization of intrusive surveillance techniques without oversight or independent review.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Inadequate legal standards increase the risk of individuals being exposed to violation of their human rights, including the right to privacy and the right to freedom of expression. They also have an adverse impact on certain groups of individuals – for example, members of certain political parties, trade unionists or national, ethnic and linguistic minorities – who may be more vulnerable to State communications surveillance. Without strong legal protections in place, journalists, human rights defenders and political activists risk being subjected to arbitrary surveillance activities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Surveillance of human rights defenders in many countries has been well documented. On these occasions, human rights defenders and political activists report having their phone calls and e-mails monitored, and their movements tracked. Journalists are also particularly vulnerable to becoming targets of communications surveillance because of their reliance on online communication. In order to receive and pursue information from confidential sources, including whistleblowers, journalists must be able to rely on the privacy, security and anonymity of their communications. An environment where surveillance is widespread, and unlimited by due process or judicial oversight, cannot sustain the presumption of protection of sources. Even a narrow, non-transparent, undocumented, executive use of surveillance may have a chilling effect without careful and public documentation of its use, and known checks and balances to prevent its misuse.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The following subsections list common concerns regarding laws that allow State surveillance of communications surveillance in circumstances that threaten the rights to freedom of expression and privacy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Whereas traditionally communications surveillance was required to be authorized by the judiciary, increasingly this requirement is being weakened or removed. In some countries, interception of communications can be authorized by a governmental minister, their delegate, or a committee. In the United Kingdom, for example, interception of communications is authorized by the Secretary of State;[[fn:33]] in Zimbabwe, interception of communications is authorized by the Minister for Transport and Communication.[[fn:34]] Progressively, communications surveillance can also be authorized on a broad and indiscriminate basis, without the need for law enforcement authorities to establish the factual basis for the surveillance on a case-by-case basis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "A. Lack of judicial oversight"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "Section 5, Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000."}, {"n": 34, "text": "Section 5, Interception of Communications Act 2006."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Many States have dispensed with the need for law enforcement agencies to return to the court for ongoing supervision after an interception order is issued. Under the Kenyan Prevention of Terrorism Act 2012, for example, interception of communications can be conducted over an indefinite period of time, without any requirement that law enforcement agencies report back to a court or seek an extension. Some States impose time limits on the execution of interception orders but enable law enforcement authorities to renew such orders repeatedly and indefinitely.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "A. Lack of judicial oversight"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Even when judicial authorization is required by law, often it is de facto an arbitrary approval of law enforcement requests. This is particularly the case where the threshold required to be established by law enforcement is low. For example, the Ugandan Regulation of Interception of Communications Act 2010 only requires law enforcement authorities to demonstrate that “reasonable” grounds exist to allow the interception to take place. In such instances, the burden of proof to establish the necessity for surveillance is extremely low, given the potential for surveillance to result in investigation, discrimination or violations of human rights. In other countries, a complex array of laws authorizes access to and surveillance of communications under a range of different circumstances. In Indonesia, for example, the Psychotropic Law, Narcotics Law, Electronic Information and Transaction Law, Telecommunications Law and the Corruption Law all contain communications surveillance components. In the United Kingdom, over 200 agencies, police forces and prison authorities are authorized to acquire communications data under the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act, 2000. As a result, it is difficult for individuals to foresee when and by which State agency they might be subjected to surveillance.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "A. Lack of judicial oversight"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. In many States, communication service providers are being compelled to modify their infrastructure to enable direct surveillance, eliminating the opportunity for judicial oversight. For example, in 2012 the Colombian Ministries of Justice, and Information and Communication Technologies, issued a decree that required telecommunication service providers to put in place infrastructure allowing direct access to communications by judicial police, without an order from the Attorney General.[[fn:35]] The above-mentioned Uganda’s Regulation of Interception of Communications Act 2010 (s3) provides for the establishment of a monitoring centre and mandates that telecommunications providers ensure that intercepted communications are transmitted to the monitoring centre (s8(1)(f)). The Government of India is proposing to install a Centralized Monitoring System that will route all communications to the central Government, allowing security agencies to bypass interaction with the service provider.[[fn:36]] Such arrangements take communications surveillance out of the realm of judicial authorization and allow unregulated, secret surveillance, eliminating any transparency or accountability on the part of the State.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "A. Lack of judicial oversight"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "Ministries of Justice and ICTs Decree 1704. Rooted in the Criminal Procedure Code of 2004."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Department of Communications. Government of India. Annual Report 2011-2012 pg. 58 – http://www.dot.gov.in/annualreport/AR%20Englsih%2011-12.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Vague and unspecified notions of “national security” have become an acceptable justification for the interception of and access to communications in many countries. In India, for example, the Information Technology Act of 2008 allows interception of communications in the interest of, inter alia, “the sovereignty, integrity, or defense of India, friendly relations with foreign States, public order and the investigation of any offence” (section 69).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "B. National security exceptions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. In many cases, national intelligence agencies also enjoy blanket exceptions to the requirement for judicial authorization. For example, in the United States, the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act empowers the National Security Agency to intercept communications without judicial authorization where one party to the communication is located outside the United States, and one participant is reasonably believed to a member of a State-designated terrorist organization. German law allows warrantless automated wiretaps of domestic and international communications by the State’s intelligence services for the purposes of protecting the free democratic order, existence or security of the State.[[fn:37]] In Sweden, the Law on Signals Intelligence in Defense Operations authorizes the Swedish intelligence agency to intercept without any warrant or court order all telephone and Internet traffic that take place within Sweden’s borders. In the United Republic of Tanzania, the Intelligence and Security Service Act 1996 enables the country’s intelligence services to conduct any investigations and investigate any person or body which it has reasonable cause to consider a risk or a source of risk or a threat to the State security.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "B. National security exceptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "G-10 law."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The use of an amorphous concept of national security to justify invasive limitations on the enjoyment of human rights is of serious concern.[[fn:38]] The concept is broadly defined and is thus vulnerable to manipulation by the State as a means of justifying actions that target vulnerable groups such as human rights defenders, journalists or activists. It also acts to warrant often unnecessary secrecy around investigations or law enforcement activities, undermining the principles of transparency and accountability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "B. National security exceptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Counter-terrorism Human Rights Council resolutions."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Access to communications data held by domestic communications service providers is often mandated by legislation or a condition upon which licences are issued. As a result, States are generally provided with carte blanche access to communications data with little oversight or regulation. For example, a 2012 Brazilian law on money laundering gives police the power to access registration information from Internet and communication providers without a court order.[[fn:39]] At the international level, the provision of access to communications data is regulated by bilateral Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties. However, this cooperation also often occurs outside of the law on the basis of the voluntary compliance of the service provider or Internet company. As such, access to communications data can be obtained in many States without independent authorization and with limited oversight.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "C. Unregulated access to communications data"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "Brazilian Federal Law 12683/2012. Article 17-B. Available at: http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2011-2014/2012/Lei/L12683.htm."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. A number of the surveillance capabilities listed above fall outside of existing legal frameworks, but have nevertheless been widely adopted by States. Offensive intrusion software such as Trojans, or mass interception capabilities, constitute such serious challenges to traditional notions of surveillance that they cannot be reconciled with existing laws on surveillance and access to private information. These are not just new methods for conducting surveillance; they are new forms of surveillance. From a human rights perspective, the use of such technologies is extremely disturbing. Trojans, for example, not only enable a State to access devices, but also enable them to alter – inadvertently or purposefully – the information contained therein. This threatens not only the right to privacy and procedural fairness rights with respect to the use of such evidence in legal proceedings. Mass interception technology eradicates any considerations of proportionality, enabling indiscriminate surveillance. It enables the State to copy and monitor every single act of communication in a particular country or area, without gaining authorization for each individual case of interception.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "D. Extra-legal surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Governments often do not acknowledge the use of such technologies to conduct surveillance, or argue that such technologies are being legitimately employed under the ambit of existing surveillance legislation. Although it is clear that many States possess offensive intrusion software, such as Trojan technology, the legal basis for its use has not been publicly debated in any State, with the exception of Germany. In that context, the province of North Rhine-Westphalia passed legislation in 2006 authorizing the “secret access to an information technology system” (§ 5.2 no. 11, North Rhine-Westphalia Constitution Protection Act), which was understood to be technical infiltration which is effected either by installing a spy programme or taking advantage of the security loopholes of the system. The German Federal Constitutional Court quashed the law in February 2008, ruling that such measures would only be in conformity with human rights if they were subject to judicial authorization and review, and occurred only in situations where there might be a concrete danger to a predominantly important legal interest.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "D. Extra-legal surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "Available in German. BVerfG, 1 BvR 370/07 vom 27.2.2008, Absatz-Nr. (1 - 67), http://www.bverfg.de/entscheidungen/rs20080227_1bvr037007.html."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. In response to the increased data flows across borders and the fact the majority of communications are stored with foreign third party service providers, a number of States have begun to adopt laws that purport to authorize them to conduct extra-territorial surveillance or to intercept communications in foreign jurisdictions. This raises serious concern with regard to the extra-territorial commission of human rights violations and the inability of individuals to know that they might be subject to foreign surveillance, challenge decisions with respect to foreign surveillance, or seek remedies. In South Africa, for example, the General Intelligence Laws Amendment Bill allows for surveillance of foreign communications outside of South Africa or passing through South Africa.[[fn:41]] In October 2012, the Dutch Ministry of Justice and Security proposed legislative amendments to the Dutch Parliament that would allow the police to break into computers and mobile phones both within the Netherlands and abroad in order to install spyware and search and destroy data.[[fn:42]] In December 2012, Pakistan’s National Assembly passed the Fair Trial Act of 2012, paragraph 31 of which provides for the execution of surveillance warrants in foreign jurisdictions. Later that month, the United States renewed the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Amendment Act of 2008 extending the Government’s power to conduct surveillance of non-American persons locate outside the United States (§1881a), including any foreign individual whose communications are hosted by cloud services located in the United States (such as Google and other large Internet companies).[[fn:43]] Also in 2012, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute created draft standards for interception of foreign cloud-based services by European Governments.[[fn:44]] These developments suggest an alarming trend towards the extension of surveillance powers beyond territorial borders, increasing the risk of cooperative agreements between State law enforcement and security agencies to enable the evasion of domestic legal restrictions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "E. Extra-territorial application of surveillance laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "Section 1. c. General Intelligence Laws Amendment Bill. Available at: http://www.parliament.gov.za/live/commonrepository/Processed/20111201/385713_1.pdf."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See http://www.edri.org/edrigram/number10.20/dutch-proposal-state-spyware."}, {"n": 43, "text": "See European Parliament Directorate-General for Internal Policies Policy Department C: Citizens Rights and Constitutional Affairs, Fighting crime and protecting privacy in the cloud: study, 2012."}, {"n": 44, "text": "Draft ESTI DTR 101 567 Lawful Interception (LI) Vo.1.0 (2012 - 05); Cloud/Virtual Services (CLI). Available at: www.3gpp.org."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. In order to increase the storage of communications data that they are able to access, some States are adopting mandatory data retention laws requiring Internet and telecom service providers (collectively, “communications service providers”) continuously to collect and preserve communications content and information about users’ online activities. Such laws enable the compilation of historical records about individuals’ e-mails and messages, locations, interactions with friends and family, etc.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "F. Mandatory data retention"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. In delivering services to their users, communications service providers give subscribers’ devices or network an Internet Protocol (IP) address[[fn:45]] that changes periodically. Information about an IP address can be used to ascertain the identity and location of an individual and track their online activity. Mandatory data retention laws force communications service providers to keep records of their IP address allocations for a certain period of time, allowing the State greater ability to require communications service providers to identify an individual on the basis of who had a given IP address at a particular date and time. Some States are also now seeking to compel third party service providers to collect and retain information that they would not normally collect.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "F. Mandatory data retention"], "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "An IP address is a unique numeric code that identifies all computers or other devices connected to the Internet."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. National data retention laws are invasive and costly, and threaten the rights to privacy and free expression. By compelling communications service providers to create large databases of information about who communicates with whom via a telephone or the Internet, the duration of the exchange, and the users’ location, and to keep such information (sometimes for years), mandatory data retention laws greatly increase the scope of State surveillance, and thus the scope for infringements upon human rights. Databases of communications data become vulnerable to theft, fraud and accidental disclosure.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "F. Mandatory data retention"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. In many States, laws require the provision of identification at cybercafés. Such laws are particularly problematic in countries where personal computer ownership is low and individuals rely heavily on publicly available computers. In India, for example, the Information Technology (Guidelines for Cyber Cafes) Rules 2011 require that cybercafé owners obtain identification documents from any individual visiting the cybercafé, which records must be kept for at least one year (Rule 4(2)). The cybercafé must maintain a log- register, containing, among other information, log in time and log out time, and computer terminal identification for a minimum period of one year (Rule 5(1) & 5(2)); store and maintain backups of log records of each access or login by any user for at least one year (Rule 5(4)).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "G. Identity disclosure laws"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Individuals are now also required to use their real names online in many States, and to provide official identification in order to establish their identity. In the Republic of Korea, the Information Communications Law, adopted in 2007, required users to register their real names before accessing websites with more than 100,000 visitors per day, ostensibly in order to reduce online bullying and hate speech. The law was recently overturned by the Constitutional Court on the basis that it restricted freedom of speech and undermined democracy.[[fn:46]] China recently adopted the Decision to Strengthen the Protection of Online Information, requiring Internet and telecommunications providers to collect personal information about users when they sign up for Internet access, landline, or mobile phone service. Service providers allowing users to publish online are required to be able to link screen names and real identities. These real name registration requirements allow authorities to more easily identify online commentators or tie mobile use to specific individuals, eradicating anonymous expression.[[fn:47]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "G. Identity disclosure laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "Constitutional Court Decision 2010Hun-Ma47 (“Real names” decision), 23 August 2012. An official summary of the Court’s decision is available on the Court’s website at http://www.ccourt.go.kr/home/bpm/sentence01_list.jsp only in Korean."}, {"n": 47, "text": "\"China to Strengthen Internet Information Protection\" - http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/BeijingInformation/BeijingNewsUpdate/t1292298.htm."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. A further initiative preventing communications anonymity is the gradual adoption of policies that require the registration of SIM cards with a subscriber's real name or government-issued identity document. In 48 countries in Africa, laws requiring individuals to register their personal information with their network provider prior to activation of pre-paid SIM cards are reportedly facilitating the establishment of extensive databases of user information, eradicating the potential for anonymity of communications, enabling location-tracking, and simplifying communications surveillance.[[fn:48]] In the absence of data protection legislation, SIM users' information can be shared with Government departments and matched with other private and public databases, enabling the State to create comprehensive profiles of individual citizens. Individuals are also at risk of being excluded from use of mobile phone services (which may enable not only communication but also access to financial services) if they are unable or unwilling to provide identification to register.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "G. Identity disclosure laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Kevin P. Donovan and Aaron K. Martin, “The Rise of African SIM Registration: Mobility, Identity, Surveillance and Resistance,” Information Systems and Innovation Group Working Paper Series, no. 186, London School of Economics and Political Science (20012)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. The security and anonymity of communications are also undermined by laws that limit the use of privacy-enhancing tools that can be used to protect communications, such as encryption. Many States have now adopted laws that mandate an individual enable decryption when so ordered. The South African Regulation of Interception of Communications and Provisions of Communication-Related Information Act of 2002 requires decryption assistance from any person who possesses the decryption key.[[fn:49]] Similar laws exist in Finland (Section 4(4)(a) Coercive Measures Act 1987/450), Belgium (Art. 9, Law on computer crime of 28 November 2000), and Australia (Sections 12 and 28 Cybercrime Act 2001).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "H. Restrictions on encryption and key disclosure laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "Section 29. South African Regulation of Interception of Communications and Provisions of Communication - Related Information Act 2002. Available at: http://www.dac.gov.za/acts/Regulation%20of%20Interception%20of%20Communications%20Act.pdf."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "9", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. The vital developments in technology that have enabled new and dynamic forms of communication have been occurred primarily in the private sector. In this sense, many of the changes in the way we communicate, receive and impart information are based on the research and innovations of corporate actors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VII. The roles and responsibilities of the private sector"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. The private sector has also played a key role in facilitating State surveillance of individuals, in a number of ways. Corporate actors have had to respond to requirements that digital networks and communications infrastructure be designed to enable intrusion by the State. Such requirements were originally adopted by States in the 1990s and are becoming compulsory for all communications services providers. Increasingly, States are adopting legislation requiring that communications service providers allow States direct access to communications data or modify infrastructure to facilitate new forms of State intrusion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VII. The roles and responsibilities of the private sector"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. In developing and deploying new technologies and communications tools in specific ways, corporate actors have also voluntarily taken measures that facilitate State surveillance of communications. In its simplest manifestation, this collaboration has taken the form of decisions on how corporate actors collect and process information, which allows them to become massive repositories of personal information that are then accessible to States upon demand. Corporate actors have adopted specifications that enable State access or intrusion, collect excessive and revelatory information, or restrict the application of encryption and other techniques that could limit access to information by both the companies and governments. The private sector has also often failed to deploy privacy-enhancing technologies, or has implemented them less than secure ways that do not represent the state of the art.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VII. The roles and responsibilities of the private sector"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. In the most serious circumstances, the private sector has been complicit in developing technologies that enable mass or invasive surveillance in contravention of existing legal standards.[[fn:50]] The corporate sector has generated a global industry focused on the exchange of surveillance technologies. Such technologies are often sold to countries in which there is a serious risk that they will be used to violate human rights, particularly those of human rights defenders, journalists or other vulnerable groups. This industry is virtually unregulated as States have failed to keep pace with technological and political developments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VII. The roles and responsibilities of the private sector"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "For some examples of surveillance technology designed by the private sector and utilized in Libya, Bahrain, the Syrian Arab Republic, Egypt and Tunisia, see European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies, Policy Department, After the Arab Spring: New Paths for Human Rights and the Internet in European Foreign Policy (2012), pp. 9-10."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. States' human rights obligations require that they not only respect and promote the rights to freedom of expression and privacy, but protect individuals from violations of human rights perpetrated by corporate actors. In addition, States should exercise adequate oversight in order to meet their international human rights obligations when they contract with, or legislate for, corporate actors where there may be an impact upon the enjoyment of human rights.[[fn:51]] Human rights obligations in this regard apply when corporate actors are operating abroad.[[fn:52]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VII. The roles and responsibilities of the private sector"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework, Principle 5."}, {"n": 52, "text": "Human Rights Committee, Concluding Observations, Germany, December 2012."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. States must ensure that the private sector is able to carry out its functions independently in a manner that promotes individuals’ human rights. At the same time, corporate actors cannot be allowed to participate in activities that infringe upon human rights, and States have a responsibility to hold companies accountable in this regard.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VII. The roles and responsibilities of the private sector"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. Communications techniques and technologies have evolved significantly, changing the way in which communications surveillance is conducted by States. States must therefore update their understandings and regulation of communications surveillance and modify their practices in order to ensure that individuals’ human rights are respected and protected.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. States cannot ensure that individuals are able to freely seek and receive information or express themselves without respecting, protecting and promoting their right to privacy. Privacy and freedom of expression are interlinked and mutually dependent; an infringement upon one can be both the cause and consequence of an infringement upon the other. Without adequate legislation and legal standards to ensure the privacy, security and anonymity of communications, journalists, human rights defenders and whistleblowers, for example, cannot be assured that their communications will not be subject to States’ scrutiny.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. In order to meet their human rights obligations, States must ensure that the rights to freedom of expression and privacy are at the heart of their communications surveillance frameworks. To this end, the Special Rapporteur recommends the following:", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. Communications surveillance should be regarded as a highly intrusive act that potentially interferes with the rights to freedom of expression and privacy and threatens the foundations of a democratic society. Legislation must stipulate that State surveillance of communications must only occur under the most exceptional circumstances and exclusively under the supervision of an independent judicial authority. Safeguards must be articulated in law relating to the nature, scope and duration of the possible measures, the grounds required for ordering them, the authorities competent to authorize, carry out and supervise them, and the kind of remedy provided by the national law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Updating and strengthening laws and legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Individuals should have a legal right to be notified that they have been subjected to communications surveillance or that their communications data has been accessed by the State. Recognizing that advance or concurrent notification might jeopardize the effectiveness of the surveillance, individuals should nevertheless be notified once surveillance has been completed and have the possibility to seek redress in respect of the use of communications surveillance measures in their aftermath.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Updating and strengthening laws and legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Legal frameworks must ensure that communications surveillance measures:\n(a) Are prescribed by law, meeting a standard of clarity and precision that is sufficient to ensure that individuals have advance notice of and can foresee their application;\n(b) Are strictly and demonstrably necessary to achieve a legitimate aim; and\n(c) Adhere to the principle of proportionality, and are not employed when less invasive techniques are available or have not yet been exhausted.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Updating and strengthening laws and legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. States should criminalize illegal surveillance by public or private actors. Such laws must not be used to target whistleblowers or other individuals seeking to expose human rights violations, nor should they hamper the legitimate oversight of government action by citizens.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Updating and strengthening laws and legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. The provision of communications data by the private sector to States should be sufficiently regulated to ensure that individuals’ human rights are prioritized at all times. Access to communications data held by domestic corporate actors should only be sought in circumstances where other available less invasive techniques have been exhausted.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Updating and strengthening laws and legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. The provision of communications data to the State should be monitored by an independent authority, such as a court or oversight mechanism. At the international level, States should enact Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties to regulate access to communications data held by foreign corporate actors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Updating and strengthening laws and legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. Surveillance techniques and practices that are employed outside of the rule of law must be brought under legislative control. Their extra-legal usage undermines basic principles of democracy and is likely to have harmful political and social effects.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Updating and strengthening laws and legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. States should refrain from compelling the identification of users as a precondition for access to communications, including online services, cybercafés or mobile telephony.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Facilitating private, secure and anonymous communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. Individuals should be free to use whatever technology they choose to secure their communications. States should not interfere with the use of encryption technologies, nor compel the provision of encryption keys.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Facilitating private, secure and anonymous communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. States should not retain or require the retention of particular information purely for surveillance purposes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Facilitating private, secure and anonymous communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. States should be completely transparent about the use and scope of communications surveillance techniques and powers. They should publish, at minimum, aggregate information on the number of requests approved and rejected, a disaggregation of the requests by service provider and by investigation and purpose.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Increasing public access to information, understanding and awareness of threats to privacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. States should provide individuals with sufficient information to enable them to fully comprehend the scope, nature and application of the laws permitting communications surveillance. States should enable service providers to publish the procedures they apply when dealing with State communications surveillance, adhere to those procedures, and publish records of State communications surveillance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Increasing public access to information, understanding and awareness of threats to privacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. States should establish independent oversight mechanisms capable to ensure transparency and accountability of State surveillance of communications.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Increasing public access to information, understanding and awareness of threats to privacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. States should raise public awareness on the uses of new communication technologies in order to support individuals in properly assessing, managing, mitigating and making informed decisions on communications-related risks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Increasing public access to information, understanding and awareness of threats to privacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. States should ensure that communications data collected by corporate actors in the provision of communications services meets the highest standards of data protection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Regulating the commercialization of surveillance technology"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. States must refrain from forcing the private sector to implement measures compromising the privacy, security and anonymity of communications services, including requiring the construction of interception capabilities for State surveillance purposes or prohibiting the use of encryption.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Regulating the commercialization of surveillance technology"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. States must take measures to prevent the commercialization of surveillance technologies, paying particular attention to research, development, trade, export and use of these technologies considering their ability to facilitate systematic human rights violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Regulating the commercialization of surveillance technology"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. There is a significant need to advance international understanding on the protection of the right to privacy in light of technological advancements. The Human Rights Committee should consider issuing a new General Comment on the right to privacy, to replace General Comment No. 16 (1988).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "E. Furthering the assessment of relevant international human rights obligations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. Human rights mechanisms should further assess the obligations of private actors developing and supplying surveillance technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "E. Furthering the assessment of relevant international human rights obligations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. At its forty-ninth session, the Commission on Human Rights decided by its resolution 1993/45 of 5 March 1993, to appoint, for a period of three years, a special rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. In the same resolution the Commission on Human Rights requested the Special Rapporteur to gather all relevant information, wherever it might occur, of discrimination against, threats or use of violence and harassment, including persecution and intimidation, directed at persons seeking to exercise or to promote the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression as affirmed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and, where applicable, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, taking into account the work being conducted by other mechanisms of the Commission and Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities which touched on that right, with a view to avoiding duplication of work.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The Commission on Human Rights also requested the Special Rapporteur, as a matter of high priority, to gather all relevant information, wherever it might occur, of discrimination, threats or use of violence and harassment, including persecution and intimidation, against professionals in the field of information seeking to exercise or to promote the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression as affirmed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and, where applicable, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The Commission further requested the Special Rapporteur to seek and receive credible and reliable information from Governments, non-governmental organizations and any other parties who had knowledge of those cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Finally, the Commission requested the Special Rapporteur to submit to the Commission, beginning at its fiftieth session, a report covering the activities relating to his or her mandate, noting the work being conducted by other mechanisms of the Commission and Sub-Commission which touches on the right to freedom of expression and opinion, containing recommendations to the Commission and providing suggestions on ways and means to better promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression in all its manifestations, as affirmed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and, where applicable, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The Commission on Human Rights urged all Governments to cooperate with and assist the Special Rapporteur in the performance of his tasks and to furnish all information requested, and requested the Secretary-General to provide the Special Rapporteur with all necessary assistance, in particular the staff and resources deemed necessary, within existing overall United Nations resources, to fulfil his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. On 2 April 1993, Mr. Abid Hussain (India) was appointed Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The Economic and Social Council, in its decision 1993/268, of 28 July 1993, approved the Commission's decision to appoint a special rapporteur and its request to the Secretary-General to provide him with all necessary assistance. Resources were made available to the Centre for Human Rights in November 1993 enabling the Special Rapporteur to initiate his work at the end of 1993.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. On 26 January 1994, the Special Rapporteur presented a report to the fiftieth session of the Commission on Human Rights (E/CN.4/1994/33) in which he presented some initial observations on the terms of reference and methods of work of his mandate and in which he requested that attention be paid by the Commission on Human Rights at its fiftieth session to the critical situation concerning the resources available to him which the Special Rapporteur felt did not meet the minimum required to carry out his work in a satisfactory manner.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. In its resolution 1994/33 of 4 March 1994, the Commission welcomed the observations contained in the report of the Special Rapporteur on the methods of work, in particular on the means of responding effectively to information which comes before him and requested him to submit to the Commission at its fifty-first session a report covering the activities relating to his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. In chapter I of the present report the Special Rapporteur presents observations on the terms of reference that constitute the legal framework within which he will carry out his mandate. Chapter II sets out the methods of work that he is using or envisages using in the fulfilment of his mandate. In chapter III the Special Rapporteur elaborates on the activities he has undertaken in the fulfilment of his mandate. Chapter IV deals with country situations. In the last section of the report the Special Rapporteur presents preliminary conclusions and recommendations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. As the Special Rapporteur indicated in paragraph 40 of his previous and first report (E/CN.4/1994/33), he would like to touch on certain more basic questions in determining the nature and scope of the right to freedom of expression as a prerequisite for action to be undertaken by him. In this chapter the Special Rapporteur makes a beginning with this component of his work. He presents some considerations on the nature and scope of the right to freedom of expression, as well as on its permissible restrictions, for the purpose of clarifying the legal framework within which he will carry out his mandate and that he has previously considered in paragraphs 7-23 of his last report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. As the Special Rapporteur indicated in paragraph 25 of his previous report, his work will also involve the study of phenomena related to the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In this report the Special Rapporteur presents some preliminary considerations on these phenomena, as yet only in relation to his visit to Malawi. He intends to take up this aspect in greater detail in his next report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is a core right of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. It is both a civil right, in its capacity of protecting this sphere of life of the individual against undue infringements of the State, and a political right, in its capacity of guaranteeing the participation of the individual in political life, including that of State institutions. As such, the right to freedom of expression can be described as an essential test right, the enjoyment of which illustrates the degree of enjoyment of all human rights enshrined in the United Nations Bill of Rights, that comprises the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The respect for this right reflects a country's standard of fair play, justice and honesty.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights reads: \"1. Everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference. \"2. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice. \"3. The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of this article carries with it special duties and responsibilities. It may therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary: \"(a) For respect of the rights or reputations of others; \"(b) For the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals.\"", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The right to freedom of opinion and expression comprises a number of basic elements that define its content and which the Special Rapporteur would like to consider in order to determine the nature and the scope of this right. These basic elements include the terms \"freedom\", \"opinion\", \"expression\", \"information and ideas\" and \"duties and responsibilities\".", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. In order to better grasp the boundaries of the scope of protection offered by the right to freedom of expression the Special Rapporteur addresses the question of restrictions and limitations to this right, including the permissible purposes of these restrictions and limitations. The Special Rapporteur envisages, at a later stage, addressing the question of sanctions affecting persons who express their opinions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The Special Rapporteur furthermore considers the right to freedom of opinion and expression in relation to a number of articles other than article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, notably article 20 on the prohibition of propaganda for war and advocacy of hatred; article 18 on freedom of thought, conscience, religion and belief; and article 17 on the right to privacy. He envisages considering at a later stage the right to freedom of opinion and expression in relation to the general provisions of the Covenant in its Part II (arts. 2-5).", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "18", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. At the outset of the Special Rapporteur's attempt at clarifying the nature and scope of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, he would like to address the question of the nature of the freedom concerned. Fundamental to the right to freedom of expression is the dual conception of freedom on which it is founded. From this dual conception of freedom flows much of the scope of protection of this right. The two fundamental elements of the conception of freedom are the freedom of access to the State and the freedom from the State. The former refers to the participation of the individual in matters of the State. It has a collective connotation and leads into the realm of the freedom of individuals to assemble and organize among themselves. The latter refers to the realm of privacy of the individual and requires absolute protection against any undue external interference. Here, in principle, the State is not obligated to guarantee the right with positive measures. Only in cases where the expression of an opinion interferes directly with the rights of others or where it constitutes a direct threat to the society is the Government obligated to intervene.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. These two fundamental elements of the conception of freedom can be traced to liberal thinking. They have been magnificently captured by John Stuart Mill in an often quoted passage from his \"Essay on Liberty\" (1859). He writes, when discussing the appropriate region of human liberty: \"It comprises, first, the inward domain of consciousness; demanding liberty of conscience, in the most comprehensive sense; liberty of thought and feeling; absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects, practical or speculative, scientific, moral, or theological. The liberty of expressing and publishing opinions may seem to fall under a different principle, since it belongs to that part of the conduct of an individual which concerns other people; but, being almost of as much importance as the liberty of thought itself, and resting in great part on the same reasons, is practically inseparable from it. Secondly, the principle requires liberty of tastes and pursuits; of framing the plan of our life to suit our own character; of doing as we like, subject to such consequences as may follow: without impediment from our fellow-creatures, so long as what we do does not harm them, even though they should think our conduct foolish, perverse, or wrong. Thirdly, from this liberty of each individual, follows the liberty, within the same limits, of combination among individuals; freedom to unite, for any purpose not involving harm to others: the persons combining being supposed to be of full age, and not forced or deceived.\" (In: Walter Laqueur and Barry Rubin (eds.), The Human Rights Reader, New York (revised edition), 1990; p. 87.)", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Next to the liberal conception of freedom its socialist counterpart should be considered. In this conception freedom should be understood as a directive to be free and its aim is not so much warding off interference of the State in the private realm of the individual but rather the social integration of the individual in society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Both conceptions of freedom have been the subject of abuse for immediate political purposes. In many instances, and until this day, the liberal conception of freedom has led to the neglect in practice by many States of the necessity for many of the developing countries to begin by building up a political and legal framework before being able to properly guarantee civil and political rights. Many developing countries argue that such efforts require not only political commitment but also resources on the part of the State. Alternatively, the socialist conception of freedom has led to the subjugation, even in constitutional and statutory law, of the legitimate enjoyment of those aspects of freedom that are related to a private sphere of the individual as completely distinct from and beyond the legitimate interference by the State. Socialist government has thus allowed for undue and virtually unchecked domination of the State over the private lives of its citizens.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Both conceptions of freedom have, in a more positive light, contributed to the understanding that the protection and promotion of human rights require - and, in legal terms, obligate - the State to take action or refrain from doing so whenever human rights so require, either to protect individuals from undue interference by the State or by third parties, or to safeguard their effective participation in the social, cultural, civil, economic and political life of society. This understanding resulted from the clash of the ideas of liberalism and socialism where they touched upon the issue of human rights. It will guide the Special Rapporteur in his endeavours to promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. During the discussion at the Commission on Human Rights on the formulation of article 19, freedom of opinion was said to be strictly a private matter while freedom of expression was said to be a public one. The freedom to form an opinion was held to be absolute and, in contrast to freedom of expression, not allowed to be restricted by law or any other power. It is for these reasons that the Covenant in article 19 (1) declares an independent right to hold opinions without interference. The absolute character of the protection offered by article 19 (1) is furthermore underlined by article 19 (3), which stipulates that special duties and responsibilities are only carried with the exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of article 19, i.e. solely the right to freedom of expression and not the right to hold opinions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Exactly what aspects of the private realm of the individual are covered by the notion of \"opinion\" is unclear. It is clear, however, that freedom of opinion should be distinguished from, yet at the same time is closely linked to, the freedom of thought that is protected in article 18 of the Covenant. On the relationship between opinion and thought one knowledgeable author has remarked that the notion of thought may be nearer to religion or other beliefs and the notion of opinion nearer to political convictions. Another knowledgeable author noted that the expression of an opinion relates to secular and political matters rather than religious ones and the expression of a thought relates to religious matters rather than secular ones. The Special Rapporteur notes that these interpretations appear to be linked primarily to the articles of the Conventions wherein we find the notions of thought and opinion. He stresses that he finds the frontiers between the notions of thought and opinion not very clear. As a consequence the protection of the freedom of opinion calls for the careful consideration of the specific aspects of each individual case.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "18", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. The prohibition to interfere with the freedom of opinion is directed not only at interference by the State but also at interference by private parties. The Special Rapporteur recalls in this respect that the majority of the delegates that were involved in the drafting of article 19 (1) voiced support for protection against every form of interference. This recognition of horizontal effects implies that States parties to the Covenant are also obligated pursuant to article 2 (1) to protect freedom of opinion against interference by third parties.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. What exactly constitutes an impermissible interference with the freedom of opinion is not an easy matter to determine. In general, it is possible to speak of such an interference when an individual is influenced against his will and when this influence is exerted by threat, coercion or the use of force.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. At the outset of the attempt to clarify the notion of \"expression\", that is referred to in article 19 (2), the Special Rapporteur would like to remark that in his opinion it is hard to see how the act of seeking or receiving information can be included in the act of expression as is suggested by the wording of article 19 (2). Having said this, the Special Rapporteur notes that the scope of protection by article 19 (2) leads into the area of public life and thereby touches upon a fundamental aspect of democracy. This scope is clarified by the following jurisprudential considerations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. The European Court of Human Rights expressed the opinion that freedom of expression is applicable not only to information and ideas that are favourably received or regarded as inoffensive or as a matter of indifference, but also to those that offend, shock or disturb the State or any sector of the population. The European Court furthermore stated that such are the demands of pluralism, tolerance and broadmindedness without which there can be no democratic society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. A judge from India held that there can indeed be no freedom unless thought is free and unrestricted; not free thought for those who agree but freedom for the thought others or we ourselves dislike. It is only from the clash of ideas that truth can emerge, for the best test of truth is the power of thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market of ideas. Freedom of expression is central to that competition.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Freedom of expression is protected in article 19 (2) with respect to \"information and ideas of all kinds\". This implies that every communicable type of idea, information, opinion, news, advertising, art, critical political commentary, etc. falls within the scope of protection. Also, as the travaux préparatoires of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights indicate, the anonymous publication of an opinion or of information is protected by article 19 (2). Most importantly, it is impossible, in view of the wording of article 19 as a whole, to attempt to exclude undesirable opinions or expressions, such as blasphemy or pornography, solely by restrictively defining or interpreting the scope of protection offered by article 19 (2). On the other hand, the exercise of the right to freedom of expression carries with it special duties and responsibilities on the question of which the Special Rapporteur elaborates below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. With respect to the ways in which information and ideas of all kinds can be sought, received or imparted, the relationship between articles 19 and 17 of the Covenant should be borne in mind. Article 17 refers to correspondence as such a means. Letters and conversations, however, do fall within the scope of protection of article 19. As does, it can be imagined, the expression of feelings. Article 19 furthermore expressly mentions oral, written and printed communication as well as works of art and \"any other media of his choice\". The scope of protection offered by article 19 is therefore quite comprehensive, as is also confirmed by the travaux préparatoires of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. To guide his future interpretation of article 19, the Special Rapporteur notes that the travaux préparatoires indicate a strong will on the part of the negotiating parties to the Covenant to protect the content of messages imparted by the media. No provision, for example, was included in the article dealing with the licensing of media enterprises. Here it should be added that with the age of soap-box oratory and political pamphleteering coming to an end, television has become the most powerful medium for the communication of ideas and the dissemination of information. The enjoyment of freedom of expression therefore includes the freedom to use such a medium.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The freedom to seek information is guaranteed in article 19 (2). It entails the right to seek information inasmuch as this information is generally accessible. It is subject to debate whether the press and other media can derive any privileged right to seek information above and beyond generally accessible information. In this respect the Special Rapporteur would like to note the important role the press and other media have to play in imparting information, and thereby informing the general public of all events to their interest. Bearing in mind the aforementioned dual notion of freedom, its element concerning the freedom of the individual from the State necessarily entails that the individual in his private realm is protected against undue interference by the State with respect to information only or mainly accessible to the State. The Special Rapporteur notes that this aspect of the freedom to seek information touches on the right to privacy as protected under article 17 of the Covenant and begets added weight in our era of information and electronic means of communication.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. In contemporary society, because of the social and political role of information, the right of everyone to receive information and ideas has to be carefully protected. This right is not simply a converse of the right to impart information but it is a freedom in its own right. The right to seek or have access to information is one of the most essential elements of freedom of speech and expression. Freedom will be bereft of all effectiveness if the people have no access to information. Access to information is basic to the democratic way of life. The tendency to withhold information from the people at large is therefore to be strongly checked.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. In article 19 (3) reference is made to special duties and responsibilities. The Special Rapporteur notes that the emphasis on special duties and responsibilities in article 19 contrasts with the general nature of the Covenant that establishes rights of the individual and duties of States. The special duty and responsibility referred to can therefore be said to be part of the general principle that is embodied in human rights that are horizontally effective. This means that the exercise of freedom of expression might entail a violation of the rights of others. Examples of such horizontal effects can be found in the realm of privacy, the influencing of public opinion, or the monopolization of the press. Thus, these responsibilities obligate the opinion makers not to abuse their power at the expense of others and obligate the State to interfere in such cases where the rights of others are violated. Also, they obligate the State to take action in those instances where a concentration of the media threatens the diversity of opinion or the access to published opinion. As indicated in the travaux préparatoires of the Covenant, the reference to special duties and responsibilities was included in article 19 for the purpose of offering States the possibility to counter such abuse of power by mass media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The issue of duties and responsibilities was subject to some debate during the travaux préparatoires. Those who opposed proposals stipulating that the right to freedom of expression carries with it duties and responsibilities contended that the general purpose of the Covenant was to set forth civil and political rights and to guarantee and protect them rather than to lay down duties and responsibilities and to impose these upon individuals. It was furthermore contended that since each right carried with it a corresponding duty and since in no other article was this corresponding duty of any right set out, article 19 should not be an exception to this rule. It was principally upon the argument that the modern media could exert a powerful influence on the exercise and enjoyment of freedom of expression that those supporting proposals to include a reference to duties and responsibilities in the article maintained their position. It was for these reasons that in the ultimately adopted text of article 19 the word \"special\" was included before the words \"duties and responsibilities\".", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Article 19 (3) lists the permissible purposes for State interference with the right to freedom of expression. A closer look at the travaux préparatoires reveals that at a given point in time during the negotiating process a choice had to be made between inserting a general limitations clause in the article or inserting an exhaustive listing of all permissible purposes for interference. Article 19 (3) results from a compromise arrived at between these two different positions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The entire discussion on permissible restrictions to the right to freedom of opinion and expression related to freedom of expression and excluded freedom of opinion. In this respect, paragraph 3 of article 19 leaves no room for misunderstandings. No interference with the right to hold opinions is allowed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Article 19 (3) of the Covenant refers only to \"restrictions\" which may, in the eyes of the Special Rapporteur, include procedural matters and formalities such as taxation of printed works and the licensing of broadcasting companies, or penalties such as on criminal offences for the purpose of protecting the rights of others. In this respect, the Special Rapporteur notes that, contrary to the Covenant, the European Convention on Human Rights more explicitly permits \"formalities, conditions, restrictions or penalties\".", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 19 (3) of the Covenant refers only to restrictions' and contrasts the Covenant with the ECHR. The Covenant discussed throughout this document is the ICCPR. Article 19(3) ICCPR governs permissible limitations on freedom of expression."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Article 19 (3) allows for the restriction of the right to freedom of expression and information only under certain conditions. Most importantly, any restriction or limitation must be provided by law, must serve one of the listed purposes mentioned in the article and must be necessary for attaining this purpose.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The term \"provided by law\" implies that restrictions and limitations on the right to freedom of expression must have been formally enacted in law. Such act should specify the permissibility of interference by enforcement organs. The degree of such specification is important. Any interference that is solely based on administrative provisions prima facie violates article 19.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Any permissible limitation to the right to freedom of expression must not only be provided by law, it must also be necessary to attain one of the following purposes: - (a) To respect the rights or reputations of others; - (b) To protect national security; - (c) To protect public order; - (d) To protect public health; - (e) To protect public morals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. The Special Rapporteur recalls the importance of the principle of proportionality in the process of establishing whether any limitation of the right to freedom of expression is necessary. In this respect, the general rule is the protection of the freedom; restriction of such freedom should be the exception to this rule. The restriction may not be applied in such a way that the expression of an opinion on any particular matter is merely suppressed. It may be restricted only in so far as it is necessary to attain one of the above-mentioned purposes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. The Special Rapporteur notes that, in spite of the fact that article 19 (3) refers to \"restrictions\" only, there are wider purposes for interference with the right to freedom of expression. Notably, article 20 of the Covenant obligates States to interfere with the right to freedom of expression as well as with other rights enumerated in the Covenant by prohibiting propaganda for war and the advocacy of racial hatred.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The Special Rapporteur also notes that during the travaux préparatoires concerning article 19 of the Covenant, more than 30 proposals for restrictions and limitations were tabled. These proposals related to expressions instigating to criminal actions or the violent overthrow of the Government, or expressions that infringe on the rights of others to mental and moral integrity. Thus, the issues of pornography and blasphemy were subject to debate. The fact that the final wording of article 19 (3) does not include a reference to these matters does, of course, not imply that interference on the part of the State for the purpose of protecting these interests is prohibited without exception. The limited scope for permissible interference that we find in article 19 (3) - limited especially as compared to regional human rights instruments - suggests to the Special Rapporteur that any interference, and especially restriction or limitation, should be interpreted narrowly in case of doubt.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Respect for the rights and reputations of others may justify certain restrictions on the right to freedom of expression for purposes including the protection of freedom of religion, the protection against discrimination and the protection of minorities. Most importantly, however, as experience in practice suggests, the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression of others may justify such restrictions. Regarding the respect of the reputations of others, the Special Rapporteur notes that article 19 (3) when read in conjunction with article 17 obligates the State to provide legal protection against any intentional infringement on the honour and reputation by untrue assertions. In all cases, the principle of proportionality must be strictly observed for the purpose of preventing the undermining of the freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. For the purpose of protecting national security, the right to freedom of expression and information can be restricted only in the most serious cases of a direct political or military threat to the entire nation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The Special Rapporteur would like to refer in this connection to the passionate and eloquent speech which Sir Winston Churchill delivered in defence of the freedom to criticize the Government in the House of Commons at the moment when Britain was under severe threat of defeat at the hands of Nazi Germany's forces.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Replying to this historic moment of censure, Sir Winston Churchill said that the criticism that he and his Government had received were a remarkable example of the unbridled freedom of Britain's parliamentary institutions in time of war. He remarked that everything that could be thought of or made up had been used in weakening the confidence in the Government, in proving that Ministers are incompetent and in making the army feel distressed. He furthermore remarked that this served to weaken the confidence workers in weapons factories had in themselves and had undermined the Prime Minister in his own heart. All these criticisms, Sir Winston Churchill furthermore remarked, were poured out by cable and radio to all parties of the world to the distress of all of Britain's friends and to the delight of all of Britain's foes. At the close of his address, Sir Winston Churchill remarked, however, that he was in favour of this freedom even in times of mortal peril such as those through which Britain was at that moment passing.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. In the eyes of the Special Rapporteur, these words stand out as a beacon light to all who believe in human rights. They furthermore serve to underline the strongly held opinion of the Special Rapporteur that the purpose of protecting national security, which is in itself a legitimate one, should not be called upon too lightly by Governments in an attempt to justify infringements on the right to freedom of expression that might be unnecessary and impermissible because they do not serve its stated purpose.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Restrictions on the right to freedom of expression can be imposed for the purpose of protecting public order (ordre public). The Special Rapporteur notes that, whereas the notion of public order is in itself somewhat vague, it is possible to include in it the more narrow notion of the \"prevention of disorder or crime\", which is in use in article 10 (2) of the European Convention on Human Rights. In addition to the prevention of disorder and crime, one can also include under the notion of public order the universally accepted fundamental principles on which a democratic society is based and that are consistent with respect for human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"article": "10", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'article 10 (2) of the European Convention on Human Rights'. ECHR is regional, outside the allowed list."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. In view of the vagueness that inheres in the notion of public order, the danger exists that its application undermines the right to freedom of expression itself. To safeguard the protection of the freedom of expression as a general rule, as opposed to an exception, any appeal on the part of the State to restrict the exercise of the freedom of expression on the grounds of protecting public order should, in the eyes of the Special Rapporteur, meet strict requirements indicating its necessity. Any minimum requirements flowing from a common international standard for the protection of this right may not be set too low. For example, national legislation permitting the exercise of the right to freedom of expression only in the interest of a specific purpose such as a belief or religion would violate this international minimum standard. As a general rule, States should not invoke any custom, tradition or religious consideration to avoid meeting their obligations with respect to the safeguarding of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In these instances, limitations on freedom of expression can be justified only when the public order of the State is truly compromised. Such a limitation may then be in effect only for a limited period of time and under certain specific circumstances, and any restrictions must be clearly established so that everyone may know precisely what is prohibited, and what is subject to such limitations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. The protected interest of public health allows for the prohibition of misleading publications on health-threatening substances or on social or culturally inspired practices negatively affecting health. In this respect, the Special Rapporteur refers to traditional practices affecting the health of women and children. These practices include female genital mutilation, dowry debts and bride-burning. Publications on these matters that can be considered as misleading entail a positive obligation on the part of the Government to take steps to protect the interests of public health, if necessary by curtailing the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The protected interest of public morals is a further ground on which States can interfere with the right to freedom of expression. Typical examples of restrictions in this domain relate to pornography and blasphemy. The Special Rapporteur notes that public morals differ widely and depend in large measure on the national context that includes matters of politics and culture. A margin of appreciation must therefore be accorded to the State. The Special Rapporteur would like to note, however, that restrictions applied on the freedom of expression should not be applied in such a manner as to promote prejudice and intolerance. He furthermore recognizes the importance to protect the freedom of expression of minority views including those views that might be offensive or disturbing to a majority.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. In this chapter the Special Rapporteur describes the methods of work adopted by him. The activities resulting from his approach are described in the next chapter.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. As indicated in his previous report, the methods of work of the Special Rapporteur have been drawn from the practice established by and the experience acquired through the various thematic mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights. They include in particular those on enforced or involuntary disappearances, extrajudicial, arbitrary or summary executions, torture, religious intolerance, and arbitrary detention. The Special Rapporteur adopts the methods of work that he deems most appropriate for his specific tasks. This implies a combined approach wherein country situations in general and individual cases are considered. The Special Rapporteur will furthermore study phenomena facilitating or impeding the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and take action on concrete cases reported to him.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Following the request of the Commission on Human Rights, the Special Rapporteur seeks credible and reliable information from Governments, non-governmental organizations and other parties who have knowledge of pertinent situations and cases. A wide range of sources is being used.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. By the sending of circular letters the Special Rapporteur contacts Governments, specialized agencies and non-governmental organizations which are concerned with the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and seeks pertinent information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Upon the receipt of prima facie credible and reliable information, the Special Rapporteur transmits the information to the Government concerned and requests it to provide him with comments and observations. In resolution 1993/47 the Commission on Human Rights encouraged Governments to respond expeditiously to such requests so that the special rapporteurs with thematic mandates might carry out these mandates effectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Upon the receipt of replies from the Governments concerned, the Special Rapporteur establishes whether the information received can be considered as explaining to his satisfaction the circumstances of the case, the applicable laws and regulations and the reasons for the act or omission on the part of the State that provided the initial ground for an allegation of an impermissible infringement on the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. The Special Rapporteur subsequently decides to either consider the case as closed to his satisfaction, or to seek and exchange further information or clarification with the Government concerned.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. It should be stressed that the dialogue established with Governments by the Special Rapporteur and the transmission of allegations concerning their countries in no way implies any kind of accusation on the part of the Special Rapporteur, but constitutes a request for clarification with a view to finding, along with the Government concerned, ways and means to promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. The Special Rapporteur adopts an urgent action procedure for cases that are of a life-threatening nature, as is used in several other special procedures of the United Nations for the protection and promotion of human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. Finally, the Special Rapporteur would like to stress that in implementing his mandate, he is keen to respond effectively to credible and reliable information coming before him, and to carry out his work with discretion and independence. In this context, he refers to the many difficulties he encounters as a result of a lack of financial and human resources, as described in chapter III of this report, that impede the effective discharging of the Special Rapporteur's mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The Special Rapporteur seeks to hold consultations with all persons and organizations that can be of interest to him in the fulfilment of his mandate. Unfortunately, the absence of resources for this purpose as well as the strict regulations governing the activities he can undertake in the exercise of his work do not allow him to actively engage himself in the organization of such consultations. For these reasons, the Special Rapporteur expresses the hope that those organizations that can contribute to his work will not hesitate to contact him for the purpose of holding consultations. He expresses his appreciation to those organizations that have already done so.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. The Special Rapporteur views on-site visits as an essential component of his mandate. He undertook a mission to Malawi from 3 to 6 October 1994, as described in chapter III of this report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. The Special Rapporteur reiterates the need for close cooperation with related mandates as he has noted in the concluding observations of his previous report (sect. IV, para. 43). He mentions in this respect the Special Rapporteur on religious intolerance, the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture, the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. The Special Rapporteur notes that some overlap exists between his mandate and that of other United Nations procedures in the promotion and protection of human rights. Inasmuch as this overlap can be attributed to the scope of protection offered by the right to freedom of opinion and expression itself, it is unavoidable. It is the case, for example, with the work of the Special Rapporteur on religious intolerance, inasmuch as it concerns the non-religious beliefs that fall within the scope of protection of article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The Special Rapporteur notes that these rights do not exist in isolation and that what is done in one area to protect them has more than a merely psychological effect on the protection of other rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "18", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Part of the other activities undertaken by the Special Rapporteur in the fulfilment of his mandate is the granting of interviews to the press so as to make his work better known to the general public and to gather support from the public for his work.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. By circular letters dated 25 January, 10 February and 23 March 1994, the Special Rapporteur has contacted Governments, specialized agencies and non-governmental organizations which are concerned with the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and has sought to receive information pertinent to his mandate from them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. As at 31 October 1994, the following 23 Governments have responded: Belarus, Burkina Faso, China, Cuba, El Salvador, Germany, Greece, Haiti, Israel, Jamaica, Japan, Lesotho, Madagascar, Mexico, Monaco, Nepal, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Philippines, Sudan, Sweden and Yugoslavia.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. Of these Governments, some have acknowledged receipt of the circular letter only. Others have brought their national legislation on the right to freedom of opinion and expression to the attention of the Special Rapporteur or have responded referring to their report to the Human Rights Committee. At a later stage the Special Rapporteur wishes to present some thoughts on these replies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. The Special Rapporteur has furthermore received replies and information from the following nine non-governmental organizations in consultative status with the Economic and Social Council or with specialized agencies or other United Nations bodies: Amnesty International, Article XIX: The International Centre Against Censorship, Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs, Inc., Human Rights Watch, International Federation of Journalists, International PEN, International Press Institute, International Union of Lawyers, and Reporters Without Borders - International.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his appreciation for the replies to his circular letters and other information he received from Governments and non-governmental organizations. He strongly encourages Governments and non-governmental organizations that as yet have not been in a position to respond to his circular letter to do so at their earliest convenience. He also expresses the sincere wish that non-governmental organizations which have already offered him information will continue to do so.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. As of September 1994 the Special Rapporteur had received a large number of detailed allegations concerning cases of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Owing to constraints of time and lack of human resources he was able to transmit only a few summaries of these cases to some of the Governments concerned.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. The Special Rapporteur requested 47 Governments for information, in accordance with paragraphs 12, 13, 14 and 15 of Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/45 (see paras. 2-4 and 6).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. Communications were transmitted to the following 47 Governments: Albania, Algeria, Argentina, Bangladesh, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Cameroon, China, Colombia, Cuba, Egypt, Ethiopia, Gabon, Georgia, Guatemala, Haiti, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Ireland, Kenya, Lebanon, Malaysia, Mexico, Morocco, Myanmar, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Paraguay, Peru, Poland, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Tajikistan, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Tunisia, Turkey, United States of America, Yemen, Yugoslavia, Viet Nam, Zaire and Zambia.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. In these communications the Special Rapporteur requested the views and comments of the Governments concerned on the facts reported to him and requested them furthermore to provide him with the results of any investigations which might have been carried out.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. As of 31 October 1994, the Governments of the following 10 countries had replied to the allegations transmitted to them: Algeria, Bangladesh, China, Ethiopia, Hungary, India, Republic of Korea, Sudan, Tunisia and Turkey. The situations in these countries are the subject of chapter IV of this report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The Special Rapporteur visited Geneva from 7 to 10 November 1994 for the purpose of holding consultations with the Secretariat. During the first year of his mandate he met with some special rapporteurs, with representatives of Governments and non-governmental organizations, and with persons who in their individual capacity provided him with pertinent information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Pursuant to Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/45, the Special Rapporteur has visited Malawi from 3 to 6 October 1994 following an invitation by the Malawi Government. The Special Rapporteur undertook his mission on the basis of information received from a number of non-governmental organizations that are active in the field of his mandate concerning allegations of threats of violence, harassment and intimidation of persons seeking to exercise or to promote the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Of special interest to him was the emerging democratic climate as a result of recent and profound political changes in the country. The Special Rapporteur met with officials of the Government and administration, members of Parliament, members of the press corps, religious leaders, members of the business community, members of the academic community and practising lawyers. The Special Rapporteur also met with representatives of diplomatic missions as well as with aid workers active in the country.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The Special Rapporteur has found that the Malawi population at present enjoys the right to freedom of opinion and expression as enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. In those instances where allegations were made concerning infringements on this right, all persons with whom the Special Rapporteur was in contact agreed that such allegations were, or could be, tested as to their legality under the rule of law that is currently being established in Malawi. The Special Rapporteur has found that the current gap between the long-term stated goals and principles enshrined in the preliminary Constitution and the existing statutory laws and practices of the previous political era are a major concern of many persons.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. The Special Rapporteur also noted that in many instances the enjoyment to its fullest possible extent of the right to freedom of opinion and expression met with constraints of a structural nature. For example, the country has no more than one Government-operated radio station and a few privately owned printing presses. These limited printing facilities, moreover, according to some persons with whom the Special Rapporteur spoke, were not managed exclusively on a commercial basis, but instead were used to a limited degree in a political way, i.e. by the alleged delayed printing of some newspapers. In general, the Special Rapporteur notes that the high rate of illiteracy, the general state of poverty of the large majority of the population, the lack of transportation and education are all factors impeding the full implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. For these reasons, the enjoyment of that right cannot be analysed in a legal vacuum. The Special Rapporteur, at a later stage, wishes to consider these structural impediments to the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression at a more general level.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. The Special Rapporteur considers that the lack of debate on the preliminary Constitution of Malawi and the limited general knowledge of its content are factors that hamper the effective protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur, after having discussed these matters with interested parties, would venture to suggest that possible contributions to a solution of this problem might include the translation of the Constitution into local languages, as well as education and dissemination projects with the use of university graduates.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0086", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. The Special Rapporteur would like to encourage donor countries represented in Malawi to contribute, financially as well as through offering their expertise, to the undertaking of projects that assist in establishing the wider legal framework needed to channel the executive power in its actions and policies. In this respect, the Special Rapporteur notes it is an essential part of consolidating constitutional government in the country that due attention be given to international human rights instruments and notably to those treaties to which Malawi is a party and which are part of the law of the country as is stipulated in the nation's preliminary Constitution. In general, the international jurisprudence established by the various human rights treaty monitoring bodies should be thoroughly considered in the country's attempt at consolidating its newly found and fragile political process which seeks to establish and sustain democracy and the rule of law. With respect to the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the Special Rapporteur would like to refer as well to the terms of reference of his mandate as contained in chapter I of this report which can be of assistance in this consolidation effort.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0087", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. In the coming year of his mandate, the Special Rapporteur proposes to visit three countries situated in Asia, Latin America and Eastern Europe respectively. At a later stage, he would like to visit countries in other regions of the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0088", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. With respect to the undertaking of further visits in the pursuit of his mandate, the Special Rapporteur would like to remark that such missions can only gain optimal results when they are well organized. The undertaking of such missions requires a planning that goes beyond the mere short term. Such planning, furthermore, requires continuity in the support offered by the Centre for Human Rights. The Special Rapporteur refers in this respect to his considerations presented elsewhere in this report on the as yet still less than appropriate financial and human resources that are needed to fulfil his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0089", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. The prospects of working with the United Nations Development Programme in carrying out visits are bright. UNDP is institutionally, as well as conceptually, well placed to enable effective and systematic consultation with Governments. The Special Rapporteur would like to consider how to strengthen support received from UNDP and how to move beyond the level of consultations to the level of real coordination in this extremely sensitive, but very important area of work. An agreed framework has to be put in place to achieve this coordination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0090", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. Whereas the Special Rapporteur recognizes the importance of cooperating with other human rights procedures, he feels compelled to note that the human resources at the Centre for Human Rights are inadequate to allow for such cooperation to take place in any systematic manner. At present, cooperation is taking place on an ad hoc basis and includes the exchange of information concerning individual cases of allegations of human rights violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0091", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. The Special Rapporteur has regular contacts with the press in order to make his work known to the general public. During his visit to Malawi he granted an interview to the national radio and during his most recent visit to Geneva to a French radio station.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0092", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. As stated in his first report, submitted to the Commission on Human Rights in 1994, the Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned at the considerable number of communications he received that allege serious violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression throughout the world. The cases contained in these communications give evidence of the continuous need for the effective promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In view of the wealth and complexity of information pertaining to his mandate, as well as of the fact that violations occur in many countries of the world, an objective and even-handed approach requires sufficient financial and human resources to fulfil his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0093", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. The Special Rapporteur recalls that the Commission on Human Rights, in its resolution 1994/33 of 4 March 1994, requested the Secretary-General ... to provide, within existing overall United Nations resources, all the assistance necessary to the Special Rapporteur, in particular by strengthening the human and material resources placed at his disposal ... The Special Rapporteur strongly feels that, at a minimum, there should be one Professional staff member in the Centre for Human Rights assisting him on a full-time basis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0094", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. At this point in time, after a little more than one year of his mandate has elapsed, the Special Rapporteur feels compelled to convey to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-first session the somewhat distressing observation that the Centre for Human Rights is still not in a position to free one Professional staff member on a full-time basis for the purpose of assisting him in his work. Moreover, since he began his mandate, the Special Rapporteur has received assistance from three different Professional staff members consecutively, leading to a situation which did not contribute to the necessary continuity in the fulfilment of his mandate. Furthermore, these staff members carry many additional responsibilities, including the assisting of other Special Rapporteurs. This situation clearly illustrates the well-known fact that the Centre for Human Rights is severely understaffed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0095", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. With respect to the mandate of this Special Rapporteur and, as he presumes, that of many of his colleagues, the question arises whether the Commission on Human Rights should continue covering new areas by establishing special procedures without apparently being in a position to guarantee the provision of adequate human and financial resources for the unfolding of such activities. Current practice indicates that the existing overall United Nations resources are inadequate. If these resources are not made available to the Special Rapporteur, he will not be able to carry out his work thoroughly and with the necessary degree of efficiency. It is the ultimate concern of the Special Rapporteur that this situation would be not only to the detriment of the effectiveness of his own activities but could also jeopardize the effectiveness of the very important work of the Commission on Human Rights in the field of the promotion and protection of human rights. IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0096", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. In a communication dated 22 June 1994, addressed to the Government of Algeria, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following information: \"It has been reported that Mr. Rebah Zenati, a journalist with the Algerian national television station, was killed on 3 August 1993 by an unidentified attacker, apparently because of a story he wrote in March on an anti-terrorism demonstration. Mr. Zenati had previously received death threats in the mail.\"", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0097", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. In another communication, dated 26 July 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following information to the Government of Algeria: \"It has been reported that, on 14 February 1994, Abdelaziz Smati, a television producer, was seriously wounded when two men shot him outside his home in a suburb of Algiers. On 28 February 1994, television journalist, Albdelkader Hireche was killed by three gunmen in an eastern suburb of Algiers. On 1 March 1994, Miloud Zaatar, the Tiaret correspondent for the French-language daily Alger Republicain, was hit by five bullets outside his home. Zaatar was hospitalized and is recovering. On 5 March 1994, television journalist Hassan Benaouda was shot in the head by unidentified assailants in the Cabash section of Algiers. Benaouda died of his wound one week later. On 8 March 1994, Abed Charef, a journalist with the French-language weekly La Nation, survived two attempts on his life. A neighbour of Charef was killed in the first attempt, and later that day, gunmen sprayed his car with bullets in front of his child's day care facility. Charef was not in the car, his driver escaped injury. On 19 March 1994, Yahia Djamel Benzaghou, a journalist with the Prime Minister's press office and formerly a reporter for El Moudjahid and the state agency Algerie Press Service, was gunned down outside his home in Bab El Oued. Furthermore, on 21 March 1994, several gunmen raided the Algiers office of the independent weekly L'Hebdo Libéré, shot and killed photographer Madjid Yacef, a driver with the paper, and seriously injuring a female employee and two others.\"", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0098", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. On 29 August 1994, the Government of Algeria sent the following observations on the above-mentioned communications and a list of journalists and persons working in the media sector who have been victims of murders perpetrated by terrorists. The list included the names of the seven journalists referred to in the second communication. \"By acceding to all of the international instruments on the promotion and protection of human rights, Algeria has clearly demonstrated its unfailing devotion and commitment to respect for human rights. Anxious to build a modern, democratic State and convinced that human rights are the mainspring for the achievement of this objective, Algeria is working towards the elimination of extremism and its attendant violence, which are a negation of the most sacred right, the right to life. With regard to the killings of journalists, particularly that of Mr. Rabah Zenati, a journalist with the Algerian television station, the Algerian Government strongly condemns those acts and is bringing every effort to bear to punish those responsible, in the framework of the law. The journalistic community has already paid heavily for the armed violence linked to religious extremism. There have been many calls for killings and attempts against the lives of journalists. Since becoming one of the terrorists' targets, 17 journalists have paid with their lives for their anti-fundamentalist stand and 3 more were the victims of murder attempts. It should also be noted that the buildings housing the press and television have been subjected to bombings, which, fortunately, resulted only in material damage. Below is a list of journalists and people working in the information sector who have been the victims of terrorist attacks. Omar Belhouchet (17 May 1993). Director and manager of the national daily 'El Watan', he was shot at in a murder attempt while leaving his home in Bab Ezzouar (eastern suburbs of Algiers). Tahar Djaout (26 May 1993). Journalist with the weekly newspaper 'Rupture', a writer and poet, he was the victim of a shooting while leaving his home in Baînem (western suburbs of Algiers). He died of his injuries on 2 June 1993. Merzak Baghtache (31 July 1993). A journalist and writer, he was the victim of a shooting near his home in Algiers. He has been left with considerable physical and psychological after-effects. Rabah Zenati (3 August 1993). A journalist with the National Television Corporation (ENTV). Shot to death near his home in Cherarba (eastern suburbs of Algiers). Abdelhamid Benmennt (9 August 1993). Middle manager at the weekly newspaper 'Algérie Actualité', he was shot to death at his home in Eucalyptus Grove (eastern suburbs of Algiers). Saïd Bakhtaoui (11 August 1993). Journalist with 'El Mebar', the APUA party newspaper, abducted near his home (eastern suburbs of Algiers), he was shot to death and found dead at Larabaâ. Djamel Bouhidel (15 September 1993). A photographer with the newspaper 'Nouveau Tell', a regional publication in Bliaa, he was shot to death. Abderrahmane Chergou (28 September 1993). A journalist and writer with 'Alger Républicain' and 'Hebdo Libéré', former officer of the National Liberation Army, he was stabbed to death in the entrance to his home in Mohammadia (eastern suburbs of Algiers). Mustapha Abada (14 October 1993). Journalist, former director of the Algerian national television station in 1992, he was shot to death near his home in Alger Plage (eastern suburbs of Algiers). Ismaïl Yefsah (18 October 1993). A journalist with the national television station, he was shot to death while leaving his home in Bab-Ezzouar (eastern suburbs of Algiers). Youcef Sebti (28 December 1993). A journalist and contributor to several periodicals, Secretary-General of the 'El Jahaidia' cultural association. His throat was cut in his company apartment located on his work premises. Aziz Smati (15 February 1994). Radio and television producer. Victim of a shooting near his home at Chéraga (suburb of Algiers). He has had after-effects from this attack (motor handicap). Abdelkader Hireche (1 February 1994). Journalist with the national television station. Shot to death near his home in Algiers. Mohamed Hassaine (1 March 1993). Correspondent for the daily newspaper 'Alger Républicain'. He was abducted from his home in Larabaâtach (Blida) and has not been found to date. > Mouloud Zaatar (1 March 1994). Journalist with the daily newspaper 'Alger Républicain', victim of an attack at Tiaret, he has had serious physical after-effects. Hassan Benaouda (5 March 1994). Journalist with the national television station, he was the victim of a shooting in Algiers. He died of his injuries on 12 March 1994. Yahia Benzeghou (19 March 1994). Journalist with 'Algérie Presse Service' and the daily newspaper 'El Moudjahid', head of the communications service attached to the office of the Head of Government, he was shot to death near his home in Algiers. Madjid Yacef (21 March 1994). Reporter-photographer for 'Hebdo Libéré', he was killed during an attack on the 'Hebdo Libéré' premises by an armed group. Mohammed Meceffeur (13 April 1994). Journalist with 'El Watan' and 'Directive', he was shot to death at Mostaganem. Ferhat Cherkit (7 June 1994). Journalist and head of the economy section of the daily newspaper 'El Moudjahid', he was shot to death in Algiers. Hichem Guenifi (7 June 1994). A trainee technician at the national radio station, he was shot to death near his home at Bachdjarah (eastern suburbs of Algiers). Yasmina Drici (11 July 1994). Proofreader for the daily newspaper 'Soir d'Algérie', she was abducted by a group of terrorists and later found with her throat cut at Kharouba (Boumerdes). Mohamed Lamine Legoui (20 July 1994). Correspondent in M'sila for 'Algérie Presse Service', he was shot to death and his throat cut near his home in Bousaada. Brahim Taouchichet (14 August 1994). Director of the magazine 'Horoscope', he was abducted by a terrorist group.\"", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0099", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. As the communications transmitted to the Government of Algeria and the reply received from it shows, journalists, writers and persons working in the media section are particularly exposed to terrorist attacks from Islamic fundamentalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0100", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned at this situation and hopes that the Government of Algeria will be able to identify the perpetrators of the killings and abductions mentioned in his communication and to provide journalists the protection that they need to continue their work.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0101", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. In a communication dated 27 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following information to the Government of Bangladesh: \"It has been reported that a second 'fatwa' has been issued against feminist writer Taslima Nasreen as a result of a statement made in an interview published in an Indian newspaper. According to Nasreen, she had been misquoted as saying that 'the Koran should be revised thoroughly' with respect to women's rights. Muslim cleric, Moulana Amini, protested against the statement by Nasreen saying that it was more 'filthy' than those made by Salman Rushdie in 'The Satanic Verses'. Furthermore, Amini demanded that she be arrested and executed. An Islamic party leader, Azharul Islam, called Nasreen 'an apostate appointed by imperialist forces to vilify Islam'. Around 5,000 members of the militant Jamaiat Islami party marched through Dhaka carrying a banner calling for the hanging of anyone who blasphemes Islam and warned that if their calls for the arrest of Nasreen were to be ignored, they would instigate unrest against the Government. The renewal of threats against Nasreen coincided with the publication into French and English of her novel, Lajja.\"", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0102", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. On 13 July 1994, the Government of Bangladesh sent the following observations on the above-mentioned communication transmitted to it by the Special Rapporteur: \"As regards the statement made by Taslima Nasreen in an interview with a correspondent of the Calcutta-based English daily 'Statesman', the paper in its 9 May 1994 issue quoted her as saying: 'The Koran should be revised thoroughly'. The sweeping remark made by the writer on the Holy Quran was quoted extensively in Bangladesh news media and created deep anguish and consternation among believers, resulting in widespread protest and demand for action under the law. Apparently, the intensity of protest led the writer to modify her statement in a letter to the Editor's column of the 'Statesman', which was published on 11 May, saying: 'I do not hold the view that the Koran should be revised thoroughly'. It is important to note that nowhere in her rejoinder did she claim to have been misquoted. There is no report to suggest that a 'Muslim cleric' said to be named as Moulana Amini and 'an Islamic Party Leader' identified as Azharul Islam had made such remarks as alleged in the annexure to the Special Rapporteur's letter. It would be appreciated, if the details of identity of these persons and their alleged statements, including respective sources as well as dates and places, could be made available to this Mission. Regarding demonstrations calling for the 'hanging of anyone who blasphemes Islam' as well as the 'announcement of rewards for killing someone', the position of the Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh has been adequately reflected in a press note issued on > 28 June 1994. It noted that the Government had been observing the issuance of threat against the lives of some persons from time to time and announcement of reward for the killers by certain persons and organizations. The press note said that this kind of announcement is a punishable offense in the eyes of the law. It also expressed the Government's hope that all concerned would refrain from making such illegal announcements and show respect for the law, otherwise, the Government would be compelled to take legal action against them. While on this subject, it may be mentioned that a complaint has already been lodged by a relation of Taslima Nasreen before a court of law in the city of Khulna. It is, therefore, for the court to declare whether there is credible evidence to establish the alleged death threats against her by any individual or any group of individuals. It may be mentioned that the Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh contains wide-ranging and detailed provisions on Fundamental Rights including, inter alia, those on equality before law; protection of right to life and personal liberty; freedom of thoughts, conscience and speech; and safeguards against discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. At the same time, the right to freedom of opinion and expression, if exercised by an individual in total disregard for the sentiments and religious feelings of others in a society, may provoke exercise of similar rights. This, in turn, may lead to disruption of law and order. Therefore, the legal system of Bangladesh, like other legal systems, defines the concept of balance between the rights of the individual and those of the society.\"", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0103", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his gratitude for the willingness to cooperate shown by the Government of Bangladesh. However, he notes that in spite of the position taken by the authorities against those who threaten to kill Ms. Nasreen, her life was in danger and she felt compelled to seek asylum in Sweden. The Special Rapporteur remains deeply concerned at the issuance of a warrant of arrest by the Chief Metropolitan Magistrate of Dhaka against Taslima Nasreen under Section 295A of the Penal Code and that she is to be tried on 10 December 1994 in her absence. The Special Rapporteur intends to seek further clarification on this case.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0104", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. In a communication dated 7 March 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following message to the Government of China: \"It has been reported that Fu Shenqui was detained on 26 June 1993 for allegedly encouraging political activists to write letters to the Government and stage a hunger-strike in protest against the detention of two dissidents in Shanghai. He was also accused of speaking to foreign journalists about the activities of pro-democracy supporters in Shanghai. He was administratively sentenced without a trial on 4 July 1993 to three years of 're-education through labour'. According to the source, Fu Shenqui is being detained solely for the expression of his non-violent opinions.\"", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0105", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. On 27 May 1994, the Government of China responded, making the following observations: \"The Chinese Government has mounted a painstaking inquiry into the allegations made in the annex to the communication, and its findings make it plain that Fu Shenqui's committal to re-education through labour had nothing to do with the exercise of the freedom of opinion and expression that China's constitution confers upon its citizens. The facts are as follows: In 1993, Wang ..., who suffers from mental disorders, became seriously ill and begun to injure and wound himself, endangering his own and others' safety. In the circumstances, the authorities responsible had him taken to a mental care institution for treatment. Fu, knowing full well that Wang was receiving medical treatment because he was ill, deliberately distorted the facts of the matter as a pretext for instigating a disturbance and causing an incident, thereby severely disrupting public order. To maintain law and order, in accordance with articles 10 (4) and 13 of the Provisional Methods of Re-education through Labour, the Shanghai Municipal Re-education Through Labour Administrative Committee committed Fu Shenqui to three years re-education through labour on 4 August 1993. On two occasions, 9 August and 19 August 1993, Fu appealed to the Committee to reconsider. In December 1993, the Administrative division of Huangpu District People's Court in Shanghai reviewed the case of Fu Shenqui, in accordance with the law, and on 23 December, it upheld the decision of Re-education Through Labour Committee in every particular, instructing the Dafeng County People's Court in Jiangsu Province to notify Fu of its ruling. The re-education through labour to which Fu was committed is not, under the Chinese legal system, a form of criminal punishment but an administrative measure of mandatory educative reform used by the Chinese Government to prevent and reduce crime and to uphold the social order. Re-education through labour committee in the people's governments of provinces, autonomous regions, directly administered municipalities and large medium-sized cities considered and approve committals. They consist of senior officials from the people's government and the department of public security and of labour. Re-education through labour facilities have been set up locally by the government at each level to take in individuals committed for re-education. The intention is to redeem them, to concentrate on their education, to handle them lawfully, strictly, scientifically and in a civilized manner, while guaranteeing their constitutional and legal rights. If an individual disagrees with the decision to commit him to re-education through labour he is entitled to apply to the Re-education Through Labour Committee to reconsider, or he may bring suit under the Administrative Suits Act. It will be seen that Fu's committal to re-education through labour was because of his illegal disruption of public order and unrelated to the 'expression of non-violent opinions'. The Shanghai Municipal Re-education Through Labour Administrative Committee's treatment of Fu was in accordance with Chinese law as regards both the facts and the procedure. Fu made full use of his right to appeal and bring suit against the Committee's decision. The Huangpu District People's Court conscientiously heard Fu's administrative suit and rendered its decision in accordance with the law. The allegations in the communication are completely without foundation.\"", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "10", "paragraph": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0106", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his appreciation to the Government of China for the information provided on the case of Mr. Fu Shenqui. He is of the opinion that the circumstances under which Mr. Fu was sentenced, as set out in the communication of the Chinese Government, remain somewhat unclear. The Special Rapporteur intends to seek further clarification as to how Mr. Fu Shenqui \"distorted the facts of the matter as a pretext for instigating a disturbance and causing an incident, thereby severely disrupting public order\". He will then examine the proportionality between the charges brought against Mr. Fu Shenqui and the sanctions applied.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0107", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. In a communication dated 7 March 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following allegations to the Government of India: \"On 11 January 1994 police allegedly raided the offices of the Punjab daily Aj Di Awaz (Today's Voice) and arrested Gurdeep Singh, the managing editor, along with seven other staff members of the newspaper (Malkir Singh, Jasbir Singh Khalsa, Jasbir Singh Manowan, Devinder Singh, Amrik Singh, Kuldeep Singh) who were then taken to police premises. The police reportedly denied later that they were holding Gurdeep Singh and Malkir Singh. According to the source, these individuals have been detained solely for the expression of their opinions.\"", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0108", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. On 9 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur received from the Government of India the following comments relating to the above-mentioned allegations: \"The authorities concerned in India have investigated the allegations which have been proved to be deliberately misrepresented and grossly distorted. As would be evident from the brief facts of the case given below, Gurdeep Singh Bhatinda, Jasbir Singh Rode and others were arrested for their involvement in terrorist activities and not for the expression of their opinions. Further, the arrest of Gurdeep Singh and Malkiat Singh have not been denied. 'Aaj Di Awaj', was established in 1985 by some Sikh terrorists and secessionist elements as a mouthpiece of their activities. It never practised bona fide journalism in any form. Its founder and former Editor-in-Chief, Bharpur Singh Balbir was arrested in 1986 in a conspiracy case after the revelation of his close links with some Sikh terrorists in Canada who were conspiring to blow up the Parliament House in New Delhi. One of the trustees of this newspaper, Jasbir Singh Rhode, has a consistent record of publicly encouraging and applauding acts of murder and destruction carried out by Sikh terrorists. The present Editor-in-Chief of 'Aaj Di Awaj', Gurdeep Singh Bhatinda has been acting as a front and mouthpiece for secessionist and terrorist organizations, a number of whom have been given refuge in Pakistan and have been directing murder and arson in India from Pakistan territory. These include Wassan Singh Zaffarwal and Lakhbir Singh Rhode. Questioning of a Pakistani trained terrorist Nisar Ahmed Shah arrested at Jalandhar revealed the association of Gurdip Singh Bhatinda with a Pakistani Intelligence Agent Abdul Karim Hakim who was responsible for explosions on six trains in December 1993. Reliable information was also received by the authorities concerned that Jasbir Singh Rode and Gurdip Singh Bhatinda, guided by the Pakistan based terrorist leaders Wassan Singh Zafarwal and Lakhbir Singh Rode were planning to carry out acts of terror including attempts on the life of the Chief Minister of Punjab and the premises of the daily 'Aaj Di Awaj' was being used as a hide-out and meeting place of terrorists for planning their activities. Jasbir Singh Rode and his colleagues had also met several times with the underground terrorists Harmik Singh, Jasbir Singh Brahampura and Awtar Singh Brahampur to plan these activities. To fund these activities, Lakhbir Singh Rode and his co-conspirators received large illegal remittances from Pakistan as well as from Sikh extremist groups based in the United Kingdom. In view of the compelling evidence of the association of Gurdip Singh Bhatinda and Jasbir Singh Rode as well as some of their subordinates on the staff of 'Aaj Di Awaj' in planning acts of armed terror, the police searched the premises of the newspaper on 11 January 1994. Criminal charges have been brought against all these eight persons who have been remanded to judicial custody and action is being taken against them under due process of law. Subsequent to their arrest, the search of a flat in New Delhi rented by a UK-based extremist Shamsher Bhadur Singh Gill Shera led to the recovery of an AK-56 rifle, ammunition, 16 bags of explosives and a large sum of Indian currency. Further investigation in this case revealed that Jasbir Singh Rode was the intermediary in India for carrying out these preparations for premeditated acts of terror under the guidance of Pakistan to use terrorists Wassan Singh Zaffarwal and Lakhbir Singh Rode. It would, therefore, be amply clear from the foregoing that these arrests had nothing to do with any violation of Right to Freedom of Expression and that they were made due to their active involvement in planning acts > of armed terror. The question of freedom of opinion and expression is not germane to the present allegations forwarded to the Government of India. The Government of India would also respectfully submit that article 19 of the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights which encapsulates the freedoms to be enjoyed in this respect equally states in subparagraph (iii) that special duties and responsibilities are also involved in the exercise of these rights. Far from respecting these duties and responsibilities, the subjects of the allegations have shown their contempt of human rights through their acts.\"", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0109", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his appreciation to the Government of India for providing information on the case of Punjab Daily Aj Di Awaz (Today's Voice) and persons arrested in that case. He has noted the Government's position that Gurdeep Singh and others were arrested for their involvement in terrorist activities and not for the expression of their opinion. The Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate that there can be no freedom unless thought is free and unrestricted. He has taken cognizance of the fact that the Government of India has endorsed its commitments to honour and respect the right of freedom of expression and opinion. The Special Rapporteur is contented that the Government concerned has shown due respect for fundamental rights. He expects the State to uphold this right. Regarding the acts of terrorism alleged to have been perpetrated by the persons arrested, he is informed that action is being taken against them under due process of the law. The Special Rapporteur hopes for an early disposal of this case. The State may be firm in its belief that persons arrested were fomenting terrorist activities but it should remain equally committed to providing a fair trial to the accused persons.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0110", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. In a communication dated 7 March 1994 addressed to the Government of Ethiopia, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following information (relating to cases involving the persons Nigusie Ayele Teka, Metsihafe Syrak, Belete Abeba, Tesfaye Birhanu, Girmai Gebre Tsadik, Kidist Belachew, Tefera Asmare, Befekadu Moreda, Tamirat Gebre Giorgis, Girma Lemma, Mintesnot Zena, Kibret Mekonnen, Mesele Addis, Netsanet Tesfaye, Kifle Mulat and Nebiyu Eyassu): \"The above-mentioned persons are journalists for privately owned publications who have allegedly been jailed in the past few months for periods ranging from a few hours to more than 50 days. They were held on charges of incitement under the Ethiopian Press Proclamation, but reports indicate that none of the cases have been prosecuted as of 20 January 1994. According to the source, these journalists are reported to have been detained solely for the expression of their opinions.\"", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0111", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. On 22 March 1994, the Government of Ethiopia sent the following information to the Special Rapporteur: \"The Transitional Period Charter, as the supreme law of the country, has introduced a legal regime which has recognized individual human rights as laid down in the Declaration of Human Rights. As part of the practical measures taken by the Transitional Government to enforce those rights, a Press Law has been issued abolishing censorship and any limitation of a similar nature. The new proclamation has enabled numerous periodic publications to carry out their work without interference. Accordingly, the present political situation of the country is characterized by free expression of ideas and active political participation. As for the allegation that journalists, editors and publishers are being detained illegally as a campaign against freedom of press, I would like to assure you that no action has been taken against those independent journalists who operate in accordance with the provisions of Proclamation 34/1985 on the freedom of press. However, those who violate the Press Law and other Criminal Laws are brought before justice. This is even more urgently required when their publications contravene the interests of public security, the rights of nations, nationalities, religions and individuals. Therefore, the 18 journalists who are now in detention were arrested on account of violating the Press Law and not solely for expressing their opinions. In this regard, it should also be noted that the accused have the right to defend themselves in accordance with the provisions of the Ethiopian Criminal Procedure Code and article 8 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights since independent Courts have been established by Proclamation 23/1984. The detainees also have access to defence lawyers of their own choice. The human rights of the detainees are fully respected. In fact, the petitions of some of them for bail are being considered by the Courts. The Transitional Government remains committed to the protection and promotion of human rights.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"article": "8", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly attributes article 8 to 'the Universal Declaration of Human Rights'. UDHR is non-treaty."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0112", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. The Special Rapporteur appreciates the reply provided by the Government of Ethiopia and its commitment to protect and promote human rights. This commitment will no doubt be reflected in the Government's actions at the operational level to provide the defendants with all the facilities necessary to defend themselves, in accordance with applicable international standards and provisions of the national law. The Special Rapporteur intends to seek further clarification of these cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0113", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. In a communication dated 1 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following allegations to the Government of Hungary: \"On 3 March 1994, 129 journalists of Magyar Radios, the Hungarian national broadcasting company, were dismissed. In addition, 12 journalists of '168 hours', popular weekly political production of Radio Kossuth (one of the three national broadcasting stations), were also dismissed. Vice President of Hungarian Radio Laszlo Csucs stated that the lay-off was necessary due to budgetary problems, but journalists see it as an attempt to silence government criticism two months before the scheduled > national elections. Mr. Csucs also stated that this measure was effective 12 April, yet he ordered immediate suspension of those journalists from their jobs in his 4 March announcement. Allegedly, Mr. Tom Kennedy, an advisor of the Government on media matters, declared that the journalists were fired because they were 'former communist alcoholics'.\"", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0114", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. On 17 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur received from the Government of Hungary the following reply: \"The situation of the 129 journalists of Magyar Radios and the 12 of '168 hours' has already been solved, since all the journalists having not attained the age of retirement established by law, who so desired, had been reinstated with appropriate reimbursement of their salaries. All possible concerns regarding the situation now have been dispelled.\"", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0115", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "115. The Special Rapporteur appreciates the prompt reply provided by the Government of Hungary. He hopes that the reinstallation of the journalists dismissed together with the allocation to them of appropriate compensation have contributed to the restoration of a climate of confidence in which journalists can carry out their activities without constraints.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0116", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "116. In a communication dated 7 March 1994, addressed to the Government of South Korea, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following allegations concerning Mr. Hwang Sok-yong: \"It has been reported that Hwang Sok-yong, a 50-year-old writer, was arrested upon his arrival at Kimpo Airport in Seoul on 27 April 1993 by the Agency for National Security Planning (ANSP). Reportedly Mr. Hwang Sok-yong has been held by the ANSP for 20 days, during which time he was allegedly subjected to lengthy interrogation, threats and sleep deprivation. He was then transferred to Seoul Detention Centre under the care of the prosecution who interrogated him for a further 30 days before charges were brought under several articles of the National Security Law for forming and participating in an 'anti-State' organization, for visiting North Korea as an 'operational' fee and of forming and participating in Pomminyon (Pan National Alliance for the Reunification of Korea). Hwang Sok-yong was tried and convicted and is currently being held in Seoul Prison. According to the source, Mr. Hwang Sok-yong has been convicted solely for the expression of his non-violent opinions. Specifically, it is alleged that the charges stem from his opinions on the reunification of North and South Korea.\"", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0117", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "117. In a letter dated 19 April 1994, the Government of Korea informed the Special Rapporteur that it had already submitted its observations on the case of Mr. Hwang Sok-yong to the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, on 20 October 1993.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0118", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "118. The information concerning Mr. Hwang Sok-yong is to be found in the report of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention (E/CN.4/1995/31/Add.2, decision No. 30/1994).", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0119", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "119. In a communication dated 29 April 1994 addressed to the Government of Tunisia, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following allegations concerning Mr. Moncef Marzouki, Mr. Abderrahmane Hani and Mr. Ahmed Kahlaoui: \"(1) It was reported that Moncef Marzouki, a doctor and former President of the Tunisian Human Rights League (LTDH), was arrested on 24 March and charged with dissemination and propagation of false reports likely to disturb public order and for slandering the judicial authorities, in accordance with articles 49, 50, 51, 68 and 69 of the Press Code and article 32 of the Penal Code. Mr. Marzouki was also allegedly charged with insulting the authorities in an interview he granted a Spanish newspaper. According to our source, Mr. Marzouki denies these charges and it is alleged that his arrest is connected with the fact that he sent the press highly critical statements regarding the state of civil liberties in Tunisia. For example, he reportedly described as unacceptable the complete silence of the Tunisian press concerning his candidature for the post of President. (2) It is reported that Mr. Abderrahmane Hani, a Tunis lawyer who is head of a movement called the Arab 'avant-gardes unionnistes', which is not recognized by the Government, was arrested on 15 February and charged with 'illegally forming a non-recognized political organization and spreading false and defamatory reports'. Before his arrest, Mr. Hani allegedly issued a press release in which he demanded the introduction 'of genuine pluralism that will enable Tunisians to choose their President freely'. (3) It was reported that Ahmed Kahlaoui, a trade unionist, was arrested in early March for distributing leaflets. He is accused of not respecting the obligation regarding the statutory deposit of publications. The leaflets allegedly dealt with the massacre at Hebron in the occupied West Bank and the international embargo against Iraq.\"", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "49", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "50", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "51", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "68", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "69", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "32", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0120", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "120. On 24 September 1994, the Government of Tunisia transmitted to the Special Rapporteur the following observations concerning the above-mentioned allegations: \"1. The case of Mr. Moncef Marzouki First of all, it should be pointed out that Mr. M. Marzouki was released on 13 July 1994 following a decision by the examining magistrate of the Tunis court of first instance. Indeed, Mr. Marzouki was able to leave Tunisia for a business trip abroad. As to the facts that gave rise to his arrest, Mr. Marzouki was charged with disseminating false reports likely to disturb public order, and slandering the legal system, under articles 50 and 51 of the Press Code. Mr. Marzouki has not denied the facts, contrary to the allegations which have reached you, and has stated that he did indeed make statements to foreign journalists, though he does not rule out the possibility that the reporter from the Spanish daily Diaro 16 tried to achieve a sensational impact by twisting the statements attributed to him. In fact, the newspaper Diaro 16, in its 13 May 1994 issue, published an article noting that an unfortunate error had crept into the interview granted by Moncef Marzouki, an error due to the translation from English into French, and then from French into Spanish. Subsequently, after his lawyer had lodged a request for his temporary release, supported by a disclaimer sent to the newspaper in question on behalf of his client and a copy of the newspaper constituting proof that the disclaimer had been published, the examining magistrate decided on the basis of this new evidence to release Mr. Moncef Marzouki. As for the allegations that Mr. Marzouki's arrest was connected with the fact that he has sent to the press highly critical statements regarding the state of civil liberties in Tunisia, and that he described as unacceptable the complete silence of the Tunisian press concerning his candidature for the post of President, there are no grounds for making such a surprising and untoward linkage. In this regard, the Tunisian Government wishes to make it clear that Mr. M. Marzouki's arrest was not connected with his candidature in any way, and that the accusations laid against him cannot be regarded as an obstacle to freedom of opinion and expression, still less to his earlier activities or political opinions. The charges are based on precise facts which constitute offences under Tunisian law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "50", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "51", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0121", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 121, "n": 2, "text": "2. The case of Ahmed Kahlaoui Mr. Ahmed Kahlaoui was indeed arrested on 4 March 1994 as he was distributing leaflets prepared by him at his home which called for confrontation with all Jews, both in Tunisia and in other Arab countries, and for a boycott of all conferences and scientific meetings in which they participate. He also argued against any economic or political dealings with Jews, placing special emphasis on the need for the people of Tunisia to take on the Jewish community in Djerba. Mr. Kahlaoui was brought from custody before the correctional division of the Tunis court of first instance on 8 March 1994, charged with inciting hatred between races, religions and populations and publishing leaflets of a type likely to prejudice public order. His case was registered as No. 11623/494 and set for hearing on 24 March 1994; it was later deferred successively to 31 March 1994 and 14 April 1994. On 27 June 1994 the fourth division of the Tunis court of first instance heard this case and decided to sentence the accused to two years' imprisonment together with a fine of 1,000 dinars for incitement to racial hatred, eight months' imprisonment for publishing leaflets and a fine of 100 dinars for infringement of the regulations regarding statutory deposit of publications. Mr. A. Kahlaoui was found guilty on the basis of the above-mentioned facts and offences under articles 12, 44 and 62 of the Press Code and article 52 bis of the Penal Code, which provide for penalties for any person inciting racial or religious hatred and fanaticism by any means whatsoever. Consequently, Mr. A. Kahlaoui's arrest and conviction cannot in any way be equated with a violation of freedom of opinion and expression - a freedom guaranteed and protected under Tunisian law.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "12", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "44", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "62", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "52", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0122", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 122, "n": 3, "text": "3. The case of Mr. Abderrahmane El Hani Mr. A. El Hani has been accused of illegally distributing leaflets containing defamatory material likely to jeopardize public order, under articles 49, 50 and 51 of the Press Code, and maintaining in activity a non-recognized party, under articles 8 and 26 of the Act of 3 May 1988. Mr. El Hani appeared before the correctional division of the Tunis court of first instance, without having been placed in custody. His case has been registered as No. 21767/494 and is pursuing its normal course. Mr. El Hani remains at liberty. Consequently, the Tunisian Government wishes to make it clear that the charges brought against Mr. El Hani in no way constitute a violation of his right to freedom of expression or opinion, since they bear no relation to the assertions made to you regarding \"a press release in which he demanded the introduction of genuine pluralism that could enable Tunisians to choose their President freely\".", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "49", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "50", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "51", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "8", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "26", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0123", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 123, "n": 121, "text": "121. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his appreciation to the Government of Tunisia for providing information on cases referred to him. The Government of Tunisia has reaffirmed its firm commitment to respect civil and political rights, including that to express opinions on matters of State, which the Special Rapporteur finds important and worthy of attention. It is this course which should be followed meticulously in the cases referred to. The Special Rapporteur wishes to stress that ideological differences that may exist within a society should not be used as a justification to incite hatred between races, religions and peoples, or to take action against persons expressing views contrary to the establishment. The Special Rapporteur hopes that the Tunisian Government would ensure that this principle will continue to guide them and that the pending cases will be decided rapidly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0124", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 124, "n": 122, "text": "122. In three communications dated 7 March, 30 June and 10 August 1994, respectively, the Special Rapporteur transmitted to the Government of Turkey the following allegations he had received concerning the detention of lawyers, police operations against newspapers and the detention and abduction of journalists: \"It has been reported that members of the Bar Association in Diyarbakir named above, were all detained during the week of 15 November and are said to be held at the Gendarmerie Headquarters in Diyarbakir. The lawyers have acted as defence counsel in many political trials before Diyarbakir State Security Court, notably of defendants in PKK trials. According to the source, these individuals are being detained merely for their representation of defendants in PKK trials.\" \"It has been reported that on 7 December 1993 police detained lawyers Iman and Arzu Sahin. It is believed that they may have been transferred to Diyarbakir. The lawyers have acted as defence counsel in many political trials, notably of defendants in PKK. The detention of the lawyers reportedly is on the basis of statements given to the police by a political prisoner in Diyarbakir Prison who had become a police informer. According to the source, the lawyers are being detained merely for their representation of defendants in PKK trials.\" \"Dogu Perincek, the former leader of the Turkish Socialist Party, which was closed down in July 1992, was sentenced to two years' imprisonment and a fine of 50 million Turkish lira by the Ankara State Security Court on 15 January 1993. The charge, under article 8 (1) of the Anti-Terror Law, was making 'separatist propaganda' during the election campaign in the autumn of 1991. According to the source, Mr. Perincek is being prosecuted solely for the expression of his non-violent opinions.\" Istanbul: Gurbetelli Ersoz, editor-in-chief; Fahri Ferda Cetin, editor; Gulten Kisanak, news editor; Muslum Yucel, journalist; Mahmut Dogan, journalist; Ferhat Tugan, journalist; Yurdusev Ozsokmenler, journalist; Nursel Polat, journalist; Dogan Guzel, cartoonist; Ali Riza Halis, administrator; Mehmet Balamir, administrator; Duzgun Deniz, archive manager; Faysal Dagi, research desk manager; Mucahir Kuas, accountant; Huseyin Solgun; Mehtap Gurbuz, sub-editor; Ali Seyhan, cook; Semsettin Ecevit, driver. Diyarbakir: Hasan Ozgun, representative; M. Sirac Koc, journalist; Neamiye Aslan, journalist; Mehmet Sah Yildiz, journalist; Nuray Tekdag, journalist; Bitan Onen, journalist. Izmir: Sezai Karakoc, representative, Riza Zingal, news editor; Serdar Caycioglu, journalist; Namik Alkan, journalist; Emin Unay, journalist; Ciller Yesil, journalist; Leyla Akgul, secretary. Adana: Haci Cetinkaya, representative; Sukru Kaplan, journalist; Ihsan Kurt, journalist; Aslan Sarac, journalist; Beyhan Gunyeli, journalist. Elazig: Cengiz Tas, representative; Menaf Avci, journalist; Yalcin Sevinc, journalist. Batman: Slih Dinc. Mardin: Rezzan Gunes. \"It has been reported that on 9 December 1993 the Turkish police began a series of nationwide police operations against the newspaper Ozgur Gundem. On that date the police allegedly raided the newspaper's office in Diyarbakir and on 10 December the police raided its central office in Istanbul, in which some 110 people were detained and material, including archives and computer disks, seized. Reportedly some 200 police officers raided the main office, and for 24 hours searched the computer files and the premises, detaining all those present and taking them to Istanbul Police Headquarters. By the evening of 11 December, all but 18 had been released. On Saturday 11 December, the newspaper's offices in Izmir, Adana, Elazig, Batman, Mardin, Antop and Van were also raided and its correspondents and staff detained. Nobody was working in the Mardin office when it was searched, but one member of its staff, Rezzan Gunes, was detained when the police raided her home. It is not known whether any of these detainees have been released. According to the source, these individuals are being detained solely for the expression of their non-violent opinions.\" \"It has been reported that Kutlu Esendemir and Levent Ozturk, two television journalists who were working on a piece for the private TGRT TV were kidnapped by Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) guerrillas on 27 January 1994. The regional PKK command stated that the journalists were taken into custody for not having permission to enter the region and film for their television programme which makes its clear that the PKK ban on Turkish journalists is still in effect. According to the source, the PKK indicated that Esendemir and Ozturk would not be freed until 'murders in Kurdistan are revealed'.\" \"According to information received by us, two journalists from the magazine Alinteri in Ankara, Derya Tanrivermis, the head of the office, and Zafer Sakin, a correspondent, have been detained by the police since 7 April 1994, at political police headquarters (Ankara). It is alleged that several repressive measures have already been taken against Alinteri by the Turkish authorities. On 21 February 1993, in particular, the police reportedly searched its offices in Izmir and briefly detained correspondent Halime Özcelik and, on 11 January, five of its distributors were allegedly questioned by the police. In addition to the two journalists, 14 people who were on Alinteri premises were allegedly arrested by the police.\"", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "8", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0125", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 125, "n": 123, "text": "123. On 21 March 1994, the Government of Turkey transmitted to the Special Rapporteur the following information concerning allegations (1) and (2): \"(a) General information on lawyers who have been detained. Sixteen lawyers have been subject to investigation on grounds that they had established organic links with the separatist terrorist organization PKK, and that, in this connection, they had: - Acted as courier between PKK members imprisoned at the Diyarbakir E-Type prison and the terrorists at large, - Established the Legal Bureau of the said terrorist organization, - Provided imprisoned PKK terrorist with cyanide poison and weaponry, - Coordinated activities among the various branches of the PKK and imprisoned terrorists, - Persuaded terrorist leaders for assassinating a Prosecutor at the State Security Court and thus attempt at intimidating the Courts of Law. The above listed acts fall within the scope of articles 168 and 169 of the Turkish Penal Code and are qualified as acts of terror and therefore necessitate criminal investigation. - (b) Specific cases. - (1) Sabahattin Acar was taken into custody on 15 November 1993, on charges of providing imprisoned terrorists with cyanide and of acting as courier for the terrorist PKK organization. He was released on 10 December 1993. - (2) Sinasi Tur was detained on 15 November as suspect for acting as courier for the terrorist PKK organization and providing shelter and assistance to terrorists. He was set free on 10 December 1993. - (3) Baki Demirhan was taken into custody on 16 November 1993 on grounds of handing over a knife to imprisoned terrorists. Following his interrogation, Baki Demirhan was released on 10 December 1993. - (4) Arif Altunkale, Mesut Bestas and Meral Bestas were detained on 16 November 1993 on charges of acting as messengers for the terrorist PKK organization. They were released on 10 December 1993. Following the appeal of the Diyarbakir Prosecutor's Office, the Court ruled their arrest, in absentia, on 13 December 1993. - (5) Huseyin Olmez was taken into custody on 16 November 1993 on grounds of acting as courier for the terrorist PKK organization. The court ruled his arrest on 10 December 1993. - (6) Nevzat Kaya was detained on 18 November 1993, on grounds of acting as courier for the terrorist PKK organization. He was liberated on 10 December 1993. - (7) Iman Sahin and Arzu Sahin were taken into custody on 7 December 1993 on charges that they acted as couriers for the terrorist PKK organization. The Diyarbakir State Security Court ruled their arrest on 21 December 1993.\"", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "168", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "169", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0126", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 126, "n": 124, "text": "124. As for the search conducted by security forces at the offices of the Ozgur Gundem newspaper (allegation No. 4), the following explanations have been provided by the Turkish authorities: \"The freedom of press is guaranteed in Turkey, where the pluralist democratic system is functioning with all its institutions. It is provided in the Constitution that the press is independent and that it is free from censorship. In order to verify the implementation of the above-mentioned constitutional provisions it is sufficient to go through the multitude of daily newspapers which profess a wide spectrum of thoughts and beliefs. The search, based on a warrant issued by the competent Court, conducted by security forces at the Ozgur Gundem newspaper should not be considered as a hindrance to the freedom of press. Moreover, Ozgur Gundem is still being published. The testimonies of captured militants of the terrorist PKK organization has led law enforcement officials to suspect a close link between some of the staff of the Ozgur Gundem newspaper and the PKK. Allegations in this respect include reports that some of the staff have been trained at PKK camps, the publication of the paper as per instructions received from PKK leaders, as well as financial support to the newspaper from the terrorist organization and the presence of a variety of PKK documents in the newspaper office premises. Based on these motivations, the Court issued a search warrant, following which the Ozgur Gundem newspaper was searched on 10 December 1993, and 111 persons from the staff of the newspaper were interrogated. Following the investigation, 92 persons thought to have no connection with the PKK were released. The investigation regarding the remaining 19 persons on grounds of providing assistance and shelter to the terrorist PKK organization was under way on 27 December 1993. During the search at the Ozgur Gundem offices, two unregistered handguns, three bullet magazines, six bullets, an ERNK (a branch of the terrorist PKK organization) seal, a PKK receipt for 400 million Turkish lira, two bloodstained military identity cards with bullet holes belonging to Muzaffer Ulutas, a gendarme slain by PKK terrorists in Sirnak on 9 March 1993, gas masks, an abundance of injections to stop haemorrhage, menacing letters, photographs of a number of officers and privates abducted by the PKK, and numerous publications on PKK were seized. These objects are currently being examined by the Istanbul State Prosecutor's Office. It is clear from the information furnished above that the search does not have anything to do with violating the freedom of expression, but with the capture of persons who have committed acts which are termed as crime in the Turkish Penal Code. It should not go unnoticed that the term 'acts' mentioned above, also covers involvement in the slaughtering of innocent civilians, women, children, the elderly, doctors, teachers and engineers.\"", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0127", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 127, "n": 125, "text": "125. Concerning the case of Mr. Dogu Perincek (allegation No. 3), the Government of Turkey in a communication dated 7 July 1994 stated: \"[he] has been penalized by the Ankara State Security Court for contravening article 8 of Law No. 3713. The sentence was annulled by the High Court of Appeal and the case was sent back to the Ankara State Security Court for a retrial. Following the second trial, the Court sentenced Dogu Perincek, on the same grounds, to two year's imprisonment and to a fine of 50 million Turkish lira. The defence lawyers have appealed the sentence, which was brought before the High Court of Appeals. Dogu Perincek is currently free. Article 8 of Law No. 3713 prohibits written and oral propaganda aimed against the unity and territorial integrity of the Republic of Turkey.\"", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "8", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "8", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0128", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 128, "n": 126, "text": "126. On 2 September 1994, the Government of Turkey transmitted the following observations on the allegations mentioned above, under (5): \"It has been established that Kutlu Esendemir and Levent Ozturk, both working for the TGRT television network, were abducted by PKK terrorists on 26 January 1994, in the vicinity of the Güclükonak country of the Sirnak province. They remained in the hands of the terrorists until they were set free on 28 April 1994. The south-eastern region of Turkey has been the scene of a savage terrorist campaign launched by an organization called the PKK. The bloody campaign launched by the PKK has claimed more than 15,000 innocent lives including women, children and the elderly, since it began in 1984. In 1993 alone, the PKK indiscriminately killed more than 1,200 civilians, mainly of Kurdish origin. Abduction and arbitrary killings of civilians is a common practice of the PKK which, apart from trying to hinder newspeople from doing their work, as illustrated in this particular case, also exploits freedoms as covers for promoting their sinister designs. The PKK's misuse of the freedom of opinion and expression in an attempt to legitimize its terrorist strategy and to praise the misdeeds and cruelties of its members constitutes a vivid example in this regard.\"", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0129", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 129, "n": 127, "text": "127. On the allegations mentioned above under (6), the Government of Turkey presented the following comments in a letter dated 6 September 1994: \"Part of the south-eastern region of Turkey has been afflicted for several years by the separatist terrorism of an organization bearing the name PKK. This organization has been denounced and condemned as a terrorist organization by most of the Member Governments of the United Nations. It is a fact that, as in similar cases observed on an international scale, this terrorist organization uses some of its militants in various areas of society at large, in particular in newspapers and magazines used to further its cause. Most of the latter use journalism as a cover for their main activities, which are either terrorism or propaganda in support of terrorism. Nearly all of these so-called journalists do not meet the requirements for practising the profession and acceding to the status of journalist. This said, I am afraid that some of the names included in the list annexed to your letter fall within this category. Although I understand that, because of the gaps in the communications system of the competent United Nations bodies, it is difficult for you to make a distinction between these people and real journalists, it is difficult for me not to react when I see the name of a journalist such as Mr. Ugur Mucu, whose murderers are alleged to be terrorists belonging to a foreign fundamentalist movement, in the above-mentioned category of cases that are deliberately being used by the terrorist organization through the communications systems as propaganda material. The PKK's Marxist-Leninist ideology and strategy, with its attendant atheistic propaganda and rejection of all of south-eastern Anatolia's age-old values, has led to a reaction among certain social strata that has in turn produced another terrorist organization, \"Hizbullah\", whose ideology is religious fundamentalism. Most of the killings or attempted killings of so-called journalists affiliated with daily newspapers such as Ozgur Gundem were perpetrated by members of Hizbullah. The judicial authorities have clarified approximately 70 per cent of these cases. The Turkish Government also provides information on the newspaper Ozgur Ulke, the successor to Ozgur Gundem. A reading of a single issue of this newspaper is sufficient indication that it is a party organ which is directly dependent on the PKK and takes advantage of freedom of the press in Turkey to incite terrorism and separatism. The PKK leaders write regularly for this newspaper, whose circulation is between 6,000 and 8,000 copies a day. The letters I am transmitting to you in an annex relating to the counter-truths published in this newspaper on Turkey's relations with the United Nations human rights bodies are only a very small illustration of the systematic disinformation work being carried out by the newspaper. Freedom of opinion and expression does exist in Turkey, so much so that it is frequently abused by certain circles. It is obviously no easy matter to determine where freedom of expression as a universal standard stops. However, you are no doubt well aware that such a freedom can become an offence when it is knowingly used as a provocation to human rights violations, criminality, armed violence and separatist goals, all the more so in a context where the threat of terrorism brings all its weight to bear. It is true that those responsible for such provocation have been prosecuted and that some of them have been convicted by the Turkish judicial authorities. Some would consider these judicial proceedings to be proof of alleged restrictions on freedom of expression in Turkey, which is in fact exercised very widely, as should be the case in a pluralistic democracy. However, democracies must also lay down certain conditions for the exercise of freedom of expression if they are to preserve their own values, for their proper functioning and even survival depend on such values. As crucially important as it is to protect these values, it would not be possible to do so without guarantees such as territorial integrity, crime prevention, national security and public safety, to name but a few. These guarantees are recognized in many international instruments. In this connection, article 10, paragraph 2, of the European Convention on Human Rights, to which Turkey is a party as a member of the Council of Europe since 1949, is one of the best examples.\"", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"article": "10", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "low", "source": "opus", "rationale": "The visible Turkey government letter does not explicitly attribute article 10 to any specific treaty. Context (Turkey, freedom of expression) most plausibly suggests ECHR art.10, but no explicit citation in the excerpt. Conservative non-treaty '?' is appropriate; no secure resolution possible."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0130", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 130, "n": 128, "text": "128. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his appreciation to the Government of Turkey for providing information on cases referred to it. From a close reading of the allegations made and the information received from the Government, the Special Rapporteur feels that in the present situation of Turkey, the political process should go hand-in-hand with the law and order approach. The view that a complicated historical process can be resolved by terrorism is erroneous. History has demonstrated that many upheavals accompanied by terrorist acts which looked very formidable at the time did not succeed in the end. Terrorism has proven to be a road to disaster and should be avoided. Nor can a mere law and order approach suffice to meet the situation; a genuine solution involves a greater appreciation of the grievances of the people. It is only by demonstrating moral values and concern for human rights that one gains the approbation of society and thus outflank the anti-social forces. The Special Rapporteur expresses the sincere hope that an effective balance between freedom and authority will be struck. He notes that such a balance implies that persons arrested will be provided with every opportunity to prove their innocence and that the State at the same time will ensure peace and stability by handling the terrorist acts effectively. In addition, the State should provide journalists the protection they need to pursue their professional responsibilities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0131", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 131, "n": 129, "text": "129. The Special Rapporteur is compelled to conclude that violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression have not ceased to occur. In many instances, these violations concur with violations of other human rights, including those related to enforced or involuntary disappearances, extrajudicial, arbitrary or summary executions, torture, religious intolerance, arbitrary detention and the problem of terrorism.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0132", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 132, "n": 130, "text": "130. Most constitutions no doubt guarantee the fundamental right of free speech. Free expression and freedom of the press have been regarded as freedoms implicit in this larger freedom and are part of it. The press performs a vital service in a democracy by providing a political arena for debate and the exchange of information and ideas. Its institutional needs therefore have to be safeguarded. The free flow of news and information both within and across national boundaries deserves the fullest support.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0133", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 133, "n": 131, "text": "131. The free press needs help. Journalists must be secure in their pursuits and be given full protection of the law. No doubt such laws exist, but they have to be implemented creatively and imaginatively with a view to advancing the constitutional values and spelling out and strengthening the basic human rights enshrined in them. Advancing the constitutional values and enhancing the protection of people's rights require limiting and structuring the executive and legislative powers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0134", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 134, "n": 132, "text": "132. The Special Rapporteur is concerned about the continued intimidation and harassment of writers and journalists in several countries across the world. Often, such harassment is disguised, covert and subtle; occasionally it is blatant and institutionalized. A free media is essential not merely as an instrument of democracy but as a precondition for social stability and equality. Whatever the excesses of an unprofessional media, on balance, freedom tends to smooth out rough edges.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0135", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 135, "n": 133, "text": "133. Independent press commissions can perform vital functions in guiding and balancing institutions that check the power of both the executive and the media. While freedom is not a privilege but a right, its exercise by the media calls for responsibility. A declared code of conduct for the media is essential for all journalists. Such a code will only work effectively, however, if it is voluntarily adopted by the profession itself.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0136", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 136, "n": 134, "text": "134. Apart from its function to ensure freedom and protect democracy, a free press functions also as a social and an economic asset. Social scientists have demonstrated how freedom of information can contribute to higher degrees of productivity and motivation for work and to ensuring the quick and fair delivery of public services, especially in times of natural disaster.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0137", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 137, "n": 135, "text": "135. The Special Rapporteur recognizes that the right to information is vitally important other than as a guarantee of a free press. Governments and private businesses tend to be excessively secretive. While recognizing the importance of a legally protected right to intellectual property, the Special Rapporteur notes that the denial of the right to information is not in the public interest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0138", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 138, "n": 136, "text": "136. The media could consider exposing itself to public criticism through the formal institution of an ombudsman to whom both individuals and organizations could appeal in cases of perceived misuse of the right to freedom of expression. Such an ombudsman could have a purely advisory role, chastising or commending the media in specific cases referred to him.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0139", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 139, "n": 137, "text": "137. The exercise of freedom carries with it responsibilities and duties. It demands wisdom, sagacity and a sense of responsibility. The exercise of freedom is therefore subject to reasonable conditions and limitations prescribed by law and necessary in a democratic society, but it should always be kept in mind that freedom of expression is the primary freedom and the first condition of liberty. It occupies a preferred position in the hierarchy of liberties, giving succour and protection to other liberties. For these reasons, freedom of the press is indispensable in a democracy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0140", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 140, "n": 138, "text": "138. A freedom of such amplitude involves risks of abuse. The point must be made, however, that even in the interests of specific segments of society, any restrictions imposed should be proportionate to the need giving rise to them, proportionate to the harm they seek to prevent. Two competing interests have to be balanced, and that task is to be carried out with statesmanship by the judiciary and executive. The basic rights of free speech and expression should not lightly be allowed to be smothered and curtailed, because they are at the core of all human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0141", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 141, "n": 139, "text": "139. With respect to all the activities undertaken by the Special Rapporteur in the fulfilment of his mandate, it is of vital importance that he receive public support. Freedom of expression and opinion is a fundamental attribute of a good civil society in which all fundamental commitments require a base of public support if they are to be sustained. Human rights do not prevail unless there is a public function for them. People should be made aware of their value. Their commitment can only be obtained through open public debate and discussion. The logic of the political process of democracy needs the creation of an atmosphere in which attempts to undermine human rights are countered and in which support for human rights is clearly articulated. An enlightened public opinion created through the organization and publicizing of seminars, conferences, brainstorming sessions and other meetings touching on the issue of freedom of expression would strengthen the basis sustaining the work of the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0142", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 142, "n": 140, "text": "140. The Special Rapporteur recognizes the primordial role that can be played, and that should be played, by non-governmental organizations active in the defence of human rights. Their task is burdensome. No one organization can hope to address these problems alone. The sharing of information and of responsibilities, therefore, becomes necessary. The approach of the Special Rapporteur has been to build a close relationship with NGOs that are active in the area of his concern. He strongly encourages common initiatives among them and with them, not only on pragmatic, but also on moral grounds. There are NGOs that share our fundamental values and which act as watchdogs. The Special Rapporteur is most eager to synchronize his efforts with those NGOs effectively. Such attempts at synchronization should not be at cross purposes with Governments, but should rather serve the purpose of furthering the cause of freedom of expression on a global scale.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0143", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 143, "n": 141, "text": "141. The Special Rapporteur cannot be indifferent to the incidents referred to him. Without completing his inquiries with the Governments concerned he cannot form a well-informed opinion. Some of the allegations of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression have been pending for months or even years. The Special Rapporteur would risk mortgaging his future if he turned a blind eye to delays in the responses of Governments. Delays win no awards.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0144", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 144, "n": 142, "text": "142. The Special Rapporteur recognizes that the attitudes of Governments to such cases must, of necessity, remain nuanced. Yet he also notes that despite all these difficulties, Governments have it in their power to respond swiftly and have the capacity to put down those practices from which human rights crusaders derive their raison d'être, strength and appeal. The Special Rapporteur encourages all those seeking to protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression to avoid oversimplifications of complex issues which entail difficult but necessary choices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0145", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 145, "n": 143, "text": "143. The judiciary of all countries should be aware that the violation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression leaves no room for impartiality. It is within their competence to order the release of detainees who are held merely for expressing their non-violent opinions.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0146", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 146, "n": 144, "text": "144. The Special Rapporteur urges all Governments to scrutinize their national legal systems with a view to bringing them into line with international standards governing the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0147", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 147, "n": 145, "text": "145. The Special Rapporteur recommends to the Commission on Human Rights to consider the question of financial and human resources in the light of his remarks in chapter III of this report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0148", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 148, "n": 146, "text": "146. The Special Rapporteur stands committed to offering his full cooperation in the efforts of Governments and non-governmental organizations to solve the problems in the area of his mandate. Through unity and cooperation in defending and protecting them, the frontiers of human rights, which are the most basic moral values of our present-day civilisation, can be extended. -----", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report focuses on the protection of journalists and media freedom, an issue of central importance for the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur previously considered the issue more comprehensively in his report to the General Assembly of 11 August 2010 (A/65/284), in which he examined trends with respect to violence against journalists in both conflict and non-conflict situations; the obligation of States under international human rights law and international humanitarian law and difficulties faced by so-called “citizen journalists.” He also provided recommendations to enhance the protection of journalists and citizen journalists alike, in both conflict and non-conflict situations. The Special Rapporteur and previous mandate holders have also included a section on the protection of journalists and freedom of the press in their annual reports to the Human Rights Council.[[fn:1]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See for example A/HRC/4/27, A/HRC/7/14, A/HRC/11/4, A/HRC/14/23."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Given the ongoing repression of journalists and media freedom worldwide, aimed at suppressing information deemed “inconvenient,” and increasing restrictions placed on the work of journalists who also disseminate information through the Internet, the Special Rapporteur wishes to again bring the issue to the attention of the Human Rights Council. The present report focuses on the protection of journalists outside of armed conflict situations as the majority of human rights violations against journalists take place outside of armed conflict, and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions will be presenting his annual report regarding the protection of journalists in conflict situations to the Human Rights Council. Moreover, the Human Rights Council held a panel discussion on the protection of journalists in armed conflict situations on 4 June 2010 (A/HRC/15/54), and the United Nations Security Council, whose binding powers do not extend to human rights violations in times of peace or when peace is not threatened, has condemned attacks against journalists in conflict situations in resolution 1738, adopted on 23 December 2006.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The Special Rapporteur affirms that journalism must be seen as an activity and profession that constitutes a necessary service for any society, as it provides individuals and society as a whole with the necessary information to allow them to develop their own thoughts and to freely draw their own conclusions and opinions. By exercising the right to “seek and receive information,” individuals can make informed decisions and express their opinions freely and participate actively in a democratic system.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Against this backdrop, and defined by their function and service, journalists are individuals who observe and describe events, document and analyse events, statements, policies, and any propositions that can affect society, with the purpose of systematizing such information and gathering of facts and analyses to inform sectors of society or society as a whole. Such a definition of journalists includes all media workers and support staff, as well as community media workers and so-called “citizen journalists” when they momentarily play that role.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Indeed, the Human Rights Committee, in its general comment No. 34, has also adopted a functional definition of journalism, by defining journalism as “a function shared by a wide range of actors, including professional full-time reporters and analysts, as well as bloggers and others who engage in forms of self-publication in print, on the Internet or elsewhere” (para. 44).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The Special Rapporteur also emphasizes that journalists must seek to develop their professional abilities academically and in practice; journalists may form professional associations to guarantee professionalism and common ethical standards; and journalists may register for the purposes of obtaining an identification card to allow them to have access to certain events. However, under no circumstances should such conditions be imposed by State authorities as preconditions to practice journalism, given that journalism as a profession can only fulfil its role if it has full guarantees of freedom and protection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. Between 1 April 2011 and 20 March 2012, the Special Rapporteur sent 218 communications, 213 of which were submitted jointly with other special procedures mandate holders. The geographical distribution of the communications was as follows: 29 per cent for Asia and the Pacific; 23 per cent for the Middle East and North Africa; 21 per cent for Latin America and the Caribbean; 15 per cent for Europe, Central Asia and North America; and 12 per cent for Africa. The summary of communications sent and replies received from Governments can be found in the following special procedures communications reports: A/HRC/18/51, A/HRC/19/44 and A/HRC/20/30.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Algeria from 10 to 17 April 2011. His main findings and recommendations to the Government can be found in the addendum to this report (A/HRC/20/17/Add.1).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Country visits", "1. Missions undertaken in 2011"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The Special Rapporteur visited Israel and the occupied Palestinian territories from 6 to 17 December 2011. His main findings and recommendations can be found in the addendum to this report (A/HRC/20/17/Add.2).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Country visits", "1. Missions undertaken in 2011"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Following an invitation received from the Government of Honduras on 25 October 2011, the Special Rapporteur is in the process of finalizing dates for a joint visit with the Special Rapporteur for freedom of expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Country visits", "2. Upcoming missions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Following an invitation received from the Government of Pakistan on 7 February 2012, the Special Rapporteur is in the process of confirming the specific dates of the visit.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Country visits", "2. Upcoming missions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. As of March 2012, the following visit requests from the Special Rapporteur were pending: Ecuador (requested most recently in February 2012), Iran (Islamic Republic of) (requested in February 2010), Italy (requested in 2009), Sri Lanka (requested in June 2009), Thailand (requested in 2012), Tunisia (requested in 2009), Uganda (requested in May 2011) and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) (requested in 2003 and 2009).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Country visits", "3. Pending visit requests"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. On 22 March 2011, the Special Rapporteur issued a joint press release[[fn:2]] on the deteriorating situation in Bahrain, noting that the Government had failed to implement human rights commitments made in February 2012. He called on the Government to fully respect the right to fully guarantee the rights of peaceful demonstrators expressing their legitimate concerns and grievances.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Press releases issued by the Special Rapporteur are available at http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/NewsSearch.aspx?NTID=PRS&MID=SR_Freedom_Expressio."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. On 5 April 2011, at the end of his three-day visit to Hungary, the Special Rapporteur highlighted his outstanding concerns regarding the Hungarian media legislation, such as restrictions on media content based on vague concepts, insufficient guarantees to ensure the independence and impartiality of the regulatory body empowered to apply the law, excessive fines and other administrative sanctions that can be imposed on the media, and lack of sufficient protection of journalistic sources. He recommended that the Government undertake broad public consultations on the “media law package” as a whole, as well as on ongoing constitutional reforms, to ensure that the right to freedom of expression is fully guaranteed in accordance with Hungary’s international human rights obligations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. On 27 April 2011, the Special Rapporteur expressed deep shock and sorrow over the killing of Ahmed Kerroumi, a political activist he had met on a recent official visit to Algeria. He called on the Government of Algeria to conduct a detailed and independent investigation into his killing and to bring those responsible to justice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. On 2 May 2011, on the occasion of World Press Freedom Day of 3 May, the Special Rapporteur issued a press release on the right to freedom of expression on the Internet, expressing particular concern regarding journalists, bloggers and activists who have been targeted in countries such as Libya, Syrian Arab Republic and Yemen. He called on all Governments to choose reform over repression, to embrace diverging views, to listen to the people, and to build a strong society based on the consent of the governed, whose freedom of expression must be upheld.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. On 1 June 2011, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States, the Representative on Freedom of the Media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, and the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, issued a joint declaration establishing guidelines to protect freedom of expression on the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. On 11 July 2011, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Chair-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, expressed his dismay at the use of tear gas and water cannons by security authorities in Malaysia against peaceful protestors during the Bersih 2.0 rally on 9 July 2011, reportedly leading to injuries and one death. The mandate-holders also expressed concern over the arrest of more than 1,600 people, as well as the continued detention of six leaders from the Socialist Party of Malaysia on the basis of the Emergency Ordinance, which allows for detention without trial for up to 60 days.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. On 5 August 2011, the Special Rapporteur, together with other mandate holders, warned that the scale and gravity of the violent crackdown in the Syrian Arab Republic continues unabated, and reiterated their call for an immediate end to the violent strategies adopted by the Government to quash ongoing demonstrations. The Special Rapporteur expressed his deep concern at the Government’s continued attempt to prevent the world from knowing the extent of atrocities unfolding on the ground, by refusing access to foreign journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. On 10 October 2011, the Special Rapporteur urged the Government of Thailand to hold broad-based public consultations to amend its criminal laws on lèse majesté primarily section 112 of the Thai penal code and the 2007 Computer Crimes Act, which provides for imprisonment of up to fifteen years and five years respectively. He underscored that the threat of a long prison sentence and vagueness of what kinds of expression constitute defamation, insult, or threat to the monarchy encourage self-censorship and stifle important debates on matters of public interest, and that the recent spike in lèse majesté cases pursued by the police and the courts shows the urgency to amend them. He also expressed continuing concern at the blocking of hundreds of thousands of websites that contain commentary on the Thai monarchy.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. On 14 October 2011, the Special Rapporteur, together with other mandate holders, warned that the current public draft of the Law on Associations and Non-Governmental Organizations in Cambodia, if adopted, risks breaching fundamental rights, including the right to freedom of opinion and expression of human rights defenders. Noting the statement by the Ambassador of Cambodia to the Human Rights Council to undertake further consultations, the mandate holders called on the Government of Cambodia to review the draft law in open and meaningful discussions with associations and NGOs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. On 1 November 2011, the Special Rapporteur, together with other mandate holders, voiced grave concern over reports of restrictions of fundamental rights of monks, who have been calling for religious freedom in and around the area of the Tibetan Buddhist Kirsti monastery in Sichuan province, China. Noting that the tension in the area has escalated since March 2011, he expressed deep concern about allegations of restrictions to Internet access and mobile messaging services within Aba Country, as well as lack of access to the region by journalists. The mandate holders urged the Government to fully respect and uphold the rights of minorities, cease any restrictive practices, and refrain from use of any violence or intimidation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. On 21 November 2011, the Special Rapporteur, together with other mandate holders, expressed alarm at the degree of violence and the deteriorating situation in Egypt ahead of parliamentary elections planned for 28 November 2011. The Special Rapporteur urged the Government to ensure that diverse views and opinions, including criticism of authorities, can be expressed peacefully by all.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. On 24 November 2011, the Special Rapporteur, in a joint press release, warned that the new legislative amendments adopted by the National Assembly of Belarus may severely and arbitrarily restrict the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly, association, and expression. The mandate holders noted that the amendments to various laws in Belarus can worsen the climate of fear and intimidation in the country, and that such amendments may be linked to the situation of Ales Bialiatski, President of the Viasna human rights centre, and the current legal proceedings against him for alleged tax evasion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. On 7 December 2011, the Special Rapporteur, together with other mandate holders, warned that a new Peaceful Assembly Bill in Malaysia may arbitrarily and disproportionally restrict the right to assemble peacefully. They expressed concern at restrictions ranging from a ban on street protests and the prohibition on non-citizens and citizens under 21 years of age to assembly peacefully to conditional access for media to public gatherings.", "labels": ["Persons in street situations"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. On 23 December 2011, the Special Rapporteur, together with other mandate holders, denounced the continued secret detention of Gao Zhisheng, a prominent Chinese human rights lawyer who was arbitrarily arrested in 2006 in China. They expressed concern that a Beijing court had withdrawn Mr. Gao’s five-year probation and ordered an additional three-year sentence.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. On 2 February 2012, the Special Rapporteur, together with other mandate holders, issued a press release expressing dismay at the continuing abuse of anti-terrorism legislation to curb freedom of expression in Ethiopia. The Special Rapporteur condemned the sentencing of three journalists and two opposition politicians whose sentences range from 14 years to life imprisonment.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. On 16 February 2012, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States, issued a joint press release regarding the sentencing by the National Court of Justice of Ecuador of three executives and a journalist from El Universo newspaper to three years’ imprisonment and a fine of USD 40 million for the publication of an article which offended President Rafael Correa.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. On 21 February 2012, the Special Rapporteur, together with other mandate holders, condemned the arrest of at least 16 persons in Syrian Arab Republic, including prominent Syrian human rights figures, and expressed concern that their arrests and detention are directly linked to the activities of the Syrian Centre for Media and Freedom of Expression. Concern was also expressed that they may be subjected to torture and ill treatment.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. On 24 February 2012, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association, urged the Senegalese authorities to take all necessary measures to ensure free, fair and transparent presidential elections that reflect the will of the Senegalese people. They also called on all parties to refrain from using violence before, during and after the elections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. On 28 February 2012, the Special Rapporteur, together with other mandate holders, called on the Government of Bangladesh to ensure that any policy concerning open-pit coal mining includes robust safeguards to protect human rights. In the interim, they called on the Government of Bangladesh not to allow the Phulbari coal mine to proceed, as it could displace hundreds of thousands of people and lead to the violation of fundamental human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. On 19 March 2012, the Special Rapporteur, together with 21 other mandate holders, called on States to incorporate universally agreed international human rights norms and standards with strong accountability mechanisms into the goals of the United Nations Rio+20 Conference on Sustainable Development, as the first round of informal-informal negotiations began in New York.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. From 1 to 3 May 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in the global conference “World Press Freedom Day” on 21st century media, organized by UNESCO in Washington D.C.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. On 16 and 17 May 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in the workshop “Civil Protest and Peaceful Change: Upholding Human Rights,” organized by the Geneva Academy of International Human Rights Law and Human Rights in Geneva.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. From 30 May to 1 June 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in the Expert Consultation Meeting on National Security and Access to Information, organized by the Open Society Institute and hosted by Central European University in Budapest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. On 6 and 7 July 2011 and on 12 and 13 October 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in expert regional workshops on the prohibition of incitement to national, racial or religious hatred, organized by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) in the Asia-Pacific region and in the Americas, respectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. From 8 to 16 July 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in academic events on freedom of expression, organized by the Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development (FORUM-ASIA) in Bangkok, Phnom Penh, Kuala Lumpur and Jakarta.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. On 13 and 14 September 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in the United Nations Inter-Agency meeting on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity, organized by UNESCO in Paris.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. From 17 to 19 September 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in the Pan-African Conference on Access to Information, hosted by the Working Group on the African Platform on Access to Information, UNESCO, and the African Union Commission at the International Convention Centre in Cape Town, South Africa.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. On 23 and 24 September 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in the International Conference on Freedom of Expression and Press Freedom in Nuremburg, Germany.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. From 27 to 30 September 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated as a panellist in the 2011 Internet Governance Forum, held at the United Nations Office in Nairobi.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. From 7 to 11 November 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in the meeting “Asia Civil Society Consultation on National Security and Rights to Information Principles,” organized by the Open Society Foundation, Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development (FORUM-ASIA), Yayasan Tifa, and the Institute for Defense, Security and Peace Studies in Jakarta.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. On 23 November 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in the expert consultation meeting, “Safety of journalists: Towards a more effective international protection framework,” organized by the Austrian Federal Ministry for European and International Affairs in Vienna.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. From 10 to 16 January 2012, the Special Rapporteur participated in a series of consultations in Thailand, and attended the Regional Symposium on Social Media, Freedom of Expression and Incitement to Hatred in Asia, organized by the Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development (FORUM-ASIA) in Singapore.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. On 29 February 2012, the Special Rapporteur participated as a panellist in the Human Rights Council panel discussion on freedom of expression on the Internet in Geneva, Switzerland.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. On 1 and 2 March 2012, the Special Rapporteur participated in the experts meeting on the Safety of Journalists, organized by the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and the Centre of Governance and Human Rights at University of Cambridge, United Kingdom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. From 25 to 27 March 2012, and from 28 to 30 March 2012, the Special Rapporteur participated in several academic meetings in Florence and Rome, Italy, respectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. The challenges that journalists encounter in undertaking their professional work are manifold. While the death or plight of foreign journalists in armed conflict situations frequently draw the attention of the international community, local journalists continue to face daily challenges in situations that have not reached the threshold of an armed conflict, but may be characterized by violence, lawlessness and/or repression. These range from restrictions to movement, including deportations and denial of access into a country or a particular area; arbitrary arrests and detention, particularly during public crises or demonstrations; torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, including sexual violence against female journalists; confiscation of and damages to equipment, information theft, illegal surveillance and office break-ins; intimidation, including summons to police stations for questioning, harassment of family members, death threats, stigmatization and smear campaigns to discredit journalists; abductions or enforced disappearance to killings.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Since 1 January 2011, the Special Rapporteur has addressed communications relating to instances of restrictions or violence against journalists to the governments of Angola, Azerbaijan, Belarus, China, Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Georgia, Honduras, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Iraq, Kazakhstan, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Mexico, Morocco, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Russian Federation, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Syrian Arab Republic, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of), Viet Nam and Yemen.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See A/HRC/18/51, A/HRC/19/14, A/HRC/20/30."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. A notable trend in 2011 was the increase in the number of attacks against journalists during coverage of street protests and demonstrations, such as arbitrary arrests and detention, verbal and physical attacks, confiscation or destruction of equipment, as well as killings in countries such as Angola, Belarus, Egypt, Georgia, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Libya, Malawi, Maldives, Russian Federation, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia and Yemen.[[fn:4]]", "labels": ["Persons in street situations"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Attacks against journalists may be perpetrated by a range of actors – State or non-State – such as organized crime groups, terrorist groups, security forces or militia. Journalists are placed at risk of attack for documenting and disseminating information deemed to be “inconvenient,” including on human rights violations, environmental issues, corruption, organized crime, drug trafficking, public crises, emergencies or public demonstrations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Female journalists also face additional risks, such as sexual assault, mob-related sexual violence aimed against journalists covering public events, or sexual abuse in detention or captivity. Many of these attacks are not reported as a result of powerful cultural and professional stigmas.[[fn:5]] A gender-sensitive approach is therefore needed when considering measures to address the issue of violence against journalists.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Lauren Wolfe, “The silencing crime: Sexual violence against journalists,” Special report, Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ), 7 June 2011. Available at http://cpj.org/reports/2011/06/silencing-crime-sexual-violence-journalists.php."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Another threat to the freedom of journalists and to press freedom is the increasing use of criminal law on defamation, slander or libel by public officials to silence criticism regarding their personal activities or public policies. The mere use of such “judicial harassment” generates a climate of fear and a “chilling effect” which encourages self-censorship. This issue is further explored under section D below on criminalization of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. An attack against a journalist is not only a violation of his or her right to impart information, but also undermines the right of individuals and society at large to seek and receive information, both of which are guaranteed under articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights respectively. Indeed, without respect for freedom of expression, and in particular freedom of the press, an informed, active and engaged citizenry is impossible. An attack against a journalist is therefore an attack against the principles of transparency and accountability, as well as the right to hold opinions and to participate in public debates, which are essential for democracy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly pairs 'articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights respectively', and the regex_ref is attributed to ICCPR. The ICCPR citation is clear."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. In addition to articles 19 of the Declaration and of the Covenant, which protect the right of journalists to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of any kind through any medium of communication, journalists are also protected under other provisions in international human rights law, including the right to life, freedom from torture and arbitrary arrests and detention, and the right to an effective remedy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Despite the existence of provisions in international human rights law which protect their right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, journalists across the world continue to face risks and challenges in carrying out their work. The Special Rapporteur reiterates that the problem with regard to continued and increasing violence against journalists is not a lack of legal standards, but the lack of implementation of existing norms and standards (A/65/284, para. 83). It is therefore essential that these existing norms and standards be implemented at the national level. The Special Rapporteur wishes to emphasize again that although the origin of the acts of violence may not initially be known, the primary responsibility of protecting journalists, fully investigating each case and prosecuting those responsible lies with Governments and State institutions (A/HRC/4/27).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. As well as having an obligation to prevent human rights violations against journalists, such as killings, ill-treatment or unlawful arrest, States also have a responsibility to ensure that their national legal systems do not permit impunity in cases when such violations take place. The issue of impunity is further discussed below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. The Special Rapporteur would like to underscore that given that the causes of violence, as well as of impunity, vary in each context, strategies or protection mechanisms established to protect journalists must be tailored to local needs with context-specific consideration of the differing needs of journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. States are also responsible for ensuring that legal measures, such as anti-terrorism or national security laws, are not used to limit freedom of expression by leading to the arrest and detention, or to fear of arrest and detention, among journalists. The issue of criminalization of freedom of expression, which has a direct impact on the ability of journalists to carry out their work, is further examined below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. For their part, journalists and media organizations also have a responsibility to take precautionary safety measures to ensure their own protection. Additionally, by voluntarily adhering to global standards of professionalism, journalists can also enhance their credibility in the eyes of society and their legitimate protection concerns. Such standards of journalistic professionalism include those that have been developed and adopted by journalists and media workers themselves, such as the Declaration of Principles on the Conduct of Journalists of the International Federation of Journalists, which proclaims that “respect for truth and the right of the public to truth is the first duty of the journalist.”[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See http://www.ifj.org/en/articles/ifj-declaration-of-principles-on-the-conduct-of-journalists."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Most of the offline media have developed an online alternative, and given that the Internet has become an essential and economic medium for disseminating news to a global audience, leading to an emergence of “online journalists” – both professionals and so-called “citizen journalists” who are untrained, but who play an increasingly important role by documenting and disseminating news as they unfold on the ground. Such an expansion of individuals involved in spreading information has enriched the media landscape by increasing access to sources of information, stimulating informed analysis and promoting the expression of diverse opinions, particularly in moments of crises.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "B. Safety and protection of online journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. The Special Rapporteur has already examined issues related to the right to freedom of expression on the Internet (A/HRC/17/27) and citizen journalists (A/65/284), but remains concerned about the increasing risks against individuals who disseminate information via the Internet. The killing of Mexican reporter, Maria Elizabeth Marcias Castro, whose decapitated body was found near the city of Nuevo Laredo, along with a note saying she had been killed for reporting news on social media websites, is a case in point.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "B. Safety and protection of online journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Additionally, the Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned by harassment of online journalists and bloggers, such as illegal hacking into their accounts, monitoring of their online activities, arbitrary arrests and detention, and the blocking of websites that contain information that are critical of authorities. Such actions constitute intimidation and censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "B. Safety and protection of online journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. The Special Rapporteur reiterates that the right to freedom of expression should be fully guaranteed online, as with offline content. If there is any limitation to the enjoyment of this right exercised through the Internet, it must also conform to the criteria listed in article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. This means that any restriction imposed as an exceptional measure must (i) be provided by law, which is clear and accessible to everyone; (ii) pursue one of the legitimate purposes set out in article 19, paragraph 3, of the Covenant; and (iii) be proven as necessary and the least restrictive means required to achieve the purported aim.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "B. Safety and protection of online journalists"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. One of the biggest challenges to ensuring the protection of journalists is impunity or the failure to bring to justice the perpetrators of human rights violations. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur has on many occasions stressed that impunity for those who attack and/or kill journalists is a central obstacle to guaranteeing the protection of journalists and press freedom, as it emboldens perpetrators as well as would-be perpetrators to attack journalists with no legal consequences. Indeed, impunity is one, if not the main cause of the unacceptably high number of journalists who are attacked or killed every year. States must recognize that in cases of violence against journalists, impunity generates more violence in a vicious cycle.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. According to the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ), in nine out of 10 cases in which journalists are murdered, the perpetrators go free. As at 20 March 2012, 565 journalists have been murdered with impunity since 1992.[[fn:7]] The root causes of impunity may vary from context to context, but can mainly be attributed to lack of political will to pursue investigations, including for fear of reprisal at the hands of powerful criminal networks, inadequate legal framework and a weak judicial system, ineffectiveness of police forces and judicial bodies and lack of expertise, lack of resources allocated to law enforcement and the justice system, as well as negligence and corruption. Against these obstacles, many journalists choose not to report threats or incidents of physical attack, further fuelling the cycle of impunity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See CPJ, Global Campaign Against Impuntiy, at http://www.cpj.org/campaigns/impunity/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the efforts by various organizations to combat impunity, as well as the declaration by the International Freedom of Expression Exchange (IFEX) network in 2011 of 23 November as the International Day to End Impunity. This date has been chosen by the network to mark the second anniversary of the Maguindanao massacre in the Philippines, during which over 30 journalists were killed. As mentioned in Chapter II, the Special Rapporteur attended the Inter-Agency meeting on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity, and welcomes efforts to adopt a United Nations joint Plan of Action on the Protection of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity, which is being coordinated by UNESCO. He hopes that such a joint plan of action will strengthen the protection of journalists on the ground through the presence of various United Nations agencies, funds and programmes in the field. He calls on all States to support the plan.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. In the case of Guatemala, the International Commission against Impunity in Guatemala (CICIG), which began operations in September 2007, has an unprecedented mandate among United Nations and other international efforts to promote accountability and strengthen the rule of law. The Commission aims to investigate and dismantle violent criminal organizations in Guatemala, which are believed to be among the cornerstones of impunity in the country, threatening the justice system and democratic institutions. The Commission carries out independent investigations in accordance with international human rights standards under Guatemalan law and following Guatemalan procedure. It fortifies Guatemala’s public policy framework and justice sector institutions, making proposals for legal reforms, providing technical assistance to justice sector institutions, and working closely with the Attorney General’s Office on the prosecution of symbolic cases. Although the CICIG is not specifically directed towards journalists, it draws attention to issues at the heart of the problem of impunity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. With regard to initiatives that address journalists in particular, efforts made to provide protection to journalists in Colombia have been welcomed, primarily as it recognizes that it is an important issue within the country and that measures must be taken to address the phenomenon. The Protection Programme for Journalists and Social Communicators, together with the Programme for the Protection of Human Rights Defenders, was created by the Government of Colombia in 2000, with the approval of Decree No.1592. The aim of the programme is to protect journalists and media workers in situations of risk or threat because of their work. Civil society organizations have contributed to the programme by presenting, investigating and following up on threats against journalists; and the Risk Evaluation and Regulation Committee (CRER) an inter-institutional committee determines and implements the necessary protection measures in each case.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Various protection programmes in Colombia, including the programme for the protection of journalists, were subsequently merged into one programme, which was formally institutionalized under the Ministry of Interior following the adoption of Decree No. 4912 in December 2011. Such a programme was necessitated by the high number of assassinations of journalists during the previous administration, in which eight journalists were killed in the first year, and six killed in the last six years. However, the situation in Colombia is still not an optimal one for journalists; in fact, Colombia has dropped in its ranking on the Press Freedom Index of Reporters Without Borders, from 114th out of 179 countries in 2002 to 143rd in 2011-2012.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. OHCHR Colombia has welcomed the protection programme of the Ministry of Interior and Justice, but has also highlighted concerns, including the delays in assessing risks and implementing protection measures, the absence of a contextual approach and the transfer of protection schemes to private companies. OHCHR Colombia continues to provide assistance and advice to help to create more homogeneity and coordination between the different protection mechanisms. Despite these shortcomings, the Special Rapporteur welcomes the positive steps taken to combine different protection programmes based on coordination between State institutions, journalists and civil society organizations, and considers it an important step forward in preventing the assassination of journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. The establishment in Colombia of the National Unit for the Protection of Journalists and other vulnerable sectors is also a good practice worth mentioning. However, this mechanism only addresses so-called “material measures of protection,” such as mobile phones, bulletproof vehicles, emergency evacuations and transfers to other regions of the country or abroad, such as those granted under witness protection programmes. The Special Rapporteur considers it important to mention that the protection of journalists requires a holistic approach that includes material, legal, and political measures of protection, in particular public condemnation of attacks against journalists and support for press freedom by high-level State officials.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. In Mexico, reacting to the seriousness of the situation of journalists in the country, the Federal State established the Special Prosecutor’s Office for Crimes against Freedom of Expression (FEADLE) within the Office of the Attorney General of the Republic (PGR).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. However, during the Special Rapporteur’s mission to Mexico in 2010, reservations were expressed regarding the paucity of results achieved by the FEADLE and its tendency to decline competency over certain cases referred to its jurisdiction, due in part to the lack of will on the part of officials to take up cases and implement an adequate work programme, but also due to lack of autonomy and resources, and the fact that acts of violence against journalists are not prohibited under federal law. Although the Special Rapporteur welcomed the work plan which the FEADLE was implementing at the time of his mission to Mexico (A/HRC/17/27/Add.3), he emphasized the importance of immediately creating a national mechanism to protect journalists, designed and implemented through a high-level official and inter-institutional committee, led by a federal authority with the capacity to coordinate between diverse authorities, having its own sufficient resources, and with the participation of journalists and civil society organizations in its design, integration, functioning and evaluation. The Special Rapporteur underlines the importance of such institutions having sufficient autonomy and resources, as well as investigatory powers and the competency to make recommendations to the Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. The Special Rapporteur also recommended that the Congress in Mexico criminalize acts of violence against journalists and give federal courts the competency to prosecute such matters. He has been informed that Congress has passed such a law, which is currently being considered for adoption by the authorities of each state in Mexico.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. Although the above examples of challenges and good practices relating to the protection of journalists in situations of widespread violence or impunity have been drawn from Latin America, this is not the only region in which these issues are a concern. The Special Rapporteur has sent communications to several countries regarding issues such as impunity, journalists reporting on violence and organized crime, as outlined in chapters II and III above.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. Combating impunity and ensuring the protection of journalists requires strengthening respect for the rule of law and ensuring that the domestic legal framework and institutions promote the right to freedom of expression and support the establishment of free, independent and pluralistic media. The Special Rapporteur notes with concern the continuing existence and application of domestic legislation which criminalize expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. Ensuring that journalists can effectively carry out their work means not only preventing attacks against journalists and prosecuting those responsible, but also creating an environment where independent, free and pluralistic media can flourish and journalists are not placed at risk of imprisonment. The Special Rapporteur expresses his deep concern that the current total number of journalists imprisoned worldwide is reportedly the highest since 1996, with 179 journalists behind bars as at 1 December 2011.[[fn:8]] Reportedly, the work of 86 imprisoned journalists – half of the total imprisoned – has primarily appeared online. In addition, journalists may be victims of short-term detentions, which can also heighten the climate of intimidation. Such detentions are often difficult to document statistically.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "See CPJ special report, “Imprisonments jump worldwide, and Iran is worst,” available at http://www.cpj.org/reports/2011/12/journalist-imprisonments-jump-worldwide-and-iran-i.php."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. Indeed, the Special Rapporteur remains concerned at the continuing existence and use of criminal laws against journalists and members of the media, which are often used by authorities to suppress “inconvenient” information and to prevent journalists from reporting on similar matters in the future. Consequently, there is a chilling effect which stifles reporting on issues of public interest. Charges such as treason, subversion and acting against national interests continue to be brought against journalists worldwide, as well as allegations of terrorism and criminal defamation for reporting false news or engaging in ethnic or religious insult.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. As stressed previously, including in the report to the General Assembly (A/66/290), there are four types of expression or information which States are required to prohibit under international law: child pornography; incitement to genocide; advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence and incitement to terrorism. Other types of information or expression, which States are not required to prohibit, but may be restricted in exceptional and limited circumstances primarily to protect the rights of others, are established under article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. However, while protecting individuals from false and malicious accusations, protecting national security or countering terrorism are legitimate interests, the Special Rapporteur remains concerned that such pretexts are used by authorities to unduly control and censor the media and to evade transparency or to silence criticism of public policies.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The Special Rapporteur reiterates that any restriction to the right to freedom of expression must satisfy the three-part test stipulated in article 19, paragraph 3, of the Covenant: (i) the restriction imposed must be provided by law, which is clear and accessible to everyone; (ii) it must be proven as necessary and legitimate to protect the rights or reputation of others; national security or public order, public health or morals; and (iii) it must be proven as the least restrictive and proportionate means to achieve the purported aim.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Moreover, any legislation restricting the right to freedom of expression must be applied by a body which is independent of any political, commercial, or other unwarranted influences in a manner that is neither arbitrary nor discriminatory, and with adequate safeguards against abuse, including the possibility of challenge and remedy against its abusive application.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Defamation laws protect an individual’s reputation from false and malicious attacks, and constitute valid grounds for restricting freedom of expression. Nearly all countries have some form of defamation legislation, although different terms are used, such as libel, calumny, slander, insult, desacato, or lèse majesté. However, the problem with defamation cases is that they frequently mask the determination of political and economic powers to retaliate against criticisms or allegations of mismanagement or corruption, and to exert undue pressure on the media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression", "1. Defamation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. In particular, the Special Rapporteur remains concerned that defamation remains classified as a criminal offence rather than a civil tort in many countries around the world. As he has emphasized on many occasions, criminal defamation laws are inherently harsh and have a disproportionate chilling effect on free expression. Individuals face the constant threat of being arrested, held in pretrial detention, subjected to expensive criminal trials, fines and imprisonment, as well as the social stigma associated with having a criminal record.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression", "1. Defamation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. Even in countries where defamation is classified as a civil tort, the financial sanctions imposed may be high and disproportionate, which can bankrupt small and independent media and have adverse consequences on media freedom in a country.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression", "1. Defamation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. Many journalists continue to inform the Special Rapporteur that the systematic use of unjustified criminal prosecution or even civil tort prosecution with disproportionate financial sanctions paralyzes journalistic investigation and generates an atmosphere of intimidation, which constitutes a form of judicial harassment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression", "1. Defamation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. The Special Rapporteur thus calls on all States to repeal criminal defamation provisions allowing prosecution of authors of media content, as well as to limit civil law penalties for defamation so that it is proportionate to the harm done. He emphasizes that criminal prosecution for defamation inevitably becomes a mechanism of political censorship, which contradicts freedom of expression and of the press.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression", "1. Defamation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur underscores that public officials, including heads of State and public figures, must tolerate a higher degree of scrutiny than ordinary individuals because of their public functions, and should not be granted a higher level of protection against defamatory statements in media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression", "1. Defamation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. The Special Rapporteur remains concerned that laws purported to protect national security or to counter terrorism continue to be used against journalists who report on sensitive or critical matters of public interest, or to force journalists to reveal their sources of information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression", "2. National security and counter-terrorism legislation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes the importance of journalists’ right to access information, which is part of the right to seek and receive information under articles 19 of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and political Rights, respectively. He would like to stress that Governments should classify only those data which are proven to harm national security and other vital interests of the State. Moreover, there should be clear classification criteria and register of classified information, which is both established by law and accessible to everyone. Further, classified data should be subject to regular review and declassified if confidentiality is no longer necessary.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression", "2. National security and counter-terrorism legislation"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. The Special Rapporteur also remains concerned at journalists being held accountable for receiving, storing and disseminating classified data which was obtained in a way that is not illegal, including leaks and information received from unidentified sources. In this regard, he emphasizes that journalists should not be held responsible for, or be forced to reveal, their sources of information. The Special Rapporteur further stresses that it is also important for States to facilitate access to historical archives of official information to enable victims of human rights violations to exercise their right to truth, as well as journalists and academics for investigative purposes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression", "2. National security and counter-terrorism legislation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. Despite provisions in international human rights law, including the Universal Declaration on Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which guarantee the rights of journalists, journalists continue to be targeted for disseminating “inconvenient” information. The problem lies not in the lack of international standards, but in the inability or unwillingness of Governments to ensure the protection of journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. While armed conflict situations may place journalists at risk, the Special Rapporteur notes that the majority of attacks against journalists take place outside of armed conflict situations. Individuals who cover public demonstrations, report on issues such as corruption, human rights violations, environmental issues, organized crime, drug trafficking, public crises or emergencies are placed at particular risk of violence. Nevertheless, the Special Rapporteur also reiterates the importance of the following concerns.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. Central challenges in relation to human rights violations committed against journalists include various forms of intimidation, physical attacks – including abductions and killings –, arbitrary detention, as well as impunity and the use of criminal laws to imprison and intimidate journalists. Female journalists face additional risks, such as sexual assault, mob-related sexual violence at public events or sexual abuse in detention or captivity. Due to social, cultural and professional stigmas, many of these attacks are not reported.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. The presence of such risks deters journalists from continuing their work, or encourages self-censorship on sensitive matters. Consequently, society as a whole may not be able to access important information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. The emergence of “online journalists” – both professionals and untrained so-called “citizen journalists” – play an increasingly important role in documenting and disseminating news in real time as they unfold on the ground. Journalists who publish their work online should be afforded the same protection under articles 19 of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights and of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Any restriction applied to online content must also be in conformity with the three-part test set out in article 19, paragraph 3, of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. Laws that criminalize expression continue to be used by States to imprison journalists who disseminate “inconvenient” information. Journalists may be arrested and detained, particularly in the run-up to elections, often on the basis of vague anti-terrorist or national security laws. The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned that the current number of journalists in prison is the highest since 1996. Criminal prosecution of journalists creates a “chilling effect” that stifles reporting on issues of public interest.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. The precarious situation of journalists is further exacerbated by a culture of impunity. Failure to undertake effective investigations and to prosecute those responsible for attacks against journalists perpetrates further violence and undermines the ability of journalists to report on similar matters in the future.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. The protection of journalists and combating impunity requires context-specific measures that address the specific risks in each situation and effectively addresses the root causes of attacks. While there are many organizations committed to ensuring the protection of journalists at all levels, there has not been much collaboration and joint strategies adopted at the international level. The Special Rapporteur thus welcomes the initiative to draft a United Nations joint Plan of Action on the Protection of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity and looks forward to its effective implementation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. Bearing in mind that standards exist in international human rights law for the protection of professional journalists outside of armed conflict situations, the Special Rapporteur urges States, with whom the primary responsibility for the protection of journalists lies, to implement those standards at the national level. This includes ensuring that no legislation is passed to unduly limit the freedom of expression of journalists, ensuring the physical and psychological integrity of journalists, and taking steps to tackle impunity for perpetrators of human rights violations against journalists.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. To combat impunity and to prevent human rights violations against journalists, States must take measures to facilitate awareness among the judiciary, journalists and civil society of the relevant international standards and show willingness to work towards the implementation of these standards.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. Necessary resources must be dedicated to preventing and investigating attacks, or bringing those responsible to justice. Special measures should be put in place to deal with attacks and to support journalists who are displaced by attacks.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. The Special Rapporteur also calls on all States to publicly condemn all forms and incidents of attacks against journalists at the highest political level.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. As part of their positive obligation to promote the right to freedom of expression, States should give full political support to strengthening media freedom and ensuring that independent, plural and diverse media can flourish. Any laws regulating the work of the media should adhere to the highest international standards on freedom of opinion and expression and allow uninhibited debate in the media, in line with principles of diversity and plurality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. Defamation should be decriminalized in all States. Criminal defamation laws are inherently harsh and have a disproportionate chilling effect on the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. In countries where defamation is classified as a civil tort, the financial sanctions imposed must be strictly proportionate to the harm caused and limited by law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. Journalists should not be held accountable for receiving, storing and disseminating classified data which they have obtained in a way that is not illegal, including leaks and information received from unidentified sources.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0108", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. Governments should only classify those data which are proven to cause direct harm to national security and other vital interests of the State. Classified data should be subject to regular review and be declassified if confidentiality is no longer necessary. Clear classification criteria and a register of classified information should be established by law and published.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0109", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. Journalists working both offline and online should be free to use diverse sources of information, including from those who do not wish to be identified. Journalists should never be forced to reveal their sources except for certain exceptional cases where the interests of investigating a serious crime or protecting the life of other individuals prevail over the possible risk to the source. Such pressing needs must be clearly demonstrated and ordered by an independent court.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0110", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. The Special Rapporteur recognizes efforts in countries, such as Colombia and Mexico, to create bodies to offer, inter alia, greater protection to journalists. The Special Rapporteur underlines the importance of the willingness and ability of such bodies to take on a broad range and high number of cases and issues under its competency; to work with autonomy; to have their own and sufficient resources and to have the capacity to coordinate between different authorities. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur recommends that journalists and civil society organizations participate in the design, integration, functioning and evaluation of these bodies; that they have investigatory powers; that they have the competency to make recommendations to the Governments of their respective countries; that risk-assessment is prompt and efficient; that measures are implemented promptly; and that a contextual approach is adopted. Protection measures must be holistic, including a range of physical, legal, and political measures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0111", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. The Special Rapporteur recommends that civil society organizations work to raise awareness of the risks faced by journalists, the international standards which exist to protect them, and how these might be implemented through campaigns and training initiatives; that civil society organizations, including journalists, make efforts to ensure that global standards of professional conduct are met in order to enhance the credibility and protection of journalists; and that they coordinate with one another and with the United Nations in order to ensure that their work is complementary.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Civil society"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0112", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. Civil society associations, including journalists, should engage actively with Government initiatives to establish protection mechanisms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Civil society"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0113", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. The Special Rapporteur welcomes United Nations initiatives, such as the innovative International Commission against Impunity in Guatemala (CICIG). He supports the idea of considering the implementation of similar initiatives in other countries where impunity for human rights violations is prevalent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "3. United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0114", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. United Nations field presences should support States in implementing measures for the protection of journalists, as in the case of OHCHR in Colombia which offers support for the protection mechanisms in Colombia.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "3. United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0115", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "115. The Special Rapporteur encourages coordination between United Nations agencies and initiatives, such as the United Nations joint Plan of Action on the Protection of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity. Greater coordination between United Nations agencies, in terms of funding and programmes, may result in more efficient use of resources and less duplication of work. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the fact that civil society was consulted as part of the initiative and encourages strengthened links between United Nations agencies and civil society in the protection of journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "3. United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0116", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "116. In keeping with the United Nations Action 2 programme, the Special Rapporteur encourages other United Nations agencies to support the protection of journalists by ensuring that United Nations actions at the country level are grounded in human rights principles and guided by international norms and standards. Training and toolkits, such as those provided by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in relation to journalists working on HIV/AIDS and corruption, for example, could be tailored to the protection of journalists.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "3. United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0117", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "117. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the support for freedom of expression and the protection of journalists in different regional mechanisms, as well as measures taken, such as the establishment of Special Rapporteurs. In cases where regional actors have not yet set standards for the protection of journalists, the Special Rapporteur encourages them to do so in consonance with those already existing at the international level.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "4. Regional actors"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0001", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. On matters of public concern, how does information that is unjustifiably hidden become known? In some situations, formal oversight mechanisms and access to information laws compel disclosure. Even where they do exist, however, they are not always effective. Other approaches may be needed, for as a general rule, secrets do not out themselves. Rather, disclosure typically requires three basic elements: a person with knowledge who is willing and able to shed light on what is hidden; a communicator or a communication platform to disseminate that information; and a legal system and political culture that effectively protect both. Without that combination — source, dissemination and protection — what is secret all too often remains hidden, and the more that remains hidden, the less authorities are held accountable and individuals are able to make informed decisions about matters that may most affect them and their communities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0002", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Those are the principal rationales for legal and political frameworks that promote and guarantee access to information and protect the individuals and organizations that often make such access possible. Notwithstanding formal progress, Governments, international organizations and private entities often target persons disclosing secret information, in particular when they bring to light uncomfortable truths or allegations. Those who wish to call attention to malfeasance may find internal channels blocked, oversight bodies ineffective and legal protection unavailable. The absence of recourse often forces whistle-blowers to become sources for public disclosure, which may make them vulnerable to attack. International, regional and national trends toward greater formal protection do not necessarily translate into effective protection for sources and whistle-blowers. Ineffective protection results from gaps in law; a preference for secrecy over public participation; technology that makes it easy for institutions to breach privacy and anonymity; overly broad application of otherwise legitimate restrictions; and suspicion or hostility towards sources, whistle-blowers and the reporters who make such information known.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0003", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The disclosure of secret information runs across a broad spectrum, with some instances, such as Edward Snowden’s revelations of surveillance practices, making a deep and lasting impact on law, policy and politics, while others struggle for attention and response. While the present report may be read in the light of all such cases, the Special Rapporteur does not analyse herein specific situations, but aims instead to highlight the main elements that should be part of any framework protecting sources and whistle-blowers consistent with the right to freedom of expression. He begins by reviewing everyone’s right to receive information of all kinds, especially information held by public bodies. He then highlights the principal elements of the international legal frameworks for source and whistle-blower protection, while also drawing on the practice of States, international and regional mechanisms and non-governmental initiatives. The report concludes with a set of recommendations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0004", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. As part of the preparations for the present report, a questionnaire was sent to States seeking input on national laws and practices, to which 28 States responded.[[fn:1]] Civil society organizations and individuals also contributed with critically important submissions. State responses and submissions, along with recommendations for further research into best practices, which could not be cited in the report, are available on the web page of the Special Rapporteur.[[fn:2]] On 11 June 2015, a meeting convened in Vienna drew upon civil society and academic expertise in source and whistle-blower protection.[[fn:3]] The Special Rapporteur thanks all who made contributions to the preparation of the present report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "By August 2015, the following States had responded: Angola, Argentina, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Colombia, Cuba, Estonia, Finland, Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Guatemala, Ireland, Kazakhstan, Morocco, Mauritania, Netherlands, Norway, Oman, Republic of Korea, Saudi Arabia, Slovakia, Switzerland, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Turkey and United States of America."}, {"n": 2, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/FreedomOpinion/Pages/ProtectionOfSources.aspx."}, {"n": 3, "text": "The meeting was jointly organized by the International Press Institute and the Government of Austria, with the generous support of the latter."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0005", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Source and whistle-blower protections rest upon a core right to freedom of expression. Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights guarantees the right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights enshrines the same rights in its article 19, which emphasizes that the freedom applies to information and ideas of all kinds. Sources and whistle-blowers enjoy the right to impart information, but their legal protection when publicly disclosing information rests especially on the public’s right to receive it. That right has been emphasized by previous special rapporteurs and experts in the European, African and inter-American systems.[[fn:4]] As indicated in general comment No. 34 of the Human Rights Committee on article 19: Freedoms of opinion and expression, it extends to information held by all public bodies, whether legislative, executive or judicial, and it applies to other entities when they are carrying out public functions (paras. 7 and 18.) The right to receive information advances several principles that underlie and animate human rights.[[fn:5]] It advances the individual’s ability to seek out information of all kinds, allowing the development of opinions protected against interference under article 19 (1) of the Covenant.[[fn:6]] It encourages participation in public affairs, which is independently protected by article 25 of the Covenant. It encourages accountability, increasing the costs for those who might engage in wrongdoing.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Right of access to information", "A. Legal foundation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See, for example, the joint declaration by the Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Representative on Freedom of the Media and the Organization of American States Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression (1999) (E/CN.4/2000/63, annex I)."}, {"n": 5, "text": "See Article 19, The Public’s Right to Know: Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation (London, 1999)."}, {"n": 6, "text": "See general comment No. 25 of the Human Rights Committee on the right to participate in public affairs, voting rights and the right of equal access to public service; Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Claude-Reyes et al. v. Chile (2006); and A/HRC/14/23, para. 31."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First art.19 in text: 'Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights'. UDHR, non-treaty."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second art.19: 'The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights enshrines the same rights in its article 19'. Explicit ICCPR."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Third art.19: 'general comment No. 34 of the Human Rights Committee on article 19'. Human Rights Committee = ICCPR treaty body; GC34 is on ICCPR art.19."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'article 19 (1) of the Covenant' — 'the Covenant' = ICCPR throughout this passage."}, {"article": "25", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'article 25 of the Covenant' — ICCPR art.25 (participation in public affairs)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0006", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Regional and international human rights instruments also advance the public’s right to receive information.[[fn:7]] The Convention on the Rights of the Child obliges States parties to ensure that children have access to information in order to support individual development and a capacity to participate in public life (art. 17). The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities requires States parties to promote appropriate forms of assistance and support to persons with disabilities to ensure their access to information (art. 9 (2) (f)). The Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health and the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights have highlighted the importance of the right of access to information to the realization of social and economic rights (see A/HRC/20/15 and A/HRC/23/36). The right is further reflected in international standards on the environment, efforts to combat corruption and development.[[fn:8]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Right of access to information", "A. Legal foundation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, art. 9; the American Convention on Human Rights, art. 13; and the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, art. 10."}, {"n": 8, "text": "See the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, principle 10; the United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 13; and “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” (General Assembly resolution 69/315, annex)."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "17", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'The Convention on the Rights of the Child obliges States parties to ensure that children have access to information... (art. 17)'; CRC art.17 covers access to information and mass media."}, {"article": "9", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "CRPD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities requires States parties to promote appropriate forms of assistance and support to persons with disabilities to ensure their access to information (art. 9 (2) (f))'; CRPD art.9(2) covers accessibility obligations."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0007", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. International bodies, recognizing the role played by the media in providing access to information, emphasize the importance of protecting “a free, uncensored and unhindered press or other media” (see general comment No. 34 of the Human Rights Committee, para. 13). The right to information is grounded in the public’s right to know “information of public interest” (see A/68/362, para. 19). The Security Council has affirmed that the work of a free, independent and impartial media constitutes one of the essential foundations of a democratic society (see Council resolutions 2222 (2015) and 1738 (2006)). The General Assembly in 2014 and 2015 called upon States to maintain a safe environment for journalists to work independently and without undue interference (see Assembly resolutions 68/163 and 69/185). The Human Rights Council in 2012, in its first resolution on the protection of journalists, highlighted the need to ensure greater protection for all media professionals and for journalistic sources (see Council resolution 21/12).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Right of access to information", "A. Legal foundation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0008", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. In adopting the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and other measures, Governments did not preclude themselves from keeping certain kinds of information hidden from public view, but because article 19 promotes so clearly a right to information of all kinds, States bear the burden of justifying any withholding of information as an exception to that right. Article 19 (3) provides that any restriction on freedom of expression must be provided by law and be necessary to achieve one or more of the enumerated legitimate objectives, which relate to respect of the rights or reputations of others or to the protection of national security or of public order or of public health or public morals (see A/HRC/29/32, paras. 30-35). Limitations must be applied strictly so that they do “not put in jeopardy the right itself” (see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 21), a point that the Human Rights Council emphasized when it urged States not to restrict the free flow of information and ideas (see Council resolution 12/16).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Right of access to information", "B. Restrictions on the right to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0009", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Three considerations deserve emphasis. First, to be necessary, a restriction must protect a specific legitimate interest from actual or threatened harm that would otherwise result. As a result, general or vague assertions that a restriction is necessary are inconsistent with article 19. However legitimate a particular interest may be in principle, the categories themselves are widely relied upon to shield information that the public has a right to know. It is not legitimate to limit disclosure in order to protect against embarrassment or exposure of wrongdoing, or to conceal the functioning of an institution.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Right of access to information", "B. Restrictions on the right to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See Article 19, International Centre against Censorship, The Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, principle 2 (b), in E/CN.4/1996/39, annex. See also A/HRC/20/17, A/HRC/13/37 and A/HRC/29/32."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0010", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Second, under the well-accepted proportionality element of the necessity test, disclosure must be shown to impose a specific risk of harm to a legitimate State interest that outweighs the public’s interest in the information to be disclosed. If a disclosure does not harm a legitimate State interest, there is no basis for its suppression or withholding (see general comment No. 34 of the Human Rights Committee, para. 30). Some matters should be considered presumptively in the public interest, such as criminal offences and human rights or international humanitarian law violations, corruption, public safety and environmental harm and abuse of public office.[[fn:10]] The importance of the public’s interest has been emphasized repeatedly in other regional mechanisms.[[fn:11]] National laws relating to the right to information also commonly provide for a public interest analysis.[[fn:12]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Right of access to information", "B. Restrictions on the right to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See the Global Principles on National Security and the Right to Information, principle 37; and Maeve McDonagh, “The public interest test in FOI legislation”, available from www.right2info.org/resources/publications/eu-mcdonagh-maeve-the-public-interest-test-in-foi-legislation/view."}, {"n": 11, "text": "See Council of Europe, recommendation CM/Rec(2014)7, p. 5; African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa, principles IV (2) and XII (2); and Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Inter-American Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression, principle 10."}, {"n": 12, "text": "See, for example, Supreme Court of Slovenia, Ranc v. Ministry of Internal Affairs, 10 October 2007."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0011", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Third, restrictions on access to information must not be left to the sole discretion of authorities. Restrictions must be drafted clearly and narrowly, designed to give guidance to authorities, and subjected to independent judicial oversight (see A/HRC/29/32, paras. 29-33). Layers of internal governmental oversight should ensure that restrictions on access to information meet the standards of article 19 and related national laws.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Right of access to information", "B. Restrictions on the right to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0012", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Effective access to information begins with how Governments categorize, or classify, information as secret or otherwise not subject to disclosure. Over-classification occurs when officials deem material secret without appropriately assessing the public’s interest in access to it or determining whether disclosure would pose any risk to a legitimate interest. Secrecy should be imposed only on information that would, if disclosed, harm a specified interest under article 19 (3); even in the event of a risk of harm, a process should be in place to determine whether the public interest in disclosure outweighs that risk. Processes that allow for evaluation of classification decisions, within institutions and by the public, including penalties for over-classification, should be considered and adopted in order to ensure the greatest possible access to information in the public interest. The Swedish Constitution and its Freedom of the Press Act provide perhaps a welcomed translation of the principle of maximum disclosure when it comes to access to information held by public bodies, protecting the right of all public officials to communicate information and, except for specified situations, prohibiting public officials from sanctioning others for communicating information outside their institutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Right of access to information", "B. Restrictions on the right to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0013", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. While the Special Rapporteur evaluates herein legal frameworks, law alone is a necessary but insufficient basis for protection of any right under the umbrella of freedom of expression. A strong formal framework on the right to information will not overcome an official culture of secrecy and disrespect for the rule of law. Protection requires a political and bureaucratic culture that values transparency and public participation. An independent judiciary and legal profession, broad and non-discriminatory access to justice, and basic law enforcement capacity and willingness to confront violence and intimidation form the basic infrastructure of protection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Right of access to information", "B. Restrictions on the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0014", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Everyone depends upon well-sourced stories in order to develop informed opinions about matters of public interest. Professional reporting organizations emphasize that named sources are preferable to anonymous ones.[[fn:13]] Nonetheless, reporters often rely upon, and thus promise confidentiality to, sources who risk retaliation or other harm if exposed.[[fn:14]] Without protection, many voices would remain silent and the public uninformed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "A. Norm of confidentiality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "See The Canadian Association of Journalists Ethics Advisory Committee, “Ethics guidelines” (2011). See also Reuters, “The Essentials of Reuters sourcing”; and One Caribbean Media Limited, “Statement of Editorial Principles and Operational Guidelines”."}, {"n": 14, "text": "See, for example, David Banisar, “Silencing sources: an international survey of protections and threats to journalists’ sources” (Privacy International Global Survey Series, 2007); and Julie Posetti, “Protecting journalism sources in the digital age”, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Series on Internet Freedom (UNESCO Publishing, 2015)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0015", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. International human rights law has developed well-established principles protecting source confidentiality. At the international level, such rules derive from the guarantee of the right to seek, receive and impart information enshrined in article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.[[fn:15]] The European Court of Human Rights celebrates the “vital public watchdog role of the press” as underlying source protection and has established a high level of protection for journalists who are reporting on matters of public interest.[[fn:16]] In May 2015, the East African Court of Justice ruled that journalists could not be compelled to reveal sources merely because the information they provided related to national security or defence.[[fn:17]] The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights has emphasized that “every social communicator has the right to keep his/her source of information, notes, personal and professional archives confidential”.[[fn:18]] The African Commission on Human and People’s Rights has stated that “media practitioners shall not be required to reveal confidential sources of information or to disclose other material held for journalistic purposes”, except where meeting certain specified exceptions.[[fn:19]] The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe recommends that States provide “explicit and clear protection of the right of journalists not to disclose information identifying a source”.[[fn:20]] International criminal tribunals also protect sources.[[fn:21]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "A. Norm of confidentiality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See the United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 33; and general comment No. 34 of the Human Rights Committee, para. 45. See also United Nations Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Representative on Freedom of the Media, the Organization of American States Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, “Joint declaration on defamation of religions, and anti-terrorism and anti-extremism legislation” (2008)."}, {"n": 16, "text": "See European Court of Human Rights, Goodwin v. United Kingdom, application No. 17488/90, judgement of 27 March 1996, para. 39; Sunday Times v. United Kingdom, application No. 6538/74, judgement of 26 April 1979; and Tillack v. Belgium, application No. 20477/05, judgement of 27 February 2007."}, {"n": 17, "text": "See Burundi Journalists Union v. Attorney General of the Republic of Burundi, East African Court of Justice, case No. 7 of 2013, judgement of 15 May 2015, paras. 107-111."}, {"n": 18, "text": "See Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression, principle 8. The Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission has stated that “sources and materials related to the disclosure of confidential information must be protected by law”, see Annual Report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 2013: Annual Report of the Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression, vol. II (Washington, D.C., 2013), chap. IV, para. 171."}, {"n": 19, "text": "See African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa, principle XV."}, {"n": 20, "text": "See Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers recommendation No. R (2000) 7, appendix, principle 1."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See, for example, Prosecutor v. Radoslav Brdjanin and Momir Talic, case No. IT-99-36-AR73.9, judgement of 11 December 2002."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0016", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. National legal systems have also widely adopted the norm of protection of confidentiality. In a strong statement of legal protection, the 2010 Media Services Act of Estonia establishes that persons who are “processing information for journalistic purposes shall have the right not to disclose the information that would enable identification of the source of information” (sect. 15 (1)). The 1987 German Code of Criminal Procedure establishes a right to refuse to testify on professional grounds (sects. 53 (1(5)) and (2)). In Sweden, the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression of 1991 prohibits journalists from disclosing their sources and has criminalized the non-consensual disclosure of source identity (chap. 2, arts. 3-5). The Constitution of Cabo Verde guarantees that “no journalist shall be forced to reveal his sources of information” (art. 48 (8)). The laws of Argentina, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Chile, Colombia, India, Mozambique and the Philippines are among the many other States in which the principle of source protection is recognized.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "A. Norm of confidentiality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See Constitution of Argentina (1994), sect. 43; Law on protection against defamation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, art. 9; Bulgaria, Law for the Radio and Television (1998), art. 10 (1 (3)); Chile, Law 19.733 of 2001, art. 7; Constitution of Colombia (1991), arts. 73-74; India, Whistle Blowers Protection (Amendment) Bill (2015), sect. 6; Constitution of Mozambique (2005), art. 48 (3); Philippines Republic Act No. 53, as amended by Republic Act No. 1447."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "48", "paragraph": "8", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0017", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Confidential sources rely on others to invoke the right to confidentiality on their behalf. Historically, States have enabled a professional class of journalists to invoke the right, but the revolution in the media and in information over the past 20 years demands reconsideration of such limitations. Article 19, which protects freedom of expression through any media, requires that States take into account a contemporary environment that has expanded well beyond traditional print and broadcast media. The protection available to sources should be based on the function of collection and dissemination and not merely the specific profession of “journalist”. The practice of journalism is carried out by “professional full-time reporters and analysts, as well as bloggers and others who engage in forms of self-publication in print, on the Internet or elsewhere” (Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 44).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "B. Those who may invoke source confidentiality"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0018", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Today, journalists and other “social communicators” may claim the right of confidentiality for the source.[[fn:23]] Persons other than journalists inform the public and carry out a “vital public watchdog role”. International bodies increasingly use terms more general than “journalist”, such as “media professionals” or “media workers”.[[fn:24]] The African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights refers to “media practitioners”[[fn:25]] and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Representative on Freedom of the Media refers to “new participants in journalism”.[[fn:26]] All those terms demonstrate an understanding that those performing the same journalistic functions should enjoy the right to protect sources. The Council of Europe has defined the term “journalist” functionally as “any natural or legal person who is regularly or professionally engaged in the collection and dissemination of information to the public via any means of mass communication”.[[fn:27]] For the purposes of source protection — when, as the Norwegian Supreme Court has noted, the broadest protection should be available[[fn:28]] — any person or entity involved in collecting or gathering information with the intent to publish or otherwise disseminate it publicly should be permitted to claim the right to protect a source’s confidentiality. Regular, professional engagement may indicate protection, but its absence should not be a presumptive bar to those who collect information for public dissemination.[[fn:29]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "B. Those who may invoke source confidentiality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression, principles 8 and 13."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See, for example, Human Rights Council resolutions 27/5 and 21/12; General Assembly resolution 68/163; and Security Council resolution 1738 (2006)."}, {"n": 25, "text": "See the Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa, principle XV."}, {"n": 26, "text": "See 2nd Communiqué on Open Journalism. Available at www.osce.org/fom/128046?download=true."}, {"n": 27, "text": "Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers recommendation No. R (2000) 7, appendix, definition (a)."}, {"n": 28, "text": "See Supreme Court of Norway, case No. 2013/1196, reference No. HR-2013-2170-A (2013)."}, {"n": 29, "text": "Posetti, “Protecting journalism sources in the digital age”."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0019", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Two categories, for example, expand beyond officially recognized journalists. First, there are those who most closely reflect the professional engagement in collection and dissemination: members of civil society organizations who conduct research and issue findings, and researchers — academics, independent authors, freelance writers and others — who regularly participate in gathering and sharing information publicly. It is common for such people to adopt and publish methodologies that underscore the degree of professionalism upon which their work depends. Many non-governmental organizations are themselves publishers of well-sourced content that, in form and substance, is virtually identical to the work of the press, often the result of thorough research, in-the-field reporting and analysis.[[fn:30]] It is common for human rights researchers to rely upon sources who require confidentiality for safety.[[fn:31]] Recognizing a broad scope of protection, the European Court of Human Rights indicated that “non-governmental organisations, like the press, may be characterised as social ‘watchdogs.’ In that connection their activities warrant similar Convention protection to that afforded to the press”.[[fn:32]] The Information Commissioner’s Office in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland granted a non-governmental organization, Global Witness, an exemption from the national Data Protection Act because its work, and those of other non-media organizations, “constitutes a journalistic purpose even if they are not professional journalists and the publication forms part of a wider campaign to promote a particular cause”.[[fn:33]] In Canada, a judge of the Superior Court of Quebec upheld a researcher’s right to protect confidential information.[[fn:34]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "B. Those who may invoke source confidentiality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "See, for example, www.hrw.org/about-our-research."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See Youth Initiative for Human Rights v. Serbia, European Court of Human Rights, application No. 48135/06, judgement of 25 June 2013."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See European Court of Human Rights, Österreichische Vereinigung zur Erhaltung, Stärkung und Schaffung eines wirtschaftlich gesunden land- und forst-wirtschaftlichen Grundbesitzes v. Austria, application No. 39534/07, judgement of 28 November 2013."}, {"n": 33, "text": "See letter from Information Commissioner’s Office to Global Witness, 15 December 2014. Available from www.globalwitness.org/sites/default/files/141215%20letter%20from%20ICO%20to%20GW%20(2)%20(1).pdf."}, {"n": 34, "text": "See Parent and Bruckert v. Her Majesty the Queen, Province of Quebec District of Montreal, case No. 500-36-006329-125, judgement of 21 January 2014. See also Dotcom v. Her Majesty’s Attorney-General, Supreme Court of New Zealand, case No. [2014] NZSC 199, judgement of 23 December 2014."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0020", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Second, “citizen journalists” and bloggers and other media “non-professionals” engage in independent reporting and disseminate their findings through a wide variety of media, from print and broadcast to social media and other online platforms.[[fn:35]] They frequently work in ways similar or identical to, or even more rigorous than, the work of traditional journalists. Some States have adopted rules that provide important protection for them. For example, the Irish High Court, in Cornec v. Morrice and Ors, found that bloggers might claim source protection because they could constitute an “organ of public opinion” and because the right to influence public opinion would be jeopardized if they were forced to disclose their sources.[[fn:36]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "B. Those who may invoke source confidentiality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See A/65/284; see also Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers recommendation CM/Rec(2011)7."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Irish High Court, Cornec v. Morrice and Ors, 2012, para. 66. See also California Court of Appeals, O’Grady v. Superior Court (Apple), 2006."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0021", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Some authorities refer to a journalistic “privilege” not to disclose a source’s identity, but both reporter and source enjoy rights that may be limited only according to article 19 (3).[[fn:37]] Revealing or coercing the revelation of the identity of a source creates disincentives for disclosure, dries up further sources to report a story accurately and damages an important tool of accountability. In the light of the importance attached to source confidentiality, any restrictions must be genuinely exceptional and subject to the highest standards, implemented by judicial authorities only.[[fn:38]] Such situations should be limited to investigations of the most serious crimes or the protection of the life of other individuals.[[fn:39]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "C. Nature and scope of protection"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See Tillack v. Belgium, European Court of Human Rights, application No. 20477/05, judgement of 27 February 2008."}, {"n": 38, "text": "See Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers recommendation No. R (2000) 7, appendix, principles 3 and 5."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See A/HRC/20/17, para. 109. See also A/HRC/7/14."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0022", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. National laws should ensure that protections apply strictly, with extremely limited exceptions. Under Belgian law, journalists and editorial staff may be compelled by a judge to disclose information sources only if they are of a nature to prevent crimes that pose a serious threat to the physical integrity of one or more persons, and upon a finding of the following two cumulative conditions: (a) the information is of crucial importance for preventing such crimes; and (b) the information cannot be obtained by any other means. The same conditions apply to investigative measures, such as searches, seizures and telephone tapping, with respect to journalistic sources.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "C. Nature and scope of protection"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "See Banisar, “Silencing sources”."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0023", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Protection must also counter a variety of contemporary threats. A leading one is surveillance. The ubiquitous use of digital electronics, alongside government capacity to access the data and footprints that all such devices leave behind, has presented serious challenges to confidentiality and anonymity of sources and whistle-blowers.[[fn:41]] The problem of unintended self-disclosure has been a recurrent feature in the leading cases involving journalistic sources in recent years, in which the Government of the United States of America discovered probable source identities through telephone and e-mail records.[[fn:42]] Writers themselves report concern that their ability to protect sources is much diminished in the face of surveillance.[[fn:43]] National and regional courts in Europe have appropriately criticized extralegal approaches to compromising confidentiality. The Italian Supreme Court of Cassation, for example, protected the telephone records of a journalist because they were openly instrumental to the identification of those who had provided confidential information.[[fn:44]] The European Court of Human Rights emphasized the importance of providing “the individual adequate protection against arbitrary interference” caused by surveillance.[[fn:45]] The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe recommends that interception, surveillance and other digital searches “should not be applied if their purpose is to circumvent” source protection.[[fn:46]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "C. Nature and scope of protection"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See Posetti, “Protecting journalism sources in the digital age”."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See, for example, United States of America v. Sterling, 724 F.3d 482 (2013)."}, {"n": 43, "text": "See PEN America, “Chilling effects: NSA surveillance drives U.S. writers to self-censor” (New York, 2013); and Human Rights Watch and American Civil Liberties Union, “With liberty to monitor all: how large-scale U.S. surveillance is harming journalism, law and American democracy” (New York, 2014)."}, {"n": 44, "text": "See decision of the Supreme Court of Cassation, Sixth Criminal Chamber, 21 January 2004, No. 85, concerning the appeal filed by Paolo Moretti against a ruling by the Court of Como."}, {"n": 45, "text": "See Telegraaf Media Nederland Landelijke Media B.V. and Others v. the Netherlands, European Court of Human Rights, application No. 39315/06, judgement of 22 November 2012, para. 90."}, {"n": 46, "text": "See Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers recommendation No. R (2000) 7, appendix, principle 6 (a)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0024", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Journalists are often subjected to searches of their persons, homes or offices, including their papers, hard drives and other digital devices. In addition to the normal rules that apply to such searches, a higher burden should be imposed in the context of journalists and others gathering and disseminating information.[[fn:47]] The United States Privacy Protection Act of 1980, for example, protects journalists and others from searches and seizures of their work product, while the Police and Criminal Evidence Act of 1984 of the United Kingdom excludes journalistic material from the scope of seizure authorities.[[fn:48]] The Code of Criminal Procedure of France enables searches of the offices of media only where “such investigations do not violate the freedom of exercise of the profession of journalist and do not unjustifiably obstruct or delay the distribution of information”.[[fn:49]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "C. Nature and scope of protection"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "See Canadian Broadcasting Corp. v. Lessard, Supreme Court of Canada, case No. 21629, report No. [1991] 3 S.C.R. 421; and the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany, 1 BvR 538/06, judgement of 27 February 2007."}, {"n": 48, "text": "See United States, Title 42 U.S. Code sect. 2000aa; United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Police and Criminal Evidence Act (1984)."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Code of Criminal Procedure of France, art. 56-2."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0025", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Source protection extends beyond the immediate reporting person to include editors, publishers and others engaged in the work. In Norway, the Dispute Act of 2005 provides that editors and media staff may refuse to provide access to evidence about who is the author of an article or report in the publication or the source of any information contained therein. The Criminal Code in Switzerland provides similar protection to refuse to identify sources; the Press Law of 2004 in Turkey provides that periodical owners and editors cannot be forced to either disclose their news sources or to legally testify on that issue; and the Press Law of 2006 in Angola extends protection against compelled disclosure to editors.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "C. Nature and scope of protection"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "See Banisar, “Silencing sources”."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0026", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. States have responded to the problem of hidden wrongdoing with laws to protect those who take steps to report it. However, individuals who report alleged wrongdoing are still subjected to harassment, intimidation, investigation, prosecution and other forms of retaliation. All too often, States and organizations implement the protections only in part or fail to hold accountable those who retaliate against whistle-blowers. Moreover, beyond law, the right to information also requires a bedrock of social and organizational norms that promote the reporting of wrongdoing or other information in the public interest. The strengthening of such norms requires training at all levels of organizations, supportive policies and statements from political and corporate leaders, international civil servants, the courts and others, and accountability in cases of reprisals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0027", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. At least 60 States have adopted some form of whistle-blower protection as a part of their national laws.50 The United Nations Convention against Corruption protects persons who report corruption offences; the Council of Europe has recommended broad whistle-blower protections; and the Organization of American States has adopted a model law on the protection of whistle-blowers.[[fn:51]] International organizations have adopted protections that, to some extent, mirror national practice. The following principles draw on international law, State practice and a range of civil society projects; they are not exhaustive of the legal, policy and drafting issues in framing whistle-blower protections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "See United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 33; Council of Europe, recommendation CM/Rec(2014)7, appendix; Organization of American States, Model Law to Facilitate and Encourage the Reporting of Acts of Corruption and to Protect Whistle-blowers and Witnesses (2013)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0028", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. International authorities and national jurisdictions adopt a variety of definitions of whistle-blowing. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur adopts a broad definition in order to account for relevant purposes of whistle-blowing, in particular the right to know, accountability and democratic governance. For the purposes of the present report, a whistle-blower is a person who exposes information that he or she reasonably believes, at the time of disclosure, to be true and to constitute a threat or harm to a specified public interest, such as a violation of national or international law, abuse of authority, waste, fraud, or harm to the environment, public health or public safety.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "1. The term “whistle-blower” should be broadly defined and focus attention on alleged wrongdoing"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0029", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Protection laws often limit whistle-blowers to those who blow the whistle “in the context of their work-based relationship”.[[fn:52]] However, a person may come into contact with public interest information even when outside such a relationship. The United Nations Convention against Corruption contains no employment limitation. Broad definitions are also found in, for example, Ghanaian law, which protects employees and “any person” making a disclosure, and Indian law, which covers “any public servant or any other person including any non-governmental organisation”.[[fn:53]] Non-work-related whistle-blowers may include patients who blow the whistle on wrongdoing in a hospital, parents who blow the whistle on wrongdoing in a child’s school and students themselves. Typically, a whistle-blower will enjoy a work status, but because of the range of others who may report wrongdoing allegations, such as consultants, interns, job applicants, students, patients and others who do not enjoy a legally protected relationship with an organization, such a limitation is not recommended.[[fn:54]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "1. The term “whistle-blower” should be broadly defined and focus attention on alleged wrongdoing"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "See Council of Europe, recommendation CM/Rec(2014)7, appendix, definition (a). See also United Kingdom Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998."}, {"n": 53, "text": "See Ghana, Whistleblower Act 720, sect. 12 (2006); India, The Whistle Blowers Protection Act, 2011, chap. II, sect. 4 (1)."}, {"n": 54, "text": "See, for example, Serbia, draft law on protection of whistle-blowers (2013), art. 7."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0030", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Protection mechanisms should promote disclosure and not require potential whistle-blowers to undertake precise analyses of whether perceived wrongdoing merits penalty under existing law or policy. Otherwise, the protection itself would be hollow, encouraging disclosure and signalling potential retaliation at the same time. In general, a reasonable belief requirement may encourage whistle-blowing based on thoughtful consideration of the facts known to a person at the time of disclosure. Whistle-blowers who, based on a reasonable belief, report information that turns out not to be correct should nonetheless be protected against retaliation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "1. The term “whistle-blower” should be broadly defined and focus attention on alleged wrongdoing"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0031", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. The whistle-blower’s motivations at the time of the disclosure should also be immaterial to an assessment of his or her protected status.[[fn:55]] Variation centres around the inclusion of “good faith” as an element of reporting, from the exclusion of a good faith requirement, to a good faith requirement only in the context of compensation as a remedy for retaliation, to inclusion of both “good faith” and reasonable belief.[[fn:56]] “Good faith,” however, could be misinterpreted to focus on the motivation of the whistle-blower rather than the veracity and relevance of the information reported. It should not matter why the whistle-blower brought the information to attention if he or she believed it to be true. Irish law serves as a model, given that it provides that “the motivation for making a disclosure is irrelevant to whether or not it is a protected disclosure”.[[fn:57]] Application of protection should focus on the public interest information underlying the whistle-blowing. Bosnia and Herzegovina, addressing that problem, seeks to protect against the risk of focusing on motivation by defining good faith as meaning the stance of the whistle-blower “based on facts and circumstances of which the whistle-blower has his or her own knowledge and which he or she deems to be true”.[[fn:58]] In Zambia, the Public Interest Disclosure Act (2010) protects disclosures made by an employee in reasonable belief and limits the relevance of motivation to when a person discloses “for purposes of personal gain, excluding any reward payable in terms of any law”.[[fn:59]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "1. The term “whistle-blower” should be broadly defined and focus attention on alleged wrongdoing"], "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "See the Global Principles on National Security and the Right to Information, principle 38. According to the Norwegian Working Environment Act, bad faith does not rule out lawful reporting."}, {"n": 56, "text": "See United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, United Nations Convention against Corruption: Resource Guide on Good Practices in the Protection of Reporting Persons (New York, 2015)."}, {"n": 57, "text": "See Ireland, Protected Disclosures Act 2014, part 2, sect. 5 (7)."}, {"n": 58, "text": "See Bosnia and Herzegovina, Law on Whistleblower Protection in the institutions of Bosnia-Herzegovina, art. 2 (h)."}, {"n": 59, "text": "See Zambia, Public Interest Disclosure (Protection of Whistleblowers) Act (2010), part III, sect. 22 (a) (ii)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0032", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Whistle-blowing does not always involve specific individual wrongdoing, but it may uncover hidden information that the public has a legitimate interest in knowing. International authorities and States often provide a general protection for the disclosure of information in the public interest, or disclosure of specific categories of information, or both. The Council of Europe Committee of Ministers recommends that States adopt protections for those who report threats or harms to the public interest, which it says “should, at least, include violations of law and human rights, as well as risks to public health and safety and to the environment”.[[fn:60]] Zambian law provides an extensive definition that covers a range of maladministration, abuse of public trust, criminal and disciplinary offences and waste or fraud.59 The legislation of the United States specifies violations of a law, rule or regulation; gross mismanagement; a gross waste of funds; an abuse of authority; and a substantial and specific danger to public health and safety.[[fn:61]] While the term “public interest” may appear capacious as a basis for whistle-blower protection, a State might define “public interest” as involving information that contributes to public debate, promotes public participation, exposes serious wrongdoing, improves accountability or benefits public safety.[[fn:62]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "2. Public interest information should be disclosed"], "footnotes": [{"n": 60, "text": "See Council of Europe, recommendation CM/Rec(2014)7, appendix, sect. I (2), and explanatory memorandum CM(2014)34 addfinal, para. 43."}, {"n": 61, "text": "See Whistleblower Protection Enhancement Act of 2012 and Whistleblower Protection Act of 1989."}, {"n": 62, "text": "See Parliamentary Assembly of Council of Europe, Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights, Memorandum of Arcadio Díaz Tejera, document No. 13293, 3 September 2013, para. 46. The Irish Protected Disclosures Act 2014 provides a list of matters which qualify as relevant wrongdoings."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0033", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Regardless of the approach taken, the scope of protected disclosures should be easily understandable by potential whistle-blowers. Legalistic definitions may lead potential whistle-blowers not to report because of a lack of clarity about what is covered by a protection framework.56", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "2. Public interest information should be disclosed"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0034", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. When working properly, internal mechanisms provide a way for someone who perceives wrongdoing to seek a competent authority’s investigation. They allow for timely attention by those who may be in the best position to address problems, while also providing a basis for balancing legitimate interests in secrecy and the redress of wrongdoing. However, internal mechanisms present potential whistle-blowers with serious risks. They often lack strong measures of confidentiality and independence from the organization in which they are embedded, putting whistle-blowers at risk of retaliation. Many mechanisms are widely perceived as ineffective, so that the risk of retaliation may appear too great in the face of low odds of success. For those reasons, among others, studies suggest that employees have relatively low confidence in whistle-blowing mechanisms.[[fn:63]] If States aim to have working whistle-blowing procedures that reduce public disclosure, they must ensure the effectiveness and trust in the full independence of whistle-blowing processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "2. Public interest information should be disclosed"], "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "See Public Concern at Work and the University of Greenwich, Whistleblowing: The Inside Story (London, 2013); Stephen Bolsin, Rita Pal, Peter Wilmshurst and Milton Pena, “Whistleblowing and patient safety: the patient’s or the profession’s interests at stake?”, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, vol. 104, No. 7 (July 2011)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0035", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. When whistle-blowers reasonably perceive that an internal process lacks effective redress and protection, they should have access to two other permissible avenues of disclosure. One would be external but not public, such as a government-wide ombudsman or oversight institution or a legislative oversight body. Belgium, Ireland, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea and the United Kingdom, among others, provide explicitly for various forms of external but non-public whistle-blowing.56 The legislation of Ghana provides for protected disclosures to nearly 20 categories of competent recipients apart from the whistle-blower’s employer.[[fn:64]] At the same time, it is critical that, once a whistle-blower makes a disclosure outside his or her institution, the law does not hold the person to any pre-existing duties of confidentiality owed to the employer.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "2. Public interest information should be disclosed"], "footnotes": [{"n": 64, "text": "See Ghana, Whistleblower Act 720, sect. 3 (1) (2006)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0036", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Whistle-blowers may reasonably perceive that neither internal nor oversight mechanisms provide effective protection or a likelihood of addressing wrongdoing. They may leave whistle-blowers exposed to retaliation and the absence of redress even if the formal legal framework and the mechanisms appear sufficiently protective. Whistle-blowers often reasonably doubt that such protections will work for them; the more a State can demonstrate that whistle-blowing results in changed institutional behaviour, individual accountability and protection, the more likely it is that whistle-blowers will not go public. When a Government seeks to prosecute or otherwise penalize a publicly disclosing whistle-blower, the burden should be on the State to show that the whistle-blower’s perceptions of non-protection or non-redress were unreasonable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "2. Public interest information should be disclosed"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0037", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Where other mechanisms to disclose information about wrongdoing are unavailable or ineffective, the whistle-blower may disclose information of alleged wrongdoing to external entities, either the media or others in civil society, or by self-publishing. The public-disclosure whistle-blower in such circumstances should be protected. The European Court of Human Rights weighs six factors in assessing the legitimacy of restrictions imposed on those who make public disclosure. Those factors are whether the whistle-blower had available any “competent authority” to which he or she could make disclosure, or “any other effective means of remedying the wrongdoing”; the public interest in the information, which “can sometimes be so strong as to override even a legally imposed duty of confidence”; the information’s authenticity, requiring a person to “carefully verify, to the extent permitted by the circumstances, that it is accurate and reliable”; the damage that the public institution may suffer by public disclosure, including whether it outweighs the public’s interest in knowing the information; the motive and good faith of the whistle-blower, which could implicate the “level of protection” available; and an evaluation of the proportionality of the penalty imposed upon the whistle-blower.[[fn:65]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "2. Public interest information should be disclosed"], "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "See European Court of Human Rights, application No. 14277/04, judgement of 12 February 2008, paras. 73-78. See also Heinisch v. Germany, application No. 28274/08, judgement of 21 July 2011 and Bucur and Toma v. Romania, application No. 40238/02, judgement of 1 August 2013."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0038", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Notwithstanding such balancing, the public may have an exceptionally strong right to know about some kinds of information or allegations, such that they override even potentially effective internal or oversight processes. For example, public disclosure of serious violations of international human rights law, international humanitarian law or other fundamental rights in a State’s constitutional or statutory framework should be encouraged regardless of the effectiveness of internal mechanisms. The same may hold true where the value of the public’s knowledge of the information depends upon its timely or urgent disclosure. The public has an overriding interest in knowing of allegations of serious violations of fundamental legal norms (see A/68/362).", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "2. Public interest information should be disclosed"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0039", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Maintaining the confidentiality of whistle-blowers may be especially difficult, depending on the nature, size and scope of the institution. Even so, whistle-blower laws should protect strongly against the risk that persons who disclose facts that indicate wrongdoing may be subject to personal attack and other forms of retaliation. Guarantees and mechanisms of confidentiality provide important protection against retaliation. States should not breach the confidentiality of the source by putting pressure on the media or any other organization or person to whom the whistle-blower disclosed the information. Whistle-blowing mechanisms should provide for secure submissions and take other steps to ensure the confidentiality of disclosures, including by defining intentional or negligent breaches of confidentiality as a form of retaliation subject to penalty.[[fn:66]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "4. Whistle-blowers should be guaranteed confidentiality and the possibility of anonymity in their reporting"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Mexico have initiatives promoting anonymous reporting."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0040", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Some institutions permit anonymous disclosures in order to enable people to report without identifying themselves to any competent authority. Unlike confidentiality guarantees, in which a whistle-blower is known to the internal mechanism, anonymous disclosure should allow individuals to provide information without identifying themselves to anyone in the internal mechanism. Anonymity has some drawbacks; it may diminish the ability of authorities to conduct follow-up, or encourage frivolous or malicious reporting. In situations in which few persons enjoy access to disclosed information, reporting persons may be easily exposed. However, anonymous reporting provides a safeguard for those situations where the potential whistle-blower lacks confidence in the ability of existing legal mechanisms to provide protections against retaliation and yet wishes not to make a public disclosure. It enables a focus on the elements of the disclosure rather than on the person. Moreover, those who make anonymous disclosures who are later exposed should still receive whistle-blower protections.[[fn:67]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "4. Whistle-blowers should be guaranteed confidentiality and the possibility of anonymity in their reporting"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "See Slovakia, Act No. 307/2014 Coll. on Certain Measures Related to the Reporting of Antisocial Activities and on Amendments to Certain Acts (2015)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0041", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Without protection against retaliation and the possibility of redress, few would disclose wrongdoing. Protection should be detailed explicitly in law, providing whistle-blowers and others with clarity about the nature of the protection that they may seek. In particular, whistle-blowers must be protected against coercion or harassment of themselves or their families, discrimination, physical harm to a person or property, threats of retaliation, job loss, suspension or demotion, transfer or other hardship, disciplinary penalty, blacklisting or prosecution on grounds of breach of secrecy laws, libel or defamation.56 In the event of investigation or prosecution, whistle-blowers should be permitted to raise all of the principles identified above in their defence, especially that the disclosure was to protect a specified public interest that outweighed harm to a governmental interest. Whistle-blower laws should provide a mechanism to redress wrongdoing and prohibit those forms of retaliation, among others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "4. Whistle-blowers should be guaranteed confidentiality and the possibility of anonymity in their reporting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0042", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Impunity for reprisals sends a message to all potential whistle-blowers that the institution lacks commitment to their protection, while serious and effective penalties are necessary to overcome the structural and cultural protection of secrecy. Whistle-blower laws should therefore include specific rules that make clear the penalties that those who commit reprisals will face, including civil or criminal repercussions for officials in leadership positions. Zambian law, for example, provides for substantial penalties (fines and imprisonment) against “a person who takes any detrimental action that is in reprisal for a person who makes a protected disclosure”.[[fn:68]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "4. Whistle-blowers should be guaranteed confidentiality and the possibility of anonymity in their reporting"], "footnotes": [{"n": 68, "text": "Zambia, Public Interest Disclosure Act (see footnote 59 above). See also Norway, Dispute Act, sect. 2-5 (2005)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0043", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. States have long sought to keep secret information that, if disclosed, could undermine efforts to protect the public from grave harms such as terrorism or armed conflict. The protection of confidential information is a necessary by-product of some government activity, and article 19 (3) recognizes the legitimacy of limitations to protect specific interests such as national security. Institutions that operate in national security, such as institutions of defence, diplomacy, internal security and law enforcement, and intelligence, may have a greater claim not to disclose information than other public bodies, but they have no greater claim to hide instances of wrongdoing or other information where the value of disclosure outweighs the harm to the institution. Yet whistle-blower protections are often weak, or simply unavailable, in the area of national security and intelligence. Those who disclose wrongdoing in national security institutions are often subject to retaliation, such as job loss or transfer, denial or revocation of security clearance, and investigation, prosecution and harsh sentencing, and they lack redress because of legal doctrines that support an infrastructure of secrecy. Whistle-blowing’s main function thus loses all force, and while the lack of protection ultimately denies members of the public access to critical information about their Government, national security institutions also lose a tool of accountability.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "B. Whistle-blowing and national security"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0044", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. In 2013, dozens of organizations, academic institutions and experts from 70 countries — including the special rapporteurs on freedom of expression in the United Nations and the African, European and Inter-American systems — concluded a two-year study of national security and the right to information. The resulting Global Principles on National Security and the Right to Information, known as the Tshwane Principles, provide guidance for States seeking to balance their interests in protecting information and ensuring the public’s right to know. The principles and their detailed explanatory discussions deserve widespread study and implementation. Already, the Council of Europe has recognized that a special whistle-blower framework applicable in the context of national security may be valuable.[[fn:69]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "B. Whistle-blowing and national security"], "footnotes": [{"n": 69, "text": "See Council of Europe, recommendation CM/Rec(2014)7, appendix, sect. II (5). See also Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, “Improving the protection of whistle-blowers”, document No. 13791 (19 May 2015)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0045", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. All of the principles identified above should apply in the context of national security, modified as appropriate according to the principles below. Full coverage means that no institution should be accorded such a wide measure of discretion as to eliminate the protections themselves. National security institutions enjoy secrecy as a norm of behaviour. Moreover, non-disclosure is often buttressed by a network of secrecy and espionage laws — often with harsh criminal penalties — that all but eliminate genuine whistle-blower protection, in particular by removing the whistle-blower’s ability to advocate on the basis of the public’s interest in the disclosed information. In those situations, States should rationalize their laws so that whistle-blower protections, and the public interest basis for them, apply regardless of the institution involved.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "B. Whistle-blowing and national security", "1. Full coverage"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0046", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Where internal or external oversight mechanisms have not operated or do not operate so as to provide protection and effective redress in the face of a disclosure, the following principles apply generally in the context of external, public disclosure.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "B. Whistle-blowing and national security", "1. Full coverage"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0047", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. States may find it appropriate to apply specific rules to public national security disclosures. To be consistent with article 19 (3), they should nonetheless strictly adhere to the standard that restrictions be necessary and proportionate to protect national security. National security exclusions have traditionally involved information about ongoing defence plans, weapons systems and communications, critical infrastructure and intelligence operations, sources and methods.[[fn:70]] States have also long protected sensitive security-related diplomatic activity. National security restrictions on disclosure should apply only in such situations, and disclosure should not be limited in the absence of the Government’s showing of “a real and identifiable risk of significant harm to a legitimate national security interest”.[[fn:71]] Law should clearly define what may be withheld from disclosure. A “legitimate national security interest” must be genuine, not a cover for “protection of government or officials from embarrassment or exposure of wrongdoing; concealment of information about human rights violations, any other violation of law, or the functioning of public institutions; strengthening or perpetuating a particular political interest, party, or ideology; or suppression of lawful protests”.[[fn:72]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "B. Whistle-blowing and national security", "2. Narrowly and clearly define prohibited disclosures"], "footnotes": [{"n": 70, "text": "See the Global Principles on National Security and the Right to Information, principle 9."}, {"n": 71, "text": "Ibid., principle 3 (b)."}, {"n": 72, "text": "Ibid. To be clear, the relevant national law must also be consistent with international law."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0048", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. To satisfy the principle of proportionality, the relevant institution should also be prepared to show that the harm to the specific legitimate national security interest outweighs the public interest in disclosure. The Tshwane Principles propose that public disclosure should be protected where the internal or oversight mechanism would be ineffective, futile or lack timeliness in the face of a serious threat. Furthermore, reflecting a point of general applicability, the whistle-blower should disclose only the “amount of information that was reasonably necessary to bring to light the wrongdoing” and do so on the reasonable belief that the public interest in disclosure outweighed any harm to any specific and legitimate national security interest.[[fn:73]] Any disclosures that meet those tests should merit full protection. Those principles should be available to whistle-blowers whether they are claiming protection or defending themselves against investigation or prosecution.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "B. Whistle-blowing and national security", "3. Promote public interest disclosures that outweigh any identifiable harm to a legitimate national security interest"], "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "Ibid., principle 40."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0049", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The question posed most sharply in the national security area is whether, when individuals assess the balance between public interest disclosure and national security harm, they should lose the protection they would otherwise enjoy if their assessment differs from that of the Government, as is likely. Criminal or civil penalties may advance the Government’s interest in concealing certain information, but they do so at a steep cost to the public interest in ensuring that whistle-blowers do come forward to disclose instances of wrongdoing or other information that it is in the public’s interest to know.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "B. Whistle-blowing and national security", "4. Sanctioned disclosures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0050", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Where States nonetheless pursue criminal or civil penalties against whistle-blowers, limiting the spillover risk of deterring whistle-blowing should involve three critical protections. First, in any such action, States should bear the burden of proving that the harm to a legitimate national security interest outweighed the public interest in disclosure. Second, States should provide defendants with the basic tools of defence, including access to the information necessary for a defence, relaxation of secrecy laws in the context of closed court sessions if necessary and the ability to make a genuine case that disclosure’s benefit outweighed the asserted harm. Lastly, in the event of a conviction or penalty, sentences or fines must be proportionate to the underlying act, including taking into account the extent to which the whistle-blower’s disclosure advanced the public interest, even if a court found the harm to national security to outweigh the value of disclosure.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "B. Whistle-blowing and national security", "4. Sanctioned disclosures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0051", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. The principles of whistle-blower protection adopted by States and regional mechanisms apply with equal force in the context of international organizations. The United Nations and other international organizations have adopted rules and regulations with the purpose of enabling whistle-blowing and prohibiting retaliation against those who disclose wrongdoing.[[fn:74]] Nonetheless, allegations of retaliation against whistle-blowers plague international organizations.[[fn:75]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "C. Whistle-blowing in international organizations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 74, "text": "See ST/SGB/2005/21; World Bank, staff rule 8.02: Protections and Procedures for Reporting Misconduct (Whistleblowing) (2008)."}, {"n": 75, "text": "See Government Accountability Project, “International best practices for whistleblower policies” (2013)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0052", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Basic structural gaps in international organizations leave whistle-blowers at risk in ways that those who report wrongdoing in national systems may avoid. In particular, nearly all international organizations are opaque to the public, which has limited access to information, and few have effective policies on access to information. As bureaucratically dominated organizations, they avoid the strict scrutinization by the press that is often found in national contexts, and they are naturally isolated from direct contact with members of the public or the press. They are, moreover, subject to reputational demands in order to maintain financial and political support of Governments. Furthermore, persons who report wrongdoing have limited access to independent systems of justice. They generally lack access to national courts when complaining about retaliation, and the human rights bodies are unlikely to apply protection in the face of retaliation. The immunities enjoyed by international organizations in national and other external jurisdictions result in minimal legal pressure on the organizations to respond effectively to allegations of wrongdoing. The mechanisms themselves generally face substantial problems of independence because of those structural barriers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "C. Whistle-blowing in international organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0053", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The track record for whistle-blowers in the United Nations system reinforces the difficulties. Very few whistle-blower complaints are fully investigated. Between 2006 and 2014, only 15 cases of a total of 403 “inquiries” sent to the Ethics Office of the United Nations were found to meet prima facie standards for retaliation, while only 4 were established as retaliatory cases. The low numbers, in a system of more than 40,000 employees, are likely to send a message to employees that the reporting system will not provide effective protection or redress. Some international organizations do have strong formal protections for whistle-blowers.[[fn:76]] However, all international organizations should adopt the principles applicable in national situations and consider at least the following steps to improve their approaches.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "C. Whistle-blowing in international organizations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "See African Development Bank Group, “Whistle-blowing and complaints handling policy” (Tunis, 2007), sect. 4."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0054", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. First, whistle-blower definitions should apply broadly to encourage all disclosures of wrongdoing that implicate the interests of the organization and all stakeholders, including Governments and civil society. As it stands, many organizations’ protections apply to reports of staff failures to comply with obligations, rather than applying to the full range of wrongdoing of which a person may gain knowledge. A public interest standard for reporting would cover a wider scope of wrongdoing to which the United Nations and its staff become privy. Policies should also protect all whistle-blowers from retaliation, not just staff members but others who may be associated with the organization.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "C. Whistle-blowing in international organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0055", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Second, the existing mechanisms, while well-intentioned, lack real independence and effectiveness. As long as internal reporting channels require implementing actions by various individuals in the organization’s management, they will fail to enjoy the credibility that comes with independent review. Whistle-blowers should enjoy access to formal justice mechanisms, not merely mechanisms that, as is the case with the Ethics Office at the United Nations, involve only recommendatory powers. Punishment of those who retaliate should be serious, not merely disciplinary, and should include the possibility of removal from their post and personal liability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "C. Whistle-blowing in international organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0056", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Third, international organizations — and the States that established and support them — should adopt serious and effective policies of transparency to enable the public to have greater access to information. The public should enjoy access not only to information about the policies and practices of the organizations, but also to information about whistle-blowing. Subject to the requirements of privacy protections, investigations of whistle-blowing complaints should avoid the strictures of confidentiality, providing for public knowledge of complaints. As it stands, whistle-blowing complaints are very rarely made public, or if they are, such publicity follows only after years of delay and secrecy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "C. Whistle-blowing in international organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0057", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Lastly, those who identify wrongdoing — especially evidence of serious legal violations and human rights abuses, such as sexual and gender-based violence — should be protected from retaliation when they make public disclosures to the media, civil society or Governments. To be sure, disclosures should respect the rights and reputations of others, but in the absence of effective internal systems, external disclosure provides a necessary safety valve to promote accountability and ensure that the public has information about serious wrongdoing.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "C. Whistle-blowing in international organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0058", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. A common thread ties together the right of access to information, the protection of sources of information and the protection of whistle-blowers: the public’s right to know. Human rights law protects the right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, while also permitting restrictions of the right on narrow, specified grounds. When the right and the restriction clash, as they are often purported to do, Governments and international organizations should not adopt laws and policies that default in favour of the restrictions. Rather, laws should favour disclosures of information in the public interest. In cases of source and whistle-blower disclosures, public institutions have most of the power — the power to intimidate, to investigate, to prosecute. They also have greater access to information and, thus, the ability to make their case, while the source or whistle-blower typically has only a window into broader policies and practices, hindered by secrecy laws that preclude an adequate defence. If a disclosure genuinely harms a specified legitimate State interest, it should be the State’s burden to prove the harm and the intention to cause harm. States and international organizations are urged to adopt or revise laws accordingly, consistent with the well-recognized centrality of the right to freedom of expression and access to information in democratic governance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0059", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. Basic protections are critical to an effective right to freedom of expression, accountability and democratic governance. Individual cases of disproportionate treatment and retaliation against sources and whistle-blowers have been in the public eye over recent years, relating to intelligence agencies, asylum programmes, public health, environmental protection, corruption in the business and financial sectors, international organizations and many other domains. The Special Rapporteur has avoided mentioning specific cases in the present report. Moving forward, the principles identified in the present report will be applied in communications with Governments and international organizations on specific cases. The Special Rapporteur looks forward to a dialogue with Governments to help to improve their legal frameworks and establish effective protection of sources and whistle-blowers.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0060", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. National legal frameworks establishing the right to access information held by public bodies should be aligned with international human rights norms. Exceptions to disclosure should be narrowly defined and clearly provided by law and be necessary and proportionate to achieve one or more of the above-mentioned legitimate objectives of protecting the rights or reputations of others, national security, public order, or public health and morals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States", "Ensure that national legal frameworks provide for the right of access to information in accordance with international standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0061", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. National legal frameworks must protect the confidentiality of sources of journalists and of others who may engage in the dissemination of information of public interest. Laws guaranteeing confidentiality must reach beyond professional journalists, including those who may be performing a vital role in providing wide access to information of public interest such as bloggers, “citizen journalists”, members of non-governmental organizations, authors and academics, all of whom may conduct research and disclose information in the public interest. Protection should be based on function, not on a formal title.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States", "Adopt or revise and implement national laws protecting the confidentiality of sources"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0062", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Any restrictions on confidentiality must be genuinely exceptional and subject to the highest standards, and implemented by judicial authorities only. Circumventions, such as secret surveillance or metadata analysis not authorized by judicial authorities according to clear and narrow legal rules, should not be used to undermine source confidentiality. States should promote tools, such as encryption and anonymizing programs, to ensure protection of sources. Authorities compelling revelation of sources must demonstrate that reasonable alternative measures to the disclosure do not exist or have been exhausted and that the legitimate interest in the disclosure clearly outweighs the public interest in the non-disclosure. These should be limited to investigations of the most serious crimes or the protection of life.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States", "Adopt or revise and implement national laws protecting the confidentiality of sources"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0063", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. State law should protect any person who discloses information that he or she reasonably believes, at the time of disclosure, to be true and to constitute a threat or harm to a specified public interest, such as a violation of national or international law, abuse of authority, waste, fraud or harm to the environment, public health or public safety. Upon disclosure, authorities should investigate and redress the alleged wrongdoing without any exception based on the presumed motivations or “good faith” of the person who disclosed the information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States", "Adopt or revise and implement national legal frameworks protecting whistle-blowers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0064", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Internal institutional and external oversight mechanisms should provide effective and protective channels for whistle-blowers to motivate remedial action. In the absence of channels that provide protection and effective remediation, or that fail to do so in a timely manner, public disclosures should be permitted. Disclosure of human rights or humanitarian law violations should never be the basis of penalties of any kind.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States", "Adopt or revise and implement national legal frameworks protecting whistle-blowers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0065", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. Protections against retaliation should apply in all public institutions, including those connected to national security. Given that prosecutions generally deter whistle-blowing, States should avoid them, reserving them, if at all, for exceptional cases of the most serious demonstrable harm to a specific legitimate interest. In such situations, the State should bear the burden of proving an intent to cause harm, and defendants should be granted (a) the ability to present a defence of an overriding public interest in the information, and (b) access to all information necessary to mount a full defence, including otherwise classified information. Penalties should take into account the intent of the whistle-blower to disclose information of public interest and meet international standards of legality, due process and proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States", "Adopt or revise and implement national legal frameworks protecting whistle-blowers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0066", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Acts of reprisals and other attacks against whistle-blowers and the disclosure of confidential sources must be thoroughly investigated and those responsible for those acts held accountable. When the attacks are condoned or perpetrated by authorities in leadership positions they consolidate a culture of silence, secrecy and fear within institutions and beyond, deterring future disclosures. Leaders at all levels in institutions should promote whistle-blowing and be seen to support whistle-blowers, and particular attention should be paid to the ways in which authorities in leadership positions encourage retaliation, tacitly or expressly, against whistle-blowers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States", "Establish personal liability for those who retaliate against sources and whistle-blowers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0067", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Law enforcement and justice officials must be trained to ensure the adequate implementation of standards establishing protection of the right to access information and the consequent protections of confidentiality of sources and whistle-blowers. Authorities in leadership positions should publicly recognize the contribution sources and whistle-blowers make by sharing information of public relevance and should condemn attacks against them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States", "Actively promote respect for the right of access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0068", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. State entities should also support civil society organizations that are expert in the areas of access to information, protection of journalists and their sources, and whistle-blower promotion and protection. Many such organizations may offer technical advice and training. States should ensure that civil society can participate fully in all efforts to adopt or revise source and whistle-blower laws, regulations and policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States", "Actively promote respect for the right of access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0069", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. All the above recommendations to States apply to the United Nations and other international organizations. In addition, the United Nations and international organizations should adopt effective norms and policies of transparency to enable the public to have greater access to information. Specific norms protecting whistle-blowers should follow similar criteria to those provided in the recommendations to States: wide scope of application, promotion of disclosure of information in the public interest and clarity in the mechanisms for reporting and requesting protection. Particular attention must be paid to the effectiveness and independence of existing reporting and justice mechanisms, given the lack of access of whistle-blowers to any other formal justice system.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations to the United Nations and other international organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0001", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. In the present report, submitted in accordance with Human Rights Council resolution 25/2, the Special Rapporteur focuses on the right of the child to freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0002", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. In the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the recognition of children as full subjects of rights is underscored. In accordance with the Convention, it is not acceptable to use the immaturity of children as a justification for depriving them of rights that would otherwise be enjoyed only by adults. Children are not mini-human beings, with mini-human rights. On the contrary, the Convention expands on the protection of children’s civil and political rights and sets out some specific measures to ensure that every child develops his or her personality to the fullest potential. Also according to the Convention, the right to freedom of expression should be exercised progressively as the child matures.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0003", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. Nobody questions the importance of protecting children from harm and the duty of adults to guide children. All too often, however, the possible risks that children face as a consequence of their young age and relative immaturity are overstated and used as an excuse for unduly restricting the rights of both adults and children to freedom of expression. These restrictions may emerge from vague and broad definitions of what constitutes harmful information or simply be perpetuated through the tacit acceptance of authoritarian attitudes in schools, families and society in general.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0004", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. If the Internet is widely recognized as an indispensable tool for promoting development and human rights, it also stands to reason that the Internet is an indispensable tool for children. Concerns have emerged, however, about the use of these tools for violent or abusive purposes. Widespread restrictions on the use of digital communications and censorship are not only unacceptable but also ineffective solutions to these concerns. Human rights norms call for a balanced approach where restrictions on communications conform to strict tests of necessity and proportionality.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0005", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur describes how the right of the child to freedom of expression is articulated in international human rights treaties, paying particular attention to the Convention on the Rights of the Child. He then details important obstacles to the realization of this right, including direct restrictions on children’s rights to freedom of expression and access to information, as well as blanket restrictions that ostensibly aim to protect children but in effect limit adults’ freedom of expression. He also describes some experiences of protecting and promoting children’s right to freedom of expression. Given the unparalleled impact of the Internet on contemporary societies, the Special Rapporteur discusses the importance of new technologies for the promotion of children’s rights and some specific concerns that are emerging in this domain. Lastly, he concludes by providing recommendations on the alignment of national laws and practices with relevant standards established by international human rights law.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0006", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. During the reporting period, the Special Rapporteur continued to participate in national and international events relating to the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In July 2014, the Special Rapporteur presented his latest annual report to the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/26/30), in which he addressed freedom of expression in elections and the regulation of political communications. Before that, in April, he presented his reports on his visits to Montenegro (A/HRC/26/30/Add.1), the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (A/HRC/26/30/Add.2) and Italy (A/HRC/26/30/Add.3). Also during the twenty-sixth session of the Council, the Special Rapporteur participated in a panel discussion on the safety of journalists and in side events on the safety of journalists, freedom of expression in elections and the space for civil society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0007", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. As he concluded his term as mandate holder, the Special Rapporteur reiterated his regret at the lack of response from Indonesia and Pakistan to his attempts to set up dates for a visit despite having received formal invitations from both countries in 2012. Requests for visits to the following countries also remained pending: Iran (Islamic Republic of) (requested in February 2010), Sri Lanka (requested in June 2009), Thailand (requested in 2012), Uganda (requested in May 2011) and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) (requested in 2003 and 2009).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0008", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. To prepare the present report, the Special Rapporteur reviewed relevant studies and consulted experts on the right of children to freedom of expression. The report also benefited from information compiled by the Child Rights International Network. In addition, the Special Rapporteur organized expert consultations on the topic in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Florence (Italy), Mexico City and Johannesburg (South Africa).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0009", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Freedom of expression is enshrined in all international and regional human rights instruments on civil and political rights.[[fn:1]] In article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, it is recognized that everyone has the right to freedom of expression, which includes the right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds regardless of frontiers. All forms of expression and the means of their dissemination are protected under that article (see para. 2). This right includes the expression and receipt of communications of every kind of idea and opinion that can be transmitted to others, subject to the limitations set out in articles 19, paragraph 3, and 20 of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "A. Right to freedom of expression in international human rights law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights and article 9 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0010", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Traditionally, the right to freedom of expression has not been associated with children, even though, as individuals, children benefit from all of the civil rights enunciated in the Covenant.[[fn:2]] Earlier international instruments dealing with children, such as the Geneva Declaration on the Rights of the Child of 1924 and the Declaration of the Rights of the Child (General Assembly resolution 1386 (XIV)), did not include any reference to this right, on the assumption that children were not able, because of their immaturity, to make meaningful choices. The Convention on the Rights of the Child marks a watershed in the protection of the rights and the inherent dignity of children. Unlike previous international legal instruments, the Convention promotes a dramatic shift in emphasis, from an approach based on the obligations of adults towards children (see the Declaration of the Rights of the Child) to one focusing on the child as a rights-holder.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "A. Right to freedom of expression in international human rights law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-fourth Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/44/40), annex VI, para. 2."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0011", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. The Convention on the Rights of the Child is the first international legal instrument proclaiming the right of children to freedom of expression.[[fn:3]] The wording of article 13 closely follows that of article 19, paragraphs 2 and 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. According to some, there is little value in article 13 itself, since it was simply “lifted” from article 19 of the Covenant with little attempt to apply it to children.[[fn:4]] However, read in conjunction with the provisions set out in articles 12 and 17 of the Convention, which protect the right to be heard and the right to have access to information, article 13 provides a level of protection to the child’s right to freedom of expression that is comparable, if not superior, to that afforded by article 19 of the Covenant.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See also article 7 of the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, which entered into force in 1999."}, {"n": 4, "text": "Sylvie Langlaude, “On how to build a positive understanding of the child’s right to freedom of expression”, Human Rights Law Review, vol. 10, No. 1 (2010), pp. 33-66."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "13", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text states 'The Convention on the Rights of the Child is the first international legal instrument proclaiming the right of children to freedom of expression. The wording of article 13 closely follows...' — first mention of art.13 in a CRC-focused sentence."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 19, paragraphs 2 and 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'; ICCPR art.19 covers freedom of expression."}, {"article": "13", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second reference: 'there is little value in article 13 itself, since it was simply lifted from article 19 of the Covenant' — art.13 here is CRC art.13 (the CRC freedom of expression provision being compared)."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second reference: 'lifted from article 19 of the Covenant' — the Covenant is ICCPR, confirmed by preceding full name citation."}, {"article": "12", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text states 'read in conjunction with the provisions set out in articles 12 and 17 of the Convention'; 'the Convention' is CRC throughout this paragraph; CRC art.12 is the right to be heard."}, {"article": "17", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text states 'articles 12 and 17 of the Convention'; 'the Convention' is CRC; CRC art.17 covers access to information."}, {"article": "13", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Third reference: 'article 13 provides a level of protection to the child's right to freedom of expression'; clearly CRC art.13 — the subject throughout the paragraph."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Third reference: 'that afforded by article 19 of the Covenant'; 'the Covenant' is ICCPR, comparing CRC art.13 protection to ICCPR art.19 protection."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0012", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. There is no reference in article 13 to the child’s evolving capacities, nor is a minimum age or a certain degree of maturity for the exercise of the right to freedom of expression fixed. In this sense, freedom of expression has been regarded as having a developmental aspect, since its aim is to enable children to develop their minds and themselves in society with others and grow into citizens participating in public life.[[fn:5]] Children’s freedom of expression does not — and cannot — start when children become capable of expressing their views autonomously or become teenagers; they cannot be expected to develop as autonomous beings and participants in society at the magical age of 18 years without having had the opportunity beforehand.4", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Herdís Thorgeirsdóttir, A Commentary on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child: Article 13 — The Right to Freedom of Expression (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2006)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0013", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Nevertheless, children are not adults, and the fact that they have evolving capacities cannot be avoided. This principle, enshrined in article 5 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, simply reflects the need to take children’s “childness” into account, as well as the fact that children evolve and exercise their rights differently from adults. The role accorded to parents and others responsible for the child under article 5 of the Convention suggests that, in practice, children’s enjoyment of their right to freedom of expression may not be as expansive as that of adult holders of similarly expressed rights under non-child-specific international human rights instruments.[[fn:6]] The exercise of the right to freedom of expression expands as children mature, whereas the appropriate direction and guidance provided by parents under article 5 diminishes correspondingly.4", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Aoife Nolan, Human Rights Law in Perspective: Children’s Socio-Economic Rights, Democracy and the Courts (Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2011)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "5", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CRC", "article": "5", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CRC", "article": "5", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0014", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Although the wording of article 13 of the Convention generally follows that of article 19 of the Covenant, certain provisions are omitted. First, article 13 does not include the right to hold opinions without interference, provided in article 19, paragraph 1, of the Covenant. It may be reasoned, however, that this right is implied in article 13, paragraph 1, or covered either by article 12 or article 14 of the Convention.[[fn:7]] Secondly, article 13 does not include the first sentence of article 19, paragraph 3, of the Covenant: “The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of this article carries with it special duties and responsibilities.” The inclusion of this sentence, which was introduced in the Covenant because of the powerful influence of modern media of expression, was apparently not found necessary with regard to the child’s freedom of expression.7", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Sharon Detrick, A Commentary on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1999)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "12", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "14", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0015", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. The scope of the right to freedom of expression is quite wide. According to the Committee on the Rights of the Child, article 13 of the Convention confers a right that can be exercised not only against the State, but also within the family, in the community, at school, in public policy decisions and in society.4", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0016", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The family, in particular, is regarded as one of the most important pillars in realizing the rights of the child to freedom of expression. It is widely acknowledged that parents assume the primary responsibility for the upbringing and development of their child, and hold the child’s best interests as a fundamental concern. The Committee encourages the implementation of a participatory family structure in which a child learns to freely express his or her views, and thus becomes equipped with the skills necessary to participate in society. The duty of family members includes the obligation to hear the child’s views and take them seriously and to support children in the realization of their rights under the Convention (see CRC/C/43/3, paras. 999-1,002).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0017", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. The right to seek information set out in article 13, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Rights of the Child has often been associated with the right to access to information, in particular information held by public authorities. This right is also closely related to the provisions of article 17 of the Convention, which aims to ensure that children have access to information and material from a diversity of national and international sources.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression", "Right to seek information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CRC", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0018", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Seeking and accessing information is essential for the child’s development and represents an essential precondition for participating in social life. Therefore, the Committee on the Rights of the Child has construed this right as imposing a positive obligation on States to provide access to information held by public authorities. The Human Rights Committee has observed that, to give effect to this right, States should make every effort to ensure easy, prompt, effective and practical access to information of public interest, and enact the necessary procedures, whereby one may gain access to information, such as by means of freedom of information legislation (see CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 19).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression", "Right to seek information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0019", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. The child also has the right to receive information and ideas of all kinds. The Committee on the Rights of the Child does not often refer to this provision in its concluding observations and recommendations. The only emerging principles are that measures must be taken to acquaint children with different cultures, that the media must help children to learn about other civilizations and that steps should be taken to encourage the publication, dissemination and availability of children’s literature to all children.4", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression", "Right to receive information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0020", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. The right to receive information is closely linked to the provisions of article 28, according to which States parties recognize the right of the child to education, and article 29, in which it is emphasized that education of the child shall, inter alia, aim at the development of the child’s personality, talents and mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression", "Right to receive information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "28", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "29", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0021", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Lastly, children have the right to impart information to others. As is the case for the right to receive information, there are few references to this right in the jurisprudence of the Committee on the Rights of the Child. The Committee has stated, for example, that children have the right to contribute to children’s magazines, television and other media, to engage in political activities both within and outside the school and to set up Internet chat rooms.4", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression", "Right to impart information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0022", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. In article 13, paragraph 2, of the Convention on the Rights of the Child it is expressly stated that the exercise of the right to freedom of expression may be subject to certain restrictions, which are set out. The Committee on the Rights of the Child has not developed comprehensive jurisprudence on permissible limitations to this right.4 However, the analysis made by the Human Rights Committee on the interpretation and application of article 19, paragraph 3, of the Covenant applies, mutatis mutandis, to the child’s right to freedom of expression (see CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 21).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression", "Permissible limitations"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CRC", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0023", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. First, restrictions must be provided by law made accessible to the public and be formulated with sufficient precision to enable an individual to regulate his or her conduct accordingly. Second, restrictions may be imposed only on the grounds set out in paragraphs 2 (a) and (b) of article 13, namely, for respect for the rights or reputations of others and for the protection of national security, of public order or of public health or morals.[[fn:8]] Third, restrictions must conform to the strict tests of necessity and proportionality.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression", "Permissible limitations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "During the travaux préparatoires for the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the inclusion of a reference to “the spiritual and moral well-being of the child” as an additional legitimate ground for restriction was rejected on the basis that it would be unfair to impose such a restriction on children alone and that the matter had already been dealt with under article 17, on access to information. See Sharon Detrick, A Commentary on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0024", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Article 12 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child represents a unique provision in international human rights law. This is a right that only children have, not adults, since children do not have a general right expressly set out in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights to express their views in all situations concerning them.4 That children are not always listened to justifies the inclusion in the Convention of a general right to be heard. The aim of article 12 is to address the legal and social status of children, who, on the one hand, lack the full autonomy of adults but, on the other, are subjects of rights (see CRC/C/GC/12, para. 1).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "C. Article 12: the right of children to express their views freely and to have their views given due weight"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "12", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'Article 12 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child represents a unique provision'; CRC art.12 is the child's right to be heard."}, {"article": "12", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second reference: 'the aim of article 12 is to address the legal and social status of children' — continuing discussion of the same CRC art.12 provision throughout the paragraph."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0025", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Paragraph 1 of the article accords to the child who is capable of forming his or her views the right to express those views freely in all matters affecting him or her, and the subsequent right to have those views given due weight in accordance with his or her age and maturity. Paragraph 2 asserts the right of the child to be heard in any judicial or administrative proceedings affecting him or her.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "C. Article 12: the right of children to express their views freely and to have their views given due weight"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0026", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. The right of all children to be heard and taken seriously constitutes one of the fundamental values of the Convention. The Committee on the Rights of the Child has identified article 12 as one of the four general principles of the Convention, which highlights the fact that this article establishes not only a right in itself, but should also be considered in the interpretation and implementation of all other rights (see CRC/C/GC/12, para. 2).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "C. Article 12: the right of children to express their views freely and to have their views given due weight"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "12", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0027", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. In accordance with article 12, States parties are obliged to recognize that right in their legal system, to adopt appropriate mechanisms to facilitate the active involvement of children in all actions and decision-making processes affecting them and to fulfil the obligation to give due weight to those views once expressed. The Committee on the Rights of the Child has noted that, while appearing to listen to children is relatively unchallenging, giving due weight to their views requires real change. According to the Committee, listening to children should not be seen as an end in itself, but rather as a means by which States make their interactions with children and their actions on behalf of children ever more sensitive to the implementation of children’s rights (see CRC/GC/2003/5).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "C. Article 12: the right of children to express their views freely and to have their views given due weight"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "12", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0028", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The right to freedom of expression is often confused with the right to be heard set out in article 12. The Committee on the Rights of the Child considers that, while both articles are strongly linked, they articulate different rights and should not be confused. Article 12 relates to the right of expression of views specifically about matters which affect the child, and the right to be involved in actions and decisions that have an impact on the child’s life. This provision imposes an obligation on States parties to adopt appropriate measures to facilitate the active involvement of children in all decisions and processes affecting them, and to fulfil the obligation to give due weight to those views, while freedom of expression requires no such engagement or response from States parties. The Committee considers, however, that the creation of an enabling environment for children to express their views freely also contributes to building children’s capacities to exercise their right to freedom of expression (see CRC/C/GC/12, para. 81).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "C. Article 12: the right of children to express their views freely and to have their views given due weight"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "12", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CRC", "article": "12", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0029", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Another interesting aspect of article 12 relevant to freedom of expression is the emphasis on participation. Although the term is not found in the article, the Committee on the Rights of the Child has stated on various occasions that children’s participation in society enables them to be heard, to be informed about public affairs and to play a role in the life of their country (see, for example, CRC/C/SR.379, para. 55). Participation should be encouraged within the family, at school and in society at large; it should concern political, social, economic and cultural life; and it should happen through existing institutions and through the creation of children-specific bodies. The rationale behind encouraging the children’s participatory rights is to facilitate their development, given that children cannot be expected to mature into full members of society if they lack the experience of participating in school and community life (see, for example, CRC/C/SR.277, para. 50).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "C. Article 12: the right of children to express their views freely and to have their views given due weight"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "12", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0030", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Article 17 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child deals with the right of the child to have access to information, and addresses the role of the State in encouraging the mass media to provide such information. The provision aims to ensure that the child has access to information and material from a diversity of national and international sources, in particular those aimed at the promotion of his or her well-being and health. It also recognizes the important function performed by the mass media and lists a number of measures that States parties need to adopt to implement the child’s rights under article 17. These include a positive right to seek and access information, notably through books, magazines, newspapers, television, radio programmes and libraries.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "D. Article 17: the child’s right to have access to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CRC", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0031", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. States parties are required under article 17 (e) to develop appropriate guidelines for the protection of the child from information and material injurious to his or her well-being. Accordingly, although children should be given access to an increasing range of material as they mature, depending on their evolving capacities, they should also be protected from material that is likely to be harmful to their development. The Committee’s jurisprudence has not provided a comprehensive definition of “harmful and injurious material”, except in general references to violent, racist or pornographic material.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "D. Article 17: the child’s right to have access to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0032", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. This right is closely related to the right to seek information set out in article 13 of the Convention, since its exercise aims to enable children to inform themselves and thus be able to participate in social life. The Committee on the Rights of the Child has noted that the fulfilment of this right also constitutes a prerequisite for the effective exercise of the right to be heard (art. 12). The Committee has clarified that children need access to information in formats appropriate to their age and capacities on all issues of concern to them, for example information relating to their rights, any proceedings affecting them, national legislation, regulations and policies, local services, and appeals and complaints procedures.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "D. Article 17: the child’s right to have access to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "12", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0033", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The Committee has also observed that the media play an important role both in promoting awareness of the rights of children to express their views and in providing opportunities for the expression of such views (see CRC/C/GC/12, para. 83). Other duties of the media under this provision include: providing access to different sources of information; portraying the positive contribution of young people to society; disseminating information on the existence of services, facilities and opportunities for children; promoting egalitarian principles and roles; and minimizing the level of pornography, drugs and violence portrayed (see General Assembly resolution 45/112, annex).", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "D. Article 17: the child’s right to have access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0034", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Children face particular hurdles to the realization of their right to freedom of expression as a result of entrenched paternalistic attitudes that often overstate the risks of allowing children to communicate freely and underestimate their agency. In addition, the rights of children are also affected by all the barriers hampering the freedom of expression of adults.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0035", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The Committee on the Rights of the Child has commented to numerous States that traditional attitudes towards children in all spheres, including the home, school and society in general, continue to delay the acceptance of children’s right to express themselves freely (see, for example, CRC/C/SGP/CO/2-3, para. 33, and CRC/C/ECU/CO/4, para. 40). Obstacles to the freedom of expression of children are particularly prevalent in settings in which the power of adults over children remains unquestioned. Educational settings highlight with particular clarity some of the tensions between the recognition of children as human beings with rights, views and feelings of their own on the one hand, and paternalistic perceptions of them on the other.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0036", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. In paragraph 8 of its general comment No. 1, on the aims of education, the Committee on the Rights of the Child stated:\nChildren do not lose their human rights by virtue of passing through the school gates. Thus, for example, education must be provided in a way that respects the inherent dignity of the child and enables the child to express his or her views freely in accordance with article 12 (1) and to participate in school life.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "12", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0037", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. In many countries, however, children are denied the right to express themselves freely because of the idea that education serves as a tool for adults to mould children into predetermined shapes. This is evident in the prevalence of authoritarian school environments and teaching methods that, for instance, often preclude students from expressing their views on how their school is run (see CRC/C/KOR/CO/3-4, para. 40). In some places, rote learning continues to be the norm rather than participatory methods of teaching that encourage children to develop and express their views (CRC/C/15/Add.148, para. 39).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0038", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Many schools do not permit students to organize and express political or controversial views. The 1969 case Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District is perhaps the first important case on the protection of children’s freedom of expression. In December 1965, three school students (aged 13, 15 and 16) planned to wear black armbands with peace symbols to school in protest at the Vietnam War. When their local school administration heard of the planned protest, they banned armbands in school and suspended the students involved. The students appealed to the courts with support from the American Civil Liberties Union and their appeal was upheld, in 1969, by the Supreme Court of the United States of America.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0039", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Judicial systems often play a significant role in altering engrained authoritarian practices. There are as yet few examples of court decisions affirming children’s right to freedom of expression and access to information. However, there is a growing number of examples within educational settings, especially in the United States. For example, a student at a Florida high school was banned from wearing any symbol of support for gay rights at school because the principal believed that any symbol featuring rainbows would make students picture gay people having sex. In a decision quoting the Tinker case mentioned above, a federal judge ruled in May 2008 that the school had violated the students’ rights.[[fn:9]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "American Civil Liberties Union, “Federal judge rules that students can’t be barred from expressing support for gay people” (13 May 2008)."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0040", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Student-run publications are another important means by which students can express their views. They provide a source of support because they contain reports on topics that are of concern to young people and that adults may not feel comfortable discussing. Students’ writing has, however, been censored for covering issues such as teenage pregnancy and the effects of parental divorce. Increasingly, students’ posts on social media are also under scrutiny and, in some cases, children have been expelled for posting criticism of their school.", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0041", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Children’s access to cultural activities may also be censored without justification. In the 1993 case Dunduzu Chisiza Jr. v. Minister Kate Kainja, a judge in Malawi upheld the complaint of an actor who had challenged a ban on all plays and other performances by independent groups in public schools as violating freedom of expression.[[fn:10]] There are also reports of some schools banning music lessons for religious reasons.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See Article 19, “Kid’s talk: freedom of expression and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child” (1999)."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0042", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Restrictions on the content of school curricula may also affect children’s access to diverse sources of information. In this regard, the banning of books and teaching materials containing ideas that run counter to those supported by the school administration is another concern. In the 1982 case Board of Education v. Pico, for example, a court in the United States ruled that books could not be removed from school libraries for ideological reasons.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0043", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. In addition to banning information outright, some school curricula present biased accounts of history or prejudiced views of certain groups, such as girls, sexual or ethnic minorities or children with disabilities, which can negatively affect children’s freedom to form their own views and instead perpetuate discrimination — a situation raised by various United Nations treaty bodies in their recommendations to States.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0044", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. This issue has also been addressed by the European Committee of Social Rights, which in 2009 found that the Croatian school curriculum covering sex education discriminated on the basis of sexual orientation. The Committee asserted that some statements in the curriculum stigmatized homosexuals and were based upon negative, distorted, reprehensible and degrading stereotypes.[[fn:11]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "International Centre for the Legal Protection of Human Rights v. Croatia."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0045", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. The effects of limits on children’s right to freedom of expression spill out of the school gates into public life. Children, just as adults, may be subject to excessive violence or arbitrary detention for expressing political views. For example, the Committee on the Rights of the Child recently highlighted such violations to the Syrian Arab Republic in relation to the arrest and incommunicado detention of a group of children between 8 and 15 years of age accused of painting anti-government graffiti on a school wall in the southern town of Dara'a (see CRC/C/SYR/CO/3-4, para. 46). It also expressed its concern to Belarus about the detention of adolescents during demonstrations held in the context of presidential elections in December 2010 (see CRC/C/BLR/CO/3-4, para. 35).", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0046", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Disproportionate legal restrictions interfere with the rights of both adults and children. This includes legislation containing vaguely worded limitation clauses citing, for example, the requirement to interpret freedom of expression in the light of “Islamic principles” or excessively wide interpretations of risks to security, which could exceed the restrictions set out in articles 13, paragraph 2, and 15 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (see CRC/C/15/Add.254, para. 40, and CRC/C/PRK/CO/4, paras. 27-28).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0047", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Undue restrictions on the child’s right to peaceful assembly mirror some of the common obstacles to their freedom of expression. In a recent report, the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association noted:\nThere may be safety concerns when young people participate in some public demonstrations. However, … laws such as that of Malaysia [where children under 15 years of age cannot participate in a public demonstration] are not tailored narrowly enough to specifically address that concern. Rather, a blanket ban on individuals of a certain age eliminates the right to participate in peaceful public assemblies for an entire portion of the population, without exception, contrary to article 15 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. (See A/HRC/26/29, para. 24.)", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "15", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0048", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. In some domains, there may be legitimate and understandable concerns for children’s safety and well-being in gaining access to some types of information. For example, many countries regulate broadcasting, and television in particular, with a view, among other things, to protecting children. National regulations often include some kind of watershed system, for example, and establish independent bodies to enforce that system. Content generally considered unsuitable for children includes sexually explicit content, violence and offensive language. Regulations can, however, have a significant impact on freedom of the media. Moreover, the definition of what constitutes harmful information is subjective. Accordingly, any regulations aimed at protecting children and the mechanisms adopted to enforce them should be reviewed regularly, in an open and transparent way, in order to prevent the imposition of disproportionate or arbitrary restrictions that curtail the rights of both adults and children. Furthermore, it is crucial to ensure the independence of the bodies tasked with enforcing these regulations — rules regarding membership, for example, should be defined so as to protect them against any interference, in particular by political forces or economic interests.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Child protection used as a justification for disproportionate restrictions on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0049", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The result of vague and broad definitions of harmful information, for example in determining how to set Internet filters, can prevent children from gaining access to information that can support them to make informed choices, including honest, objective and age-appropriate information about issues such as sex education and drug use. This may exacerbate rather than diminish children’s vulnerability to risks (see more in section VII below, on the Internet).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Child protection used as a justification for disproportionate restrictions on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0050", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. The imposition of prior censorship to protect children from harmful material provides an example of disproportionate restrictions that run counter to international human rights standards. For instance, in the case The Last Temptation of Christ (Olmedo Bustos et al) v. Chile, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruled that the Government of Chile had violated article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights, on freedom of thought and expression, in banning Martin Scorsese’s film The Last Temptation of Christ in order to protect the morals of children. The Court reasoned that children could easily be protected by adopting less restrictive measures than prior censorship, such as controlling their entrance to cinemas.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Child protection used as a justification for disproportionate restrictions on freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "13", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights, on freedom of thought and expression'. Regional instrument outside the allowed list."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0051", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. In a more recent case on prior censorship (Print Media South Africa and Another v. Minister of Home Affairs and Another), the High Court of South Africa declared that an amendment to the South African Films and Publications Act (No. 65 of 1996) infringed the constitutional right to freedom of expression. The amendment required publishers, with some exceptions, to submit publications for prior approval to prevent the exposure of children to age-inappropriate material and to ban child pornography. The decision indicated concerns about a system of prior restraint and the vague and overly broad criteria for classifying publications.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Child protection used as a justification for disproportionate restrictions on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0052", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Child protection arguments are part of a new pattern in which children are increasingly used to justify restrictions not only on their access to information, but also on the rights of adults. In many cases, the restrictions are rooted in a genuine, well-meaning desire to protect children from harmful information, while in others they have been used to defend discrimination and censorship.", "labels": ["Children", "Children in alternative care"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Child protection used as a justification for disproportionate restrictions on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0053", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Most disturbingly, child protection arguments are being used to block access to information on, for example, lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender issues and thereby legitimize discrimination against sexual minorities. In the Russian Federation, amendments to the administrative code and law protecting children from harmful information entered into force in July 2013, outlawing “propaganda of non-traditional sexual relations” among children.[[fn:12]] The Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association publicly expressed concern about that law in a joint statement with other mandate holders. The child protection rationale for the Russian anti-homosexuality law has also been rejected by the European Court of Human Rights in its 2011 case Alekseyev v. Russia. Despite the criticism, other countries have followed suit. In Ukraine, in 2013, it was recommended that a draft law prohibiting “propaganda of homosexual relations” aimed at children be considered by the parliament.[[fn:13]] In the draft law “propaganda” is defined as any public action aimed at spreading information about same-sex relations. In June 2014, the human rights committee of the parliament of Kyrgyzstan approved a bill criminalizing the dissemination of information “aimed at forming positive attitudes towards non-traditional sexual relations”.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Children in alternative care"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Child protection used as a justification for disproportionate restrictions on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "See Russian Federation Federal Law No. 135-FЗ (29 July 2013)."}, {"n": 13, "text": "See draft law No. 1155 on the prohibition of propaganda of homosexual relations aimed at children (June 2011)."}, {"n": 14, "text": "See draft law on the protection of children from information harmful to their health or development (2014)."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0054", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Besides protecting the right of children to freedom of expression, States are also obliged to promote children’s freedom of expression. It is not sufficient to encourage children’s participation in activities organized by adults such as music, art and drama to guarantee their freedom of expression. Children should have satisfactory opportunities and space to articulate their views orally or by other means, without fear of punishment, and have access to information from diverse sources and across borders — and this applies to all children without discrimination. This positive obligation should also be kept in mind during times of economic crisis, when funds for public libraries, activities such as music lessons and facilities such as playing fields are often among the first to get cut. Some examples of how children’s freedom of expression can be actively promoted are listed below.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0055", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Increasingly, structures are available to children to participate in politics — from youth mayorships to children’s parliaments. In Iceland, following the financial crisis, it was agreed that civilians would rewrite the Constitution in 2008. As part of this, the Young People’s Constitution Project was established to ensure that the opinions of children and young people were also taken into account in the constitutional amendment process. In the Dominican Republic, municipal councils dealing with issues such as the provision of safe drinking water in schools are formed and elected by young people.", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "A. Encouraging children’s freedom to organize and participate in politics"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0056", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. The engagement of a new generation of children in politics is beneficial for renewing political culture and increasing participation in elections. Some countries have lowered the minimum voting age to 16 years — a positive start that serves to officially legitimize children’s views and encourage their participation in politics. Children of all ages should have the opportunity to be involved, if so they choose, in political processes and consultations on public policy in some way.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "A. Encouraging children’s freedom to organize and participate in politics"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0057", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Campaigns initiated by children have generated important debates and brought benefits to society as a whole. Student unions often play a central role in articulating child-led advocacy initiatives: in 2011, for example, thousands of secondary school and university students in Chile protested against the exorbitant costs of education. The political impact of their mobilization continues to be felt in the ongoing debates on the Chilean education system. Similar student protests against the costs of education have occurred in multiple countries.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "B. Encouraging child-led advocacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0058", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. In the Republic of Korea, high school students have promoted a major social mobilization against authoritarian practices within the education system. As a result of the public debate generated by the students, in January 2012, the Seoul Metropolitan Council adopted a students’ rights ordinance ensuring, inter alia, the right of students to protest, a ban on corporal punishment, the elimination of mandatory participation in religious activities and the protection of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students and pregnant students against discrimination. Action for Youth Rights of Korea, an association established by Korean students in the context of this mobilization, continues to promote student activism.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "B. Encouraging child-led advocacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0059", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. A 13-year-old from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland took a stand against his school’s discriminatory dress code, which allows girls to wear skirts in the summer months but does not allow boys to wear shorts. Chris Whitehead took advantage of a loophole in the school’s uniform policy, whereby boys are not forbidden from wearing a skirt. Around 30 fellow pupils joined the protest, prompting the school to review its uniform policy. Meanwhile, Chris Whitehead was nominated for a Liberty Human Rights Award.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "B. Encouraging child-led advocacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "Lucy Sherrif, “Chris Whitehead, schoolboy who wore skirt to school, up for human rights award”, Huffington Post (21 November 2011)."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0060", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. In India, members of the Adolescent Girls’ Clubs against Child Marriage network help to persuade families not to marry their daughters off at a young age by educating people about the harmful consequences of early marriage. They offer a lifeline not only to girls who want to resist family pressure, but also to parents afraid that going against gender-based expectations will leave their daughters ostracized.[[fn:16]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "B. Encouraging child-led advocacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Melanie Kramers, “Indian girls persuade parents they are too young for marriage”, Guardian, 29 June 2011."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0061", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. For children to be able to form their own views and become informed and responsible citizens, they also need to have access to information from a range of sources. This access is limited for many children, in particular for those living in isolated communities and those deprived of their liberty. The Committee on the Rights of the Child has also raised the issue of accessibility of information for minority groups, which may not be sufficiently relevant to their needs or in their own language, and for children with disabilities.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "C. Ensuring access to information from a range of sources"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0062", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. In recommendations arising from its day of general discussion on “The child and the media”, the Committee affirmed the importance of budgetary support from the State to ensure the production and dissemination of books, magazines, music, theatre and other forms of expression for children, and of assistance through international cooperation (CRC/C/15/Add.65, para. 256). Investments in community and public broadcasting often play a central role in the promotion of access to information from a diversity of sources and in the inclusion of children’s voices in the media. In Argentina, for example, the Law on Communication and Audiovisual Services establishes the obligation for public broadcasting entities to dedicate programming time to children and other sectors of the population not contemplated by commercial broadcasting. The public entity tasked with overseeing the implementation of the law promotes public hearings, including with children, to discuss communication and audiovisual services. It has also recently supported the promotion of radio activities led by students within their own schools. Moreover, the Ministry of Education of Argentina has supported the establishment of a channel aimed at promoting child-sensitive educational programming, including through the active participation of children in the production of the content.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "C. Ensuring access to information from a range of sources"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0063", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. In addition to providing budgetary support, States can encourage media organizations to self-regulate the way in which they cover and involve children. The International Federation of Journalists has devised a set of draft guidelines and principles for reporting on issues involving children that have been adopted by journalism organizations in 70 countries. They include provisions on avoiding the use of stereotypes and the sensational presentation of stories involving children.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "D. Promoting media self-regulation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0064", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Children also have participatory rights in the media, and some publications are run entirely by children. In its recommendations arising from the above-mentioned day of general discussion, the Committee on the Rights of the Child promoted children’s participatory rights in the media, asserting that students should be enabled to relate to and use the media in a participatory manner, as well as to learn how to decode media messages, including advertising (CRC/C/15/Add.65, para. 256).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "D. Promoting media self-regulation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0065", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. The Internet has dramatically improved the ability of children and adults in all regions of the world to communicate quickly and cheaply. It is therefore an important vehicle for children to exercise their right to freedom of expression and can serve as a tool to help children claim their other rights, including the right to education, freedom of association and full participation in social, cultural and political life. It is also essential for the evolution of an open and democratic society, which requires the engagement of all citizens, including children. The potential risks associated with children accessing the Internet, however, also feature prominently in debates about its regulation, with protection policies tending to focus exclusively on the risks posed by the Internet and neglecting its potential to empower children. More worryingly, some States resort to disproportionate and ineffective measures, whether out of a genuine desire to protect children or as a front for censorship, such as broad and insensitive filtering and blocking systems that undermine online communication for all.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0066", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The spread of the Internet has allowed millions of people to learn, publish and communicate on an unprecedented scale. The Internet can provide great educational benefits through its potential for interactive use in schools and the wide array of information it makes available. Plan Ceibal in Uruguay, for example, is a remarkable example of promoting Internet access through the education system. More specifically, as suggested by the Committee on the Rights of the Child, the Internet plays an important role in education owing to its ability to provide education for children who cannot travel to schools, through mobile school programmes that rely on the Internet (see CRC/C/GC/11, para. 61).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0067", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Furthermore, the Internet provides unique avenues for young people to participate in public debates. For example, in the United States a 17-year-old boy reportedly organized a Twitter campaign to protest against a bill that would have banned teachers from discussing homosexuality in schools.[[fn:17]]", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Shira Lazar, “Is it okay to say gay? Devon Hicks protests Tennessee bill”, Huffington Post, 25 May 2011."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0068", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Social networking sites are also increasingly important to children as a means of fostering relationships and facilitating information exchange and interaction.[[fn:18]] Children report that social networking encourages creativity, enables choices and opinions to be informed by peer preferences, facilitates discussion and provides a platform for self-expression that is unavailable offline.[[fn:19]] These sites may serve an especially important role for members of minority groups, such as the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender community, who might otherwise feel isolated.18", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, Child Safety Online: Global Challenges and Strategies (May 2012)."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre, Understanding Online Social Network Services and Risks to Youth: Stakeholder Perspectives (2006)."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0069", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Nevertheless, Internet use does pose some risks to children. Widely acknowledged risks associated with Internet use include exposure to pornographic material, cybergrooming and cyberbullying.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0070", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. In the case of sexual exploitation, for example, advances in technology, including faster Internet connections and new ways of transmitting material that circumvent Internet service providers, have facilitated the sharing of images involving child abuse. Cybergrooming also involves the use of the Internet, this time to “befriend” and facilitate online sexual contact or a physical meeting with a child or young person for the purpose of committing sexual abuse.18 Offenders often use online forums such as chat rooms, social networking sites and instant messaging for this purpose; these “deconstruct traditional boundaries of privacy” and result in children being exposed to risks.18 Lastly, cyberbullying is understood as the psychological bullying and hazing by adults or other children through information and communications technologies. Cyberbullying can take various forms, including threats and intimidation, harassment, cyberstalking, vilification and defamation, exclusion or peer rejection, impersonation, unauthorized publication of private information or images, and manipulation. This is particularly problematic for groups that are already considered vulnerable in society.18", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0071", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. The popular fear that the Internet is dangerous to all children is misleading and oversimplifies the reality that the Internet can be both harmful and beneficial in certain circumstances. Understanding children’s vulnerability to online risks from a wider social and cultural perspective can give greater insight into the nature of these concerns and how they should be framed. Children’s use of the Internet, their behaviour and vulnerabilities to risks are different at different ages and depend on the individual child. Protection measures must seek to recognize the evolving capacities of children rather than use absolute blocking or censorship measures that adversely affect children and adults alike.18", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet", "A. Concerns regarding the adoption of disproportionate restrictions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0072", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. The Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association has previously noted with concern the increase in restrictions on the Internet, for instance by blocking and monitoring online activities in order to target and silence activists and critics and criminalize legitimate expression — in some cases, Governments have adopted restrictive legislation to justify such measures (see A/HRC/17/27, para. 23). These restrictions are often imposed without transparency, which makes the reporting of censorship issues difficult. Furthermore, even where some level of restriction may be justified, blanket bans on material beyond unlawful content are disproportionate to the goal of protection (ibid., para. 44). Indeed, such measures also have unintended consequences that range from excessively limiting adults’ right to freedom of expression to putting children in greater danger by inhibiting discussion about online risks.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet", "A. Concerns regarding the adoption of disproportionate restrictions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0073", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. The Special Rapporteur has pointed out that blanket bans by State actors are not necessary when parents and school authorities can use software to control children’s access to the Internet and can guide children regarding online safety (see A/HRC/17/27, para. 27). In fact, such broad bans determined by State actors are inconsistent with article 18 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child because they prevent parents and caregivers from exercising their judgement to determine children’s access to the Internet. In addition, there are some projects under way to assist content providers with self-regulation strategies.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet", "A. Concerns regarding the adoption of disproportionate restrictions"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "18", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0074", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. The limited understanding of children’s use of the Internet frequently leads to the adoption of more restrictive approaches aimed at safeguarding children.[[fn:20]] In fact, the vast majority of children and young people do not believe that their online behaviour leads to victimization or harm. Children already use a range of strategies to protect themselves from the Internet, including consulting online or offline friends, blocking or ignoring unwanted content and changing privacy settings.18 Research reveals that, when parents and teachers are less familiar with the Internet, children engage in more risky online behaviour.20 Conversely, evidence also suggests that informed and actively engaged parents who discuss the Internet and their experience with their children are the strongest protective measures for ensuring a safer online experience.18 Perhaps this suggests that measures taken by parents and caregivers are more effective at protecting children than the current trend towards extensive restrictions.", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet", "A. Concerns regarding the adoption of disproportionate restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "Sonia Livingstone and Monica E. Bulger, “A global agenda for children’s rights in the digital age: recommendations for developing UNICEF’s research strategy” (September 2013)."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0075", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. There is a need to create an environment in which information and communications technologies, including the Internet, are regulated and monitored from the perspective of empowering children to use these technologies in a way that promotes children’s rights and development while also promoting safety (see CRC/C/GC/13). The European Commission provides a useful example of strategies to improve the online safety of children in its European Strategy for a Better Internet for Children.[[fn:21]] Empowerment is more than just making the Internet a safer space for children, however: it is also necessary to focus attention on how the Internet is a tool for accessing information and supporting children to think critically.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet", "B. Empowering children to use the Internet"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "See also Brian O’Neill, “Policy influences and country clusters: a comparative analysis of Internet safety policy implementation” (London School of Economics, 2014)."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0076", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. Empowering children must include training parents and professionals who work with children to support them in using the Internet, keeping in mind their evolving capacities.18 A positive way to introduce online safety and information beneficial to the development of children is through school curricula, including by involving children in the development of school policies on information and communications technologies. Non-governmental organizations and public communications such as radio messages can provide similar support to children who are not in school.16 Some examples of child safety initiatives are SaferNet Brasil, the Slovak Safer Internet Centre and Manos por la Niñez y Adolescencia (Hands for Children and Adolescents) in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet", "B. Empowering children to use the Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0077", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. It is important to engage children when creating Internet protection and promotion strategies to meet their needs and to use their diverse intellectual and creative strengths, especially given that children and young persons tend to be more in touch with the latest technologies. Such a strategy of engagement can also help to build trust and encourage open communication. The Committee on the Rights of the Child has recommended that all countries establish accessible and child-friendly reporting systems, with child-friendly helplines for protection (see CRC/C/GC/12, para. 120).", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet", "B. Empowering children to use the Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0078", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. More research is needed to clarify the role of the Internet in the exercise of the rights of the child, in particular with regard to how children use the Internet, how they can learn to do so safely and how the Internet can be viewed as a positive rather than a destructive tool by parents, caregivers and States. It is also important that current restrictions on Internet use be looked at carefully and critically in order to uncover potentially negative consequences for children and adults, encourage practical solutions to Internet safety concerns and maximize opportunities for children on the Internet.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet", "C. Expanding research"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0079", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. Children’s right to freedom of expression is well established by international human rights treaties, including the Convention on the Rights of the Child, which represents a milestone for the protection of all children’s rights. In practice, recognizing children as full subjects of rights — the vision set out in the Convention — requires a shift in laws, policies and attitudes. Respecting, protecting and promoting the right of children to freedom of expression is at the heart of this shift.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0080", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights establish the right to freedom of opinion and expression in their articles 19, but do not state that this right is enjoyed exclusively by adults. In fact, in the preamble to the Covenant it is established that, in accordance with the principles proclaimed in the Charter of the United Nations, recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world. Also in the preamble, it is recognized that these rights derive from the dignity inherent to all persons.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "medium", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'their articles 19' referring jointly to UDHR and ICCPR. Sonnet resolved as ICCPR (medium) since regex_default=ICCPR and context (SR Freedom of Expression, ICCPR-based mandate, references to 'the Covenant' in surrounding text) supports ICCPR. Conservative keep."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0081", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. Despite the almost universal ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, too little has been done to give effect to the right of children to freedom of expression and many obstacles to the realization of this right for children remain. Unchallenged authoritarian attitudes frequently shape the relationship between adults and children in schools and within families. More worryingly, as communications technologies evolve, some States have adopted disproportionate restrictions on freedom of expression, presenting them as measures to protect children from harm while, in effect, they limit the rights of children and adults.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0082", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. It is clear that States have a fundamental obligation to protect children and that it is the duty of adults to provide children with guidance. Child protection and freedom of expression must not, however, be addressed as opposing goals. On the contrary, it is by supporting children to develop good communication skills and to learn the positive uses of new technologies that we can enhance their capacity to protect themselves from harm.", "labels": ["Children", "Children in alternative care"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0083", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Children may not have the same maturity as adults, but childhood is an evolving process during which maturity is gained gradually. The ability to develop opinions, as well as to express them clearly, stems from a learning process that begins at the earliest stages of our lives and that needs appropriate respect and encouragement to develop completely. If neglecting the duty to protect children from harm brings serious risks, so too does denying them space to develop their minds, critical thinking and opinions. Depriving children of information on certain matters and prohibiting their participation in public debate can only intensify their isolation and political alienation. Ensuring that children are able to exercise their right to be heard is not only an obligation: it is crucial to enhancing the effectiveness of protective measures.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0084", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. States must never forget to keep the goal of the best interest of the child at the forefront of all their public policies. This includes establishing regulatory norms to protect children from harm and, at the same time, ensuring that all norms comply with the international standards related to the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0085", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. The Special Rapporteur recommends that States take the actions set out below.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0086", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. States should revise national laws, regulations and policies that limit the right of children to express themselves, as well as to access information, to align them with international human rights standards. Any law limiting the freedom of expression of adults or children must also comply with the three established criteria for restricting this right, namely, prescription by an unambiguous law, pursuit of a legitimate purpose and respect for the principles of necessity and proportionality.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "Revise laws, regulations and policies in order to eliminate undue restrictions on freedom of expression of children"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0087", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. States should carefully revise laws and regulations concerning the protection of children in broadcasting activities, the Internet and any other media. Classification systems are acceptable for the protection of children in broadcasting activities, for example, but the prior suppression of any particular expression before it is made public is unacceptable. The independence of authorities mandated to enforce regulations on communications should be protected from political and economic interference.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "Revise laws, regulations and policies in order to eliminate undue restrictions on freedom of expression of children"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0088", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. States should pay particular attention to the removal of authoritarian norms and practices within education systems given the centrality of schools in the promotion of children’s agency.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "Revise laws, regulations and policies in order to eliminate undue restrictions on freedom of expression of children"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0089", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. States should actively promote the right of children to freedom of expression, including access to information, in all settings. Traditional authoritarian attitudes towards children in all spheres, including the home, school and society in general, can be challenged. In particular, the State should pay attention to the creation of channels for child-led activism.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "Promote the right of children to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0090", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. States should encourage the use of diverse forms of communication by children in schools, including oral, written and all forms of art. Schools curricula should impart knowledge on social communications, media and journalism.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "Promote the right of children to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0091", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. States should promote programming with educational and recreational content for children of different ages and with content produced by children.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "Promote the right of children to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0092", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. States should take proactive measures to promote children’s access to the Internet in all settings. The Internet’s central role in the promotion of all the rights of children, in particular the right to freedom of expression, to participation in public life and to education, should be taken into consideration within education systems. Efforts should be made to reframe the Internet as a positive resource — with benefits for both the individual child and society as a whole — as opposed to a negative or otherwise dangerous medium. For example, the Internet is an excellent tool for accessing books for children from all social origins.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "Promote access to the Internet and online safety"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0093", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. States should address the risks posed by the Internet to the safety of children through holistic strategies that include the enhancement of users’ capacities to protect themselves from online harm. Strategies should include training parents and professionals who work with children. Children should be actively engaged in the design and implementation of initiatives aimed at fostering online safety. Further research on the impact of the Internet on children’s lives is also required.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "Promote access to the Internet and online safety"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0094", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. Regular attention to violations of the right of children to freedom of expression should be paid by all international human rights protection mechanisms. In particular, the Committee on the Rights of the Child could pursue articles 13 and 17 systematically in its recommendations to States.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "Increase global attention to the right of children to freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0001", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report is submitted by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 16/4. It is focused on the right to access information and its relationship with the right to truth.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0002", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Global and regional human rights standards secure not only the right freely to impart information but also the right freely to seek and receive it as part of freedom of expression. The right to access information is one of the central components of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, as established by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (art. 19), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (art. 19 (2)) and regional human rights treaties.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text lists 'Universal Declaration of Human Rights (art. 19)' first (paragraph null) — corresponds to the UDHR citation, non-treaty."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (art. 19 (2))' — explicit ICCPR art.19(2)."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0003", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. Obstacles to access to information can undermine the enjoyment of both civil and political rights, in addition to economic, social and cultural rights. Core requirements for democratic governance, such as transparency, the accountability of public authorities or the promotion of participatory decision-making processes, are practically unattainable without adequate access to information. Combating and responding to corruption, for example, require the adoption of procedures and regulations that allow members of the public to obtain information on the organization, functioning and decision-making processes of its public administration.[[fn:1]] In this sense, global commitments to promote development also reflect the centrality of access to information; for example, in its recent report (A/67/890, annex), the High-level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post-2015 Development Agenda calls for a transparency revolution.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See, for example, article 10 of the United Nations Convention against Corruption (General Assembly resolution 58/4, annex)."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0004", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. National legal frameworks increasingly reflect this understanding and protect this right by establishing the right to government-held information, as well as procedures for the public to request and receive it. Over the past two decades, new instruments protecting the right to information have been adopted in more than 50 countries. This trend has often been a consequence of recent democratic transitions and certainly responds to the much more active participation of civil society organizations in public life around the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0005", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. In the present report, particular attention is paid to the relationship between the right to access information and the right to truth. Elucidating past and present human rights violations often requires the disclosure of information held by a multitude of State entities. Ultimately, ensuring access to information is a first step in the promotion of justice and reparation, in particular in the aftermath of periods of authoritarianism. In the sections below, the Special Rapporteur describes how the rights to truth and to access information have been established through international human rights law and jurisprudence. Based on this same framework, he also addresses permissible limitations to the right to access information, including limitations aimed at the protection of national security.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0006", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. In addition, in view of recent experience with national legislation on the right to information, the Special Rapporteur recalls basic principles developed to guide the design and implementation of national laws on the right to information and examines some common obstacles to the public’s access to information. He concludes by providing recommendations for the better translation of international human rights standards into the emerging norms and practices that promote access to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "10", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0007", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. During the reporting period, the Special Rapporteur continued to participate in national and international events relating to the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In June 2013, he presented his annual report to the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/23/40 and Corr.1), in which he addressed the impact of mass surveillance of communications on the rights to privacy and freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0008", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Montenegro from 11 to 17 June and a mission to the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia from 18 to 21 June. His preliminary findings on both visits are available in the end-of-mission press statements; a full report will be submitted to the Human Rights Council in 2014. The Special Rapporteur was invited by the Government of Indonesia to visit that country in January 2013 but, only a few days before its agreed start, the authorities requested that the visit should be postponed. The Special Rapporteur regrets that, at the time of preparation of the present report, he has not received a response to his request for new dates. In 2011, the Government of Pakistan also extended an invitation to visit the country but dates for the visit have still not been agreed upon. The Government of Italy has invited the Special Rapporteur to visit the country in the first half of November 2013.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0009", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. At the time of submission of the present report, the following States had not yet responded to requests for visits by the Special Rapporteur: Iran (Islamic Republic of) (visit requested in February 2010); Sri Lanka (visit requested in June 2009); Thailand (visit requested in 2012); Uganda (visit requested in May 2011); and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) (visit requested in 2003 and in 2009).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0010", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. In May, the Special Rapporteur participated in the World Press Freedom Day International Conference 2013, held in San José, and used the occasion to hold working meetings on mechanisms for the protection of journalists in Brazil, Colombia, Honduras and Mexico. Also in May, he visited Uruguay to participate in discussions on the new legislation on audiovisual services. In July, the Special Rapporteur participated in a public forum organized by the New America Foundation in Washington, D.C., at which the impact of State surveillance of communications was discussed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0011", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. For the purpose of the present report, the Special Rapporteur reviewed relevant studies and consulted experts on the right to access information and the right to truth. The Special Rapporteur organized two expert consultations focusing on the interrelationships between the right to access information and the right to truth. The first was held in Washington, D.C., in May and the second in Mexico City in July. In May, the Special Rapporteur participated in an expert meeting on the right to information and national security, convened in Pretoria by the Open Society Justice Initiative; the meeting resulted in the presentation of the Global Principles on National Security and the Right to Information.[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Available from www.opensocietyfoundations.org/publications/global-principles-national-security-and-freedom-information-tshwane-principles."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0012", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Historically, in particular in countries that have experienced situations of serious and systematic human rights violations, lack of access to information and, often, the circulation of misinformation, have been central issues for subsequent governments and society as a whole when seeking to address the past and constitute an important challenge in the transitional justice process. Over the years, especially following the transition to democracy experienced by countries in Latin America and Eastern Europe in the 1980s and 1990s, the right to the truth has been recognized in a number of forums and documents as a distinct right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "A. Right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0013", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. In 2011, in establishing a specific mandate to monitor the promotion of truth, justice, reparation and guarantees of non-recurrence, the Human Rights Council emphasized the importance of a comprehensive approach incorporating the full range of judicial and non-judicial measures in order to, among other things, ensure accountability, serve justice, provide remedies to victims, and promote healing and reconciliation (Human Rights Council resolution 18/7).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "A. Right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0014", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. At the national level, the right to truth can be characterized as the right to know, to be informed or to freedom of information. In resolution 12/12, its most recent on the right to truth, the Human Rights Council emphasized that the public and individuals were entitled to have access, to the fullest extent practicable, to information regarding the actions and decision-making processes of their Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "A. Right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0015", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. International human rights bodies and mechanisms have recognized and developed the right to truth as a distinct right. Principle 4 of the updated set of principles for the protection and promotion of human rights through action to combat impunity (E/CN.4/2005/102/Add.1) notes the existence of the right to know the truth, irrespective of any legal proceedings. Both the Inter-American Court of Human Rights and the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights have noted the importance of this right, separately from judicial proceedings. The Inter-American Commission has stated that the right to know the truth is a collective right which ensures society access to information that is essential for the workings of democratic systems, and is also a private right for relatives of the victims, which affords a form of compensation, in particular, in cases in which amnesty laws are adopted.[[fn:3]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "A. Right to truth"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Lucio Parada Cea and others v. El Salvador, Report No. 1/99, Case 10.480, 27 January 1999, para. 151."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0016", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The European Court of Human Rights has also recognized the importance of the right of victims and families to know the truth, in particular with regard to circumstances or events relating to serious violations of fundamental rights, such as the right to life.[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "A. Right to truth"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Association “21 December 1989” and others v. Romania, Applications Nos. 33810/07 and 18817/08, Judgement of 24 May 2011, para. 135, and Janowiec and others v. Russia, Applications Nos. 55508/07 and 29520/09, Judgement of 16 April 2012, paras. 150-167."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0017", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Although the jurisprudence of the right to truth generally relates to situations in which there has been a failure to ensure justice and reparations, the right to truth is closely associated with the right to access information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "A. Right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0018", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The right to seek and receive information is an essential element of the right to freedom of expression. It is, as noted in a previous report of the Special Rapporteur, a right in and of itself and one of the rights upon which free and democratic societies depend (E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 42). Accordingly, the Special Rapporteur has, since the establishment of the mandate, carried out a number of studies regarding certain aspects of its implementation (see, for example, E/CN.4/1999/64, E/CN.4/2000/63, E/CN.4/2003/67, E/CN.4/2005/64 and Corr.1, A/HRC/11/4 and A/HRC/17/27). In more recent reports, the Special Rapporteur has focused on rights and limitations regarding access to the Internet, which are in numerous respects closely linked to the right to seek and receive information (A/HRC/17/27, sects. II to VI, and A/66/290, sects. III to V).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "B. Right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0019", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. The right to access information has many aspects. It encompasses both the general right of the public to have access to information of public interest from a variety of sources and the right of the media to access information, in addition to the right of individuals to request and receive information of public interest and information concerning themselves that may affect their individual rights. As noted previously, the right to freedom of opinion and expression is an enabler of other rights (A/HRC/17/27, para. 22) and access to information is often essential for individuals seeking to give effect to other rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "B. Right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0020", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Furthermore, public authorities act as representatives of the public, fulfilling a public good; therefore, in principle, their decisions and actions should be transparent. A culture of secrecy is acceptable only in very exceptional cases, when confidentiality may be essential for the effectiveness of their work. There is consequently a strong public interest in the disclosure of some types of information. Moreover, access to certain types of information can affect the enjoyment by individuals of other rights. In such cases, information can be withheld only in very exceptional circumstances, if at all.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "B. Right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0021", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. A particular dimension of the right to seek and receive information concerns access to information on human rights violations. Such access often determines the level of enjoyment of other rights, is a right in itself and, as such, has been addressed by a number of human rights instruments and documents. It has also been the object of decisions and reports from various human rights mechanisms and bodies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "B. Right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0022", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Notably, article 6 of the Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (known also as the Declaration on Human Rights Defenders), adopted by the General Assembly in resolution 53/144, expressly provides for access to information on human rights, stating that everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, (a) to know, seek, obtain, receive and hold information about all human rights and fundamental freedoms, including having access to information as to how these rights and freedoms are given effect in domestic legislative, judicial or administrative systems; and (b) as provided for in human rights and other applicable international instruments, freely to publish, impart or disseminate to others views, information and knowledge on all human rights and fundamental freedoms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "B. Right to access information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "6", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0023", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Those seeking to gain access to information on human rights violations have, however, frequently been confronted with a number of obstacles, especially with regard to past grave and/or systematic violations. Reluctance by the authorities to carry out their duty to investigate the facts adequately often prevents persons accessing information. On various occasions, public authorities have also refused to disclose information, allegedly in order to protect national security concerns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "B. Right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0024", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. The right to truth and the right to access information are clearly interrelated. The right to seek and receive information on human rights violations is not limited to past grave and/or systematic violations; countries that have experienced such situations have, however, faced particular challenges in that regard and, in a number of cases, developed processes and norms to address them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "C. Access to information on human rights violations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0025", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The gravity and the scale of the practice of disappearances by the regimes that were in power in Latin America from the 1960s, and the subsequent struggle of family members and society in general to establish the fate of the victims and to ensure investigation into the facts and punishment of the perpetrators, was initially at the centre of the development of the right to truth. During those regimes, the justice systems of the countries in which such acts occurred were completely ineffective in carrying out investigations into the facts. Moreover, many of the countries concerned adopted amnesty laws that not only ensured impunity for the perpetrators but, in effect, also impeded investigations by the justice systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "C. Access to information on human rights violations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0026", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. In an attempt to address this issue, in particular since the 1980s, numerous countries have created inquiry commissions, more commonly known as truth commissions, to, in most cases, carry out investigations, make public their findings and provide recommendations regarding reparations and reconciliation. These commissions have largely reported on both the general circumstances leading to and surrounding human rights violations and individual cases. Such commissions were first established in Latin America following the collapse of military regimes and/or the end of armed conflicts that had given rise to large-scale, serious and systematic human rights violations, such as extrajudicial executions, disappearances and even genocide.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "C. Access to information on human rights violations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0027", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Moreover, the existing human rights protection systems, at both the international and regional levels, have on a number of occasions also been confronted with the question of access to information in the context of human rights violations and have, over the years, outlined the obligations of States concerning several aspects of that right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "C. Access to information on human rights violations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0028", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The Special Rapporteur recalls that, as stated by the Human Rights Committee in its general comment No. 34 (2011), to give effect to the right to freedom of expression, States parties should proactively put in the public domain government information of public interest, and that, in ensuring access to such information, States parties should also enact the necessary procedures, such as by means of freedom of information legislation (CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 19).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0029", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. In addition, in the context of serious human rights violations, there is a particular obligation which requires States to inform not only the victims and their families but also society as a whole of what has happened.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0030", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. In this context, the pursuit of judicial investigations into human rights violations is a core responsibility of the State and a major starting point for the realization of the right to truth. The judicial investigation of individual cases is not sufficient in itself, however; the right to truth implies not only the clarification of the immediate circumstances of particular violations, but also the clarification of the general context, the policies and the institutional failures and decisions that enabled their occurrence. Beyond this, the realization of the right to truth may require the dissemination of information on violations in order to restore confidence in State institutions and ensure non-repetition.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0031", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Global and regional bodies for the protection of human rights have addressed the right to truth both from an individual perspective (the rights of victims and their families to know the truth about violations affecting their lives) and from a collective perspective (the right of society as a whole to know and the obligation of States to inform society of past violations).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0032", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. The Inter-American Court has repeatedly recognized this right.[[fn:5]] In addition, the Basic Principles on Reparations and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law include, as a measure of satisfaction, verification of the facts and full and public disclosure of the truth to the extent that such disclosure does not cause further harm to the victims, as well as inclusion of an accurate account of the violations that occurred in international human rights law and international humanitarian law training and in educational material at all levels (General Assembly resolution 60/147, annex, paras. 22 (b) and (h)).", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See, for example, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Bámaca Velásquez v. Guatemala, Judgement of 22 February 2002, Series C, No. 9, paras. 76 and 77; Carpio-Nicolle and others v. Guatemala, Judgement of 22 November 2004, Series C, No. 117, para. 128; Gomes Lund and others (“Guerrilha do Araguaia”) v. Brazil, Judgement of 24 November 2010, Series C, No. 219, para. 200; Massacres of El Mozote and nearby places v. El Salvador, Judgement of 25 October 2012, Series C, No. 252, para. 320; and García and family v. Guatemala, Judgement of 29 November 2012, Series C, No. 258, para. 176."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0033", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The set of principles for the protection and promotion of human rights through action to combat impunity, as updated in 2005 by the independent expert appointed for that purpose (A/CN.4/2005/102/Add.1), also spells out the obligations of States to inform society of what has happened and recognizes the inalienable right of every people to know the truth (principle 2), emphasizing also the preservation and facilitation of access to archives (principles 14 and 15).", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0034", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The set of principles provides also that a people’s knowledge of the history of its oppression is part of its heritage and, as such, must be ensured by appropriate measures in fulfilment of the State’s duty to preserve archives and other evidence concerning violations of human rights and humanitarian law and to facilitate knowledge of those violations, and that such measures shall be aimed at preserving the collective memory from extinction.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0035", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. These principles outline guarantees to give effect to the right to truth, including judicial and non-judicial processes and detailed general principles for the setting up and functioning of truth commissions (principles 6 to 13).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0036", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. As mentioned above, the right to truth affects and has many implications for other rights; for example, (a) it is in itself part of the reparation for the victims and their families, and it honours the memory of the victims; (b) it is the first step in eliminating impunity and striving towards the right to justice and reparation; (c) it is part of the guarantee of non-repetition; (d) it is essential for the individual and his or her social and mental health recovery; (e) it is part of the reconstruction of the social network of relationships, peaceful coexistence and reconciliation; and (f) it is part of the historical heritage of a nation and is, therefore, open to academic research and investigative journalism. Only people who have the right to fully acknowledge their past can be truly free to define their future.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0037", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. As observed above, the State has an obligation to disclose information, and in particular, certain types of information, such as that regarding violations of human rights or humanitarian law. This is clearly information of public interest, engaging a high presumption of disclosure. The overriding public interest in the disclosure of information concerning serious violations of human rights and humanitarian law, in addition to the obligation of States to take proactive measures to ensure the preservation and dissemination of such information, is generally acknowledged. Limitations to these obligations, especially in situations of transitional justice, can be invoked only under very specific circumstances.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0038", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. By its resolution 65/196, the General Assembly proclaimed 24 March as the International Day for the Right to the Truth concerning Gross Human Rights Violations and for the Dignity of Victims, in recognition of the work and values of Monsignor Oscar Arnulfo Romero of El Salvador, who was killed in 1980. In his message on the day in 2013,[[fn:6]] the Secretary-General emphasized the individual and collective dimension of the right to truth, noting that each victim had the right to know the truth about violations against them, but that the truth also had to be told more widely as a safeguard to prevent violations from happening again.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Available from www.un.org/en/events/righttotruthday/2013/sgmessage.shtml."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0039", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The right to seek and receive information comprises the right of individuals to access general information and, more particularly, information of public interest that can contribute to public debate.[[fn:7]] Another aspect of this right is that of access by persons to personal data being held by public authorities.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "E. Right of victims and their families to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Youth Initiative for Human Rights v. Serbia, Application No. 48135/06, Judgement of 25 June 2013, para. 24, and Claude Reyes and others v. Chile, Judgement of 19 September 2006, Series C, No. 151, paras. 77 and 87; and Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (CCPR/C/GC/34), paras. 18 and 19)."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 18."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0040", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. In the context of human rights violations, and especially in cases of serious violations, the rights of victims and their families to access information can have several aspects. First, gaining access to information regarding the circumstances surrounding a human rights violation is usually essential in order to give effect to other rights, such as due process, guarantees to a fair trial and the right to a remedy. Moreover, clarifying what occurred is in itself one of the elements of reparations for victims and family members.[[fn:9]] Lastly, in cases of violations such as disappearances, the violation is continuing and ceases only once family members are able to ascertain the facts and determine the fate of the disappeared person. The refusal of the State to provide information, or the provision by it of false information, constitutes an additional violation because it prolongs and deepens the anguish, in addition to the moral and emotional pain.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "E. Right of victims and their families to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See, for example, the Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law (General Assembly resolution 60/147, annex), article 16 of which includes, as a measure of satisfaction, verification of the facts and full and public disclosure of the truth."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0041", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Human rights bodies at the global and regional levels have in a number of instances concluded that States should carry out investigations and provide information on serious human rights violations to victims or their family members and, in particular, ensure that those responsible do not go unpunished and that the victims obtain redress through the courts.[[fn:10]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "E. Right of victims and their families to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See, for example, Human Rights Committee, Ali Bashasha and Hussein Bashasha v. Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Communication No. 1776/2008 (views adopted on 20 October 2010, 100th session), para. 9; European Court of Human Rights, Tanis and others v. Turkey, Application No. 65899/01, Judgement of 2 August 2005, para. 225; and Aksoy v. Turkey, Application No. 21987/93, Judgement of 18 December 1996, para. 98; Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Massacres of El Mozote and nearby locations v. El Salvador, Judgement of 25 October 2012, Series C, No. 252, para. 242; and African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum v. Zimbabwe, Communication No. 245/2002, Decision of 21 May 2006, paras. 211 and 215."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0042", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The Inter-American Court has developed extensive jurisprudence regarding the various aspects of the right to know and to seek and receive information in the context of human rights violations. The Court has consistently recognized victims’ and/or their families’ rights to access information regarding violations suffered. In its findings, the Court has often associated the right to seek and receive information with basic human rights and State obligations, such as the obligation of the State to protect and ensure human rights, and the right to judicial protection and a fair trial and/or due diligence guarantees.[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "E. Right of victims and their families to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See, for example, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Bámaca Velásquez v. Guatemala, Judgement of 22 February 2002, Series C, No. 91, paras. 76 and 77; Blake v. Guatemala, Judgement of 24 January 1998, Series C, No. 36, para. 97; Barrios Altos v. Peru, Judgement of 14 March 2001, Series C, No. 75, para. 43; Almonacid Arellano and others v. Chile, Judgement of 26 September 2006, Series C, No. 154, para. 126; and Massacres of El Mozote and nearby places v. El Salvador, Judgement of 25 October 2012, Series C, No. 252, para. 298."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0043", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. The Inter-American Court has recently has found that violations of the right to know the truth can be a breach of the right to access information set forth in article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights, which recognizes freedom of expression.[[fn:12]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "E. Right of victims and their families to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Gomes Lund and others (“Guerrilha do Araguaia”) v. Brazil, Judgement of 24 November 2010, Series C, No. 219, para. 225."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "13", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights, which recognizes freedom of expression'. Regional instrument outside the allowed list."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0044", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. As described above, the right of victims and their families to access information and know the truth has different aspects and principles.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "E. Right of victims and their families to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0045", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. In its considerations, the Court has emphasized that the State must demonstrate a certain amount of due diligence in searching and providing information. For example, it was of the view that the State could not seek protection in arguing the lack of existence of the requested documents but, to the contrary, must establish the reason for denying the provision of the said information, demonstrating that it had adopted all the measures within its power to prove that, in effect, the information sought did not exist. Furthermore, the Court deemed it essential that, in order to guarantee the right to information, the public powers should act in good faith and diligently carry out the actions necessary to ensure the effectiveness of that right, especially when it dealt with the right to the truth of what had occurred in cases of gross violations of human rights, such as those of enforced disappearances and extrajudicial execution in the case under consideration.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "E. Right of victims and their families to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Ibid., para. 211."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0046", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The Court has also considered judicial proceedings to be essential to the right to know the truth, holding that States may establish truth commissions, which contribute to the creation and preservation of historical memory, elucidation of the facts and the determination of institutional, social and political responsibilities during certain historical periods in society. Nevertheless, the Court considers that this does not complete, or substitute for, the State’s obligation to establish the truth through judicial proceedings; hence, the State has the obligation to open and expedite criminal investigations in order to determine the corresponding responsibilities.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "E. Right of victims and their families to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Massacres of El Mozote and nearby places v. El Salvador, Judgement of 25 October 2012, Series C, No. 252, para. 298."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0047", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Lastly, the circulation of false information has been considered in certain cases to be a violation in itself, especially where individuals or groups of individuals have been submitted to odium, stigmatization, public scorn, persecution or discrimination by means of public declarations by public officials.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "E. Right of victims and their families to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See for example, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Ríos and others v. Venezuela, Judgement of 28 January 2009, Series C, No. 194, paras. 148 and 149; Perozo and others v. Venezuela, Judgement of 28 January 2009, Series C, No. 195, para. 160; and GómezPaquiyauri Brothers v. Peru, Judgement of 8 July 2004, para. 182."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0048", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. As with aspects of the right to freedom of expression, the right to access information is subject to limitations. Article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights sets out the areas in which restrictions are permissible. These, and the conditions under which they can be applied, were further addressed in some detail by the Human Rights Committee in its general comment No. 34 (CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 22).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "F. Limitations to the right to access information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0049", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The Special Rapporteur has, in previous reports, examined limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression and proposed a set of general principles for determining the conditions that must be satisfied for a limitation or a restriction to freedom of expression to be permissible, which he considers to be generally applicable (A/HRC/14/23, para. 79, and A/67/357, paras. 41-46).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "F. Limitations to the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0050", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. The overarching notion is that all information in the possession of the State belongs to the public, with limited and qualified exceptions that must be justified by State authorities. Nonetheless, the application of limitations to the right to access information on human rights violations raises a number of specific issues that require greater analysis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "F. Limitations to the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0051", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. The Special Rapporteur wishes to recall that, whenever a State imposes restrictions on the exercise of the right to freedom of expression, such restrictions may not put in jeopardy the right itself,[[fn:16]] much less when the information requested relates to human rights violations. Restrictions must be defined by law that is accessible, concrete, clear and unambiguous, and compatible with the State’s international human rights obligations. They must also strictly conform to tests of necessity and proportionality.[[fn:17]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "F. Limitations to the right to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See A/HRC/14/23, para. 79 (a), and Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 21."}, {"n": 17, "text": "A/HRC/14/23, paras. 79 (c), (d) and (g), and Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 22."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0052", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. For a restriction to be necessary, it must be based on one of the grounds for limitations recognized by the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and address a pressing public or social need. Any restriction must also be proportionate to the aim invoked and must not be more restrictive than is required for the achievement of the desired purpose or protected right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "F. Limitations to the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0053", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. When invoking a legitimate ground for restriction of freedom of expression, the authorities must demonstrate, in specific and individualized fashion, the precise nature of the imminent threat, as well as the necessity for and the proportionality of the specific action taken. A direct and immediate connection between the expression (or the information to be disclosed) and the alleged threat must be established.[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "F. Limitations to the right to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 35."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0054", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Moreover, there must be recourse to a review of a refusal to provide information in national legislation. This review must include a prompt, comprehensive and efficient judicial review of the validity of the restriction by an independent court or tribunal (A/HRC/14/23, para. 79; see also A/HRC/16/48, para. 39).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "F. Limitations to the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0055", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. In a number of instances, States have continued to limit access to information concerning action carried out under previous regimes, even when they took place many years before. In the absence of detailed justification, allegations that information regarding such past violations can affect national security have little credibility. The Special Rapporteur considers that it is difficult to justify a continuing public interest in imposing limitations to information from former regimes.[[fn:19]] As noted, authorities in countries undergoing a process of transitional justice have a particular obligation to proactively ensure the preservation and dissemination of information on serious violations of human rights and humanitarian law that took place in the past.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "F. Limitations to the right to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See European Court of Human Rights, Turek v. Slovakia, Application No. 57986/00, Judgement of 14 February 2006, para. 115."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0056", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. The protection of national security explicitly appears in international human rights law as an acceptable reason to limit a number of freedoms, including freedom of expression. On the other hand, as detailed above, restrictions to the exercise of basic freedoms, including all possible restrictions to the right to access information, must still be clearly and objectively established by law and must also conform to the strict tests of necessity and proportionality.[[fn:20]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 22."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0057", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. The recurrent use of national security concerns as a justification for the denial of access to various types of information predicates a need to study carefully the promotion of confidentiality on such grounds. Widespread secrecy justified on national security grounds is particularly problematic in the context of investigations of human rights violations because it may represent one of the main obstacles to the clarification of responsibilities and consequences of serious violations, ultimately becoming a barrier to the promotion of justice and reparation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0058", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Although national security is a legitimate State concern, one of the main challenges faced when information is classified on national security grounds has frequently been the lack of transparency of the process as a whole. In cases of human rights violations, the situation may occur whereby those who decide to classify such information could belong or be linked to the entities allegedly responsible for the violations. The persistent denial of information on human rights violations potentially involving national security bodies often weakens public trust in these institutions, ultimately reversing the alleged justification for secrecy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0059", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. In this context, the Inter-American Court has stated that, in cases of human rights violations, the State authorities cannot resort to mechanisms such as declaring the information an official secret or confidential, or using reasons of public interest or national security, to refuse to supply the information required by the judicial or administrative authorities in charge of the ongoing investigation or proceeding.[[fn:21]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Myrna Mack Chang v. Guatemala, Judgement of 25 November 2003, Series C, No. 101, para. 180; and Tiu Tojín v. Guatemala, Judgement of 26 November 2008, Series C, No. 190, para. 77."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0060", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. A State therefore cannot refuse to provide information to judicial or other authorities investigating gross violations of human rights or humanitarian law on the grounds of national security. In cases of other human rights violations, restrictions should not be applied in a manner that would prevent accountability or deprive a victim or family members of an effective remedy. Decisions to classify must be subjected to external judicial control and recourse must be made available.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0061", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Another serious issue in this context is the lack of outside control and of the possibility to challenge decisions that deny access to information. The authorities usually do not provide specific information on the precise nature of the threat, or on the necessity for and proportionality of such a measure.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0062", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. The Inter-American Court has also noted that, when a punishable fact is being investigated, the decision to define the information as secret and to refuse to submit it can never depend exclusively on a State body whose members are deemed responsible for committing the illegal act. Thus, what is incompatible with the rule of law and effective judicial protection is not that there are secrets, but rather that they are outside legal control.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Myrna Mack Chang v. Guatemala, Judgement of 25 November 2003, Series C, No. 101, para. 181."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0063", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. The Special Rapporteur understands that legitimate national security interests can be protected fully only through the respect of all human rights, including the right to freedom of expression. The most secure nations are those that pay greater attention to their human rights obligations. The importance of respecting all human rights and fundamental freedoms in responses to terrorism, for example, is widely recognized by States (see Commission on Human Rights resolution 2005/80). Promoting access to information, besides being an obligation, is a basic requirement for the rapid identification of malpractice and for the consequent enhancement of the work of all public bodies, including those working in the promotion of national security.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0064", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Bearing in mind these concerns, civil society organizations and academic centres, in consultation with experts from more than 70 countries, developed the Global Principles on National Security and the Right to Information (known as the Tshwane Principles).2 The principles provide detailed guidance to those engaged in drafting, revising or implementing national norms relating to the State’s authority to withhold information on national security grounds or to punish in cases of disclosure of such information. While preparing the present report, the Special Rapporteur participated in various consultations relating to these principles.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0065", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. The Special Rapporteur considers that the Tshwane Principles provide a key tool for States to ensure that national laws and practices regarding the withholding of information on national security grounds fully comply with international human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0066", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The Special Rapporteur wishes to highlight the importance of the references made to the disclosure of information on violations of human rights and humanitarian law, stipulated in section A of principle 10 of the Tshwane Principles, namely:\n(a) There is an overriding public interest in disclosure of information regarding gross violations of human rights or serious violations of international humanitarian law, including crimes under international law, and systematic or widespread violations of the rights to personal liberty and security. Such information may not be withheld on national security grounds in any circumstances;\n(b) Information regarding other violations of human rights or humanitarian law is subject to a high presumption of disclosure, and in any event may not be withheld on national security grounds in a manner that would prevent accountability for the violations or deprive a victim of access to an effective remedy;\n(c) When a State is undergoing a process of transitional justice, during which the State is especially required to ensure truth, justice, reparation and guarantees of non-recurrence, there is an overriding public interest in disclosure to society as a whole of information regarding human rights violations committed under the past regime. A successor government should immediately protect and preserve the integrity of, and release without delay, any records that contain such information that were concealed by a prior government.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0067", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. In the context of access to information on violations of human rights, the references made in the Tshwane Principles to public interest disclosures (part VI) and limits on measures to sanction or restrain the disclosure of information to the public (part VII) are of particular relevance. Among various recommendations, it is proposed that national law should protect from retaliation public personnel who make disclosures of information showing wrongdoing (such as human rights violations), regardless of whether the information is classified or otherwise confidential. It is further suggested that public bodies establish internal procedures and designate specific persons to receive protected disclosures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0068", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Information on human rights violations involving the activities of national security and intelligence bodies that operate under strict secrecy procedures are often only disclosed by those working within these entities (see A/HRC/10/3). In this regard, the Special Rapporteur has recalled the importance of ensuring the protection of whistle-blowers, that is, persons with a connection to the State who, having a legal obligation to ensure confidentiality, disclose to the public information that they reasonably consider to reveal human rights violations. The Special Rapporteur has indicated that a whistle-blower should not be subjected to legal, administrative or disciplinary sanctions as long as he or she has acted in good faith, pursuant to international standards on the subject.[[fn:23]] In fact, every person who is involved in or witnesses a human rights violation should assume the moral responsibility to denounce it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Special Rapporteur on the Protection and Promotion of the Right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression and Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, “Joint declaration on surveillance programmes and their impact on freedom of expression”, June 2013, para. 16. Available from www.oas.org/en/iachr/expression/ showarticle.asp?artID=927&lID=1."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0069", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur has highlighted[[fn:24]] the fact that, under no circumstances, may journalists, members of the media or members of civil society who have access to and distribute classified information on alleged violation of human rights be subjected to subsequent punishment. Equally, confidential sources and materials relating to the disclosure of classified information must be protected by law. In this context, journalistic self-regulatory mechanisms and codes can significantly contribute to drawing attention to eventual risks in the communication of complex and sensitive issues.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Ibid., para 15."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0070", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Over the past 20 years, numerous national norms have been adopted with the aim of promoting the right to access information. It is currently estimated that more than 50 national constitutions guarantee a right to information or of access to documents, or impose an obligation on State institutions to make information available to the public. More than 90 countries have adopted national laws establishing the right to request information and procedures for the public to obtain government-held information,[[fn:25]] thus responding to their human rights obligations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See www.right2info.org/access-to-information-laws/access-to-information-laws-overview-and-statutory#_ftn7; and Toby Mendel, Freedom of Information: A Comparative Legal Survey, 2nd ed. (Paris, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 2008)."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0071", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. These efforts were frequently stimulated by the democratic transitions experienced in various regions over the past decades. The increasing pressure for broader access to information is also a result of the work of international and national non-governmental organizations. Lastly, the rapid evolution of information technology has significantly expanded the capacity of States and individuals to process and communicate all types of information in a timely manner. Naturally, this has raised expectations that public entities (and other private actors) proactively disclose relevant information to society regularly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0072", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Acknowledging the relevance of access to information in democratization and development efforts, international organizations have encouraged the adoption of national norms regulating access to information and produced publications aimed at assisting national processes with, for example, a description of the features of a freedom of information regime[[fn:26]] and tools for measuring the impact of right to information models.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See Toby Mendel, Freedom of Information, A Comparative Legal Survey, 2nd ed. (Paris, UNESCO, 2008), pp. 31-43."}, {"n": 27, "text": "United Nations Development Programme, A Guide to Measuring the Impact of Rights to information Programmes, Practical Guidance Note (April 2006)."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0073", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. Described below are the principles developed to guide the design and implementation of national legislation on access to information, in addition to common obstacles to the implementation of such laws.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0074", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Notwithstanding the positive steps taken by a number of States, as reflected in the many national legal instruments regulating access to information, multiple obstacles are frequently encountered in their implementation. Altering long-standing practices of government workforces is a complex process, especially when public bodies have been established or subjected to reforms during a previous authoritarian rule. The provision of information in a timely manner requires not only improvement of the technical capacity of public bodies to process and share information, but also the training and awareness-raising of public officials at all levels with regard to their duty to respond to public requests for information, while assigning absolute priority to information relating to human rights violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "A. Principles guiding the design and implementation of national laws on access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0075", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. While reviewing multiple experiences that promote the right to access information, experts have developed some core principles to guide the design and implementation of relevant laws and practices.[[fn:28]] The same principles had been endorsed and presented to the Commission on Human Rights by the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression in 2000 and were further reflected in other declarations prepared by international mechanisms for promoting freedom of expression.[[fn:29]] The Special Rapporteur considers that these principles continue to represent a crucial tool for translating into practice the various human rights obligations concerning the right to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "A. Principles guiding the design and implementation of national laws on access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Article 19 Global Campaign for Free Expression, The Public’s Right to Know: Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation (London, 1999)."}, {"n": 29, "text": "Joint declarations by the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Opinion and Expression, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Representative on Freedom of the Media and the Organization of American States Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression, 1999 (E/CN.4/2000/63, annex I) and 2004 (www.oas.org/en/iachr/expression/showarticle.asp ?artID=319&lID=1)."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0076", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. The core principles include:\n(a) Maximum disclosure. National legislation on access to information should be guided by the principle of maximum disclosure. All information held by public bodies should be subject to disclosure and this presumption may be overcome only in very limited circumstances;\n(b) Obligation to publish. Freedom of information implies not only that public bodies accede to requests for information, but also that they widely publish and disseminate documents of significant public interest, subject only to reasonable limits based on resources and capacity;\n(c) Promotion of open government. The full implementation of national laws on access to information requires that the public be informed about their rights and that government officials adhere to a culture of openness. Dedicated efforts are required to disseminate information to the general public on the right to access information and to raise the awareness of and train government staff to respond appropriately to public demands;\n(d) Limited scope of exceptions. Reasons for the denial of access to information should be clearly and narrowly designed, bearing in mind the three-part test suggested in the interpretation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.[[fn:30]] Non-disclosure of information must be justified on a case-by-case basis. Exceptions should apply only where there is a risk of substantial harm to the protected interest and where that harm is greater than the overall public interest in having access to the information;\n(e) Processes to facilitate access. Procedures to request information should allow for fair and rapid processing and include mechanisms for an independent review in cases of refusal. Public bodies should be required to establish open, accessible internal systems for ensuring the public’s right to receive information. The law should provide for an individual right of appeal to an independent administrative body in respect of a refusal by a public body to disclose information;\n(f) Costs. Individuals should not be deterred by excessive cost from making requests for information;\n(g) Open meetings. In line with the notion of maximum disclosure, legislation should establish a presumption that meetings of governing bodies are open to the public;\n(h) Disclosure takes precedence. To ensure maximum disclosure, laws which are inconsistent with this principle should be amended or repealed. The regime of exceptions provided for in the freedom of information law should be comprehensive and other laws should not be permitted to extend it;\n(i) Protection for individuals who disclose relevant information (whistle-blowers). National laws on the right to information should provide protection from liability for officials who, in good faith, disclose information pursuant to right to information legislation. Individuals should be protected from any legal, administrative or employment-related sanctions for releasing information on wrongdoing, including the commission of a criminal offence or the failure to comply with a legal obligation. Special protection should be provided for those who release information concerning human rights violations.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "A. Principles guiding the design and implementation of national laws on access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 22."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0077", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. As indicated in a comprehensive comparative study of national experiences promoting access to information,[[fn:31]] the adoption of national laws should be regarded only as the first step: full implementation requires political will (full endorsement by various relevant authorities of the principles enshrined by the new normative framework), an active civil society (advocating and monitoring the implementation of the norms) and respect for the rule of law. In fact, a number of frequent obstacles can be noted in the review of national practices implementing legal frameworks protecting the right to information.[[fn:32]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "Toby Mendel, Freedom of Information, A Comparative Legal Survey, 2nd ed. (Paris, UNESCO, 2008), principles 1 to 9."}, {"n": 32, "text": "Ibid., and David Banisar, Freedom of Information around the World 2006: A Global Survey of Access to Government Information Laws (Privacy International, 2006)."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0078", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. The overall lack of capacity to process information is an obvious problem for public institutions. Some public institutions have no human or technical capacity to manage and communicate data adequately. Technological advances notwithstanding, officials are also often unaware of the information stored by the bodies that they service and are unable to locate it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information", "1. Lack of technical capacity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0079", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. Unreasonable delays in responding to requests for information are a very frequent concern. National laws often establish the requirement for public institutions to respond to a request without delay, setting in some cases a maximum time frame for response. These deadlines, however, are sometimes not enforced.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information", "2. Unreasonable delays and lack of responses"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0080", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The absence of any response by the public authorities responsible for the provision of information is also critical. The lack of mechanisms to monitor independently the compliance of public bodies with regulations on access to information and the lack of specific sanctions for wrongful denial of access or the destruction of information by public officials certainly contribute to the limited enforcement of some national laws.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information", "2. Unreasonable delays and lack of responses"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0081", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. There are concerns regarding the inclusion of unnecessary procedural formalities that unreasonably restrict possibilities for submitting demands for information. This can include, for example, requirements for those who request information to show a specific legal interest or to submit separate requests to each of the multiple entities involved in providing a response to a given request.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information", "3. Restrictive procedures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0082", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. There are financial costs related to the collection of information and national laws often allow public institutions to charge fees to the requestor. Some fees can cover costs relating to, for example, applications, searching or copying. The charging of fees for gaining access to information can also, however, be a barrier to such access, in particular for those living in poverty. In the absence of any oversight, some fees can be imposed abusively.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information", "4. Imposition of fees"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0083", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The inclusion of vaguely defined or inappropriate exceptions in national laws on access to information is also a common obstacle that seriously compromises the impact of the instruments. Inappropriate exceptions include, for example, reference to the protection of good relations with other States and intergovernmental organizations. As mentioned above, the widespread and unspecified use of national security concerns as a reason for the denial of access to information is another common occurrence. Some laws explicitly exclude some public bodies from the ambit of national norms, preventing consideration of whether information pertaining to those bodies should be disclosed at all.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information", "5. Inclusion of vague and inappropriate exceptions within the law"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0084", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. In some cases, the continued use of parallel national laws and regulations justifying multiple grounds for secrecy, some predating the adoption of the laws regulating access to information, continues to hamper information access.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information", "6. Conflict with other norms providing grounds for secrecy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0085", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. The review of national experiences also demonstrates important positive elements in existing laws and practices. It is clear that provisions establishing objective procedural guarantees which detail the processes required to request and obtain information, in addition to the responsibilities of public bodies in these processes, are a central element for the successful implementation of national norms. The establishment of a broad scope for the right to access to information in national laws is central to the success of the norms. The inclusion of pragmatic instructions among principles, such as that of ensuring that access is rapid, inexpensive and not unduly burdensome, is also positive.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information", "6. Conflict with other norms providing grounds for secrecy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0086", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. There are also good practices regarding the appointment of dedicated officials to assist in the implementation of national laws on access to information. These can be established through the appointment of information officers, or the establishment of an office, such as the Mexican Federal Institute for Access to Information. Such mechanisms may undertake multiple functions relating to the promotion of access to information, such as processing requests, ensuring the proactive publication of information by public bodies, providing assistance to applicants, proposing adapted procedures to implement the law, training and raising the awareness of other officials, monitoring the implementation of the law, and reporting.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information", "6. Conflict with other norms providing grounds for secrecy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0087", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. Notwithstanding the different historical processes that marked the development of the right to truth and the right to access information, the right to truth should be understood as directly connected to the right to access information, as established by the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0088", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. Over the past three decades, the right to truth has most often been invoked in situations relating to the failure of the State to ensure accountability for systematic violations of human rights and to provide appropriate reparations. It has also commonly been related to the right of victims and their relatives to demand investigations and information as a first step in achieving justice. As international jurisprudence has evolved, it has become evident that the right to truth has also a clear, collective dimension. There is a shared interest in the clarification of human rights violations and in the dissemination of information on the context in which they occurred, especially so as to re-establish trust in State institutions and to ensure non-repetition of the violations. The realization of the right to truth, at both the individual and the collective levels, requires access to and, often, also the dissemination of information on human rights violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0089", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. In parallel, the global recognition of the overall importance of transparency of public institutions in the consolidation of peace, democracy and development is unquestionable. Explicitly included as a component of the right to freedom of expression, the right to access information is increasingly protected by national laws. Technological advances, democratic transitions and the expansion of civil society activity have contributed to a significant increase in the demand for all types of information held by public bodies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0090", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. If State officials act as representatives of the people of the nation and seek the common good, every decision or initiative taken by them should, in principle, be publicly known. The right to access information, however, can in exceptional circumstances be subject to limitations so as to protect the rights of others and the effectiveness of some State initiatives. Nevertheless, such limitations cannot override the public interest to know and to be informed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0091", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. Given that the promotion, protection and guarantee of human rights and fundamental freedoms are the ultimate responsibility of any State, there is a greater responsibility in the disclosure of information held by public bodies concerning human rights violations, as identified in the jurisprudence relating to the right to truth.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0092", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. In this context, the Special Rapporteur concludes that the right to access information on human rights violations, as enshrined by the right to freedom of expression, should be considered to be part of the right to truth in all circumstances — whether it relates to past or present situations, is claimed by victims, their relatives or by anyone in the name of public interest, in situations of political transition or not, and irrespective of the existence of legal proceedings, including when judicial action has expired.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0093", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. Given that the enjoyment of human rights also implies responsibilities, and is based on the principles of universality, equality and interdependence, there is a shared responsibility in denouncing human rights violations whenever they occur. Such responsibility is of greater importance in the case of public officials. Therefore, the disclosure in good faith of relevant information relating to human rights violations should be accorded protection from liability. On the other hand, the silence of State officials on violations that they witness can be interpreted as complicity. Transitions to peace and democracy based on silence over past crimes, atrocities or impunity are not sustainable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0094", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. The adoption of national laws protecting access to information in all regions of the world is a positive step that reflects international human rights principles and norms. These processes, however, have mostly been disconnected from the debate on the right to truth and a number of obstacles to access information relating to past and present human rights violations persist.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0095", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. The effective implementation of national laws on information continues to be limited by the reluctance of public bodies and officials to comply with the new norms and the continued acceptance of multiple grounds for secrecy. Particular attention should therefore be paid to overseeing the steps taken to institutionalize norms regulating access to information and to examining the true relevance of confidentiality. Ultimately, legitimate national security interests can be fully protected only through respect of all human rights, including the right to access information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0096", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. In this regard, and based on previous considerations, the Special Rapporteur wishes to recall a number of recommendations that should continue to guide State efforts in the consolidation of norms and practices concerning the realization of the right to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0097", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. The Special Rapporteur calls upon States to implement the measures set out below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0098", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. The adoption of a national normative framework that objectively establishes the right to access information held by public bodies in the broadest possible terms is crucial to give effect, at the national level, to the right to access information. Legislation should be grounded by the principle of maximum disclosure.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Revision or adoption of national laws to ensure the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0099", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. National laws should contain a clearly and narrowly defined list of exceptions or an explanation of the grounds for refusing the disclosure of information. Exceptions should apply only where there is a risk of substantial harm to the protected interest and where that harm is greater than the overall public interest in having access to the information, and should be determined by an independent body, preferably a court, and not the body holding the information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Revision or adoption of national laws to ensure the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0100", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. Alternative laws establishing additional grounds for secrecy must be revised or revoked in order to ensure that they meet the norms on access to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Revision or adoption of national laws to ensure the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0101", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. National laws should establish the right to lodge complaints or appeals to independent bodies in cases in which requests for information have not been dealt with properly or have been refused.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Revision or adoption of national laws to ensure the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0102", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 102, "n": 108, "text": "108. Only if the information released is related to the above principles should the person be considered a whistle-blower and, therefore, bear no liability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Revision of norms regarding the promotion of secrecy on national security grounds and ensuring the protection of whistle-blowers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur focuses on the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral contexts, paying particular attention to the establishment and enforcement of legal instruments regulating political communications.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The free flow of ideas is incontestably a core requirement for the promotion of democratic spaces. Ensuring an open space for the multiple voices of politicians, the press, minorities or citizens in general is a permanent challenge for entities tasked with overseeing electoral processes. The recognized need to establish and enforce regulations on political campaigning is inevitably accompanied by the concern that, depending on their application, such regulations may be used to obstruct or even impede the natural flow of ideas. How to ensure all voices have a space in the public debate, including newly established groups? How to avoid having the most powerful groups in a society take unfair advantage of their political or economic powers to exclude dissident voices from the debate?", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. A quick overview of recent electoral processes in all regions of the world can easily identify numerous structural, legal and practical barriers which impede the equitable enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression during electoral processes. In some situations politically dominant groups directly attack and intimidate voices of dissent and criticism which are crucial for the promotion of democratic debate; journalists, activists and political leaders are violently attacked, harassed through multiple legal procedures or arbitrarily detained. In others, economic and political imbalances permit some groups to dominate the public debate to a point where divergent ideas are often excluded from public debate. In these very different contexts, freedom of expression can be affected both by the absence of regulations for political communications and campaigning, and by the adoption of inadequate norms that disproportionately restrict political communications and jeopardize public debate.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The report will analyse some common challenges in the establishment and enforcement of legal instruments regulating communications in electoral processes. It will begin by describing the human rights framework applicable to the question of freedom of opinion and expression in political communications and electoral processes. It will analyse in more depth the main concerns regarding possible violations of free expression in this context. The Special Rapporteur will then propose some key principles that can guide the establishment and implementation of national legal frameworks regulating political communications.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Common concerns relating to the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression studied by the Special Rapporteur in his recent reports are all relevant to the regulation of communications during electoral processes; the responsibility of States to “prohibit” incitement of hatred, hostility, discrimination and violence,[[fn:1]] for example, is particularly relevant in electoral periods. Unfortunately, one can observe today in all regions of the world, especially during political and economic crises, candidates making use while campaigning of a language of hatred and hostility, targeting, inter alia, women, racial, linguistic or religious minorities, homosexuals and foreign migrant workers. The protection of journalists from violence[[fn:2]] is central to ensuring that the press exercises its crucial role of informing the public about candidates, their platforms and the ongoing debates. Unfortunately, attacks against the press often increase during electoral periods. The full realization of the right to access information,[[fn:3]] is another crucial element in the promotion of free and fair democratic elections. As further detailed below, informed political debate requires transparency, with respect to the conduct of political organizations, the financing and promotion of political campaigns, and the ownership of media groups.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See A/67/357."}, {"n": 2, "text": "See A/HRC/20/17."}, {"n": 3, "text": "See A/HRC/68/362."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. During the reporting period, the Special Rapporteur continued to participate in national and international events relating to the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In October 2013, he submitted his report to the General Assembly (A/68/362), in which he addressed the right to access information held by public bodies, emphasizing its relation with the right to truth. In 2013, he also undertook missions to Montenegro from 11 to 17 June, to the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia from 18 to 21 June, and to Italy from 11 to 18 November. His preliminary findings on these visits are detailed in the three additional reports to the 27th session of the Human Rights Council.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. The Special Rapporteur regrets never having received a response from the Government of Indonesia to his repeated requests for a new date to visit the country, after the Government asked for his visit, previously scheduled for January 2013, to be postponed. He also expresses disappointment that the Government of Pakistan did not provide a date for his visit to the country, despite having invited the mandate holder to visit in early 2012. The following States never responded to requests for visits by the Special Rapporteur: Islamic Republic of Iran (visit requested in February 2010); Sri Lanka (visit requested in June 2009 and 2012); Thailand (visit requested in 2012); Uganda (visit requested in May 2011); and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (visit requested in 2003 and in 2009).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The Special Rapporteur has attended a number of international events at which topics studied in his previous reports were debated. In particular, he contributed to various seminars addressing freedom of expression and privacy in digital communications. In September 2013, he participated in a side event focusing on the topic at the twenty-fifth session of the Human Rights Council. In October 2013, he participated in a hearing at the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights on freedom of expression and communications surveillance by the United States of America, in the Americas and at the Council of Europe Conference of Ministers responsible for Media and Information Society in Belgrade. Since November 2013, he has been a member of the High-level Panel on Global Internet Cooperation and Governance Mechanisms. The panel brings together representatives of government, civil society and industry with the aim of proposing frameworks for Internet cooperation and a road map to address Internet governance challenges. In February 2014, he participated in an expert seminar on the right to privacy in the digital age, hosted in Geneva by the Permanent Missions of Austria, Brazil, Germany, Liechtenstein, Mexico, Norway and Switzerland.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. For the preparation of the present report, the Special Rapporteur reviewed studies on communications in electoral processes. He also organized a sequence of regional expert meetings, bringing together electoral authorities, researchers, journalists, activists and representatives of international organizations working on matters related to communications in electoral process in various regions. The consultations took place in Bangkok (co-hosted by the Southeast Asian Press Alliance and FORUM-ASIA); Johannesburg, South Africa (co-hosted by the University of Pretoria); Guatemala City (co-hosted by the Instituto DEMOS); Madrid (co-hosted by the Fundación Cultura de Paz and the Complutense University of Madrid); Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (co-hosted by the Ford Foundation); and Washington D.C. (co-hosted by the Open Society Foundations).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is a central pillar of democratic societies; and a guarantor of free and fair electoral processes, and meaningful and representative public and political discourse. It is during times of political change that the right to freedom of expression is most essential, ensuring that a well-informed and empowered public is free to exercise its civil and political rights. Providing the conditions for free and open political communication is an essential element of ensuring fair and democratic electoral processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Freedom of expression and communication in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. In the context of elections and political communications, dedicated attention is to be afforded to the free expression rights of the main actors: the voters, who depend on the right to freedom of expression to receive full and accurate information, and express their political affiliation without fear; candidates and political organizations, who need to exercise their rights through campaigning and communicating their political messages freely without interference or attacks; and the media, which rely on the right to freedom of expression to play their essential democratic role of informing the public, scrutinizing political parties and platforms, and providing checks and balances in the electoral process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Freedom of expression and communication in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Common and continuing challenges to the promotion and protection of freedom of expression that persist in all aspects of society – censorship, violence against journalists, speech that incites hatred, discrimination and political violence – increase in both frequency and severity during electoral processes. Ensuring an open public debate where all the main stakeholders in an electoral process – namely, the voters, the political leaders and groups, and the media – can freely share information and opinions is a permanent challenge for democratic societies. In some cases, inadequate regulation of communications can unduly restrict the freedom of the media or of political actors. In other situations, the political debate is dominated by powerful political and economic groups that take advantage of poorly regulated and enforced legal frameworks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Freedom of expression and communication in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. International human rights standards do not provide detailed models for regulating political communications. However, some core principles can be identified: efforts must be deployed to promote the pluralism of the media and ensure a plural political debate, ensure transparency in the promotion and financing of political campaigns, and guarantee accountability and fair enforcement of political regulations to prevent those in power from taking advantage of domestic regulatory regimes to dominate and manipulate public debate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Freedom of expression and communication in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. States must take measures to eliminate the structural, legal and practical barriers to the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression. At a fundamental, structural level, economic power enables political influence to be concentrated in, and exercised by, small segments of society, thereby undermining the democratic ideal. Those who own and finance media organizations and outlets are often able to use their economic power and influence to enhance the visibility of certain political candidates or groups, and impede the communication and expression of others. This is particularly the case where national legislative frameworks do not sufficiently provide for free, direct access by political candidates to publicly or privately owned media outlets for campaigning purposes. Even when such provisions are in place, many media organizations are able to use the unequal provision of air time, partisan editorial commentary, or the facilitation of paid political advertising to promote one political candidate or group over another. The situation is exacerbated when media ownership is obscured by complex corporate structures and there is no public transparency as to the corporate and private interests entwined with media coverage. Especially in circumstances in which a State’s media ownership is concentrated in only a handful of corporate entities, this can threaten the ability of all political entities to freely and effectively express their positions and platforms, and impede individuals from receiving information about their electoral choices on an equal and impartial basis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Freedom of expression and communication in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes is also threatened when economic power is exerted over the political process through campaign financing and paid political advertising. Wealthy societal segments and corporate interest lobbies can directly exert political influence through exploiting unregulated political finance structures, and opportunities for paid political advertising. In many States neither the donor nor the recipient is required publicly to disclose financial contributions. Wealthy groups and candidates are also disproportionately advantaged when there are no restrictions in place as to how political campaigns can use and disburse campaign funds.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Freedom of expression and communication in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The over- or under-regulation of electoral processes may also threaten enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Legal barriers to the free flow of communication and expression during electoral processes include thematic restrictions on political expression and discourse (which often include prohibitions on criticism of incumbent politicians or political groups), regulation of the content of print and online media sources, and limitations on protests and demonstrations during electoral processes. Lacunae in legal frameworks also erode free expression and communication in political discourse; failures to articulate regulatory frameworks related to equal direct access to publicly-owned media outlets, polling, campaign financing and paid political advertising create conditions that may unfairly disadvantage particular political candidates or groups, thereby undermining the equal and free flow of ideas and communications that is an essential prerequisite to a truly democratic electoral process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Freedom of expression and communication in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. In addition to the structural and legal threats to free expression rights in electoral processes, States are also actively restricting the practical enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in political communications. Such measures include multiple forms of censorship, such as restrictions on particular websites and social media sites, sources of political commentary, including local and international media, or even Internet services more broadly; harassment of the media; violence against and imprisonment of journalists, activists and bloggers; direct attacks on dissident political groups; and measures to impede public demonstrations and other forms of valid political expression. These common violations of freedom of expression rights occur outside electoral processes as well, but are often more frequent or acute during moments of political change or upheaval, and are especially damaging during such times.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Freedom of expression and communication in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The right to freedom of opinion and expression, as articulated in articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, is fundamentally interrelated with article 25 of the Covenant, on the right to participation in government through free and fair elections. During electoral processes and in the context of political communication, the equal and unimpeded exchange of contrasting ideas is a crucial prerequisite to ensuring that the voting public can make informed choices and is thus a basic pillar of any democratic system. In the absence of protections to ensure the freedom to express, communicate, publish and discuss political and electoral issues, genuine and effective political participation cannot be realized.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "medium", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'. Dual citation. Sonnet resolved as ICCPR (medium); context_after invokes HRC GC34 on art.19 (ICCPR-specific). Conservative keep."}, {"article": "25", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'article 25 of the Covenant' — 'the Covenant' clearly ICCPR throughout; art.25 ICCPR = political participation/elections."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. In its general comment No. 34 (2011) on article 19 on freedoms of opinion and expression, the Human Rights Committee noted that:\nThe free communication of information and ideas about public and political issues between citizens, candidates and elected representatives is essential. This implies a free press and other media able to comment on public issues without censorship or restraint and to inform public opinion. The public also has a corresponding right to receive media output.[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 13."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. This finding builds on general comment No. 25 (1996) on article 25 (the right to participate in public affairs), in which it is stipulated that States must take positive measures to protect and promote the freedom of expression in the context of political and electoral processes in order to ensure the full realization of article 25.[[fn:5]] The General Assembly, in its resolution 59/201, declared that freedom of association and peaceful assembly were essential elements of democracy, together with the right to vote and to be elected at genuine periodic free elections, and encouraged the strengthening of political party systems and civil society organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "CCPR/C/2/Rev.1/Add.7, paras. 8 and 12."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "25", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "25", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Both the right to free expression and the right to political participation are enshrined in numerous other regional and international human rights instruments.[[fn:6]] Importantly, their critical relationship and mutual dependency are also borne out in a number of human rights texts. It is stipulated in article 3 of the first protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights that contracting parties must “hold free elections at reasonable intervals by secret ballot, under conditions which will ensure the free expression of the opinion of the people in the choice of the legislature”. The European Court of Human Rights has repeatedly emphasized that the fundamental importance of freedom of political expression rests in large part on the importance of an informed electorate to the functioning of a genuine democracy, and that “freedom of political debate is at the very core of the concept of a democratic society”.[[fn:7]] Free and impartial media are key to ensuring the necessary vibrant political debate that underpins democratic elections and political processes. The Court has noted that:\nFreedom of the press affords the public one of the best means of discovering and forming an opinion of the ideas and attitudes of their political leaders. In particular, it gives politicians the opportunity to reflect and comment on the preoccupations of public opinion; it thus enables everyone to participate in the free political debate which is at the very core of the concept of a democratic society.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (art. 9), the American Convention on Human Rights (art. 13); and the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (art. 10)."}, {"n": 7, "text": "Lingens v. Austria, Judgment of 8 July 1986, Series A no. 103, para. 42, available from http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/eng/pages/search.aspx?i=001-57523"}, {"n": 8, "text": "Castells v. Spain, Judgment of 23 April 1992, Series A no. 236, para. 43, available from http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/eng/pages/search.aspx?i=001-57772."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "3", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'article 3 of the first protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights'. ECHR Protocol 1 is a regional instrument outside the allowed list."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. The press is also recognized as playing a crucial role in informing the public about matters of public interest and acting as a ‘public watchdog’:\nIt is ... incumbent on [the press] to impart information and ideas on matters of public interest. Not only does it have the task of imparting such information and ideas: the public also has a right to receive them. Were it otherwise, the press would be unable to play its vital role of ‘public watchdog’.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Thorgeirson v. Iceland, Judgment of 25 June 1992, Series A no. 239, para. 63. See also Castells v. Spain (see footnote 8); The Observer and Guardian v. UK (Spycatcher case), Judgment of 26 Nov. 1991, Series A no. 216, para. 59(b); The Sunday Times v. UK(II) (companion Spycatcher case), Judgment of 26 Nov. 1991, Series A no. 217, para. 50(b)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Accordingly, all political parties and candidates should have access to the media in a fair and impartial way. As articulated in the Document of the Copenhagen Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), States must “ensure that the will of the people serves as the basis of the authority of government” by, inter alia, ensuring “that no legal or administrative obstacle stands in the way of unimpeded access to the media on a non-discriminatory basis for all political groupings and individuals wishing to participate in the electoral process”.[[fn:10]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Para. 7.8 of the Document of the Copenhagen Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension of the CSCE, 29 June 1990, as reproduced in appendix I and in 29 International Legal Materials 1305, 1308. See also the Charter of Paris, signed on 21 November 1990 by the CSCE Heads of State, endorsing democracy and reaffirming the principles set forth in the Document of the Copenhagen Meeting and the Document of the Moscow Meeting on the Human Dimension of the CSCE (3 October 1991)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. The Inter-American Court on Human Rights has equally emphasized that free expression rights are the cornerstone for the debate during electoral processes, because they act:\nas an essential instrument for the formation of public opinion among the electorate, strengthen the political contest between the different candidates and parties taking part in the elections, and are an authentic mechanism for analyzing the political platforms proposed by the different candidates.[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "I/A Court H. R., Case of Ricardo Canese v. Paraguay. Merits, Reparations and Costs. Judgment of August 31, 2004. Series C No. 111. paras. 88–90."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Accordingly, the Inter-American Court has said, restrictions on political expression during electoral processes undermine the right to freedom of opinion and expression: “everyone must be allowed to question and investigate the competence and suitability of the candidates, and also to disagree with and compare proposals, ideas and opinions, so that the electorate may form its opinion in order to vote.”[[fn:12]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Canese v. Paraguay (see footnote 11), para. 90."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. In a joint statement with the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Representative on Freedom of the Media, the Organization of American States Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, the Special Rapporteur reiterated the positions of both the European and Inter-American Courts, emphasizing that free and fair elections are possible only where the electorate is well-informed and has access to pluralistic and sufficient information, and that only a diverse media environment can ensure that all viewpoints and political perspectives are aired during election campaigns.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "www.oas.org/en/iachr/expression/showarticle.asp?artID=744&lID=1."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Similar wording is found in the Windhoek Declaration on Promoting Independent and Pluralistic Media (1991): “an independent, pluralistic and free press is essential to the development and maintenance of democracy in a nation.”", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The importance of ensuring access to the media as part of the electoral process is also well-established in a number of regional human rights instruments. The South African Development Community Principles and Guidelines Governing Democratic Elections, for example, reiterate that, in the conduct of democratic elections, all political parties should have access to State media (principle 2.1.5). The same principle is enshrined in article 17 of the African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance, on the importance of ensuring access by political candidates and parties to State-controlled media during elections. The Declaration of Principles of Freedom of Expression in Africa also affirms that “the public service ambit of public broadcasters should be clearly defined and include an obligation to ensure that the public receive adequate, politically balanced information, particularly during election periods” (art. VI).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. The need for a vibrant and critical debate, with no restrictions on the form or content of political expression, has been explored in depth by the European Court of Human Rights, which has emphasized that “the limits of permissible criticism are wider with regard to the Government than in relation to a private citizen, or even a politician”.[[fn:14]] The State authorities may adopt, “in their capacity as guarantors of public order”, penalties for defamation that are proportionate to the injury but only where the accusations are “devoid of foundation or formulated in bad faith”.[[fn:15]] The reference to public order suggests that discretion of a government to restrict potentially defamatory statements against it should be limited to situations in which public order is threatened:\nWhile freedom of expression is important for everybody, it is especially so for an elected representative of the people. He represents his electorate, draws attention to their preoccupations and defends their interests. Accordingly, interferences with the freedom of expression of an opposition member of parliament, like the applicant, call for the closest scrutiny on the part of the Court.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "Castells v. Spain (see footnote 8), para. 46."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Ibid., para. 46."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Ibid., para. 42."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. United Nations human rights mechanisms have also considered the permissible limitations upon speech in the context of electoral processes. The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination has noted that “the fundamental right to freedom of expression does not protect the dissemination of ideas of racial superiority or incitement to racial hatred”.[[fn:17]] In a recent review, the Committee underlined that\nthe fundamental right of freedom of expression should not subtract from the principles of equality and non-discrimination as the exercise of the right to freedom of expression carries with it special responsibilities, among which is the obligation not to disseminate ideas on racial superiority or hatred.[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "CERD/C/ITA/CO/16-18, para. 17."}, {"n": 18, "text": "Ibid., para. 17 (a)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. The Committee recommended that the State inter alia reinforce the mandate of the authority which monitors the media to ensure that racist statements are prosecuted and victims granted reparations; ensure that the media do not stigmatize, stereotype or negatively target non-citizens and ethnic minorities; invite the media to strictly respect the Charter of Rome (2008) in order to avoid racist, discriminatory or biased language; and raise awareness among media professionals of their responsibility not to disseminate prejudice and to avoid reporting in a way that would stigmatize communities subject to historical discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Additionally, in another review, the Committee encouraged the State to thoroughly investigate and prosecute, where appropriate, the use during election campaigns of statements by politicians that would incite racial hatred against persons of minority ethnic origin.[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "CERD/C/AUT/CO/18-20, para. 12."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes can be jeopardized through numerous overlapping legal and practical State measures. In the present section some of the primary threats to freedom of opinion and expression during electoral processes are identified.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Violence against, and harassment of, the press during electoral and political processes remains a common way of impeding the free expression of political ideas in many countries. Throughout his mandate, the Special Rapporteur has received numerous communications alleging serious violence against reporters, journalists, bloggers, television reporters and writers in the lead-up to, during and in the aftermath of elections.[[fn:20]] Attacks against the media function both as a specific means of deterring targeted journalists from investigating and reporting on a particular issue or candidate, and as a means of more generally deterring the media from reporting freely and impartially on political issues. In this context, violence against the media is one of the most destructive forms of violation of free expression in electoral processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "A. Direct attacks against journalists, activists and political candidates and groups"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See, for example, the report of the Special Rapporteur of 20 April 2010 (A/HRC/14/23)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. In the course of his mandate, the Special Rapporteur has addressed, through communications and public statements, reports of violence against or harassment of journalists in Belarus, where it was reported that, in the lead-up to the December 2010 presidential elections, journalists had their equipment seized and photographs deleted;[[fn:21]] and in the Islamic Republic of Iran, where, as at May 2013, 40 journalists had reportedly been imprisoned as a means of silencing free speech and debate ahead of the June 2013 elections.[[fn:22]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "A. Direct attacks against journalists, activists and political candidates and groups"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "Joint urgent appeal (JUA) 22/12/10, case No. BLR 1/2010 (see A/HRC/8/51, p. 22)."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), “Iran: UN experts concerned at barring of women presidential candidates and freedom restrictions”, press release, 29 May 2013."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. The State is not the only perpetrator of violence against journalists during elections; however it has a permanent responsibility to ensure the safety of all journalists at all times. In some countries, media organizations, independent editors and journalists receive threats and intimidation from militant groups or political parties demanding coverage for their messages. In many cases the State fails to take sufficient measures to protect journalists from such harassment, and responds by fining or otherwise punishing the media for broadcasting messages by banned organizations, despite the media being forced to do so under threat.[[fn:23]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "A. Direct attacks against journalists, activists and political candidates and groups"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See, for example, “Final report of the EU Election Observation Mission 2013”, available from www.eueom.eu/files/pressreleases/english/eu-eom-pakistan-2013-final-report_en.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Attacks on journalists, activists and political candidates and groups also occur in the context of measures to limit the enjoyment of the freedoms to associate and assemble during electoral processes. The prohibition of protests and demonstrations and the harassment and intimidation of demonstrators during electoral processes remain common means of impeding the free expression of political ideas and the free conduct of public political debate. Such restrictions may take the form of harsh penalties for protesters who fail to comply with articulated requirements.[[fn:24]] In some countries, suppression of the right to peacefully assemble in the lead-up to elections takes the form of arbitrary arrest of demonstrators. Such actions deter the exercise of free expression and assembly by activists, opposition supporters and civil society groups. Requirements that protests receive prior State approval can also impede the free exercise of rights by creating the conditions for bribery and manipulation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "A. Direct attacks against journalists, activists and political candidates and groups"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "In Azerbaijan, for example, amendments to the law on freedom of assembly in November 2012 saw the imposition of harsh fines on protesters and introduced a two-year prison sentence. See OHCHR, “UN experts urge Azerbaijan to recognize and enable the role of rights defenders in run up to elections”, press release, 4 October 2013."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Restrictions on political expression take a variety of forms – from defamation and slander laws, to blanket bans on critical expression relating to incumbent politicians, to the prohibition of whole media sources, outlets and websites – and impact not only the individuals or groups which might run afoul of them, but the media outlets or intermediaries that publish restricted, or what is considered to be illegal, political expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "B. Regulatory and legal measures that restrict or undermine freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Violations of the right to freedom of expression during electoral processes often take the form of State interference in media content. The adoption of laws to control or regulate political speech immediately before and during elections is an important concern in this regard. For example, a series of legislative measures in Azerbaijan, including the criminalization of “online slander or insults”, reportedly had the effect of restraining the role of the media in the lead-up to the October 2013 elections.[[fn:25]] Violations of the right to freedom of expression also arise more broadly when existing laws are selectively interpreted or enforced by the State to crack down on specific forms of media content. Laws that are overly broad in scope and incorporate insufficient accountability mechanisms and protections against abuse are vulnerable to selective interpretation and enforcement.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "B. Regulatory and legal measures that restrict or undermine freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Recent reports testify that States also seek to restrain free expression during elections by prohibiting access to certain media sources and outlets, for example through blocking online websites and blogs. In 2013, civil society reported restrictions on critical newspaper distribution networks, and the blocking of opposition websites, Facebook and YouTube in the run-up to four different elections. The Special Rapporteur publicly joined other experts in indicating their concern at reports of harassment of human rights defenders and attempts to silence media outlets and websites in Malaysia before elections scheduled to take place in May 2013.[[fn:26]] In March 2014, the Special Rapporteur voiced his serious concerns at Government measures taken to restrict access to YouTube and Twitter before elections in Turkey.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "B. Regulatory and legal measures that restrict or undermine freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "OHCHR, “Malaysia: UN rights experts call for the protection of NGOs working for free and fair elections”, press release, 7 June 2012."}, {"n": 27, "text": "OHCHR, “Turkey: First Twitter, now YouTube – UN rights experts concerned at attempts to restrict access before elections”, press release, 28 March 2014."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The effective functioning of a vibrant democratic political system rests on the realization by the State of its responsibility to ensure an environment in which a diverse range of political opinions and ideas can be freely and openly expressed and debated. The realization of the right to freedom of expression during electoral processes thus depends on the promotion of the independence and diversity of media and of the pluralism of political candidates and groups, by means of which political ideas can be tested, analysed and communicated to the voters.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "C. Absence of pluralistic political and media environments"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The media play a fundamental and critical role in guaranteeing and facilitating free expression during electoral processes: as the conduit between the voters and their political representatives, the media provide a platform for the transmission of political ideas; educate voters about candidates and their affiliations and about the election process itself; scrutinize political promises and test their strength and veracity; and ensure accountability in the electoral process by reflecting the mood of the populace, conducting polls, examining election procedures and identifying undue influence in the electoral process. The only way to ensure that each of the essential functions is conducted in an equal and unimpeded manner is to provide the media with an independent space to publish freely, without fear of retribution or attack.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "C. Absence of pluralistic political and media environments"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. A pluralistic electoral process is also undermined by the unregulated financing of, and spending by, political campaigns. As the Global Commission on Elections, Democracy and Security (a joint initiative by the Kofi Annan Foundation and the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance) recognized in 2012, “uncontrolled political finance threatens to hollow out democracy and rob it of its unique strengths”.[[fn:28]] In many countries, the absence of regulations controlling campaign financing and spending creates the conditions for wealthy individuals and groups to exert influence and power over political candidates and groups, and provides an unequal advantage to wealthy political participants. Furthermore, groups of organized criminals are able to exploit unregulated and unenforced political financing regimes to buy political influence and even protection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "C. Absence of pluralistic political and media environments"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Global Commission on Elections, Democracy and Security, “Deepening Democracy: A Strategy for Improving the Integrity of Elections Worldwide”, 2012, available from www.idea.int/publications/deepening-democracy/loader.cfm?csModule=security/getfile&pageid=54594, p. 3."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Unregulated campaign financing practices have recently been recognized by some authorities as a key contributor to political corruption.[[fn:29]] Countries such as Switzerland and Sweden have received criticism for the absence of national regulation of political financing, and political party financing systems in Denmark, Germany and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland have also been called into question by transparency advocates.[[fn:30]] Evaluations by the Council of Europe Group of States against Corruption on Andorra, Denmark and Malta[[fn:31]] identified as a concern the legal gaps allowing anonymous party and campaign financing, in contravention of its transparency recommendations.[[fn:32]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "C. Absence of pluralistic political and media environments"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See, for example, “Don’t Trivialise Corruption, Tackle It”, address by Dr. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala at TEDxEuston, available from www.modernghana.com/news/516652/1/dont-trivialise-corruption-tackle-it-dr-ngozi-okon.html."}, {"n": 30, "text": "Transparency International, “Money, politics, power: corruption risks in Europe”, www.transparency.org/enis/report, p. 13."}, {"n": 31, "text": "Council of Europe, Group of States against Corruption, Interim compliance report on Denmark (14–16 May 2012), Second compliance report on Malta (2–6 December 2013), Compliance report on Andorra (14–18 October 2013)."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See www.independent.com.mt/articles/2014-01-26/news/maltas-compliance-with-political-finance-reforms-globally-unsatisfactory-3789389827/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. A lack of laws regulating political financing and requiring full disclosure of information on the functioning of political organizations can also give rise to the suggestion or appearance of corruption, causing public mistrust in the political process. Research shows that in the vast majority of European countries, more than 50 per cent of people believe political parties to be “corrupt” or “extremely corrupt” because of illicit financing practices. The perception of widespread political corruption as a result of the failure to regulate political financing often precipitates demonstrations and unrest in the lead-up to elections.[[fn:33]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "C. Absence of pluralistic political and media environments"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "Transparency International, “Money, politics, power: corruption risks in Europe” (see footnote 30)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The State has a duty to provide a regulatory environment that facilitates a diverse range of political positions and ensures that voters have access to comprehensive, accurate and reliable information about all aspects of the electoral process. This may require the imposition of regulations that stipulate restrictions on campaigning, advertising, polling, spending and financing. Such restrictions must be designed to achieve the objective of providing a pluralistic and fair playing field, upon which political groups can communicate their ideas, and must have at their heart the protection and promotion of freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. In the present section, the Special Rapporteur attempts to canvass in broad terms the pillars of an equitable legal framework that would ensure the protection of the freedom of opinion and expression during electoral processes. He recognizes, however, that a plurality of political systems exists and does not attempt to prescribe, in absolute terms, how States should design their legal systems. He simply suggests the types of regulatory framework that are most conducive to protecting human rights in the context of political communications and electoral processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "States should take general measures to encourage a diverse and pluralistic political process that is hospitable to ideologies from across the political spectrum. An important element of achieving this is ensuring that all political candidates’ parties have access to the media for campaigning and advertising purposes. Public campaigning is the central means that political parties and candidates employ to publicize their platforms and express their opinions, and to communicate their message to the voters. Political campaigns generally employ a diverse range of mediums, from pamphlets, posters and direct mail-outs, to addresses via radio and television, online and in the print media. Access by all political candidates and parties to all campaigning mediums is essential to ensuring an equal and pluralistic electoral process that facilitates the free flow of information and ideas.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "1. Political campaigning and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. One important element of political campaigning during electoral processes is the provision to all parties and candidates of direct access to media outlets for allotted times. While the media play an essential role in facilitating political campaigns and providing scrutiny and analysis of political positions, direct access to broadcast media enables parties to speak in their own voice. The vast majority of established democracies have put in place regulations stipulating that all candidates be able to directly access publicly-owned broadcast media services for specific times on an equal basis. In some cases, these provisions also extend to access to privately owned broadcasters.[[fn:34]] The order of direct access is generally determined either on the basis of the previous performance of a given party or candidate, or through a ballot process. Media guidelines issued by the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC)[[fn:35]] include the principle of fair access to media outlets for all parties contesting the election, which was a central concern.[[fn:36]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "1. Political campaigning and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "See Global Campaign for Free Expression, “Freedom of expression and the Angolan elections”, available from www.article19.org/data/files/pdfs/publications/angola-foe-elections.pdf."}, {"n": 35, "text": "UNTAC, Media Guidelines for Cambodia (1992), pream., para. 4."}, {"n": 36, "text": "See especially ibid., guidelines 2, 4 and 7–10."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. It is essential to the protection of freedom of expression during electoral processes that political parities and candidates are free to express ideas and communicate about any issue that they see fit. Unregulated expression and access to information are at their most crucial during times of political change, and any restrictions upon political expression can seriously threaten the democratic process. The European Court of Human Rights has previously spoken out against restraints on political speech, particularly prior restraints.[[fn:37]] Accordingly, campaign speech should not be regulated or restrained, unless it falls within a well-recognized understanding of restricted expression as recognized under international human rights law. The United Nations Technical Team on the Malawi Referendum has noted that, in order to ensure free political expression during electoral processes, any restrictions on expression must be exceptional and “should not be so vague or broadly defined as to leave an overly wide margin of discretion to the authorities responsible for enforcing the law, since uncertainty over legal boundaries has a dampening effect on the exercise of this right [to freedom of expression] and may encourage discrimination in ... [the restrictions’] application”.[[fn:38]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "1. Political campaigning and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "For example, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) has ruled that, “freedom of political debate is at the very core of the concept a democratic society….” Lingens v. Austria, Judgment of 8 July 1986, Application No. 9815/82 (see footnote 7), para. 42."}, {"n": 38, "text": "Report of the United Nations Technical Team on the Conduct of a Free and Fair Referendum on the Issue of a One Party/Multiparty System in Malawi (15–21 Nov. 1992), para. 29."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Another way that political parties and candidates seek to publicize their platforms and garner votes is by paying for political advertising. The regulation of political advertising is a contentious issue. Whereas political advertising can be an important means by which political parties, particularly those with less public visibility, can educate voters, unlimited and unregulated paid political advertising increases dependence on campaign finance and gives an unfair advantage to well-financed political candidates.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "1. Political campaigning and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. States have taken a variety of approaches to paid political advertising. In some countries paid political advertising is a central pillar of political processes and is not strictly regulated.[[fn:39]] Other States, particularly those with a strong history of public broadcasting, have an outright prohibition of paid campaign advertising on radio and television.[[fn:40]] Some legal frameworks have taken a middle ground approach, putting in place financial limits on paid advertising spending, paired with rules on equitable pricing, timing, duration and scheduling of advertising.[[fn:41]] In other situations, it is the electoral authority which is mandated to allocate electoral publicity by channelling public funds to different contenders in proportion to previous election results, with basic minimum support assured for new parties.[[fn:42]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "1. Political campaigning and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "This is the case, for example, of the United States of America. See Centre for Law and Democracy, “Regulation of paid political advertising: a survey”, available from www.law-democracy.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/Elections-and-Broadcasting-Final.pdf."}, {"n": 40, "text": "This is the case, for example, in the United Kingdom, France, Ireland and Belgium: See Centre for Law and Democracy, “Regulation of Paid Political Advertising: A Survey” (see footnote 39)."}, {"n": 41, "text": "This is the case, for example, in Barbados, Canada and Poland; see Centre for Law and Democracy, “Regulation of paid political advertising: a survey” (see footnote 39)."}, {"n": 42, "text": "This would be the case of Mexico."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Those who support unregulated paid political advertising often argue that it is an essential guarantor of freedom of expression in political and electoral processes. However, where paid political advertising presents an unfair advantage to certain political parties over others, and increases reliance on campaign financing, it may create unequal conditions for electoral processes. The European Court of Human Rights has recently recognized this, stating that the prohibition of paid political advertising was a justifiable limitation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression because it could protect against “powerful financial groups with advantageous access to influential media … obtain[ing] competitive advantages in the area of paid advertising and thereby curtail[ing] a free and pluralist debate, of which the State remains the ultimate guarantor.”[[fn:43]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "1. Political campaigning and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "Case of Animal Defenders International v. The United Kingdom, Application no. 48876/08, 22 April 2013, para. [111]."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. States should therefore consider whether unrestricted paid political advertising may destabilize the playing field and impede the equal participation of certain parties or candidates in political campaigns. In all circumstances, paid political advertising should always be identified as such, and should not be disguised as news or editorial coverage.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "1. Political campaigning and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The ability of a political party to generate funds to support the various costs related to political communication and campaigning is an additional determining factor as to whether a party is able to participate fully in elections, and is thus a central pillar of ensuring plurality in political and electoral processes. A political party may be indirectly prevented from participating fully in an election if it is unable to raise financing from diverse sources. Poorly regulated political finance has the potential to undermine the integrity of elections by enabling individuals or groups to exert undue influence on political candidates or parties, and may facilitate vote buying or bribery. Equally, restrictions that limit the ways in which a political party may disburse funds raised may also impede full and free participation in political and electoral processes, while unlimited political spending benefits wealthier candidates and parties and undermines political equality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "1. Political campaigning and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Pluralistic electoral processes depend on the existence of a diverse range of media sources to convey ideas and educate the voters. States have the obligation to guarantee the right to access information and this entails, inter alia, promoting the independence and diversity of media. The media provide a platform for candidates to publicize their platforms and messages, and for analysing proposed policies, scrutinizing the political process and ensuring its integrity, and holding candidates and incumbents to account. A level electoral playing field is impossible without free, pluralistic and unrestricted media. To this end, national legal frameworks should be based on the fundamental premise that the media must be free from political influence and should not be restricted or regulated, particularly during electoral processes. Self-regulation is arguably the most effective means of ensuring that the media live up to their own ethical standards while remaining free from the influence of the State.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "2. Media diversity and independence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. However, the media must be encouraged to put in place mechanisms to ensure that all media actors adhere to the highest ethical standards of objective reporting, and guarantee equal coverage of political parties in a way that facilitates broad voter education and ensures all parties across the political spectrum are heard.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "2. Media diversity and independence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Where media are State-owned, national legal frameworks should ensure that all political parties have access to them and are treated fairly and equitably. When paid political advertising is allowed, private media outlets should be required to charge all parties and candidates the same rates without discrimination.[[fn:44]] The incumbent government or candidates should not be given preferential or disproportionately large media coverage.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "2. Media diversity and independence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "Global Commission on Elections, Democracy and Security, “Media access and freedom of expression”, available from www.idea.int/publications/ies/upload/10.%20Media%20access%20and%20freedom%20of%20expression.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. State-owned or public media broadcasters bear an extra responsibility to ensure that the political platforms of all candidates and parties across the political spectrum are given coverage. Furthermore, public media sources have an important role in ensuring critical analysis and the availability of countervailing viewpoints. Several national courts have ruled that State-run media have a responsibility to publish replies by critics of the Government to government statements on controversial issues.[[fn:45]] The Supreme Court of India, for example, recognized the right of reply to political statements in the columns of a government-owned publication. The Court held that a public-sector agency publishing an in-house journal, owing to its status as an instrument of government, had a duty of fairness to its readers, and demanded that both viewpoints be placed before its readers, however limited be their number, to enable them to draw their own conclusions.[[fn:46]] The media guidelines issued by UNTAC also set out the duty of balance and impartiality in detail. Guideline 8 provides: “Media outlets should give parties, groups or individuals whose views have been misrepresented or maligned by a publication or broadcast the ‘right of response’ in the same media outlet”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "2. Media diversity and independence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "Guidelines for Election Broadcasting in Transitional Democracies (1994, reprinted 1997), available from www.article19.org/data/files/pdfs/tools/electionbroadcastingtrans.pdf."}, {"n": 46, "text": "Manubhai Shah v. Life Insurance Corp. of India [1992] 3 SCC 637."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Any regulation requiring impartiality should only extend to licensed broadcasters, and should not purport to restrict the content of print or online media sources, which should be available as a means of communicating all political viewpoints. Self-regulation is the most appropriate means of ensuring that the media are able to fulfil their important duty to facilitate the free flow of ideas and communications across the political spectrum. The media must be empowered to publish any and all political communications and campaign speeches, including those containing criticism of an incumbent government or candidate.[[fn:47]] In a broad sense, media should not be made liable for disseminating, without endorsement, unlawful statements, or be restrained from publishing such statements; this principle is of particular importance during electoral processes given the imperative for timely dissemination of information. Imposing liability on the media promotes self-censorship by privately owned media and de facto government censorship of government-controlled media.[[fn:48]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "2. Media diversity and independence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "See Global Campaign for Free Expression, “Freedom of expression and the Angolan elections” (see footnote 35)."}, {"n": 48, "text": "Guidelines for Election Broadcasting in Transitional Democracies (see footnote 46), p. 58."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Critically, any regulatory framework pertaining to electoral processes must have as a key objective the achievement of transparency in all facets of political life and discourse. A transparent political process is open to scrutiny by the voters and the media, and enables all players in the process to be held accountable, from political candidates, to public broadcasters, to the electoral authorities. This is the most effective means of ensuring that opinions and ideas can be freely and fully expressed, communicated, debated and promoted during electoral processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "B. Ensuring transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Transparency of political financing is a critical prerequisite for any effective democratic process, and a key means of ensuring the equitable protection of free expression rights. Political finance may come either from private financing, in the form of individual campaign contributions or contributions from the private sector, or from public financing, where the Government contributes. Increasingly, States are focusing on regulating political finance to ensure transparency and to attempt to achieve an equal playing field for political parties.[[fn:49]] There is a general regulatory trend towards the restriction of private financing and the prohibition of donations from foreign States or companies, public authorities and anonymous persons. This is particularly the case given the rise of third-party financing, where individuals, or more often groups or corporate entities, campaign for or against a political party to which they are ostensibly unrelated.[[fn:50]] Whereas third-party financing can be an important means for private sector groups or civil society organizations to promote their chosen candidates or parties, it can also make it difficult for the voting public to know what interests are exerting influence on particular political parties and candidates.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "B. Ensuring transparency", "1. Political financing"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "See Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, “Transparency and integrity in political finance”, available from www.oecd.org/about/membersandpartners/publicaffairs/Transparency%20and%20Integrity%20in%20Political%20Finance.pdf."}, {"n": 50, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. At the same time, many States are moving towards increased public funding for political parties to promote a level playing field and reduce dependence on private funding. In some countries this takes the form of a direct transfer of money without restrictions upon its use; in others public financing includes free access to specific State services such as transport, media or government property, or tax exemptions on contributions made to political parties.[[fn:51]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "B. Ensuring transparency", "1. Political financing"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "Transparency and accountability around political financing are key to ensuring the fairness and integrity of elections. The Global Commission on Elections, Democracy and Security identified the regulation of uncontrolled, undisclosed or opaque political finance as one of five major challenges that must be overcome to conduct elections with integrity.[[fn:52]] Increasingly, States are setting limits on how parties may spend their funds, in order to reduce the costs of elections and minimize the potential for undue influence of donors on political candidates. Many States also require the disclosure of expenditure reports of parties and candidates, in order to promote public scrutiny and informed voting by citizens. Political finance reporting should be comprehensive, timely, available to the public and subject to stringent sanctions for inadequate disclosure or timeliness.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "B. Ensuring transparency", "1. Political financing"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "See Global Commission on Elections, Democracy and Security “Deepening Democracy: A Strategy for Improving the Integrity of Elections Worldwide”, 2012 (see footnote 28)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. Political finance is a key concern when protecting and promoting the freedom of opinion and expression in electoral and political processes are being considered. Restraining campaign spending and creating an equal playing field for political parties and candidates are key to ensuring that citizens have access to a diverse range of opinions and political choices. At the same time, the provision of financial support to a political party may in itself be an act of political expression. A careful balance must therefore be struck by each State, reflecting local political values and legal frameworks, while at the same time conforming with international human rights norms. This would require, at a minimum, that States ensure that there is independent monitoring and oversight of political financing, and that every effort is made to ensure that organized crime is prohibited from using campaign financing as a means to gain political influence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "B. Ensuring transparency", "1. Political financing"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. An essential area of transparency during electoral processes relates to the ownership of, and influence exerted over, the media. The increasing consolidation of media outlets in the hands of fewer and fewer companies is of serious concern in the context of political communication. Given the critical public service role played by the media, this monopolization undermines diversity of opinion, raises the risk that information will be controlled or censored, and creates opportunities for bribery, manipulation or exploitation by powerful political or social groups. Furthermore, with increasing frequency, national media sources are, in part or in full, foreign owned. While foreign ownership of media outlets does not in itself undermine the ability of media sources to promote freedom of opinion and expression, it obfuscates the influence structures and may create mistrust in the voting public.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "B. Ensuring transparency", "2. Media ownership and influence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Transparency of media ownership enables readers, viewers and voters to understand the structures of influence that underpin the campaign, advertising and editorial content that so often determine their political choices. States should find a way, either through regulatory policy or industry-led self-regulation processes, to promote greater transparency in media ownership and influence. The public has a right to know the identities of the corporate entities and individuals that influence the media sources upon which it relies for information during electoral processes. However, the requirement for transparency of private media ownership should not be used as a means of de facto media licensing.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "B. Ensuring transparency", "2. Media ownership and influence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. States should ensure that, in addition to promoting diversity of media ownership and making financing and influence structures transparent, they educate the public about the importance of understanding how media outlets are financed, and encourage critical thinking about how editorial content is developed and how it might reflect the persuasions or biases of media owners.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "B. Ensuring transparency", "2. Media ownership and influence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. The only way for States to ensure that freedom of opinion and expression is freely enjoyed and protected during electoral processes is to ensure that mechanisms are in place to monitor, record, address and provide redress for violations of free expression rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "C. Advancing accountability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Harassment of, and violence or threats against, journalists, bloggers or other members of the media, activists or political candidates or parties must be prohibited by law and subject to criminal penalties. Equally, as the Human Rights Council recognized in its resolution 21/12 on the safety of journalists, States must ensure accountability through the conduct of impartial, speedy and effective investigations into such acts and bring to justice those responsible, as well as ensuring that victims have access to appropriate remedies. Accountability mechanisms are the only way to ensure that such attacks do not occur with impunity, undermining not only the free expression rights of those involved, but the integrity of the electoral process. States should also ensure that legal frameworks protect the rights to peaceful assembly and association during electoral processes, and should eliminate any practical barriers to the conduct of protests and demonstrations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "C. Advancing accountability", "1. Redress for attacks against journalists, activists and political candidates"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. In many States, electoral commissions are endowed with a range of responsibilities that are an essential guarantee against violations of the right to freedom of expression during electoral processes. Those responsibilities include election monitoring, the regulation of political funding, the provision of direct access to public broadcasting media and the monitoring of political speech. However, electoral commissions are often badly resourced and lack the necessary regulatory mandate and enforcement powers to fulfil their responsibilities and guarantee accountability and transparency in the electoral process. In order to ensure that electoral commissions are integral in a free, fair and accountable democratic process, States should ensure that they are given sufficient financial and human resources, and enforcement powers, to carry out their duties effectively and efficiently.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "C. Advancing accountability", "2. Electoral commissions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Opinion polls can be an important source of accountability, by providing information for voters, educating them about the political landscape and contextualizing the electoral process. However, some argue that opinion polls may also operate to influence the voting pattern of electorates on the basis of the opinions of a small and non-representative segment of society. When opinion polls are conducted by corporate media entities, there are also concerns that they may allow the private sector to exert influence on the outcome of electoral processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "C. Advancing accountability", "3. Opinion polls"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. Concerns about the possible manipulation of opinion polls to influence electoral processes lead some States to restrict the dissemination of poll results for short periods leading up to an election; in general the period ranges from 24 to 36 hours. This restriction is sometimes justified by the limited capacity for verification of the methodology used by the polling agency before the election takes place. In order to ensure transparency and avoid the misuse of opinion polls, some countries have adopted requirements on the public disclosure of the methodology implemented in opinion polling exercises.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "C. Advancing accountability", "3. Opinion polls"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Exit polling, where voters are surveyed upon exiting a polling booth, are also considered risky when their results are reported while votes are being counted. Thus, many countries prevent the publication of exit polls until the conclusion of voting.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "C. Advancing accountability", "3. Opinion polls"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. Freedom of expression plays a central role in ensuring that political processes are open, free and fair, thus guaranteeing a functioning and effective democracy. The right to participate in public life cannot be fully realized without ensuring the right to freedom of opinion and expression in all its dimensions. Free elections become impossible if candidates and political groups are unable to freely promote their ideas or if the media cannot operate with safety and independence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. During electoral processes, States must ensure that the right to freedom of expression is guaranteed to political candidates and their supporters, opposition groups, political lobbies and the whole spectrum of media actors, from news media to bloggers, commentators and analysts. Political communications must be unhindered by restrictions that hamper the fluid exchange of opinions, whether such restrictions come in the form of explicit prohibitions of certain political positions, or limitations that indirectly “chill” the expression of the opinions of political groups, such as controls of media content or on public demonstrations. At the same time, the absence of a regulatory framework to control political financing and spending, or to ensure accountability and redress for rights violations, also undermines the ability of voters, political groups and the media to exercise the right to freedom of expression during electoral processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. The call for an open political debate should not be misunderstood as a call for unregulated political campaigns. The adequate regulation of political communications is crucial to ensuring a just and equitable space for public dialogue and access to information. In a democratic society, elections must never be ruled by market logic, with those having greater access to financial support controlling the public debate through their disproportionate access to publicity and the media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. Examples from around the world indicate that the regulation of political and electoral communications can both enhance and undermine the enjoyment of free expression rights during political processes. Therefore, States must carefully evaluate the impact of each norm and ensure that an equitable balance is struck in providing for a structural environment that will enhance freedom of expression while not hindering the independent role of the media or the content of political expression. To ensure the adequate translation of norms into practice, it is critical that judicial entities and electoral authorities tasked with overseeing respect for the right to freedom of expression in electoral processes are totally independent and sufficiently resourced to implement their mandates in a timely and effective way. States should also take measures to prevent speech that constitutes incitement to hatred, hostility, discrimination and violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. Whereas the international human rights framework does not establish specific prescriptions for national regulation of political and electoral communications, it does provide very clear guiding principles that should frame the establishment and implementation of all regulations. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that, besides promoting an adequate environment for the work of the media, States should seek to ensure the fulfilment of three key tenets in order to ensure the protection and promotion of freedom of expression during electoral processes: pluralism, transparency and accountability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. In conclusion, the Special Rapporteur provides the following recommendations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. In order to secure a diverse and pluralistic political process which is hospitable to candidates and parties from across the political spectrum, States should:\n(a) Remove any regulation of or restriction upon political speech and expression, outside of restrictions that fall within well-recognized understandings of the permissible limitations on freedom of expression as recognized in international human rights law;\n(b) Remove any restrictions or regulations that might place the media under political influence or compromise the vital role of the media as public watchdog; and take appropriate action, consistent with relevant human rights standards, to promote media diversity and prevent undue media dominance or concentration;\n(c) Put in place measures to ensure that all political candidates and parties have direct access to State-owned broadcast media services for specific times on an equal basis, which access is determined either on the basis of the previous performance of a given party or candidate or through a ballot process, and that they are treated fairly and equitably by those services;\n(d) Permanently assess the impact of private financing of political communication in the promotion of a plural debate; and consider adopting ceilings for donations to political campaigns in order to prevent financial imbalances from destabilizing the playing field and disproportionately limiting the participation of certain parties or candidates in political campaigns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Promote pluralism"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. The obligations to promote the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression require that States guarantee the transparency of all aspects of political and electoral processes, and should particularly put in place measures to:\n(a) Enact regulations requiring the submission of periodic financial reports by parties, political organizations and candidates, entailing full disclosure of all resources collected, in monetary form or in kind, and their origin, and all expenditure, in order to promote public scrutiny and informed voting by citizens. Political finance reporting should be comprehensive, timely, available to the public, and subject to stringent sanctions for inadequate disclosure or timeliness;\n(b) Put in place measures to ensure that, in all circumstances, paid political advertising is identified as such and not disguised as news or editorial coverage, and that the origin of its financial backing is evident;\n(c) Ensure that the implementation of political financing regulations is overseen, monitored and enforced by the electoral authorities, the judiciary and other independent bodies;\n(d) Take measures to prevent those involved in criminal activity from using campaign financing as a means to gain political influence;\n(e) Promote transparency of media ownership, making public the identity of the owners and how it might reflect their persuasions or biases;\n(f) Ensure that there is sufficient transparency around the means and methodology of opinion polling; and consider prohibiting the dissemination of polling results 24 to 36 hours preceding voting.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Ensure transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Accountability mechanisms are a crucial means of ensuring that regulatory frameworks are enforced and abuses of power are rectified. Impunity is a root cause of the lack of safety faced by journalists. In the context of promoting free expression during electoral processes, States should:\n(a) Ensure that electoral authorities or independent oversight bodies are given sufficient financial and human resources, and enforcement powers to carry out their duties effectively, making all political entities accountable for irregularities, including all forms of abuse of political and economic powers;\n(b) Guarantee the safety of journalists and media workers; legislative and policy measures must be adopted to prevent attacks against journalists and to eradicate impunity in relation to episodes of violence and intimidation;\n(c) Call on journalists and the media to seek the highest standards of professionalism and ethics through the promotion of self-regulation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Ensure accountability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0001", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report is submitted to the General Assembly by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression pursuant to Human Rights Council resolutions 7/36 and 16/4. In particular, in resolution 7/36, the Council requested the Special Rapporteur “to continue to provide his/her views, when appropriate, on the advantages and challenges of new information and communications technologies, including the Internet and mobile technologies, for the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to seek, receive and impart information and the relevance of a wide diversity of sources, as well as access to the information society for all”.[[fn:1]] On that basis, the report expands upon the last report submitted to the Council by the Special Rapporteur on key trends and challenges to the right of all individuals to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds through the Internet (A/HRC/17/27).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Human Rights Council resolution 7/36, para. 4 (f)."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0002", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The report addresses the issue through two equally important dimensions of Internet access: access to content online (sect. III), and access to Internet connection (sect. IV). While there are countries where Internet access is widely available, online content may be heavily restricted. In other countries, even though individuals may have access to online content free of censorship, Internet access may not be widely available for the majority of the population. The Special Rapporteur thus emphasizes that both aspects of access should be effectively ensured by all States as part of their existing obligation to respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0003", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. On 6 and 7 April 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated as an expert in the second regional workshop on the prohibition of incitement to national, racial or religious hatred in Nairobi, organized by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0004", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Between 1 and 3 May 2011, the Special Rapporteur took part in a number of events and conferences for the World Press Freedom Day in Washington, D.C. On 16 and 17 May, the Special Rapporteur participated as a panellist in a conference on “Civil protest and peaceful change: Upholding human rights”, organized by the Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights. On 30 and 31 May, the Special Rapporteur participated in a conference with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Parliament of the Netherlands, and in a conference at the University of Leiden.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0005", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. On 1 and 2 June 2011, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Hungary, at the invitation of the Government, to meet with members of the Parliament and civil society representatives concerning media legislation. On 3 June, the Special Rapporteur presented his annual report to the Human Rights Council in Geneva. On 5 June, the Special Rapporteur participated in a panel on freedom of expression and youth violence prevention at the General Assembly of the Organization of American States.", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0006", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. On 6 and 7 July 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated as an expert in the third of the regional workshops on the prohibition of incitement to national, racial or religious hatred in Bangkok, organized by OHCHR. From 8 to 16 July, the Special Rapporteur participated in a series of academic events organized by civil society organizations in Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia and Indonesia.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0007", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. From 10 to 17 April 2011, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Algeria. The mission report will be presented at a future session of the Human Rights Council in 2012. The press release with his initial conclusions and recommendations can be found on the OHCHR website.[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Country visits", "1. Missions undertaken in 2011"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Available from http://www.ohchr.org."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0008", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The visit of the Special Rapporteur to Israel and the Occupied Palestinian territory has been postponed. The visit will take place from 4 to 18 December 2011.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Country visits", "2. Upcoming missions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0009", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. As of March 2011, the following visit requests from the Special Rapporteur were pending: the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (requested 2003 and 2009); the Islamic Republic of Iran (requested February 2010); Sri Lanka (requested June 2009); Tunisia (requested 2009); and Uganda (requested 2011).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Country visits", "3. Pending requests"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0010", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The Internet has become a vital communications medium which individuals can use to exercise their right to freedom of expression, or the right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, as guaranteed under articles 19 of both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Like no other communications medium before it, the Internet allows individuals to communicate instantaneously and inexpensively, and it has had a dramatic impact on the way information and ideas are shared and accessed, and on journalism itself.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text: 'articles 19 of both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'. Regex_ref=ICCPR, explicit treaty=ICCPR. While UDHR is also cited, the mandatory ICCPR reference is explicit and unambiguous."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0011", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. While the Internet offers new and expanded opportunities to disseminate and access information and ideas of all kinds, it would be naive and dangerous to ignore its simultaneous use as a tool to monitor, identify, locate and target individuals who disseminate critical or sensitive information via the Internet. Moreover, the vast amount of personal information that is made available online, including through social networking sites, also pose serious concerns regarding the right to privacy, such as who has access to specific personal information, how the information is used, and whether, and for how long, the information is stored. The Special Rapporteur has previously underscored the importance of the role of Governments in fully guaranteeing the right to privacy of all individuals, without which the right to freedom of opinion and expression cannot be fully enjoyed.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See A/HRC/17/27, paras. 53-59."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0012", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Despite the potential for the Internet to be misused in illegal activities, the Special Rapporteur believes that the Internet can primarily be used as a positive tool to increase transparency over the conduct of those in power, access diverse sources of information, facilitate active citizen participation in building democratic societies and counter authoritarian regimes, as demonstrated by the “Arab spring”. Hence, the Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate that, as a general rule, there should be as little restriction as possible to the flow of information on the Internet, except under a few, very exceptional and limited circumstances prescribed by international law for the protection of other human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0013", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Anyone with access to the Internet can now potentially disseminate information to a global audience. In situations where journalists have limited access, for example during times of humanitarian crises or natural disasters, images recorded on mobile phones or messages posted online by bloggers and social networking sites have played a key role in keeping the international community informed of the situation on the ground. Indeed, with the increased use of Web 2.0 platforms, information is no longer an exclusive preserve of professional journalists, since a far wider range of people take part in gathering, filtering and distributing news. “Crowdsourcing” is one example which exemplifies such a trend. At the same time, traditional communications media, such as television, radio and newspaper, can also use the Internet to expand their audiences at nominal cost. While the increasing relevance and reliance on amateur videos and first-hand account of events posted on the Internet have had a profound effect on the news industry, professional journalists continue to play an indispensable role in researching, organizing and providing analysis and context to news events. The Internet should thus be seen as a complementary medium to mass media that has been based on a one-way transmission of information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0014", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. The Special Rapporteur reiterates that the framework of international human rights law, in particular the provisions relating to the right to freedom of expression, continues to remain relevant and applicable to the Internet. Indeed, by explicitly providing that everyone has the right to freedom of expression through any media of choice, regardless of frontiers, articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights were drafted with the foresight to include and accommodate future technological developments through which individuals may exercise this right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text: 'articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights were drafted with the foresight to include and accommodate future technological developments'. Regex=ICCPR, explicit_treaty=ICCPR. The ICCPR citation is co-equal but the mandatory treaty is clear."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0015", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Hence, the types of information or expression that may be restricted under international human rights law in relation to offline content also apply to online content. Similarly, any restriction applied to the right to freedom of expression exercised through the Internet must also comply with international human rights law, including the following three-part, cumulative criteria:\n(a) Any restriction must be provided by law, which must be formulated with sufficient precision to enable an individual to regulate his or her conduct accordingly and must be made accessible to the public;\n(b) Any restriction must pursue one of the legitimate grounds for restriction set out in article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant, namely (i) respect of the rights or reputation of others; or (ii) the protection of national security or of public order, or of public health or morals;\n(c) Any restriction must be proven as necessary and proportionate, or the least restrictive means to achieve one of the specified goals listed above.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0016", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the recently adopted general comment No. 34 of the Human Rights Committee on article 19 of the International Covenant, which underscores that when a State invokes a legitimate ground for restriction of the right to freedom of expression, it must demonstrate in specific and individualized fashion the precise nature of the threat, the necessity and the proportionality of the specific action taken, in particular by establishing a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the threat.[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 36."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0017", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. The Special Rapporteur also deems it appropriate to reiterate that the restriction must not put in jeopardy the right itself, and the relationship between right and restriction and between norm and exception must not be reversed.[[fn:5]] In addition, any legislation restricting the right to freedom of expression must be applied by a body that is independent of any political, commercial or other unwarranted influences in a manner which is neither arbitrary nor discriminatory, and with adequate safeguards against abuse, including the possibility of challenge and remedy against its abusive application.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Ibid., para. 21."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0018", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The Special Rapporteur underscores that there are differences between illegal content, which States are required to prohibit under international law, such as child pornography, and those that are considered harmful, offensive, objectionable or undesirable, but which States are neither required to prohibit nor criminalize. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur believes that it is important to make a clear distinction between three types of expression: (a) expression that constitutes an offence under international law and can be prosecuted criminally; (b) expression that is not criminally punishable but may justify a restriction and a civil suit; and (c) expression that does not give rise to criminal or civil sanctions, but still raises concerns in terms of tolerance, civility and respect for others. These different categories of content pose different issues of principle and call for different legal and technological responses.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0019", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. In the light of the ongoing debate regarding the regulation of content on the Internet, the Special Rapporteur outlines the types of expression which States are exceptionally required to prohibit under international criminal law and/or international human rights law (III.A) and then refers to impermissible restrictions (III.B).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0020", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Addressing child pornography online has become a major focus for regulation owing to the fact that the Internet has become the main gateway for the distribution of such content. The dissemination of child pornography is explicitly prohibited under international law, notably in the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography (defined in article 2 (c)). The Optional Protocol requires States parties to ensure that, as a minimum, producing, distributing, disseminating, importing, exporting, offering, selling or possessing child pornography (for purposes set out in article 3) are fully covered under its criminal or penal law, whether such offences are committed domestically or transnationally or on an individual or organized basis (article 3, para. 1 (c)).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "1. Child pornography"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "2", "treaty": "CRC-OPSC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'defined in article 2 (c)' referring to the Optional Protocol to the CRC on the sale of children — CRC-OPSC art. 2 (definition of child pornography). Regex defaulted to CRC but textual evidence is unambiguous."}, {"article": "3", "treaty": "CRC-OPSC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "First occurrence: 'for purposes set out in article 3' — the same Optional Protocol (CRC-OPSC) art. 3 (offences to be criminalised)."}, {"article": "3", "paragraph": "1", "treaty": "CRC-OPSC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second occurrence: 'article 3, para. 1 (c)' — explicitly CRC-OPSC art. 3(1)(c)."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0021", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Child pornography is therefore a clear exception to the rule, and dissemination of content via the Internet is legitimately restricted, and States are even required to prohibit it as a criminal offence. As noted by the Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography in her report to the Council at its twelfth session, the relevant legislation should be clear and comprehensive and should treat child pornography on the Internet as a grave violation of the rights of the child and as a criminal act.[[fn:6]] The Special Rapporteur considers that child pornography constitutes an act of violence against children and an offence to their human dignity, which provokes more violence against children. Moreover, the victim’s privacy must be protected and appropriate protection measures and care adapted to the needs and characteristics of children must be available.Error: Reference source not found", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "1. Child pornography"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See A/HRC/12/23."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0022", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. The Special Rapporteur underscores that, as with any limitation, legislation prohibiting the dissemination of child pornography through the Internet, for example through the use of blocking and filtering technologies, must be sufficiently precise, and that there must be adequate and effective safeguards against abuse or misuse, including oversight and review by an independent and impartial tribunal or regulatory body. In addition, the Special Rapporteur reiterates that given the links between the sale of children, trafficking in children, forced labour, child prostitution, sex tourism and child pornography, States must also go beyond blocking measures to address the root causes of exploitation of children in a holistic manner and must investigate and prosecute those responsible.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "1. Child pornography"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0023", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. International criminal law prohibits direct and public incitement to commit genocide under article 3 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, article 25, 3 (e), of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, article 4, 3 (c), of the statute of the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, and article 2, 3 (c), of the statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. Incitement to commit genocide has historically been justified as a criminal offence owing to the particularly reprehensible nature of genocide as “the crime of crimes”.[[fn:7]] Indeed, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda has repeatedly underscored the “utmost gravity” of the crime of direct and public incitement to genocide, and has stressed that the media as a key tool used by extremists in Rwanda to mobilize and incite the population to genocide, a view which led it to deny an application by Georges Ruggiu for early release.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "2. Direct and public incitement to commit genocide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See Prosecutor v. Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96-4-T, October 1998, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Prosecutor v. Riggiu, Case No. ICTR-97-32-S (Trial Chamber), 12 May 2005, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "25", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0024", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Since the first conviction for the crime of incitement to commit genocide in 1998,Error: Reference source not found this subject has become the focus of a substantial new body of jurisprudence.[[fn:9]] There are three defining requirements of the crime: it must be direct, public and committed with specific intent (mens rea). The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda has interpreted “direct and public” to include many forms of communication, by stating that “direct and public incitement must be defined … as directly provoking the perpetrator(s) to commit genocide, whether through speeches, shouting or threats uttered in public places or at public gatherings, or through the sale or dissemination, offer for sale or display of written material or printed matter in public places or at public gatherings, or through the public display or placards or posters, or through any other means of audiovisual communication”.Error: Reference source not found", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "2. Direct and public incitement to commit genocide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See, inter alia, Prosecutor v. Nahimana et al., Case No. ICTR-99-52-A, 28 November 2007, and Prosecutor v. Simon Bikindi, Case No. ICTR-01-72-T, 2 December 2008, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0025", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The Special Rapporteur notes the concern that the Internet may be used as a means of inciting others to commit genocide, particularly given its capacity to reach a large audience. In order to prevent any excessive and undue limitation to the right to freedom of expression, the Special Rapporteur underscores that incitement to commit genocide must first be prohibited in domestic law and that any restriction imposed, for example through blocking or removing such expression via the Internet, must only be applied after a careful assessment of the threat of such expression to directly incite genocide, including factors such as the speaker, the intended audience, the content or meaning of the speech, the socio-historical context, the mode of transmission,[[fn:10]] and other indicators as outlined by the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination in its decision on follow-up to the declaration on the prevention of genocide (CERD/C/67/1). The Special Rapporteur also underlines that incitement to commit genocide, which is of utmost gravity, must be distinguished from other types of incitement, such as incitement to discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "2. Direct and public incitement to commit genocide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See the contribution to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) Initiative on Incitement to National, Racial or Religious Hatred by Susan Benesch, consultant to the United Nations Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, 2011 (see http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/opinion/articles1920_iccpr/experts_papers.htm)."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0026", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. The dissemination of “hate speech” via the Internet has also spurred efforts to regulate online content. There is, however, no definition of hate speech in international law, and the Special Rapporteur notes that many forms of hate speech do not meet the level of seriousness set out in article 20, paragraph 2, of the International Covenant, which stipulates that States shall prohibit by law any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "3. Advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0027", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. As noted in the recently adopted general comment No. 34 on article 19 of the International Covenant by the Human Rights Committee, articles 19 and 20 of the Covenant are compatible with and complement each other, and the acts that are addressed in article 20 are all subject to restriction pursuant to article 19, paragraph 3. Hence, a limitation that is justified on the basis of article 20 must also comply with article 19, paragraph 3.[[fn:11]] Moreover, the Committee has clarified that what distinguishes the acts addressed in article 20 from other acts that may be subject to restriction under article 19, paragraph 3, is that for the acts addressed in article 20, the Covenant indicates the specific response required from the State: their prohibition by law. It is only to this extent that article 20 may be considered as lex specialis with regard to article 19.[[fn:12]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "3. Advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 50."}, {"n": 12, "text": "Ibid., para. 51."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0028", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. There are two key elements of the type of expression that is prohibited under article 20, paragraph 2, of the International Covenant: first, only advocacy of hatred[[fn:13]] is covered, and second, it must constitute incitement[[fn:14]] to one of the three listed results. Thus, advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred is not a breach of article 20, paragraph 2, of the Covenant on its own. Such advocacy becomes an offence only when it also constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence; in other words, when the speaker seeks to provoke reactions (perlocutionary acts) on the part of the audience,Error: Reference source not found and there is a very close link between the expression and the resulting risk of discrimination, hostility or violence. In this regard, context is central to the determination of whether or not a given expression constitutes incitement.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "3. Advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "As noted in principle 12.1 of the Camden Principles on Freedom of Expression and Equality, “hatred” refers to intense and irrational emotions of opprobrium, enmity and detestation towards the target group. Available from http://www.article19.org/data/files/pdfs/standards/the-camden-principles-on-freedom-of-expression-and-equality.pdf."}, {"n": 14, "text": "The term “incitement” refers to statements about national, racial or religious groups which create an imminent risk of discrimination, hostility or violence against persons belonging to those groups (principle 12.1 of the Camden Principles)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0029", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. As highlighted in joint papers for a series of expert workshops on the prohibition of incitement to national, racial or religious hatred organized by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) in 2011,[[fn:15]] the Special Rapporteur remains concerned by the vague formulation of some domestic legal provisions that prohibit incitement. These include combating “incitement to religious unrest”, “promoting division between religious believers and non-believers”, “defamation of religion”, “inciting to violation”, “instigating hatred and disrespect against the ruling regime”, “inciting subversion of state\npower” and “offences that damage public tranquillity”.[[fn:16]] Such vague and broad terms clearly do not meet the criterion of legal clarity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "3. Advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "Available from http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/opinion/articles1920_iccpr/experts_papers.htm."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Joint submission by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief and the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance is available from http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/opinion/articles1920_iccpr/docs/experts_papers.htm."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0030", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The Special Rapporteur reiterates that restrictions must be formulated in a way that makes clear that its sole purpose is to protect individuals from hostility, discrimination or violence, rather than to protect belief systems, religions or institutions as such from criticism. The right to freedom of expression implies that it should be possible to scrutinize, openly debate and criticize, even harshly and unreasonably, ideas, opinions, belief systems and institutions, including religious ones, as long as this does not advocate hatred that incites hostility, discrimination or violence against an individual or a group of individuals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "3. Advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0031", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. In addition, article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination stipulates that States parties shall declare all dissemination of ideas based on racial superiority or hatred and incitement to racial discrimination an offence punishable by law. In its general recommendation No. 15, the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination stated that “in the opinion of the Committee, the prohibition of the dissemination of all ideas based upon racial superiority or hatred is compatible with the right to freedom of opinion and expression”.[[fn:17]] Moreover, the Committee has also stated that it regards article 4 of the Convention as a mandatory obligation of States parties to the Convention. It regards the obligation as consistent with the freedoms of opinion and expression affirmed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and notes that such kind of acts mentioned above specifically outlaws inciting racial discrimination, hatred and violence. It views the provisions as necessary to prevent organized racial violence.[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "3. Advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cerd/comments.htm."}, {"n": 18, "text": "Presentation at the Bangkok workshop on the prohibition of incitement to national, racial or religious hatred by Huang Yongan, July 2011, available from http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/opinion/articles1920_iccpr/docs/expert_papers_Bangkok/HuangYongan.pdf."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly names 'article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination' for both instances."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second reference also explicitly names CERD art. 4 as a mandatory obligation of States parties to that Convention."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0032", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. In addition to the four types of incitement discussed above, a fifth form of incitement, incitement to terrorism, is the subject of Security Council resolution 1624 (2005), in which the Council called upon States to “prohibit by law incitement to commit a terrorist act or acts” and to prevent such conduct.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "4. Incitement to terrorism"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0033", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The Special Rapporteur is concerned, however, particularly given the absence of an agreed definition of “terrorism” in international law,[[fn:19]] that States have a broad margin of discretionary power to interpret what kinds of expression constitute incitement to terrorism. Noting this lacuna, the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism has proposed a model definition of terrorism, as well as incitement to terrorism, based on best practices. With regard to the latter, he has proposed the following formulation as the model offence of incitement to terrorism: “it is an offence to intentionally and unlawfully distribute or otherwise make available a message to the public with the intent to incite the commission of a terrorist offence, where such conduct, whether or not expressly advocating terrorist offences, causes a danger that one or more such offences may be committed”.[[fn:20]] This formulation encompasses two requirements: (a) an intent to incite the commission of a terrorist offence; and (b) the existence of an actual risk that such an offence will be committed as a consequence.[[fn:21]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "4. Incitement to terrorism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "The United Nations defines terrorism indirectly by relying on 16 international legal instruments which define “terrorist acts”, see http://www.un.org/terrorism/instruments.shtml."}, {"n": 20, "text": "See A/HRC/16/51, para. 32."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See A/HRC/6/17/Add.1, A/HRC/10/3/Add.2 and A/HRC/16/51."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0034", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The Special Rapporteur reiterates that any domestic criminal laws that prohibit incitement to terrorism must meet the three-part test of restrictions to the right to freedom of expression. This entails that incitement of terrorism: (a) must be limited to the incitement of conduct that is truly terrorist in nature, as properly defined;[[fn:22]] (b) must restrict the right to freedom of expression no more than is necessary for the protection of national security, public order and safety or public health or morals; (c) must be prescribed in law in precise language, including by avoiding reference to vague terms such as “glorifying” or “promoting” terrorism; (d) must include an actual (objective) risk that the act incited will be committed; (e) should expressly refer to two elements of intent, namely intent to communicate a message and intent that this message incite the commission of a terrorist act; and (f) should preserve the application of legal defences or principles leading to the exclusion of criminal liability by referring to “unlawful” incitement to terrorism.[[fn:23]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "4. Incitement to terrorism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "The Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism has proposed the following model definition of terrorism: “Terrorism means an action or attempted action where: “1. The action: (a) Constituted the intentional taking of hostages; or (b) Is intended to cause death or serious bodily injury to one or more members of the general population or segments of it; or (c) Involved lethal or serious physical violence against one or more members of the general population or segments of it; and “2. The action is done or attempted with the intention of: (a) Provoking a state of terror in the general public or a segment of it; or (b) Compelling a Government or international organization to do or abstain from doing something; and “3. The action corresponds to: (a) The definition of a serious offence in national law, enacted for the purpose of complying with international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism or with resolutions of the Security Council relating to terrorism; or (b) All elements of a serious crime defined by national law.” (A/HRC/51, para. 28)."}, {"n": 23, "text": "A/HRC/16/51, para. 31."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0035", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. At the same time, as noted by the Working Group on Countering the Use of Internet for Terrorist Purposes, one of the nine working groups of the Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force, the available means to suppress content deemed to be incitement to terrorism are often “clumsy or ineffective, or both”,[[fn:24]] and thus it may be more effective to devise strategies that work with the Internet rather than against it, including the dissemination of rapid counter-narratives to extremist messages which constitute incitement to terrorism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "4. Incitement to terrorism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Report of the Working Group on Countering the Use of the Internet for Terrorist Purposes, para. 88 (available from http://www.un.org/terrorism/pdfs/wg6-internet_rev1.pdf)."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0036", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. That being the case, in addition to the prohibition of incitement to terrorism in domestic legislation, the Special Rapporteur notes that, at a practical level, a more effective strategy than attempting to restrict materials deemed to incite terrorism may be to use the Internet as a positive means of countering such incitement. Participants at the Riyadh Conference on the Use of the Internet to Counter the Appeal of Extremist Violence recommended, inter alia, that counter-narratives should be disseminated through all relevant media channels, including on social networking websites, to counter the appeal of extremist messages.[[fn:25]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "4. Incitement to terrorism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "Riyadh Conference on the Use of the Internet to Counter the Appeal of Extremist Violence,24-26 January 2011, summary and follow-up recommendations available from http://www.un.org/terrorism/pdfs/CTITF%20Riyadh%20Conference%20-%20Summary%20&%20Recommendations.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0037", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The four types of expression examined above (III.A) fall under the first category of the types of expression that constitute offences under international criminal law and/or international human rights law and which States are required to prohibit at the domestic level. However, as they all constitute restrictions to the right to freedom of expression, they must also comply with the three-part test of prescription by: unambiguous law; pursuance of a legitimate purpose; and respect for the principles of necessity and proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "B. Impermissible restrictions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0038", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. The most common method of restricting the types of prohibited expression on the Internet is through the blocking of content (see III.A above). In this regard, the Special Rapporteur reiterates the recommendations made in his most recent report to the Human Rights Council that States should provide full details regarding the necessity and justification for blocking a particular website, and determination of what content should be blocked should be undertaken by a competent judicial authority or a body which is independent of any political, commercial, or other unwarranted influences to ensure that blocking is not used as a means of censorship.[[fn:26]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "B. Impermissible restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "A/HRC/17/27, para. 70."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0039", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. In addition, the Human Rights Committee has affirmed that any “restrictions on the operation of websites, blogs or any other Internet-based, electronic or other such information dissemination system, including systems to support such communication, such as Internet service providers or search engines, are only permissible to the extent that they are compatible with paragraph 3 [of article 19]. Permissible restrictions generally should be content-specific; generic bans on the operation of certain sites and systems are not compatible with paragraph 3. It is also inconsistent with paragraph 3 to prohibit a site or an information dissemination system from publishing material solely on the basis that it may be critical of the government or the political social system espoused by the government”.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "B. Impermissible restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 43."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0040", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Moreover, given the importance of the right to freedom of expression and free flow of information as a foundation for every free and democratic society,[[fn:28]] the Special Rapporteur underscores that all other types of expression that are not mentioned above should not be criminalized, including defamation laws aimed at protecting the reputation of individuals, as criminalization can be counter-effective and the threat of harsh sanctions exert a significant chilling effect on the right to freedom of expression. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur reiterates the view that for the types of expression that do not rise to criminal or civil sanctions, but still raise concerns in terms of civility and respect for others, effort should be focused on addressing the root causes of such expression, including intolerance, racism and bigotry by implementing strategies of prevention.16", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "B. Impermissible restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Ibid., para. 2."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0041", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. To do so, and to bring about real changes in mindsets, perceptions and discourse, a broad set of policy measures are necessary, for example in the areas of intercultural dialogue or education for diversity, equality and justice and in strengthening freedom of expression and promoting a “culture of peace”. Indeed, the Special Rapporteur has previously stated that the strategic response to expressions deemed as offensive or intolerant is more speech: more speech that educates about cultural differences; more speech that promotes diversity and understanding; more speech to empower and give voice to minorities and indigenous peoples, for example through the support of community media and their representation in mainstream media.16 More speech can be the best strategy to reach out to individuals, changing what they think and not merely what they do, as has been recognized in the outcome document of the Durban Review Conference, which also affirmed the role that the right to freedom of opinion and expression can play in the fight against racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance worldwide.[[fn:29]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "B. Impermissible restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "A/CONF.211/8, chap. I, para. 58."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0042", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur stresses that, as stipulated in Human Rights Council resolution 12/16 (para. 5 (p) (i)), the following types of expression should never be subject to restrictions: discussion of government policies and political debate; reporting on human rights, government activities and corruption in government; engaging in election campaigns, peaceful demonstrations or political activities, including for peace or democracy; and expression of opinion and dissent, religion or belief, including by persons belonging to minorities or vulnerable groups.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "B. Impermissible restrictions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0043", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Similarly, the Human Rights Committee has asserted that article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on limitations “may never be invoked as a justification for the muzzling of any advocacy of multi-party democracy, democratic tenets and human rights. Nor, under any circumstance, can an attack on a person, because of the exercise of his or her freedom of opinion and expression, including such forms of attack as arbitrary arrest, torture, threats to life and killing, be compatible with article 19”.[[fn:30]] The Committee has also noted that journalists and bloggers are frequently subjected to such threats, intimidation and attacks because of their activities, as are persons who engage in the gathering and analysis of information on the human rights situation and who publish human rights-related reports, including judges and lawyers. Indeed, the Special Rapporteur remains deeply concerned about such threats and attacks against, as well as killings and imprisonment, of bloggers, journalists and human rights defenders who rely upon the Internet to carry out their work.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "B. Impermissible restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 23."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0044", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. States should thus forbid restrictions to the right to freedom of expression, except for the specific categories mentioned above, in order to prevent the illegitimate imprisonment of individuals and should vigorously investigate all attacks and prosecute the perpetrators in a timely fashion and, in the case of killings, provide effective redress to the victims’ representatives.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "B. Impermissible restrictions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0045", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. In addition to the availability of relevant content online which is free of censorship, the Special Rapporteur also notes the importance of ensuring that individuals possess the necessary skills to make full use of the Internet, or what is often referred to as “digital literacy”. The Special Rapporteur encourages States to provide support for training in information and communications technology (ICT) skills, which can range from basic computer skills to creating web pages. In terms of the right to freedom of expression, course modules should not only clarify the benefits of accessing information online, but also of responsibly contributing information, which can also contribute to combating the third type of expression mentioned above.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0046", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. In addition, the Special Rapporteur believes that Internet literacy should be included in school curricula, as well as in learning modules outside of schools. One example is the ThutoNet programme in Botswana, which will not only provide all schools in Botswana with computers and access to the Internet, but will train teachers on how to use ICT as a classroom tool, including formal ICT education as part of the school curriculum. This programme aims to assist the country’s children for success in the digital age, and will also involve the development of locally produced educational software to assist with e-learning and to ensure local content and subject relevance.[[fn:31]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "See International Telecommunication Union (ITU)/United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Broadband: A Platform for Progress, a report by the Broadband Commission for Digital Development, June 2011 (see http://www.broadbandcommission.org/report2/full-report.pdf)."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0047", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. The Special Rapporteur also underscores the importance of educating individuals about Internet safety and security, including fraud, potential consequences of revealing private information on the Internet and the use of encryption or circumvention technologies to protect information from unwarranted interference, which is of particular importance for human rights defenders. Children should also be trained from an early age with regard to Internet safety.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0048", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur calls upon States to empower marginalized groups by ensuring that they receive effective digital literacy training. As the Special Rapporteur has noted in his previous reports, it is critical to strengthen the voice of those without power, especially people living in extreme poverty. Having access to the Internet allows people who are disadvantaged, discriminated against or marginalized to obtain information, assert their rights and participate in the public debate concerning social and political changes. Furthermore, the Internet allows minorities and indigenous peoples to express and reproduce their cultures, language and traditions, preserving their heritage and making a valuable contribution to others in a truly multicultural world. However, basic ICT skills are essential if users are to benefit from the full potential of the Internet.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0049", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Persons with disabilities often face additional obstacles in making full and effective use of the Internet. For example, in the United States of America, where 81 per cent of the total population has access to the Internet, this figure reaches only 54 per cent among people with disabilities.[[fn:32]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "1. Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "Susannah Fox, “Americans living with disability and their technology profile”, Pew Internet & American Life Project, 21 January 2011 (http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2011/Disability.aspx)."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0050", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities outlines general principles to which States that have ratified the Convention should adhere, including full and effective participation and inclusion in society and accessibility (article 3, paras. (c) and (f)). The Convention further stipulates that States should “promote the availability and use of new technologies, including information and communications technologies, mobility aids, devices and assistive technologies, suitable for persons with disabilities, giving priority to technologies at an affordable cost” (article 4, para. 1 (g)), and “promote access for persons with disabilities to new information and communications technologies and systems, including the Internet” (article 9, para. 2 (g)). To ensure fulfilment of these obligations, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has recommended the following principles for ICT accessibility: equal access, functional equivalency, accessibility, affordability and design for all.[[fn:33]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "1. Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See ITU, “e-Accessibility Policy Handbook for Persons with Disabilities”, 2010."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRPD", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CRPD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CRPD", "article": "9", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0051", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. The Special Rapporteur underscores that the needs of persons with disabilities should be taken into account when designing and implementing Internet infrastructure at all levels. This can be in relation to distribution, user facilities as well as access devices.31 Some positive examples include the “Community Access” programme in Canada, which seeks to provide an appropriate number of sites with enhanced accessibility to meet the broad range of needs of persons with disabilities. The programme also aims to provide Internet access to less likely users, such as individuals with low incomes, rural or Aboriginal population, the elderly and immigrants.[[fn:34]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Persons with disabilities", "Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "1. Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "http://www.ic.gc.ca/cic/site/cap-pac.nsf/eng/home."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0052", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. In the United States of America, the Senate unanimously passed the “Twenty-first Century Communications and Video Accessibility Act” in 2010. The Act seeks to ensure full access for users who are deaf, hard of hearing, late deafened or deaf-blind to evolving high-speed broadband, wireless and other Internet protocol technologies. Moreover, the Act stipulates that accessibility features are preserved when materials are offered online, that telephones used over the Internet must be compatible with hearing aids and that television programmes must also be captioned when delivered over the Internet.31", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "1. Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0053", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The Special Rapporteur welcomes such initiatives, and stresses the need for States to ensure that everyone, including persons with disabilities, can fully participate in the information society.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "1. Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0054", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. With a few languages dominating the online environment, language barriers can also be a further impediment to access online content. However, the Special Rapporteur notes the increasing number of sophisticated online translation services.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "2. Language barriers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0055", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Other positive initiatives to overcome language barriers include, for example, the World Digital Library, which provides free, multilingual access to documentary heritage held in institutions around the world, aimed at a diverse audience, from students, teachers to ordinary members of the public.[[fn:35]] Furthermore, the content is contributed by partner institutions in the language of origin and is accessed through an interactive interface in seven languages, and allows for voice enabled browsing and can allow easy access to people with visual disabilities.[[fn:36]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "2. Language barriers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "World Digital Library (http://www.wdl.org/en/)."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Partners in the World Digital Library are mainly libraries, archives or other institutions that have collections of cultural content that they contribute to the Library. Partners may also include institutions, foundations and private companies that contribute to the project in other ways, for example by sharing technology, convening or co-sponsoring meetings of working groups, or contributing financially."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0056", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. The Special Rapporteur also notes that the Board of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers has approved the internationalized domain name (IDN) ccTLD Fast Track Process, which enables countries and territories that use languages based on scripts other than Latin to offer their user’s domain names in non-Latin characters.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "2. Language barriers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0057", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. The Special Rapporteur also reiterates his call on Governments to honour their obligation to promote indigenous cultural diversity in the public and private media.[[fn:37]] This includes making governance information available in all relevant languages, including minority languages, in line with the principles enshrined in the 1992 Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "2. Language barriers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "A/HRC/14/23, para. 60."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0058", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. The Special Rapporteur underlines the importance of equal and effective access to the Internet for women, which can play a key role in promoting their empowerment. Indeed, as highlighted in the latest report by the Broadband Commission, the Internet promotes empowerment by connecting women to a wide range of resources, for example to improve health, bolster education, allow for informed decisions and pursue economic opportunities.31 In this regard, there is an ongoing research project in India, which focuses on how ICT, such as mobile phone services, can facilitate women’s entrepreneurship in the country, and also seeks to identify factors which enhance the ability of technology to transform women’s economic experiences.[[fn:38]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "3. Internet access and gender dimension"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "ITU, “Women entrepreneurs in India and ICT”, 14 July 2011 (http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/sis/newslog/CategoryView,category,Gender.aspx)."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0059", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. The United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative, evolving from the Millennium Villages project, is an example of “e-education” initiatives which also help promote girls’ education. This initiative has launched a global campaign to promote universal and equality Internet access in secondary education in developing countries, with an emphasis on girls’ education. ICT skills will be used to enhance the quality of education and to connect schoolchildren worldwide.31", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "3. Internet access and gender dimension"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0060", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The Special Rapporteur encourages further research on concrete initiatives around the world and on how ICT can help women to further improve their skills and knowledge, in particular in the employment sphere as well as citizen participation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "3. Internet access and gender dimension"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0061", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Although access to the Internet is not yet a human right as such, the Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate that States have a positive obligation to promote or to facilitate the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression and the means necessary to exercise this right, which includes the Internet. Moreover, access to the Internet is not only essential to enjoy the right to freedom of expression, but also other rights, such as the right to education, the right to freedom of association and assembly, the right to full participation in social, cultural and political life and the right to social and economic development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0062", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Recently, the Human Rights Committee, in its general comment No. 34 on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, also underscored that States parties should take all necessary steps to foster the independence of new media, such as the Internet, and to ensure access of all individuals thereto.[[fn:39]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 15."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0063", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Indeed, given that the Internet has become an indispensable tool for full participation in political, cultural, social and economic life, States should adopt effective and concrete policies and strategies, developed in consultation with individuals from all segments of society, including the private sector as well as relevant Government ministries, to make the Internet widely available, accessible and affordable to all.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0064", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Public and private policies aimed at extending Internet access have substantially increased the presence of Internet facilities in developing States. Yet despite these efforts, Internet usage is still lagging in developing States, perpetuating the “digital divide”, a term that refers to the gap between people with effective access to digital and information technologies, in particular the Internet, and those with very limited or no access at all. In his previous report, the Special Rapporteur expressed concern that without Internet access, which facilitates economic development and the enjoyment of a range of human rights, marginalized groups and developing States remain trapped in a disadvantaged situation, thereby perpetrating the existing socio-economic disparities both within and between States.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "A. The digital divide and the Millennium Development Goals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "A/HRC/17/27, para. 62."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0065", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. There are a number of factors that pose challenges to ensuring Internet access at the national level. For example, in many countries, the Internet market, and particularly the backbone infrastructure and international gateway, remain under the monopoly of one or very few telecommunications operators. Furthermore, both limited competition and scarce international Internet bandwidth tend to keep prices for Internet access high and often unaffordable in the area of fixed broadband access.[[fn:41]] Moreover, the relatively high cost of accessing the Internet and the purchase of basic equipment makes it impossible for many people to have Internet access at home, with public access the only way to go online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "A. The digital divide and the Millennium Development Goals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See World Telecommunication/ICT Development Report 2010: Monitoring the WSIS Targets: A mid-term review, p. 201 (http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/publications/wtdr_10/material/WTDR2010_e_v1.pdf)."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0066", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. To overcome these barriers, it is particularly important for States to play a proactive role, for example, by making the Internet more affordable, and by allowing as many people as possible to have Internet access at home while at the same time ensuring public access for people in rural areas and for people with low income levels. States can use their regulatory powers in circumstances where competition is limited, as a way to limit costs. States should also consider the possibility of subsidizing Internet services and the necessary hardware to facilitate access to the poorest sectors of the population.", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "A. The digital divide and the Millennium Development Goals"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0067", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. The Millennium Development Goals, including target 8.F, aim to make available, in cooperation with the private sector, the benefits of new technologies, especially ICT. This target is measured by the indicators of the number of telephone lines, mobile cellular subscriptions and Internet users per 100 people. Currently access to the Internet is far less widespread than mobile communications. At the end of 2009, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) estimated that some 1.7 billion people around the world were using the Internet, or just over a quarter of the world’s population (26 per cent). In developing countries, around 17.8 per cent were online. By the end of 2010, only Europe had achieved the target, with average Internet penetration rate at 67 per cent, and the Americas had reached around 50.7 per cent.41 These figures include public, communal centres and other kinds of Internet access. Moreover, according to the latest Millennium Development Goals Report 2011, although the number of Internet users continues to expand, penetration levels in the developing world remain relatively low, at 21 per cent at the end of 2010, compared to 72 per cent in the developed regions. Globally, two out of three people are not using the Internet. In the least developed countries, Internet penetration was as low as 3 per cent at the end of 2010.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "A. The digital divide and the Millennium Development Goals"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0068", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. An increasing number of web services require high-speed Internet connectivity, in particular to access content on video-oriented websites. Thus, to effectively use the Internet, broadband access is increasingly becoming the norm. However, there is also a significant digital divide between those who enjoy fast access to multimedia content online and those still struggling with slow, shared dial-up links.[[fn:42]] The Special Rapporteur notes that, according to ITU, 24.6 per cent of inhabitants in developed States have access to fixed broadband Internet connection, versus 4.4 per cent in developing States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "B. Access to broadband connection"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "See United Nations, The Millennium Development Goals Report 2010 (http://www.un.org/ millenniumgoals/)."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0069", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. There are, however, some encouraging initiatives to promote broadband Internet connection at the national level. Sweden, for example, was the first European country to develop a broadband policy in 1999, with the Government aiming to provide broadband in rural and remote areas where there is no market incentive to do so.[[fn:43]] In Brazil, the Government has been active in developing programmes that make broadband Internet access available to people in lower income brackets. For example, the e-government citizens’ support service (GESAC) was set up in early 2002 for the purpose of increasing social inclusion by promoting digital inclusion, with the use of wireless technologies, such as satellite and WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access), to roll out broadband to poorly served areas. The Government also operates a network of community telecentres that offer Internet access free of charge. Through GESAC, the Government aims to ensure that all of Brazil’s 5,565 municipalities have at least one broadband access point.31", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "B. Access to broadband connection"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "Ministry of Enterprise, Energy and Communications, Sweden (www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/573/a/ 12566/action/search/type/simple?query=broadband+access)."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0070", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. The importance of the Internet as an educational tool needs to be properly recognized. It provides access to a vast and expanding source of knowledge, supplements or transforms traditional forms of schooling and makes, through “open access” and active initiatives, previously unaffordable scholarly research available to people in developing States. Internet access allows students, teachers and parents alike to communicate more frequently and to keep abreast of the latest developments and issues related to their fields. Furthermore, the educational benefits attained from Internet usage directly contribute to the human capital of States. Therefore, the Special Rapporteur believes that access to the Internet will progressively be a key element of the right to education.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "C. Access to the Internet and the right to education"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0071", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. Keeping the above in mind, the Special Rapporteur strongly emphasizes the importance of promoting and providing support to projects which seek to ensure the access to information and communication. In this regard, the global project “One Laptop per Child” is a good initiative. As stated in the most recent report of the Special Rapporteur to the Human Rights Council,[[fn:44]] this kind of initiative helps to spread the availability of ICT in developing countries. The project, supported by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and several partners, has benefited not just children, but their families as well, since one of the essential aspects of the permanently connected laptop is its free use at home, which allows the child and the family to increase their access to information and to the outside world. Two important elements of these laptops are that they can be charged by solar or mechanical power; and they have been designed to provide an engaging wireless network, which allows the laptops to be connected automatically to others nearby.[[fn:45]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "C. Access to the Internet and the right to education"], "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "A/HRC/17/27, para. 63."}, {"n": 45, "text": "See http://wiki.laptop.org/go/Core_principles/lang-en."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0072", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. The Special Rapporteur wishes to highlight how the successful example of “Plan Ciebal” in Uruguay has expanded and replicated around the world, and is a good example of partnership between the different private and public sectors. Among the countries participating in the “One Laptop per Child” project include Afghanistan, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Cambodia, Canada, China, India, Iraq, Nepal, South Africa, Rwanda, Thailand, Lebanon and Niue.[[fn:46]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "C. Access to the Internet and the right to education"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "See http://wiki.laptop.org/go/Deployments and http://one.laptop.org."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0073", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. Another example of national strategies is that of Brazil, where in early 2008 a “Broadband in Schools” programme was launched in Brazil through a partnership involving the federal Government, the regulator National Telecommunications Agency (ANATEL) and several telecommunications operators. The project aims to connect 56,865 state schools nationwide, which would then benefit 37.1 million pupils, or 84 per cent of the Brazilian student population.31", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "C. Access to the Internet and the right to education"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0074", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. In New Zealand, a Government-funded programme, the Rural Broadband Initiative, aims to improve the availability of fibre backhaul links in less-urbanized parts of the country, as well as to provide country schools with reliable, high-speed connectivity.", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "C. Access to the Internet and the right to education"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0075", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. The digital divide in terms of access to mobile technology is much smaller than the Internet, with an estimated 67.6 per cent of individuals in developing States using mobile phones.31 While cellular phones do not provide the same benefits as direct computer-based Internet access, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that mobile technology can be a stepping stone to attain Internet connectivity, especially in remote areas where fixed line access is more difficult to establish.", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "D. Mobile technology"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0076", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. Recent reports show that access to the Internet using mobile phones is a growing trend, including in many developing countries and regions, including in Africa.41 According to the ITU, almost three quarters of the world’s rural inhabitants were covered by mobile cellular signal by the end of 2008. Moreover, the report suggests that coverage in rural parts of Africa could exceed 90 per cent by 2015, with mobile cellular technology playing a crucial role in expanding communications networks.41", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "D. Mobile technology"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0077", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. Broadband Internet access through mobile phones is also increasing rapidly. According to ITU statistics, by the end of 2010, the total number of mobile broadband subscriptions worldwide had reached 940 million. This number is expected to top 1 billion in 2011, from 73 million in 2005. One key reason for the growth in mobile broadband is that operators are offering both competitive and affordable data packages. This development is complemented and supported by new technologies, which are bringing more efficiency to networks.31 Singapore is one such example with a 100 per cent penetration rate for mobile phones, and with a majority of households having at least one mode of broadband access.31 In addition, in 2008 and 2009, the Government selected two companies to work on a coordinated nationwide roll-out of the network. As stipulated under the terms of the broadband deployment, one of these companies will waive all installation charges for home and building owners when the network first reaches their area. These companies are also to provide network connectivity to outdoor locations.31", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "D. Mobile technology"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0078", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. The Internet has become one of the most important vehicles by which individuals exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression, and it can play an important role to promote human rights, democratic participation, accountability, transparency and economic development. However, as with all technological innovations, the Internet can also be used to cause harm, which has raised concerns among Governments as to whether to regulate content online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0079", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. The general rule should be to maintain openness and the free flow of information over the Internet, with limitations, which should conform to the criteria established under international human rights law, as the exception. To protect the right to freedom of expression from undue restrictions, the Special Rapporteur has attempted to distinguish the types of expression: (a) which constitute an offence under international law and which States are required to prohibit; (b) which are not criminally punishable but may justify a civil suit; and (c) which do not give rise to criminal or civil sanctions, but still raise concerns in terms of tolerance, civility and respect for others. Each category poses different issues of principle, and thus requires different legal responses, as highlighted below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0080", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The Special Rapporteur also remains concerned that the majority of the world’s population remain without access to Internet connection. Although access to the Internet is not yet recognized as a right in international human rights law, States have a positive obligation to create an enabling environment for all individuals to exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0081", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. States are obliged to guarantee a free flow of ideas and information and the right to seek and receive as well as to impart information and ideas over the Internet. States are also required under international law to prohibit under its criminal law the following types of content: (a) child pornography; (b) direct and public incitement to commit genocide; (c) advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence; and (d) incitement to terrorism. However, the Special Rapporteur reminds all States that any such laws must also comply with the three criteria of restrictions to the right to freedom of expression, namely: prescription by unambiguous law; pursuance of a legitimate purpose; and respect for the principles of necessity and proportionality.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0082", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. With regard to technical measures taken to regulate the above-mentioned type of prohibited expression, such as the blocking of content, the Special Rapporteur reiterates that States should provide full details regarding the necessity and justification for blocking a particular website and that the determination of what content should be blocked must be undertaken by a competent judicial authority or a body that is independent of any political, commercial or other unwarranted influences in order to ensure that blocking is not used as a means of censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0083", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The Special Rapporteur recommends that all other types of expression which do not fall under the above-mentioned category be decriminalized, as criminalization may be counter-effective and the threat of harsh sanctions can exert a significant chilling effect on the right to freedom of expression. Moreover, States should focus their efforts on combating the root problems of racist or offensive speech, such as bigotry and bias, which includes promoting more speech to counter such negative types of expression, improving understanding among peoples of the world and building a culture of peace.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0084", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. Enabling individuals to effectively use the content made available via the Internet requires a number of elements, including the skills to use the technology. The Special Rapporteur thus recommends that States include Internet literacy skills in school curricula and support similar learning modules outside of schools. In addition to basic skills training, modules should clarify the benefits of accessing information online and of responsibly contributing information. Training can also help individuals learn how to protect themselves against harmful content, such as the potential consequences of revealing private information on the Internet, as well as against undue restrictions by States or corporations through the use of encryption or circumvention technology.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0085", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. The Special Rapporteur encourages the translation of websites into multiple languages, including languages spoken by minorities and indigenous peoples, and their accessibility to persons with disabilities. Allowing people speaking different languages or with disabilities to participate in the same communication platform facilitates a truly global society. In addition, he recommends that all States ensure that all relevant governance information, including on the local levels, is available and accessible in the language of all those concerned.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0086", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. The Special Rapporteur also underscores the importance of applying a gender dimension for Internet access and recommends that States develop strategies for ensuring effective access to online content, including through ICT training.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0087", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that the access to information, the ability to exercise the right to freedom of expression and the participation that the Internet provides to all sectors of society is essential for a truly democratic society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to Internet connection"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0088", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. Moreover, given the essential role played by the Internet to facilitate the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, as well as other rights, such as education, freedom of association and assembly, citizen participation and economic and social development, the Special Rapporteur believes that it is not only important but imperative that States adopt effective and concrete policies and strategies, developed in consultation with individuals from all segments of society, including the private sector and relevant Government ministries, in order to make the Internet widely available, accessible and affordable to all, based on the principles of non-discrimination of any kind, including on the grounds of race, colour, sex, language, disability, economic origin or any other status.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to Internet connection"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0089", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. In particular, the Special Rapporteur recommends that States take proactive measures to ensure that Internet connectivity is available on an individual or communal level in all inhabited localities of the State, by working on initiatives with the private sector, including in remote or rural areas. Such measures involve the adoption and implementation of policies that facilitate access to Internet connection and to low-cost hardware, including in remote and rural areas, including the subsidization of service, if necessary.", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to Internet connection"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0090", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. Given the increasing amount of multimedia content online, broadband access should also be actively promoted and encouraged by States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to Internet connection"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0091", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. As mobile technology is increasingly being used, and is more accessible in developing States, the Special Rapporteur recommends that States support policies and programmes to facilitate connection to the Internet through the use of mobile phones.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to Internet connection"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0092", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. At the international level, the Special Rapporteur reiterates his call on States, in particular developed States, to honour their commitment, expressed, inter alia, in the Millennium Development Goals, to facilitate technology transfer to developing States and to integrate effective programmes to facilitate universal Internet access in their development and assistance policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to Internet connection"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is the sixth report presented by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Mr. Abid Hussain (India), since the mandate was established by Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/45 of 5 March 1993. It is submitted pursuant to resolution 1998/42. Chapter I of the present report contains the terms of reference for the discharge of the mandate. In chapter II, the Special Rapporteur presents an account of the activities undertaken within the framework of his mandate in the past year. Chapter III provides a brief discussion on a number of issues which the Special Rapporteur considers to be important for the development of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Chapter IV contains brief summaries of urgent appeals and communications to and from Governments, along with observations of the Special Rapporteur. Lastly, chapter V contains the conclusions and recommendations of the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The Special Rapporteur refers to his previous reports as regards the mandate and methods of work adopted by him. In accordance with the need to examine a number of specific questions concerning the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the structure of the present report is along the same lines as the previous report. Consequently, the main body of analysis of issues related to the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression will be discussed in section III, focusing on matters referred to by the Commission on Human Rights in resolution 1998/42 and which the Special Rapporteur considers as warranting special attention. These issues include the right to seek and receive information, concerns relating to national security laws and to criminal libel, the new information technologies, as well as the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression by women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has received a large number of allegations concerning cases of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in 1998. As was the case in previous years, the Special Rapporteur was only able to deal with a very limited number of requests for information to some Governments, owing to the insufficient financial and human resources to fulfil his mandate in the manner he would deem appropriate. The matters raised in previous reports to the Commission on Human Rights regarding the circumstances of work (E/CN.4/1995/32, paras. 92-95; E/CN.4/1996/39, para. 6; E/CN.4/1997/31, para. 7 and E/CN.4/1998/40, para. 3) unfortunately remain of great concern. The mandate requires a substantially increased pool of resources. Within the current constraints, the Special Rapporteur has engaged in an exchange of views with Governments only with regard to a limited number of cases, which are discussed in section IV.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "It should thus be emphasized that the countries discussed in the respective sections in no way reflect the extent of the problem worldwide, as indeed violations of this right take place in almost every country in spite of the emergence of an increasing number of national institutions which are regionally working for the promotion and protection of human rights. To avoid unnecessary duplication of effort, the Special Rapporteur has increased his cooperation with other special rapporteurs. In the past year, he has sent joint urgent appeals together with the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, the Special Rapporteurs on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Nigeria, and the Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography.", "labels": ["Children"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Closer cooperation is envisaged with treaty bodies and human rights field operations, as well as other specialized bodies within the United Nations system, and regional intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, particularly at the local level, concerned with the right to freedom of expression. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur held two meetings (Paris, May 1998 and Montreal, September 1998) with Mr. Alain Modoux, Director of the Unit for Freedom of Expression and Democracy of UNESCO, to discuss closer cooperation between the two mechanisms. It was an occasion to examine the possibility for UNESCO to follow up the Special Rapporteur’s recommendations by providing expertise to the States undergoing a democratization process to assist them in the field of media legislation or transformation of their Government-controlled radio and/or television into an editorially independent public broadcasting service. The Special Rapporteur would like to encourage this kind of cooperation, which can help to realize the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "From 26 to 29 May 1998, the Special Rapporteur attended the fifth meeting of special rapporteurs/representatives, experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures and advisory services programme, held in Geneva. He also addressed the fourth session of the Sub-Commission's Working Group on Minorities about his mandate.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The Special Rapporteur visited Geneva from 30 March to 3 April 1998 for consultations and to present his report to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-fourth session. During this period, the Special Rapporteur met, among others, with representatives of the Government of Turkey to follow up on his earlier visit to that country and with the representative of Hungary to discuss his proposed visit to that country.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The Special Rapporteur considers the carrying out of country visits to be an essential element of the mandate. From 20 to 24 October 1998, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Malaysia, followed by a visit to Hungary from 9 to 13 November 1998, on which he has submitted separate reports to the Commission at its current session (E/CN.4/1999/64/Add.1 and 2).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "To date, the Special Rapporteur has a standing invitation to visit the Sudan from the Government of that country and hopes to visit in May or June 1998. While he has also been in touch with the Governments of Albania, Argentina, Egypt, Indonesia, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Peru, Sri Lanka, Tunisia and Viet Nam to examine in situ the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, he regrets that invitations have not so far been received from them. The Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate his interest in visiting those countries.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "From 24 to 27 June 1998, the Special Rapporteur participated in a seminar on Press and Democracy in Kathmandu, Nepal. The Special Rapporteur had the opportunity to attend another conference in Montreal, Canada, from 10 to 12 September 1998 on “Human Rights and the Internet” (see para. 31 below). Furthermore, he attended a meeting in New York with representatives from the Committee to Protect Journalists to discuss specific concerns regarding the mandate, particularly in view of the visit the Special Rapporteur was going to undertake to Malaysia. Lastly, the Special Rapporteur participated in the Commonwealth Editors Forum, held in Penang, Malaysia, on 21 October 1998.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate that the role of non-governmental organizations in furthering the promotion and the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression cannot be overestimated. Indeed, it is those organizations which spearhead these concerns and are forcefully advocating, monitoring and lobbying for human rights. Some of them have gone out of their way to help the Special Rapporteur in his mission. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his special thanks to Article 19 - The International Centre Against Censorship, which continues to provide information and material relevant to the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression to the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "In resolution 1998/42 (para. 9 (d)), the Commission invited the Special Rapporteur to “develop further his commentary on the right to seek and receive information and to expand on his observations and recommendations arising from communications”. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur expresses again his view, and emphasizes, that everyone has the right to seek, receive and impart information and that this imposes a positive obligation on States to ensure access to information, particularly with regard to information held by Government in all types of storage and retrieval systems - including film, microfiche, electronic capacities, video and photographs - subject only to such restrictions as referred to in article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Freedom of the press is a vital step in the free flow of information and in ensuring freedom of expression. It is the fundamental duty of the State to stand as a guarantor for freedom of the press. Every right carries with it a responsibility. Every freedom carries with it an obligation. The press is a powerful influence for good and evil. Ideally, it should be left to the press itself to determine what its responsibilities and corresponding obligations are. Where freedom of the press is wanting or curtailed, people cannot settle their differences through open debate and the authorities overreact, fearing the overall impact of dissent. Uprisings and fear follow. Freedom of the press may not guarantee peace, but it is a vital first step. Therefore, special care has to be taken to ensure that writers, poets, journalists and editors are not intimidated or prevented from expressing their views in their writings through censorship or other covert methods, or official sponsorship of press organs. Abuses against the press, journalists and writers have to be halted by launching investigations and publishing findings, in the press itself or by interested NGOs, with a view to raising public consciousness and making the Government act according to international standards. The Special Rapporteur appreciates that studies have been done to expose abuses of power to thwart the free expression of views and opinions. The Special Rapporteur, through his missions, would like to continue to lend his support to such exercises. In this regard, his contribution should be assessed objectively. He also wishes to mention in this context the ruling of the Hungarian constitutional court to the effect that freedom of expression protects all opinions, regardless of their value.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "A genuine writer serves a cause higher than himself, i.e. the cause of the welfare of the people. Although at times a writer may make outrageous statements, even wounding cultural sensitivities and commonly held beliefs, literature remains a basic medium through which imagination and the striving of the human mind are expressed most freely and in the most provocative forms. A writer is a seer in many ways, and a sage in many respects. Any society which stifles its writers closes its windows to fresh ideas and stunts its own growth. The freedom of expression of writers should therefore be strongly defended and their cause encouraged.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "The Special Rapporteur continues to receive allegations of bias in broadcasting which severely limits or seriously compromises the right to seek, receive and impart information. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur wishes to recall points made in previous reports.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "There are several fundamental principles which, if promoted and respected, enhance the right to seek, receive and impart information. These principles are: a monopoly or excessive concentration of ownership of media in the hands of a few is to be avoided in the interest of developing a plurality of viewpoints and voices; State-owned media have a responsibility to report on all aspects of national life and to provide access to a diversity of viewpoints; State-owned media must not be used as a communication or propaganda organ for one political party or as an advocate for the Government to the exclusion of all other parties and groups; laws governing the registration of media and the allocation of broadcasting frequencies must be clear and balanced; any regulatory mechanism, whether for electronic or print media, should be independent of all political parties and function at an arms-length relationship to Government; access to technology, newsprint, printing facilities and distribution points should only be regulated by the supply and demand of the free market.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "With these broad principles in mind, the Special Rapporteur wishes to emphasize that in pre-election periods, and in the interest of enuring the most fully informed electorate possible, the State must ensure that media are given the widest possible latitude. This can be best achieved when, inter alia:\n(a) Media inform the public about the political parties, candidates, campaign issues and voting processes; government media are balanced and impartial in election reporting, do not discriminate against any political party or candidate in granting access to air time and ensure that news, interviews and information programmes are not biased in favour of, or against, any party or candidate;\n(b) Censorship of any election programme is not allowed and the media are encouraged to broadcast and/or publish election-related programmes and are not penalized for programmes critical of the Government, its policies or the ruling party;\n(c) The media are exempt from legal liability for provocative statements by candidates or party representatives; the right of reply is provided, as well as correction or retraction, in cases where defamation is alleged; the manner and extent of remedy is determined by an independent body;\n(d) There is a clear distinction between news and press conferences related to functions of office and activities by members of the Government, particularly if the member concerned is seeking election;\n(e) Air time for direct access programmes is granted on a fair and non-discriminatory basis; the time allocated to parties or candidates is sufficient for them to communicate their messages and for the voters to inform themselves about the issues, party positions, qualifications and character of the candidates;\n(f) Programmes provide an effective opportunity for journalists, current affairs experts and/or the general public to put questions to party leaders and other candidates, and for the candidates to debate with each other;\n(g) Media, and especially government media, engage in voter education, including by providing information on how to use the voting process, when and where to vote, how to register to vote and verify proper registration, the secrecy of the ballot, the importance of voting, the functions of the offices under contention and other matters; and\n(h) Print and broadcast media make available reports and programmes that will reach the largest number of voters possible, including in minority languages and for those who may have been traditionally excluded from the political process, such as ethnic or religious minorities, women and indigenous groups.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The Special Rapporteur continues to be concerned about the manner in which anti-terrorism and national security laws can, on occasion, be misused by officials agencies to violate both the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the right to seek, receive and impart information. The Special Rapporteur refers to his report on his mission to Malaysia (E/CN.4/1999/64/Add.1) in which the issue of Malaysia’s national security laws is discussed.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. National security laws"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Organized terrorism is a curse for all of civilized society. In their quest to gain headlines in the media terrorist groups resort to acts of spectacular violence. Mainly it is the innocent who are the victims. It is proverbially said that vengeance begets vengeance. Governments on their part may act with equal ferocity in dealing with terrorist activity. A vicious circle follows and needs to be broken. While effective action by Governments may be necessary, Governments must at the same time ensure that the safety valve of free expression of genuine or supposed grievances is available to its citizen of all hues and opinions.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. National security laws"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Human rights are sacrosanct but certainly cannot be manipulated to condone, encourage or foment terrorist activities. It is the primary obligation of Government to take pre-emptive action to forestall terrorist activities and restore order and tranquillity. In recent years the United Nations and the Commission on Human Rights have adopted successive resolutions on human rights and terrorism which unequivocally condemn terrorism and incitement of hatred and violence and call upon States to take all necessary effective measures to deal with terrorist groups. Terrorism is a vicious assault on human rights and laws enacted to counter terrorism have to be appreciated in the context of national and international situations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. National security laws"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "In addition to the problems and issues outlined in his mission reports, the Special Rapporteur notes here that abuse of the powers granted under such laws often lead to: both prolonged and short-term arbitrary detention; torture; extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary execution; disappearances; threats and intimidation; the closure of media outlets; the banning of publications and programming; bans on public gatherings; bans and prohibitions on organizations, groups and associations that are in no way associated with terrorism and violence; strict censorship on all forms of communications; and tolerance of, if not actual support for, the abuses and crimes committed by police, security services, the armed forces and paramilitary groups.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. National security laws"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "As with broadcasting and the print media in pre-election periods, there are several points or principles which must be taken into account within the context of anti-terrorism and national security laws if the rights to opinion, expression and information are to be fully protected and promoted. These points include:\n(a) No restriction may be justified on the ground of national security when it is actually intended to protect a Government from embarrassment or exposure of wrongdoing, to conceal information about the functioning of public institutions, entrench a particular ideology or suppress industrial unrest;\n(b) Expression which transmits information by or about an organization that has been declared a threat to national security or a related interest may not be punished; expression in a particular language, and especially in a language of a national minority, may not be prohibited;\n(c) No restriction on access to information may be imposed unless it has been demonstrated that the restriction is necessary to protect a legitimate national security interest;\n(d) The public interest in knowing the information shall be a primary consideration in all laws and decisions concerning the right to obtain information;\n(e) The public's right to know must override any justification for trying to stop further publication of information that has been made generally available, by whatever means, whether lawful or not; and\n(f) Any restriction on the free flow of information may not be of such a nature as to thwart the purposes of human rights and humanitarian law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. National security laws"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "In setting out these points, the Special Rapporteur reiterates his recommendation to the Commission on Human Rights to endorse the Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information. The Special Rapporteur remains convinced that the Principles give useful guidance for protecting adequately the right to freedom of opinion, expression and information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. National security laws"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Article 19 (a) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights allows a limited restriction on the right to freedom of opinion and expression in the interest of “respect of the rights or reputations of others”. The Special Rapporteur’s attention has been drawn to cases and a number of instances in which libel and defamation suits, or even the threat of such suits, has had, or has potentially had, a direct and negative impact on freedom of expression, access to information and the free exchange of ideas. The effect is often described as “libel chill”, a climate of fear in which writers, editors and publishers become increasingly reluctant to report and publish on matters of great public interest not only because of the large awards granted in these cases but also because of the often ruinous costs of defending such actions.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. Criminal libel"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "In this regard, the Special Rapporteur wishes to refer to his report on the mission to Malaysia (E/CN.4/1999/64/Add.1) in which he raises the issue of defamation laws used to stifle freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. Criminal libel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "International case law in the area of libel and defamation has consistently found in favour of disclosure and public criticism of public figures, when warranted. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur notes that, in Verbitsky v. Argentina, in which a writer was convicted under the desacato (“contempt”) law for defaming the Argentine Supreme Court Minister, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights stated, “in democratic societies political and public figures must be more, not less, open to public scrutiny and criticism”. In this case, the conviction was reversed and the 1 Government repealed the desacato law. The European Court of Human Rights has also considered a number of cases, one of the most famous possibly being Lingens v. Austria. In that case a journalist accused the Chancellor of, inter alia, the “basest opportunism” and “immoral” and “undignified” behaviour. At the time the case came before the courts, Austrian law 2 required that the truth of the allegations be proved. The journalist was convicted partly for failure to do this. On appeal, the European Court held, inter alia, that: the law was unreasonable; it was impossible to prove the truth of opinions; the characterization of the politician had been reasonable; and the journalist's article had been part of a larger political debate and not merely a gratuitous attack on the individual concerned.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. Criminal libel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "A review of cases contained in various thematic and country reports before the Commission on Human Rights shows that, in some countries, disclosure of criminal or corrupt behaviour on the part of the authorities and/or officials continue to lead to death threats, harassment, intimidation, assault and murder - often usually by the armed forces, police, security service or individuals acting with the knowledge of such bodies. This is for instance the case in Croatia where the office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in Zagreb reported that as of May 1998, some 400 civil and 130 criminal cases for defamation were pending against journalists and publishers.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. Criminal libel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Following on from this, the Special Rapporteur believes strongly that it is critical to raise the public conscience to ensure that criminal laws are not used (or abused) to stifle public awareness and suppress discussion of matters of general or specific interest. At minimum, it must be understood that:\n(a) The only legitimate purpose of defamation, libel, slander and insult laws is to protect reputations; this implies defamation will apply only to individuals - not flags, States, groups, etc.; these laws should never be used to prevent criticism of government or even for such reasons as maintaining public order for which specific incitement laws exist;\n(b) Defamation laws should reflect the principle that public figures are required to tolerate a greater degree of criticism than private citizens; defamation law should not afford special protection to the president and other senior political figures; remedy and compensation under civil law should be provided;\n(c) The standards applied to defamation law should not be so stringent as to have a chilling effect on freedom of expression;\n(d) To require truth in the context of publications relating to matters of public interest is excessive; it should be sufficient if reasonable efforts have been made to ascertain the truth;\n(e) With regard to opinions, it should be clear that only patently unreasonable views may qualify as defamatory;\n(f) The onus of proof of all elements should be on those claiming to have been defamed rather than on the defendant; where truth is an issue, the burden of proof should lie with the plaintiff;\n(g) In defamation and libel actions, a range of remedies should be available, including apology and/or correction; and\n(h) Sanctions for defamation should not be so large as to exert a chilling effect on freedom of opinion and expression and the right to seek, receive and impart information; penal sanctions, in particular imprisonment, should never be applied.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. Criminal libel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "In resolution 1998/42 the Commission on Human Rights invited the Special Rapporteur to “assess the advantages and challenges of new telecommunications technologies, including the Internet, on the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to seek, receive and impart information”, bearing in mind the work undertaken by the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. New information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "At the outset, the Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate his opinion that the new technologies and, in particular, the Internet are inherently democratic, provide the public and individuals with access to information sources and will, over time, enable all to participate actively in the communication process. He also wishes to reiterate his view that actions by States to impose excessive regulations on the use of these technologies and, again, particularly the Internet - on the grounds that control, regulation and denial of access are necessary to preserve the moral fabric and cultural identity of societies - ignore the capacity and resilience of individuals and societies - whether on a national, State, municipal, community or even neighbourhood level - often to take self-correcting measures to re-establish equilibrium without excessive interference or regulation by the State.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. New information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Special Rapporteur had the opportunity to attend a conference in Montreal, Canada, from 10 to 12 September 1998. The conference was hosted by the Canadian Human Rights Foundation (Fondation canadienne des droits de la personne) and the subject was “Human Rights and the Internet”. Participants came from both developed and developing countries. On the basis of the presentations at that conference and discussions with participants, the Special Rapporteur makes the following few observations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. New information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "It is clear that the Internet is an increasingly important human rights education tool which contributes to a broader awareness of international human rights standards, provisions and principles. It is also one of the most effective tools to combat intolerance by opening the gateway to messages of mutual respect, enabling them to circulate freely worldwide, and by encouraging collective actions to oppose and bring to an end such phenomena as hate speech, racism and the sexual and commercial exploitation of, in particular, women and children. The instinct or tendency of Governments to consider regulation rather than enhancing and increasing access to the Internet is, therefore, to be strongly checked. While perhaps unique in its reach and application, the Internet is, at base, merely another form of communication to which any restriction and regulation would violate the rights set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and, in particular, article 19.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. New information technologies"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'violate the rights set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and, in particular, article 19'. Article 19 attributed solely to UDHR. Non-treaty."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "Another point to be made is that the ideal of universal access to the Internet should not just remain an ideal. In a large number of countries there still is a huge need to improve, or even install, the technology needed to create access to the Internet; this same need is common in a number of developed countries with regard to remote or marginalized communities and peoples. The inherently democratic character of the Internet will be eroded to the extent that universal access is not achieved. Following on from this, there is a clear and urgent need to ensure that no one language or culture dominates and dictates the use of the technical capacities at the expense of all others. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur notes that participants at the conference were clear: to have an Internet for all, it is necessary to have information from all.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. New information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recalls that in his report to the fifty-fourth session of the Commission on Human Rights, he referred to actions by several Governments to prohibit or severely restrict access to new information technologies, including the Internet. Significantly, the instances cited related to developing countries and it is in those and other developing countries where people are most in need of access to these technologies in order to tell their own stories to a worldwide audience. If progress is to be made to defeat racism, hate speech and intolerance on a national and international scale, it is incumbent upon all Governments to see the Internet and other information technologies not as things requiring regulation and restriction but rather as the means to achieve a genuine plurality of voices. The Special Rapporteur strongly believes that the world needs more, not less, speech - in as many languages and reflecting as many cultures as are known to exist.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. New information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "It is the Special Rapporteur's strongly held view that the main challenge presented by new information technologies is not how to impose restrictions creatively in order not to exceed the grounds for restriction set out in international human rights instruments. The challenge is to integrate fully new information technologies into a development process. This process must benefit all equally, must not privilege those who are already among the elite and must open the gateway to information from a diversity of sources. The process must create a capacity to identify that which is common, appreciate that which is different, and combat a use of these technologies which crosses the internationally established threshold, becomes crime and ceases to be speech.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. New information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "The Internet should not be a “law-free zone”. The Special Rapporteur is planning to work with other international and national organizations to prevent it from becoming a “safe haven” for conduct threatening human rights. Various forms of Internet watch-activities can be developed to protect consumers and children. But we should not be excessively preoccupied with the dark side of the new technologies for these are giving power and influence to the disenfranchised, empowering the powerless.", "labels": ["Children"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. New information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "At its fifty-fourth session the Commission on Human Rights invited the Special Rapporteur, in cooperation with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, to continue to pay particular attention “to the situation of women and the relationship between the effective promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and incidents of discrimination based on sex, creating obstacles for women with regard to their right to seek, receive and impart information”. The Special Rapporteur regrets that constraints of time and resources limited the extent to which the work could be jointly undertaken with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women. This remains an area of critical importance to him and he sincerely hopes that in the near future more deliberate efforts can be made in this area.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "That being said, the Special Rapporteur notes the important discussions held during the forty-second session of the Commission on the Status of Women (see E/CN.6/1998/12). From these discussions it is clear that central to the issues of equal access for women to rights, equal opportunities for the enjoyment of rights, and equal treatment in that enjoyment is the actual extent to which women may exercise their rights to opinion, expression and information without discrimination and the degree to which women actually enjoy the right to participation in public life. The Special Rapporteur states again that the problem does not lie in the manner in which international human rights standards have been elaborated but rather in the restrictive and traditional interpretations and applications of human rights law. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that it is not acceptable for women still to be dependent on men to represent their views and protect their interests nor is it acceptable that women continue to be consistently excluded from decision-making processes that not only affect them but society in general.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "The Special Rapporteur remains convinced that any real consideration of how to ensure the realization of all human rights for all women necessarily includes consideration of the rights to opinion, expression, participation, information, association and assembly. There can be no doubt that in the absence of these rights, de jure or de facto or both, women will remain under-represented and societies will continue to ignore not only their rights and needs but the creative contribution they can make towards a general improvement of societies. It is therefore imperative that real, qualitative and quantitative measures be taken to ensure women's participation, as equal partners, in private and public life. On that basis, the following two points must be kept in mind.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "First, violence and fear of violence in public and private life remains one of the main concerns of women worldwide and, in order to break the silence and taboos surrounding violence, public awareness campaigns on the impact of violence are essential. These campaigns must be devised with women as full participants and must proceed on the understanding that most women do not seem to seek help from crisis services or the police, because of ignorance, fear or shame. Many women are still not aware of existing laws or their rights and frequently they have no access to the judicial system, especially if they are poor, illiterate or migrants.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Second, it is generally acknowledged that violence against women is one of the most constant and enduring characteristics of armed conflict. Efforts to ensure that violence against women is fully incorporated into the Statute of the new International Criminal Court are welcome. Feelings of shame associated with everyday abuses in the context of family and workplace need to be articulated. Unfortunately, there is a history of official inattention to women’s experience of disaster and violence. For instance, the suffering of women Hibakusha (atomic bomb survivors) in Japan has been portrayed only through themes of suffering motherhood with the stereotypical mythical mother with inhuman strength and endurance. The gender-specific nature of atrocities committed against women is also evident in testimony before the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa where women had to be urged to speak not only about the horrendous experiences of their husbands, sons and brothers, but also the harm done to themselves.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is convinced of the need not only to pay more attention to women as victims of this violence but also to their potential as agents of preventive diplomacy, peacekeeping and peace-building. The importance of fully involving women in designing rehabilitation policies in post-conflict situations cannot be overstated, nor can the need to increase, through measures of affirmative action if necessary, women's participation and leadership in decision-making and conflict prevention at both the national and international levels.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "With those points in mind, the Special Rapporteur draws attention again to General Recommendation No. 23, adopted in 1997 by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women. The Committee noted that “despite women's central role in sustaining the family and society and their contribution to development, they have been excluded from political life and the decision-making process, which nonetheless determine the pattern of their daily lives and the future of societies. Particularly in times of crisis, this exclusion has silenced women's voices and rendered invisible their contribution and experiences.” The Special Rapporteur also underlines again the link between political participation and participation in the decision-making process and article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "The Special Rapporteur attaches considerable importance and priority to the question of the link between freedom of opinion and expression and the elimination of discrimination and violence against women. He urges States, United Nations organ and bodies, human rights NGOs and organizations working with and/or on behalf of women to provide him with information on, for example, individual cases, general situations and/or legal impediments to women's full enjoyment of the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and the right to seek, receive and impart information. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur wishes to refer to the annex to the present report which provides guidelines on how to bring information to the Special Rapporteur in the framework of his mandate.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "The Special Rapporteur in this section reports on the communications sent out and replies received during 1998. This, however, in no way implies that all cases of earlier communications have been closed to the satisfaction of the Special Rapporteur, as in a number of cases, he has not received replies from the Governments concerned. He refers to his earlier reports for cases previously examined.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to encourage Governments to continue their cooperation with the mandate by providing information on the cases in question. He wishes to reiterate that good cooperation is essential in that it opens the possibility for the Special Rapporteur to engage in a dialogue aimed at addressing the concerns as regards respect for freedom of opinion and expression. The opportunity for dialogue is even greater during country missions, and the Special Rapporteur wishes to express his hope for the continued cooperation of Governments in this regard.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "By letter dated 26 January 1998, the Government of Algeria conveyed information to the Special Rapporteur regarding the case of Omar Belhouchet which was mentioned in the report of last year (E/CN.4/1998/40). With regard to the legal process, the Government noted that Omar Belhouchet, Director of the French-language daily El-Watan, was charged with flagrant insult to administrative authorities and defamation. On 10 April 1996 he was first sentenced to one year's imprisonment and to a fine of DA 500, which was then cancelled by a decision of a court in Algiers on 5 November 1997. The Government emphasized that Mr. Belhouchet had always appeared freely before the court and, having appealed and the recourse having suspensive effect, he could travel, even to foreign countries.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Algeria for its reply and would appreciate being kept informed about the result of the appeal of Omar Belhouchet. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur refers again to his previous reports with regard to the killing of journalists and would like to receive information on the progress made in the investigation of these cases and the prosecution of those responsible.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "On 27 May 1998, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an allegation to the Government of concerning the constant intimidation by certain sectors of the police against journalists and members of the Unión de Trabajadores de Prensa de Buenos Aires (UTPBA). One member of UTPBA, Ms. A.M. Careaga, was reported to have been followed and photographed allegedly for her testimony in a case that concerned the disappearance of Spanish citizens during Argentina’s military Government. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, the Government also sought to restrict the freedom of the press by attempting to introduce legislation which would impose disproportionately heavy penalties for slander and defamation. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur received information concerning the assassination of J.L. Cabezas and M. Bonnino, two journalists and members of UTPBA, in January 1997 and November 1993, respectively. It is alleged that the Government has not carried out a thorough investigation into the assassination of Mr. Bonnino and that no results of any investigation have been made known. The investigation of Mr. Bonnino's death reportedly remains pending before the local court of first instance, and the case of Mr. Cabezas' murder is supposedly pending before a district court in Buenos Aires.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Argentina"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "In the same letter the Special Rapporteur requested an invitation to carry out a country visit to Argentina in the course of 1998, as such a visit would enable him to better understand the situation relating to the freedom of opinion and expression in the country and to make a more dispassionate and realistic assessment of the situation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Argentina"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that at the time of the finalization of the present report no reply had been received from the Government on the concerns raised and hopes that the Government will respond soon.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Argentina"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "On 25 September 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government of Azerbaijan jointly with the Special Rapporteur on torture on the alleged beating and harassment of more than 30 journalists in Baku on 12 September 1998. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, the following journalists, including some members of the Labour Union of Azerbaijani Journalists, were beaten and some had their equipment confiscated by the police as they were covering a banned opposition rally: Azer Sariyev, correspondent for Express newspaper; Faiq Qazanfaroglu, correspondent for Millet newspaper; Mahammad Ersoy, deputy editor of Yurd yeri newspaper; Ibrahim Niyazly, correspondent for Democratic Azerbaijan newspaper; Anar Mammadli, correspondent for Azerbaijan Gencleri newspaper; Movsun Mammadov, correspondent for Monitor magazine; Xaliq Mammadov, Haji Zamin and Khalig Bakhadyr, of Azadliq newspaper; Elmir Suleymanov, cameraman for ANS TV; Ilqar Shahmaroglu, Nebi Rustamov and Taghi Yusifov, correspondents for Qanun magazine; Tahir Pasha and Natiq Javadli, correspondents for Olaylar newspaper; Tapdiq Farhadoglu, correspondent for the Turan agency; Sarvan Rizvanov, editor of Azadliq newspaper; Movlud Javadov, Sebuhi Mammadli and Zamina Aliqizi, correspondents for Yeni Musavat newspaper; Kamil Taghisoy, head of department of Yeni Musavat; Shahin Jafarli and Azer Qarachanli, editors of Yeni Musavat; Allahverdi Donmez, correspondent for Tezadlar newspaper; Mehseti Sherif, correspondent for Rezonans newspaper; Talekh Zafarli and Rasul Mursaqulov, correspondents for Chag newspaper; Tunzale Rafiqqizi, correspondent for Ana Veten newspaper; Rey Kerimoglu, correspondent for Sharq newspaper; Azer Rashidoglu, correspondent for Ayna newspaper; Ajdar, cameraman for Azadliq newspaper; Lachin Semra, correspondent for Muxalifet newspaper; Eldaniz Badalov, cameraman for Bu gun newspaper; Tahir Mammadov, deputy editor-in-chief of Chag; Elman Maliyev, correspondent for Hurriyyet newspaper; and Shahbaz Xuduoglu, editor of Qanun.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Azerbaijan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "It is also reported that police attempted to break into the office building of several opposition and independent news outlets, among them the Azadliq and Chag newspapers and the Turan agency. It is alleged that two of the above-mentioned journalists, Tahir Mammadov and Shahbaz Xuduoglu, were arrested by the police, along with Elman Maliyev, who was taken to the police station. The Special Rapporteur specifically requested the Government of Azerbaijan to provide pertinent information on the court, agency or other competent body which was, or is, responsible for investigation of the allegations and the prosecution of those responsible.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Azerbaijan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "By letter dated 3 December 1998, the Government of Azerbaijan indicated that on 12 September 1998 a group of about 300 persons used force against police officers on duty in an area close to a stadium where an authorized opposition rally was supposed to take place. These unlawful actions are said by the Government to have seriously disrupted public order and were therefore the object of criminal proceedings by the Office of the Procurator-General of Baku. Thirty nine persons were subsequently charged. Only one of them complained of physical and psychological pressures. The Government further confirmed that the Procurator-General received in mid-September letters of complaint from the Turan news agency and the Labour Union of Azerbaijani Journalists, but that no individual submitted any official complaint, although they had been invited to do so. The Government stated that most of the persons mentioned in the Special Rapporteurs' letter either did not complain, or indicated to the Office of the Procurator-General that the losses they had suffered during the clash with the police were negligible. However, the investigators are said to plan to verify whether the rights of other journalists mentioned have been violated. Finally, the Government indicated that the Procurator-General has communicated to the Ministry of Internal Affairs his views on the need for urgent action to prevent the violation of the journalists' rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Azerbaijan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Azerbaijan for the detailed reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Azerbaijan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "On 18 June 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent an allegation to the Government of Chad relating to the case of Ngarléjy Yorongar, a member of Parliament whose parliamentary immunity was lifted on 26 May 1998 before he was reportedly arrested on 2 June 1998 and placed in custody awaiting trial. According to the information received, Ngarléjy Yorongar had criticized the construction plan for a pipeline and allegedly implicated the head of State and the President of the Parliament in this project.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Chad"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "The Government of Chad provided the Special Rapporteur with a reply on 29 July 1998 in which it confirmed that the parliamentary immunity of Ngarléjy Yorongar was lifted before any criminal action was taken. According to the Government, Mr. Yorongar had received a fair trial. The Government also contested information according to which Mr. Yorongar was arrested several times and harrassed by the police. Finally, the Government considered that the case to be simply one of defamation, despite the lack of cooperation from the accused and the behaviour of his defence lawyers.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Chad"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Chad for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. The Special Rapporteur would appreciate being informed on further developments in this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Chad"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "By letter dated 24 February 1998, the Government of China replied to the Special Rapporteur’s letter of 12 November 1997 (see E/CN.4/1998/40, para. 76) in which he communicated to the Government his concerns for the following individuals whose right to freedom of opinion and expression had been subjected to arbitrary interference: Wang Dan, Wang Ming, Gao Yu, Liu Nianchun, Li Hai, Yao Zhenxiang, Yao Zhenxian, Fu Guoyong, Chen Longde, and Wang Donghai.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Wang Dan was found guilty in 1991 of advocating the overthrow of the Government, sentenced to four years in prison and stripped of his political rights for one year. On 17 February 1993, he was paroled but rearrested on 3 October 1996 for having colluded with foreign organizations and posing a threat to national security while he was stripped of his political rights. Wang Dan was sentenced to 11 years in prison for having conspired to overthrow the Chinese State and the socialist system. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Wang Dan was in good health, held at the Jinshou prison in Liaoning Province, and permitted to meet with his family frequently.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "In regard to Wang Ming, the Government stated that he, along with others, had provoked disturbances and disrupted public order in Guizhou, Sichuan, and elsewhere. Hence, on 6 December 1996, Wang Ming was assigned to three years’ re-education through labour. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Gao Yu was sentenced on 10 November 1994 to six years in prison for allegedly having disclosed State secrets. She is being held at the Yanqing Prison in Beijing and is reported to be in good health after her high blood pressure was treated with medication.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "Concerning Liu Nianchun, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that he was sentenced in 1991 to three years in prison for counter-revolutionary activities. Since 1993, it is alleged that Liu Nianchun and others had planned to set up an illegal organization, provoked and disrupted public order by engaging in unlawful activities in Beijing, Shanghai and elsewhere. On 14 May 1996, Liu Nianchun was assigned to three years of re-education. The Government wished to inform the Special Rapporteur that the allegation that Liu Nianchun had received no medical attention was erroneous, as he was sent to two different hospitals four times for examination in August 1996 and, at the family’s request, to a third hospital on 26 February 1997, which confirmed no visible medical problems.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "Li Hai, as reported by the Government, was sentenced on 18 May 1997 to nine years in prison for having gathered State secrets. He was also stripped of his political rights for two years and is now serving his sentence in a Beijing prison. In July 1996, the brothers Yao Zhenxiang and Yao Zhenxian, were assigned to three and two years of re-education through labour, respectively, for having duplicated and broadcast obscene materials. The two brothers are in good health since they receive appropriate medical care.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "In regard to Fu Guoyong, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that he was assigned to re-education through labour in 1990 for provoking a disturbance, but he remained unreformed and allegedly continued to provoke disturbances and disrupt public order. On 5 November 1996, he was assigned to three years in re-education.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "Wang Donghai, who was first sentenced in July 1989 to two years in prison for counter-revolutionary propaganda and provocation, was assigned to a year at a re-education facility on 29 May 1996 for continuing to engage in activities that endangered State security after his first release. Wang Donghai completed his assignment on 28 May 1997, and the public security authorities have never placed him under house arrest.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "Chen Longde was sentenced in September 1989 to three years in prison for counter-revolutionary propaganda and provocation. The Government stated that in May 1996, he, in conjunction with others, plotted and provoked a disturbance and disrupted public order, for which he was assigned to three years of re-education on 26 July 1996. The Government asserted that torture and beatings do not take place at the facility.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "Furthermore, the Government noted that Chinese citizens have the right under its Constitution and other laws to freedom of opinion, the press, assembly, association, the freedom to march and to hold demonstrations. However, its Constitution also states that citizens must accept the duties imposed by the Constitution and laws and must not harm the interests of the State, society, and the collective or the legitimate rights of other citizens. Furthermore, no one can be punished simply for holding dissident political views or exercising the right to freedom of opinion. The individuals named above were punished under the law because they committed crimes.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of China for the detailed reply provided and the willingness that it has indicated to cooperate with the mandate. Above all, the Special Rapporteur welcomes the release of Wang Dan from prison on 20 April 1998 for medical reasons, and his transfer to the United States. He would, however, appreciate if the Government could provide him with further information on the case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "On 28 October 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government in a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Concern was expressed with regard to the fate of three journalists: Paulin Tusumba Nkazi-a-Kanda, editor of the newspaper Le Peuple, Jean-Marie Kanku and Professeur Muamba Kayembe or “Ali Kamba”, both from the newspaper L'alerte.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Democratic Republic of the Congo"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "According to the information received, the first of the above-mentioned journalists was arrested on 16 October 1998 and is currently detained in the court prison for having published an article on the August 1998 rebellion against the ruling Government. The two other journalists were reportedly arrested on 19 October 1998 for having published an article which was said to defame the Minister for Home Affairs.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Democratic Republic of the Congo"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has yet been received from the Government on the cases in question and hopes for an early response.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Democratic Republic of the Congo"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "On 9 September 1998, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an allegation to the Government of Egypt concerning the confiscation of the first two issues and prohibition of further distribution of Alf Lela, a cultural journal based in Cyprus, by the Egyptian authorities in August 1998. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, as a foreign publication in Egypt, Alf Lela is subject to the authority of the Censorship Department of the Ministry of Information. It is reported that the reason given by the authorities for the confiscation of Alf Lela’s 12 August 1998 issue was that it had “contained articles of a political nature”. No reason was supposedly given for the banning of the second issue on 19 August 1998.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "By letter of 4 December 1998, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government of Egypt, jointly with the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on the independence on judges and lawyers, to express their concern over the detention of Mr. Hafez Abu Se’da, a lawyer and the Secretary-General of the Egyptian Organization for Human Rights (EOHR). According to the information received, the Egyptian Higher State Security Prosecution ordered the detention of Mr. Hafez Abu Se’da on 1 December 1998 for a period of 15 days after he appeared as a witness in a court hearing about EOHR's financing. It has been reported that Mr. Hafez Abu Se’da faces charges of: (i) “accepting funds from a foreign country with the aim of fulfilling acts that would harm Egypt”; (ii) “disseminating false information abroad that would harm national interests”; and (iii) “receiving donations without obtaining permission from the competent authorities”. It is claimed that the current whereabouts of Mr. Hafez Abu Se’da are unknown, and neither his lawyers nor his family have apparently been informed of his whereabouts or been allowed to visit him.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to point out that the reply to be provided by the Government in this case will be published in next year's report.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "On 2 October 1998 the Special Rapporteur sent a joint allegation to the Government of Georgia with the Special Rapporteur on torture. Concern was expressed in regard to two Georgian journalists, Constantine (Kote) Vardzelashvili and Giorgi (Gogi) Kavtaradze, from the non-governmental Liberty Institute in Tbilisi, who were beaten and threatened by the police on 21 September 1998 after having tried to obtain information from the head of the Special Police Unit, Temur Mgebrishvili, about the alleged use of force by the police against a crowd of people.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Georgia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "On 26 November 1998 the Government of Georgia sent a preliminary reply in which it informed the Special Rapporteur that the two journalists were taken by police to the police station after they offered resistance to the police forces who were carrying out law enforcement measures on Agmashenebeli Avenue. Mr. Vardzelashvili and Mr. Kavtaradze were released the same evening. After a complaint by the two journalists that the police had physically abused them, an investigation is being monitored by the Prosecutor General of Georgia. The Government of Georgia added that it would send more complete information on the results of the investigation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Georgia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the Government of Georgia for its prompt reply and welcomes the fact that an investigation has been ordered. The Special Rapporteur is looking forward to receiving additional information on the results of this investigation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Georgia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "From 9 to 13 November 1998, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Hungary, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session (E/CN.4/1999/64/Add.2).\nIran (Islamic Republic of)", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Hungary"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "By letter of 30 October 1998, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government of Iran with regard to the closing down of the newspapers Rah-e-No and Tarana on 17 September 1998. The two newspapers were said to have published criticism of Iran’s hard-line leadership and its position on Afghanistan. In addition, a Press Court in Tehran reportedly revoked on 29 September 1998 the printing licence for the monthly magazine Jameh-Salem for having allegedly defamed the late spiritual leader Ayatollah Khomeiny. Jameh-Salem’s director, Siavoch Gouran, was reportedly given a one-year suspended jail sentence and ordered to pay a fine equivalent to US$ 1,000. It is further reported that on 6 October 1998 a Press Court also suspended the publication of the weekly magazines Asre-Ma for six months and Sobh for four months. Asre-Ma’s director, Mohammad Salamati, was allegedly sentenced to a fine equivalent to US$ 1,000 for having published “insulting and deceitful” articles. Sobh’s director, Mehdi Nassirj, was also said to have been fined the same amount.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Hungary"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur raised his concerns for the following three journalists from the daily Tous, who were allegedly arrested after the closing down of the newspaper on 16 September 1998: editor Mashallah Shamsolva’ezin, publishing director Hamid Reza Jalaipour, and sub-editor Mohammad Javadi Hessar. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, the three journalists are awaiting trial by the Revolutionary Court, along with their colleague, Tous columnist Ibrahim Nabavi, who was arrested on 18 September 1998. Although it is reported that Hama Reza Jalaipour was released on 13 October 1998 and the others around 2 October 1998, the four journalists are still charged with having carried out subversive activities against State security. It has also been reported that some of the four journalists may be charged with the offence moharebe ba khoda, or enmity with God, which supposedly carries the death penalty.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Hungary"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "The Special Rapporteur anxiously awaits a reply from the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran on the cases in question and hopes for an early response.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Hungary"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "In a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, the Special Rapporteur sent on 13 July 1998 an allegation to the Government of Japan concerning over 10,000 web pages, bulletin boards and news-servers in Japan which allegedly distribute images of child pornography over the Internet. According to the information received, images of children, sometimes as young as eight or nine years old, depicting their rape, torture, and even murder, can be downloaded easily by anyone with basic knowledge of the Internet. The source reports that although this is a global phenomenon, the proliferation of such Websites from Japanese news-servers is said to be particularly marked.", "labels": ["Children"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Japan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that at the time of the finalization of the present report, no reply had been received from the Government of Japan on the concerns raised. The Special Rapporteur would like to refer to article 34 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child which stipulates States parties shall protect the child from all forms of sexual exploitation and abuse, and urges the Government of Japan to take all appropriate measures to guarantee the physical and psychological integrity of all children who have access to the Internet, or whose images are portrayed thereon. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur urges the Government to carry out an impartial and thorough investigation into the facts as described above and to identify those responsible.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Japan"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "34", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "From 20 to 24 October 1998, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Malaysia, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session (E/CN.4/1999/64/Add.1).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Malaysia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "On 13 February 1998, the Government of Mexico, responding to the Special Rapporteur’s letter of 30 October 1997 (see E/CN.4/1998/40, para. 83), provided detailed information about the investigations carried out on the cases of René Solorio, Ernesto Madrid and Gerardo Segura, journalists at TV Azteca, who were abducted and tortured for several hours, presumably because of the revelations made of alleged abuses and misdeeds committed by law enforcement agents. More details have been also communicated by the Government about the cases of Daniel Lizárraga and David Vicenteno, journalists at La Reforma, who were kidnapped and assaulted. Further explanations were given for the killing of Abdel Jesus Bueno León, publisher and editor of 7 Días; questions raised about the deaths of Benjamin Flores González, working at La Prensa, and Victor Hernández Martínez, journalist for the weekly Como, were answered as well. According to the Mexican authorities, all of these cases are still under investigation or already in the prosecution stage.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Mexico"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0086", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "As regards the abduction, assault and torture allegedly suffered by Mr. Solorio, Mr. Madrid and Mr. Segura, the Government of Mexico states that the ongoing investigation by the Attorney-General's Office has found some contradictions in several of the victims' accounts; they are not cooperating with the authorities in the investigation. The cases of Mr. Lizárraga and Mr. Vicenteno, allegedly object of abduction, assault and threats, are under investigation at the National Commission on Human Rights in an information-gathering stage. Mr. Hernández Martínez's death is also being investigated by the National Commission on Human Rights where the file is soon to be completed. As regards the murder of Mr. Bueno León, the Commission has started an investigation as it could be linked to the death of another journalist, Leoncio Pontor García. With respect to the case of Mr. Flores González's death, the judicial authorities have ordered the detention of five persons on charges of homicide and criminal association. They are in prison awaiting trial.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Mexico"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0087", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks and takes note of the information provided by the Government of Mexico. He would like to be provided with additional information about the ongoing investigations and prosecution processes.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Mexico"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0088", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "On 8 June 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action to the Government of Nigeria jointly with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Nigeria, the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, relating to the case of Mr. Niran Malaolu. According to the information received, Mr. Malaolu, the editor of an independent daily newspaper (The Diet), was arrested on 28 December 1997 and sentenced to life imprisonment by a Special Military Tribunal on 28 April 1998 for concealment of treason. Prior to his arraignment, Mr. Malaolu was denied access to a lawyer, a doctor and members of his family. Mr. Malaolu was allegedly punished for news stories published by his paper concerning an alleged coup plot involving Lieutenant General Oladipo Diya, as well as other military officers and civilians who also were convicted by the Tribunal and sentenced.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0089", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has been provided by the Government on this case and hopes to receive one soon.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0090", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "By letter dated 30 June 1998, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government in regard to legal limitations on the right to freedom of expression and opinion, in particular article 33 of the Constitution, which enables State authorities to fine or arrest any person who offends or shows disrespect to them in the performance of their duties; articles 172, 173 and 173A of the Criminal Code, which impose penalties of fines or imprisonment for “slander and offence”; and Law 67 of 1978, which prohibits the exercise of the profession of journalism by individuals who do not possess an alleged “professional competence”. The authorities are said to have used the above-mentioned legislation to prosecute and punish those who criticize the Government, such as in the case of journalist Gustavo Gorriti and Dr. Miguel Antonio Bernal, who was reportedly prosecuted for having implicated the national police in incidents which had occurred in Coiba Island penitentiary.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Panama"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "33", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "172", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "173", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0091", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "On 5 October 1998 the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Panama’s Criminal Code governs issues relating to calumny and insult in order to preserve the dignity and good name of the individual. Victims of false statements have recourse to the appropriate legal authority and can request an investigation and compensation for damages. The Government has set up a special commission to undertake an examination of the provision contained in article 173A of the Criminal Code and hopes to be able to promote national consensus on this issue.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Panama"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0092", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "The Government also informed the Special Rapporteur that Act No. 67 of 1978 is applicable to the communication media and contains provisions on the purely formal requirements which must be fulfilled before publication in regard to their owners and directors, and on other administrative mechanisms relating to violation of the law. In addition, the Government stated that there is full consensus on the advisability of repealing the provisions on sanctioning the media for the publication of false news, and the Government has drawn up a proposal which was included in the bill to decriminalize intentional calumny and insult by the communication media.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Panama"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0093", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "In the context of the nationalization of the media, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that there are various contradictory opinions: some maintain that foreign journalists should be allowed to exercise their profession in Panama while others hold that the nationality requirement should be maintained.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Panama"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0094", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "On the proposed amendment to the Administrative Code, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the proposal does not interfere with individual or public freedoms because it is a purely administrative regulation of the freedom of assembly. It does not limit, diminish or eliminate the freedom of assembly, as this right is established in the Constitution. It is an attempt to punish those who, under cover of exercising their freedom of assembly, carry or use firearms or bombs, gas or other chemical materials which could cause harm to individuals or property. The bill would also punish those who hide their faces under hoods or masks, prevent public movement through deliberate closure of public access, and destroy properties.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Panama"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0095", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "In regard to the regulations on the professional ethics of university teaching staff, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the regulations were approved by the University General Council, the autonomous and highest body of the co-government of the University of Panama, without being subjected to the executive or any other institutional instruments of the State.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Panama"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0096", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "In the context of the criminal proceedings against Miguel A. Bernal for calumny and insult, the Government stated that the cause for the complaint was that he had accused the members of the National Police of being responsible for the murder of the inmates who had escaped from the penitentiary where they were being held.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Panama"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0097", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply to the specific concerns raised in his allegation letter and for the other relevant documentation that the Government submitted. The Special Rapporteur would strongly recommend a more focused public debate in the country on the regulations referred to above which remain a cause of concern and constitute limits on freedom.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Panama"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0098", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "On 22 July 1998 the Special Rapporteur requested information from the Government about the cases of Ham Yun Shik and Son Chung Mu, charged with criminal defamation and imprisoned for their coverage of the 1997 presidential campaign. Ham Yun Shik, the publisher of One Way Magazine, who printed highly critical articles concerning presidential candidate Kim Dae Jung’s background and political ideology, was taken to court by Kim Dae Jung’s political party (National Congress for New Politics - NCNP) after his successful bid for the presidency. Mr. Ham was reportedly arrested on 28 February 1998 and is currently serving a jail term after a Seoul court sentenced him to one year in prison on 2 July 1998. Son Chung Mu, the publisher of Inside the World magazine, was arrested on 1 June 1998 allegedly for his magazine’s coverage of the 1997 presidential campaign. He is being detained while awaiting his court appearance, which was scheduled for 20 July 1998.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Republic of Korea"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0099", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "On 10 August 1998 the Government of the Republic of Korea informed the Special Rapporteur that Ham Yun Shik's criminal history dated back to 1967 and that he was arrested after having issued and distributed 100,000 copies of his magazine in which he allegedly libelled Kim Dae Jung with reports on his birth, ideology, military service and health condition. As regards Son Chung Mu, the Government recalled that he had been found guilty of “defamation by printed materials” for which he was sentenced to one year's imprisonment on 17 February 1994. The sentence was suspended for two years. Mr. Son wrote Kim Dae Jung, X File, a book in which he accused Mr. Kim of being a communist, allegedly on the basis of falsified documents. The NCNP lodged a complaint against Mr. Son which was filed for prosecution on 20 February 1998 without physical detention. The two cases are pending in Seoul District Court. The Government also recalled that within the context of the guaranteed rights of freedom of press and publication, Korean legislation provides reasonable limitations in order to ensure fair and just elections. The Public Office and Election Malpractice Prevention Act, enacted in 1994, provides sanctions in article 251 against those with the intention to libel candidates while article 309 of the Korean Criminal Code protects against crimes against reputation committed through printed materials.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Republic of Korea"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "251", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "309", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0100", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Korea for its reply; however, further details would be most welcomed on the fate of the two above-mentioned persons awaiting trial.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Republic of Korea"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0101", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "On 22 June 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal to the Government of Saudi Arabia with the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention. Concern was expressed about the fate of a Dutch national, Wim den Hertog, and six Filipino citizens, Ariel Ordona, Angelito Sizon, Juanito Manalili, Ruben Aguirre, one unnamed man and Yolai Aguilar, who was said to be nine months pregnant. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, the above-mentioned individuals were arrested for the peaceful expression of their religious beliefs. Mr. den Hertog was reportedly detained on 13 June 1998, at his home and had not been heard of since his arrest. The Filipino citizens were said to have been arrested between 5 and 12 June 1998.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Saudi Arabia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0102", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has yet been received from the Government of Saudi Arabia on the cases in question and hopes for an early response.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Saudi Arabia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0103", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "On 21 January 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent to the Government of Sierra Leone a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture in regard to Sylvanus Kanyako, David Koroma, and Anthony Swaray, three journalists who were allegedly arrested without charge and detained in Freetown. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, the arrests on 10 January 1998 of Sylvanus Kanyako and David Koroma, both from the Herald Guardian newspaper, were related to the publication of an article which anticipated the arrest of a senior member of the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council. Anthony Swaray, a freelance journalist, was reportedly arrested around 14 January 1998 because of his alleged links with an illegal radio station. While Sylvanus Kanyako was reportedly held at the Criminal Investigation Department (CID) headquarters in Freetown, his arms were said to have been secured tightly behind his back. David Koroma was allegedly ill-treated while in custody and was later admitted to hospital. Anthony Swaray was also allegedly beaten.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sierra Leone"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0104", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that at the time of the finalization of the present report, no reply had been received from the Government of Sierra Leone. The Special Rapporteur would like to urge the Government of Sierra Leone to take any steps which might be necessary in order to investigate these cases and to prosecute and impose appropriate sanctions on any persons guilty of torture and violating the freedom of opinion and expression, regardless of any rank, office or position they may hold, as well as to take effective measures to prevent the recurrence of such alleged acts and to compensate the victims or their relatives, in accordance with the relevant international standards.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sierra Leone"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0105", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "On 18 June 1998, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government of Sri Lanka on the case of Iqbal Athas, a journalist who was allegedly the target of an abduction attempt on 12 February 1998. The Special Rapporteur was informed that Iqbal Athas was being subjected to continued harassment which is believed to be related to his investigations into corruption in the top echelons of the security forces as well as in connection with some of the military actions undertaken in the ongoing conflict between the security forces and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. In his communication, the Special Rapporteur welcomed President Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga’s order for the Criminal Investigation Department to conduct an investigation into this incident.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0106", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "On 24 June 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government of Sri Lanka concerning Lasantha Wickrematunge, an editor and journalist of an independent weekly openly critical of the Government, who reportedly was the target of an armed attack. According to the information transmitted to the Special Rapporteur, Lasantha Wickrematunge had received anonymous telephone threats and was attacked by an unidentified number of individuals who opened fire from a van outside his house after he and his family had returned home on the night of 17 June 1998. It was also alleged that he had been the target of an assault three years ago and that his house had been watched by persons in unmarked vehicles. The Special Rapporteur welcomed the fact that Mangala Samaraweera, the Minister of Post, Telecommunications, and Media, had condemned that attack and called for a thorough police investigation into the later incident.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0107", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "On 29 April 1998, the Special Rapporteur requested the Government of Sri Lanka to extend an invitation to him to carry out an official visit to the country in the course of 1998.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0108", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "Despite an acknowledgement sent by the Government on 4 May 1998, no further reply has been provided to the Special Rapporteur, in particular with regard to the above-mentioned cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0109", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "On 28 May 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent a letter to the Government of the Sudan proposing that he visit the country in late summer or early autumn 1998, following an invitation the Government had extended to him in 1996.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0110", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "The Government of the Sudan replied by letter dated 14 September 1998 and suggested that the Special Rapporteur visit the Sudan during September 1998. Unfortunately, previous commitments forced a delay in the visit which is now proposed for May or June 1999, as the Special Rapporteur suggested in his letter dated 6 October 1998 to the Government of the Sudan.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0111", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "On 29 April 1998 the Special Rapporteur sent a letter to the Government reminding it that he had requested, by letter dated 4 December 1997, an invitation to visit the country. He emphasizes that this visit should consolidate the cooperation between Tunisia and the Commission on Human Rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0112", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "On 10 June 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention to the Government of Turkey on the case of Esber Yagmurdereli, a journalist and lawyer. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, Esber Yagmurdereli was arrested on 1 June 1998 after his release in November 1997 on health grounds. In 1991, Mr. Yagmurdereli had supposedly been partially amnestied for a 23-year prison term he had been serving since 1978. With the new arrest and imprisonment, it is alleged that he would have to serve the remaining years of the first sentence in addition to the 10 months for his new conviction.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0113", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "By letter dated 23 June 1998, the Government of Turkey stated that Mr. Yagmurdereli, who was sentenced to life imprisonment, first had been released under a conditional amnesty on 1 August 1991. According to the Government, Mr. Yagmurdereli broke the conditions of his amnesty a month after his release, on 8 September 1991, when he contravened article 8 of the Anti-Terror Law, which deals with incitement to violence against the State through propaganda. He was then sentenced to 10 months' imprisonment on 28 May 1997 by the State Security Court and taken to prison on 20 October 1997 after his appeal was rejected by the Court. He was released on 9 November 1997 because of his poor health, which did not represent an amnesty. Mr. Yagmurdereli then rejected the required medical examination at the Forensic Science Institute. The 3d Specialized Board of the Forensic Science Institute, therefore, decided that suspension of the execution of the imprisonment sentence was not required. Consequently, the Chief Prosecutor decided to remove the suspension on the execution of the verdict of Mr. Yagmurdereli, in accordance with article 399/1 of the Turkish Code of Criminal Procedure.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "8", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "399", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0114", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "By letter dated 18 June 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent an allegation to the Government of Turkey on the case of Ragip Duran, a journalist and a founding member of the Turkish Human Rights Association. Ragip Duran started serving his 10-month prison term on 16 June 1998 after being convicted in October 1997 for his article in the now banned newspaper Ozgur Gündem, which analysed interviews he had had with Abdullah Ocalan, the leader of the Kurdistan Worker’s Party (PKK).", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0115", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "The Government of Turkey responded by letter dated 2 July 1998, stating that Mr. Duran had been lawfully convicted, in conformity with article 7/12 of the Anti-Terror Law, No. 3713, for having misused his freedom of expression to propagate an illegal terrorist organization and its leader. The Government of Turkey added that Mr. Ragip Duran was not convicted for his interviews with the leader of the PKK, which were published on 12 April 1994, as he was acquitted of that suit filed against him. The Government emphasized that Mr. Duran’s conviction was related to his praises of an illegal terrorist organization and its leader, which appeared in the article “Apo 91 Ocalan 94”.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "7", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0116", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to thank the Government of Turkey for its willingness to cooperate and for the information provided. However, the Special Rapporteur remains concerned about the removal of the suspension of the imprisonment sentence of Esber Yagmurdereli, as well as about his health.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0117", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "On 16 September 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent an allegation to the Government of Uzbekistan concerning Shadi Mardiev, a reporter for the State-run Samarkand radio station and well-known writer for the journal Mushtum, who was arrested on 15 November 1997 and charged for his broadcast on 19 June 1997, in which he satirized the reportedly corrupt practices of Talat Abdulkhalikzada, the Samarkand deputy prosecutor. On 11 June 1998, Mr. Mardiev was reportedly sentenced to 11 years in prison for defamation and extortion. The Special Rapporteur was also informed that Mr. Mardiev had suffered two brain haemorrhages while he was in solitary confinement and awaiting the result of his appeal. On 3 August 1998, the Supreme Court confirmed Mr. Mardiev’s 11-year sentence.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Uzbekistan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0118", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that at the time of the finalization of the present report, no reply had been received from the Government of Uzbekistan; he expects a response soon.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Uzbekistan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0119", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "On 25 May 1998 the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government of Viet Nam in regard to Prof. Doan Viet Hoat, who is detained at Than Cam prison, inter alia for publication of the newsletter Dien Dan Tu Do (Freedom Forum). He was first sentenced in late March 1993 to 20 years of hard labour for his involvement with the newsletter; the sentence was reduced to 15 years on appeal. It was alleged that in addition to his poor health, Prof. Doan's family was denied access to him.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0120", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets not having received any reply from the Government of Viet Nam. He would highly appreciate if the Government could provide him with precise details on the legislation applied in, and the legal basis for, the detention of Prof. Doan Viet Hoat.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0121", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 121, "n": 121, "text": "On 15 October 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government of Yugoslavia concerning a decree Issued by Serbian authorities on 8 October 1998, which prohibits local media from “retransmitting foreign media programmes which threaten the interests of our country, incite fear, panic and defeatism or present a negative image of citizens’ ability to defend the integrity of Serbia and Yugoslavia”. It was alleged that this decree has been used by the authorities to restrict the retransmission of foreign radio programmes by independent media and also to impede the reporting of foreign and Yugoslav correspondents from Kosovo.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Yugoslavia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0122", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 122, "n": 122, "text": "After the decree was issued, officials from the Yugoslav Telecommunications Ministry reportedly closed down the independent Radio Senta in Vojvodina on 9 October 1998 and Radio Index in Belgrade on 10 October 1998. On 12 October 1998, the independent Belgrade daily Danas allegedly received a warning notice and was served a banning order a day later by the Serbian Information Ministry. Another independent Belgrade daily, Dnevni Telegraf, also was said to have been closed down by the Information Ministry and the police on 13 October 1998. Both newspapers have reportedly been accused of breaching the above-mentioned decree. A third independent daily, Nasa Borba, also allegedly received a warning notice from the Information Ministry on 12 October 1998, for its reporting on Kosovo. In his communication to the Government, the Special Rapporteur expressed his great concern for the independent media and the physical integrity of journalists, who had been reportedly threatened.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Yugoslavia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0123", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 123, "n": 123, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that at the time of the finalization of the present report, no reply had been received from the Government. He wishes to express his concern over the recent developments in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. He has furthermore been informed that a new Public Information Law has been adopted which reportedly falls short of international standards, in particular with regard to the right to receive or impart information, regardless of frontiers. The Special Rapporteur would be grateful to the Government if he could receive relevant information on this matter.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Yugoslavia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0124", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 124, "n": 124, "text": "The Special Rapporteur encourages all States that have not ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to do so. Furthermore, he again urges all Governments to scrutinize their domestic legal systems with a view to bringing them into line with international standards governing the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Particularly with regard to the issue of national security, the Special Rapporteur urges all Governments to review not only laws specifically intended to protect national security but also ordinary criminal laws which may be used to infringe the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0125", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 125, "n": 125, "text": "As regards information, particularly information held by Governments, the Special Rapporteur strongly encourages States to take all necessary steps to ensure the full realization of the right to access to information. The Special Rapporteur proposes to undertake a comparative study of the different approaches taken in the various countries and regions in this regard.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0126", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 126, "n": 126, "text": "As regards the impact of new information technology on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the Special Rapporteur considers it of pre-eminent importance that they be considered in light of the same", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0127", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 127, "n": 1, "text": "Verbitsky v. Argentina, 20 September 1994, Case No. 11.012, Report No. 22/94, 3 HRR 52; the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0128", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 128, "n": 2, "text": "Lingens v. Austria, 8 July 1986, 8 EHRR 407, para. 42. international standards as other means of communication and that no measures be taken which would unduly restrict freedom of expression and information; in case of doubt, the decision should be in favour of free expression and flow of information. With regard to the Internet, the Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate that on-line expression should be guided by international standards and be guaranteed the same protection as is awarded to other forms of expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0129", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 129, "n": 127, "text": "In this context, he also recommends that all reasonable steps be taken to promote access to the Internet. For instance, Governments should promote an economic and regulatory environment which encourages the extension of telecommunication lines to rural and other previously under-serviced areas. Wherever possible, government information should be made available through the Internet.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0130", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 130, "n": 128, "text": "Concerning the link between the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the rights of women, the Special Rapporteur expresses his great concern at the continuing silencing of women by various devices. He urges Governments to take all necessary steps to remove formal and cultural obstacles to the exercise by women of their right to freedom of expression, including to receive information, and, ultimately, to give effect to all their rights. In light of the importance of freedom of expression and how it relates to violence against women, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that a special effort should be made both to gather and to analyse more information along the lines described in the present report. The Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate his wish to be able to prepare a report jointly with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, to be submitted to the Commission on Human Rights next year. In this regard, he invites submissions by Governments, intergovernmental organizations and specialized agencies, as well as non-governmental bodies.\nANNEX\nHow to bring information before the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression Overview\nThe mandate of the Special Rapporteur is concerned with the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to seek, receive and impart information. In view of the complexity and multifaceted nature of this right, the Special Rapporteur views the mandate as not focusing only on individual cases and incidents or being confined only to the issue of freedom of the press or the media. The work of the Special Rapporteur, therefore, involves both action on individual cases and incidents as well as consideration of laws and practices relating to the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to seek, receive and impart information.\nAny individual, group, non-governmental organization, intergovernmental agency or Government with reliable knowledge of situations and cases in areas relating to the mandate are encouraged to bring the relevant information to the attention of the Special Rapporteur. The Special Rapporteur invites correspondents to provide information on problems within the scope of his mandate. He is particularly interested in receiving information on problems and violations related to:\n(a) Detention of, discrimination against, or threats or use of violence and harassment, including persecution and intimidation, directed at persons seeking to exercise or to promote the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including professionals in the field of information;\n(b) Activities of political opposition parties and trade union activists, whether a group or an individual;\n(c) Actions against the media (print and broadcast) or impediments to their independent operation;\n(d) Actions against publishers and performers in other media, including books, magazines, film and theatre and the studio arts;\n(e) Activities of human rights defenders (e.g. lawyers, community activists);\n(f) Women’s human rights, within the context of obstacles - including laws and practices - which impede the right of women to express their views and be heard, participate in the decision-making process, have equal standing before the law, and seek and receive information on matters of particular relevance to them such as family planning and violence against women;\n(g) Obstacles to access to information at the local, regional and national levels on projects and initiatives proposed by the Government to advance the right to development and obstacles to participation in the decision-making process, as well as obstacles to access to information on other subjects such as environmental and health impact studies, national budgets, social spending, industrial development projects and trade policies.\nThe Special Rapporteur seeks to balance communications with Governments between those related to individual cases and incidents, which may be considered the symptoms, and those that relate to general patterns of violations - including the legal framework and its application as regards the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to seek and receive information - which may be considered the root causes of violations.\nMethod\nUpon receipt of prima facie credible and reliable information, the Special Rapporteur transmits the information to the Government concerned and requests it to provide him with comments and observations. Upon receipt of the replies, the Special Rapporteur establishes whether the information received can be considered as explaining to his satisfaction the circumstances of the case, the applicable laws and regulations and the reasons for the act or omission on the part of the State that provided the initial ground for an allegation of an impermissible infringement on the right to freedom of opinion and expression.\nThe Special Rapporteur has adopted an urgent action procedure for cases that are of a life-threatening nature or other situations where the particular circumstances of the incident require urgent attention.\nAPPENDIX\nGuidelines for the submission of information to the Special Rapporteur\nIn order for the Special Rapporteur to be able to take action regarding a communication on a case or incident, the following information, as a minimum, must be received.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0131", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 131, "n": 1, "text": "Allegation regarding a person or persons:\nAs detailed a description of the alleged violation as possible, including date, location and circumstances of the event;\nName, age, gender, ethnic background (if relevant), profession;\nViews, affiliations, past or present participation in political, social, ethnic or labour group/activity;\nInformation on other specific activities relating to the alleged violation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0132", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 132, "n": 2, "text": "Allegation regarding a medium of communication:\nAs detailed a description of the alleged infringement on the right as possible, including date, location and circumstances of the event;\nThe nature of the medium affected (e.g. newspapers, independent radio); including circulation and frequency of publication or broadcasting, public performances, etc.;\nPolitical orientation of the medium (if relevant).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0133", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 133, "n": 3, "text": "Information regarding the alleged perpetrators:\nName, State affiliation (e.g. military, police) and reasons why they are considered responsible;\nFor non-State actors, description of how they relate to the State (e.g. cooperation with or support by State security forces);\nIf applicable, State encouragement or tolerance of activities of non-State actors, whether groups or individuals, including threats or use of violence and harassment against individuals exercising their right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to seek, receive and impart information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0134", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 134, "n": 4, "text": "Information related to State actions:\nIf the incident involves restrictions on a medium (e.g. censorship, closure of a news organ, banning of a book, etc.); the identity of the authority involved (individual and/or ministry and/or department), the legal statute invoked, and steps taken to seek domestic remedy;\nIf the incident involves arrest of an individual or individuals, the identity of the authority involved (individual and/or ministry and/or department), the legal statute invoked, location of detention if known, information on provision of access to legal counsel and family members, steps taken to seek domestic remedy or clarification of person’s situation and status;\nIf applicable, information on whether or not an investigation has taken place and, if so, by what ministry or department of the Government and the status of the investigation at the time of submission of the allegation, including whether or not the investigation has resulted in indictments.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0135", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 135, "n": 5, "text": "Information on the source of the communications:\nName and full address;\nTelephone and fax numbers and e-mail address (if possible);\nName, address, phone/fax numbers and e-mail address (if applicable) of person or organization submitting the allegation.\nNote: In addition to the information requested above, the Special Rapporteur welcomes any additional comments or background notes that are considered relevant to the case or incident.\nFollow-up\nThe Special Rapporteur attaches great importance to being kept informed of the current status of cases and thus very much welcomes updates of previously reported cases and information. This includes both negative and positive developments, including the release of persons detained for exercising their rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to seek, receive and impart information, or the adoption of new laws or policies or changes to existing ones that have a positive impact on the realization of the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and information.\nRoot causes\nIn order to carry out his work regarding the root causes of violations, which is of particular importance to the Special Rapporteur, he is very much interested in receiving information on and/or texts of draft laws relating to or affecting the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to seek, receive and impart information. The Special Rapporteur is also interested in laws or government policies relating to electronic media, including the Internet, as well as the impact of the availability of new information technologies on the right to freedom of opinion and expression.\nCommunications\nWhere requested or considered necessary by the Special Rapporteur, information on the source of the allegations will be treated as confidential.\nAny information falling within this description of the mandate of the Special Rapporteur should be sent to:\nSpecial Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression c/o Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights United Nations Office at Geneva 1211 Geneva 10 Switzerland\nFax: +41 22 917 9003", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is the fifth report presented by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Mr. Abid Hussain (India), since the mandate was established by Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/45 of 5 March 1993. It is submitted pursuant to resolution 1997/27. Previously the Special Rapporteur, in pursuance of Commission resolutions 1993/45, 1994/33, 1995/40 and 1996/53, all adopted without a vote, submitted the reports contained in documents E/CN.4/1994/33, E/CN.4/1995/32, E/CN.4/1996/39 and Add.1 and 2, and E/CN.4/1997/31 and Add.1 to the Commission at its fiftieth, fifty-first, fifty-second and fifty-third sessions respectively.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The Special Rapporteur refers to his previous reports as regards the mandate and methods of work adopted by him. In accordance with the need for examining a number of specific questions concerning the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the structure of the present report has been amended. Consequently, the main body of analysis of issues related to the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression will be discussed in section III, focusing on matters referred to by the Commission on Human Rights in resolution 1997/27 and which the Special Rapporteur considers as warranting special attention. These issues include the right to seek and receive information, the media in countries in transition and their role in elections, the impact of new information technologies on the enjoyment of the right, concerns relating to national security, as well as the right to freedom of expression as it relates to violence against women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has received a large number of allegations concerning cases of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in 1997. As was the case in previous years, the Special Rapporteur was only able to transmit a very limited number of requests for information to some Governments, owing to the insufficient financial and human resources to fulfil his mandate in the manner he would deem appropriate. The concerns raised in previous reports to the Commission on Human Rights regarding the circumstances of work (E/CN.4/1995/32, paras. 92-95; E/CN.4/1996/39, para. 6; and E/CN.4/1997/31, para. 7) unfortunately remain of great concern. The mandate requires a substantially increased pool of resources. Within the current constraints, the Special Rapporteur has engaged in an exchange of views with Governments only with regard to a limited number of cases, which are discussed in Section IV.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "It should thus be emphasized that the countries discussed in the respective sections in no way reflect the extent of the problem worldwide, as indeed violations of this right take place in almost every country. In an effort to avoid unnecessary duplication of effort, the Special Rapporteur has increased his cooperation with other special rapporteurs. In the past year, he has sent joint urgent appeals together with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, the Special Representative on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Sudan. Closer cooperation is envisaged with treaty bodies and human rights field operations, as well as other specialized bodies within the United Nations system, and regional intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, particularly at the local level, concerned with the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "From 20 to 23 May 1997, the Special Rapporteur participated in the fourth meeting of special rapporteurs/representatives, experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures and advisory services programme, held in Geneva.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The Special Rapporteur visited Geneva from 22 to 29 March for consultations and to present his report to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-third session. During this period, the Special Rapporteur met with representatives of the Governments of Belarus, Egypt, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Peru, Poland, the Republic of Korea, the Sudan, Turkey and Viet Nam to follow up on or discuss possible visits to the respective countries. He furthermore held a meeting with NGO representatives to discuss specific concerns regarding the mandate.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The Special Rapporteur considers the carrying out of country visits to be an essential element of the mandate. From 24 to 28 May 1997, the Special Rapporteur visited Poland, followed by a visit to Belarus from 28 May to 1 June 1997, on which he has submitted separate reports to the Commission at its current session (E/CN.4/1998/40/Add.1 and 2).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "To date, the Special Rapporteur is in possession of a standing invitation from the Government of the Sudan and hopes to visit the country during this calendar year. While he has also requested an invitation to visit Albania, Egypt, Indonesia, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Peru and Viet Nam to examine in situ the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, he regrets that no invitations have so far been received from them. The Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate his interest in conducting a visit to those countries. In December 1997, in a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, the Special Rapporteur has requested an invitation to visit Tunisia.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "On 6 June 1997, the Special Rapporteur participated in a conference on protection of freedom of speech and cities of asylum held in Stavanger, Norway. The aim of the meeting was to discuss new threats to which writers are exposed and appropriate responses.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Finally, the role of non-governmental organizations in furthering the promotion and the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression cannot be overestimated. Indeed, it is those organizations which spearhead these concerns. The Special Rapporteur wishes to expressly thank ARTICLE 19, the International Centre Against Censorship, which continues to provide significant support to the mandate. He encourages all organizations and individuals to continue to provide information and materials relevant to the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression to the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has consistently stated that the right to seek and receive information is not simply a converse of the right to freedom of opinion and expression but a freedom on its own. It will also be recalled that in the resolutions on freedom of opinion and expression adopted at its fifty-first (1995/40), fifty-second (1996/53) and fifty-third (1997/27) sessions the Commission requested the Special Rapporteur “to develop further his commentary on the right to seek and receive information ...”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to address the issue of the right to information as it relates to government. He believes that the right to access to information held by the Government must be the rule rather than the exception. Furthermore, there must be a general right of access to certain types of information related to what may be called “State activity”, for example, meetings and decision-making forums should be open to the public wherever possible. In a number of democracies there has been a growing trend towards broadcasting, through radio and/or television, the debates and proceedings of sessions of national, regional, State and local assemblies as well as the courts. The Special Rapporteur recommends that this trend be strongly encouraged and hopes that more States and local Governments will adopt this practice.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also notes that there have been a number of instances in which Governments have attempted to prosecute civil servants and others who make available public information which has been classified and that States in every region and with different structures of government continue to classify far more information than could be considered necessary. “Necessary” in this context means that serious harm to the State’s interest is unavoidable if the information is made public and that this harm outweighs the harm to the rights of opinion, expression and information. The tendency to classify or withhold information on the basis of, for example, “Cabinet confidentiality” is too often the practice, which adversely affects access to information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is of the view that the right to seek, receive and impart information imposes a positive obligation on States to ensure access to information, particularly with regard to information held by Government in all types of storage and retrieval systems, including film, microfiche, electronic capacities and photographs. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur has observed that in countries where the right to information is most fully realized, access to governmental information is often guaranteed by freedom of information legislation, which establishes a legally enforceable right to official documents for inspection and copying. In many cases the right to information is facilitated by independent administrative bodies which have been provided with adequate resources to fulfil their mandate and purpose. These bodies have the power to receive requests for information from the public and to issue decisions binding upon the government department or agency concerned. In those cases where the relevant department or agency has sought to deny access, the arbiter, i.e. the information commissioner or ombudsman, has had the power and authority to compel the Government to produce the information so that a decision may be made on whether the denial is legitimate. In general, the procedures established for requests for information filed by individuals, and for the receiving and processing of requests by agencies, are simple, accessible and reasonably rapid and the decisions are generally issued in writing, within a limited period of time. In those cases where a request has been denied, the reasons are provided and in a number of instances an individual whose request has been refused is entitled to seek a judicial review of the decision.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "In light of the importance of access to Government-held information for democracy and public participation in the governance of the country, as well as the positive effect on accountability, the Special Rapporteur would consider it useful to undertake a comparative study of the different approaches taken on this issue in different countries, with regard to the legislative framework, review mechanisms, as well as the implementation in practice.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Finally, the Special Rapporteur supports the view that Governments have a responsibility to facilitate access to information which is already in the public domain such as the reports and recommendations of truth and reconciliation commissions, the State’s reports to United Nations human rights treaty bodies, recommendations arising from consideration of the State’s report by one of these treaty bodies, studies and impact assessments conducted by or on behalf of the Government in areas such as the environment and industrial development, and constitutional and legal provisions relating to rights and remedies. He notes that Governments may discharge this obligation for instance by systematically integrating information about key civic issues, such as human rights, international treaties binding on the State, elections and other political processes, into the education system and popularizing the information through the media. Access to records such as court reports and parliamentary proceedings can be published in a timely fashion and disseminated through major public and university libraries throughout the country and, where technology permits, the Internet.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur believes that one of the best guarantees of respect for the rights to freedom of expression and information lies in the existence of independent media, electronic and print, in which ownership is diversified and there is a maximum of self-regulation and a minimum of State interference. In this context, the Special Rapporteur observes that independent and State-owned media contribute most effectively to the realization of the right to information in countries where there is a statutory presumption that journalists are not required to disclose their sources except in the most limited and clearly defined circumstances. Without such protection for both journalists and sources, the media’s access to information and their ability to communicate that information to the public are likely to be compromised.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "A final point to be made in this context relates to the right to seek, receive and impart information and popular participation. It will be recalled that in his report to the fifty-third session of the Commission, the Special Rapporteur highlighted “the important link between the ability of people, both individually and collectively, to participate in the public life of their communities and country, and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression, including freedom to seek and receive information” (E/CN.4/1996/31, para. 64). The Special Rapporteur further commented that “as discussions on the implementation of the right to development continue, laws and governmental practices which violate the rights to freedom of opinion, expression, information, dissent, association and participation must be taken into account ... (paragraph 65)” and noted violations which, in several aspects, touch on the right to information. These aspects include suppression of political expression, denial of access to family planning information for women, discrimination against women through personal status laws, prohibition on the establishment of independent trade unions, prohibitions or restrictions on the operations of independent media and restrictions on access to information on subjects of public interest and importance. The Special Rapporteur recommended to the Commission on Human Rights that future discussions on implementation of the right to development take full account of the need fully to promote and protect the right to seek, receive and impart information because it, as well as the right to freedom of opinion and expression, is a fundamental prerequisite to ensure public participation, without which the realization of the right to development will remain in jeopardy (E/CN.4/1997/31, para. 66).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has also noted with the greatest interest the elaboration by the United Nations Development Programme of a policy on disclosure of information to the public which was announced in June 1997. The policy is intended “to ensure that information concerning UNDP operational activities will be made available to the public in the absence of a compelling reason for confidentiality (emphasis added)”. 1/ While the operations of agencies within the United Nations system are not generally the concern of the Special Rapporteur, the point to be made in citing UNDP’s policy is the presumption in favour of public disclosure. In the Special Rapporteur’s opinion Governments everywhere should proceed on the same basis and in those States where there is either no policy at all or one based on a presumption of the need for restrictions, steps should be taken to enact a law or establish an effective administrative mechanism for the realization of the people’s right to know and participate. The Special Rapporteur also believes that as regards the implementation of the right to development, full consideration must be given to the relationship between information, the active participation of the entire population and sustainable human development through which every individual can and will benefit.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Since the assumption of his mandate, the Special Rapporteur has observed a number of trends with regard to countries in transition from authoritarian rule to democracy in providing for the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and information. In the area of mass media, this has included in many cases the transformation of a system in which the State had a complete monopoly over the media and other means of communication to a society in which freedom of the media and the press, freedom of assembly and association, as well as other ways of expression, play an essential role. The process of transition has taken vastly different directions in different countries.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Undoubtedly, historical experiences such as previous periods of democratic rule, the extent to which freedom of expression was possible, or the existence of a civil society are important elements to be considered. A wide variety of other factors also come into play; this could certainly be the subject of a study on its own. The point to be made here is the importance of freedom of expression and information in all stages of transitions. This is common to all countries in transition and in the view of the Special Rapporteur is an indispensable ingredient in charting the path towards a successful democratic transition and consolidation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "During his visits to Belarus and Poland, the Special Rapporteur was able to look at the different problems arising within the context of transition, particularly in the context of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, but which may equally be relevant to countries in other regions. The Special Rapporteur finds that a predominant factor was the need for establishing national independent television and radio services with a public broadcasting mandate, ensuring the independence of regulatory frameworks for private broadcasting, as well as ensuring that licensing procedures are apolitical and administrative matters only. Other issues of increasing importance was the reported lack of access to information held by the Government, as well as the protection of journalists' sources. Furthermore, it became clear that one question to be addressed concerns how to strike the balance between freedom and responsibility. In countries transforming their economic policies to follow the logic of the market rather than the State, additional problems have appeared, such as overwhelming influence of foreign media and the control by powerful interest groups of the main mass communications, thus creating the potential danger of depriving the population of balanced information from a variety of sources.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "To return to the issue of independent broadcasting, the role of broadcasting media in all countries in shaping democratic processes and public opinion hardly needs to be re-emphasized. In the light of the unprecedented influence of television and radio broadcasting on the way of thinking and on modern society as a whole, little doubt remains as to their power as educational tools. However, if lacking a democratic basis, they may also be used for inherently undemocratic processes, whether subject to State or private interests.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "The Special Rapporteur particularly wishes to emphasize the role of the media in elections in the process of transition to democracy, specifically in ensuring that the population’s right to receive complete and impartial information is fully guaranteed so as to enable the electorate to form an opinion on candidates’ views and qualifications as well as on the programmes of political parties.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "In this connection, the Special Rapporteur wishes to recall his observation, resulting from his visit to Belarus, expressing concern at the biased coverage with regard to the elections in 1995 and the November 1996 referendum. He notes the observations made by the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the territory of the former Yugoslavia in her report on the situation of human rights in the Republic of Croatia. With regard to the elections of 15 June 1997, it was noted that the election observer mission of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) had concluded that the election may have been free but was not fair, and did not meet minimum democratic standards because the State media - particularly television - showed favouritism towards the ruling Croatian democratic Union (HDZ) (see E/CN.4/1998/14). Equally, she observed in her report on the human rights situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina that during the period preceding the September 1997 elections, “participation in political life was hindered by various obstacles, notably to freedom of the press”. These problems prevented genuine inter-entity (as well as intra-Federation) campaigning, and negatively affected the right of citizens to information (E/CN.4/1998/13, para. 16). In the latest report of the Secretary-General to the General Assembly on the situation of human rights in Cambodia, fair and equal access to the media as a crucial requirement of a free and fair election was equally emphasized (A/52/489, annex, para. 51). The Special Rapporteur received many complaints with regard to a number of countries about the interference with the free flow of information and the imposition of restrictions on the media prior to elections or referendums, compromising the ability of populations to choose their Governments.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thus considers it of vital importance to address the issue of election broadcasting in transitional democracies where a strong tradition of pluralism and diversity in the media does not exist. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur wishes to highlight some principles to be observed to establish the minimum conditions for a free flow of information, views and opinions during election periods, the validity of which is not limited to Eastern Europe.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "As regards the government media, the Special Rapporteur emphasizes that in the period prior to elections, they must inform the public about the political parties, candidates, campaign issues and voting processes and provide voter education. They must furthermore be balanced and impartial in election reporting, not discriminate against any political party or candidate in granting access to air time, and ensure that news, interviews and information programmes are not biased in favour of, or against, any party or candidate. They should not refuse to transmit an election broadcast unless it constitutes a clear and direct incitement to violence or hatred. Their news and current affairs programmes should be accurate, balanced and impartial. Parties and candidates should be granted air time for direct access programmes on a fair and non-discriminatory basis. In referendums, equal time should be granted to both sides. 2/", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Furthermore, Governments should abolish all laws not in conformity with international law and standards on freedom of expression, and make special efforts to investigate all acts or threats of acts of violence, intimidation or harassment directed against media personnel or offices and bring those responsible to justice. In addition, no censorship of election programmes may be allowed. Finally, election broadcasts should be monitored and regulated by an independent, impartial body. 3/", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "These points are emphasized by the Special Rapporteur with a view to ensuring that a number of problems affecting the media’s ability to operate freely and in a balanced way during the election process are overcome. These problems include censorship by Government-controlled media and government agencies, threats of censorship, banning access for certain political parties, media closures, confiscation, bringing sedition charges, intimidation, attacks, detention and prosecution of journalists, and failure to protect journalists from attack. In any electoral process where one or more of these problems remains unaddressed and where no corrective action has been taken, the public’s right to receive and impart information is violated and the opportunity to make an informed decision is limited.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recalls that in the resolution adopted at its fifty-second session (1996/53) the Commission on Human Rights noted the need to raise awareness about the linkage between media, including modern telecommunication technologies, and the right to freedom of expression. It may also be recalled that in the resolution adopted by the Commission at its fifty-third session (1997/27, para. 12 (f)) the Special Rapporteur was invited “to consider, in his next report, all aspects of the impact that the availability of new information technology may have on the equal opportunity of access to information and on the exercise of the right to freedom of expression as set out in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Special Rapporteur observes that the question of the capacities and impact of new information technology is highly complex, involving not only the users and providers of information but also the designers of the technology and service providers. As such, the Special Rapporteur is of the opinion that the invitation by the Commission for him to consider “all aspects” of this question goes beyond the technical competence of the Special Rapporteur and, further, that in order for the Commission’s expectations to be met, the allocation of significant additional resources (financial and expert) is required before comprehensive and in-depth work on the question can be carried out. That being said, and in light of the importance of the matter, the Special Rapporteur is in a position to offer only some preliminary views and to suggest areas where further work may be done in future.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The reference by the Commission on Human Rights to “all aspects” of the new information technology explicitly acknowledges the scope of the question at issue. Bearing that in mind, it must be said that the different views on the issue on the part of Governments, non-governmental organizations and individuals often merely reflect a particular aspect of the problem. There is often a natural tension between what are viewed as competing or mutually exclusive interests or values and the debate often tends to be less about the present and potential benefits of the new technology than it is about restrictions, often in the absence of a clear understanding and all-encompassing analysis of the implications of introducing measures of regulation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "It must again be acknowledged that the international instruments on human rights recognize, as ground for restrictions on opinion, expression and information, the legitimate interest of society in the protection of national security or public order, public health or morals and the rights and freedoms of others. That the new technology has opened alternative avenues for expression and opinion and the transfer of information is not in question.\nNeither is it in doubt that the use of these additional sources by some groups and individuals has raised serious concerns particularly related to, for example, racism and hate speech, incitement to violence, pornography (especially child pornography and sex tourism), privacy and reputation and cultural or societal values.", "labels": ["Children"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "In his report to the fifty-first session of the Commission, and in each report since then, the Special Rapporteur has consistently and strongly emphasized that the general rule is the protection of the freedom of expression and opinion and the right to information, and that the restriction of such freedom and the right must be the exception.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The current debate over the use and, some would say, abuse of the Internet by individuals and groups to express and disseminate racist and intolerant views is one example of the issues raised by the introduction of a new technology and the natural tension that exists between rights and restrictions or, it could be said, between the rights of one person or group and those of others. General recommendation XV (1993) of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination recalls the mandatory nature of the provisions of article 4 in the Convention explained in general recommendation VII, and states that article 4 (a) requires States parties to penalize: (a) dissemination of ideas based on racial superiority or hatred; (b) incitement to racial hatred; (c) acts of violence against any race or group of persons of another colour or ethnic origin; and, (d) incitement to such acts. General recommendation XV also states that, “In the opinion of the Committee, the prohibition of the dissemination of all ideas based upon racial superiority or hatred is compatible with the right to freedom of opinion and expression.” Additionally, the Committee referred to article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, recalling that it stipulates that “any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "The ambivalence surrounding points related to the principle of the need to balance rights and protections is evident in the positions taken by Governments through the declarations and reservations they have entered to article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. A review of these reservations and declarations shows that many of them are based on the need to reconcile the rights to opinion, expression, association and assembly with prohibitions on certain kinds of activities. 4/", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CERD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "Regrettably, the Special Rapporteur was unable to attend the seminar organized by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights and held in Geneva from 10 to 14 November 1997 on the role of the Internet with regard to the provisions of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. He considered with great interest the materials made available, although the report on the seminar had not yet been available at the time of finalization of the present report. He nevertheless notes the conclusions and recommendations of the seminar and the differing views expressed regarding the establishment of an open-ended working group to draft guidelines for the ethical use of the Internet, as well as the possible role of the Commission on Human Rights in deciding on the status and the mandate of such a group. In particular, he notes the absence of consensus on the issue of a formulation of a code of conduct for Internet users and service providers and concerns raised that such a code may lead to abuse and undue infringement on the right to freedom of expression. In this context, the Special Rapporteur wishes to emphasize that great care must be taken to achieve an appropriate balance between the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to receive and impart information and the prohibition on speech and/or activities promoting racist views and inciting violence.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The Special Rapporteur further observes that the range of national models is so extensive as to raise serious doubt as to the possibility of adopting one particular approach as to the best way to tackle the problems and challenges posed by the Internet in the foreseeable future. For instance, in the United States, there is virtually an absolute right to expression and the United States Supreme Court recently decided that censorship provisions in the Communications Decency Act, an amendment to the Telecommunications Reform Act (1996), were unconstitutional and, further, that free speech on the Internet deserved constitutional protection. In some other countries, the actual state of the rights to expression, opinion, information, association and assembly is so restricted as to make any consideration of the dangers presumed to be posed by racism on the Internet virtually irrelevant. And in others, where a balance between rights and restrictions has been established in domestic legislation, the focus has been less on enacting further legislation than on enforcing existing law and working with Internet service providers to ensure that those using the technology to express and promote their views are doing so in conformity with the law.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also wishes to emphasize that there is a distinction to be drawn between speech which offends and hurts and that which exceeds the threshold of tolerance, ceases to be speech and becomes crime under international law. In this regard, while Governments consider what would constitute an appropriate, fair and feasible approach that might be taken to problems raised by the Internet, it is vital that attention continue to be given to the incidence of Governments cooperating or being directly active in the manipulation of media for the promotion of racist views and the incitement to violence on the scale that occurred, for instance, in the former Yugoslavia or Rwanda.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "Another aspect arising from the Internet that has come to the Special Rapporteur’s attention is the inclination of Governments to regulate and control access to this electronic network. The bases on which Governments have taken action include, for example, broadly worded and vague statements on the need to protect public morals or national security. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur noted a number of incidents and trends reported from several countries.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "The Special Rapporteur views with concern measures taken by Governments to impede the free flow of information. Of particular concern are the actions by Governments which provide for extremely harsh punitive measures against groups and individuals seeking to benefit from new information technologies. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur recalls information in the report to the fifty-third session of the Commission by the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Myanmar (E/CN.4/1997/64, para. 18) according to which:\n“the Computer Science Development Law of 27 September 1996 makes the unauthorized import, possession, and use of certain types of computer equipment, for example computers with networking capability, punishable with sentences of 7 to 15 years' in prison and/or a fine. A 'Myanmar Computer Science Council' will be established to approve the type of equipment to be restricted. According to the Government-controlled newspaper New Light of Myanmar (NLM), the punishment is prescribed for anyone setting up links with a computer network without permission or who uses computer networks or information technology for undermining State security, law and order, national unity, the national economy or national culture or who obtains or transmits State secrets. Members of unauthorized computer clubs may, according to reports, be sentenced to prison terms of a minimum of three years. A punishment of 5 to 10 years’ imprisonment is prescribed for anyone who imports or exports computer software or information banned by the Myanmar Computer Science Council.”", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "On a separate but related issue, the Special Rapporteur remains concerned at the policies of some Governments to ban new technology extending the reach of news, information and entertainment programming. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur recalls the report prepared following his visit to Iran in 1996 (E/CN.4/1996/39/Add.2) and information he received on legislation making it illegal to import, distribute, possess or use satellite antennae. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the law had been enacted “for the purpose of safeguarding the cultural identity of the Islamic Republic of Iran against unwarranted influence by the international mass media through the broadcasting of destructive and indecent satellite programmes, and not for the purpose of obstructing or hampering the possibilities for the general public to obtain information (paragraph 51)”. The Government suggested that the prohibition should be regarded as an issue related to public morality. The Special Rapporteur recalls that he strongly encouraged the Government to repeal the law prohibiting the use of satellite antennae.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has received information on the same issue regarding Egypt, according to which, in July 1995, the Government banned the import without prior authorization of satellite decoders, in order to “preserve and protect the values, morals and traditions of society”. 5/", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "A preliminary examination of some issues raised by the new telecommunications and information technologies highlights several themes of continuing concern to the Special Rapporteur. First, it may be recalled that some years ago, developing countries called for a new world information and communication order to create a freer, broader and more balanced flow of information. It may also be recalled that, in 1980, UNESCO adopted a resolution which set out a number of points upon which a new world information and communication order could be based. These points included, inter alia: elimination of imbalances in the existing means and manner of information dissemination; elimination of the negative effects of public and private monopolies of media ownership; elimination of excessive concentration of ownership; creation of a plurality of sources and channels of information; freedom for media professionals with an associated responsibility to exercise that freedom wisely; respect for the cultural identity of peoples; respect for the right of each country to inform the world about its interests, aspirations and social and cultural values; and respect for the right of the public, ethnic and social groups and of individuals to have access to information sources and to participate actively in the communication process.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is of the opinion that the new technologies and, in particular, the Internet are inherently democratic, provide the public and individuals with access to information sources and enable all to participate actively in the communication process. The Special Rapporteur also believes that action by States to impose excessive regulations on the use of these technologies and, again, particularly the Internet, on the grounds that control, regulation and denial of access are necessary to preserve the moral fabric and cultural identity of societies is paternalistic. These regulations presume to protect people from themselves and, as such, they are inherently incompatible with the principles of the worth and dignity of each individual. These arguments deny the fundamental wisdom of individuals and societies and ignore the capacity and resilience of citizens, whether on a national, State, municipal, community or even neighbourhood level, often to take self-correcting measures to re-establish equilibrium without excessive interference or regulation by the State.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "The use and abuse by Governments of anti-terrorism and national security legislation remains a grave concern. The Special Rapporteur again notes that many Governments use these laws to restrict freedom of opinion and expression and the right to receive and impart information. Further, abuse of the powers granted under such laws often leads to: both prolonged and short-term arbitrary detention; torture; extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions; disappearances; threats and intimidation; the closure of various media outlets; the banning of publications and programming; bans on public gatherings; bans and prohibitions on organizations, groups and associations that are in no way associated with terrorism and violence; strict censorship on all forms of communication; and tolerance of, if not actual support for the abuses and crimes committed by police and paramilitary groups.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. National security"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "During visits to various countries and in discussions with government representatives the Special Rapporteur has taken up the issue of national security laws and encouraged the Governments either to repeal the law and consider other measures consistent with article 19 of the Covenant for the protection of the State's national security interests, or to amend the relevant law or laws to ensure a precise and unambiguous definition of the activities and crimes covered by the legislation. For instance, during his visit to the Republic of Korea, he discussed in depth with the authorities the concerns with regard to the National Security Law as reflected in paragraphs 12 to 21 of his report on that visit (E/CN.4/1996/39/Add.1) in which he strongly encouraged the Government to repeal this law.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. National security"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "The Special Rapporteur reiterates his recommendation to the Commission on Human Rights to endorse the Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information (see E/CN.4/1996/39, annex).\nThe Special Rapporteur remains convinced that the Principles give useful guidance for protecting adequately the right to freedom of opinion, expression and information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. National security"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "In resolution 1997/27 the Commission on Human Rights invited the Special Rapporteur to continue to pay particular attention to the situation of women and the relationship between the effective promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and incidents of discrimination based on sex, creating obstacles for women with regard to their right to seek, receive and impart information, and to consider how those obstacles impeded the ability of women to make informed choices in areas of particular importance to them, as well as in areas related to the general decision-making processes in the societies in which they lived. The Special Rapporteur offers the following information and preliminary observations on this subject.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "In his report to the fifty-first session of the Commission on Human Rights (E/CN.4/1995/32), the Special Rapporteur stated that the right to freedom of opinion and expression reflects a country's standard of fair play, justice and honesty (paragraph 14). The Special Rapporteur wishes to emphasize here that the degree to which States respect, protect and promote the right to freedom of opinion and expression of women, which may be exercised through activities and in ways distinctly different from those of men, will also reflect a country's standard of fair play, justice and honesty with regard to women and the status accorded to them in society.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also recalls that in his report to the fifty-third session of the Commission (E/CN.4/1997/31) he called upon States “to actively support women attempting to make their voices heard and to ensure that they are welcomed as active participants in public life”. He further urged Governments “to ensure that effective measures are taken to eliminate the atmosphere of fear that often prevents many women from communicating freely on their own behalf or on behalf of other women who have been victims of violence either in domestic or community settings or as a result of internal or transborder conflict” (paragraph 62).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes that violence against women has been one of the most enduring features of war and conflict. Thus, what has changed is not that such violence occurs but rather that more people are willing to recognize the occurrence of such practices and are actively attempting to counter them. The two recent tragedies of the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda are, understandably, most frequently cited now when discussing violence against women in the context of armed conflict. There is a lot of evidence regarding the terrible atrocities which were committed against women which must find an expression of protest. Such protest should come out clearly in the media and no restrictions whatsoever should be maintained which would suppress the voices of women. In this context, the Special Rapporteur also believes that far greater attention must be given to positive measures to break the silence. For instance, witness protection programmes are needed, for it is partly through the establishment and proper functioning of such programmes that women and girls will be able to fully exercise their right to expression, recount their stories and give testimony and evidence, without shame and without fear of social exclusion, retribution or reprisals against them or members of their families. Such programmes should also provide for the appropriate support services.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Furthermore, in considering the relationship between violence against women in the domestic and community contexts and freedom of opinion and expression, the Special Rapporteur has had occasion to refer to the report of the Canadian Panel on Violence against Women. The report stated that “Canadian women have not enjoyed freedom of expression; rather, their fear makes them reluctant to speak out about the violence they experience. Canadian institutions have contributed to this situation - by denying that such violence can exist, they have supported misogyny and abuse of power.” 6/ The Panel also noted that women victims of violence in Canada, in common with women in every country, often keep silent about what has or is happening to them for a number of reasons, including fear of reprisal, shame, the belief that they are somehow responsible for the violence, the knowledge that they will not be believed, and, in some cases, suppression of the memory of violence because it is too painful to recall. And, finally, the Special Rapporteur was struck by the Panel’s observation that research on the issue of violence against women in Canada remains incomplete because of exclusion, that is, that very little research has focused on the experiences of Inuit and Aboriginal women, women of colour, immigrant and refugee women, rural, poor or homeless women, women with disabilities, women with low literacy skills and lesbians. The Panel also stated that while much research has been carried out in French and/or English, women who do not understand or speak either of these languages have been excluded. 7/", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons in street situations", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "The issues of fear, shame and exclusion are of great concern to the Special Rapporteur not only because they have an enormous impact on the ability of women to exercise freely their right to expression but also because they reflect, in some countries, inadequacies in the legal protections available to women and, in others, continuing attitudes and practices that are justified on the basis of customary practices, cultural history and social norms. In this context, the Special Rapporteur wishes to refer only to a few cases that have been brought to his attention, some of which he had referred to in previous reports.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "For instance, in the report following his visit to Turkey (E/CN.4/1997/31/Add.1), the Special Rapporteur elaborated on the case of Ms. Ismet Celikaslan, who was allegedly detained shortly after stating on television that her daughter had been raped while in police custody in Ankara (paragraph 14), as well as the case of Ms. Gulcin Ozgur, who was allegedly arrested and detained after having publicly stated that she had been sexually assaulted and tortured during a previous period of detention (paragraph 21). The report on his visit to the Islamic Republic of Iran (E/CN.4/1996/39/Add.2) in paragraph 35 refers to the Penal Code adopted in November 1995 which allows for up to two months' imprisonment or 74 lashes for women not respecting the dress code. Paragraph 63 refers to the existence of institutionalized and legally sanctioned forms of distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex and their impact on the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur further refers to the joint urgent appeal to the Government of Sudan noted in section IV of the present report, concerning an incident of 1 December 1997 when a group of approximately 50 women attempted to peacefully demonstrate their opposition to the compulsory military conscription of their sons and brothers to fight the civil war in southern Sudan.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "The Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan noted in his most recent report to the General Assembly a further deterioration of the situation of the rights of Afghan women. Significantly, he noted that many Afghan women are cut off from the media and other sources of information and their sense of desperation was aggravated because they lived under the impression that the world was not aware of the extent of their plight. He further noted that “one of their principal grievances was that they felt that they did not have the opportunity to raise their voice”, which even some Afghan refugee women living in Pakistan believed to be true (A/52/493, annex, para. 85). In another case brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur, in Peru, a woman received death threats because of her activities in a women's group that organizes educational programmes and provides legal and social assistance to working women. 8/ In Papua New Guinea, compensation for the killing of a clan leader, based on a complex tribal calculation, was determined to be $15,000, 25 pigs and an 18-year-old woman named Miriam Wilngal; the young woman said “no” because she wanted to finish high school and learn to be a typist; Miriam Wilngal was forced to take refuge in Port Moresby, some 500 kilometres from her angry relatives. 9/ Finally, the Special Rapporteur of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities on traditional practices affecting the health of women and children referred to a case in Ethiopia (see E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/10, para. 27). In May 1997, according to the Ethiopian Press Agency (ENA), six girls of the Woreda tribe in eastern Ethiopia had committed suicide to avoid abusuma, the traditional marriage between cousins. It was further noted that most of the girls subject to this tradition are about 15 years old and that many of them prefer death to being married off to men who are 80 years old while others have refused this type of marriage because they consider it to be a sort of “women’s slavery”.", "labels": ["Children", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes that in 1997, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) issued general recommendation No. 23 on political and public life, in which it notes that “despite women's central role in sustaining the family and society and their contribution to development, they have been excluded from political life and the decision-making process, which nonetheless determine the pattern of their daily lives and the future of societies. Particularly in times of crisis, this exclusion has silenced women's voices and rendered invisible their contribution and experiences”. The Special Rapporteur underlines the link between political participation and participation in the decision-making process and article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights', linking political participation to the ICCPR freedom of expression provision."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "It will be recalled that the Governments participating in the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in September 1995 asserted, in the Beijing Declaration and Programme of Action, that they were “acknowledging the voices of all women everywhere” (paragraph 4 of the Declaration). The Special Rapporteur feels compelled to express some scepticism about this assertion for the simple reason that, as indicated above, there are many instances and circumstances in which the voices of women cannot possibly have been heard because women have not dared to speak openly about what has happened and/or is happening to and around them. On the other hand, the Special Rapporteur fully concurs with the statement made by Governments in Beijing that:\n“The gap between the existence of rights and their effective enjoyment derives from a lack of commitment by Governments to promoting and protecting those rights and the failure of Governments to inform women and men alike about them ... (paragraph 217 of the Programme of Action).\n“... Unless the human rights of women, as defined by international human rights instruments, are fully recognized and effectively protected, applied, implemented and enforced in national law as well as in national practice in family, civil, penal, labour and commercial codes and administrative rules and regulations, they will exist in name only” (paragraph 218).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "The Special Rapporteur in this section reports on the communications sent out and replies received during 1997. This, however, in no way implies that all cases of earlier communications have been closed to the satisfaction of the Special Rapporteur, as in a number of cases, he has not received replies from the Governments concerned. He refers to his previous reports for cases previously examined.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to encourage Governments to continue their cooperation with the mandate by providing information on the cases in question. He wishes to reiterate that good cooperation is essential in that it opens the possibility for the Special Rapporteur to engage in a dialogue aimed at addressing the concerns as regards respect for freedom of opinion and expression. The opportunity for dialogue is even greater during country missions, and the Special Rapporteur wishes to express his hope for the continued cooperation of Governments in this regard.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "By letter of 13 November 1997, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government of Algeria with regard to the fate of two individuals, namely Mr. Aziz Bouabdallah, journalist with the Arabic-language daily Al-Alam Al-Siyassi, and Mr. Omar Belhouchet, Director of the French-language daily El Watan. According to information received by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Aziz Bouabdallah disappeared on 12 April 1997, after having been abducted by three individuals who had allegedly identified themselves as members of the security forces, in front of his family. Reportedly, the family has not been able to obtain information on his fate since that date. The Special Rapporteur had also received information alleging that Mr. Bouabdallah was held in a detention centre in Algiers and had been tortured during the first month of his detention. According to the information received, concern had been expressed regarding a possible link between his disappearance and his journalistic work, and his coverage of the activities of Islamist groups in Algeria.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "With regard to Mr. Omar Belhouchet, the Special Rapporteur received information that he had been sentenced on 5 November 1997 to one year in prison for an interview he had given in November 1995 to the French television station Canal+ in which he had speculated on the possible responsibility of the Government in the assassinations of journalists since May 1993. Reportedly, Mr. Belhouchet had appealed his conviction. The Special Rapporteur furthermore received information on the summoning of Mr. Belhouchet to the central police station of Algiers shortly after the verdict, where he was questioned for four hours in connection with an article which appeared on 29 October 1997 in his newspaper, written by the journalist Yasser Ben Miloud, who had criticized President Liamine Zeroual and other government officials.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "By letter dated 18 December, the Government of Algeria informed the Special Rapporteur that with regard to the case of Mr. Aziz Bouabdallah, the investigation undertaken by the Ministry of Justice had shown that he was neither questioned nor arrested by the security forces. Therefore, the allegations as to his detention in Algiers had no basis.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for the reply regarding the case of Mr. Bouabdallah and hopes that all necessary action will be taken to establish his fate. However, a reply regarding the case of Mr. Omar Belhouchet is still awaited.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "The Special Rapporteur remains concerned at the overall situation in the country and the continuing violence and the massacres of civilians. He wishes to express his view that in the present situation in Algeria, accurate information about the crimes being committed, as well as transparency and the free flow of information, become all the more important. He encourages the Government to take all necessary measures to provide for the conditions in which all media are able to play their role in providing accurate, reliable and pluralistic information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "The Special Rapporteur further refers to his previous reports with regard to the killings of journalists and would appreciate being kept informed about progress made in the investigation of these cases and the prosecution of those responsible.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "In a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, an urgent appeal was communicated by the Special Rapporteur to the Government on 3 July 1997 with regard to death threats, attacks and harassment of journalists Ariel Garbarz, Magdalena Ruiz Guiñazú and Antonio Fernández Llorente, and their respective families, all of whom have been involved in covering stories related to the death of José Luis Cabezas, photographer for the magazine Noticias, in January 1997.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Argentina"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that at the time of the finalization of the present report, no reply had been received from the Government on the concerns raised and hopes that the Government will respond soon. He urges the Government to ensure that complaints of death threats, attacks and harassment of journalists, especially those calling for clarification of the circumstances of the murder of Mr. Cabezas, are investigated and to provide for an environment where journalists can operate free from attack.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Argentina"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "By letter of 1 August 1997, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government regarding proposed amendments to the Act on the Press and other Mass Media, as well as the fate of Pavel Sheremet, Dmitry Zavadsky and Yaroslav Ovchinnikov. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, amendments to the Act on the Press and other Mass Media which would seem to have a serious impact on the freedom of the media had been approved by the lower chamber of the Parliament of Belarus in late June 1997.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Belarus"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "As regards the above-named individuals, the Special Rapporteur communicated to the Government his concern with regard to their detention on 26 July 1997, allegedly in connection with an incident relating to the filming of the Belarusian border with Lithuania on 22 July. Reportedly, they were held on charges of violating article 80 of the Criminal Code for illegal border crossing. Furthermore, the offices of Russian Public Television (ORT) and Mr. Sheremet’s home were allegedly searched by police on 27 July and various documents confiscated. Several journalists protesting the arrest had allegedly also been arrested on 31 July. In addition, the Special Rapporteur expressed his deep concern regarding the withdrawal of accreditation from Mr. Sheremet by the Foreign Ministry in early July, allegedly for biased reporting, an act recalling the revocation of accreditation and subsequent expulsion of Alexander Stupnikov, journalist with the Russian independent television channel NTV, in late March 1997 based on similar accusations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Belarus"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "80", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "By letter dated 4 September 1997, the Government conveyed to the Special Rapporteur information regarding the above concerns. With regard to the withdrawal of the accreditation of Mr. Sheremet, the Government noted the view of the responsible committee in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs that Mr. Sheremet’s reports systematically provided biased information about events in the Republic of Belarus and that the dissemination of such tendentious material resulted in the misinformation of the public, both in Belarus and in the Russian Federation. Alexander Stupnikov was deprived of his accreditation in the Republic of Belarus in connection with the dissemination on the NTV channel of deliberately false information about events in the Republic of Belarus, and with his reports, which were characterized by a one-sided approach to the coverage of events in Belarus. According to the response received, the activity of Mr. Stupnikov was contributing to the misinformation of the Russian public. Both decisions to withdraw the licences were taken on the basis of article 42 of the Act on the Press and other Mass Media.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Belarus"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "42", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "It was noted in the reply that on 30 July, the press service of the President of the Republic of Belarus issued a statement indicating that P. Sheremet and two other persons charged with illegally crossing the State border were Belarusian citizens but, irrespective of this decision, the management of ORT had continued to employ P. Sheremet to prepare reports from Belarus. The Government further noted that the Information and Public Relations Centre of the Committee for State Security (KGB) had issued a clarification regarding the illegal border crossing of an ORT film crew, stating that on 25 July 1997 criminal proceedings were instituted on the grounds that the film crew of ORT’s Belarusian office, consisting of P. Sheremet, D. Zavadsky and Y. Ovchinnikov, had illegally crossed the State border of the Republic of Belarus on 22 July. Furthermore, it was noted that on 26 July, the representative of the Republic of Belarus for the Smorgon section of the border with the Republic of Lithuania was officially advised in writing by the commanding officer of the Vilnius detachment of the border police that a violation of the State border of the Republic of Lithuania had occurred. In that connection, a request for an investigation was made, with its findings to be communicated in writing. On 27 July, the above-mentioned persons were detained on suspicion of having committed the offence referred to in article 80 of the Criminal Code and the case was passed on to the investigations department of the KGB Directorate for the Grodno region. On 30 July, in the course of these criminal proceedings, P. Sheremet and D. Zavadsky were charged with illegally crossing the border and were taken into custody as a precautionary measure with the approval of the Public Prosecutor of the Grodno region, in accordance with the law.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Belarus"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "80", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "Regarding the amendments to the Act on the Press and other Mass Media, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that it was unable to provide the Special Rapporteur with more detailed information, as the text of the amendments passed in first reading had not yet been promulgated by the House of Representatives of the National Assembly.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Belarus"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Belarus for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. With regard to the cases of Pavel Sheremet and Alexander Stupnikov, the Special Rapporteur notes that media professionals working for foreign media should not have their licences withdrawn, be expelled or threatened in any other way because of the content of their reporting. The rights of journalists to report and comment on all aspects of society, which includes the expression of views opposed to those of the authorities, and the right of the Belarusian public to receive such information must be guaranteed and should in no case be subject to restrictions other than those provided for by international law. He refers to his comments regarding foreign media in his report on the visit to the Republic of Belarus, contained in addendum 1 to the present report.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Belarus"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "As regards the amendments to the Act on the Press and other Mass Media, the Special Rapporteur invites the Government to keep him informed of further developments and encourages the Government to benefit from the assistance provided by international organizations in this area.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Belarus"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "The information received by the Special Rapporteur indicates continued concern with regard to the right to freedom of opinion and expression in China. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur, by letter dated 12 November 1997, transmitted information to the Government with regard to several individuals, namely, Wang Dan, Wang Ming, Gao Yu, Liu Nianchun, Li Hai, Yao Zhenxiang and Yao Zhenxian, Fu Guoyong, Chen Longde and Wang Donghai. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, their right to freedom of opinion and expression had been subjected to arbitrary interference. They had been arrested for alleged offences such as conspiring to subvert the Government, leaking State secrets or endangering State security. The Special Rapporteur had received information indicating that seven among the above individuals have been convicted to “re-education through labour” for periods of between one and three years.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes that he has not yet received a reply from the Government of China and hopes that he will soon be receiving a response from them. With regard to the case of Gao Yu, the Special Rapporteur notes that the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention decided, in decision No. 46/1995 of 30 November 1995, to declare the detention of Gao Yu as arbitrary, in terms of category II of the principles applicable in the consideration of the cases submitted to the Working Group (i.e. contrary to article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights regarding the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First art.19 explicitly attributed to 'Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR is not a UN core treaty."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second art.19 explicitly attributed to 'International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "On 25 June 1997, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government expressing his concern regarding the alleged arrests of Hamdein Sabbahi, journalist, Mohamed Abdu, veterinarian, Mohamed Soliman Fayad, lawyer and Hamdi Heikal, lawyer. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, on 17 June Hamdein Sabbahi, Director of the Al-Watan-Arabi Information Centre, was arrested by members of the State Security Investigation (SSI) for having expressed his opposition to Law 96 of 1992 and being in possession of printed material critical of this law, which regulates the relations between landowners and tenants. He was allegedly charged with several offences under the anti-terrorism law and has been given a 15-day detention order pending the outcome of further investigations. The other three individuals were allegedly arrested the same day on similar grounds. All four individuals were reportedly imprisoned in Tora prison in Cairo where they were allegedly subjected to beatings and lashing.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has yet been received from the Government on the cases in question and hopes for an early response.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "On 2 July 1997, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government in a joint initiative with the Special Representative on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and the Special Rapporteur on the independence of the judiciary. Concern was expressed with regard to the fate of Faraj Sarkouhi, writer and editor-in-chief of the monthly Adineh and signatory to the 1994 Declaration of 134 Writers, an appeal for an end to censorship in Iran. Allegedly, Mr. Sarkouhi had been arrested on 27 January 1997 after having been held incommunicado for several weeks in November 1996, and was at the time tried in a closed trial on a variety of charges, allegedly including espionage, which reportedly carries a mandatory death penalty. It had been alleged that he had not been permitted to appoint a lawyer and that the trial would remain closed to the public and international observers. According to some sources, a death penalty had been pronounced.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Islamic Republic of Iran"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "By letter of 16 July 1997, the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran replied that, as regards the period in November 1996, Mr. Sarkouhi had left Teheran for Germany, as he himself had stated in an interview. It was further noted that Mr. Sarkouhi was arrested on 2 February 1997 on charges of espionage and attempting to leave the country illegally. Furthermore, it was emphasized that he had neither been tried nor convicted and that he enjoys and will enjoy all legal rights in conformity with due process of law, including the right to a fair trial and the right to a defence lawyer.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Islamic Republic of Iran"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Iran for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. The Special Rapporteur notes the further developments in this case and in particular reports received that Mr. Sarkouhi had been tried and convicted in camera of carrying out propaganda against the Islamic Republic of Iran, which was apparently the widely published letter dated 3 January 1997 in which he described his initial arrest and his mistreatment while in detention. He was sentenced to one year in prison, less time already spent in detention. The Special Rapporteur refers to the report submitted by the Special Representative of the Commission on Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran to the General Assembly (A/52/472, annex), in which he took particular note of the fate of Faraj Sarkouhi (paragraph 14), and in which he lists a number of reports illustrating constraints against freedom of expression (appendix II).", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Islamic Republic of Iran"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "By letter dated 30 October 1997, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government concerning the fate of René Solorio, Ernesto Madrid and Gerardo Segura, all three journalists for TV Azteca; Daniel Lizarraga and David Vicenteno, journalists with the daily Reforma; as well as Abdel Jesús Bueno León, journalist and director of the weekly magazine Siete Dias, Benjamin Flores González, publisher and editor of the daily newspaper La Prensa, and Victor Hernández Martínez, a journalist with the magazine Como. With regard to René Solorio, Ernesto Madrid and Gerardo Segura, the Special Rapporteur had been informed of their alleged abduction on 13 September and torture for several hours, which according to the source, was thought to have been linked to their reporting on police involvement in corruption and human rights violations. The Special Rapporteur further communicated information with regard to Daniel Lizarraga, who had allegedly been kidnapped on 5 September 1997 and held for several hours, allegedly being interrogated about his reporting on alleged involvement of employees of the Office of the Public Prosecutor in drug trafficking. It had further been alleged that David Vicenteno was abducted, assaulted and threatened for several hours on 25 August 1997, as well as being interrogated on his investigations concerning the disappearance of a member of the judicial police. In addition, he transmitted information on the reported killings of three media professionals. Allegedly, Abdel Jesús Bueno León, who was reportedly facing a defamation lawsuit and who had allegedly previously written a letter indicating his possible kidnapping or killing as well as possible suspects, including State officials, was murdered on 20 May 1997, with his body found two days later. Benjamin Flores González, who allegedly faced several lawsuits for criminal libel, was killed on 15 July 1997 outside his newspaper’s office. It is alleged that his killing is linked to his coverage of drug trafficking and alleged involvement of the local administration. Finally, Victor Hernández Martínez reportedly died on 26 July 1997 from head injuries after having been beaten severely the day before, allegedly as he was leaving the offices of the Federal Judicial Police in Mexico City. Reportedly, he also had published articles on alleged links between police and drug-traffickers.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Mexico"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "By letter dated 26 November 1997, the Government requested the Special Rapporteur to provide more details about the location where these events had occurred and the authorities to which they are attributed. The Special Rapporteur will follow up this request.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Mexico"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "In a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government of Nigeria on 21 November 1997, expressing concern regarding the fate of several journalists who were reported to be in detention without charge or trial.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0086", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "According to the information received, Mohammed Adamu, bureau chief of African Concord news magazine and Soji Omotunde, editor of African Concord, had been held in incommunicado detention since 27 July and 25 October, respectively. The other journalists had allegedly been arrested in a wave of arrests. Reportedly, on 4 November 1997, Adetokunbo Fakeye, defence correspondent for PM newspaper, was arrested and detained at Defence Headquarters in Lagos. Jenkins Alumona, editor of The News magazine, was reportedly arrested on 8 November 1997 at the Lagos studios of the State-owned television. On 9 November 1997, Onomoe Osifo-Whiskey, managing editor of Tell magazine, was allegedly arrested by armed security officers in Lagos. Babafemi Ojudu, managing editor of The News newspaper group, is said to have been arrested on 17 November on his return from a seminar in Kenya.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0087", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "In a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government of Nigeria on 1 December 1997, containing additional information concerning the alleged arrest of a group of journalists reported to remain in detention without charge or trial. In addition to the above names, information was communicated to the Government regarding the alleged arrest of Ben Adaji, the Taraba State correspondent of The News magazine, Rafiu Salau, administrative manager of The News group, and Akinwumi Adesokan, writer and journalist. The Special Rapporteurs had received information alleging that Akinwumi Adesokan had been arrested on 12 November 1997 at Nigeria’s border with Benin when returning from a writing fellowship abroad; Ben Adaji had reportedly been arrested on 17 November 1997 in Jalingo, north-east Nigeria, possibly in connection with a publication on intercommunal killings in October 1997 in Taraba State; and Rafiu Salau had allegedly been arrested on 18 November 1997 after having inquired at the offices of the Directorate of Military Intelligence in Lagos about the whereabouts of journalist Adetokunbo Fakeye, reportedly arrested on 4 November 1997.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0088", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes that no reply has yet been received by the Government concerning the above allegations. He nevertheless expresses his concern at the pattern of arrests and urges the Government to ensure that such incidents do not occur and to give due respect to the rights of journalists in accordance with international standards.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0089", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "By letter of 28 July 1997, the Special Rapporteur communicated information to the Government of Peru with regard to the case of Mr. Baruch Ivcher, majority owner of the Frecuencia Latina/Channel 2 television network. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Ivcher’s Peruvian citizenship, which he had reportedly acquired in December 1984, had been revoked on 13 July, allegedly due to administrative irregularities regarding his application. As according to Peruvian law foreigners are prohibited from being majority shareholders of enterprises in the communication industry, the fact that Mr. Ivcher has been stripped of his Peruvian citizenship threatened to deprive him of his property. The information received further emphasized that broadcasts of Frecuencia Latina/Channel 2 had cited corruption and mismanagement on the part of the State and had reported on human rights violations, implicating public officials, members of the army and army intelligence.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0090", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "By letter of 8 September 1997, the Government of Peru informed the Special Rapporteur of the invalidation of Mr. Ivcher’s entitlement of nationality due to a failure to meet all legal requirements. Consequently, Mr. Ivcher applied for a remedy of amparo which was denied by the competent court. Mr. Mendel Winter and Mr. Samuel Winter, minority shareholders of Frecuencia Latina/Channel 2, also applied for a remedy of amparo requesting the management of the company to be transferred to them; this was granted by the court temporarily, pending a final ruling on the substance of the case, that is the validity of Mr. Ivcher’s nationality. It was noted that the ownership of Mr. Ivcher’s shares is guaranteed by the courts and cannot be transferred in any form. The Government further expressed its view that this is an administrative matter being dealt with by the competent courts with a final ruling yet to be handed down. In addition, Mr. Ivcher’s property is fully guaranteed and the licence of the Frecuencia Latina/Channel 2 will not be affected, with its usual programmes continuing to be broadcast. The Government thus holds that it cannot in any way be inferred that there has been a violation of freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0091", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Peru for the reply provided and the willingness to cooperate with the mandate. In this context, the Special Rapporteur reiterates his interest in visiting the country.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0092", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "The Special Rapporteur received, on 2 December 1997, a memorandum prepared by the National Council for Human Rights, which contains information concerning the exercise of the right to freedom of expression in Peru and the remedy of habeas data, which is available for consultation at the Secretariat.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0093", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "From 24 to 28 May 1997, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Poland, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session (E/CN.4/1998/40/Add.2).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Poland"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0094", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "By letter dated 5 December 1997, the Special Rapporteur, in a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Sudan, the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, and the Special Rapporteur on torture, transmitted information to the Government concerning an incident which occurred on 1 December 1997 in front of the UNDP offices in Khartoum. According to the information received from UNDP in the Sudan, a group of approximately 50 women had arrived outside the gate of the UNDP compound to present a statement to the United Nations Secretary-General through the United Nations Resident Coordinator in Sudan against compulsory military conscription of their sons and brothers to fight the civil war in southern Sudan. The women were peacefully demonstrating, carrying banners denouncing the deployment of their sons and brothers. Reportedly, the women were brutally assaulted and beaten with sticks and rubber hoses and slapped on their faces by police and security officers. They were arrested and dragged into police vehicles. It was further reported that approximately 34 of these women were tried the same day and convicted of public order offences. They were each fined 10,000 Sudanese pounds, flogged with ten strokes each and then released. Further, it has been reported that some of the women have been hospitalized as a result of the injuries suffered.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0095", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "By letter of 9 January 1998, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the demonstration was carried out in violation of the law which requires a licence from local authorities of Khartoum State, which is routinely issued within 48 hours upon request, and protection is subsequently provided by police. Reference was made to a similar demonstration carried out the same month by a group of lawyers who delivered a memorandum of protest to the Chief Justice and Minister of Justice peacefully and under the protection of the police. The Government held further that as the gathering was illegal, the authorities were, in accordance with the law, bound to prevent any act that intended or was likely to cause a breach of public peace or tranquillity in a public place (article 69 of the Sudan Criminal Act, 1991). The law also considers an offence of public nuisance any act which is likely to cause public injury or danger or annoyance to the public or to those persons who occupy or reside in a neighbouring place or to the persons exercising any of the public rights (article 77 (1) of the Criminal Act of 1991). Furthermore, the Government noted its obligation to protect the United Nations office in Khartoum in accordance with its commitments as party to the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations and other relevant instruments, and that it had the added duty of preventing the development of any situation that might undermine its responsibilities in that regard. The Government thus considered the response to the committed offence to be within the requirements of article 21 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights which stipulates that no restrictions may be placed on the exercise of the right of peaceful assembly “other than those imposed in conformity with the law and which are necessary in a democratic society in the interest of national security or public safety, public order ...”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "69", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "77", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "21", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0096", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of the Sudan for the reply provided and the willingness to cooperate with the mandate. The Special Rapporteur intends to seek further clarification with regard to this case, particularly as regards the use of force by law enforcement officials, and a clarification regarding the necessity for the above-described actions.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0097", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "In May 1997, the Government provided the Special Rapporteur with a copy of the Press and Publications Act of 1996, passed by the National Assembly earlier that month. He also received the Sudan Peace Agreement, signed on 21 April 1997 between the Government of the Sudan on the one hand and the South Sudan United Democratic Salvation Front (UDSF), the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM), the South Sudan Independence Group (SSIG) and the Equatoria Defence Force (EDF) on the other. The documents are available for consultation at the Secretariat.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0098", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "By letter of 16 October 1997, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government regarding the fate of Mr. Khémais Ksila, Vice-President of the Ligue tunisienne pour la défense des droits de l’homme. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Ksila had been arrested in the afternoon of 29 September 1997 at his home in Tunis by members of the security forces after having begun a hunger strike, which he had announced publicly the same day in order to protest against the restrictions imposed on him by the Tunisian authorities and the human rights situation in the country. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur had received information that on 1 October 1997, Mr. Ksila had been charged with undermining public order, spreading false information aiming to disturb public order, and inciting people to break the law. According to the information received, he is being detained in 9 avril prison in Tunis.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0099", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "By letter dated 26 November 1997, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that, involved in a case at ordinary law, Mr. Ksila was arrested on 29 September 1997 by order of the Government Procurator of the Court of First Instance in Tunis and heard forthwith by one of the deputies of the Procurator attached to the same court. On the basis of the accused’s statements, the Government Procurator called for judicial proceedings to be instituted against Mr. Ksila for commission of the offence of defamation against the public order, publication in bad faith of false news capable of disturbing the public order and incitement of the population to infringe the law of the country, pursuant to the relevant provisions of the Press Code and the Penal Code. The Government further noted that Mr. Ksila was brought the same day before the Senior Examining Magistrate of the Court of First Instance in Tunis. The latter informed him of his right to answer questions only in the presence of his lawyer. At Mr. Ksila’s request, the questioning was deferred until 1 October 1997. A summons was served on him. On the appointed date, and in the presence of Mr. Ksila’s lawyers, the Senior Examining Magistrate proceeded with the questioning. It was further noted that Mr. Ksila was being detained in civil imprisonment in Tunis, his situation was normal and he was being treated in accordance with the prison regulations. The Government emphasized that it was therefore clear that, contrary to the allegations received by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Ksila’s arrest was consequent upon offences under the Tunisian legislation in force and bore no relation to his membership of the Tunisian Human Rights League, or to the views he holds or the exercise of his right to freedom of opinion and expression. In the view of the Government, he is the subject of judicial proceedings that may be brought against anyone thought to be guilty of acts punishable by law.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0100", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Tunisia for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. The Special Rapporteur wishes to stress that interference with the right to freedom of expression must be rigorously scrutinized as to the necessity and proportionality of the measures taken. The Special Rapporteur intends to seek further clarification on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0101", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "By letter dated 4 December 1997, the Special Rapporteur requested, in a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, an invitation to carry out a joint visit to the country.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0102", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "By letter dated 7 October 1997, the Special Rapporteur, in a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, conveyed his concern to the Government of Turkey concerning the fate of lawyer, writer and doctor of philosophy Esber Yagmurdereli. He was first arrested in 1978 and convicted for “trying to change the constitutional order by force” under article 146 of the Turkish Penal Code. The conviction was based on statements allegedly extracted under torture. He was sentenced to death, but this was commuted to life imprisonment on account of a physical disability. It has been reported that the Minister of Justice offered him a pardon on grounds of ill health, which he rejected. In 1991, Mr. Yagmurdereli benefited from a conditional amnesty which suspended prison sentences for offences such as the one contained in article 146 of the Turkish Penal Code. According to the source, prisoners who recommit the offence may be required to serve the whole of the remainder of their sentence. Some time after his liberation, he allegedly made a speech at a meeting organized by the Istanbul Human Rights Association to commemorate Human Rights Day. According to the information received, the Istanbul State Security Court handed down a sentence of 10 months' imprisonment for “separatism” under article 8 of the Anti-Terror Law in late 1995. The Court of Appeal upheld this decision on 26 June 1997. Consequently, the Smasun Heavy Penal Court decided, reportedly at the end of August, that Esber Yagmurdereli would be obliged to serve the remainder of his previous sentence. An appeal was reportedly turned down in mid-September.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "146", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "8", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0103", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "On 27 November 1997, the Government replied that Mr. Esber Yagmurdereli, a writer and lawyer, and also member of the THKPC (Revolutionary Pioneers of the People) illegal terrorist organization, was sentenced to life imprisonment for having violated several articles of the Turkish Penal Code, including incitement to robbery by use of force and incitement to pillage. He was released under a conditional amnesty on 1 August 1991. It pointed out that the Turkish Penal Code indeed stipulates that in case of reoffence after a conditional amnesty had been granted, the offender would be required to serve the whole of the remainder in addition to the new sentence. The Government further noted that Mr. Yagmurdereli did in fact recommit a crime, in the incident contravening article 8 of the Anti-Terror Law (incitement to violence against the State through propaganda, a month after his release, on 8 September 1991. Following the hearings in the State Security Court, he was sentenced to 10 months' imprisonment on 28 May 1997. It was further noted that, in accordance with the law, he is required to serve also the remainder of the previous sentence, and was thus sentenced to a total of 23 years' imprisonment. His appeal was rejected on 20 October 1997 and he was imprisoned. The Government further informed the Special Rapporteur that on 9 November 1997, Mr. Yagmurdereli was released on health grounds, in compliance with article 399/2 of the Turkish Code of Criminal Procedure. It is emphasized that this decision is not an amnesty but that the release was based on health grounds and his sentence has been suspended for one year. The duration of this suspension is subject to the discretion of the Chief Public Prosecutor.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "8", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "399", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0104", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Turkey for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. However, the Special Rapporteur remains concerned about the sentence to 10 months’ imprisonment under article 8 of the Anti-Terror Act of Mr. Yagmurdereli, for a speech he gave on Human Rights Day.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "8", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0105", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "The Special Rapporteur welcomes the Parliament’s passing, in August 1997, of an amnesty law suspending the sentences of editors who had been held legally responsible and convicted for published materials and articles that appeared in their newspapers. This resulted in the release of editor Ocak Isik Yurtcu, former editor of the pro-Kurdish daily Ozgur Gundem, and other editors. He encourages the Government of Turkey to continue along this path and to accelerate further steps necessary to bring both practice and implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression into conformity with international standards. In this context, he would like to recall the observations and recommendations he offered the Government following his visit to Turkey (E/CN.4/1997/31/Add.1, paras. 48-63).", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0106", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "The Special Rapporteur was further informed by the Government that a study had been initiated by the Human Rights Coordinating High Committee to amend articles 26, 27 and 28 of the Constitution, articles 159, 311 and 312 of the Turkish Penal Code and article 8 of the Anti-Terror Law, with a view to broadening the freedom of thought and expression. The Special Rapporteur would appreciate being kept informed about concrete measures in this regard.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "26", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "27", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "28", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "159", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "311", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "312", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "8", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0107", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "Since his last report to the Commission on Human Rights, the Special Rapporteur has noted no significant changes in the evolution of overall respect for the right to freedom of opinion and expression. However, as a positive note, he would like to emphasize that in several countries, democratic transformations and consolidations have brought about new liberties and freedoms. Freedom of expression has proved to be one of the most important elements in initiating change, contributing to peaceful transformations, as well as consolidating democratic regimes by providing the citizen with the means to participate in public affairs.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0108", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "Unfortunately, long-standing patterns of harassment and oppression of persons whose views and opinions differ from those of persons holding power persist in a number of countries. In many instances, restrictions on the freedom of opinion and expression limit to a significant extent the possibility of violations becoming known and investigated. In the view of the Special Rapporteur, such trends perpetuate patterns such as government corruption and impunity.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0109", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "The Special Rapporteur further observes that in a number of countries, the authorities continue to maintain firm control over the media and individuals' free speech. This often goes hand-in-hand with undue restrictions on public protests and demonstrations, which call into question the right itself, as well as restrictions on the activities of independent trade unions or organizations of civil society. Furthermore, action taken by States and their agents against individuals - such as arbitrary detention, threat and intimidation, and extrajudicial executions - and actions against groups and organizations - such as the banning of opposition or ideologically diverse parties and professional associations - seriously erode the public’s right to know and to receive and impart information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0110", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "In this context, the Special Rapporteur also wishes to note that while an ever-increasing number of States enter upon the path of formal transition to democracy, the conduct of elections often falls short of the minimum conditions for the conduct of free and fair elections. The right of citizens to elect their government is compromised in many cases by the lack of access to information about candidates and their policies and about the crucial issues at stake. He wishes to encourage Governments to seriously consider putting in place the necessary safeguards for ensuring free and fair elections.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0111", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "The Special Rapporteur further considers that the ever-increasing number of cases brought to his attention during the past four years is a reflection of two trends. On the one hand, the caseload provides a strong indication that Governments continue to place undue emphasis on restrictions relating to the right to freedom of opinion and expression. On the other hand, however, it is also a reflection of the increased efficiency of information technology which not only provides greater possibilities to a steadily increasing number of persons around the globe to receive information, but also greatly facilitates the publicizing of human rights violations and their communication to international mechanisms such as this Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0112", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "In this context, the Special Rapporteur notes the increasing discussions with regard to the dangers presented by the Internet. The Special Rapporteur wishes to repeat that while some of the concerns raised by a number of Governments in various forums indeed warrant urgent attention, he takes the view that in order to properly protect the right to freedom of expression, utmost care must be taken to consider all possible consequences of governmental measures. As a rule, the Special Rapporteur believes that the best way to fight speech is through more speech. The Internet seems to be the ideal medium to apply this principle as it offers the immediate possibility of reply on an equal footing.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0113", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "On the basis of his preliminary consideration of the link that can and must be established between freedom of expression and violence against women, the Special Rapporteur concludes that to the extent that all Governments - irrespective of region, history and tradition - continue to fail to address needs such as witness protection programmes, women’s right to access to information, the right of effective remedy for violence done against them, and their right to speak freely, publicly and without fear about those issues and difficulties of greatest importance to them, the human rights of women will exist in name only.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0114", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "The Special Rapporteur encourages all States that have not ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to do so. Furthermore, he again urges all Governments to scrutinize their domestic legal systems with a view to bringing them into line with international standards governing the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Particularly with regard to the issue of national security, the Special Rapporteur urges all Governments to review not only laws specifically intended to protect national security but also ordinary criminal laws which may be used to infringe the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0115", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "As regards information, particularly information held by Governments, the Special Rapporteur strongly encourages States to take all necessary steps to assure the full realization of the right to access to information. The Special Rapporteur proposes to undertake a comparative study of the different approaches taken in the various regions and countries in this regard.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0116", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "As regards the impact of new information technology on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the Special Rapporteur considers it of pre-eminent importance that they be considered in light of the same international standards as other means of communication and that no measures be taken which would unduly restrict freedom of expression and information; in case of doubt, the decision should be in favour of free expression and flow of information. With regard to the Internet, the Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate that on-line expression should be guided by international standards and be guaranteed the same protection as is awarded to other forms of expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0117", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "In this context, he also recommends that all reasonable steps be taken to promote access to the Internet. For instance, Government should promote an economic and regulatory environment which encourages the extension of telecommunication lines to rural and other previously underserviced areas. Wherever possible, government information should be made available through the Internet.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0118", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "Concerning the link between the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the rights of women, the Special Rapporteur expresses his great concern at the continuing silencing of women by various devices. He urges Governments to take all necessary steps to remove formal and cultural obstacles to the exercise by women of their right to freedom of expression, including to receive information, and ultimately to give effect to all their rights. In light of the importance of freedom of expression and how it relates to violence against women, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that a special effort should be made both to gather and analyse more information 1/ Public Information Disclosure Policy, UNDP, July 1997, para. 1.\n2/ ARTICLE 19, “Guidelines for Election Broadcasting in Transitional Democracies”, London, 1994, p. 68.\n3/ Ibid.\n4/ Among the States making declarations and entering reservations along this line are Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, Austria, Bahamas, Barbados, Belgium, Fiji, France, Italy, Japan, Malta, Monaco, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, Switzerland, Tonga, the United Kingdom and the United States.\n5/ ARTICLE 19, “The Egyptian Predicament: Islamists, the States and Censorship”, London, August 1997, p. 30.\n6/ Canadian Panel on Violence against Women, “Changing the Landscape: Ending Violence - Achieving Equality”, Executive Summary and National Action Plan, Ottawa, Government of Canada, Minister of Supply and Services, 1993, p. vii, as cited in Jan Bauer, “Only Silence will Protect you. Women, Freedom of Expression and the Language of Human Rights”, Essays on Human Rights and Democratic Development paper No. 6, Montreal, International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development, 1996, p. 16.\n7/ Ibid., p. 10, citing Sub-Committee on the Status of Women, “The War Against Women: Report of the Standing Committee on Health and Welfare, Social Affairs, Seniors and the Status of Women”, Ottawa, House of Commons, June 1991, as cited in Jan Bauer, ibid., pp. 84-85.\n8/ Amnesty International, “Women in the Front Line. Human Rights Violations against Women”, New York, 1991, p. 12.\n9/ “A Bartered Bride's 'No' Stuns Papua New Guinea”, International Herald Tribune, 7 May 1997, pp. 1 and 10.\n----- along the lines described in the present report. It is the hope of the Special Rapporteur to be able to prepare a report jointly with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, to be submitted to the Commission on Human Rights next year. In this regard, he invites submissions by Government, intergovernmental organizations and specialized agencies, as well as non-governmental bodies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. States increasingly rely on the digital access industry to control, restrict or monitor expression online. When authorities seek to disconnect users from websites, social media, or the Internet entirely, they frequently require the assistance of Internet service providers (ISPs). They interfere with the Internet exchange points (IXPs) that facilitate traffic into or within a country. They access private communications and other personal data held by telecommunications providers. Today, many of these actors are privately owned or operated. Under protest, in silent acquiescence or as willing participants, they are often essential to State censorship and surveillance. What governments demand of private actors, and how those actors respond, can cripple the exchange of information; limit journalists’ capacity to investigate securely; deter whistle-blowers and human rights defenders. Private actors may also restrict freedom of expression on their own initiative. They may assign priority to Internet content or applications in exchange for payment or other commercial benefits, altering how users engage with information online. Companies that offer filtering services may influence the scope of content accessible to their subscribers.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. States and private actors both implicate the freedom of expression. State obligations to protect freedom of expression are clear, but what do private actors owe their users? How should they respect freedom of expression? What steps are they taking to assess and address the risks that their responses to government actions and policies might pose to freedom of expression and privacy? How much information should they share with their customers about State demands and requests? When they are directly involved or linked to abuse, what remedies should be available to individuals or the broader public whose interests are at risk?", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The private actors that make digital access possible mediate and enable the exercise of freedom of expression. To be sure, States drive most censorship and surveillance. But just as States often, but not always, rely upon providers to take the actions that make censorship possible, we as users — beneficiaries of the remarkable advances of the digital age — deserve to understand how those actors interact with one another, how these interactions and their independent actions affect us and what responsibilities providers have to respect fundamental rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The present report is the result of over one year’s worth of study and consultation that began with the mapping in 2016 of the information and communications technology (ICT) sector (see A/HRC/32/38).[[fn:1]] In response to a call for submissions,[[fn:2]] the Special Rapporteur received 25 submissions from States; 3 from companies; 22 from civil society, academics and others; and 1 confidential submission. In addition, the Special Rapporteur convened a brainstorming session hosted by ARTICLE 19, in London in July 2016, a meeting of experts at the Human Rights Institute, University of Connecticut, United States of America, in October 2016, a regional consultation with the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, in Guadalajara, Mexico, in December 2016, and a regional consultation in Beirut in February 2017.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "I want to thank Amos Toh, legal adviser to the mandate and Ford Foundation Fellow at University of California, Irvine, School of Law, for his expert research and analysis as well as coordination of substantial and essential research conducted by law students in University of California, Irvine, International Justice Clinic."}, {"n": 2, "text": "See https://freedex.org/new-call-for-submissions-freedom-of-expression-and-the-telecommunications-and-internet-access-sector/."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Submissions may be found on the website of the mandate. An overview of the consultations held and input received in the preparation of the present report may be found in a supplementary annex also available from the website of the mandate."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. International human rights law establishes the right of everyone to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, and through any media of his or her choice (see Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 19; and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 19). The Human Rights Council and General Assembly have reiterated that the freedom of expression and other rights apply online (see Council resolutions 26/13 and 32/13; General Assembly resolution 68/167; and A/HRC/32/38). The Human Rights Committee, previous mandate holders and the Special Rapporteur have examined States’ obligations under article 19 of the Covenant. In short, States may not interfere with, or in any way restrict, the holding of opinions (see art. 19 (1) of the Covenant; and A/HRC/29/32, para. 19). Article 19 (3) of the Covenant provides that States may limit freedom of expression only where provided by law and necessary for the respect of the rights or reputations of others, or for the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals (see Human Rights Committee general comment No. 34 (2011); A/71/373; and A/HRC/29/32).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First art.19: 'Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 19' — UDHR, not a UN core treaty."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second art.19: 'International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 19' — explicit ICCPR."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 19 of the Covenant' in a paragraph that anchors discussion in HRC GC 34, which is on ICCPR art.19."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'art. 19 (1) of the Covenant' — ICCPR art.19(1) protects opinions absolutely."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'Article 19 (3) of the Covenant' — ICCPR art.19(3) permissible limitations clause."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. States also have obligations to take steps to protect individuals from undue interference with human rights when committed by private actors (see art. 2 (2) of the Covenant; and Human Rights Committee general comment No. 31 (2004)). Human rights law protects individuals against violations by the State as well as abuses committed by private persons or entities (see general comment No. 31, para. 8).[[fn:4]] The Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework, endorsed by the Human Rights Council in 2011, explains that States are required to take appropriate steps to prevent, investigate, punish and redress private actors’ abuse (see A/HRC/17/31, annex, principle 1). Such steps include the adoption and implementation of legislative, judicial, administrative, educative and other appropriate measures that require or enable business respect for freedom of expression, and, where private sector abuses occur, access to an effective remedy (see general comment No. 31, para. 7; and A/HRC/17/31, annex, principles 3 and 25).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See also African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, general comment No. 3 (2015) on the right to life, para. 38; Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Velásquez Rodríguez Case, judgment of 29 July 1988, para. 172; and European Court of Human Rights, Özel and others v. Turkey, judgment of 17 November 2015, para. 170."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. The government actions described below often fail to meet the standards of human rights law. Moreover, a lack of transparency pervades government interferences with the digital access industry. Failures of transparency include vague laws providing excessive discretion to authorities, legal restrictions on third party disclosures concerning government access to user data and specific gag orders. The lack of transparency undermines the rule of law as well as public understanding across this sector.[[fn:5]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Freedom Online Coalition, Report of Working Group 3: Privacy and Transparency Online, November 2015."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns involve measures to intentionally prevent or disrupt access to or dissemination of information online in violation of human rights law (see A/HRC/32/13, para. 10).[[fn:6]] Governments typically conduct or order shutdowns, often with the assistance of private actors that operate networks or facilitate network traffic. Large-scale attacks on network infrastructure committed by private parties, such as distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks, may also have shutdown effects. While shutdowns are frequently associated with total network outages, they may also arise when access to mobile communications, websites or social media and messaging applications is blocked, throttled or rendered “effectively unusable”.[[fn:7]] Shutdowns may affect towns or regions within a country, an entire country or even multiple countries and may last for periods ranging from hours to months.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "A. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Access Now recorded 15 shutdowns in 2015 and 56 shutdowns in 2016. The first recorded shutdown reportedly occurred in Nepal in February 2005."}, {"n": 7, "text": "Access Now submission, part I, p. 1."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Shutdowns ordered covertly or without an obvious legal basis violate the requirement of article 19 (3) of the Covenant that restrictions be “provided by law”. In Chad, the failure of authorities to provide a meaningful public explanation for a series of Internet and social media shutdowns between February and October 2016 created the presumption that they were unlawful.[[fn:8]] In Gabon, total network outages were allegedly recorded every evening for almost two weeks during the 2016 election period, contrary to government assurances that such services would not be disrupted.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "A. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Internet Sans Frontières submission, p. 2, TCD 3/2016."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Ibid., GAB 1/2016."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Shutdowns ordered pursuant to vaguely formulated laws and regulations also fail to satisfy the legality requirement. In Tajikistan, the amended Law on the State of Emergency authorizes the Government to block mobile services and Internet access without a court order following the declaration of a state of emergency.[[fn:10]] The law fails to define when and for what purposes a state of emergency may be declared. Such ambiguity enables authorities’ unfettered discretion to implement shutdowns. In some countries, authorities rely on antiquated laws to justify shutdowns.[[fn:11]] Laws and regulations adopted and implemented in secret also violate the legality requirement. In the United States of America, the National Coordinating Center for Telecommunications has largely redacted public release of standard operating procedure 303, an executive regulation that establishes “detailed procedures” on the “disruption of cellular service.”[[fn:12]] While these procedures have not been publicly invoked, the potential for authorities to evade legal scrutiny and public accountability runs contrary to article 19 of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "A. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "OHCHR, “Preliminary observations by the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Mr. David Kaye, at the end of his visit to Tajikistan, press release (9 March 2015)."}, {"n": 11, "text": "India, Code of Criminal Procedure, sect. 144; also Apar Gupta and Raman Jit Singh Chima, “The cost of internet shutdowns”, The Indian Express (26 October 2016)."}, {"n": 12, "text": "United States of America, NCC Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) 303."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Restrictions on expression must be necessary to achieve aims specified by article 19 (3) of the Covenant and may never be invoked to justify the suppression of advocacy for democratic rights (see Human Rights Committee general comment No. 34, para. 23; and A/71/373, para. 26). However, governments frequently impose shutdowns during demonstrations, elections and other events of extraordinary public interest, with little or no explanation.[[fn:13]] In Bahrain, disruptions to mobile and Internet access in Duraz allegedly coincided with sit-ins outside the home of a prominent religious leader whose citizenship the Government had revoked.[[fn:14]] Internet users in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela were reportedly denied Internet access during widespread protests against the Government in 2014.[[fn:15]] Network disruptions have been recorded during or around elections or protests in Cameroon,[[fn:16]] the Gambia,[[fn:17]] India,[[fn:18]] Myanmar,[[fn:19]] the Islamic Republic of Iran,[[fn:20]] Uganda[[fn:21]] and Montenegro.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "A. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Access Now submission, part I, pp. 5-7."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Bahrain Center for Human Rights, Digital Rights Derailed in Bahrain (2016), pp. 13-14."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Danny O’Brien, “Venezuela’s Internet crackdown escalates into regional blackout”, Electronic Frontier Foundation (20 February 2014)."}, {"n": 16, "text": "OHCHR, “UN expert urges Cameroon to restore Internet services cut off in rights violation”, press release (10 February 2017)."}, {"n": 17, "text": "Deji Olukotun, “Gambia shuts down Internet on eve of elections”, Access Now (30 November 2016)."}, {"n": 18, "text": "Software Freedom Law Center, “Internet shutdowns in India, 2013-2016”."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Freedom House, “Freedom on the Net: Myanmar” (2011)."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Center for Democracy and Technology, “Iran’s Internet throttling: unacceptable now, unacceptable then” (3 July 2013)."}, {"n": 21, "text": "Article 19, “Uganda: Blanket ban on social media on election day is disproportionate” press release (18 February 2016)."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Global Voices, “WhatsApp and Viber blocked on election day in Montenegro” (17 October 2016)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. The failure to explain or acknowledge shutdowns creates the perception that they are designed to suppress reporting, criticism or dissent. Reports of repression and State-sanctioned violence in the wake of network disruptions have led to allegations that some States exploit the darkness to commit and cover up abuses. In Sudan, for example, Internet access was shut down for several hours during a deadly crackdown on demonstrators protesting fuel price hikes in September 2013.[[fn:23]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "A. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Human Rights Watch, “Sudan: Dozens killed during protests” (27 September 2013)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Observers have also noted the growing use of shutdowns to prevent cheating by students during national exams. Uzbekistan may have been the first to invoke this justification during university entrance exams in 2014.[[fn:24]] In 2016, authorities allegedly ordered shutdowns during exams in India, Algeria, Ethiopia and Iraq.[[fn:25]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "A. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Access Now submission, part I; also Freedom House, “Freedom on the Net: Uzbekistan” (2016)."}, {"n": 25, "text": "Access Now submission, part I."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Network shutdowns invariably fail to meet the standard of necessity. Necessity requires a showing that shutdowns would achieve their stated purpose, which in fact they often jeopardize. Some governments argue that it is important to ban the spread of news about terrorist attacks, even accurate reporting, in order to prevent panic and copycat actions.[[fn:26]] Yet it has been found that maintaining network connectivity may mitigate public safety concerns and help restore public order. During public disturbances in London in 2011, for example, authorities used social media networks to identify perpetrators, disseminate accurate information and conduct clean-up operations. In Kashmir, police have reported on the positive role of mobile phones in locating people trapped during terrorist attacks.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "A. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See for example, OHCHR, “Preliminary conclusions and observations by the UN Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression to his visit to Turkey, 14-18 November 2016”, press release (18 November 2016)."}, {"n": 27, "text": "Institute for Human Rights and Business (IHRB), “Security v. Access: The impact of mobile network shutdowns”, case study: Telenor Pakistan (September 2015), pp. 31-32."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Duration and geographical scope may vary, but shutdowns are generally disproportionate. Affected users are cut off from emergency services and health information, mobile banking and e-commerce, transportation, school classes, voting and election monitoring, reporting on major crises and events, and human rights investigations.[[fn:28]] Given the number of essential activities and services they affect, shutdowns restrict expression and interfere with other fundamental rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "A. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Access Now submission, part I, pp. 11-14; also Global Network Initiative submission."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Shutdowns also affect areas beyond those of specific concern.[[fn:29]] In the lead up to the 2015 National Day Parade in Pakistan, mobile communications networks were allegedly cut off at the parade site as well as in surrounding areas that were not expected to experience any potential security threat.[[fn:30]] During the Pope’s visit to the Philippines in 2015, the shutdown of mobile networks for safety reasons affected areas well beyond the travel route.[[fn:31]] When specific services or platforms are disrupted, governments typically target those that are the most efficient, secure or widely used.[[fn:32]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "A. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "IHRB, “Security v. Access: The impact of mobile network shutdowns”, case study: Telenor Pakistan (September 2015), p. 20."}, {"n": 30, "text": "Ibid., pp. 27-28."}, {"n": 31, "text": "Deniz Duru Aydin, “Five excuses governments (ab)use to justify Internet shutdowns” Access Now (6 October 2016)."}, {"n": 32, "text": "Article 19 submission, p. 2."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Government surveillance today relies on access to communications and associated data belonging to users of privately owned networks. While such access frequently requires the assistance of private actors, it may also be obtained without their knowledge or involvement. As with other forms of surveillance, government access to user data may interfere with privacy in a manner that can both directly and indirectly limit the free development and exchange of ideas (see A/HRC/23/40, para. 24). Undue access to personal data implicitly warns users to think twice and possibly avoid controversial viewpoints, the exchange of sensitive information and other exercises of freedom of expression that may be under government scrutiny (see A/HRC/27/37, para. 20).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "B. Government access to user data"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Vague laws and regulations violate the legality requirement (see A/HRC/23/40, para. 50). The Communications and Multimedia Act of Malaysia, for example, permits authorities to order the disclosure of “any communication or class of communications” on “the occurrence of any public emergency or in the interest of public safety”. The Act does not define the conditions that trigger a public emergency and certification by the King is deemed “conclusive proof on the point”.[[fn:33]] In Qatar, law enforcement enjoys a broad right to seek access to providers’ customer communications in cases of national security or emergency.[[fn:34]] These provisions empower authorities to request user data based on a mere assertion of national security. Users are thus unable to predict with reasonable certainty the circumstances under which their communications and associated data may be disclosed to authorities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "B. Government access to user data", "Requests for user data"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "Malaysia, Communications and Multimedia Act (1998), sect. 266."}, {"n": 34, "text": "Qatar, Decree Law No. (34) of 2006."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Providers should only be compelled to release user data when ordered by judicial authorities certifying necessity and proportionality to achieve a legitimate objective. The Criminal Code of Canada requires law enforcement to submit requests for the disclosure of telephone records in criminal investigations to a judge for approval.[[fn:35]] In Portugal, the authorities must obtain a judicial order to compel the disclosure of communications data.[[fn:36]] However, national law often exempts user data requests from judicial authorization. In Bangladesh, the authorities require only executive branch approval to access communications data belonging to telecommunications subscribers on the grounds of national security and public order.[[fn:37]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "B. Government access to user data", "Requests for user data"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See submission from Canada, p. 6."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Portugal, Criminal Proceedings Code, arts. 187-190."}, {"n": 37, "text": "Bangladesh, Telecommunication Regulatory Act (2001), sect. 97 (Ka)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Laws that require private actors to create large databases of user data accessible to the government raise necessity and proportionality concerns. In Kazakhstan, telephone numbers, e-mail and Internet Protocol (IP) addresses and billing information must be stored by the provider for two years.[[fn:38]] The Russian Federation requires private actors to store the content of all their customers’ calls and text messages for six months, and related communications metadata for three years.[[fn:39]] Both countries also require such data to be stored locally.[[fn:40]] In countries where mobile phones are a dominant means of communication, mandatory SIM card registration laws effectively require the majority of the population to divulge personally identifiable information (see A/HRC/29/32, para. 51). The mandatory retention of large amounts of user data runs contrary to established due process standards, such as the need for individualized suspicion of wrongdoing.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "B. Government access to user data", "Requests for user data"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Kazakhstan, Government resolution No. 1593 (23 December 2011)."}, {"n": 39, "text": "OHCHR, letter to the Government of the Russian Federation, 28 July 2016 (OL RUS 7/2016)."}, {"n": 40, "text": "Article 19 submission, p. 5."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Since the Special Rapporteur’s report on encryption and anonymity (A/HRC/29/32), unnecessary and disproportionate measures to undermine encryption have increased globally and threaten to undermine both the freedom of expression and digital security of users. In the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, for example, the 2016 Investigatory Powers Act permits the Secretary of State to issue “technical capability notices” that require providers to remove “electronic protection” from communications — a measure that could compel backdoors or otherwise limit or weaken encryption.[[fn:41]] States have not provided sufficient evidence that such vulnerabilities are the least intrusive means of protecting national security and public order, particularly given the breadth and depth of other investigative tools at their disposal (Ibid., para. 39).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "B. Government access to user data", "Undermining encryption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Investigatory Powers Act (2016), art. 253; also OHCHR, letter to the Government of the United Kingdom, 22 December 2015 (AL GBR 4/2015)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Direct access to Internet and telecommunications networks enables authorities to intercept and monitor communications with limited legal scrutiny or accountability. Technological advances have enhanced the ability of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to obtain a direct connection to networks without the involvement or knowledge of the network operator.[[fn:42]] During the 2014 general election in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, intelligence authorities allegedly obtained direct access to the country’s major telecommunications networks to intercept the communications of over 20,000 people, including politicians, activists, government officials and journalists. Many targets were also sent a transcript of their phone calls.[[fn:43]] In India, it appears that authorities are developing a Central Monitoring System programme that would enable “electronic provisioning of target numbers by government agency without any manual intervention from telecommunications service providers on a secure network.”[[fn:44]] These activities do not appear to be provided by law, lacking both judicial authorization and external oversight. Furthermore, the risks they pose to the security and integrity of network infrastructure raise proportionality concerns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "B. Government access to user data", "Direct access"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "Privacy International submission; and Telecommunications Industry Dialogue submission, p. 3."}, {"n": 43, "text": "Privacy International, “Macedonia: Society On Tap” (23 March 2016)."}, {"n": 44, "text": "Access Now submission, part II, p. 4."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Network neutrality — the principle that all Internet data should be treated equally without undue interference — promotes the widest possible access to information.[[fn:45]] In the digital age, the freedom to choose among information sources is meaningful only when Internet content and applications of all kinds are transmitted without undue discrimination or interference by non-State actors, including providers. The State’s positive duty to promote freedom of expression argues strongly for network neutrality in order to promote the widest possible non-discriminatory access to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "C. Net neutrality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "Luca Belli submission; and Article 19 submission, pp. 7-8."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Under paid prioritization schemes, providers give preferential treatment to certain types of Internet traffic over others for payment or other commercial benefits. These schemes effectively create Internet fast lanes for content providers that can afford to pay extra and slow lanes for all others.[[fn:46]] This hierarchy of data undermines user choice. Users experience higher costs or lower quality of service when they attempt to access Internet content and applications in the slow lanes. At the same time, they may be compelled to engage with content that has been prioritized without their knowledge or input.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "C. Net neutrality", "Paid prioritization"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "Dawn C. Nunziato and Arturo J. Carrillo, “The price of paid prioritization: The international and domestic consequences of the failure to protect Net neutrality in the United States”, Georgetown Journal of International Affairs: International Engagement on Cyber V: Securing Critical Infrastructure (2 October 2015), p. 103."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Several States prohibit paid prioritization. For example, the Netherlands, an early adopter of net neutrality, forbids providers from making “the price of the rates for Internet access services dependent on the services and applications which are offered or used via these services”.[[fn:47]] The United States Federal Communications Commission 2015 Open Internet Order bans the “management of a broadband provider’s network to directly or indirectly favour some traffic over other traffic ... in exchange for consideration (monetary or otherwise) from a third party, or to benefit an affiliated entity”.[[fn:48]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "C. Net neutrality", "Paid prioritization"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "Netherlands, Telecommunications Act, art. 7.4a (3). Telecommunications Act. ders on ber Vlo, ernet Intermediaries, or Assessing Benefits and Harms e 19. lecom service providers on"}, {"n": 48, "text": "United States of America, Federal Communications Commission, Protecting and Promoting the Open Internet, FCC 15-24 (12 March 2015), para. 18. This Order, possibly under threat at the time of writing the present report, remains a useful template for net neutrality regulation."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Zero rating is the practice of not charging for the use of Internet data associated with a particular application or service; other services or applications, meanwhile, are subject to metered costs. Zero rating arrangements vary from data plans that exempt certain Internet services from a subscriber’s usage count to the provision of unmetered access to certain services without the purchase of a plan.[[fn:49]] Variations notwithstanding, zero rating arrangements privilege access to content and may increase the cost of metered data. For users who struggle to afford metered data, they might end up relying exclusively on zero-rated services, resulting in limited access to information for communities that may already be marginalized in their access to information and public participation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "C. Net neutrality", "Zero rating"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "Erik Stallman and R. Stanley Adams, IV, “Zero Rating: A framework for assessing benefits and harms”, Center for Democracy and Technology (January 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Zero rating arrangements may provide users with limited Internet access in areas that would otherwise completely lack access.[[fn:50]] However, broader Internet access may still remain out of reach for users, trapping them in permanently walled online gardens.[[fn:51]] The assumption that limited access will eventually ripen into full connectivity requires further study. It may be dependent upon factors such as user behaviour, market conditions, the human rights landscape and the regulatory environment.[[fn:52]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "C. Net neutrality", "Zero rating"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Ibid., pp. 4 and 11."}, {"n": 51, "text": "Barbara van Schewick, “Network neutrality and zero-rating”, submission to the United States Federal Communications Commission (19 February 2014), p. 7."}, {"n": 52, "text": "Erik Stallman and R. Stanley Adams, IV, “Zero Rating: A framework for assessing benefits and harms” (January 2016), p. 15."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. These competing considerations have led to variations in regulatory approaches. In India, public concern over Facebook’s Free Basics culminated in a ban on any arrangement that “has the effect of discriminatory tariffs for data services being offered or charged to the consumer on the basis of content”.[[fn:53]] Restrictions on zero rating are in effect in Chile, Norway, the Netherlands, Finland, Iceland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta and Japan.[[fn:54]] In contrast, the United States, followed later by the Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications (BEREC), adopted guidelines involving a case-by-case approach.[[fn:55]] States that adopt a case-by-case approach should carefully scrutinize and, if necessary, reject arrangements that, among other things, zero-rate affiliated content, condition zero rating on payment or favour access to certain applications within a class of similar applications (for example, zero rating certain music streaming services rather than all music streaming). Additionally, States should require meaningful corporate disclosures about network traffic management practices. For example, Chile requires ISPs to disclose Internet access speeds, price or speed differentials between national and international connections, and related service guarantees.[[fn:56]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "C. Net neutrality", "Zero rating"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "India, Telecom Regulatory Authority, “TRAI releases the Prohibition of Discriminatory Tariffs for Data Services Regulations, 2016”, press release (8 February 2016)."}, {"n": 54, "text": "Emily Hong, “A zero sum game? What you should know about zero-rating”, New America Weekly, Edition 109 (4 February 2016)."}, {"n": 55, "text": "United States, Federal Communications Commission, Protecting and Promoting the Open Internet, FCC 15-24 (12 March 2015), para. 21; and BEREC, Guidelines on the Implementation by National Regulators of European Net Neutrality Rules (August 2016) (BoR (16) 127)."}, {"n": 56, "text": "Chile, Ley No. 20.453, art. 24 H (D)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. While the duty of States to respect and protect freedom of expression is well-established, the private actors that establish, operate and maintain digital access also play a critical role.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Telecommunications providers (Telcos) and ISPs (collectively referred to in the present report as “providers”) offer a diverse range of services. While they principally operate and sell access to the series of networks that comprise the Internet, they also enable users to communicate and share information through mobile services and traditional landlines (see A/HRC/32/38, para. 16). While providers remain State-owned in many regions, a growing number are now privately established and managed. The industry is also increasingly multinational: some of the world’s biggest providers operate networks in multiple countries and regions, often through partnerships with domestic companies or their own subsidiaries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "A. Telecommunications and Internet service providers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. As gatekeepers of vast information networks, providers face significant government pressure to comply with censorship and surveillance activities. To operate a network in a country, they are required to invest substantial physical and business infrastructure, including network equipment and personnel. They are typically subject to local law and other licensing requirements set out in agreements with the State. In addition to legal pressure, providers have also faced extralegal intimidation, such as threats to the safety of their employees and infrastructure in the event of non-compliance.[[fn:57]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "A. Telecommunications and Internet service providers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "Telecommunications Industry Dialogue submission, p. 10."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. While several providers attempt to resist censorship and surveillance requests, many assist in government efforts without meaningful challenge. In the United States, one of the country’s largest providers is alleged to have created a “super search engine” to facilitate law enforcement access to customer phone calls, even though not legally required to do so.[[fn:58]] In the United Kingdom, a complaint filed with the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development alleged that major providers granted the country’s intelligence agency access to their networks and customer data well beyond what was required by the law at the time.[[fn:59]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "A. Telecommunications and Internet service providers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 58, "text": "Dave Maass and Aaron Mackey, “Law enforcement’s secret ‘super search engine’ amasses trillions of phone records for decades”, Electronic Frontier Foundation (29 November 2016)."}, {"n": 59, "text": "Privacy International, “OECD complaint against BT, Verizon Enterprise, Vodafone Cable, Viatel, Level 3, and Interoute”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. A growing number of providers are establishing arrangements with media and other content-producing companies that threaten net neutrality and are lobbying intensely for concessions on net neutrality standards. For example, as European regulators were developing net neutrality guidelines, 17 major providers in the region issued the “5G Manifesto”, warning that “excessively prescriptive” guidelines would delay their investment in 5G, the next generation of mobile Internet connection.[[fn:60]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "A. Telecommunications and Internet service providers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 60, "text": "Article 19 submission, p. 9."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. IXPs enable the exchange of Internet traffic between and among networks managed by different providers within a country or region.[[fn:61]] This form of interconnection prevents local or regional Internet traffic from taking long and circuitous international routes, thus enhancing the speed and efficiency of Internet connectivity. IXPs may be established by Internet infrastructure companies as part of a broader suite of services sold to providers or operated as non-profit or volunteer organizations.[[fn:62]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "B. Internet exchange points"], "footnotes": [{"n": 61, "text": "See www.bgp4.as/internet-exchanges/."}, {"n": 62, "text": "Jason Gerson and Patrick Ryan, “A primer on Internet exchange points for policymakers and non-engineers” Social Science Research Network (12 August 2012), p. 10."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. IXPs handle an enormous volume of Internet traffic that may be filtered or intercepted at government request. The growing number of censorship and surveillance incidents involving IXPs indicates that they are major access choke points, even if their precise role is unclear. For example, in 2013, the manner in which access to YouTube was blocked in Pakistan indicated that the platform was filtered by IXPs, rather than ISPs, through a method known as “packet injection”.[[fn:63]] According to a leaked internal memo of a multinational ISP operating in Ecuador, users were unable to access Google and YouTube in March 2014 because the private Association of Internet Providers of Ecuador — which runs two of the major IXPs in the country — was “blocking access to certain Internet websites by request of the national Government”.[[fn:64]] The revelations of mass surveillance conducted by the United States National Security Agency have raised concern among technologists that the agency is intercepting a significant proportion of domestic and foreign Internet traffic by targeting United States IXPs.[[fn:65]] In September 2016, the world’s largest Internet exchange point, which is based in Germany, challenged legal orders issued by the country’s intelligence agency to monitor international communications transiting through its hub.[[fn:66]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "B. Internet exchange points"], "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "Zubair Nabi, “The anatomy of web censorship in Pakistan” (2013), p. 4."}, {"n": 64, "text": "Katitza Rodriguez, “Leaked documents confirm Ecuador’s Internet censorship machine”, Electronic Frontier Foundation (14 April 2016)."}, {"n": 65, "text": "Andrew Clement and Jonathan Obar, “Canadian Internet ‘boomerang’ traffic and mass NSA surveillance: Responding to privacy and network sovereignty challenges”, in Law, Privacy and Surveillance in Canada in the Post-Snowden Era, Michael Geist, ed. (University of Ottawa Press, 2015)."}, {"n": 66, "text": "De Cix, “Information on the lawsuit against the Federal Republic of Germany” (16 September 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. A content delivery network (CDN) is a network of servers strategically distributed around the world to enable the efficient delivery of web pages and other Internet content. Large content producers rely on content delivery networks to reach as many users as quickly as possible.[[fn:67]] A content delivery network stores copies of content hosted on these platforms and redirects a user’s request for such content from the platform’s servers to the servers within its network that are located closest to the user.[[fn:68]] This process enhances the speed of content delivery, particularly to users located far away from the platform’s servers. Content delivery networks are regarded as an effective safeguard against website blocking; censorship measures targeting servers that host a particular website or platform do not affect the content delivery network’s delivery of copies of the same content to users.[[fn:69]] Content delivery networks have also become a critical bulwark against network disruptions. The demands of rapid access have incentivized them to invest significant resources in infrastructure and services that can withstand distributed denial-of-service and other malicious attacks.[[fn:70]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "C. Content delivery networks"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "Geoff Huston, “The death of transit?”, Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (27 October 2016)."}, {"n": 68, "text": "Vangie Beal, “CDN – Content Delivery Network”, Webopedia."}, {"n": 69, "text": "John Holowczak and Amir Houmansadr, “CacheBrowser: bypassing Chinese censorship without proxies using cached content” (2015)."}, {"n": 70, "text": "Geoff Huston, “The death of transit?”, Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (27 October 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The censorship resilience of content delivery networks has also made them targets of disproportionate restrictions on freedom of expression. In Egypt, the blocking of The New Arab website in August 2016 also disrupted access to content on other sites that, although unaffiliated, shared the same content delivery network, which led researchers to believe authorities had targeted that particular network.[[fn:71]] In China, a national filter has reportedly blocked EdgeCast content delivery network, which handles content for a number of large websites in the country.[[fn:72]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "C. Content delivery networks"], "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "Leonid Evdokimov and Vasilis Ververis, “Egypt: Media censorship, Tor interference, HTTPS throttling and ads injections?”, Open Observatory of Network Interference (27 October 2016)."}, {"n": 72, "text": "Joss Wright, “A quick investigation of EdgeCast CDN blocking in China”, blog, Oxford Internet Institute (18 November 2014)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Since content delivery networks process large volumes of user requests for Internet content from multiple websites and platforms, they are also vulnerable to government surveillance. In 2016, for example, Amazon Web Services, which houses one of the world’s biggest content delivery networks,[[fn:73]] reported that government requests to access data more than doubled from the previous year.[[fn:74]] Researchers also believe that mass surveillance activities strategically target content delivery networks to maximize information collection, but specifically how this is conducted and the extent of content delivery network involvement, if any, is unclear.[[fn:75]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "C. Content delivery networks"], "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "At the time of writing the present report, Amazon Cloudfront served the largest number of website domains in the world."}, {"n": 74, "text": "Amazon Information Request Report (June 2016)."}, {"n": 75, "text": "See, for example, Harrison Weber, “How the NSA & FBI made Facebook the perfect mass surveillance tool”, Venture Beat (15 May 2014)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Vendors supply the hardware and software that form the basis of Internet and telecommunications networks. Network equipment typically includes routers, switches and access points, which enable multiple devices and networks to connect with each other (see A/HRC/32/38, para. 18). Vendors have also diversified their business to provide Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) equipment, which enables wireless calls and Internet of Things (IoT) technology, which enables networking among smart devices.[[fn:76]] Vendors are rarely consumer-facing: their main customers are network operators, such as governments, ISPs, or content delivery networks. As a result, they are required to configure networks to the technical standards specified by these operators, including standards dictated by local law (such as law enforcement and national security requirements). However, vendors may also design or modify equipment and technology to ensure consistency with private or government specifications.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "D. Network equipment vendors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "Michael E. Raynor and Phil Wilson, “Beyond the dumb pipe: The IoT and the new role for network service providers”, Deloitte University Press (2 September 2015)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Given their business model, vendors are required to navigate the human rights challenges that their customers face or create. In the area of surveillance, vendors are often bound by “lawful interception” measures, which require the configuration of networks to enable government access to user data.[[fn:77]] Additionally, vendors may be contracted to establish “administration and mediation systems” that facilitate the sharing of intercepted data between the network operator and the government authority as well as the government systems that process the intercepted data.[[fn:78]] In arrangements where vendors also manage the networks that they have built, they may also be responsible for handling government requests for user data on the operator’s behalf.[[fn:79]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "D. Network equipment vendors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 77, "text": "See, for example, Council of the European Union resolution of 17 January 1995 on the lawful interception of telecommunications, Official Journal C 329; and Privacy International submission, pp. 2-3."}, {"n": 78, "text": "IHRB, “Human rights challenges of telecommunications vendors: addressing the possible misuse of telecommunications systems: case study: Ericsson” (November 2014), p. 16."}, {"n": 79, "text": "Ibid., p. 17."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The design of network equipment and technology with multiple uses raises freedom of expression and privacy concerns. Deep packet inspection devices, for example, are used for innocuous technical purposes such as the management of network congestion, but have also been employed to filter Internet content, intercept communications and throttle data flows. Mobile networks are configured to monitor the real-time location of cell phones to ensure that cellular services may be accessed from any location, but such monitoring may also be used to target users.[[fn:80]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "D. Network equipment vendors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "Ibid., p. 13."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Some evidence suggests that vendors may provide support for government censorship and surveillance. In a case pending before United States courts, Cisco has been accused of designing, implementing and helping to maintain a Chinese surveillance and internal security network known as the Golden Shield.[[fn:81]] (Cisco denies those allegations.)[[fn:82]] In Ethiopia, human rights groups found that ZTE Corporation had designed and installed a customer management database for Ethio Telecom that enabled intrusive surveillance.[[fn:83]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "D. Network equipment vendors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "United States District Court for the Northern District of California, San Jose Division, Doe et al. v. Cisco Systems, Inc. et al., Case No. 5:11-cv-02449-EJD-PSGx (18 September 2013)."}, {"n": 82, "text": "John Earnhardt, “Cisco Q&A on China and censorship” Cisco blogs (2 March 2006)."}, {"n": 83, "text": "Human Rights Watch, “They know everything we do: telecom and Internet surveillance in Ethiopia” (25 March 2014)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. The findings and recommendations in the present report apply to any entity that engages in the provision of digital access as described above. A growing number of Internet companies are adding critical digital access and infrastructure services to their portfolio. For example, Alibaba and Tencent, two of the biggest Chinese Internet companies, now also offer content delivery network services.[[fn:84]] Google has been experimenting with methods to provide wireless access that bypass traditional providers; in 2010, it launched a high-speed Internet connection service to homes and businesses in select cities in the United States.[[fn:85]] It is also working with Facebook and Microsoft to build undersea cable networks that would enable them to connect users without relying on third-party equipment or systems.[[fn:86]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "E. Other private actors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 84, "text": "Tencent Cloud CDN and Alibaba Cloud CDN."}, {"n": 85, "text": "Klint Finley, “Google eyes blazing-fast wireless as a way into your home”, Wired (12 August 2016)."}, {"n": 86, "text": "Joon Ian Wong, “Google and Facebook are doubling down on Internet infrastructure with a new Pacific cable”, Quartz (17 October 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Standards developing organizations (SDOs), although not strictly “industry actors”, establish technical protocols and standards that enable inter-operability in the telecommunications and Internet infrastructure. Standards development that neglects human rights considerations may adversely impact freedom of expression. For example, the failure to mandate Transport Layer Security (TLS) as a feature of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) left web traffic vulnerable to censorship and surveillance. The technical community’s efforts to incorporate human rights due diligence into standards development is therefore a step in the right direction.[[fn:87]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "E. Other private actors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "Internet Research Task Force, “Research into human rights protocol considerations” (25 February 2017). Available at https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-irtf-hrpc-research/?include_text=1. The supplementary annex analyzes the roles and responsibilities of standards developing organizations in more detail."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. The Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights recognize the responsibility of business enterprises to respect human rights, independent of State obligations or the implementation of those obligations (see A/HRC/17/31, annex; and A/HRC/32/38, paras. 9-10). They provide a minimum baseline for corporate human rights accountability, urging companies to adopt public statements of commitment to respect human rights endorsed by senior or executive-level management; conduct due diligence processes that meaningfully “identify, prevent, mitigate and account for” actual and potential human rights impacts throughout the company’s operations; and provide for or cooperate in the remediation of adverse human rights impacts (see A/HRC/17/31, annex, principles 16-24).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The Guiding Principles emphasize the need for companies to take into account the particularities of their operating context when executing their human rights responsibilities (Ibid.). In the digital access industry, several contexts must be considered.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "A. Context considerations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. The digital access industry is in the business of digital expression; its commercial viability depends on users who seek, receive and impart information and ideas on the networks it builds and operates. Since privately owned networks are indispensable to the contemporary exercise of freedom of expression, their operators also assume critical social and public functions. The industry’s decisions, whether in response to government demands or rooted in commercial interests, can directly impact freedom of expression and related human rights in both beneficial and detrimental ways.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "A. Context considerations", "Access providers supply a public good"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. The industry’s human rights impacts are frequently global, affecting users even in markets beyond those served by the company concerned. For example, surveillance of a single Internet exchange point in the United States may capture large streams of communications among Americans and foreigners, and even those entirely among foreigners. Similarly, security vulnerabilities in network design affect all users who rely on the compromised network for digital access, including users located far away from the network. Accordingly, companies should identify and address the broader implications of their activities for freedom of expression generally, in addition to their impacts on customers or rights holders in the markets they operate. To be sure, the manner in which they account for their impacts may vary according to their size, resources, ownership, structure and operating context (Ibid., principle 14). For example, all providers should vet user data requests for compliance with a minimum set of formalities, regardless of the origin of the request or the user affected. But while a multinational provider may have dedicated teams vetting requests, a small or medium-size provider may task its legal or public policy teams to perform the same function.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "A. Context considerations", "Restrictions on Internet access affect freedom of expression globally"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The Guiding Principles seek to address the gaps in corporate accountability left because of a lack of national legislation or implementation.[[fn:88]] However, zealous enforcement of domestic law also poses human rights challenges in the digital access industry. For example, States may hold providers liable for, or otherwise pressure them to restrict, Internet content posted by users on their networks, under laws as varied as hate speech, defamation, cybercrime and lese-majesty. Yet such intermediary liability creates a strong incentive to censor: providers may find it safest not to challenge such regulation but to over-regulate content such that legitimate and lawful expression also ends up restricted. The pressure to assist in State censorship and surveillance also escalates when authorities harass, threaten or arrest employees, or attempt to tamper with the company’s networks or equipment.[[fn:89]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "A. Context considerations", "The industry is vulnerable to State pressure against freedom of expression…"], "footnotes": [{"n": 88, "text": "Yael Ronen, “Big Brother’s little helpers: the right to privacy and the responsibility of Internet service providers”, Utrecht Journal of International and European Law, vol. 31, No. 80 (February 2015), p. 76."}, {"n": 89, "text": "In 2014, a network shutdown request that the multinational telecommunications provider, Orange, received from the authorities in the Central African Republic was reportedly “accompanied by the threat of personal sanctions in case of non-compliance”. See Telecommunications Industry Dialogue submission, p. 11."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. The industry’s dual role as an enabler of digital access and a natural point for State-imposed restriction heightens its importance as a bulwark against government and private overreach. For example, providers are usually best placed to push back on a shutdown or user data request. Content delivery networks are strategically positioned on the Internet infrastructure to counter malicious attacks that disrupt access. Vendors are uniquely qualified to assess whether their products will be or are being used to facilitate human rights abuses, particularly when they conduct sales due diligence or perform ongoing services.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "A. Context considerations", "...but also uniquely situated to ensure respect for users’ rights"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. To operationalize its human rights commitments, the digital access industry should allocate appropriate resources to at least the practices described below. Although these principles are evaluated in the context of digital access, they also bear relevance to other sectors of the digital economy, such as social media, commerce, surveillance and search.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Due diligence processes enable a digital access provider to identify, prevent and mitigate the human rights impacts of its activities (see A/HRC/17/31, annex, principle 19). While one-size-fits-all due diligence approaches are neither possible nor advisable, human rights impact assessments provide a means of assessing and addressing risks to freedom of expression and privacy.[[fn:90]] Due diligence involves at least the following.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "1. Due diligence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 90, "text": "Major telecommunications providers that have developed human rights impact assessments include Telia Company and Telefonica. Ibid., pp. 7-8."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Companies should develop clear and specific criteria for identifying activities that implicate freedom of expression and trigger due diligence processes.[[fn:91]] The company’s past and ongoing human rights effects, as well as industry practice, provide useful indicators. In the digital access industry, such activities might include mergers and acquisitions; market entry or exit; government or non-government requests for content restriction or user data; the development of or changes to content restriction and privacy policies; product changes regarding content moderation or encrypted communications; arrangements that facilitate prioritized access to Internet content and applications; the design, sale and purchase of network interception and filtering equipment and technologies as well as associated training and consultation services.[[fn:92]] This list, which is far from exhaustive, “requires constant vigilance and updating”, taking into account new areas of business, developments in technology, and other changes in operating context.[[fn:93]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "1. Due diligence", "Policies governing the conduct of due diligence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 91, "text": "Nokia has embedded an automated feature that flags potential sales for human rights risks in its sales tool. Ibid., p. 7."}, {"n": 92, "text": "European Commission, ICT Sector Guide on Implementing the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (2013), pp. 32-36."}, {"n": 93, "text": "Michael A. Samway, “Business, human rights and the Internet: a framework for implementation”, in Human Dignity and the Future of Global Institutions, Mark P. Lagon and Anthony Clark Arend, eds. (Washington, D.C., Georgetown University Press, 2014), p. 308."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Due diligence processes should critically examine at least applicable local and international laws and standards, including potential conflicts between local laws and human rights; freedom of expression and privacy risks embedded in the company’s products and services; strategies to mitigate and prevent these risks; limits on the effectiveness of these strategies given the company’s legal, regulatory or operating environment; and the potential to promote human rights throughout the company’s operations.[[fn:94]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "1. Due diligence", "Issues to examine"], "footnotes": [{"n": 94, "text": "Ibid., pp. 310-312, for a more comprehensive overview of relevant topic areas that due diligence processes should cover."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. While dedicated business and human rights professionals within a company are important, due diligence should not be solely their responsibility, but must involve other relevant functional groups within the business. This requires dialogue and collaboration among various business units (such as privacy, law enforcement, government relations, compliance, risk management, product development and operations) and professionals (such as engineers, user-experience researchers, sales teams and business executives).[[fn:95]] In the privacy context, researchers have found that measures such as “involving and assigning responsibility to senior business unit executives” for privacy management and “embedding staff with privacy protection expertise and personal responsibility for privacy … into the business units”, create an environment conducive to privacy protection.[[fn:96]] Similar management practices could also ensure business respect for freedom of expression. For small and medium-size enterprises, these considerations might require the entire operation to engage in due diligence activities.[[fn:97]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "1. Due diligence", "Internal process and training"], "footnotes": [{"n": 95, "text": "European Commission, ICT Sector Guide on Implementing the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (2013), p. 36."}, {"n": 96, "text": "Kenneth A. Bamberger and Deirdre K. Mulligan, Privacy on the Ground: Driving Corporate Behavior in the United States and Europe (Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press, 2015), p. 177."}, {"n": 97, "text": "European Commission, ICT Sector Guide on Implementing the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (2013), p. 37."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Given the wide knowledge base required, due diligence processes should draw on external, non-governmental expertise, including local civil society, international human rights organizations, the human rights mechanisms of international and regional organizations, academia and the technical community. Multi-stakeholder fora also provide opportunities for shared learning and mutual accountability. For example, researchers have found that membership in sector- or industry-specific human rights initiatives, such as the Global Network Initiative and the Telecommunications Industry Dialogue, coincides with companies’ human rights performance.[[fn:98]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "1. Due diligence", "External expertise"], "footnotes": [{"n": 98, "text": "Ranking Digital Rights submission, p. 5."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. All digital access providers implicate the freedom of expression of end users in one way or another. Accordingly, even companies that are not consumer facing should consult end users as part of their risk assessment process. Such consultation is distinguishable from the broader multi-stakeholder engagement efforts outlined above and contemplates a “two-way dialogue” to “gather specific views or advice from affected stakeholders (or their representatives) that are then taken into account in the company’s internal decision-making and implementation processes”.[[fn:99]] For example, vulnerable or marginalized individuals and groups might be consulted while licensing negotiations in high-risk operating environments are ongoing or during the design, testing and rollout of zero rating policies. Meaningful consultation should also involve regular outreach to civil society organizations, which may provide a useful proxy for the needs and interests of end users in particular communities, and might themselves be at greater risk of pressure for their advocacy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "1. Due diligence", "Consultation with users and affected rights holders"], "footnotes": [{"n": 99, "text": "European Commission, ICT Sector Guide on Implementing the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (2013), pp. 37-38."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Companies should be quick to adapt due diligence processes to changes in circumstances or operating context. For example, risk assessment should continue after the design phase and at regular intervals throughout the life cycle of the product or service, taking into account factors such as technology and infrastructure changes and associated security vulnerabilities, alterations in consumer behaviour, and modifications of the legal, political and social environment where companies operate.[[fn:100]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "1. Due diligence", "Ongoing dynamic assessments"], "footnotes": [{"n": 100, "text": "Business and Social Responsibility, “Applying the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights to the ICT industry”, Version 2.0: Ten lessons learned, A briefing paper (September 2012), p. 9."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. As with every major technology development, design and engineering choices reflect public policy considerations, and should be guided by respect for human rights. For example, network slicing, a key 5G technology, could enable mobile providers to manage network traffic more efficiently and cater to the ever-expanding range of consumer needs in the Internet of Things (IoT) era. At the same time, networks could also be “sliced” into fast and slow lanes that prioritize access to some Internet applications over others, potentially interfering with net neutrality. Accordingly, companies should ensure that innovations in network equipment and technology — particularly those with multiple uses — are designed and deployed so as to be consistent with freedom of expression and privacy standards.[[fn:101]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "2. Incorporating human rights safeguards by design"], "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "ARTICLE 19, “Our 5G future: Light at the end of the tunnel or Internet fast-lane for the elite?” (15 September 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Companies should assume an active and engaged role in developing expression and privacy enhancing measures. For example, digital security measures that detect and prevent distributed denial-of-service attacks and hacking should be implemented in a manner that targets malicious traffic without compromising legitimate interactions among individuals, organizations and communities. Configuring network equipment to minimize unnecessary information collection about users — given local legal and routing requirements — effectively pre-empts overbroad data requests, since companies cannot turn over information they do not have.[[fn:102]] Even if user information is logged, meaningful limits on whether and for how long they are retained also restrict the scope of personal and sensitive data available for third party access.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "2. Incorporating human rights safeguards by design"], "footnotes": [{"n": 102, "text": "Electronic Frontier Foundation, “User privacy for ISPs and accidental ISPs”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Human rights engagement with governments, corporate partners and other stakeholders may prevent or mitigate human rights violations down the line. Companies that deal directly with governments should push for human rights safeguards in operating licences and sales contracts, such as assurances that network equipment will not be accessed or modified without the company’s knowledge (which can be for the purpose of facilitating human rights abuses). Timely intervention during litigation (such as amicus filings in cases brought by civil society groups or peer companies against censorship or surveillance laws) and human rights-oriented lobbying in legislative and policymaking processes may also advance legal protections for freedom of expression and privacy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "3. Stakeholder engagement"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Arrangements with corporate partners should enable all parties to uphold their human rights responsibilities. In particular, such arrangements should be designed to ensure that subsidiaries, joint venture partners, suppliers and distributors will abide by whatever freedom of expression and privacy policies the company has in place. For example, when local operations receive unconventional censorship or surveillance requests, company policy should ensure that these requests are escalated to global management for review.[[fn:103]] Whistle-blowing mechanisms should be made available to both employees and contractors. To the extent that companies are already in business relationships that raise human rights concerns, they should seek to build leverage over time to prevent or mitigate harm.[[fn:104]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "3. Stakeholder engagement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 103, "text": "Telecommunications Industry Dialogue submission, pp. 13 and 16."}, {"n": 104, "text": "SHIFT, “Using leverage in business relationships to reduce human rights risks” (New York, November 2013)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Companies may also enhance respect for human rights through collaborative action. Such collaboration includes joint outreach and advocacy with peer companies; engagement with regional or international bodies, including human rights mechanisms and economic institutions; and membership in industry associations and multi-stakeholder initiatives.[[fn:105]] Regular consultations with users, civil society and affected rights holders can also mobilize public support for company efforts to resist government overreach. Cross-sector collaboration strengthens the normative force of agreed upon human rights best practices and standards, intensifying pressure on both governments and peer companies to comply.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "3. Stakeholder engagement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 105, "text": "Telecommunications Industry Dialogue submission, p. 12; and Global Network Initiative submission, p. 7."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. To the extent that companies handle content regulation and user data requests, specific policies and practices to mitigate the harms of government restrictions may be adopted.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "4. Mitigation strategies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. Companies should ensure that all requests for content restriction and customer data comply not only with procedural and legal requirements specified under local law, but also internationally established due process standards.[[fn:107]] Given the intrusion on human rights, such requests should be authorized by independent and impartial courts or adjudicatory bodies. Furthermore, companies should require that requests be made in writing and present a clear explanation of the legal basis, and the name, title and signature of the authorizing official. Companies should also seek to verify that the relevant official or government entity is authorized to issue this request.[[fn:108]] These formalities should be requested even if they are not required by law. Additionally, companies should preserve a written record of all communications between them and the requester relating to each request and logs of access to user data when executing the request, provided that such a record does not pose undue privacy risks.[[fn:109]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "4. Mitigation strategies", "Ensure that requests for content restrictions and customer data are in strict compliance with the law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 107, "text": "See, for example, the Manila Principles on Intermediary Liability and the International Principles on the Application of Human Rights to Communications Surveillance, co-authored by a number of non-governmental organizations."}, {"n": 108, "text": "Global Network Initiative, “Implementation guidelines“, pp. 5-6; also Telecommunications Industry Dialogue submission, pp. 8-10."}, {"n": 109, "text": "Telecommunications Industry Dialogue submission, pp. 8-9."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Vague and open-ended government requests and legal frameworks make it difficult for companies to determine whether they are in compliance with local law. However, companies can mitigate this uncertainty by adopting company-wide policies that direct all business units, including local subsidiaries, to resolve any legal ambiguity in favour of respect for freedom of expression, privacy and other human rights. Such policies are based not only on the provider’s human rights responsibilities, but also the State’s obligation to comply with applicable human rights laws and relevant protections under local law (such as constitutional, criminal procedure and data protection laws).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "4. Mitigation strategies", "Interpreting the scope of government requests and laws"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. In practice, companies should as far as possible interpret requests in a manner that ensures the least restriction on content and access to customer data. For example, when requests appear overbroad, Global Network Initiative recommends that companies seek clarification on their scope and obtain appropriate modifications.[[fn:110]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "4. Mitigation strategies", "Interpreting the scope of government requests and laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 110, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Companies have an interest in operating in a legal environment that is human rights compliant, consistent due process and rule of law norms. Companies should explore all legal options for challenging requests that are excessively intrusive — such as requests for shutdowns of entire services or platforms, website takedowns that are clearly targeted at criticism or dissent or customer data requests that cover broadly unspecified users.[[fn:111]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "4. Mitigation strategies", "Challenge requests and underlying laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "Yael Ronen, “Big Brother’s little helpers” (February 2015), p. 81."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Like any decision to bring legal proceedings, companies may take into account a range of considerations, such as the “potential beneficial [human rights] impact, the likelihood of success, the severity of the case, cost, the representativeness of the case and whether the case is part of a larger trend”.[[fn:112]] However, companies should assign substantial overall weight to human rights considerations in their decision-making processes and carefully assess both the potential benefits and risks to human rights. For example, companies should be inclined to challenge overbroad requests where there is a reasonable likelihood of success, even if these challenges might be resource intensive; on the other hand, companies might pursue alternative options if a challenge is likely to create adverse precedent or backlash and undermine expression and privacy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "4. Mitigation strategies", "Challenge requests and underlying laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 112, "text": "Global Network Initiative, “Implementation guidelines”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Transparency is a key feature of the digital access industry’s responsibility to respect. Information about government activities that require corporate assistance or involvement should be disclosed to the maximum extent allowed by law. Companies should be mindful that such information is primarily used by civil society to challenge human rights abuses in court, register grievances before domestic or international mechanisms on behalf of users or seek alternative means of accountability. Accordingly, such disclosures should be regular and ongoing, and in an accessible format that provides appropriate context.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "5. Transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. Even if local law limits full transparency, companies should nonetheless disclose all relevant and publishable information. For example, if companies are prohibited from disclosing the origin or basis of a shutdown request, they should nevertheless seek to provide regular updates about the services affected or restored, the steps they are taking to address the issue and explanations after the fact. Innovative transparency measures, such as the publication of aggregate data and the selective withholding of information,[[fn:113]] also mitigate the impact of gag orders and other non-disclosure laws. Companies should disclose all the local laws with which they comply and, where possible, challenge any law or regulation that prevents or hinders them from being transparent to users and the general public.[[fn:114]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "5. Transparency"], "footnotes": [{"n": 113, "text": "For example, when “Telia Company was required to suspend services, the company did not state that this was the result of technical problems”, Telecommunications Industry Dialogue submission, p. 14."}, {"n": 114, "text": "Telecommunications Industry Dialogue, “Information on country legal frameworks pertaining to freedom of expression and privacy in telecommunications” (2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Companies should disclose their policies and actions that implicate freedom of expression. Relevant disclosures include data retention and use policies, network management practices and the sale and purchase of network filtering and interception technologies.[[fn:115]] Companies should also disclose information about the frequency, scope and subject matter of due diligence processes and a summary of high-level findings. In general, companies should consult the growing number of resources that study valuable transparency indicators and other transparency best practices. Users, civil society and peer companies should also be consulted on the design and implementation of transparency measures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "5. Transparency"], "footnotes": [{"n": 115, "text": "Ranking Digital Rights submission."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. While certain aspects of corporate responsibility have advanced in recent years, remedial steps often seem omitted from the private sector’s agenda. Yet remedies are a key pillar of corporate responsibility and should be provided whenever businesses “have caused or contributed to adverse impacts” (see A/HRC/17/31, annex, principle 22). States bear the primary duty to remediate business-related human rights abuses, particularly those they instigate, such as overbroad content restriction, unlawful user data requests and disproportionate surveillance. Yet companies that fail to implement appropriate due diligence measures and other safeguards may also cause or contribute to such abuses. In those situations, companies should “provide for or cooperate in their remediation through legitimate processes” (Ibid.).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "6. Effective remedies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Remedies may include both financial and non-financial means (Ibid., principle 27). When freedom of expression is impaired, appropriate remedies may include access to grievance mechanisms and information about the violation and guarantees of non-repetition.[[fn:116]] Users whose accounts have been wrongly suspended may want the satisfaction of being heard and provided with explanations and assurances of non-repetition.[[fn:117]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "6. Effective remedies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 116, "text": "Telecommunications Industry Dialogue submission, p. 17."}, {"n": 117, "text": "Peter Micek and Jeff Landale, “Forgotten pillar: the Telco remedy plan”, Access Now (May 2013), p. 6."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. Pre-existing policies and mechanisms could also be reformed or strengthened to address violations of freedom of expression. For example, a provider could make improvements to its content restriction policy and the training of its content moderation teams to reduce the likelihood of unfair website takedowns or overbroad content restrictions such as filtering. Customer complaint mechanisms could also be updated to allow users to flag network traffic management practices, commercial filtering classifications and other content restrictions they deem to be unduly restrictive or unfair.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "6. Effective remedies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. Individuals depend on digital access to exercise fundamental rights, including freedom of opinion and expression, the right to life and a range of economic, social and cultural rights. They also regularly face obstacles to access: from shutdowns to surveillance. The present report is largely concerned with the obstacles that deny, deter or exclude expression through blunt reliance on digital censorship. The present report has not addressed other serious obstacles — such as the lack of adequate connectivity infrastructure, high costs of access imposed by government, gender inequality, and language barriers — that also may constitute forms of censorship.[[fn:118]] Much of it therefore focuses on the roles and obligations of States. But States increasingly exercise censorship through the private sector. The report has aimed not only to address the constraints on State action under human rights law but also the principles that private actors should observe in respecting human rights. Key recommendations, already highlighted in the analysis above, are set out below.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 118, "text": "Global Commission on Internet Governance submission; Arco Iris Libre de Cuba, Centro de Información Hablemos Press, Centro de Información Legal CubaLex, Mesa de Diálogo de la Juventud Cubana Plataforma Femenina Nuevo País, “Situación del derecho a la libertad de opinion y expression en Cuba” (Situation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in Cuba) (July 2016), p. 20."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. The Human Rights Council, in its resolution 32/13, condemned unequivocally measures to intentionally prevent or disrupt access to or dissemination of information online in violation of international human rights law, and called upon all States to refrain from and cease such measures. This condemnation, which is critical to the Council’s promotion of human rights online, should be supplemented and specified. Intentional prevention or disruption of access includes any action that shuts down or renders ineffective access to telecommunications networks, mobile services, social media platforms and so forth. Future work of the Council that clarifies the rules that apply to digital access, as outlined in this report, would advance the right to freedom of opinion and expression online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "States and the Human Rights Council"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. It is also critical for the Council and States to draw the connections between privacy interference and freedom of expression. To be sure, interferences with privacy must be assessed on their own merits under article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and other norms of human rights law. But certain interferences — such as overbroad requests for user data and third party retention of such data — can have both near- and long-term deterrent effects on expression, and should be avoided as a matter of law and policy. At a minimum, States should ensure that surveillance is authorized by an independent, impartial and competent judicial authority certifying that the request is necessary and proportionate to protect a legitimate aim.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "States and the Human Rights Council"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. The Special Rapporteur is particularly concerned about reports of threats and intimidation of companies, their employees and their equipment and infrastructure. Also, the Council’s emphasis on the important role — and need for protection — of the private sector deserves consideration. States should review all activities to obtain network access to ensure that they are lawful, necessary and proportionate, paying particular attention to whether these activities are the least intrusive means for protecting a legitimate aim.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "States and the Human Rights Council"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The protective role that States may exercise over the private sector can only go so far. They should not be promoting the economic gain of private entities over users’ rights to freedom of opinion and expression. Thus, States should prohibit attempts to assign priority to certain types of Internet content or applications over others for payment or other commercial benefits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "States and the Human Rights Council"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The intersection of State behaviour and corporate roles in the digital age remains somewhat new for many States. One profitable way forward, at both the international and domestic levels, would involve the development of national action plans on business and human rights in order to establish meaningful avenues for all categories of the digital access industry to identify and address their respective human rights impacts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "States and the Human Rights Council"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. For years now, individuals and companies within the digital access sector have understood that they play an essential role in the vast expansion of access to information and communications services. They are in a business in which the model for success should involve expanding access, efficiencies, diversity and transparency. They should take the principles identified in the present report as tools to strengthen their own roles in advancing users’ rights to freedom of expression. In this spirit, in addition to high-level policy commitments to human rights, the industry should allocate appropriate resources towards the fulfilment of these commitments, including due diligence, rights-oriented design and engineering choices, stakeholder engagement, strategies to prevent or mitigate human rights risks, transparency and effective remedies. In doing so, the design and implementation of corporate human rights accountability measures should draw on both internal and external expertise, and ensure meaningful input from customers and other affected rights holders, civil society and the human rights community.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Private actors"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. This is not to say that private companies do not face pressures. They do. But when States request corporate involvement in censorship or surveillance, companies should seek to prevent or mitigate the adverse human rights impacts of their involvement to the maximum extent allowed by law. In any event, companies should take all necessary and lawful measures to ensure that they do not cause, contribute or become complicit in human rights abuses. Arrangements with corporate partners should be structured to ensure that all parties uphold their human rights responsibilities. Companies should also seek to build leverage in pre-existing business relationships to prevent or mitigate adverse human rights impacts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Private actors"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. Contemporary digital technologies offer Governments, corporations, criminals and pranksters unprecedented capacity to interfere with the rights to freedom of opinion and expression. Online censorship, mass and targeted surveillance and data collection, digital attacks on civil society and repression resulting from online expression force individuals around the world to seek security to hold opinions without interference and seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds. Many seek to protect their security through encryption, the scrambling of data so only intended recipients may access it, which may be applied to data in transit (e.g., e-mail, messaging, Internet telephony) and at rest (e.g., hard drives, cloud services). Others seek additional protection in anonymity, using sophisticated technologies to disguise their identity and digital footprint. Encryption and anonymity, today’s leading vehicles for online security, provide individuals with a means to protect their privacy, empowering them to browse, read, develop and share opinions and information without interference and enabling journalists, civil society organizations, members of ethnic or religious groups, those persecuted because of their sexual orientation or gender identity, activists, scholars, artists and others to exercise the rights to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Yet, just as the telephone may be used both to report a crime to the police and to conspire to commit one, so too may the Internet be abused to interfere with the rights of others, national security or public order. Law enforcement and intelligence services often assert that anonymous or encrypted communications make it difficult to investigate financial crimes, illicit drugs, child pornography and terrorism. Individuals express legitimate concerns about how bullies and criminals use new technologies to facilitate harassment. Some States restrict or prohibit encryption and anonymity on these and other grounds, while others are proposing or implementing means for law enforcement to circumvent these protections and access individual communications.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. In the light of these challenges, the present report examines two linked questions. First, do the rights to privacy and freedom of opinion and expression protect secure online communication, specifically by encryption or anonymity? And, second, assuming an affirmative answer, to what extent may Governments, in accordance with human rights law, impose restrictions on encryption and anonymity? The present report seeks to answer these questions, review examples of State practice and propose recommendations. It does not purport to address every technical or legal question raised by digital technologies, but it identifies important ones for future reporting.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. In preparing the report, the Special Rapporteur circulated a questionnaire to States, seeking relevant information on their domestic laws, regulations, policies and practices. As of 1 April 2015, 16 States had responded to this request.[[fn:1]] The Special Rapporteur also issued a call for submissions from non-governmental stakeholders and convened a meeting of experts in Geneva in March 2015. The responses from Governments and the over 30 submissions by civil society organizations and individuals, which are available from the mandate holder’s web page, contributed significantly to the preparation of the report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Responses were received from Austria, Bulgaria, Cuba, Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Ireland, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Qatar, Republic of Moldova, Norway, Slovakia, Sweden, Turkey and the United States of America."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. A full review of the Special Rapporteur’s activities since the beginning of his term in August 2014 may be found on the mandate holder’s web page. This report, the current mandate holder’s first, aims at furthering the work on the challenges to freedom of expression in the digital age.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Modern approaches to private and secure communication draw on ideas that have been with humankind for millenniums. The rise of electronic data storage, the Internet and mass data collection and retention made clear that sophisticated means would be needed to protect individual, corporate and government data. As e-mail, instant-messaging, Voice-over-Internet Protocols, videoconferencing and social media moved from niche services to predominant and easily monitored modes of communication, individuals developed a need for security online, so that they could seek, receive and impart information without the risk of repercussions, disclosure, surveillance or other improper use of their opinions and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Secure and private communication in the digital age", "A. Contemporary encryption and anonymity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. Encryption — a mathematical “process of converting messages, information, or data into a form unreadable by anyone except the intended recipient”[[fn:2]] — protects the confidentiality and integrity of content against third-party access or manipulation. Strong encryption, once the sole province of militaries and intelligence services, is now publicly accessible and often freely available to secure e-mail, voice communication, images, hard drives and website browsers. With “public key encryption”, the dominant form of end-to-end security for data in transit, the sender uses the recipient’s public key to encrypt the message and its attachments, and the recipient uses her or his own private key to decrypt them. Encryption may also be used to create digital signatures to ensure that a document and its sender are authentic, to authenticate and verify the identity of a server and to protect the integrity of communications between clients against tampering or manipulation of traffic by third parties (e.g., “man-in-the-middle” attacks). Since the encryption of data in transit does not ensure against attacks on unencrypted data when it is sitting at rest at either endpoint (nor protect the security of one’s private key), one may also encrypt data at rest stored on laptops, hard drives, servers, tablets, mobile phones and other devices. Online practices may also be moving away from the system described here and towards “forward secrecy” or “off-the-record” technology in which keys are held ephemerally, particularly for uses such as instant messaging.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Secure and private communication in the digital age", "A. Contemporary encryption and anonymity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See SANS Institute, “History of encryption” (2001)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Some call for efforts to weaken or compromise encryption standards such that only Governments may enjoy access to encrypted communications. However, compromised encryption cannot be kept secret from those with the skill to find and exploit the weak points, whether State or non-State, legitimate or criminal. It is a seemingly universal position among technologists that there is no special access that can be made available only to government authorities, even ones that, in principle, have the public interest in mind. In the contemporary technological environment, intentionally compromising encryption, even for arguably legitimate purposes, weakens everyone’s security online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Secure and private communication in the digital age", "A. Contemporary encryption and anonymity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Notably, encryption protects the content of communications but not identifying factors such as the Internet Protocol (IP) address, known as metadata. Third parties may gather significant information concerning an individual’s identity through metadata analysis if the user does not employ anonymity tools. Anonymity is the condition of avoiding identification. A common human desire to protect one’s identity from the crowd, anonymity may liberate a user to explore and impart ideas and opinions more than she would using her actual identity. Individuals online may adopt pseudonyms (or, for instance, fake e-mail or social media accounts) to hide their identities, image, voice, location and so forth, but the privacy afforded through such pseudonyms is superficial and easily disturbed by Governments or others with the necessary expertise; in the absence of combinations of encryption and anonymizing tools, the digital traces that users leave behind render their identities easily discoverable. Users seeking to ensure full anonymity or mask their identity (such as hiding the original IP address) against State or criminal intrusion may use tools such as virtual private networks (VPNs), proxy services, anonymizing networks and software, and peer-to-peer networks.[[fn:3]] One well-known anonymity tool, the Tor network, deploys more than 6,000 decentralized computer servers around the world to receive and relay data multiple times so as to hide identifying information about the end points, creating strong anonymity for its users.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Secure and private communication in the digital age", "A. Contemporary encryption and anonymity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Proxy services send data through an intermediary, or “proxy server”, that sends that data on behalf of the user, effectively masking the user’s IP address with its own to the end recipient. Peer-to-peer networks partition and store data among interconnected servers and then encrypt that stored data so that no centralized server has access to identifying information. See, for example, Freenet."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. A key feature of the digital age is that technology changes incessantly to sate user demands. Although the present report refers to contemporary technologies that facilitate encryption and anonymity, its analysis and conclusions apply generally to the concepts behind the current technologies and should be applicable as new technologies replace the old.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Secure and private communication in the digital age", "A. Contemporary encryption and anonymity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. The Internet has profound value for freedom of opinion and expression, as it magnifies the voice and multiplies the information within reach of everyone who has access to it. Within a brief period, it has become the central global public forum. As such, an open and secure Internet should be counted among the leading prerequisites for the enjoyment of the freedom of expression today. But it is constantly under threat, a space — not unlike the physical world — in which criminal enterprise, targeted repression and mass data collection also exist. It is thus critical that individuals find ways to secure themselves online, that Governments provide such safety in law and policy and that corporate actors design, develop and market secure-by-default products and services. None of these imperatives is new. Early in the digital age, Governments recognized the essential role played by encryption in securing the global economy, using or encouraging its use to secure Government-issued identity numbers, credit card and banking information, business proprietary documents and investigations into online crime itself.[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Secure and private communication in the digital age", "B. Uses of the technologies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See OECD, Guidelines for Cryptography Policy (1997).."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Encryption and anonymity, separately or together, create a zone of privacy to protect opinion and belief. For instance, they enable private communications and can shield an opinion from outside scrutiny, particularly important in hostile political, social, religious and legal environments. Where States impose unlawful censorship through filtering and other technologies, the use of encryption and anonymity may empower individuals to circumvent barriers and access information and ideas without the intrusion of authorities. Journalists, researchers, lawyers and civil society rely on encryption and anonymity to shield themselves (and their sources, clients and partners) from surveillance and harassment. The ability to search the web, develop ideas and communicate securely may be the only way in which many can explore basic aspects of identity, such as one’s gender, religion, ethnicity, national origin or sexuality. Artists rely on encryption and anonymity to safeguard and protect their right to expression, especially in situations where it is not only the State creating limitations but also society that does not tolerate unconventional opinions or expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Secure and private communication in the digital age", "B. Uses of the technologies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. The “dark” side of encryption and anonymity is a reflection of the fact that wrongdoing offline takes place online as well. Law enforcement and counter-terrorism officials express concern that terrorists and ordinary criminals use encryption and anonymity to hide their activities, making it difficult for Governments to prevent and conduct investigations into terrorism, the illegal drug trade, organized crime and child pornography, among other government objectives. Harassment and cyberbullying may rely on anonymity as a cowardly mask for discrimination, particularly against members of vulnerable groups. At the same time, however, law enforcement often uses the same tools to ensure their own operational security in undercover operations, while members of vulnerable groups may use the tools to ensure their privacy in the face of harassment. Moreover, Governments have at their disposal a broad set of alternative tools, such as wiretapping, geo-location and tracking, data-mining, traditional physical surveillance and many others, which strengthen contemporary law enforcement and counter-terrorism.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Secure and private communication in the digital age", "B. Uses of the technologies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See Center for Democracy and Technology, “‘Going Dark’ versus a ‘Golden Age for Surveillance’” (2011)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. The human rights legal framework for encryption and anonymity requires, first, evaluating the scope of the rights at issue and their application to encryption and anonymity; and, second, assessing whether, and if so to what extent, restrictions may lawfully be placed on the use of technologies that promote and protect the rights to privacy and freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. The rights to privacy[[fn:6]] and freedom of opinion and expression[[fn:7]] have been codified in universal and regional human rights instruments, interpreted by treaty bodies and regional courts, and evaluated by special procedures of the Human Rights Council and during universal periodic review. The universal standards for privacy, opinion and expression are found in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, to which 168 States are party. Even for those remaining States that are not bound by it, the Covenant presents at the very least a standard for achievement and often reflects a customary legal norm; those that have signed but not ratified the Covenant are bound to respect its object and purpose under article 18 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. National legal systems also protect privacy, opinion and expression, sometimes with constitutional or basic law or interpretations thereof. Several global civil society projects have also provided compelling demonstrations of the law that should apply in the context of the digital age, such as the International Principles on the Application of Human Rights to Communications Surveillance and the Global Principles on National Security and the Right to Information. Although specific standards may vary from right to right, or instrument to instrument, a common thread in the law is that, because the rights to privacy and to freedom of expression are so foundational to human dignity and democratic governance, limitations must be narrowly drawn, established by law and applied strictly and only in exceptional circumstances. In a digital age, protecting such rights demands exceptional vigilance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "18", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, article 16 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, article 22 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, article 14 of the Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights and article 11 of the American Convention on Human Rights protect the right to privacy."}, {"n": 7, "text": "Article 19 of the Universal Declaration and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, article 9 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights and article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights protect freedom of expression."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Encryption and anonymity provide individuals and groups with a zone of privacy online to hold opinions and exercise freedom of expression without arbitrary and unlawful interference or attacks. The previous mandate holder noted that the rights to “privacy and freedom of expression are interlinked” and found that encryption and anonymity are protected because of the critical role they can play in securing those rights (A/HRC/23/40 and Corr.1). Echoing article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights specifically protects the individual against “arbitrary or unlawful interference with his or her privacy, family, home or correspondence” and “unlawful attacks on his or her honour and reputation”, and provides that “everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks”. The General Assembly, the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and special procedure mandate holders have recognized that privacy is a gateway to the enjoyment of other rights, particularly the freedom of opinion and expression (see General Assembly resolution 68/167, A/HRC/13/37 and Human Rights Council resolution 20/8).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "A. Privacy as a gateway for freedom of opinion and expression"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "12", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, not a UN core treaty."}, {"article": "17", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR art.17 (privacy)."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Encryption and anonymity are especially useful for the development and sharing of opinions, which often occur through online correspondence such as e-mail, text messaging, and other online interactions. Encryption provides security so that individuals are able “to verify that their communications are received only by their intended recipients, without interference or alteration, and that the communications they receive are equally free from intrusion” (see A/HRC/23/40 and Corr.1, para. 23). Given the power of metadata analysis to specify “an individual’s behaviour, social relationships, private preferences and identity” (see A/HRC/27/37, para. 19), anonymity may play a critical role in securing correspondence. Besides correspondence, international and regional mechanisms have interpreted privacy to involve a range of other circumstances as well.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "A. Privacy as a gateway for freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 16 (1988) on the right to respect of privacy, family, home and correspondence, and protection of honour and reputation. See also European Court of Human Rights, factsheets on data protection (www.echr.coe.int/Documents/FS_Data_ENG.pdf) and right to protection of one’s image (www.echr.coe.int/Documents/FS_Own_image_ENG.pdf)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Individuals and civil society are subjected to interference and attack by State and non-State actors, against which encryption and anonymity may provide protection. In article 17 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, States are obliged to protect privacy against unlawful and arbitrary interference and attacks. Under such an affirmative obligation, States should ensure the existence of domestic legislation that prohibits unlawful and arbitrary interference and attacks on privacy, whether committed by government or non-governmental actors. Such protection must include the right to a remedy for a violation.[[fn:9]] In order for the right to a remedy to be meaningful, individuals must be given notice of any compromise of their privacy through, for instance, weakened encryption or compelled disclosure of user data.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "A. Privacy as a gateway for freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See Human Rights Committee general comment No.16 and general comment No. 31on the nature of the general legal obligation imposed on States parties to the Covenant; and CCPR/C/106/D/1803/2008."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. The first article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights recognizes that everyone is “endowed with reason and conscience”, a principle developed further in human rights law to include, among other things, the protection of opinion, expression, belief, and thought. Article 19 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, also echoing the Universal Declaration, provides that “everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference”. Opinion and expression are closely related to one another, as restrictions on the right to receive information and ideas may interfere with the ability to hold opinions, and interference with the holding of opinions necessarily restricts the expression of them. However, human rights law has drawn a conceptual distinction between the two. During the negotiations on the drafting of the Covenant, “the freedom to form an opinion and to develop this by way of reasoning was held to be absolute and, in contrast to freedom of expression, not allowed to be restricted by law or other power”.[[fn:10]] The ability to hold an opinion freely was seen to be a fundamental element of human dignity and democratic self-governance, a guarantee so critical that the Covenant would allow no interference, limitation or restriction. Consequently, the permissible limitations in article 19 (3) expressly apply only to the right to freedom of expression in article 19 (2). Interference with the right to hold opinions is, by contrast, per se in violation of article 19 (1).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "B. Right to hold opinions without interference"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Manfred Nowak, UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: CCPR Commentary (1993), p. 441."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text: 'Article 19 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, also echoing the Universal Declaration, provides that everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference'. Explicitly ICCPR."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text: 'the permissible limitations in article 19 (3) expressly apply only to the right to freedom of expression in article 19 (2)' — contextually ICCPR throughout this paragraph."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text: 'the right to freedom of expression in article 19 (2)' — ICCPR, confirmed by consistent Covenant references throughout the paragraph."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text: 'Interference with the right to hold opinions is, by contrast, per se in violation of article 19 (1)' — ICCPR art.19(1), consistent with entire paragraph's Covenant framing."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Commentators and courts have devoted much less attention to the right to hold opinions than to expression. Greater attention is warranted, however, as the mechanics of holding opinions have evolved in the digital age and exposed individuals to significant vulnerabilities. Individuals regularly hold opinions digitally, saving their views and their search and browse histories, for instance, on hard drives, in the cloud, and in e-mail archives, which private and public authorities often retain for lengthy if not indefinite periods. Civil society organizations likewise prepare and store digitally memoranda, papers and publications, all of which involve the creation and holding of opinions. In other words, holding opinions in the digital age is not an abstract concept limited to what may be in one’s mind. And yet, today, holding opinions in digital space is under attack. Offline, interference with the right to hold an opinion may involve physical harassment, detention or subtler efforts to punish individuals for their opinion (see CCPR/C/78/D/878/1999, annex, paras. 2.5, 7.2 and 7.3). Interference may also include such efforts as targeted surveillance, distributed denial of service attacks, and online and offline intimidation, criminalization and harassment. Targeted digital interference harasses individuals and civil society organizations for the opinions they hold in many formats. Encryption and anonymity enable individuals to avoid or mitigate such harassment.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "B. Right to hold opinions without interference"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The right to hold opinions without interference also includes the right to form opinions. Surveillance systems, both targeted and mass, may undermine the right to form an opinion, as the fear of unwilling disclosure of online activity, such as search and browsing, likely deters individuals from accessing information, particularly where such surveillance leads to repressive outcomes. For all these reasons, restrictions on encryption and anonymity must be assessed to determine whether they would amount to an impermissible interference with the right to hold opinions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "B. Right to hold opinions without interference"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. The right to freedom of expression under article 19 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights expands upon the Universal Declaration’s already broad guarantee, protecting the “freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice”. A significant accumulation of jurisprudence, special procedure reporting, and resolutions within the United Nations and regional human rights systems underscores that the freedom of expression “is essential for the enjoyment of other human rights and freedoms and constitutes a fundamental pillar for building a democratic society and strengthening democracy” (Human Rights Council resolution 25/2). The Human Rights Council, the General Assembly and individual States regularly assert that individuals enjoy the same rights online that they enjoy offline.[[fn:11]] The present report will not repeat all the elements of this consensus. In the context of encryption and anonymity, three aspects of the text deserve particular emphasis (see paras. 23–26 below).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See, e.g., General Assembly resolution 68/167, Human Rights Council resolution 26/13 and Council of Europe recommendation CM/Rec (2014) 6 of the Committee of Ministers to member States on a guide to human rights for Internet users."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Freedom to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas: In environments of prevalent censorship, individuals may be forced to rely on encryption and anonymity in order to circumvent restrictions and exercise the right to seek, receive and impart information. Some States have curtailed access with a variety of tools. State censorship, for instance, poses sometimes insurmountable barriers to the right to access information. Some States impose content-based, often discriminatory restrictions or criminalize online expression, intimidating political opposition and dissenters and applying defamation and lese-majesty laws to silence journalists, defenders and activists. A VPN connection, or use of Tor or a proxy server, combined with encryption, may be the only way in which an individual is able to access or share information in such environments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. It bears emphasizing that human rights law also protects the right to seek, receive and impart scientific information and ideas. The Universal Declaration and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights protect rights to education and “to share in scientific advancement and its benefits”. Encryption and anonymity technologies enable individuals to share in such information in situations where they are otherwise denied, and they are themselves examples of scientific advancement. Their use empowers individuals to gain access to the benefits of scientific progress that might be curtailed by Government. The Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights noted that “the rights to science and to culture should both be understood as including a right to have access to and use information and communication and other technologies in self-determined and empowering ways” (see A/HRC/20/26, para. 19).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Regardless of frontiers: The major instruments guaranteeing freedom of expression explicitly acknowledge the transboundary scope of the right. Individuals enjoy the right to receive information from, and transmit information and ideas of all kinds to, places beyond their borders.[[fn:12]] However, some States filter or block data on the basis of keywords, denying access by deploying technologies that rely on access to text. Encryption enables an individual to avoid such filtering, allowing information to flow across borders. Moreover, individuals do not control — and are usually unaware of — how or if their communications cross borders. Encryption and anonymity may protect information of all individuals as it transits through servers located in third countries that filter content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "The European Court of Human Rights has recognized this point. See Ahmet Yildirim v. Turkey,(2012); Cox v. Turkey, (2010); Case of Groppera Radio AG and Others v. Switzerland (1990)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Through any media: Articles 19 of the Universal Declaration and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights were drafted with the foresight to accommodate future technological advances (A/HRC/17/27). The States parties to the Covenant chose to adopt the general phrase “through any other media” as opposed to an enumeration of then-existing media. Partly on this basis, international mechanisms have repeatedly acknowledged that the protections of freedom of expression apply to activities on the Internet. Regional courts have likewise recognized that protections apply online.[[fn:13]] The European Court of Human Rights, in discussing the similar protection of expression in the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, has indicated that the forms and means through which information is transmitted and received are themselves protected, since any restriction imposed on the means necessarily interferes with the right to receive and impart information.[[fn:14]] In this sense, encryption and anonymity technologies are specific media through which individuals exercise their freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "European Commission of Human Rights, Neij and Sunde Kolmisoppi v. Sweden, (2013); European Court of Human Rights, Perrin v. United Kingdom, (2005); African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Zimbabwe Lawyers for Human Rights and Institute for Human Rights and Development (on behalf of Meldrum) v. Zimbabwe (2009); Case of Herrera Ulloa v. Costa Rica, Herrera Ulloa v. Costa Rica, Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations and Costs, Series C No. 107, IHRL 1490 (IACHR 2004)."}, {"n": 14, "text": "See Autronic AG v. Switzerland (1990); De Haes and Gijsels v. Belgium (1997), para. 48; News Verlags GmbH and Co.KG v. Austria (2000)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Corporations in a variety of sectors play roles in advancing or interfering with privacy, opinion and expression, including encryption and anonymity. Much online communication (and virtually all of it in some countries) is carried on networks owned and operated by private corporations, while other corporations own and manage websites with substantial user-generated content. Others are active players in the surveillance and spyware markets, providing hardware and software to Governments to compromise the security of individuals online. Others develop and provide services for secure and private online storage. Telecommunications entities, Internet service providers, search engines, cloud services and many other corporate actors, often described as intermediaries, promote, regulate or compromise privacy and expression online. Intermediaries may store massive volumes of user data, to which Governments often demand access. Encryption and anonymity may be promoted or compromised by each of these corporate actors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "D. Roles of corporations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. A full exploration of the role of corporations to protect their users’ security online is beyond the scope of the present report, which is focused on State obligations. However, it remains important to emphasize that “the responsibility to respect human rights applies throughout a company’s global operations regardless of where its users are located, and exists independently of whether the State meets its own human rights obligations” (see A/HRC/27/37, para. 43). At a minimum, corporations should apply principles such as those laid out in the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, the Global Network Initiative’s Principles on Freedom of Expression and Privacy, the European Commission’s ICT Sector Guide on Implementing the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights and the Telecommunications Industry Dialogue Guiding Principles, which encourage corporations to commit to protect human rights, undertake due diligence to ensure the positive human rights impact of their work and remediate adverse impacts of their work on human rights. In the future, the Special Rapporteur will focus on the roles corporations should play in preserving individual security to exercise freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "D. Roles of corporations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. The permissible limitations on the right to privacy should be read strictly, particularly in an age of pervasive online surveillance — whether passive or active, mass or targeted — regardless of whether the applicable standards are “unlawful and arbitrary” under article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, “arbitrary” under article 12 of the Universal Declaration, “arbitrary or abusive” under article 11 of the American Convention on Human Rights, or “necessary in a democratic society” under article 8 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (see A/HRC/13/37, paras. 14–19). Privacy interferences that limit the exercise of the freedoms of opinion and expression, such as those described in this report, must not in any event interfere with the right to hold opinions, and those that limit the freedom of expression must be provided by law and necessary and proportionate to achieve one of a handful of legitimate objectives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "A. Legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "17", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR."}, {"article": "12", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 12 of the Universal Declaration' — UDHR, not a UN core treaty."}, {"article": "11", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 11 of the American Convention on Human Rights' — ACHR is a regional instrument, not a UN core treaty."}, {"article": "8", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 8 of the European Convention' — ECHR is a regional instrument, not a UN core treaty."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. No restrictions may be imposed on the right to hold opinions without interference; restrictions under article 19 (3) of the Covenant only apply to expression under article 19 (2). In environments where one’s opinions, however held online, result in surveillance or harassment, encryption and anonymity may provide necessary privacy. Restrictions on such security tools may interfere with the ability of individuals to hold opinions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "A. Legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Restrictions on encryption and anonymity, as enablers of the right to freedom of expression, must meet the well-known three-part test: any limitation on expression must be provided for by law; may only be imposed for legitimate grounds (as set out in article 19 (3) of the Covenant); and must conform to the strict tests of necessity and proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "A. Legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. First, for a restriction on encryption or anonymity to be “provided for by law”, it must be precise, public and transparent, and avoid providing State authorities with unbounded discretion to apply the limitation (see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011)). Proposals to impose restrictions on encryption or anonymity should be subject to public comment and only be adopted, if at all, according to regular legislative process. Strong procedural and judicial safeguards should also be applied to guarantee the due process rights of any individual whose use of encryption or anonymity is subject to restriction. In particular, a court, tribunal or other independent adjudicatory body must supervise the application of the restriction.[[fn:15]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "A. Legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, article 2 (3)(b); CCPR/C/79/Add.110, para. 22; the Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Second, limitations may only be justified to protect specified interests: rights or reputations of others; national security; public order; public health or morals. Even where a State prohibits by law “advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, as provided by Article 20 of the Covenant, any restrictions on expression must be consistent with Article 19(3) (A/67/357). No other grounds may justify restrictions on the freedom of expression. Moreover, because legitimate objectives are often cited as a pretext for illegitimate purposes, the restrictions themselves must be applied narrowly.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "A. Legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 on freedom of opinion and expression, para. 30, and general comment No. 31."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Third, the State must show that any restriction on encryption or anonymity is “necessary” to achieve the legitimate objective.[[fn:17]] The European Court of Human Rights has concluded appropriately that the word “necessary” in article 10 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms means that the restriction must be something more than “useful,” “reasonable” or “desirable”.[[fn:18]] Once the legitimate objective has been achieved, the restriction may no longer be applied. Given the fundamental rights at issue, limitations should be subject to independent and impartial judicial authority, in particular to preserve the due process rights of individuals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "A. Legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 2, and communication No. 2156/2012, Views adopted on 10 October 2014."}, {"n": 18, "text": "See Case of The Sunday Times v. United Kingdom, judgement of 26 April 1979, para. 59."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "10", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. Necessity also implies an assessment of the proportionality of the measures limiting the use of and access to security online.[[fn:19]] A proportionality assessment should ensure that the restriction is “the least intrusive instrument amongst those which might achieve the desired result”.[[fn:20]] The limitation must target a specific objective and not unduly intrude upon other rights of targeted persons, and the interference with third parties’ rights must be limited and justified in the light of the interest supported by the intrusion. The restriction must also be “proportionate to the interest to be protected”.[[fn:21]] A high risk of damage to a critical, legitimate State interest may justify limited intrusions on the freedom of expression. Conversely, where a restriction has a broad impact on individuals who pose no threat to a legitimate government interest, the State’s burden to justify the restriction will be very high.[[fn:22]] Moreover, a proportionality analysis must take into account the strong possibility that encroachments on encryption and anonymity will be exploited by the same criminal and terrorist networks that the limitations aim to deter. In any case, “a detailed and evidence-based public justification” is critical to enable transparent public debate over restrictions that implicate and possibly undermine freedom of expression (see A/69/397, para. 12).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "A. Legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See African Court Human and Peoples’ Rights, Lohe Issa Konate v. Burkina Faso, application No. 004/2013, paras. 148 and 149 (2014); European Court of Human Rights, Case of The Sunday Times, para. 62."}, {"n": 20, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 27 (1999) on freedom of movement, para. 14."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See ibid., para. 14."}, {"n": 22, "text": "See Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, OEA /Serv.L/V/II.149, para. 134."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. The trend lines regarding security and privacy online are deeply worrying. States often fail to provide public justification to support restrictions. Encrypted and anonymous communications may frustrate law enforcement and counter-terrorism officials, and they complicate surveillance, but State authorities have not generally identified situations — even in general terms, given the potential need for confidentiality — where a restriction has been necessary to achieve a legitimate goal. States downplay the value of traditional non-digital tools in law enforcement and counter-terrorism efforts, including transnational cooperation.[[fn:23]] As a consequence, the public lacks an opportunity to measure whether restrictions on their online security would be justified by any real gains in national security and crime prevention. Efforts to restrict encryption and anonymity also tend to be quick reactions to terrorism, even when the attackers themselves are not alleged to have used encryption or anonymity to plan or carry out an attack. Moreover, even where the restriction is arguably in pursuit of a legitimate interest, many laws and policies regularly do not meet the standards of necessity and proportionality and have broad, deleterious effects on the ability of all individuals to exercise freely their rights to privacy and freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "But see Centre for International Governance Innovation and Chatham House, Toward a Social Compact for Digital Privacy and Security: Statement by the Global Commission on Internet Governance (2015)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. It also bears noting that the United Nations itself has not provided strong communication security tools to its staff or to those who would visit United Nations websites, making it difficult for those under threat to securely reach the United Nations, human rights mechanisms online.[[fn:24]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "For instance, staff of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) in Geneva do not have access to end-to-end e-mail encryption, and the OHCHR website is not encrypted."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Some Governments seek to protect or promote encryption to ensure the privacy of communications. For instance,[[fn:25]] the Marco Civil da Internet Law of Brazil, adopted in 2014, guarantees the inviolability and secrecy of user communications online, permitting exceptions only by court order. The E-Commerce Act and Telecommunication Act of Austria do not restrict encryption, and the Government has undertaken public awareness campaigns to educate the public about digital security. Greek law and regulations promote the effective use of both encryption and anonymity tools. Germany, Ireland and Norway permit and promote the use of encryption technologies and oppose any efforts to weaken encryption protocols. Similarly, Swedish and Slovak laws do not restrict the use of encryption online. The United States of America encourages the use of encryption, and the United States Congress should further consider a secure data act introduced in the Congress that would prohibit the Government from requiring companies to weaken product security or insert back-door access measures. Several Governments fund efforts to share or train in the use of encryption and anonymity technologies to help individuals evade censorship and protect their security online, including Canada, the Netherlands, Sweden, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States. In addition, export regulations should facilitate the transfer of encryption technologies wherever possible. Although the present report does not provide an overall legal assessment of all national approaches to encryption, these noted elements — non-restriction or comprehensive protection, the requirement of court orders for any specific limitation, and public education — deserve wider application as means to protect and promote the rights to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "1. Encryption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "Many examples in this paragraph are taken from the relevant government submissions."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Nonetheless, the regulation of encryption often fails to meet freedom of expression standards in two leading respects. First, restrictions have generally not been shown to be necessary to meet a particular legitimate interest. This is especially the case given the breadth and depth of other tools, such as traditional policing and intelligence and transnational cooperation, that may already provide substantial information for specific law enforcement or other legitimate purposes. Second, they disproportionately impact the rights to freedom of opinion and expression enjoyed by targeted persons or the general population.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "1. Encryption"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Outright prohibitions on the individual use of encryption technology disproportionately restrict the freedom of expression, because they deprive all online users in a particular jurisdiction of the right to carve out private space for opinion and expression, without any particular claim of the use of encryption for unlawful ends.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "1. Encryption", "Bans on encryption for individual use"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. State regulation of encryption may be tantamount to a ban, such as rules (a) requiring licences for encryption use; (b) setting weak technical standards for encryption; and (c) controlling the import and export of encryption tools. By limiting encryption tools to government-approved standards and controlling the import or export of encryption technologies, States ensure encryption software maintains weaknesses that allow Governments to access the content of communications. For example, while the law may be in flux, India has provided that service providers may not deploy “bulk encryption” on their networks, while the law has also restricted individuals from using encryption greater than an easily breakable 40-bit key length without prior permission and required anyone using stronger encryption to provide the Government with a copy of the encryption keys.[[fn:26]] Reports indicate that encryption products in China may be required to adhere to government-approved encryption algorithms that have not been peer-reviewed for security.[[fn:27]] The Pakistan Telecommunication Authority requires prior approval for the use of VPNs and encryption.[[fn:28]] Cuba requires regulatory authorization for those using encryption.[[fn:29]] In Ethiopia, the Government has the power to set the technical standards of encryption and recently enacted regulation that criminalizes the manufacture, assembly or import of any telecommunications equipment without a permit.[[fn:30]] Such regulations impermissibly interfere with the individual use of encryption in communications.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "1. Encryption", "Bans on encryption for individual use"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Government of India, Ministry of Communications and IT, Licence Agreement for Provision of Internet Services, (2007). Available from http://dot.gov.in/sites/default/files/internet-licence-dated%2016-10-2007_0.pdf. See especially sect. 2.2 (vii)."}, {"n": 27, "text": "See, e.g., Counter-terrorism Law, art. 15 (initial draft of 8 November 2014). Available from http://chinalawtranslate.com/en/ctldraft/."}, {"n": 28, "text": "See www.ispak.pk/Downloads/PTA_VPN_Policy.pdf."}, {"n": 29, "text": "Submission of Cuba."}, {"n": 30, "text": "See Ethiopia Telecom Fraud Offence Proclamation 761/2012, sects. 3–10."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Some States have implemented or proposed implementing so-called back-door access in commercially available products, forcing developers to install weaknesses that allow government authorities access to encrypted communications. Some Governments have developed or purchased tools to allow such access for domestic surveillance purposes.[[fn:31]] Senior officials in the United Kingdom and the United States appear to advocate requiring back-door access.[[fn:32]] States supporting such measures often claim that a legal framework for back-door access is necessary to intercept the content of encrypted communications. Governments proposing back-door access, however, have not demonstrated that criminal or terrorist use of encryption serves as an insuperable barrier to law enforcement objectives. Moreover, based on existing technology, intentional flaws invariably undermine the security of all users online, since a backdoor, even if intended solely for government access, can be accessed by unauthorized entities, including other States or non-State actors. Given its widespread and indiscriminate impact, back-door access would affect, disproportionately, all online users.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "1. Encryption", "Intentional weakening of encryption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "See Morgan Maquis-Boire and others, For Your Eyes Only (2013, Citizen Lab)."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See the speech given by Prime Minister David Cameron on 12 January 2015 at the Conservative Party pledges conference for the 2015 general election and the speech given by James Comey, Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, on 16 October 2014, entitled “Going dark: are technology, privacy and public safety on a collision course?”, at the Brookings Institution, Washington, D.C."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. The debate on this issue highlights a critical point: requiring encryption back-door access, even if for legitimate purposes, threatens the privacy necessary to the unencumbered exercise of the right to freedom of expression. Back-door access has practical limitations; the exploitation of intentional weaknesses could render encrypted content susceptible to attack, even if access is provided with the sole intention of allowing government or judicial control. Governments certainly face a dilemma when their obligation to protect freedom of expression is in conflict with their obligations to prevent violations of the right to life or bodily integrity, which are put at risk by terrorism and other criminal behaviour. But other recourses are available to States to request the disclosure of encrypted information, such as through judicial warrants. In such situations, States must demonstrate that general limitations on the security provided by encryption would be necessary and proportionate. States must show, publicly and transparently, that other less intrusive means are unavailable or have failed and that only broadly intrusive measures, such as backdoors, would achieve the legitimate aim. Regardless, measures that impose generally applicable restrictions on massive numbers of persons, without a case-by-case assessment, would almost certainly fail to satisfy proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "1. Encryption", "Intentional weakening of encryption"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. A key escrow system permits individual access to encryption but requires users to store their private keys with the Government or a “trusted third party”. Key escrows, however, have substantial vulnerabilities. For instance, the key escrow system depends on the integrity of the person, department or system charged with safeguarding the private keys, and the key database itself could be vulnerable to attack, undermining any user’s communication security and privacy. Key escrow systems, rejected (along with back-door access) after significant debate in the United States in the so-called Crypto Wars of the 1990s, are currently in place in several countries and have been proposed in others. In 2011, Turkey passed regulations requiring encryption suppliers to provide copies of encryption keys to government regulators before offering their encryption tools to users.[[fn:33]] The vulnerabilities inherent in key escrows render them a serious threat to the security to exercise the freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "1. Encryption", "Key escrows"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "Law No. 5651 on Regulating Broadcasting in the Internet and Fighting against Crimes Committed through Internet Broadcasting."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. In a situation where law enforcement or national security arguments may justify requests for access to communications, authorities may see two options: order either decryption of particular communications or, because of a lack of confidence that a targeted party would comply with a decryption order, disclosure of the key necessary for decryption. Targeted decryption orders may be seen as more limited and less likely to raise proportionality concerns than key disclosure, focusing on specific communications rather than an individual’s entire set of communications encrypted by a particular key. Key disclosure, by contrast, could expose private data well beyond what is required by the exigencies of a situation.[[fn:34]] Moreover, key disclosure or decryption orders often force corporations to cooperate with Governments, creating serious challenges that implicate individual users online. Key disclosure exists by law in a number of European countries.[[fn:35]] In both cases, however, such orders should be based on publicly accessible law, clearly limited in scope focused on a specific target, implemented under independent and impartial judicial authority, in particular to preserve the due process rights of targets, and only adopted when necessary and when less intrusive means of investigation are not available. Such measures may only be justified if used in targeting a specific user or users, subject to judicial oversight.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "1. Encryption", "Mandatory key disclosure versus targeted decryption orders"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "The European Commission Counter-Terrorism Coordinator has urged consideration of mandatory key disclosure. See Council of the European Union, General Secretariat, meeting document D1035/15 (2015)."}, {"n": 35, "text": "See, e.g., United Kingdom, Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (mandatory key disclosure); France, Law No. 2001-1062 (disclosure of encryption keys on authorization by a judge); Spain, Law on Telecommunications 25/2007 (key disclosure)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Some States may identify the mere use of encryption technologies as illicit behaviour. For instance, charges against the Zone 9 blogger collective in Ethiopia included suggestions that the mere training in communication security was evidence of criminal behaviour.[[fn:36]] Such presumptions fail to meet the standards for permissible restrictions. Similarly, States undermine the rights to privacy and freedom of expression when they penalize those who produce and distribute tools to facilitate online access for activists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "1. Encryption", "Legal presumptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "See http://trialtrackerblog.org/2014/07/19/contextual-translation-of-the-charges-of-the-zone9-bloggers/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Anonymity has been recognized for the important role it plays in safeguarding and advancing privacy, free expression, political accountability, public participation and debate.[[fn:37]] The Universal Declaration and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights do not address anonymity. During negotiation of the Covenant, it was proposed to include in article 19 (1) the phrase, “anonymity is not permitted”. However, this was rejected “on the grounds, among others, that anonymity might at times be necessary to protect the author” and “that such a clause might prevent the use of pen names”.[[fn:38]] The Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights found that “the right to freedom of thought and expression and the right to private life protect anonymous speech from government restrictions”.[[fn:39]] Several States enjoy long traditions of celebrating anonymity in their political cultures, but very few provide general protection in law for anonymous expression. Some States exert significant pressure against anonymity, offline and online. Yet because anonymity facilitates opinion and expression in significant ways online, States should protect it and generally not restrict the technologies that provide it. Several States’ judiciaries have protected anonymity, at least in limited instances. For instance, the Supreme Court of Canada recently struck down the warrantless acquisition of anonymous user identity online.[[fn:40]] The Constitutional Court of the Republic of Korea struck down anti-anonymity laws as unconstitutional.[[fn:41]] The Supreme Court of the United States has consistently protected the right to anonymous expression.[[fn:42]] The European Court of Human Rights has recognized anonymity as important to the freedom of expression but permits limitations in cases where necessary to achieve legitimate objectives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "2. Anonymity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See, e.g., Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, OEA /Serv.L/V/II.149, para. 134; United States, McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission (1995); Lord Neuberger, speech to RB Conference on the Internet, entitled, “What’s a name? Privacy and Anonymous Speech on the Internet” (2014)."}, {"n": 38, "text": "Marc J. Bossuyt, Guide to the “Travaux Préparatoires” of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1987), pp. 379-80."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See Organization of American States, press release 17/15."}, {"n": 40, "text": "R. v. Spencer (2014)."}, {"n": 41, "text": "Decision 2010 Hun-Ma 47, 252 (consolidated) announced 28 August 2012."}, {"n": 42, "text": "McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission (1995), pp. 342 and 343."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Many States recognize the lawfulness of maintaining the anonymity of journalists’ sources. The Mexican Supreme Court and Mexican Code of Criminal Procedures recognize the right of journalists to maintain the anonymity of their sources; yet pressures on journalists are in fact severe.[[fn:43]] The Constitutions of Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador and Paraguay explicitly protect sources; Chile, El Salvador, Panama, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) protect sources in law.[[fn:44]] The Mozambique Constitution protects sources, while Angola purports to do so by statute.[[fn:45]] Australia, Canada, Japan and New Zealand have established case-specific judicial balancing tests to analyse source protection, although pressure on journalists may undermine such protections over time.[[fn:46]] States often breach source anonymity in practice, even where it is provided for in law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "2. Anonymity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "See new Federal Code of Criminal Procedures, art. 244."}, {"n": 44, "text": "See Argentina, Constitution, art. 43; Brazil, Constitution, title II, chap. I, art. 5, XIV; Ecuador, Constitution, art. 20; Paraguay, Constitution, art. 29 (1). See also Chile, Law 19,733; El Salvador, Criminal Procedure Code; Panama, Law 67, art. 21; Peru, Criminal Procedure Code; Uruguay, Law 16.099; Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Law for Journalism 4.819, art. 8."}, {"n": 45, "text": "See Mozambique, Constitution, art. 48(3); Angola, Press Law 7/06, art. 20(1)."}, {"n": 46, "text": "Australia Evidence Amendment (Journalists’ Privilege) Act 2007; Canada, Court of Queen’s Bench of Alberta, Wasylyshen v. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (2005); Japan, Case 2006 (Kyo) No. 19 (2006); New Zealand Evidence Act, sect. 68 (2006)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Prohibition of anonymity online interferes with the right to freedom of expression. Many States ban it regardless of any specific government interest. The Constitution of Brazil (art. 5) prohibits anonymous speech. The Constitution of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (art. 57) similarly prohibits anonymity. In 2013, Viet Nam outlawed the use of pseudonyms, which forced individuals with personal blogs to publicly list their real name and address.[[fn:47]] In 2012, the Islamic Republic of Iran required the registration of all IP addresses in use inside the country and cybercafe users to register their real names before using a computer.[[fn:48]] Ecuadoran law requires commenters on websites and mobile phone owners to register under a real name.[[fn:49]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "2. Anonymity", "Prohibition of anonymity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "Human Rights Watch, “Vietnam: new decree punishes press”, 23 February, 2011; Freedom House, “Vietnam: freedom of the press”, 2012; Article 19, Comment on Decree No. 02 of 2011 on Administrative Responsibility for Press and Publication Activities of the Prime Minister of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (June 2011)."}, {"n": 48, "text": "Islamic Republic of Iran, Bill 106, Communication Regulation Authority."}, {"n": 49, "text": "See Ecuador, Organic Law on Communications (2013)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "5", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "57", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Certain States have passed laws that require real-name registration for online activity, a kind of ban on anonymity. In the Russian Federation, bloggers with 3,000 or more daily readers must register with the media regulator and identify themselves publicly, and cybercafe users reportedly must provide identification to connect to public wireless facilities.[[fn:50]] China reportedly announced regulations requiring Internet users to register real names for certain websites and avoid spreading content that challenges national interests.[[fn:51]] South Africa also requires real name registration for online and mobile telephone users.[[fn:52]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "2. Anonymity", "Prohibition of anonymity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Bill No. 428884-6 amending the Federal Law on Information, Information Technologies and Protection of Information and a number of legislative acts of the Russian Federation on streamlining the exchange of information with the use of information and telecommunication networks; Reuters, “Russia Demands Internet Users Show ID to Access Public Wifi,” 8 August 2014."}, {"n": 51, "text": "China Copyright and Media, Internet User Account Name Management Regulations, article 5 ( 2015)."}, {"n": 52, "text": "South Africa, Regulation of Interception of Communications and Provision of Communication-Related Information Act 70 of 2003; see also Electronic Communications and Transactions Act of 2002 (requiring real name registration for service providers)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Likewise, Governments often require SIM card registration; for instance, nearly 50 countries in Africa require or are in the process of requiring the registration of personally identifiable data when activating a SIM card.[[fn:53]] Colombia has had a mandatory mobile registration policy since 2011, and Peru has associated all SIM cards with a national identification number since 2010.[[fn:54]] Other countries are considering such policies. Such policies directly undermine anonymity, particularly for those who access the Internet only through mobile technology. Compulsory SIM card registration may provide Governments with the capacity to monitor individuals and journalists well beyond any legitimate government interest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "2. Anonymity", "Prohibition of anonymity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "Kevin P. Donovan and Aaron K. Martin, “The Rise of African SIM Registration”, 3 February 2014."}, {"n": 54, "text": "See Colombia, Decree 1630 of 2011; Perú 21, Los celulares de prepago en la mira, 27 May 2010."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. States have also attempted to combat anonymity tools, such as Tor, proxies and VPNs, by denying access to them. China has long blocked access to Tor,[[fn:55]] and Russian government officials reportedly offered more than $100,000 for techniques to identify anonymous users of Tor.[[fn:56]] In addition, Ethiopia,[[fn:57]] Iran (Islamic Republic of)[[fn:58]] and Kazakhstan[[fn:59]] have reportedly sought to block Tor traffic. Because such tools may be the only mechanisms for individuals to exercise freedom of opinion and expression securely, access to them should be protected and promoted.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "2. Anonymity", "Prohibition of anonymity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "MIT Technology Review, How China Blocks the Tor Anonymity Network, 4 April 2012."}, {"n": 56, "text": "The original offer is available from http://zakupki.gov.ru/epz/order/notice/zkk44/view/common-info.html?regNumber=0373100088714000008."}, {"n": 57, "text": "Runa Sandvik, Ethiopia Introduces Deep Packet Inspection, The Tor Blog (31 May 2012); see also Article 19, 12 January 2015."}, {"n": 58, "text": "“Phobos”, “Iran partially blocks encrypted network traffic”, The Tor Blog (10 February 2012)."}, {"n": 59, "text": "“Phobos”, “Kazakhstan upgrades censorship to deep packet inspection”, The Tor Blog (16 February 2012)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Anonymous speech has been necessary for activists and protestors, but States have regularly attempted to ban or intercept anonymous communications in times of protest. Such attempts to interfere with the freedom of expression unlawfully pursue an illegitimate objective of undermining the right to peaceful protest under the Universal Declaration and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "2. Anonymity", "Restrictions during public unrest"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Some States and regional courts have moved towards imposing responsibilities on Internet service providers and media platforms to regulate online comments by anonymous users. Ecuador, for instance, in its Organic Communications Law, requires intermediaries to generate mechanisms to record personal data to allow the identification of those posting comments. In Delfi v. Estonia (application No. 64569/09), the European Court of Human Rights upheld an Estonian law that imposes liability on a media platform for anonymous defamatory statements posted on its site. Such intermediary liability is likely to result either in real-name registration policies, thereby undermining anonymity, or the elimination of posting altogether by those websites that cannot afford to implement screening procedures, thus harming smaller, independent media. The recently adopted Manila Principles on Intermediary Liability, drafted by a coalition of civil society organizations, provide a sound set of guidelines for States and international and regional mechanisms to protect expression online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "2. Anonymity", "Intermediary liability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Broad mandatory data retention policies limit an individual’s ability to remain anonymous. A State’s ability to require Internet service and telecommunications providers to collect and store records documenting the online activities of all users has inevitably resulted in the State having everyone’s digital footprint. A State’s ability to collect and retain personal records expands its capacity to conduct surveillance and increases the potential for theft and disclosure of individual information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "2. Anonymity", "Data retention"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Encryption and anonymity, and the security concepts behind them, provide the privacy and security necessary for the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in the digital age. Such security may be essential for the exercise of other rights, including economic rights, privacy, due process, freedom of peaceful assembly and association, and the right to life and bodily integrity. Because of their importance to the rights to freedom of opinion and expression, restrictions on encryption and anonymity must be strictly limited according to principles of legality, necessity, proportionality and legitimacy in objective. The Special Rapporteur therefore recommends the following.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. States should revise or establish, as appropriate, national laws and regulations to promote and protect the rights to privacy and freedom of opinion and expression. With respect to encryption and anonymity, States should adopt policies of non-restriction or comprehensive protection, only adopt restrictions on a case-specific basis and that meet the requirements of legality, necessity, proportionality and legitimacy in objective, require court orders for any specific limitation, and promote security and privacy online through public education.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Discussions of encryption and anonymity have all too often focused only on their potential use for criminal purposes in times of terrorism. But emergency situations do not relieve States of the obligation to ensure respect for international human rights law. Legislative proposals for the revision or adoption of restrictions on individual security online should be subject to public debate and adopted according to regular, public, informed and transparent legislative process. States must promote effective participation of a wide variety of civil society actors and minority groups in such debate and processes and avoid adopting such legislation under accelerated legislative procedures. General debate should highlight the protection that encryption and anonymity provide, especially to the groups most at risk of unlawful interferences. Any such debate must also take into account that restrictions are subject to strict tests: if they interfere with the right to hold opinions, restrictions must not be adopted. Restrictions on privacy that limit freedom of expression — for purposes of the present report, restrictions on encryption and anonymity — must be provided by law and be necessary and proportionate to achieve one of a small number of legitimate objectives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. States should promote strong encryption and anonymity. National laws should recognize that individuals are free to protect the privacy of their digital communications by using encryption technology and tools that allow anonymity online. Legislation and regulations protecting human rights defenders and journalists should also include provisions enabling access and providing support to use the technologies to secure their communications.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. States should not restrict encryption and anonymity, which facilitate and often enable the rights to freedom of opinion and expression. Blanket prohibitions fail to be necessary and proportionate. States should avoid all measures that weaken the security that individuals may enjoy online, such as backdoors, weak encryption standards and key escrows. In addition, States should refrain from making the identification of users a condition for access to digital communications and online services and requiring SIM card registration for mobile users. Corporate actors should likewise consider their own policies that restrict encryption and anonymity (including through the use of pseudonyms). Court-ordered decryption, subject to domestic and international law, may only be permissible when it results from transparent and publicly accessible laws applied solely on a targeted, case-by-case basis to individuals (i.e., not to a mass of people) and subject to judicial warrant and the protection of due process rights of individuals.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. States, international organizations, corporations and civil society groups should promote online security. Given the relevance of new communication technologies in the promotion of human rights and development, all those involved should systematically promote access to encryption and anonymity without discrimination. The Special Rapporteur urgently calls upon entities of the United Nations system, especially those involved in human rights and humanitarian protection, to support the use of communication security tools in order to ensure that those who interact with them may do so securely. United Nations entities must revise their communication practices and tools and invest resources in enhancing security and confidentiality for the multiple stakeholders interacting with the Organization through digital communications. Particular attention must be paid by human rights protection mechanisms when requesting and managing information received from civil society and witnesses and victims of human rights violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. International organizations, private sector and civil society"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. While the present report does not draw conclusions about corporate responsibilities for communication security, it is nonetheless clear that, given the threats to freedom of expression online, corporate actors should review the adequacy of their practices with regard to human right norms. At a minimum, companies should adhere to principles such as those laid out in the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, the Global Network Initiative’s Principles on Freedom of Expression and Privacy, the European Commission’s ICT Sector Guide on Implementing the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, and the Telecommunications Industry Dialogue Guiding Principles. Companies, like States, should refrain from blocking or limiting the transmission of encrypted communications and permit anonymous communication. Attention should be given to efforts to expand the availability of encrypted data-centre links, support secure technologies for websites and develop widespread default end-to-end encryption. Corporate actors that supply technology to undermine encryption and anonymity should be especially transparent as to their products and customers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. International organizations, private sector and civil society"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. The use of encryption and anonymity tools and better digital literacy should be encouraged. The Special Rapporteur, recognizing that the value of encryption and anonymity tools depends on their widespread adoption, encourages States, civil society organizations and corporations to engage in a campaign to bring encryption by design and default to users around the world and, where necessary, to ensure that users at risk be provided the tools to exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression securely.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. International organizations, private sector and civil society"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report, submitted pursuant to Commission on Human Rights resolution 2005/38 and Human Rights Council decision 1/102, is the fifth annual general report by Ambeyi Ligabo, appointed Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression on 26 August 2002. As in previous years, a summary of communications sent to and received from Governments is contained in addendum 1 to the present report (A/HRC/4/27/Add.1).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Issues addressed in this report include, inter alia, an update of matters analysed in the Special Rapporteur’s previous reports to the Commission on Human Rights, in particular Internet Governance, legislation concerning defamation offences, security of journalists, and a large part devoted to the analysis of the phenomenon of defamation of religion and freedom of expression (see E/CN.4/2006/55 and E/CN.4/2005/64).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. Owing to the limit of the length of the report, a number of issues, which are nowadays essential for the understanding of freedom of expression and of information, are not treated in this year’s report. However, subjects like hate speech, access to information, restrictions imposed by anti-terrorist legislation, the role of women, minorities and vulnerable groups in the implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the decline of print media, will continue to be examined in future reports.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. For the time being, the Special Rapporteur would like to briefly recall that print media is a fundamental instrument for the dissemination of ideas and opinions and, at the same time, it educates the reader to develop a critical approach and to analyse the information provided. Efforts should be done to contrast the decline of the print media in favour of the development of the television sector and of Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The right to access to information is not limited to the sphere of media, but also includes the possibility for all citizens to have access to information regarding public life and interests. Governments should review their national legislation and encourage a culture of transparency and openness in public affairs. Confidentiality and secrecy may temporarily be justified to protect States interests and their populations in case of grave attempts to overturn the democratic rule and should be authorized by a judicial body. The termination of judicial procedures, including those related to State secrets, should engage the removal of the clauses of confidentiality and secrecy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. One of the most significant features of the Special Rapporteur’s mandate is the analysis of new policies, practices and measures having had an impact on the implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, through information received from Governments,\ninternational, regional, national organizations and non-governmental organizations; media professionals and writers’ associations, students groups, trade unions, political parties, from all regions of the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. This analysis aims at identifying new trends and adding new elements to issues already examined in previous reports, in order to draft conclusions and make recommendations to the Human Rights Council and other relevant stakeholders for the implementation of legislative measures to increase the level of protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and its continuing promotion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. A second significant feature of the Special Rapporteur’s mandate is the examination of communications on alleged violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The assessment of the credibility of this kind of information is a preliminary step, which may ultimately lead to the preparation of communications for Governments’ attention and comments. Communications on alleged violations received are not confined to countries where the political, social and economic situation is particularly difficult, but also concern violations occurring in transitional or long-established democracies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate that, first and foremost, urgent appeals and allegation letters represent a request for information on a precise case and on relevant national legislation. By no means do urgent appeals and allegation letters constitute a judgement on the human rights situation of a country. Conversely, Governments have the opportunity of exercising, if they wish so, their right to freedom of expression through the presentation of their views on individual cases as well as any other information they may consider of relevance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The third noteworthy feature of the Special Rapporteur’s mandate is the identification of new trends concerning the implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Owing to the advent of new technologies and the resulting increase of the request for information, the notion of freedom of opinion and expression has quickly taken new directions, while legislation on new technologies appears to be linked to obsolete concepts that prevent the full enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression, even in traditionally favourable environments. Internet governance and its boundaries have also revived the debate between the extent of the right to access to information and the right to privacy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Regrettably, repressive machineries are speedily adapting to new technologies, which are often used as tools for political propaganda and a conduit for racial discrimination and hate speech. Together with a constant trend towards the polarization of ideas and ethnic tension, the systematic oppression of the most active supporters of the free circulation of information and opinions - journalists, trade unionists, social workers, students and teachers, writers and artists - continues to remain an issue of concern throughout the entire world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. The form and the extent of repression can considerably differ, depending, inter alia, on the existence of the rule of law and its implementation in a given society. Unfortunately, the range of violations still includes killings, enforced disappearances, arbitrary arrest and detention, mistreatments, threats and harassment, unfair trial, and various types of judicial and administrative measures. More than ever, the safety and security of media professionals remain essential for the progress of freedom of expression. Finally, a positive trend is the adoption, by an increasing number of countries, of legislation concerning the decriminalization of charges related to defamation, libel and slander. Nonetheless, the slowness of this trend cruelly displays the difficulty of abandoning deleterious habits related to the preservation of political and economic influence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. On 8 February 2006, the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, Doudou Diène, the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, Asma Jahangir, and the Special Rapporteur for the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression made a special call for tolerance and dialogue regarding the publication of representations of the Prophet Muhammad by the media in some countries and the reactions it prompted in various parts of the world. The Special Rapporteurs noted that article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights protects religion or belief as one of the essential rights. They also recalled that respect for the right to freedom of expression as articulated in article 19 of the same instrument constitutes a pillar of democracy and reflects a country’s standard of justice and fairness. While both rights should equally be respected, the exercise of the right to freedom of expression carries with it special duties and responsibilities: it requires good judgement, tolerance and a sense of responsibility.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "18", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. On 24 March 2006, the Special Rapporteur issued a statement welcoming the release of journalist and writer Akbar Ganji, whom he met in November 2003 at the Evin Prison while visiting the Islamic Republic of Iran. The Rapporteur paid tribute to Mr. Ganji’s strength and determination, stating that he can be an example and an encouragement for the numerous intellectuals, students, journalists and writers imprisoned because of their opinions.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. On the occasion of World Press Freedom Day, 3 May 2006, the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression; the Special Rapporteur for freedom of expression of the Organization of American States, Ignacio Álvarez; the Representative on Freedom of the Media of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Miklos Haraszti; and the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression of the African Commission on Human and People’s Rights, Faith Pansy Tlakula, commended the central role the press has been playing for the progression of democracy and human rights throughout the world. In 2006, the World Press Freedom Day also shed light on the link between freedom of the press and poverty eradication. The four Special Rapporteurs noted that a free and independent media is a key to combat poverty, as journalists serve as a medium to ensure unhindered circulation of ideas and promotion of education and awareness, thus providing more opportunities for a better future.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. On 21 July 2006, the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, together with five other mandate-holders issued a statement on the armed conflict in Israel, Lebanon and Gaza. Noting that the conflict was posing serious human rights and humanitarian threats to the civilian population, they urged parties to the conflict to comply with the international legal obligation to distinguish between civilian and military objectives, and ultimately called for an immediate cessation of hostilities.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. On 3 May 2006, the Special Rapporteur was invited to the celebrations of the World Press Freedom Day, organized by the Department of Public Information of the United Nations Office at Geneva, where the participants discussed the role of the press and the media in general for the enhancement of democracy and advancement of human rights. In his speech, the Special Rapporteur called upon all Governments to combat impunity with regard to violence against journalists and media personnel by bringing to justice those responsible and by taking effective measures enabling journalists and media personnel to continue their work freely and independently.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Participation in workshops and meetings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. On 24 June 2006, the Special Rapporteur participated in the Eighth Annual NGO Forum on Human Rights organized by the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Ireland. The theme of the Forum, chosen to coincide with the inaugural session of the Human Rights Council, was “Global Human Rights Protection - the way forward”. In his address, the Special Rapporteur made a number of remarks about the consequences that the dissolution of the Commission on Human Rights and the establishment of the Human Rights Council could have on the protection of human rights worldwide. He also expressed his concerns for the safety of journalists and their independence, and made some observations on defamation of religions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Participation in workshops and meetings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. In June 2006, the Special Rapporteur also attended the thirteenth meeting of the special rapporteurs/representatives, independent experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures of the Commission on Human Rights and advisory services programme held in Geneva.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Participation in workshops and meetings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. On 1 December 2006, at the invitation of the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs of Switzerland, the Special Rapporteur participated in a workshop of the “Berne Process”, in Brussels, which is an informal exchange of information and experiences between like-minded States and institutions that are engaged in dialogues, consultations or technical cooperation with China to promote and protect human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Participation in workshops and meetings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his appreciation to the Governments of Algeria, Azerbaijan, Guatemala, Honduras, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, the Maldives, Sri Lanka, the Sudan and Ukraine for inviting him to visit their countries. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur recalls that the timely identification of dates and agreement on visit programmes are essential for the satisfactory implementation of his country missions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. At the invitation of the Danish Human Rights Institute, the Special Rapporteur went to Denmark in April 2006 to participate in a number of meetings, including with Government officials, in which he gathered significant information regarding the “Danish Cartoons Affaire”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. On September 2005, the publication in the newspaper Jylland Posten, of a series of cartoons depicting Prophet Muhammad as, inter alia, a terrorist, provoked anger within the Muslim community in Denmark. This event followed the broadcasting in August 2005 by the Danish Radio Holger of a controversial programme in which the radio-speaker delivered a hate speech calling for the deportation of all Muslims back to their countries of origin, or alternatively, for their physical elimination from European soil. Shortly after the broadcasting of that programme, the Danish National Radio and TV Commission withdrew Radio Holger’s licence for three months.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. In spite of significant efforts to defuse the tension caused by the publication of the drawings, the quarrel spread beyond Danish borders. The Arab League’s Ministers Council, at a Conference held in Cairo in December 2005, issued a statement expressing surprise and discontent at the failure of the Danish Government to act against the newspaper. The Prime Minister of Denmark, in his 2006 New Year’s address, condemned attempts to demonize groups of people based on their religion without explicitly referring to the Jyllands Posten case. The Prime Minister had earlier reiterated that, in Denmark, the press and media are completely independent from the political power and that his Government has no intention of breaking this long-established tradition.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. On 30 January 2006, Jyllands Posten issued a press statement apologizing to the Muslim world stressing that it had not been their intention to be offensive. The newspaper’s statement was followed by a press statement of the Danish Prime Minister on 31 January in which, while emphasizing that Denmark attaches fundamental importance to the freedom of expression, he stressed that the Danish Government condemns any expression that attempts to discriminate against people on the basis of their religion or ethnic background.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. In early February, Ministers from several Arab countries urged the Government of Denmark to act against Jyllands Posten for offences to Islam. In the following wave of protests that spread throughout the Muslim world, around 200 people lost their lives. In addition, Danish embassies and other Western offices were attacked by the mob, Danish goods and products banned in Muslim countries’ markets, and some Westerners briefly kidnapped by extremist organizations. Reportedly, several death threats were issued against the cartoon illustrators and the newspaper.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. In Denmark, article 77 of the Constitution prohibits censorship and preventive measures. The Danish Media Liability Act (6 June 1991) established the Danish Press Council (Pressenævnet) in 1992, an independent public body entrusted with the verification of the existence of two core conditions: (a) whether a publication is made contrary to media ethics; and (b) whether a mass medium is obliged to publish a reply (rectification) including the contents, form and placement of such reply. The Council receives and examines written complaints submitted - by individuals or groups with a direct or indirect link with the matter - within four weeks from its publication. Each year the Council examines approximately 145 complaints. The Council may also act ex officio, a move that it took only once, in 1997. With regard to the “cartoons”, the Council rejected the two complaints it received on the basis that they were submitted after the four-week deadline.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "77", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The Danish Newspaper Publishers’ Association has adopted guidelines on media ethics, which are also used by the Press Council together with its own jurisprudence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. The Danish Broadcasting Corporation endorses total editorial freedom within the respect of other fundamental rights. Its philosophy is that a journalist should have a strong case to infringe other rights, acting for investigative purposes and on subjects of public interest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. As reported by the Union of Journalists, the press is satisfied with the present level of freedom of expression and it is not favourable to the introduction of new rules and laws, especially international mechanisms that could jeopardize their freedom. Nonetheless, the “Cartoons Affair” has provoked a very animated debate within the media: while everybody defends the present status of freedom of expression, it was felt that the press should be more responsible and conscious that in the global information society, opinions and views are recorded and noted all around the world. The concepts of self-censorship and self-criticism have been re-examined through the developments brought by the “Cartoons Affair” and the supremacy of the right to freedom of expression is now seen in a new light.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. It was emphasized that drawings and caricatures are significant part of the iconic culture used in Denmark to criticize personalities and lobbies, with the aim at highlighting a case that can be of general interest and preoccupation for the citizens.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. It was also acknowledged that, within the exercise of freedom of expression, part of the press does not hesitate to support discriminatory views and drastic measures that could limit the phenomenon of migration. In addition, migrants and minorities are frequently targeted through labelling in the media.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Freedom of religion is thoroughly respected in Denmark, but it was evident that expressions of religion and belief were generally not popular with a large part of the media and other sections of society. Another element has to be taken into consideration: migration policies are, like in several other countries, at the core of the political debate and certain political parties have vigorously campaigned to convince a large part of the population that migrants are one of the greatest emergencies nowadays in Denmark. As a result, laws on migration are presently very strict. Nonetheless, Denmark has maintained its traditionally active approach to human rights and humanitarian cooperation, and a significant part of the population appreciates and promotes values like tolerance and solidarity.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Within this framework, media representatives felt that, from their side, there was no conspiracy, no plot behind the publication of the drawings, which was generally seen as an effort, though indeed questionable, to address in a frank, direct manner, the problem of self-censorship while dealing with the Muslim community and with the relations between native Danes and migrants.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. According to Muslim sources, with whom the Special Rapporteur met while in Denmark, the drawings were part of incessant provocations against them and their religion. This strategy could have been seen as a systematic denigration of Muslims with the view of reaffirming the supremacy of Danish values and of contrasting integration efforts. As a result, Muslims in Denmark reportedly decided to adopt a very low profile in public life, an attitude that was defined as self-censorship, as they thought that they could easily have become target of harsh criticism even without any specific reason.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Taking into account the general orientation of the opinions gathered, the Special Rapporteur felt that the unmitigated reaction, in many Muslim countries, to the contents of the drawings apparently took Denmark, the Danish people, the editors and the artists involved, by total surprise: in their opinion, the reaction was overwhelmingly disproportionate to the damage inflicted. A renewed, intense debate on the issue of the “Danish Cartoons” commenced between the media and religious groups as well as among ordinary citizens. This debate, in a country with a very long democratic tradition and in which freedom of speech is almost a dogma, was very articulate and polarized but - the Special Rapporteur wishes to underline this point - did not lead to physical violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The outcomes of this heated debate were of various nature and significance: Danes felt an increased sense of unity around the constituent values of the nation and, in the first place, freedom of expression. Nevertheless, they also felt that the country has so far been living in a sort of isolation, which guarantees reasonable wealth and freedom to all its citizens, but does not promote understanding of the increasing interdependence among peoples and cultures. Time will tell if the “Danish Cartoons Affair” has brought some benefit to the Danish society in reinforcing the concepts of respect and tolerance through a non-violent confrontation of ideas and opinions.[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "A number of mandate-holders have addressed the phenomenon of defamation of religion and incitement to religious hatred in the context of their regular activities. Since 2002, the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance is mandated to examine the situation of Muslims and Arab peoples in various parts of the world in the aftermath of the events of 11 September 2001, which includes the question of defamation of religion (see E/CN.4/2006/17). Moreover, cases or situations that relate to defamation of religion have also made the object of communications sent to Governments by some mandate-holders (see, inter alia, E/CN.4/2006/5/Add.1)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. The creation of an international organization, which would govern Internet with a firm human rights approach, is a priority for the United Nations and the international community at large. Global rules to ensure that Internet can be developed, in a sustainable manner, as a democratic medium of expression are essential for the international community to include the promotion and the protection of human rights in the emerging era. Such an organization will develop and apply, through the joint work of relevant national agencies, the private sector and the civil society, shared principles, norms, rules, which will shape the evolution and the use of the Internet. The enlargement of broadband communications systems in developing countries will, to a great extent, help the diffusion of information and communication technologies related economy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Internet governance and digital democracy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Several Governments, with the active support of some transnational corporations working in this field, have closely been monitoring the web in order to identify and stop various forms of opposition and criticism. Ordinary citizens have been arrested or harassed by authorities only because they dared express their opinion through an e-mail or through the reading of a website.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Internet governance and digital democracy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Political repression from Governments is only a component of the limitations to freedom of expression on the Internet; other restrictions would have more subtle yet still insidious forms and contents. The making of a worldwide digital media system cannot exclusively be put in the hands of powerful media groups and other commercial forces, which by their own nature, are money-makers. The prevalence of a business-oriented digital world could substantially threaten, for instance through the invasion of advertisement, the existence of all the remaining activities that can be performed through the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Internet governance and digital democracy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. In the spirit of freedom of expression, which should permeate all human activities, Internet governance should guarantee a digital world where commercial initiatives coexist with social and cultural projects and avoid that a fee has to be paid by consumers for any available service. Unfortunately, advertisers have so far proved to be very aggressive on the digital market and are developing technologies that target Internet consumers, with a special focus on youth, throughout their exploration of the cyberspace. Furthermore, intrusive collection of data and detection of tracking behaviour are restricting the right to privacy and consequently the freedom of expression of regular Internet users.", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Internet governance and digital democracy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Internet consumers’ associations are obviously reacting to these menaces: there is a definitive trend among online users, bloggers and Internet freedom campaigners to work on network safeguards, which should ensure that Internet serves not only commercial interests, but also promotes free debate and dialogue on issues that are critical for the development of a better world, at local as well as at global level.[[fn:3]] While a part of the digital world should be preserved from commercial considerations, cooperation between private enterprises and institutions will be at the core of the development of Internet contents.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Internet governance and digital democracy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See a decision of the United States of America Supreme Court on Internet and free speech (26 June 1997): http://www.cdt.org/speech/cda/; see also Declaration on Digital Democracy: http://www.democraticmedia.org/issues/decDigitalDemocracy.html."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. The intervention of a global organization will be crucial to ensure the financial support necessary to developing countries for the enlargement of the broadband, especially in areas where geopolitical obstacles, or merely the absence of wide masses of customers, would prevent the intervention of private providers. As often reiterated, the international community cannot miss this occasion to reduce the digital divide and should devote every effort to it. This opportunity to enhance freedom of expression will automatically boost many other human rights, including economic rights, by creating new business opportunities in communication-related industries.[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Internet governance and digital democracy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "On this matter see: The Information Economy Report 2006: The Development Perspective, UNCTAD/SDTE/ECB/2006/1 (16/11/2006)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. The right to question ideologies, political figures, social and economic actors, especially for investigative aims, is thoroughly legitimate and represents a significant part of the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Attacks on the private life of the individual and on his/her inner beliefs and values - such as religion, family, etc. - are by far more controversial. Similarly, mockery of disabilities and other forms of discrimination like racism would hardly be tolerated in several models of civil society.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. The exercise of freedom of expression by media professionals demands good judgement, rationality and a sense of responsibility. The use of stereotypes, labelling and insulting deep-rooted religious feelings are not conducive to creating an enabling environment for constructive dialogue among different communities. The polarization of opinions can spread ethnic and religious hatred, thus endangering delicate social and cultural balances and a harmonious multicultural society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Under international law, restrictions to the exercise of the right to freedom of expression are required to respect three conditions, which should be enforced simultaneously: (a) restrictions must be provided by law, (b) they should pursue an aim recognized as lawful, and (c) be proportionate - especially the time-span of any restrictive measure - to the accomplishment of that aim. While the protection of the rights and reputation of others and the protection of national security are certainly legitimate aims, the real challenge is, to a greater extent, to protect and to promote freedom of expression without creating additional barriers. Too often defamation cases mask political and economic powers’ determination to retaliate against allegations of mismanagement or corruption, and to exert undue pressure on media independence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. A statement can be considered as defamatory under certain specific conditions: it must be published, in a spoken, written, pictured or gestured form. Written and pictured statements, which include drawings, video clips, and movies and so on, are considered more serious offences as they last longer than mere verbal statements, which are generally defined as slander. The\nstatement must be false, in the sense that its contents should be totally untrue; it has to be injurious - there is no defamation without injury - and finally, unprivileged, in the sense that certain categories of individuals cannot be sued while making statements, especially in their professional capacity. Last but not least, a statement can be considered as defamatory if done with actual malice, which means that there was a real willingness to harm the defamed person. National legislation should aim at the respect of these common rules, which would also be applied to cases involving media professionals as well as ordinary citizens.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. In this perspective, the concept that States should intervene in cases of such violations should progressively be abandoned in favour of mechanisms regulated by independent authorities (press councils, press ombudsperson), whose members possess expertise in related fields. These authorities will impartially evaluate the seriousness of violations and take decisions that would not put at risk the core values of freedom of expression. Recourse to the judiciary system would also be possible but jail sentences and disproportionate fines should totally be excluded for offences such as defamation.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Governments’ attitude on defamation legislation is often ambiguous and seems to indicate that, despite a trend toward decriminalizing defamation and libel, Governments intend to maintain a grasp on media freedom of criticism. As a matter of fact, a number of countries, while reforming or abolishing legislation on defamation, have introduced norms on “disinformation”, which would often be applied to cases formerly treated as defamation cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Moreover, State institutions often appear to have different perceptions toward defamation, and consequently do not act in a consistent manner. Typically, in a number of countries the judiciary, including the supreme court, continue to condemn media professionals to prison sentences while the legislative and executive powers have been debating and ultimately approving new norms on reduction of the gravity of sentences, often excluding prison sentences. In other countries, especially those in which the judiciary is, to a great extent, independent from the Government, the judiciary tends to a have a lenient approach while judging defamation cases.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Unfortunately, imprisonment for journalists on defamation charges or following a conviction for defamation, heavy fines and/or the suspension of the licence of the media involved are still common and gravely hinder media freedom, especially for medium or small media enterprises, or even single professionals, who cannot afford expensive judicial procedure. In many countries, imprisoned journalists are treated like ordinary criminals and preventive detention is widely used to deter criticism of political figures, or of people closely linked to the power.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Political personalities and public figures, including media owners, continue to sue journalists although they should, because of their institutional role, be ready to accept criticism and public screening in a greater measure than the ordinary citizen should. An increased level of transparency from political elites would also help in the promotion of frank and well-grounded debate, without excessive confrontation, on significant issues.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Intrusion in the private life of the individual, regardless to his/her social status, is not compatible with the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The right to privacy plays a fundamental role in guaranteeing the full enjoyment of freedom of expression because through the protection of the most intimate sphere of the individual, it ensures that everybody can exercise his/her rights without fear of being ridiculed or, at worst, blackmailed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Another preoccupying trend is the attempt to replace defamation of individuals with the concept of defamation of common values, to be treated within the sphere of criminal law. These values would include a sense of national identity, State symbols like the flag or the national anthem, and State institutions, figures or representatives like the Supreme Court, the country’s father(s) or the Prime Minister, usually defined as “defamation of the State”.[[fn:5]] In this connection, the Special Rapporteur stresses that the exercise of freedom of speech should always be guaranteed for the examination of historical events. The introduction of new legislation, in which defamation is defined under another terminology, is also unacceptable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Concluding observations of the Human Rights Committee, Mexico, United Nations document CCPR/C/79/Add.109, paragraph 19. See also the comments by the Government of Mexico on the concluding observations of the Human Rights Committee, CCPR/C/79/Add.123 (2000). The Human Rights Committee also welcomed the amendment of the criminal code eliminating the crime of defamation of the Republic [of Slovakia] and its representatives, concluding observations of the Human Rights Committee, CCPR/CO/78/SVK (2003)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. An encouraging trend can be observed in various parts of the world towards the decriminalization of defamation and related offences. Progress in this field is more evident in Latin American countries, where, despite the existence of various other forms of violation of freedom of expression, defamation as a criminal offence seems to decline.[[fn:6]] While awaiting the adoption and the entry into force of ad hoc legislative instruments, relevant authorities should take emergency measures, like amnesty or pardon, in order to ensure that no media professional or other citizen is incarcerated on charges of defamation, and eventual fines are of reasonable amount.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See Principle 10 of the Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression (also known as the Chapultepec Declaration) approved by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights at its 108 regular session (1994). See also point XII, resolution on the Adoption of the Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa (2002), African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights/Res. 62 (XXXII) 02."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. At the same time, countries are still insisting on the application of legislative measures, which gravely penalize the freedom of the press, imposing harsh sanctions, including prison terms, to journalists convicted for defamation and similar offences. Such a regime may also be applied to non-journalists who can often be subject to great distress and obliged to spend remarkable amounts of money in order to hire a lawyer.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Writers are at the heart of freedom of expression and human progress. Unsurprisingly, writers are one of the preferred targets of censorship especially when, as it is often the case, they propose perspectives and opinions which are unpopular with the dominant political, economic and religious elites. In many countries, long prison sentences are used to silence writers and to warn others from speaking out. The Special Rapporteur wishes to commend the initiative of the PEN Writers in Prison Committee to declare 15 November the day of the Imprisoned Writer. This kind of peaceful action contributes to draw the attention of the public on issues, which are not sufficiently covered by major media companies.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. The Special Rapporteur continues to be appalled by the increasing number of killings and other forms of violence against media workers, whose professional risk has now become unacceptably high. Over the past 12 years, more than 1,100 journalists and media staff have been killed in the line of duty.[[fn:7]] This tragic figure is the price for independent and pluralist information, where the multiplicity of perspectives and opinions allow people to make up their own minds about subjects of significant interest. Violence against journalists is also thriving with many instances of mental and physical harassment and threats, often involving journalists’ families.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "D. Security and protection of media professionals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "International Federation of Journalists, see www.ifj.org."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. One hundred and forty-three media professionals, 31 of whom were media staff, were killed from 1 January to 1 December 2006. Thirty-six fell in the American continent, 32 in Asia, 6 in Europe and in Africa, and 63 in the Middle East. This last figure is almost entirely due to the conflict in Iraq, where 59 media professionals lost their lives in the period considered. As of 23 November 2006, 159 journalists and media support staff have been killed since the start of the war in Iraq, by far the most dangerous conflict for the media ever. The majority among them were male Iraqis working in the Baghdad area. Other countries in which the safety of media professionals was a major issue in the same period were Mexico and the Philippines, with eight journalists killed in each. In Mexico, the majority of journalists died following the protests in Oaxaca, while in the Philippines reasons for journalists’ killings include political and religious affiliation, and investigative activities on illicit business. Six media professionals were murdered in Sri Lanka, mainly in the context of the ethnic conflict.[[fn:8]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "D. Security and protection of media professionals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "International News Safety Institute, see www.newssafety.com. In addition, other major organizations like the Committee for the Protection of Journalists (see www.cpj.org) and Reporters Sans Frontières (www.rsf.org) provide reliable statistics concerning media professional casualties. Differences are generally due to the possible inclusion or exclusion of figures concerning media support staff - drivers, interpreters - or media professionals other than journalists and reporters, mainly cameramen, soundmen, photographers. Freelance journalists are more difficult to track than professionals working for a media company."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The Special Rapporteur wishes to endorse the resolution adopted by the International Press Institute, at its Annual General Assembly on 29 May 2006, and by the International News Safety Institute on the responsibility of Governments concerning appropriate action to bring to justice perpetrators of human rights violations against journalists and media workers. The Special Rapporteur also shares the opinion that media enterprises must reinforce their commitment for the safety of journalists and undertake proper measures to allow them, in the best possible ways, to carry out their work in dangerous situations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "D. Security and protection of media professionals"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. The Special Rapporteur takes note with appreciation of the efforts, by specialized institutes and organizations, regarding the adoption of principles and rules, as well as a press emblem, to increase the safety of media professionals.[[fn:9]] These initiatives underline the magnitude of the problem and can bring an expert contribution to the debate surrounding the action to be taken at international level on this issue. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur ideally believes that the adoption by the General Assembly of guidelines on the safety and security of media professionals working in war zones or conflict areas can provide the international community with an international instrument that could easily be implemented at national level by all actors involved.[[fn:10]] Presently, the first priority would be the preparation of a study in order to furnish the Council with a comprehensive and impartial analysis of the phenomenon, including a number of viable options for an operative approach to eventual solutions.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "D. Security and protection of media professionals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "International News Safety Institute, Protection of Journalists in conflict - Fundamental Rules - Brussels, 7 August 2006, see http://www.newssafety.com/stories/insi/conflictrules.htm. Reporters without Borders, Charter for the safety of journalists working in war zones or dangerous areas, Paris 2002, see http://www.rsf.org/print.php3?id_article=2350. For the Press Emblem initiative and the Media Casualties Ticking Clock, see www.pressemblem.ch."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See First Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, section III, chapter III, Journalists, article 79. Measures of protection for journalists (1) Journalists engaged in dangerous professional missions in areas of armed conflict shall be considered as civilians within the meaning of article 50, paragraph 1. (2) They shall be protected as such under the Conventions and this Protocol, provided that they take no action adversely affecting their status as civilians, and without prejudice to the right of war correspondents accredited to the armed forces to the status provided for in article 4 A (4) of the Third Convention. (3) They may obtain an identity card similar to the model in annex II of this Protocol. This card, which shall be issued by the Government of the State of which the journalist is a national or in whose territory he resides or in which the news medium employing him is located, shall attest to his status as a journalist."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Such a study could include the following issues: international protection enjoyed by media professionals and their legal status, especially while on mission in dangerous zones; root causes of violence against them; State responsibility and individual accountability, ways and means to improve their safety and security through initiatives taken by, inter alia, media enterprises, national and international authorities and professional organizations; establishment of a voluntary fund to compensate the families of media professionals killed in the line of duty.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "D. Security and protection of media professionals"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "79", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 79' of 'First Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949' — IHL instrument, not a UN core treaty."}, {"article": "50", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 50, paragraph 1' refers to same Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions — IHL, not a UN core treaty."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 4 A (4) of the Third Convention' — Geneva Convention III on POWs; IHL, not a UN core treaty."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. With regard to this last proposal, the Special Rapporteur believes that the establishment of a relief fund to the benefit of relatives of those media professionals killed while on duty and because of their professional activities, beyond its inner value of international solidarity, would also help in making safety of journalists a central human rights issue under the United Nations patronage.[[fn:11]] Governments, intergovernmental and regional organizations and institutions, as well as non-governmental organizations and individuals, may cooperate for the establishment of a relief fund to the benefit of relatives of those media professionals killed on duty and because of their professional activities. As a gesture of solidarity, this kind of support would mainly go to families without significant financial resources living in developing countries, in order to alleviate the lack of income due to the death of the relative. Rules and methods of work of such a fund could be drawn up by similar bodies already established within the United Nations system, making sure that the board of trustees will include personalities of high morality, impartiality and expertise of the phenomenon.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "D. Security and protection of media professionals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "A number of media organizations run safety programmes and funds. In addition to those already mentioned, see also International Federation of Journalists Safety Fund, which also help with medical and legal assistance, and travel. International Pen runs a PEN Emergency Fund, which raises funds for imprisoned, or otherwise threatened, writers and journalists (www.internationalpen.org.uk)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. The oppression of the most active sources of expression and opinion - journalists, trade unionists, social workers, students and teachers, writers and artists - often follows an identical approach in different countries around the world. The range of violations includes killings, enforced disappearances, arbitrary arrest and detention, mistreatments, threats and harassment, unfair trial, and various types of judicial and administrative measures. Women and minority groups exercising their right to freedom of expression may undergo additional pressure from authorities. Patterns of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression seem to remain essentially unchanged, though the Special Rapporteur has noted a significant increase of violations against Internet users. The media community appears to be increasingly preoccupied about media professionals’ safety and protection, worsened, in terms of casualties, due to the Iraqi conflict.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. The Special Rapporteur is dismayed at the never-ending spiral of violence, including murderous attacks, against media professionals. More than ever, journalists and media workers are targeted by a multiplicity of aggressors who react to the exercise of the right to information in name of diverse, lawful and unlawful, interests. The attacks brought by armed groups, including national armies and law enforcement agencies, and economic corporations remain the most lethal for media professionals, who pay a high price for their efforts to offer exhaustive and multifaceted information to the public.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Governments and State institutions have the primary responsibility of ensuring the safety and security of citizens, including media professionals. The quest for international legal norms covering safety and protection of media professionals is a subject of great urgency which needs speedy replies from the international human rights community. Impunity of perpetrators, who often escape from any kind of legal procedure, has increasingly become a deterrent to the growing of independent and pluralist information. Lack of action, negligence or collusion with criminal entities is to be, at various extents, considered as a pattern of human rights violation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. As already noted in previous years, the current international situation has had a negative effect on freedom of expression and freedom of movement: several Governments have enforced preventive anti-terrorism legislation some of which may result in the reintroduction of practices that are prohibited under international human rights law.[[fn:12]] The Special Rapporteur observes that such legislation, especially when enforcing closing of media enterprises, censorship on publications and programmes, arrest and detention measures concerning media professionals, is naturally having a negative effect on freedom of expression. The same can be said for freedom of association: trade unions, student groups, social and cultural societies, intellectuals have been suffering from the implementation of laws that inevitably restrict the realm of freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "See the Annex of the present report."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Media play a vital role in a society by providing an arena for debate, exchange of opinions and ideas. In numerous countries, media activities are guaranteed by a body of norms and regulations defending freedom of expression, especially in debating controversial subjects of public interest. The existence of a code of ethics encourages media professionals to work efficiently through an array of voices and perspectives that help audiences to grasp the quintessence of events and situations.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "The Five Fault Lines by the late Robert C. Maynard are an excellent example of rationalization of this problem, see http://www.maynardije.org/programs/faultlines/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. The exercise of freedom of expression by media professionals demands good judgement, rationality and a sense of responsibility. Insulting religions, deep-rooted beliefs and ethnic identities through the use of stereotypes and labelling is not conducive to creating an enabling environment for a constructive and peaceful dialogue among different communities. Polarization based on distorted arguments can spread ethnic and religious hatred thus endangering delicate social and cultural balances, which are the results of relentless efforts to consolidate a harmonious multicultural society. Journalist associations should ensure that the debate among professionals on contentious issues, such as religious matters, can provide the category with insights and in-depth analyses.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. There is no contradiction between the principles of freedom of religion and freedom of expression. They are mutually reinforcing and enhance the human and spiritual basis of societies and populations. The respect for religious feelings and the warrant for editorial freedom must find their own balance within a given social and cultural context.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. Nonetheless, the free flow of information and opinions should be encouraged and particularly in a time of increasing global access to information, as it represents a remarkable source of inspiration and contact among different peoples and cultures. Non-violent expression of opinions, either orally, through the press or other media allowed should also be encouraged. The exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression carries with it special duties and responsibilities and it may therefore be subject to few restrictions necessary to guarantee, inter alia, the respect of the rights of others. According to paragraph 3 of article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, such restrictions should only be provided by law in order to define clearly the nature of the limitations to freedom of expression. Moreover, paragraph 3 precisely indicates to which cases these restrictions could apply: (a) for the respect of the rights or reputations of others; (b) for the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals. Such restrictions should be applied only in cases of extreme danger for the democratic order and should have a well-defined time limit. With regard to the restriction mentioned in paragraph 3 (a), the respect of the rights and the reputation of others, including the right to privacy, should be exercised without silencing debates on valuable subjects and without insulting a person’s feelings.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Legislation on new technologies appears to be a major preoccupation even in environments traditionally favourable to freedom of expression. Regrettably, new and old technologies are increasingly used as more or less sophisticated tools for political propaganda, which may include racial discrimination and hate speech, thus contributing to spreading the polarization of ideas and ethnic tension. Nonetheless, the universal availability of new tools for communication and information may give a great impetus to social advancement and to the dissemination of education and knowledge, thus widening the scope of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. New communication technologies have also opened a large debate on the limit between the right to access to information and the right to privacy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. Internet governance and human rights is one of the themes that would animate the debate of the international community in the near future. Internet governance should solidly be anchored to a human rights vision: guaranteeing freedom of opinion and expression on the Internet and other new communication tools is a strategic component of the struggle against poverty worldwide. Making new technologies available globally will contribute to reduce the social and economic gap between developed and developing countries.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Freedom of expression through the Internet cannot exclusively depend on mere commercial interests. Economic forces should be reliable partners of the civil society calling for human rights, fair justice, health care, environmental protection, which will increasingly be indispensable elements for the building of future societies. On the other hand, the systematic tracking of users’ action - a clear pattern of violation of the right to privacy - can bias their own ability in making choices independently, thus ultimately restricting their freedom of opinion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. There is a constant trend, which has the support of the Special Rapporteur, towards the decriminalization of defamation offences. The number of countries that have adopted new legislation moving this category of offence under civil law is on the increase. Unfortunately, criminal charges, sentencing to prison terms and the imposition of heavy fines for defamation, libel and slander are still common in many other countries.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. The Special Rapporteur urges Governments to assess existing national legislation and judicial practices related to all forms of freedom of opinion and expression and commence, whenever necessary, reform processes in order to guarantee conformity to international human rights norms and regulations. The Special Rapporteur also recommends Governments to consider, inter alia, the protection and the promotion of media independence as a priority, in order to ensure a constant advancement in the field of freedom of expression and information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. The Special Rapporteur invites the Human Rights Council to address, in an open debate, the recommendations included in the joint report submitted at its second session by the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief and the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance on the question of defamation of religion and incitement to religious hatred (A/HRC/2/3). This report contains a comprehensive set of recommendations and conclusions for further action from the Council, with a view to promoting a balanced approach to the search for peaceful coexistence among peoples of different religions and cultures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. The Special Rapporteur urges existing independent media authorities and media associations to be vigilant about the use of forms of expression characterized by defamation of religions and discriminatory connotations of ethnic and other vulnerable groups. The indiscriminate use of labelling of women, minorities and other groups, especially migrants and asylum-seekers, endangers the public debate and fuels self-censorship and a sense of fear. These forms of expression also have a negative impact on the quality and the dignity of journalism, and ultimately jeopardize media integrity. In this connection, media associations should systematically organize human rights training, if necessary with the assistance of relevant United Nations bodies and other expert organizations, for their members in order to enhance professional ethics and human rights awareness. Media associations should also ensure that most sensitive societal issues are constantly debated in professional forums.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. The Special Rapporteur vigorously emphasizes that any new intergovernmental body administrating, partially or totally, Internet governance must be anchored in a human rights vision. The universality of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, as defined in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and reiterated in\nother human rights instruments like the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, the American Convention on Human Rights and the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms should guide Governments and the international community at large in this endeavour.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "medium", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'as defined in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and reiterated in other human rights instruments like the International Covenant...' — the explicit defining instrument for art.19 here is UDHR; ICCPR is named as merely reiterating. Resolves to '?' (UDHR), though some indeterminacy remains since the sentence also names ICCPR generally."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. In the meantime, the Special Rapporteur recommends that all States guarantee freedom of opinion and expression on the Internet, inter alia, by extending to websites contributors and bloggers the same legal protection as media professionals. Transparency, openness and accountability should be promoted in order to enrich debates and dialogues. Internet providers and websites registration with national authorities should not be subject to any specific requirement other than necessary legislative provisions protecting against child pornography. Moreover, States should make sure that Internet governance will promote the universal availability of new technologies and not be limited by economic and commercial considerations only, with the aim of spreading education and awareness especially in less developed areas.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The Special Rapporteur strongly recommends to Governments to decriminalize defamation and similar offences. These should be dealt with under civil law. The amount of fines to be paid as compensation should be reasonable and allow the continuation of professional activities. The Special Rapporteur also urges Governments to release immediately and unconditionally all journalists detained because of their media-related activities. Prison sentences should be excluded for offences concerning the reputation of others such as defamation and libel.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Governments should also refrain from introducing new norms which will pursue the same goals as defamation laws under a different legal terminology such as disinformation and dissemination of false information. Under no circumstances, criticism of the nation, its symbols, the Government, its members and their action should be seen as an offence. Elected officials and authorities’ officials should be conscious that, because of their role, they might attract the attention of the press in the implementation of their functions. On the other hand, Governments should make sure that the right to privacy, especially in relation to family life and minors, is sufficiently protected without curtailing the right to access to information, which contributes to transparency and democratic control of public affairs.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. In this context, the Special Rapporteur encourages Governments to consider the opportunity of establishing an independent authority on communications, whose members possess relevant expertise in related fields, and a media ombudsperson, which could respectively be entrusted with the implementation of relevant laws and regulations and with mediator’s functions with regard to media offences without recurring to criminal law. These authorities will impartially evaluate the seriousness of violations and issue sentences that would not put at risk the core values of freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. The joint action of an authority on communications and a media ombudsperson could ultimately ensure that, in addition to economic and political groups, various actors of civil society, local communities and minorities, and vulnerable groups can exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression through unimpeded access to media. Such an authority should also be mandated to control the regularity of the competition of the economic stakeholders’ action in the market of information. Consumers should be able to make choices without being subject to private or public monopoly, a phenomenon that gravely jeopardizes the pluralism of information, affects the independence of media and increases the cost of the access. In addition, monopolistic regimes make it easier to exercise control and censorship of citizens’ opinions and, at the same time, can direct, often in a veiled manner, citizens’ choice in various fields.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. Media security remains one of the core elements to guarantee pluralist information in a period marked by polarization of opinion and widespread violence. Governments and State institutions should, as appropriate, envisage the creation of ad hoc protection schemes, which would allow journalists to continue their activities with an acceptable level of security, while maintaining their independence. Media enterprises may also decide to cover the expenses for a flexible protection for endangered journalists. The identification and adequate punishment of the perpetrators of attacks against journalists will contribute to strengthening the rule of law and buttress the confidence of the ordinary citizen in State institutions. Media professionals should, under no circumstances, be obliged to bear the economic burden of their physical protection, in addition to the mental stress of being at risk. Governments should also ensure the protection of other categories at risk, such as trade unionists, social workers, students and teachers, and artists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. The Special Rapporteur reiterates his call to the Human Rights Council to pay increased attention to the issue of the security and protection of journalists, in particular in situations of armed conflicts. The Council may wish to consider the opportunity, as previously discussed, of entrusting the Rapporteur with the preparation of a study on the causes of violence against media professionals, based, inter alia, on information from and the experiences of Governments, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, and including a comprehensive set of conclusions and recommendations. This study could represent the first step towards a debate, within the Human Rights Council, on this crucial issue.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report is the ninth report submitted by Mr. Abid Hussain (India), Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The mandate was established by the Commission on Human Rights in its resolution 1993/45 of 5 March 1993. This report is submitted pursuant to Commission resolution 2001/47. Section I of the report contains the terms of reference for the discharge of his mandate. Section II presents an account of the activities undertaken within the framework of his mandate in the past year. Section III provides a brief discussion on trends. Section IV deals with a number of issues which the Special Rapporteur considers to be important for the development of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Lastly, section V contains the conclusions and recommendations of the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The Special Rapporteur refers to his previous reports as regards the mandate and methods of work adopted by him. The structure of the present report is along the same lines as the previous report, except that the summaries of communications with Governments, because of their length, have been put in a separate document (E/CN.4/2002/75/Add.2). They have been presented by geographic region rather than in alphabetical order by country, as in the previous reports. The Special Rapporteur has found that this new methodology has enabled him to provide more detailed information on urgent appeals and communications sent and received. It is significant to note that the Special Rapporteur has, for the first time since his appointment, prepared and included detailed statistics on communications sent and received.[[fn:1]] This has enabled him to analyse the cases more deeply and highlight the trends.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["Introduction", "I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Notes ? See annexes 1, 2 and 6."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. In addition, in the main body of the report, the Special Rapporteur has looked at some issues that he considers to have been particularly relevant during the period under review such as the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, the events of 11 September and their impacts on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, broadcasting and the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["Introduction", "I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The Special Rapporteur has noted that the number of communications received annually still continue to increase. During the period under review he received some 1,900 communications (1,700 communications were received in 2000). As was the case last year, the communications brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur were from a variety of sources: international, regional, national and local non-governmental organizations; associations of media professionals; trade unions; members of political parties. The Special Rapporteur would like to thank all of them for the information and documentation provided which are essential to the discharge of his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Information received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. During the period under review, the Special Rapporteur sent 37 allegations and 124 urgent actions (see annex I). In 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent 16 letters of allegations and 101 urgent appeals. During the period under review (15 December 2000-\n14 December 2001), the Special Rapporteur sent 124 urgent actions and 37 letters of allegation to 69 countries (27 to African countries, 22 to Asian countries, 5 to Eastern European countries, 2 to Western European and other countries and 13 to Latin American and Caribbean countries) on behalf of 1,333 individuals, including 34 women and 20 minors. Further to his communications he received 45 replies (from 13 African, 17 Asian, 3 Eastern European, 5 Western European and other and 7 Latin American and Caribbean Governments). Seeking to avoid unnecessary duplication of the activities of the other thematic and country Rapporteurs, the Special Rapporteur has increased the number of joint communications during the past year (see annex II). Detailed statistics concerning all communications are found in annex III.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Communications sent to and received from Governments"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The Special Rapporteur transmitted 124 urgent actions to a total of 61 Governments. Out of this number, 77 were sent jointly with other thematic mandates (14 with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions; 3 with the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers; 33 with the Special Rapporteur on torture; 15 with the Special Representative for human rights defenders; 1 with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women; 23 with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Communications sent to and received from Governments", "(a) Urgent actions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. The Special Rapporteur also sent urgent appeals with the following geographic mandates: the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (4); the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Equatorial Guinea (1); the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran (2); the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Sudan (6). He received 38 replies (10 from Africa, 16 from Asia, 2 from Eastern Europe, 5 from Western European and other countries, 5 from Latin America and the Caribbean).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Communications sent to and received from Governments", "(a) Urgent actions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. In addition to the urgent appeals, the Special Rapporteur sent 37 letters of allegations to a total of 30 Governments. Out of this number, 15 were sent with other thematic mandates (2 with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions; 1 with the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers; 12 with the Special Rapporteur on torture; 2 with the Special Representative on human rights defenders; 3 with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women).[[fn:2]] The Special Rapporteur received 7 replies (3 from Africa, 1 from Asia, 1 from Eastern Europe, 2 from Latin America and the Caribbean).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Communications sent to and received from Governments", "(b) Letters of allegations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Some letters by the Special Rapporteur were sent with more than one other special mechanism"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The Special Rapporteur in addition to the press release issued on the occasion of his visit to Argentina, issued two press releases during the period under review, including one with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Communications sent to and received from Governments", "(c) Press Releases"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "This press release may be consulted on the OHCHR website: www.unhchr.ch."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The Special Rapporteur has also joined with 16 other independent experts of the Commission on Human Rights in a statement on the occasion of United Nations Human Rights Day (10 December 2001). In this statement, the experts “strongly remind States of their obligations under international law to uphold human rights and fundamental freedoms in the context of the aftermath of the tragic events of 11 September 2001” (annex IV).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Communications sent to and received from Governments", "(c) Press Releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Finally, he made two joint declarations with the Representative on freedom of the media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression of the Organization of American States (OAS) respectively on racism and the media (27 February 2001) and on challenges to freedom of expression in the new century (21 November 2001).[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Communications sent to and received from Governments", "(c) Press Releases"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See annexes IV and V."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. As was the case in previous years, the Special Rapporteur was only able to deal with a limited number of requests for information from Governments, owing to the insufficient financial and human resources available. The matters raised in previous reports to the Commission on Human Rights regarding the circumstances of work (E/CN.4/1995/32, paras. 92-95; E/CN.4/1996/39, para. 6; E/CN.4/1997/31, para. 7; E/CN.4/1998/40, para. 3; E/CN.4/1999/64, para. 3; E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 4; E/CN.4/2001/64, para. 5) unfortunately remain of great concern. The mandate continues to require a substantially increased pool of resources. Within the current constraints, the Special Rapporteur has engaged in an exchange of views with Governments only with regard to a limited number of cases, which are discussed in addendum 2.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Communications sent to and received from Governments", "(d) Support received from the Secretariat in the discharge of his mandate"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Against this background, the Special Rapporteur would like nevertheless to welcome the establishment within the Thematic Mechanisms Team of a Quick Response Desk in June 2001 pursuant to the recommendations of two independent experts[[fn:5]] assessing the efficiency of the special procedures in order to strengthen the urgent appeals mechanism and to alleviate the considerable workload of the assistants to special rapporteurs who draft communications. The Special Rapporteur considers that the establishment of the Quick Response Desk has considerably improved his capacity to deal with a greater number of cases submitted to him and to act more quickly. This new structure has also permitted strengthened cooperation between thematic and geographic mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that the thematic database which is now operational for several thematic rapporteurs, including for his mandate, is a positive step.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Communications sent to and received from Governments", "(d) Support received from the Secretariat in the discharge of his mandate"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Ms. Mona Rishmawi and Mr. Thomas Hammarberg."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. On 7 June 2001 the Special Rapporteur sent a note verbale to all Member States drawing their attention to paragraph 13 of Commission resolution 2001/47 which invites States “to submit to the Special Rapporteur comments on their programmes and policies with respect to access to information for the purposes of education on and prevention of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection”, and invites “the Special Rapporteur, within the framework of his mandate, to consider these comments with a view to sharing best practices”.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["3. Requests for information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the Governments of the following 16 countries which have submitted information: Canada, Cuba, Germany, Guatemala, Guinea, Malaysia, Mauritius, Monaco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Slovenia, Thailand, Togo, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["3. Requests for information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The Special Rapporteur awaits additional responses to undertake an in-depth analysis of this important issue. It should be noted that the Government replies received so far by the Special Rapporteur are available for consultation at the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in Geneva.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["3. Requests for information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. In addition to communications with Governments, the Special Rapporteur considers that carrying out country visits is another essential element of his mandate. Country visits enable him to examine in situ the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. He therefore calls upon Governments to cooperate with him in that regard.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. From 25 June to 2 July 2001, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Argentina (E/CN.4/2002/75/Add.1). This mission is the first undertaken in Latin America by the Special Rapporteur since he assumed his functions. The Special Rapporteur was supposed to travel to Sri Lanka from 27 November to 5 December 2001. However, in light of the elections on 5 December 2001, he decided, after consultations with the Government of Sri Lanka, to postpone his mission. This mission will take place in the course of 2002.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Visits undertaken during the year"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. During the period under review, the Special Rapporteur received invitations to visit Sri Lanka, Colombia, Egypt, Indonesia, Equatorial Guinea and Guatemala. He would like to thank those Governments for their cooperation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Invitations received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. This year, the Special Rapporteur has pursued his efforts to obtain invitations to visit the following countries, to which he had sent in the past requests for invitations: China (June 1999), Cuba (September 1998), Angola (November 2000), the Democratic People’s of Korea (March 1996), Viet Nam (March 1996), India and Pakistan (October 2000). The Special Rapporteur regrets that invitations have not so far been received from those countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["3. Pending and new requests"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The Special Rapporteur has sent also requests to visit Ethiopia, Eritrea and Zimbabwe.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["3. Pending and new requests"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. In 2002, the Special Rapporteur intends to visit the following countries: Egypt, Sri Lanka, Guatemala, Peru, Colombia (dates to be mutually agreed) and Indonesia (dates to be mutually agreed).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["4. Planned visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. The Special Rapporteur continued during the period under review to cooperate closely with treaty bodies and OHCHR human rights field operations, the human rights sections of the Department of Political Affairs and the Department of Peacekeeping Operations, as well as other specialized bodies within the United Nations system, and regional intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, particularly at the local level, concerned with the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. The Special Rapporteur considers that his collaboration with the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media and the OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression to be vital to ensure a coherent global strategy on freedom of expression. In the context of this cooperation, the Special Rapporteur reiterates that the participation of these two other mechanisms in the annual session of the Commission on Human Rights is of particular importance. The Special Rapporteur would like to pay tribute to the work undertaken by Mr. Cantón as OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression and the cooperation extended by his Office during his tenure. The Special Rapporteur wishes him success in his new functions as Secretary of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and hopes that the cooperation between the two mandates will continue with his successor.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The Special Rapporteur would like to express his great satisfaction that the number of meetings, seminars and conferences he has attended and has been invited to has remained very high. However, owing to his heavy schedule, he regrets that he has not been in a position to accept all the invitations transmitted to him.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. The Special Rapporteur participated in the Asian Preparatory Meeting for the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance. (Tehran, 19-21 February 2001).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Seminars and conferences sponsored by the United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. The Special Rapporteur visited Geneva from 2 to 7 April 2001 for consultations and to present his report to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-seventh session. During this period the Special Rapporteur met with various delegations (Argentina, Colombia, Egypt, Peru, Sri Lanka and Viet Nam) to discuss his intention to undertake field visits. He also held consultations with NGOs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Seminars and conferences sponsored by the United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The Special Rapporteur gave a keynote speech on the occasion of the celebration on 3 May 2001 in Windhoek of World Press Freedom Day organized by the Programme for Freedom of Expression, Democracy and Peace of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and\nCultural Organization. This celebration, which marked the Tenth anniversary of the Windhoek Declaration, was followed by a round-table discussion on the theme “Ten years on: assessment, challenges and prospects”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Seminars and conferences sponsored by the United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. From 28 May to 2 June 2001, the Special Rapporteur attended, in Geneva, the second session of the Preparatory Committee for the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Seminars and conferences sponsored by the United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The Special Rapporteur attended the eighth meeting of the special rapporteurs/ representatives, independent experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures and advisory services programme of the Commission on Human Rights, held in Geneva from 18 to 22 June 2001. On this occasion, he was designated as Rapporteur of the meeting.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Seminars and conferences sponsored by the United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. The Special Rapporteur along with the Special Rapporteurs on religious intolerance, on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance and on the human rights of migrants, attended the World Conference in Durban from 28 August to 7 September 2001. On this occasion, he had the opportunity to meet with delegations as well as representatives of NGOs. He participated in a high level panel on the media and racism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Seminars and conferences sponsored by the United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur, in his capacity as Rapporteur of the annual meeting of special rapporteurs, presented the report of this meeting (E/CN.4/2002/14) on the occasion of the informal one-day meeting of the Commission on Human Rights held in Geneva on 25 September 2001. This visit was also the occasion for the Special Rapporteur to conduct consultations with several delegations with regard to his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Seminars and conferences sponsored by the United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Finally, the Special Rapporteur was invited to attend the International Consultative Conference on School Education in relation with Freedom of Religion and Belief, Tolerance and Non Discrimination (Madrid, 23-25 November 2001). He made a statement to the Conference. The Conference, which was organized by the United Nations and the Government of Spain, was attended by 80 governmental delegations, 6 intergovernmental organizations, 27 NGOs, 20 religious communities, human rights institutes as well as academics and expert obsservers). At the end of the Conference, a declaration was adopted by consensus. The Special Rapporteur would like to praise this very innovative partnership as well as the excellent organization of this conference.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Seminars and conferences sponsored by the United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The Special Rapporteur travelled to Nepal on 1 and 2 February. On this occasion, he held meetings with representatives of national NGOs working in the field of human rights. He also went to Rabat, Morocco, on 25 and 29 April to attend a meeting of the Royal Academy of the Kingdom of Morocco.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. From 29 to 31 July 2001, the Special Rapporteur attended in Colombo an international conference on the right to information, focussed on South Asia, organized by Article 19, the Global Campaign for Free Expression, in association with the Center for Policy Alternatives, the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative and the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan. On that occasion he gave a keynote address.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. The Special Rapporteur was also invited to several conferences in India. He made a statement at the Universities of Jamia Handard (22 September) and Aligarh (16 and 17 October).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. A meeting was organized by Article 19, in London on 19 and 20 November 2001 which brought together for the third time the United Nations Special Rapporteur for freedom of opinion and expression; the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media, Freimut Duve, and the OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression, Santiago Canton. The key themes selected this year for in-depth discussion included the Internet, broadcasting, and the consequences of 11 September 2001. As at the two previous meetings, cooperation between the three mandates was also discussed. The agenda also included an opportunity to discuss regional developments in Africa and South-East Asia. A joint declaration was issued at the end of this meeting (see annex V).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. As in previous years, the Special Rapporteur wishes to bring to the attention of the international community a number of policies, practices, incidents and measures with a severe and negative impact on respect for the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to seek, receive and impart information. A review of communications received in the last year demonstrate clearly that the trends noted in the two previous reports (E/CN.4/2000/63 and E/CN.4/2001/64) have continued. The Special Rapporteur has noted a number of characteristics common to the violations reported to him in the framework of his mandate and believes that it would again be helpful to consider what may be called “trends”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars", "III. TRENDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. During the period under review over 1,900 communications were transmitted to the Special Rapporteur from a variety of sources (international, regional and national non-governmental organizations, associations of media professionals, members of opposition political parties, human rights activists, concerned individuals, etc.). It must be recalled that resource constraints do not permit the Special Rapporteur to respond to, or act upon, every communication he received. These constraints also make it extremely difficult to verify the facts presented in each and every case in order to determine what, if any, action would be appropriate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars", "III. TRENDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. The Special Rapporteur would like to stress that these communications are not confined to alleged violations in countries in which the political and institutional arrangements are implicitly or explicitly undemocratic even though a large number of allegations continues to refer to the following situations: (a) internal armed conflict; (b) civil unrest; (c) legal and institutional protections and guarantees of human rights are circumscribed to a greater or lesser degree; and (d) legal and institutional protections/guarantees exist but are not properly implemented. Nonetheless, it is important to note that allegations refer also to incidents and instances in which the rights to freedom of opinion and expression, information, association and assembly are infringed or violated in both emerging democracies and countries with long-established democratic institutions, practices and traditions. Based on information received, the Special Rapporteur concludes that violations of the rights to seek, receive and impart information as well as the rights to assembly and association are rampant and may occur anywhere in the world.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars", "III. TRENDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. A majority of cases received by the Special Rapporteur have continued to relate to violations and actions taken against media professionals. Similar actions and violations of rights also occur, however, in relation to political groups and members of opposition political parties, human rights activists, lawyers, students, academics, trade unionists, persons participating in general strikes, women, peasants, members of religious and indigenous minorities, authors, cartoonists and others.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars", "III. TRENDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. As has been the case in the past, in a large number of instances, national security as well as the “argument of necessity” continue to be frequently used by authorities in a number of countries to silence and/or suppress independent media and to take punitive action against journalists, academics, activists, community leaders, religious and indigenous minorities or ordinary citizens who have expressed their legitimate right to freedom of opinion and expression or who have assembled peacefully to express concern or opposition to government decisions and actions.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars", "III. TRENDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. From the communications received it appears that the individuals seeking to exercise freedom of opinion and expression have frequently being accused of: “denigrating and defaming government officials, military personnel or judicial authorities”, “propagating immoral, extremist and divisive ideas”, “collecting dissident news”, “publishing lies or false and insulting information”, “disturbing public order”, “criticizing religious and traditional practices” “tarnishing the image of the country “, “putting at risk the unity and best interest of the country”, or “spying for foreign nations”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars", "III. TRENDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. The response of the authorities, on the basis of these and other characterizations, have, in the majority of instances, included: bans, closure and seizure of publications; closure of radio and TV stations; severe restrictions on access to the Internet; denial of access to public information or to some parts of the country; seizure of audio equipment used by broadcast media. The communications received in the past year clearly demonstrate that actions and measures taken by the authorities (police, security forces, the judiciary) against persons seeking to exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression have in the majority of the cases included: (a) physical harm, attacks, threats and harassment; (b) detention and arrest, bringing of charges, trial and sentencing; and (c) administrative and legal measures. In addition to these types of actions by governmental officials or groups affiliated to them, communications received also relate to actions committed by guerrilla and rebel groups or organized criminals or unknown persons or groups against the media and pro-democracy groups.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars", "III. TRENDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. With these points in mind, the Special Rapporteur directs the attention of Governments to the following general trends in terms of violations of the freedom of opinion and expression and related rights and strongly urges them to take all appropriate action, consistent with the standards set out in the International Bill of Human Rights and associated instruments, to eliminate not only the violations themselves but also their causes and negative consequences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars", "III. TRENDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The Special Rapporteur hopes that the identification of these trends and the inclusion for the first time in the report of detailed statistics on communications sent and received will encourage Governments to review practices and take remedial action where required. He also believes that this work will assist OHCHR in developing programmes of technical assistance for interested Governments which will accelerate the process of eliminating the causes of violations of freedom of opinion and expression, the right to information and associated rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars", "III. TRENDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. The Special Rapporteur notes with great concern the extent to which efforts to exercise peacefully the rights to expression, opinion, information, association and assembly continue to carry the threat of physical harm. The Special Rapporteur is alarmed at the fact that individuals continue to be killed for having sought to express their right to opinion and expression. The excessive use of force by the police and other security services has been consistently addressed by the Special Rapporteurs on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and on the question of torture. From the communications received during the period under review, it is clear in particular that danger is inherent to the profession of journalism. The Special Rapporteur is particularly alarmed by the fact that deliberate killings of journalists have continued unabated in 2001. He would like in that connection to recall that during the period under review 31 journalists were killed, including 8 in Afghanistan, while exercising their duties.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Killings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. The Special Rapporteur is equally deeply concerned by the continuing trend of “censorship by killing”. The murder and assassination of leaders of political parties, trade union leaders and community activists, among others, has continued apace. The “censorship by killing” has continued to be used by State agents, private individuals, or members of armed opposition groups to censor persons who have exercised their right to freedom of opinion and expression and expressed dissident points of views.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Killings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. As was often the case in previous years, in most cases the State has failed to undertake an investigation or has allowed the relevant authorities to carry out investigations in name only. In those cases where charges have been brought, very few prosecutions have succeeded.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Killings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Information received by the Special Rapporteur also consistently referred to threats against, harassment of and attacks against persons working in the media or related fields. He is also extremely concerned that acts of physical harm, threats or attacks against individuals exercising their right to freedom of opinion and expression, whether in a professional manner or not, have appeared to continue to increase. Such cases have included: bombings, shootings and summary executions, death threats, torture of journalists to reveal sources of information, beatings of journalists and photographers covering protest marches organized by opposition parties or labour unions, surveillance of media premises by security forces, summoning journalists for “consultations” with members of the military or the judiciary, search of newspapers and radio station premises and labelling of journalists as criminals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Attacks, threats, harassment"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. The Special Rapporteur has noted that such violations seem to have often occurred following the publication of articles criticizing the Government’s policies, accounts of police misconduct, accusations of corruption against government officials, articles critical of the judiciary, reports on human rights situations, articles on the results of public polls against the Government, or broadcasting army repression of demonstrators.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Attacks, threats, harassment"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Despite changes in the legal and policy frameworks based on the rule of law and respect for human rights in a number of countries, there continue to be many cases of arrest and detention without charge or without a legitimate legal basis, or following judicial proceedings of doubtful relevance. The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned at the fact that thousands of individuals, including over 110 journalists, are detained for having exercised their legitimate right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Detention or arrest, bringing of charges, trial and sentencing"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The Special Rapporteur has observed that, in the past year, individuals have been arrested and/or detained on charges of: threatening the security of the State; insulting the head of State and government officials; caricaturing the head of Government; putting at risk the unity and best interest of the country; incitement to public unrest; possessing information that could jeopardize the country’s stability; publishing anti-patriotic information; reporting on corruption in Government; inciting hatred; collecting dissident news; treason and spying; violating the press law, disclosing and distributing false news, blasphemy; possessing immoral documents; disseminating subversive information over the Internet; publishing immoral and obscene material.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Detention or arrest, bringing of charges, trial and sentencing"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. It should be noted that, while a majority of cases of arrest and detention involved journalists and other media professionals, communications received by the Special Rapporteur this year also referred to members of political parties, trade unions, religious and indigenous communities and NGOs. These actions often resulted in the peremptory and unlawful seizure of materials such as books, magazines, pamphlets, research, video and audio equipment, computers and other kinds of equipment used by the broadcasting media.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Detention or arrest, bringing of charges, trial and sentencing"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. While less numerous than communications related to arrests, detentions, physical harm and threats and harassment, information on administrative and/or legal sanctions continued to be transmitted to the Special Rapporteur. These sanctions result in violations and infringements of the rights that are the subject of his mandate. The Special Rapporteur has noted that in a number of cases, the sanctions have a direct, immediate and negative impact on the right to seek, receive and impart information. As such, they are of grave concern to the Special Rapporteur, and in that connection he would like to remind Governments of their duty to take immediate remedial measures and actions to eliminate these sanctions from both law and practice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Administrative and legal measures and repressive"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. A significant number of cases brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur concerned bans, closure or seizure of publications and/or other media for having, for instance: investigated the killing of an opposition leader; aired a political debate critical to the organization of forthcoming elections; published information deemed false and defamatory; published a cartoon of the Head of State and military officials; promoted anti-patriotic feelings; published immoral publications. Legislation and measures introduced after the events of 11 September which have an impact on the right to freedom of opinion and expression are discussed in section IV of the present report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Administrative and legal measures and repressive"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Additionally, it has been noted that pressure has been exerted on media professionals and others through such administrative measures as the denial of licences to private and foreign stations and the denial of entry permits to, or expulsion of, journalists on the grounds that they are distributing false and tendentious information on the country.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Administrative and legal measures and repressive"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Finally, cases of criminal penalties have also been reported to the Special Rapporteur. These penalties were imposed on a number of grounds including: libel, responsibility for public disorder and social unrest, blasphemy, defamation and insult, immoral reporting.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Administrative and legal measures and repressive"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. The Special Rapporteur participated actively in the World Conference. He was invited to attend the Asian Regional Preparatory Conference in Teheran, the Preparatory Committee meeting (he was able only to attend the second session) and the Conference itself in Durban. He issued, jointly with the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media, and the OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression, a statement on 27 February 2001 on Racism and the Media (annex VI).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["Xenophobia and Related Intolerance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Pursuant to Commission on Human Rights resolution 2000/38 (para. 13 (g)), the Special Rapporteur submitted a contribution to the Preparatory Committee and the World Conference (A/CONF.189/PC.2/24). In this report the Special Rapporteur, after recalling the international legal standards which he feels are relevant both to the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the fight against racism and related intolerance, addressed a few key points which he considered of importance in the context of both his mandate and the objectives of the World Conference. He then analysed hate speech as an area of conflict between the right to freedom of expression and the principle of non-discrimination, as well as the issue of Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["Xenophobia and Related Intolerance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. The Special Rapporteur is of the view that the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, particularly by the media, and the full respect for the right to freedom of information contribute extensively to the fight against racism, discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance and to the free flow of information, ideas being one of the most powerful ways of combating these phenomena.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["Xenophobia and Related Intolerance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. With regard to hate speech, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that the right to freedom of expression should remain unabridged. However, he acknowledges that in some circumstances, and in particular when freedom of speech leads to the incitement of hatred and/or discrimination, this right conflicts with the rights of others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur recognizes that “hate speech”, or the advocacy of national, racial, religious or other hatred, constitutes an area which commands due and proper attention. The Special Rapporteur is aware of, and concerned at, the potential harm, whether psychological or physical, which can result from hate speech, in particular incitement to violence, heightened tensions between groups of different cultural, ethnic, racial and religious identities, and the perpetuation of stereotypes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. In light of these concerns, the Special Rapporteur recognizes that hate speech calls for reasonable restrictions which are necessary to prevent incitement to acts of imminent violence, hatred or discrimination on grounds, among others, of race, religion, colour, descent, or ethnic or national origin. As such, and in accordance with the relevant international standards, the Special Rapporteur wishes to condemn any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes an incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence; such advocacy should be prohibited by law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. At the same time, the Special Rapporteur expresses concern about the possibility of such prohibitions being abused, particularly where respect for human rights and the rule of law is weak and hate speech laws have been used in the past against those they were intended to protect.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The Special Rapporteur wishes to emphasize that great care must be taken to achieve an appropriate balance between the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to receive and impart information, and the prohibition on speech and/or activities promoting racist views and inciting violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. The Special Rapporteur considers the Internet to be an increasingly important human rights education tool which contributes to a broader awareness of international human rights standards, provisions and principles. He is of the view that “the new technologies and, in particular, the Internet are inherently democratic, provide the public and individuals with access to information sources and enable all to participate actively in the communication process” (E/CN.4/1998/40, para. 45).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. The Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. The Special Rapporteur stresses the significant contribution that the use of new technologies such as the Internet can make in the fight against racism. The global reach and relative ease of use of the Internet make it a unique and highly effective tool for the promotion of human rights, enabling an unprecedented audience previously unfamiliar with human rights education to gain access to valuable information. It can be used to disseminate positive\ninformation and materials, research and facts about immigration and minorities which can in turn support action against racism and discrimination, raise awareness, promote understanding and increase tolerance.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. The Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. At the same time, the Special Rapporteur recognizes the legitimacy of concerns about dissemination over the Internet of racist and xenophobic material such as hate speech, which constitutes a contemporary form of racism. He is aware that the features that make the Internet an asset to democracy and the realization of human rights also render it a powerful tool for the spread of hateful messages and propaganda, and that the Internet makes hate speech available to those who would never before have come into contact with it. In other words, he acknowledges that although “racist material represents only a small percentage of the volume of information on the Internet and that racists in cyberspace are comparatively few and far between, the Internet does act as a ‘force multiplier, enhancing power and enabling racists’ to have influence in excess of their true numbers. The Internet allows racists to cross national boundaries and bypass laws banning hate material by moving sites abroad” (A/CONF.189/PC.1/5).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. The Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. In light of these considerations, the Special Rapporteur condemns the abuse of the Internet by some groups and/or persons to promote racist and hate speech in violation of international law, or the use of the Internet as a platform for any kind of speech which exceeds the threshold of tolerance. However, the Special Rapporteur believes that the dangers posed by such materials on the Internet can be adequately addressed through the judicious application of existing international standards and national laws consistent with international standards governing freedom of opinion and expression and the right to seek, receive and impart information. He considers that on line expression should be guided by international standards and be guaranteed the same protection as is awarded to other forms of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. The Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. The Special Rapporteur condemns unreservedly the attacks of 11 September on the World Trade Centre and the Pentagon and expresses his deepest sympathy for the victims of those attacks. Such an attack is an assault on the most fundamental of all human rights - the right to life - and should be condemned unequivocally.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. The events of 11 September"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. He notes that the views of those who launched the attack developed in closed societies and communities, without access to full freedom of expression, in an atmosphere of hatred, anger and conspiracy. Guaranteeing fully the right to freedom of expression and to receive and impart information, as guaranteed by article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, is a powerful antidote to the apocalyptic nihilism demonstrated by those who committed these attacks. The Special Rapporteur believes that peace and justice can only be secured by building open societies that guarantee freedom of expression and the right to dissent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. The events of 11 September"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'as guaranteed by article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — sole attribution to UDHR."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. The events of 11 September were an attack upon human rights and, as such, the Special Rapporteur believes it is particularly important that States consider the human rights implications of any measures they adopt in response. This is true both of measures directed at those who planned and perpetrated the attacks, which should focus on bringing them to justice rather than revenge, and of measures designed to prevent further attacks in the future. Human rights should be at the centre of any attempt to deal with the aftermath of these terrible events.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. The events of 11 September"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. The Special Rapporteur notes that several States have responded to the events of 11 September by adopting laws which have negative implications for certain rights, including freedom of expression. To respond to terror by rolling back human rights which in some cases have taken centuries to establish is to play into the hands of the terrorists and to let fear overcome rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. The events of 11 September"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. The attacks of 11 September 2001 and their aftermath have led to both decisions by the relevant authorities in a number of countries and statements and behaviour by ordinary citizens that have seriously challenged the very principles upon which respect for human rights depends.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. The events of 11 September"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. There are several other observations that the Special Rapporteur would like to make in the context of the events of 11 September. First, there has been a disturbing trend, particularly in the coverage by the media in North America, in which the views and opinions of those who dissent or express concerns are aggressively met with contempt. In a number of instances, it has been suggested by both officials and, for example, “talk-radio” commentators, that anyone who questions the measures, laws and policies that are now current is “unpatriotic” and, by their criticisms, are giving aid and comfort to “the enemy”. Similarly, there have been a number of instances in which intolerance has been strongly expressed by some in response to what they see as unwarranted sensitivities based on “political correctness”. The Special Rapporteur cautions against such intolerance of dissent and alternative views.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. The events of 11 September"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. In addition, the reports of harassment and violence against followers of Islam are of deep concern. The right freely to adopt and manifest one’s religion is one of the most basic rights and must be fully respected and protected at all times. The Special Rapporteur commends those authorities who have taken prompt and appropriate action in response to incidents of threat, arson and physical assault. The authorities at the local level and community organizations and activists are to be commended for their efforts aimed at public education and their consistent condemnation of those who would act against others for the simple reason that those others do not look, speak or dress like them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. The events of 11 September"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur is also concerned that some States have sought to restrict the international and national media in the way they report on the conflicts in Afghanistan and elsewhere. It is vital to the legitimacy of the media that they be able to make editorial judgements as to how conflict is reported, whose views are reported and how events are presented. Authorities summoning journalists to “discuss editorial matters” can have a chilling effect on coverage of conflict and even if such pressure is resisted, it can cloud public perceptions about the impartiality of the media. The Special Rapporteur notes with particular concern reports of attempts to inhibit independent coverage of the conflict in Afghanistan by Al Jazeera, a leading independent media outlet in the Middle East, a region otherwise characterized by excessive government control over the media. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes the need for continuing coverage by the media of the situation in Afghanistan and underscores the need to invite more women and youth to participate in their programmes as experts or commentators on all matters, political, economic, social and cultural.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. The events of 11 September"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur also notes with concern the effects of censorship and control over the media within Afghanistan itself, including the denial of women’s right to freedom of expression and the restrictions upon any public display of music or television imposed by the Taliban. He recommends that the United Nations, in its attempts to secure a lasting political settlement in Afghanistan, prioritize the importance of establishing effective guarantees of freedom of expression and of putting in place a regulatory framework for the media in line with international guarantees. Finally, the Special Rapporteur notes the importance in this endeavour of involving the Afghan media community, including those in exile, as well as the many women who are active in the media and public life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. The events of 11 September"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The Special Rapporteur wishes to draw to the attention of States the importance of respect for freedom of expression in relation to broadcasting, and to elaborate on a number of points raised in previous reports. He would like to stress that for the vast majority of people in the world, broadcasting, and particularly radio, is the primary source of information and news. It is thus of the greatest importance that this medium is able to operate independently and in the public interest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Broadcasting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The Special Rapporteur is of the view that a key way to serve the public interest is by ensuring the availability of the widest possible range of information and ideas through broadcasting. He believes that promoting diversity should be a primary goal of broadcast regulation. He has also noted that in a number of countries, the State still has a monopoly over broadcasting and private broadcasters are either not allowed at all or are restricted to the cable and satellite sectors. The Special Rapporteur considers that such monopolies can no longer be justified and that all States should put in place regulatory frameworks which provide for the licensing of both commercial and community broadcasters, including through terrestrial transmission systems. Indeed, the regulatory framework should seek to promote maximum utilization of the airwaves in the public interest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Broadcasting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur strongly believes that diversity also implies the equal opportunity for all sectors of society to access the airwaves. The Special Rapporteur has noted that in many countries, broadcasting is dominated by men and women journalists are consigned to lower echelons. Steps should be taken to address this serious problem, particularly with respect to public broadcasters which have an obligation to reflect and serve society as a whole. Similarly, minorities have a right to access the airwaves. Public broadcasters should ensure that their programming serves all members of society and broadcasting authorities should take steps to ensure that minority groups have non-discriminatory access to licences.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Broadcasting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The Special Rapporteur is also of the view that public broadcasters should serve the public, not the Government or the party in power. This implies protection against political and commercial interference, including through the appointment of an independent governing board and respect for editorial independence. It also requires broadcasters to have a clear mandate setting out the various types of programming they should provide, including a comprehensive, balanced news service.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Broadcasting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. Similarly, broadcast regulators, and other public bodies which exercise power over broadcasters, should be protected against political and commercial interference. Licensing processes should be transparent and fair, with clear criteria, published in advance, for deciding between competing applications.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Broadcasting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. The Special Rapporteur believes that broadcasting needs an appropriate economic environment if it is to flourish and provide a diversity of information to the public. This means that licence fees should not be excessive and that other licensing conditions should not be onerous, taking into account the level of commercial development of the sector. Furthermore, he would invite States to take positive measures to promote the spread of appropriate technology and in the area of training. States should also actively promote universal reception of broadcasting. At the same time, effective rules on undue concentration of ownership are needed to prevent domination of this key medium by a small number of players.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Broadcasting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0086", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. The Special Rapporteur has noted that although historically States posed the greatest threat to independent and diverse broadcasting, a new threat has emerged in the form of excessive commercialization of this sector. In some cases, owners treat broadcasting enterprises as businesses rather than as communication media, interfering with editorial independence for commercial or political reasons. The Special Rapporteur encourages owners and their professional staff to conclude agreements that guarantee editorial independence and to ensure that commercial considerations do not unduly influence media content. At the same time, elected officials and members of Government who are media owners should refrain from influencing the content of their media outlets. One way of doing this would be for officials to put their media interests under the control of trustees for the duration of their time in office.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Broadcasting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0087", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. Finally, the Special Rapporteur considers that another problem of excessive commercialization is the airing of the cheapest programmes to the detriment of quality and diversity. One solution to this problem is to require broadcasters to carry minimum quotas of locally produced material so as to protect local voices from being overwhelmed by programming imported cheaply from abroad. Another solution is to set broadcasters a range of percentages of different types of programmes, such as documentaries, films, news, educational and children’s material, and so on. The Special Rapporteur stresses, however, that there is a risk of political interference where these approaches are applied unless the broadcast regulator operates free of political or commercial interference.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Broadcasting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0088", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. The Special Rapporteur wishes to draw the attention of States to the importance of the Internet to the exercise of the right to freedom of expression. The Internet is a key instrument both in terms of receiving information and for the right to disseminate information and ideas, and should be put to use in the pursuit of respect for rights and social justice. The Internet has enormous potential but, unfortunately, that potential is still largely available only to those in more-developed countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["D. The Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0089", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. The Special Rapporteur notes that the overwhelming majority of Internet users continue to be found in the more-developed societies and that, even within richer societies, there is a considerable “digital divide” between low-income families and the better off. This means that the majority of the world’s population cannot harness the power of the Internet as a vehicle for free expression, democratic empowerment, the advancement of human rights and development. This is exacerbated by the increasing reliance of many actors on the Internet, to the detriment of more traditional forms of communication.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. The digital divide"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0090", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. The Special Rapporteur would stress that there is no single barrier to Internet access. Economic wealth, both of countries and of individuals, is clearly an important factor; poor infrastructure, the high cost of telecommunications and, in some countries, the lack of cheap, reliable electricity hamper Internet access. In addition, there is a need for sufficient training, technical expertise and basic education.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. The digital divide"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0091", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. Wealth is not the only barrier. The Special Rapporteur has received information that some countries still impose legal and regulatory barriers to access, exacerbating existing barriers. He would like in that connection to recall that in his report to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-seventh session (E/CN.4/2001/64), he paid considerable attention to the question of the Internet and expressed his concern about excessive control of access. During the last year, access restrictions in many States have remained in force. In some States, access to the Internet is restricted to the elite while in others, access is controlled through licensing regimes for Internet service providers or even individual users. In some States, access is possible only through Government-controlled “filtered” gateways.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. The digital divide"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0092", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. The Special Rapporteur would like to express his support for national and international initiatives to extend Internet access, including the Sustainable Network Development programme administered by the United Nations Development Programme. At the same time, there is a need for an internationally coordinated strategy if global access is to be achieved. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur commends recent progress made through the Group of Eight Digital Opportunity Task Force, as well as the newly inaugurated ICT Task Force of the United Nations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. The digital divide"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0093", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. The Special Rapporteur is also concerned at continuing reports of excessive Internet content regulation and of on-line surveillance. Whilst there are legitimate concerns about the availability of illegal material on the Internet, including child pornography, neo-Nazi propaganda and hate speech, any restrictions on the Internet must remain within the strict parameters set by article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Some States seek to justify stringent regulation on the grounds that it is necessary to preserve the moral fabric and cultural identity of the society. The Special Rapporteur warns that excessively stringent regulation on these grounds betrays a paternalistic attitude and frustrates the Internet’s potential to ensure respect in practice for the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Internet regulation"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0094", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur has noted that since the events of 11 September, many States have adopted measures allowing for increased surveillance of the Internet. The Special Rapporteur is concerned about the negative impact of such measures on the right to freedom of expression and urges States to seek a fair balance in such regulation. The Special Rapporteur notes that encryption and anonymity software has been developed which can provide protection against unwarranted on-line surveillance, and encourages the use and continued development of these tools.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Internet regulation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0095", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. Finally, the Special Rapporteur, maintaining once again that the new technologies, in particular the Internet, are inherently democratic, provide the public and individuals with access to information sources and enable all to participate actively in the communication process, once again urges States to avoid adopting separate rules limiting Internet content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Internet regulation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0096", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. The Special Rapporteur strongly believes that the right to freedom of expression can be described as an essential test right, the enjoyment of which illustrates the degree of enjoyment of all human rights enshrined in the International Bill of Human Rights, and that respect for this right reflects a country’s standards of fair play, justice and integrity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0097", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. While the Special Rapporteur notes with satisfaction a growing tide in favour of human rights, and that almost all Governments seem to be upholding the sanctity of the principle of freedom of opinion and expression, at the same time he is still encountering innumerable cases of grave violations of human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0098", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. Long-standing patterns of harassment and oppression of persons whose views and opinions differ from those of persons holding power persist in a number of countries. In many instances, restrictions on the freedom of opinion and expression limit to a significant extent the possibility of violations becoming known and investigated. In the view of the Special Rapporteur, such trends perpetuate patterns of government corruption and impunity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0099", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. From the communications received during the period under review, the Special Rapporteur is compelled to conclude that, as in previous years, violations of the right to freedom of expression occur in all parts of the world. In a number of instances, these violations and violations of other human rights concur, including those related to extrajudicial, arbitrary or summary executions, enforced or involuntary disappearances, torture, religious intolerance and arbitrary detention. The rights to freedom of opinion, expression and information are violated in States with widely different political systems and institutional frameworks for governance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0100", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. The Special Rapporteur condemns the attacks of 11 September in the strongest terms as crimes against humanity. He would like, however, to express his deep concern that measures taken by some States have targeted certain groups, in particular religious and ethnic minorities, political activists and the media. The Special Rapporteur is also concerned that some States have sought to restrict the international and national media in the way they report on the conflict in Afghanistan and elsewhere. He considers that it is vital to the legitimacy of the media that they be able to make editorial judgements as to how the conflict is reported, whose views are reported and how events are presented. Authorities summoning journalists to “discuss editorial matters” can have a chilling effect on coverage of the conflict and even if such pressure is resisted, it can cloud public perceptions about the impartiality of the media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0101", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. A matter of particular concern to the Special Rapporteur is the threat that human rights concerns, including freedom of expression, have declined in importance on the international agenda. Close international scrutiny of certain States for human rights reasons now seems to have faded and some NGOs have reported that States and intergovernmental organizations are less responsive to their appeals than formerly. While it is of the greatest importance that a strong coalition against terror be maintained, this cannot, in itself, be a reason to sideline human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0102", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. The Special Rapporteur is also concerned at continuing reports of excessive Internet content regulation and of on-line surveillance. He is concerned that in some States, access to the Internet is restricted to the elite while in others, access is controlled through licensing regimes for Internet service providers or even individual users. In some States, access is possible only through Government-controlled “filtered gateways”. Any restrictions on the Internet must remain within the strict parameters set by article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The Special Rapporteur notes that encryption and anonymity software has been developed which can provide protection against unwarranted on-line surveillance, and encourages the use and continued development of these tools.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Conclusions"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0103", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. With regard to the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, the Special Rapporteur considers that the free flow of information and ideas is one of the most powerful ways of combating these evils. There should be free access to information which exposes or otherwise helps to combat racism, whether that information is held by public or private bodies, unless denial of access can be justified as necessary to protect an overriding public interest. In addition, States should ensure that the public has adequate access to reliable information relating to racism, discrimination, xenophobia and intolerance including, where necessary, through the collection and dissemination of such information by public authorities. The Special Rapporteur considers that media organizations, media enterprises and media workers - particularly public service broadcasters - have a moral and social obligation to make a positive contribution to the fight against racism, discrimination, xenophobia and intolerance.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0104", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. Finally, the Special Rapporteur is still very concerned at the continuing silencing of women in many areas.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0105", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. While noting that the cooperation of Governments in the discharge of his mandate continued to be satisfactory (e.g. the number of invitations to conduct field visits received this year), the Special Rapporteur would like to encourage all Governments to cooperate with his mandate as set out in Commission resolution 2000/86, in particular with regard to communications addressed to them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0106", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. Further to the events of 11 September, the Special Rapporteur would like to urge all Governments not to respond to terror by adopting laws which have a negative impact on the realization of human rights, in particular the right to freedom of opinion and expression as stated in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Special Rapporteur strongly believes that it is of the utmost importance, after the events of 11 September, that States consider the human rights implications of any measures they adopt in response. He urges that efforts aimed at mutual respect and tolerance be strengthened and that they not be limited in time but continue beyond the exigencies of the moment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'as stated in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — sole attribution to UDHR."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0107", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. He would like to stress that human rights should be at the centre of any attempt to deal with the aftermath of these terrible events. Therefore, he would like to invite all Governments to review laws specifically intended to protect national security and to scrutinize their domestic legal systems with a view to bringing them into line with international standards governing the right to freedom of opinion and expression. He also encourages all States that have not ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to do so.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0108", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. The Special Rapporteur is also concerned at continuing reports of excessive Internet content regulation and of on-line surveillance. Whilst there are legitimate concerns about the availability of illegal material on the Internet, including child pornography, neo-Nazi propaganda and hate speech, any restrictions on the Internet must remain within the strict parameters set by article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Some States seek to justify stringent regulation on the grounds that it is necessary to preserve the moral fabric and cultural identity of the society. The Special Rapporteur warns that excessively stringent regulation on these grounds betrays a paternalistic attitude and frustrates the Internet’s potential to ensure respect in practice for the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0109", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. With regard to the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, at the time the Special Rapporteur was finalizing the present report the Declaration and Programme of Action of the World Conference were not available. However, the Special Rapporteur would like to offer the following suggestions. It will be useful to define the relationship that will exist between the OHCHR Anti-Discrimination Unit and the special procedures. Particular attention should be paid to the methodology in order to avoid overlap and duplication, in particular with regard to relationships with NGOs in areas such as the presentation of situations and cases of racism. The coordination that could be implemented between the Unit, the special procedures and the Quick Response Desk should be on the agenda of the next annual meeting of the special rapporteurs. Also, the special procedures should be able to make recommendations to the Anti-Discrimination Unit on issues that may deserve specific thought, research and analysis, and eventually recommend technical cooperation programmes on issues which they have identified as being critical. As soon as the Durban Programme of Action is adopted by the General Assembly, the Special Rapporteur intends to compile in a synoptic table the issues raised in Durban which are relevant to his mandate and to include it in his next report to the Commission.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0110", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. The Special Rapporteur would like to recall that new technologies, in particular the Internet, are inherently democratic, provide the public and individuals with access to information sources and enable all to participate actively in the communication process. He remains concerned at information received regarding the efforts of some Governments either to control or shut down access to the Internet. In that connection, he would like to refer to his report to the Commission at its fifty-seventh session (E/CN.4/2001/64). He urges States actively to promote universal access to the Internet and not to adopt separate rules limiting Internet content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0111", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. Noting that broadcasting, particularly radio, is, for the vast majority of people, the primary source of information and news, the Special Rapporteur considers of the greatest importance that this medium be able to operate independently and in the public interest. Public broadcasters should serve the public, not the Government or the party in power, and should be protected against political and commercial interference, including through the appointment of an independent governing board and respect for editorial independence. Additionally, he would like to recommend that licensing processes should be transparent and fair, with clear criteria, published in advance, for deciding between competing applications. He also recommends that effective measures be adopted to prevent undue concentration of media ownership.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0112", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur would like to recommend that States take positive measures to promote the spread of appropriate technology and in the area of training. States should also actively promote universal reception of broadcasting. At the same time, effective rules on undue concentration of ownership are required to prevent domination of this key medium by a small number of players. He also recommends that owners and their professional staff conclude agreements to guarantee editorial independence and ensure that commercial considerations do not unduly influence media content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0113", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. As allegations transmitted to the Special Rapporteur relating to the abuse of libel and defamation laws continue to be numerous, he would like to recall the recommendation made in an earlier report (E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 205) that Governments should ensure that press offences are no longer punishable by terms of imprisonment, except in cases involving racist or discriminatory comments or calls to violence. Along the same lines, the Special Rapporteur would urge all Governments to ensure that the fines which the media or any organization/individual is sentenced to pay for offences such as “defamation”, “libel”, “insults” and publication of “false” or “alarmist” information are not out of proportion to the harm suffered by the victims. He would like to reiterate strongly that such fines cannot be used by Governments to limit the right to receive and impart information and ideas.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0114", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. Additionally, the Special Rapporteur is extremely concerned at the high number of cases of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression committed by non-State actors, and therefore he would like to reiterate his suggestion that the Commission on Human Rights consider how and by what means the international community can pay particular and coherent attention to the question of non-State actors and action by them that infringes upon or restricts the rights to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0115", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "115. Furthermore the Special Rapporteur urges Governments to take all necessary steps to remove formal and cultural obstacles to the exercise by women of their right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to receive information. The Special Rapporteur is of the view that special efforts to gather and analyse information on that specific issue should be made. In this regard, he invites submissions by Governments, international organizations, specialized agencies, NGOs and individuals.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0116", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "116. The Special Rapporteur would like also, in accordance with Commission resolution 2001/47, to call on Governments to provide him with comments on their programmes and policies with respect to access to information for the purposes of education on and prevention of HIV, in order for him to be able to present his recommendations to the Commission at its next session, with a view to undertaking a comparative study of the different approaches taken in the various regions and countries in this regard.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0117", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "117. Finally, the Special Rapporteur, regrettably, deems it necessary to repeat his deep concern as regards the imbalance between the requirements set out by the mandate and the inadequate financial and human resources put at his disposal, despite the recent establishment of the Quick Response Desk and a thematic database within the Thematic Mechanisms Team.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Migrants", "Women/girls", "Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "2", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "low", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Visible text is a statistical table of communications with no explicit article 2 attribution to any treaty. No secure resolution possible from visible text."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "low", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Visible text is statistical material with no clear art.19 attribution. Context_after mentions ICCPR/ICESCR generally but does not attribute the specific article. No secure resolution possible."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The Commission on Human Rights established the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in its resolution 1993/45. The present report, submitted pursuant to Commission resolution 2004/42, is the third general report by Ambeyi Ligabo (Kenya), appointed Special Rapporteur on 26 August 2002.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "Since the inception of the mandate, the concept of freedom of opinion and expression has faced new challenges from technological evolution. New information and communication tools may represent effective instruments for the promotion of freedom of opinion and expression around the world. Yet, a genuine development in this field would be to make these new tools universally available. The information community will also have to face new forms of repression that will also use these tools to influence the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "Issues addressed in this report include an update of matters analysed in the Special Rapporteur’s previous report (E/CN.4/2004/62 and Add.1-4), in particular the right of access to information in the framework of the implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In light of the forthcoming final session of the World Summit on the Information Society, the Special Rapporteur also decided to include in the present report a comprehensive review of United Nations action in the field of freedom of opinion and expression so as to make fresh proposals for a new direction in the future.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "The Special Rapporteur reiterates the contents of the terms of reference and methods of work of his mandate, as elaborated in his previous general annual reports E/CN.4/2003/67 and E/CN.4/2004/62.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "One of the most significant features of the Special Rapporteur’s mandate is the analysis of the communications received in order to identify trends, reiterate issues already discussed in previous reports and bring to the attention of the international community a number of policies, practices and measures having an impact on the respect for freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "Customarily, the Special Rapporteur considers communications brought to his attention from a variety of sources - Governments, international, regional, national and local non-governmental organizations (NGOs); associations of media professionals, writers’ associations, trade unions and members of political parties - and from all regions of the world. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that a plurality of sources of information, in addition to being essential to the discharge of his mandate, is a significant indicator of the degree of implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes that a large number of allegations continue to refer to the following situations: civil unrest due to social troubles; states of emergency in general; internal armed conflict; racial conflicts; electoral processes; defamation cases; repressive action against the use of new information technologies. The Special Rapporteur obverses that the communications received are not confined to alleged violations in countries where the political, social and economic situation is particularly difficult, but also refer to violations occurring in emerging or long-established democracies.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Most of the cases received by the Special Rapporteur relate to violations against media professionals. Violations also occur, however, in relation to political groups and their members, opposition and pro-democracy activists, lawyers, students, academics, trade unionists, persons participating in public demonstrations, women, peasants, members of religious minorities and other minorities, authors, cartoonists, newspaper vendors, distributors and printers, medical personnel and others.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Analysing the increasing amount of information sent to the Special Rapporteur, it was clear that violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression are still a widespread phenomenon in all regions of the world. Continuing violations to freedom of opinion and expression seem to be a common feature of certain political systems that methodically repress the traditional sources of freedom of expression and opinion making: journalists, trade unionists, social workers, students and teachers, writers and artists.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "The nature of the alleged violations can vary enormously, depending on the level of respect for the rule of law and good governance in a society. The range of violations goes from killings, enforced disappearances, arbitrary arrests and detentions, mistreatment, threats and harassment, unfair trials, and various types of judicial and administrative measures. Criminal charges, sentencing to prison terms and the imposition of heavy fines for defamation, libel and slander are still common even though a few countries have adopted new legislation moving this kind of offence under civil law.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "From 1 January to 17 November 2004, the Special Rapporteur sent 610 communications: 449 urgent appeals, 325 of which were signed jointly with other rapporteurs, and 161 allegation letters, 85 of which were signed jointly with other rapporteurs. Communications covered 1,782 individuals: 11 per cent of them were women and 68 per cent men, while the remaining were institutions or enterprises. The following table reflects the geographical breakdown:\nRegion Number of communications Percentage of total\nAfrican region 126 21\nArab region 92 15\nAsian-Pacific region 168 28\nEuropean and North American region 100 16\nLatin American and Caribbean region 114 19", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "While the nature and the seriousness of the violations may vary significantly, even well-established protection systems can be at risk in the face of sudden crises. New technologies, today available almost everywhere, have definitely challenged repressive strategies and systems as well as environments traditionally favourable to freedom of expression. At the same time, they have opened a large debate on the limits and shortcomings of information\nprovided without any ethical and professional backgrounds, and which is often used as blatant political propaganda. Such use of these technologies, which have reached remarkable peaks of sophistication, contribute to the persistent and eventual proliferation of extreme ideas and positions, racial conflicts and ethnic tensions.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is grateful to those Governments that, in a spirit of collaboration and mutual understanding, answered his appeals and letters, thereby exercising their right of reply. The correspondence is contained in document E/CN.4/2004/62/Add.1.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "In a joint statement adopted on 18 December 2003, the Special Rapporteur, the Representative on freedom of the media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression of the Organization of American States (OAS) condemned limitations on freedom of expression and attempts to control the media through regulatory mechanisms which lack independence or otherwise pose a threat to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "In a press release dated 22 January 2004, the Special Rapporteur and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, expressed their strong concern about the situation of human rights in Haiti, especially since the start of violent confrontations between militias supporting and opposing the Government, as well as those involving members of the police. They deplored the fact that the political violence continued to cause great distress among the civilian population and noted that the previous months had also seen numerous attacks against political activists, journalists and radio stations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "In a press release dated 9 March 2004, the Special Rapporteur, the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture and the Chairperson-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention reiterated their profound concern over the deteriorating human rights situation in Nepal in light of the intensification of the conflict between the Government and the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist). The experts also stated that they had received disturbing reports of impunity for the security forces responsible for human rights violations and about increasing indiscriminate attacks against civilians by both sides.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "On 15 April 2004, the Special Rapporteur, the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, and the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on human rights defenders issued a statement in which they expressed their deep concern over the situation of Tenzin Deleg Rinpoche, a prominent lama who promoted the re-establishment of Tibetan Buddhism in the region and was involved in social work on behalf of the Tibetan community in the Kardze Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Sichuan Province.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "On 21 May 2004, the Special Rapporteur, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on human rights defenders and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions issued a statement in which they echoed the profound concerns expressed by the Security Council in its resolution 1544 (2004) and by the Acting High Commissioner for Human Rights about violence and loss of life during a peaceful demonstration in the Rafah refugee camp in the Gaza Strip on 19 May 2004.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "On 14 July 2004, the Special Rapporteur, the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture, the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary and arbitrary executions, the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on human rights defenders, the Chair of the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances, and the Chairperson-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, issued a statement in which they reiterated their serious concern regarding the extremely grave human rights situation in Nepal. The experts regretted that the Government had failed to respond to many of their appeals, and that it provided virtually no information on the fate of people detained in unknown locations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "On 27 July 2004, the Special Rapporteur, the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, and the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture, issued a statement in which they expressed their profound concern regarding the unanswered questions which had resulted from the acquittal of an Iranian intelligence officer on 24 July, after a two-day trial, for the killing of journalist Zahra Kazemi.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "In a press release dated 18 August 2004, the Special Rapporteur, the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, the independent expert on the situation of human rights in Burundi, the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, and the Special Adviser to the Secretary-General on the Prevention of Genocide strongly condemned the massacre, and its ethnic dimension, which took place during the night of 13 August in Gatumba refugee camp in Burundi close to the border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Since his appointment, the Special Rapporteur has visited Colombia, Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Italy, and Serbia and Montenegro. He would like to thank those Governments for their cooperation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Country visits"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The Special Rapporteur requested invitations to visit the following countries: Algeria, Angola, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Belarus, China, Cuba, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Liberia, Nepal, Russian Federation, Spain, Sudan, Swaziland, Turkmenistan, Venezuela, Viet Nam and Zimbabwe. In addition, on 29 June 2004, the Special Rapporteur sent a letter asking to be invited to the following countries: Ecuador, Georgia, Guatemala, Honduras, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Peru, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Serbia and Montenegro, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Ukraine. So far, he has received positive replies from Guatemala, Honduras, Serbia and Montenegro - the Rapporteur visited the country at the end of October 2004 - Sri Lanka, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Ukraine. He also received an invitation from the Government of Azerbaijan to visit the country. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his appreciation to these countries for their cooperation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Country visits"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "In 2004, the Special Rapporteur visited Côte d’Ivoire, Colombia, Serbia and Montenegro and Italy. Mission reports are contained in documents E/CN.4/2005/Add.2, E/CN.4/2005/Add.3, E/CN.4/2005/Add.4 and E/CN.4/2005/Add.5, respectively.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Country visits"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "On 1 April 2004, the Special Rapporteur presented his report to the sixtieth session of the Commission on Human Rights. He stated, among other things, that the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression was a significant indicator of the level of protection and respect of all other human rights in a given society. Yet, violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, attacks against journalists, media workers, trade unionists and, in general, against all those who dare express their different opinion, continued to occur in all regions and countries, whatever their system, and took various forms and shape. Most of the time, he underlined, perpetrators of those crimes were not punished; the conduct of serious investigations was essential to ensure greater protection for journalists.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also mentioned a number of issues that, in his view, were of special interest for his mandate: the role of media in armed conflicts, the consequences of anti-terrorism legislation on freedom of opinion and expression, media concentration, and the implementation of the right to information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "During the sixtieth session of the Commission, the Special Rapporteur had the opportunity to consult with representatives of the following countries: Algeria, Bangladesh, Canada, Côte d’Ivoire, Indonesia, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Pakistan, Poland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. He also had a briefing with the press and met representatives of the Group of African States and several non-governmental organizations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "In those meetings the Special Rapporteur reiterated that Governments should not feel targeted by the thematic mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights, since they were global mandates relating to all countries. He emphasized that the full cooperation of Governments was an essential factor for a successful outcome of country missions. He pointed out that during country visits, Governments should guarantee free access to all people and places that special rapporteurs asked to visit. Likewise, Governments should be open to dialogue with the rapporteurs on issues that might come up during the visit. With regard to his working methods, the Special Rapporteur stated that Governments and relevant authorities should carefully consider the issues arising from urgent appeals and allegations and provide exhaustive replies, with a view to establishing a constructive dialogue.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "The African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, in collaboration with the Media Institute for Southern Africa, the NGO Article 19 and the Media Foundation for West Africa, invited the Special Rapporteur to the Africa Conference on Freedom of Expression, held in Pretoria on 19 and 20 February 2004. The aims of the conference were to raise awareness about the African Commission’s Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa, to discuss the establishment of a special mandate to monitor freedom of expression in Africa and to explore ways of implementing the Declaration.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "The Special Rapporteur participated in the celebration of World Press Freedom Day on 3 May 2004 in Belgrade. The event was organized jointly by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and the UNESCO National Commission of Serbia and Montenegro. In parallel, UNESCO organized, on 2 and 3 May, a conference to discuss the theme “Support to media in violent conflicts and in countries in transition”. Media professionals from all over the world debated topics such as “Informing the local population in crises and emergencies”, “Capacity-building and the culture of journalism”, and “Infrastructure, market and legal reform”. The conference was followed, on 4 May, by a regional seminar, organized jointly by UNESCO and OSCE in consultation with professional partners, focusing on the media in South-East Europe.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Special Rapporteur was also invited to participate as a panellist in the dialogue “The value of the word”, held from 16 to 21 May 2004 in Barcelona, Spain, and organized within the Universal Forum of Cultures. On the same occasion, International PEN and Forum Barcelona 2004 invited the Special Rapporteur to participate in the Fifth International Conference of the Writers in Prison Committee of International PEN.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The Special Rapporteur attended the eleventh meeting of the special rapporteurs/representatives, independent experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures and advisory services programme of the Commission on Human Rights, held in Geneva from 21 to 25 June 2004. The report of the meeting is contained in document E/CN.4/2005/5.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also attended the first preparatory meeting for the Tunis phase of the World Summit on the Information Society, which took place in Hammamet, Tunisia, from 24 to 26 June 2004. The meeting agreed on the structure of the preparatory process for the second phase of the World Summit, in particular on two major issues: the follow-up and implementation of the Geneva Declaration of Principles and Plan of Action by stakeholders at national, regional and international levels, with particular attention to the challenges facing the least developed countries; and Internet governance, with the consideration of the report of the Working Group on Internet Governance and appropriate action.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The Justice Initiative of the Open Society Institute - an NGO - invited the Special Rapporteur to an international meeting on freedom of information litigation and advocacy strategies, entitled “Access to information: from soft law to hard law”, held in London, on 22 and 23 November 2004. Unfortunately, owing to his tight schedule, the Special Rapporteur was unable to participate in that meeting.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The Special Rapporteur appreciates the work done by the participants in the second Amsterdam Internet Conference (27-28 August 2004), who adopted a collection of recommendations and examples of best practices on guaranteeing media freedom online. The first Internet conference in 2003 produced the “Amsterdam Recommendations”, which constitute an excellent basis for further thinking and action in this field.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "In this section of the report, the Special Rapporteur wishes to cite some noteworthy activities, especially those carried out within the United Nations system, leading to the creation of the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom\nof opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur is convinced that, in the year of the second and final phase of the World Summit on the Information Society, such an exercise could make a contribution to a global assessment of recent, and less recent, achievements in the field of freedom of opinion and expression and could show new paths for action.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "First, the Special Rapporteur wishes to note that the concept of freedom of opinion and expression, together with its ancillary rights, the right to freedom of information and the right of access to information, as well as the right to association, are well rooted in the most common international human rights instruments. Beyond the fundamental vision of article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, substantive legal provisions support the concept of freedom of opinion and expression in most of the core human rights instruments. Articles 19, 21 and 22 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights; articles 8 and 15 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; article 5 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination and article 13 of the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families deal with various aspects of freedom of opinion and expression relevant to the mandate.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — non-treaty."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'Articles 19, 21 and 22 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'."}, {"article": "21", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same ICCPR list; art. 21 (assembly)."}, {"article": "22", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same ICCPR list; art. 22 (association)."}, {"article": "8", "treaty": "ICESCR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'articles 8 and 15 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights'."}, {"article": "15", "treaty": "ICESCR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same ICESCR list; art. 15 (cultural rights)."}, {"article": "5", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'article 5 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination'."}, {"article": "13", "treaty": "CMW", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'article 13 of the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families'."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "It is worth recalling some of the very first resolutions of the General Assembly on freedom of opinion and expression. Resolution 59 (I), adopted in 1946, declared: “Freedom of information is a fundamental human right and is the touchstone of all the freedoms to which the United Nations is consecrated”; and “Freedom of information requires as an indispensable element the willingness and capacity to employ its privileges without abuse. It requires as a basic discipline the moral obligation to seek the facts without prejudice and to spread knowledge without malicious intent.” Resolution 110 (II), adopted in 1947, condemned “all forms of propaganda … which is either designed or likely to provoke or encourage any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression”. Resolution 127 (II), also of 1947, invited Member States to “study such measures … as might be taken … to combat, within the limits of constitutional procedures, the diffusion of false or distorted reports likely to injure friendly relations between States”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "A first element that can be gathered from those resolutions, as well as other documents, is that the concept of freedom of information, perceived as freedom of the media, prevailed over the more comprehensive concept of freedom of opinion and expression. The term “freedom of opinion and expression” appeared with force in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Secondly, the wording used in the context of freedom of opinion and expression was heavily influenced by the outcome of the Second World War and by the beginning of the cold war. Not surprisingly, one of the recurring issues within the United Nations at that time was the maintenance of peace and the building of friendly relations among States. The use of false and distorted reports - a basic instrument of political propaganda - was considered a major threat to peace and a deterrent to the institution of a productive dialogue among countries.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — sole attribution to UDHR."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "The UNESCO Constitution, which entered into force in 1946, states that “States Parties to this Constitution, believing in full and equal opportunities for education for all, in the unrestricted pursuit of objective truth, and in the free exchange of ideas and knowledge, are agreed and determined to develop and to increase the means of communication between their\npeoples and to employ these means for the purposes of mutual understanding and a truer and more perfect knowledge of each other’s lives”. Article 2 (a) of the Constitution states that the organization will “collaborate in the work of advancing the mutual knowledge and understanding of peoples, through all means of mass communication and to that end recommend such international agreements as may be necessary to promote the free flow of ideas by word and image”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "The first United Nations Conference on Freedom of Information was held in Geneva in March/April 1948 with the purpose of formulating views concerning the rights, obligations and practices that could be included in the concept of freedom of information. The Conference endorsed the concepts set out in Assembly resolutions 59 (I), 110 (II) and 127 (II) and endeavoured to reconcile them. Three draft conventions were annexed to the Final Act of the Conference[[fn:1]] namely, the first one on gathering and international transmission of news; the second one concerning the institution of an international right of correction; and the third one on freedom of information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "United Nations Conference on Freedom of Information, held at Geneva, Switzerland, from 23 March to 21 April 1948, Final Act (E/CONF.6/79), United Nations publication, Sales No. 1948.XIV.2."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "The general aim of the draft convention on gathering and international transmission of news was to implement the right of peoples to be fully informed and to improve the understanding between peoples through the free flow of information and opinion. The draft convention contained 14 articles and dealt primarily with the duties of States with respect to “foreign correspondents”. The convention imposed on contracting States a number of duties with the aim of encouraging the freest possible movement of foreign correspondents in the exercise of their functions.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The draft convention on freedom of information was premised on the belief that free interchange of information and opinions in the national and the international sphere is a fundamental human right, as well as being essential in the cause of peace and for political/economic progress.[[fn:2]] The main duty on contracting States was the obligation, set in article 1, that each State secure to all its nationals and to the nationals of every other contracting State lawfully within its territory, freedom to impart and receive information and opinions, orally, by written or printed matter, in the form of art, or by legally operated visual or auditory devices without governmental interference.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Memorandum by the Secretary-General: Committee on the Draft Convention on Freedom of Information: drafting of a convention on freedom of information in the light of developments in the field of human rights (A/AC.42/4) 15 January 1951."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "Since the Conference, United Nations bodies have had trouble in expounding and elaborating the concept of freedom of opinion and expression, agreeing upon its legitimate limitations and recommending effective measures for its realization. In spite of many efforts, the draft convention on freedom of information was never finalized nor opened for signature; this item appeared on the agenda of each regular session of the General Assembly from 1962 to 1980 before being abandoned. A similar, unfortunate fate surrounded the draft declaration on freedom of information, adopted by the Economic and Social Council, transmitted to the General Assembly in 1960 (resolution 756 (XXIX), annex) and finally dropped in 1980.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "However, it is worth noting that the Conference, in its resolution No. 39, recommended that the Council extend the mandate of the Sub-Commission on Freedom of Information and of the Press, a body established in 1947 by the Commission on Human Rights, for a further three years. The Conference also recommended that the Sub-Commission initiate studies and make recommendations to the Council regarding, inter alia, the promotion of a wider degree of freedom of information and the minimization of restrictions thereto; the promotion of dissemination of true information to counteract Nazi, fascist or any propaganda of aggression or of racial, national and religious discrimination; the improvement of intergovernmental agreements and measures to facilitate the work of foreign news personnel.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "In 1950, the Department of Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat prepared a two-volume compilation of materials on freedom of information.[[fn:3]] Volume I contains the replies received from 33 Governments in response to a request from the Secretary-General to supply information on the status of freedom of information in their respective countries, including on measures to combat the diffusion of false or distorted reports likely to injure friendly relations between States. Volume II includes relevant articles of constitutions, legislative enactments and regulations, judicial decisions, codes of honour, and other related materials received as annexes to the replies published in volume I.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "United Nations publication, Sales No. 1950.XIV.1, vols. I and II."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "Another legal standard pertaining to the field of freedom of information was the Convention concerning the International Right of Correction.[[fn:4]] It was opened for signature on 16 December 1952 and entered into force in August 1962. The Convention developed the concept of correction in the context of peaceful international relations with the aim of sharpening the sense of responsibility of various media of information. It was felt that the publication of inaccurate reports would endanger the maintenance of friendly relations between peoples and the preservation of peace. The Convention characterized inaccurate reports as “false” or “distorted” reports without criminalizing their publication. It acknowledged the impossibility - and undesirability - of envisaging the institution on the international level of a procedure for verifying the accuracy of reports that might lead to the penalizing of such publication. Thus, the approach promoted by the Convention was to offer to those directly affected by reports which they considered false or distorted the “possibility of ensuring commensurate publicity for their corrections”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "General Assembly resolution 630 (VII) of 16 December 1952, annex."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "In resolution 442 C (XIV) of 13 June 1952 the Economic and Social Council appointed, for an experimental period of one year, and in a personal capacity, a rapporteur on matters relating to freedom of information. The Rapporteur - Salvador López - was charged with preparing a report covering major contemporary problems and developments in the field of freedom of information, together with recommendations regarding practical action which might be taken by the Council in order to surmount those obstacles to the fuller enjoyment of freedom of information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "In section 1 of his report, “Freedom of Information, 1953”[[fn:5]] Mr. López presented an overview of the historical development of the concept of freedom of information, which he calls the most vulnerable freedom, prior to the United Nations; an overview of the work of the United Nations and specialized agencies; and an analysis of the reasons for the success or failure of these efforts. Section 2 dealt with a number of related issues: rights and responsibilities of the media of information; propaganda for war and false/distorted information; internal censorship and the suppression and coercion of media of information; censorship of outgoing news dispatches; status and movement of foreign correspondents; laws affecting the press (constitutional trends, legislation aimed at preventing misuse of information, measures to protect freedom of information, and radio and newsreels); monopolies; professional standards; independence of information personnel; protection of sources; development of radio, film radio\nand television; professional training; the production and distribution of newsprint; press rates and priorities; international broadcasting; postal services; tariff and trade practices, and copyright. He concluded his report with a number of recommendations for immediate action by the Council, and on machinery and future tasks. Finally, Mr. López also prepared an update published as a supplementary report.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Official Records of the Economic and Social Council, Sixteenth Session, Supplement No. 12 (E/2426)."}, {"n": 6, "text": "Ibid., Supplement No. 12A."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "In 1961, a consultant of the United Nations, Mr. Hilding Eek, prepared a report on developments in the field of freedom of information since 1954[[fn:7]] which summarized the debates and the discussion on several issues surrounding freedom of information and related issues: freedom of information and the United Nations; the concept of freedom of information, legal approach and pragmatic approach. The report also included a section on facilities and obstacles to the free flow of information; a section on content and quality of information. Finally, the last part of the report was devoted to the availability of United Nations news.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Document E/3443."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Following a seminar held in New Delhi in 1962,[[fn:8]] the Secretary-General organized a seminar on freedom of information, at the invitation of the Government of Italy, in April 1964 in Rome. The agenda of the seminar included: the role of Government; press laws; the role of publisher and proprietor; the role of the professional journalist; standards of journalism and the role of the reader. The general conclusions of the debates stated, inter alia, that in all countries, regardless of their social and political systems, the same basic problem existed: how to ensure that the great powers of the information media were used for the good of humankind and not as an instrument of tyranny. All countries delegations recognized certain common standards and aspirations, albeit that the ways of reaching the goals would differ, such as: information media should strive to enhance human dignity, broaden intellectual and moral outlook of peoples, bring about a better understanding between individuals and enable readers to play a responsible role in the affairs of the community and the world.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "For the report of the seminar, see ST/TAO/HR/13."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "In the 1970s, the General Assembly remained seized of the issue of freedom of information and new resolutions adopted during that period were influenced by the debate on a new world economic order. In effect, in its resolution 33/115 B of 18 December 1978, the Assembly affirmed the need to establish a new, more just and more effective world information and communication order, intended to strengthen peace and international understanding and based on the free circulation and wider and better-balanced dissemination of information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "The issue of the right to freedom of opinion and expression surfaced at the level of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities (now the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights) during the late 1980s. In 1987, Louis Joinet produced a working paper concerning the detention of persons exercising the right to freedom of opinion or expression (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1987/15, annex I), followed by a working paper by Danilo Türk (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1989/26). By decision 1990/117, the Sub-Commission took note of those authors’ preliminary report (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1990/11), as Special Rapporteurs, entitled “The right to freedom of opinion and expression: current problems of its realization and measures necessary for its strengthening and promotion”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "Mr. Joinet and Mr. Türk produced a final report in 1992 (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1992/9 and Add.1). The addendum contained the conclusions and recommendations of the two special rapporteurs. They stated that the report “endeavours above all to be an instrument for analysis, whose purpose is to help assess the extent to which the standards concerning freedom of opinion and expression are respected when decisions are taken in this area” (para. 3). In particular, the report showed that in most instances, criminal convictions of journalists are based on provisions of internal law, which, upon verification, invariably turn out to be restrictions that are inadmissible in a democratic society. Thus, journalists and other professionals in the field of information could have used the report as an instrument for the defence of their rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Moreover, the special rapporteurs stated that in cases where Governments take measures to restrict and/or prohibit xenophobic, racist, revisionist and/or neo-Nazi ideas, it is important to ensure that the admissible restrictions are not worse than the evil they are designed to remedy. They added that “restrictions must be interpreted and applied restrictively. In particular they must be in conformity with the principles of legitimacy, legality, proportionality and democratic necessity” (para. 5).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "As to recommendations, the special rapporteurs proposed a discussion, in consultation with the professional information media and the specialized NGOs, of the “conditions under which the Sub-Commission could take the initiative of drawing up specific safeguard standards, especially with a view to lessening the possible risks to democracy of the theory of the so-called ‘admissible’ restrictions”. Simultaneously, the Sub-Commission should study the “desirability of identifying those elements that constitute the ‘hard core’ of the freedom of opinion, expression and information which in no circumstances might give rise to restrictions or derogations”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "It is worth emphasizing that the special rapporteurs proposed the introduction of a special procedure to assure the protection of professionals in the field of information, against the background of journalists too frequently subjected to many irregular sanctions or serious persecution. They proposed a number of options: a special rapporteur, the solution that they favoured; a working group of the Commission on Human Rights; or a request to the Secretary-General to produce periodic reports.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "It is impossible here to do justice to all UNESCO initiatives in the field of freedom of expression. The Special Rapporteur nevertheless wishes to mention a few examples:\n(a) In 1978, the Executive Board of UNESCO laid down a confidential procedure for the examination of complaints (called communications) received by the organization concerning alleged violations of human rights in its fields of competence, namely education, science, culture and communication.[[fn:9]] A subsidiary organ of the Executive Board, the Committee on Conventions and Recommendations, implements it. From 1978 to 2003, the Committee on Conventions and Recommendations considered 508 communications;\n(b) The UNESCO General Conference at its twentieth session in 1978 proclaimed the Declaration on Fundamental Principles concerning the Contribution of the Mass Media to Strengthening Peace and International Understanding, to the Promotion of Human Rights and to Countering Racialism, Apartheid and Incitement to War;\n(c) The best known UNESCO effort in this field is the proclamation in 1993 by the General Assembly, in its decision 48/432 of World Press Freedom Day to be celebrated on 3 May. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur wishes to commend the work of the advisory group on press freedom, which includes media professionals from all parts of the world, and the establishment in 1997 of the UNESCO/Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "The procedure is set out in 104 EX/Decision 3.3 of the Executive Board."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "The Commission on Human Rights, in its resolution 2004/42 (para. 7), invited the Special Rapporteur, within the framework of its mandate, to continue to carry out his activities in accordance with paragraph 17 (a) to (d) and (f) of resolution 2003/42. Accordingly, the Special Rapporteur decided to continue the examination of the question of the existence and extent of the right to access to information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Implementing the right of access to information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "An increasing number of countries have recently been adopting information laws. New legislation often includes access to information provisions that should reinforce transparency efforts of public institutions. The effective implementation of the laws, however, remains a major challenge as some common obstacles have emerged: lack of political will at senior levels, inadequate information management, insufficient training of public officials and an excess of bureaucratic obstacles to timely information release. Moreover, in some countries it has proven to be nearly impossible to submit requests for information orally or without filling out an official form. Persons belonging to vulnerable or excluded groups, such as disabled individuals or ethnic minorities, are less likely to receive positive reactions than journalists or NGOs submitting the same requests.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Implementing the right of access to information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to commend the work done by the Open Society Justice Initiative, which in 2003 carried out a pilot study to develop a tool for monitoring access to information. The study had the objective of assessing whether national laws are effectively implemented in conformity with international standards and to aid civil society groups in promoting transparency and good governance. Indeed, the right of access to information held by public bodies has become a benchmark of democratic development and approximately 60 countries around the world now have laws establishing mechanisms for the public to request and receive Government-held information. A variety of factors, ranging from civil society campaigns to pressure from intergovernmental organizations and multilateral donors, pushes Governments and legislatures to adopt freedom of information laws.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Implementing the right of access to information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "Although international standards establish only a general right to freedom of information, the right of access to information, especially information held by public bodies, is easily deduced from the expression “to seek [and] receive … information” as contained in articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. At the regional level, legal provisions and recommendations on the right to access official documents, a right that can be subject to only a few restrictions, are on the increase. Restrictions should be provided for by law and concern issues such as the protection of the rights of others, national security, and the prevention of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred or any form of discrimination. Consequently, all information held by public bodies shall be publicly available unless it is subject to a legitimate exemption, and all bodies performing public functions, including governmental, legislative and judicial bodies, should be obliged to respond to requests for information. The expression “bodies performing public functions” also pertains to enterprises, societies and associations performing a unique role and/or receiving public funds.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Implementing the right of access to information"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text: 'articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'. Regex=ICCPR, explicit_treaty=ICCPR. ICCPR mandate document; the ICCPR citation is clear and primary in the SR's analysis."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "Under laws on the right to access information, these bodies should designate an office or officer to handle requests for information. In smaller institutions, an officer can be sufficient who might have other duties, while in larger bodies, a department might be dedicated to\npromoting transparency and providing information. In addition, all bodies performing public functions should publish an annual report and a financial account of their activities, and make them easily available to the public even in the absence of any information requests.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Implementing the right of access to information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "Anyone should be able to file information requests and should not have to provide grounds or reasons for their request: the right of access to information is a fundamental human right which can be exercised by all. Information requests should be treated equally without discrimination with regard to the requestor, regardless of his/her social, racial and political affiliation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Implementing the right of access to information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "There are other important factors contributing to the correct implementation of the right of access to information and to the availability of information. For instance, replies should be provided in a timely fashion. Formalities for requests should be kept to a minimum and it should be possible, especially in countries with a low literacy rate, to make requests orally. For similar reasons, access should be to information rather than to documents, and its cost to the requestor should be limited to the supply costs and should not be so high as to prove an obstacle to access.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Implementing the right of access to information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "Refusals to provide information should always be grounded in law and be made within the time frames specified by law. The refusal should be made in writing and detail the grounds for not disclosing the information, as established by law. Legislation should guarantee the right to appeal refusals to provide information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Implementing the right of access to information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "On 6 December 2004, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Representative on freedom of the media of the OSCE, Mr. Miklos Haraszti, and the Special Rapporteur for freedom of expression of the OAS, Mr. Eduardo Bertoni, issued a joint statement within the framework of the programme Global Campaign for Free Expression of the non-governmental organization Article 19. The statement highlighted the fundamental importance of access to information and commended the decision taken by an increasing number of countries to adopt laws recognizing a right to access information. It underlined that access to information is a citizen’s right and that the procedures for accessing information should be simple, rapid and free or low cost. It condemned the attempts by some Governments to limit access to information, either by refusing to adopt access to information laws or by adopting laws that fail to conform to international standards. It affirmed that public authorities and their staff bear sole responsibility for protecting the confidentiality of legitimately secret information under their control. Other individuals, including journalists and civil society representatives, should never be subject to liability for publishing or further disseminating this information, regardless of whether or not it has been leaked to them, unless they committed fraud or another crime to obtain the information.[[fn:10]]", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "The full text of the statement is available at www.ohchr.org. - - - - -"}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Implementing the right of access to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "The protection and security of journalists have become central factors of their professional, and very often private, lives. Some NGOs provide consistent and comprehensive figures on journalists killed on duty or because of their professional activity. According to their data, 2004 has been one of the deadliest years for media professionals in the last decade. On 1 November 2004, the World Association of Newspapers reported that 56 journalists had been killed since the beginning of the year; according to the International Press Institute, that number was 61. Other organizations also include in their figures media workers like camera operators and other kinds of assistants. Reporters Without Borders stated that, in the same period, 45 journalists and 14 media assistants had been killed, while the Committee to Protect Journalists said that 44 journalists and 17 media workers had lost their lives. Many of these NGOs have taken a variety of initiatives on this subject, including scientific analyses of the phenomenon and practical advice for journalists working in conflict areas.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Protection and security of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "A geographical breakdown of the data mentioned above shows that Iraq was by far the most dangerous country for the press: approximately 23 journalists were killed in the first 10 months of 2004. The majority were Iraqi nationals killed during military operations, by either one side or the other, or specifically targeted because of their work. Latin American countries, such as Mexico, Brazil and Peru, and the Philippines have been dangerous places as well. Almost all the journalists killed in those countries were investigating corruption and alleged mismanagement. In Asia, the security of journalists is especially at risk in Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka. The trend known as “censorship by killing” noted by the former Special Rapporteur (E/CN.4/2002/75, para. 48) is still thriving.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Protection and security of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "Article 79 of the Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 is the most relevant international legal provision regarding the protection of journalists in areas of armed conflicts. Article 79 states that journalists engaged on dangerous professional missions shall be considered as civilians and protected, provided they take no action adversely affecting their status as civilian. The Protocol provides a model of an identity card to be issued by the Government of the State of which the journalist is a national.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Protection and security of media professionals"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "79", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'Article 79 of the Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949' — IHL instrument, not a UN core treaty."}, {"article": "79", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second reference to same 'Article 79' of Additional Protocol I — IHL, not a UN core treaty."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "In 1990, the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities discussed the feasibility of a study on the ways and means of extending additional protection and assistance to journalists and mass media personnel while they carry out their duties to expose human rights violations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Protection and security of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "The idea of an international instrument protecting the life and the professional activity of media professionals was often discussed in the past, to no avail. The existence of many controversial issues and an unveiled reluctance of professionals to be bound to a juridical instrument made the proposal difficult to realize. It was also observed that the number of journalists killed on duty was closely linked to the existence and evolution of national and international armed conflicts. Nevertheless, there is an urgent need for strong, common action in this regard because such a situation is unacceptable: national and international institutions, together with professional associations, should take the lead and prepare a set of draft measures for increasing the security and protection of journalists and media workers.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Protection and security of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "The Special Rapporteur considers that the right to freedom of opinion and expression is a fundamental and inalienable right that contributes to the consolidation and the development of democracy, in addition to creating bridges between different peoples and civilizations. Any obstacle to the free movement of ideas and opinions limits freedom of expression and its beneficial consequences.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "The Special Rapporteur believes that democratic institutions, while not able to prevent all violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, do offer guarantees for its protection, as well as an enabling environment for its exercise. Freedom of opinion and expression not only benefits from a democratic environment, it also contributes, and is indeed instrumental, to the emergence and existence of effective democratic systems. However, violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression may occur in all regions and countries, whatever their system, and may take various forms.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes that, although some positive measures are being taken in a number of countries, several Governments have recently adopted restrictive legislation, in particular against new forms of freedom of opinion and expression and against defamation. Legislation on media ownership and functioning often appears to favour monopolistic or oligopolistic regimes.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "Despite some progress, the situation is still grim: numerous trends and patterns of violations remain substantially active and unchanged. The Special Rapporteur gathered information and examined a number of specific issues in depth: media security and media concentration, national legislation on defamation, the Internet as a tool for the promotion of freedom of expression, and access to information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "Media security remains a grave problem: in 2004, numerous journalists and media workers have been killed while performing their duties. The majority of them were killed in conflict areas, either because they were considered as being part of the enemy troops, or because they were identified as journalists and deliberately eliminated. Several other journalists were murdered because of their investigative activities regarding social and economic issues. The identity of the killers may vary: paramilitary groups, undercover law enforcement officials, rebel groups, terrorists. Most of the time these crimes are not adequately punished; on the contrary, in many cases there were strong suspicions of an involvement by legal authorities.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "The number of journalists and reporters killed in war zones has also increased because media, especially television, reporting is now considered as an essential element of war propaganda. Media reports may substantially create, and eventually change, the public’s views on a conflict depending on the perspective they offer. On the other hand, in many instances, journalists have offered a multifaceted view of conflict and have contributed to the ordinary citizen’s independent assessment of it.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is especially concerned about the growing phenomenon of media concentration, which is very active and visible in developing as well as developed countries. The Special Rapporteur notes that media directly run by private business corporations tend to be less impartial and professional than media run by an independent body such as a media authority or a blind trust. Moreover, professional associations and trade unions are incessantly challenged by the profit-oriented attitude of media owners.\nReversing this phenomenon will contribute to the emergence of a more pluralistic approach to information and will contribute to a more efficient, and often less expensive, service to customers.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur notes that the increasing development of television, radio and the Internet has created a deep crisis for the print media which has brought about the merging of national and international print groups and the dismissal of many professionals. This situation might greatly endanger the independence of professional journalism, especially in one of its most challenging sectors: investigative journalism. The print media are an irreplaceable instrument for the dissemination of ideas and opinions and its disappearance will encourage the dominance of information-as-entertainment, and even fiction, in the media world.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "The Special Rapporteur believes that guaranteeing freedom of opinion and expression on the Internet and other new communication tools is the central challenge for the future. The achievement of a global information society, in which the poor can also have access to modern technologies, may represent a leap forward for mankind, opening new paths for human and economic development. Should the information society miss the opportunity of making technologies available globally, the social and economic cleavage between developed and developing countries will deepen.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is particularly alarmed by the increasing use of forms of expression having discriminatory connotations for ethnic and other vulnerable groups. Hate speech and similar forms of expression can contribute substantially to the deterioration of a precarious stability and drive a country to armed confrontation. In post-conflict societies, biased reporting could rekindle violence and destroy laborious efforts for peace and reconciliation. Respect for human rights, professionalism and a sense of personal responsibility are indispensable elements for independent journalism, and they should be carefully preserved and developed.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "Libel and defamation remains a disturbing feature of communication today. It is sometimes used as a political tool to strike at individuals in the sphere of their private life. On the other hand, elected officials and authorities’ officials should be aware that, because of their role, they might attract the attention of the press in the carrying out of their functions (see, for example, the report of the former Special Rapporteur (E/CN.4/2000/63, paras. 45-52)). Bearing in mind the vital role played by the media in creating broad awareness of political, economic and social issues, the fact that many journalists were tried for libel is, in the Special Rapporteur’s opinion, totally unacceptable.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "The Special Rapporteur reiterates his concern over the poor implementation of the right to information, especially the right of access to information. Several countries have indeed adopted legislation on the right of access to information, but concern remains about their capacity to implement those laws in an effective way. In many countries, public bodies and bodies performing public functions continue to retain information and treat it in a confidential manner, even though there is no legal or other reason for this. Courts,\nparliaments, including their committees and subcommittees, and other institutions of public interest should be open to the citizen’s request for information. Moreover, all national authorities and other institutions with a direct connection to the interest and welfare of the citizen should prepare an annual report that includes a financial section. Generally speaking, only documents directly linked to the security of the State and its population should be covered, if necessary, by confidentiality provisions. Even in those cases, for the sake of transparency and for the development of the democratic process, after the conclusion of all judicial proceedings, followed by a time of reflection, confidentiality should be removed.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "The Special Rapporteur again notes that many Governments use anti-terrorism and national security legislation to restrict, partially or totally, freedom of opinion and expression and the right of access to information. Abuse of powers and prerogatives granted under such laws often leads to both prolonged and short-term arbitrary detention; torture; extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions; disappearances; threats and intimidation; the closure of various media enterprises; the banning of publications; bans on public gatherings; bans and prohibitions on organizations and groups that are not associated with terrorism; censorship on forms of communication; and judicial lenience for the abuses and crimes committed by police, armed forces and paramilitary groups.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0086", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "The Special Rapporteur urges Governments to implement the necessary measures to review existing practices and take remedial actions in all fields related to the promotion and protection of freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur especially encourages Governments of emerging democracies to promote and protect the freedom of opinion and expression of the press, political parties, trade unions, students, teachers, social workers, writers and artists. As appropriate, Governments may also consider the possibility of seeking technical assistance from OHCHR to eliminate the causes of human rights violations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0087", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "The Special Rapporteur encourages members and organizations of civil society to continue to provide him with information on the realization and violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression around the world.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0088", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to recall that Governments have the responsibility of protecting the security of citizens, regardless of their political or social affiliations. Armed conflicts and widespread violence do not provide fertile ground for freedom of opinion and expression. Governments should take all necessary measures to protect journalists, as well as other professional categories at risk, from attacks, be they from officials, law enforcement officers, armed groups or terrorists.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0089", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "In this context, the Special Rapporteur urges national authorities, both civilian and military, and, where applicable, international authorities to conduct inquiries into killings and attacks against media professionals, trade unionists, social workers, students and\nteachers and artists, wherever they occur, including in war and conflict zones. An end to impunity for the perpetrators of such acts would reinforce the crucial role that the rule of law must play in all societies.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0090", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate his proposal to the Commission on Human Rights concerning the need for an in-depth, impartial study on the issue of the security of journalists, in particular in situations of armed conflict, based on information from and the experiences of Governments and intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0091", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "The Special Rapporteur encourages Governments to ensure that the exercise of the freedom of opinion and expression through the media is open and accessible to various actors of the civil society, including local communities and minorities and vulnerable groups, in addition to economic and political groups.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0092", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "The Special Rapporteur invites Governments to adopt laws and regulations allowing people to communicate freely over the Internet and to remove all present obstacles to the free flow of information. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur underlines that licensing procedures should be transparent, non-discriminatory and impartial and that limitations should be directed only at thwarting cybercrime, with special attention to the most heinous crimes such as paedophilia and trafficking in persons.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0093", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "To conform to international standards, national legislation should provide for libel and defamation cases to be dealt with under civil law. Any fines that are levied should not prevent the continuation of press activities and investigations and should be appropriate to the financial resources of journalists. The Special Rapporteur also notes that libel/ defamation cases could equally be solved without recourse to the judiciary, but through the good offices of a mediator. National press associations and relevant independent authorities should be enabled to resolve such cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0094", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "The Special Rapporteur encourages and supports the development of national and international initiatives aimed at monitoring the implementation of the right to information, including the right of access to information. He encourages all relevant national and international bodies to examine carefully proposals to develop these rights by the adoption of global and regional instruments or regulations on this matter.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0095", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "The Special Rapporteur urges the United Nations and other intergovernmental organizations to contribute to such initiatives in order to enhance their transparency and credibility. In this context, the Special Rapporteur wishes to support the work done in relation to financial transparency and accountability, and its link with sustainable development, with special reference to the activities of multilateral development institutions. The Special Rapporteur would also give further consideration to the drafting of a set of recommendations supporting a comparative study of measures to better implement the right of access to information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0001", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "During armed conflict, people are at their most vulnerable and in the greatest need of accurate, trustworthy information to ensure their own safety and well-being. Yet, it is precisely in those situations that their freedom of opinion and expression, which includes “the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds”,[[fn:1]] is most constrained by the circumstances of war and the actions of the parties to the conflict and other actors to manipulate and restrict information for political, military and strategic objectives.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Article 19 (2), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0002", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "Manipulation of information and the information environment by State and armed groups has long been a feature of war. It has taken many forms, from “ruses of war” that seek to deceive and demoralize enemy troops to “information operations” aimed at influencing the public and “hate speech” aimed at fomenting violence against minorities. What is new and of serious concern is the ease, scale and speed with which false or misleading harmful information is being created, distributed and amplified by digital technology.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0003", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "Social media platforms play a dual role in modern conflicts. On the one hand, they enable people to remain connected to family, friends and the outside world and to access a wide range of critical life-saving information. On the other hand, they serve as vectors of disinformation, propaganda and hate speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0004", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "Either in response to disinformation or as part of their own efforts to manipulate information, many States have sought to restrict access to information through laws on national security, counter-terrorism or “false news”, attacks on independent journalists and human rights defenders, closure of independent media outlets, Internet shutdowns, and regulation of digital platforms in ways that undermine human rights and aggravate the very problems they wish to address.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0005", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Freedom of opinion and expression is not part of the problem. It is the means by which to combat disinformation and a value in itself. Access to diverse, verifiable sources of information is a fundamental human right. It is an essential necessity for people in conflict-affected societies. In effect, it is a “survival right”. It is also vital for resolving conflicts, exposing human rights abuses and seeking justice and accountability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0006", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The heightened risks that disinformation and other forms of information manipulation pose to civilian populations, especially marginalized and vulnerable groups, and to human rights, humanitarian operations and peace processes underscore the urgency to reaffirm the obligations of States and companies to uphold freedom of opinion and expression. It is through respect for human rights and humanitarian principles that the integrity of information as well as the safety of people can be maintained during armed conflict.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0007", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Building on her report on countering disinformation while promoting and protecting freedom of opinion and expression,[[fn:2]] in the present report, the Special Rapporteur focuses on disinformation, propaganda and advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence (“hate speech”) in the context of armed conflicts, as defined under international humanitarian law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "A/HRC/47/25."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0008", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "In the report, the Special Rapporteur examines the nature and impact of information manipulation; the legal framework; and the roles of States and social media companies. She identifies challenges and threats, including areas of weak compliance or legal uncertainties, as well as good practices, and makes recommendations, mainly to States and social media companies. The report is not a comprehensive study and does not examine the role of armed groups or companies other than social media, or cyberoperations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0009", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "The Special Rapporteur acknowledges the complex and sensitive nature of the subject and the need for further research, analysis and consultations and considers the report a preliminary step in engaging with interested stakeholders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0010", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "The report has benefited from consultations and written submissions from States, journalists, human rights defenders, scholars and civil society organizations.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "The submissions are available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-freedom-of-opinion-and-expression."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0011", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Despite growing interest in information manipulation and the adoption of United Nations resolutions on disinformation,[[fn:4]] there remains considerable confusion about the various concepts and how they relate to each other. The lack of international agreement on definitions underscores the complexity of the notions and the polemics surrounding them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "General Assembly resolution 76/227 and Human Rights Council draft resolution A/HRC/49/L.31/Rev.1; see also A/HRC/47/25."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "A. Conceptual challenges"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0012", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Disinformation, propaganda and advocacy to incite discrimination, violence and hostility share some common features: lack of clear, agreed definitions; high prevalence in disturbances and conflict settings; amplification by digital technology; increasing focus on civilian populations rather than military personnel; and detrimental impact on human rights, democracy and peace processes. The concepts overlap at times. For instance, some forms of disinformation and propaganda can amount to advocacy of incitement to violence, hostility, discrimination and war crimes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "A. Conceptual challenges"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0013", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "All three concepts contain some degree of manipulation, deception and distortion of information that is meant to create confusion, including about their own meaning. Factual information is delegitimized as “fake news” or disinformation. Opinions, beliefs and uncertain knowledge are distorted to discredit the source. False information is instrumentalized to cause harm. Verifiable data from international bodies, including reports of the United Nations independent experts, are dismissed as disinformation, while propaganda is promoted as facts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "A. Conceptual challenges"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0014", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Disinformation has been present for millenniums but has gained new currency in the digital age. While there is no single agreed definition of disinformation, the term is used increasingly to signify the manipulation of false or misleading information to intentionally deceive and cause public harm.[[fn:5]] It should be distinguished from misinformation, which is falsehood disseminated with no intent to cause harm.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See European Commission, Strengthened Code of Practice on Disinformation, available at https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/2022-strengthened-code-practice-disinformation."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "A. Conceptual challenges"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0015", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Propaganda is mentioned but not defined in international law.[[fn:6]] While disinformation seeks to confuse and disrupt, the objective of propaganda is to advance a particular agenda or party. Derived from the notion of “propagating” or spreading information and views, it has a pejorative sense of disseminating information that may be true or false but is biased, partial, misleading and emotive.[[fn:7]] Propaganda and disinformation may overlap as part of “information operations”, which are commonly understood as campaigns by States or political actors to influence the views, attitudes and behaviour of adversaries or the public in order to achieve political and military objectives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Article 20 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}, {"n": 7, "text": "See Manfred Nowak, U.N. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights CCPR Commentary (Kehl am Rhein, Germany, N.P. Engel, 1993)."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "A. Conceptual challenges"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0016", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Incitement, or the act of directly or indirectly urging or instigating the commission of a crime, is prohibited in international law. The term “incitement” is used in the present report to denote advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility, violence (commonly referred to as “hate speech”), war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "A. Conceptual challenges"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0017", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "There is growing evidence that information is being manipulated to trigger, aggravate and sustain violence over prolonged periods, increasing the fog of war with contradictory and false news and fostering a climate of distrust. The dynamics of armed conflict and disinformation work in a complex interplay with other grievances to exacerbate human suffering, feed hatred and target vulnerable groups.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0018", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "Minorities and marginalized groups. From Rwanda[[fn:8]] three decades ago to Myanmar[[fn:9]] and Ethiopia[[fn:10]] in more recent times, parties to a conflict have used mass communications platforms to whip up hatred among the population, dehumanize the other side and incite gross violations of human rights, war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide.[[fn:11]] In some situations, political leaders have used intolerant, divisive and dangerous rhetoric to deny established facts, raise tensions and scapegoat national, ethnic and religious groups.[[fn:12]] Refugees, internally displaced persons and migrants have been portrayed often as threats to national security or social cohesion to drum up animosity against them.[[fn:13]]", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "See Montreal Institute for Genocide and Human Rights Studies, “Rwanda radio transcripts”, available at https://www.concordia.ca/research/migs/resources/rwanda-radio-transcripts.html."}, {"n": 9, "text": "A/HRC/39/CRP.2; see also submission of Free Expression Myanmar."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See Jasper Jackson and others, “Facebook accused by survivors of letting activists incite ethnic massacres and misinformation in Ethiopia”, Bureau of Investigative Journalism, 20 February 2022, available at https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/stories/2022-02-20/facebook-accused-of-letting-activists-incite-ethnic-massacres-with-hate-and-misinformation-by-survivors-in-ethiopia."}, {"n": 11, "text": "See SC/14939."}, {"n": 12, "text": "See Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and others, “Joint Declaration on Politicians and Public Officials on Freedom of Expression”, available at https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2022-04/Joint-Declaration-2021-Politicians_EN.pdf."}, {"n": 13, "text": "See https://www.un.org/en/hate-speech/impact-and-prevention/targets-of-hate."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0019", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Online hate speech and incitement in the Central African Republic have helped to fuel cycles of atrocities between Christians and Muslims in recent years.[[fn:14]] 14 In Ethiopia, online “activists” have used their Facebook accounts to spread hate and incite attacks, killings and displacement of other tribes.[[fn:15]] 15 In Iraq, militant groups use 8 See Montreal Institute for Genocide and Human Rights Studies, “Rwanda radio transcripts”, available at https://www.concordia.ca/research/migs/resources/rwanda-radio-transcripts.html. 9 A/HRC/39/CRP.2; see also submission of Free Expression Myanmar. 10 See Jasper Jackson and others, “Facebook accused by survivors of letting activists incite ethnic massacres and misinformation in Ethiopia”, Bureau of Investigative Journalism, 20 February 2022, available at https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/stories/2022-02-20/facebook-accused-ofletting-activists-incite-ethnic-massacres-with-hate-and-misinformation-by-survivors-in-ethiopia. 11 See SC/14939. 12 See Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and others, “Joint Declaration on Politicians and Public Officials on Freedom of Expression”, available at https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2022-04/Joint-Declaration2021-Politicians_EN.pdf. 13 See https://www.un.org/en/hate-speech/impact-and-prevention/targets-of-hate. 14 See Nicola Barrach-Yousefi and others, A Lexicon of Hateful and Inflammatory Speech in the Central African Republic (PeaceTech Lab, Washington, D.C.), available at https://static1.squarespace.com/static/54257189e4b0ac0d5fca1566/t/60edb60d3680ef421b572ff7/ 1626191378524/CARLexicon_English_web.pdf; see also https://www.ungeneva.org/fr/newsmedia/news/2022/07/rca-un-expert-de-lonu-alarme-par-la-proliferation-des-fausses-informations. 15 See Global Witness, “Now is the time to kill: Facebook continues to approve hate speech inciting violence and genocide during civil war in Ethiopia”, 9 June 2022, available at https://www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/digital-threats/ethiopia-hate-speech/; see also Tessa Knight and Beth Alexion, “Influential Ethiopian social media accounts stoke violence along ethnic lines”, DFRLab, 17 December 2021, available at https://medium.com/dfrlab/influentialethiopian-social-media-accounts-stoke-violence-along-ethnic-lines-6713a1920b02. Telegram, Facebook and YouTube to propagate hate and division along sectarian lines, forcing many of the targets, especially women, to hide or flee their homes.[[fn:16]] 16", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See Nicola Barrach-Yousefi and others, A Lexicon of Hateful and Inflammatory Speech in the Central African Republic (PeaceTech Lab, Washington, D.C.), available at https://static1.squarespace.com/static/54257189e4b0ac0d5fca1566/t/60edb60d3680ef421b572ff7/1626191378524/CARLexicon_English_web.pdf; see also https://www.ungeneva.org/fr/news-media/news/2022/07/rca-un-expert-de-lonu-alarme-par-la-proliferation-des-fausses-informations."}, {"n": 15, "text": "See Global Witness, “Now is the time to kill: Facebook continues to approve hate speech inciting violence and genocide during civil war in Ethiopia”, 9 June 2022, available at https://www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/digital-threats/ethiopia-hate-speech/; see also Tessa Knight and Beth Alexion, “Influential Ethiopian social media accounts stoke violence along ethnic lines”, DFRLab, 17 December 2021, available at https://medium.com/dfrlab/influential-ethiopian-social-media-accounts-stoke-violence-along-ethnic-lines-6713a1920b02."}, {"n": 16, "text": "See Joey Shea and Ruba al-Hassani, “Hate speech, social media and political violence in Iraq: Virtual civil society and upheaval”, The Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy, 11 February 2021, available at https://timep.org/commentary/analysis/hate-speech-social-media-and-political-violence-in-iraq-virtual-civil-society-and-upheaval/; see also Pshtiwan Faraj and Emilie Wilson, “Deeply ingrained prejudice fuels hate speech in Iraq”, Institute of Development Studies, 9 January 2021, available at https://www.ids.ac.uk/opinions/deeply-ingrained-prejudice-fuels-hate-speech-in-iraq/."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0020", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "The wave of violence and killings that followed the shooting of singer Hachalu Hundessa is just one illustration of how online hate translates into offline atrocities.[[fn:17]] In South Sudan, derogatory language was used online to stigmatize pastoralist Dinka tribes as threats to territorial and ethnic integrity and incite fighters and armed groups to identify, attack and kill them.[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See United Nations press release, “UN experts call on Ethiopia to allow peaceful protests, welcome partial restoration of Internet”, 21 July 2020, available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2020/07/un-experts-call-ethiopia-allow-peaceful-protests-welcome-partial-restoration?LangID=E&NewsID=26115."}, {"n": 18, "text": "See Dangerous Speech Project, “Dinka called ‘MTN’ in South Sudan”, 2 January 2022, available at https://dangerousspeech.org/dinka-called-mtn-in-south-sudan/; see also Community Power for Progress Organization, “Social networks ignite the war that puts the country on the brink of genocide”, 15 May 2017, available at http://cepo-southsudan.org/news/social-networks-ignite-war-puts-country-brink-genocide."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0021", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Civilian populations. Disinformation about the location and nature of hostilities, the displacement of troops or population, or the existence and accessibility of safe areas can lead people to make wrong and dangerous decisions. In many situations, civilians find themselves affected not only by disinformation but also by information blackouts and Internet shutdowns imposed by the authorities.[[fn:19]] When families cannot communicate with one another, when people cannot access reliable information about the security situation or the availability of essential services or humanitarian assistance, they are unable to assess the risks to their security and safety and make decisions accordingly. Civilians in Ethiopia have described the lack of access to reliable information as turning their lives “upside down”.[[fn:20]] The importance of reliable information about humanitarian corridors was highlighted in the case of civilians trying to escape the fighting in Mariupol, Ukraine.[[fn:21]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Joint submission of Mass Media Defence Centre, Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info."}, {"n": 20, "text": "See Report of the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission/Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) Joint Investigation into Alleged Violations of International Human Rights, Humanitarian and Refugee Law Committed by all Parties to the Conflict in the Tigray Region of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, available at https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3947207?ln=en."}, {"n": 21, "text": "Deutsche Welle, “Ukraine says planned Mariupol evacuations fell short – as it happened”, April 2022."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0022", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Studies have shown the disproportionate impact of disinformation on women,[[fn:22]] children[[fn:23]] and LGBTIQ+ persons.[[fn:24]] Their situation is only worsened in conflict settings, where support is often lacking.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "EU DisinfoLab, “Gender-based disinformation: Advancing our understanding and response”, 20 October 2021, available at https://www.disinfo.eu/publications/gender-based-disinformation-advancing-our-understanding-and-response/; see also Lucina Di Meco and Kristina Wilfore, “Gendered disinformation is a national security problem”, Brookings Institution, 8 March 2021, available at https://www.brookings.edu/techstream/gendered-disinformation-is-a-national-security-problem/."}, {"n": 23, "text": "See United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Office of Global Insight and Policy, “Digital misinformation/disinformation and children”, August 2021, available at https://www.unicef.org/ globalinsight/media/2096/file/UNICEF-Global-Insight-Digital-Mis-Disinformation-and-Children-2021.pdf."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies, Policy Department, “Disinformation campaigns about LGBTI+ people in the EU and foreign influence”, July 2021, available at https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2021/653644/EXPO_BRI(2021) 653644_EN.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0023", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Distorted situational awareness can significantly increase anxiety, fear and stress and, combined with trauma resulting from exposure to violence and atrocities, can have prolonged consequences for mental health.[[fn:25]] By constantly stimulating feelings of anger and outrage, disinformation can also instigate radical forms of resentment, extreme opinions and resort to violence.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See Eian Katz, “Liar’s war: Protecting civilians from disinformation during armed conflict” in International Review of the Red Cross, No. 914, December 2021, available at https://international-review.icrc.org/articles/protecting-civilians-from-disinformation-during-armed-conflict-914."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0024", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Human rights and humanitarian actors. Parties to the conflict or their allies have used disinformation and propaganda to discredit human rights defenders and humanitarian actors and disrupt humanitarian access and assistance. For example, in Ukraine,[[fn:26]] the Syrian Arab Republic[[fn:27]] and the State of Palestine,[[fn:28]] orchestrated disinformation campaigns have spread unfounded accusations against the organizations of partiality, criminal activities or links with armed groups.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), “Ukraine: Addressing misinformation about ICRC’s activities”, 26 March 2022, available at https://www.icrc.org/en/document/ukraine-addressing-misinformation-about-icrcs-activities."}, {"n": 27, "text": "See Mel Bunce, “Humanitarian communication in a post-truth world” in Journal of Humanitarian Affairs, Manchester openhive, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1 January 2019, available at https://www.manchesteropenhive.com/ view/journals/jha/1/1/article-p49.xml; see also Louisa Loveluck, “Russian disinformation campaign targets Syria’s beleaguered rescue workers” in The Washington Post, 18 December 2018, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/russian-disinformation-campaign-targets-syrias-beleaguered-rescue-workers/2018/12/18/113b03c4-02a9-11e9-8186-4ec26a485713_story.html."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Submission of Charity and Security Network (2021 call for submissions)."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0025", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Such disinformation can affect people’s perception of these organizations and induce them to refuse to engage with them or accept their services. Smear campaigns can affect donor funding and create security risks, including the risk of gender-based violence against female workers, affecting the presence, access and ability of humanitarian workers to provide assistance to vulnerable populations.[[fn:29]] 29 In some situations, such as in Ethiopia, the authorities have restricted or blocked the work of humanitarian organizations, accusing them of spreading disinformation when their activities or communications did not align fully with the interests of the governments.30 22 EU DisinfoLab, “Gender-based disinformation: Advancing our understanding and response”, 20 October 2021, available at https://www.disinfo.eu/publications/gender-based-disinformationadvancing-our-understanding-and-response/; see also Lucina Di Meco and Kristina Wilfore, “Gendered disinformation is a national security problem”, Brookings Institution, 8 March 2021, available at https://www.brookings.edu/techstream/gendered-disinformation-is-a-nationalsecurity-problem/. 23 See United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Office of Global Insight and Policy, “Digital misinformation/disinformation and children”, August 2021, available at https://www.unicef.org/ globalinsight/media/2096/file/UNICEF-Global-Insight-Digital-Mis-Disinformation-andChildren-2021.pdf. 24 See European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies, Policy Department, “Disinformation campaigns about LGBTI+ people in the EU and foreign influence”, July 2021, available at https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2021/653644/EXPO_BRI(2021) 653644_EN.pdf. 25 See Eian Katz, “Liar’s war: Protecting civilians from disinformation during armed conflict” in International Review of the Red Cross, No. 914, December 2021, available at https://internationalreview.icrc.org/articles/protecting-civilians-from-disinformation-during-armed-conflict-914. 26 See International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), “Ukraine: Addressing misinformation about ICRC’s activities”, 26 March 2022, available at https://www.icrc.org/en/document/ukraineaddressing-misinformation-about-icrcs-activities. 27 See Mel Bunce, “Humanitarian communication in a post-truth world” in Journal of Humanitarian Affairs, Manchester openhive, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1 January 2019, available at https://www.manchesteropenhive.com/ view/journals/jha/1/1/article-p49.xml; see also Louisa Loveluck, “Russian disinformation campaign targets Syria’s beleaguered rescue workers” in The Washington Post, 18 December 2018, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/russian-disinformation-campaign-targets-syrias-beleagueredrescue-workers/2018/12/18/113b03c4-02a9-11e9-8186-4ec26a485713_story.html. 28 Submission of Charity and Security Network (2021 call for submissions). 29 See Rachel Xu, “You can’t handle the truth: misinformation and humanitarian action”, ICRC Humanitarian Law and Policy Blog, 15 January 2021, available at https://blogs.icrc.org/law-andpolicy/2021/01/15/misinformation-humanitarian/. 30 See Kaamil Ahmed, “Ethiopia suspends aid groups for ‘spreading misinformation’” in The Guardian, 6 August 2021, available at https://www.theguardian.com/globaldevelopment/2021/aug/06/ethiopia-suspends-aid-groups-for-spreading-misinformation.", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See Rachel Xu, “You can’t handle the truth: misinformation and humanitarian action”, ICRC Humanitarian Law and Policy Blog, 15 January 2021, available at https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2021/01/15/misinformation-humanitarian/."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0026", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "Public trust. Disinformation creates public distrust in the integrity of information, which in turn has broad social and political implications, hindering peace, democracy, reconciliation and reconstruction.[[fn:31]] When people cannot trust the sources of information, it is impossible for communities to build a shared understanding of facts and without that understanding, there can be no common basis for constructive exchanges to enable mediation and reconciliation. In protracted and frozen conflict situations such as Nagorno-Karabakh[[fn:32]] or the State of Palestine,[[fn:33]] disinformation, propaganda and distorted narratives from various parties in the conflict area and outside have hindered conflict resolution and peace processes for decades.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "See Mercy Corps, “Strengthening social cohesion for violence prevention: Ten lessons for policymakers and practitioners”, March 2022, available at https://www.mercycorps.org/sites/ default/files/2022-06/10-Lessons-SC-Brief_V6_EU.pdf; see also T.M. Sagherian-Dickey, “The importance of trust in achieving positive peace” in The Palgrave Handbook of Positive Peace, 31 July 2021, available at https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-981-15-3877-3_52-1#citeas."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See European Resources for Mediation Support, “Media and disinformation in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and their role in conflict resolution and peacebuilding”, January 2021, available at https://www2.coleurope.eu/system/tdf/uploads/news/event_report_-_media_and_ disinformation_in_the_nagorno-karabakh_conflict.pdf?&file=1&type=node&id=draft&force=."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Submission of 7amleh - Arab Center for Advancement of Social Media; see also Sheera Frankel, “Lies on social media inflame Israeli-Palestinian conflict” in The New York Times, 14 May 2021, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/14/technology/israel-palestine-misinformation-lies-social-media.html."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0027", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "Disinformation, propaganda and hate speech are not peculiar to armed conflicts. They are used also at other times and spread in an amorphous way across the various phases and cycles of tensions and unrest that precede or follow armed conflicts. The underlying causes of conflict, namely, historic grievances, systemic inequalities, discrimination, intercommunal and ethnic rivalry, political tensions and poor governance, provide a perfect breeding ground for them. The dynamics of division, polarization and dehumanization that characterize violence and conflicts sustain and are sustained by such manipulation of information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "C. Vectors of manipulated information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0028", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The gamechanger for disinformation in war, as well as peace, has been digital technology. In Ethiopia, an estimated 70 per cent of disinformation has been spread by social media.[[fn:34]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "See European Institute of Peace, “Fake news misinformation and hate speech in Ethiopia: A vulnerability assessment”, 12 April 2021, available at https://www.eip.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Fake-News-Misinformation-and-Hate-Speech-in-Ethiopia.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "C. Vectors of manipulated information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0029", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Technological innovation makes it possible to create “deep fake” images, videos and text that convincingly distort reality, while the business models and techniques of digital and social media platforms facilitate their rapid spread at scale and speed.[[fn:35]] Microtargeting techniques, algorithmic recommendations and network effects fuel information formats and content that stimulate cognitive and emotional biases ,such as surprise, anger, disgust or outrage, to gain and sustain users’ attention.[[fn:36]] 36 They also accentuate echo chambers and polarize audiences along political and sectarian lines. 31 See Mercy Corps, “Strengthening social cohesion for violence prevention: Ten lessons for policymakers and practitioners”, March 2022, available at https://www.mercycorps.org/sites/ default/files/2022-06/10-Lessons-SC-Brief_V6_EU.pdf; see also T.M. Sagherian-Dickey, “The importance of trust in achieving positive peace” in The Palgrave Handbook of Positive Peace, 31 July 2021, available at https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-981-153877-3_52-1#citeas. 32 See European Resources for Mediation Support, “Media and disinformation in the NagornoKarabakh conflict and their role in conflict resolution and peacebuilding”, January 2021, available at https://www2.coleurope.eu/system/tdf/uploads/news/event_report_-_media_and_ disinformation_in_the_nagorno-karabakh_conflict.pdf?&file=1&type=node&id=draft&force=. 33 Submission of 7amleh - Arab Center for Advancement of Social Media; see also Sheera Frankel, “Lies on social media inflame Israeli-Palestinian conflict” in The New York Times, 14 May 2021, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/14/technology/israel-palestine-misinformationlies-social-media.html. 34 See European Institute of Peace, “Fake news misinformation and hate speech in Ethiopia: A vulnerability assessment”, 12 April 2021, available at https://www.eip.org/wpcontent/uploads/2021/04/Fake-News-Misinformation-and-Hate-Speech-in-Ethiopia.pdf. 35 See Dan Boneh and others, “Preparing for the age of deepfakes and disinformation”, Stanford University Human-Centred Artificial Intelligence, November 2020, available at https://hai.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/2020-11/HAI_Deepfakes_PolicyBrief_Nov20.pdf; see also Ben Buchanan and others, “Truth, lies and automation: How language models could change disinformation”, Center for Security and Emerging Technology, May 2021, available at https://cset.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/CSET-Truth-Lies-and-Automation.pdf. 36 See Matthew Shaer, “What emotion goes viral the fastest?” in Smithsonian Magazine, April 2014, available at https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/what-emotion-goes-viralfastest-180950182/. 10/28", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See Dan Boneh and others, “Preparing for the age of deepfakes and disinformation”, Stanford University Human-Centred Artificial Intelligence, November 2020, available at https://hai.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/2020-11/HAI_Deepfakes_PolicyBrief_Nov20.pdf; see also Ben Buchanan and others, “Truth, lies and automation: How language models could change disinformation”, Center for Security and Emerging Technology, May 2021, available at https://cset.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/CSET-Truth-Lies-and-Automation.pdf."}, {"n": 36, "text": "See Matthew Shaer, “What emotion goes viral the fastest?” in Smithsonian Magazine, April 2014, available at https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/what-emotion-goes-viral-fastest-180950182/."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "C. Vectors of manipulated information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0030", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "Despite the increased use of social media, legacy media remain the most common source of news for most people in conflict areas. While public interest journalism is a key tool for countering manipulated information, some media outlets, especially State-controlled media, are a vector for disinformation, propaganda and hate speech.[[fn:37]] There is a risk also for independent media to proliferate manipulated information if they rely on government officials as their sole source or are reluctant to question official statements.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "Submission of Article 19."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "C. Vectors of manipulated information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0031", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "It is interesting to note the interplay between online and offline settings. In Yemen, for instance, as traditional media outlets have taken sides in the conflict, young Yemenis have increasingly resorted to social media to get their news but have found themselves exposed to false news.[[fn:38]] In Myanmar, increased scrutiny and content moderation by platforms have led the authorities to augment online campaigns with offline propaganda, using pamphlets, fliers, letters and local newspapers.[[fn:39]] In both cases, the consequences of online hate have manifested in offline violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "See Ark, “Fake news and disinformation in Yemen’s conflict”, 5 June 2021, available at https://www.ark.international/ark-blog/fake-news-and-disinformation-in-yemens-conflict."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See Andrew Nachemson and Frontier Myanmar, “Military disinformation moves offline amid Internet restrictions”, 28 January 2021, available at https://www.frontiermyanmar.net/en/military-disinformation-moves-offline-amid-internet-restrictions/; see also submission of Free Expression Myanmar."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "C. Vectors of manipulated information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0032", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The growth of disinformation cannot be attributed solely to digital technology or the underlying causes of conflicts. The vectors are multiple, including State and non-State actors, political parties, armed groups and businesses supported by paid troll armies and public relations companies. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur focuses mainly on the roles and responsibilities of States and social media companies.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "C. Vectors of manipulated information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0033", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "It is now well recognized that international human rights law and international humanitarian law apply concurrently in armed conflicts.[[fn:40]] While the International Court of Justice has noted that “some rights may be exclusively matters of international humanitarian law; yet others may be exclusively matters of human rights law; yet others may be matters of both these branches of international law”,[[fn:41]] according to the Human Rights Committee, the two regimes are “complementary, not exclusive”.[[fn:42]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "See International Court of Justice, Advisory opinion on the legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons, 8 July 1996."}, {"n": 41, "text": "See International Court of Justice, Advisory opinion on the legal consequences of the construction of a wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, 9 July 2004."}, {"n": 42, "text": "CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13, para. 11."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "A. Concurrent application of international human rights and humanitarian law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0034", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The application of international human rights law alongside international humanitarian law is vital for the effective protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression during conflicts. International humanitarian law is triggered only at the onset of armed conflict and is concerned primarily with the conduct of military operations and the protection of certain classes of persons in international and non-international conflicts. As such, it covers freedom of expression and access to information issues “only tenuously and non-systematically”.[[fn:43]] 43 Human rights principles and standards can provide clarity and protection where international humanitarian law is silent, absent or unclear. 37 Submission of Article 19. 38 See Ark, “Fake news and disinformation in Yemen’s conflict”, 5 June 2021, available at https://www.ark.international/ark-blog/fake-news-and-disinformation-in-yemens-conflict. 39 See Andrew Nachemson and Frontier Myanmar, “Military disinformation moves offline amid Internet restrictions”, 28 January 2021, available at https://www.frontiermyanmar.net/en/militarydisinformation-moves-offline-amid-internet-restrictions/; see also submission of Free Expression Myanmar. 40 See International Court of Justice, Advisory opinion on the legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons, 8 July 1996. 41 See International Court of Justice, Advisory opinion on the legal consequences of the construction of a wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, 9 July 2004. 42 CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13, para. 11. 43 See https://www.geneva-academy.ch/joomlatools-files/docman-files/working-papers/Protecting%20 the%20Global%20inupholdiformation%20space%20in%20times%20of%20armed%20conflict.pdf.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "See https://www.geneva-academy.ch/joomlatools-files/docman-files/working-papers/Protecting%20 the%20Global%20inupholdiformation%20space%20in%20times%20of%20armed%20conflict.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "A. Concurrent application of international human rights and humanitarian law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0035", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The mutually reinforcing nature of the two legal regimes offers important possibilities for upholding freedom of opinion and expression in the face of emerging and complex challenges in the digital age. For instance, international humanitarian law applies only to parties engaged in an armed conflict, whereas human rights obligations are applicable to a broader range of actors involved in the manipulation of information. Furthermore, certain types of manipulation that are permissible under international humanitarian law can be restricted under the human rights regime. The concurrent application of both regimes thus provides the scope for a calibrated approach.[[fn:44]] On the other hand, international humanitarian law gives greater protection than international human rights law against certain specific threats in times of war.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "See Eian Katz, “Liar’s war”."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "A. Concurrent application of international human rights and humanitarian law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0036", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "The right to freedom of opinion and expression is enshrined in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Freedom of opinion is an absolute right, not subject to limitation, restriction or derogation, even during armed conflict.[[fn:45]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "B. Information manipulation under international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0037", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "Freedom of expression includes the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, true or false, offensive or enlightened, regardless of frontiers and in any media of one’s choice. It may be restricted only through measures that are lawful and strictly necessary to protect the rights and reputations of others, national security, public order, public health or public morals.[[fn:46]] The principle of legality requires that restrictions be made by laws that are clear, precise and public and do not confer undue discretion on officials. The principle of necessity requires the restriction to be proportionate and narrowly construed to achieve the legitimate aims set out in article 19 (3) of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "Article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "B. Information manipulation under international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0038", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "Disinformation cannot be prohibited under international human rights law unless it amounts to advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement to hostility, violence and discrimination. It may be restricted only if it meets the requirements of legality, necessity and legitimate objectives as set out in the Covenant. Falsity or manipulation of information is not in itself a sufficient ground for restricting freedom of expression. In most cases, the best antidote to disinformation is not legal restriction but the free flow of diverse and verifiable sources of information, including through independent, free and pluralistic media, trustworthy public information, and media and digital literacy.[[fn:47]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "A/HRC/47/25 and A/HRC/49/L.31/Rev.1."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "B. Information manipulation under international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0039", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "Freedom of expression protects propaganda like any other speech. It may be restricted under the same conditions as disinformation described above. Propaganda for war, however, must be prohibited.[[fn:48]] The prohibition is understood to be applicable only in relation to aggression or breach of peace contrary to the Charter of the United Nations and limited to incitement of war and not to propaganda during war.[[fn:49]] Interpreting ”war” as aggression precludes the misuse of this provision to crush internal disturbances, while limiting it to incitement of aggression allows States that have been attacked to rally support in self-defence. There is, however, confusion among some States and companies about its scope, which underlines the need for further clarification.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Article 20 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}, {"n": 49, "text": "See Andrei Richter, “The Relationship between Freedom of Expression and the Ban on Propaganda for War in European Yearbook on Human Rights 2015; see also submission of Article 19."}, {"n": 50, "text": "Submissions of Centre for Law and Democracy and Meta."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "B. Information manipulation under international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0040", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement to hostility, violence and discrimination is prohibited under international law, but States are not required to criminalize it. The Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, endorsed by the Human Rights Council, provides guidance on assessing the appropriateness of criminalization in the light of six factors, including the social context, the speaker’s status and intent, the content and form of the speech, the nature of the audience, the reach of the communication and the imminence of harm.[[fn:51]] The guidelines are equally applicable to conflicts as to other settings.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, appendix."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "B. Information manipulation under international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0041", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Incitement to discrimination, hostility and violence is also prohibited by the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, with criminalization required only in “serious cases”.[[fn:52]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Article 4."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "B. Information manipulation under international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0042", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "International law allows States to derogate from certain rights, including freedom of expression, during an emergency “which threatens the life of the nation”.[[fn:53]] While derogation gives a State greater licence to restrict expression, it does not mean that the right can be suspended without limits. Measures under derogation must be time-limited, proportionate and only “to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation”. They should not be discriminatory or inconsistent with the State’s other international obligations or violate the peremptory norms of international law. Furthermore, derogation does not allow any action to be taken that is “aimed at the destruction” of the right itself.[[fn:54]] Thus, even under derogation, the right to freedom of expression enjoys a degree of protection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "Article 4 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}, {"n": 54, "text": "Article 5 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "B. Information manipulation under international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0043", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "Manipulation of freedom of opinion deserves more attention from States and social media companies in the light of its gravity. Freedom of opinion enjoys absolute protection under international human rights law, whether in war or peace. Coercive, involuntary or non-consensual manipulation of the thinking process, such as indoctrination or “brainwashing” by State or non-State actors, violates freedom of opinion. Content curation through powerful platform recommendations or microtargeting, which plays a key element in amplifying disinformation and aggravating political tensions, is non-consensual manipulation of users’ innermost thinking processes in digitized form. As such, it amounts to a violation of the right to freedom of opinion.[[fn:55]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "See Evelyn Aswad, “Losing the freedom to be human” in Columbia Human Rights Law Review, 29 February 2020). See also A/HRC/47/25, paras. 33–36."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "B. Information manipulation under international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0044", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "International humanitarian law has been described as taking “a remarkably lenient approach” to information manipulation during armed conflict.[[fn:56]] 56 Disinformation campaigns including ruses or the manipulation of information in order to undermine the adversary’s will to resist, subterfuge and other forms of deception and propaganda are widely used by belligerents and are not unlawful under international humanitarian law. 50 Submissions of Centre for Law and Democracy and Meta. 51 A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, appendix. 52 Article 4. 53 Article 4 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. 54 Article 5 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. 55 See Evelyn Aswad, “Losing the freedom to be human” in Columbia Human Rights Law Review, 29 February 2020). See also A/HRC/47/25, paras. 33–36. 56 See Eian Katz, “Liar’s war”.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "See Eian Katz, “Liar’s war”."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "C. Information manipulation under international humanitarian law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0045", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "There are some limitations to manipulation of information under international humanitarian law.[[fn:57]] Perfidy (misleading acts designed to induce one side to extend protections of international humanitarian law to the adversary so that it can kill, injure or capture) is prohibited. Certain harmful consequences arising from information operations are also prohibited, such as threats of violence or attacks to spread terror among civilian populations, encouragement of violations of international humanitarian law or incitement to commit war crimes, and threats or orders that no quarter be given or that civilians be attacked. All forms of inhumane treatment, outrages against personal dignity or humiliating or degrading treatment are prohibited against persons who are not participating in hostilities.[[fn:58]] These rules apply to actions taken through any means, including as part of incitement, disinformation and propaganda campaigns on media or social media.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "See Robin Geiss and Henning Lahmann, “Protecting the global information space in times of armed conflict, Geneva Academy, February 2021, available at https://www.geneva-academy.ch/joomlatools-files/docman-files/working-papers/Protecting%20the%20Global%20information%20space%20 in%20times%20of%20armed%20conflict.pdf. See also Dapo Akande, “Oxford statement on international law protections in cyberspace: The regulation of information operations and activities”, Just Security, 2 June 2021, available at https://www.justsecurity.org/76742/oxford-statement-on-international-law-protections-in-the-regulation-of-information-operations-and-activities/."}, {"n": 58, "text": "Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, common article 3."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "C. Information manipulation under international humanitarian law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0046", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Some experts have questioned whether these limitations are adequate in the light of the nature and impact of disinformation campaigns using digital technology and social media that are directed at civilians rather than the military.[[fn:59]] This is a valid concern that deserves serious consideration from United Nations treaty bodies, States and international organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 59, "text": "See Geiss and Lahmann, “Protecting the global information space” and Eian Katz, “Liar’s war”."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "C. Information manipulation under international humanitarian law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0047", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "Uncensored and unhindered news media and the right of journalists[[fn:60]] to work safely and without fear are not only integral to the right to freedom of opinion and expression, but also key to countering disinformation, including in conflict settings. International human rights law protects the practice of free, independent and pluralistic journalism and the right of journalists to free expression,[[fn:61]] while international humanitarian law is silent on the issue.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 60, "text": "The term “journalist” includes professional journalists, analysts, media workers, bloggers and others engaged in journalism: see A/HRC/50/29, paras. 15–16."}, {"n": 61, "text": "A/HRC/50/29."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "D. Protection of journalists"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0048", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "International humanitarian law protects journalists as civilians. The deliberate killing of a journalist is a war crime.[[fn:62]] 62 The dissemination of propaganda by journalists, even though such activity supports a war effort, does not legitimize the targeting of journalists or media facilities.[[fn:63]] Journalists or media outlets may become a legitimate military objective if they participate directly in hostilities or incite war crimes or other international crimes.64 57 See Robin Geiss and Henning Lahmann, “Protecting the global information space in times of armed conflict, Geneva Academy, February 2021, available at https://www.geneva-academy.ch/joomlatoolsfiles/docman-files/working-papers/Protecting%20the%20Global%20information%20space%20 in%20times%20of%20armed%20conflict.pdf. See also Dapo Akande, “Oxford statement on international law protections in cyberspace: The regulation of information operations and activities”, Just Security, 2 June 2021, available at https://www.justsecurity.org/76742/oxford-statement-oninternational-law-protections-in-the-regulation-of-information-operations-and-activities/. 58 Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, common article 3. 59 See Geiss and Lahmann, “Protecting the global information space” and Eian Katz, “Liar’s war”. 60 The term “journalist” includes professional journalists, analysts, media workers, bloggers and others engaged in journalism: see A/HRC/50/29, paras. 15–16. 61 A/HRC/50/29. 62 Article 8 (2) (a), Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. 63 See Nils Melzer, Interpretative guidance on the notion of direct participation in hostilities under international humanitarian law (ICRC, Geneva, May 2009), available at https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/ assets/files/other/icrc-002-0990.pdf, See also submission of The Centre for Law and Democracy. 64 See International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Final Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO Bombing Campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, available at https://www.icty.org/en/press/final-report-prosecutorcommittee-established-review-nato-bombing-campaign-against-federal. 14/28", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "Article 8 (2) (a), Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court."}, {"n": 63, "text": "See Nils Melzer, Interpretative guidance on the notion of direct participation in hostilities under international humanitarian law (ICRC, Geneva, May 2009), available at https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/ assets/files/other/icrc-002-0990.pdf, See also submission of The Centre for Law and Democracy."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "D. Protection of journalists"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0049", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The challenge for the protection and safety of journalists in conflict settings is not one of legal gaps but the lack of political will and the failure of States and other parties to the conflict to comply with international law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "D. Protection of journalists"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0050", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "Digital technology has made it possible for information to be manipulated remotely and to impact human rights from across borders. However, extraterritorial application of international human rights law is a complex and controversial issue, raising concerns of sovereignty and security as well as human rights. Neither international human rights law nor international humanitarian law appear to have a clear answer to the thorny question of what are the responsibilities of States that inject, spread or sponsor propaganda, disinformation or incitement from across borders in conflicts to which they are not a party.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "E. Extraterritorial responsibility for human rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0051", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Under article 2 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, States parties are required to respect and ensure the rights in the Covenant to all individuals within their territory and subject to their jurisdiction. That provision has been interpreted by the Human Rights Committee to include both those who are in the territory and those who are outside the territory but within the effective control of the State concerned.[[fn:65]] On the other hand, the Human Rights Committee has also taken the position, in a case relating to transfer of physical custody, that a State may be responsible for extraterritorial violation of human rights if it is a link in the causal chain that made the violation possible.[[fn:66]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "CCPR/C//21/Rev.1/Add.13, para. 10."}, {"n": 66, "text": "CCPR/96/D/1539/2006."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "E. Extraterritorial responsibility for human rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0052", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "This decision suggests that the power of effective control should be considered not only over the person or the territory where they are located but over their human rights. Such an approach offers a possible route to accountability in situations where human rights violations are committed remotely using digital technology.[[fn:67]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "See Ido Kilovaty, “An Extraterritorial Human Right to Cybersecurity” in Notre Dame Journal of International and Comparative Law, vol. 10, No. 1."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "E. Extraterritorial responsibility for human rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0053", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "The General Assembly and the Human Rights Council have affirmed that responses to disinformation must be grounded in human rights.[[fn:68]] State responses range from policies and practices that promote the free flow of information in line with international human rights law to actions that seek to fight disinformation using measures that undermine human rights and to some situations in which the State itself is implicated in making, sponsoring and spreading disinformation, propaganda and hate speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 68, "text": "General Assembly resolution 76/227 and A/HRC/49/L.31/Rev.1."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0054", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "There are many examples of good practice by States to counter disinformation through measures that improve access to diverse and verifiable sources of information. These include robust laws and policies on access to information, transparency of governance, factual trustworthy public information and the promotion of independent, free, plural and diverse media.69 65 CCPR/C//21/Rev.1/Add.13, para. 10. 66 CCPR/96/D/1539/2006. 67 See Ido Kilovaty, “An Extraterritorial Human Right to Cybersecurity” in Notre Dame Journal of International and Comparative Law, vol. 10, No. 1. 68 General Assembly resolution 76/227 and A/HRC/49/L.31/Rev.1. 69 A/HRC/50/29.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "A. Promoting access to information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0055", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "A number of Governments, in particular those of Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden, have invested significantly in digital, media and information literacy to build social resilience against disinformation.[[fn:70]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 70, "text": "See Michael Forsman, “Media literacy and the emerging media citizen in the Nordic media welfare State” in Nordic Journal of Media Studies, 6 June 2020, available at https://www.sciendo.com/article/10.2478/njms-2020-0006."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "A. Promoting access to information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0056", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "At the level of the European Union, various legislative and policy measures have been launched to support member States in addressing the threats of disinformation, including the European Democracy Action Plan, the strengthened Code of Practice on Disinformation and a co-regulatory framework under the Digital Services Act. The European Union is also funding programmes to support civil society initiatives against disinformation, such as media and fact-checking projects.[[fn:71]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "Submission of the European Union."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "A. Promoting access to information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0057", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "There are various initiatives to support crisis response. One example is visa arrangements for the evacuation of independent journalists and human rights defenders from conflict-affected or repressive situations so that they can continue reporting, monitoring and fact-checking from abroad.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "A. Promoting access to information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0058", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "To some extent, all States, regardless of their political or ideological hue, produce and distribute propaganda. As noted above, State propaganda is not per se unlawful under international law. Concerns arise with propaganda for war or when the State uses false information in a way that people cannot distinguish facts from falsehood and that is likely to cause social harm or violate human rights. Under certain circumstances, State-sponsored propaganda or disinformation can amount to incitement of war crimes, as happened in Myanmar.[[fn:72]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 72, "text": "A/HRC/39/CRP.2; see also submission of Free Expression Myanmar."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "B. State-sponsored disinformation and propaganda"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0059", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "State-led or sponsored disinformation has a potent impact on human rights, the rule of law, democratic processes, national sovereignty and geopolitical stability because of the resources and reach of States and because of their ability to simultaneously suppress independent and critical voices in the country so that there can be no challenge to the official narratives.[[fn:73]] In a joint statement, the Special Rapporteur and equivalent mandate holders of regional organizations expressed their serious concern at the disinformation regarding the conflict in Ukraine in Russian State-owned media as well as the erosion of freedom of expression in the Russian Federation and the further tightening of media censorship, blocking of pluralist sources of information and suppression of critical voices in the wake of the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[[fn:74]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea is an extreme example of “ubiquitous” propaganda, tightly controlled State media and no independent or external media. See A/HRC/25/CRP.1, paras. 187 and 197–221."}, {"n": 74, "text": "See African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Inter-American Commission for Human Rights and Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Joint statement on the situation in Ukraine, 3 May 2022, available at https://srfreedex.org/joint-statement-on-the-situation-in-ukraine/; see also joint submission of Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Mass Media Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "B. State-sponsored disinformation and propaganda"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0060", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Digital technology has made it easier for some States and their agents, as well as non-State actors, to interfere in conflicts from across borders and spread disinformation in ways that make attribution and accountability problematic. 70 See Michael Forsman, “Media literacy and the emerging media citizen in the Nordic media welfare State” in Nordic Journal of Media Studies, 6 June 2020, available at https://www.sciendo.com/article/10.2478/njms-2020-0006. 71 Submission of the European Union. 72 A/HRC/39/CRP.2; see also submission of Free Expression Myanmar. 73 The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea is an extreme example of “ubiquitous” propaganda, tightly controlled State media and no independent or external media. See A/HRC/25/CRP.1, paras. 187 and 197–221. 74 See African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Inter-American Commission for Human Rights and Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Joint statement on the situation in Ukraine, 3 May 2022, available at https://srfreedex.org/joint-statement-on-the-situation-inukraine/; see also joint submission of Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Mass Media Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info. 16/28 Allegations of such “information operations” have been reported and hotly contested in conflicts in, for example, Libya, Mali, the Syrian Arab Republic and Yemen.[[fn:75]] 75", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 75, "text": "See Léa Ronzaud, Ira Hubert and Ben Nimmo “Capture the flag: Iranian operators impersonate anti-Netanyahu ‘black flag’ protestors, amplify Iranian narratives”, Graphika, 6 November 2020, available at https://graphika.com/reports/capture-the-flag; Africa Center for Strategic Studies, “A light in Libya’s fog of disinformation”, 9 October 2020, available at https://africacenter.org/spotlight/light-libya-fog-disinformation/; Graphika and The Stanford Internet Observatory, “More Troll-Kombat: French and Russian influence operations go head to head targeting audiences in Africa”, 2020, available at https://graphika.com/reports/more-troll-kombat; and Institute for Strategic Dialogue, “Digital investigation on Syria’s disinformation” in Deadly Disinformation: How Online Conspiracies about Syria Cause Real-World Harm (13 July 2022), available at https://www.isdglobal.org/digital_dispatches/isds-digital-investigation-on-syria-disinformation/."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "B. State-sponsored disinformation and propaganda"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0061", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "By fact-checking and providing diverse, verifiable information, independent, free and pluralistic media play a key role in countering disinformation and State propaganda. That is why it is worrying that the media have come under severe pressure in many conflict-affected or neighbouring countries. Measures include the expulsion of foreign media, the closure of local news outlets, prosecution under “false news” or national security laws that contravene international legal standards, and attacks against journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "C. Attacks on media and human rights defenders"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0062", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "Mali banned French media channels for spreading “false allegations” of human rights abuses by the army.[[fn:76]] Kyrgyzstan prosecuted a national independent media outlet for war propaganda because it disseminated an article on the border conflict with Tajikistan that did not match the official version.[[fn:77]] Digital activism was key to exposing abuses in the Syrian war. Earlier in 2022, the Syrian Arab Republic criminalized “fake news … that undermines the prestige of the State or prejudices national unity” and arrested people for communicating with social media sites outside the country.[[fn:78]] The Russian Federation adopted a law making it a serious criminal offence to publish any news about the war in Ukraine that differed from the official version. The total information blackout forced independent Russian outlets to suspend their activities or close down and Western media to leave or be blocked from reporting by the Russian authorities.[[fn:79]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "OHCHR, statement on “Concerns for independent media in Mali after shutdowns”, 29 April 2022, available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-briefing-notes/2022/04/concerns-independent-media-mali-after-shutdowns."}, {"n": 77, "text": "Submission of IFEX."}, {"n": 78, "text": "See Mark Frary, “Syria passes draconian cybercrime laws” in Index on Censorship, 6 May 2022, available at https://www.indexoncensorship.org/2022/05/syria-passes-draconian-cybercrime-laws/."}, {"n": 79, "text": "OHCHR press briefing on “Russia: UN experts alarmed by ‘choking’ information clampdown”, 12 March 2022, available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/03/russia-un-experts-alarmed-choking-information-clampdown."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "C. Attacks on media and human rights defenders"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0063", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "National security and counter-terrorism laws are often used to silence critical voices, including journalists, human rights defenders and political opponents. Many of those laws fail to meet the three-pronged test of legality, necessity and legitimate aims set out in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. For instance, Myanmar’s military Government has expanded its criminal law to include not only “false news” but new national security provisions that criminalize causing “hatred, disobedience or disloyalty towards the military and Government”.[[fn:80]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "See Shawn W. Crispin, “Bitter reversal: Myanmar military coup wipes out press freedom gains”, Committee to Protect Journalists, 28 July 2021, available at https://cpj.org/reports/2021/07/bitter-reversal-myanmar-journalists-jailed-imprisoned-military-crackdown/."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "C. Attacks on media and human rights defenders"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0064", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "The banning of a media outlet is a severe restriction of freedom of expression and rarely justified. The European Commission banned several Russian State-owned media outlets on the ground that they constituted a threat to public order and security by spreading disinformation and propaganda. The necessity and proportionality of the 75 See Léa Ronzaud, Ira Hubert and Ben Nimmo “Capture the flag: Iranian operators impersonate anti-Netanyahu ‘black flag’ protestors, amplify Iranian narratives”, Graphika, 6 November 2020, available at https://graphika.com/reports/capture-the-flag; Africa Center for Strategic Studies, “A light in Libya’s fog of disinformation”, 9 October 2020, available at https://africacenter.org/ spotlight/light-libya-fog-disinformation/; Graphika and The Stanford Internet Observatory, “More Troll-Kombat: French and Russian influence operations go head to head targeting audiences in Africa”, 2020, available at https://graphika.com/reports/more-troll-kombat; and Institute for Strategic Dialogue, “Digital investigation on Syria’s disinformation” in Deadly Disinformation: How Online Conspiracies about Syria Cause Real-World Harm (13 July 2022), available at https://www.isdglobal.org/digital_dispatches/isds-digital-investigation-on-syria-disinformation/. 76 OHCHR, statement on “Concerns for independent media in Mali after shutdowns”, 29 April 2022, available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-briefing-notes/2022/04/concerns-independentmedia-mali-after-shutdowns. 77 Submission of IFEX. 78 See Mark Frary, “Syria passes draconian cybercrime laws” in Index on Censorship, 6 May 2022, available at https://www.indexoncensorship.org/2022/05/syria-passes-draconian-cybercrime-laws/. 79 OHCHR press briefing on “Russia: UN experts alarmed by ‘choking’ information clampdown”, 12 March 2022, available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/03/russia-un-expertsalarmed-choking-information-clampdown. 80 See Shawn W. Crispin, “Bitter reversal: Myanmar military coup wipes out press freedom gains”, Committee to Protect Journalists, 28 July 2021, available at https://cpj.org/reports/2021/07/ bitter-reversal-myanmar-journalists-jailed-imprisoned-military-crackdown/. ban has been questioned in a region where independent media and fact-checkers are able to challenge disinformation and where other less drastic measures could have been considered.[[fn:81]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "A/HRC/50/29, para 62. However, the European Court of Justice upheld the broadcast ban: See RT France v. Council, available at https://curia.europa.eu/juris/documents.jsf?num=T-125/22."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "C. Attacks on media and human rights defenders"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0065", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "Journalists reporting from the frontlines play a critical role in debunking false information but are themselves at high risk of intimidation, harassment, abduction, violence and being killed for doing their job. The Security Council has condemned attacks against journalists and media workers and has called upon all parties to end such practices.[[fn:82]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 82, "text": "Security Council resolution 2222 (2015)."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "C. Attacks on media and human rights defenders"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0066", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "Targeted killing of a journalist is a war crime under international law, and yet, in 9 out of 10 cases, impunity prevails because of the lack of political will of States to investigate and prosecute.[[fn:83]] A recent case in point is that of Shireen Abu Akleh, a veteran Palestinian-American journalist who was shot dead on 11 May 2022 while covering an operation by the Israeli security forces in the occupied Palestinian Territory. Despite numerous calls, including from the special procedures, the High Commissioner for Human Rights and the Secretary-General, Israel has failed to open a criminal investigation or support an independent inquiry.[[fn:84]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 83, "text": "United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization concept on “Countering threats of violence and crimes against journalists to protect freedom of expression for all”, 2 November 2021, available at https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/concept_note_-_idei_2021_en.pdf."}, {"n": 84, "text": "Communication AL ISR14/2022."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "C. Attacks on media and human rights defenders"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0067", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "A number of States have enacted laws regarding intermediary liability and online content regulation that impose overly broad obligations on social media companies to monitor and remove user-generated content, including disinformation.[[fn:85]] For instance, China exerts comprehensive content control over social media, banning many foreign platforms, criticism of the Government, the Communist Party and religious or social issues deemed undesirable, licensing online bloggers and influencers, and most recently, proposing that platforms must review all comments on content before publishing them.[[fn:86]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 85, "text": "A/HRC/38/35, sect. III.A, and A/HRC/47/25, paras. 56–58."}, {"n": 86, "text": "See https://freedomhouse.org/country/china/freedom-net/2021; see also Zeyi Yang, “Now China wants to censor online comments” in MIT Technology Review, 18 June 2022, available at https://www.technologyreview.com/2022/06/18/1054452/china-censors-social-media-comments/."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "D. Social media regulation"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0068", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "Severe regulation of social media has been used to restrict expression relating to armed conflicts.[[fn:87]] In the Russian Federation, State authorities utilized existing as well as newly enacted regulatory measures to rapidly control information on the war in Ukraine.[[fn:88]] Meta reported that the authorities had issued takedown requests for warrelated content posted to Facebook, with which Meta did not comply.[[fn:89]] Authorities ultimately blocked Facebook and Instagram, as well as Twitter, in March[[fn:90]] 2022. 90 In addition, Google’s subsidiary in the Russian Federation filed for bankruptcy after its Russian bank account was frozen, reportedly in connection with banned content on 81 A/HRC/50/29, para 62. However, the European Court of Justice upheld the broadcast ban: See RT France v. Council, available at https://curia.europa.eu/juris/documents.jsf?num=T-125/22. 82 Security Council resolution 2222 (2015). 83 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization concept on “Countering threats of violence and crimes against journalists to protect freedom of expression for all”, 2 November 2021, available at https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/concept_note_-_idei_2021_en.pdf. 84 Communication AL ISR14/2022. 85 A/HRC/38/35, sect. III.A, and A/HRC/47/25, paras. 56–58. 86 See https://freedomhouse.org/country/china/freedom-net/2021; see also Zeyi Yang, “Now China wants to censor online comments” in MIT Technology Review, 18 June 2022, available at https://www.technologyreview.com/2022/06/18/1054452/china-censors-social-media-comments/. 87 Communication OL RUS 4/2019. 88 Joint submission of Mass Media Defence Centre, Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info and submission of Access Now. 89 Submission of Meta. 90 Joint submission of Mass Media Defence Centre, Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info. 18/28 its services, data localization requirements, and the restrictions that Google applied to Russian media outlets’ YouTube channels.[[fn:91]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "Communication OL RUS 4/2019."}, {"n": 88, "text": "Joint submission of Mass Media Defence Centre, Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info and submission of Access Now."}, {"n": 89, "text": "Submission of Meta."}, {"n": 90, "text": "Joint submission of Mass Media Defence Centre, Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info."}, {"n": 91, "text": "See Interfax, “Russian subsidiary of Google files for bankruptcy”, 17 June 2022, available at https://interfax.com/newsroom/top-stories/80331/."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "D. Social media regulation"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0069", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "States should not require platforms to enforce regulations that do not conform with international human rights law. Whether during conflicts or in other settings, the Special Rapporteur has recommended “smart regulation” of Internet intermediaries to ensure their compliance with human rights due diligence, meaningful transparency and due process requirements, rather than viewpoint- or content-based regulation.[[fn:92]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 92, "text": "A/HRC/47/25, para. 91."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "D. Social media regulation"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0070", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "The Human Rights Council has condemned Internet shutdowns unequivocally and urged States to refrain from them.[[fn:93]] Shutting or slowing down this vital means of communications aggravates rather than combats disinformation, propaganda or incitement.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 93, "text": "A/HRC/47/L.22, para. 11."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "E. Disruptions to the Internet and telecommunications"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0071", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "Access to the Internet is vital, especially in conflict-affected contexts where it may be the only avenue of communication with the external world. Internet shutdowns have been frequent in countries suffering from conflict, including Ethiopia, Myanmar, the Sudan and the Syrian Arab Republic, as a means for Governments to control the flow of information.[[fn:94]] The impact of the shutdowns and “throttling” or slowdowns can be devastating on people’s everyday lives. The disruptions also inhibit monitoring and reporting by human rights defenders and journalists. Correlations between shutdowns and abuses associated with military movements, demonstrations and coups are troubling.[[fn:95]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 94, "text": "See #KeepItOn, “The return of digital authoritarianism: Internet shutdowns in 2021”, April 2022, available at https://www.accessnow.org/cms/assets/uploads/2022/05/2021-KIO-Report-May-24-2022.pdf."}, {"n": 95, "text": "A/HRC/50/55, para. 27; see also submission of Access Now."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "E. Disruptions to the Internet and telecommunications"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0072", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "Under international humanitarian law, media facilities are civilian objects, even if they are disseminating propaganda in support of the war. They must not be targeted unless they are being used directly in hostilities. Nevertheless, telecommunications infrastructure or premises of media outlets have been bombed or shelled during conflict, including in Ukraine, Yemen and the Gaza Strip.[[fn:96]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 96, "text": "Submission of Access Now."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "E. Disruptions to the Internet and telecommunications"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0073", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "Overly broad sanctions by States and overzealous compliance by companies can interfere with online access and flow of information in sanctioned and sanctioning countries. The sanctions can be counterproductive by making it more difficult for the public, civil society and human rights defenders in these countries to access diverse sources of information, as has happened in the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Russian Federation, the Sudan and the Syrian Arab Republic, or for those elsewhere to know what is happening in the countries.97 91 See Interfax, “Russian subsidiary of Google files for bankruptcy”, 17 June 2022, available at https://interfax.com/newsroom/top-stories/80331/. 92 A/HRC/47/25, para. 91. 93 A/HRC/47/L.22, para. 11. 94 See #KeepItOn, “The return of digital authoritarianism: Internet shutdowns in 2021”, April 2022, available at https://www.accessnow.org/cms/assets/uploads/2022/05/2021-KIO-Report-May-242022.pdf. 95 A/HRC/50/55, para. 27; see also submission of Access Now. 96 Submission of Access Now. 97 Ibid. V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "E. Disruptions to the Internet and telecommunications"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0074", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "Social media platforms are highly susceptible to the spread of disinformation, propaganda and incitement given their reliance on algorithms to target users with particular content and recommendations, based in part on data collected about those users. Numerous reports from civil society, the media, researchers and international organizations have pointed to the role of social media in spreading State propaganda, extremist content and disinformation in Ethiopia,[[fn:98]] Myanmar,[[fn:99]] Ukraine[[fn:100]] and Yemen.[[fn:101]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 98, "text": "Submission of the Oversight Board (Raya Kobo case); see also Global Witness, “Now is the time to kill”."}, {"n": 99, "text": "Submission of Free Expression Myanmar."}, {"n": 100, "text": "Joint submission of Mass Media Defence Centre, Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info; see also Carl Miller “Who’s behind #IStandWithPutin?” in The Atlantic, 5 April 2022, available at https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/04/russian-propaganda-zelensky-information-war/629475/."}, {"n": 101, "text": "See Hannah Porter, “A conversation on fighting disinformation in Yemen”, Yemen Policy Center, March 2022, available at https://www.yemenpolicy.org/a-conversation-on-fighting-disinformation-in-yemen/."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "A. Social media in conflict settings"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0075", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "Among social media companies, Meta has drawn the most attention as a result of Facebook’s role in amplifying hatred and violence in countries such as Myanmar, where the independent international fact-finding mission appointed by the Human Rights Council declared Facebook to be “the leading platform for hate speech”.[[fn:102]] In the war in Ukraine, Meta set up a special operations centre with Russian and Ukrainian speakers and is working with local and international partners and fact-checkers to address information manipulation, but it has also deployed a singular “expression of self-defence” exception to its hate speech policies, which permits Ukrainian users to express resistance and fury against the Russian military.[[fn:103]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 102, "text": "A/HRC/42/50, para. 72."}, {"n": 103, "text": "See Meta, “Meta’s ongoing efforts regarding Russia’s invasion of Ukraine”, 26 February 2022, available at https://about.fb.com/news/2022/02/metas-ongoing-efforts-regarding-russias-invasion-of-ukraine/."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "A. Social media in conflict settings"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0076", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "Information manipulation is also prevalent on other platforms. One study found that YouTube had served as a heavily monetized, foundational source for crossplatform spread of disinformation and extremist content.[[fn:104]] 104 Twitter has faced criticism with respect to its role in a number of conflicts.[[fn:105]] 105 Content concerning the war in Ukraine, including disinformation, has increased significantly on TikTok.[[fn:106]] 106 Weibo similarly noted a rise in content inaccurately represented as originating from Ukraine and announced that it would enforce the automatic addition of geolocation to posts concerning the conflict.[[fn:107]] 107 Telegram, which has a hands-off approach to restrictions on expression, is used extensively in the Russian Federation and Ukraine 98 Submission of the Oversight Board (Raya Kobo case); see also Global Witness, “Now is the time to kill”. 99 Submission of Free Expression Myanmar. 100 Joint submission of Mass Media Defence Centre, Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info; see also Carl Miller “Who’s behind #IStandWithPutin?” in The Atlantic, 5 April 2022, available at https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/04/russianpropaganda-zelensky-information-war/629475/. 101 See Hannah Porter, “A conversation on fighting disinformation in Yemen”, Yemen Policy Center, March 2022, available at https://www.yemenpolicy.org/a-conversation-on-fightingdisinformation-in-yemen/. 102 A/HRC/42/50, para. 72. 103 See Meta, “Meta’s ongoing efforts regarding Russia’s invasion of Ukraine”, 26 February 2022, available at https://about.fb.com/news/2022/02/metas-ongoing-efforts-regarding-russiasinvasion-of-ukraine/. 104 See Paul M. Barrett and Justin Hendrix, “A platform ‘weaponized’: How YouTube spreads harmful content – and what can be done about it”, Stern Center for Business and Human Rights, June 2022, available at https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5b6df958f8370af3217d4178/t/ 62a38fc022745a7274601da0/1654886337000/NYU+CBHR+YouTube_Final_June10.pdf. 105 See Torinmo Salau, “How Twitter failed Africa”, Foreign Policy, 19 January 2022, available at https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/01/19/twitter-africa-ghana-dorsey-disinformation/. 106 See Sara Brown, “In Russia-Ukraine war, social media stokes ingenuity, disinformation”, MIT Sloan School of Management, 6 April 2022, available at https://mitsloan.mit.edu/ideas-made-tomatter/russia-ukraine-war-social-media-stokes-ingenuity-disinformation. 107 See Weilun Soon, “How China’s tech giants, from TikTok to Tencent, are reacting to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine”, Insider, 13 April 2022, available at https://www.businessinsider.com/howchinas-tech-giants-reacting-to-ukraine-crisis-tiktok-tencent-2022-3?r=US&IR=T. 20/28 by both the authorities and the public to circulate information regarding the conflict, including disinformation and propaganda.[[fn:108]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 104, "text": "See Paul M. Barrett and Justin Hendrix, “A platform ‘weaponized’: How YouTube spreads harmful content – and what can be done about it”, Stern Center for Business and Human Rights, June 2022, available at https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5b6df958f8370af3217d4178/t/62a38fc022745a7274601da0/1654886337000/NYU+CBHR+YouTube_Final_June10.pdf."}, {"n": 105, "text": "See Torinmo Salau, “How Twitter failed Africa”, Foreign Policy, 19 January 2022, available at https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/01/19/twitter-africa-ghana-dorsey-disinformation/."}, {"n": 106, "text": "See Sara Brown, “In Russia-Ukraine war, social media stokes ingenuity, disinformation”, MIT Sloan School of Management, 6 April 2022, available at https://mitsloan.mit.edu/ideas-made-to-matter/russia-ukraine-war-social-media-stokes-ingenuity-disinformation."}, {"n": 107, "text": "See Weilun Soon, “How China’s tech giants, from TikTok to Tencent, are reacting to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine”, Insider, 13 April 2022, available at https://www.businessinsider.com/how-chinas-tech-giants-reacting-to-ukraine-crisis-tiktok-tencent-2022-3?r=US&IR=T."}, {"n": 108, "text": "See Sara Brown, “In Russia-Ukraine war”."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "A. Social media in conflict settings"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0077", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "As the above-mentioned examples illustrate, the use of social media to amplify manipulated information in conflicts is widespread and growing. Companies need to ramp up action to prevent incitement to violence and other serious human rights violations while ensuring respect for freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "A. Social media in conflict settings"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0078", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "International human rights law and international humanitarian law are both applicable to companies in situations of armed conflicts. As stated in the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights,[[fn:109]] companies have a responsibility to respect internationally recognized human rights and to conduct their operations in ways that avoid causing or contributing to “adverse human rights impacts” and to prevent or mitigate such impact; adopt policies reflecting their commitment to respect human rights; carry out human rights due diligence; and provide processes for remediation of adverse human rights impacts they cause or to which they contribute.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 109, "text": "A/HRC/17/31, annex."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "B. Corporate legal standards during conflicts"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0079", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "Social media or telecommunications companies that provide the means to distribute information in a conflict setting may be sufficiently linked to armed conflict to trigger the application of international humanitarian law to their operations. Company personnel may be held liable for serious violations of international humanitarian law amounting to war crimes,[[fn:110]] either on the basis of direct action or corporate complicity.[[fn:111]] Moreover, they may lose their protection as civilians under international humanitarian law if they engage in activity that could be construed as direct participation in hostilities.[[fn:112]] In such situations, companies have a dual responsibility: first, to continue to respect freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to information, and second, to comply with international humanitarian law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 110, "text": "See Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, commentary on principle 23; OHCHR, The Corporate Responsibility to Respect Human Rights: An Interpretive Guide, 2012, available at https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Publications/HR.PUB.12.2_En.pdf; and ICRC, IHL database, available at https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule156."}, {"n": 111, "text": "A/HRC/50/40/Add.4, para. 34."}, {"n": 112, "text": "See Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977, article 51 (3) and OHCHR, The Corporate Responsibility to Respect Human Rights."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "B. Corporate legal standards during conflicts"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0080", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "The Working Group on business and human rights has called on companies operating in conflict situations (including pre- and post-conflict) to exercise heightened due diligence in line with the heightened risks.[[fn:113]] The United Nations has identified “increased inflammatory rhetoric or hate speech targeting specific groups or individuals” as a “red flag” that should prompt companies to initiate heightened due diligence.[[fn:114]] It has advised companies to identify and assess their actual or potential adverse impacts not only on human rights, but also on the conflict itself.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 113, "text": "A/75/212, paras. 13, 19–21 and 72; see also Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, principles 7 and 17."}, {"n": 114, "text": "See Gerald Pachoud and Siniša Milatović, “Heightened Human Rights Due Diligence for Business in Conflict-affected Contexts: A Guide”, United Nations Development Programme, 2022, available at https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/2022-06/UNDP_Heightened_Human_Rights_Due_Diligence_for_Business_in_Conflict-Affected_Context.pdf."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "B. Corporate legal standards during conflicts"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0081", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "Civil society organizations have emphasized the importance of synthesizing human rights, conflict sensitivity, technology ethics and human security frameworks in order to develop effective approaches for digital company operations in conflict 108 See Sara Brown, “In Russia-Ukraine war”. 109 A/HRC/17/31, annex. 110 See Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, commentary on principle 23; OHCHR, The Corporate Responsibility to Respect Human Rights: An Interpretive Guide, 2012, available at https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Publications/HR.PUB.12.2_En.pdf; and ICRC, IHL database, available at https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule156. 111 A/HRC/50/40/Add.4, para. 34. 112 See Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977, article 51 (3) and OHCHR, The Corporate Responsibility to Respect Human Rights. 113 A/75/212, paras. 13, 19–21 and 72; see also Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, principles 7 and 17. 114 See Gerald Pachoud and Siniša Milatović, “Heightened Human Rights Due Diligence for Business in Conflict-affected Contexts: A Guide”, United Nations Development Programme, 2022, available at https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/2022-06/UNDP_ Heightened_Human_Rights_Due_Diligence_for_Business_in_Conflict-Affected_Context.pdf. settings. They have also proposed that a model framework based on this approach be developed through a multi-stakeholder process.[[fn:115]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 115, "text": "See Jennifer Easterday, Hana Ivanhoe and Lisa Schirch, “Comparing guidance for tech companies in fragile and conflict-affected situations”, Policy Brief No. 125, Toda Peace Institute, March 2022, available at https://toda.org/policy-briefs-and-resources/policy-briefs/comparing-guidance-for-tech-companies-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-situations.html."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "B. Corporate legal standards during conflicts"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0082", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "The war between Ukraine and the Russian Federation and the actions by the Russian Federation to criminalize independent war reporting and ban media outlets jolted social media companies into an unprecedented level of action.[[fn:116]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 116, "text": "Telecom companies have also taken remarkable steps to maintain infrastructure in conflict-affected areas in Ukraine and provide refugees with free communication tools, and cloud services have kept access available to users."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "C. Company policies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0083", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "Almost all Western companies have left the Russian Federation or have been blocked. Some companies based in the United States of America have made widely reported announcements regarding their efforts to maintain Internet access in Ukraine and resist censorship and propaganda in the Russian Federation. Much less is known about their responses in conflicts in other parts of the world or about the policies and practices of companies headquartered outside Western Europe and North America. Not surprisingly, there are concerns about the consistency of companies’ policies globally and the depth of their commitment to human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "C. Company policies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0084", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "The published policies of companies on conflict and manipulation of information vary widely, with some continuing to evolve in response to developments on the ground. For example, Twitter has issued an official “crisis misinformation policy”, in which it is stated that the company “will take action on accounts that use Twitter’s services to share false or misleading information that could bring harm to crisis-affected populations”.[[fn:117]] Meta has developed procedures for handling “countries at risk”, which it has detailed in public posts,[[fn:118]] and is reported to be working on a conflict policy after disinviting its Oversight Board from advising on content moderation in conflict, citing safety issues.[[fn:119]] Other platforms, including Reddit, Snapchat and TikTok, have so far only opted to issue statements addressing concerns specific to particular conflict situations.[[fn:120]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 117, "text": "Crisis information policy, Help Center, May 2022, available at https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/crisis-misinformation."}, {"n": 118, "text": "Submission of Meta."}, {"n": 119, "text": "See Meta, “Meta withdraws a policy advisory opinion request related to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine”, 13 July 2022, available at https://transparency.fb.com/oversight/oversight-board-cases/ukraine-russia-pao; see also Oversight Board, “Protecting freedom of expression and human rights in Ukraine and Russia”, May 2022, available at https://oversightboard.com/news/382264103827624-protecting-freedom-of-expression-and-human-rights-in-ukraine-and-russia/."}, {"n": 120, "text": "See Upvoted, “Supporting Ukraine and our community”, 2 March 2022, available at https://www.redditinc.com/blog/supporting-ukraine-and-our-community; Team Snap, “We Support Ukraine”, 1 March 2022, available at https://newsroom.snap.com/we-support-ukraine/; and TikTok, “Bringing more context to content on TikTok”, 4 March 2022, available at https://newsroom.tiktok.com/en-us/bringing-more-context-to-content-on-tiktok."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "C. Company policies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0085", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "As noted by the previous mandate holder and reiterated by the present Special Rapporteur, companies should incorporate human rights standards as a default into their terms of service, content moderation policies, rule-making and enforcement.121 115 See Jennifer Easterday, Hana Ivanhoe and Lisa Schirch, “Comparing guidance for tech companies in fragile and conflict-affected situations”, Policy Brief No. 125, Toda Peace Institute, March 2022, available at https://toda.org/policy-briefs-and-resources/policy-briefs/comparingguidance-for-tech-companies-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-situations.html. 116 Telecom companies have also taken remarkable steps to maintain infrastructure in conflictaffected areas in Ukraine and provide refugees with free communication tools, and cloud services have kept access available to users. 117 Crisis information policy, Help Center, May 2022, available at https://help.twitter.com/en/rulesand-policies/crisis-misinformation. 118 Submission of Meta. 119 See Meta, “Meta withdraws a policy advisory opinion request related to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine”, 13 July 2022, available at https://transparency.fb.com/oversight/oversight-boardcases/ukraine-russia-pao; see also Oversight Board, “Protecting freedom of expression and human rights in Ukraine and Russia”, May 2022, available at https://oversightboard.com/news/ 382264103827624-protecting-freedom-of-expression-and-human-rights-in-ukraine-and-russia/. 120 See Upvoted, “Supporting Ukraine and our community”, 2 March 2022, available at https://www.redditinc.com/blog/supporting-ukraine-and-our-community; Team Snap, “We Support Ukraine”, 1 March 2022, available at https://newsroom.snap.com/we-support-ukraine/; and TikTok, “Bringing more context to content on TikTok”, 4 March 2022, available at https://newsroom.tiktok.com/en-us/bringing-more-context-to-content-on-tiktok. 121 A/HRC/38/35; A/HRC/47/25, sect. V. 22/28 However, with a few exceptions,[[fn:122]] companies seldom reference international human rights standards as a basis for their policies. Instead, they draw on their own numerous separate policies to craft responses to conflict-based challenges.[[fn:123]] This fragmented approach fails to provide much-needed coherence and predictability to platform practice and has the potential to undermine company compliance with international human rights law and international humanitarian law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 122, "text": "Meta has noted the applicability of the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, international human rights law and international humanitarian law. See submission of Meta. See also Meta, “Facebook Community Standards”, available at https://transparency.fb.com/policies/community-standards/, and Meta, “Corporate Human Rights Policy”, available at https://about.fb.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Facebooks-Corporate-Human-Rights-Policy.pdf. Twitter has noted the applicability of international humanitarian law. See Sinéad McSweeney, “Our ongoing approach to the war in Ukraine”, 16 March 2022, available at https://blog.twitter.com/en_us/topics/company/2022/our-ongoing-approach-to-the-war-in-ukraine."}, {"n": 123, "text": "See submission of Meta."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "C. Company policies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0086", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "Many of the problems identified below have been raised by the previous and current Special Rapporteurs and other stakeholders in relation to non-conflict situations. They are of added significance in conflict settings because of the higher risks to companies and greater vulnerability of users. While there have been efforts to improve crisis response and content moderation, major concerns, including about the business model itself, remain largely unaddressed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0087", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "Human rights due diligence. While details on the conflict-related due diligence carried out by companies are limited, there seems to be a mismatch between the allocation of resources and the seriousness of the problems,[[fn:124]] and a lack of timeliness in carrying out heightened due diligence. There is concern among civil society as to whether companies have put in place adequate processes to identify a particular operational context as presenting a potential risk of conflict.[[fn:125]] Since the outbreak of the war in Ukraine in February, several companies have created or reinforced conflict teams and are working on conflict-related policies and procedures, but concrete information on how they operate and what resources are being applied are sparse. Nor is it clear whether similar structures are being created for global application.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 124, "text": "A/HRC/47/25, paras. 74–76."}, {"n": 125, "text": "Submissions of JustPeace Labs and Article 19."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0088", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "Content moderation. In conflict situations, inadequate content moderation can fuel disinformation, propaganda and incitement and aggravate the violence. Platform users, civil society organizations and researchers report inconsistencies as well as serious failures in content moderation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0089", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "Reports indicate that companies have difficulty calibrating content removal in conflict settings, over-censoring in some situations while providing insufficient attention or displaying bias in some others.[[fn:126]] Civil society organizations have also complained that companies are susceptible to pressure from States asking for removal of content representing dissenting viewpoints in conflict situations.[[fn:127]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 126, "text": "Submissions of Access Now, Article 19 and the Oversight Board."}, {"n": 127, "text": "Submissions of 7amleh Arab Center for Advancement of Social Media and the Oversight Board; see also Access Now, “Sheikh Jarrah: Facebook and Twitter systematically silencing protests, deleting evidence”, 7 May 2021, available at https://www.accessnow.org/sheikh-jarrah-facebook-and-twitter-systematically-silencing-protests-deleting-evidence/."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0090", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "There is concern that companies have not allocated sufficient resources and expertise to review content in all relevant languages and with an understanding of local 122 Meta has noted the applicability of the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, international human rights law and international humanitarian law. See submission of Meta. See also Meta, “Facebook Community Standards”, available at https://transparency.fb.com/policies/ community-standards/, and Meta, “Corporate Human Rights Policy”, available at https://about.fb.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Facebooks-Corporate-Human-RightsPolicy.pdf. Twitter has noted the applicability of international humanitarian law. See Sinéad McSweeney, “Our ongoing approach to the war in Ukraine”, 16 March 2022, available at https://blog.twitter.com/en_us/topics/company/2022/our-ongoing-approach-to-the-war-in-ukraine. 123 See submission of Meta. 124 A/HRC/47/25, paras. 74–76. 125 Submissions of JustPeace Labs and Article 19. 126 Submissions of Access Now, Article 19 and the Oversight Board. 127 Submissions of 7amleh Arab Center for Advancement of Social Media and the Oversight Board; see also Access Now, “Sheikh Jarrah: Facebook and Twitter systematically silencing protests, deleting evidence”, 7 May 2021, available at https://www.accessnow.org/sheikh-jarrah-facebookand-twitter-systematically-silencing-protests-deleting-evidence/. circumstances in conflict settings.[[fn:128]] 128 Moreover, while companies incorporate both automated and human processes for content moderation, it is unclear how those processes are balanced, how well and according to what parameters automated processes have functioned or what level of local expertise is available for human moderation.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 128, "text": "Submission of Article 19."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0091", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "In addition to removing or blocking content, social media companies have also deployed tactics aimed at mediation of conflict-related content available to their users, for example, warnings, labels, fact-checking, suggestion of other sources, or reducing distribution of content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0092", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "Monetization. Reports have documented the extensive use of disinformation, propaganda and hate speech to generate revenue on social media platforms, thereby incentivizing the continued manipulation of information.[[fn:129]] Such monetization has taken place in spite of company policies that purport to limit the types of content deemed suitable for advertising.[[fn:130]] Recognizing that problem, the European Commission’s 2022 strengthened Code of Practice on Disinformation, which Google, Meta, Microsoft, TikTok and Twitter have signed, includes commitments dedicated to demonetization efforts.[[fn:131]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 129, "text": "See Karen Hao, “How Facebook and Google fund global misinformation” in MIT Technology Review, 20 November 2021, available at https://www.technologyreview.com/2021/11/20/1039076/facebook-google-disinformation-clickbait/."}, {"n": 130, "text": "See https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/6162278?hl=en#zippy=%2Cguide-to-self-certification; Help Center, “Content monetization standards”, available at https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/content-monetization-standards; Meta business advertising policies, available at https://www.facebook.com/policies_center/ads; TikTok advertising policies, available at https://ads.tiktok.com/help/article?aid=9552; and Snap advertising policies, available at https://www.snap.com/en-US/ad-policies."}, {"n": 131, "text": "European Commission, Strengthened Code of Practice on Disinformation, sect. II."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0093", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "Some social media companies have moved to restrict the monetization of certain conflict-related content, particularly in relation to the war in Ukraine (which has been affected by the application of sanctions).[[fn:132]] Research suggests, however, that companies’ advertising policies are not sufficiently comprehensive or adequately enforced and are not regularly updated to reflect global conflict developments.[[fn:133]] Indeed, the predominant focus of the companies on the conflict in Ukraine raises questions as to whether monetization in other conflict settings is being addressed proactively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 132, "text": "See YouTube channel monetization policies, available at https://support.google.com/ youtube/answer/1311392?hl=en; Meta, “Meta’s ongoing efforts regarding Russia’s invasion of Ukraine”, 26 February 2022, available at https://about.fb.com/news/2022/02/metas-ongoing-efforts-regarding-russias-invasion-of-ukraine/#latest; Sinéad McSweeney, “Our ongoing approach to the war in Ukraine”, 16 March 2022, available at https://blog.twitter.com/en_us/ topics/company/2022/our-ongoing-approach-to-the-war-in-ukraine; Twitter policy “State media”, available at https://business.twitter.com/en/help/ads-policies/ads-content-policies/state-media.html; Snap advertising policies, sect. 3.9, available at https://www.snap.com/en-US/ad-policies; Upvoted, “Supporting Ukraine and our community”, 2 March 2022, available at https://www.redditinc.com/blog/supporting-ukraine-and-our-community; and Rafael Frankel, “An update on the situation in Myanmar”, Meta, 7 December 2021, available at https://about.fb.com/news/2021/02/an-update-on-myanmar/. See also submission of Meta."}, {"n": 133, "text": "Submission of The Global Disinformation Index."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0094", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "Transparency and remedy. Digital platforms have struggled to provide meaningful transparency whether in peaceful or conflict contexts. In 2022, Ranking Digital Rights assessed that transparency reporting of 14 of the most widely used digital platforms had fallen short in providing essential context and granular data, as well as information on human rights due diligence and the development and deployment of algorithmic and targeted-advertising systems, including those used to 128 Submission of Article 19. 129 See Karen Hao, “How Facebook and Google fund global misinformation” in MIT Technology Review, 20 November 2021, available at https://www.technologyreview.com/2021/11/20/ 1039076/facebook-google-disinformation-clickbait/. 130 See https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/6162278?hl=en#zippy=%2Cguide-to-selfcertification; Help Center, “Content monetization standards”, available at https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/content-monetization-standards; Meta business advertising policies, available at https://www.facebook.com/policies_center/ads; TikTok advertising policies, available at https://ads.tiktok.com/help/article?aid=9552; and Snap advertising policies, available at https://www.snap.com/en-US/ad-policies. 131 European Commission, Strengthened Code of Practice on Disinformation, sect. II. 132 See YouTube channel monetization policies, available at https://support.google.com/ youtube/answer/1311392?hl=en; Meta, “Meta’s ongoing efforts regarding Russia’s invasion of Ukraine”, 26 February 2022, available at https://about.fb.com/news/2022/02/metas-ongoingefforts-regarding-russias-invasion-of-ukraine/#latest; Sinéad McSweeney, “Our ongoing approach to the war in Ukraine”, 16 March 2022, available at https://blog.twitter.com/en_us/ topics/company/2022/our-ongoing-approach-to-the-war-in-ukraine; Twitter policy “State media”, available at https://business.twitter.com/en/help/ads-policies/ads-content-policies/statemedia.html; Snap advertising policies, sect. 3.9, available at https://www.snap.com/en-US/adpolicies; Upvoted, “Supporting Ukraine and our community”, 2 March 2022, available at https://www.redditinc.com/blog/supporting-ukraine-and-our-community; and Rafael Frankel, “An update on the situation in Myanmar”, Meta, 7 December 2021, available at https://about.fb.com/news/2021/02/an-update-on-myanmar/. See also submission of Meta. 133 Submission of The Global Disinformation Index. 24/28 curate, rank or recommend content.[[fn:134]] 134 Transparency around government takedown requests, including their number, origin, target and whether the company cooperated, is also limited.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 134, "text": "See Afef Abrougui and others, “Key findings from the 2022 RDR big tech scorecard”, Ranking Digital Rights programme at New America, available at https://rankingdigitalrights.org/mini-report/key-findings-2022/; and Svea Windwehr and Jillian C. York, “Thank you for your transparency report, here’s everything that’s missing”, Electronic Frontier Foundation, 13 October 2020, available at https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2020/10/thank-you-your-transparency-report-heres-everything-thats-missing."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0095", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "The Oversight Board has noted the need for greater transparency on Meta’s enforcement of its content policies, broken down by country and language, as well as on government requests for content removal.[[fn:135]] These issues have emerged in relation to Meta because of the company’s decision to create the Oversight Board. Many other companies provide little or no information on their operations, much less a public channel of appeal and review.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 135, "text": "Submission of the Oversight Board."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0096", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "The 2022 strengthened Code of Practice on Disinformation of the European Commission, which complements and aligns with the regulatory requirements of the Digital Services Act, includes commitments to enhance transparency, improve access by the researcher community to platform data and release more information to users on the design of recommender systems.[[fn:136]] While such measures represent important progress, regularly updated transparency reporting specific to developments in at-risk or conflict-affected countries is also needed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 136, "text": "European Commission, Strengthened Practice Code on Disinformation, sect. VI, commitments 18–19."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0097", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "In addition, secure, straightforward access to appeals mechanisms and other lines of communication, followed by timely responses, is essential for users to contest or raise concerns regarding restrictions on expression in times of conflict, including with respect to the preservation of evidence. The strengthened Code of Practice includes a commitment to provide a transparent appeal mechanism that is timely, diligent and objective.[[fn:137]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 137, "text": "Ibid., commitment 24."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0098", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "Encryption, anonymity and account security. The use of encryption, anonymity and other privacy protocols can enhance user agency and security by preventing the collection of user data, censorship and non-consensual targeting of users with customized content.[[fn:138]] At the same time, platforms utilizing encryption are being used to spread hate speech and other inflammatory content. For instance, reports suggest that in Myanmar, as content moderation on Facebook increased, disinformation, propaganda and incitement became more pronounced on Telegram, with publicly accessible pro-military channels on the platform engaging in doxing.[[fn:139]] It is important for stakeholders to continue to assess methods for community moderation and reporting mechanisms on platforms that incorporate encryption that both emphasize user agency and comply with international human rights law and international humanitarian law.[[fn:140]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 138, "text": "See joint submission of Mass Media Defence Centre, Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info and submission of Center for Media Engagement, University of Texas at Austin."}, {"n": 139, "text": "Submissions of Free Expression Myanmar and Access Now."}, {"n": 140, "text": "Submission of Center for Media Engagement, University of Texas at Austin."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0099", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "Preservation of evidence. Preservation of evidence of violations during conflict deserves special attention by social media platforms given the importance of 134 See Afef Abrougui and others, “Key findings from the 2022 RDR big tech scorecard”, Ranking Digital Rights programme at New America, available at https://rankingdigitalrights.org/minireport/key-findings-2022/; and Svea Windwehr and Jillian C. York, “Thank you for your transparency report, here’s everything that’s missing”, Electronic Frontier Foundation, 13 October 2020, available at https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2020/10/thank-you-yourtransparency-report-heres-everything-thats-missing. 135 Submission of the Oversight Board. 136 European Commission, Strengthened Practice Code on Disinformation, sect. VI, commitments 18–19. 137 Ibid., commitment 24. 138 See joint submission of Mass Media Defence Centre, Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info and submission of Center for Media Engagement, University of Texas at Austin. 139 Submissions of Free Expression Myanmar and Access Now. 140 Submission of Center for Media Engagement, University of Texas at Austin. such data for accountability and justice processes.[[fn:141]] 141 Reports have emerged of social media companies opting to take down conflict-related content, including evidence of war crimes, because it contravenes their policies on graphic or violent images, and erring on the side of employing the fastest route to removal, without efforts to archive the material.[[fn:142]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 141, "text": "See Human Rights Center, University of California at Berkeley School of Law, and OHCHR, Berkeley Protocol on Digital Open Source Investigations: A Practical Guide on the Effective Use of Digital Open Source Information in Investigating Violations of International Criminal, Human Rights and Humanitarian Law (United Nations publication, 2022), available at https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2022-04/OHCHR_BerkeleyProtocol.pdf."}, {"n": 142, "text": "See submission of the Oversight Board."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0100", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "The information environment has become a dangerous, expanding theatre of conflict in the digital age. State and non-State actors, enabled by new technologies and social media platforms, have weaponized information to sow confusion, feed hate, incite violence, instigate public distrust and poison the information environment. The human suffering and damage to societal structures have gone far beyond the exigencies of war.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0101", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "Against this background, the Special Rapporteur draws six broad conclusions, which guide the specific recommendations for stakeholders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0102", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "First, the right to information should not be considered a legitimate target of war. It is a “survival right” on which people’s lives, health, well-being, safety and security depend in times of crisis and conflict. It is a human right and a public good to be nurtured and promoted for the safety, security, dignity and freedom of people. Democratic societies cannot flourish without access to diverse sources of information. Freedom of expression, which encompasses the right to information, is the basis for public trust that helps to prevent and resolve conflicts and facilitates peace, reconciliation and development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0103", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "Second, countering disinformation is vital for safeguarding human rights and restoring public trust, but it must be done in ways that are effective, not counterproductive. Censorship of critical voices, attacks on independent media and Internet disruptions do nothing to reduce disinformation and much to erode freedom of opinion and expression and degrade the information environment. All States must be unequivocal in their commitment to uphold the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and any action they take to counter disinformation should be grounded in international human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0104", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "Third, digital technology and social media have created a new paradigm that has exposed ambiguities, uncertainties and potential gaps in international legal standards that some States and non-State actors are exploiting with audacity and impunity to the detriment of human rights and humanitarian protection. The application of human rights principles alongside international humanitarian law should be reinforced so that the permissible limits of “ruses of war” are reinterpreted in a way that protects both civilians as well as the right to information that they need for their dignity and survival.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0105", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "The prohibition of propaganda for war should be interpreted narrowly to ensure that it does not infringe on the right to protest and criticize. Guidelines should be produced by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights for the use of States and companies.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0106", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "The issue of extraterritorial application of human rights should be revisited to take account of the digital threats to the right to freedom of expression and information from across borders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0107", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "Fourth, while the response of social media companies to the war in Ukraine has been commendable in many ways, they must do much more to ensure that policies and operational practices are applied consistently across the world and that enhanced human rights due diligence and impact assessment are timely and attuned to local contexts for all conflict settings in which the companies operate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0108", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "Fifth, it is essential to build social resilience against information manipulation by empowering rights holders and civil society. More attention should be given in fragile situations to media information and digital literacy, particularly for young people, women, the elderly and other marginalized groups, healthy community relations, community-based fact-checking, and education programmes to counter hatred, violence and extremism.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0109", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "Lastly, the challenges of the digital ecosystem must be tackled in an integrated way, with the collaboration of all stakeholders. It is essential to pursue a multidimensional, multi-stakeholder approach in which civil society and legacy media are fully engaged alongside States, international organizations and digital companies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0110", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "The obligation to respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of opinion and expression places upon States the duty to ensure a healthy information environment. In line with that duty, States must refrain from making, sponsoring, encouraging or disseminating false information to degrade the information environment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0111", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "During armed conflict, States must not use, disseminate or encourage third parties to disseminate information within or across borders in ways that could result, directly or indirectly, in inflicting harm on civilians, including war crimes, crimes against humanity or other violations of international humanitarian law, or incitement of hostility, violence or discrimination under international human rights law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0112", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "States must not disrupt the Internet or telecommunications, as that is an inherently disproportionate restriction of access to information. General sanctions should avoid the effect of limiting people’s access to the Internet or secure means of communication. Where necessary, States should provide exemptions to enable access to the Internet and the free flow of information to populations living under sanctions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0113", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "States should not prohibit or restrict disinformation, propaganda and “false news” or “fake news” unless they meet the requirements of legality, necessity and legitimate aim as set out in article 19 (3) or amount to incitement in line with article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. They must prohibit advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, or other international crimes. Criminalization of expression should be avoided except in line with the guidance provided in the Rabat Plan of Action.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0114", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "States must ensure that all derogation measures are strictly necessary and proportionate to meet exceptional situations, non-discriminatory, time-limited and tailored in scope to the exigencies of the crisis. Furthermore, the measures to restrict expression during emergencies should be declared as derogation under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights procedure to allow scrutiny by the Human Rights Committee.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0115", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "States should prioritize non-legal measures of countering disinformation and propaganda, starting with their own obligation to proactively disclose official data, encourage trustworthy fact-checking, promote access to diverse, reliable sources of information, ensure media, digital and information literacy and foster an enabling and inclusive environment for civil society to take initiatives to counter information manipulation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0116", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "States should fulfil their duty to ensure the right to information by increasing their own transparency and by proactively disclosing official data online and offline. All States must adopt and implement comprehensive laws on access to information or bring existing law, policies and practices into line with international and regional standards. Such laws should avoid unduly broad exceptions to the right to information on grounds of national security.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0117", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "The right to information includes access to information of all kinds, regardless of borders and through any medium of the person’s choice. States should respect and protect the right of individuals to receive foreign news and propaganda, unless such information has been restricted in line with the international human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0118", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "States should respect, protect and promote the independence, freedom, pluralism and diversity, including gender diversity, of the media at all times. They should comply fully with their obligations under international humanitarian law to protect all foreign and national journalists (defined according to international human rights law) as civilians in armed conflict. The media’s freedom of movement and freedom to report independently should be respected scrupulously.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0119", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "It is not lawful for States to compel media outlets, social media platforms or civil society organizations to disseminate only information produced or approved by the authorities during armed conflicts. Total information blackouts enforced with severe criminal punishment are not justified under international law even during states of emergency.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0120", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "States should investigate all attacks on journalists promptly, effectively, independently and impartially in line with the Minnesota Protocol on the Investigation of Potentially Unlawful Death. The United Nations should establish an independent international task force to support international and national efforts to prevent, investigate and prosecute attacks against journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0121", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 121, "n": 121, "text": "The International Criminal Court should review the persistent killings of journalists in conflict situations with a view to prosecution of war crimes where the national authorities are unwilling or unable to do so.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0122", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 122, "n": 122, "text": "States should not ask platforms to enforce measures in relation to content that do not conform with international human rights standards. State regulation of social media should encourage companies to ensure meaningful transparency, human rights due diligence and due process rights for users.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0123", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 123, "n": 123, "text": "Companies should develop specific comprehensive policies, processes and structures for operating in conflict settings, based on international human rights law and, where applicable, international humanitarian law standards that provide predictable, consistent and effective frameworks to address manipulation of information, ensure user security and establish mechanisms for remedy. The policies should be made available to all users in the language in which they engage with the platform.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0124", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 124, "n": 124, "text": "Companies should carry out heightened human rights due diligence and trigger enhanced risk management strategies in a timely way for pre-, post- or ongoing conflicts with adequate resources, language and contextual expertise, and engagement of civil society. Due diligence processes should incorporate robust analysis of the impact of the companies’ operations, products and services, including the business model itself, on conflict dynamics as well as human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0125", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 125, "n": 125, "text": "Companies should align content moderation to international human rights law and international humanitarian law standards, making every effort to uphold freedom of expression and access to information while preventing the dissemination of content likely to incite violence or violate other principles of international human rights law and international humanitarian law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0126", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 126, "n": 126, "text": "Companies should ensure that content moderation in conflict settings includes robust human review, incorporating expertise in relevant languages and local and regional contexts. Internal expertise should be complemented by partnerships with reliable fact-checking organizations and civil society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0127", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 127, "n": 127, "text": "End-to-end encryption must be protected as an essential facet of the enjoyment of freedom of opinion and expression. Companies should also carefully assess account security risks that are likely to affect users in conflict settings and provide enhanced security options.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0128", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 128, "n": 128, "text": "Companies should not only develop but also effectively implement policies to limit and track the monetization of harmful content linked to armed conflict.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0129", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 129, "n": 129, "text": "Companies should enhance transparency in conflict situations, including through regular publicly available transparency reports dedicated to specific situations. Such reports should include the granular details and context required to effectively assess the human rights impacts of company policies. Companies should facilitate the access of researchers to company data on the use of digital platforms during conflict.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0130", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 130, "n": 130, "text": "Companies should securely preserve all potential evidence of war crimes or other human rights violations perpetrated during armed conflict in accordance with international evidentiary standards and develop processes to share the evidence with appropriate national or international justice bodies.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0131", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 131, "n": 131, "text": "In conclusion, the Special Rapporteur reiterates the need for more research, analysis and multi-stakeholder dialogue to build consensus on concepts, policies, strategies and guidelines to address disinformation and other forms of information manipulation. As various initiatives are launched to examine these issues, the Special Rapporteur reiterates her call for a robust human rights approach and welcomes proposals from Member States, international organizations, companies and civil society on how her mandate can contribute to their efforts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The Commission on Human Rights established the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in its resolution 1993/45. The present report, submitted pursuant to Commission resolution 2002/48, is the fourth general report by Ambeyi Ligabo, who was appointed Special Rapporteur on 26 August 2002.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "Since the inception of the mandate in 1993, the notion of freedom of opinion and expression has constantly been evolving because of the advent of new technologies and the consequent increase of the demand for information. The universal availability of new tools for communication and information may give a great impetus to social advancement and to the dissemination of education and knowledge, thus widening the scope of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "Legislation on new technologies appears to be a major preoccupation, even in environments traditionally favourable to freedom of expression. It has also opened a large debate on the limit between the right to access to information and the right to privacy. Unfortunately, new and old technologies are increasingly used as more or less sophisticated tools for political propaganda, including racial discrimination and hate speech, thus contributing to the proliferation of polarization of ideas and ethnic tension.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "Issues addressed in this report include, inter alia, an update of matters analysed in the Special Rapporteur’s previous reports, in particular defamation, the security of journalists and an analysis of the outcome of the World Summit on the Information Society, held in Tunis from 16 to 18 November 2005.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "One of the most significant features of the Special Rapporteur’s mandate is the analysis of the communications received in order to identify new trends, to add new elements on issues already examined in previous reports and to focus the attention of the international community on policies, practices and measures having an impact on the respect for freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "As a rule, the Special Rapporteur studies and assesses information and communications coming from a plurality of sources - Governments, international, regional, national and local non-governmental organizations; associations of media professionals, writers’ associations, trade unions, members of political parties - and from all regions of the world. The quality and the quantity of information received are essential to the discharge of the mandate and are a significant indicator of the degree of implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur may also decide to take initiative motu proprio on issues of general concern that he considers relevant to his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Most of the cases received by the Special Rapporteur relate to violations against media professionals, human rights activists, political groups and their members. Lawyers, students,\nacademics and trade unionists are other categories subject to violations in addition to the ordinary citizen, especially as a member of a vulnerable group, such as women, peasants, members of ethnic minorities, and persons supporting and/or working with the above-mentioned categories.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The systematic repression of the most active sources of freedom of expression and opinion-making - journalists, trade unionists, social workers, students and teachers, writers and artists - often follows an identical approach in different countries around the world. While the extent of the repression, its duress and length may substantially vary, allegations received are not confined to countries where the political, social and economic situation is particularly difficult, but also concern violations occurring in transitional or long-established democracies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Repression in the form of blatant human rights violations can significantly differ, depending, inter alia, on the existence of the rule of law and its relevance in a given society. Therefore, the range of violations includes killings, enforced disappearances, arbitrary arrest and detention, mistreatments, threats and harassment, unfair trials and various types of judicial and administrative measures. Criminal charges, sentencing to prison terms and the imposition of heavy fines for defamation, libel and slander are still common, even though a few countries have adopted new legislation moving this category of offence under civil law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "From 1 December 2004 to 30 November 2005, the Special Rapporteur sent 497 communications: 312 urgent appeals, 242 of which were signed jointly with other Special Rapporteurs, and 185 allegation letters, 69 of which were signed jointly with other rapporteurs. Communications covered 1,291 individuals: 12 per cent of whom were women, 82 per cent men, while the remaining were institutions or enterprises. The table below reflects the geographical breakdown. Table 1 Region Number of communications Percentage Africa Arab Region Asia-Pacific Europe and North America Latin America and Caribbean", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is appreciative of all those Governments that, in a spirit of cooperation and understanding, answered his appeals and letters, thus exercising their right to reply (see E/CN.4/2006/55/Add.1).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "Table 1"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "In a joint statement dated 8 February 2005, the Special Rapporteur and eight other mandate holders expressed serious concern about the situation in Nepal in the aftermath of the dissolution of the legal Government, the proclamation of nationwide state of emergency, the suspension of constitutional guarantees and civil and political liberties.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "On the occasion of World Press Freedom Day - 3 May 2005 - the Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression, the Special Rapporteur for freedom of expression of the Organization of American States, the Representative on freedom of the media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights issued a statement in which they paid tribute to the courage and professionalism of the numerous journalists and other media professionals either killed or wounded on account of their professional activities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, together with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, the independent expert on the situation of human rights in Liberia, the Special Rapporteur on the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, the Special Rapporteur on the right to education, the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture, the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights and fundamental freedoms of indigenous people, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on the situation of human rights defenders, the Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living and the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of migrants, issued a statement, on 24 June 2005, in which they expressed their alarm regarding mass forced evictions in Zimbabwe and related human rights violations.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "On 15 July 2005, the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, together with the Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on the situation of human rights defenders, and the Chairperson-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention issued a statement in which they conveyed their concern at the continued refusal by the authorities of the Islamic Republic of Iran to provide the imprisoned journalist and writer Akbar Ganji with appropriate medical attention.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "On 16 September 2005, the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression issued a statement regarding again the situation of Akbar Ganji, in which he called on the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran to grant Ganji an unconditional amnesty on humanitarian grounds and to release him without further delay.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "In a press release dated 14 October 2005, the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression urged the Government of Tunisia, on the eve of the World Summit on the Information Society, to release unconditionally all press- and opinion-related prisoners and to allow the full exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in the country.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "On 16 November 2005, the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, together with the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers and the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on the situation of human rights defenders issued a statement dedicated at the deterioration of the human rights situation in the World Summit on the Information Society host country, Tunisia, with special reference to freedom of expression and association, and the independence of judges and lawyers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "On 15 December 2005, the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression issued a statement on the World Summit of the Information Society, which included some considerations on the future of Internet governance, notably the establishment of an intergovernmental organization.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Since his appointment, the Special Rapporteur has visited Colombia, Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Italy, and Serbia and Montenegro. He would like to thank again those Governments for their cooperation and expresses his appreciation to the Government of Serbia and Montenegro for extending, from 11 October 2005, a standing invitation to all thematic special procedures of the Commission on Human Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Country visits"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "In recent months, the Special Rapporteur has received invitations from the Governments of Guatemala, Honduras, The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Sri Lanka, Ukraine and, more recently, Algeria, Azerbaijan and the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his appreciation to these countries for their invitations and to reiterate the need for early and comprehensive planning in order to carry out visits within reasonable time and with mutual satisfaction. Therefore, he did not seek any further visits in 2005.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Country visits"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to restate that the full cooperation of Governments is an essential factor for a successful outcome of country missions. Governments should be open to dialogue with the special rapporteurs on issues that may come up before, during and after the visits and should guarantee free access to all people and places that special rapporteurs request to meet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Country visits"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "On 31 March 2005, the Special Rapporteur introduced his report (E/CN.4/2005/64 and Corr.1 and Add.1-5) at the sixty-first session of the Commission on Human Rights. In his presentation, the Special Rapporteur mentioned a number of issues that were of particular significance for his mandate: security of media professionals, media concentration and the implementation of the right to information, defamation, hate speech and the then-upcoming World Summit on the Information Society. He then updated the Commission on his past activities, including communications, which he implemented and those that he planned to carry out. Finally, he briefly mentioned the findings of his missions to Colombia, Serbia and Montenegro, and Italy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "During the sixty-first session of the Commission on Human Rights, the Special Rapporteur had the opportunity of consulting with representatives of the following countries: Algeria, Azerbaijan, Canada, Denmark, Guatemala, Honduras, Italy, The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Sri Lanka. He also held a long briefing with the press and non-governmental organizations immediately after his presentation before the Commission and met several other non-governmental organizations at OHCHR headquarters.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "The Special Rapporteur participated in the celebration of World Press Freedom Day on 3 May 2005, organized by UNESCO in Dakar. The theme of the Dakar meeting was the role played by the media in promoting democracy and good governance by ensuring transparency and\naccountability, promoting participation and the rule of law, and contributing to the fight against poverty. In his address, the Special Rapporteur stated that the World Press Freedom Day was an opportunity to remind the world of the importance of article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights protecting, inter alia, the freedom of the press at a time when the lack of security of media professionals, the consequences of media concentration and legislation on defamation could considerably endanger media freedom.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The Special Rapporteur was also invited to the International Press Institute World Congress and 54th General Assembly, held in Nairobi, from 21 to 24 May 2005, where he participated in a panel entitled “Pluralism and democracy, the African experience”. In his speech, the Special Rapporteur stated that the African continent was still marred by long and painful armed conflicts, ethnic divisions and a deficit in democracy. Decades of international and domestic mismanagement of resources have impoverished large parts of African societies. The prevalence of impunity of human rights violations was dictated by the lack of a comprehensive rule of law system and large deficiencies in the administration of justice. Yet, the quest for freedom of opinion and expression by all African peoples was higher than ever and the access to modern communication technologies may open new paths for human and economic development.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The Special Rapporteur attended the twelfth meeting of the special rapporteurs/ representatives, independent experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures and advisory services programme of the Commission on Human Rights, held in Geneva from 20 to 24 June 2005 (see E/CN.4/2006/4).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The Open Society Institute/Foundation’s Network Media Program and the United Kingdom’s Department for International Development (DFID) jointly hosted a major international policy forum in London, on 13 and 14 October 2005, for donors who work in the field of freedom of expression, communication and media support. The Special Rapporteur was also invited to the annual European Union/human rights non-governmental organizations forum on freedom of expression, held in London on 8-9 December 2005. Unfortunately, due to his tight schedule, the Special Rapporteur was unable to participate in those forums but he wishes to express his appreciation to the organizers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "The final phase of the World Summit on the Information Society, held in Tunis from 16 to 18 November 2005, was the conclusion of a long process that has seen strenuous debates around issues, such as global access and exploitation of Internet resources and enhanced dissemination and availability of information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "General considerations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "The Internet revolution has definitely opened a new era for freedom of opinion and expression, not only for the creation of innovative information and communication channels, but especially for the numerous opportunities for the dissemination of education and knowledge, elements that are at the core of human progress. Access to all sorts of databanks, including\nlibraries, in addition to media information could represent a decisive factor for the advancement of education and human development. Internet availability may have a terrific impact on the quantity and quality of information at the disposal of the most disadvantaged classes, especially the rural poor. Internet in remote villages and slums could replace or supplement schooling that may be difficult to access because of distance, lack of proper structures or their degradation. The international community at large, including private enterprises, should not miss the opportunity of providing a chance for substantial human and economic development in less favoured countries and populations through the exploitation of Internet resources.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "General considerations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Special Rapporteur observed that there was much emphasis and focus on purely technical and business matters in the Summit’s work while the link, and its numerous ramifications, between new technologies and human rights, was almost completely neglected. The main organizer, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), did not provide an environment conducive to debating human rights issues. Several non-governmental organizations raised a number of objections regarding the human rights situation of the WSIS host country.[[fn:2]] It should be noted that the decision to hold the second phase of the Summit in Tunisia was autonomously taken by Governments members of the Council of ITU, which in 2001 accepted the offers submitted by Switzerland and Tunisia to host the first and the second phases of the Summit in 2003 and 2005.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "After having examined material submitted by reliable sources, the Special Rapporteur together with other special procedures mandate-holders, intervened on the deterioration of the situation of human rights in Tunisia in connection with the holding of the Summit. Summaries of their action can be found in chapter I of this report under the title “Press releases”, and in document E/C.4/2006/55/Add.1."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "General considerations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The final phase of the Summit held in Tunis followed the path traced by the Geneva Phase with plenary sessions where chiefs of State and high representatives read formal statements of little substance. Only a few of them mentioned human rights and their link with Internet governance. Among non-State speakers, the Special Rapporteur wishes to commend the statement made by Aidan White, the Secretary-General of the International Federation of Journalists, on media freedom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "General considerations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The ground for discussion was more fertile in the numerous parallel events. The Special Rapporteur participated as a panellist in a meeting organized by the European Union entitled “Les Parlementaires européens rencontrent la société civile: les droits humains et la société de l’information” on the issue of Internet as a tool for development. In his speech, the Special Rapporteur said, inter alia, that Internet availability may encourage entrepreneurial spirit and promote fair trade; it may quickly provide support for humanitarian crises regardless to their size and extent; it may help research in many strategic fields for the progress and the welfare of human beings. Internet may supply replies and solutions to problems that otherwise could not be dealt with in a reasonable amount of time. Ultimately, it may give a crucial contribution in saving lives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "General considerations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The Special Rapporteur was impressed by the presentation made at the WSIS of a computer model to be sold for US$ 100, specially conceived for the upgrading of education tools in less developed countries and areas. This kind of equipment, with the increasing availability of software free of charges might really give a terrific boost to the dissemination of information, knowledge and education throughout the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "General considerations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The “Connect the World” initiative launched by ITU in June 2005, in partnership with the public and private sectors working in the field of communications, targets villages - ITU\nestimates that 30 per cent of villages worldwide are still without any kind of connection. Its main purpose is to bring access to information and communication technologies to approximately one billion people, living in remote and less remote areas, by 2015.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "General considerations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "A private, non-profit corporation, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), based in the United States of America, has so far allocated Internet domain names on a purely technical basis. It is thus conceivable that Governments could propose the creation of an intergovernmental organization to govern Internet matters globally. One of the main goals of this new organization would be to promote the use of Internet and other modern technologies for non-profit purposes, such as the dissemination of information, education and knowledge.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "Suitability of an intergovernmental body focused on Internet governance"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "Internet is a unique opportunity for opening all peoples to an increasing exchange of information, opinions and ideas. Moreover, the worldwide availability of Internet resources might greatly contribute to economic, social and cultural progress, particularly in developing countries. Private corporations, which have been playing a crucial role in the promotion of modern technologies, the United Nations, States and civil society will have to cooperate closely in order to make sure that human rights will be a fundamental and unavoidable component of the future of Internet governance. Should it entail high costs for regular customers, the digital divide will become deeper, and the capacity of Internet and other technologies to provide information and other basic services would ultimately be wasted.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "Suitability of an intergovernmental body focused on Internet governance"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The establishment of an intergovernmental organization on Internet governance would also make it easier to deal with the proliferation, through worldwide availability of Internet resources, of websites that could increase the phenomena of child pornography and prostitution, the sexual exploitation of women, racial discrimination, xenophobia, hate speech and similar grave human rights violations.", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "Suitability of an intergovernmental body focused on Internet governance"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "Regional and national authorities, in order to prevent or minimize this risk, can implement all legal means without restricting freedom of opinion and expression in other fields. While international collective action is always advisable, States should be ready to act independently: crimes such as child pornography and hate speech may effectively be thwarted through, among other initiatives, the establishment of special units working on cybercrimes.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "Suitability of an intergovernmental body focused on Internet governance"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "The Special Rapporteur received numerous reports of harassment, arrest, trial and detention of Internet writers in several countries, especially in the Asian continent where Internet use is widely popular. Law-enforcement agencies closed several websites and arrested ordinary customers and bloggers, who have subsequently been charged of opinion-related offences, such as defamation or slander, and terrorist-like activities such as “acts against State security”. It is highly probable that some Governments would exercise pressure within any intergovernmental body with global jurisdiction on Internet governance and that the present level of freedom of expression could not be maintained. Therefore, such an institution must be solidly anchored to the principles of freedom of opinion and expression as enshrined in international human rights instruments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "Suitability of an intergovernmental body focused on Internet governance"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to endorse the joint declaration of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Representative on freedom of the media and the non-governmental organization Reporters Without Borders on guaranteeing media freedom on the Internet, made on 21 June 2005. The six articles of the declaration well define basic principles for open Internet governance, especially with respect to the rights and prerogatives of media to be extended to online journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "Suitability of an intergovernmental body focused on Internet governance"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "In July 2005, the European Parliament took a significant stand on violation of privacy rights and the “rights relating to the personality”: the law of the country to which the publication or broadcasting service is principally directed and the country in which editorial control is exercised will govern rights relating to the personality affirming claims for infringement of these rights. The Parliament’s decision means that, in most cases, journalists could be sued in no more than two countries and that the claimant cannot freely choose a country with a more restrictive approach on press freedom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "Suitability of an intergovernmental body focused on Internet governance"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The Special Rapporteur noted that several organizations released statements on Internet governance. The declaration signed by the Committee to Protect Journalists, the Inter American Press Association, the International Association of Broadcasting, the International Press Institute, the World Association of Newspapers and the World Free Press Committee, meeting in Belgrade for World Press Freedom Day on 3 May 2004, reflects the preoccupation of a large portion of media professionals about the future of Internet governance and the increasing pressure of Governments on Internet providers, online journalists, bloggers and ordinary customers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "Suitability of an intergovernmental body focused on Internet governance"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "Freedom of opinion and expression is an essential element of all societies.[[fn:3]] It allows the ordinary citizen to participate in public life in a constructive way, through the gathering of information, data and information analysis, which contribute to the citizen’s awareness and ability to form opinions. Having collected information, the citizen can make his/her own assessment on public matters and fully participate in several aspects of the decision-making process, for example the right to vote, thus exercising his/her right to express his/her views. Governments and national authorities should guarantee that the citizen receives a maximum of information on any subject he/she wishes and that, if needed, he/she can challenge any decision that, in his/her opinion, entangle his/her rights to information, thus to the negation of his/her right to personal development and dignity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Freedom of opinion and expression “is applicable not only to ‘information’ or ‘ideas’ that are favourably received or regarded as inoffensive or as a matter of indifference, but also to those that offend, shock or disturb the State or any sector of the population. Such are the demands of pluralism, tolerance and broadmindedness without which there is no ‘democratic society’.” European Court of Human Rights, Handyside v. United Kingdom, 7 December 1976, Application No. 5493/72, 1 EHRR 737, para. 49."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "Defamation is an intentional false communication that injures another person’s reputation, being the communication without the consent of the allegedly defamed person. Slander and libel are two forms of defamation. Slander is commonly identified as a defamatory statement expressed in oral form, while libel is a written defamation. Generally, radio and television broadcasts that are defamatory are considered to be libel, rather than slander, because the majority of programmes are recorded so that the defamatory statement can be retrieved. Insult laws - known as desacato laws in Spanish-speaking countries - make it a criminal offence to “insult” the honour or dignity of public officials through both oral and written statements.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "The right to freedom of expression is probably the most striking example of the difficult balance between different freedoms and rights and their interdependence. While imparting and\nseeking information may have different purposes, the right to freedom of expression, especially when exercised by the press, can at times collide with the right to privacy. International instruments and national legislation provide a variety of responses to the conflicts that can arise from the exercise of freedom and rights, and on the way in which these kinds of conflicts should be dealt with.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "Important aspects to take into consideration when discussing defamation issues are the right to criticize and the right to privacy. The right to criticize is a fundamental part of freedom of expression and of the correct functioning of a democratic society, especially on matters of public interest. Of course, this exercise can also involve criticism of individuals, particularly States’ high-ranking officials and political personalities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "There are a few legitimate limitations on the exercise of the freedom of expression, which, as set out in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, “carries with it special duties and responsibilities” (art. 19). Accordingly, it may be subject to certain restrictions, provided by law and necessary for respect of the rights or reputations of others and for the protection of national security or of public order, or of public health or morals. Yet, the restrictions should not put the right in jeopardy. Defamation laws should strike a balance between the right to privacy, and more specifically the right to protect one’s reputation, with the rights to freedom of speech and access to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The right to reply balances the exercise of the right to criticize. The Convention on the International Right of Correction[[fn:4]] was the product of an historical period, the so-called “cold war” era, and while the convention seems applicable to countries parties to it and their representatives, its application to disputes involving ordinary citizens, in their private capacity, seems questionable. By all means, defamation laws cannot be justified on the grounds that they help maintain public order, national security or friendly relations with foreign States or Governments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "The Convention was opened for signature on 16 December 1952, entered into force on 24 August 1962. The approach promoted by the Convention was to offer to those, notably States, directly affected by reports, which they considered false or distorted the “possibility of ensuring commensurate publicity” for their corrections."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "International norms, and in several countries domestic legislation also, prevent Governments, political and economic lobbies from restricting freedom of speech, as part of the right to freedom of expression. Yet they may find it convenient to use defamation laws to sanction the allegedly harmful effects of criticism. It should be noted that the right to reply and the right to protect one’s own reputation, including the possibility of seeking remedial action, are generally well covered by regional instruments, such as the American Convention on Human Rights in its articles 13 and 14.[[fn:5]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Article 13: … 2. The exercise of the right provided for in the foregoing paragraph [freedom of opinion and expression] shall not be subject to prior censorship but shall be subject to subsequent imposition of liability, which shall be expressly established by law to the extent necessary to ensure: a. respect for the rights or reputations of others; Article 14: 1. Anyone injured by inaccurate or offensive statements or ideas disseminated to the public in general by a legally regulated medium of communication has the right to reply or to make a correction using the same communications outlet, under such conditions as the law may establish. 2. The correction or reply shall not in any case remit other legal liabilities that may have been incurred. 3. For the effective protection of honor and reputation, every publisher, and every newspaper, motion picture, radio, and television company, shall have a person responsible who is not protected by immunities or special privileges."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "The issue of the decriminalization of defamation and similar offences has been comprehensively discussed at international meetings at which experts drafted principles and guidelines for action. In recent years, several countries replaced criminal defamation laws with appropriate civil defamation laws, a measure that also allows reducing the workload and costs of overburdened judiciary systems. Unfortunately, some of these countries did not abolish offences such as those that “insult to national institutions and or national symbols” which can easily be used in relation to allegedly defamatory statements.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation", "Decriminalization of defamation and similar offences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "The threat of criminal sanctions, in particular imprisonment, exerts a chilling effect on freedom of expression. Prison sentences, suspended prison sentences, suspension of the right to express oneself through any particular form of media or to practise journalism or any other profession, excessive fines and other harsh criminal penalties should never be available as a sanction for breach of defamation laws.[[fn:6]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See for instance the views of the Human Rights Committee under the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Victor Ivan Majuwana Kankanamge v. Sri Lanka, Human Rights Committee, eightyfirst session, 530 July 2004, communication No. 909/2000: Sri Lanka. 26/08/2004. CCPR/C/81/D/909/2000."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation", "Decriminalization of defamation and similar offences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "In December 2000, Abid Hussain, then Special Rapporteur on the right of freedom of opinion and expression, the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media, and the OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression recommended that member States review their defamation laws in order to ensure that they did not restrict the right to freedom of opinion and expression and to bring them into line with their international obligations. In particular, they insisted on the repeal of criminal defamation laws in favour of civil laws and the repeal of laws, such as desacato laws, which provide special protection for public figures.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See E/CN.4/2001/64, para. 48. Available at www.ohchr.org."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation", "Decriminalization of defamation and similar offences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "The participants at the conference on libel and insult laws, organized by the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) representative on freedom of the media and Reporters Without Borders, held in Paris in November 2003, recommended, inter alia, that Governments should support the decriminalization of libel and the repeal of the so-called insult laws, particularly to the extent that they provide special protection for the honour and dignity of public officials. They recommended to legislatures that criminal libel and defamation laws should be repealed, where necessary, with appropriate civil laws. They also recommended judicial bodies to interpret narrowly what is considered to be defamatory and, to the extent possible, this consideration should be limited to statements of facts and not opinions.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Reporters Without Borders, “Libel and insult laws: What more can be done to decriminalize libel and repeal insult laws?”, Recommendations, 25 November 2003."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation", "Decriminalization of defamation and similar offences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to endorse efforts toward the decriminalization of defamation and similar offences. Any criminal defamation laws still in force should include the principle that no one should be convicted for criminal defamation unless the party claiming to be defamed proves that the impugned statements are false and that they were made with actual knowledge of their falsity. As pointed out above, defamation laws should guarantee the protection of the right to privacy, especially the protection of reputations. However, in many countries defamation laws are frequently used to stifle public debate about matters of general concern, and to limit criticism of officials. Public officials and authorities should not take part in the initiation or prosecution of criminal defamation cases and should not be granted greater protection than the ordinary citizen; they should instead tolerate more criticism because of the nature of their mandate.[[fn:9]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Article 19, Defining defamation: Principles on Freedom of Expression and Protection of Reputation, International Standard Series, July 2000, London."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation", "Decriminalization of defamation and similar offences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "Press freedom is one of the pillars of a democratic society. Consequently, States have the primary responsibility to ensure protection and security of journalists and are also responsible for ensuring that crimes against media professionals are brought to justice. Comprehensive and pluralist information can only be guaranteed if media professionals are allowed to work with sufficient protection and security.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Security and protection of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "According to a reliable source, the International News Safety Institute (INSI),[[fn:10]] as of 1 December 2005, 86 journalists and 5 media staff had been killed since the beginning of the year, making 2005 one of the most dangerous years for media professionals in the last decade.\nWhile final data for 2005 will be available only at the beginning of 2006, other press institutions and associations offer figures that nonetheless confirm the trend suggested by INSI. Other discrepancies between figures could be justified by a different evaluation of press professionals’ status, such as belonging to a press association and/or to organizations defending human rights. Unfortunately, as in 2004, Iraq and the Philippines proved to be the deadliest countries for media workers in 2005, with almost half of the killings perpetrated. According to another reliable source, the Committee to Protect Journalists,[[fn:11]] China, Cuba, Eritrea and Ethiopia detained a large majority of the 125 media professionals behind bars worldwide as of 1 December 2005.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See www.newssafety.com."}, {"n": 11, "text": "See www.cpj.org."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Security and protection of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "Media professionals killed during military operations can either fall in the crossfire or be specifically targeted because of their work. The Special Rapporteur also received allegations concerning military operations that would principally have targeted media professionals. Many other journalists are killed while investigating corruption cases and alleged mismanagement by States’ officials, or by criminal organizations acting with or without the support of States’ apparatus.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Security and protection of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has been following with appreciation and interest efforts concerning the creation of a press emblem, as well as the drafting of an international instrument on the protection of journalists promoted by the Press Emblem Campaign.[[fn:12]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "See www.pressemblem.ch."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Security and protection of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Likewise, the Special Rapporteur believes that the proposal made by the International Federation of Journalists and the International News Safety Institute for a resolution of the Security Council on the protection of journalists is worth careful consideration.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "A draft text of this resolution was adopted by the World Electronic Media Forum, held on 16 November 2005 within the World Summit on the Information Society, and subsequently presented to the SecretaryGeneral."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Security and protection of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "In the Special Rapporteur’s opinion, there is a need for international guidelines and rules, which could be drafted with the Commission on Human Rights (or any body succeeding the Commission) and subsequently adopted by the General Assembly, concerning the protection and the security of journalists and media staff. Before that, the Commission should convene a group of experts to prepare a wide-ranging study on the causes and consequences of violence against journalists and legal remedies available.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "Article 79 of the First Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, as adopted by the Diplomatic Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law applicable in Armed Conflicts in June 1977, is the most relevant international legal provision regarding the protection of journalists in areas of armed conflicts."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Security and protection of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "The Special Rapporteur reiterates that the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and the ancillary rights to freedom of association and assembly, are fundamental and inalienable rights that contribute to the consolidation of democracy and to socio-economic development. Any obstacle to the free circulation of ideas and individuals limits freedom of expression and its positive consequences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "Violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression may occur in all regions and countries, whatever their system, and may have diverse forms and shape. Democracy and freedom of opinion and expression mutually reinforce each other and their joint actions facilitate the promotion of the indivisibility and interdependence of all human rights. Only true democratic regimes can guarantee a fertile ground for a thriving information society and effective remedial action for its protection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "In spite of some progress, numerous trends and violations patterns remain substantially active and unchanged. The Special Rapporteur gathered information and examined a number of specific issues in depth: media security and protection, national legislation on defamation, Internet governance and its relation with the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes that, generally speaking, the current international situation has had a negative effect on freedom of opinion and expression, and on freedom of movement especially. While reiterating his total and unconditional condemnation of terrorism, the Special Rapporteur observes that several Governments have enforced preventive anti-terrorism legislation, thus de facto allowing the reintroduction of practices that are prohibited under international human rights law. With regard to information, the arrest and detention of media professionals have increased, together with the closing of media enterprises and censorship of publications and programmes. Also, the right to association, especially trade unionism, has negatively been affected by anti-terrorism measures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to pay tribute to the numerous dedicated media professionals who, regardless of poor security conditions, through their work have contributed to offer exhaustive and multifaceted information to the public. They are the best examples of professionalism and ethical conduct, which prevent media to become involved in political speculations and to be instruments of warfare.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "In the last decade, the rate of killings and other forms of violence against media professionals has been tragically high. In parallel, the request for international legal norms, which would cover security and protection for media professionals, has come back on the agenda after a long period of obliviousness. Such norms would also help in the identification and adequate punishment of perpetrators of crimes against journalists, who often escape from any kind of legal procedure. In addition, States would be compelled to act in accordance with international norms, particularly with regard to crimes committed by law enforcement officials and paramilitary groups.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "The Special Rapporteur believes that the information society should totally uphold basic human rights principles and not be the mere reflection of the world nowadays. In this connection, respect and promotion are key words. On the one hand, respect for human rights in general, for the human being, respect for women and children, respect for minorities, the elderly, the disabled and other vulnerable groups. On the other hand, the concept of promotion concerns the upgrading of the rights of the above-mentioned categories and any effort towards increasing tolerance and understanding, the end of all forms of discrimination, the struggle against racism and its subsidiaries like ethnic conflicts, mass executions and genocide.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "The Special Rapporteur believes that guaranteeing freedom of opinion and expression on the Internet, and other new communication tools, is the central challenge for the future. The realization of a global information society, in which the poor can also have access to modern technologies, may represent a leap forward for mankind, opening new paths for human and economic development. Should the information society miss the opportunity to make technologies available globally, the social and economic cleavage between developed and developing countries will become deeper than in the past.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "In the Special Rapporteur’s opinion, bearing in mind the vital role played by the media in creating broad awareness of political, economic and social issues, the fact that many journalists went on trial on defamation charges remains totally unacceptable. Elected officials and authorities officials should be conscious that, because of their role, they attract the attention of the press in the implementation of their functions.[[fn:15]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "E/CN.4/2000/63, paras. 4552."}], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes, on the one hand, that several media outlets use information received from governmental sources on terrorism and anti-terrorist activities, without sufficient control and verification. This behaviour often creates alarm and distress in the population and may ultimately bias judicial proceedings against presumed terrorists. On the other hand, Governments increasingly adopt national security legislation to restrict, partially or totally, freedom of opinion and expression and the right to access to information on the ground that the work of the media will support, either directly or indirectly, terrorist activities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "The Special Rapporteur encourages Governments to review existing practices related to all fields of freedom of opinion and expression and to take, whenever necessary, remedial actions in order to ensure conformity to international human rights instruments. In a period of international tension and distress, the Special Rapporteur recommends that Governments consider the protection of freedom of opinion and expression, freedom of the press, political parties, trade unions, students, teachers, social workers, writers and artists as one of the best ways to fight against the spreading violence and to guarantee lasting stability. As appropriate, Governments may also consider the possibility of seeking technical assistance from OHCHR in order to examine the causes of human rights violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "The Special Rapporteur invites Governments to consider the opportunity of establishing an independent authority on communications and a media ombudsperson, which could respectively be entrusted with the implementation of relevant laws and regulations and with a mediator’s functions with regard to media offences, without having recourse to criminal law. Such an authority could also be entrusted with the task of preventing the phenomenon of media concentration, in particular the creation of a monopoly that could gravely endanger the pluralism of information, affect the independence of media and increase the cost of information. The joint action of the authority on communications and the media ombudsperson could ultimately ensure that the exercise of freedom of opinion and expression through the media is open and accessible to various actors from civil society, local communities and minorities, vulnerable groups, in addition to economic and political groups.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "The Special Rapporteur urges States to take initiatives to counter the decline of the print media in favour of the development of the television-radio sector and of Internet. Print media are a fundamental instrument for the dissemination of ideas and opinions and, at the same time, they educate the reader to develop a critical approach and to analyse the information provided.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "The Special Rapporteur urges independent media authorities and media associations to take initiatives to stop the use of forms of expression characterized by discriminatory connotations of ethnic and other vulnerable groups. Hate speech and similar forms of expression are a poison for democracy and its institutions, and they also endanger media credibility. Likewise, action should be taken against indiscriminate use of stereotyping against women, minorities and other vulnerable groups, especially asylum-seekers. Human rights awareness, a sense of personal responsibility and professionalism can help in preventing professional attitudes that do not match with the job’s ethic.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that Governments take the necessary measures to increase protection of journalists and other media workers, regardless of their professional and political affiliation, from attacks, be they attacks by officials, law-enforcement officers, armed groups or terrorists. Media security remains one of the core elements to guarantee pluralist information in a period marked by polarization of opinion and widespread violence. Governments should also ensure the protection of other categories at risk, such as trade unionists, social workers, students and teachers, and artists. The identification and adequate punishment of the perpetrators of such crimes will contribute to the strengthening of the rule of law and will buttress the confidence of the ordinary citizen in State institutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that the Commission on Human Rights consider the opportunity of a comprehensive, impartial study on the issue of the security of journalists, in particular in situations of armed conflicts, based on information from and the experiences of Governments, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations. Such a document, which would include conclusions and recommendations, could provide a basis to discuss draft guidelines for the protection of journalists and other media professionals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "The Special Rapporteur vigorously emphasizes that any new intergovernmental body administering, partially or totally, Internet governance must ensure freedom of opinion and expression and promote it throughout the world, in the light of article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It may be appropriate to recall that other international human rights standards, such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, the American Convention on Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights, contain similar provisions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that all States take measures to guarantee freedom of opinion and expression on the Internet, inter alia, extending to website contributors and bloggers the same protection as other media. Transparency, openness and accountability should be promoted in order to enrich debates and dialogues. Internet providers and website registration with national authorities should not be subject to any specific requirement. Any legal dispute arising from the use of the Web should be dealt with in the country where the website has its origin.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "The Special Rapporteur encourages Governments to decriminalize defamation and similar offences, a measure that could also alleviate the workload of the judiciary that in certain countries has taken abnormal proportions. Defamation cases could be solved without recurring to the judiciary, but through the good offices of an independent authority. Under civil law, the amount of fines to be paid should allow the continuation of one’s professional activities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "The Special Rapporteur encourages Governments to ensure that national legislation on the right to freedom of opinion and expression includes the right to access to information, whose implementation appears difficult because of a culture of confidentiality and secrecy that has little to do with the exercise of democracy. In general terms, for the sake of transparency, the termination of judicial procedures should engage the removal of the clauses of confidentiality and secrecy. The use of confidentiality is justified only to protect the right to privacy of individuals, especially of minors. Confidentiality and secrecy may temporarily be justified to protect States’ interests and their populations in case of grave attempts to overturn democratic rule, and should subsequently be authorized by a judicial body. Notes a The full text of the statements is available on www.ohchr.org (section News Releases). b After having examined material submitted by reliable sources, the Special Rapporteur together with other special procedures mandate-holders, intervened on the deterioration of the situation of human rights in Tunisia in connection with the holding of the Summit. Summaries of their action can be found in chapter I of this report under the title “Press releases”, and in document E/C.4/2006/55/Add.1. c Freedom of opinion and expression “is applicable not only to ‘information’ or ‘ideas’ that are favourably received or regarded as inoffensive or as a matter of indifference, but also to those that offend, shock or disturb the State or any sector of the population. Such are the demands of pluralism, tolerance and broadmindedness without which there is no ‘democratic society’.” European Court of Human Rights, Handyside v. United Kingdom, 7 December 1976, Application No. 5493/72, 1 EHRR 737, para. 49. d The Convention was opened for signature on 16 December 1952, entered into force on 24 August 1962. The approach promoted by the Convention was to offer to those, notably States, directly affected by reports, which they considered false or distorted the “possibility of ensuring commensurate publicity” for their corrections. e Article 13: …", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 82, "n": 2, "text": "The exercise of the right provided for in the foregoing paragraph [freedom of opinion and expression] shall not be subject to prior censorship but shall be subject to subsequent imposition of liability, which shall be expressly established by law to the extent necessary to ensure: a. respect for the rights or reputations of others; E/CN.4/2006/55 Article 14:", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 83, "n": 1, "text": "Anyone injured by inaccurate or offensive statements or ideas disseminated to the public in general by a legally regulated medium of communication has the right to reply or to make a correction using the same communications outlet, under such conditions as the law may establish.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 84, "n": 2, "text": "The correction or reply shall not in any case remit other legal liabilities that may have been incurred.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 85, "n": 3, "text": "For the effective protection of honor and reputation, every publisher, and every newspaper, motion picture, radio, and television company, shall have a person responsible who is not protected by immunities or special privileges. f See for instance the views of the Human Rights Committee under the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Victor Ivan Majuwana Kankanamge v. Sri Lanka, Human Rights Committee, eighty-first session, 5-30 July 2004, communication No. 909/2000: Sri Lanka. 26/08/2004. CCPR/C/81/D/909/2000. g See E/CN.4/2001/64, para. 48. Available at www.ohchr.org. h Reporters Without Borders, “Libel and insult laws: What more can be done to decriminalize libel and repeal insult laws?”, Recommendations, 25 November 2003. i Article 19, Defining defamation: Principles on Freedom of Expression and Protection of Reputation, International Standard Series, July 2000, London. j See www.newssafety.com. k See www.cpj.org. l See www.pressemblem.ch. m A draft text of this resolution was adopted by the World Electronic Media Forum, held on 16 November 2005 within the World Summit on the Information Society, and subsequently presented to the Secretary-General. n Article 79 of the First Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, as adopted by the Diplomatic Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law applicable in Armed Conflicts in June 1977, is the most relevant international legal provision regarding the protection of journalists in areas of armed conflicts. o E/CN.4/2000/63, paras. 45-52. E/CN.4/2006/55 ANNEXES Annex I JOINT DECLARATION Adopted on 6 December 2004 by Ambeyi Ligabo, Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Miklos Haraszti, the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media, and Eduardo Bertoni, the OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression On access to information The right to access information held by public authorities is a fundamental human right which should be given effect at the national level through comprehensive legislation (for example, freedom of information acts) based on the principle of maximum disclosure, establishing a presumption that all information is accessible subject only to a narrow system of exceptions: − Public authorities should be required to publish proactively, even in the absence of a request, a range of information of public interest. Systems should be put in place to increase, over time, the amount of information subject to such routine disclosure; − Access to information is a citizens’ right. As a result, the procedures for accessing information should be simple, rapid and free or low-cost; − The right of access should be subject to a narrow, carefully tailored system of exceptions to protect overriding public and private interests, including privacy. Exceptions should apply only where there is a risk of substantial harm to the protected interest and where that harm is greater than the overall public interest in having access to the information. The burden should be on the public authority seeking to deny access to show that the information falls within the scope of the system of exceptions; − Public authorities should be required to meet minimum record management standards. Systems should be put in place to promote higher standards over time; − The access to information law should, to the extent of any inconsistency, prevail over other legislation; − Those requesting information should have the possibility to appeal any refusals to disclose to an independent body with full powers to investigate and resolve such complaints; − National authorities should take active steps to address the culture of secrecy that still prevails in many countries within the public sector. This should include provision for sanctions for those who wilfully obstruct access to information. Steps should also be taken to promote broad public awareness of the access to information law; E/CN.4/2006/55 − Steps should be taken, including through the allocation of necessary resources and attention, to ensure effective implementation of access to information legislation. On secrecy legislation Urgent steps should be taken to review and, as necessary, repeal or amend, legislation restricting access to information to bring it into line with international standards in this area, including as reflected in this Joint Declaration: − Public authorities and their staff bear sole responsibility for protecting the confidentiality of legitimately secret information under their control. Other individuals, including journalists and civil society representatives, should never be subject to liability for publishing or further disseminating this information, regardless of whether or not it has been leaked to them, unless they committed fraud or another crime to obtain the information. Criminal law provisions that do not restrict liability for the dissemination of State secrets to those who are officially entitled to handle those secrets should be repealed or amended; − Certain information may legitimately be secret on grounds of national security or protection of other overriding interests. However, secrecy laws should define national security precisely and indicate clearly the criteria which should be used in determining whether or not information can be declared secret, so as to prevent abuse of the label “secret” for purposes of preventing disclosure of information which is in the public interest. Secrecy laws should set out clearly which officials are entitled to classify documents as secret and should also set overall limits on the length of time documents may remain secret. Such laws should be subject to public debate; − “Whistleblowers” are individuals releasing confidential or secret information although they are under an official or other obligation to maintain confidentiality or secrecy. “Whistleblowers” releasing information on violations of the law, on wrongdoing by public bodies, on a serious threat to health, safety or the environment, or on a breach of human rights or humanitarian law should be protected against legal, administrative or employment-related sanctions if they act in “good faith”. E/CN.4/2006/55 Annex II FOLLOW-UP TO THE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS CONTAINED IN THE REPORTS ON THE VISITS OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR TO SERBIA AND MONTENEGRO (E/CN.4/2005/62/Add.[[fn:4]]) AND TO ITALY (E/CN.4/2005/62/Add.[[fn:5]])a Serbia and Montenegro Recommendation 3 (E/CN.4/2005/64/Add.4, para. 74) A draft loi sur le protecteur des citoyens (law on the ombudsman) has been submitted by the Government for study and adoption. It is the result of cooperation with international experts, the Council of Europe and the OSCE, as well as of a public discussion in which the ombudsman of the Province of Voivodina and several human rights NGOs, as well as other experts, took part. According to the draft law: − The ombudsman is elected by the National Assembly on the recommendation of a committee responsible for constitutional matters; − The ombudsman has four deputies, also elected by the Assembly on the proposal of the ombudsman, for a period of five years; − The ombudsman addresses human rights violations resulting from an act or omission by the administrative authorities, and monitors the legality of the procedures and work of the administrative authority; he does not monitor the work of the Government in its entirety; − The ombudsman does not have a mandate to address the work of the courts, unless the complaint concerns an act or omission by the court that manifestly affects the right to legal protection of one of the parties; − The ombudsman acts at the request of citizens or ex officio, but may not act on anonymous complaints; − The administrative authority must respond to the requests of the ombudsman and transmit all requested information within 15 to 60 days; − The ombudsman submits an annual report on his work to the National Assembly, which is published in the Official Journal, posted on the ombudsman’s website and communicated to the press; − The ombudsman cooperates with the ombudsman of the Autonomous Province of Voivodina and the counsel to the civil party seeking damages in the relevant local autonomous units in order to exchange information on problems encountered with the administrative authorities. E/CN.4/2006/55 Recommendation 4 (ibid., para. 75) The Law on Free Access to Information of general interest (Official Journal No. 120/04) was adopted on 2 November 2004 in accordance with a recommendation of the Council of Europe. This law governs access to information of general interest to the public in the hands of public authorities. The Law on the modification of the Law on Public Information (Official Journal No. 61/05), adopted by the National Assembly on 15 July 2005, deals with press media, coming under the Law on Public Information, which have not begun the process of changing ownership. This fact demonstrates the necessity of moving back time limits by one year so that the closing down of these information outlets will coincide with the time limit for the electronic media and allow privatization to go forward under the best possible conditions (article 1 of the Law on the modifications to the Law on Public Information). The Law on the modifications and additions to the Law Governing Radio Broadcasting (Official Journal No. 97/04) was adopted by the National Assembly on 24 August 2004. These modifications affect the length of the initial mandates of the respective members of the Council of the Agency for Radio Broadcasting, whose creation as an autonomous and independent organization with public responsibilities is governed by the Law Governing Radio Broadcasting (Official Journal No. 42/02). Recommendation 8 (ibid., para. 79) After the economic changes in Serbia and Montenegro, a series of measures were taken aimed at the implementation of the new minorities policy, whose basis is the complete integration of minorities in society while safeguarding and developing their particular national characteristics and culture. This will come about through permanent communication between the national authorities and the representatives of all the minority communities and by a partnership with the relevant key organizations and institutions (in particular the OSCE and the Council of Europe). The basis of the new minorities policy is: − The development of democratic institutions and respect for the primacy of the law; − The establishment of a complete set of legal rules concerning the key rights of minorities; − The creation of a societal atmosphere where the spirit of tolerance and respect for differences will be cultivated; − A faster pace of development and progress of the country. In accordance with the Law on the Protection of the Rights and Freedoms of Minorities (Official Journal No. 11/2002), national councils of minorities have been formed, the members elected by the minorities themselves. These councils represent the minorities on matters concerning the use of the language of the minorities in education, culture and information. E/CN.4/2006/55 Article 19.7 of the Law has created a legal basis for the councils to legislate on certain questions in this domain, and requires the State to adopt laws to enable the national councils to exercise competency in areas concerning the safeguard of the identity of the minorities. Italy With specific regard to the provision concerning the resolution of conflict of interest, Law No. 215/2004 (the Legge Frattini) does not deal solely with the mass media and information sector, but covers all possible conflicts of interest between government responsibilities and professional and business activities in general. Because of its particular nature, the mass media and information sector is the subject matter of a number of specific provisions in that law (see in particular article 7). These particular provisions do not replace the general rules governing any type of company, but are additional to them. The combined provisions of articles 1, 2 and 3 of the law set out its general scope. The regulation of conflict-of-interest is completed by setting out the powers, functions and procedures of the independent administrative authorities responsible for control and prevention of such situations, even imposing penalties. As for companies in general, this responsibility lies with the Competition Authority, which was instituted by Law No. 287/1990 (art. 6); as for companies operating in the print press and media sector, the responsibility lies not only with the Competition Authority but also with the Communications Regulatory Authority instituted by Law No. 249/1997. These authorities have wide-ranging powers to conduct investigations and impose penalties in accordance with current legislation. They can also act at their own initiative, guaranteeing the principle of audi alteram partem and the rules of administrative transparency. Their powers do not exclude the competence of the judicial authority or of any other authorities with regard to criminal, civil, administrative or disciplinary offences, and indeed, they are required to report any cases of criminal offences to the judicial authorities. In particular, under article 7, the Communications Regulatory Authority performs the monitoring activity specifically in the mass media sector, imposing fines on companies, should they provide privileged support to the holder of government office. As for the effectiveness of Law No. 215/2004, it provides that, in the cases of top-down conflict and in the cases of bottom-up conflict, fines can be imposed (art. 6, c.[[fn:8]], art. 7, c.3) on companies and administrative penalties both to the holder of government office (art. 6, c.1) and to the companies (art. 7, c.1 and 3).b In addition to these penalties, the holder of government office can also be subject to political sanctions, resulting from the obligation on the part of the independent authorities to submit their report to the Speakers of both Houses of Parliament. As a result, if government post-holders have acted in pursuit of their personal interests rather than the national interest, this is bound to be public knowledge. This sanction is extremely important, because transparency in the performance of official government duties and the publicizing of such offences are the best possible way to prevent and combat the pursuit of private interests in the course of performing public duties. E/CN.4/2006/55 Italy wishes also to update the Special Rapporteur about the implementation of the new procedures for the election of the Board of Directors of the State Broadcasting Company, RAI. The new board has been elected following the provisions of Law No. 112/2004 (the Gasparri Law) in such a way to guarantee the full balance between the majority and opposition. This implies a more transparent, fair and correct management of the State Broadcasting Company. At last, as regards paragraph 91 of the report, where the Special Rapporteur encourages the authorities to reinforce the politics concerning the access to more comprehensible information for migrant populations, Italy wishes to specify that the Territorial Immigration Councils, as established by article 3 of the Law 286/98, in which Representatives of the foreigners’ representative organizations sit have been carrying out for a long time useful services within the Territorial Governmental Prefectures-Offices. Furthermore, the project financed by the European Structural Funds 2000-2006, called “Civis towards a multiracial society”, has been implemented for approximately three years. The main purpose of the project, realized through the public services offered by radio and television networks, is the diffusion of information finalized to facilitate the integration of migrant people into the Italian society and, at the same time, to offer them the opportunity to take advantage of places where they can show their experiences and needs. As regards paragraph 92, concerning respect for human rights, the Special Committee against racism and xenophobia, created within the Interior Ministry has the task to protect the correct manifestation of religious and philosophical opinions, supporting the Government and undertaking the most suitable actions for the integration of migrant people into Italian society and, at the same time, offering them the opportunity to take advantage of places where they can show their experiences and needs. Notes a The full text of the notes verbales sent by the Governments of Serbia and Montenegro, and Italy are available with the files of the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. b The fine and administrative penalties imposed on media companies are given in Law No. 223 of 1990 (governing the public and private radio and television broadcasting services), Law No. 249 of 1997 (instituting the authority and the telecommunications and radio and television broadcasting systems) and Law No. 28 of 2000 (the so-called “par condicio” law).", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "The Convention was opened for signature on 16 December 1952, entered into force on 24 August 1962. The approach promoted by the Convention was to offer to those, notably States, directly affected by reports, which they considered false or distorted the “possibility of ensuring commensurate publicity” for their corrections."}, {"n": 5, "text": "Article 13: … 2. The exercise of the right provided for in the foregoing paragraph [freedom of opinion and expression] shall not be subject to prior censorship but shall be subject to subsequent imposition of liability, which shall be expressly established by law to the extent necessary to ensure: a. respect for the rights or reputations of others; Article 14: 1. Anyone injured by inaccurate or offensive statements or ideas disseminated to the public in general by a legally regulated medium of communication has the right to reply or to make a correction using the same communications outlet, under such conditions as the law may establish. 2. The correction or reply shall not in any case remit other legal liabilities that may have been incurred. 3. For the effective protection of honor and reputation, every publisher, and every newspaper, motion picture, radio, and television company, shall have a person responsible who is not protected by immunities or special privileges."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Reporters Without Borders, “Libel and insult laws: What more can be done to decriminalize libel and repeal insult laws?”, Recommendations, 25 November 2003."}], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}] \ No newline at end of file +[{"id": "a-75-261-0001", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. Some time ago, a teacher was accused of heresy, of being a menace to society and a corrupt influence on the minds of the young. That person educated leading thinkers of the day – some of whom became philosophers, poets or politicians. Yet people from across society saw him as a sceptic whose questioning of received wisdom destabilized social values. Before the jury reached its verdict, the teacher, in his defence, is said to have spoken the following:\nThey complain that there is a pestilential busybody called Socrates who fills young people’s heads with wrong ideas. If you ask them what he does, and what he teaches that has this effect, they have no answer, not knowing what to say; but as they do not want to admit their confusion, they fall back on the stock charges against any philosopher: that he teaches his pupils about things in the heavens and below the earth, and to disbelieve in gods, and to make the weaker argument defeat the stronger.[[fn:1]]\nHistory remembers Socrates and his most famous students, while most of his accusers and critics are long-forgotten foils, none making a mark on history, philosophy, politics and education as he did. However, those foils prevailed in the moment, and the jury sentenced Socrates to death.", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Hugh Tredennick and Harold Tarrant, trans., Plato: The Last Days of Socrates (London, Penguin Books, 1954), apology 22E–24A."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0002", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Millenniums have passed, and yet teachers, scholars, students and others who work in such pursuits – academics and their institutions – continue to face social harassment and State repression. They face harassment and repression for their research, the questions that they pursue, the points that they raise in or out of the classroom or journals, the forums that they provide for peaceful assembly and protest and the evidence and ideas and methodologies that they bring to bear on public policy – or simply for the stature that their academic work has given them in society. Such interference can constitute a violation of the rights to education, science, culture, association, conscience, belief, due process and, as the Special Rapporteur will principally explore in the present report, freedom of opinion and expression. Attacks on academic freedom corrode the pillars of democratic life, of scientific progress and of human development. In the report, the Special Rapporteur will explore how attacks on academic freedom also constitute attacks on freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0003", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The special procedure mandate holders of the Human Rights Council have often observed, and drawn attention to, threats to academics and their institutions. Among many such cases that mandate holders have considered, Hungary targeted one of the leading academic institutions in Europe, the Central European University,[[fn:2]] forcing it to close its doors and relocate to Austria. Turkey forced the investigation and dismissal of hundreds of academics who had signed a scholars’ petition calling for peace with the Kurdish community.[[fn:3]] Turkey also removed a scholar from his position after he had met with the Special Rapporteur in November 2016 during his visit to the country;[[fn:4]] the Government alleged terrorist affiliations.[[fn:5]] China has imprisoned an economist, Iham Tohti, arbitrarily on grounds relating to his criticism of the Government’s policies against the Uighur community.[[fn:6]] Uganda imprisoned for over 16 months a prominent feminist academic, ostensibly for her anti-government posts on social media.[[fn:7]] Thailand arrested dozens of individuals who protested against military rule at a university campus in Bangkok.[[fn:8]] The Islamic Republic of Iran has detained and often sentenced to death numerous scholars, such as Ahmad Reza Jalali, Mohammad Hossein Rafiee Fanood, Xiyue Wang and Hooma Hoodfar.[[fn:9]] The United Arab Emirates prosecuted a scholar from that country, Nasser bin Ghaith, for writings that “harm the reputation and stature of the State” and detained a scholar from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Matthew Hedges, on opaque grounds of national security, despite the reliance of his research on open-source materials.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "References are made throughout the document to urgent appeals and allegation letters sent by the Special Rapporteur. All such communications are available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/ Tmsearch/TMDocuments. For this case, see communication No. HUN 1/2017, 11 April 2017."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Communication No. TUR 3/2016, 31 March 2016."}, {"n": 4, "text": "Communication No. TUR 1/2017, 23 January 2017."}, {"n": 5, "text": "Government’s reply to communication No. TUR 1/2017, 11 April 2017."}, {"n": 6, "text": "Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, opinion No. 3/2014 (China), 6 February 2014."}, {"n": 7, "text": "Communication No. UGA 3/2017, 22 December 2017."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Communication No. THA 4/2018, 25 June 2018."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Communications Nos. IRN 12/2019, 8 August 2019; IRN 2/2016, 1 February 2016; and IRN 19/2016, 24 June 2016; and “UN experts urge Iran to release imprisoned American scholar Xiyue Wang”, press release, 7 May 2019."}, {"n": 10, "text": "Communication No. ARE 3/2017, 3 May 2017; Matthew Hedges (Hedges) submission. In 2000, the Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression noted the same kinds of threats to academic freedom: see E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 37."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0004", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur focuses on the freedom of opinion and expression aspects of academic freedom. He emphasizes one set of protections for academic freedom, while recognizing and reaffirming others. He highlights the special role played by academics and academic institutions in democratic society and, by so doing, encourages individuals and organizations to articulate their claims – including when addressing them to special procedure mandate holders and other United Nations human rights mechanisms and treaty bodies – as violations of academic freedom.[[fn:11]] The report benefited from submissions made by civil society (available on the website of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights) and a three-day online consultation that, with the support of the non-governmental organization Scholars at Risk, was held in May 2020. The Special Rapporteur begins with an overview of the legal framework applicable to academic freedom, focusing on freedom of opinion and expression. He then addresses several key challenges, before concluding with recommendations for States and other actors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Scholars at Risk submission, para. 6."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0005", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Although there are many ways in which the freedom of opinion and expression protects and promotes academic freedom, there is no single, exclusive international human rights framework for the subject. Within the corpus of civil and political rights, protected under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and codified in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the rights to peaceful assembly and association, privacy, and thought, conscience and religious belief can promote and protect academic freedom. Articles 13 (right to education) and 15 (right to scientific advancements) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights expressly promote rights at the centre of academic freedom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "13", "treaty": "ICESCR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'Articles 13 (right to education)... of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights expressly promote rights at the centre of academic freedom'."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0006", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. It is not the intention of the Special Rapporteur to impose a definition of “academic freedom” that would limit its application to one sort of “academic” person or institution.[[fn:12]] In part this is because of the extraordinary variety of academic pursuits, forms, methodologies and institutions worldwide, which counsels for a functional approach. However, academic freedom does not have to be abstract. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights made the following observations:\nMembers of the academic community, individually or collectively, are free to pursue, develop and transmit knowledge and ideas, through research, teaching, study, discussion, documentation, production, creation or writing. Academic freedom includes the liberty of individuals to express freely opinions about the institution or system in which they work, to fulfil their functions without discrimination or fear of repression by the State or any other actor, to participate in professional or representative academic bodies, and to enjoy all the internationally recognized human rights applicable to other individuals in the same jurisdiction.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "A. Definitional breadth"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Of course, a conclusion that an activity or institution is not “academic” does not strip that activity or institution, or any person engaging in activity within a particular institution, of human rights. One might conclude, for instance, that a person is not engaging in “academic” activity, yet he or she still enjoys the panoply of human rights guarantees."}, {"n": 13, "text": "E/C.12/1999/10, para. 39, with reference to the Lima Declaration on Academic Freedom and Autonomy of Institutions of Higher Education, art. 1."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0007", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. While the Committee notes that “staff and students in higher education are especially vulnerable to political and other pressures which undermine academic freedom”,[[fn:14]] it does not limit that threat to higher education communities. In its 1997 Recommendation concerning the Status of Higher-Education Teaching Personnel, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) underlined the point, condemning “institutional censorship”.[[fn:15]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "A. Definitional breadth"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "E/C.12/1999/10, para. 38."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Recommendation concerning the Status of Higher-Education Teaching Personnel, 11 November 1997, para. 27."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0008", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. In short, academic freedom should be understood to include the freedom of individuals, as members of academic communities (e.g., faculty, students, staff, scholars, administrators and community participants) or in their own pursuits, to conduct activities involving the discovery and transmission of information and ideas, and to do so with the full protection of human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "A. Definitional breadth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0009", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Academic freedom is not only about individual human rights protection by traditional State actors. It also involves institutional protections – autonomy and self-governance, themselves rooted in human rights standards – to guarantee the freedom for those pursuits.[[fn:16]] States are under a positive obligation to create a general enabling environment for seeking, receiving and imparting information and ideas.[[fn:17]] Institutional protection and autonomy are a part of that enabling environment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "B. Institutional protection and autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See Kristen Roberts Lyer and Aron Suba, Closing Academic Space: Repressive State Practices in Legislative, Regulatory and Other Restrictions on Higher Education Institutions (Washington, D.C., International Centre for Not-for-Profit Law, 2019), pp. 30–31."}, {"n": 17, "text": "See OHCHR and others, Joint Declaration on Media Independence and Diversity in the Digital Age, May 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0010", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Institutions of higher education, as described cogently in one of the submissions for the present report, play extraordinary roles in human society as “engines of knowledge production, discovery, innovation, skills development, cultural preservation, and national progress. They model democratic discourse and international cooperation, as well as the search for self-realization and moral truth. And they are wellsprings for other professions that are foundational to well-functioning civil society, including law, journalism, and human rights advocacy.”[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "B. Institutional protection and autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Scholars at Risk submission, para. 2."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0011", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Despite the importance of higher education to fundamental social values, Governments often interfere with the autonomy of academic institutions. They may threaten those that have foreign funding, notwithstanding the fact that higher education, as noted above, is itself an international endeavour supported by the freedom of expression “regardless of frontiers”. They may threaten to withhold otherwise available funds on illicit grounds.[[fn:19]] They may require that institutions preclude the teaching of some subjects or require the teaching of others on non-academic grounds. They may impose standards on hiring and tenure, or they may directly engage in the hiring of institutional leadership, that may be inconsistent with academic criteria and reflect political control rather than the advancement of learning. All of those tools, and others, undermine the ability of the institution to protect the academic freedom of its community members and to serve its broader functions in society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "B. Institutional protection and autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "David A. Graham, “What a direct attack on free speech looks like”, The Atlantic, 10 July 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0012", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Autonomy and self-governance should also include mechanisms of accountability, ethical codes of conduct and assurances that the institutions themselves – whether as State actors (public colleges and universities) or private ones – protect and promote the human rights of members of their communities (broadly defined). Academic institutions should retain autonomy in their administrative, financial, pedagogical and disciplinary functions,[[fn:20]] but they should also adopt and enforce policies that ensure the protection of the free expression rights of the members of their communities, resisting official or social pressure and promising human rights compliance institutionally.[[fn:21]] Their policies should be transparent, they should be active and accessible defenders of their academic missions (and of their sibling institutions) and they should be accountable for their acceptance and use of funding.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "B. Institutional protection and autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See Kwadwo Appiagyei-Atua, Klaus D. Beiter and Terence Karran, “A review of academic freedom in African universities through the prism of the 1997 ILO/UNESCO recommendation”, Journal of Academic Freedom, vol. 7 (2016)."}, {"n": 21, "text": "Foundation for Individual Rights in Education submission, p. 12."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0013", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. In paragraph 22 (k) of its 1997 recommendation, UNESCO stated that institutional autonomy was “a necessary precondition to guarantee the proper fulfilment of the functions entrusted to higher-education teaching personnel and institutions”. It noted that accountability involved ensuring the adoption and enforcement of policies that involved transparency, non-discrimination, gender equality and “the creation, through the collegial process and/or through negotiation with organizations representing higher-education teaching personnel, consistent with the principles of academic freedom and freedom of speech, of statements or codes of ethics to guide higher education personnel in their teaching, scholarship, research and extension work”.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "B. Institutional protection and autonomy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0014", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Institutional self-governance involves transparent but self-regulatory standards, by which the institutions themselves, based on non-discriminatory and academic criteria, determine curricular, scholarly and research needs and requirements. Standards concerning publication and hiring should be adopted and implemented by those with professional and academic expertise, rather than external regulation by administrators or politicians. Teaching personnel must be guaranteed a say in the management and decision-making of their institutions for the fulfilment of academic freedom.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "B. Institutional protection and autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See UNESCO, “Protecting academic freedom is as relevant as ever”, 18 October 2017."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0015", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Article 19 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, reinforcing the protection of article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, protects the right of everyone to hold opinions without interference. The Human Rights Committee, emphasizing the absolute quality of that right, noted in paragraph 9 of its general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression that “all forms of opinion are protected, including opinions of a political, scientific, historic, moral or religious nature”. Interference with opinion often involves “harassment, intimidation or stigmatization of a person, including arrest, detention, trial or imprisonment”. As noted in a previous report to the Human Rights Council, during the negotiations on the drafting of the Covenant, “the freedom to form an opinion and to develop this by way of reasoning was held to be absolute and, in contrast to freedom of expression, not allowed to be restricted by law or other power”.[[fn:23]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "C. Freedom of opinion and expression", "Right to hold opinions without interference"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Manfred Nowak, UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: CCPR Commentary (1993), p. 441."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 19 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR with paragraph."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second occurrence in the sentence refers to 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0016", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Although they are the subjects of both article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, “opinion” is conceptually distinct from “expression”. The internal aspect of opinion is closely connected to privacy, thought, belief and conscience, as compared with the external aspects of expression, public assembly and religious manifestation.[[fn:24]] In an academic context, certain aspects of research and pedagogy are closer to opinion than expression. For instance, a scholar conducting research may collect data and carry out analytical work with respect to those data, evaluate the data and then articulate an interpretation (in the form of a paper) for distribution, sharing with colleagues and, ultimately, publication. That analytic work depends upon the right to seek and receive information as a component of expression, and that process must be protected, with its limitation subject to narrow restrictions. However, even before the stage of imparting information, the scholar’s work product should be protected from interference as an opinion, subject to no restriction of any kind. By contrast, imparting information involves means of expression such as “books, newspapers, pamphlets, posters, banners, dress and legal submissions” as well as “electronic and Internet-based modes”.[[fn:25]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "C. Freedom of opinion and expression", "Right to hold opinions without interference"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "See, for example, A/HRC/31/18."}, {"n": 25, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 12. To be clear, this does not mean that all academic research may be beyond the reach of State regulation. Physical scientific research, for instance, may involve the use of controlled or dangerous substances, whereas social science research may have implications for the privacy rights of individuals and communities. Regulation of those subjects must not, however, be used as a tool to limit the researcher’s freedom and should be drawn extremely carefully to avoid such interference."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First occurrence: 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second occurrence: 'article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0017", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Practically speaking, that means that a scholarly work product, as an opinion, should itself be protected from exposure, with demands for its transfer (for instance to law enforcement authorities) subject to strict rule of law and due process standards consistent with international human rights law. It also means that scholars should not be subject to interference, such as intimidation and harassment, in accordance with article 19 (1) of the Covenant. It further requires that scholars should have access to the kinds of tools that protect their work product. In the digital realm, such tools include encryption or guarantees of anonymity.[[fn:26]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "C. Freedom of opinion and expression", "Right to hold opinions without interference"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See, generally, A/HRC/29/32."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0018", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Article 19 (2) of the Covenant protects the right of everyone to “seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media”. Extensive human rights jurisprudence and secondary literature underscore that the freedom of expression is considered a foundational aspect of international human rights law, such that, as the Human Rights Committee found, a general reservation to the paragraph would be incompatible with the object and purpose of the Covenant.[[fn:27]] The breadth of the definition in article 19 (2) of the Covenant must be highlighted, just as the Committee noted that expression involves “every form of idea and opinion capable of transmission to others”, including teaching.[[fn:28]] The right “embraces even expression that may be regarded as deeply offensive”,[[fn:29]] such as blasphemy.[[fn:30]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "C. Freedom of opinion and expression", "Freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "See, for example, general comment No. 34, para. 5."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Ibid., para. 11."}, {"n": 29, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 30, "text": "Ibid., para. 48."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0019", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Academic communities also transcend borders, resulting in global scholarly conferences, meetings, publications and other interactions in which individuals share their work. The global aspect of scholarly sharing is embodied in article 15 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which guarantees everyone’s right to enjoy the benefits of science and embraces “the encouragement and development of international contacts and co-operation in the scientific and cultural fields”. Article 19 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights recognizes that freedom of expression extends “regardless of frontiers”, which complements and reinforces the rights covered by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. On the one hand, it means that those in academic fields enjoy the right to seek and receive the work of others, whatever their field, and to impart their own work (or share that of others) beyond national borders. Further promotion of academic freedom at the global level can be found in article 12 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which guarantees freedom of movement and the right of everyone to leave their country.[[fn:31]] Bans on both leaving and entering a country may amount to a violation not only of article 12, but also of the panoply of rights under the rubric of academic freedom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "C. Freedom of opinion and expression", "Freedom of expression, regardless of frontiers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 7."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "15", "treaty": "ICESCR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 15 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which guarantees everyone's right to enjoy the benefits of science' — explicit treaty attribution."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 19 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights recognizes that freedom of expression extends \"regardless of frontiers\"' — explicit treaty attribution."}, {"article": "12", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 12 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which guarantees freedom of movement and the right of everyone to leave their country' — explicit treaty attribution."}, {"article": "12", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'may amount to a violation not only of article 12, but also of the panoply of rights' — 'article 12' here refers back to the same ICCPR art. 12 freedom of movement just named in the preceding sentence."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0020", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Individuals enjoy academic freedom not only within their institutions, in the internal aspects of research, scholarship, teaching, convenings and other on-campus activities, but also “extramurally”, in their role as educators and commentators outside the institution.[[fn:32]] For instance, an academic bringing her or his expertise to bear in a hearing before a legislature, a lecture to a community, a conversation on broadcast media or a post on social media should be understood as, inter alia, an exercise of academic freedom. In other words, that framework is not limited to the institutional environment. When an academic engages in expression outside of her or his academic topic – that is, not only outside the substantive area but also methodologically – she or he retains the right to freedom of expression guaranteed by human rights law, even if that engagement is not considered a part of her or his academic freedom. It should also be emphasized that academics should not be punished by their institutions for exercising their rights to freedom of expression, association and assembly and religious belief, among others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "C. Freedom of opinion and expression", "Extramural academic activity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "Scholars at Risk submission, para. 19."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0021", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. It is worth emphasizing that academic freedom enjoys fundamental protection not only in international human rights instruments but also at the regional level. The same rights that are applicable in African, inter-American, European and other regional systems provide added support for the protections noted above. The European Court of Human Rights has the largest body of case law relating to academic freedom. In Sorguç v. Turkey, the Court “underline[d] the importance of academic freedom, which comprises the academics’ freedom to express freely their opinion about the institution or system in which they work and freedom to distribute knowledge and truth without restriction”.[[fn:33]] In Mustafa Erdoğan and Others v. Turkey, the Court stated that academic freedom “is not restricted to academic or scientific research, but also extends to the academics’ freedom to express freely their views and opinions, even if controversial or unpopular, in the areas of their research, professional expertise and competence. This may include an examination of the functioning of public institutions in a given political system, and a criticism thereof”.[[fn:34]] Also, in another case involving Turkey, the Court found that article 10 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms protected the forms in which ideas were conveyed. The case pertained to an academic who was reprimanded for participating in a television programme. In the Court’s view, “this issue unquestionably concerns his academic freedom, which should guarantee freedom of expression and of action, freedom to disseminate information and freedom to ‘conduct research and distribute knowledge and truth without restriction’”.[[fn:35]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "D. Regional mechanisms reinforcing academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Sorguç v. Turkey, application No. 17089/03, Judgment, 23 June 2009, para. 35."}, {"n": 34, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Mustafa Erdoğan and Others v. Turkey, application Nos. 346/04 and 39779/04, Judgment, 27 May 2014, para. 40."}, {"n": 35, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Kula v. Turkey, application No. 20233/06, Judgment, 19 June 2019, para. 38."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "10", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0022", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Civil society organizations have often highlighted those points. For instance, the 1990 Kampala Declaration on Intellectual Freedom and Social Responsibility promotes the protection of the right of all African intellectuals to “pursue intellectual activity”, “enjoy the freedom of movement” and “express [their] opinions freely in the media”.[[fn:36]] Academic freedom was further promoted in the 2007 Juba Declaration on Academic Freedom and University Autonomy. The Declaration states that “all academicians have the right to fulfil their teaching, research and dissemination of information without fear, interference or repression from government or any other public authority”.[[fn:37]] The Declaration addresses the guarantee of institutional autonomy in demanding that Governments avoid interfering with “the autonomy of Higher Education Institutions”.[[fn:38]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "D. Regional mechanisms reinforcing academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "See Kampala Declaration on Intellectual Freedom and Social Responsibility, 1990, arts. 4, 6 and 9."}, {"n": 37, "text": "Juba Declaration on Academic Freedom and University Autonomy, 2007, para. 1."}, {"n": 38, "text": "Ibid., para. 5."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0023", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Article 13 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union explicitly provides that “academic freedom shall be respected” and emphasizes that “research shall be free of constraint”. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe Recommendation 1762 (2006) on academic freedom and university autonomy affirms the need for academic freedom in a just and democratic society. Furthermore, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe Recommendation Cm/Rec(2012)7 discusses the importance of Governments’ using their power to ensure the protection of academic freedom, particularly by guaranteeing that institutions promote the autonomy of academics. It also clarifies that States have a duty to ensure that external powers cannot interfere with academic freedom.[[fn:39]] In November 2018, the European Parliament adopted a recommendation that called for the recognition that “claims to academic freedom fall under existing human rights law, derived from the right to education and the rights to freedom of expression and of opinion”.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "D. Regional mechanisms reinforcing academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "See Dirk Voorhoof and others, Freedom of Expression, the Media and Journalists: Case-Law of the European Court of Human Rights, IRIS Themes, vol. III, 5th ed. (Strasbourg, France, European Audiovisual Observatory, 2020)."}, {"n": 40, "text": "European Parliament recommendation of 29 November 2018 to the Council, the Commission and the Vice-President of the Commission/High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy on Defence of academic freedom in the EU’s external action, 2018/2117(INI), para. 1 (b)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0024", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Since the freedom of expression is fundamental to the enjoyment of all human rights, restrictions must be exceptional and subject to narrow conditions and strict oversight. The Human Rights Committee has underlined that restrictions, even when warranted, “may not put in jeopardy the right itself”.[[fn:41]] States may restrict expression only where provided by law and necessary to respect the rights or reputations of others or protect national security or public order, or public health or morals.[[fn:42]] As emphasized in numerous reports to the Human Rights Council and the General Assembly, the limitations on expression must be read narrowly and consistent with the cumulative three-part test under article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, in particular:\n(a) Legality. Restrictions must be “provided by law”. In particular, they must be adopted by regular legal processes, drafted with sufficient precision to enable an individual to regulate her or his conduct accordingly, and made accessible to the public. A restriction may not be unduly vague or overbroad such that it could confer unfettered discretion on officials. Secretly adopted restrictions fail this fundamental requirement.[[fn:43]] The assurance of legality should generally involve the oversight of independent judicial authorities;[[fn:44]]\n(b) Legitimacy. To be lawful, a restriction must protect only those interests enumerated in article 19 (3) of the Covenant, that is, the rights or reputations of others, national security or public order, or public health or morals. The Human Rights Committee cautions that restrictions to protect “public morals” should not derive “exclusively from a single tradition”, seeking to ensure that the restriction reflects principles of non-discrimination and the universality of rights;[[fn:45]]\n(c) Necessity and proportionality. States bear the burden of proving a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the threat. They must demonstrate that the restriction actually protects, or is likely to protect, the legitimate State interest at issue. States must also prove that the restriction that they seek to impose is the least intrusive instrument among those that might achieve the same protective function.[[fn:46]] Where the harm to freedom of expression outweighs the benefits, a restriction on the right cannot be justified.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "E. Restrictions on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 21. The Committee clarified that “restrictions must not impair the essence of the right”, adding that “the laws authorizing the application of restrictions should use precise criteria and may not confer unfettered discretion on those charged with their execution”: see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 27 (1999) on freedom of movement, para. 13."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See, in particular, A/67/357, para. 41; and A/HRC/29/32, paras. 32–35."}, {"n": 43, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 25; and A/HRC/29/32."}, {"n": 44, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 25."}, {"n": 45, "text": "Ibid., para. 32."}, {"n": 46, "text": "Ibid., paras. 34–35."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0025", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. It is not uncommon for States to invoke national security and public order as bases for restricting expression. The Human Rights Committee emphasizes that the “extreme care” required of States regarding laws relating to national security parallels the care that States must extend to laws that limit academic freedom and the protection that States must provide to academics. “It is not compatible with paragraph 3 [of article 19], for instance, to invoke [treason] laws to suppress or withhold from the public information of legitimate public interest that does not harm national security or to prosecute journalists, researchers, environmental activists, human rights defenders, or others, for having disseminated such information.”[[fn:47]] The same is true for academic research pertaining, allegedly, to national security or public order.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "E. Restrictions on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "Ibid., para. 30."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0026", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. It may be that academic teaching or research could have implications for the rights of others, such as privacy or public health or morals. As a matter of academic ethics and self-governance, institutions and disciplines typically require privacy protections and the consent of individuals with respect to participation in studies or documentation. Restrictions on grounds relating to “morals” should be treated with scepticism and extreme caution. As the Human Rights Committee has noted, “‘limitations ... for the purpose of protecting morals must be based on principles not deriving exclusively from a single tradition’. Any such limitations must be understood in the light of universality of human rights and the principle of non-discrimination.”[[fn:48]] Restrictions on research or other activities relating to public health must be demonstrated to be necessary for the purposes of safeguarding public health and non-discriminatory. Restrictions on research relating to reproductive health, for instance, should be strongly disfavoured and strictly scrutinized to ensure that they are not related to gender-based discrimination or political positions not derived from academic criteria.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "E. Restrictions on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Ibid., para. 32; also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 22 (1993) on the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, para. 8."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0027", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights requires that States parties prohibit by law “propaganda for war” and “advocacy of national, racial and religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence”. Such restrictions on expression must nonetheless comply with the three-part test provided for in article 19 (3).[[fn:49]] It is crucial to note that it is not consistent with article 19 to restrict expression on grounds of “blasphemy” or wounding of religious feelings. Article 20 does not provide grounds for such restrictions, and blasphemy laws can never, on their own, satisfy the requirements of article 19 (3).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "E. Restrictions on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 50."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0028", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Also related to the context of discrimination, it has been found in the past that denial of the facts of the Holocaust may constitute “hate speech” subject to restriction.[[fn:50]] In paragraph 49 of general comment No. 34, the Human Rights Committee seemed to clarify its position, making the following statement:\nLaws that penalize the expression of opinions about historical facts are incompatible with the obligations that the Covenant imposes on States parties in relation to the respect for freedom of opinion and expression. The Covenant does not permit general prohibition of expressions of an erroneous opinion or an incorrect interpretation of past events.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "E. Restrictions on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Human Rights Committee, Faurisson v. France (CCPR/C/58/D/550/1993)."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0029", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. It is understandable that States may wish to restrict expression such as genocide denial, given that “antisemitic expressions of Holocaust denial seek to repudiate or minimize the harrowing historical facts of that systematic murder of 6 million Jews”.[[fn:51]] As a matter of academic freedom and freedom of expression, such work – even if appropriately characterized as pseudoscientific, polemical, advocacy-driven or antisemitic or racist – should be left to the self-governance structures of the academy, while allegations of an individual’s incitement to discrimination or hatred or violence under article 20 should be addressed separately and according to the limitations of article 19 (3).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "E. Restrictions on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "A/74/358, para. 14."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0030", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. In addition, government restrictions relating to historical interpretations are themselves deeply problematic. In 2018, Poland criminalized “whoever publicly and contrary to the facts attributes to the Polish Nation or the Polish State responsibility or co-responsibility for Nazi crimes committed by the German Third Reich … or for other offences constituting crimes against peace, humanity or war crimes, or otherwise grossly diminishes the responsibility of the actual perpetrators of these crimes”.[[fn:52]] While the offence was later decriminalized, such interference with freedom of expression constitutes direct interference with academic freedom.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "E. Restrictions on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Communication No. POL 2/2018, 13 February 2018; also A/74/358, para. 21."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0031", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Threats to academic freedom are often based on, among other things, political, financial, ideological, and/or social and cultural pressure.[[fn:53]] Recent years have shown, among other trends, restrictions on university autonomy and reductions of higher education funding, the use of violence to suppress student protest, and “sexual violence on campuses that put women’s safety at risk in academic scenarios”.[[fn:54]] In such environments, self-censorship increases, with unseen but definite negative impacts on academic freedom.[[fn:55]] While some harms, such as harassment of women academics, may be universal, in other cases, a State’s particular context may characterize the types of threats that interfere with academic freedom. In the following section, the Special Rapporteur categorizes some of the most serious threats to academic freedom worldwide, organizing them according to the requirements for legitimate limitations in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The examples should be taken as illustrative, not exhaustive, and not as final statements on the specific cases or the kind of restriction involved.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "İnan Özdemir Taştan and Aydın Ördek, A Report on Academic Freedoms in Turkey in the Period of the State of Emergency (Ankara, İnsan Hakları Okulu, 2020) (Taştan/Ördek submission), p. 1."}, {"n": 54, "text": "University of Ottawa, Human Rights Research and Education Centre submission, p. 11."}, {"n": 55, "text": "Taştan/Ördek submission, pp. 29–35."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0032", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Legislative frameworks often enable government intervention in academia.[[fn:56]] Such laws may fail to pursue a legitimate aim or to provide for a necessary and proportionate balance between the right to academic freedom and the legitimate aim pursued, as described below. Otherwise, they may fail to meet legality standards through their vagueness and consequent allowance of excessive discretion in enforcement by authorities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "A. Legality: restrictions provided by law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "Hedges submission, p. 1."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0033", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Turkey has proved to be especially hostile to academic freedom. Article 130 of the Constitution of Turkey provides that, while scientific research and publication is guaranteed, “this shall not include the liberty to engage in activities directed against the existence and independence of the State, and against the integrity and indivisibility of the nation and the country”.[[fn:57]] Such terms are excessively vague, with the offensive actions left undefined.[[fn:58]] Indeed, more than 800 accusations against academics have been documented with the judiciary since 2016.[[fn:59]] Beyond those concerns, Turkey adopted Emergency Decree No. 675, which gives the Government excessive discretion to restrict a range of human rights and to interfere with universities and other parts of the education sector. During the Special Rapporteur’s official visit to Turkey in 2016, academics explained the lack of any notice or information as to the cause of their removal. Indeed, thousands of members of the university community and other educators were dismissed from positions, including many teachers of Kurdish origin or with leftist political views. The Government abolished university self-governance, replacing elections with direct appointments of administrators and reportedly requiring class content to be approved by officials. Those steps led to massive institutional and academic disruption while harming individual lives and rights.[[fn:60]] A survey documented by İnsan Hakları Okulu noted growing anxieties among academics. Of the academics surveyed, 92 per cent stated that they felt anxious that they would be the target of an investigation, while 71 per cent said that they felt anxious that they would be detained or arrested.[[fn:61]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "A. Legality: restrictions provided by law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "See www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b5be0.html."}, {"n": 58, "text": "Maat for Peace, Development and Human Rights (Maat) submission, p. 6."}, {"n": 59, "text": "Ibid., p. 8."}, {"n": 60, "text": "See A/HRC/35/22/Add.3."}, {"n": 61, "text": "Ülkü Doğanay and Ozan Değer, Being a Human Rights Academic during the State of Emergency (Ankara, İnsan Hakları Okulu, 2020) (IHO, Doğanay/Değer submission), p. 64."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "130", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0034", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Those are not isolated incidents. The Special Rapporteur has observed how excessive powers among the executive branch worldwide are used to conduct assaults on academic freedom. In Hungary, the 2017 law that forced the Central European University to relocate to Vienna rested on vague restrictions that left the University in doubt that it would be able to function.[[fn:62]] Ultimately, in a move widely understood as resulting from government pressure, the University left Budapest. In 2019, the Administration in Brazil published Decree No. 9,794, which allowed for the executive branch to have broadly worded veto power regarding university authority nominations.[[fn:63]] In 2015, Pakistan re-established its military courts, which were then used to prosecute so-called anti-State individuals, including students and professors.[[fn:64]] Such changes led to accusations against professors, which in turn led to shortages in specific departments.[[fn:65]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "A. Legality: restrictions provided by law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "See Roberts Lyer and Suba, Closing Academic Space, p. 45."}, {"n": 63, "text": "University of Ottawa, Human Rights Research and Education Centre submission, p. 5."}, {"n": 64, "text": "Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 12."}, {"n": 65, "text": "Maat submission, p. 20."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0035", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. It is worth noting further that legislative proposals also have the potential to negatively affect academic freedom, particularly where pressure is exerted by lawmakers themselves. As noted by the human rights organization Article 19, even if there is no direct effect on the legal framework, and if bills are not approved or passed, their mere proposal can create a chilling effect.[[fn:66]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "A. Legality: restrictions provided by law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "Article 19 Brazil submission, executive summary, p. 3."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0036", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Other than the adoption of laws granting excessive competence to restrict academic freedom, restrictions are often implemented for unlawful purposes or with unlawful ulterior motives. This is exemplified in a case of the Human Rights Committee, Aduayom et al. v. Togo, which concerned two teachers at the University of Benin who were arrested on the grounds of lèse-majesté. Even though both were later released and the charges dropped, they were unsuccessful in their requests for reinstatement in their prior posts. The men alleged that the refusal to reinstate them was motivated by the dropped charges “for having carried, read or disseminated documents that contained no more than an assessment of Togolese politics, either at the domestic or foreign policy level”. The Committee was of the view that the denial of reinstatement was motivated by the charges and, in finding a violation of article 19 of the Covenant, held that the justification for those charges did not meet any of the legitimate aims exhaustively listed in article 19 (3).[[fn:67]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, Aduayom et al. v. Togo (CCPR/C/57/D/422/1990, CCPR/C/57/D/423/1990 and CCPR/C/57/D/424/1990)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0037", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The politicization of school programmes and curricula erodes institutional autonomy and academic freedom. Such regulation of what is presented in the classroom is a trend seen in many countries. In the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, both public and private universities face government restrictions regarding the creation of new academic programmes.[[fn:68]] Typically, those interventions include the requirement to promote ideological views as part of the academic programmes, as seen, for instance, in Belarus, China and Cuba.[[fn:69]] Such bans on disfavoured subjects are used to impose specific political agendas[[fn:70]] and are often implemented through textbook indoctrination. In India, a teacher was dismissed for showing anti-national films in class.[[fn:71]] Some countries, such as the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, have seen ideological indoctrination go as far as the creation of universities as entities for the purpose of social control. The Bolivarian University of Venezuela is such an entity, with a government ministry controlling all appointments and curricula content.[[fn:72]] The common thread in all such approaches is that they serve to restrict academic freedom, and freedom of expression, without pursuing a lawful purpose as stipulated in article 19 (3) of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions", "Institutional autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 68, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 7."}, {"n": 69, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 70, "text": "Taştan/Ördek submission, p. 111."}, {"n": 71, "text": "Nandini Sundar, Delhi University, “Academic freedom in India: a status report”, 2020 (Sundar submission), p. 12."}, {"n": 72, "text": "University of Ottawa, Human Rights Research and Education Centre submission, pp. 5–6."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0038", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Restrictions on the content of speech, whether through criminalization or the labelling of certain topics as immoral, close such topics for academic discussion and render them taboo by the State.[[fn:73]] In Pakistan, blasphemy charges have been used against both progressive students and university professors, who as a consequence, face the death penalty.[[fn:74]] Another trend is the adoption of measures to enforce such restrictions, including mandatory training for university faculty regarding the advancement of ideological frameworks. That functions as a general promotion of nationalist and anti-cultural norms. Such advancement is displayed in different ways. In Pakistan, there is condemnation of any discussion that is deemed “anti-Pakistan” or “anti-cultural”,[[fn:75]] whereas in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, the State controls policies to ensure programmes that support “state-sanctioned socialist ideological frameworks”.[[fn:76]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions", "Institutional autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "Doğanay/Değer submission, p. 30."}, {"n": 74, "text": "Minority Rights Group International and Sustainable Development Policy Institute, Searching for Security: The Rising Marginalization of Religious Communities in Pakistan (London, 2014); and Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 5."}, {"n": 75, "text": "Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 7."}, {"n": 76, "text": "Roberts Lyer and Suba, Closing Academic Space, p. 84."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0039", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. External interference in the selection, appointment and dismissal of leadership and professors in academic institutions ultimately constitutes a restriction on academic freedom often based on grounds that are neither academic nor rooted in article 19 (3). Hungary has implemented a State system for appointing senior academics. The Prime Minister-appointed chancellor of a university controls staffing and appointments. Those appointments are validated by the relevant ministry and confirmed by the President.[[fn:77]] Similarly, in Turkey, institutional autonomy was removed when the election of school administrators was delegated to the Higher Education Council. The Council has the power to both terminate and employ faculty members.[[fn:78]] The new hiring criteria erode the “academic traditions” of Turkey by employing faculty who “follow a certain ideolog[y]” without necessarily “having any academic qualifications”.[[fn:79]] In Azerbaijan, Egypt, Iran (Islamic Republic of) and Pakistan, dismissals have allegedly been based on religious and political affiliations.[[fn:80]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions", "Institutional autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 77, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 8."}, {"n": 78, "text": "Taştan/Ördek submission, p. 9."}, {"n": 79, "text": "Ibid., p. 125."}, {"n": 80, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 8; and Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 8."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0040", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Management of admissions, scholarship distribution and curricula is a third means by which State interference and restrictions on institutional autonomy often are implemented without lawful aims. Notably, these trends seem to overlap with the targeting of religious groups and gender. In Bahrain, scholarship distribution has been linked to religious affiliation.[[fn:81]] Religious association and its importance in school applications are also seen elsewhere. Pakistan requires a declaration of religious affiliation on school application forms for both public and private institutions. Muslim students have to declare their belief in the Prophet Muhammad, and non-Muslim students must receive verification of their religious affiliation from the local community.[[fn:82]] Political interference in admissions has been seen across the board in other countries, such as Uzbekistan[[fn:83]] and Nigeria.[[fn:84]] Such control over the size and composition of student bodies “affects the range of views expressed at universities”.[[fn:85]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions", "Institutional autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 8."}, {"n": 82, "text": "Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 8."}, {"n": 83, "text": "World Bank, Uzbekistan: Modernizing Tertiary Education (2014), p. 60; and International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, pp. 8–9."}, {"n": 84, "text": "Bakwaph Peter Kanyib, “Admission crisis in Nigerian universities: the challenges youth and parents face in seeking admission”, PhD dissertation, Seton Hall University, 2013, pp. 101 and 107–110; and International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 8."}, {"n": 85, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 8."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0041", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The willingness of universities to submit to public pressure can erode academic freedom and freedom of expression.[[fn:86]] In the United States of America, pressure from the public or from students has led to disciplinary reviews of academics, and in some instances, has even resulted in them being barred from campus.[[fn:87]] Broadly speaking, such a dynamic may lead to a culture of repression and self-censorship, where restrictive measures against academic staff are guided by outside pressure rather than academic achievements and activities. In other States, there is evidence that students themselves are recruited to become a source of threat to academics owing to their ability and, in some cases, willingness to report academics who discuss ideas that are deemed unacceptable.[[fn:88]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions", "Institutional autonomy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 86, "text": "Foundation for Individual Rights in Education submission, p. 3."}, {"n": 87, "text": "Ibid., p. 4."}, {"n": 88, "text": "Doğanay/Değer submission, p. 57."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0042", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The right to freedom of opinion and expression must be respected “without distinction of any kind” (see art. 2 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights). Members of some groups, however, often face particular discrimination when it comes to the implementation of restrictions on expression. In Turkey, many university administrations, on the instructions of the Higher Educational Council, took disciplinary actions against the thousands of academics who signed a “peace petition” condemning the State security operations in cities in south-east Turkey,[[fn:89]] including dismissing signatories from their positions.[[fn:90]] Other signatories were prosecuted, arrested and banned from public employment and from foreign travel.[[fn:91]] In the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, individuals expressing political opinions critical of the Government have been excluded from scholarships,[[fn:92]] expelled or subjected to disciplinary procedures.[[fn:93]] Likewise, students in India have been expelled or excluded from scholarships in retaliation for dissent.[[fn:94]] Restrictions on expression also reach student organizations and activities.[[fn:95]] In Brazil, an elected State representative invited students via social media to film their classes to catch “political-partisan or ideological” behaviour of teachers, and to establish an anonymous telephone line for students and members of the public to denounce “ideological professors and indoctrinators” at universities.[[fn:96]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions", "Discriminatory treatment"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "Communication No. TUR 3/2016, 31 March 2016; and Government’s reply, 17 May 2016."}, {"n": 90, "text": "See A/HRC/35/22/Add.3."}, {"n": 91, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 6; and Maat submission, pp. 7–8."}, {"n": 92, "text": "Roberts Lyer and Suba, Closing Academic Space, p. 93; and Aula Abierta submission, pp. 1–3."}, {"n": 93, "text": "Aula Abierta submission, pp. 81–83."}, {"n": 94, "text": "Sundar submission, p. 11."}, {"n": 95, "text": "Taştan/Ördek submission, p. 130."}, {"n": 96, "text": "Rachael Pells, “Brazilian academics vow to resist threats to freedom”, Times Higher Education, 26 November 2018; HRREC submission, p. 10; and Article 19 Brazil submission, p. 2."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "2", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0043", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Intervention inside the classroom often targets minority groups, particularly religious minorities, and women. Specific targeting of those belonging to certain religious populations is a trend noted in societies that limit academic freedom. For example, members of the Hazara Shia Muslim population in Balochistan Province, Pakistan, have experienced difficulty in gaining access to education. There is also “a chilling effect on the ability of girls and women to access education”; girls who are part of Shia families have often had to leave school.[[fn:97]] In Pakistan, women are supposedly obligated to comply with a strict dress code in the name of promotion of culture and ethics, as well as with other practices that perpetuate gender inequality.[[fn:98]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions", "Discriminatory treatment"], "footnotes": [{"n": 97, "text": "Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 5."}, {"n": 98, "text": "Human Rights Watch, ‘“Shall I feed my daughter, or educate her?’ Barrier to girl’s education in Pakistan”, 18 November 2018; and Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 11."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0044", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. The criminalization of or retaliatory disciplinary procedures against academics for their activities “can have a serious chilling effect on the autonomy of higher education institutions”[[fn:99]] and the “applicable meaning of academic pursuit”.[[fn:100]] Those who continue to work in universities under threat of loss of autonomy lose belief in their work. Dismissal of academics who continue their work leads to a “shrinking of research areas”.[[fn:101]] For example, in Turkey, discussion of Kurdish conflicts and state of emergency laws led to individuals being blacklisted. Thus, most academic work in that area was halted.[[fn:102]] Blacklisting, in turn, bars academics in Turkey from publishing research, attending conferences and undertaking foreign travel.[[fn:103]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions", "Penalties and disciplinary action for activities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 99, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 6."}, {"n": 100, "text": "Doğanay/Değer submission, p. 52, quoting an interview respondent."}, {"n": 101, "text": "Taştan/Ördek submission, executive summary, p. 2."}, {"n": 102, "text": "Ibid., p. 72."}, {"n": 103, "text": "Ibid., pp. 67–69."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0045", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Students and academics alike are also often targets of direct attacks by the State without any lawful justification. Such attacks include threats, violence and arbitrary deprivation of liberty. Matthew Hedges, a citizen of the United Kingdom and a doctoral student, was detained by the authorities of the United Arab Emirates for seven months owing to his fieldwork research.[[fn:104]] He was coerced into making an admission to espionage under torture and solitary confinement.[[fn:105]] In June 2020, police officers reportedly beat and arrested dozens of students in Balochistan Province, Pakistan, during a non-violent protest demanding the Internet access necessary for online classes.[[fn:106]] In the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, unidentified individuals released tear gas during a class at the Central University of Venezuela Law School in an apparent effort to prevent students from discussing the impact of a judicial decision on university autonomy.[[fn:107]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "B. Legitimacy of restrictions", "Targeted violence against students and academics"], "footnotes": [{"n": 104, "text": "Hedges submission, p. 1."}, {"n": 105, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 106, "text": "Scholars at Risk, Academic Freedom Monitoring Project Index database, date of incident 24 June 2020. Available at www.scholarsatrisk.org/report/2020-06-24-various-institutions/."}, {"n": 107, "text": "Scholars at Risk, Academic Freedom Monitoring Project Index database, date of incident 12 February 2020. Available at www.scholarsatrisk.org/report/2020-02-12-central-university-of-venezuela/."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0046", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. As shown above, many restrictions involve more than one ground of non-compliance with the requirements of article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Where that is the case, the restrictive measure is often assessed under the tests of necessity and proportionality. Restrictions are often unsuitable and improper for achieving the legitimate aim, fail to use less restrictive means available to the Government or simply constitute excessive interference in the right to academic freedom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0047", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. In Bangladesh, government approval is required for certain historical publications.[[fn:108]] In Viet Nam, professors “must refrain from criticising government policies and adhere to party views when teaching or writing on political topics”.[[fn:109]] In Jordan, the university administration must obtain approval for all “research papers, forums, reading materials, movies, [and] seminars”.[[fn:110]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality", "Prior censorship"], "footnotes": [{"n": 108, "text": "Roberts Lyer and Suba, Closing Academic Space, p. 6."}, {"n": 109, "text": "Freedom House, report on Viet Nam, 2017."}, {"n": 110, "text": "Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 10; and Roberts Lyer and Suba, Closing Academic Space, pp. 6–7."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0048", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. State assertions that national security or public order justifies interference with personal security and privacy are common in cases of surveillance of personal communications, encryption and anonymity.[[fn:111]] Surveillance and monitoring of speech and movement lead to restrictions on academic freedom and a culture of self-censorship. Random monitoring of reading materials and research causes academics not to pursue their necessary work.[[fn:112]] There is often additional monitoring of those belonging to specific religious groups, as well as gendered surveillance. Broadly speaking, the ideology that the State strives to maintain results in surveillance and monitoring of opinions about the Government. In Ethiopia, a pattern of surveillance and arbitrary arrest of Oromo university students was reported. In Togo, Uganda and Zimbabwe, some lectures have allegedly been surveilled by security officials.[[fn:113]] Surveillance and monitoring of women have also been a trend in restricting academic freedom and freedom of expression. Such monitoring, in particular through the use of closed-circuit television, may extend to blackmail of students, with videos showing women sitting in class or talking to a man. Organizations have reported cases “where girls had claimed that teachers and members of the administration had asked for sexual favours or money in return for not sharing videos with their families”.[[fn:114]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality", "Surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "See A/HRC/29/32 and A/71/373."}, {"n": 112, "text": "Taştan/Ördek submission, p. 117."}, {"n": 113, "text": "Roberts Lyer and Suba, Closing Academic Space, pp. 102–103."}, {"n": 114, "text": "Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 11."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0049", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Restrictions on certain research topics may entail “limited access to libraries, restrictions on the publication of and research about certain topics, intellectual property restrictions and limitations on the ability of academics to collaborate internationally”.[[fn:115]] In 2018, the Government of Hungary distributed a directive to all universities indicating that it would no longer certify or provide funding for any programmes or courses in gender studies.[[fn:116]] The Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism of the Republic of Korea has requested the Korean National University of Arts to concentrate solely on “practical education”.[[fn:117]] In Brazil, some municipalities have enacted laws, while in hundreds of others, bills are under consideration, specifically prohibiting schools from addressing gender and sexuality issues.[[fn:118]] In Japan, the authorities have influenced the preparation of school textbooks relating to historical events, in particular with regard to the participation of Japan in the Second World War and the issue of “comfort women”. Influence ranges from the inclusion of a disclaimer indicating the contrary view of the Government that there was no forcible taking of women to editing out references to “comfort women”.[[fn:119]] In Pakistan, some textbooks are published under government supervision and paint a picture of history that is intended to reinforce a certain ideology and political orientation.[[fn:120]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality", "Undermining the right of access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 115, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 6."}, {"n": 116, "text": "Communication No. HUN 6/2018, 12 September 2018."}, {"n": 117, "text": "See E/C.12/KOR/CO/3."}, {"n": 118, "text": "Article 19 Brazil submission, p. 3; and communication No. BRA 4/2017, 13 April 2017."}, {"n": 119, "text": "See A/HRC/35/22/Add.1."}, {"n": 120, "text": "Media Matters for Democracy submission, p. 2; and Afnan Khan, “The threat of Pakistan’s revisionist texts”, Guardian, 18 May 2009."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0050", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Some university professors have seen their academic freedom restricted by the denial of access to information requests necessary for their academic research. For example, Immigration and Customs Enforcement and Cowlitz County, Washington, in the United States refused to provide to a professor and researcher of the University of Washington information regarding juvenile detention centres holding children without supervision. Cowlitz County provided incomplete information and filed a motion for declaratory judgment against the University and the professor personally. Immigration and Customs Enforcement requested that the case be heard by a federal court, and responded that the information requested was confidential under federal law, despite state regulations to the contrary.[[fn:121]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality", "Undermining the right of access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 121, "text": "Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression, Annual Report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 2019, vol. II: Annual Report of the Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression, OEA/Ser.L/V/II. Doc. 5 (2020), para. 672."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0051", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Governments have also disrupted Internet and telecommunications services in the name of national security and public order. Such disruptions include the shutdown of entire networks, the blocking of websites and platforms, and the suspension of telecommunications and mobile services. Since August 2019, the Government of India has imposed a near-total communications blackout in Jammu and Kashmir, with Internet access, mobile phone networks, cable and television channels cut off.[[fn:122]] That situation has affected the education system and research by scholars. Following a Supreme Court ruling in January 2020 in which the Government was ordered to restore the Internet, it brought back only a second-generation network.[[fn:123]] The situation in Kashmir has been aggravated by the effects of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic on education systems. The pandemic has had a massive impact on the education of children and young people worldwide and has widened existing gaps.[[fn:124]] The Special Rapporteur on the right to education has warned States that exclusion prior to and during the pandemic exists “against a backdrop of entrenched, recognized structural inequality”.[[fn:125]] She highlighted that the excessive reliance on online distance-learning tools to address the continuity of education had exacerbated those inequalities. According to UNESCO, “half of the total number of learners – some 826 million students – kept out of the classroom by the COVID-19 pandemic, do not have access to a household computer and 43 per cent (706 million) have no Internet at home”.[[fn:126]] In addition, many Governments do not have the policies, resources or infrastructure to roll out a fully inclusive transition to online learning, particularly when it is accompanied by a technology-heavy response.[[fn:127]]", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality", "Internet access"], "footnotes": [{"n": 122, "text": "OHCHR, “UN rights experts urge India to end communications shutdown in Kashmir”, 22 August 2019."}, {"n": 123, "text": "Sundar submission, p. 18."}, {"n": 124, "text": "Elin Martínez, “COVID-19 reveals global need to improve education systems”, Human Rights Watch, 13 July 2020."}, {"n": 125, "text": "A/HRC/44/39, para. 80."}, {"n": 126, "text": "UNESCO, “Startling digital divides in distance learning emerge”, 21 April 2020."}, {"n": 127, "text": "Martínez, “COVID-19 reveals global need to improve education systems”."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0052", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. One form of restriction on academic freedom is the restriction or suppression of peaceful protests. Students who participate in protests are subject to exclusion from scholarships, criminalization, the physical presence and interventions of security forces on university campuses, arrest, detention, ill-treatment, extrajudicial killing and trial in military courts.[[fn:128]] Governments often use public protest and civil unrest as a justification to pass and enforce laws that control and monitor students and interfere with institutional autonomy, which limits academic freedom.[[fn:129]] In Egypt, thousands of students were imprisoned following a protest in reaction to the 2013 coup.[[fn:130]] The physical presence and interventions of security forces on university campuses and during protests organized or led by students or in which a large number of students participate have been documented in many countries. Students from Chile, Colombia, Honduras and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) who organized or participated in protests faced violent and disproportionate responses from law enforcement.[[fn:131]] Police and military forces in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela “have repressed student protests with excessive force” and “the situation has been worsening since 2013, but more dramatically in 2014 and 2017”.[[fn:132]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality", "Restrictions on the right to protest"], "footnotes": [{"n": 128, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, summary, p. 8"}, {"n": 129, "text": "Taştan/Ördek submission, p. 10; and Elizka Relief Foundation submission, p. 3."}, {"n": 130, "text": "Roberts Lyer and Suba, Closing Academic Space, p. 8."}, {"n": 131, "text": "Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Democratic Institutions, the Rule of Law and Human Rights in Venezuela: Country Report, OEA/Ser.L/V/II. Doc. 209/17 (2017); InterAmerican Commission on Human Rights, Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression, Protest and Human Rights: Standards on the Rights Involved in Social Protest and the Obligations to Guide the Response of the State, OEA/Ser L/V/II CIDH/RELE/INF.22/19 (2019); Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, “IACHR issues preliminary observations and recommendations following on-site visit to Chile”, 31 January 2020; and University of Ottawa, Human Rights Research and Education Centre submission, p. 6."}, {"n": 132, "text": "Mayda Gabriela Hocevar, David Augusto Gómez and Nelson Jose Rivas, “Threats to academic freedom in Venezuela: legislative impositions and patterns of discrimination towards university teachers and students”, Interdisciplinary Political Studies, vol. 3, No. 1 (2017)."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0053", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Travel restrictions form a constraint on freedom of expression, freedom of movement and freedom to share knowledge and collaborate with others. Examples include Egyptian faculty members requiring security clearance and approval from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Higher Education to travel abroad.[[fn:133]] Likewise, in India, it is difficult to obtain research visas: faculty members must “apply for ‘permission to leave the country’, at least six weeks in advance” if they want to attend conferences abroad, even if the conferences are taking place during their vacation time.[[fn:134]] The African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights acknowledged the importance of freedom of expression for the fulfilment of academic freedom in Good v. Republic of Botswana.[[fn:135]] The Commission held that Botswana had violated the academic’s rights by deporting him after he had published a paper unfavourable to the Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Threats to academic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality", "Travel restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 133, "text": "International Centre for Non-profit Law submission, p. 7."}, {"n": 134, "text": "Sundar submission, p. 16."}, {"n": 135, "text": "Communication No. 313/05, 26 May 2010."}]}, {"id": "a-75-261-0054", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Restrictions on academic freedom are both ancient tools to limit the sharing of information and knowledge and the questioning of received wisdom, and contemporary tools to repress information and ideas that Governments often find threatening. Yet, without academic freedom, all societies lose one of the essential elements of democratic self-governance: the capacity for self-reflection, for knowledge generation and for a constant search for improvements of people’s lives and social conditions. As the Special Rapporteur has sought to show, academic freedom depends upon a range of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. The Special Rapporteur focused especially on the freedom of expression aspects of academic freedom, a freedom that is best understood as one that crosses boundaries of rights and borders. In particular, threats to academic freedom – threats to questioning – must be confronted, whether the threat derives from State behaviour or social pressure. The current global pandemic highlights for all the importance of the development and sharing of all sorts of ideas and information, regardless of frontiers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0055", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The Special Rapporteur makes the recommendations below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0056", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. State approaches to academic freedom should be rooted in the critical importance of academic pursuits, academic communities and academic participants to democratic society, individual freedom, human progress and problem-solving. States should ensure that they recognize that vital importance by refraining from attacks on academic institutions and those who constitute academic communities, and by protecting them from attacks – insulating them from assault – by third parties. That means, at a minimum:\n(a) Reviewing and, where necessary, revising national laws and policies to ensure the protection of academic freedom. Any laws relating to academic institutions should recognize that restrictions often result in limitations to fundamental rights, including the freedom of opinion and expression. As a result, any such rules must meet the strict conditions laid down for restrictions on expression;\n(b) Avoiding the use of tools of coercion, such as funding cuts, prosecution or denial of tax benefits, in order to pressure academic institutions to carry out or to avoid certain kinds of research. At the same time, public support for academic institutions, including through government funding and grant opportunities, signals valuable support to third party actors;\n(c) Refraining from penalizing academic institutions and members of academic communities for their extramural activities. All too often, academics are targeted for their public perception as sceptics and objective knowledge-seekers, especially when they engage in public debate. Governments must refrain from such targeting not only because it interferes with freedom of expression, but also because such targeting has a chilling effect on academic communities;\n(d) Recognizing that an academic work product involves not only expression but also, often, freedom of opinion that cannot be subject to any interference;\n(e) Ensuring the institutional autonomy of universities, research institutes and other bodies that constitute the academic community. The recognition of such autonomy includes recognition of the special autonomous space of academic campuses and the importance of allowing that space to be a vibrant space for the exercise of the rights to expression, protest and other fundamental freedoms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0057", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. The monitoring bodies of the United Nations and global treaties may seem to be marginal to the pursuit of academic freedom. They are not. The human rights mechanisms, such as the Human Rights Council, should ensure that the universal periodic review and other reviews of State compliance with human rights law include consideration of academic freedom. Treaty bodies should seek out cases of academic freedom and, when reviewing them, be sure to characterize interferences not only as a specific type of violation (e.g., of freedom of expression) but as a violation of academic freedom itself.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for international organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0058", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Academic institutions, when assured of institutional autonomy and self-governance, take on special roles within societies, which see them as places to educate the coming generations of thinkers, leaders and bureaucratic and business elites among others. Self-governance means ensuring that, within the space for academic freedom, institutions also act in ways that reflect those roles. In particular, academic institutions must:\n(a) Respect the rights of all members of their communities, including faculty, students, researchers, staff, administrators and outsiders who participate in academic pursuits. That respect must include the right of all members to freedom of opinion and expression, including peaceful protest on academic premises;\n(b) Ensure that members of academic communities have protection against coercion by third parties, whether the State or groups in society. This requires, in particular, institutions to stand up for members of their communities who face attack or restriction owing to the exercise of their academic freedom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for academic institutions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-75-261-0059", "docId": "a-75-261", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. Members of civil society, especially members of academic communities and their advocates, are encouraged to articulate claims of violation of academic freedom, taking into account the findings in the present report. In particular, those who believe that their rights to academic freedom have been subjected to unwarranted interference are encouraged to bring their claims to the attention of the special procedure mandate holders of the Human Rights Council, UNESCO, relevant human rights treaty bodies and other regional and international bodies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Recommendation for civil society"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report, submitted pursuant to Commission on Human Rights resolution 2002/48, is the first report by Mr. Ambeyi Ligabo (Kenya), Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, who was appointed on 26 August 2002. The mandate was established by the Commission in its resolution 1993/45. Section I of the report contains the terms of reference of and methods of work for the discharge of his mandate. Section II presents an account of the activities undertaken within the framework of his mandate since his appointment. Section III deals with a number of issues which the Special Rapporteur considers to be important for the development of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Lastly, section IV contains the conclusions and recommendations of the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The Special Rapporteur refers to the reports of his predecessor,[[fn:1]] in which the terms of reference and methods of work under the mandate were defined, and endorses them. With respect to communications with Governments, the Special Rapporteur has decided that he would send urgent action letters for the attention of Governments to which he has formally requested an invitation for a visit only in exceptional circumstances.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["Introduction", "I. TERMS OF REFERENCE AND METHODS OF WORK"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "In particular his first and second reports to the Commission on Human Rights, E/CN.4/1994/33 and E/CN.4/1995/32."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. In this respect, the Special Rapporteur would like to emphasize that, while considering both the general situation as well as individual cases as regards the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, he intends to develop close cooperation with Governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) as well as all other relevant organizations and institutions, in order to seek and receive credible and reliable information which in his view is essential for the discharge of his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["Introduction", "I. TERMS OF REFERENCE AND METHODS OF WORK"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The structure of the present report follows the same lines as the last report submitted by his predecessor, with the summaries of communications with Governments in a separate document (E/CN.4/2003/67/Add.1). The main body of issues addressed in this report includes an analysis of programmes and policies with respect to access to information for the purposes of education on, and prevention of HIV/AIDS; an emphasis on the importance of safeguarding human rights, and in particular the right to freedom of opinion and expression, while adopting and implementing counter-terrorism measures; and, as in previous years, a number of trends on the situation of freedom of opinion and expression identified through an analysis of communications received by the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["Introduction", "I. TERMS OF REFERENCE AND METHODS OF WORK"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Please refer to document E/CN.4/2003/67/Add.1.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Communications with Governments"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The Special Rapporteur issued on 24 October 2002 a joint press release with the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, Mr. Doudou Diène, on the situation in Côte d’Ivoire.[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Press releases"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "These press releases may be consulted on the OHCHR web site: www.ohchr.org."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. On 10 December 2002, the Special Rapporteur made a joint declaration with the Representative on freedom of the media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression of the Organization of American States (OAS), on “Freedom of expression and administration of justice, freedom of expression and commercialization, and criminal defamation”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. It should be noted that on 19 April 2002, the former Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Mr. Abid Hussain, issued a joint press release with the Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, Mr. Juan Miguel Petit.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. On 1 July 2002, the Special Rapporteur sent a note verbale to all Member States drawing their attention to paragraph 20 of Commission on Human Rights resolution 2002/48 in which the Commission invited States “to submit to the Special Rapporteur comments on their programmes and policies with respect to access to information for the purposes of education on and prevention of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection” and invited “the Special Rapporteur, within the framework of his mandate, to consider these comments with a view to sharing best practices”. This note verbale followed upon a similar note verbale of 7 June 2001, sent in response to paragraph 13 of Commission resolution 2001/47.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Requests for information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the Governments of the following countries which have submitted information: Argentina, Canada, Cuba, Czech Republic, Dominica, Estonia, Germany, Guatemala, Guinea, Italy, Kuwait, Lebanon, Malaysia, Mauritius, Mexico, Monaco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Slovenia, Thailand, Togo and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. (For an analysis of these contributions, see section III. B of the present report.)", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Requests for information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. The Special Rapporteur considers that carrying out country visits is one of the essential elements of his mandate, enabling him to examine in situ the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. He therefore calls upon Governments to cooperate with him in that regard.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["D. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. From 1 to 7 December 2002, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Equatorial Guinea (E/CN.4/2003/67/Add.2).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Visit undertaken during the year"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Invitations to undertake visits to Sri Lanka, Egypt and Guatemala during 2002 were extended to the former Special Rapporteur by the Governments of these countries, and preparations were under way for his visit to Sri Lanka. However, in light of the uncertainty as to the end of tenure of the former Special Rapporteur’s mandate (on 26 July 2002), the mission could not take place.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Visit undertaken during the year"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Since his appointment, the Special Rapporteur has received invitations to visit Equatorial Guinea and the Islamic Republic of Iran. He would like to thank those Governments for their cooperation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Invitations received and requests for invitations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. In addition, the Special Rapporteur has requested invitations to visit the following countries: Angola, China, Colombia, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Russian Federation and Viet Nam. The Special Rapporteur regrets that invitations have not so far been received from those countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Invitations received and requests for invitations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. In carrying out his mandate, the Special Rapporteur intends to cooperate closely with other geographic and thematic special procedures mandate-holders, the treaty bodies and human rights field operations of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). He also intends to continue and develop the collaboration with the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media and the OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression, as well as with the Programme for Freedom of Expression, Democracy and Peace of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["E. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Although he has not yet had the time to study in-depth the interlinkages between their respective activities and his mandate and to explore possible paths of cooperation, the Special Rapporteur will endeavour to work with other departments, agencies and organizations of the United Nations system, including United Nations country teams, as well as with regional intergovernmental organizations concerned with the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["E. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The Special Rapporteur undertook his first consultation mission in Geneva from 21 to 23 October 2002, during which he met with the Permanent Representatives of China, Indonesia, the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Russian Federation and Zimbabwe and with members of the Group of Western European and other States (“Western Group”) during a meeting organized by the Permanent Mission of Canada. The Special Rapporteur also met with a number of NGOs, and received briefings on the activities of the United Nations human rights programme from OHCHR staff. He also had the opportunity to meet with the High Commissioner for Human Rights and discuss the breadth and impact of his mandate and its integration in the United Nations human rights agenda, as well as his methods of work.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["E. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. A meeting was organized in London by Article 19, on 9 and 10 December 2002, which brought together the United Nations Special Rapporteur for freedom of opinion and expression, the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media, and the OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom\nof expression. It was the fourth time that the three mechanisms had met, and this year the themes selected for an exchange of views were “Freedom of expression and the administration of justice”, “Commercial pressures on the media” and “Criminal defamation”. A joint declaration was issued at the end of this meeting.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["E. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "This declaration may be consulted on the OHCHR web site: www.ohchr.org."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. As the activities of the former Special Rapporteur during 2002 are concerned, he visited Geneva from 4 to 8 April 2002 for consultations and to present his report to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-eighth session. During this visit, he met with the delegations of Canada, Mexico, Egypt and Sri Lanka, and participated in a meeting with the Western Group. He also had the opportunity to meet with representatives of a number of international, regional and local NGOs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["E. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The former Special Rapporteur also gave a keynote speech on the occasion of the celebration on 3 May 2002 in Manila of World Press Freedom Day organized by the UNESCO Programme for Freedom of Expression, Democracy and Peace, which followed a two-day conference focusing on the theme “Media and terrorism”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["E. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Finally, the former Special Rapporteur attended the ninth meeting of the special rapporteurs/representatives, independent experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures and advisory services programme of the Commission on Human Rights, held in Geneva from 24 to 28 June 2002.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["E. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. As in previous years, the Special Rapporteur has analysed the nature of the communications received in order to highlight trends and bring to the attention of the international community a number of policies, practices, incidents and measures having a negative impact on respect for the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur hopes that the identification of such trends will help concerned Governments to review existing practices and take remedial actions and, as appropriate, to seek technical assistance from OHCHR in order to eliminate the causes of such violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. As was the case during previous years, the communications brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur were from a variety of sources (international, regional, national and local NGOs; associations of media professionals; trade unions; members of political parties) and from all regions of the world. The Special Rapporteur would like to thank all of them for the information and documentation provided, and underlines that these are essential to the discharge of his mandate. He encourages members and organizations of civil society to continue to provide him with information on the realization and violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression around the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The Special Rapporteur notes that a large number of allegations continue to refer to the following situations: internal armed conflict; civil unrest; situations where the legal and institutional protections and guarantees of human rights are circumscribed to a greater or lesser\ndegree or where the legal and institutional protections and guarantees exist but are not properly implemented. The Special Rapporteur also notes that the communications received are not confined to alleged violations in such situations, but also to alleged violations occurring in emerging or long-established democracies.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. However, it should be underlined that the nature of the alleged violations varied depending on the level of respect for the rule of law and good governance in a society, going from killings, arbitrary arrest and detention, threats and harassment, criminal charges and sentencing to prison terms for libel or defamation, to various types of judicial and administrative measures limiting the freedom of the media, individuals, groups or organizations endeavouring to express themselves freely.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. The Special Rapporteur wishes to underline that the international community’s awareness of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, of its principles and of the need to secure them in laws and regulations in order to protect this right and ensure its effective exercise seems to be increasing. Declarations and principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, on freedom of the press, and on the right to information are being adopted by many intergovernmental as well as non-governmental organizations in various parts of the world. In this respect, the Special Rapporteur would like to make specific mention of the “Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa”, adopted on 23 October 2002 by the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights at its thirty-second Ordinary Session held in Banjul.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The Declaration reaffirmed “the fundamental importance of freedom of expression as an individual human right as a cornerstone of democracy and as a means of ensuring respect for all human rights and freedoms”. It is based on, and aimed at evaluating States’ compliance with article 9 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, places the right to freedom of expression in an African context, underlining in particular the importance in Africa of the broadcast media, especially radio broadcasting, and underlines the key role of the media in ensuring full respect for freedom of expression and its various components. It also addresses obstacles to freedom of expression, freedom of information, private and public broadcasting and the print media, as well as positive measures that States should adopt to overcome these obstacles.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "9", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 9 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights' — African regional treaty not in the allowed list."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. However, despite this perceived and welcome increase in consciousness about the importance of the effective exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in ensuring democracy and promoting respect for all human rights, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that, in general, adequate steps towards better protection of this right have not yet been taken universally. This is particularly obvious when analysing the increasing number of communications sent to the Special Rapporteur, reporting on continuing violations to freedom of opinion and expression in all regions of the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. With these points in mind, the Special Rapporteur directs the attention of Governments to the following general trends, and strongly urges them to take all appropriate action, consistent with the standards set out in the International Bill of Human Rights and related international and regional instruments, to eliminate the violations themselves and their causes and negative consequences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. A majority of cases received by the Special Rapporteur have continued to relate to violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression of media professionals. The Special Rapporteur wishes to emphasize however, that the right to freedom of opinion and expression is not restricted to editors, journalists and other media professionals, although respect for their freedom to express themselves and to seek and impart information is clear evidence of a society in which all human rights are respected. Similar violations also occur, although they seem to be less reported upon, in relation to political groups and members of opposition political parties, associations defending various rights and interests, human rights defenders, judges and lawyers, students, academics, trade unionists, persons participating in strikes or otherwise demonstrating, peasants, members of religious and indigenous minorities, authors, cartoonists and, more generally, all individuals and groups seeking to express their opinions freely and to seek and impart information.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. The Special Rapporteur notes that the number of journalists killed, arrested and imprisoned is still very high, although the number of reported killings of journalists seems to have decreased in 2002, and that many journalists working in conflict areas have been specifically targeted by belligerents - killed, wounded, arrested and detained, intimidated, harassed and threatened, prevented from access to certain areas, had their press cards confiscated, expelled from, or forbidden entry to, certain countries. The Special Rapporteur is extremely concerned about such situations, in particular as he strongly believes that independent reporting on conflict situations by journalists constitutes a guarantee and a safeguard against the worst forms of abuse and of impunity of armed forces and groups.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. As has been the case in the past, in a large number of instances, national security and the “argument of necessity” continue to be frequently used by authorities in a number of countries to silence and/or to take punitive action against those who have exercised their right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The Special Rapporteur deems it important to underline that since the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001, the arguments of national security and necessity have been supplemented by the argument of the fight against terrorism, which is more and more frequently resorted to by the authorities in many countries to infringe - through, inter alia, the adoption of restrictive laws, arrest, detention, censorship, bans, surveillance of and restrictions on publications or the use of the Internet - the right to freedom of opinion and expression, in particular for journalists, members of political opposition groups and parties and human rights defenders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The Special Rapporteur notes with concern that, despite repeated appeals by many NGOs and media professionals’ associations, as well as specific and comprehensive recommendations by his predecessor,[[fn:4]] an important number of communications referring to criminal charges against media professionals for libel or defamation, leading very often to prison sentences, have been brought to his attention, as well as cases of prohibitive fines for libel levied against media professionals and newspapers. The Special Rapporteur would like in this context to recall that the principle of proportionality must be observed when charges are brought against media professionals and others, in order not to undermine the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and make it an empty shell.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See E/CN.4/1999/64, paras. 24-28 and E/CN.4/2000/63, paras. 45-52."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. While the Special Rapporteur recognizes that, as enshrined in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, there are permissible limitations to the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, in particular when it comes to respecting the rights and reputation of others, States should bear in mind that the principle of proportionality should be observed in restricting the exercise of the right to freedom of expression. In particular, it is the view of the Special Rapporteur that the sentencing to a prison term for libel or defamation is clearly not a proportionate penalty in this regard.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Trends"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. In the world now, there are 40 million people living with HIV/AIDS, including 5 million new infections during 2001 alone, and, according to UNAIDS, the epidemic is still in its early stages.[[fn:5]] As of today, there is still no preventive vaccine and treatment is unaffordable or inaccessible for most people who need it[[fn:6]] (less than 4 per cent of those living with HIV/AIDS in developing countries have access to antiretroviral treatment).[[fn:7]]", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "UNAIDS, Report on the global HIV/AIDS epidemic, July 2002."}, {"n": 6, "text": "United Nations Population Fund, Programme Briefs No. 1, “HIV Prevention Now”, August 2001."}, {"n": 7, "text": "UNAIDS, op. cit."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Without a vaccine or an cure, the main hope in curbing the epidemic - in parallel to making available affordable treatment in developing countries as well as in developed countries in which social security schemes do not exist or do not cover such treatment - resides in widespread and accessible information and education for the purpose of prevention. Prevention, treatment, care and support are mutually reinforcing elements and a continuum of an effective response to HIV/AIDS. This was a key message to emerge from the discussions at the XIV International AIDS Conference held in Barcelona, Spain, in July 2002. Widespread availability and accessibility of information and education are essential to effective prevention and treatment efforts.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The “International Guidelines on HIV/AIDS and Human Rights” (E/CN.4/1997/37, annex I) adopted by the Second International Consultation on HIV/AIDS and Human Rights, underline and elaborate on the link between the realization of all human rights and the spread and impact of HIV/AIDS. In 2002, OHCHR and UNAIDS undertook a revision of guideline 6 on access to prevention, treatment, care and support. Revised guideline 6, the outcome of an international expert consultation on HIV/AIDS and human rights held in Geneva on 25 and 26 July 2002,[[fn:8]] is based on human rights law and principles and is anchored in political commitments by States, including the 2001 Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS. It provides a framework for States to orient and design their policies, programmes and practice to ensure respect for human rights in HIV-related prevention, treatment, care and support. Revised guideline 6 and guideline 9 highlight the importance of information and education programmes for the purposes of prevention, and places them in a human rights context. Revised guideline 6 reads as follows:\n“States should enact legislation to provide for the regulation of HIV-related … information, so as to ensure widespread availability of qualitative prevention measures and services, [and] adequate HIV prevention and care information … .\n“States should also take measures necessary to ensure ... the availability and accessibility of quality goods, services and information for HIV/AIDS prevention, treatment, care and support, including antiretroviral and other safe and effective medicines, diagnostics and related technologies for preventive, curative and palliative care of HIV/AIDS and related opportunistic infections and conditions … .”", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "See HIV/AIDS and Human Rights: Guideline 6. Available at the OHCHR web site: www.ohchr.org."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Guideline 9 reads as follows:\n“States should promote the wide and ongoing distribution of creative education, training and media programmes explicitly designed to change attitudes of discrimination and stigmatization associated with HIV/AIDS to understanding and acceptance.”", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Taking the above into consideration, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that the effective exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to seek, receive and impart information, is of the utmost importance for ensuring effective education and information campaigns to prevent HIV/AIDS. As demonstrated by the examples given below, information and education on HIV/AIDS are the cornerstone of prevention programmes, and the Special Rapporteur believes that the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is a sine qua non condition of effective information and education campaigns.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. After having analysed responses from States to his note verbale of 1 July 2002, the Special Rapporteur has identified a number of good practices among policies and programmes with respect to access to information for the purposes of education on, and prevention of HIV infection, such as:\n(a) The development of an integrated and multisectoral education, information and prevention planning and strategy structure at the national level, for example the National Programme on AIDS in Argentina and the 1998-2002 HIV/AIDS Control Project-LVSIDA; the Canadian Strategy on HIV/AIDS (CSHA); the Cuban Operational Group on the Fight Against HIV/AIDS (GOPELS) set up in 1986; the HIV/AIDS Strategic Plan for Dominica, developed in consultation with civil society, during a September 2002 National Consultation gathering NGOs, the private sector, public authorities and unions; the Estonian “National HIV/AIDS Prevention Programme for 2002-2006”; the Multisectoral Commission in Guatemala formed in 2000; the National AIDS Committee formed in 1992 in Kuwait, which develops, in close partnership with the World Health Organization, programmes dealing with blood safety, prevention, health awareness and training for medical professionals; the National AIDS Programme supported by the Ministry of Public Health of Lebanon, which develops awareness-raising and educational initiatives; the 2001-2006 Programme of Action on HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Diseases of the National System on Health Information (SINAIS) in Mexico; the Strategic Plan for the Prevention of HIV and Sexually Transmitted Diseases in Norway; the National Commission for the Fight against AIDS (CNLCS) in Portugal, which developed the Strategic Plan on Combating AIDS (2001-2003) focusing on five intervention areas: epidemiology, education, the creation of a National Network of Advisory and Early Detection Centres, the creation of a National Network of Combined Therapeutic and out-of-hospital support; the National Plan for HIV/AIDS Prevention and Care in Slovenia; the eighth (1997-2001) and ninth (2002-2006) National Vision on the Protection and Control of HIV/AIDS of Thailand; or the Strategic Plan for 2001-2005 in Togo;\n(b) The production and dissemination of awareness campaigns targeted at specific vulnerable groups, through, in particular, radio and television programmes, advertisements, video-clips, songs, theatre, exhibitions, comics, etc. For example, campaigns have been carried out since 1988/89 in Italy under the leadership of the Ministry of Health, targeted at, in a first phase, men who have sex with men, intravenous drug users and medical professionals, in a second phase at women, young people, the prison population and HIV-positive people, and in a third phase at non-EU migrants, men and women working in prostitution, and the workplace. In Kuwait, the Ministry of Information is involved in information campaigns on HIV/AIDS through radio, television and newspapers. In Portugal, the CNLCS is developing partnership with civil society organizations and associations, NGOs and the media in order to disseminate campaigns for, and to reach specific groups such as men and women working in prostitution, men who have sex with men, intravenous drug users, ethnic minorities, migrants, members of the military, detainees and women. Thematic campaigns, organized by the Government, local authorities and NGOs are also proving to be efficient, such as for example the national campaign organized in 2001 in Guinea by the Ministry of Social Affairs and the Promotion of Women and Children, the Ministry of Public Health and the UNAIDS Thematic Group in Guinea on “Social Mobilization and Dialogue on HIV/AIDS”;\n(c) The dissemination of information on HIV/AIDS, including on transmission modes and prevention means, scientific progress, and new and/or alternative treatment, through, for example, the establishment of institutions or networks to collect and disseminate information to community-based organizations, professional training institutions, practitioners and the general public. In this respect, the following cases are worth noting: the HIV/AIDS Clearinghouse, the AIDS Treatment Information Exchange and the HIV/AIDS Legal Network in Canada; the publication of a brochure entitled “Living with HIV/AIDS” aimed at families of people living with HIV/AIDS in Cuba; the AIDS Prevention Centre in Estonia; the setting up in the Netherlands of “promotion teams” who reach out to “target groups” in pubs, clubs, discotheques, on the beach, etc.; the Norwegian Institute of Public Health, one of whose main responsibility is to provide governmental institutions, health workers and the general population with information about communicable diseases, including HIV/AIDS, through, for example, the quarterly publication of the brochure “Aids-info”, sent to hospitals and health institutions, schools and libraries, and posted on the Internet; the Subcommittee on Public Relations for AIDS Control of the National AIDS Committee in Thailand, whose main objective is to provide updated and accurate information to the public and the media. Also, the Programme Against HIV/AIDS in Togo has as one of its main objectives the improvement of the quality of the information and the means of communication on HIV/AIDS-related issues, through the production of messages adapted to each target group and their wide dissemination on radio, television, in newspapers and magazines, via posters, etc.; and the training of media communicators, teachers, priests, artists, political leaders, law enforcement officers, members of NGOs, medical professionals, etc.;\n(d) The development of professional expertise on HIV/AIDS, including through:\n(i) The adequate and regular training of professionals dealing with people living with HIV/AIDS or belonging to vulnerable groups such as social workers, physicians and medical workers, counselling specialists, law enforcement, officers, etc., as, for example, through the Canadian HIV/AIDS Mentorship Programme which links 330 novice physicians with 124 experienced HIV primary care physicians. In Portugal, the CNLCS signed a protocol with the Portuguese Law Society for training activities and the creation of a free and confidential legal assistance network on AIDS;\n(ii) The development of training modules and the organization of training sessions for teachers, to ensure that pupils are properly informed about HIV/AIDS and more generally receive appropriate sex education, such as that organized under the HIV/AIDS Control Project-LVSIDA which trains trainers on HIV/AIDS prevention among schoolteachers in Argentina; by the AIDS Prevention Centre in Estonia or the Ministry for Education, Youth and Sport in the Czech Republic, or by the Portuguese CNLCS;\n(e) The inclusion of HIV/AIDS-related programmes in the curricula of schools, such as the case of the inclusion of prevention of HIV/AIDS in the programmes of schools at the primary, secondary and tertiary level in accordance with Law on AIDS No. 23.798 and its implementation Decree 1244/91 in Argentina; the inclusion of HIV-related issues in the “Standards and Basic Education” in the Czech Republic; the development of sex education programmes for schools, including information on HIV/AIDS, by the Ministry of Education in Cuba; the inclusion of a series of modules addressing issues relating to reproductive health and HIV/AIDS in the curricula of secondary schools in Mauritius; the organization of conferences with physicians in schools on the occasion of World AIDS Day and the publication and free dissemination of an “agenda for health” in Monaco; the cooperation developed between the Portuguese CNLCS and the Coordinating Commission for the Promotion of and Education towards Health aimed at shaping attitudes and behaviour better able to prevent the infection and at instilling the principles of solidarity, non-discrimination and respect with regard to HIV-positive people; or the involvement of the Health Education Unit and the HIV/AIDS Unit of the Ministry of Health and Environment in all schools in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines;\n(f) The capacity-building of community-based HIV/AIDS research to assist communities to develop education and prevention programmes, and the collection of best practices to promote the sharing of information on successful community-based projects. In Thailand, for example, the eighth and ninth National Vision on the Protection and Control of HIV/AIDS encourages the creation of community-based organizations and organizations of people living with HIV/AIDS, as it was realized that such organizations achieve better results in communicating with their respective “target groups” as they know how to reach them and what their specific problems and situations are. In Lebanon, the Ministry of Public Health has set up a communications network between the National AIDS Programme and the relevant NGOs, so as to provide them with full information about the epidemic and, through these organizations, to reach out to the greatest number of people;\n(g) The development of cultural-specific education and prevention programmes for indigenous people, refugees, asylum-seekers and migrants. This is the case, for example, of the National Aboriginal Council on HIV/AIDS and the Aboriginal AIDS Network in Canada and the National Institute of Health Promotion and Disease Prevention for migrants in the Netherlands. In Norway, a brochure of the Norwegian Institute of Public Health and the Norwegian Board of Health was translated into 14 languages and disseminated among asylum-seekers and migrants, and the possibility exists of using interpreters during counselling sessions; health and social workers receive training in cross-cultural communication to improve their skills to communicate with foreigners and indigenous people;\n(h) The publication of brochures, books, information material and leaflets and their dissemination, including through the mass media, for example in Estonia, where this is done with the support of the AIDS Prevention Centre, and in Germany, with the support of the Federal Ministry of Health;\n(i) The arrangements for infection-safe taking, storage and transfusion of donor blood, tissues and organs, including the automatic free HIV testing of donors, as, for example, with the Blood Safety Programme in Malaysia which has done this since 1988;\n(j) The setting-up of hotlines and individual counselling systems, as has been done by the German Federal Centre for Health Education, and the availability of free and anonymous HIV testing and counselling, as in Slovenia. In Lebanon, a hotline has been set up in cooperation with NGOs to respond to queries and requests for information about the disease and its effects;\n(k) The development of specific programmes addressing the issue of HIV/AIDS in the workplace, focusing in particular on discrimination against people living with HIV/AIDS in the workplace and in the labour market. In Lebanon, the applicable labour laws ensure that people living with HIV/AIDS are protected against discrimination and arbitrary treatment;\n(l) The development of web sites providing information on HIV/AIDS, its modes of transmission and the available means of prevention, as, for example, in Mexico, where the National Centre for the Prevention and Control of HIV/AIDS has developed a web site which provides information on HIV/AIDS-related issues;\n(m) The facilitation of access to condoms, including through their distribution during information campaigns, in schools, medical centres, etc., as well as the availability of needles and syringes for intravenous drug users, as is done by the Ministry of Public Health in Cuba, which has developed a programme of manufacture and marketing of condoms. In New Zealand, the decriminalization of homosexuality, of the purchase and possession of needles and syringes and of prostitution was set as a priority in the 1980s and 1990s in order to encourage men who have sex with men, intravenous drug users and men and women working in prostitution to seek advice, care and treatment.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Indigenous peoples", "Migrants", "Women/girls", "Adolescents", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. The Special Rapporteur notes that in all the examples listed above, a strong accent is put on the necessity to prioritize empowerment policies and programmes to involve civil society\norganizations, to focus on peer education and to develop participatory programmes which avoid discrimination against and stigmatization of people living with HIV/AIDS, but which emphasize the responsibility of individuals vis-à-vis themselves and others. In Argentina, one component of the HIV/AIDS Control Project-LVSIDA provides funds to 131 community intervention projects in the area of prevention, managed by civil society organizations, and aimed at vulnerable groups. In Norway, for example, policies and programmes have been developed in close cooperation with groups of homosexuals, men and women working in prostitution, intravenous drug users and HIV - positive people. In Thailand, the “Access to Care and Drug Project” formed and run by people living with HIV/AIDS plays a vital role in reaching out to people living with HIV/AIDS and offers care, treatment and post-treatment service. In Cuba, the Federation of Cuban Women is heavily involved in information and sensitization campaigns on HIV/AIDS.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Information and education for the purpose of prevention should not only address issues directly related to HIV/AIDS transmission and prevention, such as reproductive health, sexual behaviour, safe drug use, etc., but also extend to issues that have a clear, although indirect, impact on the spread of the epidemic, such as stigma, discrimination and inequality.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. In this respect, it is important to develop in parallel prevention programmes and “compassion” campaigns, which underline the fact that HIV/AIDS is everybody’s problem, and combat discriminatory attitudes against HIV-positive people. The example of a campaign launched in the Netherlands, the motto of which was “You won’t catch AIDS by giving a shoulder to lean on” and which has been quite effective in changing the attitudes of the general public towards people living with HIV/AIDS, is worth noting.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The Special Rapporteur notes that the successful information and education campaigns seem to be those that are tailored to specific groups. While bearing in mind that HIV/AIDS is a widespread concern and that no one is safe from the epidemic, and therefore that prevention programmes must be comprehensive and address the whole population, particular efforts should be made to reach the most vulnerable groups. In Dominica, the Health Economics Unit of the University of the West Indies in 2002 completed a study on HIV/AIDS in the country in order to inform the development of the HIV/AIDS Strategic Plan.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. The Special Rapporteur noted, from the information received, that such groups may vary from one country to another and over time (at the beginning of the epidemic, men who have sex with men and intravenous drug users were the main victims, while it seems that in many countries, heterosexual women and girls are increasingly becoming infected). In the view of the Special Rapporteur, it is important that statistics be developed and data collected, in all confidentiality, in order to identify as precisely as possible the main vulnerable groups in a given country and tailor as much as possible information and education campaigns for their specific situations, needs and behaviours.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. In addition to prevention programmes at the national level - which should be further encouraged and developed - the Special Rapporteur wishes to emphasize strongly the importance of development assistance in the context of prevention of HIV/AIDS, as, according to the most\nrecent statistics, the epidemic is spreading faster in developing countries. The United Nations, its agencies, funds and programmes have put the fight against HIV/AIDS very high on the development agenda, as demonstrated by the Millennium Declaration and the Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS adopted by the General Assembly in June 2001.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Many donor countries have already included HIV/AIDS among their priorities for development assistance. The example of the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and the adoption in 2000 of its “HIV/AIDS Action Plan”, through which support is provided to pilot projects such as the Southern Africa AIDS Training Programme, the Regional AIDS Training Network in East and Southern Africa, the Canada AIDS Russia Project and other information and education projects in Romania, Bulgaria, the Republic of Moldova and Viet Nam, is but one example among many others. Similarly, the United Kingdom’s Department for International Development (DFID) has put strong emphasis, in its strategies for achieving the international development targets, on health issues, among which the reduction of HIV infection rates is a priority", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. The Special Rapporteur encourages such trends and underlines that the fight against HIV/AIDS cannot only be addressed at the national or regional level, but will only be won through a global response. The exchange of good practices and experiences between countries, and support to developing countries in developing and implementing information and education programmes for the purpose of prevention of the epidemic, is crucial.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. The Special Rapporteur notes that, while all stakeholders in the fight against HIV/AIDS emphasize that education and information for the purpose of prevention of the epidemic is crucial, very few have yet linked the effectiveness of education and information programmes to the effective exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression - which includes the freedom to seek, receive and impart information on HIV/AIDS-related prevention, care and treatment information.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. The Special Rapporteur regrets this situation, in particular as it seems that in countries where the right to freedom of opinion and expression is guaranteed and protected, information and education campaigns seem to be more effective. It is in particular essential, in the view of the Special Rapporteur, that communities, associations of people living with HIV/AIDS, teachers, journalists, doctors, self-help groups, etc. be free to associate and to launch information and education campaigns addressing all HIV/AIDS-related issues, its modes of transmission and the means of protection, and reaching all vulnerable groups, in particular women and young people, men having sex with men, men and women working in prostitution and intravenous drug users. In particular, information on topics that might be considered sensitive or private - such as safe sex or drug use - should be explicit and made available in formats adapted and accessible to the target audience (e.g. information brochures should be different for children and for men and women working in prostitution or drug users).", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. It is the view of the Special Rapporteur that laws and regulations in the area of censorship and broadcasting standards which directly or indirectly infringe the effectiveness of information and education programmes (and in certain cases prevent the development of such\nprogrammes altogether) should be reviewed. Similarly, the removal of administrative impediments to association of communities working in the HIV/AIDS area should be seen as a priority.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["and prevention of, HIV"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. The Special Rapporteur unequivocally condemns terrorism and terrorist attacks; in this respect, the Special Rapporteur reiterates the statement by the Commission on Human Rights in its resolution 2002/35 that “terrorism, in all its forms and manifestations, wherever and by whomever committed, can never be justified in any instance … .” He strongly supports the view expressed in Part I, paragraph 17 of the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action that “the acts, methods and practices of terrorism in all its forms and manifestations … are activities aimed at the destruction of human rights, fundamental freedoms and democracy …”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The link between human rights and terrorism is clear, and it is manifest at two levels: directly, as terrorist acts have a negative impact on the enjoyment of the human rights of the victims, in particular of their rights to life and personal integrity, and indirectly, “when a State’s response to terrorism leads to the adoption of policies and practices that exceed the bounds of what is permissible under international law and result in human rights violations”.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See Preliminary report of Ms. Kalliopi Koufa, Special Rapporteur of the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights on terrorism and human rights, (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1999/27, para. 25)."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. More specifically, “the threat of terrorism to the freedom and independence of the media can be both direct and indirect. Terrorism all too often includes violent attacks on reporters and publishers. ... The indirect threat of terrorism has two main aspects. First, it seeks to intimidate, to instil fear and suspicion and to silence any voices with which it disagrees - a climate inimical to the exercise of rights and freedoms. Second, terrorism may provoke governmental responses that lead to laws, regulations and forms of surveillance that undermine the very rights and freedoms that an anti-terrorism campaign is supposed to defend”.[[fn:10]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Joint message by Kofi Annan, Secretary-General of the United Nations, Mary Robinson, United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, and Koïchiro Matuura, Director-General of UNESCO, on the occasion of the World Press Freedom Day on 3 May 2002."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. With this in mind, the Special Rapporteur wishes to bring to the attention of the Commission on Human Rights his concerns arising from the recent trend among Governments to adopt, or to contemplate the adoption of, counter-terrorism and national security legislative or other measures that may infringe upon the effective exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. As highlighted above, the arguments of national security and anti-terrorism are being increasingly resorted to in many countries all over the world, with the intended or indirect effect of restricting the right to freedom of opinion and expression, in particular for media professionals, political opponents and human rights defenders. A number of Governments have prioritized national security over the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Such measures include the adoption of restrictive laws and rules for war reporting and increased resort to propaganda and manipulation of the media by defence ministries during conflicts; severe restrictions on the use of encryption software to protect the privacy of e-mail communications, thus facilitating wiretapping by the authorities; increased legal or regulatory pressures on journalists to reveal their sources of information or to hand over to authorities information the latter deem to be related to terrorism or terrorist activities; restriction on access to information in a growing number of areas, in particular by enlarging the categories of information to be protected by secrecy; the adoption of rules restricting the coverage of Governments’ activities and requiring it to be submitted for prior authorization; the increased exposure to criminal charges of journalists in case of publication of - even non-confidential - information regarded by Governments as damaging, including in certain cases making it a criminal offence to distribute information about any individual or group implicated in terrorist or subversive activities; the possibility for a Government to take over media outlets in areas where anti-terrorism operations are being conducted; etc.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. In addition to the formal adoption of laws and regulations specifically targeting the free flow and exchange of information and communications and free expression, more generally, the right to freedom of opinion and expression might be effectively - though indirectly - restricted through various means, such as the bombing of broadcasting facilities and the targeting of journalists by the military in conflict areas; restrictions on the freedom of journalists to access certain conflict areas; or the resort to the argument of patriotism and to the threat of displeasing majority public opinion to demand complicit silence from journalists and stifle dissent and criticism. The use of such means of pressure lead, more often than not, to self-censorship of media professionals, human rights defenders, or political opponents.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. With these examples in mind, the Special Rapporteur wishes to recall the joint statement issued on 10 December 2001 by 17 independent experts of the Commission on Human Rights (E/CN.4/2002/75, annex IV) and would like to associate himself with their conclusion that “public policies must strike a fair balance between, on the one hand, the enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all and, on the other hand, legitimate concerns over national and international security” and that “the fight against terrorism must not result in violations of human rights as guaranteed under international law”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. As underlined by the Secretary-General in his address to the Security Council meeting on counter-terrorism on 18 January 2002, “human rights … are one of the best prophylactics against terrorism”, the fight against which will be “self-defeating if we sacrifice other key priorities - such as human rights - in the process”. Similarly, the Policy Working Group on the United Nations and Terrorism, established by the Secretary-General in October 2001, emphasized that “the protection and promotion of human rights under the rule of law is essential in the prevention of terrorism” (A/57/273-S/2002/875, annex, para. 26), recalling that international human rights instruments include “limitations on the actions that States may take within the context of the fight against terrorism” (ibid., para. 28).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Of course, the Special Rapporteur does not contest that there are situations - and the fight against terrorism is one of them - where States have the responsibility, and must take specific measures for the protection of their populations against terrorist threats and to maintain national security. In doing so, however, States must ensure that they comply fully with international human rights instruments and in particular with article 4 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) which strictly defines the conditions under which States parties can restrict, inter alia, the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. The rule of law must be respected by Governments when the adoption of anti-terrorism measures are being contemplated. As the Secretary-General strongly stated in his address on the occasion of Human Rights Day on 10 December 2002, “one of the most outstanding legacies of\nthe last century was the development of a body of international law - humanitarian, refugee, criminal and human rights law - which … serve to protect the individual from injustice, from arbitrary treatment and from assaults on fundamental security. … It is the most effective tool to fight criminality and terrorism, and the best guarantee of safety, security and freedom for us all”.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. The Human Rights Committee, in its General Comment No. 29 (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.11), has identified the conditions to be met for a State to invoke article 4 (1) of the Covenant to limit certain rights enshrined in its provisions, including the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Inter alia, the measures must be strictly limited in time, provided for in a law, necessary for public safety or public order, serve a legitimate purpose, not impair the essence of the right and conform with the principle of proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. It is the view of the Special Rapporteur that in many of the cases brought to his attention, all or some of these conditions are not being met, and that the argument of the fight against terrorism is used by Governments as an illegitimate justification for the restriction of human rights and fundamental freedoms in general, and the right to freedom of opinion and expression in particular. There are cases where the feeling of insecurity caused by recent terrorist attacks has provided States with an opportunity to adopt such measures which had long been on the authorities’ agenda, cases where the argument of national security is used to cover direct attacks against free media, investigative journalism, political dissent, and human rights monitoring and reporting.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. However, the Special Rapporteur notes that in practice it is quite difficult to monitor the legitimacy, necessity and proportionality of anti-terrorism measures in the absence of a universally accepted, comprehensive and authoritative definition of terrorism. This, on the one hand, leaves ample space for abusive restrictions based more on varying definitions of terrorism that respond to individual States’ interests than on a universal concept of what a terrorist act is, and, on the other hand, makes it all the more difficult to monitor and evaluate the necessity and proportionality of such restrictions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Nevertheless, it has to be underlined once again that an effective enjoyment of the freedoms of opinion, expression and information marks the difference between democracy and terror. The Special Rapporteur strongly believes that guarantees of freedom of opinion and expression, freedom of the press and free speech are among the most effective means by which the fight against terrorism may be waged. As stressed in the first words of the “Charter for a Free Press”,[[fn:11]] “a free press means a free people” and, although restricting some human rights and fundamental freedoms in times of emergency might seem an effective solution to maintain peace and security, this can only be done through short-term measures, accompanied by strict and independently monitored safeguards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Adopted at the “Voices of Freedom Conference”, held from 16 to 18 January 1987 in London, organized by the World Press Freedom Committee. -----"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. The Special Rapporteur believes that terror and terrorism feed on undemocratic societies and systems, where human rights and fundamental freedoms are not guaranteed and protected, where systematic discrimination against and arbitrary treatment of specific groups within the population occur. He is of the strong view that the most effective way to combat terrorism is to secure the rule of law and ensure that human rights and fundamental freedoms are fully enjoyed and realized by all.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. The Special Rapporteur considers that the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is a clear indicator of the level of protection and respect of all other human rights in a given society. While the Special Rapporteur notes that positive measures are being taken in a number of countries in favour of a greater protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression (such as the repeal of criminal libel provisions from criminal codes in certain countries), he is still concerned that the trends as identified by his predecessor in his successive reports continue to be a strong preoccupation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. In particular, the Special Rapporteur is extremely concerned at the fact that the attacks against journalists, including killings, because of their professional activity continue to occur in many countries, most often with impunity. He urges Governments to take all necessary measures to protect journalists from attacks, be they from officials, law enforcement officers, armed groups or terrorists, and to provide an enabling environment for their activities. An end to impunity for the perpetrators of such acts and the conduct of serious investigation into these attacks is, in the view of the Special Rapporteur, the first step towards greater security for journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. In this respect, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that an in-depth study on the issue of the security of journalists, in particular in situations of armed conflicts, based on information from and the experiences of Governments and intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, is necessary, and he would welcome a request from the Commission on Human Rights to undertake such a study.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression may occur in all regions and countries, whatever their system. However, democratic institutions, while not ensuring absolute respect for the right to freedom of opinion and expression, do offer more guarantees for its protection as well as a more enabling environment for its exercise. Freedom of opinion and expression not only benefits from a democratic environment; it also contributes, and is indeed pivotal to the emergence and existence of sound and functioning democratic systems. The Special Rapporteur encourages Governments of emerging democracies to promote and protect freedom of opinion and expression and freedom of the press.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. As regards criminal libel and defamation, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that sanctioning libel and defamation by prison sentences is not proportionate. Furthermore, he is of the view that criminal law is not appropriate for regulating such offences. As stressed in his joint Declaration with the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media and the OAS Special Rappporteur on freedom of expression, “criminal defamation is not a justifiable restriction on freedom of expression; all criminal defamation laws should be abolished and replaced, as necessary, with appropriate civil defamation laws”.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. With respect to access to information for the purposes of education and prevention of HIV/AIDS, the Special Rapporteur wishes first to underline that the level of protection of human rights in a given country has a direct impact on the spread of the epidemic, and that the realization of human rights, in particular of specific groups such as women, young people, men and women working in prostitution, men who have sex with men, migrants, refugees, intravenous drug users and other vulnerable groups, is essential to reduce vulnerability to HIV/AIDS.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. Girls and women, who are increasingly disproportionately affected by HIV/AIDS, should be a priority target of education and information campaigns. These should be coupled with national programmes for the advancement of women towards the full enjoyment of all their rights, including their reproductive rights, promoting gender equality and empowerment.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. The extensive use of the mass media (newspapers, magazines, radio and television stations, including community radios and televisions, etc.) is necessary to ensure the widest coverage of information campaigns. More generally, information and education should be provided through all available and accessible means, such as pamphlets, posters, books, instructions on condom packaging, advertisements on the radio and television, video clips, plays, songs, the Internet, group meetings, assemblies, etc. The Special Rapporteur encourages States to cooperate with the media, NGOs and community-based organizations in this endeavour.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. If preventive education is to be effective, it must occur both through the formal and informal sectors, in schools, targeting young people, who represent half of the newly infected people every year, in the private sector and through communities. Preventive education has to be tailored to the targeted audience, take into account cultural habits and be accessible (e.g. made available in the language of the targeted community; using a medium accessible to all, including illiterate people; etc.).", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. While prevention - mainly through information and education - is the most feasible approach to reverse the trend of the HIV/AIDS epidemic in the world, it should be underlined that prevention should not be the only tool used. The effectiveness of prevention is increased when it is used in conjunction with care and treatment - and vice versa - in an enabling environment where the human rights of those living with HIV/AIDS are respected and protected.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. In addition, strong social and political mobilization is necessary at the family, community and national levels in order to provide an effective response to the spread of HIV/AIDS. This requires political will at all levels of Government, a clear vision and leadership, as well as close coordination with and involvement of communities.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The Special Rapporteur, as indicated above, strongly believes that general respect for and protection of freedom of opinion and expression have a direct impact on the effectiveness of education and information policies, programmes and campaigns for the purpose of HIV/AIDS prevention. He therefore urges Governments to set a framework for the better protection of freedom of opinion and expression and for free flow of information and communications vis-à-vis the general public, as well as specific groups and communities.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The Special Rapporteur, while recognizing the legitimacy of national security and anti-terrorism legislation in many cases, stresses that these must only be implemented when the “life of the nation” is threatened, in the words of the ICCPR, and that the proportionality between the intended goal and the restriction on human rights and fundamental freedoms must be respected. The Special Rapporteur recommends that in considering the adoption or implementation of measures restricting human rights and fundamental freedoms, in particular the right to freedom of opinion and expression, attention be paid to the principles and conditions set in article 4 (1) of the ICCPR and to the 1995 Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information (E/CN.4/1996/39, annex), which provide useful guidance in this respect.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "4", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. The Special Rapporteur endorses General Assembly resolution 57/219 and highlights in particular its paragraphs 1 and 2 in which the Assembly affirmed that “States must ensure that any measure taken to combat terrorism complies with their obligations under international law, in particular international human rights, refugee and humanitarian law” and encouraged “States, while countering terrorism, to take into account relevant United Nations resolutions and decisions on human rights and to consider the recommendations from special procedures and mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights and relevant comments and views of United Nations human rights treaty bodies”.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The Special Rapporteur would like to draw the attention of the Commission on Human Rights to the resolution adopted at the UNESCO-sponsored Conference on Terrorism and the Media (Manila, 1-2 May 2002). In particular, the resolution underlines that “the threat of terrorism should not be used as an excuse to impose restrictions on the right to freedom of expression and of the media, or on freedom of information, and specifically on the following rights: to editorial independence; to protect confidential sources of information; to access information held by public bodies; to freedom of movement; and to privacy of communications”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2003-67-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-2003-67", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. Finally, the Special Rapporteur wishes to encourage efforts under way, in particular in the forum of the United Nations, to develop a universally valid and comprehensive definition of terrorism and terrorist acts. Such a definition will greatly help the human rights monitoring of measures adopted to combat terrorism, as well as the provision of technical assistance to States when undertaking to adopt such measures. 1 In particular his first and second reports to the Commission on Human Rights, E/CN.4/1994/33 and E/CN.4/1995/32. 2 These press releases may be consulted on the OHCHR web site: www.ohchr.org. 3 This declaration may be consulted on the OHCHR web site: www.ohchr.org. 4 See E/CN.4/1999/64, paras. 24-28 and E/CN.4/2000/63, paras. 45-52. 5 UNAIDS, Report on the global HIV/AIDS epidemic, July 2002. 6 United Nations Population Fund, Programme Briefs No. 1, \"HIV Prevention Now\", August 2001. 7 UNAIDS, op. cit. 8 See HIV/AIDS and Human Rights: Guideline 6. Available at the OHCHR web site: www.ohchr.org. 9 See Preliminary report of Ms. Kalliopi Koufa, Special Rapporteur of the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights on terrorism and human rights, (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1999/27, para. 25). Joint message by Kofi Annan, Secretary-General of the United Nations, Mary Robinson, United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, and Koïchiro Matuura, Director-General of UNESCO, on the occasion of the World Press Freedom Day on 3 May 2002. Adopted at the \"Voices of Freedom Conference\", held from 16 to 18 January 1987 in London, organized by the World Press Freedom Committee. -----", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["counter-terrorism measures", "IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0001", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The workings of international organizations, including the United Nations, are deeply opaque to most people. Apart from the work of their highest profile bodies, what they do and how they do it is largely hidden from public view. In such an environment, how does information of legitimate interest to the public get disclosed? How does the general public, including citizens, students, journalists, scholars, activists, parliamentarians and even representatives of Member States, keep track of how the United Nations and other intergovernmental organizations operate and how international civil servants comply with their obligations? What policies, if any, direct international officials to share information? What standards do international officials rely upon when deciding whether to withhold information? In general, how do intergovernmental organizations ensure their own compliance with the human rights norm guaranteeing everyone the right to seek and receive information of all kinds, especially information held by public authorities?", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0002", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. In his 2016 report detailing the refusal of the United Nations to acknowledge responsibility for the tragic outbreak of cholera in Haiti, the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights noted the following:\n“It has been suggested to the Special Rapporteur by several sources that the legal advice originally submitted to the Secretary-General took a rather different approach to these crucial issues [the responsibility of the United Nations for the cholera outbreak] from that which was finally adopted, but this cannot be confirmed since none of the analyses of the Office of Legal Affairs have been made public. If true, however, it might explain why the arguments adduced in order to abdicate responsibility are both peremptory and inadequately justified (A/71/367, para. 33).”", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0003", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. There have been similar information-poor situations involving peacekeeping, whistle-blowing, allegations of fraud, personnel decisions and conflicts of interest for which a comprehensive freedom of information policy for the United Nations would have advanced public understanding of and engagement with global issues and reinforced mechanisms for accountability. A lack of transparency and proper access to information, for instance, has arguably played a role in the lack of accountability on the part of peacekeepers accused of sexual abuse.[[fn:1]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See, for example, Azad Essa, “Why do some UN peacekeepers rape?”, Al Jazeera, 4 August 2017; A/71/99, paras. 250 and 251 (report of an independent review on sexual exploitation and abuse by international peacekeeping forces in the Central African Republic); and Carla Ferstman, “Criminalizing Sexual Exploitation and Abuse by Peacekeepers”, Special Report 335, United States Institute of Peace (Washington, D.C., 2013)."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0004", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. There is evidently no formal process according to which a member of the public, let alone a special rapporteur, may seek such information from the United Nations.[[fn:2]] As a result, even if an intergovernmental organization has a good case for non-disclosure in a particular situation, that argument is not tested (see ST/SGB/2007/6). To address this point one must ask how are institutional decisions and analyses, and decision makers, to be put to the test when such information is so difficult to obtain? Instead of a formal process that would enable the submission of requests for information, public knowledge of the policies and actions of the United Nations and of other intergovernmental organizations is limited to only what those bodies choose to publish, while external evaluation typically depends on the efforts of journalists or researchers who develop access within such organizations. Within the United Nations, and most intergovernmental organizations, there appears to be no obligation on the part of any official source to provide reasons for refusing to disclose information.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "It is understood that the Department of Public Information of the Secretariat has created an email address (inquiries2@un.org) to which the public may address inquiries, which are in turn forwarded to relevant offices. This is not, however, a policy, let alone one that has any of the elements described in section III of the present report."}, {"n": 3, "text": "This is so, notwithstanding the fact that the United Nations does have a classification policy that clarifies distinctions between levels of sensitive information, see ST/SGB/2007/6."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0005", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The present report, which explores freedom of information policies in the context of international organizations, placing specific but not exclusive focus on the United Nations system, is the result of a year’s worth of research and investigation, including a call for submissions that generated responses from 16 international organizations and 5 non-governmental actors.[[fn:4]] Access to information under human rights law, noting the expansion of freedom of information policies adopted by Governments worldwide, is discussed in section II below. The elements necessary for an effective freedom of information policy at the international level are presented in section III, and a series of recommendations for intergovernmental organizations, Member States and non-State participants in international governance are presented in section IV.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Submissions may be found at the mandate’s website. Particular thanks are due to the following students at the University of California (Irvine) School of Law, who, with assistance from Professor Ramin Pejan, conducted research in support of this project, especially: Enid Zhou, Katherine Ells, Laurence Liu and Nassim Alisobhani."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0006", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Where rule of law prevails, Governments and Government officials stay accountable to their citizens through a variety of mechanisms. Too often, however, accountability is a chimera, and nowhere is this more evident than in situations where authorities withhold information from the public. Without freedom to access information[[fn:5]] of all kinds — in particular when Governments withhold information from the public and its judicial, legislative and media mechanisms — abuses may take place, policies affecting the general welfare may not be tested and improved and overall public engagement and participation diminishes, often by design. By contrast, information-rich environments help promote good decision-making and meaningful public debate, building credibility for public institutions. Even if implementation may not always meet the highest standards, Governments have recognized this fundamental point, at the intersection of good, open government and the human right of access to information, recognizing that the credibility of public authorities depends on their willingness to engage with those who fund their work and elect their key officials — the members of the public.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "A. Purposes underlying the right to freedom of information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "The report utilizes phrases such as “freedom of information” and “right of access to information” and “right to information” interchangeably. They refer to the right, under article 19 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, that everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to receive information and ideas of all kinds through any media and regardless of frontiers."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0007", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. These general points about access to information are hardly controversial today in discussions of governmental power and policy. A majority of Governments around the world have adopted freedom of information laws, with varying degrees of robustness and levels of implementation.[[fn:6]] But the movement for open government has largely bypassed global institutions — not totally, but so significantly that “access to information” carries very little currency within the centres of international governance. Ask an international official about access to information and one is more likely to hear about websites and archive policy (extremely important information, but not exactly to the point) than the public’s ability to gain access to the contemporary workings or failings of or debates within intergovernmental organizations or institutions. This is not to begrudge the work done by intergovernmental organizations during the decades of the digital revolution to open up their workings to the public. Whereas researchers and journalists once had to carry out their work at physical libraries serving as repositories for the documentation of the United Nations and other intergovernmental organizations, vast amounts of material may now be found on websites, including recently adopted material, which can sometimes be traced within days (and sometimes hours) of adoption. Public information officers should be congratulated for their willingness to ensure the widespread accessibility of official documents. Similarly, there are examples of organizations and agencies opening up files on their spending and contracting to public scrutiny, although with varying degrees of success.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "A. Purposes underlying the right to freedom of information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "For helpful studies on freedom of information laws globally, see David Banisar, “Freedom of Information Around the World 2006: A Global Survey of Access to Government Information Laws” (2006) and “The Right to Information and Privacy: Balancing Rights and Managing Conflicts” (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 2011); Toby Mendel, Freedom of Information: A Comparative Legal Study (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 2008); www.freedominfo.org; and United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), “United Nations Convention against Corruption: Resource Guide on Good Practices in the Protection of Reporting Persons” (Vienna, 2015)."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0008", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. And yet, despite the fact that intergovernmental organizations make much of the public work of their institutions available online, including legal instruments, resolutions, decisions of committees and monitoring bodies, field work and webcasts of public meetings, few organizations have access-to-information policies that enable the public, either on an individual basis or through the work of journalists and researchers, to make requests for information not otherwise disclosed. Organizations that do include such policies, including the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the World Bank, the World Food Programme (WFP), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and a handful of others — mostly international financial institutions and funds — are discussed in section III below. Even if they entertain such requests, most organizations make little or no effort to publicize their willingness or to highlight the standards by which decisions to disclose information are made.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "A. Purposes underlying the right to freedom of information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0009", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Before assessing what elements might constitute an appropriate freedom of information policy for intergovernmental organizations, it is worth examining the norms that apply under human rights law, for it is evident that the policies that underlie the law apply with equal force both to intergovernmental organizations and to States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "1. Nature of the right of access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0010", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The right to information under international law has its roots in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. As formulated in the International Covenant, everyone enjoys the “freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice”. The Human Rights Committee has provided a clear enunciation of what the right involves, emphasizing that article 19 “embraces a right of access to information held by public bodies”. “Such information”, the Committee noted, “includes records held by a public body, regardless of the form in which the information is stored, its source and the date of production” (CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 18). Moreover, the Committee emphasized that the right does not merely depend on public authorities’ reaction to requests for information:\n“To give effect to the right of access to information, States parties should proactively put in the public domain Government information of public interest. States parties should make every effort to ensure easy, prompt, effective and practical access to such information. States parties should also enact the necessary procedures, whereby one may gain access to information, such as by means of freedom of information legislation. The procedures should provide for the timely processing of requests for information according to clear rules that are compatible with the Covenant. Fees for requests for information should not be such as to constitute an unreasonable impediment to access to information. Authorities should provide reasons for any refusal to provide access to information. Arrangements should be put in place for appeals from refusals to provide access to information as well as in cases of failure to respond to requests (CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 19).”", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "1. Nature of the right of access to information"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First occurrence: 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second occurrence: 'article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Third occurrence: quote attributed to Human Rights Committee on 'article 19' with CCPR/C/GC/34 (General Comment 34) citation — clearly ICCPR."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0011", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. From the early days of the mandate’s work, Special Rapporteurs have elaborated on the right to information. In only the second report of the mandate, the Special Rapporteur highlighted the “vitally important” roles served by the right to information (E/CN.4/1995/32, para. 135), and the 1998 report emphasized that “the right to access to information held by the Government must be the rule rather than the exception”. The 1998 report also noted a specific right to information about “State security” and, in a notable statement, raised concerns about government prosecution of civil servants who disclose “information which has been classified”, adding that Governments “continue to classify far more information than could be considered necessary”. By this the Special Rapporteur meant that Governments should only withhold material in which “serious harm to the State’s interest is unavoidable if the information is made public and that this harm outweighs the harm to the rights of opinion, expression and information”. He concluded, “The tendency to classify or withhold information on the basis of, for example, ‘Cabinet confidentiality’ is too often the practice, which adversely affects access to information” (E/CN.4/1998/40, paras. 12 and 13).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "1. Nature of the right of access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0012", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. In the years since, elaboration of the right to information has been a common thread in reporting under the mandate.[[fn:7]] In 2013, the Special Rapporteur gave a full rationale for a robust right to information:\n“… public authorities act as representatives of the public, fulfilling a public good; therefore, in principle, their decisions and actions should be transparent. A culture of secrecy is acceptable only in very exceptional cases, when confidentiality may be essential for the effectiveness of their work. There is consequently a strong public interest in the disclosure of some types of information. Moreover, access to certain types of information can affect the enjoyment by individuals of other rights. In such cases, information can be withheld only in very exceptional circumstances, if at all (A/68/362, para. 20).”", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "1. Nature of the right of access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See E/CN.4/1999/64, E/CN.4/2000/63, E/CN.4/2003/67, E/CN.4/2005/64, A/HRC/11/4 and A/HRC/17/27."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0013", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. In 2004, the Special Rapporteur joined with representatives of regional mechanisms for freedom of expression to emphasize the importance of freedom of information as a fundamental right. Together they emphasized that addressing the widespread “culture of secrecy” in public institutions required not only legislation and implementation but also “sanctions for those who wilfully obstruct access to information”.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "1. Nature of the right of access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Joint declaration by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the Representative of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) on freedom of the media and the Special Rapporteur of the Organization of American States on freedom of expression, 6 December 2004."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0014", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. In parallel with the work of the Human Rights Committee and its special procedures mechanisms, the Human Rights Council and the General Assembly also articulated the importance of freedom of information. As recently as 2016, the Council called upon all States to ensure disclosure of information held by public authorities and “to adopt transparent, clear and expedient laws and policies that provide for the effective disclosure of information held by public authorities and a general right to request and receive information, for which public access should be granted, except within narrow, proportionate, necessary and clearly defined limitations”.[[fn:9]] Access to information has become a standard element of other human rights treaties (A/70/361, para. 6), and has been widely adopted in international agreements pertaining to development, the environment, food and agriculture and corruption, among other substantive areas.[[fn:10]] The Aarhus Convention provides an example of international agreement that access to information, public participation in decision-making and access to justice in environmental matters, an area of major public interest, “contribute[s] to the protection of the right of every person of present and future generations to live in an environment adequate to his or her health and well-being”.[[fn:11]] Similarly, in recognition of the essential role played by the right to freedom of information, Sustainable Development Goal 16 links access to information to good governance, human rights and accountability and calls on all Member States to adopt and implement public access to information laws and policies (resolution 70/1, paras. 16.6-16.10).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "1. Nature of the right of access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See Human Rights Council resolutions 31/32, para. 13, and 34/20, para. 5 (b)."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See “Article 19: Defending freedom of expression and information” [independent organization], “Open Development: Access to Information and the Sustainable Development Goals”, 19 July 2017, pp. 6-9."}, {"n": 11, "text": "Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, article 1, Aarhus, Denmark, 25 June 1998."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0015", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. During the period of normative expansion in the establishment and work of human rights bodies, States were also adopting legislation to implement the right to information, while many incorporated a right to information as a matter of constitutional law. At the domestic level, States have increasingly opened up the workings of government as a matter of law, if not always achieving the best implementation practices.[[fn:12]] Nevertheless, the environment of confidentiality and withholding that tends to prevail within bureaucracies and in political leadership around the world remains difficult to eliminate.[[fn:13]] A prevailing exclusion of national security information from right-to-information legal frameworks encourages a tendency to look at disclosures, even those of the highest public interest without meaningful harm to governmental interests, as contrary to “the national interest”. Such attitudes put significant negative pressure on access-to-information laws, and they may have a spill-over effect beyond traditional national security environments. In short, while the legal framework for access to information has improved globally, open government still faces significant barriers in terms of overcoming attitudes and instilling implementation practices.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "1. Nature of the right of access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "The organization Article 19 identifies 118 countries that have adopted laws or policies to advance freedom of information held by public authorities, see “Open Development: Access to Information and the Sustainable Development Goals”. In its submission, the Center for Law and Democracy highlighted 112 national right-to-information laws, with the impressive fact that 88 per cent of them were adopted in the past 25 years."}, {"n": 13, "text": "This is especially true in the context of national security. Sound rules for information disclosure may be found in The Global Principles on National Security and the Right to Information (“Tshwane Principles”) (Open Society Foundations, 2013) available at: https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/sites/default/files/global-principles-national-security-10232013.pdf)."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Victoria Lemieux and Stephanie E. Trapnell. “Public Access to Information for Development: A Guide to the Effective Implementation of Right to Information Laws”, Directions in Development--Public Sector Governance (World Bank, Washington, D.C., 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0016", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Human rights law also recognizes connections between the right to freedom of expression as contained in article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and other rights. The right to information is also closely connected to article 25 (1) of the International Covenant, which protects every citizen’s right and opportunity to “take part in the conduct of public affairs”. The Human Rights Committee has emphasized the importance of freedom of information to public participation “without censorship” (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.7, para. 25). The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) reiterated and expanded on this point (and others) in its 2015 report on the promotion, protection and implementation of the right to participate in public affairs in the context of the existing human rights law (A/HRC/30/26).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "1. Nature of the right of access to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "25", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0017", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Recognition of the right to information, consistent with article 19 of the International Covenant, has come with the acknowledgment that access to information may be subject to limitations. Those limitations, originating in article 19 (3), must be provided by law and be necessary and proportionate in order to protect the rights or reputations of others, national security or public order or public health or morals. I have previously reviewed how the restrictions permissible under article 19 (3) apply in the context of freedom of information (A/70/361, paras. 8-13). How international organizations might translate the norms of the International Covenant for the purposes of their own access-to-information initiatives is discussed below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "2. Narrow restrictions on the right to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0018", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. A subject of discussion among academics and lawyers for many years, it is often argued that human rights law, including article 19 of the International Covenant and the other instruments identified herein, does not strictly apply to intergovernmental organizations, certainly not in the same way that human rights law binds States.[[fn:15]] Yet, looking at the issue purely from the perspective of organizational obligations and immunities, a legalistic approach to the human rights obligations of intergovernmental organizations misses the most salient points, both in law and in policy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "3. Legal framework and international organizations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See, for example, Kristina Daugirdas, “How and Why International Law Binds International Organizations”, vol. 57, No. 2, Harvard International Law Journal (2016). See also Christine Chinkin, “The United Nations Decade for the Elimination of Poverty: What Role for International Law?”, Current Legal Problems, vol. 54, Issue 1 (2001)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0019", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Transparency within intergovernmental organizations advances the same objectives that underlie the expansion of freedom of information and open government initiatives. As noted in the submission of the Centre for Law and Democracy, such organizations are public institutions, performing governmental functions, much as States do. Members of the public can only seriously engage with the critical issues pursued by intergovernmental organizations when they have access to information about them. In the context of multilateral institutions, the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of association and peaceful assembly noted that for “civil society to engage effectively in global decision-making, the right to access information is indispensable” (A/69/365, para. 15).[[fn:16]] In countries where intergovernmental organizations do extensive work, whether it involves peacekeeping or development assistance or human rights, to name a few areas, genuine engagement and participation means the ability to gain current information about the work of such missions. It means having mechanisms of public accountability so that individuals can determine whether the organizations are serving their interests or those of the organization itself, including, possibly, corporations, local leaders or corrupt participants in public life.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "3. Legal framework and international organizations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "In this context, I would emphasize a point in the report of the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of association and peaceful assembly (A/69/365, para. 73), namely that non-governmental organizations should be given access to participate physically — to be present — in fora of intergovernmental organizations; a key area of access to information even if not directly addressed in the present report."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0020", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. The media coverage of intergovernmental organizations is also radically different from the day-to-day or hour-to-hour reporting in domestic environments. Considering the size of the international bureaucracy, in comparison to the coverage in robust media environments of national or local governance, very few reporters cover the United Nations or other intergovernmental organizations on a dedicated basis. Those who do cover them must often work hard to get their editors, and certainly their readers, to understand the relevance of these institutions to their own lives and public policy preferences. As a result, members of the international civil service do not find themselves under the journalistic microscope in the same way that domestic bureaucrats do (or should) around the world. Such oversight may be pursued by Member States from time to time, particularly in areas of budgeting, but the difficulty of accessing information about the workings of intergovernmental organizations exacerbates the already difficult situation in terms of the pursuit of accountability at the international level. In this kind of atmosphere, every newspaper or magazine article that uncovers a problematic practice on the part of an intergovernmental organization may be taken as an attack on the institution as a whole, largely because the work of these institutions is so removed from the lives of members of the public. Fixing that, and adopting robust access-to-information policies, is one step towards better understanding, accountability, oversight and protection of the missions of intergovernmental organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "3. Legal framework and international organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0021", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. There is no principled reason why intergovernmental organizations should adopt access-to-information policies that vary from those adopted by States. While notions of “national security” and “public order” may not generally apply to intergovernmental organization for purposes of restrictions on access to information, each institution needs to identify how the restrictions applicable under human rights law apply in their particular context.[[fn:17]] Some argue that, because of their nature, intergovernmental organizations need to withhold information generated or provided by Member States. But that would overreach, providing a potentially major loophole that could interfere with the development of policies that advance the public’s right to know.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "3. Legal framework and international organizations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "The United Nations serves all sorts of domestic governance roles, whether peacekeeping or transitional governance mechanisms, where security and order may be quite similar to State equities concerning disclosures."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0022", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. It bears re-emphasizing that article 19 of the International Covenant guarantees everyone the right to seek and receive information of all kinds, regardless of frontiers. At a minimum, States are obligated not to stand in the way of members of the public receiving information from organizations like the United Nations and its departments and agencies, absent a demonstration of the legitimate application of the limitations found in article 19 (3) of the Covenant. One can go a step further and highlight the broad consensus that States are obligated not only to avoid illegitimate restrictions on access to information but that they should create enabling environments for all rights under article 19 of the Covenant.[[fn:18]] While intergovernmental organizations clearly enjoy an independent personality under international law, their main policies and legal norms are often the result of the decisions of their Member States. As such, States should encourage the creation of environments that include access to information not merely because of some legalistic approach to intergovernmental organizations and the responsibility of the United Nations but because their citizens — all citizens, everywhere — should enjoy the right to information of all kinds regardless of frontiers, including information about intergovernmental organizations and the United Nations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Freedom of information", "B. Legal framework", "3. Legal framework and international organizations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "See, for example, resolution 2005/38 of the Commission on Human Rights; E/CN.4/1996/39; Human Rights Council resolution 12/16; A/HRC/17/27; A/66/290; A/68/362; A/HRC/29/32; and A/70/361."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0023", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Sixteen institutions made submissions for the compilation of the present report, which I supplemented with interviews and consultations.[[fn:19]] Despite extensive outreach, dozens of intergovernmental organizations and agencies within the United Nations system did not respond to the mandate’s call for submission. I was particularly disappointed not to receive a submission from the Secretariat of the United Nations Headquarters in New York. While organizations that did not make any submission may have some kind of access-to-information policy in place, 10 organizations that made submissions have formal access-to-information, disclosure or transparency policies;[[fn:20]] two are currently drafting policies;[[fn:21]] one does not have a formal access-to-information policy but provides access through an array of its policies;[[fn:22]] and three do not have any information access policies.[[fn:23]] Based on research, it appears that most international organizations lack binding policies to protect and promote the right of access to information. Put another way, based on my research, with a few notable exceptions, intergovernmental organizations have failed to create mechanisms that can penetrate their opacity and enable easy access to their operations. Most egregiously, the United Nations does not have an access-to-information policy that applies to every department and specialized agency; it does not even have ad hoc standards for response to access-to-information requests.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "A. Access to information in intergovernmental organizations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "The mandate received submissions from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the United Nations Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Economic Commission for Europe (ECE), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), UNESCO, the United Nations University (UNU), the Universal Postal Union (UPU), the World Food Programme (WFP), the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and the World Bank. As noted, the submissions are available at the mandate’s website."}, {"n": 20, "text": "The submitting organizations with formal policies at the time of the drafting of the report are: IFC (access policy), IMF (transparency policy), United Nations Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals (access policy), UNDP (disclosure policy), UNEP (access policy), WFP (disclosure), the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) (disclosure policy), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) (disclosure), the World Bank (access policy) and UNESCO (access policy). A number of other international financial institutions and regional organizations also have policies but did not submit such information for this report."}, {"n": 21, "text": "Organizations in the process of formulating policies, at the time of drafting, were ITU and OHCHR."}, {"n": 22, "text": "WIPO has an array of policies and practices to ensure transparency and public access."}, {"n": 23, "text": "IMO, ECE, UNU and UPU lack an information policy."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0024", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Dynamic and flexible access to information policies are feasible, as demonstrated by the policies adopted by several organizations. Finance, environment and development institutions tend to have active approaches to information, responsive to the demands of governmental and non-governmental stakeholders that their work be transparent and open to genuine scrutiny.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "A. Access to information in intergovernmental organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0025", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The World Bank, the International Finance Corporation (IFC) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) have active institutional websites, training guides and designated access-to-information departments that oversee annual reporting and information disclosure. In its submission, the Center for Law and Democracy stated that the prevalence of access-to-information policies in the international finance sector “is largely due to heightened civil society scrutiny of their work, given its high impact, and also partly due to the fact that Member States are keen to ensure that their money is being handled appropriately”. There is also focused attention on the part of civil society, to such an extent that the Global Transparency Initiative, an informal network of civil society organizations promoting openness at financial institutions, has created a charter elaborating the standards upon which the access-to-information policies of international financial institutions should be based. This rights-based approach to establishing an access-to-information policy includes a presumption of disclosure, generous automatic disclosure rules, a clear framework for processing requests for information, limited (though still often overbroad) exceptions and a right to appeal refusals to disclose information to an independent body.[[fn:24]] Many financial institutions have access-to-information policies that embody a significant number of the elements of the charter advanced by the Global Transparency Initiative. For example, the World Bank’s policy includes guiding principles upholding maximum access to information, a list of exceptions, a set of procedures describing how information is made available and a two-stage appeals mechanism. Under the appeals mechanism, the requester enjoys recourse to an appeals board, consisting of external and independent outside experts. Its disclosure policy includes a declassification system timeline and a set of definitions. The World Bank has also instituted an “access to information committee”, which is responsible for overseeing the implementation of the policy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "A. Access to information in intergovernmental organizations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Global Transparency Initiative, Transparency Charter for International Financial Institutions: Claiming our Right to Know, available at: http://www.ifitransparency.org/doc/charter_en.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0026", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Access information policy at UNEP is focused on a policy of maximum disclosure and openness. Its policy defines the type of information it can disclose, which is any information relating to UNEP and in its possession, and includes established exceptions, consistent with relevant rules and practices of the United Nations, for example, how to handle sensitive information and classification. UNEP has a specific information request mechanism that includes information on how to frame a request, and to whom. Furthermore, it specifies that if there is an exception of concern, the officer handling the request shall seek guidance from a senior legal officer. UNEP has a timeline for handling requests, indicating that receipt of a request must be acknowledged within 5 days, a response within 30 days, and a response to an information appeal within 60 days. The policy contains a fee structure, under which most information is released free of charge, except for printing costs. It requires a reason for the denial of a request for information and establishes an appeals mechanism, made up of a panel of two members of UNEP and one outside representative. In addition, the policy includes a public interest override test according to which UNEP will release information if the benefits of disclosure outweigh potential harm.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "A. Access to information in intergovernmental organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0027", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. One of the earliest access-to-information policies was established by UNDP, which operates on a presumption in favour of disclosure. It defines what type of information it discloses and where the policy applies. A notable feature of this policy is that it provides a link to publicly available information to help requesters determine what type of information they might need to request. Like many intergovernmental organizations, UNDP has a list of exceptions to disclosure. Like UNEP, it has a harm test and a public interest override, under which an independent Information Disclosure Oversight Panel determines whether certain types of information should be disclosed because such disclosure would serve a public benefit. UNDP has specific request times: 30 calendar days for information requests; and 30 calendar days for appeals. It includes not only an annex of information that describes exceptions and the information normally made available to the public but it also a flowchart as a visual aid to describe the information-request process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "A. Access to information in intergovernmental organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0028", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. After reviewing domestic access to information policies and existing policies adopted by these and other institutions, as well as consulting with stakeholders and examining the related work of the previous Special Rapporteur, I have identified practices that intergovernmental organizations should include as part of their access to information policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "A. Access to information in intergovernmental organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0029", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Apart from the organizations mentioned above, most intergovernmental organizations operate on an ad hoc, case-by-case basis; different departments authorize or withhold disclosure in the absence of standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "A. Access to information in intergovernmental organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0030", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Among the principles set out in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, article 19 (3) states that all restrictions on the right to access information must be provided by law. In the context of States, this is understood to require adoption of restrictions through regular legislative processes with clear rules to avoid excessive restrictions on access to information on the part of decision-makers or undue restrictions on public engagement (CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 46). Intergovernmental organizations should ensure that stakeholders, including members of the public and civil society organizations, have the ability to participate meaningfully in the development, review and updating of access policies. Several organizations have undertaken to involve stakeholders when developing policies. For example, UNEP publicized drafts of its interim policy and revised policy, posting them on its website for two months for input and comments from member States, observers and the general public. The organization also held formal hearings discussing the policy, which was live streamed to allow for public participation. The IFC policy evolved in three phases, involving the public and various external stakeholders. Throughout the process, IFC consulted various stakeholder groups, including its clients, the banking community, other financial institutions, civil society organizations, affected communities, an external advisory group, academia and think tanks, practitioners and Governments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "1. Open multi-stakeholder adoption process"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0031", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Requests for information should be a necessary fall-back position in any access-to-information policy. At the foundation of such a policy, organizations must actively disclose information that is likely to be of relevance to the public, and they should do so on a timely basis, including consistent and usable updates, especially of websites. In this regard, OHCHR has made significant strides in the digital age, providing access to outcome documents from both charter-based (for example, the Human Rights Council and its special procedures mechanisms) and treaty-based mechanisms, webcasting of meetings of those mechanisms, regular press briefings by the spokesperson of the United Nations High Commissioner, annual reports and periodic reporting to the Council on all special procedures communications. While there are still important areas for improvement, the OHCHR public disclosures policy mirrors what other institutions are doing across the United Nations system and at other intergovernmental organizations.[[fn:25]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "2. Proactive, clear, searchable and secure disclosure"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "For examples of public-facing websites that expand access, see http://webtv.un.org/; http://www.unhcr.org/media-centre.html; http://www.who.int/mediacentre/en/; and https://www.wto.org/english/res_e/res_e.htm."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0032", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Public disclosure should also involve the following points: first, the institutions themselves should engage on a regular basis with members of the public, typically through civil society organizations, to ensure that they are making public all relevant and valuable information. For instance, in its submission for the present report, the International Service for Human Rights highlighted the kinds of information that it believes to be in the public interest and how OHCHR could improve its proactive disclosures. Regular dialogue with civil society organizations would enable all intergovernmental organizations to be efficient in the disclosure of information, and would likely reduce the resources devoted to such requests. Second, disclosed information must be shared in a way that is easily searched and analysed.[[fn:26]] Third, in an age of surveillance and information insecurity, all organizations must take steps to ensure both the security of their information systems and of the individuals who may be seeking access to them. I have already raised the issue of digital insecurity at OHCHR, including in my 2015 report to the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/29/32, para. 37). The OHCHR website, and the website of the United Nations itself, remain unencrypted (as do many other institutions), potentially deterring those concerned about the privacy of their online searches from seeking information.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "2. Proactive, clear, searchable and secure disclosure"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See Ben Parker, “Two cheers for UN transparency”, IRIN, 28 June 2017, available at https://www.irinnews.org/analysis/2017/06/28/two-cheers-un-transparency."}, {"n": 27, "text": "Not all organizations remain so insecure: the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), UNICEF and the World Trade Organization, for instance, use “https” encryption technology to secure their websites, although most organizations mentioned herein do not."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0033", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Like Governments, intergovernmental organizations should establish an explicit and comprehensive legal framework that recognizes a right to information applicable throughout the entire organization and its subsidiary organs. Any access policy should, explicitly or implicitly, promote disclosure of information in the public interest — that is, information to which the public has a right of access because of the benefit it would provide to understanding of the work of the organization. Information should be defined broadly to include all records, documents, data, analyses, opinions and processes, regardless of the media in which it is held, in keeping with the principle that individuals have a right to information and ideas of all kinds, subject only to narrow non-disclosure rules.[[fn:28]] The policy should be uniform across the organization, and should be written in plain language. It should also be binding, precluding the organization from withholding information on any basis found outside the policy itself. For instance, WFP generally recognizes a wide range of categories of information, capturing all sorts of media, and emphasizes the policy as a “directive” to be carried out by senior management.[[fn:29]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "3. Comprehensive policy with binding rules"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "In practice, most national laws define the scope of information broadly and intergovernmental organizations should as well. See, for example, Antigua and Barbuda’s Freedom of Information Act 2004, article 4(1), which states: “For purposes of this Act, a record includes any recorded information, regardless of its form, source, date of creation, or official status, whether or not it was created by the public authority or private body that holds it and whether or not it is classified.” http://www.laws.gov.ag/acts/2004/a2004-19.pdf."}, {"n": 29, "text": "WFP, Directive CP2010/01 on Communications, Public Policy and Private Partnerships Division Directive (7 June 2010)."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0034", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Two categories of information deserve specific mention so as to clarify exactly how access to information advances the public’s right to participation. First, while most organizations seek to exclude “internal documents”, they should in fact be providing access to all information that enables the public to understand the bases for decisions.[[fn:30]] The Aarhus Convention, for instance, defines “environmental information” as including “cost-benefit and other economic analyses and assumptions used in environmental decision-making”.[[fn:31]] Organizations should include the “analyses and assumptions” that underlie their decisions within the definition of information that may be disclosed, including not just economic but also legal, political, institutional, operational and similar kinds of analyses and assumptions. Most intergovernmental organizations are not in favour of such disclosures,[[fn:32]] but non-disclosure of important process documentation hinders public understanding of their work. At the very least, it should be presumed that such information is subject to disclosure.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "3. Comprehensive policy with binding rules"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "The Tshwane Principles provide a good illustration of the kinds of information that should be disclosed: “records, correspondence, facts, opinion, advice, memoranda, data, statistics, books, drawings, plans, maps, diagrams, photographs, audio or visual records, documents, e-mails, logbooks, samples, models, and data held in any electronic form”."}, {"n": 31, "text": "Aarhus Convention, article 2, para. (3) (b)."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See, for example, UNDP, Information disclosure policy, annex 2, para. 11 (c), available at: http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/operations/transparency/information_disclosurepolicy.html."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0035", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. Second, information about the selection and election process for all categories of committees and monitoring bodies, whether involving Member States, experts or others, should be subject to disclosure. Generally, intergovernmental organizations should be making greater efforts to disclose specific kinds of governance decision-making. For instance, one of the most basic public functions of organizations, elections, whether of State delegations to serve on committees or individuals to serve in expert roles such as special rapporteurs, remain largely closed to public scrutiny. Organizations should devote clearly identifiable space on their websites for information about candidates to elective or selective positions, and they should provide information about State compliance with the organization’s norms in the context of elections to bodies held by State delegations. Those making appointments or selections to expert bodies should make public the reasons for their choices.[[fn:33]] Timely and interactive access to such processes would enhance their credibility as well as the accountability of those making the selections. As noted below, some kinds of information may be subject to non-disclosure, for instance, if necessary to protect the personal data of individual candidates for positions. Generally, however, there is legitimate dissatisfaction among civil society organizations about their limited ability to learn about such processes as they are happening. In turn, the lack of information leads to misunderstandings about the nature of elective or appointment processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "3. Comprehensive policy with binding rules"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See, for example, the report of the Consultative Group to the President of the Human Rights Council relating to the vacancies of special procedure mandate holders to be appointed at the thirty-fifth session of the Human Rights Council (12 May 2017). Also see Designaciones Publicas’ chart on appointments of the multilateral organs of the United Nations: http://designaciones.org/multilaterales/#!/en/comites."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0036", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Organizations should also avoid limiting who may make requests for information. Just as article 19 of the International Covenant guarantees everyone’s access to information, without limiting or defining “everyone”, intergovernmental organizations should be open to requests regardless of the requester, without regard to concepts such as “standing” or “harm” to demonstrate a reason for the request. A person or entity making a request should not be required to provide a justification for it. In order to demonstrate that everyone should enjoy such access, policies should keep costs to the absolute minimum, eliminating fees to the greatest extent possible.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "3. Comprehensive policy with binding rules"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0037", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. States may impose restrictions on access to information held by public authorities only when they meet the three-part test, of legality, necessity and proportionality, and also legitimate objective. The general limitations on access to information applicable to States should also apply to intergovernmental organizations. The requirement of legality (“provided by law”) requires that regular procedures be followed in the adoption of restrictions and that there be clarity and specificity in the rules. They must not be drafted so generically that they provide unfettered discretion on the power of the decision makers to refuse disclosure of information (CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 25). Similarly, the requirement of necessity, which implies proportionality, means that the policies of intergovernmental organizations should permit non-disclosure only when disclosure would indeed cause likely harm to a legitimate interest (CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 38).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "4. Clear rules about what information may be withheld"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0038", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. The legitimate subjects of restriction for States, to protect the rights or the reputation of others, national security or public order or public health or morals, may also serve as a basis for restrictions on the part of intergovernmental organizations. The rights of others, for instance, would counsel for the creation of protections to ensure that disclosures do not interfere with the privacy rights of individuals employed by or in some way connected to the intergovernmental organization. Public order may be an especially salient basis for sensitivity with regard to disclosure in the context of peacekeeping, while national security could be a basis, for example: the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) might choose not to disclose certain information about nuclear inspections; or the World Health Organization (WHO) could cite public health concerns as a basis for withholding sensitive information. Even for these generic bases for non-disclosure, the organization would still need to demonstrate necessity and proportionality in a given case.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "4. Clear rules about what information may be withheld"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0039", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The policies of intergovernmental organizations must clarify what kinds of information may not be disclosed; in their actual withholding of information, they should be held to a high standard in identifying their reasons. At a minimum, intergovernmental organizations should specify what kinds of information they consider to be sensitive and subject to non-disclosure. In doing so, they should not overstate what is subject to non-disclosure but adhere strictly to notions of public interest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "4. Clear rules about what information may be withheld"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0040", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. The UNDP information disclosure policy provides a good example of how to approach exceptions. Its policy, which notes that the organization operates in contexts of “crisis, conflict or humanitarian disasters” that pose challenges to UNDP operations and Member State interests, identifies several categories of information deemed confidential and “not available to the public”. Not all of the categories of exceptions are entirely appropriate, such as “[c]ommercial information where disclosure would harm either the financial interests of UNDP or those of third parties involved” or “[i]nformation which, if disclosed, in UNDP’s view would seriously undermine the policy dialogue with Member States or implementing partners”. (These exceptions are found in the policies of other intergovernmental organizations as well.) Both categories seem overbroad and subject to undue discretion of the organization. Nonetheless, recognizing this potential for overbreadth and potentially illegitimate non-disclosure in paragraph 12 of its information disclosure policy, UNDP provides that it could disclose even “confidential” information “if it determines that the overall benefits and public interest of such disclosure outweighs the likely harm to the interest(s) protected by the exception(s)”. Such authority rests not only in UNDP itself but in the independent panel created to oversee such decisions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "4. Clear rules about what information may be withheld"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0041", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Not every organization with an access-to-information policy deals with exceptions in the same way, but a fundamental problem with many is that they do not provide a basis for disclosure in the public interest (which UNDP does provide). For instance, while the policy of the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) largely follows along the lines of UNDP,[[fn:34]] it fails to include a public interest test to provide for disclosure, even in situations where non-disclosure may be permitted. UNESCO has recently adopted a policy that, while noting a commitment to transparency (and despite its role in the United Nations system in promoting access to information), includes similar restrictions as UNDP.[[fn:35]] However, like UNFPA, it does not provide a public interest override, such that material normally subject to non-disclosure could be released. If an organization does not provide a public interest test, its exceptions appear rigid and likely to result in barriers to transparency. As part of any public interest test, organizations should include a strong presumption that information about threats to the environment, health or human rights and information revealing corruption should be released because of heightened public interest in such information. This would be consistent with emerging norms governing State access to information policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "4. Clear rules about what information may be withheld"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "UNFPA, Information Disclosure Policy, available at: http://www.unfpa.org/information-disclosure-policy."}, {"n": 35, "text": "UNESCO Access to Information Policy, available at: http://en.unesco.org/this-site/access-to-information-policy."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0042", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Although they vary in structure, all national right-to-information laws provide an appeals mechanism in the event of non-disclosure.[[fn:36]] Intergovernmental organizations should also ensure an independent appeals process, protected against political interference and with the competence to make binding decisions. Grounds for appeal should be broad and clear procedures should be in place, including timelines.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "5. Complaint and appeals mechanisms"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "See Global Right to Information Rating (http://www.rti-rating.org/by-indicator/?indicator=36)."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0043", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. UNDP provides a useful model. Upon a non-disclosure response from its Legal Office, a person making a request may ask for a review of the determination by the Information Disclosure Oversight Panel. According to paragraph 21 of the UNDP information disclosure policy, the Panel consists of four members, all appointed by the UNDP Administrator with input from the Bureaux, including one from the UNDP Office of Audit and Investigations; one from the UNDP Ethics Office; one from a United Nations agency other than UNDP; and one from a non-governmental organization. The Panel reviews the denial of requests to disclose a document or portion of a document to a member of the public, and provides a final recommendation within 30 calendar days of receipt of the appeal. The Panel shares its recommendation with the UNDP Administrator and the relevant internal unit or office. The Administrator has the authority to make the final decision, taking into consideration the recommendations of the Panel. If the Administrator determines that the requested information will not be disclosed, the reasoning is provided.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "5. Complaint and appeals mechanisms"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0044", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. While the UNDP process involves strong elements of review, in general the decision-making authority should be lodged in an independent actor, not in the Administrator.[[fn:37]] Such a rule is reflected in most international standards and can be seen in domestic freedom of information laws.[[fn:38]] An independent body, such as an ombudsperson or commissioner, should be established to guarantee the right to information outside the chain of the organization’s normal authority.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "5. Complaint and appeals mechanisms"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See also IFC, Access to Information Policy (1 Jan. 2012), available at: http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/98d8ae004997936f9b7bffb2b4b33c15/IFCPolicyDisclosureInformation.pdf?MOD=AJPERES."}, {"n": 38, "text": "An estimated 70 Governments grant requests for the right to bring an external appeal with an independent administrative oversight body. See Centre for Law and Democracy, “RTI Rating Data Analysis Series: Overview of Results and Trends (2013)”, available at: http://www.law-democracy.org/live/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Report-1.13.09.Overview-of-RTI-Rating.pdf. See also, Aarhus Convention, article 9; Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers, recommendation Rec(2002)2 to member States on access to official documents, 21 February 2002; African Union, draft model law for African Union States on access to information; and Organization of American States, model inter-American law on access to information."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0045", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Intergovernmental organizations, like many (if not all) bureaucratic institutions, prize some measure of secrecy and the ability to work outside the public eye. In order to chip away at the secrecy embedded in large institutions, implementation must continue throughout the life of an access policy, including through education of the staff and leadership. The World Bank has developed a staff handbook, a mandatory training programme, workflow automation and records management systems, including dedicated websites, to provide easy access to documents (including an online portal for users to submit requests for information).[[fn:39]] Such internal programming is necessary to ensure that access to information becomes a part of organizational culture, understood as the responsibility of a public institution rather than an interference with its work.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "6. Implementation, review and monitoring"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "See World Bank, Access to information: annual report and five-year retrospective (2015), available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/836081467999089075/Access-to-information-annual-report-FY-2015-and-five-year-retrospective."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0046", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Some Governments ensure oversight through annual reports that review the status of their freedom of information regime. The World Bank has followed suit by publishing annual freedom of information reports. In the spirit of such disclosure, intergovernmental organizations should consider posting the responses to requests on their websites so that all subsequent requesters have access to that information.[[fn:40]] Annual reports that provide statistics regarding the implementation of their access-to-information policies, and their consistency with article 19 of the International Covenant, ensure the proper review of existing policies.[[fn:41]] For example, IFC monitors its own policy and issues periodic reports on its implementation. This helps show the tangible effects its policy has on increasing transparency and access to information. It also discloses monthly summaries of requests for the public to view and monitor and discloses how many appeals were filed before the Appeals Board.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "6. Implementation, review and monitoring"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "Open Society Justice Initiative, “Transparency & Silence: A Survey of Access to Information Laws and Practices in 14 Countries” (2006), available at: https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/sites/default/files/transparency_20060928.pdf"}, {"n": 41, "text": "For example, Ecuador, Honduras, Portugal, Thailand, Switzerland, and the United States have an information commission or government department that presents a consolidated report to the legislature on the implementation of Freedom of Information laws. See Centre for Law and Democracy, “RTI Rating Data Analysis Series: Overview of Results and Trends (2013)”, available at: http://www.law-democracy.org/live/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Report-1.13.09.Overview-of-RTI-Rating.pdf."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0047", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Access-to-information policies should be subject to regular review and take into account the changes in the nature of information held, including a formal requirement that they be subject to comprehensive review on a regular basis. This allows an opportunity to assess how well the implementation process is and whether there is room for improvement. Moreover, it provides an opportunity to amend the policy to provide for greater information disclosure and to align it with international best practices. These reviews should be conducted in a fully transparent manner and include multi-stakeholder consultation to get feedback from a broad range of stakeholders. Particular attention should be paid to whether categories of information need to be changed. Intergovernmental organizations need to reflect the changing demands of the public and should operate on policies that best suit these demands.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "6. Implementation, review and monitoring"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0048", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Two years ago, in my annual report to the General Assembly (A/70/361), I provided an assessment of how international human rights law protects sources of information and whistle-blowers. That report sought to clarify the norms promoting and protecting whistle-blowing, specifically because of the access to information that such rules seek to guarantee, particularly information in the public interest such as, inter alia, waste, fraud, abuse, illegality, human rights violations, war crimes or crimes against humanity. The points highlighted in that report apply in the context of this report as well. Indeed, the 2015 report emphasized the importance of whistle-blower protections in intergovernmental organizations and encouraged the development of policies that would define whistle-blowing broadly to cover all sorts of otherwise unauthorized disclosures, the reinforcement of the independence and effectiveness of whistle-blowing mechanisms, the adoption of strong transparency and access-to-information processes and protection against retaliation.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "7. Independent whistle-blower protections"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0049", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Whistle-blower protections remain an issue of the highest importance, something the Secretary-General acknowledged when, in one of his first steps, he promulgated a revised policy on the protection against retaliation for reporting misconduct and for cooperating with duly authorized audits or investigations (ST/SGB/2017/2). The policy aims to strengthen the protections of whistle-blowers, including by enhancing protection for individuals who report misconduct to external actors under specified conditions. I do not intend here to provide a detailed evaluation of the new policy but rather to emphasize the following considerations to ensure that the policy, over the long term, effectively promotes and protects whistle-blowers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "7. Independent whistle-blower protections"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0050", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. First, and perhaps most seriously, the new policy does not provide for sanctions against those who retaliate against whistle-blowers. Notably, the policy provides consequences that could favour the person claiming retaliation, such as rescission of the decision, reinstatement, or transfer (ST/SGB/2017/2, para. 8.5). Nonetheless, it does not provide for the imposition of any penalty on the staff or leadership responsible for the retaliatory action. Until the policy provides for such penalties, the protective framework will be weak.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "7. Independent whistle-blower protections"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0051", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Second, the Ethics Office remains central to the whistle-blowing policy. The creation of the Ethics Office in 2006 gave United Nations staff an important mechanism to ask questions and seek advice concerning the ethical conduct of one’s work — but it is not the appropriate place for a whistle-blower protection mandate. Importantly, it does not have a mandate to advocate on behalf of staff, nor is it necessarily expert in the global norms protecting and promoting whistle-blowing. Alternatively, an independent whistle-blower office would advise would-be whistle-blowers, evaluate complaints and provide strong protections against retaliation. Over time, an office that sees its sole duty as advocating whistle-blower protections and responding to retaliation would provide staff with a sense of security by ensuring that their reports are to be managed by an office dedicated to accountability. It should have standards that reflect international norms and focus not on the image of the institution but on the importance of disclosing wrongdoing.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "7. Independent whistle-blower protections"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0052", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. On this latter point, I note that the Ethics Office relies in part on the 2013 International Civil Service Commission’s standards of conduct for the international civil service, which, while generally valuable, provide that: “It would not be proper for international civil servants to air personal grievances or criticize their organizations in public. International civil servants should endeavour at all times to promote a positive image of the international civil service, in conformity with their oath of loyalty”.[[fn:42]] This standard, and the tone it sets, counteracts the notion that staff should report misconduct that may, in some serious cases, fail to promote a positive organizational image.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "7. Independent whistle-blower protections"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "A/67/30 and Corr.1, annex IV, para. 37."}]}, {"id": "a-72-350-0053", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Third, the United Nations whistle-blower policy provides that: “The individual must make the report in good faith and must submit information or evidence to support a reasonable belief that misconduct has occurred” (ST/SGB/2017/2, para. 2.1 (a)). In the context of whistle-blowing, a “good faith” requirement should not require justification other than the fact that the whistle-blower aims to disclose waste, fraud, abuse or some other illegal conduct. It should not be understood to require or permit any kind of inquiry into other motives that the whistle-blower may have.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "7. Independent whistle-blower protections"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0054", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Fourth, the policy could be clearer about the channels that would-be whistle-blowers should and may use to report wrongdoing without fear of reprisal or to report actual cases of retaliation. The strength of the policy is clouded somewhat by its legalism; the United Nations should be undertaking significant outreach to ensure that all staff understand the appropriate channels.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Key elements of an access-to-information policy", "B. Essential elements of access-to-information policies", "7. Independent whistle-blower protections"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0055", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Over the past 70 years, the United Nations and other intergovernmental organizations have served foundational roles in expanding the rule of law globally. While not always successful, these organizations enable the coordination of policy and the development of legal norms in the fields of security, development, governance and many others, and they are consistently perceived as important institutions by public opinion around the world. Strengthening them, ensuring that they serve the functions for which they were created, enhancing public participation in their work, these are the underlying goals of the present report. Development of access-to-information policies, in keeping with the global legal trends for freedom of information, will advance the objectives of intergovernmental organizations and the Member States that constitute them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0056", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. International organizations must open themselves up to greater public scrutiny and participation if they are to thrive. Their leaders seem to recognize this, as is evident in their extensive websites, professional (if underresourced) communications offices and the public presence of a great number of officials of intergovernmental organizations in social, broadcast and print media. However, apart from a handful of exceptions noted herein, this recognition on their part does not generally lead to policies that promote and regularize the exercise of the right to information. Why this is so is not difficult to understand: with perhaps the exception of the work of the Security Council and the Secretary-General, and high-level ministerial meetings of Heads of State and Government, intergovernmental organizations generally conduct their day-to-day operations far from the media’s gaze, a situation that changes only in the event of scandal or abuse. The absence of that gaze, and the haze generated by large and difficult to penetrate bureaucracies, means that officials generally do not feel the pressure to release information. This, however, is a mistake.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0057", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Intergovernmental organizations should make efforts now to create openness and to establish policies and infrastructure that not only provide information of all kinds but also promote such requests. Intergovernmental organizations should welcome the opportunities to provide transparency because, although transparency can cause embarrassment and, occasionally, give rise to scandal, it also sends a broader message of understanding that public knowledge is critical, especially so since these institutions serve critical public functions. Opacity, by contrast, sends the opposite message: we are distant; our work does not concern you; your support is unnecessary.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0058", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. It is not enough simply to adopt access to information policies, such policies must be rigorous and principled, drawing on the broad global acceptance that the right of access to information held by public authorities is rooted in international law. I encourage international organizations and the United Nations to align their policies with those being adopted and implemented, increasingly, by States, not only to emulate the best aspects of governmental behaviour, but to serve as a model for States to follow.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0059", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. I make the following core recommendations in keeping with the findings of the present report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0060", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. International organizations, especially the United Nations, should:\n(a) Begin the process of adopting rigorous access-to-information policies. At a minimum, organizations should identify and appoint access-to-information focal points to coordinate the adoption process. I specifically encourage the Secretary-General to appoint the director of the Department of Public Information to lead such an effort on an urgent basis;\n(b) Develop a multi-stakeholder process to engage civil society, including the media, and Member States in identifying the key elements of an access policy;\n(c) Consult with those organizations that already have active access-to-information policies, such as UNEP and UNDP, to understand their processes and any lessons learned they may impart;\n(d) Ensure that policies include the main elements identified above, in particular, proactive, clear, searchable and secure disclosures; comprehensive policies with binding rules; clear rules about what information may be withheld; effective complaint and appeals mechanisms; strong implementation, review and monitoring systems; and independent whistle-blowing protections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0061", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. The political bodies of the United Nations, especially the General Assembly and Human Rights Council, and other intergovernmental organizations should:\n(a) Promote the adoption of access to information policies through resolutions and other governance mechanisms;\n(b) Ensure the development of monitoring and oversight functions;\n(c) Provide comprehensive information concerning organizational governance mechanisms, including election and selection or appointment processes, and broader and simpler accreditation of organizations to participate in and monitor organizational activities;\n(d) Promote knowledge of access to information policies, including through the provision of clear information on websites and active dissemination and promotion of those policies to staff and stakeholders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0062", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Member States should:\n(a) Encourage intergovernmental organizations to adopt access-to-information policies that meet the standards identified in the present report;\n(b) Participate actively in the development of policies that advance everyone’s right to freedom of information;\n(c) Focus on ensuring the broadest possible access to information, only seeking to protect from disclosure State-generated information that could be withheld under international human rights law, in particular article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-72-350-0063", "docId": "a-72-350", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Civil society organizations, the media and members of the public should:\n(a) Engage directly and seek a formal role with intergovernmental organizations in the process of development of access to information policies, including by identifying for them the key areas of interest in information;\n(b) Make requests for information from intergovernmental organizations as soon as possible, even before the development of access policies, in order to determine the way in which they currently handle such formal requests;\n(c) Share information with other organizations and with the Special Rapporteur about the experience of engaging with intergovernmental organizations in the development of access policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report is the seventh report presented by Mr. Abid Hussain (India), the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The mandate was established by Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/45 of 5 March 1993. This report is submitted pursuant to resolution 1999/36, which also renewed the mandate for three years. Section I of the present report contains the terms of reference for the discharge of the mandate. Section II presents an account of the activities undertaken within the framework of his mandate in the past year. Section III provides a brief discussion on a number of issues which the Special Rapporteur considers to be important for the development of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Section IV contains brief summaries of urgent appeals and communications to and from Governments, along with observations of the Special Rapporteur. Lastly, section V contains the conclusions and recommendations of the Special Rapporteur.\nI. TERMS OF REFERENCE", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The Special Rapporteur refers to his previous reports as regards the mandate and methods of work adopted by him. The structure of the present report is along the same lines as the previous report. The main body of issues includes an analysis of communications received by the Special Rapporteur (in order to highlight trends), access to information, concerns relating to criminal libel and defamation, the police and the criminal justice system, as well as the role of the new information technologies.\nII. ACTIVITIES", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. During the period under review, the Special Rapporteur sent 11 allegations and 56 urgent actions. Seeking to avoid unnecessary duplication of the activities of the other thematic special rapporteurs and country-specific rapporteurs, the Special Rapporteur has joined during the past year with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture on 4 cases of allegations (Azerbaijan, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo and Zimbabwe) and on 12 cases of urgent appeals (Belarus, 3 for China, Myanmar, 1 for the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2 for the Syrian Arab Republic, 2 for Togo, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Zambia). The Special Rapporteur also joined with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions on 14 cases of urgent actions (Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2 for China, 2 for Colombia, 1 for the Islamic Republic of Iran, 7 for Mexico, 1 for Peru). In the course of the year, 11 urgent actions were written jointly with the Chairman of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention (Bahrain, Côte d’Ivoire, Cuba, 2 for China, Israel, Kenya, 2 for Nigeria, Palestine, Syrian Arab Republic), 1 case of joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers (Bahrain), 2 cases of joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women (China, Pakistan) and 1 case of joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on the right to education (Malaysia). Moreover, the Special Rapporteur also joined with the Special Rapporteurs on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (3 urgent actions) and the Islamic Republic of Iran (3 urgent actions).", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The Special Rapporteur has received a large number of allegations concerning cases of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in 1999. As was the case in previous years, the Special Rapporteur was only able to deal with a limited number of requests for information from some Governments, owing to the insufficient financial and human resources to fulfil his mandate in the manner he would deem appropriate. The matters raised in previous reports to the Commission on Human Rights regarding the circumstances of work (E/CN.4/1995/32, paras. 92-95; E/CN.4/1996/39, para. 6; E/CN.4/1997/31, para. 7; E/CN.4/1998/40, para. 3 and E/CN.4/1999/64, para. 3) unfortunately remain a matter of great concern. The mandate requires a substantially increased pool of resources. Within the current constraints, the Special Rapporteur has engaged in an exchange of views with Governments only with regard to a limited number of cases, which are discussed in section IV.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. It should thus be emphasized that the countries discussed in the respective sections in no way reflect the extent of the problem worldwide, as indeed violations of this right take place in almost every country in spite of the emergence of an increasing number of national institutions which are working for the promotion and protection of human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Closer cooperation is engaged by the Special Rapporteur with treaty bodies and human rights field operations, as well as with other specialized bodies within the United Nations system and regional intergovernmental, and non-governmental organizations, particularly at the local level, concerned with the right to freedom of expression. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur noted with great satisfaction that the number of meetings and seminars he attended and had been invited to had tripled over the past year.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. From 16 to 18 March 1999, the Special Rapporteur attended in Abuja an international workshop on media law reform in Nigeria organized by Media Rights Agenda (MRA), a non-governmental organization based in Nigeria, and Article 19 - the International Centre against Censorship, together with the National Human Rights Commission.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. In June 1999, he was invited by the Government of Canada to Ottawa where two round tables were organized: one governmental, with the participation of representatives of the Ministries for Foreign Affairs and Justice as well as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), the second a gathering of Canadian NGOs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. On 30 and 31 August 1999, the Special Rapporteur went to Nepal where he had the opportunity to meet with the Prime Minister, government ministers and journalists from that country. Matters relating to freedom of speech and writing as well as the need to set up a national commission for human rights were discussed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The Special Rapporteur had also the opportunity to participate in the International Colloquium on Freedom of Expression and Defamation organized by Article 19 in Colombo from 15 to 17 September 1999.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. In regard to cooperation with intergovernmental organizations, the Special Rapporteur collaborated very closely with Mr. Alain Modoux, Assistant-Director-General and head of the Unit for Freedom of Expression, Democracy and Peace of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), who made a statement during the debate on item 11 (c) of the fifty-fifth session of the Commission on Human Rights. The Special Rapporteur was also invited by UNESCO to World Press Freedom Day on 3 May 1999 in Bogotá and to a working meeting held in Paris on 29 October 1999 with a view to exchanging information and enhancing cooperation. The Special Rapporteur thus made concrete recommendations in his mission reports this year (see report on the mission to the Sudan, E/CN.4/2000/63/Add.1, the report on the mission to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, E/CN.4/2000/63/Add.3, and the report on the mission to Tunisia, E/CN.4/2000/63/Add.4) to encourage the use of UNESCO’s expertise in the field of media legislation and the training of journalists in coordination with the programme of technical cooperation of the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. A meeting was also organized by Article 19 in London on 25 and 26 November 1999 which brought together for the first time the Special Rapporteur, Abid Hussain; Freimut Duve, the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media; and Santiago Canton, the OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression. During that meeting, which was designed to promote dialogue not only between the special appointees but also with non-governmental organizations working in the field, a joint declaration was issued, setting out the key ways in which Governments should move to guarantee that individuals enjoy the right to freedom of expression, opinion and information (see annex 1). The Special Rapporteur is convinced that such exchanges of experience and increased cooperation with these mechanisms are essential to realize the right to freedom of opinion and expression in all parts of the world. This is the reason why he decided, together with the two other mechanisms, to meet on a more regular basis to discuss their mandates and ways of working in areas of importance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. From 26 to 28 May 1999, the Special Rapporteur was invited to attend a workshop on gender integration into the human rights system organized by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. As Chairman of the meeting, he found this initiative very useful for the special mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights and took that opportunity to recall that the gender issue is considered with specific attention in his annual and mission reports.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. In this regard, he held further meetings with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, in order to continue to pay particular attention, as requested by the Commission on Human Rights in resolution 1999/36, to the situation of women and the relationship between the effective promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and incidents of discrimination based on sex, creating obstacles for women with regard to their right to seek, receive and impart information. The Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate his regrets that constraints of time and resources limited the extent to which the work could be jointly undertaken with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women. This remains an area of critical importance to him and he sincerely hopes that in the near future more deliberate efforts can be made in this area.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Additionally, the Special Rapporteur attended the sixth meeting of special rapporteurs/representatives, experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures and advisory services programme, held in Geneva from 31 May to 3 June 1999.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur visited Geneva from 8 to 14 April 1999 for consultations and to present his report to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-fifth session. During this period, the Special Rapporteur held a press conference and organized a briefing for NGOs which was very well attended. He also met with various delegations, in particular representatives of the Government of Canada and ambassadors from France, Malaysia, Hungary and the Islamic Republic of Iran. He discussed his intention to undertake field visits with the Permanent Representatives of the Sudan, Sri Lanka, Tunisia, Egypt and Peru and with representatives of Cuba and the Russian Federation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Finally, the Special Rapporteur considers the carrying out of country visits to be an essential element of the mandate. From 20 to 26 September 1999, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to the Sudan. He then visited the Republic of Ireland from 18 to 22 October 1999, followed by a visit to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland from 24 to 29 October 1999. Finally, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Tunisia from 6 to 11 December 1999. For these four visits, he has submitted separate reports to the Commission at its current session (E/CN.4/2000/63/Add.1, 2, 3 and 4).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. During the year under review, the Special Rapporteur has sent reminders regarding his wish to undertake a visit to Albania, Argentina, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Egypt, Indonesia, Peru, Sri Lanka and Viet Nam to examine in situ the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In this regard, he regrets that invitations have not so far been received from those countries. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur has also sent additional official requests to visit China, Cuba and the Russian Federation. On 5 July 1999, the Government of China informed the Special Rapporteur that the request was under careful consideration.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. The Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate that the role of non-governmental organizations in furthering the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression cannot be overestimated. Indeed, it is those organizations which spearhead these concerns and are forcefully advocating, monitoring and lobbying for human rights. Some of them have gone out of their way to volunteer their time to help the Special Rapporteur in his missions. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his special thanks to Article 19, the International Centre Against Censorship, which continues to provide information and material relevant to the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression to the Special Rapporteur.\nIII. ISSUES\nA. Trends", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. The Special Rapporteur has noted a number of characteristics common to the violations reported to him in the framework of his mandate and believes that it would be helpful to consider what may be called “trends”. It is his hope that the identification of these trends will encourage Governments to review practices and take remedial action where required. It is also hoped that this work will assist the OHCHR in developing programmes of technical assistance for interested Governments which will accelerate the process of eliminating the causes of violations of freedom of opinion and expression and associated rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The Special Rapporteur receives more than 1,500 communications annually from a variety of sources: international, regional, national and local non-governmental organizations; associations of media professionals; trade unions; members of opposition political parties; human rights defenders and activists; concerned individuals and others. It must be stated that resource constraints do not permit the Special Rapporteur to respond to, or act upon every one of the communications received. These constraints also make it difficult, if not impossible, to verify the facts presented in each and every case in order to determine what, if any, action would be appropriate. That being said, however, it can be stated that these communications are not confined to alleged violations of the rights to opinion, expression and access to information in countries in which the political system and institutional arrangements are implicitly or explicitly undemocratic. It is true, however, that the preponderance of allegations refer to situations where: (a) the legal and institutional protections and guarantees of human rights are, to a greater or lesser degree, circumscribed; or (b) situations of internal armed conflict or severe civil unrest exist. Nonetheless, it is important to note that allegations also refer to incidents and instances in which these rights are infringed or violated in both emerging democracies and countries with long-established democratic institutions, practices and traditions.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. While some of the communications refer to the same individual case or event or a series of cases in the same country, the majority of them do not. From this, one can only conclude that violations of the rights to opinion, expression, access to information, assembly and association are rampant and may, at any given time, occur anywhere in the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. The Special Rapporteur acknowledges that in a number of countries independent media, professional or collegial associations and non-governmental organizations have been allowed to form and function. In such cases, there may well be a need for training and guidance on, for example, raising professional standards and important skills such as how to develop and thrive in a self-regulating environment. It is the Special Rapporteur’s strongly held view that Governments should create and permit an enabling environment in which training and professional development of media persons can be organized and carried out without fear of legal, criminal or administrative sanction by the State.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. From communications received in the past year regarding repression of, or infringement upon freedom of opinion and expression and the exercise of associated rights, it appeared that in several cases measures or actions were taken by the State, its agents, or an organized non-State entity for reasons such as: (a) out of fear - for example, to cover up wrongdoings and crimes against the people; (b) as a manifestation of an exaggerated sensitivity to criticism of either a professional or personal nature; (c) in aid of the pursuit by an individual, group, organization or institution of wealth, privilege and power by any and all means; (d) intolerance of any individual, group or organization perceived to be obstructing such pursuit; (e) out of arrogance or the “might is right” way of thinking in which criticism or inquiry is not tolerated.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. With these points in mind, the Special Rapporteur directs the attention to the following general trends in terms of violations of freedom of opinion and expression and associated rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. There are cases when Governments characterize media and others seeking to exercise freedom of opinion and expression as, for example, “unpatriotic”, “inciting treason”, “denigrating the Government”, “inciting nationalist xenophobia”, propagating “immoral”, “extremist and divisive ideas”. The response of the authorities, on the basis of these and other characterizations, have included, inter alia: a blackout on reports of civil strife in the country; criminalization of reporting on draft evasion, including the cancellation of licences to publish and broadcast; a ban on cultural magazines; warnings against, and suspension of publications - in one case for having published “too many” reports of a “political nature”; a ban on all independent media in a disputed territory; revocation of journalists’ licences without reason; expulsion of foreign journalists, without explanation; cancellation of a publishing licence for a newsletter that focused on human rights violations and other issues related to human rights; seizure without explanation of copies of a foreign-based weekly; suspension of broadcasting rights on the basis that previous programming incited prejudice between religions; closure of a radio station that reported on irregularities and nepotism in the public administration; banning of newspapers and books considered, for example, “insulting to the military” or guilty of having published “false and malicious articles”; the ban of a moderate newspaper calling for abolition of the death penalty; expulsion of foreign journalists for having sought “to tarnish the image of the country”. Communications also indicate that at various times, Governments have threatened to: “resort to physical torture” against personnel of independent media that did not support it in a conflict against an armed group or file court cases against journalists and newspapers that publish “lies”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. It can be stated that the legal actions taken against journalists and other individuals seeking to exercise their rights to opinion, expression and information remain of epidemic proportion. Publishers, editors, journalists and activists have been arrested, charged, tried and/or sentenced for, inter alia: an unpublished article that was said to be a “call to social disorder”; “disturbing public order”; “insulting the head of State”; “distribution and disclosure of false news”; revealing State secrets by publishing classified documents that were embarrassing to the ruling party; caricaturing the State religion; publishing “false and insulting information”; publishing “slanderous material, disturbing public opinion and exposing military secrets”; publishing an “alarming article” related to activities of a clique of powerful politicians who were funding clashes between clans; regular publication of articles on police corruption, high-handedness and cases of extortion; publishing an article about police torture of a prisoner; refusal to reveal sources; publication of an article critical of the justice system; disclosure of arms purchases by the Government and the statement that this action could threaten the peace process.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Criminal penalties have been imposed on a number of grounds, including: libel of a member of Parliament; libel of a private individual; responsibility for public disorder and acts of sabotage; defamation, following publication of stories on corruption; “compromising State security”; slander of the national police; establishment of a journalists’ union without government permission; fraud and impersonating a journalist; teaching of a banned religion, constituting a crime against national security; publication of an article contrary to the press laws and “potentially harmful to the morale of the armed forces”; contempt of court, following comments about the judiciary and its corruption during a television broadcast; publication of criticism of the Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Actions against activists and human rights defenders also included, inter alia: arrest for having circulated a petition calling for constitutional change; seizure of all copies of, and prohibition on a book on corruption involving judges and civil servants; arrest of pro-democracy activists and dissidents; efforts to suppress discussion of the social and environmental costs of a controversial irrigation and hydroelectric project; expulsion of student leaders from various universities and institutions of higher learning; accusations of membership in an unauthorized association, distribution of illegal leaflets, insulting the authorities, holding unauthorized meetings; charge, trial and conviction for having written a book about massacres of civilians, in violation of the anti-terror law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. In a number of cases, the punitive and repressive measures taken by the authorities are “legal” inasmuch as there are laws regulating expression, access to information, assembly and association. It must be stated, however, that the legal character of these actions is profoundly at odds with the standards set out in international human rights instruments, most notably the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which applies to all States, without exception, by virtue of their being a Member of the United Nations, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which applies to all States that have ratified or acceded to it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. There are laws that penalize, inter alia: disclosure of information of importance to the State; slander of high-level officials of the Government, the armed forces, the judiciary and the clergy; “disturbing public order”; revealing business secrets; contempt of the police; insult to the military. Other laws have the effect of, for example: withdrawing the right of journalists to protect sources; banning free discussion of many vaguely defined topics (e.g. the national constitution in whole or in part); banning a large number of categories of so-called “hate speech”; banning alleged pornography; conferring on the State the power to control and/or dissolve non-governmental organizations considered to have exceeded their mandate or breached a broad range of boundaries; establishing a Government-imposed media council to replace independent, self-regulating councils; preventing press coverage of proceedings in publicly funded governing bodies; defining and restricting the role of news announcers; imposing a temporary ban for “frequent publication” of obscene or indecent material; limiting the practice of journalism only to those journalists who are members of one specific journalists’ association; granting to family court judges the power to sanction journalists who publish information on a person’s private life or physical disability.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. The excessive use of force by the police and other security forces has been consistently addressed by the Special Rapporteurs on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and on the question of torture. The communications received in the past year clearly point out the\ndangers inherent in the profession of journalism and decisions by citizens to demonstrate peacefully either in support of or in opposition to Governments and other entities such as opposition political parties.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. In the past year, measures taken by the police and security forces have included actions against and causing injuries to journalists and photographers covering, for example: a strike called by the main opposition party; a protest march organized by a labour union; the swearing-in ceremony of the new President; the escort of other journalists, by police, to a magistrate’s court; a clash between ethnic communities; a public meeting; a confrontation between municipal officers and street vendors; police treatment of protesters participating in a demonstration by Islamic activists; a union blockade and a rally organized by the opposition.", "labels": ["Persons in street situations"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Communications also referred to police violence against journalists in the context of, for example: articles written on criminal issues; publication of allegations of embezzlement by public authorities; published criticisms of human rights violations; coverage of sensitive domestic issues; attempts to publicize police harassment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. Actions against journalists and others were also taken by various non-State actors that resulted in, inter alia: the mob killing of one journalist; death threats against a woman sculptor on the basis that in their culture sculpting is described as a sin; distribution of a pamphlet accusing journalists and intellectuals of being enemies of the peace process; kidnapping by a rebel group; murder by militant members of a separatist movement; threats by an opposition leader to ban reporters from covering an election campaign; an attack on and occupation of a national radio building by armed attackers; the taking of journalists as hostages by rebels; a bomb attack causing the death of a journalist who was a secularist and critic of a certain religious movement.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. In addition to these types of actions by individuals or groups that were identified or publicly claimed responsibility, the communications received by the Special Rapporteur also related to violence or threats of violence by unknown persons or groups against members of the media and others. These cases included, for example: murder, possibly in response to published criticism of religious extremism; threats following reports of allegations of favouritism by senior government officials, fighting between government and guerrilla forces, police violence against civilians; threats following publication of articles about, or investigation into political corruption and corruption in prisons; murder of writers, journalists, poets and translators, in some cases possibly by rogue elements of security forces; murder following broadcast of programmes on such topics as corruption among political authorities, the police and military, and violence committed by terrorists and narcotraffickers; threats following harsh criticism of the Government; threats following publication of allegations of forgery and perjury; assault following publication of articles on illicit business deals involving persons in government and private companies.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. While less numerous than communications related to violations against members of the media, the Special Rapporteur would also note actions taken by Governments in relation to academic freedom. Information was received about, for example: suppression of research on such controversial topics as a national independence movement that was active in the past; a ban on campuses of any independent organizations that are considered political; refusal of permission to hold a seminar on human rights; State-supported harassment of independent libraries that were established to provide access to materials to which there is no access in State institutions; charges of having published a play that was considered blasphemous; charges against and conviction of the head of a political science department, who was also a contributor to a student magazine, for having defamed the religion of the State.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. With regard to public demonstrations, the Special Rapporteur not only underscores the frequency with which communications are received about the excessive use of force by police and security forces in response to demonstrations, marches and other manifestations, but notes such other concerns as: a requirement of prior notification; measures to prevent public commemoration of a major event; arrest of students demonstrating peacefully and calling for “freedom of thought and expression for all without exception”; arrest of labour leaders during a nationwide strike by civil servants and distribution of “Wanted” posters on more than 20 others; prosecution of workers for demonstrating in the streets and a verbal attack by a judge against a radio station reporting on the protests.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. While less common than other types of communications, information was received by the Special Rapporteur on several other issues which are of concern. These included, inter alia, a case in which action was taken against a “whistle-blower” who revealed information on wrongdoing and non-disclosure of relevant personal information (bank holdings) by senior officials. Other communications referred to the State monopoly on radio and television, and the firing, apparently for political reasons, of employees of the State-owned broadcasting corporation who were characterized as “opposition supporters”. Concern has also been expressed about the practice in some States of releasing persons from prison or detention and ordering them to be held under house arrest with severe restrictions on their freedom of movement and their rights to opinion, expression and access to information.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. It will be recalled that in previous reports, the Special Rapporteur expressed his concern about the use and abuse of national security laws to suppress opinion, expression and information. Again, while less common than other types of information received, communications did refer to declarations of states of emergency, the effect of which was, inter alia, to forbid the printing, broadcasting or communicating of information which is seen to incite violence or to cause racial or communal disharmony; or forbid information “prejudicial” to the State or that is likely to cause “disaffection” with the Government or “hatred or contempt” for the administration of justice or national security.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The Special Rapporteur cannot help but view with dismay the content of the communications received in the past year. Clearly, in several cases the rights to freedom of opinion, expression and information are violated in States with widely different political systems and institutional frameworks for governance. In a number of cases these rights do not enjoy even the minimum protections and guarantees set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and associated international human rights instruments.\nB. Access to information", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. In resolution 1999/36, the Commission on Human Rights invited the Special Rapporteur “to develop further his commentary on the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, and to expand on his observations and recommendations arising from communications”. With this in mind, the Special Rapporteur wishes to state again that the right to seek, receive and impart information is not merely a corollary of freedom of opinion and expression; it is a right in and of itself. As such, it is one of the rights upon which free and democratic societies depend. It is also a right that gives meaning to the right to participate which has been acknowledged as fundamental to, for example, the realization of the right to development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Clearly, there are a number of aspects of the right to information that require specific consideration. The Special Rapporteur wishes to emphasize in this report, therefore, his continuing concern about the tendency of Governments, and the institutions of Government, to withhold from the people information that is rightly theirs in that the decisions of Governments, and the implementation of policies by public institutions, have a direct and often immediate impact on their lives and may not be undertaken without their informed consent. The Special Rapporteur therefore endorses the set of principles that have been developed by the non-governmental organization Article 19 - the International Centre against Censorship (see annex II). These principles, entitled “The Public’s Right to Know: Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation”, are based on international and regional law and standards, evolving State practice, and the general principles of law recognized by the community of nations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. On that basis, the Special Rapporteur directs the attention of Governments to a number of areas and urges them either to review existing legislation or adopt new legislation on access to information and ensure its conformity with these general principles. Among the considerations of importance are:\nPublic bodies have an obligation to disclose information and every member of the public has a corresponding right to receive information; “information” includes all records held by a public body, regardless of the form in which it is stored;\nFreedom of information implies that public bodies publish and disseminate widely documents of significant public interest, for example, operational information about how the public body functions and the content of any decision or policy affecting the public;\nAs a minimum, the law on freedom of information should make provision for public education and the dissemination of information regarding the right to have access to information; the law should also provide for a number of mechanisms to address the problem of a culture of secrecy within Government;\nA refusal to disclose information may not be based on the aim to protect Governments from embarrassment or the exposure of wrongdoing; a complete list of the legitimate aims which may justify non-disclosure should be provided in the law and exceptions should be narrowly drawn so as to avoid including material which does not harm the legitimate interest;\nAll public bodies should be required to establish open, accessible internal systems for ensuring the public’s right to receive information; the law should provide for strict time limits for the processing of requests for information and require that any refusals be accompanied by substantive written reasons for the refusal(s);\nThe cost of gaining access to information held by public bodies should not be so high as to deter potential applicants and negate the intent of the law itself;\nThe law should establish a presumption that all meetings of governing bodies are open to the public;\nThe law should require that other legislation be interpreted, as far as possible, in a manner consistent with its provisions; the regime for exceptions provided for in the freedom of information law should be comprehensive and other laws should not be permitted to extend it;\nIndividuals should be protected from any legal, administrative or employment-related sanctions for releasing information on wrongdoing, viz. the commission of a criminal offence or dishonesty, failure to comply with a legal obligation, a miscarriage of justice, corruption or dishonesty or serious failures in the administration of a public body.\nC. Criminal libel and defamation", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. It will be recalled that in his report to the 1999 session of the Commission on Human Rights (E/CN.4/1999/64) the Special Rapporteur addressed the issue of criminal libel. It will also be recalled that in his report to the fifty-first session, the Special Rapporteur stated that, “the principle of proportionality must be strictly observed for the purpose of preventing the undermining of the freedom of expression” in terms of the legal protection against “any intentional infringement on the honour and reputation by untrue assertions” (emphasis added) (E/CN.4/1995/32, para. 47).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The Special Rapporteur was both astonished and alarmed at the number of communications received in the past year referring to accusations of libel and defamation against members of the media - publishers, editors and journalists. A review of the many communications received yields a list of cases relating to, for example:\nDefamation and damages awarded in connection with reports on corruption at the presidential palace;\nA claim for damages by a former member of the intelligence services;\nDefamation following publication of an article on nepotism in the awarding of public contracts;\nLibel of a member of Parliament (with a sentence of up to five years’ imprisonment);\nLibel of a private individual (with a sentence of up to five years’ imprisonment);\nDefamation arising from publication of stories on corruption;\nDamages for libel and a sentence of four months in prison;\nLibel following publication of an article on corrupt business practices;\nAccusations of repeated aggravated defamation of members of the board of a rival daily newspaper;\nDefamation causing injury to a parliamentary member for the Government (one year suspended sentence);\nA prison term of three years and a fine for having published libellous statements against the wife of a member of a national assembly;\nOne year’s suspended sentence for having insulted the honour of a member of Parliament;\nProvisions in law establishing prison terms of one to three years for contempt of the President and the police;\nA sentence of one to six years for insulting the military.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. These and other cases and incidents have had a direct and negative impact on freedom of expression, access to information and the free exchange of ideas. The climate created by such suits causes writers, editors and publishers to be reluctant to report on and publish matters of public interest not only because of the large awards granted in these cases but also because of the high costs of defending such actions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Criminal defamation laws represent a potentially serious threat to freedom of expression because of the very sanctions that often accompany conviction. It will be recalled that a number of international bodies have condemned the threat of custodial sanctions, both specifically for defamatory statements and more generally for the peaceful expression of views. For example, since 1994, the Human Rights Committee has expressed concern about the possibility of custodial sanctions for defamation in a number of countries. Similarly, the Declaration of Sana’a, adopted on 11 January 1996 by the United Nations/UNESCO Seminar on Promoting Independent and Pluralistic Arab Media states that “disputes involving the media and/or the media professionals in the exercise of their profession … should be tried under civil and not criminal codes and procedures.”", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The Special Rapporteur has also noted that authoritative international human rights bodies have established a number of principles which restrict the legitimate scope of civil defamation and insult laws. For example, in 1995, in Tolstoy Miloslavsky v.\nthe United Kingdom, the European Court of Human Rights drew a link between the imposition of excessive sanctions and a chilling effect on freedom of expression and ruled that excessive damages for defamation violated article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "10", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights' — European regional treaty not in the allowed list."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. International jurisprudence also supports the view that Governments and public authorities as such should not be able to bring actions in defamation or insult. The Human Rights Committee has, for example, called for the abolition of the offence of “defamation of the State”. While the European Court of Human Rights has not entirely ruled out defamation suits by Governments, it appears to have limited such suits to situations which threaten public order, implying that Governments cannot sue in defamation simply to protect their honour. A number of national courts (e.g. in India, South Africa, the United Kingdom, the United States, Zimbabwe) have also refused to allow elected and other public authorities to sue for defamation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. On the issue of a strict standard of truth, the Special Rapporteur notes that such a standard may be excessively onerous; as a result, courts in a number of countries have mitigated the strict truth requirement, at least for material relating to matters of public interest, by recognizing a defence of non-malicious or reasonable publication. This approach is reflected in a case decided by the European Court of Human Rights (Bladet Tromso and Stensaas v. Norway, 20 May 1999, Application No. 21980/93); the Court held that even though certain allegations had been shown to be false, the applicant newspaper and editor should not be liable in defamation because, taking into account all relevant factors, the decision to publish had been reasonable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. In light of these and other concerns, the Special Rapporteur wishes to state again that it is critical to raise public consciousness to ensure that defamation laws are not used (or abused) to stifle open public debate of matters of general or specific interest. Once again, at minimum, it must be understood that:\nCriminal defamation laws should be repealed in favour of civil laws as the latter are able to provide sufficient protection for reputations;\nSanctions for defamation should not be so large as to exert a chilling effect on freedom of opinion and expression and the right to seek, receive and impart information; penal sanctions, in particular imprisonment, should never be applied and damage awards should be strictly proportionate to the actual harm caused;\nGovernment bodies and public authorities should not be able to bring defamation suits; the only purpose of defamation, libel, slander and insult laws must be to protect reputations and not to prevent criticism of Government or even to maintain public order, for which specific incitement laws exist;\nDefamation laws should reflect the importance of open debate about matters of public interest and the principle that public figures are required to tolerate a greater degree of criticism than private citizens;\n- To require truth in the context of publications relating to matters of public interest is excessive; it should be sufficient if reasonable efforts have been made to ascertain the truth;\nWith regard to opinions, only patently unreasonable views may qualify as defamatory; defendants should never be required to prove the truth of opinions or value statements;\nThe onus of proof of all elements should be on those claiming to have been defamed rather than on the defendant;\nIn defamation and libel actions, a range of remedies should be available in addition to damage awards, including apology and/or correction.\nD. The police and the criminal justice system", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. In several countries, there is an overall need for overhauling the criminal justice system. Oral evidence and witnesses continue to be the main plank on which the prosecution case rests. The trustworthiness of witnesses has increasingly come under attack. The emphasis therefore must be shifted to more scientific investigation to make the system truly one that promotes justice and is not merely a weapon in the hands of the prosecution or the police. Perhaps there should be a police complaints authority for redress of complaints. The number of complaints against police handling of cases in the area of freedom of expression is on the increase. These are complaints relating to high-handedness, arbitrary detention and falsely implicating persons. There should also be a police security commission to ensure that police are protected from political interference. There should also be a massive programme for training of the magistracy under the aegis of high courts.\nE. The new technologies", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. In his previous reports (E/CN.4/1999/64 and E/CN.4/1998//40), the Special Rapporteur underlined the importance and role of the new technologies, in particular the Internet and satellite dishes, in the free flow of information, ideas and opinions. It will also be recalled that he has encouraged Governments to view the Internet and other information technologies as means to achieve a plurality of voices and to take steps aimed at their integration into the development process. Information received by the Special Rapporteur suggests, however, that Governments have increasingly placed greater attention on control and regulation of these technologies than they have on expansion of existing networks, on upgrading technical capacities to reach under- or unserved areas, and on permitting the establishment of new information networks and exchanges. Hence, the Special Rapporteur will briefly examine two areas of related interest: first, the link between printed and electronic media within a controlled and censored environment, and second, the type and degree of controls applied to new technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The Special Rapporteur believes that there is a clear link between the printed media and the electronic media. The Internet and satellites dishes, two main components of the “information revolution”, can play an influential role in bringing out dissenting voices and shaping the political and cultural debate. Indeed, the Internet is a unique communication medium due to its global, decentralized, interactive and, not least, infrastructure-independent nature which allows it to transcend national barriers. Similarly, satellite dishes have the potential to create a public sphere in societies where State coercion has pushed debate into the background. Hence, electronic media are a significant experiment in terms of bypassing boundaries defined strictly in terms of national and territorial integrity. However, they are not a good substitute for the printed media which remain the most accessible source of information. Internet sites, for instance, can be welcomed as a means to support advocacy of cultural and political rights, yet they remain inaccessible to the majority of the population owing to financial, economic and technological constraints. Moreover, while representing a global phenomenon, Internet users are concentrated in Western developed countries. Therefore, the new technologies provide only a temporary solution to the legal and coercive pressure applied to the domestic media and often they will encounter the same hostility and intimidation. However, the Special Rapporteur believes that the Internet, as a cheap and fast mode of transmission, is an important pool of information for the purpose of gathering information regarding legal and extralegal proceedings to curb freedom of expression while satellite dishes are easily accessible even in the most remote areas.", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. With regard to the type and degree of controls applied to the new technologies, a review of the communications received in the past year, as well as information previously brought to the Special Rapporteur’s attention, illustrates the ambivalence that still characterizes much of the discussion about the appropriate use and the avoidance of abuse of the Internet. In general, most Governments have sought to address the problems raised by the dissemination and proliferation of pornography, in particular child pornography, and materials produced by neo-nazi and/or other “hate groups”. These concerns are legitimate. The Special Rapporteur believes, however, that the dangers posed by such materials on the Internet can be adequately addressed through the judicious application of existing international standards and national laws consistent with international standards governing freedom of opinion and expression and the right to seek, receive and impart information. At the same time as efforts are being made in response to pornography and hate speech, other measures are being taken that cannot, by any reasonable definition, be accepted as consistent with international standards. These measures have included, in certain countries, the requirement that the information accessible through the Internet be “trustworthy” and in line with the country’s “ethical principles”, or efforts to control information viewed as threatening to political stability and undermining the predominant culture, or some proposals by State police to monitor all data sent over the Internet within national boundaries.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. It will be recalled that in his report to the fifty-fourth session of the Commission on Human Rights (E/CN.4/1998/40) the Special Rapporteur stated: “The new technologies and, in particular, the Internet are inherently democratic, provide the public and individuals with access to information sources and enable all to participate actively in the communication process. Action by States to impose excessive regulations on the use of these technologies and, again, particularly the Internet, on the grounds that control, regulation and denial of access are necessary to preserve the moral fabric and cultural identity of societies, is paternalistic. These regulations presume to protect people from themselves and, as such, they are inherently incompatible with the principles of the worth and dignity of each individual. These arguments deny the fundamental wisdom of individuals and societies and ignore the capacity and resilience of citizens, whether on a national, State, municipal, community or even neighbourhood level, often to take self-correcting measures” (para. 45).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. In the time since the report to the fifty-fourth session of the Commission was prepared, nothing has occurred that would cause the Special Rapporteur to revise his recommendation that the new information technologies, including the Internet, be considered in light of the same international standards as other means of communication and that no measures be taken which would unduly restrict freedom of expression and information. On-line expression should be guided by international standards and be guaranteed the same protection as is awarded to other forms of expression.\nIV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS\nAngola\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. On 20 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning the arrest and detention of Mr. Rafael Marques, journalist of the newspaper Folha Oito and a human rights activist. According to the source, Mr. Marques was arrested on 16 October 1999 by the Department of National Criminal Investigations in Luanda. He is currently detained at Viana prison and has allegedly been refused access to his lawyer. According to the source, he was charged on 14 October 1999 under a 1978 law, said to have been technically repealed in 1991, with defaming President dos Santos in an article published in July.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release on bail of Rafael Marques on 25 November 1999 and thanks the Government for its reply.\nAzerbaijan\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. On 15 November 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint communication with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture concerning the following cases: Smira Mamigdze, Ilahme Mamigdze, Zamina Alliguze and a fourth female journalist who were reportedly injured on 16 November 1998 when the police violently dispersed a group of journalists demonstrating against a suit brought against the newspaper Yeni Musavat; Aydin Bagirov, Mustafa Hajibeyli and Sahil Kerimli, all journalists, who were allegedly beaten and detained by police on 15 August 1998; Natig Kavadli, journalist, who was reportedly beaten and detained by police officers while covering a political rally; Haji Zamin, journalist, who was reportedly taken on 22 August 1998 to a police station where he was verbally abused; Taleh Hamid, editor of the newspaper Mustigil, who was allegedly beaten on 1 September 1998 by police officers; Zakir Jabbarly and Dilgam Bayramov, both correspondents for the Mozalan newspaper, who were reportedly verbally and physically assaulted on 22 September 1997 by employees of the passport department while researching the alleged illegal registration of citizens; Aygun Ismaylov, journalist, who was reportedly also seized; Ilham Shaban, journalist, is said to have been beaten by the police on 7 November 1998 during a demonstration.\nObservations", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 62, "n": 63, "text": "63. On 6 July 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action to the Government of Bahrain with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers on the case of Mr. Sheik Al-Jamri, a 62-year-old religious scholar and former member of the National Assembly. Mr. Al-Jamri, who has been in prison without trial since January 1996, was said to be sentenced to a long prison term for his opposition activities. He was arrested along with seven other prominent Shia Muslim clerics, apparently in connection with a petition he circulated calling for constitutional change.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 63, "n": 64, "text": "64. The source informed the Special Rapporteur that Sheikh Abdul Amir al Jamri was convicted on 7 July 1999 and sentenced to a 10-year prison sentence by a Bahraini security court. However, according to additional information, he was released on 8 July 1999 and has returned to his village promising not to engage in further political activities.\nBangladesh\nCommunication sent", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 64, "n": 65, "text": "65. On 11 November 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an allegation concerning the attack by the police on 1 November 1999 against Sanual Huq and Anisur Rahman, press photographers respectively of The Independent and the Daily Star newspapers, during a protest led by opposition parties. Moreover 13 journalists were reportedly attacked by the police while covering political demonstrations between 21 and 23 October 1999, including Amran Hossain, Rafiqur Rahman and Khalid Haider, journalists respectively with Daily Star, Reuters Photo and Dainik Dinkal. On 22 October 1999, according to the source, 10 cameramen and photographers, who were covering riots between police and Islamic extremists, were beaten up by the police in the streets of Dhaka. According to the information received, the journalists were: Joy of Banglabazar, Abdur Razzak of Dainik Sangram, Enamul Huq Kabir of Muktakantha, Subir of Dainik Arthaneeti, Salimullah Salim of New Nation, Bulbul Ahmed of The Independent, Faruque Ahmed of UNB, Swapan Sarker of Dainik Banglar Bani, Matiur Rahman Tuku and Mamum Talukder of Ajker Kagoj.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 65, "n": 66, "text": "66. A reply from the Government is still awaited.\nBelarus\nCommunications sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 66, "n": 67, "text": "67. On 6 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action to the Government of Belarus concerning the disappearance of Mr. Anatoly Krasovsky, head of Krasika publishing house, and Mr. Victor Gonchar, vice-speaker of the Thirteenth Supreme Soviet. Concern was expressed regarding suggestions that there may have been official involvement, as on 1 March 1999 the police arrested Mr. Gonchar on charges of holding an illegal meeting in a private café, for which he served 10 days’ imprisonment.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 67, "n": 68, "text": "68. On 21 June 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an allegation asking for further details about the January 1998 amendment to article 5 of the Law on the Press and raising the following cases: on 15 February 1999, the Press Committee had issued official warnings to six independent newspapers, the Belorusskaya Delovaya Gazeta, Narodnaya Volya, Belorusskaya Gazeta, Bellorrusky Rynok, Imya and Naviny for having published information on alternate presidential elections on 16 May 1999. Opposition leaders had also been warned and the Ministry of Justice issued a warning threatening to ban 13 opposition parties and non-governmental organizations in connection with their participation in those elections. It was also alleged that on 12 May 1999, the Vice-Chairperson of the Mahileu region electoral commission, Anatol Fiodaraw, was sentenced to three days’ administrative arrest for failing to appear in court and that Ales Barel and Kazimir Lokic were also detained at a polling station. At the end of March 1999, the former Prime Minister, Mikhail Chigir, was reportedly imprisoned for his active role in the Belarus opposition and for his intention to stand as a presidential candidate in the alternate presidential elections. Yuri Zakharenko, former Minister of the Interior and a senior figure in the opposition movement, was reportedly abducted on 7 May 1999 in Minsk by individuals linked to the State Security services, presumably for being a member of the alternate electoral commission.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "5", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 68, "n": 69, "text": "69. On 10 March 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture concerning the case of Victor Gonchar, a 42-year-old opposition leader who appears to have been targeted by the authorities solely because of his peaceful opposition activities. He and 15 other members of the opposition were reportedly detained on 25 February 1999 during a peaceful meeting in a café. All were released pending trial but reportedly charged under the Administrative Code of Belarus with holding an unsanctioned meeting. On 1 March, Viktor Gonchar was reportedly arrested again and later sentenced by a Minsk court to 10 days’ imprisonment under the same code for organizing an unsanctioned meeting.\nCommunications received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 69, "n": 70, "text": "70. In its communication of 12 October 1999, the Government includes the press release issued by the Ministry of the Interior on the case of Mr. V. Gonchar and Mr. A. Krasovsky. The Minsk Prosecutor’s Office, in accordance with article 101 of the Criminal Code, has initiated legal proceedings.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "101", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 70, "n": 71, "text": "71. The Special Rapporteur also acknowledges the communication received on 27 April 1999 which provides further details on the above cases. It is mentioned that Mr. Gonchar was sentenced to 10 days’ detention in a special holding facility following an unauthorized meeting in violation of article 167-1, paragraph 1, of the Administrative Offensive Code. On 1 March the Minsk Lenin District Court sentenced him.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "167", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 71, "n": 72, "text": "72. The Government of Belarus also replied in its communication of 28 September 1999 to the concern raised in the allegation sent on 21 July 1999. It provides information on the registration of public associations; the administrative arrest of A.F. Federov, Ales Barel and Kazimir Lokik; and the legitimacy of the warning served on six independent Belarusian newspapers and the detention of former Prime Minister Chigir.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 72, "n": 73, "text": "73. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its replies which shows its willingness to cooperate. However, he remains extremely concerned about the disappearance of Mr. Gonchar and Mr. Krasovsky.\nBosnia and Herzegovina\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 73, "n": 74, "text": "74. On 25 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal together with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions regarding the assassination attempt, on 22 October 1999, against Mr. Zeljko Kopanja, editor in chief of the Bosnian Serb independent Nezavisne Novine, which resulted in the loss of both his legs and serious injuries to his abdomen. According to the information received, Mr. Kopanja’s attempted assassination was linked to articles he had published concerning war crimes committed by Serbs against Muslims, and to his questioning the authorities’ lacklustre efforts to apprehend suspected war criminals.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 74, "n": 75, "text": "75. The Special Rapporteur regrets that at the time of the finalization of the report, the Government had not transmitted any reply.\nBulgaria\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 75, "n": 76, "text": "76. On 5 October 1999, an allegation was sent to the Government of Bulgaria concerning Alexei Lazarov, a journalist for the independent weekly Kapital ,who was reportedly attacked on 28 June 1999 by three unidentified assailants. According to the source, the assault appears to have been connected with an article in which Mr. Lazarov analysed the local media coverage of the privatization of the Bulgarian Telecommunications Company and criticized a deputy, P.M. Evgenii Bakardzhiev. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur raises the case of\nMs. Anna Zarkova, journalist of the daily Trud, who was violently attacked on 11 May 1998 when a group of assailants threw acid on her. According to the information received, Ms. Zarkova had received numerous threats for her coverage of organized crime and political corruption in Bulgaria.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 76, "n": 77, "text": "77. No reply from the Government has been received so far.\nChad\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 77, "n": 78, "text": "78. On 3 September 1999, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture, transmitted an allegation to the Government concerning Sosthène Ngargoune, Chairman of the Union of Chadian Journalists who had allegedly been severely beaten by members of the armed forces of the Federal Republic after meeting up with the government forces whom he was interviewing on 25 October 1997 in the Moundou police station. His camera and tape-recorder were reportedly confiscated. It is further alleged that he had been arrested previously on 14 May 1998 and charged with defamation and libel in connection with the publication of an article in his newspaper the N’Djamena Hebdo.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 78, "n": 79, "text": "79. The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply had been received from the Government at the time the report was finalized.\nChile\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 79, "n": 80, "text": "80. On 17 June 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action concerning the arrest of Alejandra Matus, author of El Libro Negro de la Justicia, Bartolo Ortiz, General Director of Editorial Planeta, and Carlos Orellana, an editor of the latter. Servando Jordán, the judge of the Supreme Court of Justice, is alleged to have brought a complaint against the book on the basis of article 6 of the Internal State Security Act which provides for penalties for persons using terms considered to be defamatory against senior government officials, the armed forces, the judiciary and the clergy. The book in question is allegedly the result of a detailed investigation into corruption in the Chilean judiciary and its support for the military junta of the Pinochet Government. According to the information received, on 14 April 1999 Rafael Huertas, the judge of the Court of Appeal ordered the confiscation of all copies of the book and the arrest of Alejandra Matus. On 16 June 1999 Mr. Ortiz and Mr. Orellana were allegedly arrested for violating the above Act.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "6", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 80, "n": 81, "text": "81. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release of Bartolo Ortiz and Carlos Orelana on 18 June 1999.\nChina\nCommunications sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 81, "n": 82, "text": "82. On 3 November 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government of China concerning the arrest and detention of Mr. Jiang Qisheng, a pro-democracy activist. According to a source, Mr. Jiang was tried on 1 November 1999 for propagating and instigating subversion. Allegedly Mr. Jiang is charged for writing an open letter to the Chinese public calling for the collective commemoration of the tenth anniversary of the 1989 democracy movement.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 82, "n": 83, "text": "83. On 17 August 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action jointly with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions concerning Zulikar Memet, who was reportedly sentenced to death on 25 July 1999 by the Ili Prefecture Intermediate People’s Court in the Xinjian Uighur Autonomous Region. It is alleged that he was accused of involvement in “ethnic separatist activities” and he told the court that his confession had been extracted under torture. His brother Hemit Memet, as well as eight other unidentified individuals, have also been sentenced to death (see para. 85 below).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 83, "n": 84, "text": "84. On 16 June 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action, together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on arbitrary detention, concerning the detention of Mr. Jiang Qisheng. According to the source, Mr. Qisheng, said to be critical of the Government, gave an interview to The Boston Globe the day before his arrest on 17 May 1999. Allegedly, Mr. Qisheng was earlier imprisoned for 17 months for his involvement in the 1989 pro-democracy movement.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 84, "n": 85, "text": "85. On 14 June 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on torture and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions concerning Zulikar Memet and Saydakhmet Memet, who were reportedly detained in Urumqi, the capital of Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region, in 1998 and February 1999, respectively. It was reported that they were accused of “assisting separatists/terrorists” and arrested because they are brothers of Hemet Memet, who was previously detained on 11 February 1999 along with Kasim Mahpir and Ilyas Zordun: all were reportedly accused of involvement in “ethnic separatist activities”. A joint urgent action was sent on 17 February 1999 on these three persons as well.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 85, "n": 86, "text": "86. On 10 December 1998, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent action together with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture and the Special Rapporteur on violence against women concerning the cases of two Tibetan nuns, Ngawang Sandgrol and Ngawang Choezon, detained at the Drapchi prison in Tibet. The two nuns are said to be in\nextremely poor physical condition after having been subjected to harsh interrogation and ill-treatment and placed in solitary confinement after violent suppression of demonstrations by prisoners inside Drapchi prison on 1 and 4 May 1998.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0086", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 86, "n": 87, "text": "87. On 9 December 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the arrest and detention of Wang Youcai, Xu Wenli and Qin Yongmin, Chinese citizens involved in the organization of the Chinese Democratic Party. According to information received, Wang Youcai was arrested on 30 November 1998 and is currently held in a State security detention centre in Zhejiang province and on 1 December 1998, Xu Wenli was arrested together with Qin Yongmin on suspicion of damaging State security.\nCommunications received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0087", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 87, "n": 88, "text": "88. The Government of China, on 24 February 1999, provided the Special Rapporteur with information regarding the case of Ngawang Sangdrol who was sentenced in November 1992 to three years’ imprisonment on charges of separatist activities by the Lhasa Municipal Intermediate People’s Court. In 1993, 1996 and 1998 her sentence was further extended to a total of 15 years. The Government states that beating and ill-treatment by government guards is inconsistent with the facts.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0088", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 88, "n": 89, "text": "89. The Government of China on 2 February 1999 informed the Special Rapporteur that Xu Wenli, Wang Youcai and Qin Yougmin, all three of them of Han nationality, had their jail sentences and deprivation of political rights extended because they were recidivist in their incitement to subversion of State power.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0089", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 89, "n": 90, "text": "90. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of China for its replies.\nColombia\nCommunications sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0090", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 90, "n": 91, "text": "91. On 23 April 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions regarding the death threats received by the Colombian editor Gerardo Rivas Moreno in the form of a hand-written note accompanied by magazine clippings. It is said that the note was signed by the paramilitary “United Self-Defence Groups of Colombia”. These death threats could be connected with Mr. Rivas Moreno’s work as literary editor and specifically with the translation of the complete works of Simon Bolívar. It is thought that Mr. Rivas might have been confused with one of the members of the so-called “Bolivarianos Group”, the name given by the Colombian revolutionary armed forces to its pro-Simon Bolívar political movement.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0091", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 91, "n": 92, "text": "92. On 10 June 1999, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, sent a communication to the Government of Colombia in reply to its letters of 7 and 10 May 1999 requesting more details regarding the death threats to the Colombian editor Gerardo Rivas Moreno by the paramilitary group “Autodefensa Unificada de Colombia”. The Special Rapporteurs asked to be kept informed about the investigation in relation to this case as well as the measures taken to protect the life and the right to freedom of opinion and expression of Mr. Rivas Moreno.\nCommunications received", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0092", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 92, "n": 93, "text": "93. By letters dated 7 and 10 May 1999, the Government requested the Special Rapporteur to submit additional information regarding the case of Mr. Rivas Moreno. On 29 July 1999, the Government informed the Special Rapporteurs that it was not in a position to submit information on the case of Mr. Rivas Moreno since the Special Rapporteurs themselves could not provide it with additional details. Nevertheless, the Government of Colombia replied on 27 August 1999 that the Anti-Abductions Unit of the Public Prosecutor’s Office in Bogotá was conducting investigations into the incident regarding the case of Mr. Rivas Moreno. According to the Government, Mr. Rivas Moreno was recalled on 12 July 1999 to provide more information about his complaint and the Technical Investigations Corps was asked to appoint an investigator to seek to identify the perpetrator of the offence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0093", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 93, "n": 94, "text": "94. The Government of Colombia also sent a communication on 30 July 1999 regarding the provisions governing compulsory military service and the recruitments of minors by insurgent groups.\nObservations", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0094", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 94, "n": 95, "text": "95. The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the Government for its reply concerning Mr. Gerardo Rivas Moreno, in particular in the light of the difficulty of gathering information on this specific case. However, he remains very concerned about the current situation in Colombia with regard to the abductions, death threats, and even murders of journalists (seven during the period under consideration) and persons seeking to exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression.\nCôte d’Ivoire\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0095", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 95, "n": 96, "text": "96. On 3 November 1999, a joint urgent action was transmitted by the Special Rapporteur to the Ivorian Government with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the detention of Raphaël Lakpe and Jean Khalil Sylla, editor-in-chief and journalist respectively of the Le Populaire daily newspaper. According to the information received, they were arrested in April 1999 and sentenced to six months’ detention for the dissemination of false information and for activities likely to disturb law and order. They were allegedly arrested because on 28 April 1999 their newspaper published an article entitled “One student killed and four others seriously injured”, whereas the students in question had only been injured by the police.\nCommunication received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0096", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 96, "n": 97, "text": "97. On 8 November 1999 the Ivorian Government acknowledged receipt of the joint urgent action of 3 November 1999 and informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Raphaël Lakpe and Mr. Jean Khalil Sylla had been sentenced for defamation but had since been released.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0097", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 97, "n": 98, "text": "98. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release of these two journalists, thanks the Government for the information it provided but nevertheless hopes to receive more detailed information about the sentencing of these two persons for defamation.\nCuba\nCommunications sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0098", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 98, "n": 99, "text": "99. On 19 March 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an allegation expressing concern at the arrest, detention, harassment, assault and beatings that took place between October 1998 and March 1999 with regard to journalists and human rights activists. Some of them were reportedly harassed as well as detained for a short period of time, like the following: (a) José Edel Garcia Diaz, journalist with the independent “Centro Norté del Pais” news agency and Jesús Diaz Loyola, journalist with the “Havana Press” agency; (b) Juan González Febles, Adela Soto, Fabio Prieto Liorente, Iván García Quintero and Héctor González; (c) Raúl Rivero, founder and Director of the independent “Cuba Press” agency; (d) Jesús Labrador Arias of “Cuba Press”; (e) Maria de los Ángeles González Amaro, Director of the “Unión de Periodistas y Escritores Cubanos Independientes” agency; (f) Santiago Martínez Trujillo, photographer with the “Unión de Periodistas y Escritores Cubanos Independientes” agency, Nancy Sotolongo León of the same agency and Angel Polanco of the “Cooperativa de Periodistas Independientes” agency; (g) José Antonio Fornariz Ramos, of the “Cuba Verdad” agency and Luis López Prendes of the independent “BPIC” news agency; (h) Pedro Argüelles Morán, correspondent with “Cuba Press”; (i) Hirán González, correspondent with “Cuba Press”; (j) Lázaro Rodríguez Torres, Maria del Carmen Carro Gómez and Jorge Olivera, Director of the “Havana Press” agency; (k) Odalys Ivette Curbelo Sánchez, a “Cuba Press” correspondent; (l) José Luis Rodríguez, a photographer with the “BPIC” agency; (m) Manuel Antonia González, a “Cuba Press” correspondent; (n) Oswaldo de Céspedes, a journalist with the “Cooperativa de Periodistas Independientes” agency and Omar Rodríguez Saludes of the “Nueva Prensa” agency; (o) Ofelia Nardo and Efrén Martinez Pulgarón of “Cuba Press”, Marvin Hernández Monzón, Orlando Bordón Gálvez and Lázaro González of the same agency and Jesús Zuňiga, of the “Cooperativa de Periodistas Independientes” and Mario Viera González, Director of the “Cuba Verdad” agency; (p) Ulises Cabrera, Head of the independent “Pueblo Libre” news agency; (q) Jorge Luis Arce Cabrera, correspondent with the “BPIC” agency in Cienfuegos and Jesús Egozcue Castellanos, Director of the independent “Línea Sur Press” news agency; (r) Ricardo González, a “Cuba Press” journalist; (s) Juan Antonio Sánchez, a “Cuba Press” journalist.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0099", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 99, "n": 100, "text": "100. In addition, the following journalists have reportedly been sentenced to longer prison terms: (a) Benardo Arévalo Padrón, founder of the independent “Linea Sur Press” news agency, in Aguadade Pasajeros, was allegedly sentenced to six years’ imprisonment for insulting President Fidel Castro and Vice-President Carlos Lage; (b) Juan Carlos Recio Martinez, a “Cuba Press” correspondent, was allegedly sentenced to one year of community service on 13 February 1998 for acts against the security of the State; (c) Lorenzo Páez Núňez, a correspondent of the independent “BPIC” news agency in Artemisa, Havana, was allegedly sentenced to 18 months’ imprisonment for insulting the national police. It is said that Mr. Páez was released on 4 January 1999 but arrested once again on 1 March 1999.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0100", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 100, "n": 101, "text": "101. On 26 January 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent action with the Chairman of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the arrest and detention of Jesús Joel Díaz Hernández, Executive Director of the independent press agency “Cooperative Avilena de Periodistas Independientes”. Also considered as a government critic and human rights activist, Jesús Díaz was reportedly arrested on 18 January 1999 in Ciego de Avila province and sentenced to four years’ imprisonment for “dangerous behaviour”. According to the information received, Jesús Díaz’s trial did not conform to international standards of fairness and his lawyer had inadequate time to prepare his defence.\nCommunications received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0101", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 101, "n": 102, "text": "102. The Government of Cuba replied on 15 April 1999 concerning the case of Jesús Joel Díaz Hernández. The latter was sentenced on 20 January 1999 to four years’ imprisonment for dangerous behaviour following five warnings in accordance with article 415 of Cuba’s Penal Procedure Act. The Government of Cuba denies that the arrest and detention of Mr. Hernández is linked to his human rights interests and expresses its willingness to cooperate with the mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "415", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0102", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 102, "n": 103, "text": "103. On 15 July 1999, the Government of Cuba sent a reply denying the request for further information on the allegation dated 19 March 1999 because the sources were unreliable. The Government of Cuba also questioned whether the objectivity that should characterize the work of the thematic mechanisms was being observed. The same communication also provided additional data on the Law for Protection of the National Independence and Economy of Cuba.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0103", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 103, "n": 104, "text": "104. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Cuba for its reply.\nDemocratic Republic of the Congo\nCommunications sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0104", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 104, "n": 105, "text": "105. On 7 October 1999 the Special Rapporteur transmitted to the Government a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture and the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo concerning Feu d’Or Bonsange, music editor, and Kala Bongamba, printer, both employees of the L’Alarme newspaper. They were allegedly arrested on 27 September 1999 and detained in the private residence of a senior military officer before being transferred on 2 October to the building known as the “GLM” which, according to the information received, is an unofficial place of detention. Persons working for L’Alarme have allegedly been harassed by the authorities since 1997. The Special Rapporteurs also drew the Government’s attention to the case of Clovis Kadda, publication director of the same newspaper, who was allegedly arrested on 22 September 1999 and interrogated in the military district of Kinshasa about one of the members of his family who, it was said, had participated in the rebellion. According to the information received, he was tortured and released the following day.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0105", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 105, "n": 106, "text": "106. On 4 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted to the Government, jointly with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture, a series of allegations concerning the following persons: Freddy Loseke Lisumbu-La-Yayenga, editor of La Libre Afrique newspaper, arrested on 22 December 1998, who allegedly received 150 lashes and was then interrogated about the publication of an article in his newspaper on that day; Christophe Bintu and Bienvenu Kasole, both of them human rights defenders, who were allegedly arrested on 12 January 1999 and released from the Kokolo camp on 20 January 1999 after being beaten and insulted in connection with their work as human rights activists; Jean-Baptiste Makoko, treasurer of the Groupe Lotus, a human rights NGO in Kisangani, who was allegedly arrested and beaten up on 10 December 1997 by three soldiers for having photographed dead soldiers in Kisangani hospital; Albert Bilbert Bosangi Yema, editor-in-chief of the L’Arme and L’Essor Africain newspapers, who was allegedly arrested on 7 February 1998, probably because of an article published in L’Arme criticizing the arrest of the Chairman of the “Forces novatrices pour l’union et la solidarité” political movement and who, according to the information received, is suffering from diabetes and rheumatism and whose health has deteriorated since his detention; Désiré Rugemanizi, Chief of Kabare, who was allegedly arrested in January 1998 for criticizing human rights violations in the region and tortured before being released in February 1998; Floribert Chebeya Bahizire, Chairman of the NGO “La Voix des sans-voix”, who was allegedly beaten up at his home by armed men in uniform in March 1998; Oswald Hakorimana, a human rights defender in the Kivu du Nord region, who was allegedly beaten severely in March 1998 by soldiers who accused him of collecting information concerning massacres of civilians.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0106", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 106, "n": 107, "text": "107. On 4 February 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action to the Government concerning the situation of Moïse Musangana, Clément Kongo, Ngambata, Théodore Ngangu and Emmanuel Katshunga, publication director, deputy editorial director and journalist respectively. All were arrested on 3 February 1999 when elements of the National Intelligence Agency (ANR) allegedly surrounded the premises of the Le Potentiel newspaper. They were reportedly accused of having published decree-laws concerning political parties and regulations concerning demonstrations and public meetings. André Ipakala, editor of the La Référence Plus newspaper, was allegedly arrested on 4 February 1999, also by elements of the ANR, and taken to an unknown destination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0107", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 107, "n": 108, "text": "108. On 3 February 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action to the Government together with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo concerning the case of Michel Museme Diawe, editor-in-chief of Radio-Télévision Congolaise, who had allegedly been evicted from his home on 26 January 1999. According to the information received, he was harassed because of his professional activities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0108", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 108, "n": 109, "text": "109. On 25 January 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent action to the Government with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo concerning the questioning of Kinyongo Saleh on 2 January 1999 about an article that was published in the La Vision newspaper. It is said that he was released the same evening. The cases of Thierry Kyalumba, publication director of La Vision, questioned by the same services, and of François Kadima Malungu, former special security adviser to President Kabila, were also transmitted.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0109", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 109, "n": 110, "text": "110. The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has yet been received from the Democratic Republic of the Congo.\nDjibouti\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0110", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 110, "n": 111, "text": "111. On 5 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government of Djibouti concerning the arrest and detention of journalists Moussa Ahmed Idriss, Daher Ahmed Farah and Ali Meidal Wais. According to the information received Moussa Ahmed Idriss, editor of the monthly Le Temps, was arrested on 23 September 1999 in a police raid following the publication of an article stating that a military helicopter was destroyed as a result of guerrilla action. This was reportedly denied by the authorities who claimed it to be an accident. Ali Medidal Wais, senior editor of Le Temps, was arrested on 2 September 1999 and sentenced to eight months in jail for “dissemination of false new stories” and “damaging the armed forces’ morale in an effort to harm national defence”. Daher Ahmed, editor of the weekly Le Renouveau, was also sentenced to one year in prison for the same reason.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0111", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 111, "n": 112, "text": "112. The Special Rapporteur has been informed that Moussa Idriss, Ali Medal Waiss and Daher Ahmed Farah were released on 8 December 1999. However, the two newspapers, which were suspended for six months, have still not resumed publishing.\nEquatorial Guinea\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0112", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 112, "n": 113, "text": "113. On 15 November 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an allegation to the Government of Equatorial Guinea concerning the refusal of government bodies to process applications that would have authorized the appearance of the following periodicals: El Tiempo (application of 11 July 1996), La Opinión (application of 22 April 1998), and La Hoja del Periodista (application of 6 March 1998). The Special Rapporteur was also informed that José Olo Obono, well-known criminal lawyer and secretary-general of one of the parties awaiting recognition, has been sentenced to five months in prison and a fine for “insulting the Government”. It was alleged that Mr. Obono levelled strong criticism at the authorities during an interview he gave to the Spanish press in connection with the death of his former client, Martin Puye Topete. According to the source, another serious incident occurred on 1 November 1998 when Alberto Mbe, Asunción Nsang Elo, María Luisa Abuy Eko and Benjamin Mba, members of the Convergencia para la Democracia Social party, were detained because they attempted to bring into Equatorial Guinea from Gabon 60 copies of a book published in Spain under the title Equatorial Guinea at the Crossroads. The Special Rapporteur also expressed concern over the absence of the regular publication of laws, decrees and governmental acts which jeopardizes the right of citizens to access information.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0113", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 113, "n": 114, "text": "114. The Special Rapporteur is aware that, given the timing of this allegation, the Government’s reply will appear in next years report.\nIran (Islamic Republic of)\nCommunications sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0114", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 114, "n": 115, "text": "115. On 13 July 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Representative on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran concerning student demonstrators who were attacked on 8 July 1999 by members of the armed forces and the student vigilante group, Ansar-e Hezbollah, while they were gathering outside the university hostels on Tehran Universitys Amirabad campus to demonstrate against the closure of the daily newspaper Salam. Concern was expressed over the alleged deaths of four students, Na’imi, Sohrabian, Yavari and Zakeri, as well as over the arrest of and injury to students during this demonstration. On 6 July, student activists Mohamad Masud Salamati, Sayed Javad Emami and Parviz Safaria were reportedly detained after a demonstration outside the United Nations office in Tehran demanding the release of two journalists, Heshmatollah Tabarzadi and Hossein Kashani, who were arrested in mid-June.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0115", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 115, "n": 116, "text": "116. On 12 July 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action, with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture and the Special Representative, concerning the cases of Heshmatollah Tabarzadi and Hossein Kashani, journalists of the weekly publication Hovizat-U-Khich, which has since reportedly been banned. The two journalists were allegedly arrested on 16 and 19 June 1999 for publishing information “contrary to the public order and the public interest” and “issuing an anti-establishment communiqué”. On 6 July 1999, a number of students were reportedly protesting the detention of the above-mentioned individuals at the United Nations office in Tehran and were themselves arrested. Furthermore, it has been reported that the Government suspended the publication of a leading moderate newspaper, Salam, the same day the Majilis passed a new law which in principle restricts freedom of the press. Salams editor, Morad Raisi Veissi, was reportedly detained on 7 July 1999.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0116", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 116, "n": 117, "text": "117. On 15 December 1998, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent appeal with the Special Representative and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions to the Government of Iran. They expressed concern about the disturbing news of what is described as a “pattern of murders and disappearances” of prominent Iranian writers and government critics. Majid Sharif, Mohammad Mokhtari and Mohammad Jafar Pooynade, all said to be writers, were allegedly found dead in suspicious circumstances after having disappeared on 23 November, 3 and 9 December 1998 respectively. It is noted that these deaths followed the reported killings on 22 November 1998 of Dariush Forouhar and his wife, Parvaneh Forouhar, both prominent critics of the Government. Concern was expressed about the safety and physical integrity of Pirouz Davani, intellectual, critic and editor, who was reported missing since 25 August 1998, as well as that of all Iranian political and intellectual dissidents.\nCommunication received", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0117", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 117, "n": 118, "text": "118. The Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran replies to the Special Rapporteur in a communication dated 12 January 1999. It addressed the arrest of several staff of the Ministry of Information on charges of complicity in the killings of five Iranian citizens. The Government expressed its trust in the transparency and effectiveness of national mechanisms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0118", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 118, "n": 119, "text": "119. In its communication of 12 April 1999, the Government in reference to an allegation of 30 October 1998, stated that the publishing of Rah-e-no and Tavana had been suspended because of technical problems and a lack of funds.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0119", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 119, "n": 120, "text": "120. The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran for its replies and for having kept him informed on the recent developments regarding the situation of the media in the Islamic Republic. The Special Rapporteur was informed by the source that Hossein Kashani, director of the newsletters Hoveyet-e-Khish, was released on bail in July 1999. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur learned that Heshmatollah Tabarzadi was released on bail on 5 November 1999.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0120", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 120, "n": 121, "text": "121. From 18 to 22 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Ireland, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session. (E/CN.4/2000/63/Add.2).\nIsrael\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Ireland"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0121", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 121, "n": 122, "text": "122. On 22 September 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the arrest and detention of Ms. Cosette Elias Ibrahim, a journalist and student in the Faculty of Journalism in the Lebanese University of Beirut. According to the source, Ms. Elias Ibrahim was apprehended by Israeli soldiers, interrogated and then transferred to the detention centre at Al-Kiam. Two other individuals, Degaulle Boutros Bou Taleb and Samir George Khyame, also affiliated with the Lebanese media, were also allegedly detained and transferred to al-Khiam. According to the reports, Ms. Elias Ibrahim has been accused by the Government of Israel of writing reports about the occupied zone in southern Lebanon as well as of submitting information to the Lebanese armed forces about the movements of the Israeli army.\nCommunications received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Ireland"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0122", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 122, "n": 123, "text": "123. The Government of Israel replied to the Special Rapporteur on 28 September 1999. Regarding the detention of Ms. Cosette Elias Ibrahim, Mr. Degaulle Boutros Bou Taleb and Mr. Samir George Khyame, the Government suggested that any requests for further information should be addressed directly to General Lahad, who is responsible for the El-Khiam detention centre. The Government further reported that Lebanese prisoners fall into two categories: those who have been apprehended in the course of terrorist attacks against the Israeli Defence Forces are held in Israeli detention centres, while those who have been apprehended in the course of attacks against the South Lebanon Army are held in El-Khiam detention centre.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Ireland"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0123", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 123, "n": 124, "text": "124. The Special Rapporteur also acknowledges the communication sent on 14 July 1999 by the Government to draw his attention to the arbitrary arrest of Mr. Maher Dasuki in a town under the administration of the Palestinian Authority.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Ireland"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0124", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 124, "n": 125, "text": "125. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Israel for its prompt reply.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Ireland"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0125", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 125, "n": 126, "text": "126. The Government of Japan responded on 8 October 1999 to a joint allegation sent with the Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography on 13 July 1998 expressing concern over the extensive proliferation of Web pages, bulletin boards and news-servers disseminating images of child pornography over the Internet (see E/CN.4/1999/64, para. 82). The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that on 26 May 1999, a Law for Punishing Acts related to Child Prostitution and Child Pornography and for Protecting Children was enacted. It was due to enter into force on 1 November 1999. The Law provides that those who display child pornography on the Internet face imprisonment of up to three years. Measures to regulate the pornography industry operating through the Internet were introduced by an amendment to the Law on Control and Improvement of Amusement Business in October 1998. Moreover, the communication stated that when police investigators detect child pornography on the Internet, they ask the Internet providers to delete the material from the network. A trade organization of Internet providers has developed guidelines to curb illegal and harmful information, including child pornography, on the Internet. Under the guidelines providers can take measures such as warning, deleting the material and suspending the services to those that put illegal and harmful material on Web pages.\nJordan\nCommunications sent", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0126", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 126, "n": 127, "text": "127. On 25 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning the expulsion of Mr. Abdullah Hassanat (chief editor of the Jordan Times), Mr. Sultan Hattab (columnist at Al Rai), and Mr. Jihad al-Monati (journalist at Al Dustour) from the Jordan Press Association (JPA). According to the source the expulsion was in response to a visit which the journalists made to Israel, at the invitation of the Haifa University Centre for Arab-Jewish Studies, in September 1999. As reported, membership in JPA is necessary to exercise the profession of journalism in Jordan.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0127", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 127, "n": 128, "text": "128. On 11 August 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent action concerning Senan Shaqdeh, a senior editorial adviser for the evening daily newspaper Al-Masaya and a member of the Jordanian Journalists Association. On 25 July 1999, he was reportedly arrested for publishing an article in Al-Masaya which, according to the authorities, was damaging to the Governments relations with a foreign Power.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0128", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 128, "n": 129, "text": "129. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release of Mr. Shaqdeh on 10 August 1999.\nKenya\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0129", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 129, "n": 130, "text": "130. On 23 September 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the detention and conviction of Mr. Tony Gachoka, publisher of the Post on Sunday, who was detained in connection with articles in his newspaper about alleged corruption in the judiciary. He was convicted of contempt of court, sentenced to six months’ imprisonment and fined K Sh 1 million. The Special Rapporteur has been informed that three of the judges named in the newspaper articles for which Mr. Gachoka was being tried sat in judgement on his case.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0130", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 130, "n": 131, "text": "131. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release of Mr. Gachoka on 3 November 1999.\nKuwait\nCommunications sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0131", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 131, "n": 132, "text": "132. On 11 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action to the Government of Kuwait concerning the arrest and detention of Mr. Ahmad Baghdadi, head of the Political Science Department at Kuwait University and a regular contributor to the daily newspaper Al-siyassa. Mr. Baghdadi was convicted on 4 October 1999 on charges of defaming Islam and the prophet Muhammad for an article he wrote in 1996 in the Kuwait University student magazine Al-Shoula. According to the information received, Mr. Baghdadi has been sentenced to one month in jail and is currently detained at Talha prison.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0132", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 132, "n": 133, "text": "133. On 21 July 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action concerning the continued detention of journalists Fawwaz Muhammad al Awadhi Bseiso and Ibtisam Berto Sulaiman al-Dakhil who, together with three colleagues from the newspaper al-Nidaa, were sentenced to death in June 1991 for having collaborated with occupying Iraqi forces. It has been reported that 10 days later, the sentences were commuted to life imprisonment. However, the three colleagues of Mr. Bseiso and Mr. al-Dakhil, who were convicted of the same charges and subject to the same sentence, were released from jail on 25 February 1999 whereas the whereabouts of Mr. Bseiso and Mr. al-Dakhil remain unknown as well as their place of detention.\nCommunications received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0133", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 133, "n": 134, "text": "134. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur, in its communication dated 19 November 1999, that Mr. Baghdadi was convicted to six months’ imprisonment for defaming the Prophet Muhammad. The charges against him were brought under the Kuwait Public Code and not under the laws governing the media. As a result of an appeal on 4 October 1999, Mr. Baghdadi had his sentence reduced to one month. Following his hunger strike, he was taken after one day to the hospital and granted permission to receive visits from family members and the media. It is further noted that the court hearing his case respected all national and international standards and that Mr. Baghdadi was represented by three lawyers. On 18 October 1999, the Prince of Kuwait granted him a pardon, so that Mr. Baghdadi spent only 13 days in prison. The Government further stated that the Kuwaiti Constitution endorses fully the right to freedom of opinion and expression (art. 36) which is limited only by the necessity of public order.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "36", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0134", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 134, "n": 135, "text": "135. The Government sent a communication on 30 July 1999 informing the Special Rapporteur that the Ministry of Information decided to ban the Al-Jazeera satellite and its correspondent from exercising their activities on charges of defaming the Amir. However, after the station’s administration made an official apology and the presenter was dismissed, the Ministry lifted the ban and allowed the opening of a permanent office.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0135", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 135, "n": 136, "text": "136. A response from the Government is still awaited.\nLebanon\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0136", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 136, "n": 137, "text": "137. On 4 November 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government of Lebanon concerning the case of Marcel Khalifa, a well-known singer. According to the source, Mr. Khalifa was put on trial on 3 November 1999 for “insulting religious values” by including a two-line verse from a chapter of the Koran in his song “I am Yousef, o father” recorded in 1995. Allegedly, under article 473 of Lebanons Penal Code blasphemy is punishable by one month to one year in prison, while article 474 of the Penal Code punishes “insulting publicly a religion” with imprisonment ranging from six months to three years.\nCommunication received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "473", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "474", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0137", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 137, "n": 138, "text": "138. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur, in its communication dated 29 November 1999 with regard to the case of Mr. Marcel Khalifa, that the Lebanese\nConstitution guarantees the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Government further affirmed that Mr. Khalifa will get a fair trial and that he is still living in full freedom and giving his concerts according to schedule.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0138", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 138, "n": 139, "text": "139. The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the Government for its prompt reply.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Japan", "Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0139", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 139, "n": 140, "text": "140. On 14 September 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action concerning the imprisonment of Murray Hiebert, a Canadian citizen and bureau chief of the weekly Far Eastern Economic Review in Kuala Lumpur. According to the information, Murray Hiebert was jailed on 11 September 1999 for six weeks after the Appeal Court upheld a 1997 conviction for “contempt of court”. Mr. Hiebert was first sentenced to three months in jail in September 1997 for an article entitled, “See you in court”, which appeared on 23 January 1997 about a suit brought by Chandra Sri Ram, the wife of Appeal Court Judge Gopal Sri Ram, against the International School of Kuala Lumpur. Upon his conviction and pending the appeal of the original sentence, the court reportedly seized Mr. Hiebert’s passport and he has therefore been unable to leave Malaysia since that time.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0140", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 140, "n": 141, "text": "141. On 18 June 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint allegation with the Special Rapporteur on the right to education concerning the dismissal of Dr. Chandra Muzaffar, Professor and Director for Civilizational Dialogue of the University of Malaysia. Owing to the apparent absence of an academic rationale for Professor Muzzafars dismissal, it is alleged that the dismissal is a politically motivated reprisal for his support for the opposition leader Ibrahim Anwar and the reform movement.\nCommunications received", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0141", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 141, "n": 142, "text": "142. In its communication of 4 October 1999, the Government of Malaysia replied that in the case of Mr. Murray Hiebert, the Malaysian judiciary had arrived independently at its judgement solely on the basis of the relevant laws.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0142", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 142, "n": 143, "text": "143. The Government of Malaysia on 11 August 1999 informed the Special Rapporteur that Dr. Chandra Muzzaffar allegedly was dismissed from his position at the university not for political reasons but because his contract had ended.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0143", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 143, "n": 144, "text": "144. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Malaysia for its prompt replies and welcomes the release of Mr. Hiebert on 11 October 1999.\nMexico\nCommunications sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0144", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 144, "n": 145, "text": "145. The Special Rapporteur, jointly with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, sent three urgent actions in connection with the death threats received by persons working for the “Miguel Agustín Pro-Juárez” Human Rights Centre NGO on 6 September, 16 September and 1 November. Digna Ochoa Plácido said that she had been assaulted, questioned and harassed by a group of individuals who entered her home and questioned her until the morning of 29 October and, before leaving, allegedly tied her to a butane gas container.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0145", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 145, "n": 146, "text": "146. On 6 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur also requested information concerning allegations of the violation of the human rights of the following persons:\n(a) On 16 December 1998, the body of Philip True, a United States citizen and correspondent for the San Antonio Express News, was found in the Sierra Madre mountains. According to the information received, Mr. True had gone to Huicholes in order to write an article about the indigenous population of the region;\n(b) During the same week, Armando Meléndez Sánchez, a journalist, was killed by three men who shot him in the presence of his wife;\n(c) Luis Mario García Rodríguez, a reporter for the La Tarde newspaper, was killed on 12 February 1998 near a police station in Mexico City. According to the source, Mr. Rodríguez had written several articles about corruption in the Government Procurator’s Department and the Federal Judicial Police;\n(d) Héctor Félix Miranda, author of a column in which public and private corruption was regularly criticized, was killed in 1998;\n(e) Jesús Blancornelas, editor of the Zeta weekly in Tijuana, was taken to hospital on 27 November 1997 following an attempt on his life. According to the source, there are indications that drug traffickers were behind the affair since Mr. Blancornelas often published articles about the Tijuana cartel;\n(f) Gabriel Gaza, a crime reporter with the El Diario newspaper in Nuevo Laredo, was beaten up in the street on 7 October 1997 by about 12 police officers, including Inspector Juan Antonio Treviño. It was reported that the police subsequently apologized for what had happened, explaining that it was an error since they had confused Mr. Gaza with a criminal;\n(g) The photographer Raúl Urbina was assaulted by security officers when he was covering a demonstration in Mexico City on 3 September 1997;\n(h) Daniel Lizarraga, of the La Reforma newspaper, was abducted on 5 September 1997 by two men who are thought to have been members of the Federal Judicial Police. According to the information received, Mr. Lizarraga was investigating an alleged connection between officials of the Government Procurator’s Office and cocaine traffickers;\n(i) Fátima Monterroso, of the “Detrás de la Noticia” programme, and Daniel Pensamiento, of the La Reforma y El Norte newspaper, correspondents in Chiapas, were assaulted on 26 August 1997;\n(j) Rafael Jiménez y Leobardo Espinoza, reporters for El Debate, as well as Georgina Gill of the Televisa television company and Manuel Salas and Moisés Juarez, of Noroeste, were assaulted and threatened in Culiacán on 31 July 1997. It is alleged that these attacks were the work of the State Judicial Police of Sinaloa;\n(k) Nidia Marín, of the Excelsior newspaper, Miguel Pérez of the La Reforma newspaper and Juan García, a photographer with the Excelsior were, according to the information received, assaulted by State guards on 4 June 1997 when they were covering an inauguration ceremony;\n(l) Salvador Chávez, a correspondent for the Televisa television company, was arrested on 12 April 1997. According to the information received, he was detained for two hours and beaten by the police when covering a police operation in Guadalajara in the State of Jalisco;\n(m) Cuauhtémoc Ornelas Campos, editor of the Alcance review, has officially been declared as having disappeared since 4 October 1995. According to the information received, he condemned the activities of drug traffickers in the region of the State of Coahuila and their connection with the authorities.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Persons in street situations", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0146", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 146, "n": 147, "text": "147. On 16 July 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions concerning the death threats received on various occasions by Jesús Barraza Zavala, director of the Pulso weekly and the aggression against his bodyguard by alleged official agents. On 9 April 1999, Pulso published two articles connecting Albino Quintero Meraz, an ex-governor, and the Federal Judicial Police with drugs trafficking and calling for an investigation. As a result, on 4 May 1999, Mr. Quintero’s emissary allegedly threatened Mr. Barraza with death, stating that his body would be found floating in a river if he did not cease publishing his accusations. According to the information received, the emissary offered Mr. Barraza the sum of $30,000 in exchange for his silence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0147", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 147, "n": 148, "text": "148. We have been informed that Benjamín Flores González, the former director of Pulso, was killed by drugs traffickers on 15 July 1997 and that the police has so far not arrested the authors of this crime.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0148", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 148, "n": 149, "text": "149. On 26 April, both Special Rapporteurs sent an urgent action to the Government referring to the threats received by the staff of the La Guillotina review. It is alleged that on 8 April 1999 a man attacked Carina Ochoa, a journalist with this review.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0149", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 149, "n": 150, "text": "150. On 15 February, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action together with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions informing the Government of Mexico about the attack and the death threats received by Enrique Gutiérrez, a correspondent for the El Sur local newspaper while he was covering the elections of 7 February in Acapulco, State of Guerrero. The incident took place in La Glorieta de Puerto Marqués, when the journalist was gathering information on alleged irregularities in the electoral process committed by election officers from Polling Station 308 and staff working for the municipal government, who were members of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0150", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 150, "n": 151, "text": "151. The Special Rapporteur received a communication dated 13 February 1998 in which the Government of Mexico clarified the legal position in respect of some of the cases on which information had been requested. In its communication the Government provided information about the case of Rene Solorio, Ernesto Madrid and Gerardo Segura, as well as the cases of Daniel Lizárraga, David Vicenteno, Abdel Jesús Bueno León, Benjamín Flores González and Victor Hernández Martines. According to the information received, these cases are still under investigation and some have reached the trial stage. The Special Rapporteur will ask to be kept informed about the progress made in these proceedings.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communications received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0151", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 151, "n": 152, "text": "152. The Mexican Government, in a communication dated 10 August 1999, provided the Special Rapporteur with information about the case of Jesús Barraza, stating that proceedings had been instituted and that the Federal Government had requested the Government Procurator of the State of Sonora to take measures to protect the journalist. It also stated that the Government Procurator was authorized to do everything in his power to prevent any direct or indirect action being taken against Mr. Barraza and to guarantee his integrity. The Government also transmitted additional information about the case of Jesús Barraza, indicating that, since 31 June 1999, elements of the municipal police in San Luis Río Colorado, Sonora, had been assigned to protect Mr. Barraza. Similarly, the deputy investigator of the Government Procurator’s Department (ordinary jurisdiction) based in that town had ordered elements of the judicial police to carry out regular checks at various hours of the day and night, including contact with the staff of the Pulso weekly and Mr. Barraza’s home.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communications received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0152", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 152, "n": 153, "text": "153. The Mexican Government also sent a report dated 22 September 1999 indicating that the National Human Rights Commission (CNDH) had transmitted the file concerning the Human Rights Centre “Miguel Agustín Pro-Juárez” to the inspectorate responsible for coordinating the programme of assistance for journalists and human rights defenders, in accordance with article 40 of the CNDH Law which states that the Inspector-General may request the competent authorities to take preventive measures to avoid an irreparable outcome when such acts are reported. It added that preventive measures had been taken and that preliminary investigations had been launched.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communications received"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "40", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0153", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 153, "n": 154, "text": "154. In a letter dated 1 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur received a reply to the allegations submitted on a number of cases, providing information on each one. The progress made in the investigations varies from case to case. The report indicated that those responsible for the killing of the journalists Phillip True and Benjamín Flores Gonzáles had been identified and sentenced. However, it also stated, in respect of the killing of the journalist Luis García Rodríguez and in the cases of the assault and battery of the journalists David Vicenteño and Salvador Chávez Calderón, that CNDH had ended its investigations since it had “found no evidence of the participation by any authority or public official”. Similarly, it indicated that CNDH had closed the cases of Rene Solorio, Gerardo Segura and Ernesto Madrid because they had requested that the investigations should be discontinued. The case of the aggression committed against the journalist Raúl Urbina was also closed since the Public Security Secretariat of the Federal District had taken steps to determine who was responsible, so that it is unknown whether all the guilty parties have been identified and sentenced.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communications received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0154", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 154, "n": 155, "text": "155. The information also indicated that, in the cases of the killing of the journalists Héctor Félix Miranda and Abdel Bueno León, as well as the attempt against the life of Jesús Blancornerlas, investigations had not yet been completed or that CNDH’s recommendations had not been complied with fully.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communications received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0155", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 155, "n": 156, "text": "156. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Mexican Government for the information received. However, he notes with concern that most of the journalists attacked were those who spoke out about a connection between drugs traffickers and officials and condemned the abuse of power by State agents.\nMyanmar\nCommunication sent", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0156", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 156, "n": 157, "text": "157. On 15 November 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an allegation concerning restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression imposed by the Government which officially censors domestic public media. The Special Rapporteur also requested further information regarding the following individual cases. Saung Win Latt, a famous short story writer, has been detained since early 1997 and is serving a seven-year jail term for “violating the press” by making a joke about the junta during a literary talk. U Hla Pe, a member of the Central Executive Committee of the opposition National League for Democracy (NLD), and U Zeya, chairman of the Myaungmya township NLD Organizing Committee, were among others allegedly harassed on 26 January 1997 by the police. According to the information received , numerous NLD MPs , among them U Aung Tin from Shadaw and U Boe Thin from Loikaw, were forced to resign on 13 January 1997. U Moe Thu, a writer and journalist who worked closely with Aung San Suu Kyi, has reportedly been detained since May 1996. Allegedly, U Win Tin, former editor of Hanthawaddy, had his sentence extended on 28 March 1996 to five years since he reportedly sent letters describing prison conditions at Insein to the former Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Myanmar, Professor Yozo Yokota. U Myo Mynt Nyen and U Sein Hlaing were arrested in September 1990 and sentenced to seven years in jail for publishing anti-Government propaganda. Allegedly, in March 1996 they were sentenced to another seven years for sending letters to the Special Rapporteur regarding the harsh conditions in prison.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0157", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 157, "n": 158, "text": "158. On 28 July 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture to the Government of Myanmar concerning the cases of Thaint Wunna Kin, Ma Khin Leh, U Aye Swe, Daw Tin Tin, Kyaw Kyaw Oo, U Zaw Myint, Daw Tint Tint, Ko Zaw Zaw Latt, U Ba Chit, U Ye Tint, U Win Myint, Dr. Shwe Bo, Ma Thida Htway, Ko Lwin Moe Myint, Ko Myint Oo, Ko Ah Thay Lay, Ko Hla Win and two unnamed female physicians who were reportedly arrested between 19 and 23 July 1999 in Pegu, central Myanmar. Most of these individuals were allegedly arrested owing to their involvement in a march commemorating the fifty-second anniversary of the assassination of General Aung San. Military intelligence reportedly looked for Kyaw Wunna, one of the activists who was organizing the march, and, not finding him, arrested his 3-year-old daughter and his wife. Six other members of Kyaw Wunna’s family were also allegedly arrested on 23 July 1999. The remaining 11 people, who were reportedly distributing pamphlets, were arrested between 19 and 24 July 1999.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0158", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 158, "n": 159, "text": "159. The Government of Myanmar informed the Special Rapporteur on 11 August 1999 that allegations that some individuals, including a 3-year-old, have been arrested and detained in Bago are found to be untrue. However, some people have been investigated in connection with the discovery of pamphlets printed by the armed terrorist group, the All Burma Students’ Democratic Front.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0159", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 159, "n": 160, "text": "160. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for the reply received on 11 August 1999 and wishes to inform the Government that given the timing of the last communication, sent on 15 November 1999, the Government’s reply will be included in next year’s report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0160", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 160, "n": 161, "text": "161. On 25 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the arrest and detention of Mr. Jerry Needam, a journalist of the newspaper Ogoni Star, and a human rights activist, in connection with the attempt of the Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People, (MOSOP), to express public concern over police conduct which would constitute an abuse of human rights.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0161", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 161, "n": 162, "text": "162. On 5 May 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the arrest on 25 April 1999 of Mr. Lanre Arogundade, Chairman of the Council of the Lagos Branch of the Nigerian Union of Journalists (NUJ). According to the source, Mr. Arogundade was first arrested and detained in February 1999 at a time when he had been receiving death threats as a result of his NUJ activities. It is alleged that he was arrested on the basis of petitions filed against him by a faction of the Union, in connection with his alleged involvement in the murder of former NUJ treasurer Bolade Fasasi. It is further reported that his detention coincides with planned activities for the celebration of World Press Freedom Day in Nigeria.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0162", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 162, "n": 163, "text": "163. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release on bail of Mr. Needam on 2 November 1999 but regrets that no reply has been received from the Government on the case.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0163", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 163, "n": 164, "text": "164. On 24 May 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women concerning a press statement issued on 14 May 1999 by the Social Welfare Minister of Punjab, Mr. Pir Bin Yamin Rizvi, in which he accused the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan, the women’s organization Shirkat Gah and the Ajoka theatre group of spreading vulgarity and obscenity in the name of human rights and of anti-State activity. The allegation of anti-State activities reportedly emanates from the participation of a Shirkat Gah representative in a British Council seminar on violence against women held in England.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Pakistan"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0164", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 164, "n": 165, "text": "165. On 12 May 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action concerning Mr. Najam Sethi, founder and editor of the English-language weekly newspaper Friday Times, who was arrested on 8 May 1999 by the Pakistan Intelligence Bureau, in cooperation with the Punjab police. The reasons for Mr. Sethi’s arrest are assumed to be related to declarations he made in the BBC television documentary “Correspondant” concerning the alleged high level of corruption in the Government of Pakistan.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Pakistan"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0165", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 165, "n": 166, "text": "166. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release of Mr. Sethi but still awaits a reply from the Government of Pakistan on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Observations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0166", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 166, "n": 167, "text": "167. On 11 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions concerning death threats to Juan Sausa Seclen, correspondent for the daily La República. According to information received, the anonymous caller threatened Mr. Seclen, who is now in hiding, that if he did not stop criticizing the National Intelligence Service he and his family would disappear. Allegedly, Mr. Seclen had published an article regarding the current activities of Hugo Coral Goychocea, a former member of a paramilitary group and now a bodyguard of Walter Pietro Maitre, mayor of the city of Jaem. Moreover, according to the source, the 28 September edition of La República was seized in order to prevent the information from being made public.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Peru"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0167", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 167, "n": 168, "text": "168. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Peru for the communication dated 16 June 1999 in which a list of people benefiting from an amnesty law was provided. However, replies to the communications sent are still awaited.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Peru"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0168", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 168, "n": 169, "text": "169. On 2 July 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent action to the Government concerning Suh Jun Sik, a prominent human rights activist, coordinator of the Sarangbang Centre for Human Rights based in Seoul. According to the information received, Suh Jun Sik, a former political prisoner who had already been imprisoned for 17 years, was arrested on 4 November 1997 by the Seoul Administration Security Division for having shown the film “Red Hunt” during the 1997 Seoul Human Rights Film Festival, which was sponsored and organized by the Sarangbang Centre.\nCommunication received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Republic of Korea"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0169", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 169, "n": 170, "text": "170. The Government replied on 8 January 1999 to a communication sent by the Special Rapporteur on 22 July 1999 (see E/CN.4/1999/64, para. 98). According to the Government, Ham Yun Shik was sentenced on 2 July 1999 to one year’s imprisonment by the Seoul District Court. A complaint against Ham Yun Shik was lodged by the National Congress for New Politics for defaming the then presidential candidate Kim Dae Jung. In the same communication, it is stated that Song Chung Mu was sentenced to two years’ imprisonment on 23 September 1998 for having libelled Kim Dae Jung during electoral campaigns. The Government also explained how its legislation sets reasonable limits on the exercise of free speech to ensure just and fair elections.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Republic of Korea"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0170", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 170, "n": 171, "text": "171. On 16 July 1999, the Government sent a reply regarding the case of Mr. Suh Jun Sik whose trial was not yet concluded owing to the presentation of further evidence.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Republic of Korea"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0171", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 171, "n": 172, "text": "172. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its prompt reply.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Republic of Korea"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0172", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 172, "n": 173, "text": "173. From 20 to 26 September 1999, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Sudan, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session (E/CN.4/2000/63/Add.1).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Sudan"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0173", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 173, "n": 174, "text": "174. On 26 April 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action together with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture concerning Nizar Nayouf, editor-in-chief of the monthly journal Sawt al-Democratiyya and Secretary-General of the Committee for the Defence of Democratic Freedoms in Syria, who was reportedly arrested in January 1992. On 17 March 1992, a military court sentenced him to 10 years of forced labour for being a member of an unauthorized organization and for disseminating false information. For over a year, Mr. Nayouf has reportedly been suffering from Hodgkin’s disease. Prison authorities have allegedly refused to give him medical treatment unless he pledges to refrain from political activity and signs a statement acknowledging that he made false declarations concerning the situation of human rights in Syria. It has also been brought to the Special Rapporteur’s attention that he is being held in a solitary cell measuring 2.5 by 3 metres in the military prison of Mezze in Damascus, and has not seen the sun for seven years.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Syrian Arab Republic"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0174", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 174, "n": 175, "text": "175. On 26 April 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture and the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the case of Farj Bayraqdar, a Syrian journalist and poet who was reportedly arrested in March 1987 and held incommunicado for nearly seven years before he was brought before a State Security Court in 1993. Allegedly accused of belonging to the unauthorized “Hizb Al-Amal Al-Shuyu’i” (Party of Communist Action), he was sentenced to 15 years of imprisonment on 17 October 1993. Currently held in Seydanaya prison, Mr. Bayraqdar is reportedly being denied medical treatment for serious injuries he sustained as a result of alleged torture.\nCommunications received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Syrian Arab Republic"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0175", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 175, "n": 176, "text": "176. On 7 June 1999 the Government of the Syrian Arab Republic informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Nizar Nayyouf had been arrested for participating with other Syrian citizens in establishing a group that carried out activities against State security. On the same date, the Government reported that Mr. Faraj ibn Ahmad Bayraqdar had been arrested on 31 March 1987 because of terrorist activities for which he received a 15-year prison sentence.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Syrian Arab Republic"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0176", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 176, "n": 177, "text": "177. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of the Syrian Arab Republic for its replies. However, he is still concerned for the health of Mr. Nayyouf given the repeated reports that he should receive adequate medical treatment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Syrian Arab Republic"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0177", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 177, "n": 178, "text": "178. On 11 May 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture concerning Tengue Nestor and Gayibor François, executive members of the Togolese Association for the Defence and Promotion of Human Rights (ATDPDH), both of whom were arrested on 3 May 1999 by the police at Lomé. It is alleged that Sant’Anna Brice, considered to have worked closely with this organization, was also arrested. According to the sources, all three are accused of “damage to the credit and safety of the State, dissemination of false information, forgery and use of forgery” for having transmitted to international human rights organizations erroneous information on human rights violations committed by the Togolese Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Togo"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0178", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 178, "n": 179, "text": "179. On 25 May 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture concerning Nadjombe Antoine Koffi, a member of the NGO Amnesty International who had allegedly been arrested on 14 May 1999 at Lomé a few days following Amnesty International’s publication of a report on human rights violations in Togo during the 1998 elections. As in the case of the three persons mentioned in the urgent appeal of 11 May 1999, fears were expressed that Nadjombe Antoine Koffi might be tortured.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communication received", "Nigeria", "Togo"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0179", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 179, "n": 180, "text": "180. The Togolese Government transmitted a reply to the Special Rapporteur on 27 July 1999 informing him that an investigation launched into the activities of ATDPDH had revealed that some of its members, including Tengue Apedo Mensa, Sant’Anna Brice and Gayobor Koko Koété intended to reveal to Amnesty International a number of serious incidents, attributing them to the forces of law and order. On 7 May 1999, after a long period in police custody ordered by the Government Procurator, they were referred to the Government Procurator’s Office of Lomé. They were charged with complicity in damage to a person’s honour, the dissemination of false information and incitation to rebellion. After being charged, a detention warrant was issued on 7 and 14 May 1999. The accused were released on 18 June 1999 at the order of the Government Procurator and proceedings are under way. Lastly, the Government assured the Rapporteurs that Togo, in accordance with its international undertakings, had made significant progress in ensuring respect for human rights, particularly in the legal field, giving as an example the fact that the National Human Rights Commission had closely followed developments in this case.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Communications received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0180", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 180, "n": 181, "text": "181. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0181", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 181, "n": 182, "text": "182. From 6 to 10 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit toTunisia, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session (E/CN.4/2000/63/Add.4)", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations", "Tunisia"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0182", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 182, "n": 183, "text": "183. On 7 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent to the Government allegations concerning the following cases: Yalcin Kucuk, a journalist of Hepileri, who has been jailed since 29 October 1998 and is currently detained at Gezbe prison; Nadire Mater, a reporter for Inter Press Service, who was charged under article 159 of the Penal Code “for insulting and belittling the military” in her book Mehmed’s Book: Soldiers who have fought in the south-east speak out and who, if convicted, faces a prison sentence of one to six years; Nuredin Sirin, an editorialist of Selam who was sentenced on 18 December 1998 for an article he published on 15 July 1997; the Kurdish “MED-TV” satellite channel, which had its broadcasting licence withdrawn on 23 April 1999. The Special Rapporteur, however, welcomed the enactment of the Amnesty Law which brought the release of 21 journalists.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations", "Turkey"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "159", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0183", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 183, "n": 184, "text": "184. On 1 June 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action concerning Muzzafer Ilhan Erdost, a prominent writer, journalist and publisher who has been sentenced to one year in prison and a fine of 100 million lira on charges relating to his book Three Sivas. Mr. Erdost also undertook independent human rights studies and participated in the establishment of the Turkish Human Rights Association (IHD). It was reported that he was first imprisoned from 1971 to 1974 because of his writings and in 1980 he was arrested for the second time, together with his brother, after the military coup d’état of 12 September.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations", "Turkey"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0184", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 184, "n": 185, "text": "185. On 5 January 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent action concerning Mr. Akin Birdal, Chairman of IHD and Vice-Chairman of the Human Rights Foundation of Turkey, who was sentenced on 16 December 1998 to a one-year term of imprisonment for a speech he made on 1 September 1995. In his speech, he allegedly called on the Turkish authorities to negotiate a peaceful end to the conflict in the south-east. According to the source, Mr. Birdal could be arrested at any moment to serve a previous one-year sentence which was confirmed on 27 October 1998. Moreover, three branches of IHD based in Bursa, Mardin and Balikesir were closed down on 13 November, 16 and 17 December 1998 respectively because they had on the premises prohibited human rights publications. It is further reported that the Director of the Balikesir branch of IHD, Dr. Bekir Ceylan, was dismissed from his government post allegedly because he was an executive member of IHD.\nCommunications received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations", "Turkey"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0185", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 185, "n": 186, "text": "186. The Government of Turkey transmitted an explanatory note on 30 September 1999 regarding the 21 journalists amnestied under Law 4454.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations", "Turkey"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0186", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 186, "n": 187, "text": "187. In its communication dated 25 May 1999, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur about the temporary closure of the IHD branches in Balikesir, Mardin and Bursa. According to the Government, the Balikesir branch continues its activities, while the Mardin branch was closed for a period of three months from 16 December 1998. The branch office in Bursa was closed for a period of three months and then its activities were banned after the Government established that the office was functioning in contravention of the Law on Associations. The Government also informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Bekir Ceylan, Director of the Balikesir branch office, was dismissed from his government post in the State Hospital as a result of his participation in the preparation of a false document. With regard to the case of Mr. Akin Birdal, it stated that his one-year sentence for “inciting the public to hatred and discrimination based on race, religion or ethnic origin” was confirmed in October 1998 and was implemented on 3 June 1999.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations", "Turkey"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0187", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 187, "n": 188, "text": "188. The Government in its communication dated 30 June 1999 provided information pertaining to the case of Mr. Muzaffer Ilhan Erdost who on 20 July 1999 was sentenced to one year’s imprisonment on the charge of spreading separatist propaganda against the integrity of the State and to a fine of 100 million lira. According to the Government, the case had been taken to the Court of Appeals.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations", "Turkey"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0188", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 188, "n": 189, "text": "189. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Turkey for its replies and his willingness to cooperate with the mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations", "Turkey"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0189", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 189, "n": 190, "text": "190. On 19 February 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an allegation requesting further details about the legal basis of the charges against and conviction of Mr. Vyacheslav Mamedov, an activist of the Russian community of Turkmenistan. According to the information received, Mr. Mamedov was arrested on 21 January 1999 for “slander”, after a series of prior actions against him beginning on 8 December 1998, on the basis of an interview he had given on the Russian radio station “Mayak” on 18 December 1998 in which he had described his community work. According to the sources, Mr. Mamedov was freed a few days after his arrest, but the charges against him are still pending.\nCommunication received", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Turkmenistan"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0190", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 190, "n": 191, "text": "191. The Government of Turkmenistan replied on 9 April 1999 concerning the case of Mr. Mamedov, who was granted a pardon by the President of Turkmenistan.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Turkmenistan"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0191", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 191, "n": 192, "text": "192. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Turkmenistan"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0192", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 192, "n": 193, "text": "193. From 24 to 28 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session (E/CN.4/2000/63/Add.3).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0193", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 193, "n": 194, "text": "194. On 19 May 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action concerning Abdel Latif Kutubi Omar, Hisham Basharah’il and Ali-Haitham al-Gharib. According to the source, Abdel Latif Kutubi Omar, editor in chief of the opposition weekly Al-Haq, was arrested on 2 March 1999 in his Sanaa office by five armed plainclothes agents and was taken to the Criminal Investigation Department for interrogation. It has been reported that his arrest is linked to an article published in Al-Haq on 28 February 1999 in which he mentioned an agreement between the United States and the Yemeni authorities regarding military facilities offered to the United States on the island of Socotra. Mr. Omar was released on 6 March after three days in custody and was allegedly informed that he would be prosecuted and should appear in court on 19 May. Hisham Basharah’il, editor in chief of the newspaper Al-Ayyam, and Ali-Haitham al-Gharib, a writer for the paper, were reportedly arrested on 2 and 4 March 1999 respectively and charged with instigating “national feuds”, “the spirit of separatism”, and harming “national unity”. The charge allegedly stems from an article published on 27 February 1999 which criticized factionalism in Yemeni society and the structure of local government.\nCommunication received", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Yemen"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0194", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 194, "n": 195, "text": "195. On 8 August 1999 the Yemeni Government transmitted, through the Supreme National Human Rights Commission, a reply to the Special Rapporteur giving further details about the charges against the persons in question. It stated that the publication of the article by Hisham Basharah’il and Ali-Haitham al-Gharib was likely to exacerbate confessionalism and regionalism, create divisions in Yemeni society and propagate ideas likely to cause a breach of State security. According to the Government’s communication, Hisham Basharah’il published a summary of the proceedings of a trial on 2 March 1999 despite the fact that such action had been prohibited by the court which had considered that the press might influence court procedure. On the subject of Mr. Abdel Latif Kutubi Omar, it stated that he had been referred to the competent court in connection with a number of affairs, the last of which involved the publication of an article entitled “Yemen provides the United States and Socotra with military facilities”. That article was considered likely to exacerbate confessionalism and tribalism and create divisions in Yemeni society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Yemen"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0195", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 195, "n": 196, "text": "196. The Special Rapporteur thanks the Yemeni Government for its reply and hopes that he will be kept informed of developments in these three cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Observations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0196", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 196, "n": 197, "text": "197. On 12 March 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture concerning Amos Malupenga, Goodson Machona, Brighton Phiri, Joe Kaunda, Kelvin Shimo and Lubasi Katundu, all journalists with the independent Post newspaper, who were reportedly arrested on 9 and 10 March 1999. All the journalists are believed to have been arrested in connection with an article on the low military capabilities and unprepared state of the Zambian army in the face of a possible threat from Angola.\nObservations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zambia"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0197", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 197, "n": 198, "text": "198. A response from the Government is still awaited.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zambia"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0198", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 198, "n": 199, "text": "199. On 6 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint allegation with the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture regarding the cases of Mark Chavudunka, editor of the independent Sunday newspaper The Standard, and Ray Choto, chief reporter for the same newspaper. Mark Chavudunka was arrested on 12 January 1999 by the military police in Harare and allegedly detained incommunicado for six days. According to the source he was accused of having published an article on 10 January 1999 with regard to the arrest of 23 military officers for plotting a coup in December 1998. Ray Choto was reportedly arrested on 19 January 1999 by the police. Both journalists have reportedly sustained serious injuries as a result of torture during their detention at the military police station. Despite the fact that both journalists were released on bail on 21 January 1999, they are still facing charges under the Law and Order Maintenance Act for “publishing false reports”.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0199", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 199, "n": 200, "text": "200. The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has yet been received from the Government on the case in question.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0200", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 200, "n": 201, "text": "201. On 12 October 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent action with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the detention of Mr. Maer al-Dessouki, a journalist with the independent Al’Quds educational television station. According to the source , Mr. al-Dessouki was arrested on 15 September 1999 by Palestinian Security Services agents and was reportedly accused of “possessing material inciting against the Palestinian National Authority”. According to reports, his arrest was related to his having hosted a programme on 12 September 1999 in which Palestinians whose family members had not been included in the previous week’s prisoner release by Israel criticized the Palestinian Authority.\nObservations", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0201", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 201, "n": 202, "text": "202. The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has been provided by the Palestinian Authority and hopes to receive one soon.\nV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0202", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 202, "n": 203, "text": "203. While the Special Rapporteur notes with satisfaction a growing tide in favour of human rights and that almost all Governments seem to be upholding the sanctity of the principles of freedom of opinion and expression, he at the same time finds innumerable cases of great violations of human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0203", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 203, "n": 204, "text": "204. The Special Rapporteur cannot help but view with dismay the contents of the communications received in the past year. It is clear from them that the rights to freedom of opinion, expression and information are violated, almost as a matter of routine, in States with widely different political systems and institutional frameworks for governance. There are countries where these rights do not enjoy even the minimum protections and guarantees set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and associated international human rights instruments. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur encourages all States that have not ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to do so. Furthermore, he again urges all Governments to scrutinize their domestic legal systems with a view to bringing them into line with international standards governing the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Particularly with regard to the issue of national security, the Special Rapporteur urges all Governments to review not only laws specifically intended to protect national security but also ordinary criminal laws which may be used to infringe the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to information. The criminal justice and the police systems also need to be overhauled to ensure greater justice and fairness from the police. The Governments may also consider the feasibility of setting up national human rights commissions and positions of ombudsman where these institutions do not exist.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0204", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 204, "n": 205, "text": "205. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur strongly urges all Governments to ensure that press offences are no longer punishable by terms of imprisonment, except in cases involving racist or discriminatory comments or calls to violence. In the case of offences such as “libelling”, “insulting” or “defaming” the head of State and publishing or broadcasting “false” or “alarmist” information, prison terms are both reprehensible and out of proportion to the harm suffered by the victim. In all such cases, imprisonment as punishment for the peaceful expression of an opinion constitutes a serious violation of human rights.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0205", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 205, "n": 206, "text": "206. As regards information, particularly information held by Governments, the Special Rapporteur strongly encourages States to take all necessary steps to ensure the full realization of the right to access to information. The Special Rapporteur proposes to undertake a comparative study of the different approaches taken in the various regions and countries in this regard. He also commends to the Commission on Human Rights the Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation that were developed by Article 19 (see annex II); he further requests the Commission to endorse these principles in the resolution it will adopt at its fifty-sixth session.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0206", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 206, "n": 207, "text": "207. As regards the impact of new information technology on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the Special Rapporteur considers it of pre-eminent importance that they be considered in the light of the same international standards as other means of communication and that no measures be taken which would unduly restrict freedom of expression and information; in case of doubt, the decision should be in favour of free expression and the free flow of information. With regard to the Internet, the Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate that on-line expression should be guided by international standards and be guaranteed the same protection as is awarded to other forms of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0207", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 207, "n": 208, "text": "208. In this context, he also recommends that all reasonable steps be taken to promote access to the Internet. For instance, Governments should promote an economic and regulatory environment which encourages the extension of telecommunication lines to rural and other previously under-serviced areas. Wherever possible, government information should be made available through the Internet.", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0208", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 208, "n": 209, "text": "209. Concerning the link between the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the rights of women, the Special Rapporteur expresses his great concern at the continuing silencing of women by various devices. Discriminatory rules and conventions continue to bolster entrenched patriarchal attitudes. In stark manifestation of male chauvinism, women are harassed. But it is at the same time encouraging to note that a spirit of change is building up with women’s movements appearing even in highly conservative and religious societies. Education continues to improve. Women’s participation in the workforce has increased. Women’s actions to improve their political influence are gathering momentum. Efforts are being made to win adequate representation in Government at the national and local levels. Claims are being made to senior government posts. The Special Rapporteur urges Governments to take all necessary steps to remove formal and cultural obstacles to the exercise by women of their right to freedom of expression, including the right to receive information, and ultimately to give effect to all their rights. In light of the importance of freedom of expression and its relationship to the struggle against violence against women, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that a special effort should be made to gather and analyse more information along the lines described in the present report. The Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate his hope to be able to prepare a report jointly with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, to be submitted to the Commission on Human Rights next year. In this regard, he invites submissions by Governments, intergovernmental organizations and specialized agencies, as well as non-governmental bodies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2000-63-0209", "docId": "e-cn-4-2000-63", "idx": 209, "n": 210, "text": "210. In regard to the continuing pattern of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression of human rights defenders, the Special Rapporteur recommends to Governments to take steps to implement the provisions of the Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms.\nAnnex I\nINTERNATIONAL MECHANISMS FOR PROMOTING FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION\nThe United Nations Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression, the Representative on freedom of the media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression of the Organization of American States (OAS) met for the first time in London on 26 November 1999 under the auspices of Article 19:\nWe recall that freedom of expression is a fundamental international human right and a basic component of a civil society based on democratic principles;\nIndependent and pluralistic media are essential to a free and open society and accountable government. Respect for freedom of the media in the States members of our organizations, although very different from country to country, leaves much to be desired;\nCertain Governments have continued to exert and allow impermissible pressure on the media in their respective countries. The levels of harassment might be different but the general aim is the same: to suppress pluralism and open debate on issues of concern to citizens;\nFreedom of expression is not only a fundamental human right in and of itself, but it has ramifications for economic development as well. The media has a “corrective” function by bringing to the public’s attention corruption and inequitable practices. The absence of free media can lead to economic stagnation and improper practices by both Governments and businesses;\nImplicit in freedom of expression is the public’s right to open access to information and to know what Governments are doing on their behalf, without which truth would languish and people’s participation in Government would remain fragmented;\nThe media should refrain from any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to violence or to any other similar action;\nIn many countries laws are in place, such as criminal defamation laws, which unduly restrict the right to freedom of expression. We urge States to review these laws with a view to bringing them into line with their international obligations;\nWe affirm that States must ensure an effective, serious and impartial judicial process, based on the rule of law, in order to combat impunity of perpetrators of attacks against freedom of expression.\nAbid Hussain Freimut Duve\nUnited Nations Special Rapporteur on OSCE Representative\nfreedom of opinion and expression on freedom of the media\nSantiago Canton\nOAS Special Rapporteur on\nfreedom of expression\nAnnex II", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2000, "section": ["Zimbabwe", "Palestine"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. This report is submitted by the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Ambeyi Ligabo, pursuant Human Rights Council resolution 5/1. This is the last annual report that will be submitted by the present mandate-holder, whose term expires in August 2008.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Chapter I summarizes the main activities of the Special Rapporteur undertaken in 2007, including an analysis of communication trends in the period. Chapter II presents an overall review of the main issues addressed by the Special Rapporteur throughout his tenure. It thus intends to highlight the different trends observed by the Special Rapporteur over the past six years, pointing to the main challenges for the effective implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Chapter III presents the general conclusions and recommendations of the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. This report contains as its addendum 1 the summary of communications sent by the Special Rapporteur from 1 January to 4 December 2007 and replies received thereto from Governments by 21 January 2008. Addenda 2 and 3 are the reports of the Special Rapporteur’s country visits to Ukraine and Azerbaijan, respectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The Special Rapporteur relies on communications received from various sources as a means to identify trends, reiterate issues already discussed in previous reports and bring to the attention of the international community a number of policies, practices and measures having an impact on the respect for freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. To effectively implement his mandate, the Special Rapporteur focuses on information received from a variety of sources, including Governments; local, national, regional or international governmental and non-governmental organizations; associations of media professionals and writers; trade unions; etc. The quality and the quantity of information received are essential to the discharge of the mandate of the Special Rapporteur. Furthermore, they are a significant indicator of the degree of implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in a given country. The Special Rapporteur may also decide to take initiative motu proprio on issues of general concern that he considers relevant to his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The majority of cases received by the Special Rapporteur concern threats, aggressions, harassment, murder or other sorts of attacks on the physical and psychological integrity of journalists, students, human rights activists and unionists as retaliation for their exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression. In many cases, these attacks were linked to the repression of peaceful protests conducted to express disagreement with some governmental policy, at the national or local level, or with the actions of large corporations. While the extent of the repression, its duress and length may substantially vary, allegations received are not confined to countries where the political, social and economic situation is particularly difficult, but also concern violations occurring in transitional or long-established democracies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. Analysis of communications also shows a large number of cases of prosecution or imprisonment of media professionals or ordinary citizens on charges of defamation, libel and slander, despite the decriminalization of these offenses by some countries. Another important trend in many regions has been the adoption of legislation that unduly limits freedom of expression by fostering State interference in editorial independence; by creating subjective licensing procedures that are used to shut down media outlets; by restricting the ability of journalists, particularly foreign correspondents, to perform their work freely; and by imposing severe limitations on the operation, including funding, of civil society organizations.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. From 1 January to 4 December 2007, the Special Rapporteur sent 241 communications: 114 urgent appeals, 89 of which were signed jointly with other special procedures mandate-holders, and 127 allegation letters, 55 of which were co-signed with other mandates. These communications referred to the situation of 596 individuals. The geographical division of the communications was as follows: 31.5 per cent in Asia and the Pacific; 20.7 per cent in Africa; 18.2 per cent in Latin America and the Caribbean; 17 per cent in the Middle East and North Africa; and 12.4 per cent in Europe, North America and Central Asia.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The Special Rapporteur regularly issues press releases to signal his concern about current events. In 2007, he issued five press releases concerning issues of safety of journalists and legislation that restricts the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. On 23 January, the Special Rapporteur expressed his concern over the murder of Hrant Dink, a respected Turkish journalist and intellectual who had developed important critical work concerning a sensitive period in the history of Turkey. He expressed his hopes that the investigations would shed light on all aspects of this crime.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. On 12 March, the Special Rapporteur called for the immediate and unconditional release of Italian journalist Daniele Mastrogiacomo and his aides, who had been arrested in Afghanistan. He argued that this crime underscored the importance of intensifying efforts to ensure the safety of journalists, particularly in conflict areas. Mr. Mastrogiacomo was released on 20 March, but an Afghan journalist who was travelling with him, Ajmal Naqshbandi, was brutally executed on 8 April.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. On 27 June, the Special Rapporteur called for the release of British journalist Alan Johnston of BBC, who had been abducted in Gaza City on 12 March. He once again highlighted the importance of ensuring the safety of media professionals as an indispensable conduit for the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. On 28 September, the Special Rapporteur, along with several other special procedures mandate-holders, strongly condemned the crackdown of public demonstrations in Myanmar, in particular the brutal measures taken by the security services, including the use of deadly force. They also welcomed the decision to hold a special session of the Human Rights Council on the situation in Myanmar. They called for the release of the detained, an investigation of the killings, steps to alleviate the economic hardship of the majority of the population and the introduction of serious reforms and dialogue with the opposition.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. On 30 November, the Special Rapporteur, along with the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on human rights defenders and the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, released a statement expressing concern about the constitutional referendum that would be held in Venezuela. The three independent experts underlined their concern that some provisions submitted to popular vote, particularly concerned states of emergency and the operation of non-governmental organizations, could undermine a set of fundamental rights that should be enjoyed at all times.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. From 18 to 22 June 2007, the Special Rapporteur participated in the 14th annual meeting of special procedures, held in Geneva. The meeting primarily discussed the institution-building process conducted by the Human Rights Council and the new methods of work of mandate-holders, as well as issues such as cooperation with civil society, national human rights institutions and among special-procedures mandates.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. On 5 December 2007, the Special Rapporteur submitted a statement to the expert meeting organized by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in Geneva to discuss and outline indicators to measure respect for the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In the statement he transmitted, the Special Rapporteur highlighted the importance of defining concrete yardsticks to monitor freedom of expression and violations that take place around the world. He underscored the importance of avoiding the risk, when employing these indicators, of creating crude comparisons between countries that are fundamentally different. Rather, he suggests that the indicators should be seen as an attempt to assess a country’s progress compared to its own historical trajectory, following the approach used by the United Nations Millennium Development Goals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. On 7-8 December 2007, the Special Rapporteur also transmitted a statement to the Expert seminar on diversity in the broadcast media, organized by the non-governmental organization (NGO) Article 19 and the Institute of Information Law in Amsterdam. In his statement, the Special Rapporteur made a broad review of issues related to diversity in the media, including licensing, State advertising as well as diversity of outlets and content. At the same meeting, a joint declaration on promoting diversity in the broadcast media, signed by the Special Rapporteur, along with the Organization for Security and Development (OSCE) Representative on Freedom of the Media, the Organization of American States (OAS) Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR) Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression, was drafted. (The joint declaration appears as an annex to this report.)", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. From 22 to 28 April 2007, the Special Rapporteur carried out an official visit to Azerbaijan, at the Government’s invitation, where he met a broad range of social and political actors to evaluate the current status of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur underlined his impression that the country was endeavouring to establish and consolidate its democratic structures, a message that was conveyed by many of his counterparts. In his preliminary conclusions, he called upon the Government and civil society to take a number of steps to fully implement the right to freedom of expression, including the decriminalization of defamation offenses, ensuring the safety of media professionals and, more broadly, guaranteeing the independence of the media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. From 14 to 18 May 2007, the Special Rapporteur visited Ukraine at the invitation of the Government in order to assess the implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in the country. In the conclusions of his visit, the Special Rapporteur highlighted the progresses achieved by the country after it gained independence from the Soviet Union. In particular, he underlined the important improvements that have taken place in the country since 2004. He also called upon the Government of Ukraine to further strengthen the independence, professionalism and diversity of the media as well as to tackle the issue of incitement to racial, ethnic and religious hatred.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. From 26 to 30 November 2007, the Special Rapporteur carried out an official visit to Honduras at the invitation of the Government in order to examine issues of relevance to his mandate. In his conclusions on the visit, he pointed to the need for strengthening protection and safety measures for journalists and media professionals as well as the need to combat impunity for the perpetrators of crimes against the media. He also called for a rapid adaptation of national legislation on freedom of expression to international standards, particularly concerning the decriminalization of defamation offenses.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The Special Rapporteur remains concerned at the widespread resort to censorship, direct or indirect, which remains in many regions of the world. Apart from direct censorship, many Governments have resorted to indirect ways to censor or shut down media outlets that express independent voices. The Special Rapporteur has received a number of communications concerning cases where Governments use overly subjective administrative regulations, particularly licensing and taxation, in order to close or suspend media outlets. Ultimately, the main impact of these policies is to create an uncertain environment for media professionals, thus fostering self-censorship and shunning any meaningful criticism of public policies and authorities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Throughout 2007, the Special Rapporteur followed closely and with concern a substantial number of cases in which Governments suspended the operation of media outlets, particularly news channels that broadcast internationally, during large-scale public protests, electoral processes, states of emergency or public disorder. In most cases, these practices were designed to insulate the countries in question from the rest of the world, making invisible the human rights violations committed by State institutions, thus avoiding international criticism and pressure.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. The new media, especially the Internet, have not remained free of censorship and direct repression. In past years, the Special Rapporteur has noted a growing trend of censorship and the banning of websites and Internet contributors, particularly bloggers. Due to the low cost, decentralized nature and great reach of the Internet, it has become an important outlet for the circulation of independent opinions about State authorities and policies. Many Governments therefore have developed an interest in controlling, monitoring and censoring the digital media, in particular the Internet, including by punishing hundreds of so-called cyber-dissidents around the world. In some cases, Internet use in private home connections has been completely banned, thus allowing for total government oversight over Internet use by its citizens.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. The Special Rapporteur further highlights the facts that, in several cases, these illegal restrictions on the right to freedom of opinion and expression have been accepted and even facilitated by leading Internet corporations, the majority of which are based in democratic countries. Search engines, for example, have accepted many Governments’ imposition for strict controls and censorship, such as blocking “politically sensitive terms” of search results presented to individuals. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur is deeply worried about many large Internet corporations who have disclosed personal information of their users to allow Governments to identify and convict internet writers.\nDiversity", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes the importance of promoting diversity in the media. In particular, he stresses three fundamental dimensions of diversity that should be promoted: (a) diversity of outlets, in particular the establishment of a free environment for the creation and dissemination of outlets; (b) diversity of sources, especially taking advantage of the full benefits of digital platforms, in particular the Internet, to strengthen the right to freedom of opinion and expression; and (c) diversity of content, allowing for different communities and vulnerable groups to have access to media outlets and find ways to effectively disseminate their voice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. One of the central problems relating to the promotion of diversity refers to the licensing of media outlets. State-controlled licensing procedures have, in many countries, become a technical means of curbing media independence, particularly through normal and periodic procedures of renewal of licenses. These procedures have been used systematically by some Governments not as a regular administrative practice, but rather as a policy tool to wield influence over editorial content. The Special Rapporteur reiterates that, in order to guarantee freedom of the press, licensing should always be conducted by an independent authority, free from political interference by government officials. Furthermore, licensing procedures are only justified as a response to problems of scarcity, thus restricted to the broadcast media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. The exclusion of marginalized and vulnerable groups from the media is a key issue that needs to be addressed by the international community. Minorities, indigenous peoples, migrant workers, refugees and many other vulnerable communities have faced higher barriers, some of them insurmountable, to be able to fully exercise their right to impart information. For these groups, the media plays the central role of fostering social mobilization, participation in public life and access to information that is relevant for the community. Without a means to disseminate their views and problems, these communities are in effect shut down from public debates, which ultimately hinders their ability to fully enjoy their human rights.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Indigenous peoples", "Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The Special Rapporteur further stresses that diversity of content – in the broadcast, digital and printed media – is a desirable goal that should be encouraged. The strengthening of educational and cultural content and the increase in the space given to minorities and vulnerable groups to express their views, for example, can greatly increase the quality of the media outlets themselves. However, utmost care must be taken in order to prevent these goals from ultimately threatening the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The promotion of content diversity must not be used under any circumstances as a means to influence, directly or indirectly, the fundamental principle of editorial independence. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that the most adequate means to promote diversity is not direct interference with media outlets, but rather more general measures to set up a free environment where independent media outlets and content producers can emerge and flourish. In this regard, the benefits of the Internet, particularly the way it allows even individual users to disseminate content on a global scale, should be duly taken into account and strengthened.\nInternet governance", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. The issue of Internet governance has been a key focus of the Special Rapporteur in the implementation of his mandate, particularly in the preparation and follow-up of the World Summit on the Information Society, whose final phase was held in Tunis in 2005. Although the Summit itself focused chiefly on technical and business matters, overlooking human rights issues, it served as an opportunity for a number of NGOs to organize parallel events and, ultimately, create networks for the implementation of a human rights-based approach to the information society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The Internet, as well as other information and communication technologies, offers an unprecedented possibility to disseminate information, opinion and ideas to people who had traditionally been excluded from other media. However, the Special Rapporteur notes that the Internet also gives rise to important problems, such as child pornography, hate speech and privacy issues, which can only be addressed through a serious discussion focusing on governance.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. The Special Rapporteur has suggested the establishment of an international organization to govern the Internet with a firm human rights approach as a priority for the United Nations and the international community. In particular, this organization would develop global norms and principles to guarantee that the Internet can be developed as a democratic medium of expression that is in full compliance with human rights principles. Ultimately, such an organization would develop, in cooperation with national institutions, the private sector and the civil society, common principles, norms and rules that should guide the future evolution and use of the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right of access to information", "Censorship, suspension, closing or banning of media outlets"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. In 2007, concern for the safety and protection of journalists remained one of the key obstacles for the full implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. A total of 67 media professionals were kidnapped and 1,511 were physically attacked or threatened throughout the year. Even more worrying, 86 journalists and 20 other media workers were killed, which represents an increase of 244 per cent over the past five years and is the highest figure since 1994.[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Reporters Without Borders, Press Freedom Round-up 2007; see www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=24909, last accessed on 17 January 2008."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Armed conflicts provide by far the highest threat to the security of media professionals. Over half of the journalists killed last year died in Iraq, the vast majority of whom worked for the local media. A number of reports reached the Special Rapporteur concerning deliberate attempts to target journalists, particularly by members of warring militia. As the clashes between Ethiopian-backed forces and the Islamist militia in Somalia grew, the country also saw a drastic increase in the number of journalists who were killed, totalling eight in 2007. In particular, two popular journalists, Ali Iman Sharmarke and Bashir Nor Gedi, were reportedly targeted and murdered by hired assassins, which illustrates the atmosphere of fear and pressure surrounding the work of media professionals operating in areas of armed conflict. Journalists were also killed in Afghanistan, Sri Lanka and the Democratic Republic of Congo, other areas of ongoing armed conflict.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The main provisions protecting journalists and other media professionals in situations of armed conflict come from humanitarian law, in particular from special measures contained in article 79 of Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, relating to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts. This article establishes that “journalists engaged in dangerous professional missions in areas of armed conflict shall be considered as civilians” and “shall be protected as such under the Conventions and this Protocol, provided that they take no action adversely affecting their status as civilians”. The civilian status of journalists transcends any type of contractual arrangement that the journalist may have; equal protection is granted to freelance, independent or to journalists belonging to any media.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "citedArticles": [{"article": "79", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 79 of Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949' — international humanitarian law, not in the allowed treaty list."}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. In 2006, the Security Council passed resolution 1738 (2006) whereby it expressed its deep concern “at the frequency of acts of violence in many parts of the world against journalists, media professionals and associated personnel in armed conflict”, and condemned intentional attacks against this group. It also underlined the obligation under humanitarian law to grant civilian status to journalists during armed conflicts, as established by the Geneva Conventions.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that States have an obligation to ensure the safety and protection of journalists and other media professionals in time of armed conflict. In these situations, journalism has a particularly important function, which is to convey the brutality and havoc created by war. Accurate reports from war zones are a fundamental component in establishing historical truths and allowing post-war reconciliation.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Apart from armed conflicts, the Special Rapporteur underscores the need to focus on the protection of journalists during electoral processes and public crises, particularly during states of emergency. Throughout 2007, the Special Rapporteur has received several reports of journalists who were directly targeted in physical attacks, both by government and opposition forces, in political demonstrations taking place during electoral processes. In various cases, harassment by the security forces, including arrests and detention, has been a common practice adopted against journalists who are reporting on human rights violations during these events.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. The Special Rapporteur has recommended the establishment of a relief fund to benefit the relatives of media professionals killed in the line of duty because of their professional activities. Not only would such a fund provide needed reparation to families, but it would also serve to place the safety of journalists as a central human rights issue within the United Nations system.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Defamation offenses have been one of the main sources of imprisonment of journalists around the world. Defamation laws were originally designed with a legitimate goal, which was to protect people against false statements of fact that could damage their reputation. In particular, they reflect the legitimate view that the exercise of freedom of expression, in particularly by media professionals, should be subject to responsibility, good judgement and professionalism. However, the subjective character of many defamation laws, their overly broad scope and their application within criminal law have turned them into a powerful mechanisms to stifle investigative journalism and silent criticism.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. The Special Rapporteur is also concerned about the trend of increasing the scope of defamation laws to include the protection of subjective values, such as a sense of national identity, religions, State symbols, institutions or even representatives such as the Head of State. The Special Rapporteur reiterates that the provisions on protection of reputation contained in international human rights law are designed to protect individuals, not abstract values or institutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. International human rights instruments recognize the right to a reputation (e.g. art. 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which states that “No one shall be subject … to attacks upon his honour and reputation”). However, three clear-cut conditions must be respected for any limitation on the right to freedom of expression: (a) restrictions must be established in law; (b) they should pursue an aim recognized as lawful, and (c) they must be proportional to the accomplishment of that aim. A number of problems are often present in the actual implementation of these three conditions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "citedArticles": [{"article": "12", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'art. 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The Special Rapporteur is concerned about the large number of cases of journalists who are imprisoned after being convicted on criminal defamation charges. Apart from outright imprisonment and preventive detention, other common measures that have been taken against media professionals include the imposition of heavy fines, often completely inconsistent with a journalist’s income, the suspension of the journalist’s professional licence and even the suspension or closing of media outlets. The Special Rapporteur considers these measures as inconsistent with the principle of proportionality and therefore an undue restriction of press freedom. Furthermore, these measures are even more harmful for independent, local or freelance journalists, who are generally unable to afford the expenses of long judicial proceedings, legal counsel and fines.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur, along with the OSCE Representative on Freedom of the Media and the OAS Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression, in a joint declaration issued in December 2002, stated that “criminal defamation is not a justifiable restriction on freedom of expression; all criminal defamation laws should be abolished and replaced, where necessary, with appropriate civil defamation laws”. The Special Rapporteur notes with satisfaction that many countries have recently decided to abolish their criminal defamation laws. He reiterates that, while awaiting the entry of force of this legislation, emergency measures such as amnesty or pardon should be taken to ensure that no media profession or any other citizen is incarcerated on charges of defamation. Furthermore, any fines arising from civil defamation procedures should also respect the principle of proportionality and should never surpass reasonable amounts.\nStates of exception and emergency", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. The imposition of a state of emergency has led on many occasions to actions that are incompatible with the right to freedom of expression and, in particular, to a free media. The Special Rapporteur is concerned that, immediately after the imposition of a state of emergency, many Governments take aggressive action against freedom of expression in many different forms: by suspending TV news channels, blocking websites and telephone services, attacking detaining and arresting journalists covering protests and appointing government officials to monitor, and in effect censor, the content of newspapers. The Special Rapporteur has observed with concern how, in many of these cases, States have introduced laws giving government officials the authority to take unilateral action against media organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Regulations under states of emergency often allow for arbitrary detentions and arrests, the banning of demonstrations which could lead to “public disorder” and the suspension of local assemblies or governments if they block or impede the legal actions of the public authorities. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is usually violated under situations of states of emergency. Journalists and other media practitioners face persecutions and attacks and it is difficult to obtain independent and reliable information, which is essential for society in these situations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that emergency powers may be legitimate only in cases of extreme national crises which threaten the life of the nation. Those powers are defined and limited by articles 4 and 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights and, therefore, restrictions placed on rights are to be limited in both scope and duration “to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation” (art. 4). In this context, a state of emergency is by definition a temporary legal response to an exceptional and grave threat to the nation, and must be treated as such. The principle of proportionality must be respected with respect to the duration and geographical and material scope of the state of emergency.\nCountering terrorism", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Throughout his mandate, the Special Rapporteur has paid close attention and strongly condemned the critical threat posed by terrorism in the contemporary world, whilst also noting the negative implications that some policies designed to fight terrorism have had on the full enjoyment of human rights. Counter-terrorism and national security legislation approved in recent years have on many instances exceeded the bounds of what is permissible under international law and resulted in human rights violations. In this context, the right to freedom of opinion and expression is particularly vulnerable to legislation that de facto legitimates limitations on the free circulation and expression of ideas and opinions, directly affecting the work of media professionals, human rights defenders, political groups and civil society more broadly. Journalists and media professionals have become common targets of unlawful attempts to restrict freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. The restrictions brought about by counter-terrorism legislation on human rights in general, and the right to freedom of opinion and expression in particular, have taken many forms. A number of allegations were brought to the Special Rapporteur’s attention in this regard, including instances where Governments have passed laws that restrict individual liberties such as the right to privacy and to due process; arbitrary arrests and detentions conducted by the security apparatus; banning the publication of information that is, without justification, defined as being threatening to national security; forcing the disclosure of journalistic sources; censoring media outlets and journalists on the basis of an alleged proximity to terrorist or rebel groups.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The Special Rapporteur recalls that restrictions to the right to freedom of opinion and expression can only be imposed in rather exceptional circumstances. In this respect, the Special Rapporteur has referred in his previous reports, to General Comment No. 29 (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.11) of the Human Rights Committee, which establishes the conditions that must be met for a State to invoke article 4,paragraph 1, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), dealing with derogations to the rights enumerated thereto. Derogations established under article 4, paragraph 1, of the Covenant are exceptional in nature and can only be invoked when the situation within a State amounts to a public emergency which threatens the life of the nation and when the State party has officially declared a state of emergency. These restrictive measures imposed by the State must, inter alia, be strictly limited in time, provided for in a law, necessary for public safety or public order, serve a legitimate purpose, not impair the essence of the right, and conform to the principle of proportionality. The principles of legitimacy, necessity and proportionality must always be respected.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. The Special Rapporteur also refers to Security Council resolution 1624 (2005) of 14 September 2005, which states that any restrictions to the right of freedom of expression, as reflected in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, must be in accordance with article 19, paragraph 3 (b), of the ICCPR, which states that any restrictions shall be those provided by law and necessary “for the protection of national security or of public order”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First occurrence: 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second occurrence: 'article 19, paragraph 3 (b), of the ICCPR' — explicit ICCPR confirmation."}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. In many of the cases brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur, most, if not all of the conditions that are required under article 4, paragraph 1, and 19, paragraph 3, of the ICCPR to derogate from the right to freedom of opinion or expression, are not being met. He has noted that there are cases in which the feeling of insecurity caused by terrorist attacks provides States with an opportunity to adopt measures in which national security is used as justification to allow for direct attacks against the free media, investigative journalism, political dissidence, and human rights monitoring and reporting.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. The rights to peaceful assembly and to freedom of association, regulated under articles 21 and 22 of the ICCPR, are also often violated under counter-terrorism legislation. These rights should be considered essential to any democratic society. The Special Rapporteur has witnessed how, on certain occasions, peaceful actions or demonstrations have been considered terrorist acts by certain Governments. As such, peaceful demonstrators have been charged with acts of terrorism under counter-terrorism legislation, which gives the State legitimacy to suppress dissent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "21", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "22", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The effective enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the right to peaceful assembly and freedom of association are central elements that mark the difference between democracy and terror. In this regard, in their legitimate fight to eradicate terrorism, democratic States must see that freedom and pluralism, two crucial parts of their very democratic foundations, are preserved at all times.\nD. Freedom of opinion and expression and the realization of other human rights\nHIV/AIDS", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Although the number of people dying from HIV/AIDS and related illnesses has declined in the last two years, the disease is among the leading causes of death globally, and remains the primary cause of death in Africa. According to UNAIDS, there are over 5,700 deaths each day in the world due to HIV/AIDS.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The Special Rapporteur has stated in his previous reports that, without a vaccine or a cure, the main hope of reducing the devastating consequences of this disease resides – in parallel to making available universal affordable treatment in developing countries – is the widespread access to information and preventive education for HIV/AIDS. Prevention, treatment, care and support are mutually reinforcing elements that integrate an effective response to HIV/AIDS. Making information and education available are essential to effective efforts to combating this disease, as recognized by UNAIDS.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. The Commission on Human Rights, in its resolution 2003/47 of 23 April 2003, recognized the importance of sharing knowledge, experiences and achievements concerning HIV-related issues, and urged States to promote effective programmes for the prevention of HIV/AIDS, including through education and awareness-raising campaigns. The Special Rapporteur has welcomed this resolution and has raised in several of his reports the relationship between access to information and HIV/AIDS prevention, calling upon States to facilitate access to information on HIV/AIDS for all their citizens.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Information and education do not only refer exclusively to issues that are directly related to HIV/AIDS transmission and prevention, but also to all those issues that have a clear impact on the spread of the epidemic, even if these are indirect. The Special Rapporteur has noted that the most successful campaigns seem to be those that are tailored to specific vulnerable groups. It is thus important that data collection methods be developed in such a manner as to precisely identify these groups, allowing for information and education campaigns to be targeted to their specific context", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. The Special Rapporteur is concerned that, according to statistics, some 2 million young people aged 15-24 years become infected with HIV every year. In sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, about 65 per cent of young people living with HIV/AIDS are female. The Special Rapporteur has observed that in many countries women continue to be discriminated against, and he has emphasized the importance of promoting effective programmes of information, particularly in rural areas. In this context, the Special Rapporteur calls upon States to allocate resources for programmes that are directed at adolescents and women for the prevention and treatment of this disease.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Adolescents", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. In most countries, people living with HIV/AIDS face discrimination. The Special Rapporteur places special importance on the promotion of campaigns that combat discriminatory attitudes and stigmatization of people living with HIV/AIDS. In this context, he encourages communities, teachers, journalists, doctors and, in particular, Governments to disseminate information addressing all HIV/AIDS-related issues, its modes of transmission and the means of protection. In particular, information on topics that may be considered as taboo or private – such as safe sex or drug abuse – should be explicit and made available in formats adapted and accessible to the society.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The United Nations, its agencies, funds and programmes have placed the fight against HIV/AIDS very high on the development agenda. The Special Rapporteur also notes with satisfaction that many donor countries have included HIV/AIDS among their priorities for development assistance. The Special Rapporteur encourages such trends and wishes to emphasize that it is only through a global response that the fight against HIV/AIDS can be addressed. The exchange of good practices between countries and the support to developing countries while implementing information and education programmes is crucial.\nThe ‘digital divide’", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Throughout his mandate, the Special Rapporteur has seen an unprecedented expansion of communication and information technologies around the world. However, the promises of the information society still are not being shared among all. A wide gap between the information-rich and the information-poor still remains (the “digital divide”) and does not show any encouraging signs of being reduced. It is important to note that the impact of the digital divide is not felt exclusively in developing and least developed countries, but also in vulnerable communities living in the industrialized world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Narrowing the digital divide requires more than only technical efforts to extent the new communication and information technologies to marginalized communities, thus connecting them to the information society. Unfortunately, hundreds of millions of people around the world are illiterate, and many more are not proficient in the new technologies. In this regard, educational measures, in particular widespread literacy programmes, need to be promoted as the sole alternative for empowering people and prepare them to become active members of the information society. Besides traditional literacy programmes, new policies and programmes should be promoted in order to foster education for the new media as the most important empowerment tool for the twenty-first century.\nFreedom of opinion and expression and freedom of religion", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. In recent years, and with increased frequency, particularly due to events that dominated international politics recently, an alleged dichotomy between the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the right to freedom of religion or belief has been purported. In particular, it has been argued that the dogmatic use of freedom of expression as a fundamental human right has undermined people’s ability to fully enjoy other human rights, in particular freedom of religion. The Special Rapporteur strongly rejects such a view, as it contradicts the clearly established notion and widely accepted principle that human rights are indivisible rather than rival principles. In particular, the ensemble of human rights can only be fully enjoyed in an environment that guarantees freedom and pluralism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Practices such as stereotyping and insulting ethnic, national, social or religious groups have serious and damaging consequences for the promotion of dialogue and living together among different communities. To fight intolerance and discrimination and to create a solid basis for the strengthening of democracy, broad-based and long-lasting programmes and actions need to be developed to promote respect for diversity, multiculturalism and human rights education.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. The Special Rapporteur also emphasizes that existing international instruments establish a clear limit on freedom of expression. In particular, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provides that “any propaganda for war” and “any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law”. The main problem thus lies in identifying at which point exactly these thresholds are reached. The Special Rapporteur underscores that this decision, which is ultimately a subjective one, should meet a number of requirements. In particular, it should not justify any type of prior censorship, it should be clearly and narrowly defined, it should be the least intrusive means in what concerns limitations to freedom of expression and it should be applied by an independent judiciary. The Special Rapporteur reiterates that these limitations are designed to protect individuals rather than belief systems, guaranteeing that every person will have all of his or her human rights protected.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The Special Rapporteur notes that a broader interpretation of these limitations, which has been recently suggested in international forums, is not in line with existing international instruments and would ultimately jeopardize the full enjoyment of human rights. Limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression have more often than not been used by Governments as a means to restrict criticism and silent dissent. Furthermore, as regional human rights courts have already recognized, the right to freedom of expression is applicable not only to comfortable, inoffensive or politically correct opinions, but also to ideas that “offend, shock and disturb”.[[fn:3]] The constant confrontation of ideas, even controversial ones, is a stepping stone to vibrant democratic societies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Arslan v. Turkey, European Court of Human Rights, 1999."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Legal restrictions on freedom of opinion and expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. The right to freedom of opinion and expression, and the related rights of freedom of association and assembly, are fundamental human rights with far-reaching consequences for the enjoyment of all other rights. When freedom of opinion and expression is respected, Governments are held accountable, public policies are designed more effectively and people’s voices are heard. Limiting the free circulation of ideals not diminishes plurality and diversity, but undermines democracy entirely.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. The Special Rapporteur urges Governments to conduct an in-depth assessment of existing national legislation as well as of judicial practices related to all forms of freedom of opinion and expression and to commence, whenever necessary, reform processes in order to guarantee conformity with international human rights norms and standards. The Special Rapporteur also recommends Governments to focus on the protection and the promotion of media independence as a priority, in order to ensure a constant advancement in the field of freedom of opinion and expression.\nOn censorship", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. The Special Rapporteur recommends that Governments adopt legislation that unambiguously prohibits all forms of censorship in media outlets, both in the traditional media and the Internet. Defamation, libel and insult charges, particularly when stemming from public figures and specifically State authorities, do not justify any form of prior censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Administrative and bureaucratic regulations of media outlets, including licensing, should be clearly established by law and overseen by independent institutions. The Special Rapporteur urges Governments not to make subjective use of these regulations as a means to exert undue pressure, suspend or ban media outlets.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. The Special Rapporteur urges Governments to take the appropriate measures to create a free and enabling environment where a plurality of media outlets can exist. In this regard, adequate measures need to be taken to prevent the phenomenon of media concentration, in particular the creation of media monopolies that could endanger pluralism, affect media independence and increase the cost of information. These measures should be taken by independent institutions that are protected against political or other forms of interference, particularly from the Government. The legitimate aim of preventing media concentration should not be used as a justification to exert undue pressure on outlets that are critical or independent.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. The Special Rapporteur urges Governments to take the appropriate measures to create a free and enabling environment where a plurality of media outlets can exist. In this regard, adequate measures need to be taken to prevent the phenomenon of media concentration, in particular the creation of media monopolies that could endanger pluralism, affect media independence and increase the cost of information. These measures should be taken by independent institutions that are protected against political or other forms of interference, particularly from the Government. The legitimate aim of preventing media concentration should not be used as a justification to exert undue pressure on outlets that are critical or independent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. Licensing should only be used when strictly necessary, as a technical tool to administer the scarcity of the airwaves. Licensing for abundant media, such as the Internet and the print media, is not a legitimate policy tool and violates the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Licensing should only be administered by an independent body that is insulated from government pressure and should not be used subjectively to ban or suspend independent media outlets, particularly television and radio channels.\nOn Internet governance", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. The Special Rapporteur invites Governments to consider the possibility of establishing an international organization with a specific mandate to improve governance of the Internet. The mandate of the organization would be to develop norms and principles of conduct to guarantee that the Internet will continue to be a democratic medium of expression in full compliance with human rights principles. The Special Rapporteur vigorously emphasizes that any new intergovernmental body administering, partially or totally, Internet governance must ensure freedom of opinion and expression and promote it in the light of article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.\nOn the safety and protection of media professionals", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. The Special Rapporteur recommends that Governments take the necessary measures to increase the safety and protection of journalists and other media workers, regardless of their professional and political affiliation. Protection must be ensured at all times, and particularly during armed conflicts, states of emergency and public disorder and electoral processes. Governments should also ensure the protection of other categories at risk, such as trade unionists, social workers, students and teachers, writers and artists. Eliminating impunity for the perpetrators of crimes against media professionals will function as an important deterrent against the repetition of these crimes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. Governments and State institutions should, as appropriate, envisage the creation of ad hoc protection schemes, which would allow journalists to continue their activities with an acceptable level of security, while maintaining their independence. Media enterprises should also consider covering the expenses of flexible protection for endangered journalists. Media professionals should not, under any circumstances, be obliged to bear the economic burden of their physical protection, in addition to the mental stress of being at risk.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. The Special Rapporteur reiterates his call to the Human Rights Council to pay increased attention to the issue of the safety and protection of journalists, in particular in situations of armed conflicts. The Council may wish to consider the opportunity, as previously suggested, of entrusting the Special Rapporteur with the preparation of a study on the causes of violence against media professionals, based, inter alia, on information from and the experiences of Governments, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, and including a comprehensive set of conclusions and recommendations and the drafting of guidelines for the protection of journalists and other media professionals. This study could represent the first step towards a debate, within the Human Rights Council, on this crucial issue, following the discussions held by other bodies, including the Security Council.\nOn defamation offences", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. The Special Rapporteur strongly recommends that Governments decriminalize defamation and similar offences, confining them to the domain of civil law. The amount of fines to be paid as compensation should be reasonable and allow the continuation of professional activities. The Special Rapporteur also urges Governments to release immediately and unconditionally all journalists detained because of their media-related activities. Prison sentences should be excluded for offences concerning the reputation of others, such as defamation and libel.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. Governments should also refrain from introducing new norms which will pursue the same goals as defamation laws under a different legal terminology such as disinformation and dissemination of false information. Under no circumstances should criticism of the nation, its symbols, the Government, its members and their action be seen as an offence. Elected officials and authorities should accept the fact that because of their prominent and public role, they will attract a disproportionate amount of scrutiny from the press. Governments should also make sure that the right to privacy, especially in relation to family life and minors, is sufficiently protected without curtailing the right to access to information, which contributes to transparency and democratic control of public affairs.\nOn freedom of expression and HIV/AIDS", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The Special Rapporteur underlines that the level of protection of human rights in a country has a direct impact on the spread of the AIDS epidemic. In this regard, the right to freedom of opinion and expression, in particular the right to receive information concerning HIV/AIDS, is a central aspect of efforts to tackle the problem.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The Special Rapporteur urges Governments to rely on preventive education and information strategies as one of the main defences, alongside care and treatment, against the spread of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. The extensive use of the mass media is necessary to ensure the widest coverage of information campaigns. More generally, information and education should be provided through all available and accessible means. The Special Rapporteur encourages States to cooperate with the media, NGOs and community-based organizations in this endeavour.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. The Special Rapporteur strongly believes that general respect for and protection of freedom of opinion and expression have a direct impact on the effectiveness of education and information policies, programmes and campaigns for the purpose of HIV/AIDS prevention. He therefore urges Governments to set a framework for the better protection of freedom of opinion and expression and for free flow of information and communications vis-à-vis the general public, as well as specific groups and communities.\nOn the ‘digital divide’", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The Special Rapporteur urges media professionals, as well as the public at large, to be conscious of the potential impact that the ideas they express may have in raising cultural and religious sensitivities. The dissemination of intolerant and discriminatory opinions ultimately promotes discord and conflict and is not conducive to the promotion of human rights. Media corporations and journalists’ associations, in cooperation with national and international organizations, should organize regular human rights training programmes in order to enhance professional ethics and sensitivity to cultural diversity of media professionals.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. The Special Rapporteur urges media professionals, as well as the public at large, to be conscious of the potential impact that the ideas they express may have in raising cultural and religious sensitivities. The dissemination of intolerant and discriminatory opinions ultimately promotes discord and conflict and is not conducive to the promotion of human rights. Media corporations and journalists' associations, in cooperation with national and international organizations, should organize regular human rights training programmes in order to enhance professional ethics and sensitivity to cultural diversity of media professionals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-7-14-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-7-14", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "The Special Rapporteur further emphasizes that, although limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression are foreseen in international instruments to prevent war propaganda and incitement of national, racial or religious hatred, these limitations were designed in order to protect individuals against direct violations of their rights. These limitations are not intended to suppress the expression of critical views, controversial opinions or politically incorrect statements. Finally, they are not designed to protect belief systems from external or internal criticism.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2008, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0001", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. Artificial intelligence (AI) is increasingly influencing the information environment worldwide. It enables companies to curate search results and newsfeeds as well as advertising placement, organizing what users see and when they see it. (AI) technologies are used by social media companies to help moderate content on their platforms, often acting as the first line of defence against content that may violate their rules. (AI) recommends people to friend or follow, news articles to read and places to visit or eat, shop or sleep. It offers speed, efficiency and scale, operating to help the largest companies in the information and communications technology sector manage the huge amounts of content uploaded to their platforms every day. (AI) technologies may enable broader and quicker sharing of information and ideas globally, a tremendous opportunity for freedom of expression and access to information. At the same time, the opacity of (AI) also risks interfering with individual self-determination, or what is referred to in the present report as “individual autonomy and agency”.[[fn:1]] A great global challenge confronts all those who promote human rights and the rule of law: how can States, companies and civil society ensure that (AI) technologies reinforce and respect, rather than undermine and imperil, human rights?", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See Mariarosaria Taddeo and Luciano Floridi, “How AI can be a force for good”, Science, vol. 361, No. 6404 (24 August 2018). Available at http://science.sciencemag.org/content/361/6404/751.full."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0002", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The present report does not pretend to be the last word in (AI) and human rights. Rather, it tries to do three things: define key terms essential to a human rights discussion about AI; identify the human rights legal framework relevant to AI; and present some preliminary recommendations to ensure that, as the technologies comprising AI evolve, human rights considerations are baked into that process. The report should be read as a companion to my most recent report to the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/38/35), in which a human rights approach to online content moderation was presented.[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "The present report benefited from an expert consultation conducted in Geneva in June 2018, supported with a grant from the European Union, and the input from experts as part of the development of document A/HRC/35/38 in 2017 and 2018. The Special Rapporteur especially wishes to thank Carly Nyst and Amos Toh, who contributed essential research and drafting to this project."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0003", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. AI is often used as shorthand for the increasing independence, speed and scale connected to automated, computational decision-making. It is not one thing only, but rather refers to a “constellation” of processes and technologies enabling computers to complement or replace specific tasks otherwise performed by humans, such as making decisions and solving problems.[[fn:3]] “AI” can be a problematic term, suggesting as it does that machines can operate according to the same concepts and rules of human intelligence. They cannot. AI generally optimizes the work of computerized tasks assigned by humans through iterative repetition and attempt. That said, it is the language of the culture, of companies and of Governments, and is used here.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "A. What is artificial intelligence?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See AI Now, “The AI now report: the social and economic implications of artificial intelligence technologies in the near term”, 2016. Available at https://ainowinstitute.org/AI_Now_2016_Report.pdf; United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland House of Lords Select Committee on Artificial Intelligence, “AI in the United Kingdom: ready, willing and able?”, 2018, p. 13."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0004", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Popular culture often suggests that society is headed towards artificial general intelligence, a still-distant capability (the “singularity”) for a computer system to approximate or surpass human intelligence across multiple domains.[[fn:4]] For the foreseeable future, there will continue to be advancements with respect to narrow AI, according to which computer systems perform programmed tasks (human-developed algorithms) in specific domains. Narrow AI underpins, for example, voice assistance on mobile devices and customer service chatbots, online translation tools and self-driving cars, search engine results and mapping services. Machine-learning is a category of narrow AI techniques used to train algorithms to use datasets to recognize and help solve problems. For example, AI-powered smart home devices are continuously “learning” from data collected about everyday language and speech patterns in order to process and respond to questions from their users more accurately. In all circumstances, humans play a critical role in designing and disseminating AI systems, defining the objectives of an AI application and, depending on the type of application, selecting and labelling datasets and classifying outputs. Humans always determine the application and use of AI outputs, including the extent to which they complement or replace human decision-making.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "A. What is artificial intelligence?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Article 19 and Privacy International, “Privacy and freedom of expression in an age of artificial intelligence”, London, 2018, p. 8."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0005", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. At the foundation of AI are algorithms, computer code designed and written by humans, carrying instructions to translate data into conclusions, information or outputs. Algorithms have long been essential to the operation of everyday systems of communication and infrastructure. The enormous volume of data in modern life and the capacity to analyse it fuel AI. The private sector certainly sees data that way: the more data available to feed algorithms and the better the quality of that data, the more powerful and precise the algorithms can become. Algorithmic systems can analyse huge volumes of data rapidly, enabling AI programmes to perform decision-making functions that were previously the domain of humans acting without computational tools.\nHuman agency is integral to AI, but the distinctive characteristics of AI deserve human rights scrutiny with respect to at least three of its aspects: automation, data analysis and adaptability.[[fn:5]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "A. What is artificial intelligence?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Council of Europe, Algorithms and Human Rights: Study on the Human Rights Dimensions of Automated Data Processing Techniques and Possible Regulatory Implications, Council of Europe study, No. DGI (2017) 12, 2018. Available at https://www.coe.int/en/web/freedom-expression/-/algorithms-and-human-rights-a-new-study-has-been-published, p. 5."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0006", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Automation. Automation removes human intervention from parts of a decision-making process, completing specific tasks with computational tools. This can have positive implications from a human rights perspective if a design limits human bias. For example, an automated border entry system may flag individuals for scrutiny based on objective features such as criminal history or visa status, limiting reliance on subjective (and bias-prone) assessments of physical presentation, ethnicity, age or religion. Automation also enables the processing of vast amounts of data at a speed and scale not achievable by humans, potentially serving public safety, health and national security. However, automated systems rely on datasets that, in their design or implementation, may allow for bias and thus produce discriminatory effects. For instance, the underlying criminal history or visa data suggested above itself may incorporate biases. Excessive reliance on and confidence in automated decisions and a failure to recognize this foundational point may in turn undermine scrutiny of AI outcomes and disable individuals from accessing remedies to adverse AI-driven decisions. Automation may impede the transparency and scrutability of a process, preventing even well-meaning authorities from providing an explanation of outcomes.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "A. What is artificial intelligence?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Council of Europe, Algorithms and Human Rights, p. 8."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0007", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. Data analysis. Vast datasets support most AI applications. Any dataset could form the basis of an AI system, from Internet browsing habits to data on traffic flows on highways. Some datasets contain personal data, while many others involve anonymized data. The use by AI of such datasets raises serious concerns, including regarding their origins, accuracy and individuals’ rights over them; the ability of AI systems to de-anonymize anonymized data; and biases that may be ingrained within the datasets or instilled through human training or labelling of the data. AI evaluation of data may identify correlations but not necessarily causation, which may lead to biased and faulty outcomes that are difficult to scrutinize.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "A. What is artificial intelligence?"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0008", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Adaptability. Machine-learning AI systems are adaptable, as the algorithms that power them are able to progressively identify new problems and develop new answers. Depending on the level of supervision, systems may identify patterns and develop conclusions unforeseen by the humans who programmed or tasked them. This lack of predictability holds the true promise of AI as a transformational technology, but it also illuminates its risks: as humans are progressively excluded from defining the objectives and outputs of an AI system, ensuring transparency, accountability and access to effective remedy becomes more challenging, as does foreseeing and mitigating adverse human rights impacts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "A. What is artificial intelligence?"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0009", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. AI has particularly important, and sometimes problematic, consequences for the information environment, the complex ecosystem of technologies, platforms and private and public actors that facilitate access to and dissemination of information through digital means. Algorithms and AI applications are found in every corner of the Internet, on digital devices and in technical systems, and in search engines, social media platforms, messaging applications and public information mechanisms. In keeping with the focus of the mandate, the Special Rapporteur indicates below the following three applications of AI in the information environment that raise concerns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0010", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Content display and personalization. Social media and search platforms increasingly dominate how individuals access and share information and ideas and how news is disseminated. Algorithms and AI applications determine how widely, when and with which audiences and individuals content is shared. Massive datasets that combine browsing histories, user demographics, semantic and sentiment analyses and numerous other factors feed into increasingly personalized algorithmic models to rank and curate information, that is, to show information to individuals or implicitly exclude it. Paid, sponsored or hashtagged content may be promoted to the exclusion or demotion of other content. Social media newsfeeds display content according to subjective assessments of how interesting or engaging content might be to a user; as a result, individuals may be offered little or no exposure to certain types of critical social or political stories and content posted to their platforms.[[fn:7]] AI shapes the world of information in a way that is opaque to the user and often even to the platform doing the curation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "World Wide Web Foundation, “The invisible curation of content: Facebook’s News Feed and our information diets”, 22 April 2018. Available at https://webfoundation.org/research/the-invisible-curation-of-content-facebooks-news-feed-and-our-information-diets/."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0011", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Online search is one of the most pervasive forms of AI-powered content display and personalization. Search engines deliver results for queries (and complete or predict queries) using AI systems that process extensive data about individual and aggregate users. Because poorly ranked content or content entirely excluded from search results is unlikely to be seen, the AI applications for search have enormous influence over the dissemination of knowledge.[[fn:8]] Content aggregators and news sites[[fn:9]] similarly choose which information to display to an individual based not on recent or important developments, but on AI applications that predict users’ interests and news patterns based on extensive datasets. Consequently, AI plays a large but usually hidden role in shaping what information individuals consume or even know to consume.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Council of Europe, Algorithms and Human Rights, p. 17."}, {"n": 9, "text": "For example, see “How Reuters’s revolutionary AI system gathers global news,” MIT Technology Review, 27 November 2017. Available at https://www.technologyreview.com/s/609558/how-reuterss-revolutionary-ai-system-gathers-global-news/; Paul Armstrong and Yue Wang, “China’s $11 billion news aggregator Jinri Toutiao is no fake,” Forbes, 26 May 2017. Available at https://www.forbes.com/sites/ywang/2017/05/26/jinri-toutiao-how-chinas-11-billion-news-aggregator-is-no-fake/#1d8b97804d8a."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0012", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. AI in the field of content display is driving towards greater personalization of each individual’s online experience; in an era of information abundance,[[fn:10]] personalization promises to order the chaos of the Internet, allowing individuals to find requested information. Benefits may include the ability to access information and services in a greater range of languages[[fn:11]] or information that is more timely and relevant to one’s personal experience or preferences. AI-driven personalization may also minimize exposure to diverse views, interfering with individual agency to seek and share ideas and opinions across ideological, political or societal divisions. Such personalization may reinforce biases and incentivize the promotion and recommendation of inflammatory content or disinformation in order to sustain users’ online engagement.[[fn:12]] To be sure, all sorts of social and cultural settings may limit an individual’s exposure to information. But by optimizing for engagement and virality at scale, AI-assisted personalization may undermine an individual’s choice to find certain kinds of content. This is especially so because algorithms typically will deprioritize content with lower levels of engagement, banishing independent and user-generated content into obscurity.[[fn:13]] Savvy actors can exploit rule-based AI systems optimized for engagement to gain higher levels of exposure, and by appropriating popular hashtags or using bots, they can achieve outsized online reach to the detriment of information diversity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Carly Nyst and Nick Monaco, State-Sponsored Trolling: How Governments are Deploying Disinformation as Part of Broader Digital Harassment Campaigns (Palo Alto, Institute for the Future, 2018), p. 8."}, {"n": 11, "text": "World Wide Web Foundation, “Artificial intelligence: the road ahead in low- and middle-income countries”, Washington, D.C., 2017."}, {"n": 12, "text": "Zeynep Tufekci, “YouTube, the great radicaliser”, New York Times, 10 March 2018. Available at https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/10/opinion/sunday/youtube-politics-radical.html; James Williams, Stand Out of our Light: Freedom and Resistance in the Attention Economy (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2018)."}, {"n": 13, "text": "Recently, some tech platforms have indicated their intention to move away from “engagement” — driven personalization to personalization which prioritizes the quality of a user’s experience online; see Julia Carrie Wong, “Facebook overhauls News Feed in favour of ‘meaningful social interactions’”, The Guardian, 11 January 2018. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/jan/11/facebook-news-feed-algorithm-overhaul-mark-zuckerberg. However, without thorough transparency, reporting and metrics around how AI systems make and implement such assessments, it is difficult to assess whether this change is having a demonstrable effect on internet users’ experience."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0013", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Content moderation and removal. AI helps social media companies to moderate content in accordance with platform standards and rules, including spam detection, hash-matching technology (using digital fingerprints to identify, for instance, terrorist or child exploitation content), keyword filters, natural language processing (by which the nature of the content is assessed for prohibited words or imagery) and other detection algorithms. AI may be used to subject user accounts to warnings, suspension or deactivation on the basis of violations of terms of service or may be employed to block or filter websites on the basis of prohibited domain data or content. Social media companies use AI to filter content across the range of their rules (from nudity to harassment to hate speech and so on), although the extent to which such companies rely on automation without human input on specific cases is not known.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "An Instagram tool, Deep Text, attempts to judge the “toxicity” of the context, as well as permitting users to customize their own word and emoji filers, and also assesses user relationship in a further attempt to establish context (such as whether a comment is just a joke between friends). Andrew Hutchison, “Instagram’s rolling out new tools to remove ‘toxic comments’”, Social Media Today, 30 June 2017. Available at https://www.socialmediatoday.com/social-networks/instagrams-rolling-out-new-tools-remove-toxic-comments."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0014", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Support and pressure for increasing the role of AI come from both the private and public sectors. Companies claim that the volume of illegal, inappropriate and harmful content online far exceeds the capabilities of human moderation and argue that AI is one tool that can assist in better tackling this challenge. According to some platforms, AI is not only more efficient in identifying inappropriate (according to their rules) and illegal content for removal (usually by a human moderator) but also has a higher accuracy rate than human decision-making. States, meanwhile, are pressing for efficient, speedy automated moderation across a range of separate challenges, from child sexual abuse and terrorist content, where AI is already extensively deployed, to copyright and the removal of ‘“extremist” and “hateful” content.[[fn:15]] The European Commission Recommendation on measures to further improve the effectiveness of the fight against illegal content online of March 2018 calls upon Internet platforms to use automatic filters to detect and remove terrorist content, with human review in some cases suggested as a necessary counterweight to the inevitable errors caused by the automated systems.[[fn:16]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "The United Kingdom reportedly developed a tool to automatically detect and remove terrorist content at the point of upload. See, for example, Home Office, “New technology revealed to help fight terrorist content online”, press release, 13 February 2018. See European Commission, proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Copyright in the Digital Single Market, COM(2016) 593 final, art. 13; Letter from the Special Rapporteur to the President of the European Commission, reference No. OL OTH 41/2018, 13 June 2018. Available at https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Opinion/Legislation/OL-OTH-41-2018.pdf."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Commission recommendation of 1 March 2018 on measures to effectively tackle illegal content online (C(2018) 1177 final). Available at https://ec.europa.eu/digital-single-market/en/news/commission-recommendation-measures-effectively-tackle-illegal-content-online; see also Daphne Keller, “Comment in response to European Commission’s March 2018 recommendation on measures to further improve the effectiveness of the fight against illegal content online”, Stanford Law School, Center for Internet and Society, 29 March 2018. Available at http://cyberlaw.stanford.edu/publications/comment-response-european-commissions-march-2018-recommendation-measures-further."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0015", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Efforts to automate content moderation may come at a cost to human rights (see A/HRC/38/35, para. 56). AI-driven content moderation has several limitations, including the challenge of assessing context and taking into account widespread variation of language cues, meaning and linguistic and cultural particularities. Because AI applications are often grounded in datasets that incorporate discriminatory assumptions,[[fn:17]] and under circumstances in which the cost of over-moderation is low, there is a high risk that such systems will default to the removal of online content or suspension of accounts that are not problematic and that content will be removed in accordance with biased or discriminatory concepts. As a result, vulnerable groups are the most likely to be disadvantaged by AI content moderation systems. For example, Instagram’s DeepText identified “Mexican” as a slur because its datasets were populated with data in which “Mexican” was associated with “illegal”, a negatively coded term baked into the algorithm.[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See Aylin Caliskan, Joanna Bryson and Arvind Narayanan, “Semantics derived automatically from language corpora contain human-like biases”, Science, vol. 356, No. 6334 (14 April 2017); Solon Barocas and Andrew Selbst, “Big data’s disparate impact”, California Law Review, vol. 104, No. 671 (2016)."}, {"n": 18, "text": "Nicholas Thompson, “Instagram’s Kevin Systrom wants to clean up the &#%@! Internet”, Wired, 14 August 2017. Available at https://www.wired.com/2017/08/instagram-kevin-systrom-wants-to-clean-up-the-internet/."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0016", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. AI makes it difficult to scrutinize the logic behind content actions. Even when algorithmic content moderation is complemented by human review — an arrangement that large social media platforms argue is increasingly infeasible on the scale at which they operate — a tendency to defer to machine-made decisions (on the assumptions of objectivity noted above) impedes interrogation of content moderation outcomes, especially when the system’s technical design occludes that kind of transparency.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0017", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Profiling, advertising and targeting. Advances in AI have both benefited from and further incentivized the data-driven business model of the Internet, namely, that individuals pay for free content and services with their personal data. With the vast data resources amassed from years of online monitoring and profiling, companies are able to equip AI systems with rich datasets to develop ever more precise prediction and targeting models. Today, advertising by private and public actors can be achieved at an individual level; consumers and voters are the subject of “microtargeting” designed to respond to and exploit individual idiosyncrasies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0018", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. AI-driven targeting incentivizes the widespread collection and exploitation of personal data and increases the risk of manipulation of individual users through the spread of disinformation. Targeting can perpetuate discrimination, as well as users’ exclusion from information or opportunities by, for example, permitting targeted job and housing advertisements that exclude older workers, women or ethnic minorities.[[fn:19]] Rather than individuals being exposed to parity and diversity in political messaging, for example, the deployment of microtargeting through social media platforms is creating a curated worldview inhospitable to pluralistic political discourse.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Understanding artificial intelligence", "B. Artificial intelligence and the information environment"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Julia Angwin, Noam Scheiber and Ariana Tobin, “Dozens of companies are using Facebook to exclude older workers from job ads”, ProPublica, 20 December 2017. Available at https://www.propublica.org/article/facebook-ads-age-discrimination-targeting; Julia Angwin, Ariana Tobin and Madeleine Varner, “Facebook (still) letting housing advertisers exclude users by race”, ProPublica, 21 November 2017. Available at https://www.propublica.org/article/facebook-advertising-discrimination-housing-race-sex-national-origin."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0019", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. AI tools, like all technologies, must be designed, developed and deployed so as to be consistent with the obligations of States and the responsibilities of private actors under international human rights law. Human rights law imposes on States both negative obligations to refrain from implementing measures that interfere with the exercise of freedom of opinion and expression and positive obligations to promote rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to protect their exercise.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "A. Scope of human rights obligations in the context of artificial intelligence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0020", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. With respect to the private sector, States are bound to guarantee respect for individual rights,[[fn:20]] especially the rights to freedom of opinion and expression, including by protecting individuals from infringing acts committed by private parties (article 2 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights). States can meet this obligation through legal measures to restrict or influence the development and implementation of AI applications, through policies regarding the procurement of AI applications from private companies by public sector actors, through self- and co-regulatory schemes and by building the capacity of private sector companies to recognize and prioritize the rights to freedom of opinion and expression in their corporate endeavours.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "A. Scope of human rights obligations in the context of artificial intelligence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See principle 3 of the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework (A/HRC/17/31) and A/HRC/38/35, paras. 6–8."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "2", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0021", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Companies also have responsibilities under human rights law that should guide their construction, adoption and mobilization of AI technologies (A/HRC/38/35, para. 10). The Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework provide a “global standard of expected conduct for all businesses wherever they operate” (principle 11), including social media and search companies. To adapt the conclusions from the Guiding Principles to the domain of AI (ibid., para. 11), the Guiding Principles require that companies, at a minimum, make high-level policy commitments to respect the human rights of their users in all AI applications (principle 16); avoid causing or contributing to adverse human rights impacts through their use of AI technology and prevent and mitigate any adverse effects linked to their operations (principle 13); conduct due diligence on AI systems to identify and address actual and potential human rights impacts (principles 17–19); engage in prevention and mitigation strategies (principle 24); conduct ongoing review of AI-related activities, including through stakeholder and public consultation (principles 20–21), and provide accessible remedies to remediate adverse human rights impacts from AI systems (principles 22, 29 and 31).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "A. Scope of human rights obligations in the context of artificial intelligence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0022", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. The freedom to hold opinions without interference is an absolute right, enshrined in article 19 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It “permits no exception or restriction,” whether “by law or other power”.[[fn:21]] In his 2015 report to the Human Rights Council on encryption and anonymity in digital communications (A/HRC/29/32), the Special Rapporteur observed that the ways in which information is stored, transmitted and secured in the digital age uniquely affect the exercise of the right to hold opinions. Search queries, browsing activities, email and text communications, and documents and mementos held in the cloud — together, these digital activities and records form the fabric of the opinions users hold (ibid., para. 12). Both State and non-State actors may interfere with these mechanics and processes of forming and holding opinions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "B. Right to freedom of opinion"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression, para. 9, available at www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/GC34.pdf; Manfred Nowak, U.N. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: CCPR Commentary (1993)."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First occurrence: 'article 19 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR with paragraph."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second occurrence: 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0023", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. An essential element of the right to hold an opinion is the “right to form an opinion and to develop this by way of reasoning”.[[fn:22]] The Human Rights Committee has concluded that this right requires freedom from undue coercion in the development of an individual’s beliefs, ideologies, reactions and positions.[[fn:23]] Accordingly, forced neurological interventions, indoctrination programmes (such as “re-education camps”) or threats of violence designed to compel individuals to form particular opinions or change their opinion violate article 19 (1) of the Covenant. The Committee has also found that coercive “inducements of preferential treatment” may rise to a level of persuasion that interferes with the right to form and hold opinions (see CCPR/C/78/D/878/1999).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "B. Right to freedom of opinion"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "Nowak, U.N. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}, {"n": 23, "text": "Yong Joo-Kang v. Republic of Korea, Human Rights Committee communication No. 878/1999, 16 July 2003 (CCPR/C/78/D/878/1999)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0024", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. The intersection of technology and content curation raises novel questions about the types of coercion or inducement that may be considered an interference with the right to form an opinion. Content curation has long informed the capacity of the individual to form opinions: for example, media outlets elevate particular stories to the front page with the intention of shaping and influencing individual knowledge about significant news of the day. Commercial advertising has also sought to induce favourable opinions of and cultivate desire for particular products and services.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "B. Right to freedom of opinion"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0025", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The use of AI extends and enhances the tradition of content curation on the Internet, providing more sophisticated and efficient means of personalizing and curating content for the user at a scale beyond the reach of traditional media. The dominance of particular modes of AI-assisted curation raises concern about its impact on the capacity of the individual to form and develop opinions. For example, a handful of technology companies lay claim to the vast majority of search queries conducted online. Corporate monopoly of the search market makes it extremely difficult for users to opt out of the algorithmic ranking and curation of search results and may also induce users to believe (as companies intend it) that the results generated are the most relevant or objective information available on a particular subject. The lack of transparency about how search criteria are developed and implemented through the use of AI may also reinforce the assumption that search results generated on a particular platform are an objective presentation of factual information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "B. Right to freedom of opinion"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0026", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. The issues that market dominance raises in the field of AI-assisted curation therefore test historical understandings of how content curation affects or does not affect the capacity to form an opinion. The novelty of the issues raised, coupled with the general lack of jurisprudence concerning interferences with the right of opinion, provide more questions than answers about the human rights impact of AI-assisted curation in the contemporary digital environment. Nevertheless, these questions should drive rights-oriented research into the social, economic and political effects of AI-assisted curation. Companies should, at the very least, provide meaningful information about how they develop and implement criteria for curating and personalizing content on their platforms, including policies and processes for detecting social, cultural or political biases in the design and development of relevant AI systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "B. Right to freedom of opinion"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0027", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Article 19 (2) of the Covenant guarantees an expansive right to “seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds”, one which must be protected and respected regardless of frontiers or type of media. Enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression is intimately related to the exercise of other rights and foundational to the effective functioning of democratic institutions and, accordingly, the protection, respect and promotion of the right to freedom of expression entails the duty to include the promotion of media diversity and independence and the protection of access to information.[[fn:24]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Representative on Freedom of the Media, Organization of American States Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression and African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression and access to information, “Joint Declaration on freedom of expression and ‘fake news’”, disinformation and propaganda”, 3 March 2017. Available at https://www.osce.org/fom/302796; see also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression; A/HRC/29/32, para. 61 and A/HRC/32/38, para. 86."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0028", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Unlike the right to form and hold opinions, the rights to express and access information and ideas may be subject to restrictions under limited circumstances (article 19 (3) of the Covenant). Restrictions must meet the standards of legality, meaning that they are publicly provided by a law that meets standards of clarity and precision and are interpreted by independent judicial authorities; necessity and proportionality, meaning that they are the least intrusive measure necessary to achieve the legitimate interest at hand and do not imperil the essence of the right; and legitimacy, meaning that they must be in pursuit of an enumerated legitimate interest, namely, the protection of rights or reputations of others, national security or public order, or public health or morals (A/HRC/38/35, para. 7). Within this framework, expression rights can also be restricted pursuant to article 20 (2) of the Covenant, which requires States to prohibit “advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence”, but restrictions must still satisfy the cumulative conditions of legality, necessity and legitimacy.[[fn:25]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression, para. 50."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0029", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. The complexity of decision-making inherent in content moderation may be exacerbated by the introduction of automated processes. Unlike humans, algorithms are today not capable of evaluating cultural context, detecting irony or conducting the critical analysis necessary to accurately identify, for example, “extremist” content or hate speech[[fn:26]] and are thus more likely to default to content blocking and restriction, undermining the rights of individual users to be heard as well as their right to access information without restriction or censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Council of Europe, Algorithms and Human Rights, p. 21."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0030", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. In an AI-governed system, the dissemination of information and ideas is governed by opaque forces with priorities that may be at odds with an enabling environment for media diversity and independent voices. Relevantly, the Human Rights Committee has found that States should “take appropriate action … to prevent undue media dominance or concentration by privately controlled media groups in monopolistic situations that may be harmful to a diversity of sources and views”.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression, para. 40."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0031", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Users also lack access to the rules of the game when it comes to AI-driven platforms and websites. A lack of clarity about the extent and scope of AI and algorithmic applications online prevent individuals from understanding when and according to what metric information is disseminated, restricted or targeted. Small concessions to addressing this problem such as selective identification of sponsored search results,[[fn:28]] or social media platforms highlighting when advertising is paid for by political actors, may contribute slightly to helping users to understand the rules of the information environment, but these neither capture nor resolve the concerns around the scale at which algorithmic processes are shaping that environment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Safiya Umoja Noble, Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism (New York, New York University Press, 2018)."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0032", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Even when individuals are informed about the existence, scope and operation of AI systems, those systems may frustrate efforts at transparency and suitability. To date, no sophisticated and scalable means for scrutinizing and making transparent the technical underpinnings of automated decisions in the online sphere have been developed.[[fn:29]] This means that individuals will often have their expression rights adversely affected without being able to investigate or understand why, how or on what basis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Mike Ananny and Kate Crawford, “Seeing without knowing: limitations of the transparency ideal and its application to algorithmic accountability”, New Media and Society, vol. 20, No. 3 (13 December 2016). Available at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1461444816676645?journalCode=nmsa."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0033", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The right to privacy often acts as a gateway to the enjoyment of freedom of opinion and expression.[[fn:30]] Article 17 of the Covenant protects the individual against “arbitrary or unlawful interference with his or her privacy, family, home or correspondence” and “unlawful attacks on his or her honour and reputation” and provides that “everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks”. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights and the Human Rights Council have emphasized that any interference with privacy must meet standards of legality, necessity and proportionality (A/HRC/27/37, para. 23 and Human Rights Council resolution 34/7, para. 2).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "D. Right to privacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "See A/HRC/29/32, para. 16, General Assembly resolution 68/167 and Human Rights Council resolution 20/8."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0034", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. AI-driven decision-making systems depend on the collection and exploitation of data, ranging from ambient, non-personal data to personally identifiable information, with the vast majority of data used to feed AI systems being somewhere in the middle — data that are inferred or extracted from personal data, or personal data that have been anonymized (often imperfectly). Companies use data derived from online profiling and digital fingerprinting, procure datasets from third parties such as data brokers and derive new data from vast aggregated datasets to feed AI systems. AI-driven consumer products and autonomous systems are frequently equipped with sensors that generate and collect vast amounts of data on individuals within their proximity[[fn:31]] and AI methods on social media platforms are used to infer and generate sensitive information about people that they have not provided or confirmed, such as sexual orientation, family relationships, religious views, health conditions or political affiliation.", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "D. Right to privacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "Article 19 and Privacy International, “Privacy and freedom of expression”."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0035", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. AI challenges traditional notions of consent, purpose and use limitation, transparency and accountability — the pillars upon which international data protection standards rest.[[fn:32]] Because AI systems work by exploiting existing datasets and creating new ones, the ability of individuals to know, understand and exercise control over how their data are used is deprived of practical meaning in the context of AI. Once data are repurposed in an AI system, they lose their original context, increasing the risk that data about individuals will become inaccurate or out of date and depriving individuals of the ability to rectify or delete the data. AI-based systems are being used to make consequential decisions using those data, some of which profoundly affect people’s lives,[[fn:33]] and yet, individuals have few avenues to exercise control over data that have been derived from their personal data, even as anonymization techniques continue to suffer from inadequacies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "D. Right to privacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 16: Article 17 (1988) on the right to privacy, para. 10."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Article 19 and Privacy International, “Privacy and freedom of expression”, p. 19."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0036", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Non-discrimination is an intrinsic principle of human rights law, existing not only as a qualifier on the obligations of States to ensure enjoyment of all other human rights without discrimination, but also, as enshrined in article 26 of the Covenant, as a stand-alone guarantee of equality before the law and equal protection of the law. States are under a clear obligation to “prohibit any discrimination and guarantee to all persons equal and effective protection against discrimination on any ground such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status”. Thus, articles 17 and 19 incorporate individual rights to freedom from discrimination in the holding and forming of opinions, the expression of and access to ideas and information, and the exercise of privacy and the protection of personal data.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "E. Obligation of non-discrimination"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "26", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0037", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The potential for AI to embed and perpetuate bias and discrimination extends to discrimination in the exercise of freedom of opinion and expression. Moderation algorithms may fail to take into account cultural, language or gender-based contexts and sensitivities, or public interest in the content.[[fn:34]] AI-driven newsfeeds may perpetuate and reinforce discriminatory attitudes, while AI profiling and advertising systems have demonstrably facilitated discrimination along racial, religious and gender lines.[[fn:35]] “Autocomplete” AI functions have also produced racially discriminatory results.[[fn:36]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "E. Obligation of non-discrimination"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "This has led to, for example, the removal of historical photographs with particular cultural significance. See Julia Carrie Wong, “Mark Zuckerberg accused of abusing power after Facebook deletes ‘napalm girl’ post”, The Guardian, 9 September 2016. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/sep/08/facebook-mark-zuckerberg-napalm-girl-photo-vietnam-war; see also A/HRC/38/35, para. 29."}, {"n": 35, "text": "Julia Angwin, Madeleine Varner and Ariana Tobin, “Facebook enabled advertisers to reach ‘Jew haters’”, ProPublica, 14 September 2017. Available at https://www.propublica.org/article/facebook-enabled-advertisers-to-reach-jew-haters; Ariana Tobin, “Why we had to buy racist, sexist, xenophobic, ableist and otherwise awful Facebook ads,” ProPublica, 27 November 2017. Available at https://www.propublica.org/article/why-we-had-to-buy-racist-sexist-xenophobic-ableist-and-otherwise-awful-facebook-ads."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Paris Martineau, “YouTube’s search suggests racist autocompletes”, The Outline, 13 May 2018. Available at https://theoutline.com/post/4536/youtube-s-search-autofill-suggests-racist-results?zd=1&zi=3ygzt6hw."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0038", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. A number of factors ingrain bias into AI systems, increasing their discriminatory potential. These include the way in which AI systems are designed, decisions as to the origin and scope of the datasets on which these systems are trained, societal and cultural biases that developers may build into those datasets, the AI models themselves and the way in which the outputs of the AI model are implemented in practice. For example, facial recognition applications suffer from being grounded in predominantly white, male datasets, with errors occurring in up to 20 per cent of the time for women and people with darker skin colours.[[fn:37]] When such systems are used to, for example, categorize images available through a search engine, their discriminatory potential can translate into concrete interferences with individuals’ exercise of their rights to seek, receive and impart information and freely assemble or associate.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "E. Obligation of non-discrimination"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "Joy Buolamwini, “The dangers of supremely white data and the coded gaze”, presented at Wikimania 2018, Cape Town. Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZSJXKoD6mA8&feature=youtu.be."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0039", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Human rights law guarantees individuals a remedy determined by competent judicial, administrative or legislative authorities (article 2 (3) of the Covenant). Remedies must be known by and accessible to anyone who has had their rights violated; must involve prompt, thorough and impartial investigation of alleged violations;[[fn:38]] and must be capable of ending ongoing violations (A/HRC/27/37, paras. 39–41).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "F. Right to an effective remedy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 31 (2004) on the nature of the general legal obligation imposed on States parties to the Covenant, para. 15."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0040", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. AI systems often interfere with the right to a remedy. First, individual notice is almost inherently unavailable. In almost all applications of AI technology in the information environment, individuals are not aware of the scope, extent or even existence of the algorithmic decision-making processes that may have an impact on their enjoyment of rights to opinion and expression. The second and more challenging aspect is the scrutability of the AI system itself. The logic behind an algorithmic decision may not be evident even to an expert trained in the underlying mechanics of the system. Although it is logical to assume that more transparency around AI systems would enable greater scrutiny, algorithmic transparency does not necessarily equate with intelligible explanations of decision-making processes. Algorithms may obscure that a consequential decision has been taken or be so complex and context-dependent as to frustrate explanation. The situation is further complicated because companies operating in the information environment frequently update their algorithms;[[fn:39]] equally, machine-learning applications may change their own rules and algorithms over time.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "F. Right to an effective remedy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "Barry Schwartz, “Google: we make thousands of updates to search algorithms each year”, Search Engine Roundtable, 5 June 2015. Available at https://www.seroundtable.com/google-updates-thousands-20403.html."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0041", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Compounding these concerns is the shift towards the automation of remedy systems themselves, according to which complaints of individual users, either about content moderation decisions or about the adverse human rights impacts of AI technologies, are considered and determined by AI technologies.[[fn:40]] Automatic response processes raise concerns about whether complaint redress mechanisms constitute an effective remedy, given the lack of discretion, contextual analysis and independent determination built into such processes.[[fn:41]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "F. Right to an effective remedy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "Council of Europe, Algorithms and Human Rights, p. 24."}, {"n": 41, "text": "Pei Zhang, Sophie Stalla-Bourdillon and Lester Gilbert, “A content-linking-context model for ‘notice-and-take-down’ procedures”, WebSci ‘16, May 2016. Available at http://takedownproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/ContentLinkingModelZhangStallaGilbert.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0042", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Many States are now devising national AI strategies in order to explore and develop policies and initiatives designed to maximize the potential benefits of AI for their citizens.[[fn:42]] Although no State has yet to propose a comprehensive law or regulation of AI, there are reasons to be cautious about such an approach, which may be ill-suited to such an innovative field and may compensate for lack of detail with overly restrictive or overly permissive provisions. Sectoral regulation may be preferable although, arguably, existing law and regulation, for example in the field of data protection, could be flexible and available without the need to legislate further.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "G. Legislative, regulatory and policy responses to artificial intelligence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "Tim Dutton, “An overview of national AI strategies”, Medium, 28 June 2018. Available at https://medium.com/politics-ai/an-overview-of-national-ai-strategies-2a70ec6edfd."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0043", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. At the same time, States should ensure that AI is developed in keeping with human rights standards. Any efforts to develop State policy or regulation in the field of AI should ensure consideration of human rights concerns.[[fn:43]] The rights to freedom of opinion and expression, in particular, are often excluded from public and political debates on AI, which, to the extent that they tackle human rights issues, tend to focus on bias and discrimination in service delivery.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "G. Legislative, regulatory and policy responses to artificial intelligence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "It is concerning, for example, that a parliamentary committee in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland issued a 200-page report that does not mention human rights even once. See United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland House of Lords Select Committee on Artificial Intelligence, “AI in the United Kingdom”."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0044", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Because the development of effective AI systems depends on the acquisition of large datasets as well as long-term investment in technological capabilities, private sector entities are likely to dominate in terms of development, production and capacity, leading to increased public sector reliance on companies for access to AI systems. This increases the likelihood and public perception that corporate and government interests will become increasingly intertwined. This is especially the case in the information environment, in which Governments are often users — of social media platforms, search engines and other technologies — rather than providers. The alignment of public and private interests does not in itself create human rights interferences but raises concerns about transparency and accountability. As private development of AI proceeds, there is a very real risk that States will delegate increasingly complex and onerous censorship and surveillance mandates to companies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "G. Legislative, regulatory and policy responses to artificial intelligence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0045", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Any State attempts to articulate law or policy in the field of AI should speak both to public and private sector AI applications, rather than simply focusing on public sector AI regulation. As the Council of Europe concluded, “Issues related to algorithmic governance and/or regulation are public policy prerogatives and should not be left to private actors alone.”[[fn:44]] State approaches may involve enhanced transparency and disclosure obligations on companies and robust data protection legislation that addresses AI-related concerns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "G. Legislative, regulatory and policy responses to artificial intelligence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "Council of Europe, Algorithms and Human Rights, p. 44."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0046", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Public and private sector initiatives designed to explore and integrate ethics into the procurement, design, deployment and implementation of AI systems are proliferating. The Special Rapporteur strongly encourages the integration of human rights concerns into these efforts. The private sector’s focus on and the public sector’s push for ethics often imply resistance to human rights-based regulation.[[fn:45]] While ethics provide a critical framework for working through particular challenges in the field of AI, it is not a replacement for human rights, to which every State is bound by law. Companies and Governments should ensure that human rights considerations and responsibilities are firmly integrated into all aspects of their AI operations even as they are developing ethical codes and guidance.[[fn:46]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. A human rights legal framework for artificial intelligence", "G. Legislative, regulatory and policy responses to artificial intelligence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "Ben Wagner, “Ethics as an escape from regulation: from ethics-washing to ethics-shopping?”, in Being Profiling: Cogitas Ergo Sum, Mireille Hildebrandt, ed. (Amsterdam University Press (forthcoming))."}, {"n": 46, "text": "Article 19 and Privacy International, “Privacy and freedom of expression”, p. 13."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0047", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. In recent reports, the mandate holder has set out legal and practical considerations for companies to put human rights principles at the heart of their content regulation policies and has detailed both substantive standards and processes that ensure that companies can comply with their human rights responsibilities under the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights in all aspects of their operations. That same framework frames the approach offered here with respect to AI technologies. The substantive standards and processes proposed below apply to companies, in their capacity as actors that design, deploy and implement AI systems, and to States, which have an obligation to refrain from interfering with human rights in their own adoption and use of AI systems. These standards and processes are designed to ensure that human rights law is placed at the heart of advancements in the field of AI. Two fundamental principles are woven throughout the standards and processes offered: the need to protect and respect individual agency and autonomy, a key precondition to the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression; and the importance of meaningful disclosure on the part of public and sector actors, defined by open and innovative efforts to explain AI technologies to the public and facilitate their scrutiny.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0048", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Companies should orient their standards, rules and system design around universal human rights principles (A/HRC/38/35, paras. 41–43). Public-facing terms and guidelines should be complemented by internal policy commitments to mainstreaming human rights considerations throughout a company’s operations, especially in relation to the development and deployment of AI and algorithmic systems. Companies should consider how to elaborate professional standards for AI engineers, translating human rights responsibilities into guidance for technical design and operation choices. The development of codes of ethics and accompanying institutional structures may be an important complement to, but not a substitute for, commitments to human rights. Codes and guidelines issued by both public and private sector bodies should emphasize that human rights law provides the fundamental rules for the protection of individuals in the context of AI, while ethics frameworks may assist in further developing the content and application of human rights in specific circumstances.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "A. Substantive standards for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0049", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Companies and Governments must be explicit with individuals about which decisions in the information environment are made by automated systems and which are accompanied by human review, as well as the broad elements of the logic used by those systems. Individuals should also be informed when the personal data they provide to a private sector actor (either explicitly or through their use of a service or site) will become part of a dataset used by an AI system, to enable them to factor that knowledge into their decision about whether to consent to data collection and which types of data they wish to disclose.[[fn:47]] Similarly to the public notices required for the use of closed-circuit television cameras, AI systems should actively disclose to individuals (through innovative means such as pop-up boxes) in a clear and understandable manner that they are subject or contributing data to an AI-driven decision-making process, as well as meaningful information about the logic involved in the process and the significance of the consequences to the individual.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "A. Substantive standards for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 16 (1988) on the right to privacy."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0050", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Transparency does not stop with the disclosure to individual users about the existence of AI technologies in the platforms and online services they use. Companies and Governments need to embrace transparency throughout each aspect of the AI value chain. Transparency need not be complex to be effective; even simplified explanations of the purpose, policies, inputs and outputs of an AI system can contribute to public education and debate.[[fn:48]] Rather than grapple with the predicament of making convoluted technical processes legible to lay audiences, companies should strive to achieve transparency through the provision of non-technical insights into a system. To that end, the focus should be on educating individual users about an AI system’s existence, purpose, constitution and impact, rather than about the source code, training data and inputs and outputs.[[fn:49]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "A. Substantive standards for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Aaron Rieke, Miranda Bogen and David Robinson, “Public scrutiny of automated decisions: early lessons and emerging methods” (Omidyar and Upturn, 2018), p. 5."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Rieke, Bogen and Robinson, “Public scrutiny of automated decisions”, p. 8."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0051", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Radical transparency about the impact of an AI system in the information environment requires disclosure of, for example, data on how much content is removed by AI systems, how often AI-suggested content removals are approved by a human moderator, how often content removals are contested and how often challenges to content removals are upheld. Aggregate data illustrating trends in content display should be available for users to inspect, alongside case studies that illustrate why certain content will be prioritized over other content. Disclosure about the sources and beneficiaries of political and commercial advertising is a critical element of radical transparency. Public and private sector actors implementing AI-driven systems should also be transparent about the limits of the AI system, including for example, confidence measures, known failure scenarios and appropriate limitations on use.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "A. Substantive standards for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Amnesty International and Access Now, “Toronto declaration: protecting the right to equality and non-discrimination in machine learning systems”, art. 27 (d), 2018. Available at https://www.accessnow.org/the-toronto-declaration-protecting-the-rights-to-equality-and-non-discrimination-in-machine-learning-systems/."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0052", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Tackling the prevalence of discrimination in AI systems is an existential challenge for companies and Governments; failure to address and resolve the discriminatory elements and impacts will render the technology not only ineffective but dangerous. There is ample thought leadership and resources for companies and Governments to draw on in considering how to address bias and discrimination in AI systems; broadly speaking, it necessitates isolating and accounting for discrimination at both the input and output levels. This involves, at a minimum, addressing sampling errors (where datasets are non-representative of society), scrubbing datasets to remove discriminatory data and putting in place measures to compensate for data that “contain the imprint of historical and structural patterns of discrimination”[[fn:51]] and from which AI systems are likely to develop discriminatory proxies. Active monitoring of discriminatory outcomes of AI systems is also integral to avoiding and mitigating adverse effects on the human rights of individuals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "A. Substantive standards for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "Iason Gabriel, “The case for fairer algorithms”, Medium, 14 March 2018. Available at https://medium.com/@Ethics_Society/the-case-for-fairer-algorithms-c008a12126f8."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0053", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Human rights impact assessments. Embracing radical transparency throughout the AI life cycle requires companies and Governments to take steps to permit systems to be scrutinized and challenged from conception to implementation. Human rights impact assessments are one tool that can demonstrate a commitment to addressing the human rights implications of AI systems and should be performed prior to procurement, development or use and involve both self-assessment and external review. The think tank AI Now has proposed a public agency algorithmic impact assessment that stipulates that Governments should undertake an internal review of AI systems as well as facilitate external research review processes to test and verify assumptions and conclusions.[[fn:52]] Companies should also conduct assessments along similar lines.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "B. Processes for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Dillon Reisman and others, “Algorithmic impact assessments: a practical framework for public agency accountability” (AI Now, 2018). Available at https://ainowinstitute.org/aiareport2018.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0054", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Public sector procurement of AI technologies from private vendors must be accompanied by a public consultation to elicit societal views and input on the design and implementation of the AI system before it is acquired. Both companies and Governments must conduct meaningful and sustained consultations with civil society, human rights groups, relevant local communities and representatives of historically marginalized or underrepresented populations before developing, procuring or using AI systems and technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "B. Processes for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0055", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Audits. Facilitating external review of AI systems provides a critical guarantee of rigour and independence in transparency. For this reason, ongoing independent audits should supplement pre-procurement human rights impact assessments as an important mechanism of transparency and accountability in AI systems. Private sector actors have raised objections to the feasibility of audits in the AI space, given the imperative to protect proprietary technology. While these concerns may be well founded, the Special Rapporteur agrees with AI Now that, especially when an AI application is being used by a public sector agency, refusal on the part of the vendor to be transparent about the operation of the system would be incompatible with the public body’s own accountability obligations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "B. Processes for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0056", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. In any event, innovative suggestions for audits of AI technology that permit proprietary secrecy abound: zero-knowledge proofs could conceivably be generated by algorithms to demonstrate that they conform to certain properties, obviating the need to scrutinize the underlying algorithm,[[fn:53]] or algorithms could be disclosed to expert third parties who would hold them in escrow on the condition of confidentiality, permitting public interest scrutiny but not allowing the algorithm to become public.[[fn:54]] Government regulators from the domains of telecommunications or competition could be permitted access to AI systems on a confidential basis, as already occurs, for example, in the regulation of gambling machines in Australia and New Zealand, in which companies must submit their algorithmic systems to regulatory audit review.[[fn:55]] Academic literature contains other suggestions for innovative forms of AI audits.[[fn:56]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "B. Processes for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "Council of Europe, Algorithms and Human Rights, p. 36."}, {"n": 54, "text": "Frank Pasquale, The Black Box Society: The Secret Algorithms That Control Money and Information (Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 2015)."}, {"n": 55, "text": "Council of Europe, Algorithms and Human Rights, p. 34."}, {"n": 56, "text": "Christian Sandvig and others, “Auditing algorithms: research methods for detecting discrimination on Internet platforms”, paper presented at Data and Discrimination: Converting Critical Concerns into Productive Inquiry, a pre-conference at the 64th annual meeting of the International Communication Association, Seattle, 22 May 2014."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0057", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Each of these mechanisms may face challenges in implementation, especially in the information environment, but companies should work towards making audits of AI systems feasible. Governments should contribute to the effectiveness of audits by considering policy or legislative interventions that require companies to make AI code auditable, guaranteeing the existence of audit trails and thus greater opportunities for transparency to individuals affected.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "B. Processes for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0058", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Individual autonomy. AI must not invisibly supplant, manipulate or interfere with the ability of individuals to form and hold their opinions or access and express ideas in the information environment. Respecting individual autonomy means, at the very least, ensuring that users have knowledge, choice and control. Pervasive and hidden AI applications that obscure the processes of content display, personalization, moderation and profiling and targeting undermine the ability of individuals to exercise the rights to freedom of opinion, expression and privacy. Companies should be mindful of the adverse human rights impacts that flow from AI applications that prioritize commercial or political interests over transparency and individual choice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "B. Processes for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0059", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. Notice and consent. Companies must ensure that users are fully informed about how algorithmic decision-making shapes their use of a platform, site or service. This can be achieved through education campaigns, pop-up boxes, interstitials and other means of signalling when an AI system is determining a user’s experience of a search engine, news site or social media platform. State-imposed disclosure requirements may be an appropriate means of protecting notice and consent. Individuals also have a right to know when their data are being collected by an AI application and whether the data will become part of a dataset that will subsequently inform an AI application, as well as the conditions on which that data will be used, stored and deleted.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "B. Processes for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0060", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Remedy. Adverse impacts of AI systems on human rights must be remediable and remedied by the companies responsible. The precondition to the establishment of effective remedy processes is ensuring that individuals know that they have been subject to an algorithmic decision (including one that is suggested by an AI system and approved by a human interlocutor) and are equipped with information about the logic behind that decision. Beyond that, companies should ensure human review of requests for remedy, in order to provide an appropriate check on the systems and guarantee accountability. Data should be published on the frequency at which remedial mechanisms are triggered for decisions made by AI technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. A human rights-based approach to artificial intelligence", "B. Processes for artificial intelligence systems"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0061", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur explores the existing and potential impacts of AI on the rights to freedom of opinion and expression, positing that AI is now a critical part of the information environment, posing benefits and risks to individuals’ enjoyment of their rights. The Special Rapporteur has proposed a conceptual framing for thinking about the obligations of States and responsibilities of companies to uphold these rights in the face of expanding technological capabilities and have suggested concrete measures that could be implemented by both Governments and companies to ensure that human rights are respected as the power, reach and scope of AI technology grows.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0062", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. When procuring or deploying AI systems or applications, States should ensure that public sector bodies act consistently with human rights principles. This includes, inter alia, conducting public consultations and undertaking human rights impact assessments or public agency algorithmic impact assessments prior to the procurement or deployment of AI systems. Particular attention should be given to the disparate impact of such technologies on racial and religious minorities, political opposition and activists. Government deployment of AI systems should be subject to regular audits by external, independent experts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0063", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. States should ensure that human rights are central to private sector design, deployment and implementation of AI systems. This includes updating and applying existing regulation, particularly data protection regulation, to the AI domain, pursuing regulatory or co-regulatory schemes designed to require businesses to undertake impact assessments and audits of AI technologies and ensuring effective external accountability mechanisms.[[fn:57]] Where applicable, sectoral regulation of particular AI applications may be necessary and effective for the protection of human rights. To the extent that such restrictions introduce or facilitate interferences with freedom of expression, States should ensure that they are necessary and proportionate to accomplish a legitimate objective in accordance with article 19 (3) of the Covenant. AI-related regulation should also be developed through extensive public consultation involving engagement with civil society, human rights groups and representatives of marginalized or underrepresented end users.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "Wagner, “Ethics as an escape from regulation”."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0064", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. States should create a policy and legislative environment conducive to a diverse, pluralistic information environment. This includes taking measures to ensure a competitive field in the AI domain. Such measures may include the regulation of technology monopolies to prevent the concentration of AI expertise and power in the hands of a few dominant companies, regulation designed to increase interoperability of services and technologies, and the adoption of policies supporting network neutrality and device neutrality.[[fn:58]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 58, "text": "Autorité de régulation des communications électroniques et des postes, Devices, the Weak Link in Achieving an Open Internet (2018). Available at https://www.arcep.fr/uploads/tx_gspublication/rapport-terminaux-fev2018-ENG.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-73-348-0065", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. All efforts to elaborate guidelines or codes on ethical implications of AI technologies should be grounded in human rights principles. All private and public development and deployment of AI should provide opportunities for civil society to comment. Companies should reiterate in corporate policies and technical guidance to engineers, developers, data technicians, data scrubbers, programmers and others involved in the AI life cycle that human rights responsibilities guide all of their business operations and that ethical principles can assist by facilitating the application of human rights principles to specific situations of AI design, deployment and implementation. In particular, the terms of service of platforms should be based on universal human rights principles.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0066", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Companies should make explicit where and how AI technologies and automated techniques are used on their platforms, services and applications. The use of innovative means to signal to individuals when they are subject to an AI-driven decision-making process, when AI plays a role in displaying or moderating content or when individuals’ personal data may be integrated into a dataset that will be used to inform AI systems is critical to giving users the notice necessary to understand and address the impact of AI systems on their enjoyment of human rights. Companies should also publish data on content removals, including how often removals are contested and challenges to removals are upheld, as well as data on trends in content display, alongside case studies and education on commercial and political profiling.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0067", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Companies must prevent and account for discrimination at both the input and output levels of AI systems. This involves ensuring that teams designing and deploying AI systems reflect diverse and non-discriminatory attitudes and prioritizing the avoidance of bias and discrimination in the choice of datasets and design of the system, including by addressing sampling errors, scrubbing datasets to remove discriminatory data and putting in place measures to compensate for such data. Active monitoring of discriminatory outcomes of AI systems is also essential.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0068", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Human rights impact assessments and public consultations should be carried out during the design and deployment of new AI systems, including the deployment of existing systems in new global markets. Public consultations and engagement should occur prior to the finalization or roll-out of a product or service, in order to ensure that they are meaningful, and should encompass engagement with civil society, human rights defenders and representatives of marginalized or underrepresented end users. The results of human rights impact assessments and public consultations should themselves be made public.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0069", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Companies should make all AI code fully auditable and should pursue innovative means for enabling external and independent auditing of AI systems, separately from regulatory requirements. The results of AI audits should themselves be made public.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-73-348-0070", "docId": "a-73-348", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Individual users must have access to remedies for the adverse human rights impacts of AI systems. Companies should put in place systems of human review and remedy to respond to the complaints of all users and appeals levied at AI-driven systems in a timely manner. Data on the frequency at which AI systems are subject to complaints and requests for remedies, as well as the types and effectiveness of remedies available, should be published regularly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. This research report accompanies the Special Rapporteur’s thematic report to the 44th Session of the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/44/49. The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted artistic creation, production, distribution and access. As we observe the impact of a public health crisis, it may also be a moment to reflect on and condemn the many forms of repression of artistic freedom outside of crisis – the censorship that denies communities access to cultural or religious art, the blasphemy laws that interfere with creative consideration of questions of conscience and belief, the targeting of political cartoonists and cultural activists, the denial of space for theatrical events and the arbitrary arrest of playwrights and actors and directors, the assaults of LGBTQI persons challenging legal restrictions on gender identity, and so on.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The Special Rapporteur, often in collaboration with the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights, has addressed communications to Governments concerning repression of artists and held various expert meetings that have informed the content of this research note. On 17 April 2017, the Special Rapporteur co-hosted international artists and experts in Los Angeles to discuss artistic freedom. On 23 October 2019, the Special Rapporteur participated in an expert consultation organized by PEN America and Freemuse in New York. Finally, the research in this report benefits from the information provided through a call for submissions issued on 2 December 2019, and that requested input from individuals and organizations familiar with or confronted by restrictions on artistic freedom.[[fn:1]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank his legal adviser, Sofía Jaramillo Otoya, and students at the International Justice Clinic at the University of California, Irvine, School of Law."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. This research report begins with a discussion of the legal framework applicable to artistic freedom of expression and then addresses the ways in which States and other actors often fail in their obligations or responsibilities to promote and protect freedom of opinion and expression. It is meant to highlight a variety of concerns; it is not meant to address all rights of artistic freedom, many of which have been addressed by other Special Procedures and international human rights mechanisms. (It does not, for instance, address the ways in which copyright law often interferes with artistic expression, a subject addressed substantially elsewhere[[fn:2]].) Far from exhaustive, this research, it is hoped, will help artists, audiences and advocates defend their specifically artistic rights to free expression and guide States in better promoting and protecting them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See, e.g., Letter of the Special Rapporteur to the European Commission concerning the draft copyright directive, OL OTH 41/2018, 13 June 2018; Report of the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights, Copyright policy and the right to science and culture, A/HRC/28/57, 24 December 2014."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. From its earliest codification in international human rights law, the freedoms of opinion and expression have been broadly framed and understood as robust statements of rights that are essential to democratic society. The freedom of opinion under Article 19 of both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is an absolute right, not subject to any interference. Article 19 of the Universal Declaration also promises protection of the right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media, while Article 19(2) of the ICCPR expressly provides that the right includes expression “orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media”.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "In the first session of the drafting committee for Article 19 the language proposed protected expression “in the form of art”, which remained intact in the final version. Marc J. Bossuyt, Guide to the “Travaux Préparatoires” of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1987), p. 373."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "medium", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 19 of both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is an absolute right' — single citation equally invoking UDHR and ICCPR. Conservatively kept as AMBIGUOUS though arguably could split into UDHR+ICCPR; the parenthetical alignment of one article number with two instruments fits AMBIGUOUS."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 19 of the Universal Declaration also promises protection' — explicitly attributed to UDHR alone (non-treaty)."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 19(2) of the ICCPR expressly provides' — explicit ICCPR confirmation with paragraph."}], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Artistic freedom exists within, and is protected by, a framework of interconnected rights, including privacy, freedom of thought, conscience and religion and belief, association and assembly, and participation in cultural life.[[fn:4]] Artistic forms pervade social, cultural, civic and political life – the posters protesters carry at public assemblies, the calligraphic Arabic verses that beautify mosques and homes, the statues of Buddha in temples, the architectural wonders of cities and villages, the drawing you doodle for a child, the music that accompanies our daily lives, the fictional and nonfictional stories that educate or divert or provoke, the cartoons that clarify political positions, the memes that mock public figures, the comic routines that help us laugh at ourselves, and on and on. Artistic creation can function like the “forum internum – a person’s inner realm of thinking and believing,” as described by the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion and belief,[[fn:5]] and it can function as the forum externum, or expression. As the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights noted, “All persons enjoy the rights to freedom of expression and creativity, to participate in cultural life and to enjoy the arts.”[[fn:6]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Mariam Hübner, Arts Rights Justice Observatory Study III, Justice. Opportunities and Challenges for Artistic Freedom, 2019, Available at: https://www.uni-hildesheim.de/arts-rights-justice-library/arj-studies/."}, {"n": 5, "text": "See Report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, Prof. Heiner Bielefeldt, Report on the relationship between the right to freedom of religion or belief and the right to freedom of opinion and expression, A/HRC/31/18, 23 December 2015."}, {"n": 6, "text": "Report of the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights, Farida Shaheed, Report on the right to freedom of artistic expression and creativity, A/HRC/23/34, 14 March 2013, 4."}], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The spectrum of artistic expression is wide and dynamic, ever-changing and expanding, and cannot be limited by some kind of transactional definition. Moreover, Article 19 of the ICCPR protects expressive media and, in the context of art, refers to “the form of art”. This language avoids the difficult, often deeply contested and subjective problems of definition (‘what is art?’) by instead focusing on the expression’s form. Put another way, whether one is considering painting, music, sculpture, film, photography, cartooning, performance, drama, comedy, or any other discipline (or non-discipline), digital or otherwise (and forms that cannot be identified or articulated today), the question is not, ‘does this media have artistic merit or qualify as art?’ Neither is it a value judgement (‘is it good?’ or ‘is it of social benefit?’). To the contrary, Article 19(2) must be read to govern expression through any media, including artistic forms, regardless of how art itself is defined or evaluated. One cannot deprive a particular expressive work of protection by calling it, for instance, propaganda. Human rights law neither preferences nor prioritizes certain forms of expression over others; all are to be protected and promoted, with limitations subject to the same legal framework.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. The human rights legal framework for artistic freedom of opinion and expression requires, first, evaluating the rights at issue; and, second, assessing whether restrictions may lawfully be applied.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Article 19(2) of the ICCPR protects the rights of individuals to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds through any media of their choice, including in the form of art. It is a robustly articulated right, facilitating not only the fundamentally human curiosity of learning (seeking and receiving) and sharing (imparting), but also framing the object of such activity as broadly as possible (information and ideas of all kinds). The Human Rights Committee emphasized in General Comment 34 the dual rights of seeking/receiving, on the one hand, and imparting, on the other, in the context of media freedom.[[fn:7]] Echoing this approach, the UN Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights has stated that the right to freedom of artistic expression includes the rights to freely contribute to and disseminate artistic expression and creation, through individual or joint practice, and also to freely experience, access and enjoy artistic expression.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Human Rights Committee, General Comment No. 34: Article 19: Freedoms of opinion and expression. 12 September 2011. UN doc. CCPR/C/GC/34, ¶13-14 (hereinafter: General Comment 34); See, e.g., Human Rights Committee, Mavlonov v. Uzbekistan, 29 April 2009, Communication No. 1334/2004, CCPR/C/95/D/1334/2004, ¶ 8.4. (“The Committee therefore finds that the right to freedom of expression under article 19 of the Covenant, respectively, Mr. Mavlonov’s ability to publish ‘Oina’ and to impart information, and Mr. Sa’di’s right to receive information and ideas in print, has been violated.”) See also, Toby Mendel, Restricting Freedom of Expression: Standards and Principles, March 2010 http://www.law-democracy.org/wpcontent/uploads/2010/07/10.03.Paper-on-Restrictions-on-FOE.pdf."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Report of the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights, Farida Shaheed, The right to freedom of artistic expression and creativity, A/HRC/23/34, 14 March 2013, ¶85. See also, Communication to Egypt. EGY 9/2015.19 August 2015."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression", "Individual and social dimensions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. It bears noting the widespread attraction of this dual approach. The Inter-American human rights system has extensively developed this dual dimension of freedom of expression.[[fn:9]] The Inter-American Court of Human Rights has held that a restriction or limitation affects both speakers and audiences. For example, in the case of Palamara Iribarne v. Chile, the Court held that when Chilean military criminal justice authorities prevented Palamara from publishing a book nearing publication and dissemination, it violated both dimensions of freedom of expression.[[fn:10]] In the case of Ivcher-Bronstein v. Peru the Court held that by separating Mr. Brostein from the control of Channel 2 and excluding journalists from one of the programs, the State not only restricted their right to circulate news, ideas and opinions, but also restricted the right of all Peruvians to receive information, therefore limiting their freedom to exercise political options and develop fully in a democratic society.[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Inter-American Court of Human Rights (hereinafter “IACtHR”), Compulsory Membership in an Association Prescribed by Law for the Practice of Journalism (Arts. 13 and 29 American Convention on Human Rights). Advisory Opinion OC-5/85 of November 13, 1985. Series A No. 5. ¶30. See also, IACtHR, Case Kimel v. Argentina. May 3, 2008. Series C No. 177. ¶53; IACtHR, Case of Claude-Reyes et al. v. Chile. September 19, 2006. Series C No. 151. ¶75; IACtHR, Case of López-Álvarez v. Honduras. February 1, 2006. Series C No. 141. ¶163; IACtHR, Case of Ivcher-Bronstein v. Peru. February 6, 2001. Series C No. 74. ¶146; IACtHR, Case of Ricardo Canese v. Paraguay. August 31, 2004. Series C No. 111. ¶77; IACtHR., Case of “The Last Temptation of Christ” (Olmedo-Bustos et al.) v. Chile. February 5, 2001. Series C No. 73. 64."}, {"n": 10, "text": "IACtHR, Case of Palamara-Iribarne v. Chile. November 22, 2005. Series C No. 135. ¶69."}, {"n": 11, "text": "IACtHR, Case of Ivcher-Bronstein v. Peru. February 6, 2001. Series C No. 74. ¶163."}], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression", "Individual and social dimensions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The instruments guaranteeing freedom of expression explicitly protect the transboundary scope of the right. Individuals enjoy the right to receive information from, and transmit information and ideas of all kinds to, places beyond their borders.[[fn:12]] “Regardless of frontiers” explicitly acknowledges the international nature of the transmittance of information, including across national boundaries.[[fn:13]] Expressive rights are, as the German jurist Karl Josef Partsch once put it, “international rights” that “may be exercised not only in one’s own country but internationally.”[[fn:14]] A Joint Statement to the Human Rights Council, endorsed by 57 Member States, emphasized, “artistic and creative expression is critical to the human spirit, the development of vibrant cultures, and the functioning of democratic societies […] transcending borders and barriers.”[[fn:15]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "The European Court of Human Rights has recognized this point. See Ahmet Yildirim v.Turkey,(2012); Cox v. Turkey, (2010); Case of Groppera Radio AG and Others v. Switzerland (1990)."}, {"n": 13, "text": "Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, David Kaye, Report on encryption and anonymity, A/HRC/29/32, 22 May 2015, ¶25."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Karl Josef Partsch, Freedom of Conscience and Expression, and Political Freedoms, in L. Henkin, ed., The International Bill of Rights (1981), p. 217."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Joint Statement to the Human Rights Council Session 30. Reaffirming the Right to Freedom of Expression Including Creative and Artistic Expression. Joined by 57 Member States. 18 September 2015. https://geneva.usmission.gov/2015/09/18/hrc-statement-reaffirms-right-to-freedom-of-expression-including-creative-and-artistic-expression/."}], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression", "Freedom to impart – regardless of frontiers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Expression and opinion are “are closely related, with freedom of expression providing the vehicle for the exchange and development of opinions”.[[fn:16]] They are nonetheless conceptually and practically independent of one another, even if they are engaged in a perpetual feedback loop, in which information and ideas help inform and develop opinion, which may then be considered and articulated to oneself before being expressed, which in turn may further help develop one’s or others’ opinions, and so on. As noted above, it is the internal process (thought and opinion) interacting with the external (expression).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "General Comment 34, 2."}], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression", "Closely related freedoms: Opinion and Expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Article 19(1) of the ICCPR guarantees the right to freedom of opinion, which should be understood as including the right to form an opinion, to develop an opinion by way of reasoning, and to hold an opinion without interference.[[fn:17]] The right to hold an opinion without interference is considered a “fundamental element of human dignity and democratic self-governance, a guarantee so critical that the Covenant would allow no interference, limitation or restriction.”[[fn:18]] Indeed, the protection accorded to the inner dimension of a person’s thoughts, opinions or convictions is unconditional.[[fn:19]] The practice of artistic exploration, that process that often precedes imparting one’s art, embodies an effort to develop and articulate opinions, thoughts and beliefs. To give this point some character, consider the following example: A Kurdish film maker in Iran was sentenced to one-year imprisonment and 223 lashes, after music and a documentary were allegedly found on his computer hard drive, even though they had never been screened nor shared. The filmmaker was accused of ‘spreading propaganda against the system’ in connection with a film he made but has never been shown in public, apart from a trailer on YouTube. An Iranian Court sentenced the film maker for ‘insulting the holy sanctities’ and ‘spreading propaganda against the system’.[[fn:20]] And yet it may be more appropriate to consider his non-published work product (music and film on the hard drive) to be opinion, private work not subject to any restriction.[[fn:21]] As such, artistic work product – the work that precedes any kind of dissemination or distribution, the creations that a person is still working through, the private thinking and creation before one imparts to others – should be considered to constitute protected opinion not subject to interference.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Economic and Social Council, ‘Report of the Special Rapporteur pursuant to Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/45 (14 December 1994) UN doc. E/CN.4/1995/32, 19."}, {"n": 18, "text": "Report on Encryption and anonymity A/HRC/29/32, ¶19."}, {"n": 19, "text": "See Report on freedom of religion or belief and freedom of expression, A/HRC/31/18, 7."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Communication to Iran, IRN 31/2016, 1 December 2016."}, {"n": 21, "text": "On this point of digital privacy and freedom of opinion, see Report of the Special Rapporteur, Encryption and Anonymity, A/HRC/29/32, 22 May 2015, paras. 16 – 21."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression", "Closely related freedoms: Opinion and Expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Human rights law obligates States to ensure enabling environments for and protect the exercise of the right to freedom of expression. States also have a duty to ensure that private entities do not interfere with the freedoms of opinion and expression.[[fn:22]] The UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, endorsed by the Human Rights Council in 2011, emphasize State duties to ensure environments that enable business respect for human rights.[[fn:23]] It is also clear from the Guiding Principles that a State’s duty to protect includes a duty to take appropriate steps to prevent, investigate, punish and redress human rights abuse by third parties. In the Guiding Principles, States are urged to exercise adequate oversight in order to meet their international human rights obligations when they contract with, or legislate for, business enterprises to provide services that may have an impact on the enjoyment of human rights.[[fn:24]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "General Comment 34, 7."}, {"n": 23, "text": "A/HRC/17/31, Principle 3."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Ibid, Principle 5."}], "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "A. Components of the rights to artistic expression", "Closely related freedoms: Opinion and Expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. While the right to freedom of opinion is absolute, the right to freedom of expression may be subject to specific and narrow limitations. Article 19 (3) of the ICCPR provides that any restriction on freedom of expression must meet the following conditions:\n(a) Legality. Restrictions must be “provided by law”. In particular, they must be adopted by regular legal processes and drafted with sufficient precision to enable an individual to regulate their conduct accordingly and it must be made accessible to the public. Restriction may not be unduly vague or overbroad such that it could confer unfettered discretion on officials. Secretly adopted restrictions fail this fundamental requirement.[[fn:25]] The assurance of legality should generally involve the oversight of independent judicial authorities.[[fn:26]]\n(b) Legitimacy. Any restriction, to be lawful, must protect only those interests enumerated in article 19 (3): the rights or reputations of others, national security or public order, or public health or morals. The Human Rights Committee cautions that restrictions to protect “public morals” should not derive “exclusively from a single tradition”, seeking to ensure that the restriction reflects principles of non-discrimination and the universality of rights.[[fn:27]]\n(c) Necessity and proportionality: States bear the burden of proving a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the threat. They must demonstrate that the restriction actually protects, or is likely to protect, the legitimate State interest at issue. States must also prove that the restriction it seeks to impose is the least intrusive instrument among those that might achieve the same protective function.[[fn:28]] Where the harm to freedom of expression outweighs the benefits, a restriction to the right cannot be justified.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "B. Is artistic expression subject to limitation?"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "General Comment 34, 25; Report on Encryption and anonymity A/HRC/29/32."}, {"n": 26, "text": "General Comment 34, 25."}, {"n": 27, "text": "Ibid, ¶32."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Ibid, ¶34–35."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Article 20(1) of the ICCPR requires the legal prohibition of all “propaganda for war,” while Article 20(2) requires States to prohibit by law “any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence”. States are not, however, obligated to criminalize such kinds of expression. The Human Rights Committee emphasized in General Comment 34 that Article 20 and article 19(3) are linked: While article 19(3) permits states to restrict expression, article 20 requires the prohibition by law of certain defined expression (hatred that constitutes incitement).[[fn:29]] Therefore, if expression is to be restricted under article 20, it “must also comply with article 19(3).”[[fn:30]] The previous Special Rapporteur explained that Article 20(2)’s key elements involve (1) “advocacy of hatred,” (2) “advocacy which constitutes incitement,” and (3) incitement that results in discrimination, hostility or violence.[[fn:31]] As explored in the 2019 report to the UN General Assembly on online hate speech, the scope of protection against incitement to violence, discrimination and hostility has expanded over time. Human rights law now provides protection against these forms of incitement beyond the categories of nationality, race or religion.[[fn:32]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "B. Is artistic expression subject to limitation?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Ibid 34, ¶34."}, {"n": 30, "text": "Ibid, ¶50."}, {"n": 31, "text": "General Assembly, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Frank La Rue on hate speech and incitement to hatred, A/67/357, 7 September 2012. ¶43."}, {"n": 32, "text": "Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, A/HRC/74/486, 9 October 2019 (hereinafter “Report on hate speech”)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Prior censorship entails the suppression of expression before it has circulated. Consequently, prior censorship prevents not only the individual whose expression has been censored, but also all of society, from exercising their right to seek and receive the information or ideas.[[fn:33]] The previous Special Rapporteur found that “the prior suppression of any particular expression before it is made public is unacceptable”.[[fn:34]] The Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression have recommended that States abolish prior-censorship bodies or systems where they exist and use subsequent imposition of liability only when they meet the narrow conditions provided under article 19 (3) and 20 of the ICCPR.[[fn:35]] In any event, such liability should be imposed exclusively by a court of law. Classification bodies or procedures – those designed to guide parental decision-making – may helpfully inform parents. In those instances, States should ensure that (a) classification bodies are independent; (b) their membership includes representatives of the arts field; (c) their terms of reference, rules of procedure and activities are made public; and (d) effective appeal mechanisms are established. Particular attention should be paid to ensuring that the regulation of access by children does not result in prohibiting or disproportionately restricting access for adults.[[fn:36]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "B. Is artistic expression subject to limitation?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "IACtHR, Case of Palamara-Iribarne v. Chile. November 22, 2005. Series C No. 135. 68; IACmHR. Report No. 90/05. Case 12.142. Merits. Alejandra Matus et al. Chile. October 24, 2005. 35."}, {"n": 34, "text": "General Assembly, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression Frank La Rue on the right of the child to freedom of expression, A/69/335, 21 August 2014, 87."}, {"n": 35, "text": "Communication to Egypt, OL EGY 9/2015, 19 August 2015."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Communication to Egypt, OL EGY 9/2015, 19 August 2015. See also A/69/335, 50 – 52."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Artistic freedom is especially at risk of prior censorship, through the banning of movies, books, public art, theatre plays. Demands for quick, automatic removals also risk new forms of prior restraint that already threaten creative endeavours in the context of copyright and the excessive filtering and blocking of online content.[[fn:37]] Some States have established permanent censorship systems to control artistic work: in Egypt, for instance, the Ministry of Culture may give, deny or revoke permits required for artistic works and may oversee both the creation of an artwork and any future developments or change by its author.[[fn:38]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "B. Is artistic expression subject to limitation?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of the Right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression, David Kaye, Report on content moderation A/HRC/38/35, 6 April 2018, 17 (hereinafter Report on Content Moderation A/HRC/38/35)."}, {"n": 38, "text": "Communication to Egypt, OL EGY 9/2015, 19 August 2015."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The Human Rights Committee has addressed artistic freedom in very few decisions.[[fn:39]] In 2004, the UN Human Rights Committee ruled in favour of a South Korean artist, Hak-Chul Shin, whose painting had been confiscated by the government of the Republic of Korea. Hak-Chul Shin was convicted for the painting as it was deemed to be an “enemy-benefiting expression” contrary to the National Security Law. The Committee held that the painting was protected by Article 19(2) since it was an idea imparted “in the form of art.” The Committee also held that any State party that seeks to demonstrate that a form of expression protected by Article 19 poses a threat to one of the enumerated purposes listed in Article 19(3) must show in a “specific fashion” the precise nature of the threat.[[fn:40]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "B. Is artistic expression subject to limitation?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "Sarah Joseph, Art and human rights law, in ‘Research Handbook on Art and Law’ Jani McCutcheon and Fiona McGaughey (eds), UWA Law School, The University of Western Australia, Australia, 2020."}, {"n": 40, "text": "Human Rights Committee, Communication No. 926/2000, Shin v. Republic of Korea, 16 March 2004."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Article 13 of the American Convention establishes the right of every person to freedom of expression, and specifies it encompasses the “freedom to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing, in print, in the form of art, or through any other medium of one’s choice.” In its interpretation of the scope of the right to freedom of expression, the Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACmHR) indicated that prior censorship “must be prohibited by law”.[[fn:41]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "C. Regional human rights frameworks"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "IACmHR, Inter-American Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression, October 2000, 1."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. In one of its first judgments dealing with freedom of expression, the Inter-American Court on Human Rights addressed artistic expression. In the case “The Last Temptation of Christ” (Olmedo-Bustos et al.) v. Chile, the Court reviewed the prohibition imposed by the Chilean judicial authorities on the exhibition of the film The Last Temptation of Christ. The Court concluded that the Chilean authorities had engaged in an act of prior censorship, incompatible with Article 13 of the American Convention. Furthermore, the Court explained that the violation had taken place both by the judicial order in question, and by the existence in the Chilean Constitution of a system of prior censorship of cinematographic films.[[fn:42]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "C. Regional human rights frameworks"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "IACtHR., Case of “The Last Temptation of Christ” (Olmedo-Bustos et al.) v. Chile. February 5, 2001. Series C No. 73. ¶64. See especially the arguments of the Commission in the case: IACmHR, Arguments before the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in the Case of “The Last Temptation of Christ” (Olmedo-Bustos et al.) v. Chile,p. 11-12 http://www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/casos/olmedobu/demanda.PDF."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The European Court of Human Rights has interpreted Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights to apply to artistic expression, noting, “Those who create, perform, distribute or exhibit works of art contribute to the exchange of ideas which is essential for a democratic society.”[[fn:43]] And further, it has stated, “Artistic freedom enjoyed by, among others, authors of literary works is a value in itself, and thus attracts a high level of protection under the Convention”.[[fn:44]] The Court has considered throughout its caselaw, that visual arts, literary creation and satire may be considered as forms of artistic expression and are therefore protected by Article 10 of the Convention.[[fn:45]] In Karataş v. Turkey the Court considered a poem that “called for self-sacrifice for ‘Kurdistan’ and included some particularly aggressive passages directed at the Turkish authorities.”[[fn:46]]The Court found that the Government’s prosecution and sentencing of the poet failed to meet the standards of Article 10 of the European Convention, lacking proportionality and unnecessary in a democratic society. As one scholar noted, the Court “made the refreshing observation that the applicant’s poems were less a call to an uprising than an expression of deep distress in the face of a difficult political situation.”[[fn:47]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Legal framework for artistic freedom of expression", "C. Regional human rights frameworks"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "European Court of Human Rights (hereinafter ECtHR Müller and others v. Switzerland. Application No. 10737/84, 24 May 1988."}, {"n": 44, "text": "ECtHR, Marta Jelševar and others v. Slovenia, Application no. 47318/07, 11 March 2014."}, {"n": 45, "text": "Council of Europe, Research Division, Cultural rights in the case-law of the European Court of Human Right, 17 January 2017."}, {"n": 46, "text": "ECtHR, Karataş v. Turkey, Application no. 23168/94, 8 July 1999."}, {"n": 47, "text": "Paul Kearns, Freedom of Artistic Expression (2013), p. 171."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "10", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First occurrence: 'Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights' — European regional treaty not in the allowed list."}, {"article": "10", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second occurrence: 'Article 10 of the Convention' in the same ECHR context — European regional treaty."}, {"article": "10", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Third occurrence: 'Article 10 of the European Convention' — European regional treaty."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Governments narrow the boundaries of artistic freedom through restrictive legislation, ambiguous policies and vague regulations. Arbitrary detention of artists[[fn:48]], use of threats, criminal prosecutions, and imprisonment[[fn:49]] contribute to a climate a fear often resulting in self-censorship. Those who work in arts sectors have also faced pressure and other forms of interference to ensure that artistic expression is limited, particularly within the framework of marked intolerance towards groups that have been historically discriminated against and are in vulnerable situations. Artistic expression also involves those responsible for promotion, distribution, sales, funding, and other functions that constitute dissemination of art. These services are vital for both creating a market to support artists and also in reaching an audience. However, those involved in the ecosystem of art are just as vulnerable to repression as creators themselves.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Communication to Iran, IRN 6/2015, 4 June 2015; Communication to Iran, IRN 13/2017, 13 April 2017."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Communication to Azerbaijan, AZE 2/2015, 29 May 2015."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Once an individual has shown the existence of a restriction on freedom of expression, the burden falls on the State to demonstrate that it complies with the requirements of human rights law as described above.[[fn:50]] Essential to meeting that burden is a demonstration that the restriction does “not put in jeopardy the right itself.”[[fn:51]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "General Comment 34, 27."}, {"n": 51, "text": "Ibid, 21."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. A restriction does not meet the legality requirement simply because it is formally enacted as a national law or regulation. It must also be formulated with sufficient precision to enable both the individual and those charged with its execution to regulate conduct accordingly and be made accessible to the public. It cannot confer excessive discretion for the restriction of freedom of expression on those charged with its execution.[[fn:52]] There are at least three problems that may be framed as concerns about the legality condition. First, legislation often employs broad terms that grant authorities significant discretion to restrict expression and provide individuals with limited guidance about the lines dividing lawful from unlawful behaviour. Second, legislative processes often do not give adequate time for public engagement or fail to address human rights obligations of the State. Third, laws often do not provide courts or other independent third-party reviews with the authority necessary to evaluate claims of violations.[[fn:53]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "A. Legality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Ibid, 24-26; General Assembly, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression on contemporary challenges to freedom of expression, A/71/373. 6 September 2016, ¶12 (hereinafter, “Report on contemporary challenges to freedom of expression, A/71/373”)."}, {"n": 53, "text": "Report on contemporary challenges to freedom of expression, A/71/373, ¶12."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. For instance, in Cuba, Decree 349, which took effect in December 2018, contains vague and excessively broad restrictions on artistic expression that additionally do not meet the criteria of legitimate objective, necessity and proportionality required by international human rights law. It prohibits audio-visual materials that contain, among other things, the “use of patriotic symbols contrary to current legislation” (article 3a), “vulgar or obscene” language (article 3d), and any other content that “violates the legal provisions that regulate the normal development of our society in cultural matters” (article 3g). Furthermore, it criminalizes “the commercialization of books whose content is detrimental to ethical and cultural values” (Article 4f). Under the Decree, the authorities also have the power to immediately suspend a presentation and cancel an authorization to perform (all artists have to request authorization to the Ministry of Culture to perform in public or private spaces). Those decisions can only be appealed to the same Ministry of Culture (article 10); the decree does not provide an effective remedy to appeal that decision to an independent body, including through the courts.[[fn:54]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "A. Legality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "Communication to Cuba, OL CUB 2/2019, 12 June 2019; PEN Artists at Risk Connection. Art Under Pressure: Decree 349 Restricts Creative Freedom in Cuba."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "10", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Some States impose restrictions in pursuit of objectives not permitted by article 19 (3). As the Human Rights Committee has emphasized, Article 19 precludes invoking a justification for the muzzling of any advocacy of multiparty democracy, democratic tenets and human rights[[fn:55]]. Both the Inter-American and the European Courts of Human Rights have also noted serious concern at such restrictions.[[fn:56]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "General Comment 34, ¶23."}, {"n": 56, "text": "Report on contemporary challenges to freedom of expression, A/71/373, 26. See, for example, IACtHR, Case of Ricardo Canese v. Paraguay, Judgment of 31 August 2004. Series C No. 111; and ECtHR, Şener v. Turkey, Application No. 26680/95, Judgment of 18 July 2000."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. States often present justifications that identify limitations other than those permitted by article 19 (3) or required by article 20.[[fn:57]] In Thailand, the Third Committee of Film and Video Censorship Board of the Ministry of Culture issued a banning order prohibiting the distribution of the film Shakespeare Must Die, stating that the Board deemed that the movie “has content that causes disunity among the people of the nation.” Article 23 of the Royal Edict on Film and Video states that “film producers must proceed in their filmmaking in a way that does not sabotage or contradict peace and order and good morality of the people or may adversely affect the security and the patriotic dignity of the Thai nation.”[[fn:58]] Article 19, however, does not permit restrictions merely on the basis of such vague concepts as national disunity or patriotic dignity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "Report on contemporary challenges to freedom of expression, A/71/373, ¶27."}, {"n": 58, "text": "Communication to Thailand, THA 2/2013, 15 March 2013."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "23", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Blasphemy and similar laws: Artistic expression is frequently prohibited by States when the art is deemed insulting to religious feeling. This includes “governments restricting artistic freedom on the rationale of hurting or insulting religious feelings in which work featuring LGBTI themes, reinterpretations of religious deities, signs of nudity, sexuality, and criticisms [are] subjected to charges of blasphemy.”[[fn:59]] The Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief has emphasized that the right to freedom of religion or belief has sometimes been misperceived as protecting religions or belief systems in themselves,[[fn:60]] when it in fact protects individuals holding or expressing those beliefs. Article 20 (2) provides for restrictions with respect to hateful advocacy that amounts to incitement to hostility, discrimination or violence; it does not permit restrictions merely on the basis of “incompatibility” with a particular faith’s values, nor does it (or article 19) permit restrictions that amount to blasphemy as such.[[fn:61]] The Human Rights Committee has clearly stated that “prohibitions of displays of lack of respect for a religion or other belief system, including blasphemy laws, are incompatible with [article 19 of] the Covenant.”[[fn:62]] Blasphemy laws have a stifling impact on the enjoyment of freedom of religion or belief and impede dialogue and debate about religion.[[fn:63]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 59, "text": "Freemuse, Dr. Srirak Plipat, Letter to Special Rapporteur on Freemuse Annual Report – the State of Artistic Freedom 2020, 29 May 2020."}, {"n": 60, "text": "Report on the relationship between the right to freedom of religion or belief and the right to freedom of opinion and expression, A/HRC/31/18, 13."}, {"n": 61, "text": "Report on contemporary challenges to freedom of expression, A/71/373, 43; See Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence (A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, appendix), ¶. 19."}, {"n": 62, "text": "General Comment 34, 48."}, {"n": 63, "text": "Report on the right to freedom of artistic expression and creativity, A/HRC/23/34."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Many states have blasphemy laws or statutes that specifically provide harsh punishments for any activity deemed offensive to a majority religion. For instance, Article 262 of Iran’s revised Penal Code provides that “anyone who curses the Prophet of Islam or other Prophets or accuses them of adultery is (considered) sabbo al-nabi and will be sentenced to death”.[[fn:64]] This law was applied in the case of a photographer who had allegedly posted insults against the Prophet via various accounts on Facebook. Iran is also reported to have sentenced members of a heavy metal band to six years in prison for “insulting the sacred” and propaganda against the state.[[fn:65]] Lebanon’s Penal Code Article 474 criminalizes “publicly insulting a religion,” while Turkey’s Article 216(3) prohibits “openly disrespecting the religious beliefs of a group if the act causes potential risk for public peace.”[[fn:66]] Pakistan’s anti-blasphemy laws have also been used to challenge cartoons posted online[[fn:67]]. In 2016, a man was sentenced to death by a court in Pakistan for sharing a “blasphemous” poem over WhatsApp.[[fn:68]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 64, "text": "Communication to Iran UA/IRN/29/2014, 2 December 2014."}, {"n": 65, "text": "Center for Human Rights in Iran, Metal Band Member Sentenced to Six Years Prison in Iran Accused of Creating “Satanic Music, 30 March 2018”."}, {"n": 66, "text": "Freemuse, The state of Artistic Freedom 2018, p. 46. Available at: https://freemuse.org/resources/item/state-artistic-freedom-2018/."}, {"n": 67, "text": "Cartoonists Rights Network International, Pakistan seeks to censor domestic & international cartoonists."}, {"n": 68, "text": "Amnesty International, Amnesty International Report 2017/2018, p. 284; The Guardian, Pakistan man sentenced to death for ridiculing Prophet Muhammad on WhatsApp, 15 September 2017."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "262", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "474", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "216", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Criminalization: In 2015, in Iran, Atena Farghadani faced trial for charges including “spreading propaganda against the system”; “insulting members of the parliament through paintings”; “insulting the Supreme Leader”; and “gathering and colluding with anti-revolutionary individuals and deviant sects” based on her art exhibitions, critical paintings, and other peaceful activities, such as meeting with families of political prisoners. She was allegedly sentenced to a 12 years and nine months prison term.[[fn:69]] Mohammed al-Ajami, a Qatari poet was sentenced to 15 years’ imprisonment for writing and reciting a poem in private that allegedly criticized the Crown Prince Sheikh Tamim Al Thani of Qatar, encouraged the overthrow of the existing regime and claimed that the Emir did not abide by the Qatari Constitution. The poem also praised the Tunisian revolution and denounced the corruption and oppression by Arab rulers.[[fn:70]] Musicians Mehdi Rajabian and Yousef Emadi, and filmmaker Hossein Rajabian, were imprisoned and heavily fined in Iran. The three artists were sentenced for ‘insulting Islamic sanctities’, ‘propaganda against the State’ and ‘conducing illegal activities in the audiovisual affaires including through producing prohibited audiovisual material and performing an illegal and underground music site.’[[fn:71]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 69, "text": "Communication to Iran, IRN 6/2015, 4 June 2015."}, {"n": 70, "text": "Communication to Qatar, QAT 2/2015, 16 October 2015."}, {"n": 71, "text": "“Artistic expression is not a crime” – UN rights experts urge the Iranian Government to free jailed artists, 24 June 2016."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. The Cuban artist Danilo Maldonado Machado was arrested in Cuba while carrying two pigs with the names “Raúl” and “Fidel” painted on them. The artist planned to release the pigs at an artistic event in the Central Park of Havana. At the time of the arrest, he was accused of “disrespecting the leaders of the Revolution.[[fn:72]] When groups of artists protested a Cuban law (Decree 349) specifically targeting dissemination of art, the Cuban government was quick to arrest all those involved in the protest.[[fn:73]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 72, "text": "Communication to Cuba, CUB 3/2015, 20 October 2015."}, {"n": 73, "text": "Communication to Cuba, OL CUB 2/2019, 12 June 2019; Pen|Artists at Risk Connection. Art Under Pressure: Decree 349 Restricts Creative Freedom in Cuba; Oliver Basciano/ The Guardian, Cuban artists fear crackdown after Tania Bruguera arrest, 6 December 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Discriminatory treatment: The right to freedom of opinion and expression must be respected “without distinction of any kind” (see article 2 (1) of the ICCPR). Members of some groups, however, often face particular discrimination when it comes to the implementation of restrictions on expression. In South Korea, artists, actors, directors, musicians, writers and publisher, who were deemed to be critical of the government or “left-leaning”, where included in a “blacklist” created by high ranking officials at the Ministry of Culture, including the former Minister. The list was used to ban artists from receiving government funds, and some prevented from exhibiting their work at certain venues or festivals.[[fn:74]] The Belarus Free Theatre, an international theatre company operating underground in Belarus and led by artistic directors in exile, use art to address contemporary social issues, including LGBT rights, and bring about systemic change. Their members have been arrested and ‘blacklisted’, which means that they cannot perform in official art institutions.[[fn:75]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 74, "text": "Communication to South Korea, AL KOR 1/2017, 8 June 2017. Some high ranking officials have been prosecuted for keeping this blacklist."}, {"n": 75, "text": "Report of the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights, Karima Bennoune, Report on the contribution of artistic and cultural initiatives to creating and developing right-respecting societies, A/HRC/37/55, 4 January 2018 ¶42; Report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Belarus, A/HRC/32/48, 21 April 2016, ¶41; Freemuse, Security, Creativity, Tolerance and their Co-existence: The New European Agenda on Freedom of Artistic Expression, p. 52."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "2", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Minority groups are particularly vulnerable to restrictions on artistic expression because the art will frequently be challenged solely for its existence and not any alleged challenge to state authority or public outcry. Women and members of the LGBTI community are especially targeted. FreeMuse has found that the most common restrictions on women’s expression are performances with nudity/indecency, images containing nudity, sharing performance space with men, or indecent attire.[[fn:76]] Charges often include indecency, blasphemy, and attacks against public order. LGBTI art is also censored to prevent information on same-sex relationships to children.[[fn:77]] The certification system in Turkey (described below) has been widely used to limit the circulation of films. This system, together with emergency decrees and legislation has been used to prevent screenings of several films and film festival that address LGBTI issues.[[fn:78]] Indeed, an event, including a short film screening, planned by a LGBTI group in Ankara was banned by the Governor’s office citing “public safety” and “terrorism” risks.[[fn:79]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "Freemuse, The state of Artistic Freedom 2019, p. 23. Available at https://freemuse.org/resources/item/the-state-of-artistic-freedom-2019/."}, {"n": 77, "text": "Freemuse, Security, Creativity, Tolerance and their Co-existence: The New European Agenda on Freedom of Artistic Expression, p. 50."}, {"n": 78, "text": "Communication to Turkey, AL TUR 12/2018, 18 September 2018."}, {"n": 79, "text": "Communication to Turkey, AL TUR 12/2018, 18 September 2018; P24| SUSMA. Platform for Independent Journalism. Censorship and Self-Censorship in Turkey: January 2019- November 2019, p. 22."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. In 2011 the Malaysian government allegedly banned the fourth annual Seksualiti Merdeka LGBT festival in Kuala Lumpur. The festival included talks, workshops, literary events, and performances. The ban was issued on the grounds that the festival constituted a “threat to public order” under section 298A of the Penal Code.[[fn:80]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "Communication to Malaysia, MYS 11/2011, 23 January 2012."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. “Debauchery” presents another potential mechanism for the restriction of artistic expression. Although similar to a general attack on freedom of expression for public morals, debauchery is unique in that it tends to involve restrictions pertaining to allegedly indecent or overtly sexual content or content that runs against perceived sexual social norms. Debauchery is also most commonly seen when being used to restrict the art of women or LGBT persons. Egypt has been reportedly been forceful in its use of debauchery laws to attack otherwise allowable artistic expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Debauchery additionally presents a challenge to art depicting homosexuality. Civil society organizations have raised concern because LBGT artists and arts with queer content often face persecution and censorship on grounds of indecency and debauchery.[[fn:81]] Egypt’s aforementioned debauchery law was allegedly used to justify the arrest and detention of four individuals on the basis of their sexual orientation and/or gender identity in 2014.[[fn:82]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "LGBTI+", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "B. Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "Freemuse, The state of Artistic Freedom 2019, p. 42 – 43. Available at https://freemuse.org/resources/item/the-state-of-artistic-freedom-2019/."}, {"n": 82, "text": "Communication to Egypt, EGY 4/2014, 17 April 2014."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Article 19 (3) requires the State to demonstrate that the tools chosen to achieve a legitimate objective are necessary and proportionate to protect the rights or reputations of others or national security, public order, or public health or morals. Necessity and proportionality also apply to prohibitions under article 20 of the Covenant.[[fn:83]] The State must establish a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the threat said to exist.[[fn:84]] Restrictions must target a specific objective and not unduly intrude upon other rights of targeted persons, and the ensuing interference with third parties’ rights must be limited and justified in the light of the interest supported by the intrusion.[[fn:85]] The restriction must be the least intrusive instrument among those which might achieve the desired result.[[fn:86]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 83, "text": "General Comment 34, ¶ 50-52."}, {"n": 84, "text": "Ibid, ¶ 35."}, {"n": 85, "text": "Report on Encryption and anonymity A/HRC/29/32, 35."}, {"n": 86, "text": "General Comment 34, ¶ 34; Report on hate speech, A/HRC/74/486."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Prior censorship: The certification system in Turkey has been widely used to limit the circulation of films. The National Cinema Board, under the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, has the authority to evaluate films according to their consistency with public order, moral values, spiritual and physical well-being of youth, human dignity and copyright. Following changes to the Turkish Arts Council (TÜSAK), the decision-making powers in the arts funding system has been shifted to State-appointed officials rather than being the responsibility of individuals representing artists’ associations.[[fn:87]] This system, together with a number of emergency decrees and legislation restricting the right to peaceful assembly, amongst other freedoms, has been used to prevent screenings of several films and film festival.[[fn:88]]", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "Human Rights Council, Report of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression on his mission to Turkey, A/HRC/35/22/Add.3. 7 June 2017."}, {"n": 88, "text": "Communication to Turkey, AL TUR 12/2018, 18 September 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Preventing or countering terrorism: Counter-terrorism laws present a unique threat to artistic freedom in that national security is recognized as an appropriate restriction upon the right to freedom of opinion and expression under Article 19(3) of the ICCPR. Yet States frequently use the broad authority afforded by counter-terrorism laws in order to repress legitimate expressions of free speech. States have used the broad authority granted to them by counter-terrorism laws to attack artists, whether or not related to their artwork, for their critical perspective on state governments. Armed conflicts additionally generate another set of circumstances wherein states are eager to restrict expression they deem problematic. The Special Rapporteur in the field of Cultural Rights has expressed concern that artists have been penalized under criminal codes, which she viewed as the last possible resort to be applied in strictly justifiable situations, that include charges of “extremism,” “terrorism,” and “hooliganism.”[[fn:89]] Through submissions from civil society, the Special Rapporteur has learned of numerous examples of such threats to artistic freedom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "Report on the right to freedom of artistic expression and creativity, A/HRC/23/34, ¶31."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Hate speech: States often assert vague prohibitions on “advocacy of hatred” that do not amount to incitement under article 20 of the Covenant or meet the requirement of necessity under article 19 (3) thereof (see A/67/357). For instance, three members of the punk rock band Pussy Riot were prosecuted and convicted in Russia for incitement to religious hatred or enmity for or a controversial public performance in a cathedral.[[fn:90]] The Russian courts deemed the performance to be “extremist”, and banned access to video recordings of the performance on the internet. The case was brought before the European Court of Human Rights, which found these measures to be disproportionate and unnecessary in a democratic society.[[fn:91]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "C. Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 90, "text": "For an earlier communication involving Pussy Riot, see RUS 2/2012, 11 May 2012."}, {"n": 91, "text": "ECtHR, Mariya Alekhina and Others v. Russia, Application no. 38004/12; See also, https://globalfreedomofexpression.columbia.edu/cases/mariya-alekhina-others-v-russia/."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Social media platforms and music and video streaming channels are dominant platforms on which artists disseminate their work.[[fn:92]] Online accessibility of art has also meant that there are many online marketplaces that sell affordable art of previously difficult to discover artists.[[fn:93]] Art is becoming more accessible to the public, and the public is becoming more accessible to artists. However, the digital space also brings threats to artistic freedom of expression. Governments impose specific penalties on online expression. Companies employ terms of service that are often opaque to artists and audiences, with enforcement that appears to vary across jurisdictions. The UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights establish “global standard[s] of expected conduct” that should apply throughout company operations and wherever they operate.[[fn:94]] In the 2018 report on content moderation, the Special Rapporteur explained that the Guiding Principles establish a framework according to which companies should, at a minimum:\n(a) “Avoid causing or contributing to adverse human rights impacts and seek to prevent or mitigate such impacts directly linked to their operations, products or services by their business relationships, even if they have not contributed to those impacts (principle 13);\n(b) Make high-level policy commitments to respect the human rights of their users (principle 16);\n(c) Conduct due diligence that identifies, addresses and accounts for actual and potential human rights impacts of their activities, including through regular risk and impact assessments, meaningful consultation with potentially affected groups and other stakeholders, and appropriate follow-up action that mitigates or prevents these impacts (principles 17−19);\n(d) Engage in prevention and mitigation strategies that respect principles of internationally recognized human rights to the greatest extent possible when faced with conflicting local law requirements (principle 23);\n(e) Conduct ongoing review of their efforts to respect rights, including through regular consultation with stakeholders, and frequent, accessible and effective communication with affected groups and the public (principles 20−21);\n(f) Provide appropriate remediation, including through operational-level grievance mechanisms that users may access without aggravating their “sense of disempowerment” (principles 22, 29 and 31).”[[fn:95]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "D. Business and human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 92, "text": "Sara Whyatt, Promoting the freedom to imagine and create, in UNESCO, Global Report “Re|Shaping Cultural Policies”, 2018, http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/reshaping-cultural-policies-2018-en.pdf."}, {"n": 93, "text": "“Social media platforms have become the gallery, the museum, the workshop. People are using this to leverage corporate sponsorships, book deals.” NPR, Sam Sander, How Instagram Is Changing Life For Artists, May 7, 2019. https://www.npr.org/2019/05/07/720929968/how-instagram-is-changing-life-for-artists."}, {"n": 94, "text": "Guiding Principles, principle 11. See also Report on Content Moderation A/HRC/38/35, ¶10."}, {"n": 95, "text": "Report on Content Moderation A/HRC/38/35, ¶11."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. In general, companies are obligated under domestic law to comply with local laws where they do business. The commitment to local legal compliance can be complicated when relevant State law is vague, subject to varying interpretations or inconsistent with human rights law. Companies are often under pressure to comply with State laws that criminalize content that is said to be, for instance, blasphemous, critical of the State, defamatory of public officials. The Guiding Principles provide tools to minimize the impact of such laws on individuals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "D. Business and human rights"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Since 2018, significant research has been done to analyze private content moderation, delve deeper into the relation companies have with States, and to push forward ways in which human rights can be at the center of content moderation. Outside of state-private cooperation, private companies have a plethora of tools at their disposal to suppress artistic expression. As the digital era progresses, the impact of private rules is increasingly meaningful for artists and audiences.[[fn:96]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "D. Business and human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 96, "text": "See Freemuse, The State of Artistic Freedom 2019, available at https://freemuse.org/resources/item/the-state-of-artistic-freedom-2019/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. As a result of issues of scale, most platforms have a dual system for censoring expression that is flagged as violating terms of service. First, an algorithm checks for posts in violation and second, users can flag posts they deem inappropriate. Under these terms of service, artists are often wrongfully censored for posting material that is controversial or in any way subjectively offensive to any user. The artificial intelligence used to identify that type of content has intrinsic problems that facilitate the removal of legal content[[fn:97]]. Besides the race and sex biases that are incorporated in the design of the artificial intelligence, it has trouble with the intricacies of language, being unable to grasp the complexities of colloquial speech and humor. This poses problems for written art as well as art in the form of images, as both forms of digital expression can be improperly removed from platforms, stripping artists of their voice and their audience.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "D. Business and human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 97, "text": "For more details se Report on content moderation A/HRC/38/35 and Report on Artificial Intelligence A/73/348 (2018)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Freemuse has found that 83 percent of online restrictions were on the grounds of indecency. Additionally, companies such as Facebook/Instagram, Twitter and YouTube removed artistic content allegedly containing “hate speech, pornographic or sexually suggestive material, or politically sensitive content.”[[fn:98]] Obscenity, indecency and similar terms are often vaguely worded. This results in moderators allegedly making decisions with unclear guidelines.[[fn:99]] For example, in 2017, Facebook removed a photo of the painting Women Lovers by Charles Blackman due to violations of community guidelines. Facebook cited that the painting violated the platform’s rule against “advertising adult products or services.”[[fn:100]] Additionally, both Instagram and Facebook removed photos posted by the Boston Museum of Fine Arts which were intended to promote a photography exhibit. Again, Facebook removed this post because it “violated decency standards.”[[fn:101]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "D. Business and human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 98, "text": "Freemuse, The state of Artistic Freedom 2019, p. 55."}, {"n": 99, "text": "Freemuse, Privatising Censorship, Digitising Violence: Shrinking Space of Women’s Rights to Create in the Digital Age, 2019, Available at: https://freemuse.org/resources/ item_category /privatising-censorship-digitising-violence-shrinking-space-of-womens-rights-to-create-in-the-digital-age/."}, {"n": 100, "text": "The Guardian, Facebook's ban on Charles Blackman nude artwork attacked as 'living in the 1950s', 28 February 2017; Freemuse, The state of Artistic Freedom 2018, p. 38."}, {"n": 101, "text": "Alyssa Buffenstein, MFA Boston Is the Latest Museum Driven Crazy by Instagram Censorship, 26 April 2017; Freemuse, The state of Artistic Freedom 2018, p. 38. See Facebook, Community Standards: 14. Adult Nudity and Sexual Activity."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Company actions often leave artists without recourse. Artists reportedly have experienced shutdowns of personal and professional Facebook and Twitter pages, with no explanation of why their pages were deactivated, how to get reactivation, and whether or not an appeals process was available to them. Violations of vague community guidelines can leave artists without “counter-notice” procedures allowing challenges to removals of their art.[[fn:102]] The lack of procedural safeguards and access to remedies for users leaves artists without access to a platform to display their art, and without viewership to enjoy their art.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "D. Business and human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 102, "text": "Report on content moderation, ¶36."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. In some cases, States work with companies to control what kinds of content is available online. This dangerous collaboration has the effect of silencing artists and preventing individuals, particularly female artists and artists producing women-themed art, from receiving art as expression. Freemuse, found that in more than 50 percent of cases “women’s creativity was restricted at the behest of governments and their various agencies.”[[fn:103]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Contemporary instances of threats to artistic freedom", "D. Business and human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 103, "text": "Freemuse, The state of Artistic Freedom 2019, p. 59. Available at https://freemuse.org/resources/item/the-state-of-artistic-freedom-2019/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. This research report has aimed to provide artists, audiences and their advocates with the vocabulary in human rights law to challenge undue restrictions – and to remind Governments and private actors of the contours of their obligations and responsibilities under that law. To be sure, it has not answered, or even sought to answer, in a granular way what some may perceive to be difficult questions of law or policy. The gravest threats to artistic freedom of expression are not, in any event, hard questions. They typically involve the exercise of State power to repress unconventional, if not unpopular or critical, expression presented in the form of art.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusion"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Moving forward, States should undertake a number of steps to align their laws and policies with their human rights obligations. These steps include:\n(a) Repealing any law that criminalizes or unduly restricts expression, online or offline.\n(b) Abolishing prior-censorship bodies or systems where they exist.\n(c) Refraining from restricting expression in the form of art, and only imposing narrow limitations pursuant to standards of legality, necessity and legitimacy and according to an order by an independent and impartial judicial authority, in accordance with due process and appellate review.\n(d) Refraining from imposing disproportionate sanctions, whether fines or imprisonment, on Internet intermediaries, given their significant chilling effect on freedom of expression.\n(e) Recalling and accounting for the nature of the right to artistic freedom of expression and the extraordinary role that art performs in society.\n(f) Refraining from establishing laws or arrangements that would require the monitoring or filtering of content, which is both inconsistent with the right to privacy and likely to amount to pre-publication censorship.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusion"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Private companies should also adopt the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights as a mechanism to guide their decisions related to expression in the form of art. Such a commitment would involve a range of public actions and private ordering, and they should always be directed toward protecting and promoting not only the rights of “users” but also the rights of members of the public.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusion"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49-add-2", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Finally, civil society – individuals and organizations – may wish to consider bringing claims of violation to the freedom of expression “including in the form of art” to international, regional and national human rights mechanisms. The framework for protection is clear; it is imperative to make that framework work for artists and audiences worldwide.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Conclusion"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0001", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. A journalist investigates corruption at the highest levels of her Government and soon finds herself fighting fictional charges from the cell of a prison. A critic of a Government is assassinated while buying groceries. Another Government bans its main political opposition party as “extremist,” sending its leaders to jail. A cartoonist faces prosecution under his country’s laws against sedition. A Government shuts down the Internet in advance of public protests, while another uses surveillance to target political opposition. Bloggers are brutally murdered because their work angers religious dogmatists. Governments criminalize the praising of terrorism even absent incitement to violence. A photojournalist is held without charge. An activist is arrested for a tweet, another for a post, yet another for an e-mail.[[fn:1]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "These examples are drawn from communications of the Special Rapporteur reported to the Human Rights Council since August 2014. Communications reported from the eighteenth to the thirty-second sessions of the Council (from 2011) are available from https://freedex.org."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0002", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Each year, usually in collaboration with other mandate holders, I send hundreds of communications to Governments, addressing allegations like those above. In those communications, allegations, not findings of fact, are made yet their large numbers inspire deep concern about the state of freedom of expression, and they serve as the principal basis of the concerns expressed in the present report. It is clear that non-State actors, such as terrorists or criminal gangs, are serious threats to many people exercising their right to expression, but the communications show how policies and laws against terrorism and other criminal activity risk unnecessarily undermining the media, critical voices and activists.[[fn:2]] They underscore how Governments and officials conflate calls for public debate with threats to public order, repressing legitimate opposition and undermining accountability. They show how official or clerical dogma often criminalizes critical discussion of religious ideas or officials. They illustrate the immense and growing threats to an open and secure Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Joint declaration on freedom of expression and countering violent extremism by United Nations and regional experts, 4 May 2016."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0003", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. In short, there is an all-too-common world view that imagines words as weapons. True, some forms of expression can impose legally cognizable harm, by interfering, for instance, with privacy or equal protection of the law. However, expression may not be restricted lawfully unless a Government can demonstrate the legality of the action and its necessity and proportionality in order to protect a specified legitimate objective. The United Nations has long promoted the idea that expression is fundamental to public participation and debate, accountability, sustainable development and human development, and the exercise of all other rights.[[fn:3]] Indeed, expression should provoke controversy, reaction and discourse, the development of opinion, critical thinking, even joy, anger or sadness — but not punishment, fear and silence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See, for example, target 16.10 of the Sustainable Development Goals (General Assembly resolution 70/1)."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0004", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The present report does not index every tool of repression, but it identifies critical contemporary challenges. Organized around the legal framework set forth by international human rights law, it evaluates misuses and abuses of the grounds for legitimate limitations of freedom of expression. The report also notes several positive trends for freedom of opinion and expression and concludes with recommendations to restrain attacks on and promote the rights to opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0005", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights guarantee everyone’s right to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers and through any media, including in the form of art. The Human Rights Council and the General Assembly have referred to freedom of expression as one of the essential foundations of a democratic society and one of the basic conditions for its progress and development (see Council resolution 21/12) and emphasized that a free media helps to build inclusive knowledge societies and democracies and foster intercultural dialogue, peace and good governance (see Assembly resolution 68/163). Both bodies have highlighted the critical importance of journalism in the above-mentioned resolutions and have affirmed that the same rights that people have offline must also be protected online, in particular freedom of expression (see Council resolutions 20/8, 26/13 and 32/13). Attacks on freedom of expression are nothing new, nor is the deep concern expressed about them by the United Nations (see Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/45 and Council resolution 12/16). With 168 States parties and wide acknowledgement of its centrality in human rights law, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provides the principal legal standard for the vast majority of communications relating to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First occurrence: 'Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second occurrence: 'article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR confirmation."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0006", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. In paragraph 10 of its general comment No. 34 (2011) on article 19: Freedoms of opinion and expression, the Human Rights Committee explained that any form of effort to coerce the holding or not holding of any opinion is prohibited. No one may be penalized, harassed, intimidated or stigmatized for holding an opinion. The right to hold opinions in a digital age is often subject to interference. For example, work product, journals and diaries stored on laptops and in the cloud are increasingly subject to attack (see A/HRC/29/32, paras. 19-21). Communications include allegations that individuals may be harassed at least in part because of their membership in an organization.[[fn:4]] Such harassment may amount to impermissible interference with opinion under article 19 (1), in addition to interference with the right to freedom of association under article 22 of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See, for example, charges in Egypt of “affiliation to the Muslim brotherhood” (A/HRC/31/79, case No. EGY 6/2015 and replies from Government); convictions in Saudi Arabia for membership in the Saudi Civil and Political Rights Association (A/HRC/28/85, case No. SAU 11/2014); and the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s harassment of members of the human rights organization Lutte pour le changement (A/HRC/32/53, case No. COD 1/2016)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "22", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0007", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. In contrast to the unconditional prohibition of interference with opinion, article 19 (3) of the Covenant imposes three requirements according to which States may restrict the exercise of freedom of expression. Those conditions are to be implemented narrowly (see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, paras. 21-36). Article 19 (3) provides that the exercise of the right to freedom of expression involves special duties and responsibilities and may be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary: (a) for respect of the rights or reputations of others; and (b) for the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals. Article 20 of the Covenant also provides for the prohibition of propaganda for war and any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0008", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The “duties and responsibilities” under article 19 (3) appear nowhere else in the Covenant. Only in the preamble is it emphasized that the individual, having duties to other individuals and to the community to which he belongs, is under a responsibility to strive for the promotion and observance of the rights recognized in the Covenant. The language in the Covenant and in article 29 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights does not identify duties or responsibilities of individuals to the State, but to other individuals and the communities in which they live, an acknowledgement that the only legitimate restrictions are those demonstrably grounded in and necessary for the protection of the rights of other individuals or a specific public interest. It is not unusual for States to highlight an individual’s duty in order to bolster expansive limitations on the right to freedom of expression.[[fn:5]] However, the phrase “duties and responsibilities” adds nothing to claims for support of a State’s powers of restriction. By no measure does the language prioritize the State over the rights enjoyed by individuals under the Covenant and the Declaration.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See, for example, A/HRC/32/53, reply from Malaysia to case No. MYS 6/2014, asserting that the right to freedom of opinion and expression must be exercised “prudently and responsibly”; and A/HRC/31/79, reply from Kazakhstan to case Nos. KAZ 3/2015 and 4/2015, indicating that “no [human rights] norm works without responsibility”."}, {"n": 6, "text": "See also Dirk Voorhoof, The Right to Freedom of Expression and Information Under the European Human Rights System: Towards a More Transparent Democratic Society, EUI Working Paper RSCAS 2014/12 (Fiesole, Italy, European University Institute, 2014), p. 2."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'article 19 (3)... appear nowhere else in the Covenant'. Context_before clarifies 'the Covenant' = ICCPR — explicit attribution."}, {"article": "29", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly says 'article 29 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0009", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Once an individual has shown the existence of a restriction on freedom of expression, the burden falls on the State to demonstrate that it complies with the requirements of human rights law (see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 27). Essential to meeting that burden is a demonstration that the restriction does “not put in jeopardy the right itself” (ibid., para. 21). In keeping with this requirement, in each of the mandate holder’s communications States are requested to provide the underlying rationale for an alleged restriction on expression. Communications thus provide the State with an opportunity to show compliance with legal norms, while at the same time giving the mandate holder and other Special Rapporteurs a tool to seek protection of the right and understand the trends concerning exercise of the right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0010", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The Special Rapporteur has received responses to communications, many of which merely confirm receipt, approximately 52 per cent of the time (see A/HRC/32/53), but where States do respond substantively they typically acknowledge that the applicable legal framework may be found in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights or article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Several States have provided comprehensive responses addressing factual and legal concerns raised by the mandate holder. Examples of illuminating substantive responses — although views may nonetheless differ — include Pakistan’s explanations of its cybersecurity legislation, the response of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to concerns regarding the Investigatory Powers Bill and Turkey’s response to my serious concerns about the treatment of academics.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. PAK 13/2015, reply from Government, and case No. GBR 4/2015, replies from Government; and A/HRC/33/32, case No. TUR 3/2016, reply from Government."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First occurrence: 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty instrument."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second occurrence: 'article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR confirmation."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0011", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. While a communication alone does not seek to prove a violation of article 19 of the Covenant, States nonetheless should demonstrate that the restriction meets each of the three conditions found in article 19 (3) thereof: legality, legitimate objective, and necessity and proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0012", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Article 19 (3) requires that any restriction be provided by law. A restriction does not meet this requirement simply because it is formally enacted as a national law or regulation. It must also be formulated with sufficient precision to enable both the individual and those charged with its execution to regulate conduct accordingly and be made accessible to the public. It cannot confer discretion for the restriction of freedom of expression on those charged with its execution (see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, paras. 24-26). Communications from the mandate holder have identified at least three problems that may be framed as concerns about the legality condition.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "A. Legality"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0013", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. First, legislation often employs broad terms that grant authorities significant discretion to restrict expression and provide individuals with limited guidance about the lines dividing lawful from unlawful behaviour. For instance, I raised concerns with China about its draft cybersecurity legislation in 2015, noting that the law’s proscriptions — for instance, that individuals “observe public order and respect social morality” and not use the Internet to “engage in activities harming national security” or “upset social order” — are so general as to permit officials excessive discretion to determine their meaning.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "A. Legality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. CHN 7/2015."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0014", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. The uptick in legislation designed to combat terrorism has also raised concerns of vagueness. I and other mandate holders raised concerns about the ambiguous formulation of Kenya’s counter-terrorism legislation in 2015, which included a provision that criminalized “obscene, gory or offensive material which is likely to cause fear and alarm to the general public”.[[fn:9]] Together with other Special Rapporteurs, I also raised concerns about the reform of Spain’s criminal law, such as provisions that would broadly criminalize the “glorification of terrorism”, and about similar terms in recently adopted French law.[[fn:10]] Such broad limitations enable the punishment of expression that should not be subject to restriction.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "A. Legality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See A/HRC/29/50, case No. KEN 7/2014."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See A/HRC/29/50, case No. ESP 3/2015 and reply from Government, and case No. FRA 1/2015 and reply from Government. Another example of broadly worded and vague proscription may be found in A/HRC/28/85, case No. LAO 1/2014."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0015", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Second, legislative processes often do not give adequate time for public engagement or fail to address human rights obligations of the State. In 2014, for instance, Montenegro adopted public assembly legislation that offered legislators and the public little opportunity for engagement.[[fn:11]] Brazil adopted counter-terrorism legislation following similar fast-track procedures, despite expressions of concern by human rights experts.[[fn:12]] In 2016, I and other mandate holders expressed concern about the “accelerated timeline” for the adoption of cybersecurity legislation in the Russian Federation that appeared not to take into account the views of civil society and other stakeholders.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "A. Legality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See A/HRC/30/27, case No. MNE 1/2015."}, {"n": 12, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. BRA 8/2015 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 13, "text": "See case No. RUS 7/2016."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0016", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Third, laws often do not provide courts or other independent third-party reviews with the authority necessary to evaluate claims of violations. In the context of France’s emergency legislation, for instance, a number of mandate holders raised concerns in 2016 about the lack of judicial procedure prior to the dissolution of certain organizations.[[fn:14]] Other mandate holders and I also raised concerns about the nature of the appointment of “judicial commissioners” as part of the United Kingdom’s consideration of the Investigatory Powers Bill.[[fn:15]] With regard to Egypt, I noted that the power to grant and revoke permits for artistic works — along with the power to resolve appeals against such decisions — is vested exclusively in the Ministry of Culture.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "A. Legality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. FRA 7/2015 and reply from Government, and joint statement of 19 January 2016, available in French from www.ohchr.org/FR/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=16961&LangID=F."}, {"n": 15, "text": "See Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), “Submission to the joint committee on the draft investigatory powers bill” (21 December 2015), available from www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Opinion/Submission_UN_Special_RapporteursJan2016.pdf. See also A/HRC/32/53, case No. GBR 4/2015, replies from Government."}, {"n": 16, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. EGY 9/2015."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0017", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Article 19 (3) requires the State to demonstrate that the tools chosen to achieve a legitimate objective are necessary and proportionate to protect the rights or reputations of others or national security, public order, or public health or morals. Necessity and proportionality also apply to prohibitions under article 20 of the Covenant (see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, paras. 50-52). The State must establish a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the threat said to exist (ibid., para. 35). Restrictions must target a specific objective and not unduly intrude upon other rights of targeted persons, and the ensuing interference with third parties’ rights must be limited and justified in the light of the interest supported by the intrusion (see A/HRC/29/32, para. 35). The restriction must be the least intrusive instrument among those which might achieve the desired result (see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 34).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "B. Necessity to protect a legitimate objective"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0018", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Among the permissible grounds for restrictions, States often rely on national security and public order. “National security”, undefined in the Covenant, should be limited in application to situations in which the interest of the whole nation is at stake, which would thereby exclude restrictions in the sole interest of a Government, regime or power group,[[fn:17]] a point emphasized in the Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation Provisions in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, adopted in 1985 (E/CN.4/1985/4, annex). It also may include protection of a State’s political independence and territorial integrity.[[fn:18]] Similarly, “public order” (ordre public) must be limited to specific situations in which a limitation would be demonstrably warranted.[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "B. Necessity to protect a legitimate objective"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Alexandre Charles Kiss, “Permissible limitations on rights”, in The International Bill of Rights: The Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Louis Henkin, ed. (New York, Columbia University Press, 1981). See also Article 19, The Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information (London, 1996)."}, {"n": 18, "text": "See Alexandre Charles Kiss, “Permissible limitations on rights”, p. 297."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Ibid., pp. 299-302; and American Association for the International Commission of Jurists, Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation Provisions in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (E/CN.4/1985/4, annex, paras. 22-24)."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0019", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Yet States often treat national security or public order as a label to legitimate any restriction. The Human Rights Council recognized this problem in 2008 in its resolution 7/36, stressing the need to ensure that invocation of national security, including counter-terrorism, is not used unjustifiably or arbitrarily to restrict the right to freedom of opinion and expression. One way to resist unjustifiable or arbitrary invocation of either justification is to insist that Governments demonstrate the risk that specific expression poses to a definite interest in national security or public order, that the measure chosen complies with necessity and proportionality and is the least restrictive means to protect the interest, and that any restriction is subject to independent oversight.[[fn:20]] In 2016, I shared with a federal judge in the United States of America how article 19 may be used to assess proposals to gain access to the content of encrypted personal digital devices. In my letter to the Court, I noted that alternative measures were available to the Government to conduct its investigation into the 2015 massacre in San Bernardino, California, and that the proposed order would implicate the security and freedom of expression of what would likely be a vast number of people (and would thus be disproportionate).[[fn:21]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "B. Necessity to protect a legitimate objective"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See The Global Principles on National Security and the Right to Information (Tshwane Principles), (New York, Open Society Foundation, 2013), principle 3."}, {"n": 21, "text": "Letter to the Hon. Sheri Pym, Magistrate Judge, United States District Court of California, “In the matter of the search of an Apple iPhone seized during the execution of a search warrant on a black Lexus IS300, California license plate 35KGD203, ED No. CM 16-10 (SP)”, 2 March 2016."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0020", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. State assertions that national security or public order justifies interference with personal security and privacy are common in cases of surveillance of personal communications, encryption and anonymity, subjects addressed in my report to the Human Rights Council in 2015 (A/HRC/29/32), in my predecessor’s report in 2013 (see A/HRC/23/40) and in the report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the right to privacy in the digital age (A/HRC/27/37). Surveillance, including both bulk collection of data and targeted attacks on specific individuals or communities, interferes directly with the privacy and security necessary for freedom of opinion and expression, and always requires evaluation under article 19. I am concerned that practice often fails to meet such standards. A law recently adopted in the Russian Federation imposes a duty on Internet providers to decrypt communications, apparently requiring the establishment of encryption back doors that will likely disproportionately undermine all users’ security.13 Both the United Kingdom and France have proposed to provide their law enforcement and intelligence officials with the authority to require companies to grant them access to encrypted communications of their users (see A/HRC/29/32, para. 45).[[fn:22]] Brazil prohibits anonymity entirely as a matter of constitutional law online and offline (ibid., para. 49). I understand that some of these efforts involve genuine commitments to preventing terrorism or guaranteeing public order, but the Governments have not demonstrated that interference with Internet security is a necessary or proportionate measure in the light of the specific threats caused to privacy and freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "B. Necessity to protect a legitimate objective", "Surveillance and individual security online"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See also Bénédicte Dambrine, “The state of French surveillance law”, Future of Privacy Forum White Paper (December 2015)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0021", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Governments have also disrupted Internet and telecommunications services in the name of national security and public order. Such disruptions include the shutdown of entire networks, the blocking of websites and platforms and the suspension of telecommunications and mobile services. In advance of elections, both Turkey and Uganda are alleged to have restricted access online.[[fn:23]] Malaysia invoked its Sedition Act to justify blocking a news site, while Nauru cited crime prevention as one of the reasons for blocking a number of social media websites in 2015.[[fn:24]] I confirmed during my mission to Tajikistan in 2016 that the Government has repeatedly blocked access to messaging services in times of public protest and has maintained a long-time block on social media websites operated from outside the country.[[fn:25]] The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi, India, Bangladesh, Brazil and Pakistan were reported to have blocked Internet and text messaging services in 2015.[[fn:26]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "B. Necessity to protect a legitimate objective", "Internet shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See OHCHR, “Turkey: first Twitter, now YouTube — United Nations rights experts concerned at attempts to restrict access before elections” (28 March 2014), available from www.ohchr.org/EN/ NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=14454&LangID=E; see also https://www.apc.org/ en/pubs/joint-letter-internet-shutdown-uganda."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. MYS 3/2015; and A/HRC/30/27, case No. NRU 1/2015."}, {"n": 25, "text": "Preliminary observations by the Special Rapporteur at the end of his visit to Tajikistan, 9 March 2016."}, {"n": 26, "text": "Submission of the Institute for Human Rights and Business to the Special Rapporteur (see A/HRC/32/38). A growing number of States, including India, Ethiopia, Algeria and Iraq, have reportedly ordered the large-scale blocking of websites to prevent cheating during national examinations. See Software Freedom Law Centre, “Internet shutdown tracker — India (2013-2016), 18 April 2016, available from http://sflc.in/internet-shutdown-tracker-india-2013-2016/; Centre for Intellectual Property and Information Technology Law, “Ethiopia: Internet shutdown amid recent protests?”, 10 August 2016, available from http://blog.cipit.org/2016/08/10/ethiopia-internet-shutdown-amidst-recent-protests/; Social Media Exchange, “Algeria reconsiders blocking social media to prevent cheating on exams”, 22 June 2016, available from www.smex.org/algeria-reconsiders-blocking-social-media-to-prevent-cheating-on-exams/; and Social Media Exchange, “Leaked e-mail: Iraq shuts down its Internet, again”, 16 May 2016, available from www.smex.org/leaked-email-iraq-shutdown-its-internet-again/."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0022", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. In 2016, the Human Rights Council condemned unequivocally measures to intentionally prevent or disrupt access to or dissemination of information online in violation of international human rights law and called upon all States to refrain from and cease such measures (see Council resolution 32/13, para. 10). The blocking of Internet platforms and the shutting down of telecommunications infrastructure are persistent threats, for even if they are premised on national security or public order, they tend to block the communications of often millions of individuals (A/HRC/32/38, paras. 45-48).[[fn:27]] In a joint declaration in 2015, United Nations and regional experts in the field of freedom of expression condemned Internet shutdowns (or “kill switches”) as unlawful.[[fn:28]] Similarly, the detention of bloggers and online journalists and other forms of attack on digital expression often rest on assertions of national security without demonstration of the necessity of such restrictions.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "B. Necessity to protect a legitimate objective", "Internet shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "For a running tally of Internet shutdowns, see www.accessnow.org/keepiton/."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Joint declaration on freedom of expression and responses to conflict situations, 4 May 2015."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0023", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Public order is often used by States to justify measures to counter violent extremism. The measures adopted are rarely drawn narrowly enough to satisfy the necessity or proportionality criteria. The Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism has urged Governments to address the problems of extremism with precise definition and proportionate measures. He criticized Human Rights Council resolution 30/15 on human rights and preventing and countering violent extremism as it may “allow some Governments to qualify non-violent actions that are critical of the Government as violent extremism” (see A/HRC/31/65, para. 27). In 2016, in an annual joint declaration, United Nations and regional freedom of expression experts expressed deep concerns that programmes to counter violent extremism fail to meet international standards.[[fn:29]] Legislation recently adopted in the Russian Federation broadly criminalizes statements conveying support for “the ideology and practices of terrorism”.13 In Kyrgyzstan, article 11 of the Law on Countering Extremist Activity prohibits the dissemination of extremist materials that call for or justify activities that, among other things, are defined as a “breach of national dignity” or “the carrying out of mass disorders”.[[fn:30]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "B. Necessity to protect a legitimate objective", "Preventing or countering terrorism and violent extremism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Joint declaration on freedom of expression and countering violent extremism, 4 May 2016."}, {"n": 30, "text": "Article 19, “Kyrgyzstan: law on countering extremist activity” (London, 2015). Available from https://www.article19.org/data/files/medialibrary/38221/Kyrgyzstan-Extremism-LA-Final.pdf."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "11", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0024", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. National security is also used to justify excluding information in the public interest from disclosure, with many Governments overclassifying vast amounts of information and documents and others providing limited transparency in the process and substance of classification. In the case of Japan, for instance, the Government adopted the Act on the Protection of Specially Designated Secrets, which raised concerns about transparency, third-party oversight, the protection of journalists and their sources, and whistle-blowers.[[fn:31]] The United States enforces its Espionage Act in ways that ensure that national security whistle-blowers lack the ability to defend themselves on the merits of grounds of public interest.[[fn:32]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "B. Necessity to protect a legitimate objective", "Undermining the right to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "Preliminary observations by the Special Rapporteur at the end of his visit to Japan (12 to 19 April 2016)."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See A/70/361; Association for Progressive Communications, “The protection of sources and whistleblowers”, 29 June 2015, available from www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Opinion/ Protection/AssociationProgressiveCommunications.pdf; and submission of comments on whistle-blowers by Freedom of the Press Foundation, available from www.documentcloud.org/ documents/2109062-fpf-comment-to-un-on-whistleblowers.html."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0025", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. States often assert vague prohibitions on “advocacy of hatred” that do not amount to incitement under article 20 of the Covenant or meet the requirement of necessity under article 19 (3) thereof (see A/67/357). In an exchange with the Government of Pakistan, I raised concerns that recent legislation aims to limit “extremism” and “hate speech” without specifically defining either term. The Government responded as follows: “We firmly believe that for combating extremism, any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, should be prohibited by law.”[[fn:33]] While that statement accurately reflects article 20, the legislation itself would penalize the dissemination of information “that advances or is likely to advance inter-faith, sectarian or racial hatred”, seemingly regardless of whether such dissemination constitutes incitement.[[fn:34]] European human rights law also fails to define hate speech adequately, a point emphasized in the joint dissenting opinion of Judges Sajó and Tsotsoria in the Delfi v. Estonia judgment of the European Court of Human Rights in 2015. The dissenting judges stated that even in the context of the prohibition of incitement, there is a very real risk that States will regulate online expression without demonstrating that the elements of incitement have been met in an online environment.[[fn:35]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "B. Necessity to protect a legitimate objective", "Hate speech restrictions pursuant to article 20 (2)"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. PAK 13/2015, reply from Government."}, {"n": 34, "text": "See www.na.gov.pk/uploads/documents/1470910659_707.pdf."}, {"n": 35, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Delfi AS v. Estonia, Application No. 64569/09, Judgment of 16 June 2015, Joint Dissenting Opinion of Judges Sajó and Tsotsoria, para. 14."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0026", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Some States impose restrictions in pursuit of objectives not permitted by article 19 (3). In particular, alarm bells ring when States restrict expression relating to matters in the public interest. Article 19 precludes invoking a justification for the muzzling of any advocacy of multiparty democracy, democratic tenets and human rights (see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 23). Both the Inter-American and the European Courts of Human Rights have noted serious concern at such restrictions.[[fn:36]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "1. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "See, for example, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Ricardo Canese v. Paraguay, Judgment of 31 August 2004. Series C No. 111; and European Court of Human Rights, Şener v. Turkey, Application No. 26680/95, Judgment of 18 July 2000."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0027", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. States often present justifications that identify limitations other than those permitted by article 19 (3) or required by article 20. Saudi Arabia has noted that its Basic Law of Governance “stipulates that all means of expression must employ civil and polite language”.[[fn:37]] Article 19, however, does not permit restrictions merely on the basis of civility, a capacious and subjective term. In Burundi, a radio journalist was charged with “manquement à la solidarité publique”, or a breach of public solidarity, also not rooted in the objectives of article 19 (3).[[fn:38]] Bangladesh adopted a national broadcast policy that in important respects promoted the independence of broadcast media, but at the same time included prohibitions of expression “against the State and public interest”, “misinformation” and “distorted truth” that were not based on permissible objectives under article 19.[[fn:39]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "1. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See A/HRC/29/50, case No. SAU 1/2015, reply from Government."}, {"n": 38, "text": "Ibid., case No. BDI 2/2015."}, {"n": 39, "text": "Ibid., case No. BGD 5/2014 and reply from Government."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0028", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. To be sure, States enjoy legitimate interests apart from those identified in article 19 (3), such as those economic, diplomatic and political. Human rights law does not preclude States from pursuing such objectives. Article 19 merely provides that pursuit of those other objectives must involve measures that do not restrict the exercise of freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "1. Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0029", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. During my mandate, I have observed States restricting and penalizing criticism or providing the legal framework to do so. The punishment of criticism of a Government or government officials is censorship of the kind that directly undermines public engagement and debate and runs counter to the object and purpose of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the letter of article 19 thereof. Such expression enables public debate, accountability and engagement by individuals in national self-governance.[[fn:40]] Yet States are increasingly alleged to be adopting and implementing measures that suppress political expression and, by implication, aim to protect existing power structures and individuals in positions of authority and exclude competing actors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "2. The criminalization of criticism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, paras. 13, 28, 34 and 38-43; and InterAmerican Court of Human Rights, Ricardo Canese v. Paraguay, Judgment of 31 August 2004, para. 88."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0030", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Some States directly penalize individuals on no other ground than the prohibition of criticism itself. Viet Nam, for instance, has reportedly detained and prosecuted individuals on the grounds of “propaganda against the State”.[[fn:41]] Similarly, the Islamic Republic of Iran has detained and prosecuted individuals for conducting “propaganda against the system” and “insulting” the nation’s highest leadership.[[fn:42]] Activists in Azerbaijan have been detained and prosecuted on grounds of treason following comments critical of the President.[[fn:43]] Kuwaiti authorities prosecuted a journalist on the grounds of insulting the judiciary, on the basis of tweets and posts in which he raised concerns about the sentencing of others.[[fn:44]] Nepalese authorities brought contempt charges against news journalists following their critical reports on the judiciary.[[fn:45]] Bahraini authorities prosecuted an activist for criticizing torture and ill-treatment in a Bahraini prison.[[fn:46]] Myanmar has penalized individuals for criticism or insult of the army, while Cambodia has prosecuted and harassed individuals for their criticism of government policy.[[fn:47]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "2. The criminalization of criticism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. VNM 3/2015."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. IRN 9/2015."}, {"n": 43, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. AZE 4/2014 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 44, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. KWT 7/2015. Reply being translated."}, {"n": 45, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. NPL 5/2014."}, {"n": 46, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. BHR 4/2015, and A/HRC/30/27, case No. BHR 2/2015."}, {"n": 47, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. MMR 9/2015; and OHCHR, “United Nations rights experts urge Cambodia to stop attacks against civil society and human rights defenders”, 12 May 2016."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0031", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Several States penalize sedition or treason in their laws, targeting critics. Malaysia, for instance, has continued to defend its ongoing prosecution of individuals on the basis of a law that criminalizes seditious words or tendencies, arguing that the law promotes “national harmony”.[[fn:48]] In practice, however, dozens of individuals have been detained or subject to prosecution under the Sedition Act merely for expression critical of the Government.[[fn:49]] Swaziland detained activists on sedition charges following criticism of the monarchical system of government.[[fn:50]] India has pursued charges against individuals, including a folk singer accused of writing lyrics critical of local government, on the grounds of section 124 A of its Penal Code, which prohibits expression that may cause “hatred or contempt, or excites or attempts to excite disaffection” towards the Government.[[fn:51]] The Gambia has prosecuted a journalist on the grounds of “sedition” and the “publication of false news with intent to cause fear and alarm to the public” under Gambian law.[[fn:52]] Jordan has detained and prosecuted an academic for allegedly posting anti-Government comments on his Facebook page on the grounds of “undermining the political regime in the Kingdom”.[[fn:53]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "2. The criminalization of criticism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. MYS 3/2015."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Ibid.; see also case No. MYS 6/2014, and A/HRC/29/50, case No. MYS 1/2015."}, {"n": 50, "text": "See A/HRC/30/27, case No. SWZ 2/2015."}, {"n": 51, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. IND 15/2015. See also A/HRC/22/67, case No. IND 24/2012, and Human Rights Watch, Stifling Dissent: The Criminalization of Peaceful Expression in India (United States of America, 2016)."}, {"n": 52, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. GMB 3/2015."}, {"n": 53, "text": "Ibid., case No. JOR 1/2016."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0032", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Political and human rights activists have been especially targeted by such rules against criticism, often under the pretext of protecting public order. For instance, human rights activists have been harassed repeatedly in Bahrain; one activist was prosecuted for tearing up a picture of the King.[[fn:54]] The Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela has prosecuted and detained in solitary confinement an opposition political leader.[[fn:55]] Students in Thailand were detained by members of the military for advocating in support of the Prime Minister ousted in a coup.[[fn:56]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "2. The criminalization of criticism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "See A/HRC/29/50, case No. BHR 15/2014."}, {"n": 55, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. VEN 6/2014."}, {"n": 56, "text": "Ibid., case No. THA 9/2014."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0033", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Closely related to these grounds are charges under lese-majesty laws and both criminal and civil defamation. Thailand, for instance, regularly detains and prosecutes people on the grounds of criticizing the royal family, imposing sentences that may reach to decades.[[fn:57]] The Government argues that the law “gives protection to the rights or reputations” of members of the royal family “in a similar way libel law does for commoners”, without acknowledging the high value placed on expression directed towards matters of politics, governance and public life.[[fn:58]] National laws also allow such prosecutions in other societies with royal families, such as in the Netherlands.[[fn:59]] Just as such laws that criminalize criticism of government officials or royalty are manifestly inconsistent with freedom of expression, and unjustifiable under article 19 (3), so too are laws that criminalize insults or criticism of foreign officials. In 2016, the Representative on Freedom of the Media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe urged Governments to repeal laws that shield foreign leaders from criticism solely because of their function or status.[[fn:60]] I share the concern of the Human Rights Council with respect to the “abuse of legal provisions on defamation and criminal libel” (see Council resolution 12/16) and believe that any criminal penalties or excessive civil penalties for defamation are generally inconsistent with article 19 and should be repealed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "2. The criminalization of criticism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. THA 9/2015, and A/HRC/29/50, case No. THA 13/2014."}, {"n": 58, "text": "See A/HRC/29/50, case No. THA 13/2014, reply from Government."}, {"n": 59, "text": "I note with support that repeal of the law in the Netherlands has been proposed in the legislature. See www.tweedekamer.nl/kamerstukken/wetsvoorstellen/detail?id=2016Z08348&dossier=34456."}, {"n": 60, "text": "Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Dunja Mijatović, Representative on Freedom of the Media, Communiqué No. 5/2016."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0034", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Punishment for defamation of government officials is widespread and directly interferes with freedom of expression, whether by imposing penalties on expression or dissuading individuals from criticizing officials or government policy.[[fn:61]] Journalists and writers are regular targets of defamation prosecutions or civil lawsuits. In Angola, for instance, the Government charged and convicted an author of criminal defamation upon publication of a book on conflict diamonds and corruption in the country.[[fn:62]] Honduran officials have reportedly intimidated journalists and human rights defenders on charges of defamation.[[fn:63]] In Tajikistan, while the Government has eliminated criminal penalties for defamation in most cases (but not for defamation of the President), government officials may still bring civil defamation lawsuits against journalists or publishers.[[fn:64]] Particularly with respect to public figures, national laws should be careful to ensure that any respondent in a defamation case may raise a public interest defence, and even untrue statements made in error and without malice should not be rendered unlawful or subject to penalty (see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 47). The joint declaration on freedom of expression of 2000 by the Special Rapporteur, the Representative on Freedom of the Media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe and the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights cautioned against sanctioning defamation such that it chills the exercise of freedom of expression itself.[[fn:65]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "2. The criminalization of criticism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 61, "text": "See generally Article 19, Defining Defamation: Principles on Freedom of Expression and Protection of Reputation, International Standards Series (London, 2000); Committee to Protect Journalists, Thomas Reuters Foundation and Debevoise and Plimpton, Critics Are Not Criminals: Comparative Study of Criminal Defamation Laws in the Americas (2016)."}, {"n": 62, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. AGO 1/2015 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 63, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. HND 7/2014 and reply from Government. See also A/HRC/31/79, case No. HND 4/2015."}, {"n": 64, "text": "Preliminary observations by the Special Rapporteur at the end of his visit to Tajikistan, 9 March 2015, available from www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID= 17193&LangID=E. See also A/HRC/26/30/Add.2."}, {"n": 65, "text": "International Mechanisms for Promoting Freedom of Expression, Current Challenges to Media Freedom: Joint Declaration (London, 2000)."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0035", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The tools used to criminalize criticism are also applied against those who practise journalism, that is, the regular gathering of information, with or without formal training, accreditation or other government acknowledgement, with the intent to disseminate one’s findings in any form. The attacks on reporting cross many themes in the present report. Nonetheless, it is important to emphasize that attacks on journalism are fundamentally at odds with protection of freedom of expression and access to information and, as such, they should be highlighted independently of any other rationale for restriction. Governments have a responsibility not only to respect journalism but also to ensure that journalists and their sources have protection through strong laws, prosecutions of perpetrators and ample security where necessary.[[fn:66]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "3. The assault on reporting"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "See Security Council resolutions 2222 (2015) and 1738 (2006); and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, International Programme for the Development of Communication, “Plan of action on the safety of journalists and the issue of impunity” (2012)."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0036", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. One of the gravest and most concerning tools against reporting involves the use of counter-terrorism laws to restrict and penalize reporters. The reliance on counter-terrorism serves as a catch-all to throttle the flow of information and justify the detention of journalists, bloggers and others working in the media. In Australia, the Border Force Act of 2015 allegedly has the effect of criminalizing reporting on the detention conditions in immigration detention facilities.[[fn:67]] Ethiopia reportedly relied on its Criminal Code and the Anti-Terrorism Proclamation of 2009 to detain journalists and bloggers with the “Zone 9” collective on the grounds of “working with foreign human rights organizations and inciting violence through social media to create instability in the country”, when in fact they were working for independent online media.[[fn:68]] Turkish authorities have allegedly used anti-terrorism laws to detain journalists and target academics.[[fn:69]] In 2014, Nigeria was also criticized for threatening and harassing nearly a dozen independent newspapers under the guise of fighting terrorism.[[fn:70]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "3. The assault on reporting"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. AUS 5/2015 and reply from the Government."}, {"n": 68, "text": "See A/HRC/29/50, case No. ETH 2/2015."}, {"n": 69, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. TUR 3/2015 and reply from Government. See also A/HRC/29/50, case No. TUR 1/2015 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 70, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. NGA 3/2014."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0037", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The Islamic Republic of Iran has repeatedly detained journalists and bloggers on murky charges pertaining to espionage[[fn:71]] or “conspiracy against national security”[[fn:72]] — problems exacerbated by the closed nature of legal proceedings against those detained. In Germany, while the Government swiftly and correctly reversed course, two online journalists were investigated for reporting on government surveillance practices on the grounds of protecting the public prosecutor’s ability to pursue cases against extremism.[[fn:73]] A presidential decree in Ukraine imposed a one-year ban on 41 foreign journalists and bloggers who were said to pose a threat to the country’s national interests and sovereignty.[[fn:74]] Indonesia detained journalists reporting on the situation in West Papua, charging them with misuse of their visas and attempted treason.[[fn:75]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "3. The assault on reporting"], "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. IRN 13/2015."}, {"n": 72, "text": "Ibid., case No. IRN 9/2015."}, {"n": 73, "text": "Ibid., case No. DEU 1/2015."}, {"n": 74, "text": "Ibid., case No. UKR 6/2015."}, {"n": 75, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. IDN 4/2014."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0038", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. In the context of protests, it is common for journalists to be detained and prohibited from reporting. Such has been the case in Egypt, where journalists collecting information about demonstrations have been detained and charged on various grounds, including involvement in terrorism.[[fn:76]] At least seven journalists and media workers in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela were arrested and their equipment confiscated for covering looting and public protests.[[fn:77]] It may also be the case that local officials carry out their functions without appropriately taking into account the roles journalists play, in particular during protests. For instance, a journalist in Mexico covering protests was allegedly detained and severely mistreated by the local authorities.[[fn:78]] In the United States, journalists covering the protests in Ferguson, Missouri, in 2014 were subjected to detention by the local authorities.[[fn:79]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "3. The assault on reporting"], "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "See A/HRC/27/72, case No. EGY 7/2014 and reply from Government and case No. EGY 6/2014; and A/HRC/31/79, case No. EGY 16/2015."}, {"n": 77, "text": "OHCHR, “Venezuela: Crisis — United Nations and Inter-American experts raise alarm at deterioration of media freedom”, 4 August 2016. Available from www.ohchr.org/EN/ NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=20343&LangID=E#sthash.mpZ7TLQn.dpuf."}, {"n": 78, "text": "See A/HRC/30/27, case No. MEX 2/2015 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 79, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. USA 14/2014."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0039", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Perhaps most concerning is that Governments often fail to provide measures of protection and accountability that can deter attacks on journalists. The Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights presented alarming statistics involving killings, kidnappings and other forms of aggression against journalists in the Americas, with extremely limited accountability despite some efforts to create special mechanisms for the protection of journalists.[[fn:80]] Messages from the most senior leadership matter, as I have pointed out in the wake of threatening comments made by the leaders of Thailand and the Philippines.[[fn:81]] The widespread failure to hold perpetrators accountable for attacks on journalists suggests the absence of concern for the role that journalists play in democratic societies. My communications have highlighted reports and allegations of the failure of accountability in, among other places, South Sudan, where journalists have been killed and disappeared;[[fn:82]] Mexico, where journalists have been murdered and accountability is inconsistent;[[fn:83]] the Philippines, which after nearly seven years has not concluded its investigations and prosecutions against those responsible for the massacre of journalists in Maguindinao;[[fn:84]] and the Russian Federation, where there are multiple reports of journalists who have been murdered and the perpetrators not held to account.[[fn:85]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "3. The assault on reporting"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Organization of American States, Annual Report of the Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression: Annual Report of the InterAmerican Commission on Human Rights 2015, vol. II (Washington, D.C., 2015)."}, {"n": 81, "text": "OHCHR, “United Nations expert dismayed over Thai leader’s intimidating statements against freedom of the press”, 1 April 2015; and OHCHR, “Journalists’ killings: United Nations experts urge Philippines President-elect to stop instigating deadly violence”, 6 June 2016."}, {"n": 82, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case Nos. SSD 2/2015 and SSD 3/2015. See also A/HRC/28/85, case No. PHL 5/2014; A/HRC/31/79, case No. BGD 7/2015 and reply from Government and case No. RUS 5/2015; A/HRC/32/53, case No. PAK 12/2015; and A/HRC/31/79, case No. AZE 4/2015 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 83, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. MEX 20/2014 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 84, "text": "Ibid., case No. PHL 5/2014."}, {"n": 85, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. RUS 5/2015."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0040", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. In addition to physical violence and attacks, journalists also face a range of punitive measures that threaten their well-being and livelihood. For example, Kuwait and Bahrain have reportedly sought to strip journalists of their citizenship simply for doing their job.[[fn:86]] In Ecuador, the Government has filed copyright complaints in an attempt to take down content critical of its activities.[[fn:87]] In my report to the General Assembly in 2015 (A/70/361), I also identified the ways in which sources for journalists are under threat.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "3. The assault on reporting"], "footnotes": [{"n": 86, "text": "See, for example, A/HRC/32/53, case No. KWT 7/2015 and reply from Government. See also Committee to Protect Journalists, “Four Bahraini journalists stripped of citizenship”, 4 February 2015."}, {"n": 87, "text": "Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Organization of American States, Annual Report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 2015, vol. II (Washington, D.C., 2015), para. 543."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0041", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Human rights law places a high value on the individual’s ability to hold beliefs and practise religious faith. The Human Rights Council has raised concerns about discrimination and violence against persons on the basis of their religion or belief (see Council resolution 16/18). Yet neither article 18, on freedom of religion, conscience or belief, article 19 nor article 20 (2) of the Covenant protects religions, institutions or beliefs as such. The Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief has noted that the right to freedom of religion or belief has sometimes been misperceived as protecting religions or belief systems in themselves (see A/HRC/31/18, para. 13), when it in fact protects individuals holding or expressing those beliefs. In paragraph 48 of its general comment No. 34, the Human Rights Committee emphasized that prohibitions of displays of lack of respect for a religion or other belief system, including blasphemy laws, are incompatible with article 19. Nor, the Committee noted, would it be permissible for such prohibitions to be used to prevent or punish criticism of religious leaders or commentary on religious doctrine and tenets of faith.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "4. Restrictions on expression relating to religion and belief"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "18", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0042", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Non-State actors are especially responsible for attacks on individuals for expression of belief. Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), its affiliates and some of its supporters have committed atrocity after atrocity around the world on the basis of religious or ethnic affiliation or individual expression of belief. The attacks on Charlie Hebdo in Paris, for instance, were directed specifically against satirists who criticized all forms of dogma, religious or otherwise, although the killers in this instance were allegedly incensed over depictions of the Prophet Mohammed. Beyond ISIL, the series of murders of bloggers in Bangladesh reflects an effort to silence views that reject religious belief altogether. Such assaults are grave attacks on opinion, expression and belief, designed to silence — in a very direct way — not only the specific targets but also anyone who dares express an alternative viewpoint.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "4. Restrictions on expression relating to religion and belief"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0043", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Article 20 (2) provides for restrictions with respect to hateful advocacy that amounts to incitement to hostility, discrimination or violence; it does not permit restrictions merely on the basis of “incompatibility” with a particular faith’s values, nor does it (or article 19) permit restrictions that amount to blasphemy as such.[[fn:88]] Nonetheless, Maldives enacted a law in 2016 that criminalizes speech not expressed in accordance with social norms, national security and Islam.[[fn:89]] Singapore noted that a teenager was convicted under national legislation “for posting a video containing remarks against Christianity with deliberate intent to wound the religious feelings of Christians”.[[fn:90]] While “wounding religious feelings” may involve real emotional costs, such charges have no basis under international human rights law and limit without justification the sharing of information and ideas pertaining to religion and belief.", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "4. Restrictions on expression relating to religion and belief"], "footnotes": [{"n": 88, "text": "See Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence (A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, appendix), para. 19."}, {"n": 89, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Opinion/Legislation/MDV_1_2016.pdf."}, {"n": 90, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. SGP 1/2015."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0044", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Article 2 (1) of the Covenant requires States to ensure the protection of individuals in the face of such assaults by non-State actors on rights, obligated as they are to respect and ensure respect for all human rights. However, States also need to be cautious not to provide any kind of support in their own laws and actions for the effort to strike down those who hold contrary beliefs. Yet many States still adopt or implement laws that permit them to punish individuals for expression seen to criticize belief. In 2015, for instance, Myanmar amended the Criminal Code to penalize “speech intended to cause religious outrage which insults, or attempts to insult, religion or religious belief” (see A/HRC/31/71, annex I). Saudi Arabia has harshly punished individuals for expression of religious beliefs contrary to national legislation.[[fn:91]] In 2014, Brunei Darussalam enacted a law that would subject those who insult Islam to capital punishment, which the Government did not deny in its response.[[fn:92]] Blasphemy and apostasy laws worldwide not only restrict expression but give support to those who would attack others for religious views. Such laws exist not only in the Middle East and South and South-East Asia, where they are prevalent, but also in Europe and the Americas.[[fn:93]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "4. Restrictions on expression relating to religion and belief"], "footnotes": [{"n": 91, "text": "See OHCHR, “United Nations rights expert raises alarm over Saudi Arabia’s growing clamp down on freedom of expression” (16 December 2015), available from www.ohchr.org/en/ NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=16892&LangID=E; and OHCHR, “United Nations rights experts urge Saudi Arabia to halt the execution of Palestinian poet Ashraf Fayadh” (3 December 2015), available from www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx? NewsID=16838&LangID=E."}, {"n": 92, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. BRN 1/2014 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 93, "text": "Angelina E. Theodorou, Pew Research Center, “Which countries still outlaw apostasy and blasphemy?”, 29 July 2016."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0045", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Religious people worldwide certainly do experience offence when their beliefs are criticized, but nobody should suffer penalty, under criminal or civil grounds, for such criticism, rejection or even ridicule, except in those very rare circumstances in which the critic incites violence against a believer and restriction is necessary to protect against such violence. The Human Rights Council, in its resolution 16/18, and the Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence (A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, appendix) highlighted mechanisms other than criminal or civil penalty, such as broader education and law enforcement training, that could and should address hateful and offensive speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "4. Restrictions on expression relating to religion and belief"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0046", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The right to freedom of opinion and expression must be respected “without distinction of any kind” (see article 2 (1) of the Covenant). Members of some groups, however, often face particular discrimination when it comes to the implementation of restrictions on expression. The Special Rapporteurs on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association, on the situation of human rights defenders and on the independence of judges and lawyers address issues pertaining to human rights defenders and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), often in collaboration with the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Given their focus and detailed reporting,[[fn:94]] I will not highlight here our shared concerns about restrictions imposed against NGOs,[[fn:95]] human rights defenders[[fn:96]] environmental activists,[[fn:97]] refugees[[fn:98]] and lawyers.[[fn:99]] Instead I will highlight several other groups whose expression is particularly subject to repression.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "5. The singling out of groups"], "footnotes": [{"n": 94, "text": "See, for example, A/68/299, A/70/217 and A/HRC/32/34."}, {"n": 95, "text": "See, for example, OHCHR, “Israel: United Nations experts urge Knesset not to adopt pending legislation that could target critical NGOs”, 24 June 2016; see also A/HRC/31/79, case No. KAZ 3/2015."}, {"n": 96, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. RUS 2/2016."}, {"n": 97, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. MNG 1/2015."}, {"n": 98, "text": "See A/HRC/28/85, case No. THA 7/2014."}, {"n": 99, "text": "See, for example, A/HRC/31/79, case No. CHN 6/2015 and reply from Government."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0047", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. In recent years, a number of Governments have adopted laws that explicitly attack expression on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity. For instance, the Government of Kyrgyzstan adopted a law that criminalizes the dissemination of information relating to “non-traditional” sexual relationships.[[fn:100]] Uganda has criminalized the “promotion” of homosexuality,[[fn:101]] while the Russian Federation has banned the “propaganda of homosexuality” at the federal level across the country.[[fn:102]] In Zambia, a human rights advocate not only faced undue delays when trying to register an NGO for the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex persons and sex workers, but also was charged with “soliciting for immoral purposes” when he urged greater access to health care for sex workers and sexual minorities.[[fn:103]] In some cases, individuals and organizations involved in lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender-related activism or expression even face significant threats of physical violence. In Honduras, for example, there has been a systematic lack of accountability for advocates of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender rights who have been murdered, kidnapped or assaulted.[[fn:104]] In an important step, the Human Rights Council, reflecting on the increasing pressure on and violence and discrimination against individuals on the basis of their sexual orientation, established a mandate for an independent expert to combat such discrimination and violence (see Council resolution 32/2).", "labels": ["Women/girls", "LGBTI+", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "5. The singling out of groups"], "footnotes": [{"n": 100, "text": "OHCHR, “Kyrgyzstan: ‘Don’t condemn LGBT people to silence’ — United Nations rights experts urge Parliament to withdraw anti-gay bill”, 26 November 2014. Available from www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=15349&LangID=E."}, {"n": 101, "text": "See A/HRC/26/21, case No. UGA 1/2014."}, {"n": 102, "text": "See A/HRC/23/51, case No. RUS 8/2012. See also Human Rights Watch, “License to harm: violence and harassment against LGBT people and activists in Russia”, 15 December 2014."}, {"n": 103, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. ZMB 4/2015."}, {"n": 104, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. HND 3/2015."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0048", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Women may also face particular restrictions targeting their expression. In 2013, the Human Rights Council affirmed the fundamental role that freedom of opinion and expression plays in the ability of women to interact with society at large, in particular in the realms of economic and political participation, and called upon States to promote, respect and ensure women’s exercise of freedom of opinion and expression, both online and offline, including as members of NGOs and other associations (see Council resolution 23/2). Unfortunately, this commitment remains largely unfulfilled in many parts of the world. In 2014, in Saudi Arabia, two advocates for the rights of women were detained for driving.[[fn:105]] Earlier in 2016, I, along with other mandate holders, raised concerns about the systematic attacks and threats of sexual and physical violence made against three women human rights defenders and two women human rights lawyers in the State of Chhattisgarh, India.[[fn:106]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "5. The singling out of groups"], "footnotes": [{"n": 105, "text": "See A/HRC/29/50, case No. SAU 15/2014."}, {"n": 106, "text": "See A/HRC/33/32, case No. IND 1/2016."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0049", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Government repression of artists of all sorts persists. For instance, the mandate holder has sent communications to the Islamic Republic of Iran pertaining to the detention of a graphic artist who made a drawing in protest against the banning of family planning, the detention and flogging sentence of human rights defenders for collections of poetry, the detention of two musicians and a film-maker for “propaganda against the State” and “insulting the sacred” through the production of underground music, and the detention of individuals for appearing in a video protesting a State ban on women watching sports in stadiums.[[fn:107]] The Egyptian Penal Code provides a basis for restricting artists in its article 98, which subjects to penalties “whoever exploits and uses the religion in advocating and propagating orally, in writing or by any other method, extremist thoughts with the aim of instigating sedition or division, or disdaining and contempting any of the heavenly religions or prejudicing national unity and social peace”[[fn:108]]. Qatar detained a poet for criticizing the Amir of Qatar and praising the Tunisian revolution in poems.[[fn:109]] Saudi Arabia imposed the death sentence, later commuted, on a poet for apostasy.[[fn:110]] In Cuba, an artist was detained on the basis of a charge of intending to release two pigs named after Raul and Fidel Castro during an artistic demonstration.[[fn:111]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Contemporary restrictions on expression", "C. Illegitimate objectives", "5. The singling out of groups"], "footnotes": [{"n": 107, "text": "See A/HRC/29/50, case No. IRN 1/2015; A/HRC/31/79, case No. IRN 20/2015; and A/HRC/28/85, case No. IRN 24/2014."}, {"n": 108, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. EGY 9/2015."}, {"n": 109, "text": "Ibid., case No. QAT 2/2015 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 110, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. SAU 10/2015 and reply from Government."}, {"n": 111, "text": "See A/HRC/31/79, case No. CUB 3/2015 and reply from Government."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "98", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0050", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. While the threats to freedom of expression worldwide are severe, there remain important efforts to sustain a commitment to article 19. In the wake of the attacks in Paris in January 2015, dozens of the highest leaders of States gathered for a public demonstration that was, nominally, to support the right to freedom of expression and oppose terrorism. The moment proved to be as much theatre as commitment to law and policy, as no overarching Government-led effort to promote freedom of expression — such as the protection of journalists and artists — followed. Still, one may point to concrete examples that deserve to be emulated. Importantly, many (if not most) Governments proclaim in their Constitutions the right everyone enjoys to freedom of expression. Egypt’s is typical, protecting in article 65 the freedom of expression “verbally, in writing, through imagery, or by any other means of expression and publication”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Efforts to promote freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "65", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0051", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. As examples of meeting the condition of legality, some Governments have made an effort to address gaps in legal authorities regulating surveillance and Internet governance in public ways. Although there remain, in my view, significant problems with the Investigatory Powers Bill, the Government of the United Kingdom has permitted a process involving public comment and debate.[[fn:112]] The Government of Brazil adopted a landmark law, the Marco Civil de Internet, after widespread input from stakeholders. The United States has engaged in a public debate, including in Congress, that has begun to address, albeit in limited ways, the excessive discretion in intelligence and law enforcement in the context of digital surveillance. The willingness of several Governments to engage with the mandate holder also reflects an important aspect of public justification of restrictions, as do the hosting of country visits by Tajikistan, Japan and Turkey.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Efforts to promote freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 112, "text": "See A/HRC/32/53, case No. GBR 4/2015, replies from Government."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0052", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Courts at the national and regional levels regularly engage in careful analysis and attention to freedom of expression norms (although my mention of them in the present report goes towards the rule-of-law element and does not necessarily indicate my agreement on the merits). In 2015, for instance, the Supreme Court of India struck down a 2009 amendment to the Information Technology Act on the grounds that it risked restricting legitimate expression and clarified the scope of intermediary liability under another provision of law.[[fn:113]] The Supreme Court of Canada upheld the privacy rights of Internet users in a landmark case in 2014.[[fn:114]] The East African Court of Justice held that a series of rules in Burundi’s press law violated norms of the rule of law and freedom of expression.[[fn:115]] In Rodriguez v. Google (2014), the Supreme Court of Argentina held that search engines are under no duty to monitor the legality of third-party content to which they link, noting that only in exceptional cases involving “gross and manifest harm” could intermediaries be required to disable access.[[fn:116]] The Inter-American Court of Human Rights held that the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela could not suspend the licence of a broadcaster on the ground that it was seeking to silence government critics.[[fn:117]] The European Court of Justice has addressed major issues at the intersection of freedom of expression and privacy, while the European Court of Human Rights has clarified the limited nature of liability of intermediaries for third-party content.[[fn:118]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Efforts to promote freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 113, "text": "Supreme Court of India, Singhal v. Union of India (2015)."}, {"n": 114, "text": "Supreme Court of Canada, R. v. Spenser, 2014 SCC 43 (2014)."}, {"n": 115, "text": "East African Court of Justice, Burundi Journalists Union v. Burundi (2015)."}, {"n": 116, "text": "Argentine Federal Supreme Court of Justice, María Belén Rodriguez v. Google (2014)."}, {"n": 117, "text": "Media Legal Defence Initiative, “Inter-American court orders RCTV reinstatement”, 11 September 2015/. Available from www.mediadefence.org/news/inter-american-court-orders-rctv-reinstatement."}, {"n": 118, "text": "European Court of Justice (Grand Chamber), Google Spain v. Mario Costeja González, Case C131/12 (13 May 2014); European Court of Justice, Schrems v. Data Protection Commissioner (2015); European Court of Human Rights, MTE and Index.HU ZRT v. Hungary (2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0053", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Some Governments have adopted strong policies and regulations to promote freedom of expression. In 2016, Norway launched an effort to place freedom of expression at the centre of its human rights policy.[[fn:119]] In 2015, the United States Federal Communications Commission adopted a policy of network neutrality following the adoption of similar policies by Governments, such as those of the Netherlands, Chile and Brazil.[[fn:120]] Several States have made an effort to expand infrastructure to improve Internet access. In Myanmar, the Government has taken significant steps to develop its Internet infrastructure: in June 2013, for example, it awarded operating licences to two foreign telecommunications companies as part of a broader push to deregulate the telecommunications industry.[[fn:121]] The United Republic of Tanzania, Rwanda and Mauritius were early adopters of digital broadcasting, thus providing “more opportunities to increase Internet access by freeing up unused spectrum”.[[fn:122]] Of critical importance are the international statements of support for multi-stakeholder governance of the Internet that privileges security and openness and recognizes the value the Internet offers for freedom of expression.[[fn:123]] Several Governments have coordinated their efforts to expand Internet freedom through the Freedom Online Coalition[[fn:124]] and promote access to information through the Open Government Partnership.[[fn:125]] Several countries have adopted strong laws on the right to information and whistle-blower protection (see A/70/361).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Efforts to promote freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 119, "text": "Norway, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, “New Norwegian initiative to promote freedom of expression and independent media”, 18 January 2016. Available from www.regjeringen.no/en/ aktuelt/promote_freedom/id2470543/."}, {"n": 120, "text": "OHCHR, “‘A real victory for freedom of expression’: United Nations rights expert hails United States move to keep Internet open”, 27 February 2015."}, {"n": 121, "text": "Bhadrika Magan, “Myanmar’s ICT ministry opens door for Internet infrastructure development”, 17 September 2015. Available from http://blog.apnic.net/2015/09/17/myanmars-ict-ministry-opens-door-for-internet-infrastructure-development/."}, {"n": 122, "text": "Towela Nyirenda-Jere and Tesfaye Biru, “Internet development and Internet governance in Africa”, 22 May 2015. Available from www.internetsociety.org/sites/default/files/Internet%20 development%20and%20Internet%20governance%20in%20Africa.pdf."}, {"n": 123, "text": "See General Assembly resolution 70/125."}, {"n": 124, "text": "See www.freedomonlinecoalition.com/."}, {"n": 125, "text": "See www.opengovpartnership.org/about."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0054", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Civil society organizations and initiatives also remain vibrant and critical to expanding or strengthening freedom of expression norms, particularly in situations of significant flux, such as contemporary digital technologies[[fn:126]] or the law at the intersection of expression and religion, such as the Rabat Plan of Action. Restrictions on civic space raise particular concerns, not only with regard to freedom of expression (see Human Rights Council resolution 32/31). Independent media, in the face of growing concentrations of ownership in many markets, remain critical as watchdogs of public authorities around the world, particularly in digital space.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Efforts to promote freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 126, "text": "See, for example, Necessary and Proportionate, “International principles on the application of human rights to communications surveillance” (May 2014), available from https://necessaryandproportionate.org/principles; Electronic Frontier Foundation, “Manila principles on intermediary liability for content to promote freedom of expression and innovation — a global society initiative” (24 March 2015), available from www.manilaprinciples.org/ principles; “2015 Ranking Digital Rights Corporate Accountability Index”, available from https://rankingdigitalrights.org/index2015/; and Rebecca MacKinnon and others, Fostering Freedom Online: The Role of Internet Intermediaries (Paris, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2014)."}]}, {"id": "a-71-373-0055", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. In the present report, I have sought to describe trends working against freedom of opinion and expression around the world today. Those trends are sobering. Individuals seeking to exercise their right to expression face all kinds of limitations. Rationales are often unsustainable. Some of the limitations involve assertions of a legitimate objective — typically national security or public order — without the barest demonstration of legality or necessity and proportionality. Other limitations are based on objectives that are not legitimate under international human rights law. Old tools remain in use, while others are expanding, as States exploit society’s pervasive need to access the Internet. The targets of restrictions include journalists and bloggers, critics of government, dissenters from conventional life, provocateurs and minorities of all sorts. Our communications have revealed allegations relating to all of these issues, and reporting from civil society suggests that the problems are more pervasive and extensive than even our communications illuminate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0056", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. In the coming years, I urge States to be particularly mindful of the context of digital rights, the integrity of digital communications and the roles of intermediaries, regardless of frontiers. It will be particularly critical for States to avoid adopting legal rules that implicate digital actors — including, but not limited to, data localization standards, intermediary liability and Internet security — that undermine the freedom of expression, and I will be monitoring such legislation closely. I see ongoing deterioration of online rights, even as the Human Rights Council and the General Assembly urge that rights offline be respected online. The coming years will test just how genuine the commitment to that proposition is.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-71-373-0057", "docId": "a-71-373", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Among steps that I would encourage are the following:\n(a) Review and, where necessary, revise national laws. National legislation increasingly adopts overly broad definitions of key terms, such as terrorism, national security, extremism and hate speech, that fail to limit the discretion of executive authorities. Legislation often limits the role of judicial or independent and public oversight. Proponents often give limited demonstration of how new legal rules are necessary to protect legitimate interests and proportionately address specific threats, and the legislative process often limits public engagement and debate. I would urge all States considering new legislation to ensure that their laws meet these requirements, and I encourage States to implement regular public oversight of laws that implicate freedom of expression to ensure that they meet the tests of legality, legitimacy and necessity. Where possible, States should not only adopt legal frameworks but also implement training, particularly among independent oversight bodies, of the principles of freedom of expression;\n(b) Engage with special procedures of the Human Rights Council. As has been shown in the present report, while the response rate to communications is quite low, several States engage with the mandate holder in good faith. Engagement with communications and invitations to conduct country missions add significant value to the work of the mandate holder, since they allow us to seek an understanding of why States pursue certain policies (and, where those policies are adverse to freedom of expression, a possibility of encouraging officials to adopt other measures);\n(c) Support or establish regional or subregional monitoring. Several regions have developed or are developing independent approaches to supporting freedom of expression. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, the African Commission on Human and People’s Rights and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe have established monitoring mechanisms on the basis of norms that are consistent with the international and regional standards. Human rights courts serve as critical watchdogs in these regions, including subregional courts such as the East African Court of Justice and the Court of Justice of the Economic Community of West African States. At this time, however, no such monitors — expert-oriented or judicial — exist in the Middle East and North Africa or Asia. I strongly encourage States, in collaboration with United Nations and regional political bodies and civil society, to begin the process of developing independent monitoring mechanisms in those regions that do not currently enjoy them on the basis of international standards. I also strongly encourage civil society actors to make active use of the existing regional and global mechanisms, whether through supportive fact-finding and reporting or litigation, and to develop approaches to creating regional monitoring. The Special Rapporteur stands ready to support such efforts;\n(d) Support independent media and civic space. In the face of State repression of reporting, it is critical that States make an extra effort to support independent voices in the media and civil society at large. At a minimum, I encourage States to avoid imposing restrictions on reporting and research that may be seen to criticize the Government and its policies or to share information about sensitive subjects, including terrorism. States should especially avoid imposing obstacles, such as accreditation procedures or penalties through defamation lawsuits or intermediary liability, that undermine independent media. At the same time, those with the means — such as private donors and foundations — should make a special effort to support independent media and to foster strong scrutiny of media conglomerations that squeeze out the less well-financed outlets;\n(e) State leadership. One of the most disappointing aspects of the current situation for freedom of expression is that many States with strong histories of support for freedom of expression — in law and in their societies — have considered measures liable to abuse in their own countries or to misuse when applied elsewhere. In particular, Governments pursuing new policies to enhance surveillance or to limit Internet security should reconsider those efforts, as they often fail to meet the tests of necessity and proportionality. I strongly urge all States to consider that attacks on security on the Internet pose long-term threats not only to freedom of expression but also to national security and public order itself.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. This is a moment of intense global challenge to health and to the foundations of democratic society. The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has left nobody untouched, whether by illness, death or the disruptions of family life, education, culture, political freedoms or local, national and global economic life. The moment is a challenge for public health, but Governments are also using the crisis to challenge the kinds of freedoms guaranteed in a democratic society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Looking to the future, two pathways seem possible. On one path, the pandemic shocks the global public into recognition of the need for international coordination and cooperation, and with this recognition comes rejuvenated support for the principles that animate the United Nations itself. The General Assembly hinted at this hopeful possibility in its resolution 74/270, its first on the pandemic, but whether States and institutions take it up remains to be seen. On this path, the pandemic also serves as a jolting wake-up call to all Governments and politicians, and to all relevant players in the digital age, demonstrating to them that censorship of all sorts interferes with a range of human rights, that promoting access to information bolsters the promotion of health, life, autonomy and good governance, and that restrictions – even where aimed towards a legitimate objective – must meet the standards of legality, necessity and proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. That is the preferred pathway the pandemic should lead States to take: one of strengthened human rights frameworks worldwide. It is the pathway that the Human Rights Council has an opportunity to promote and that all States have an obligation to ensure.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. This other path is one of opportunism during a time of widespread distraction and human dislocation, of consolidation of authoritarian power and disproportionate use of executive authorities, and of economic policies that can increase inequality and poverty and further human rights violations. On this path, the COVID-19 virus[[fn:1]] is not just the cause of illness and death, it is also a pathogen of repression. As succinctly articulated by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism: “We could have a parallel epidemic of authoritarian and repressive measures following close if not on the heels of a health epidemic.”[[fn:2]] There is good reason for concern that this second pathway could be the one chosen by all too many Governments, particularly as the virus itself emerged into environments of censorship, rising repression of dissent, politicization and denigration of expertise and science.[[fn:3]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The official name of the virus as agreed by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Virus is severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-COV-2)."}, {"n": 2, "text": "Selam Gebrekidan, “For autocrats and others, coronavirus is a chance to grab even more power“, New York Times, 30 March 2020."}, {"n": 3, "text": "See, e.g., International Center for Not for Profit Law, COVID-19 Civic Freedom Tracker, available at www.icnl.org/covid19tracker/?location=&issue=9&date=&type=. See also International Press Institute, COVID-19: Number of Media Freedom Violations by Region, available at https://ipi.media/covid19-media-freedom-monitoring/."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Seen from this perspective, the pandemic is also a crisis of free expression – naturally caused, to be sure, but facilitated by information policies that weakened the infrastructures of warning and reporting. Individuals and their communities, however, cannot protect themselves against disease when information is denied to them, when they have diminished trust in sources of information, and when propaganda and disinformation dominate the statements of public authorities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The present report is written with a sense of urgency about the kinds of steps that are necessary and appropriate to protect everyone’s right to freedom of opinion and expression during this and any future pandemic. It is not exhaustive of the issue and does not purport to address the extensive rights at risk during the pandemic, from the rights to health, housing and sustainable work to the rights to life, movement, migration, protest and much more. The report is based on the premise that, particularly in the face of a global pandemic, the free flow of information, unhindered by threats and intimidation and penalties, protects life and health and enables and promotes critical social, economic, political and other policy discussions and decision-making. It urges an approach to address the problem of misinformation that fosters public correction of rumours and the calling out of harmful chicanery and that avoids driving such misinformation into places where conspiracy theories defeat rigorous scientific assessments and public health warnings – one rooted in legal frameworks that promote the sharing of reliable information.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. Popular fictional depictions of pandemics or other disease outbreaks often imagine that the solutions are purely medical and scientific. Yet well before the emergence of COVID-19, the World Health Organization (WHO) highlighted the importance of information and responsible governance in addressing disease epidemics. It advised that managing a global disease should involve not only the coordination of responders, the identification of the particularities of the illness, and specific health interventions. Managing epidemics also requires “risk communication”, an information strategy involving “two-way communication that is dynamic and evolving as the outbreak develops”.[[fn:4]] WHO identified three elements of proper risk communication: (a) the relaying, by authorities, of information “on the nature of the threat and the protective measures that people can take”; (b) an understanding of public and individual fears and concerns that enables authorities to tailor communication appropriately; and (c) the management of rumours, which involves “listen[ing] to such misinformation and correct[ing] examples of it in appropriate ways without delay.”[[fn:5]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "World Health Organization, Managing Epidemics: Key Facts about Major Deadly Diseases (Geneva, 2018), p. 34."}, {"n": 5, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The WHO guidance for dealing with information in the context of pandemics is consistent with the requirements of international human rights law. It highlights the importance of the State providing reliable information to the public. It also emphasizes the importance of transmitting information in a manner that is sensitive to different audience perceptions and concerns and that is aimed at correction, not penalty. It is possible to further emphasize the dependent relationship between freedom of expression and access to information, on the one hand, and public health on the other. Indeed, the International Health Regulations mandate the implementation of global public health policies “with full respect for the dignity, human rights and fundamental freedoms of persons”.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "WHO, International Health Regulations (2005), art. 3 (1)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The WHO guidance, as important as it is, does not answer some of the most pertinent questions concerning the freedom of opinion and expression during a pandemic, such as: What are the State’s obligations when it comes to keeping the public educated about the pandemic, or ensuring that health-care professionals have access to global information about the disease and about steps to address it? To what extent may the public have access to information held by public authorities concerning the pandemic? May a State impose restrictions to ensure that the public receives only “legitimate” information sanctioned by government authorities? May a State impose restrictions on the media concerning the reporting of the pandemic? What kinds of surveillance – likely to become a key feature of tracing the development of the disease – raise alarms concerning freedom of opinion and expression, and what steps should be taken to constrain them?", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. International human rights law provides Governments with guidance to answer these and other questions concerning the information ecosystem at a time of global health emergency. When anchoring these questions in human rights law, it is possible to see that freedom of opinion and expression goes hand-in-glove with public health. It makes sense to start at the most fundamental level, that which recognizes, as the Human Rights Council did, in its resolution 21/12, that freedom of expression is essential to democratic society and a basic condition for development. Similarly, the General Assembly, in its resolution 68/163, emphasized the relevance of free media in building inclusive knowledge societies and democracies and fostering good governance. Both bodies highlighted the critical importance of journalism in the above-mentioned resolutions and affirmed that the same rights that people have offline must also be protected online, in particular freedom of expression. The Human Rights Committee emphasized, in paragraph 2 of general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression, that freedom of opinion and freedom of expression are indispensable conditions for the full development of the person and essential for any society. These principles do not simply evaporate in the face of a contagion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. These underlying principles are manifest in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, especially in the guarantee in article 19 of freedom of opinion and expression. In accordance with article 19 (1), freedom of opinion may not be subject to any interference. Article 19 (2) robustly defines freedom of expression as one that is multidirectional (“seek, receive and impart”), unlimited by viewpoint (“information and ideas of all kinds”), without boundaries (“regardless of frontiers”), and open-ended in form (“or through any other media”). Article 19 (3) provides narrow grounds on which Governments may restrict the freedom of expression, requiring that any limitation be provided by law and be necessary for respect of the rights or reputations of others, or for the protection of national security or public order, or of public health or morals. That is, such limitations must meet the tests of necessity and proportionality and be aimed only towards a legitimate objective. Article 17 provides that no one is to be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his or her privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his or her honour and reputation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. In the context of a pandemic, the right to freedom of expression also supports relevant rights found in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. In particular, under article 15 (1) (b) of that Covenant, the States parties recognize the right of everyone to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress and its applications. States are obligated to take steps necessary for the diffusion of science, with article 15 emphasizing the importance of respect for the freedom indispensable for scientific research, which ties directly back, even if implicitly, to the promotion in article 19 of the right to seek and share information of all kinds regardless of frontiers. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, in its general comment No. 25 (2020) on science and economic, social and cultural rights, appropriately emphasizes that the language of article 15 implies, inter alia, protection and promotion of academic and scientific freedom, including freedom of expression and freedom to seek, receive and impart scientific information. In other words, freedom of expression includes the right of individuals to share and gain access to scientific developments, such as those related to combating the COVID-19 virus, and involves the respect owed by States to enable such sharing of information. Whether that scientific information is shared through professional channels, social media or broadcast and print journalism, human rights law guarantees just this kind of communication regardless of frontiers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICESCR", "article": "15", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICESCR", "article": "15", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICESCR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICESCR", "article": "15", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. As noted above, many Governments are seeking to restrict freedom of expression in the areas of access to information held by public authorities, reporting on public health data, the sharing of information online and offline, and other areas. On the assumption (for the moment) that any given restriction is aimed at protecting public health, which is permitted under article 19 (3), it must still meet the basic conditions of legality and necessity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. First, it is well established that, under the “provided by law” standard, not only must the law be clearly set out, but also the scope, meaning and effect of the law must be sufficiently clear to allow individuals to regulate their actions so as to avoid violation. Vague laws confer undue discretion on executive authorities, enabling them to violate individual rights while disingenuously claiming adherence to the law.[[fn:7]] Mandate holders have frequently been concerned by overbroad legal definition and vague specification, particularly with respect to terrorism, extremism and other areas of national security and public order concern.[[fn:8]] Human rights courts have also consistently criticized the vagueness of such laws.[[fn:9]] Those standards apply with the same force in the context of public health emergencies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, paras. 24–26."}, {"n": 8, "text": "See, for example, A/71/373, para. 23. See also the following communications, including allegation letters and urgent appeals, from special procedure mandate holders: LAO 1/2014; THA 12/2014; KEN 7/2014; MYS 8/2014; KEN 3/2015; CHN 5/2015; RUS 3/2015; TUR 3/2015; BRA 8/2015; MDA 5/2015; LVA 1/2016; GBR 13/2018. All such communications are available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments. See further relevant reports of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism, including A/HRC/31/65, A/HRC/37/52 and A/HRC/40/52."}, {"n": 9, "text": "See, e.g., the amicus briefs filed in the following cases that were before the European Court of Human Rights: Big Brother Watch and Others v. the United Kingdom, application No. 58170/13, No. 62322/14 and No. 24960/15, and OOO Flavus and four other applications v. Russia, application No. 12468/15, No. 20159/15, No. 23489/15, No. 19074/16 and No. 61919/16. The amicus briefs are available at: www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Expression/Intervention_Big_Brother_Watch_v_UK.pdf and https://freedex.org/wp-content/blogs.dir/2015/files/2018/05/Flavus-OOO-SR-intervention.pdf, respectively."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Second, under the necessity principle, when a State invokes a legitimate ground for restriction of freedom of expression, it must establish a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the threat said to exist.[[fn:10]] It is the State’s obligation to demonstrate necessity,[[fn:11]] not a complainant’s obligation to demonstrate its failure. The judgment of the European Court of Human Rights – that, to meet the test of necessity, any restriction must be something more than “useful”, “reasonable” or “desirable” – is the correct one.[[fn:12]] Necessity implies proportionality, according to which restrictions must target a specific objective and not unduly intrude upon other rights of targeted persons, and the ensuing interference with third parties’ rights must be limited and justified in the light of the interest supported by the intrusion (A/HRC/29/32, para. 35). The restriction must be the least intrusive instrument among those which might achieve the desired result.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 35."}, {"n": 11, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 12, "text": "See The Sunday Times v. The United Kingdom, application No. 6538/74, judgment of 26 April 1979, para. 59."}, {"n": 13, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 35."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The principles of legality, necessity and proportionality apply across the board; they are not simply discarded in the context of efforts to address the public health threat of COVID-19. To the contrary, they apply with great force because of the extraordinary value that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights places on free expression and because they also advance public health policies.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "It is instructive to note that the Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights has recognized that “there are certain types of speech that receive special protection because of their importance to the exercise of other human rights, or to the consolidation, proper functioning and preservation of democracy”. See The Inter-American Legal Framework regarding the Right to Freedom of Expression (2009), p. 11."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. In paragraph 5 of its general comment No. 34, the Human Rights Committee emphasized that it could never become necessary to derogate from the freedom of opinion during a state of emergency. Given the importance of information and freedom of expression to the development of opinion and to the efforts to address the public health crisis, States should also avoid any derogation from their obligations under article 19 of the Covenant. Article 19 (3) already provides sufficient grounds for necessary and proportionate restrictions of article 19 (2) rights, to protect public health. Moreover, in accordance with article 4 of the Covenant, even in the context of a declared public emergency which threatens the life of the nation, measures derogating from a State party’s obligations under the Covenant must be limited to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation and, as under the normal application of article 19, cannot involve discrimination or other violations of other international legal obligations, and they must be temporary.[[fn:15]] As a group of mandate holders cautioned during the present pandemic, “any emergency responses to the coronavirus must be proportionate, necessary and non-discriminatory”. They also noted that “restrictions taken to respond to the virus must be motivated by legitimate public health goals and should not be used simply to quash dissent”.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["II. Disease pandemics and the freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 29 (2001) on derogations from provisions of the Covenant during a state of emergency, paras. 5 and 8."}, {"n": 16, "text": "“COVID-19: States should not abuse emergency measures to suppress human rights – UN experts”, 16 March 2020."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The Human Rights Committee has stated that article 19 of the Covenant includes a right of access to information held by public authorities. Such information includes records held by a public body, regardless of the form in which the information is stored, its source and the date of production.[[fn:17]] As noted by the Committee and cited approvingly by the previous mandate holder, States parties should proactively put into the public domain government information of public interest.[[fn:18]] The default position must be that public authorities do not wait for a request for information; they must have an affirmative policy of releasing all relevant information in ways that are understandable to a non-technical public and that advance public health priorities. As United Nations and regional experts stated in 2004 in a joint declaration on freedom of expression, “public authorities should be required to publish proactively, even in the absence of a request, a range of information of public interest.”[[fn:19]] In the public health context, the description by WHO of specific outcomes promoted by communication illustrates the underlying purposes of the human rights standards of proactive publication of information. WHO states that:\nFirst, early, transparent and understandable communication on the event establishes lines of dialogue with affected populations and stakeholders, and builds trust in the response ...\nSecond, frequent but evolving communication will help create a trusted and dynamic relationship that can deliver advice on protective behaviours that populations and individuals can adopt.\nThird, communication must scope the risk in lay language, and also propose practical actions people can take ...\nFourth, communication must display accountability by keeping people updated on the situation, on what is being done, and the impact of those actions in bringing the outbreak under control.[[fn:20]]\nWhen an individual seeks access to information not already in the public domain, the default response of government must be to release unless it can demonstrate that some legitimate limitation, guided by the principles of legality and necessity, applies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "A. Access to information held by public authorities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "General comment No. 34, para. 18."}, {"n": 18, "text": "Ibid., para. 19, and A/68/362, para. 28."}, {"n": 19, "text": "See www.osce.org/fom/38632. See also Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, The Inter‐American Legal Framework regarding the Right to Access to Information, second ed., 7 March 2011, para. 32."}, {"n": 20, "text": "WHO, Managing Epidemics, p. 35."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. The right to information is not a niche right found only in article 19. Regional instruments also guarantee the right.[[fn:21]] It is guaranteed in the Convention on the Rights of the Child (art. 17) and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (art. 9), and reaffirmed in instruments related to the environment, corruption and development.[[fn:22]] One indicator for target 16.10 of the Sustainable Development Goals is the number of countries that adopt and implement constitutional, statutory and/or policy guarantees for public access to information.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "A. Access to information held by public authorities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, art. 9; American Convention on Human Rights, art. 13; Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (European Convention on Human Rights), art. 10."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, principle 10; United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 13; 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'found only in article 19' with context_before explicitly attributing to 'article 19 of the Covenant' (ICCPR) and the paragraph discussing ICCPR art. 19 right to access information. Explicit_treaties listed are CRC and CRPD but the sentence 'not a niche right found only in article 19' refers to ICCPR art. 19 as the primary framework provision discussed."}, {"article": "17", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'It is guaranteed in the Convention on the Rights of the Child (art. 17)' — explicit treaty attribution. CRC art. 17 concerns access to information and mass media."}, {"article": "9", "treaty": "CRPD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (art. 9)' — explicit treaty attribution. CRPD art. 9 concerns accessibility."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. The previous mandate holder noted that the design and implementation of freedom of information laws should be guided by principles of: (a) maximum disclosure; (b) obligation to publish; (c) promotion of open government; (d) limited scope of exceptions; (e) processes to facilitate access; and (f) disclosure taking precedence. (A/68/362, para. 76.) Article 19: International Centre against Censorship, described the underlying purposes well: “Information allows people to scrutinise the actions of a government and is the basis for proper, informed debate of those actions.”[[fn:23]] It is not as if a health crisis, such as a pandemic, limits the importance of access to information or the role of accountability in ensuring that government operates in accordance with the best interests of its people. To the contrary, a public health threat strengthens the arguments for open government, for it is only by knowing the full scope of the threat posed by disease that individuals and their communities can make appropriate personal choices and public health decisions. A Government that deprives the public of reliable information puts individuals at risk and can justify such deprivation only on the narrowest grounds and with the greatest degree of necessity to protect a legitimate interest. Even where a Government is legitimately concerned about releasing information that could cause individuals to panic, it is likely that failure to disclose is not the only option. For instance, sharing information that is properly contextualized may advance both public policy and freedom of expression guarantees.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "A. Access to information held by public authorities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "The Public’s Right to Know: Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation (London, 1999), p. 1."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. It may be expected that, during the pandemic, some Governments may face resource constraints that interfere with their capacity to carry out their obligations to provide access to public information. To a certain extent, temporary disruptions may be expected and will generally not constitute a violation of article 19 of the Covenant, given the potential inability of staff to meet in person or for hearings to be held.[[fn:24]] However, such disruptions should only take place when necessary for public health and should not be an excuse for failing to carry out activities for which there is no limited-capacity justification. Indeed, given the likelihood that social distancing measures may continue for some time, or may recur, Governments should be developing approaches to access to information that enable them to continue their programmes during the crisis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "A. Access to information held by public authorities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "For instance, the Government of India indicated that to comply with an order of the Ministry of Home Affairs, the right-to-information oversight body, the Central Information Commission was closed for a period of 21 days beginning on 25 March 2020, and all information commissioners were working from home only. All scheduled hearings before the Commission were deferred during that period. Urgent matters would be heard through audio conference. The Government of Pakistan likewise noted that all cases scheduled for hearing were postponed. See Access Info Europe and the Centre for Law and Democracy, COVID-19 Tracker. Available at www.rti-rating.org/covid-19-tracker/."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. One of the mechanisms used by Governments to ensure public access to information is to provide media access to officials, documentation and other information resources. This may include regular press briefings in which public health and other officials provide detailed information to the public and answer questions from an independent media. Unfortunately, there have been reports of several instances involving direct interference with this mode of actively providing access to information. These types of restrictions tend towards closing off access to reliable information, disabling independent journalists from addressing questions to officials and thus clarifying public health orders, and limit the ability to hold officials accountable for decisions made during the pandemic.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "A. Access to information held by public authorities"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. The openness of government to media is especially important when public officials provide inconsistent, unclear or otherwise confusing information to the public. The goal in a public health crisis must be for government to provide accurate information, or information that is as accurate as possible and framed appropriately as uncertain or evolving, and clear and honest guidance. As WHO has noted, risk communication is a two-way street.[[fn:25]] The media provide an essential tool for governments to understand the concerns of the public, and for the public to understand how to manage their concerns and fears; limiting access limits this crucial element of information-sharing.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "A. Access to information held by public authorities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "Managing Epidemics, p. 34."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. In a moment of global pandemic, the right of access to the Internet should be restated and seen for what it is: a critical element of health-care policy and practice, public information and even the right to life. Indeed, an open and secure Internet should be counted among the leading prerequisites for the enjoyment of the freedom of expression today (A/HRC/29/32, para. 11; see also A/HRC/17/27). Yet Governments have resorted increasingly to the bluntest forms of denial of access to information via the Internet, knowing that digital tools have become an essential – if not, for many, the essential – tool for the enjoyment of the right to seek, receive and impart information. The Human Rights Council has itself reiterated the importance of Internet access. In its resolution 39/6, the Council condemned unequivocally measures in violation of international human rights law aiming to or that intentionally prevented or disrupted access to or dissemination of information online and offline, which undermined the work of journalists in informing the public, including measures to unlawfully or arbitrarily block or take down media websites, such as denial of service attacks, and called upon all States to cease and refrain from those measures, which caused irreparable harm to efforts at building inclusive and peaceful knowledge societies and democracies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "B. Access to the Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Similarly, in a joint declaration on freedom of expression and conflict situations, United Nations and regional monitors of freedom of expression and the media declared in 2015 that the “filtering of content on the Internet, using communications ‘kill switches’ (i.e. shutting down entire parts of communications systems) and the physical takeover of broadcasting stations are measures which can never be justified under human rights law”.[[fn:26]] Governments increasingly resort to shutting down the Internet, often for illegitimate purposes but in all cases having a disproportionate impact on the population. Network shutdowns invariably fail to meet the standard of necessity (A/HRC/35/22, para. 14).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "B. Access to the Internet"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Para. 4 (c) of the declaration. Available at www.osce.org/fom/66176."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Given the migration of all manner of essential services to online platforms, shutdowns not only restrict expression but also interfere with other fundamental rights (A/HRC/35/22, para. 15). In the context of the pandemic, it has been especially troubling to observe the continuation of several instances of Internet shutdowns. The most prominent has been the long-term disruption that the Government of India has imposed on Kashmir. In 2019 the Government imposed what several mandate holders found to be “a form of collective punishment of the people of Jammu and Kashmir, without even a pretext of a precipitating offence”.[[fn:27]] Early in 2020 the Supreme Court of India found that the Government must periodically justify its continuing actions in Kashmir, but even as of this writing, reporting suggests that people in Kashmir are only able to access limited Internet sites and with extremely limited speeds. It has been reported by health-care professionals in Kashmir that the limitations imposed by the Government have made access to basic information difficult to obtain.[[fn:28]]", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "B. Access to the Internet"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "“UN rights experts urge India to end communications shutdown in Kashmir“, 22 August 2019."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Umar Lateef Misgar, “In Kashmir, slow internet throttles doctors’ coronavirus response“, New Humanitarian, 1 April 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. India has not been alone. The Government of Ethiopia imposed a shutdown of Internet services in the Oromia region in the beginning of 2020, reportedly promising only at the end of March to end the shutdown.[[fn:29]] Bangladesh imposed an Internet blackout affecting Rohingya refugees from Myanmar, prompting 50 organizations to call for a lifting of the blackout in the face of the COVID-19 pandemic.[[fn:30]] The persistence of Internet shutdowns in parts of Myanmar continues to be of serious concern,[[fn:31]] particularly in light of COVID-19. In other contexts, mandate holders have raised concerns related to Iraqi service disruptions.[[fn:32]] A growing number of shutdowns have been imposed during election periods, including in Cameroon, Chad, the Gambia and Togo.[[fn:33]] Almost 200 Internet shutdowns of various varieties in 2018 have been documented, with almost two thirds occurring in India, and the remainder occurring principally in Asia, the Middle East and Africa.[[fn:34]]", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "B. Access to the Internet"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Laetitia Bader, “Millions of Ethiopians can’t get COVID-19 news“, Human Rights Watch dispatch, 20 March 2020; Agence France-Presse, “Ethiopia vows to end communications blackout as virus cases rise“, The Guardian, 31 March 2020."}, {"n": 30, "text": "See Global Justice Centre, “Bangladesh: end Internet blackout to protect public health of Rohingya refugees and host communities“, 2 April 2020; Phelim Kine, “Internet curbs on Rohingya risk wider virus outbreak“, Physicians for Human Rights, 30 March 2020."}, {"n": 31, "text": "“UN experts concerned at surge in civilian casualties in northwest Myanmar after internet shutdown“, 18 February 2020. See also MMR 6/2019, available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}, {"n": 32, "text": "IRQ 4/2019. Available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}, {"n": 33, "text": "See research paper 1/2019 of the Special Rapporteur, on freedom of expression and elections in the digital age, June 2019, citing CMR 2/2017, TCD 3/2016, GMB 1/2017 and TGO 1/2017, p. 6. Available at www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/FreedomOpinion/Pages/ReserarchPapers.aspx."}, {"n": 34, "text": "Access Now, “The state of Internet shutdowns around the world: the 2018 #KeepItOn report” (July 2019)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Internet shutdowns are an affront to the freedom of expression that every person is guaranteed under human rights law. Internet shutdowns during a pandemic risk the health and life of everyone denied such access – and that of others with whom they come in contact.[[fn:35]] They are an affront to the right of everyone, especially health-care workers, to access health information. There is no room for limitation of Internet access at the time of a health emergency that affects everyone from the most local to the global level.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "B. Access to the Internet"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "Article 19: International Centre against Censorship, “Coronavirus: access to the internet can be a matter of life and death during a pandemic“, 31 March 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Even apart from Internet shutdowns, the pandemic, and the importance of digital access to health-care information, highlights the profound need for expanding infrastructure to allow for access in the first place. The challenges arise in contexts of both the digital divide between developed and developing nations and that within developing nations. More than four billion people still do not have regular access to the Internet; 90 per cent of them live in the developing world.[[fn:36]] Greater international coordination and support for digital connectivity is required, as identified by the High-Level Panel on Digital Cooperation.[[fn:37]] As part of any economic stimulus plans aimed at supporting communities and individuals during and after the pandemic, significant resources should be devoted to expanding broadband Internet access to those who do not now enjoy it. This includes not only providing communities with access but also ensuring that historically disadvantaged groups, and especially women, have robust, meaningful and affordable access to the Internet (see A/74/493).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "B. Access to the Internet"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "“Sustainable Development Goals: Goal 9 – industry, innovation and infrastructure”, United Nations Development Programme. Available at www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-9-industry-innovation-and-infrastructure.html."}, {"n": 37, "text": "See The Age of Digital Interdependence: Report of the UN Secretary-General’s High-Level Panel on Digital Cooperation (June 2019)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. As noted above, journalism plays an essential role in the communication of information to the public, enabling individuals to exercise their rights to seek and receive information and to develop opinions about the public health threat so that they can take appropriate steps to protect themselves and their communities. This is indeed a moment to reinforce the fundamentally important role of a free, uncensored and unhindered media[[fn:38]] to self-governance. It is something the Human Rights Council has repeatedly emphasized, giving it priority particularly in the context of the mandate on freedom of expression. In its resolution 7/36, the Council mandated the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression to gather all relevant information, wherever it may occur, relating to violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and discrimination against, or threats or use of violence, harassment, persecution or intimidation directed at persons, seeking to exercise or to promote the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including, as a matter of high priority, against journalists or other professionals in the field of information.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 13."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. In its resolution 39/6 on the safety of journalists, the Human Rights Council recognized:\n(a) The importance of freedom of expression and of free, independent, plural and diverse media, online as well as offline, in building and supporting the functioning of inclusive and peaceful knowledge societies and democracies, an informed citizenry, the rule of law and participation in public affairs, in holding public institutions and officials accountable, including by exposing corruption;\n(b) That the work of journalists often put them at specific risk of intimidation, threats, harassment and violence, including the targeting of their family members, which often deterred journalists from continuing their work or encouraged self-censorship, consequently depriving society of important information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Also in its resolution 39/6, the Council urged political leaders, public officials and/or authorities to refrain from denigrating, intimidating or threatening the media, including individual journalists, and thereby undermining trust in the credibility of journalists as well as respect for the importance of independent journalism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. These are among the basic requirements for Governments to ensure that journalism thrives and plays its essential role during the pandemic, and during all future public crises. The protection of the media is a protection of the public’s right to information, not only a protection owed to the reporters themselves. Moreover, the protection of journalists and promotion of access to information extends to the protection of sources and the protection of whistle-blowers (see A/70/361).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Nonetheless, the pandemic has already exposed numerous threats to journalism, with an increasing number of reports indicating that Governments attack the messenger and limit reporting rather than act responsively on the information disclosed. Some of the most concerning categories of attacks on journalism are listed below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. Police intimidation of journalists. Numerous reports from around the world indicate growing intimidation of journalists reporting on the pandemic, detention and questioning of journalists, and other forms of repression of media workers and human rights defenders conducting fact-finding inquiries concerning COVID-19.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Political attacks on journalists. The full protection of journalists cannot properly be achieved amid a culture that devalues free expression and denies respect to people who seek to exercise freedom of expression. There have been persistent attacks on journalists and civil society figures in the past few years, such as those arising in the United States of America,[[fn:39]] Hungary,[[fn:40]] Thailand[[fn:41]] and the Philippines.[[fn:42]] During the pandemic it is essential that government officials avoid denigrating those who will be reporting information regarding public health steps that individuals should be taking.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "“Trump attacks on media violate basic norms of press freedom, human rights experts say”, press release issued jointly with the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, 2 August 2018. See also USA 26/2017, available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}, {"n": 40, "text": "“UN experts decry Hungary’s tough new measures against migrants and civil society”, press release issued jointly with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders, the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association, the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of migrants, the Independent Expert on human rights and international solidarity, the Special Rapporteur on the right to education and the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, 11 September 2018."}, {"n": 41, "text": "“United Nations expert dismayed over Thai leader’s intimidating statements against freedom of the press”, 1 April 2015."}, {"n": 42, "text": "“Journalists’ killings: UN experts urge Philippines president-elect to stop instigating deadly violence”, 6 June 2016."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Lack of an enabling environment for media work. Given the essential role of media workers, Governments should be enabling them to continue their work, including, where appropriate, by classifying it as essential. When conducting their work, media workers should be provided with protections deemed necessary in the pandemic, such as protective masks and other relevant gear. An enabling environment also involves the holding of open press conferences that include independent media and ensuring that all media outlets, not just State-owned media, have access to public officials and other information sources.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Lack of protection of access for foreign journalists. The global nature of the COVID-19 crisis militates in favour of ensuring reporting that is available across borders. In particular, this means that Governments should not take steps to interfere with reporting from the international press. Unfortunately, there have been several reported instances of hostility directed by Governments at foreign press representatives.[[fn:43]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "For instance, the State Information Service of Egypt revoked the credentials of a Guardian journalist who published a report on COVID-19, saying the reporting did not meet journalistic standards. “Egypt revokes credentials of Guardian journalist“, International Press Institute, 18 March 2020. See also Joel Simon, “How not to fight Chinese propaganda“, Columbia Journalism Review, 21 February 2020, and Jon Allsop, “China expels American journalists at the worst possible time“, Columbia Journalism Review, 18 March 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Failure to release journalists from prison. WHO has stated that “people deprived of their liberty, and those living or working in enclosed environments in their close proximity, are likely to be more vulnerable to … COVID-19 … than the general population”.[[fn:44]] Nonetheless, individual journalists remain behind bars in countries around the world. The Committee to Protect Journalists has stated that more than 250 journalists are currently in prison.[[fn:45]] No media worker should be in prison by reason of their work. And yet those journalists, subjected to arbitrary and unlawful detention, now face the additional risk of their health and lives. Whether States wish to frame their releases as humanitarian or not, it is imperative that all States release any journalists in their custody. It is critical that any State that continues to criminalize journalism, including under the guise of prohibiting defamation or countering terrorism, does not pursue such cases during the pandemic given the additional risk posed by detention.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "WHO, “Preventing COVID-19 outbreak in prisons: a challenging but essential task for authorities“, 23 March 2020."}, {"n": 45, "text": "Committee to Protect Journalists, “Release all jailed journalists now“, 30 March 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Over the long term, it is also critical that States repeal any laws criminalizing journalism, including those adopted under the guise of addressing terrorism or defamation under other categories. In a 2002 joint declaration, freedom of expression monitors of the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe and the Organization of American States stated that “all criminal defamation laws should be abolished and replaced, where necessary, with appropriate civil defamation laws”.[[fn:46]] In the Declaration of Table Mountain, on press freedom in Africa, adopted in 2007, Governments were called upon to repeal criminal defamation and insult laws. The Human Rights Committee, in its general comment No. 34 (para. 47), also urged States parties to consider the decriminalization of defamation, and noted that, in any event, imprisonment was never a proportionate penalty for defamation.[[fn:47]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "C. Protection and promotion of independent media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "Available at www.oas.org/en/iachr/expression/showarticle.asp?artID=87&lID=1."}, {"n": 47, "text": "See also specific concerns expressed by mandate holders in communications regarding individuals held because of the content of their expression: AGO 1/2015, AZE 1/2017, KHM 3/2016, LBN 1/2016, MYS 6/2018, MMR 7/2017, NGA 2/2018, NGA 3/2019 and THA 3/2017. Available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments. These represent a small set of all communications concerning the criminalization of journalism."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. In a speech delivered at the Munich Security Conference on 15 February 2020, the Director-General of WHO noted that “fake news spreads faster and more easily than this virus, and is just as dangerous”. WHO has noted the emergence of what it calls, an “infodemic” which involves “the rapid spread of information of all kinds, including rumours, gossip and unreliable information”.[[fn:48]] Public health authorities around the world have been legitimately concerned about disinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic. Unreliable information, particularly when disseminated by individuals with significant platforms, can cause grave harm, whether maliciously intended or not. WHO has stated that “successful management of infodemics will be based on (1) monitoring and identifying them, (2) analysis of them, and (3) control and mitigation measures”.[[fn:49]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "WHO, Managing Epidemics, p. 34."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. As noted above, the thrust of the WHO guidance emphasizes risk communication, including engagement with rumours in order to correct them. This general guidance, silent on whether prohibiting false information is legitimate, nonetheless suggests consistency with the position taken by human rights monitors and experts. The principles of legality and necessity should be applied to any approach to disinformation. In particular, “disinformation” is an extraordinarily elusive concept to define in law, susceptible to providing executive authorities with excessive discretion to determine what is disinformation, what is a mistake, what is truth. Moreover, as emphasized in a recent joint statement issued by freedom of expression monitors of the United Nations, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe and the Inter-American Commission for Human Rights, “any attempts to criminalise information relating to the pandemic may create distrust in institutional information, delay access to reliable information and have a chilling effect on freedom of expression”.[[fn:50]] In other words, the penalization of disinformation is disproportionate, failing to achieve its goal of tamping down information while instead deterring individuals from sharing what could be valuable information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "“COVID-19: Governments must promote and protect access to and free flow of information during pandemic – international experts“, 19 March 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Information management may be seen through the lens of government obligations and company responsibilities, particularly companies involved in Internet searching or social media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. While much of the public discussion concerning false pandemic information concerns the steps government and private companies should take to remove such information or punish those who spread it, it is important to begin with government itself. In their 2017 joint declaration on freedom of expression and “fake news”, disinformation and propaganda, a set of simple and seemingly obvious points was set out. This included the following:\nState actors should not make, sponsor, encourage or further disseminate statements which they know or reasonably should know to be false (disinformation) or which demonstrate a reckless disregard for verifiable information (propaganda).\nState actors should, in accordance with their domestic and international legal obligations and their public duties, take care to ensure that they disseminate reliable and trustworthy information, including about matters of public interest, such as the economy, public health, security and the environment.[[fn:51]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "1. Governments and pandemic disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "Paragraph 2 (c) and (d) of the joint declaration."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Unfortunately, there are numerous instances of State actors disseminating unverified and often reckless claims about the origins of the COVID-19 virus, the responsibility for the pandemic, the presence or extent of COVID-19 in their country and the availability of drugs to counter the symptoms, and other harmful assertions. Such claims, which are always, sooner or later, shown to be false, undermine trust in government sources of information, which in turn may generate such public distrust that it becomes difficult for public health authorities to promote effective and proven policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "1. Governments and pandemic disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The COVID-19 pandemic has already triggered a small industry of hucksters seeking to translate people’s desire for a cure into a quick source of profit. The existence of such profiteers prompted the United States Food and Drug Administration to caution several companies that their promises of cures constituted fraud that could result in legal action if not addressed.[[fn:52]] Such consumer protection laws can be vital tools in the effort to protect public health, particularly during a pandemic. Such false claims may, of course, be prohibited and sanctioned so long as the tests of article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights are met.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "1. Governments and pandemic disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "See, e.g., Food and Drug Administration, warning letter MARCS-CMS 604885 dated 6 March 2020. Available at https://www.fda.gov/inspections-compliance-enforcement-and-criminal-investigations/warning-letters/colloidal-vitality-llcvital-silver-604885-03062020."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Other sorts of disinformation concerning the COVID-19 pandemic are also circulating in traditional and social media worldwide. Some pertain to troubling political blame games, relating mainly to inter-State disputes, and are not conducive to the kind of international cooperation necessary to meet the challenge of the pandemic. Other forms may be more dangerous, such as information related to quarantines, purported health-care advice and other unverified claims that, if widely pursued, could cause harm to the health of individuals. Any government efforts to counter such disinformation should be based on the principles outlined above: full, honest and evolving communication with the public, the promotion and protection of an independent press, and the careful and public correction of misinformation that could lead to public health harm. Beyond the pandemic, States should take steps to ensure an enabling environment for independent media and educational settings that promote media literacy and otherwise give individuals critical-thinking tools to distinguish between verifiable and unverifiable claims.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "1. Governments and pandemic disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. In the brief period since the COVID-19 outbreak and transformation into a pandemic, a number of States have adopted laws purportedly aimed at sanctioning disinformation concerning the pandemic. Some such laws may legitimately be aimed at protecting privacy rights with respect to a person’s infection status. Those provisions must be consistent with the standards set out in article 17 of the Covenant. In general, however, the approach should reflect the aspects referred to by the Human Rights Commissioner of the Council of Europe when she urged Council of Europe member States to ensure that measures to combat disinformation re necessary, proportionate and subject to regular oversight, including by Parliament and national human rights institutions. Measures to combat disinformation must never prevent journalists and media actors from carrying out their work or lead to content being unduly blocked on the Internet. Those countries which have introduced restrictions that do not meet these standards must repeal them as a matter of urgency.[[fn:53]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "1. Governments and pandemic disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "Commissioner for Human Rights of the Council of Europe, “Press freedom must not be undermined by measures to counter disinformation about COVID-19“, statement issued on 3 April 2020."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The 2017 joint declaration made clear that general prohibitions on the dissemination of information based on “vague and ambiguous ideas, including ‘false news’ or ‘non-objective information’ are incompatible with human rights law and should be abolished”.[[fn:54]] Vague prohibitions of disinformation effectively empower government officials with the ability to determine the truthfulness or falsity of content in the public and political domain, in conflict with the requirements of necessity and proportionality under article 19 (3).[[fn:55]] Legislation to impose such prohibitions has been proliferating in countries including Ethiopia, France, Italy, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Russian Federation and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.[[fn:56]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "1. Governments and pandemic disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "In a communication sent to Italy (ITA 1/2018), it was noted that an operating protocol on combating fake news contained undefined terms, such as “manifestly unfounded and biased news”, “false” and “fake”, and did not specify with requisite clarity the type of content that was prohibited, thus breaching the legality principle of article 19 (3) of the Covenant. In a response dated 15 May 2018, the Government of Italy reiterated its commitment to protect fundamental rights, including the freedom of opinion and expression. In the letter, the Government confirmed that the protocol was no longer operational as it was conceived solely for the electoral period. The communication and response are available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}, {"n": 55, "text": "Research paper 1/2019 of the Special Rapporteur, pp. 9–10."}, {"n": 56, "text": "See the end of mission statement issued by the Special Rapporteur on his visit to Ethiopia, available at www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=25402&LangID=E; and FRA 5/2018, ITA 1/2018, MYS 1/2018, MYS 6/2018, PAK 13/2015, RUS 4/2019 and GBR 4/2015."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Numerous countries have pre-existing “false information” laws, the principal intention or effect of which is to restrict criticism of government or the reporting of news not favoured by government or officials. The example of Malaysia raises a concern despite the State’s repeal of its 2018 Anti-Fake News Act (No. 803). The Act had made it an offence for anyone to knowingly and maliciously create, offer, publish, print, distribute, circulate or disseminate any fake news or publication containing fake news (art. 4, para. 1). The law made the offence punishable with significant fines, imprisonment or both. After a change in government, however, opposition to the legislation had a significant effect: a bill to repeal the Act was passed in December 2019.[[fn:57]] Nonetheless, the Government of Malaysia now appears to be relying on its regular penal code to charge individuals with circulating false information about COVID-19.[[fn:58]] Similarly, there is growing concern that Singapore, which in 2019 enacted a law prohibiting deliberate “online falsehoods”, will use its new authority to address pandemic information.[[fn:59]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "1. Governments and pandemic disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "“Finally, Dewan Negara approves repeal of Anti-Fake News Act“, The Star, 19 December 2019."}, {"n": 58, "text": "Article 19: International Centre against Censorship, “Malaysia: Stop using repressive laws to counter misinformation about coronavirus“, 24 March 2020."}, {"n": 59, "text": "For background, see SGP 3/2019, and the letter dated 5 July 2019 from the Permanent Representative of the Singapore to the United Nations Office and other international organizations in Geneva addressed to the Special Rapporteur. Available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Private search engine and social media companies are justifiably under significant pressure to ensure that they do not enable potentially harmful public health disinformation to circulate on their platforms. Several have already taken aggressive steps to address misinformation about the COVID-19 virus. Many have developed approaches to ensure that, whenever a person searches for information related to the disease, an early search result includes verified information from a public health authority. Others are reinforcing their existing policies, for instance by removing content that may “discourage people from seeking medical treatment or claim that harmful substances have health benefits”.[[fn:60]] Twitter is expanding its definition of “harm” to include “content that goes directly against guidance from authoritative sources of global and local public health information”.[[fn:61]] One analyst found that platforms were taking “an unusually aggressive approach in removing misinformation and other exploitative content and boosting trusted content”, like information from WHO.[[fn:62]] At the same time, public health measures such as social distancing have led companies to drastically reduce their content moderation workforce, leading to an increase in the use of tools of automation – and the admission of likely mistakes.[[fn:63]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "2. Internet search and social media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 60, "text": "YouTube Help, “Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) updates”, FAQ: How is YouTube fighting misinformation around coronavirus (COVID-19)? Available at https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9777243?hl=en (accessed 6 April 2020)."}, {"n": 61, "text": "Vijaya Gadde and Matt Derella, “An update on our continuity strategy during COVID-19“, Twitter, 16 March 2020."}, {"n": 62, "text": "Evelyn Douek, “COVID-19 and social media content moderation“, Lawfare, 25 March 2020."}, {"n": 63, "text": "Facebook, “Keeping our platform safe with remote and reduced content review“, 19 March 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. As has been evident during the COVID-19 pandemic, social media and search engine companies have an enormous impact on public discourse and the rights of individuals on and off their platforms. There is potential for mistakes, particularly in the context of the emphasis on tools of automation, that could cause significant public health harms. Such harm could be caused by, among other things, the take-down of verified and beneficial public health information, which thereafter attracts a negative reputation because of the initial takedown, or a failure to remove content or users sharing unverified information that could lead to health risks. There is also the potential for viewpoint discrimination. Thus, when addressing issues such as the posting of information about public protests inconsistent with governmental guidelines during the pandemic, social media companies should ensure that their policies apply to all such gatherings and do not discriminate on the basis of the protesters’ viewpoints. These responsibilities are heavy, and it is particularly difficult for companies to do their required human rights due diligence when their employees are unable to hold regular meetings, dispersed because of public health policies. Nonetheless, that responsibility persists, especially during the pandemic.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "2. Internet search and social media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. In seeking to meet their responsibilities to prevent or mitigate human rights harms during the pandemic, it is essential that the companies conduct ongoing due diligence to determine the impact their content policies are having on the rights to health and to life (see A/HRC/38/35). Given the nature of the public threat, they should aim towards maximum transparency of their policies and engage, on an urgent basis, not only with public health authorities but with affected communities wherever they operate. They should especially review their policies and practices to ensure that content moderators are available as soon as possible to review COVID-19 information, as reliance solely on automation may have a deleterious impact on health and human rights (see A/73/348).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "D. Public health disinformation", "2. Internet search and social media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. The emergence of the COVID-19 virus will increase demands for the use of surveillance tools to trace positive tests for the virus and track the spread of the disease. This desire is fully understandable as a matter of public health. Public health officials see disease surveillance as necessary to “show … the coverage and impact of the interventions being performed”.[[fn:64]] Some States have undertaken robust health surveillance, even if it remains too early (at the time of writing) to evaluate the human rights or public health impacts. For instance, in the Republic of Korea, under the Infectious Disease Control and Prevention Act, public health authorities enjoy significant power to collect personal health data across the country during an epidemic. However, while the law enables substantial disease surveillance with privacy guarantees, it also requires government officials to share with the public basic information concerning its contact tracing efforts. In this way, the law appears to satisfy the government’s health policy requirements and the public’s right to information.[[fn:65]] It is imperative that, even where Governments permit the collection of data, such collection be accompanied by strict personal data protection guarantees and be time-limited while also promoting, as the Republic of Korea appears to be doing, the public’s right to know the outcomes of such collection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "E. Public health surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 64, "text": "WHO, Managing Epidemics, p. 33."}, {"n": 65, "text": "Eun A Jo, “A democratic response to coronavirus: lessons from South Korea“, The Diplomat, 30 March 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. As States develop surveillance tools, the Human Rights Council should be mindful of the recent history of extensive, excessive surveillance – both mass and targeted – that has failed to meet basic standards of legality, necessity and proportionality, and legitimate purpose (see A/HRC/27/37). Holders of the mandate on freedom of opinion and expression have long been concerned with government surveillance as a tool of limiting freedom of expression (see A/HRC/23/40 and Corr.1 and A/HRC/41/35). COVID-19 will lead to increased pressure to impose ever greater and possibly more invasive surveillance because of the public health requirement to trace the contacts of an infected person.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "E. Public health surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. A growing industry of private surveillance tools has significantly increased the risk of surveillance of communications and data by government and private actors (A/HRC/41/35). Many private surveillance companies have histories of problematic support for and engagement in human rights violations, yet some are reportedly already seeking entrance into the COVID-19 surveillance field.[[fn:66]] Such private actors should be subject to robust and transparent public oversight and should themselves adopt policies consistent with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "E. Public health surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "See, e.g., Lorenzo Franceschi-Bicchierai, “We saw NSO Group’s Covid-19 software in action, and privacy experts are worried“, Vice, 2 April 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Several elements are key to ensuring that surveillance is conducted consistently with international human rights law. Principles that should govern surveillance in the pandemic are as follows:[[fn:67]]\n(a) Any authorization of surveillance should be contained in precise and publicly accessible laws and only be applied when necessary and proportionate to achieve a legitimate objective (such as protecting public health);\n(b) Authorization of surveillance of specified individuals should be based on independent evaluation, preferably by a judicial authority, with appropriate limitations on time, location, manner and scope;\n(c) Rigorous record-keeping should be required so that individuals and oversight bodies can ascertain that surveillance was conducted for legitimate public health purposes;\n(d) Any personal data collected should be subject to strict privacy protections to ensure against disclosure of personal information to anyone not authorized for public health purposes;\n(e) Some personal data should be expressly excluded from collection, such as the content of a person’s communications, and robust safeguards must be put in place to ensure against any government or third-party misuse of such data, including use for purposes unrelated to the public health emergency;\n(f) Where personal data is anonymized, the State and any third-party actor involved in collection must be able to demonstrate such anonymity.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Five challenges during pandemics", "E. Public health surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "The principles are drawn from A/HRC/41/35, para. 50. See also the joint statement of several civil society organizations entitled “States use of digital surveillance technologies to fight pandemic must respect human rights“, 2 April 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. “How can you have an opinion if you are not informed?”[[fn:68]] In 11 words, the political philosopher Hannah Arendt summed up the theory connecting article 19 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which protects everyone’s right to hold opinions without interference, with the guarantee, in article 19 (2), of everyone to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers and through any media.[[fn:69]] She also noted: “If everybody always lies ... nobody believes anything any longer. ... And a people that no longer can believe anything cannot make up its mind. It is deprived not only of its capacity to act but also of its capacity to think and to judge. And with such a people you can then do what you please.”[[fn:70]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Concluding remarks"], "footnotes": [{"n": 68, "text": "“Hannah Arendt: from an interview“, New York Review of Books, 26 October 1978."}, {"n": 69, "text": "See also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 2."}, {"n": 70, "text": "“Hannah Arendt: from an interview“."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. Hannah Arendt knew of what she spoke. A scholar of totalitarianism forced to flee Nazi Germany, she presented intersecting and fundamental principles of human rights law – the rights to opinion, expression, access to information, autonomy, self-governance – in much the way that the Covenant and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights promote democratic values and protect human life. While she had in mind the kind of propaganda that facilitates authoritarianism, her point extends to all nature of government practices that interfere with the individual’s ability to develop informed opinions and to take action consistent with those opinions. At this particular moment in history, we all can see exactly what she had in mind, and why the drafters of the Covenant, and of the Declaration 20 years before it, believed it essential to guarantee expression. The Inter-American Court of Human Rights has echoed this essential principle connecting expression to opinion:\nFreedom of expression is a cornerstone upon which the very existence of a democratic society rests. It is indispensable for the formation of public opinion. … It represents, in short, the means that enable the community, when exercising its options, to be sufficiently informed. Consequently, it can be said that a society that is not well informed is not a society that is truly free.[[fn:71]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Concluding remarks"], "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Advisory Opinion OC-5/85 of 13 November 1985, para. 70."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. In a nutshell, the premise underlying freedom of opinion and expression strongly supports appropriate public health responses to COVID-19. The freedom to share information and ideas empowers individuals and communities, human development and democratic self-governance. In certain circumstances, information saves lives. By contrast, lies and propaganda deprive individuals of autonomy, of the capacity to think critically, of trust in themselves and in sources of information, and of the right to engage in the kind of debate that improves social conditions. Worst of all, censorship can kill, by design or by negligence. These are the principles that have led States, in multiple instruments across human rights law and the political organs of the United Nations, to emphasize government’s obligation to enable, promote and protect robust and independent media and provide reliable information to the public, which extends to affirmative government information strategies concerning voting, health and other essential services and fundamental rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Concluding remarks"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Public health authorities worldwide have called for social distancing and other difficult measures to ensure that health systems have the capacity to care for the sick. This is a determination made on the basis of science and experience in public health. In order for it to work – in order for the public, generally speaking, to consent to such hardships – individuals must trust that the information the orders are based on are rooted in evidence and commitment to the public’s interest. An environment dominated by censorship, the root of which is distrust of the public’s capacity to think critically, is toxic to public support. By contrast, an approach that treats all members of the public as capable of understanding complicated information, that treats them as partners in an uncertain and frightening moment in global history, is conducive to the kind of social solidarity necessary for turning the tide against exponential infection growths, and ultimately giving health authorities the space and time to develop the kinds of interventions that can protect public health for the long term.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Concluding remarks"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. The present report will not include a step-by-step set of recommendations as is typical. Instead, it contains a plea to all Governments to treat those within their jurisdictions – and indeed, given the global nature of the pandemic, those without – with the dignity and respect demanded by international human rights law. In moral terms, that requires an attitude of democratic participation, and a willingness to engage the public with generosity and understanding, in the hard steps that individuals are being asked to take: separation from loved ones, lonely deaths, loss of employment, education and social intercourse, and the deprivation of cultural or religious activities that help billions of people enjoy meaningful lives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Concluding remarks"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-49-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-44-49", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. In legal terms, ensuring the dignity and respect owed all individuals entails:\n(a) Being honest with people and giving them access to information in way they can consume, in a way that promotes non-discrimination;\n(b) Enabling all individuals genuine access to the tools of communication necessary to learn about the public health crisis and the steps necessary to protect themselves and, if they are health-care workers (formally or informally), to care for others;\n(c) Strongly promoting and protecting, and refraining from interference with, the independent media’s role of informing the public and holding officials accountable for their statements and actions;\n(d) Ensuring that people have the tools to confront and correct disinformation, and in particular avoiding taking the kinds of steps that will deter the sharing of critical information at a time of crisis;\n(e) Doing what is necessary to trace the development of the disease – but only what is necessary. The law is flexible enough to tolerate errors and inadvertent overreach at a time of crisis, but it is not so flexible as to condone the discretion to conduct surveillance without oversight, without limit and without resort to fundamental principles of legality and necessity;\n(f) Ensuring accountability, such that no State is free to use this public health crisis for unlawful purposes beyond the scope of the health threat.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2020, "section": ["IV. Concluding remarks"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. More than 2,000 years ago, Octavian spun a vicious disinformation campaign to destroy his rival Mark Anthony and eventually become the first Roman emperor Augustus Caesar. Since those ancient times, information has been fabricated and manipulated to win wars, advance political ambitions, avenge grievances, hurt the vulnerable and make financial profit.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Disinformation is not a new phenomenon. What is new is that digital technology has enabled pathways for false or manipulated information to be created, disseminated and amplified by various actors for political, ideological or commercial motives at a scale, speed and reach never known before. Interacting with political, social and economic grievances in the real world, disinformation online can have serious consequences for democracy and human rights, as recent elections, the response to the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic and attacks on minority groups have shown. It is politically polarizing, hinders people from meaningfully exercising their human rights and destroys their trust in Governments and institutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. Finding appropriate responses to disinformation is difficult, not least because the concept is undefined and open to abuse, and because the size and nature of the problem is contested in the absence of sufficient data and research. State responses have often been problematic and heavy handed and had a detrimental impact on human rights. Companies play a major role in spreading disinformation but their efforts to address the problem have been woefully inadequate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. At the core is a human rights challenge, aggravated by an information disorder. There is growing evidence that disinformation tends to thrive where human rights are constrained, where the public information regime is not robust and where media quality, diversity and independence is weak. Conversely, where freedom of opinion and expression is protected, civil society, journalists and others are able to challenge falsehoods and present alternative viewpoints. That makes international human rights a powerful and appropriate framework for addressing disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression recognizes the complexity of disinformation and outlines the conceptual and contextual challenges it poses. She sets out the relevant international legal standards, analyses the responses of States and companies to the phenomenon and then proposes recommendations for multifaceted responses grounded in international human rights law, transparency and accountability and in the multi-stakeholder engagement of States, companies and civil society. Building on the ground-breaking work done by her predecessor on the human rights responsibilities of digital platforms, the current Special Rapporteur calls for a review of the business models of the platforms and a recalibration of State responses to disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. In drafting the report, the Special Rapporteur has benefited from the submissions of 119 civil society organizations and academic entities, three international organizations, three Member States and three companies, as well as several online consultations with civil society organizations and meetings with Member States, social media companies and experts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. The report does not purport to be comprehensive in its content or recommendations. It does not, for example, cover the issue of disinformation campaigns directed by State or State-sponsored actors towards the population of other States, as that is a complex subject requiring more consultations and reflection than would have been possible within the timeline of the present report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The purpose of the present report is to open a dialogue with interested stakeholders, including Member States, companies and civil society, and contribute to ongoing discussions in various forums with a view to further refining and pursuing the conclusions and recommendations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. There is no universally accepted definition of disinformation. While the lack of agreement makes a global response challenging, the lack of consensus underlines the complex, intrinsically political and contested nature of the concept.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "A. Concept of disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Part of the problem lies in the impossibility of drawing clear lines between fact and falsehood and between the absence and presence of intent to cause harm. False information can be instrumentalized by actors with diametrically opposite objectives. Truthful information can be labelled as “fake news” and delegitimized. Opinions, beliefs, uncertain knowledge and other forms of expression like parody and satire do not easily fall into a binary analysis of truth and falsity. Furthermore, false content that is spread online with the intent to cause harm (disinformation) can be picked up and shared by innocent third parties with no such intent (misinformation), the innocent vector boosting dissemination and adding credibility to the malicious campaigner. Intentionally or not, the harm occurs. Some forms of disinformation can amount to incitement to hatred, discrimination and violence, which are prohibited under international law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "A. Concept of disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. The European Commission has described disinformation as verifiably false or misleading information that, cumulatively, is created, presented and disseminated for economic gain or to intentionally deceive the public and that may cause public harm.[[fn:1]] The Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development, on the other hand, has approached disinformation as false or misleading content with potential consequences, irrespective of the underlying intention or behaviours producing and circulating messages.[[fn:2]] National laws and regulations dealing with disinformation cover a varied combination of false or misleading information, the intention to cause harm or not and the nature of the harm caused or intended. Disinformation is often described in broad, ill-defined terms not in line with international legal standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "A. Concept of disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "European Commission, Code of Practice on Disinformation (2018)."}, {"n": 2, "text": "Broadband Commission for Sustainable Development, Balancing Act: Countering Digital Disinformation While Respecting Freedom of Expression (International Telecommunication Union and United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, September 2020), pp. 8, 18 and 25 ff."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Academics have developed a taxonomy of an information disorder in which “disinformation” is described as false information that is knowingly shared with the intention to cause harm, “misinformation” as the unintentional dissemination of false information and “malinformation” as genuine information shared with the intention to cause harm.[[fn:3]] By setting out a holistic and interconnected picture of the problem, the information disorder framework encourages a multidimensional, varied and contextualized approach to disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "A. Concept of disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Claire Wardle and Hossein Derakhshan, Information Disorder: Toward an Interdisciplinary Framework for Research and Policymaking (Council of Europe, 2017), p. 5."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Some academics have framed the phenomenon of disinformation as “viral deception” consisting of three vectors: manipulative actors, deceptive behaviour and harmful content.[[fn:4]] The focus is on online behaviour rather than on the veracity of content. Some large social media platforms, including Facebook, refer to these vectors to inform their policies on responding to coordinated inauthentic behaviour.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "A. Concept of disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Camille François, “Actors, behaviors, content: a disinformation ABC” (Transatlantic Working Group, September 2019)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Ultimately, the lack of clarity and agreement on what constitutes disinformation, including the frequent and interchangeable use of the term misinformation, reduces the effectiveness of responses.[[fn:5]] It also leads to approaches that endanger the right to freedom of opinion and expression. It is vital to clarify the concepts of disinformation and misinformation within the framework of international human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "A. Concept of disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Submission from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. For the purposes of the present report, disinformation is understood as false information that is disseminated intentionally to cause serious social harm and misinformation as the dissemination of false information unknowingly. The terms are not used interchangeably.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "A. Concept of disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Disinformation spreads rapidly and widely through social media and messaging platforms, even in some of the most remote and fragile regions of the world,[[fn:6]] although in overall terms it remains a small subset of all the information in circulation.[[fn:7]] Digital technology has made it possible to share in new ways texts, images and videos, including “deep fakes” and “shallow fakes”, that can give a distorted picture of reality.[[fn:8]] False information is amplified by algorithms and business models that are designed to promote sensational content that keep users engaged on platforms. Disinformation thrives in an online environment that encourages amplification while reducing accessibility to plural and diverse sources of information.", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "B. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Submission from Fondation Hirondelle."}, {"n": 7, "text": "Submissions from the Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism (University of Oxford) and the Center for Social Media and Politics (New York University)."}, {"n": 8, "text": "For a description of various methods of spreading disinformation, see, e.g., Kate Jones, “Online disinformation and political discourse: applying a human rights framework”, Chatham House Research Paper (November 2019), pp. 11–12."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. The global disinformation system is a highly lucrative business that is driven by commercial motives and that is becoming increasingly professionalized.[[fn:9]] Technology companies are also purportedly allowing spreaders of misinformation to monetize their content, for instance by allowing junk news websites disseminating COVID-19-related conspiracies to post advertisements on their platforms.[[fn:10]] Essentially, disinformation is a modern way in the digital era of making money by purposefully spreading lies.[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "B. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Samantha Bradshaw, Hannah Bailey and Philip N. Howard, “Industrialized disinformation: 2020 global inventory of organized social media manipulation”. (Computational Propaganda Project, University of Oxford, 2021), p. 21."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See, e.g., United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Parliament, “Misinformation in the COVID-19 Infodemic” (20 July 2020)."}, {"n": 11, "text": "Submission from Edith Cowan University."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The use of new technologies for the production of disinformation or divisive content is exploited, for multiple motives (political, ideological or commercial), by multiple actors, including States, political parties, politicians and other powerful individuals or businesses supported by troll armies or public relations companies.[[fn:12]] The false messages of these instigators are often conveyed, unwittingly or not, by traditional media,[[fn:13]] celebrities or ordinary users and their peer-to-peer and friend-to-friend networks in a complex mix of exchanges between the online and offline worlds.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "B. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "See, e.g., Dhanaraj Thakur and DeVan L. Hankerson, “Facts and their discontents: a research agenda for online disinformation, race and gender” (Center for Democracy and Technology, February 2021). See also the submission from PEN America."}, {"n": 13, "text": "Media Matters for Democracy, “Disorder in the newsroom: the media’s perceptions and response to the infodemic” (December 2020)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Ideologically driven non-State actors, including extremist or terrorist groups, also frequently engage in the dissemination of false news and narratives as part of their propaganda to radicalize and recruit members.[[fn:14]] The security dimensions and the excessive responses by States to them add to human rights concerns.[[fn:15]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "B. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See, e.g., United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute, “Stop the virus of disinformation: the risk of malicious use of social media during COVID-19 and the technology options to fight it” (November 2020), pp. 15–17."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Submission from Stanford University."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Notwithstanding the above, the growth of disinformation in recent times cannot be attributed solely to technology or malicious actors. It needs to be understood in the context of other factors, including: a struggling legacy media sector, challenged by digital transformation and competition from online platforms and threatened by State pressure in some parts of the world; the absence of robust public information regimes; low levels of digital and media literacy among the general public; and the frustrations and grievances of a growing number of people, fuelled by decades of economic deprivation, market failures, political disenfranchisement and social inequalities, which make some individuals more susceptible to manipulation.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "B. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Submissions from Article 19: International Centre against Censorship and the Internet Governance Project."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Disinformation is not the cause but the consequence of societal crises and the breakdown of public trust in institutions. Strategies to address disinformation are unlikely to succeed without more attention being paid to these underlying factors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "B. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Although empirical research suggests that only a small proportion of people are exposed to disinformation,[[fn:17]] the impacts on institutions, communities and individuals are real, broad and legitimate. Over 100 submissions received by the Special Rapporteur for the present report contain many concrete examples.[[fn:18]] They suggest that much of the targeting is politically motivated against institutions and individuals in vulnerable situations and affects a wide range of human rights, including economic, social, cultural, civil and political rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "C. Targets and victims"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Submissions from the Center for Social Media and Politics and the Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism."}, {"n": 18, "text": "These submissions will be made available at www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/FreedomOpinion/Pages/Report-on-disinformation.aspx."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. There is clear evidence that robust public information regimes and independent journalism are strong antidotes to disinformation. Therefore, it is doubly disturbing that smear campaigns against journalists have become more pernicious on social media networks. Some political leaders have labelled the media as “the enemy of the people”[[fn:19]] or financed entire “fake news industries” that drown out their reporting.[[fn:20]] Such attacks both erode public trust in journalism and make journalists more fearful about doing their job.[[fn:21]] According to one report, at least 34 journalists were jailed on charges of “fake news” in 2020, compared to only 1 in 2012.[[fn:22]] Disinformation poses a threat not only to the safety of journalists but also to the media ecosystem in which they operate,[[fn:23]] forcing the legacy media to divert precious resources from reporting to dispelling and debunking lies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "C. Targets and victims"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Committee to Protect Journalists, “The Trump Administration and the media: attacks on press credibility endanger US democracy and global press freedom” (April 2020)."}, {"n": 20, "text": "European Parliament, “Disinformation and propaganda: impact on the functioning of the rule of law in the EU and its Member States” (2019)."}, {"n": 21, "text": "Media Matters for Democracy, “Disorder in the newsroom”."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Submission from the Committee to Protect Journalists."}, {"n": 23, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Disinformation has been used in several countries in highly visible ways to undermine the right to free and fair elections.[[fn:24]] As an example, racially targeted disinformation campaigns were used to suppress votes from communities of colour in the three most recent major elections in the United States of America.[[fn:25]] During the 2020 presidential election, then President Donald Trump and his surrogates repeatedly sought to erode confidence in the postal voting system and made baseless claims about election fraud on social media.[[fn:26]] The detrimental impact of politically motivated disinformation has been felt on democratic institutions in many other countries too, chilling free speech, reducing the level of trust in the public sphere as a space for democratic deliberation, amplifying anti-democratic narratives, driving polarization and promoting authoritarian and populist agendas.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "C. Targets and victims"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Submissions from the Center for Democracy and Technology and PEN America."}, {"n": 25, "text": "Young Mie Kim, “Voter suppression has gone digital”, Brennan Center for Justice, 20 November 2018."}, {"n": 26, "text": "Submission from the International Center for Not-for-Profit Law."}, {"n": 27, "text": "See, e.g., submissions from the Association for Progressive Communications and Global Partners Digital."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Over the past year, the spread of disinformation and misinformation by non-State sources has posed significant challenges to the right to health and responses to the COVID-19 pandemic against a background of efforts by some Governments to withhold or falsify information.[[fn:28]] As in the case of global health, in respect of climate change too scientific information has been discredited and environmental activists have been attacked through well-organized online disinformation campaigns.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "C. Targets and victims"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "A/HRC/44/49, paras. 45–47."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Ideological and identity-based disinformation has fomented discrimination and hatred against minorities, migrants and other marginalized communities,[[fn:29]] generating ethnic or religious tensions[[fn:30]] that have culminated, at times, in violence offline, as happened in Ethiopia[[fn:31]] and Myanmar.[[fn:32]] Civil society organizations are calling for more research to be carried out to understand the full measure of disinformation on vulnerable and minority communities.[[fn:33]]", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "C. Targets and victims"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "A/HRC/46/57."}, {"n": 30, "text": "Submission from the Ahmadiyya Muslim Lawyers Association."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26483&LangID=E."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26808&LangID=E."}, {"n": 33, "text": "See submissions from Access Now and the Center for Democracy and Technology."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Online gendered disinformation campaigns are increasingly being used to deter women from participating in the public sphere, mixing “old ingrained sexist attitudes with the anonymity and reach of social media in an effort to destroy women’s reputations and push them out of public life”.[[fn:34]] Women journalists, politicians and gender equity advocates who speak out on feminist issues are particularly targeted.[[fn:35]] There is also significant disinformation around the issue of sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:36]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "C. Targets and victims"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "Nina Jankowicz, “How disinformation became a new threat to women”, Coda Story, 11 December 2017."}, {"n": 35, "text": "Submission from Media Matters for Democracy. See also the case of Maria Ressa, mentioned in AL PHL 12/2018."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Submission from MSI Reproductive Choices."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Human rights defenders and civil society organizations, especially those representing marginalized and discriminated groups, are harshly attacked and subjected to verbal abuse and vilification by online disinformation campaigns.[[fn:37]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "C. Targets and victims"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "Submission from Digital Rights Foundation."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. The negative impact of disinformation is undeniable and must be addressed. International human rights law provides a powerful antidote and a framework for formulating responses.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Conceptual and contextual challenges", "C. Targets and victims"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The Human Rights Council has affirmed that responses to the spread of disinformation and misinformation must be grounded in international human rights law, including the principles of lawfulness, legitimacy, necessity and proportionality.[[fn:38]] While disinformation affects a wide range of human rights, the present report focuses on the freedom of opinion and expression in the light of the particular value that this right brings to efforts to counter disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Resolution 44/12."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights guarantee the right to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers and through any media. While freedom of opinion is absolute, freedom of expression may be restricted under certain circumstances. The State has a duty to refrain from interfering with that right and also an obligation to ensure that others, including businesses, do not interfere with it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First citation: 'Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR explicitly named, non-treaty."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second citation: 'article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. The previous mandate holder has urged digital technology companies to apply international human rights standards in their business practices.[[fn:39]] The exhortations have gained added urgency in the context of disinformation and misinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "A/HRC/38/35, paras. 9–12; and A/74/486, paras. 40–55."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The right to freedom of opinion comprises two dimensions: an internal dimension closely connected to the right to privacy and freedom of thought and an external dimension related to freedom of expression. While the latter aspect is discussed frequently, the former has begun only recently to gain attention as a result of greater awareness and understanding of the manipulative techniques used by social platforms, State actors and others online to influence individuals in ways that could infringe their freedom of opinion.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "A. Freedom of opinion"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "Evelyn Aswad, “Losing the freedom to be human”, Columbia Human Rights Law Review, vol. 52 (2020); Susie Alegre, “Rethinking freedom of thought for the 21st Century”, European Human Rights Law Review (2017); and Kate Jones, “Protecting political discourse from online manipulation: the international human rights law framework”, European Human Rights Law Review (2021)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights protects the right to hold opinions without interference. The right is absolute and permits no exception or restriction. Notwithstanding the absolute and broad nature of this right, in reality human beings are influenced constantly in their thought and opinion by others, and “the freedom to be subject to a wide range of influences is itself a dimension of our autonomy”.[[fn:41]] Therefore, in determining whether and how disinformation online might infringe freedom of opinion, the critical issue is the knowledge and consent of the rights holder.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "A. Freedom of opinion"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "Kate Jones, “Online disinformation and political discourse: applying a human rights framework”, p. 33."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — single compound citation gives equal weight to UDHR (non-treaty) and ICCPR with one regex_ref. Cross-instrument equal citation -> AMBIGUOUS."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The right to form one’s opinion and to develop it by way of reasoning is an essential element of freedom of opinion. It is well established that the freedom of opinion includes the right not to express an opinion, as well as the right to change one’s opinion whenever or for whatever reason a person so freely chooses.[[fn:42]] In other words, involuntary disclosure is prohibited and mental autonomy is affirmed. Any effort to coerce the holding or not holding of any opinion is prohibited.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "A. Freedom of opinion"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 9."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Punishment, harassment, intimidation and stigmatization for holding an opinion, including coercive, involuntary or non-consensual manipulation of the thinking process to develop an opinion, are violations of the right to opinion.[[fn:43]] Coercive or manipulative action has been understood to include indoctrination, “brainwashing”, influencing “the conscious or subconscious mind with psychoactive drugs or other means of manipulation”.[[fn:44]] The digital equivalent would be techniques that allow State and non-State actors to access and influence the thoughts and opinions of people without their knowledge or consent, such as content curation through powerful platform recommendations or microtargeting. Such techniques play a significant role in spreading disinformation and, as involuntary or non-consensual manipulation of thinking processes, contravene the right to freedom of opinion.[[fn:45]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "A. Freedom of opinion"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "“Deliberate efforts to influence through non-consensual means violate this right when they rise to the level of either overwhelming mental autonomy or manipulating one’s reasoning.” See Evelyn Aswad, “Losing the freedom to be human”, p. 329."}, {"n": 44, "text": "Manfred Novak, UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: CCPR Commentary, 2nd ed. (Kehl am Rhein, N.P. Engel, 2005)."}, {"n": 45, "text": "Evelyn Aswad, “Losing the freedom to be human”. See also a similar commentary on article 9 of the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (European Convention on Human Rights) by Susie Alegre, “Rethinking freedom of thought for the 21st Century”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The right to freedom of expression is broad and inclusive, and encapsulates the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers and through any media, offline or online.[[fn:46]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "B. Freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 12, and Human Rights Council resolution 20/8."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. In the context of disinformation, two points are worth noting. Firstly, the right to freedom of expression applies to all kinds of information and ideas, including those that may shock, offend or disturb,[[fn:47]] and irrespective of the truth or falsehood of the content.[[fn:48]] Under international human rights law, people have the right to express ill-founded opinions and statements or indulge in parody or satire if they so wish.[[fn:49]] Secondly, the free flow of information is a critical element of freedom of expression and places a positive obligation on States to proactively put information of public interest in the public domain, and promote plural and diverse sources of information, including media freedom. It can be a valuable tool for countering disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "B. Freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 11. See also European Court of Human Rights, Handyside v. the United Kingdom, application No. 5493/72, judgment, 7 December 1976, para. 49."}, {"n": 48, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), paras. 47 and 49. See also European Court of Human Rights, Salov v. Ukraine, application No. 65518/01, judgment, 6 September 2005, para. 113: “Article 10 of the [European] Convention [on Human Rights, on freedom of expression] does not prohibit discussion or dissemination of information received even if it is strongly suspected that this information might not be truthful.”"}, {"n": 49, "text": "False statements can be restricted only if they also meet the restrictions and criteria set out in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Freedom of expression may be restricted only in accordance with article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which requires all restrictions to be provided by law and to be necessary for the legitimate aim of respecting the rights and reputations of others and for protecting national security, public order or public health or morals. In the light of the fundamental importance of this right to the enjoyment of all other human rights, the restrictions must be exceptional and narrowly construed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "B. Freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. The principle of legality requires the scope, meaning and effect of the law to be sufficiently clear, precise and public. Vague laws that confer excessive discretion can lead to arbitrary decision-making and are incompatible with article 19 (3) of the Covenant. Any limitation of disinformation must establish a close and concrete connection to the protection of one of the legitimate aims stated in article 19 (3). The prohibition of false information is not in itself a legitimate aim under international human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "B. Freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The directness of the causal relationship between the speech and the harm, and the severity and immediacy of the harm, are key considerations in assessing whether the restriction is necessary. The principle of necessity requires the restriction to be appropriate and proportionate to achieve the legitimate aim, using the least restrictive means to protect it. Criminal sanctions constitute serious interference with the freedom of expression and are disproportionate responses in all but the most egregious cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "B. Freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Given the fundamental importance of freedom of expression to democracy and the enjoyment of all other human rights and freedoms, international human rights law affords particularly strong protection to expressions on matters of public interest, including criticism of Governments and political leaders and speech by politicians and other public figures, and to media freedom.[[fn:50]] This does not mean that disinformation in the context of political speech can never be restricted, but that any such restriction requires a high threshold of legality, legitimacy, necessity and proportionality. For instance, electoral laws may justifiably forbid the propagation of falsehoods relating to electoral integrity, but such a restriction must be narrowly construed, time-limited and tailored so as to avoid limiting political debate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "B. Freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 38."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Disinformation is often used to foment hatred and violence. Article 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provides that any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence is to be prohibited by law. It does not call for criminalization, nor does it make any reference to untruthful information. The Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence is an authoritative road map for interpreting article 20 (2) and sets out six factors to determine the severity necessary to criminalize incitement: context; status of the speaker; intent; content and form of speech; reach of the speech; and likelihood of risk. It may in certain situations provide a relevant framework for addressing disinformation.[[fn:51]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "B. Freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, annex, appendix."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Hate speech relating to racial or ethnic origin is prohibited under article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. The Human Rights Committee and the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination have both clarified that the prohibitions must be justified in strict conformity with article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and that criminalization should be reserved only for the most serious cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "B. Freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination' — explicit treaty attribution for hate speech prohibition."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit treaty attribution. ICCPR art. 19 is freedom of expression."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. The Joint Declaration on Freedom of Expression and “Fake News”, Disinformation and Propaganda sets out key principles drawn from international human rights law to guide States, companies and others.[[fn:52]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Applicable international legal framework", "B. Freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "See www.osce.org/files/f/documents/6/8/302796.pdf. The Joint Declaration was adopted on 3 March 2017 by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression of the United Nations, the Representative on Freedom of the Media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Organization of American States and the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. State responses to disinformation can take various forms, ranging from measures to disrupt the Internet and legislation to censor, punish or restrict dissemination to the regulation of social media platforms. At one end of the spectrum, some States sponsor disinformation while ostensibly seeking to suppress it; on the opposite (and positive) end of the spectrum, States promote various measures to encourage the free flow of information, enhance media diversity and support media information and digital literacy as means of countering disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. State-sponsored disinformation can emanate from State institutions directly or from proxies targeting audiences within the State’s own territory or abroad for political and strategic aims.[[fn:53]] In the digital age, new techniques have significantly expanded the scale, speed and spread of such operations. When combined with the power, means and reach of a State, their impact can be devastating for human rights. Where States systematically and simultaneously suppress other sources while promoting their own false narratives, they are denying individuals the right to seek and receive information under article 19 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.[[fn:54]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "A. State-sponsored disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "The present report does not cover attempts by States to spread disinformation outside their borders."}, {"n": 54, "text": "Mark Milanovic and Michael N. Schmitt, “Cyber attacks and cyber (mis)information operations during a pandemic”, Journal of National Security Law and Policy, vol. 11 (2020)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. A notorious example of State-led disinformation involved the “Tatmadaw true news information team” in Myanmar, which posted online doctored and mislabelled photographs relating to the Rohingya crisis. In August 2018, Facebook blocked the accounts of the “team” for spreading hate speech.[[fn:55]] Another example is the online practice of “red tagging” used by State agents in the Philippines to falsely brand activists, journalists and political opponents as leftists, communists, terrorists or subversives, thereby increasing the risk of them being arrested, attacked or killed.[[fn:56]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "A. State-sponsored disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "See https://about.fb.com/news/2018/08/removing-myanmar-officials/."}, {"n": 56, "text": "AL PHL 1/2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. In recent years, in a number of countries, State-led disinformation campaigns have sought to influence elections and other political processes, control the narrative of public debates or curb protests against and criticisms of Governments. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, there have been various instances of State actors disseminating unverified claims about the origins of the virus responsible for COVID-19, denying the spread of the disease or providing false information on infection rates, fatality figures and health-care advice. Such disinformation has been detrimental to efforts to control the pandemic, endangering the rights to health and life, as well as people’s trust in public information and State institutions.[[fn:57]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "A. State-sponsored disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "A/HRC/44/49, para. 45."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. During the past two years, the Internet has been shut down just before or during elections in several countries, including Belarus,[[fn:58]] the Democratic Republic of the Congo,[[fn:59]] Ethiopia[[fn:60]] and Myanmar,[[fn:61]] ostensibly to prevent the spread of disinformation online that could incite violence. Governments have also imposed Internet shutdowns during demonstrations or to silence dissent, for example in Bahrain and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of).[[fn:62]] Ambiguous laws that permit broad government discretion to shut down or otherwise disrupt Internet connectivity and access to telecommunications have been documented in Tajikistan.[[fn:63]] In contrast, a court in Indonesia ruled against the decision to shut down the Internet to prevent the spread of “fake news” during political unrest in Papua and West Papua on the grounds that it was excessive and unnecessary.[[fn:64]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "B. Internet shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 58, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26164&LangID=E."}, {"n": 59, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=24057&LangID=E."}, {"n": 60, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26483&LangID=E."}, {"n": 61, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26431&LangID=E."}, {"n": 62, "text": "A/HRC/35/22, para. 11."}, {"n": 63, "text": "A/HRC/35/22/Add.2, para. 29."}, {"n": 64, "text": "Moch. Fiqih Prawira Adjie, “Jokowi ‘violates the law’ for banning internet in Papua, court declares”, Jakarta Post, 3 June 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. The Human Rights Council has strongly condemned the use of Internet shutdowns that intentionally and arbitrarily prevent or disrupt access to information online.[[fn:65]] Shutting down the Internet is an inherently disproportionate response, given the blanket nature of the act, which blocks multiple other uses of the Internet. As such, it violates the requirement of necessity and proportionality set out in international human rights law. It deprives individuals of all information and services online. It hinders voters from accessing information about elections, human rights defenders from documenting and sharing human rights concerns and journalists and the media from reporting on issues of public interest. By depriving people of information sources, Internet shutdowns do not curb disinformation but, rather, hamper fact-finding and are likely to encourage rumours. In many cases, they appear to be aimed at silencing minority voices and depriving them of access to vital information.[[fn:66]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "B. Internet shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "Resolution 44/12."}, {"n": 66, "text": "See the submissions from Access Now and the Centre for Law and Democracy."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. States have long had discreet laws to address the harm done by false information, for example in relation to defamation, consumer protection and financial fraud. More problematic is the use of criminal laws to punish the spread of loosely defined false information on issues of public interest. Some of these laws date back to colonial times and have been found by domestic courts in Uganda,[[fn:67]] Zambia[[fn:68]] and Zimbabwe[[fn:69]] to be unconstitutional and unjustified in modern democratic societies. In 2016, the regional court in West Africa found that the criminal offences of sedition, false news and criminal defamation in the Gambia infringed international law on expression and ordered them to be repealed.[[fn:70]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "C. Criminal laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "Uganda, Supreme Court, Charles Onyango Obbo and another v. Attorney General, constitutional appeal No. 2 of 2002, judgment, 10 February 2004."}, {"n": 68, "text": "Zambia, High Court, Chipenzi and others v. the People, HPR/03/2014, 4 December 2014."}, {"n": 69, "text": "Zimbabwe, Supreme Court, Chavunduka v. Minister of Home Affairs, case No. 2000 JOL 6540 (ZS), 22 May 2000."}, {"n": 70, "text": "Community Court of Justice of the Economic Community of West African States, Federation of African Journalists and four others v. the Gambia, judgment No. ECW/CCJ/JUD/04/18."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. During the past decade, there has been a flurry of laws prohibiting “false news” of various forms on the Internet and social media platforms, with at least 17 States adopting legislation in the past year alone to address pandemic-related problematic information.[[fn:71]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "C. Criminal laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "See https://ipi.media/rush-to-pass-fake-news-laws-during-covid-19-intensifying-global-media-freedom-challenges/. See also the submission from the Centre for Law and Democracy."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Many of these “false news” laws fail to meet the three-pronged test of legality, necessity and legitimate aims set out in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. They often do not define with sufficient precision what constitutes false information or what harm they seek to prevent, nor do they require the establishment of a concrete and strong nexus between the act committed and the harm caused. Words such as “false”, “fake” or “biased” are used without elaboration and assertions based on a circular logic are made (for example, “a statement is false if it is false or misleading, whether wholly or in part, and whether on its own or in the context in which it appears”).[[fn:72]] In some cases, harm is defined in overly broad terms.[[fn:73]] Unfettered discretion has been given to executive authorities without judicial oversight in some legislation, notably in Malaysia[[fn:74]] and Singapore,[[fn:75]] opening the possibility for abuse and arbitrary decision-making. Often, the prescribed punishment is excessively harsh and disproportionate, and can have a chilling effect on freedom of expression.[[fn:76]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "C. Criminal laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 72, "text": "See the Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Act of Singapore, sect. 2 (2) (b)."}, {"n": 73, "text": "See, e.g., the Penal Code of Qatar, art. 136, and QAT 1/2020."}, {"n": 74, "text": "OL MYS 5/2021."}, {"n": 75, "text": "OL SGP 3/2019."}, {"n": 76, "text": "OL BFA 2/2020."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The vague and overly broad nature of such laws allows Governments to use them against journalists, political opponents and human rights defenders. For instance, the ambiguous and broadly defined provisions in the Penal Code of Turkey and in anti-terrorism legislation criminalizing broad categories of speech, including expressions that “denigrate the Turkish nation” or “insult the President”, have been used against many political activists and journalists in Turkey.[[fn:77]] In Egypt, human rights defenders and journalists have been prosecuted for spreading “false news” after they published reports on the human rights situation in the country.[[fn:78]] In Bangladesh, the detention of cartoonists, bloggers and journalists under the Digital Security Act have led to allegations of torture and death in custody.[[fn:79]] The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights has expressed alarm at the sharp rise in the use of “false news” laws to clamp down on criticism of Governments in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic in many countries in Asia.[[fn:80]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "C. Criminal laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 77, "text": "See, e.g., OL TUR 13/2020, AL TUR 18/2020 and AL TUR 20/2020."}, {"n": 78, "text": "See, e.g., AL EGY 19/2020, AL EGY 15/2020, AL EGY 10/2020, UA EGY 6/2020 and UA EGY 1/2020."}, {"n": 79, "text": "OL BGD 4/2018 and AL BGD 7/2020."}, {"n": 80, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=25920&LangID=E."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. At the heart of concerns about disinformation or misinformation online is the way in which such information can go viral, at great speed. States have responded to this challenge in different ways, some by adopting regulations that give the authorities a direct role in controlling content online, some by focusing not on content but on the processes by which disinformation or misinformation is handled by companies. Some laws or proposals raise privacy concerns, as instant messaging services may fall within their scope and require users to provide identification information, data to be traced or the use of filters.[[fn:81]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "D. Social media regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "See, e.g., BRA 6/2020; see also the submission from Derechos Digitales."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. In recent years, several States have adopted laws that grant the authorities excessive discretionary powers to compel social media platforms to remove content that they deem illegal, including what they consider to be disinformation or “fake news”. Failure to comply is sanctioned with significant fines and/or content blocking. This has been the case, for example, in Kenya,[[fn:82]] Pakistan[[fn:83]] and the Russian Federation.[[fn:84]] In effect, such laws lead to the suppression of legitimate online expressions with limited or no due process or without prior court order and contrary to requirements of article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.[[fn:85]] In Latin America, disinformation laws[[fn:86]] that force platforms to decide whether to remove content without judicial orders are incompatible with article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "D. Social media regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 82, "text": "OL KEN 10/2017."}, {"n": 83, "text": "OL PAK 3/2020."}, {"n": 84, "text": "OL RUS 4/2019."}, {"n": 85, "text": "See https://transparency.facebook.com/content-restrictions."}, {"n": 86, "text": "OL BRA 6/2020."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR with paragraph 3."}, {"article": "13", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights' — Inter-American regional treaty, not in allowed list."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. The trend that sees States delegating to online platforms “speech police” functions that traditionally belong to the courts has continued. The risk with such laws is that intermediaries are likely to err on the side of caution and “over-remove” content for fear of being sanctioned. The German Network Enforcement Act, adopted in 2018 and recently amended, allows users to flag content that they believe is illegal under certain provisions of the Criminal Code and obliges platforms to remove the “violating content” within a short period of time or face heavy fines.[[fn:87]] Although the German statute does not prohibit or penalize disinformation, it has been cited by other countries seeking to introduce unduly restrictive intermediary laws or social media regulations that would enable the removal of “fake news” without a judicial or even a quasi-judicial order.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "D. Social media regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "OL DEU 1/2017."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. In countries where disinformation or misinformation is not explicitly banned, States have generally relied on social media platforms’ terms of service to tackle disinformation. However, a new trend appears to be developing in the European Union, where the draft digital services act would, once adopted and enforced, require platforms and other intermediaries to adopt transparency and due process measures that could, among other things, help to address the problem of disinformation. Such regulatory proposals, which focus on transparency and due process obligations, rather than viewpoint- or content-based regulations, can make a positive contribution to the protection of human rights and greater public accountability of platforms. However, for the regulatory measures to work properly, the independence of the oversight body or regulator must be assured and scrupulously respected.[[fn:88]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "E. Emerging trends"], "footnotes": [{"n": 88, "text": "See, e.g., Eleonora Maria Mazzoli and Damian Tambini, “Prioritisation uncovered: the discoverability of public interest content online”, Council of Europe study DGI(2020)19, pp. 40–43."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The draft digital services act would also require large online platforms to conduct annual reviews of “significant systemic risks stemming from the functioning and use made of their service”, including the “intentional manipulation of their service”, which causes or could cause a negative effect on the protection of public health, minors, civil discourse, electoral processes and public security.[[fn:89]] Appropriate mitigation measures would have to be adopted in response, subject to independent auditing. Very large online platforms would also be expected to comply with codes of conduct, including on disinformation, under independent regulatory oversight. Whether these due diligence measures will protect human rights and address disinformation in the States members of the European Union will depend ultimately on how clearly and narrowly they are drafted into law and on the effectiveness and independence of the regulatory bodies.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "E. Emerging trends"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "See https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52020PC0825&from=en."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Another emerging trend is draft laws or proposals that seek to restrict the amplification of illegal or otherwise harmful content, for example in Brazil,[[fn:90]] France[[fn:91]] and the United States.[[fn:92]] Such measures could help to reduce the impact of disinformation if the laws are drafted in clear and precise language so that they do not infringe on free speech and seek only to suppress undue reach.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "E. Emerging trends"], "footnotes": [{"n": 90, "text": "OL BRA 6/2020."}, {"n": 91, "text": "OL FRA 5/2018."}, {"n": 92, "text": "Submission from Access Now."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. The permanent suspension of former United States President Trump from Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, Reddit and other platforms following the events of 6 January 2021 at the United States Capitol have also prompted regulatory proposals to sanction companies for removing lawful content. In Poland, a new proposed law would require social media companies to put back content deemed lawful by a body largely controlled by the Government.[[fn:93]] In Brazil, terms of service that allow for viewpoint-based removal of content could lead to the suspension of services or other sanctions. Such “must-carry” obligations or related obligations characterized by the “duty of impartiality” could be detrimental if they are not in line with international human rights law, which, while strongly upholding freedom of expression, prohibits hate speech.[[fn:94]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. State responses to disinformation: key concerns", "E. Emerging trends"], "footnotes": [{"n": 93, "text": "See, e.g., Richard Wingfield, “Poland: draft law on the protection of freedom of speech on online social networking sites”, 8 February 2021."}, {"n": 94, "text": "See, e.g., the finding of a court in Rome in Facebook v. CasaPound, case No. 80961/19, 29 April 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Companies do not have the same human rights obligations as States. They are, however, expected to respect human rights in their activities and operations in line with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. At a minimum, they should conduct regular human rights impact assessments of their products, operations and policies and implement due diligence processes with a view to identifying, preventing or mitigating any actual or potential adverse impacts on human rights. They should also put in place a remediation process for users. The Joint Declaration on Freedom of Expression and “Fake News”, Disinformation and Propaganda and the reports of the previous mandate holder also provide important guidance for companies on human rights standards applicable to their policies and content-moderation practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. In response to the challenges raised by disinformation and misinformation, the largest United States-based social media platforms[[fn:95]] have adopted a range of policies and tools. They generally ban what they consider to be “false news” and various deceptive practices that undermine authenticity and integrity on their platforms. Some have adopted specific policies on COVID-19-related misinformation[[fn:96]] and on civic integrity.[[fn:97]] Enforcement can take various forms, from the application of labels and the issuance of warnings to the removal of content and closure of accounts. Problematic information is made less visible or its reach is reduced.[[fn:98]] Companies also cite efforts to promote authoritative content.[[fn:99]] Facebook has established a third-party fact-checking programme.[[fn:100]] Most recently, Twitter announced a new community-based approach to fighting misinformation.[[fn:101]] Beyond social media platforms, messaging services such as WhatsApp have limited the ability of their users to forward messages to an unlimited number of people, particularly at sensitive times, like elections.[[fn:102]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 95, "text": "Owing to the lack of easily accessible information, the present section refers mainly to Facebook, YouTube and Twitter and, to some extent, to TikTok."}, {"n": 96, "text": "Twitter and YouTube, for example."}, {"n": 97, "text": "See https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/election-integrity-policy."}, {"n": 98, "text": "See, e.g., Tessa Lyons, “Hard questions: what’s Facebook’s strategy for stopping false news?”, 23 May 2018. See also Twitter’s enforcement options, available from https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/enforcement-options."}, {"n": 99, "text": "See, e.g., www.youtube.com/howyoutubeworks/product-features/news-information/."}, {"n": 100, "text": "See www.facebook.com/journalismproject/programs/third-party-fact-checking."}, {"n": 101, "text": "Keith Coleman, “Introducing Birdwatch, a community-based approach to misinformation”, 25 January 2021."}, {"n": 102, "text": "See, e.g., the submission from Les femmes, la force du changement."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. While these measures are generally positive, they are an insufficient response to the challenges posed by disinformation. Reactive content moderation efforts are simply not enough to make a meaningful difference in the absence of a serious review of the business model that underpins much of the drivers of disinformation and misinformation.[[fn:103]] Moreover, content moderation efforts continue to display the same long-standing problems of inconsistent application of companies’ terms of service, inadequate redress mechanisms and a lack of transparency and access to data that hampers an objective assessment of the effectiveness of the measures that have been adopted. Furthermore, although the platforms are global businesses, they do not appear to apply their policies consistently across all geographical areas or to uphold human rights in all jurisdictions to the same extent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 103, "text": "Submission from the Center for Social Media and Politics."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Algorithms, targeted advertising and the data harvesting practices of the largest social media companies are largely credited with driving users towards “extremist” content and conspiracy theories that undermine the right to form an opinion and freedom of expression.[[fn:104]] There is a real concern that the systematic collection of data about users’ activities online and targeted advertising may violate their right to freedom of opinion under article 19 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The lack of transparency with which companies automatically curate content online also points towards an unacceptable level of intrusion into individuals’ right to form their ideas free from manipulation and right to privacy. By designing their products with highly personalized content to encourage addictive engagement, companies further promote a system that significantly undermines people’s agency and choice in relation to their information diet.[[fn:105]] Finally, there is evidence to suggest that the recording of people’s private thoughts as expressed through online searches and other online activities could be used against them by commercial actors or Governments in a discriminatory manner.[[fn:106]] There is also a concern that collecting data on ethnicity or political affiliation with no limitations or safeguards in countries with a history of political violence could be dangerous.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "A. Advertisement-driven business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 104, "text": "See, e.g., the submission from Vodafone."}, {"n": 105, "text": "A/HRC/44/49, para. 60."}, {"n": 106, "text": "Evelyn Aswad, “Losing the freedom to be human”, p. 363."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Despite these concerns, it is not clear whether social media platforms have sought to review their business model as part of their human rights due diligence efforts. Nor is there sufficient publicly available information to enable users, researchers and activists to understand the way in which algorithms promote certain kinds of content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "A. Advertisement-driven business model"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. The main area where the largest companies appear to have adopted some measures is in relation to political advertising. The extent of election-related disinformation has belatedly prompted social media companies to create advertisement archives or libraries that enable some scrutiny of political advertising on their platforms. The information available, however, is often too limited and checks on political advertisers are optional.[[fn:107]] Moreover, users are exposed to political ads by default rather than through an opt-in mechanism. More generally, it is unclear what criteria or objectives are used for the purposes of targeted advertising and whether they are compatible with human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "A. Advertisement-driven business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 107, "text": "Submission from Privacy International."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Greater transparency is needed on the issue, including through information about the targeting, actual reach and amount spent on advertisements.[[fn:108]] In the case of political advertising, this should take place alongside reforms by States to electoral laws to ensure that online political advertising and digital campaigns do not undermine the integrity of elections and democratic processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "A. Advertisement-driven business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 108, "text": "Kate Jones, “Online disinformation and political discourse”, p. 54. See also Nathalie Maréchal, Rebecca MacKinnon and Jessica Dheere, “Getting to the source of infodemics: it’s the business model” (New America, May 2020), pp. 55–56."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Social media companies rely on a range of content policies to tackle disinformation or misinformation online. The applicable rules can be hard to find, strewn as they often are across various parts of the companies’ websites in community standards, policies, leadership statements, newsrooms, product information pages and business help centres.[[fn:109]] A common concern is that the definitions are often overly broad: they do not always clearly spell out what kind of harm and what likelihood of harm will lead to content removal, labelling or other sanction. The application of the coordinated inauthentic behaviour policy may also have an adverse effect on freedom of expression, particularly on legitimate campaigning activities.[[fn:110]] The lack of clarity in the companies’ definitions hinders consistency in the implementation of companies’ rules and policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "B. Application of rules"], "footnotes": [{"n": 109, "text": "See, e.g., the Facebook Oversight Board decision in case 2020-006-FB-FBR."}, {"n": 110, "text": "See www.accessnow.org/rights-groups-to-facebook-on-tunisias-disappeared-accounts-were-still-waiting-for-answers/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. This problem is exacerbated by the over-reliance on automated filters that are unable to capture nuance or understand context. The limits of technology and the political nature of determining what constitutes disinformation combined with the lack of transparency on content moderation decisions increase the risk that permissible content will be removed. It underlines the need for human involvement in content removal decisions, particularly when there is a risk of real-world injury or violence.[[fn:111]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "B. Application of rules"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "Submission from Global Partners Digital."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Companies continue to fail to provide adequate remedies for wrongful actions taken on the basis of disinformation or misinformation. Appeals mechanisms for wrongful decisions are crucial to offset the significant risks inherent in large social media companies using imperfect filters to remove content. Appeals do not appear, however, to be available for enforcement actions taken by companies such as labelling and demotions. Nor do they appear to be available to challenge decisions taken on the basis of coordinated harm or inauthentic behaviour policies. Moreover, it is unclear whether appeals mechanisms are available in a range of languages.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "C. Remedies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. In addition to internal complaints mechanisms, proposals for third-party oversight bodies can be a valuable means of strengthening remedies. The Facebook Oversight Board, an external complaints’ mechanism, is a novel experiment. While it is too early to assess its effectiveness, it should be evaluated in due course through a transparent, multi-stakeholder participatory process, as it could yield valuable lessons for the sector. It is also necessary to consider industry-wide, multi-stakeholder measures such as the establishment of social media councils, particularly for smaller players. Such multi-stakeholder bodies could provide policy recommendations, including on disinformation and misinformation, and consider appeals from the decisions made by participating companies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "C. Remedies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. A significant problem in companies’ approach to content moderation is the apparent disparity with which they implement their policies in different parts of the world.[[fn:112]] While the United States has benefited from special election or voting information centres or advertisement libraries, most countries do not seem to receive the same level of investment.[[fn:113]] Even in the United States, Spanish-language resources are less well funded than English-speaking ones. Some companies are only gradually developing temporary country-specific election misinformation policies in places where they operate,[[fn:114]] but they seem to be a minority. Moreover, the ability to flag content appears to be fully available only in the United States, much less so in Latin American countries.[[fn:115]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "D. Geographical disparities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 112, "text": "See, e.g., the submission from Intervozes."}, {"n": 113, "text": "Submission from Privacy International."}, {"n": 114, "text": "See the submission from Facebook on its strategy in Myanmar."}, {"n": 115, "text": "Submission from Derechos Digitales."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. Fact-checking services are more limited in many parts of the world.[[fn:116]] Information reported by whistle-blowers raised concerns about the deliberate inaction of companies in less affluent markets. If confirmed, the disparities would show a very different quality of content moderation, undermining civic space in developing countries.[[fn:117]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "D. Geographical disparities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 116, "text": "See Mahsa Alimardani and Mona Elswah, “Trust, religion and politics: coronavirus misinformation in Iran”, in 2020 Misinfodemic Report: COVID-19 in Emerging Economies (Meedan, 2020)."}, {"n": 117, "text": "See www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/facebook-ignore-political-manipulation-whistleblower-memo."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. The largest companies, based in the United States and influenced by its politics and public opinion there, appear to be driven by United States and European priorities. They do not invest sufficient resources in understanding the local factors that feed disinformation online in other parts of the world, especially developing countries.[[fn:118]] A thorough understanding of the local political, social and economic context, language proficiency and close cooperation with civil society in countries where disinformation is more prevalent are necessary.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "D. Geographical disparities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 118, "text": "Submission from the Centre for Law and Democracy."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. Companies do not appear to apply their terms of service or community standards consistently to public figures. Nor do they appear to have developed clear policies to protect political content from being censored as “false news” or to address content produced by public figures that advocates incitement to violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "E. Political pressure"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. The inconsistent application of community standards led to criticism of the large platforms during the United States Presidential elections in 2020. In February 2021, Facebook banned accounts linked to the military following the coup d’état in Myanmar but has not committed itself to doing the same in other situations. When platforms were pressured by the authorities to close the accounts of journalists and human rights defenders covering the farmers’ protests in India earlier this year, they appear to have complied.[[fn:119]] In April 2020, it was reported that Facebook had agreed to significantly increase compliance with the request of the Government of Viet Nam to censor “anti-State” content and closed the accounts of many human rights defenders after the authorities took down its servers, which slowed down the platform and made it inoperable for seven weeks.[[fn:120]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "E. Political pressure"], "footnotes": [{"n": 119, "text": "IND 2/2021."}, {"n": 120, "text": "See www.reuters.com/article/us-vietnam-facebook-exclusive-idUSKCN2232JX."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. In the absence of clear policies, companies are vulnerable to pressure to clamp down on legitimate political speech and facilitate State-instigated disinformation. Companies should base their community standards on international human rights standards, including those relating to the right to freedom of expression, under which the speech of politicians, political parties and other public figures and entities would benefit from a high degree of protection. International human rights law permits the removal of content posted by a public figure only on very narrow grounds, including incitement to violence and hatred. By grounding their terms of service firmly in international standards, companies would be better placed to resist pressure to remove legitimate speech since they would be upholding the very instruments and principles to which States have formally committed themselves.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "E. Political pressure"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. Lack of transparency and access to data continue to be the major failings of companies across almost all the concerns in relation to disinformation and misinformation. They prevent independent scrutiny and affect accountability and trust. Opacity is disempowering for users and denies agency.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "F. Transparency, accountability and access to data"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. Most of the largest social media companies produce transparency reports twice a year, but they do not share more precise and meaningful information about action taken to address disinformation or misinformation.[[fn:121]] The Facebook transparency report, for example, only provides information about the removal of fake accounts but not about content. Similarly, no information is provided about the number of items of content being labelled, nor any appeals against decisions to remove content or suspend accounts in relation to disinformation policies. There is no data available about user engagement with disinformation or misinformation, including numbers of shares, views, reach and number of complaints or requests for removal. Greater information is also needed about the reliability and accuracy of the artificial intelligence systems deployed to identify and remove content.[[fn:122]] The overall lack of transparency regarding companies’ content moderation systems and processes makes it impossible to assess the effectiveness of the measures adopted by the companies and their impact on human rights. This is compounded by the lack of sufficient access to data by researchers, academics or civil society to enable them to make more independent and objective assessments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "F. Transparency, accountability and access to data"], "footnotes": [{"n": 121, "text": "See, e.g., Working Group on Infodemics, Policy Framework (Forum on Information and Democracy, November 2020), pp. 17 ff., See also the submission from the Association for Progressive Communications."}, {"n": 122, "text": "See, e.g., the submission from the Association for Progressive Communications."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Greater transparency is also needed on agreements between companies and Governments, especially when the agreements involve giving more prominence to government messaging or to the removal of content or other restrictions on speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Company responses: key concerns", "F. Transparency, accountability and access to data"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. In a report devoted to disinformation, it is easy – but dangerous – to lose sight of the value that digital technology offers to democracy, sustainable development and human rights, or the vital importance of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in that equation. That is why attempts to combat disinformation by undermining human rights are short-sighted and counterproductive. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is not part of the problem, it is the objective and the means for combating disinformation. The COVID-19 pandemic has starkly exposed both the imperative of upholding the right and the challenges of confronting disinformation and misinformation.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. Disinformation is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon with serious consequences. It destroys people’s trust in democratic institutions. It thrives where public information regimes are weak and independent investigative journalism is constrained. It disempowers individuals, robbing them of their autonomy to search, receive and share information and form opinions. In the platform world, individuals are regarded as users, not as rights holders with agency.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. Disinformation is problematic, but so too are the responses of States and companies. Laws and policies are often being made with sub-optimal knowledge of online harm, without adequate data, research or public consultations. States have resorted to disproportionate measures such as Internet shutdowns and vague and overly broad laws to criminalize, block, censor and chill online speech and shrink civic space. These measures are not only incompatible with international human rights law but also contribute to amplifying misperceptions, fostering fear and entrenching public mistrust of institutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. Company responses have been reactive, inadequate and opaque. The large platforms are focused on improving content moderation while ignoring human rights concerns about their business models, lack of transparency and the inadequate due process rights of users.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. The fundamental challenge for States, companies and the media is to restore public trust in the integrity of the information order. Tackling disinformation requires multidimensional, multi-stakeholder responses that are well grounded in the full range of human rights and the proactive engagement of States, companies, international organizations, civil society and the media. The need for multi-stakeholder dialogue and partnerships cannot be overstated.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. States are the primary duty bearers with obligations to respect, protect and fulfil human rights. In keeping with their obligation to respect human rights, States should not make, sponsor, encourage or disseminate statements that they know or should reasonably know to be false, or authorize Internet shutdowns as a means of combating disinformation. They should refrain from restricting freedom of expression online or offline except in accordance with the requirements of articles 19 (3) and 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, strictly and narrowly construed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. Criminal law should be used only in very exceptional and most egregious circumstances of incitement to violence, hatred or discrimination. Criminal libel laws are a legacy of the colonial past and have no place in modern democratic societies. They should be repealed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. States have the duty to ensure that companies respect human rights. They should not compel companies to remove or block content that is legitimate under international human rights law, nor require them to make determinations on the legality of content under national laws that should be done by the courts. Companies should be transparent about such requests from States and refrain from making deals behind closed doors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. State regulation of social media should focus on enforcing transparency, due process rights for users and due diligence on human rights by companies, and on ensuring that the independence and remit of the regulators are clearly defined, guaranteed and limited by law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. Data protection is key to reorienting the advertisement-driven business model of the digital economy, which drives the information disorder and related human rights abuses. States should adopt strong data protection laws and update electoral and other relevant laws to limit the pervasive tracking and targeting of individuals and their activities online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. Diverse and reliable information is an obvious antidote to disinformation and misinformation. States should fulfil their duty to ensure the right to information, firstly, by increasing their own transparency and by proactively disclosing official data online and offline and, secondly, by reaffirming their commitment to media freedom, diversity and independence. Ensuring the safety of journalists online and offline and ending impunity for threats, intimidation, harassment, attacks and killings of journalists, including women journalists, bloggers, cartoonists and human rights defenders is key to restoring confidence in the public sphere as a safe place for democratic deliberations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. Media information and digital literacy empowers people and builds their resilience against disinformation and misinformation, as noted recently by the General Assembly.[[fn:123]] It should become part of the national school curriculum and engage the young and old alike. Along with digital literacy, more attention must be given to digital inclusion so that people in developing countries who are now totally dependent on social media platforms and messaging applications for connectivity (through zero rating) can have meaningful, free, open, interoperable, reliable and secure access to the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 123, "text": "Resolution 75/267."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. Companies are obliged to respect human rights under international human rights law. Although digital platforms are private actors, they have a far-reaching impact on human rights in the public space. As such, they are accountable not only to their users but to society at large. There is growing concern about the market dominance of the largest companies, as well as about the harmful effects of their current business models. Companies should proactively respond to these concerns, going beyond improving content moderation to reviewing their business models, acknowledging the agency and autonomy of users as rights holders and empowering them by increasing transparency, control and choice and by ensuring due process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. In line with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, social media companies should review their business models and ensure that their business operations, data collection and data processing practices are compliant with international human rights standards, including article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, as well as data protection principles and relevant national consumer protection standards. They should also conduct human rights impact assessments of their products, particularly of the role of algorithms and ranking systems in amplifying disinformation or misinformation. Such assessments should be conducted regularly and ahead of and following significant events such as national elections or major crises like the COVID-19 pandemic.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. Companies should review their advertising models to ensure that they do not adversely impact diversity of opinions and ideas and are clear on the criteria used for targeted advertising. They should provide meaningful information about advertisers in online advertisement repositories and give users the choice to opt in to be exposed to advertising.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. Companies should adopt clear, narrowly defined content and advertising policies on disinformation and misinformation that are in line with international human rights law and after consultation with all relevant stakeholders. Furthermore, they should adopt clear policies relating to public figures that are consistent with international human rights standards and apply them consistently across geographical areas. They should ensure that all policies are easily accessible and understandable by users and are enforced consistently, taking into account the particular contexts in which they are applied.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. Companies should provide clear and meaningful information about the parameters of their algorithms or recommender systems and ensure that those systems enable users to receive a diversity of viewpoints by default while also enabling them to choose the variables that shape their online experience.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. Companies should publish comprehensive, detailed and contextualized transparency reports, including separate reports to address exceptional circumstances such as the COVID-19 pandemic, that include a breakdown of the actions taken against disinformation- or misinformation-related content and appeals against those actions, including number of shares, views, reach, complaints and requests for removal.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. Users must have proper recourse. Companies should establish internal appeals mechanisms for a broader range of content moderation decisions and types of content, such as coordinated inauthentic behaviour. They should also explore the creation of external oversight mechanisms such as social media councils.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. In the age of the Me Too movement, both States and companies should confront gender disinformation online as a priority and also give special attention to its consequences in the real world. Companies should introduce appropriate policies, remedies and mechanisms that are tailored from a gender perspective across all aspects of the platform experience and that are designed in consultation with those affected by this pernicious behaviour. States should also integrate fully gendered perspectives into their policies and programmes to address disinformation and misinformation, including in media, information and digital literacy programmes.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. As actors on a global stage, companies should invest more resources to develop their understanding of local contexts that drive disinformation and misinformation and address the disparities in their knowledge, languages, policies and services in relation to developing countries, minorities and other vulnerable groups, drawing on the perspectives of local civil society and groups targeted by disinformation and misinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. A major challenge to addressing disinformation and misinformation is knowledge gaps arising from the lack of access to data, especially in relation to developing countries. More attention should be given to making data available for research, policymaking, monitoring and evaluation. The concept of “differential privacy”[[fn:124]] could provide a way forward for access to mega data for research purposes while respecting the human rights and safety concerns of users.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 124, "text": "Working Group on Infodemics, Policy Framework, p. 125."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-25-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-47-25", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. Last but not least, the United Nations human rights system and, in particular, the Human Rights Council, has a major role to play in ensuring that all efforts to address disinformation and misinformation are grounded firmly in international human rights law, including respect for freedom of opinion and expression. The Council should consider holding regular multi-stakeholder consultations with States, companies, civil society organizations and relevant international and regional actors and establishing initiatives on the subject of safeguarding and promoting human rights in the digital space.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. When freedom of expression is suppressed, electoral processes are endangered and public trust in elections suffers. In 2024, more than half of the world’s voting age population, living in over 50 countries ranging from liberal democracies to electoral autocracies, went to the polls to choose their national, regional and local leaders. According to a survey conducted in 2023 in 19 countries with varied political systems, just over half of respondents believed that elections in their country had been free and fair.[[fn:1]] A related survey found that freedom of expression and electoral integrity were two of the top elements that were in global decline.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, The Global State of Democracy: Strengthening the Legitimacy of Elections in a Time of Radical Uncertainty (Stockholm, 2024)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. If public confidence in elections is to be restored, the decline in freedom of expression must be reversed. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is a central pillar of democratic societies and a guarantor of free and fair election processes.[[fn:2]] It empowers citizens to obtain information on the electoral process and to debate, discuss and make informed decisions on their choice of representatives. It allows candidates and political parties to campaign on the issues at stake in the elections. It enables the media and civil society to inform the public, scrutinize candidates and their party platforms and report on the integrity of the electoral process. By throwing light on the electoral process, the right to freedom of opinion and expression helps to build public trust in electoral outcomes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "A/HRC/26/30, para. 10."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. Election integrity and information integrity are closely connected. Safe, free and fair elections require healthy, open information spaces in which accurate and independent information is easily accessible to the electorate. Increasingly, however, information spaces have come under severe strain during elections for two main reasons. Firstly, populist politicians eager to win elections at all costs and authoritarian Governments intent on holding on to power have resorted to information manipulation.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Secondly, digital technology and platforms have enabled and amplified those tendencies into a tsunami of disinformation, misinformation and hate speech.[[fn:3]] The consequences have been dire. Political opponents, minorities, migrants and other marginalized groups have been targeted, vilified, threatened and attacked by State and non-State actors. Journalists and human rights defenders have been suppressed ruthlessly by Governments, often in the name of fighting disinformation. Politics has become polarized and democratic processes have been disrupted and democratic institutions, including elections, delegitimized.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "For definitions of disinformation and misinformation, see A/HRC/47/25, paras. 9–14. In the present report, disinformation is understood as false or manipulated information that causes or is intended to cause harm."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The report is focused on the key vulnerabilities of the right to freedom of expression in electoral contexts. It contains an examination of the upsurge of information manipulation in politically polarized contexts, its impact on individuals, institutions and electoral environments and its role in the decline of traditional news media. The report also contains an analysis of the responses of States and companies to those challenges in the light of their international human rights obligations and includes recommendations for strengthening freedom of expression with a view to restoring public trust in elections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The Special Rapporteur coordinated her work closely with the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and association, who is also presenting a report on elections to the Human Rights Council at its fifty-ninth session.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. The present report has benefited from consultations led by the Special Rapporteur over the past year with a wide range of stakeholders, including civil society organizations, electoral institutions, human rights defenders, journalists and representatives of social media companies. In addition to in-person and online meetings, the Special Rapporteur convened regional workshops in Addis Ababa, Bangkok, Santiago and Istanbul, Türkiye. She received 59 written contributions from States, civil society organizations, companies, international organizations and experts in response to her call for submissions.[[fn:4]] She is grateful to all stakeholders for their engagement and valuable contributions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Submissions will be available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/2025/call-submissions-thematic-report-freedom-expression-and-elections-digital-age."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. In recent years, elections have been marked by high levels of information manipulation, instigated by both States and populist politicians in office or seeking election, enabled and amplified by digital platforms and feeding on the frustrations and grievances of growing numbers of people affected by economic deprivation, political disenfranchisement and social inequalities. The trend is alarming, degrading the information environment, fomenting hatred and violence and disrupting and delegitimizing democratic processes and institutions. The life cycle of electoral disinformation is not limited to the polling but begins long before and persists long after the elections, tainting political discourse and polarizing democratic societies. The goal is to harm political opponents, restrict voter participation, sow doubt about the electoral process and its outcomes and, ultimately, to erode democracy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "A. Information manipulation: who is behind it, who is harmed by it"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. While information manipulation is most frequently home-grown, there is sometimes evidence of interference from abroad aimed at influencing the politics and polls in countries deemed to be strategically important to foreign powers. One study attributed a staggering nearly 60 per cent of disinformation campaigns on the African continent to foreign, non-African State sponsors.[[fn:5]] Some States, including Australia, Mexico, Spain and Switzerland, have increased efforts to prevent interference from abroad in their elections.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "A. Information manipulation: who is behind it, who is harmed by it"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See Africa Centre for Strategic Studies, “Mapping a surge of disinformation in Africa”, 13 March 2024."}, {"n": 6, "text": "See submissions from Australia, Mexico, Spain and Switzerland."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Information manipulation is frequently used as a tactic to restrict the participation of opposition candidates. Disinformation and harmful speech have also been utilized in highly visible ways against minorities and marginalized groups to deter their participation in elections, especially women,[[fn:7]] religious minorities,[[fn:8]] lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender persons[[fn:9]] and internally displaced persons.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "A. Information manipulation: who is behind it, who is harmed by it"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See A/78/260."}, {"n": 8, "text": "See communication PAK 3/2023. All communications cited in the present report are available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}, {"n": 9, "text": "A/79/151, para. 35."}, {"n": 10, "text": "A/HRC/50/24, para. 63."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Political rhetoric expressing hatred and stigmatizing and dehumanizing people for their ethnicity, race, religion, language, sex, gender or sexual orientation has become widespread, even in liberal democracies. The impact of racist and xenophobic discourse becomes even greater and more harmful in electoral contexts.[[fn:11]] Some politicians weaponize their freedom of expression to vilify, disparage and exclude minority or critical voices.[[fn:12]] The weaponization often occurs under the pretext of promoting a free and open information environment in which efforts to denounce or prohibit hate speech are depicted as censorship.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "A. Information manipulation: who is behind it, who is harmed by it"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Sanchez v. France, Application No. 45581/15, Judgment, 15 May 2023, para. 176."}, {"n": 12, "text": "A/HRC/56/53/Add.2, para. 22."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Women face extremely high levels of gender-based violence and gendered disinformation, both online and offline, in their roles as politicians, candidates, voters, election officials, judges, journalists, human rights defenders or members of women’s groups or civil society organizations. The objective is to silence their voices, discredit their work and drive them out of public life.[[fn:13]] The trend is deeply worrying, given that women are already underrepresented in public life. Attacks frequently come from the coordinated actions of trolls and bots and include the doxing of personal data, fake stories, humiliating or sexually charged images and deepfakes,[[fn:14]] often aimed at framing women as untrustworthy, unintelligent, emotional, angry, crazy or hypersexual.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "A. Information manipulation: who is behind it, who is harmed by it"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "A/78/288, para. 40; and communication KEN 2/2018."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Nina Jankowicz and others, It’s Everyone’s Problem: Mainstreaming Responses to Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence (New York, School of International and Public Affairs, Columbia University, 2024), p. 4."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Electoral violence is the most dangerous way of chilling political participation. It often starts with divisive statements and hate speech that either originate online or spread virally. In elections in some countries in 2024, divisive, incendiary and hateful statements by senior political leaders went viral and are believed to have instigated deadly violence against minorities.[[fn:15]] In the 2023 elections in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, online speech was identified as a key contributor to electoral violence in which 19 people died.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "A. Information manipulation: who is behind it, who is harmed by it"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See communication IND 5/2024."}, {"n": 16, "text": "See Bulanda T. Nkhowani, “Tech harms during elections in Africa”, Digital Action, 12 June 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Efforts to spread false or misleading information about electoral procedures can disenfranchise voters. For instance, in Mexico, disinformation campaigns prior to election day left many voters unsure about how to mark their ballots.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "A. Information manipulation: who is behind it, who is harmed by it"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See Bruna Martins dos Santos, “Mexico’s 2024 elections: a historic and contentious vote”, Digital Action, 7 June 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Targeting electoral officials hinders their ability to monitor, report and denounce irregularities. In recent elections, the scale and severity of disinformation targeting electoral bodies and observers have escalated.[[fn:18]] For instance, the 2023 elections in both Guatemala and Zimbabwe saw extensive coordinated disinformation campaigns against independent observers.[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "A. Information manipulation: who is behind it, who is harmed by it"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "European Commission for Democracy through Law , “Report on election observers as human rights defenders”, 11 December 2024, paras. 56 and 109."}, {"n": 19, "text": "See European Union Election Observation Mission, Zimbabwe 2023: Harmonised Elections, 23 August 2023, Final Report; and Guatemala 2023: General Elections, 25 June 2023, and Presidential Run-Off, 20 August 2023, Final Report."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. In recent years, high-profile disinformation campaigns have undermined public trust in election results, for instance in Brazil, South Africa and the United States of America.[[fn:20]] Disinformation about electoral outcomes is dangerous because it can incite violence. In the United States, false claims on social media by the President, Donald Trump, regarding the legitimacy of the 2020 election results encouraged violent, extremist groups to invade the United States Capitol, disrupting the confirmation of the election results and causing dozens of injuries and five deaths.[[fn:21]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "A. Information manipulation: who is behind it, who is harmed by it"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See submissions from Freedom House and from Conectas Direitos Humanos and Article 19: International Centre against Censorship (Brazil and South America)."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See communication USA 3/2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Social media is a leading vector of disinformation and hate speech.[[fn:22]] A survey of 16 countries in 2024 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and Ipsos found that social media surpassed television as the primary source of news, with media websites in third place.[[fn:23]] That has serious implications for elections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See A/HRC/47/25."}, {"n": 23, "text": "See https://www.ipsos.com/en/elections-social-media-battle-against-disinformation-and-trust-issues."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Politicians increasingly use direct communication and social media to reach a wider audience and convey the image of being “one of the people”. For example, podcasts were credited with tilting the scales of the 2024 elections in the United States in favour of Mr. Trump.[[fn:24]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "See “Joe Rogan and the Fifth Estate: how the podcaster and a group of cable news exiles became more powerful than traditional media”, Variety, 13 November 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. For women in politics, social media is a double-edged sword.[[fn:25]] On the one hand, it provides them with important avenues for direct communication with the public, bypassing traditional media, which is often gender-biased. On the other, it exposes them to vicious online disinformation, harassment and gender-based violence.[[fn:26]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See Lucina Di Meco, #She Persisted: Women, Politics & Power in the New Media World, (The Wilson Center, 2019)."}, {"n": 26, "text": "A/78/288, para. 40."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. As digital technology advances, electoral communications are evolving beyond the large social media platforms. Political parties are increasingly using mobile messaging applications, such as WhatsApp, Telegram, Viber and WeChat. In India, the ruling Bharatiya Janata Party operated at least 5 million WhatsApp groups to spread political communications rapidly and widely.[[fn:27]] Closed communication platforms raise distinct challenges with regard to disinformation. In Zimbabwe, WhatsApp was the channel of choice for electoral disinformation due to its broad reach.[[fn:28]] Telegram, which takes a hands-off approach to content moderation, is known for hosting group chats led by extremist groups, including those promoting electoral violence.[[fn:29]] Political content is also increasingly being consumed on new communication platforms popular with gamers, such as Discord and Twitch, which have become vectors of electoral disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "See Shristi Jaswal, “Inside the BJP’s WhatsApp machine”, Rest of World, 15 May 2024."}, {"n": 28, "text": "See Bulanda T. Nkhowani, “Tech harms during elections in Africa”, Digital Action, 12 June 2024."}, {"n": 29, "text": "See Global Project against Hate and Extremism, “Online chatter about the election contains warning signs for violence”, 28 October 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Social media has helped to enhance the political engagement of young people but also has exposed them to the toxic effects of online disinformation. Young people, particularly first-time voters, can be highly vulnerable to disinformation on social media. In the United States, almost half of those under the age of 30 years commonly use social media for political news.[[fn:30]] In Indonesia, where Generation Z makes up over a quarter of the population, political actors have successfully engaged with that age group on Instagram using memes and humour.[[fn:31]]", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "See https://www.pewresearch.org/journalism/2024/10/10/where-americans-turn-for-election-news."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See Alifa Nur Fitri and others, “Gen Z voter behavior in the 2024 presidential election: a virtual ethnographic study on the Instagram accounts of presidential candidates”, Islamic Communication Journal, vol. 8, No. 2 (2023)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. The popularity of social media among young people and its facility in reaching large audiences have given rise to a novel media figure: the influencer. Influencers, who may attract from a few thousand to several million viewers, post content across social media, video and podcast platforms on various lifestyle issues and are perceived by their followers as having an “authentic” voice. Politicians and candidates are increasingly engaging with influencers to amplify their messages. Influencers played major roles in recent elections and political campaigns in a wide range of countries, including Belgium,[[fn:32]] Mexico,[[fn:33]] Nigeria[[fn:34]] and the United States.[[fn:35]] The 2024 election in India was nicknamed the “YouTube election”, given the ruling party’s unprecedented use of YouTube influencers.[[fn:36]]", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "See Khushbu Agrawal, “Navigating the wild west of online campaign finance: how Mexico and Belgium are coping”, International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance, 13 March 2023."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 34, "text": "See Temple Uwalaka and others, “Social media influencers and political influence operations: the Data Boys example in Nigeria”, Public Relations Inquiry, vol. 14, No. 1, 13 November 2024."}, {"n": 35, "text": "See https://eeebb0be-e8c8-4e71-9dcf-4514afffc587.usrfiles.com/ugd/eeebb0_332d92c2e248466183d9ffffc8be6d07.pdf."}, {"n": 36, "text": "See Sarah Khan, Rudransh Mukherjee and Joyojeet Pal, “Influencer collaboration on YouTube: changing political outreach in the 2024 Indian Elections”, research paper, University of Michigan, 28 January 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. While influencers have broadened political engagement, they pose significant risks. Unlike journalists, influencers are not bound by professional standards, rules or ethics. They are not obliged to provide balanced views, check facts or disclose affiliations. Influencers may also be susceptible to coercion by political candidates. At least 30 per cent of influencers surveyed in Bangladesh and India claimed to have been intimidated into featuring political candidates in their content.[[fn:37]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See Christina Peter and Luisa Muth, “Social media influencers’ role in shaping political opinions and actions of young audiences”, Media and Communication, vol.11, No. 3, June 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Acknowledging the increasing impact of influencers, the Council of the European Union has issued recommendations to the European Commission and member States to strengthen the legal and social responsibility of influencers in the digital media landscape.[[fn:38]] Overall, however, influencers are free to disseminate polarizing and partisan narratives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "See Council of the European Union, “Council conclusions on support for influencers as online content creators”, document 9301/24, 14 May 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Although interference from generative artificial intelligence in the 2024 elections did not materialize to the extent anticipated, it is an emerging concern. The impact of generative artificial intelligence cannot be generalized, as differences in digitalization around the world mean that their effects on political life vary between countries. Any assessment of risks, effects and mitigation strategies should be tailored to local contexts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. As artificial intelligence tools become more accessible, scalable and sophisticated, their benefits and risks are becoming more visible.[[fn:39]] They can enhance political campaign outreach and enable customized messaging or create deceptive content and amplify disinformation. An emerging use of artificial intelligence in elections is as a tool to boost the speed and accuracy of fact-checking. In parallel, the use of artificial intelligence as the basis for platform content curation is affecting the formation of opinions in disturbing ways that are not fully understood. The non-consensual manipulation of thinking processes contravenes the absolute right to freedom of opinion.[[fn:40]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "See submission from Center for Democracy and Technology."}, {"n": 40, "text": "A/HRC/47/25, para. 36."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. The impact of artificial intelligence tools on the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral contexts could have deep consequences for democracy and deserves more scrutiny.[[fn:41]] The Special Rapporteur intends to cover the issue more thoroughly in the future.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "B. Social media: users and influencers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/expression/activities/20250507-joint-stm-ai-freedex.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Free, independent, diverse and pluralistic media online and offline is a critical source of information and an antidote to disinformation.[[fn:42]] It plays a vital role as a watchdog and fact checker in elections. Furthermore, despite the growth of social media, legacy media remains the main source of news for the third of the world’s population with no access to the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "C. Media freedom in decline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "A/HRC/47/25, para. 23."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. The decline of media freedom is a serious setback for the electoral information environment. Three factors deserve urgent attention: attacks on journalists; the erosion of media independence, pluralism and financial viability; and the growing public distrust of the media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "C. Media freedom in decline"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Violence against journalists by State or non-State actors, such as political cadres, is a common feature of elections in almost all regions of the world. It endangers independent reporting and can lead to self-censorship. For instance, in Georgia, 75 journalists were physically attacked in 29 incidents, some at polling stations, while covering parliamentary elections.[[fn:43]] The 2024 elections in Mozambique were marred by extreme levels of violence, including intimidation and attacks on journalists.[[fn:44]] Women journalists face heightened risks of physical and gender-based violence and online attacks during elections.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "C. Media freedom in decline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "See https://www.ecpmf.eu/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Monitoring-Report-2024.pdf, p. 23."}, {"n": 44, "text": "See communication MOZ 2/2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Some political leaders, including incumbents, have attacked independent media harshly as fake news, seeking to discredit critical journalists and expose them to public hostility, harassment and violence.[[fn:45]] Often, well-orchestrated campaigns are launched by vested political interests to undermine the credibility of independent media outlets and journalists who speak truth to power. Journalists and media outlets are attacked on social media as liars, traitors or foreign agents. Increasingly, legal systems are being weaponized to harass and intimidate journalists with vexatious claims.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "C. Media freedom in decline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "See “Joint statement of United Nations experts on strengthening democracy and human rights in a year of worldwide elections”, 30 April 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Media independence, pluralism and economic viability are also in decline, adding to the public distrust of the media. In some countries, independent media is effectively non-existent because an authoritarian State exerts total media control. In others, the media has been captured by political actors, wealthy donors or business entrepreneurs aligned with the State or other powerful interests.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "C. Media freedom in decline"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The relationship between the news media and so-called big tech is increasingly shaped by media dependencies, including content visibility, discoverability, prioritization and information bubbles, which reduce media diversity and pluralism.[[fn:46]] As readers and audiences shift to digital platforms, the resulting business and financial problems of the media outlets make them more vulnerable to closure or capture.[[fn:47]] State-controlled, captured or heavily partisan news media often acts as a conduit for misinformation and disinformation, further undermining public trust.[[fn:48]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "C. Media freedom in decline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "See submission from OSCE."}, {"n": 47, "text": "A/HRC/50/29, para. 86."}, {"n": 48, "text": "A/HRC/56/53/Add.2, para. 24."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The concentration of media ownership has long been acknowledged as a major threat to media pluralism. During elections, it can lead to heavily partisan coverage that undercuts public trust in credible journalism and encourages divisive political debate. That has occurred in the United States, where a handful of firms own over 600 licensed commercial broadcast stations. Increasing consolidation has been accompanied by diminished objectivity and rising polarization.[[fn:49]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. Electoral information landscape: trends and challenges", "C. Media freedom in decline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "See Mary R. Hornak, “Media consolidation and political polarization: reviewing the national television ownership rule”, Fordham Law Review, vol. 90, No. 2 (2021)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. States and digital technology companies are key stakeholders during elections. The present chapter contains an examination of the policies and practices of States and their international legal obligations regarding freedom of expression and public participation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and the right to public participation, including the right to vote, are interdependent. As noted by the Human Rights Committee, citizens take part in the conduct of public affairs by exerting influence through public debate and dialogue with their representatives, and their participation is supported by ensuring freedom of expression, assembly and association.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 25 (1996) on participation in public affairs and the right to vote, para. 8."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Under article 25 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, citizens have the right to take part in the conduct of public affairs, directly or through freely chosen representatives and to vote and to be elected at genuine periodic elections which should be held by secret ballot, guaranteeing the free expression of the will of the electors. States have positive obligations to create the necessary conditions for the exercise of that right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "A. International legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "25", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. States have a duty to protect the right of all citizens, including those who are particularly at risk, such as political opponents, minorities, migrants, journalists and human rights defenders, to participate effectively and safely in political life. Those obligations are binding on all branches of the State and on all public or governmental authorities, including electoral management bodies (election commissions) and incumbent politicians.[[fn:51]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression, para. 7."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The Human Rights Committee has acknowledged freedom of expression as a necessary condition for the realization of the right to public participation.[[fn:52]] Paragraph 19 (2) of the Covenant provides that freedom of expression encompasses the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds regardless of frontiers or types of media, either offline or online. The right to freedom of expression places upon States a positive obligation to provide easy, prompt, effective and practical access to information held by public bodies, including entities carrying out public functions, such as electoral commissions, and includes the right of the media to have access to information on public affairs as well as a right of the public to receive media output.[[fn:53]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Ibid., para. 20; and Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 25 (1996), para. 8."}, {"n": 53, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), paras. 18 and 19."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Freedom of expression may be restricted only in accordance with article 19 (3) of Covenant, under which the restriction must be provided by law and be necessary for the legitimate aim of respecting the rights and reputations of others or for protecting national security, public order, public health or public morals. The principle of legality means that the scope, meaning and effect of the law must be clear, precise and public. Vague laws that confer excessive discretion can lead to arbitrary decision-making and are incompatible with article 19 (3). The principle of necessity requires the restriction to be appropriate and proportionate to achieve one of the legitimate aims. The directness of the causal relationship between the speech and the harm and the severity and immediacy of the harm are key considerations in assessing whether the restriction is necessary and proportionate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "A. International legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Disinformation and hate speech are serious threats to freedom of expression and public participation, especially during elections. The Human Rights Council has affirmed that all responses by States to address disinformation must be grounded in international human rights law.[[fn:54]] The restriction of speech to combat disinformation must meet the standards set out in article 19 (3). Falsehood alone is not sufficient to restrict speech in the absence of harm.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "See Human Rights Council resolution 49/21 and General Assembly resolution 76/227."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. While international law does not use the term “hate speech”, under article 20 (2) of the Covenant, States must prohibit by law the advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence. Incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence on the grounds of race is also prohibited by the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (art. 4 (a)).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "A. International legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CERD", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CERD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Criminal sanctions punishing acts of expression constitute a serious interference in the right to freedom of expression and should be used only in the most serious cases.[[fn:55]] The need to restrict, prohibit or criminalize statements that could cause harm must be balanced against the right to express one’s views freely during elections and the likelihood of abuse of the criminal law by States in the highly politicized environment of elections. The Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence provides valuable guidance for achieving that balance through contextualization.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 47."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. While some States promote freedom of expression and good electoral practices, others have sought to disrupt access to information, suppress political expression and undermine media freedom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Access to timely and accurate information gains heightened significance in the context of elections. Governments have taken a wide range of measures, typically through electoral management bodies (election commissions), to fulfil the right to information regarding elections for all citizens and the media. For example, the election commissions of Austria and Spain adopted various measures to facilitate access to information by citizens living with disabilities.[[fn:56]] With a view to reducing the digital divide, the National Electoral Institute of Mexico adopted specific electoral information strategies for rural and Indigenous communities and other vulnerable groups.[[fn:57]] The election commission of Ireland offers capacity-building and guidance to local authorities, developed in consultation with regional organizations.[[fn:58]] The National Electoral Chamber of Argentina launched a chatbot service with the support of Meta to provide up-to-date and instantly accessible electoral information.[[fn:59]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(a) Fulfilling the right to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "See submissions from Austria and Spain."}, {"n": 57, "text": "See submission from Mexico."}, {"n": 58, "text": "See submission from Ireland."}, {"n": 59, "text": "See Turn.io, “Argentina’s National Electoral Chamber ‘Vot-A’ chatbot: a trusted resource ahead of 2023 presidential polls”, 9 October 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Several election commissions counter electoral disinformation with timely and reliable information. The election commission of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland responds directly to social media posts containing false information about electoral procedures.[[fn:60]] The election commission of Australia maintains a disinformation register, which was reportedly used effectively during the 2023 Voice Referendum campaign.[[fn:61]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(b) Fighting disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 60, "text": "See submission from the United Kingdom."}, {"n": 61, "text": "See submission from Maria O’Sullivan."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. In a positive model of State and civil society partnership to tackle disinformation while respecting human rights, the electoral commission of South Africa and the non-governmental organization Media Monitoring Africa established a portal for the public to report online harms and a group of independent experts to assess the complaints and advise on further action. The platform provides transparency and accountability through a publicly accessible archive of complaints and an appeal system.[[fn:62]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(b) Fighting disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "See submission from Media Monitoring Africa."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. The European Union Digital Services Act is a promising example of smart regulation, despite some limitations.[[fn:63]] It embodies a risk-based approach to regulation focused not on content but on the enforcement of due diligence. Ahead of the 2024 European Parliament elections, the European Commission identified measures that social media platforms and search engines should adopt under the Act to increase transparency and mitigate electoral risks and launched proceedings to investigate several large platforms suspected of failing to comply. Following the annulment of the presidential election in Romania by its national courts in December 2024 over concerns of foreign manipulation facilitated by TikTok, the European Commission opened proceedings against the platform.[[fn:64]] The outcome of that case will test the effectiveness of the Act.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(c) Regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "See submission from Centro de Estudios en Libertad de Expresión y Acceso a la Información."}, {"n": 64, "text": "See European Digital Media Observatory, “Analysis of the 2024 Romanian presidential elections: the role of social media and emerging political trends”, 26 November 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Blanket Internet shutdowns are an inherently disproportionate and unlawful restriction of the right to information.[[fn:65]] The number of election-related shutdowns jumped from 5 in 2023 to 12 in 2024.[[fn:66]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(a) Online censorship"], "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "See General Assembly resolution 57/29."}, {"n": 66, "text": "See submission from Access Now."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Governments that resort to Internet shutdowns often claim that they are aimed at preventing the spread of disinformation or foreign interference in elections. In reality, shutdowns disrupt the public’s access to electoral information, the news media and communications from opposition candidates.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(a) Online censorship"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Through legal measures or in response to indirect requests and political pressure, many States regularly block websites or demand that social media platforms block individual accounts or take down posts, claiming that they contain false or misleading content. Such requests are particularly problematic during elections, as they lack transparency and independent oversight and are often aimed at restricting expression critical of the Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(a) Online censorship"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Officials in Cambodia ordered Internet service providers to block independent news websites a week before the July 2023 elections.[[fn:67]] Just before the 2024 elections in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, at least 53 digital media outlets were blocked and 14 radio stations closed.[[fn:68]] In Mauritius, all social media platforms were blocked for 10 days prior to the 2024 election.[[fn:69]] In Uganda, the blocking of Facebook imposed during the 2021 elections remained ongoing as of early 2025.[[fn:70]] In India, the websites of platforms documenting hate crimes against marginalized communities were reportedly blocked by the authorities with no prior notice or recourse.[[fn:71]] Leading up to the 2024 elections, the Government of India reportedly ordered Facebook, X and Instagram to block hundreds of accounts of activists.[[fn:72]] As X users began migrating to Bluesky, Pakistan is reported to have extended a ban to that platform in addition to X.[[fn:73]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(a) Online censorship"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "See submission from Freedom House."}, {"n": 68, "text": "See communication VEN 7/2024."}, {"n": 69, "text": "See Access Now and #KeepItOn coalition, “Emboldened offenders, endangered communities: Internet shutdowns in 2024”, 24 February 2025."}, {"n": 70, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 71, "text": "See submission from Internet Freedom Foundation."}, {"n": 72, "text": "See submission from Article 19."}, {"n": 73, "text": "See Rezwan, “A year of elections and digital repression in South Asia: 2024 in focus”, Global Voices, 2 January 2025."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Social media guidelines set by the Brazilian judiciary after the 2022 election, while helping to contain anti-democratic elements, raised concerns within civil society about overreach, including regarding the forced removal of numerous posts and the blocking of social media profiles ex officio and confidentially by the electoral court.[[fn:74]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(a) Online censorship"], "footnotes": [{"n": 74, "text": "See submission from Conectas Direitos Humanos and Article 19: International Centre against Censorship (Brazil and South America)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. When States promote false narratives, they undermine their obligation to fulfil the right to information. State-sponsored disinformation can emanate from State institutions directly or through proxies. New technologies and new vectors, such as online influencers, have expanded significantly the scale, speed, spread and impact of State-sponsored disinformation directly and indirectly during elections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(b) State-sponsored disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. In 2024, in at least 21 countries, government agents and pro-government commentators spread false or misleading narratives to undermine people’s trust in the electoral system, manipulate online discussions or drown out reliable information.[[fn:75]] In most cases, the purpose of the disinformation was to create legitimacy for elections that were not free or fair or to undermine the political opposition.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(b) State-sponsored disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 75, "text": "See submission from Freedom House."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. In the lead-up to the European Parliament elections in June 2024, influencers supporting the ruling party of Hungary published videos characterizing the political opposition and independent news outlets as being controlled by foreign donors.[[fn:76]] The 2023 elections in Serbia were marred by what some called government-driven “information chaos”.[[fn:77]] In Belarus, State television attacked the exiled opposition as “terrorists” or “extremists”.[[fn:78]] A think-tank of exiled Russian researchers reported that the social media platforms VKontakte and Telegram featured at least 100,000 public organizations and thousands of public sector employees pushing State propaganda in support of incumbents in Russian elections.[[fn:79]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(b) State-sponsored disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "See submission from Hungarian Helsinki Committee."}, {"n": 77, "text": "See Mila Bajić and Grant Baker, “‘Information chaos’ plagues Serbia elections”, Center for European Policy Analysis, 15 December 2023; and European Parliament, “Serbia did not fulfil its commitments to free and fair elections, say MEPs”, 8 February 2024."}, {"n": 78, "text": "See submission from Respect-Protect-Fulfill."}, {"n": 79, "text": "See Center for Data and Research on Russia, “Social media monitoring on the eve of the presidential elections in Russia”, March 2024, available at https://cedarus.io/research/elections-monitoring."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Independent fact checkers and independent media are vital resources for countering false narratives. Both have come under attack during elections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(c) Attacks on fact checkers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Fact-checking organizations have been smeared or investigated in many countries, often with chilling effect. In South Korea, a leading fact-checking centre scaled down its activities after being smeared by the ruling party.[[fn:80]] In Egypt, on election day in 2023, the media authority launched an investigation into a platform reporting on the suppression of electoral information.[[fn:81]] In the United States, legal harassment and smear campaigns by governmental and non-governmental actors reportedly led the Stanford Internet Observatory and the Election Integrity Partnership to discontinue their work during the 2024 elections.[[fn:82]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(c) Attacks on fact checkers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "See submission from Freedom House."}, {"n": 81, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 82, "text": "See submission from Center for Democracy and Technology."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. On the positive side, civil society has rallied to boost independent fact-checking. In India, the Shakti Collective, a consortium of more than 50 fact-checking groups and media organizations, worked to identify disinformation and artificial intelligence-generated content and translate fact-checked information into the many languages of India.[[fn:83]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(c) Attacks on fact checkers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 83, "text": "See submission from Freedom House."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. States have historically used criminal law as a weapon to silence dissent.[[fn:84]] Because of the inherent abuse of criminal libel to suppress criticism of State policies and officials, the Special Rapporteur has repeatedly called for the decriminalization of libel.[[fn:85]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(d) Criminalization of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 84, "text": "A/HRC/26/30, paras. 38 and 39."}, {"n": 85, "text": "A/HRC/50/29, paras. 57 and 58. See also A/HRC/47/25, para. 52."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. In recent years, cyberlibel and cybercrime laws have been adopted to criminalize expression online. Another alarming trend has been the proliferation of fake news laws aimed at criminalizing legitimate online expression under the guise of combating disinformation. Most fake news, criminal libel, cyberlibel and cybercrime laws fail to meet the standards of legality, necessity and proportionality set out in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(d) Criminalization of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Tunisia has used its cybercrime law to prosecute and imprison candidates, journalists, lawyers, judges and human rights defenders. During the 2022 parliamentary elections in Lebanon, over two thirds of social media posts sanctioned by the electoral authorities were sanctioned on defamation grounds, with some individuals forced to sign pledges not to criticize officials.[[fn:86]] In Bangladesh, the Digital Security Act and its successor legislation were used to harass, detain and prosecute hundreds of journalists, human rights defenders and political opponents, chilling media reporting and political participation in successive elections.[[fn:87]] The interim Government of Bangladesh has promised to reform the law ahead of the upcoming elections.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(d) Criminalization of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 86, "text": "See European Union Election Observation Mission, Lebanon 2022, Parliamentary Elections, 15 May 2022, Final Report."}, {"n": 87, "text": "See communications BGD 2/2023 and BGD 7/2023."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. The combined effect of repressive measures can be severe. During the May 2023 elections in Türkiye, independent observers found that criminal laws on defamation, insult and the dissemination of “false” information, the blocking of websites, content takedown requests and the detention and prosecution of journalists had a severe chilling effect on freedom of expression.[[fn:88]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(d) Criminalization of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 88, "text": "See Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights Election Observation Mission, Republic of Türkiye: General Elections 14 May and Presidential Election, Second Round 28 May 2023, Final Report (Warsaw, OSCE, 2023)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. As State organs, electoral commissions should proactively provide accurate and timely information on the electoral process and election results. They should also be able to debunk rapidly and accurately false information on electoral issues.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(e) Weak electoral management bodies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. Many electoral bodies are unable to play their role effectively due to a lack of capacity, expertise, resources and institutional independence or because of undue political influence. In Sri Lanka, the Election Commission allegedly cited loopholes in the Right to Information Act to keep electoral information confidential,[[fn:89]] aggravating public distrust in the electoral process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(e) Weak electoral management bodies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "See submission from Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Furthermore, many electoral commissions struggle with emerging digital challenges, such as the use of generative artificial intelligence or the role of online influencers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Responsibilities and responses of States", "B. Responses of States", "(e) Weak electoral management bodies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. While companies do not have the same human rights obligations as States, they are expected to respect human rights in their operations and activities in line with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. At a minimum they should conduct due diligence with a view to identifying, preventing and mitigating any potential or actual adverse impact of their policies, products and operations on human rights, conduct regular human rights impact assessments and put in place a remediation process for users.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Social media platforms and search engines play a crucial role in the electoral information environment. They enhance access to information and enable broader political engagement. They also amplify harmful speech, however, and overly restrict lawful content. Companies have developed automated, human and expert-driven processes to safeguard platforms from information manipulation during elections. Their effectiveness has been varied, and recent moves to roll back key policies and programmes without due diligence or stakeholder consultation raise considerable concerns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "A. Specific responses to elections"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Some platforms took specific steps to address electoral information challenges in 2024. Meta ran several election operations around the world to monitor content, update policies and react swiftly in specific countries.[[fn:90]] Prior to the European Parliament elections in 2024 and the national elections in Germany in 2025, the large platforms worked with national digital services authorities to conduct simulations of election risks or stress tests.[[fn:91]] Platforms also monitored foreign influence operations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "A. Specific responses to elections"], "footnotes": [{"n": 90, "text": "See Nick Clegg, “What we saw on our platforms during 2024’s global elections”, Meta, 3 December 2024."}, {"n": 91, "text": "See European Commission, “German Digital Services Coordinator tests platforms’ readiness under the Digital Services Act”, 31 January 2025."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Acknowledging the potential risks of generative artificial intelligence in elections, major platforms devoted resources to identifying, publishing reports and addressing the harmful impacts of artificial intelligence-driven technologies, such as deepfakes and bot networks.[[fn:92]] Dozens of leading companies, including Meta, signed an industry-led accord to address the use of deceptive artificial intelligence in 2024.[[fn:93]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "A. Specific responses to elections"], "footnotes": [{"n": 92, "text": "See https://transparency.meta.com/metasecurity/threat-reporting; and https://www.tiktok.com/transparency/en-us/countering-influence-operations."}, {"n": 93, "text": "See International Republican Institute, “Democracy in the age of generative AI: navigating risks and harnessing opportunities”, white paper (2024), available at https://www.iri.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/GenAI-Democracy-White-Paper-Final.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. There is deep concern that, at a time of rising hate and lies, the large platforms are backsliding on their commitments to electoral integrity, safety, transparency and risk management. Since 2022, the largest platforms have radically scaled down staff and resources and rolled back key policies, while simultaneously expanding their investment in artificial intelligence tools, including for recommenders and ranking systems.[[fn:94]] The retrenchments have been heaviest at Meta, X and Google and have hit hardest at the trust and safety teams.[[fn:95]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "1. Rollback by platforms"], "footnotes": [{"n": 94, "text": "See Paul M. Barrett, Cecely Richard-Carvajal and Justin Hendrix, Digital Risks to the 2024 Elections: Safeguarding Democracy in an Era of Disinformation, NYU Stern Center for Business and Human Rights (2024)."}, {"n": 95, "text": "See Nora Benavidez, “Big tech backslide: how social-media rollbacks endanger democracy ahead of the 2024 elections”, Free Press, December 2023, available at https://www.freepress.net/sites/default/files/2023-12/free_press_report_big_tech_backslide.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Although economic considerations and the rise of generative artificial intelligence have been the key factors influencing staff cuts, political and ideological considerations have also figured prominently. Under the leadership of Elon Musk, X has retreated totally from content moderation and user safety in the name of promoting “free speech”. YouTube has rolled back policies designed to limit “big lie” content questioning the results of the 2020 elections in the United States.[[fn:96]] Meta has scaled back its moderation of harmful speech, leading the Meta Safety Advisory Council, an independent body of experts, to observe that the company risked prioritizing political ideologies over global safety imperatives.[[fn:97]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "1. Rollback by platforms"], "footnotes": [{"n": 96, "text": "Ibid., p. 9."}, {"n": 97, "text": "See https://assets.projectrockit.com.au/assets/Safety-Advisory-Council-%E2%80%93-Letter-to-Meta.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. In early 2025, Meta abruptly decided to stop working with professional fact checkers and moved to a “community notes” style of moderation, similar to that used by X, despite concerns about its efficacy.[[fn:98]] While Meta’s decision was aimed at the American market, fact-checking initiatives involve local partners all over the world. Stakeholders across Africa are concerned that Meta’s move will diminish the chances for greater platform accountability across the continent.[[fn:99]] The move also appears to contradict Meta’s significant past support to improving the skills and capabilities of European fact checkers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "1. Rollback by platforms"], "footnotes": [{"n": 98, "text": "See submission from Derechos Digitales, Tecnología y Communidad, Instituto Panamericano de Derecho y Tenología and Karisma Foundation."}, {"n": 99, "text": "See submission from Association for Progressive Communications."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Meta’s Oversight Board noted that the company had failed to follow its own policy of conducting human rights due diligence prior to making significant changes. The Board called upon Meta to live up to its public commitment to uphold the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights and to identify and address adverse impacts on human rights resulting from the changes, including assessing whether reducing its reliance on the automated detection of policy violations could have uneven consequences globally.[[fn:100]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "1. Rollback by platforms"], "footnotes": [{"n": 100, "text": "See https://www.oversightboard.com/news/wide-ranging-decisions-protect-speech-and-address-harms."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. There is fear of more backsliding by platforms, given the current political climate in the United States, as exemplified in a recent executive order signed by the President announcing the end of the “federal censorship” of online platforms.[[fn:101]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "1. Rollback by platforms"], "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "See https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/restoring-freedom-of-speech-and-ending-federal-censorship."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. The business model of online platforms incentivizes the amplification of harmful and illegal content, such as hate speech and disinformation. The monetization structures of platforms continue to facilitate and amplify harmful content and disinformation in recommender systems, including through electoral political advertisements that contravene stated platform policies.[[fn:102]] Online political advertisers spent $1.35 billion on Google and Meta during the 2024 election cycle in the United States.[[fn:103]] Approaches by platforms to defining “political advertisements” vary wildly, heavily affecting the extent to which they are transparent in their advertising practices and in requiring “paid for” disclosures.[[fn:104]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "2. Amplification of harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 102, "text": "See Max Read and Jessica Mahoney, “Social media platforms fall short on enforcing ads policies”, Institute for Strategic Dialogue, 31 October 2024."}, {"n": 103, "text": "See https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/analysis-opinion/online-ad-spending-2024-election-topped-135-billion."}, {"n": 104, "text": "See Laura Kurek and others, “Rules of the road: political advertising on social media in the 2024 U.S. election”, Center for Democracy and Technology, September 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. Curation algorithms often disproportionately amplify extreme viewpoints. For instance, in the lead-up to the 2025 elections in Germany, one report found that 78 per cent of recommended political content on TikTok and 64 per cent on X was supportive of the far-right Alternative für Deutschland party, despite the party trailing at less than a quarter in the polls.[[fn:105]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "2. Amplification of harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 105, "text": "See Global Witness, “X and TikTok algorithms push pro-AfD content to non-partisan German users: new analysis”, 20 February 2025."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. While platforms need to do more to keep elections safe, effective regulation and strong oversight can spur them to action. A case in point is TikTok, which was implicated in the alleged foreign interference in the December 2024 elections in Romania and is under investigation by the European Commission. Although the Commission has not yet completed its investigation, the platform took various measures ahead of the country’s rerun elections in May 2025, including hiring Romanian language experts and specialists on covert influence and strengthening the detection and labelling of political accounts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "2. Amplification of harmful content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. The accounts of high-profile public figures deserve greater protection but also greater scrutiny and quicker escalation to human review if there are indications that they are likely to instigate harm. Harmful content, whether in political advertisements or political comments, can lead to imminent, real-world violence. During the highly polarized elections in Brazil in 2022, the Oversight Board admonished Facebook’s failure to moderate the postings of a Brazilian general, which may have contributed to incitement to violence.[[fn:106]] Despite real and imminent risks of offline harm during a period of government crackdown on the political opposition in Cambodia, Meta rejected the Oversight Board’s guidance to temporarily close down the account of the country’s prime minister, who continued to threaten opponents with violence.[[fn:107]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "2. Amplification of harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 106, "text": "See https://www.oversightboard.com/decision/fb-659eawi8."}, {"n": 107, "text": "See https://www.oversightboard.com/decision/fb-6okjpns3; and Reuters, “Meta rejects recommendation to suspend former Cambodia PM from Facebook”, 30 August 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. In spite of promises to act equitably across all regions, the protection measures of platforms continue to be uneven or non-existent in certain languages and regions. For instance, despite heightened tensions in the Middle East, neither Meta, Google nor X appear to have implemented safeguards for the September 2024 ballots in Jordan or sufficiently invested in Arabic-speaking content experts.[[fn:108]] Although Facebook and Google have offices in Colombia, non-governmental organizations reported that no specific actions had been taken to mitigate online hate speech and information manipulation in recent elections.[[fn:109]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "2. Amplification of harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 108, "text": "See Digital Action, “Jordan country briefing”, 9 October 2024."}, {"n": 109, "text": "See submission from El Veinte."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The growing shift from traditional media to live broadcasts on social media platforms has brought additional challenges. An independent human rights impact assessment of the Amazon-owned Twitch, which generated more viewership in the 2024 elections in the United States than major news organizations, found that the use of live video in the electoral context posed significant threats with regard to disinformation, hate speech and offline violence.[[fn:110]] Platforms need to devote more resources to developing appropriate systems for responding to disinformation or incitement when the harm occurs in real time with little margin for moderation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "2. Amplification of harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 110, "text": "Business for Social Responsibility, Twitch Human Rights Impact Assessment, April 2023, p. 16."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Two major causes of restriction of political content online are government requests to platforms to remove content and disproportionate content moderation by platforms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "3. Over-moderation of political content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Takedown requests from Governments tend to target political opponents, independent media and human rights defenders. Platforms often accede to the requests because refusal can lead to severe legal and other consequences for the platforms but when platforms accept demands that do not align with international standards of freedom of expression they are, in effect, complicit in censorship. While they may be subject to local laws, the platforms are, nevertheless, obliged to assess the impact of their decisions in the light of their human rights responsibilities and to take steps to mitigate that impact to the extent possible. At a minimum, platforms should adopt globally consistent policies on takedown decisions and make such requests and their responses public. Meta and X publicized their decisions to take down posts in response to demands from the authorities ahead of elections in Indonesia[[fn:111]] and Türkiye.[[fn:112]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "3. Over-moderation of political content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "See submission from Commission for the Disappeared and Victims of Violence and Southeast Asia Freedom of Expression Network."}, {"n": 112, "text": "See submission from Article 19: International Centre against Censorship."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. Most content moderation decisions are made by machines, not human beings, and that is one reason for the excessive removal of content. Automated systems struggle with the nuances and context of political expression, particularly in highly sensitive situations during elections and when dealing with minorities or posts in non-English languages. There have been complaints, for instance, that while gender-based violence against Black and Asian-American women is overlooked, speech by the same groups is over-moderated.[[fn:113]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "3. Over-moderation of political content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 113, "text": "See submission from Center for Digital Technology."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. There are concerns that companies do not invest sufficiently in elections in countries or markets that are not commercially lucrative. Consistent and well-resourced staffing is important in terms of both locally relevant languages and contextual knowledge and technical expertise.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "3. Over-moderation of political content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. As platforms roll back content moderation policies, including those relating to elections in the United States, there is growing concern that ideological and political considerations may be creeping into content moderation. Meta’s sudden policy changes in early 2025 led one expert to describe it as the open political capture of Facebook and its pandering to a particular party.[[fn:114]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "3. Over-moderation of political content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 114, "text": "See Sam Biddle, “Leaked Meta rules: users are free to post ‘Mexican immigrants are trash!’ or ‘trans people are immoral’”, The Intercept, 9 January 2025."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. Transparency is key to accountability. Civil society organizations and experts continue to be concerned about the adequacy of platforms’ transparency measures, including notice to users regarding moderation, reasons for takedowns, policies and practices surrounding elections and information on human rights impact assessments. Some researchers have claimed that their current visibility into Meta’s content moderation, including its role in the 2024 elections, is “near zero.”[[fn:115]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "4. Transparency and access to researchers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 115, "text": "See Sandra Gonzalez-Bailón and David Lazer, “The need to make content moderation transparent”, Tech Policy Press, 11 December 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. Transparency measures are often discretionary and inconsistent. During elections in 2024, many electoral management bodies worldwide reported positive partnerships with major platforms. There were also reports of stonewalling by platforms, however, when electoral bodies sought records relating to risk assessments and the application of election policies, even when requests were made under access-to-information laws. Google, X and Meta reportedly resisted such data requests from the Electoral Commission of South Africa.[[fn:116]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "4. Transparency and access to researchers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 116, "text": "See Amber Sinha, “Platforms and election management bodies in 2024–25: a tale of dramatically mixed results”, Tech Policy Press, 9 April 2025."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. Granting researchers access to platform data allows independent research to inform effective policies and technical interventions. Yet such access continues to be curtailed, made too expensive or offered in formats that are not useful for research. Even where data is available, there can be significant inconsistencies in content and format, making research and comparison difficult.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "4. Transparency and access to researchers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. In 2024, Meta deactivated CrowdTangle, a tool that was critical for researchers studying political interactions on the platform, and replaced it with the Ad Library, which is more restrictive and effectively excludes journalists and independent researchers.[[fn:117]] X has made it prohibitively expensive for researchers to obtain its data via application programming interfaces.[[fn:118]] The Digital Services Act of the European Union provides a mechanism through which independent researchers can exercise their right to obtain data from large platforms but that aspect of the Act has yet to be operationalized.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Companies: responsibilities and responses", "B. Concerns and challenges", "4. Transparency and access to researchers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 117, "text": "See submission from Derechos Digitales, Tecnología y Communidad, Instituto Panamericano de Derecho y Tenología and Karisma Foundation."}, {"n": 118, "text": "See Daniela Alvarado Rincón and Ognjan Denkovski, “Why we’re suing Elon Musk’s X for German election data”, EUobserver, 27 February 2025."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. Polarized politics, rising authoritarian trends, backsliding platforms awash in hate speech and disinformation and a media sector too weak to debunk the lies have coalesced into a perfect storm in which freedom of expression and the right to vote are imperilled. Public trust in the integrity of elections and information is at an all-time low.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. Lies, exaggeration and propaganda during elections are not new. The game changers are digital technology and social media platforms, which are enabling and amplifying the degradation of the electoral information environment and impeding the equal participation of citizens.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. From that situation, the Special Rapporteur draws seven key conclusions:\n(a) Firstly, elections are information crisis points in which access to accurate and timely information is vital but also highly vulnerable to attack, censorship and distortion. It is imperative that States, companies and civil society work together to protect freedom of expression and close the trust deficit on electoral integrity;\n(b) Secondly, politicians and public officials play a central role in shaping public debate and opinion. They bear a significant responsibility for the degradation of the information environment. They should not abuse their privileged position to undermine electoral integrity, incite violence, hostility and discrimination or attack the media and civil society. Instead, through ethical behaviour, they should enhance the quality of political discourse and build public trust in elections;\n(c) Thirdly, the backsliding of social media platforms on commitments to human rights and electoral integrity rings an alarm bell that States and the international community ignore at their peril. As the principal vector of information in the digital age, the platforms serve a public good and should not deprioritize human safety and human rights for political and commercial interests. As global companies with universal human rights responsibilities, platforms should ensure that their policies and programmes are globally consistent, fair and aligned with their international obligations;\n(d) Fourthly, the decline of media freedom, independence, diversity and pluralism deserves urgent action. Democracy needs a healthy legacy media alongside a trustworthy online environment to ensure a diverse and vibrant electoral information system;\n(e) Fifthly, undermining freedom of expression in the name of fighting disinformation is short-sighted and counterproductive. Freedom of expression is vital to healthy democratic discourse. That does not mean that disinformation cannot be restricted lawfully but that such restrictions must scrupulously respect the principles of legality, necessity, proportionality and legitimate objectives, as set out in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights;\n(f) Sixthly, the advocacy of hatred and incitement to violence that masquerades as political speech has no protection under international law. Powerful public figures must not be permitted to instrumentalize the virality of platforms to incite violence or silence critical voices with threats of violence;\n(g) Finally, experience has shown that multifaceted, multi-stakeholder strategies grounded in human rights and combining a range of legal and non-legal measures are the most effective way to fight disinformation and other forms of information manipulation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. States should provide timely, accurate and relevant information to citizens and the media regarding electoral processes, including on voting procedures, the rights of the electorate and candidates and election results. Information should be available in all relevant languages and formats to ensure the access and participation of all citizens, including minorities, women, Indigenous communities and persons living with disabilities.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. As State organs, electoral commissions have a duty to promote the right to information, safeguard freedom of expression and debunk false information regarding electoral processes and results. States should ensure that electoral commissions are adequately resourced and enjoy the necessary authority and autonomy to carry out their duties without political interference.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. Electoral commissions should proactively monitor the information environment online and offline, promote voter education and media and digital literacy and support the free flow of reliable, high-quality information from diverse sources.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. The digital divide is a barrier to the right to information. States should promote diverse technological solutions to achieve universal, meaningful access to the Internet, paying particular attention to inequalities affecting women and marginalized communities and creating an enabling regulatory environment for small community networks.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. States have a duty to ensure that companies respect human rights. Social media regulation should not be aimed at controlling content but should encourage companies to carry out human rights due diligence and impact assessments, align their curation and moderation policies with human rights standards and adhere to high standards of transparency and accountability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. States should refrain from Internet shutdowns, disruptions and the blocking of platforms or websites, as such actions are inherently disproportionate. States should not compel platforms to censor, remove or block content that is legitimate under international law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. States, State entities and public officials must refrain from electoral disinformation and attacks on election officials, fact checkers and the media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. States should refrain from restricting freedom of expression both online and offline, including for the purposes of combating disinformation, except in accordance with the requirements of legality, necessity, proportionality and legitimate objectives as set out in international law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. States are obliged to prohibit the advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement to violence, hostility and discrimination, regardless of who espouses it. Criminal law should be used only in the most egregious cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. Given the high risk of abuse of criminal law, especially in electoral contexts, States should consider decriminalizing libel and cyberlibel offences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. States, public officials and politicians must refrain from attacking and discrediting the media and should promote an environment that is conducive to media freedom, independence, pluralism and diversity and the safety of journalists. States must take steps proactively to protect journalists and media workers during elections, and promptly investigate all complaints and incidents of threats or violence against the media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. States should develop multifaceted, multi-stakeholder, human rights-based strategies to counter electoral disinformation. Beginning with the State’s own responsibility to provide factual and timely information, such strategies should promote an independent, pluralistic and diverse media, independent fact-checking, the digital and media literacy of the electorate and collaboration with civil society and companies. Electoral commissions should play a leading role in such activities, including setting up accessible mechanisms for citizens to report harmful speech and other good practices.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. Political parties should adopt and enforce codes of conduct that set minimum standards of behaviour and accountability for their candidates, officials, members and workers, encouraging respect for freedom of expression and prohibiting online or offline violence or incitement to violence, hatred and discrimination against women, vulnerable or marginalized groups, journalists, human rights defenders, electoral officials and election observers.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations to political parties"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. Candidates and parties must be transparent regarding their transactional relationships with social media influencers and refrain from utilizing influencers or other proxies as surrogates for harmful speech and disinformation or from resharing and promoting such content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations to political parties"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0108", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. Social media platforms should set basic global standards for elections in all jurisdictions and apply them consistently and fairly, dedicating sufficient resources, including human resources and language and contextual expertise, irrespective of their own commercial and political interests in that market.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0109", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. Platforms should conduct heightened human rights due diligence and impact assessments of content moderation and curation policies ahead of elections and ensure that they invest sufficiently in local languages, contextual expertise and fact-checking resources, including human resources. As part of their due diligence, platforms should work with the relevant national authorities and civil society organizations to conduct stress tests ahead of elections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0110", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. Platforms must ensure that their content curation, moderation and takedown policies are aligned with international human rights standards, including criteria and standards for restricting and prohibiting speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0111", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. Platforms should develop globally consistent policies regarding their responses to government requests for takedowns, assessing the human rights implications, and consider all options before acceding to the requests. Where the requests are aimed at suppressing speech that is lawful under international law, platforms should consider all legal means to resist or, failing that, apply the restriction as narrowly as possible. Platforms should publish the requests and their responses as a regular practice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0112", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. Platforms should react rapidly and effectively to instances of incitement to violence and develop clear and consistent policies, including for the rapid escalation of decision-making regarding the accounts of high-profile political figures, considering the importance of protecting political expression but also the heightened risk of harm.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0113", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. Companies should resist government orders to shut down the Internet or restrict access to digital services and should use all legal channels to challenge requests that appear to violate international human right standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0114", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. Platforms should set requirements for transparency by social media influencers to disclose paid or in-kind affiliations with candidates or campaigns and ensure that recommender systems do not monetize the dissemination of disinformation or harmful speech by influencers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0115", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "115. Platforms should review their recommender algorithms and monetization systems, ensuring that they promote access to accurate electoral information and do not disproportionately amplify extreme viewpoints or harmful and sensational content or users. Platforms should be transparent regarding the algorithms and safety efforts that they undertake surrounding elections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0116", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "116. Platforms should support independent fact-checking organizations in collaboration with civil society organizations, particularly those that are relevant to the local context of elections. Platforms that have rolled back independent fact-checking or plan to do so should conduct independent due diligence and impact assessments and publish the results.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0117", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "117. Platforms should collaborate with civil society to develop rights-based approaches to respond to inauthentic artificial intelligence content, tailored to local contexts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0118", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "118. Platforms should provide access to researchers in line with industry best practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0119", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "119. Platforms should adopt meaningful transparency measures to communicate their election integrity efforts and ensure that policies and information on human rights due diligence, recommender systems and requests and demands by Governments are provided in relevant non-English languages in addition to English.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-50-0120", "docId": "a-hrc-59-50", "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "120. Platforms should engage proactively with stakeholders, including electoral commissions, the media, civil society and the United Nations human rights system, including the special procedure mandate holders, on a regular basis and especially prior to major policy changes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations to companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The private sector’s role in the digital age appears pervasive and ever-growing, a driving force behind the greatest expansion of access to information in history. Vast social media forums for public expression are owned by private companies. Major platforms aggregating and indexing global knowledge, and designing the algorithms that influence what information is seen online, result from private endeavour. The infrastructure for mobile technology, by which billions communicate and reach the Internet, depends upon private investment, maintenance and ownership. The tools for law enforcement and intelligence are often drawn from products of the private surveillance and data-processing industries. Private companies design, manufacture and often maintain the devices or services on which the most important personal data are stored — from financial and health-care information to e-mails, text messages, search histories, photographs and videos.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The contemporary exercise of freedom of opinion and expression owes much of its strength to private industry, which wields enormous power over digital space, acting as a gateway for information and an intermediary for expression. In digital environments, important questions about applicable law and the scope of private authority and public regulation cannot be avoided. Should these private actors have the same responsibilities as public authorities? Should their responsibilities derive from human rights law, terms of service, contractual arrangements, or something else? How should relationships among corporate actors and States be structured? When faced with pressures to conduct their businesses in ways that interfere with freedom of expression, what steps should private actors take? Refuse to enter markets or withdraw from them? Advise their customers about such pressures? As the world moves ever more deeply into digital space, with the “Internet of things” on the near horizon, guidance is critical to ensure rights are promoted, protected and enjoyed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The present report has several aims.[[fn:1]] First, it seeks to identify the categories of private actors that deeply influence the freedom of expression in a digital age. Secondly, it identifies questions concerning both the private sector’s protection of freedom of opinion and expression and public authorities’ responsibility to ensure the protection of space for expression. Thirdly, it lays out several areas in which normative guidance appears to be most needed. These areas will be addressed and consolidated through thematic reporting, country and company visits, and communications and consultations with Governments, the business sector and civil society. In short, the present report is the first of several the Special Rapporteur will present in order to provide guidance on how private actors should protect and promote freedom of expression in a digital age.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to thank his legal adviser, Amos Toh, and his students at the University of California, Irvine School of Law, for their assistance with the preparation of this report."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Public process of input and consultation contributed to the development of the present report. On 3 December 2015, the Special Rapporteur issued a call for input to the report. As of the date of publication, the Special Rapporteur received 15 submissions from States[[fn:2]] and 15 submissions from organizations[[fn:3]], all of which are to be found on the Special Rapporteur’s website.[[fn:4]] The Special Rapporteur also benefited greatly from consultations. He held a meeting on 25 and 26 January 2016 with 25 members of civil society at the University of California, Irvine School of Law, and a separate meeting with 20 individuals from the private sector and civil society on 29 February 2016 at the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights in Geneva. Meeting summaries are also be found on the Special Rapporteur’s website.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Armenia, El Salvador, Estonia, Greece, Jordan, Kuwait, Mauritius, Mexico, Netherlands, Peru, Republic of Moldova, Romania, Slovakia, Turkey and United States of America."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Article 19; Association for Progressive Communications; Center for Democracy and Technology; Center for Technology and Society; Centre for Communication Governance at National Law University, New Delhi; Danish Institute for Human Rights; Derechos Digitales; European Digital Rights; Freedom Online Coalition Working Group on Privacy and Transparency Online; Global Network Initiative; Institute for Human Rights and Business; International Centre for Not-for-Profit Law; Internet Society; Korean Progressive Network Jinbonet; Privacy International; Ranking Digital Rights; and New America."}, {"n": 4, "text": "Available from www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/FreedomOpinion/Pages/Annual.aspx."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. This mapping report rests on a basic question: to what extent should the information and communications technology sector be responsible for the promotion and protection of freedom of opinion and expression? Addressing this question requires beginning with a summary of the international human rights law according to which States are obligated to promote and protect freedom of expression and principles addressing private-sector human rights responsibilities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Article 19 of both the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights protects everyone’s right to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers and through any media. It has become customary to emphasize that individuals enjoy the same rights online as they do offline. The previous mandate holder highlighted the increasing number and forms of restrictions on the right to information online (see A/HRC/17/27) and demonstrated the impact on freedom of expression of expanded digital surveillance (see A/HRC/23/40). In 2015, the Special Rapporteur emphasized the important role played by encryption and anonymity in protecting and advancing the freedom of expression (see A/HRC/29/32). In joint declarations, the Special Rapporteur and regional counterparts have emphasized issues relating to intermediary liability, access, content restrictions and other key topics on freedom of expression online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age", "A. International legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 19 of both the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — joint citation to ICCPR and UDHR."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. Article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights allows for restrictions on the freedom of expression (but not on the freedom of opinion under article 19 (1)). According to article 19 (3), any restriction, to be legitimate, must be provided by law and necessary for the respect of the rights or reputations of others or the protection of national security or of public order, or of public health or morals. Any restriction must be precise enough and publicly accessible in order to limit the authorities’ discretion and provide individuals with adequate guidance (see the Human Rights Committee’s general comment No. 34 (2011) on article 19: freedoms of opinion and expression). To be necessary, a restriction must be more than merely useful, reasonable or desirable.[[fn:5]] It is also well established that necessity requires an assessment of proportionality (see A/HRC/29/32). Proportionality requires demonstrating that restrictive measures are the least intrusive instrument among those which might achieve their protective function and proportionate to the interest to be protected (see general comment No. 34). When restrictions fail to meet the standard of article 19 (3), individuals enjoy the right to an effective remedy under article 2 (3) of the Covenant.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Application No. 6538/74, The Sunday Times v. The United Kingdom (26 April 1979), para. 59."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "2", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Individuals enjoy the full range of other rights online as well, such as privacy, religious belief, association and peaceful assembly, education, culture and freedom from discrimination. States have both a negative obligation to refrain from violating rights and a positive obligation to ensure enjoyment of those rights. These positive obligations may require public authorities to take steps to protect individuals from the actions of private parties.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See general comment No. 31 (2004) on the nature of the general legal obligation imposed on States parties to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Other norms of international law may apply directly to the activities of private actors, such as the criminalization of crimes against humanity, war crimes and acts of genocide under international humanitarian law."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Human rights law does not as a general matter directly govern the activities or responsibilities of private business. A variety of initiatives provide guidance to enterprises to ensure compliance with fundamental rights. The Human Rights Council endorsed the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework (see A/HRC/17/4 and A/HRC/17/31). Reflecting existing human rights law, the Guiding Principles reaffirm that States must ensure that not only State organs but also businesses under their jurisdiction respect human rights.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age", "B. A framework for private sector responsibilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, chap. I (A) (1)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The Guiding Principles provide a framework for the consideration of private business responsibilities in the information and communications technology sector worldwide, independent of State obligations or implementation of those obligations. For instance, the Guiding Principles assert a global responsibility for businesses to avoid causing or contributing to adverse human rights impacts through their own activities, and to address such impacts when they occur and seek to prevent or mitigate adverse human rights impacts that are directly linked to their operations, products or services by their business relationships, even if they have not contributed to those impacts.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age", "B. A framework for private sector responsibilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Ibid., chap. II (A) (11)-(13)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Due diligence, according to the Guiding Principles, enables businesses to identify, prevent, mitigate and account for how they address their adverse human rights impacts.[[fn:9]] In the digital environment, human rights impacts may arise in internal decisions on how to respond to government requests to restrict content or access customer information, the adoption of terms of service, design and engineering choices that implicate security and privacy, and decisions to provide or terminate services in a particular market.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age", "B. A framework for private sector responsibilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Ibid., chap. II (A) (17)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. As a matter of transparency, the Guiding Principles state that businesses should be prepared to communicate how they address their human rights impacts externally, particularly when concerns are raised by or on behalf of affected stakeholders.[[fn:10]] The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights has also urged information and communications companies to disclose risks and government demands transparently (see A/HRC/27/37). Meaningful disclosures shed light on, among other things, the volume and context of government requests for content removals and customer data, the processes for handling such requests, and interpretations of relevant laws, policies and regulations. Corporate transparency obligations may also include a duty to disclose processes and reporting relating to terms of service enforcement and private requests for content regulation and user data.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age", "B. A framework for private sector responsibilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Ibid., chap. II (B) (21)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Finally, the responsibility to respect involves attention to the availability of remedies — from moral remedies to compensation and guarantees of non-repetition — when the private actor has caused or contributed to adverse impacts.[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age", "B. A framework for private sector responsibilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Ibid., chap. II (B) (22)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. The Guiding Principles provide a useful starting point for identifying private information and communications responsibilities, but several other projects have also proposed principles for the sector. The Global Network Initiative’s Principles on Freedom of Expression and Privacy draw on the experience and expertise of the investor, civil society and academic communities. The European Commission published the ICT Sector Guide on Implementing the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. Relevant civil society initiatives include the Manila Principles of Intermediary Liability, which establish baseline protection for intermediaries in accordance with freedom of expression standards; the African Declaration on Internet Rights and Freedoms, which promotes human rights standards and principles of openness in Internet policy formulation and implementation on the continent; and the Ranking Digital Rights Corporate Accountability Index, which evaluates a set of major private actors in the digital space on the basis of their adherence to freedom of expression and privacy norms. Civil society also acts to check and balance other actors engaged in Internet governance: the Code of Good Practice on Information, Participation and Transparency in Internet Governance, for example, seeks to ensure that relevant processes are meaningfully communicated to the public, accountable to all stakeholders, and emphasize democratic participation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["II. Freedom of expression, States and the private sector in the digital age", "B. A framework for private sector responsibilities"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. The range of private sector roles in organizing, accessing, populating and regulating the Internet is vast and often includes overlapping categories.[[fn:12]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "See, for example, “Strategy panel: ICANN’s role in the Internet governance ecosystem” (23 February 2014); R. Mackinnon and others, Fostering Freedom Online: The Role of Internet Intermediaries (Paris, UNESCO, 2014); and D. A. Hope, Protecting Human Rights in the Digital Age (February 2011)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. While Internet service providers specifically connect their subscribers to the Internet, telecommunication service providers offer a broader range of services, including access to radio, television, telephone and mobile communication. Major multinational corporations offer both categories of service, not only in their State of origin but also globally. Vodafone, for example, is a British provider that owns and operates networks in 27 countries and has partner networks in over 50 additional countries. TeliaSonera, based in Finland and Sweden, serves markets throughout Eurasia, and MTS Russia provides domestic service but also provides telecommunication services in Armenia, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. Companies like these often own and maintain significant aspects of the technical infrastructure that transmit Internet and telecommunications traffic, including fibre optic network cables, satellites or wireless links. Internet service providers in local and regional markets might operate a limited number of these networks or lease network capacity from large carriers in order to connect their subscribers to the Internet. State ownership is fairly common among service providers: Switzerland, for example, holds 51 per cent of the shares in Swisscom AG,[[fn:13]] and Uruguay owns Antel, a major telecommunications provider in the country.[[fn:14]] While telecommunication and Internet service providers are currently the most common providers of Internet access, a growing number of hybrid companies aim to provide Internet access as well as other Internet-related services.[[fn:15]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "1. Enable connection to the Internet"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "See www.swisscom.ch/en/about/investors/shares/ownership-structure.html."}, {"n": 14, "text": "See www.antel.com.uy/antel/; http://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/cs181/projects/2006-07/latin-america/uruguayIntro.html."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Google, for example, will provide access to wireless service through its Google Fiber service, in addition to its search, content-hosting and social networking functions, among others. See https://fiber.google.com/about/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Hardware firms design and manufacture the computer devices that connect individuals to the Internet. The range of devices equipped with personal computing functions is, however, ever-expanding and impossible to cap, given the avalanche of connectedness widely described as the “Internet of things”, in which digital connection is enabled for all aspects of contemporary existence. Automobiles, refrigerators, televisions and watches are just a few examples of “smart” devices that today incorporate browser, messaging and other Internet-related functions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "2. Design and maintain hardware and operating systems that facilitate information processing and Internet access"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Further, telecommunication and Internet service providers purchase equipment and other network components that comprise the physical backbone of their networks from infrastructure vendors and equipment manufacturers. These products can range from simple routers and switches to deep packet inspection devices, network filtering and Internet blocking devices, and surveillance monitoring centres. Increasingly these companies also include services, consulting, training and even operation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "2. Design and maintain hardware and operating systems that facilitate information processing and Internet access"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Internet addresses (that is, uniform resource locators (URLs)) are allocated and sold by domain name registries and registrars, under the supervision of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), a non-profit entity. Currently, the world’s largest registrar hosts more than 61 million domain names.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "3. Allocate web domains"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Web-hosting services enable users to upload and deliver files and other materials to their readers’ or customers’ browsers. These companies typically also provide data storage, e-mail and other services associated with the websites their customers have purchased.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "4. Host information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Search engines supply the vital connection between users who search for information, and those who create, aggregate and publish it. Indeed, search engine algorithms dictate what users see and in what priority, and they may be manipulated to restrict or prioritize content. Information searches, however, are not unique to search engines. Content aggregators, specialized research services, social media platforms and professional networks also enable users to search for content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "5. Facilitate aggregating, sharing and searching for information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Companies that create or purchase content produced on their platforms often hold the copyright to such content, enabling them to monetize and manage access to it. Some of the most influential copyright holders are media and entertainment companies, including news media, publishing houses, music labels, and film and television studios.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "6. Produce and regulate access to one’s own content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Companies also provide a variety of services that connect users across multiple platforms, including e-mail, web chats, discussion threads, and social and professional networking. The most prominent actors in this area include e-mail providers, social media and other networking platforms, and online bulletin boards. In addition to such platforms, news websites, e-commerce platforms and application stores provide opportunities for the sharing of information and ideas through reviews, comments and discussions. Internet payment systems also integrate a social networking functionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "7. Connect users and communities"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. E-commerce facilitates the sale of goods and services and other commercial transactions among businesses and consumers, businesses and other businesses, or consumers and other consumers. The ways in which companies provide access to, promote, or arrange these transactions, and safeguard the wealth of personal information generated by these transactions, may implicate the freedom of expression and privacy of their customers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "8. Sell goods and services and facilitate transactions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The vast majority of enterprises described above collect information from and about their users, which in turn may be used to target advertising, customize existing services, reduce security risks, or shut down accounts of abusive users. Companies may, however, also trade in information collection and analysis, involving such services as designing, customizing or selling surveillance and information analytics technologies, or provide consulting services that facilitate law enforcement, intelligence, cybersecurity and surveillance operations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "A. Impact of private enterprise on freedom of expression", "9. Collect, repurpose and sell data"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. The regulatory ecosystem on the Internet is extensive and diverse, involving actors at domestic, regional and international levels, in private and public sectors, in academia and civil society. Some aspects of information and communications technology — such as the provision of telecommunication and Internet services — have long attracted State and international regulation as well as public scrutiny. Other areas, such as search, social media, and the sale of surveillance technologies, are also increasingly subject to such scrutiny, commensurate with their growing impact and influence on the exercise of freedom of expression online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "B. Regulation in the digital age"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Technical standards and processes ensure that the infrastructure, networks and applications that comprise Internet and telecommunication networks operate seamlessly. The physical infrastructure on which Internet traffic flows, such as network cables and satellites, are set up and run according to various technical requirements that ensure their smooth functioning. Organizations that develop such requirements include the International Telecommunication Union, which sets standards for the interoperability of telecommunication networks; the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, a professional association which develops standards for Wi-Fi transmission; and the Groupe Speciale Mobile Association, a private international association of the mobile industry which develops standards for mobile networks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "B. Regulation in the digital age", "1. Technical standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Another group of organizations establishes and develops technical standards for how Internet data are communicated, stored, arranged and presented. The Internet Engineering Task Force develops and maintains the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which determines how devices connect over the Internet and how data are transmitted between them. The World Wide Web Consortium sets standards concerning the display of, and interaction with, web content, which implicates issues such as language content and access for the disabled. ICANN sets policies for the registration of top-level domain names, whether generic (such as .com, .org, .edu), country code (.cn, .tj, .sg) or community or industry-specific (such as .aero). Its subsidiary, the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority, manages the distribution of Internet Protocol addresses, which assign and identify each device that connects to the Internet with unique numerical labels.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "B. Regulation in the digital age", "1. Technical standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. While technical standards have profound implications for freedom of expression, the Commission on Science and Technology for Development of the United Nations has observed that standards development often lacks sufficient consideration of human rights concerns.[[fn:16]] To be sure, interested stakeholders and members of the public are permitted to participate in or observe the work of most of these standard-setting bodies. However, because meaningful participation requires a generally high level of technical expertise, human rights perspectives are not always included in discussions, even though technical and design choices can have a substantial impact on freedom of expression.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "B. Regulation in the digital age", "1. Technical standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See Intersessional Panel of the Commission on Science and Technology for Development, “The mapping of international Internet public policy issues” (November 2014)."}, {"n": 17, "text": "To be sure, a few organizations have dedicated resources to incorporating human rights perspectives in technical discussions. ICANN, for example, has established a cross community working party on its corporate and social responsibility to respect human rights, which seeks to map and understand the issues and potential solutions relating to corporate and social responsibilities of ICANN from https://community.icann.org/display/gnsononcomstake/CCWP+on+ICANN's+Corporate+and+Social+Responsibility+to+Respect+Human+Rights. A few non-governmental organizations have also made human rights-oriented contributions to technical discussions. See, for example, Neils ten Oever, “Research into human rights protocol considerations”, available from https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-tenoever-hrpc-research/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. International legal instruments do not explicitly address how States and other actors should maintain a free and open Internet, nor may regulation by law always be an appropriate approach. Indeed, Internet governance is not the sole province of specialized bodies or Governments. Most recently, the World Summit on the Information Society emphasized the continuing importance of a governance approach that integrates government, corporate and civil society, academic and technical stakeholders and expertise (see General Assembly resolution 70/125). In the context of global trade, non-discrimination principles established under international agreements administered by the World Trade Organization may require States to restrict or otherwise regulate non-neutral services. The World Intellectual Property Organization has also faced growing demands from member States for advice on legislative frameworks that enable them to implement treaty obligations in digital environments. Regional bodies, such as the African Union, the European Commission and the Organization of American States seek to ensure that global Internet policy is formulated and implemented in a manner that takes into account the laws, particularities and concerns of their respective regions.[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "B. Regulation in the digital age", "2. Internet governance and policymaking"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "See, for example , European Commission, ICT Sector Guide (para. 14 above); and Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression, Freedom of Expression and the Internet (2013)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Some organizations that set technical standards have policymaking functions as well. The International Telecommunication Union, for example, develops and coordinates global telecommunications policies. ICANN makes policy judgments about the types of top-level domain names that may be registered and who may claim ownership, in consultation with Governments, the private sector, civil society and other relevant actors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "B. Regulation in the digital age", "2. Internet governance and policymaking"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Industry-led initiatives also seek to address Internet governance challenges that are insufficiently addressed by existing legal regulation. The Copyright Alert System, for example, brings together trade associations in the film and recording industries and Internet service providers to develop and implement a unified approach to combating copyright infringement online. The Telecommunications Industry Dialogue brings together telecommunications operators and vendors to address freedom of expression and right to privacy concerns in their sector.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "B. Regulation in the digital age", "2. Internet governance and policymaking"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. While many of these initiatives are privately run, they sometimes collaborate with or receive support from States. For example, the Internet Watch Foundation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, which provides Internet service providers and hosting platforms with a “notice and takedown” service that alerts them to potentially criminal content on their networks, also provides law enforcement agencies with “unique data” in their investigations of such content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Private sector roles and public/private regulation", "B. Regulation in the digital age", "2. Internet governance and policymaking"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The information and communications technology sector’s multiple roles raise legal and policy questions that deserve attention and elaboration by international human rights mechanisms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. Many questions concerning private actors in the digital age focus on content regulation. For instance, how do States facilitate or demand content removal, censorship and unnecessary or disproportionate restrictions on the right to seek, receive and impart Internet content through private platforms and networks? How do private enterprises respond to these demands and other external pressures? When the private sector develops and enforces its own internal policies and standards to protect and promote rights online, how do these have an impact on individual expression and access information?", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Digital content transmitted on private networks and hosted on private platforms is increasingly subject to State and corporate regulation. The universe of user-generated content is always expanding — blogs, text messages, discussion threads, photographs, videos and social media postings are only a sample of the types of content that users create and share on a daily basis. Companies that manage networks and platforms for this content, known as intermediaries, may “give access to, host, transmit and index content, products and services originated by third parties” even though they do not create or produce that content.[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "MacKinnon and others, Fostering Freedom Online, p. 19; K. Perset, The Economic and Social Role of Internet Intermediaries (OECD, 2010)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. State demands to remove content are often based on such rationales as defamation, blasphemy, election-related regulations, harassment or hate speech, incitement, intellectual property, obscenity and indecency, terrorist recruitment or “glorification”, the protection of national security and public safety, child protection and the prevention of gender-based attacks. Problems long connected to freedom of expression but increasingly complicated in the digital age have also attracted State regulation, including the “right to be forgotten” and pluralism and diversity (for example, network neutrality). Intermediaries themselves establish and enforce terms of service designed to address many of these concerns, for legal, commercial and other reasons. Many of these issues raise questions about the appropriate balance between freedom of expression and other human rights (for example, privacy, non-discrimination). While content regulations are often restrictive in nature, they may also require the transmission of Government-mandated or approved messages,[[fn:20]] or prohibit differential pricing for content and content delivery services.[[fn:21]]", "labels": ["Children", "Children in alternative care"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See Vodafone Group Plc, “Response on issues relating to mobile network operations in Egypt” (2011)."}, {"n": 21, "text": "India, for example, prohibits service providers from offering or charging discriminatory tariffs for data services on the basis of content (Prohibition of Discriminatory Tariffs for Data Services Regulations, 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. States regulate digital content through a variety of legal, political and technical means. Trends of concern include the following.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Content regulations are commonly reflected in legislation, court orders or directives or by-laws issued by administrative bodies with delegated authority to manage telecommunications and Internet-related issues. For example, China recently amended its cybersecurity law to forbid persons and organizations from using the Internet to “upse[t] social order” or “har[m] the public interest”.[[fn:22]] Similarly, a draft bill under consideration in Nigeria prohibits anyone from publishing statements in “any medium” with “malicious intent to discredit or set the public against” any person, group or government institution.[[fn:23]] Such language gives broad discretion to authorities to determine what kinds of digital expression would violate their terms. As a result, individuals and businesses are likely to err on the side of caution in order to avoid onerous penalties, filtering content of uncertain legal status and engaging in other modes of censorship and self-censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Vague laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "China, Cybersecurity Law (2015), art. 9."}, {"n": 23, "text": "Parliament of Nigeria, A bill for an act to prohibit frivolous petitions and other matters connected therewith, sect. 3 (3)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. States often require the cooperation of intermediaries to enforce regulations on private networks and platforms. Internet and telecommunication service providers, for example, are required to comply with local laws and regulations as a condition of their operating licences, a legitimate requirement which becomes problematic when the local laws or their implementation are themselves inconsistent with human rights law. Companies less constrained by licensing requirements, such as social networking platforms, search engines and domain name registrars, nevertheless face the threat that States will disrupt local infrastructure, threaten the safety of local employees, or block local access to their platforms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Excessive intermediary liability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Private actors may also request intermediaries to restrict or remove content. For instance, intellectual property complaints often arise when a private party alleges that a person has shared or used content in a manner that violates its copyright or has created a domain name that violates its trademark. While fair use and other defences to such complaints may be available, intellectual property frameworks may inhibit cultural and artistic expression (see A/HRC/28/57).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Excessive intermediary liability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The European Court of Justice, in Google Spain v. Mario Costeja González, compelled Google under the Data Protection Directive of the European Union to delist search results based on web pages that identified González, even though the original publication of those pages was itself not subject to takedown.[[fn:24]] The decision has found an active life outside the European context.[[fn:25]] The scope and implementation of this approach raise questions about the appropriate balance between the rights to privacy and protection of personal data on one hand, and the right to seek, receive and impart information containing such data on the other.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Excessive intermediary liability"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Judgment of the European Court of Justice (Grand Chamber), case C-131/12 (13 May 2014)."}, {"n": 25, "text": "Submission of Article 19."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Intermediaries are increasingly required to assess the validity of State requests and private complaints against general legal criteria, and remove or delink such content based on such assessments. For example, the Cybercrime Act, 2015 of the United Republic of Tanzania only exempts hyperlink providers from liability for information linked provided that they “immediately remove[ ] or disable[ ] access to the information after receiving an order to do so from the relevant authority”.[[fn:26]] In the context of copyright, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of the United States of America exempts providers of “online services and network access” from liability for third party content only if they respond “expeditiously to remove, or disable access to the material that is claimed to be infringing or to be the subject of infringing activity” upon notice of such infringement.[[fn:27]] These notice and takedown frameworks have been criticized for incentivizing questionable claims and for failing to provide adequate protection for the intermediaries that seek to apply fair and human rights-sensitive standards to content regulation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Excessive intermediary liability"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Para. 43 (a)."}, {"n": 27, "text": "United States Code, title 17, sect. 512 (c) (1) (C)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Another major concern is that private intermediaries are typically ill equipped to make determinations of content illegality. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights has observed that private actors “lack the ability to weigh rights and to interpret the law in accordance with freedom of speech and other human rights standards”.[[fn:28]] This may be due to resource constraints, lack of oversight and accountability, or potential conflicts of interest. In the face of potential liability, companies may be prone to self- or over-censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Excessive intermediary liability"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Freedom of Expression and the Internet, pp. 47-48."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. States also seek to restrict digital content outside the law. Some States have pushed for social media companies and other hosts of user-generated content to monitor and take down content on their own initiative, rather than wait for law-based requests from the Government. Government officials have also attempted to persuade companies to adopt “counter-speech” initiatives through public forums, campaigns and in private discussions. Governments are also increasingly flagging content on social media as inappropriate under a platform’s terms of service, in order to prompt the company to remove the content or deactivate an account.\nFiltering", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Extralegal restrictions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. States often block and filter content with the assistance of the private sector. Internet service providers may block access to specific keywords, web pages or entire websites. On platforms that host content, the type of filtering technique depends on the nature of the platform and the content in question. Domain name registrars may refuse to register those that match a government blacklist; social media companies may remove postings or suspend accounts; search engines may take down search results that link to illegal content. The method of restriction required by Governments or employed by companies can raise both necessity and proportionality concerns, depending on the validity of the rationale cited for the removal and the risk of removal of legal or protected expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Extralegal restrictions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Ambiguities in State regulation coupled with onerous intermediary liability obligations could result in excessive filtering. Even if content regulations werevalidly enacted and enforced, users may still experience unnecessary access restrictions. For example, content filtering in one jurisdiction may affect the digital expression of users in other jurisdictions. While companies may configure filters to apply only to a particular jurisdiction or region, there have been instances where they were nevertheless passed on to other networks or areas of the platform. For instance, in 2013 State-mandated filtering carried out by Airtel India led to restrictions on the same content on several networks in Oman belonging to its partner, Omantel.[[fn:29]]\nNetwork or service shutdowns", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Extralegal restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Citizen Lab, “Routing gone wild: documenting upstream filtering in Oman via India” (2012)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Service shutdowns and associated restrictions are a particularly pernicious means of enforcing content regulations. Such measures are frequently justified on the basis of national security, the maintenance of public order or the prevention of public unrest. In 2015, the Special Rapporteur, together with representatives of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Organization of American States and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights condemned as unlawful Internet “kill switches”.[[fn:30]] In one year alone, there were reports of shutdowns in Bangladesh, Brazil, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, India and Pakistan.[[fn:31]] The Special Rapporteur confirmed instances of telecommunication service provider and service shutdowns in Tajikistan, during his official visit in March 2016.[[fn:32]]\nNon-neutral networks", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Extralegal restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "Joint declaration on freedom of expression and responses to conflict situations (2015)."}, {"n": 31, "text": "Submission of Institute for Human Rights and Business at 3."}, {"n": 32, "text": "Preliminary observations by the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Mr. David Kaye at the end of his visit to Tajikistan (9 March 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. In addition to refraining from unnecessary and disproportionate restrictions on digital access, States also have a duty to ensure a free and open Internet. Network neutrality is the principle that all Internet data, content and services be treated equally and without improper discrimination. However, Internet service providers may deploy technologies that speed up or otherwise favour access to certain content and services, while slowing down others (a practice also known as “throttling”). The growing number of collaborations between Internet service providers and content-hosting platforms that offer free wireless data to access online content or services provided by the latter (also known as the provision of “zero rated” services) has attracted controversy. While such measures detract from the principle of net neutrality, it remains a subject of debate whether they may be permissible in areas genuinely lacking Internet access.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Extralegal restrictions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. State regulation in this area is patchy and uncertain. A few States have recognized the general importance of network neutrality. Romania, for example, has stated that it is “in favour of all initiatives to guarantee that online information can be accessed in a meaningful way by the entire population”.[[fn:33]] Fewer States have provided specific legal protection.[[fn:34]] In early 2016, the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India issued a regulation prohibiting service providers from offering or charging “discriminatory tariffs for data services being offered or charged to the consumer on the basis of content”.[[fn:35]] Some form of network neutrality has been adopted in law or policy by countries including Brazil, Chile, the Netherlands and the United States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "1. State regulation", "Extralegal restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "Submission of the Government of Romania."}, {"n": 34, "text": "Mackinnon and others, Fostering Freedom Online, p. 80."}, {"n": 35, "text": "Prohibition of Discriminatory Tariffs for Data Services Regulations, 2016."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Intermediaries’ policies and rules may have significant effects on the freedom of expressionWhile terms of service are the primary source of regulation, design and engineering choices may also affect the delivery of content.\nTerms of service", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "2. Internal policies and practices"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Terms of service, which individuals typically must accept as a condition to access a platform, often contain restrictions on content that may be shared. These restrictions are formulated under local laws and regulations and reflect similar prohibitions, including those against harassment, hate speech, promotion of criminal activity, gratuitous violence and direct threats.[[fn:36]] Terms of service are frequently formulated in such a general way that it may be difficult to predict with reasonable certainty what kinds of content may be restricted. The inconsistent enforcement of terms of service has also attracted public scrutiny. Some have argued that the world’s most popular platforms do not adequately address the needs and interests of vulnerable groups; for example, there have been accusations of reluctance “to engage directly with technology-related violence against women, until it becomes a public relations issue”.[[fn:37]] At the same time, platforms have been criticized for overzealous censorship of a wide range of legitimate but (perhaps to some audiences) “uncomfortable” expressions.[[fn:38]] Lack of an appeals process or poor communication by the company about why content was removed or an account deactivated adds to these concerns. Terms of service that require registration linked to an individual’s real name or evidence to demonstrate valid use of a pseudonym can also disproportionately inhibit the ability of vulnerable groups or civil society actors in closed societies to use online platforms for expression, association or advocacy.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "2. Internal policies and practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "See, for example, Facebook terms of service, sect. 3 (7); Twitter terms of service; YouTube Community Guidelines; and Reddit."}, {"n": 37, "text": "See https://ourinternet-files.s3.amazonaws.com/publications/no24_web_2.pdf."}, {"n": 38, "text": "See onlinecensorship.org."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. States also increasingly rely on terms of service to remove content they find objectionable. The Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights while countering terrorism has observed that several States have established content-removal mechanisms that often seek the removal of content that, while lawful, might be regarded as extremist (see A/HRC/31/65). The Counter Terrorism Internet Referral Unit in the United Kingdom, for example, is dedicated to removing online content of a “violent extremist or terrorist nature”, including through methods that “use websites’ content-flagging mechanisms to report content as a violation of the site’s [terms of service]”.[[fn:39]] Such practices raise the prospect that States may rely on private terms of service to bypass human rights or domestic law norms against content restrictions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "2. Internal policies and practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "National Police Chiefs’ Council, Counter Terrorism Internet Referral Unit; submission of the Center for Technology and Democracy."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. The work of private censorship is complicated by the sheer volume of complaints and flagged content that intermediaries identify on a daily basis. Large platforms may also outsource content moderation, creating even more distance between content moderators and internal policymaking decisions, and exacerbating inconsistencies in enforcement. Intermediaries that operate in a diverse range of markets inevitably face “complex value judgments”, issues with cultural sensitivity and diversity, and “difficult decisions about conflicts of law”.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "2. Internal policies and practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "Emily Taylor, The Privatization of Human Rights: Illusions of Consent, Automation and Neutrality, GCIG Paper No. 24 (2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The manner in which intermediaries curate, categorize and rank content affects what information users access and view on their platforms. For example, platforms deploy algorithmic predictions of user preferences and consequently guide the advertisements individuals might see, how their social media feeds are arranged and the order in which search results appear.[[fn:41]] Other self-regulatory measures, such as “counter speech” initiatives to support anti-terror or anti-harassment messages,[[fn:42]] also affect the ways in which users might consume and process Internet content concerning sensitive topics. It remains an open question how freedom of expression concerns raised by design and engineering choices should be reconciled with the freedom of private entities to design and customize their platforms as they choose.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "A. Content regulation", "2. Internal policies and practices", "Design and engineering choices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "Submission of the Center for Technology and Society; Ranking Digital Rights."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See, for example, Home Affairs Committee, Oral testimony of Anthony House, Google Europe, Middle East and Africa (2 February 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. State surveillance and corporate data collection and retention raise substantial issues of freedom of expression. For instance, how do States conduct surveillance activities with the cooperation of the private sector, and how does such cooperation have an impact on freedom of expression? What are the responsibilities of private actors when they discover that States covertly access Internet and telecommunications data transmitted or stored on their networks or platforms? What are the responsibilities of the private sector to protect security and anonymity online?", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "B. Surveillance and digital security"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Digital communications and data transmitted or stored on private networks and platforms are increasingly subject to surveillance and other forms of interference, whether by the State or private actors. Unnecessary and disproportionate surveillance may undermine security online and access to information and ideas (see A/HRC/23/40). Surveillance may create a chilling effect on the online expression of ordinary citizens, who may self-censor for fear of being constantly tracked. Surveillance exerts a disproportionate impact on the freedom of expression of a wide range of vulnerable groups, including racial, religious, ethnic, gender and sexual minorities, members of certain political parties, civil society, human rights defenders, professionals such as journalists, lawyers and trade unionists, victims of violence and abuse, and children (see A/HRC/29/32). State capacity to conduct surveillance may depend on the extent to which business enterprises cooperate with or resist such surveillance.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "B. Surveillance and digital security"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. As Internet service providers, social networking platforms, search engines, cloud service providers and other companies transmit or amass enormous quantities of customer data, the volume of government requests for user information based on local laws and regulations has also begun to rise. Several major Internet companies have reported an increase in requests.[[fn:43]] Many of these requests are issued by law enforcement and intelligence agencies. State oversight of these requests varies, ranging from prior judicial authorization[[fn:44]] to high-level executive approval[[fn:45]] to none at all. Licensing agreements and the law may limit the ability of the private sector to resist these requests or compel accountability. Even content-hosting platforms, which lack physical presence in certain jurisdictions where they operate, may face the wholesale blocking of their service and attempts to intimidate employees of corporate subsidiaries. Nevertheless, companies in all areas of the information and communications technology industry are capable of establishing and exercising varying degrees of leverage in their relationships with States to resist or mitigate the harm caused by abusive application of the law. Effective strategies of resistance include: the inclusion of human rights guarantees in licensing agreements and other relevant contracts; restrictive interpretations of government requests; negotiations with government officials about the scope of such requests; judicial challenge of overbroad requests or laws; providing affected individuals, the media or public with relevant information; and suspension of service within, withdrawal from, or decisions not to enter a particular market.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "B. Surveillance and digital security", "1. Requests for customer data"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "See recent transparency reports from Google, Facebook, Dropbox, Twitter and Microsoft."}, {"n": 44, "text": "Sweden, Act on Signal Surveillance for Defense Intelligence Activities, sect. 4 (3)."}, {"n": 45, "text": "Australia, Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Act 1979, sect. 9 (1)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. The private sector supplies hardware, software and other technologies that enable States to intercept, store or analyse communications and other information. Infrastructure vendors, hardware manufacturers and software developers may design or customize products on behalf of States, or supply dual use equipment and technology that States subsequently tailor for their own needs. Internet and telecommunication service providers may also purchase equipment or software from these companies to install on their network components in order to comply with legally mandated interception protocols in the States where they operate. States may rely on these products and services to target, harass or intimidate members of vulnerable groups.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "B. Surveillance and digital security", "2. Sale of surveillance and censorship equipment"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. States may also covertly tap into the technical infrastructure belonging to service providers and content platforms in order to intercept a wide variety of information, including communications, user account information, and telephone and Internet records. States reportedly tamper with computer hardware while en route to customers, infiltrate private networks and platforms with malicious software, hack into specific devices, and exploit other digital security loopholes. When business enterprises have notice of such surveillance, questions concerning their human rights responsibilities may arise, such as providing notice to customers or mitigating such harm through security measures. Companies that sell equipment and services to Governments to implement covert surveillance techniques may be implicated in human rights violations that flow from their sales.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "B. Surveillance and digital security", "3. Covert surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. It is important to note that surveillance is affected by other demands on privately held information. For example, the inability of the mutual legal assistance treaty regime to keep pace with cross-border data demands may drive States to resort to invasive extraterritorial surveillance measures. Laws that require companies to retain customer data or store such data in local data centres may also encourage such surveillance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "B. Surveillance and digital security", "3. Covert surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Since the Special Rapporteur reported on the importance of encryption and anonymity for protecting freedom of opinion and expression, government pressure on corporations to compromise the security of their customers’ digital devices, communications and information has grown. A range of private entities, from hardware manufacturers to e-mail services to messaging services, have been taking measures to develop and implement technologies that enhance user security, anonymity and privacy. These measures include end-to-end encryption for digital communications, disk encryption and timely software updates to close security loopholes. In response, States are seeking to compel companies to create or exploit technical loopholes in their products and services on their behalf. In the United States, for example, the Federal Bureau of Investigation applied to a federal court to compel Apple to create software that facilitates access to a suspect’s iPhone in a terrorism investigation. The Investigative Powers Bill introduced before the British Parliament on 1 March 2016 would authorize intelligence services to apply for a warrant that requires private entities to “secure interference with any equipment for the purpose of obtaining communications […] equipment data and any other information”.[[fn:46]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "B. Surveillance and digital security", "3. Covert surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "Investigatory Powers Bill (2015), Cl. 88 (2)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Transparency can help ensure that subjects of Internet regulation are able to meaningfully predict their legal obligations and challenge them where appropriate. Gaps in compliance with these standards threaten the ability of individuals to understand the limits placed on their freedom of expression online and seek appropriate redress when their rights are violated. Transparency issues arise in both State and private sector contexts, such as public-private partnerships, private sector engagement in trade negotiations and the digital arms race.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "C. Transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Despite multiple reform attempts, transparency concerning government requests is still lacking. While there has been some improvement in transparency reporting concerning government requests for user information, there is far less information available about the volume and nature of government requests to restrict or remove content.[[fn:47]] It is unclear whether such statistics are even retained. State restrictions on private disclosures of relevant information can be a major obstacle to corporate transparency. Several States prohibit disclosures concerning government requests for content removal or access to user data. India, for example, prohibits online intermediaries from disclosing details of government orders to block access to Internet content, as well as any action they take in response to such orders.[[fn:48]] The British Investigative Powers Bill would prohibit telecommunication service providers from disclosing, among other things, “the existence and contents” of government orders to retain customers’ communications data.[[fn:49]] In other States, ambiguous laws and regulations make it difficult for corporations to determine what kinds of information they are permitted to disclose. In South Africa, for example, private disclosures of government requests for customers’ data are prohibited,[[fn:50]] but it is unclear whether the same restriction extends to content removal requests.[[fn:51]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "C. Transparency"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "Submissions of Freedom Online Coalition Working Group on Privacy and Transparency Online; and Telecommunications Industry Dialogue."}, {"n": 48, "text": "India, Information Technology (Procedures and Safeguards for Blocking for Access of Information by Public) Rules, 2009, rule 16."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Investigatory Powers Bill, Cl. 84 (2)."}, {"n": 50, "text": "South Africa, Regulation of Interception of Communications and Provision of Communication-Related Information Act 70 of 2002, sect. 42 (1)."}, {"n": 51, "text": "South Africa, National Key Points Act 102 of 1980, sect. 10 (c)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. In the context of the private sector, service providers and content-hosting platforms often disclose at least some information about the circumstances under which they remove content or comply with government requests for customer data. There is wide variation, however, in whether and how they convey interpretations or explanations of State regulations and terms of service, and internal processes for implementation and enforcement. There are also gaps in corporate disclosure of statistics concerning the volume, frequency and types of request for content removals and user data, whether because of State-imposed restrictions or internal policy decisions. In any case, companies are more likely to disclose statistics concerning government requests than private requests. There has also been far less research into the extent to which other intermediaries (for example, financial or e-commerce intermediaries) and companies disclose information concerning content removals and requests for customer data.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "C. Transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Ongoing debate about the minimum standards for corporate disclosures and relevant best practices reflects uncertainty about the appropriate balance between transparency and competing values, such as individual security and trade secrecy. While there is growing consensus that corporations should disclose information about how restrictions are interpreted and enforced, there is less agreement about how this should be done. Similarly, there is widespread agreement about the importance of quantitative transparency, but it is less clear how such information should be contextualized, presented and made accessible.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "C. Transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Restrictions on freedom of expression online occur on a daily basis and frequently involve corporate conduct, whether compelled by law or pursuant to corporate policy and practice (for example, as reflected in terms of service). Common examples of such restrictions include unlawful or otherwise questionable content removals, service restrictions and account suspensions, and data security breaches.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "D. Remedies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Under article 2 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, States parties must ensure that persons whose rights under the Covenant have been violated have an effective remedy. The Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights anticipate that corporations should provide remedial and grievance mechanisms that are legitimate, accessible, predictable, equitable, rights-compatible, transparent, based on dialogue and engagement, and a source of continuous learning.[[fn:52]] There is limited guidance, however, as to how these elements should be operationalized or assessed in the context of information and communications technology. For example, improper removal of web links from search results might require the search engine to reinstate such links. It is, however, unclear how complaint or appeals mechanisms should be designed and implemented to ensure that such removals are effectively flagged, evaluated and remedied. A search engine’s highly dispersed customer base further complicates design issues. It is also unclear whether companies should provide additional remedies, like financial compensation for lost revenue during the period of removal, or guarantees of non-repetition.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "D. Remedies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Guiding principles, chap. III (A) (31)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "2", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. To enforce terms of service, companies may not always have sufficient processes to appeal content removal or account deactivation decisions where a user believes the action was in error or the result of abusive flagging campaigns. Further research that examines best practices in how companies communicate terms of service enforcement decisions and how they implement appeals mechanisms may be useful.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "D. Remedies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. The scope of the corporation’s responsibility to remediate is also contested. Who bears the burden of remediating improper removals or data requests when companies interpret or enforce relevant State laws too strictly? When a company’s products or services are used to perpetrate human rights abuses, what degree of causation triggers the duty to provide a remedy? When companies face allegations of wrongdoing, is there a duty to conduct internal investigations, and must these investigations meet certain standards? Where a restriction implicates individuals across borders, what jurisdiction is appropriate for the consideration of remedies? These questions reflect the uncertainty that human rights victims face in situations where corporate and State conduct are intertwined.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "D. Remedies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. The appropriate role of the State in supplementing or regulating corporate remedial mechanisms also requires closer analysis. Civil proceedings and other judicial redress are often available to consumers adversely affected by corporate action, but these are often cumbersome and expensive. Meaningful alternatives may include complaint and grievance mechanisms established and run by consumer protection bodies and industry regulators. Several States also mandate internal remedial or grievance mechanisms: India, for example, requires corporations that possess, deal with or handle sensitive personal data to designate grievance officers to address “any discrepancies and grievances […] with respect to processing of information”.[[fn:53]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["IV. Legal and policy issues", "D. Remedies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "India, Information Technology Act, 2008, sect. 43 A; Information Technology (Reasonable security practices and procedures and sensitive personal data or information) Rules, 2011, rule 5 (9)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Given the range of private information and communications technology activity that frames and impacts the exercise of the freedom of opinion and expression online, the Special Rapporteur will focus on State obligations and business responsibilities in specific areas of concern. The legal and policy issues raised above will guide thematic reporting, communications with Governments, country and company visits, regional and expert consultations, and other work.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. Among the Special Rapporteur’s priorities for thematic study and guidance are the following:", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Governments increasingly require private entities providing telecommunications and Internet service to comply with censorship demands. In addition to network filtering practices, States compel or pressure companies to shut down networks or block entire services. This trend requires further documentation and scrutiny. Future work will examine laws, policies and extralegal measures that enable Governments to undertake such restrictions, and the costs and consequences of such restrictions. The Special Rapporteur will also examine the responsibilities of companies to respond to such measures in a way that respects rights, mitigates harm and provides avenues for redress where abuses occur.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development", "Restrictions on the provision of telecommunications and Internet services"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. Private actors face substantial pressures from Governments and individuals to restrict expression deemed to constitute extremism or hatred, hostility or harassment. Private actors may also themselves aim to foster what they perceive to be civil discourse on their platforms, regulate access through real-name requirements and other registration policies, or feature or prioritize certain content for business reasons. Future work will evaluate the potential of State abuse of private initiatives, the impact of private measures on freedom of expression, and the relevant human rights obligations and responsibilities. This reporting will not only focus on the roles of social media and search engines, but also lesser known actors such as e-commerce and financial intermediaries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development", "Content restrictions under terms of service and community standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. Intermediaries are increasingly held responsible for third party content that they host, whether through intermediary liability regimes or censorship requirements. Commonly cited rationales for such restrictions include cybersecurity, copyright, defamation and data protection. Further study will focus on the legitimate scope of such rationales, the necessity of accompanying restrictions, and the lack of procedural safeguards under existing frameworks for removing third party content. Future work will also examine sources and modes of intermediary liability in particular contexts and regions and seek to draw out the main principles and practices applicable in order to ensure the ability of intermediaries to promote and protect freedom of expression.\nCensorship and surveillance industry", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development", "Liability for content hosting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. Private companies play a major role in the development, production and transfer of software and hardware that Governments may deploy for law enforcement, intelligence and public security purposes. While such tools may have legitimate purposes, they are often deployed by Governments for purposes of censorship and disproportionate surveillance. Future work will explore such issues through the human rights framework and encourage due diligence in identifying the uses of such technologies for purposes that undermine freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development", "Liability for content hosting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. Companies that transmit, store or generate communications and other forms of user data — particularly telecommunication and Internet service providers, and content-hosting platforms — face mounting demands from law enforcement and security services for access to their customers’ information. Future work will seek to identify approaches that could maximize the scope for freedom of expression while nonetheless addressing legitimate governmental interests in national security and public order.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development", "Efforts to undermine digital security"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. The billions of individuals who are connected online enjoy access to information and ideas that is denied billions more who lack the infrastructure or political, security, legal or social environment necessary for connectivity. As the private sector increasingly seeks to empower the next billions with access, it will be critical to ensure that such access is free, open and secure. Future work will explore issues around access and private sector engagement and investment in ensuring affordability and accessibility, particularly considering marginalized groups.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development", "Internet access"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The outcome of the World Summit on the Information Society demonstrated the continuing broad support for multi-stakeholder governance of the Internet. The existing model nonetheless faces increasing pressure in the form of specific national policies (such as data localization) and strategies such as “cybersovereignty”. Moreover, there is a persistent need to maintain or increase human rights participation at all levels of governance, including the setting of technical standards, and to ensure that Internet governance frameworks and reform efforts are sensitive to the needs of women, sexual minorities and other vulnerable communities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development", "Internet governance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. Throughout this future work, the Special Rapporteur will pay particular attention to legal developments (legislative, regulatory, and judicial) at national and regional levels. In this context, he alerts all stakeholders to his interest in gathering such materials for future communications and reporting and encourages interested parties to collect and provide such material throughout the course of this work.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["V. Further thematic development", "Internet governance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. The information and communication technology sector is always in rapid development, continually upgrading technology, digitizing everyday life. As a result, addressing legal and policy issues with an eye to current normative gaps involves some risk of failing to address trends that are only now emerging or have yet to emerge. This is a natural feature of the digital age, but even with rapid change in technology, the digital environment will continue to be animated by persistent threats to freedom of opinion and expression. These threats include government dominance of, or attempts to dominate, sources of information, using tools of censorship against online services and infrastructure; the struggle of businesses to promote their products and services in environments that are hostile to freedom of expression; the failures of many business enterprises to ensure the promotion and protection of rights in their pursuit of commercial interests; and the often contradictory demands of individuals that business entities provide them not only with security but also convenience, connectivity and community. As the project of exploring information and communication technology responsibilities moves forward, the Special Rapporteur will be looking to experts in the field —in Government, the private sector, civil society, the technical community, academia — to help him conduct analysis and reporting that respond both to the current issues at the intersection of technology and freedom of expression and to long-term features of the digital age.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The Special Rapporteur strongly encourages all stakeholders — whether State actors, private sector enterprises or civil society organizations and individuals — to take an active part in the development of the forthcoming projects. He particularly encourages stakeholders from less developed countries and vulnerable communities to share perspectives on the impact that the information and communication technology sector may have on the enjoyment of rights and the role that States may play in either interfering with or advancing those rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. Even though this project is at its early stages, it is nonetheless critical that States and private actors take steps to ensure respect for the freedom of opinion and expression. These steps should include, at a minimum, the following, with further analysis to follow throughout the Special Rapporteur’s mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. States bear a primary responsibility to protect and respect the right to exercise freedom of opinion and expression. In the information and communication technology context, this means that States must not require or otherwise pressure the private sector to take steps that unnecessarily or disproportionately interfere with freedom of expression, whether through laws, policies, or extralegal means. Any demands, requests and other measures to take down digital content or access customer information must be based on validly enacted law, subject to external and independent oversight, and demonstrate a necessary and proportionate means of achieving one or more aims under article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Particularly in the context of regulating the private sector, State laws and policies must be transparently adopted and implemented.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "States"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. Governments must also adopt and implement laws and policies that protect private development and the provision of technical measures, products and services that advance freedom of expression. They must ensure legislative, policymaking and other relevant norm-setting processes concerning rights and restrictions on the Internet in order to provide the private sector, civil society, the technical community and academia meaningful opportunities for input and participation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. States place undeniable pressures on the private information and communication technology sector that often lead to serious restrictions on the freedom of expression. The private sector, however, also plays independent roles that may either advance or restrict rights, a point the Human Rights Council well understood by adopting the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights in 2011 as general guidance in that field. Private entities should be evaluated on the steps they take both to promote and undermine freedom of expression, even in hostile environments unfriendly to human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "Private sector"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. Among the most important steps that private actors should take is the development and implementation of transparent human rights assessment procedures. They should develop and implement policies that take into account their potential impact on human rights. Such assessments should critically review the wide range of private sector activities in which they are engaged, such as the formulation and enforcement of terms of service and community standards on users’ freedom of expression, including the outsourcing of such enforcement; the impact of products, services and other commercial initiatives on users’ freedom of expression as they are being developed, including design and engineering choices, and plans for differential pricing of or access to Internet content and services; and the human rights impact of doing business with potential government customers, such as the operation of telecommunication infrastructure or the transfer of content-regulation or surveillance technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "Private sector"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. It is also critical that private entities ensure the greatest possible transparency in their policies, standards and actions that implicate the freedom of expression and other fundamental rights. Human rights assessments should be subject to transparent review, in terms of their methodologies, their interpretation of legal obligations and the weight that such assessments have on business decisions. Transparency is important across the board, including in the context of content regulation, and should include the reporting of government requests for takedowns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "Private sector"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. Beyond adoption of policies, private entities should also integrate commitments to freedom of expression into internal policymaking, product engineering, business development, staff training and other relevant internal processes. The Special Rapporteur will aim to explore policies and the full range of implementation steps in a number of ways, including through company visits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "Private sector"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-38-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-32-38", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. As the present report has shown, many international organizations play a role in information and communication technology governance processes. It is critical that such organizations provide meaningful public access to policies, standards, reports and other information concerning Internet governance created or generated by the organization and/or its membership, including through facilitating access to free online resources and public education initiatives. More generally, the multi-stakeholder process for Internet governance has been an important driver for policies supportive of freedom of expression. With that in mind, international organizations should ensure meaningful civil society participation in policymaking and other standard-setting processes, including through increasing the presence of technical experts sensitive to human rights concerns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2016, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "International organizations and multi-stakeholder processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0001", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. It is high time to talk about what freedom of opinion and expression means for women and girls. The road has been bumpy, but much has been achieved. From Beijing in 1995 to Paris in 2021, women have raised their voices to speak truth to power, make visible what had been rendered invisible and demand equality and justice. Through their words and actions, women have demonstrated the mutually reinforcing nature of gender equality and freedom of expression, offline and online.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0002", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Women have launched feminist principles for the Internet and founded community radio stations and networks in many parts of the world.[[fn:2]] In Latin America, they have organized journalism collectives to cover news from a feminist perspective.[[fn:3]] In Africa, they have created websites to express their sexuality.[[fn:4]] In Asia, they have collected case studies to demonstrate the impact of the gender digital divide.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Submission of the Association for Progressive Communications (APC)."}, {"n": 3, "text": "See https://latfem.org/ and https://cimac.org.mx/."}, {"n": 4, "text": "See https://holaafrica.org/ and https://adventuresfrom.com/."}, {"n": 5, "text": "See www.digitalrightsmonitor.pk/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Women-Disconnected-Gender-Digital-Divide-in-Pakistan.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0003", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. Women’s activism has produced results. Argentina established the Ministry for Women and Diversity and Canada launched a Feminist Response and Recovery Fund.[[fn:6]] Colombia became the first country in the world to develop a national protection mechanism for journalists with a dedicated women’s protection committee.[[fn:7]] In Sweden, the action plan on defending free speech contains measures to protect female journalists, elected representatives and artists from exposure to threats and hatred.[[fn:8]] The African Declaration on Internet Rights and Freedoms promotes non-discrimination and freedom of speech, equal access to the Internet for women and men, and the elimination of discrimination online.[[fn:9]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Submissions of Argentina and Canada."}, {"n": 7, "text": "Submission of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Submission of She Leads."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0004", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Despite the impressive and inspirational gains made by women, gender equality in freedom of expression remains a distant goal. When women raise their voices, too often they are suppressed. In the digital age, the Internet has become the new battleground in the struggle for women’s rights, amplifying opportunities for women to express themselves but also multiplying possibilities for repression.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See Mary Anne Franks, “Censoring Women”, Boston University Law Review Annex, Vol. 95, No. 61 (2015), p. 61; available at: www.bu.edu/bulawreview/files/2015/10/FRANKS.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0005", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The full participation of women at all levels of decision-making is essential for the achievement of equality, sustainable development, peace and democracy.[[fn:11]] Freedom of opinion and expression enables and empowers women to realize not only their civil and political rights, but also their economic, social, cultural and environmental rights. The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has exacerbated gender inequalities across the spectrum of development. If women are to regain lost ground and lead the recovery, their right to freedom of opinion and expression must be front and centre.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Human Rights Council resolution 23/2."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0006", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The present report is the first in the 27-year history of the mandate to be devoted exclusively to gender and freedom of opinion and expression. Gender equality has been identified by the Special Rapporteur as a priority. The report is the first step in a series of reports, consultations and activities that she will undertake during the course of her mandate. The aim is to promote a gendered understanding of freedom of opinion and expression that is responsive to the challenges women face and will enhance their contribution to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0007", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. The term “gender justice” is used in the report to convey the need for transformative changes encompassing equity (equal distribution of resources, access and opportunity) and equality (equal outcomes) to break the structural and systemic barriers holding women back.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0008", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. In the report, the Special Rapporteur adopts a feminist analytical framework that is attentive to the lived realities and needs of women and gender nonconforming people, and in so doing addresses traditionally neglected forms of speech relevant to their lives, including freedom of gender, sexual and cultural expression. It takes an intersectional approach, noting that women’s experiences vary according to their race, ethnicity, caste, religion, sexual orientation, age, geographic location, social, economic and legal status and many other factors. Looking at freedom of opinion and expression through a feminist lens, she notes the power imbalances in society that feed sexism, gender-based discrimination and misogyny, and constrain women’s enjoyment of human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0009", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. In light of the dominant role of the Internet in today’s world, particular attention is paid in the report to the impact of digital technology, while acknowledging online and offline contexts as a continuous space where the rights exercised and the consequences experienced are often interlinked. On the one hand, the discrimination, inequalities and dangers that women face in the real world are carried over into the digital space. On the other hand, the threats they encounter in the digital space may result in physical violence offline.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0010", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. In this report, the Special Rapporteur maps out the key factors constraining women’s equal right to freedom of expression, analyses the relevant international standards and the duties of States and responsibilities of companies. She identifies legal gaps and policy dilemmas, and makes recommendations to States, companies, media and civil society. The report draws on the contributions[[fn:12]] by 57 civil society organizations and scholars, 13 Governments and 2 international organizations, an expert workshop and large multi-stakeholder consultations at the 2021 RightsCon conference and Stockholm Internet Forum.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "These submissions will be made available at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/FreedomOpinion/Pages/Report-Gender-Justice.aspx."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0011", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Both sex and gender[[fn:13]] have been the basis for inequality and discrimination in the exercise of freedom of opinion and expression. While focusing primarily on women, where appropriate, reference is made in the report to the specific challenges faced by lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and questioning (LGBTQ+) individuals. The term “women” is also used in the report to include girls, where appropriate.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Gender is understood as the “socially constructed identities, attributes and roles for women and men and society’s social and cultural meaning for these biological differences” and sex as “a biological construct, referring to the genetic, hormonal, anatomical, and physiological characteristics on whose basis one is labeled at birth as either male or female”. Definitions from “Sexual orientation, gender identity, and gender expression: key terms and standards”, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights document OEA/Ser.G. CP/CAJP/INF. 166/12. 2012, paras. 13 and 14. Available at: http://www.oas.org/en/sla/dil/docs/cp-cajp-inf_166-12_eng.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0012", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Gendered censorship is pervasive. Expression is not free for many women or gender nonconforming people. Their voices are suppressed, controlled or punished explicitly by laws, policies and discriminatory practices and implicitly by social attitudes, cultural norms and patriarchal values. In its most extreme form, sexual and gender-based violence online and offline is used to chill or kill expression that is nonconformist or transgresses patriarchal and heteronormative societal or moral codes or norms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "A. Gendered censorship"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0013", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. While the international human rights system has focused largely on censorship as repressive action by the State, non-State and private actors – whether social, cultural, religious or commercial – often play a leading and visible role in gendered censorship alongside the State, using various social mechanisms that “mute women’s voices, deny validity to their experience, and exclude them from the political discourse”.[[fn:14]] In the digital age, the spate of online violence, hate speech and disinformation often compel women to self-censor, limit what they post or leave platforms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "A. Gendered censorship"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "Kate Manne, Down Girl: The Logic of Misogyny. (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2017), page 79."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0014", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Sexism and misogyny, combined with direct discrimination through laws and policies, are dominant factors in gendered censorship. Growing trends of populism, authoritarianism, nationalism and fundamentalism worldwide have accentuated patriarchy and misogyny and enhanced discrimination against women, as well as the suppression of their ability to express themselves. National security laws and new technologies, combined with cultural norms and community monitoring, have created a particularly challenging environment for female human rights defenders in some countries.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "A. Gendered censorship"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "E.g., Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), “UN experts call for decisive measures to protect fundamental freedoms in China”, 26 June 2020. Available at: www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26006&LangID=E."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0015", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Interpretations of culture, religion and tradition that subordinate women within patriarchal systems and structures are used often to justify discriminatory laws, institutions, rules and regulations. They disempower women and undermine their agency to express themselves or define their own culture, religion and tradition, while at the same time assigning them the role of preserving cultural traditions and values.[[fn:16]] It creates a form of structural silencing that leads women to self-censor. Many women fear the consequences of challenging existing norms and practices or lack the support mechanisms needed to take action. In some contexts, the fact that a woman, especially a young woman,[[fn:17]] is expressing her views is enough for her ideas to be discredited, and for the speaker to be socially sanctioned.[[fn:18]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "A. Gendered censorship"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "A/67/287."}, {"n": 17, "text": "Submission of She Leads."}, {"n": 18, "text": "See, e.g., submission of Ghana: “When a woman is assertive, she receives an immediate backlash. These scenarios prevail in every setting of the Ghanaian culture; at home, school, church, work, politics etc. If a woman mounts a political platform for instance, they would usually get an unwelcoming comment from the public including even other women.”"}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0016", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The following paragraphs describe some specific ways in which women’s expression is censored, restricted or hindered.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "A. Gendered censorship"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0017", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Acts and threats of physical, sexual and psychological violence to silence women and gender nonconforming people are the most extreme manifestations of gendered censorship.[[fn:19]] Female journalists, human rights defenders, politicians and feminist activists are particularly targeted for physical and psychological violence and threats, including death and rape threats, for speaking out or simply for being a woman in a leadership role.[[fn:20]] In some contexts, female protestors and activists in detention are at heightened risk of sexual or gender-based violence at the hands of law enforcement or security forces.[[fn:21]] In some places in the Middle East, girls may be at risk for simply being on social media.[[fn:22]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "B. Putting a disproportionate cost on speaking out"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "World Health Organization, “Devastatingly pervasive: 1 in 3 women globally experience violence”, 9 March 2021. Available at: www.who.int/news/item/09-03-2021-devastatingly-pervasive-1-in-3-women-globally-experience-violence."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Michelle P. Ferrier, Attacks and Harassment: The Impact on Female Journalists and Their Reporting, International Women’s Media Foundation, TrollBusters, 2018; Eliza Macintosh and Swati Gupta, “Troll armies, ‘deepfake’ porn and violent threats. How Twitter became so toxic for India’s women politicians”, CNN, 22 January 2020."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See, e.g., communications BLR 6/2020; EGY 6/2019."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Submission of She Leads."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0018", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. As more women and gender nonconforming people use digital spaces to discuss, debate and build support networks on topics that are taboo in their homes and communities, the patriarchal norms of the real world are replicated on the platforms. To give an example, as women’s reliance on online spaces has increased during the COVID-19 pandemic, online abuse against women has also increased, alongside a rise in offline domestic violence.[[fn:23]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "B. Putting a disproportionate cost on speaking out"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), “The Shadow Pandemic: Violence against women during COVID-19”, available at: www.unwomen.org/en/news/in-focus/in-focus-gender-equality-in-covid-19-response/violence-against-women-during-covid-19?gclid=CjwKCAiA4o79BRBvEiwAjteoYAbTtvj2sLbQIbYjywIlemo5jNYAs8TrtOpsux63OHhLS1GSw8ECyxoCvSYQAvD_BwE."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0019", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. People with intersecting marginalized identities, such as people of African descent, indigenous people, Dalits, migrants, LGBTQ+ people and persons with disabilities face more frequent and more concerted attacks targeting their identities.[[fn:24]] Survey results show that high percentages of young women and girls who are active online face intense gender-based trolling and harassment.[[fn:25]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Women/girls", "Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "B. Putting a disproportionate cost on speaking out"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Suzie Dunn, “Technology-Facilitated Gender-Based Violence: An Overview”, Supporting a Safer Internet Paper No. 1, Centre for International Governance Innovation, 2020, p. 1."}, {"n": 25, "text": "Submissions of She Leads, IT for Change and Interlab."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0020", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Online gender-based violence includes both harmful speech and behaviour. It is often sexist or misogynistic in nature[[fn:26]] and contains digital threats or incitement to physical or sexual violence. “Sextortion”, doxing, trolling, online bullying and harassment, online stalking, online sexual harassment and the non-consensual sharing of intimate images have been identified as digitalized forms of violence against women by the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences.[[fn:27]] Such acts can also involve smear campaigns, electronic sabotage, impersonation of the victim online and the sending of abusive messages in the victim’s name.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "B. Putting a disproportionate cost on speaking out"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Amnesty International, “Toxic Twitter – Women’s Experiences of Violence and Abuse on Twitter”, 2018, chapter 3."}, {"n": 27, "text": "A/HRC/38/47, paras. 30–42."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0021", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Gendered disinformation is also on the rise.[[fn:28]] While it is a subset of gender-based violence, it has some distinct characteristics, using “false or misleading gender and sex-based narratives against women, often with some degree of coordination, aimed at deterring women from participating in the public sphere. It combines three defining characteristics of online disinformation: falsity, malign intent, and coordination.”[[fn:29]] It is often intersectional in nature, promoting both sex and race-based narratives,[[fn:30]] and used as part of issue-based campaigns to undermine public trust. Research data indicates that female politicians, especially those who speak out on feminist issues or come from racial, ethnic, religious or minority groups are targeted with much higher levels of disinformation than their male counterparts.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "B. Putting a disproportionate cost on speaking out"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "A/HRC/47/25."}, {"n": 29, "text": "Nina Jankowicz and others, Malign Creativity: How Gender, Sex, and Lies are Weaponized Against Women Online (Washington, D.C., Wilson Center, 2021)."}, {"n": 30, "text": "Submission of the Center for Democracy and Technology."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0022", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. In a perverse twist in the #MeToo age, women who publicly denounce alleged perpetrators of sexual violence online are increasingly subject to defamation suits or charged with criminal libel or the false reporting of crimes.[[fn:31]] Weaponizing the justice system to silence women feeds impunity while also undermining free speech.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "B. Putting a disproportionate cost on speaking out"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "Submissions of Equality Now and the South African Legal Aid Centre."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0023", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. The harm caused by online violence, sexist hate speech and disinformation are real and diverse, affecting the mental and physical health of those targeted, undermining their confidence and autonomy, stigmatizing them and generating fear, shame, and professional and reputational damage. In extreme cases, online threats can escalate to physical violence and even murder.[[fn:32]] The overall objective is to intimidate and silence female and non-binary journalists, writers, artists and politicians and drive them out of digital spaces. Since online networks are the dominant space for freedom of expression in the digital age, silencing such voices online may prevent them from being heard at all, reducing diversity and affecting democratic debate.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "B. Putting a disproportionate cost on speaking out"], "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "OHCHR, “Malta must establish accountability for murder of Daphne Caruana Galizia, say human rights experts”, 16 October 2019. Available at: www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=25150&LangID=E."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0024", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. National laws and judicial decisions often cite the protection of public morals as a reason to criminalize or seek the removal of content deemed to be improper, indecent, obscene or immodest. In a number of countries, such laws have been used to police the online social behaviour of women and remove content relating to sexual expression, sexual orientation or gender identity.[[fn:33]] Online threats and harassment against women by non-State actors are usually framed in terms of the immodesty or obscenity of women’s audiovisual or written self-expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "1. Gender and sexual expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "Subha Wijesiriwardena, “Private Parts: Obscenity and Censorship in the Digital Age”, GenderIT, 24 June 2019. Available at: www.genderit.org/feminist-talk/private-parts-obscenity-and-censorship-digital-age. See also the submission from KRYSS Network."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0025", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. In 2020, 10 female TikTok influencers in Egypt were charged with inciting immorality and debauchery and violating Egyptian family values.[[fn:34]] Also in 2020, a number of Iranian women were arrested for violating modesty because they had posted photos or videos of themselves without headscarves on Instagram.[[fn:35]] Countries that criminalize women’s freedom of expression online on grounds of morality or obscenity claim to do so in order to protect them. Such paternalistic approaches do not take women’s consent into account and see any expression of female sexuality as problematic, transgressive and punishable.[[fn:36]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "1. Gender and sexual expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "See communication EGY 12/2020."}, {"n": 35, "text": "OHCHR, “Iran: Jailed for defending women who opposed compulsory veiling, Nasrin Sotoudeh must be freed, say UN experts”, 21 June 2021. Available at: www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=27179&LangID=E."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Vrinda Bhandari and Anja Kovacs, “What’s sex got to do with it? Mapping the impact of questions of gender and sexuality on the evolution of the digital rights landscape in India”, Internet Democracy Project, 20 January 2021. Available at: https://internetdemocracy.in/reports/whats-sex-got-to-do-with-it-mapping-the-impact-of-questions-of-gender-and-sexuality-on-the-evolution-of-the-digital-rights-landscape-in-india."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0026", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. The policies of digital platforms also seek to censor women’s sexual expression, including prohibiting nudity and “adult content”. Because automated content moderation is unable to identify nuance, content can be wrongly removed or blocked, as shown by the first decision of the Facebook Oversight Board.[[fn:37]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "1. Gender and sexual expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "Submission of QUT Digital Media Research Centre."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0027", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Many countries criminalize not only homosexuality and transgender behaviour but also LGBTQ+ information on grounds of morals, traditional values and child protection. Evidence shows that such an approach fosters intolerance, stigmatization and violence, and deprives people from access to accurate information.[[fn:38]]", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "1. Gender and sexual expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Submission of Outright International."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0028", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The “homosexual propaganda” law in the Russian Federation[[fn:39]] and the law passed in Hungary in 2020 are two examples of censorship of legitimate speech about and by LGBTQ+ and gender nonconforming people.[[fn:40]] The special procedure mandate holders have expressed serious concerns regarding the bans on the dissemination of information related to sexual orientation and gender identity on grounds of public morality.[[fn:41]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "1. Gender and sexual expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "See communication RUS 8/2012."}, {"n": 40, "text": "OHCHR, “Hungary / LGBT: New law proposal endangers rights of the trans and gender diverse persons, warns UN expert”, 29 April 2020. Available at: www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=25844&LangID=E."}, {"n": 41, "text": "A/HRC/19/41, paras. 63–65."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0029", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. According to the Feminist Principles of the Internet 2.0, the right to sexual expression is “a freedom of expression issue of no less importance than political or religious expression”.[[fn:42]] The World Health Organization has underlined the vital role of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in the realization of sexual health.[[fn:43]] The Special Rapporteur on Economic, Social, Cultural and Environmental Rights of the Organization of American States has affirmed that gender expression constitutes a form of expression that is protected under the international human rights framework.[[fn:44]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "1. Gender and sexual expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "APC, Feminist Principles of the Internet – Version 2.0, principle 10. Available at: www.apc.org/en/pubs/feminist-principles-internet-version-20."}, {"n": 43, "text": "World Health Organization, “Developing sexual health programmes: A framework for action” (WHO/RHR/HRP/10.22, 2010), p, 12. Available at: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/70501/WHO_RHR_HRP_10.22_eng.pdf?sequence=1."}, {"n": 44, "text": "Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Report on Transgender and Gender-Diverse Persons and Their Economic, Social, Cultural and Environmental Rights, 2020, para. 65. Available at: www.oas.org/en/iachr/reports/pdfs/TransDESCA-en.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0030", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Across different contexts, feminist artists and activists seek to spark dialogue to disrupt and reshape norms and practices, challenge sociocultural narratives and power structures, and empower individuals and communities. Cultural expression, including artistic freedom, is protected under international human rights law.[[fn:45]] Nevertheless, religious interpretations, traditional values and patriarchal social constructs are used to restrict or stifle cultural expression, including artistic freedom of women and gender nonconforming people.[[fn:46]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "2. Cultural expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "See, e.g. arts. 19 and 27, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights; art. 15, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; art. 7, Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions."}, {"n": 46, "text": "A/67/287."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0031", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Restrictions range from bans on women performing or on the broadcast of their performances to the suppression of art and culture produced by LBGTQ+ and gender nonconforming people, or on themes of gender and sexuality.[[fn:47]] Artists have also faced censorship of artwork on issues such as abortion or gender-based violence.[[fn:48]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "2. Cultural expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "See Freemuse, “Creativity Wronged: How women’s right to artistic freedom is denied and marginalised”. Available at: https://freemuse.org/resources/creativity-wronged-how-womens-right-to-artistic-freedom-is-denied-and-marginalised/. See also “Chapter 9 – Gender Equality: Missing in Action” of UNESCO, Reshaping Cultural Policies: Advancing Creativity for Development (Paris, 2017). Available at: http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/reshaping-cultural-policies-2018-en.pdf?bundesland=all."}, {"n": 48, "text": "Freemuse, The State of Artistic Freedom 2021 (2021), p. 76."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0032", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. The Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights has noted that diverse State and non-State actors seek to quash cultural expression that is antithetical to their agendas and erase cultural diversity,[[fn:49]] using blasphemy laws, laws on public morals, criminal laws and campaigns of threats, harassment and violence.[[fn:50]] Cultural events associated with women and girls have been the target of violent attacks.[[fn:51]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "2. Cultural expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "A/72/155, para. 13."}, {"n": 50, "text": "See e.g. Association for Women’s Rights in Development, Towards a Future without Fundamentalisms: Analyzing Religious Fundamentalist Strategies and Feminist Responses (Toronto, 2012). Available at: www.awid.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/towards_a_future_2012.pdf. Nadje Al-Ali and Nira Yuval-Davis, eds., Feminist Dissent, No. 2 (2017). Available at: https://feministdissent.org/full-issues/issue-2-2017-gender-and-fundamentalisms/."}, {"n": 51, "text": "A/72/155, para. 64."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0033", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. As the digital space has become a major venue for social and cultural interaction during the COVID-19 pandemic, social media platforms have sought to restrict women’s artistic expression online. Vaguely worded community standards and a punitive, conservative and inconsistent approach to content moderation has led to the disproportionate censoring of female artists and artwork on themes of women’s rights, which has in turn caused female artists to self-censor.[[fn:52]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "C. Weaponizing “public morals”", "2. Cultural expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Freemuse, see footnotes 47 and 48."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0034", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Unequal access to the Internet is a major impediment to the empowerment of women, especially those who are excluded from other public spaces, such as gender nonconforming people or young women from traditional societies. Only 48 per cent of women worldwide have access to information and communications technology (ICT), with the percentage falling as low as 23 per cent in Africa.[[fn:53]] Within countries, the digital divide may cut across other axes of discrimination, e.g. along lines of race and ethnicity in the United States of America.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "1. Gender digital divide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "International Telecommunication Union, “ICT Facts and Figures 2016”. Available at: www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Documents/facts/ICTFactsFigures2016.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0035", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The disparities in Internet access are grounded in other disparities that women face in society arising from their economic, social, political and cultural contexts.[[fn:54]] There is therefore not merely one divide but multiple divides to be overcome.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "1. Gender digital divide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "APC, “Bridging the gender digital divide from a human rights perspective: APC submission to the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights”, 22 March 2017. Available at: www.apc.org/en/pubs/bridging-gender-digital-divide-human-rights-perspective-apc-submission-office-high-commissioner. See also A/HRC/35/9."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0036", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Access to information is key to women’s empowerment and agency. From a gender perspective, at least two problems are evident. Firstly, information of particular interest to women, e.g. data on workplace inequalities or violence against women, is often unavailable, outdated or difficult to find. Gender-disaggregated data are systematically lacking in many countries. The Women Count project of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women) is an important initiative to improve the production and use of gender statistics.[[fn:55]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "2. Unequal access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "UN-Women, “Women Count”. Available at: https://data.unwomen.org/women-count."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0037", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Secondly, there is a deliberate attempt to block the dissemination of gender-related information. In a number of countries, regressive lobbies present sexual and reproductive rights as perpetuating “gender ideology” and threatening culture, religion, traditional values, parental rights and the right to life.[[fn:56]] Some Governments and private actors seek to restrict information on reproductive and sexual health, including safe abortion, and the provision of comprehensive sexuality education.[[fn:57]] United Nations treaty bodies,[[fn:58]] special procedure mandate holders[[fn:59]] and the Human Rights Council[[fn:60]] have clarified that such discourse is misleading, and incompatible with and antagonistic to human rights standards.[[fn:61]] Civil society organizations have campaigned to promote access to health information for marginalized communities,[[fn:62]] and to provide content from an intersectional feminist perspective.[[fn:63]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "2. Unequal access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "A/HRC/38/46; A/72/155."}, {"n": 57, "text": "E.g. the so-called campaign named “Con mis hijos no te metas” in Latin America."}, {"n": 58, "text": "See e.g. CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.10 and CCPR/C/GC/36."}, {"n": 59, "text": "See e.g. A/HRC/38/46, A/HRC/40/60, A/75/152 and A/74/181."}, {"n": 60, "text": "See e.g. Human Rights Council resolution 38/1."}, {"n": 61, "text": "CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.10; see also the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, para 38."}, {"n": 62, "text": "See Article 19: International Centre against Censorship campaign in Central America targeting indigenous women. Available at: https://articulo19.org/promover-el-derecho-a-la-informacion-a-mujeres-indigenas-para-garantizar-su-salud/."}, {"n": 63, "text": "See website of GenderIT, available at: www.genderit.org/."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0038", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Increasingly, there are also efforts to ban gender studies, restricting academic freedom of expression and limiting information on gender theory, rights related to gender and sexuality, and feminist scholarship. In 2017, Paraguay banned the discussion of gender-related issues in schools.[[fn:64]] In 2018, Hungary revoked accreditation and funding for gender studies programs at the two universities where they were being offered.[[fn:65]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "2. Unequal access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 64, "text": "CEDAW/C/PRY/CO/7."}, {"n": 65, "text": "See communication HUN 6/2018."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0039", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Women’s rights groups and feminist movements have been a critical force for change around the world but they have come under increased pressure as public space for civic action has been restricted by authoritarian regimes and regressive social actors. Organizations have been turning to digital platforms as an alternative space to organize, in particular during the COVID-19 pandemic, but find themselves under attack from State and non-State actors.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "3. Restrictions on civic space"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0040", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Interrelated trends restrict the space available to women’s rights organizations today: censorship, repression, surveillance, the shutdown of websites or other restrictions by the authorities and intimidation, blackmail, slander and online harassment by a range of ideologically driven non-State actors.[[fn:66]] Like other civil society organizations, women’s groups also face Government-imposed constraints on international funding and cumbersome domestic regulations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "3. Restrictions on civic space"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "Submission of Article 19: International Centre against Censorship; Transnational Institute, “Rethinking shrinking space”. Available at: www.tni.org/en/topic/rethinking-shrinking-space."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0041", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The closing of spaces for feminists to organize is a highly gendered phenomenon, with restrictions and repression linked to the gender of the activists or the gender-related nature of their work.[[fn:67]] The ways in which they are targeted are also gendered, with additional risks of violence, censorship or surveillance for those identified with or working on, for instance, sexual and reproductive rights or the rights of LGBTQ+ communities or other marginalized groups, such as Dalit women.[[fn:68]] As an example, hundreds of women peacefully protesting against Turkey’s withdrawal from the Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (Istanbul Convention) were arrested and prosecuted.[[fn:69]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "3. Restrictions on civic space"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "Submission of Outright Action International."}, {"n": 68, "text": "Submission of International Dalit Solidarity Network."}, {"n": 69, "text": "Submission of Human Rights Association (insan Haklari Dernegi)."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0042", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Neither gender equality nor women’s freedom of expression can be promoted if spaces for women to organize are not protected.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "3. Restrictions on civic space"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0043", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. The Fourth World Conference on Women in 1995 called for greater participation and decision-making of women in the media, and for the media to promote a balanced and non-stereotyped portrayal of women.[[fn:70]] As the commitment of the United Nations Generation Equality campaign to meet the goals of the Beijing Declaration is reaffirmed, “traditional understandings of masculinity persist and are disseminated by the media industry, and constitute a barrier for gender equality in different contexts.”[[fn:71]] Women are far less likely than men to be seen in the media worldwide. As subjects of stories, women only appear in a quarter of television, radio and print news. Women’s perspectives and issues are less likely to reach audiences. The gender imbalance in how media views society reinforces and perpetuates stereotypes and biases.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "4. Female journalists under attack"], "footnotes": [{"n": 70, "text": "Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, Strategic Objectives J 1 – J2."}, {"n": 71, "text": "Submission of UNESCO."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0044", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. There has been little change in the past 25 years, according to the Global Media Monitoring Project, a worldwide grass-roots media research and advocacy initiative.[[fn:72]] In a 2015 report, women made up only 19 per cent of experts featured in news stories and 37 per cent of reporters telling stories globally.[[fn:73]] A survey of Indian media conducted in 2019 found that women accounted for less than 15 per cent of panellists on English news channels and authored only 25 per cent of news articles.[[fn:74]] A 2019 study in the United States pointed to the underrepresentation of women, especially black women, in news media.[[fn:75]] Employment practices and sexist behaviour were identified as problems in the sector.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "4. Female journalists under attack"], "footnotes": [{"n": 72, "text": "Who Makes the News?, GMMP 2020–2021 Final Report. Available at: https://whomakesthenews.org/gmmp-2020-final-reports/."}, {"n": 73, "text": "Aneeta Rattan and others. “Tackling the Underrepresentation of Women in Media”, Harvard Business Review, 6 June 2019."}, {"n": 74, "text": "UN-Women, Gender Representation in Indian Newsrooms, 2021."}, {"n": 75, "text": "Lucas Beard and others, “Shattering the glass screen”, McKinsey & Company, 13 February 2020. Available at: www.mckinsey.com/industries/technology-media-and-telecommunications/our-insights/shattering-the-glass-screen."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0045", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. While the safety of both male and female journalists are threatened in the course of their work, women are at much higher risk of sexualized violence and online violence including doxing.[[fn:76]] A global survey released in April 2021 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and the International Center for Journalists found that 73 per cent of female journalists claimed to have experienced online gender-based violence, with black and indigenous women targeted more often than white women.[[fn:77]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "4. Female journalists under attack"], "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "“Doxing” is the practice of leaking online personal details and home address, endangering female journalists and their families. See A/HRC/44/52."}, {"n": 77, "text": "UNESCO, Online violence against women journalists: a global snapshot of incidence and impacts (Paris, 2020). Available at: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000375136."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0046", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Attacks on female journalists violate not only their freedom of expression, but also society’s right to information from diverse media, as highlighted by the global campaign to support Maria Ressa.[[fn:78]] It represents a gendered attack on media freedom.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["II. Barriers and challenges to women’s freedom of expression: analysing gendered censorship", "D. Restricting access to information and participation", "4. Female journalists under attack"], "footnotes": [{"n": 78, "text": "See communication PHL 12/2018. See also #HoldTheLineCampaign: Reporters Without Borders, “#HoldTheLine campaign launched in support of Maria Ressa and independent media in the Philippines”, 9 July 2020. Available at: https://rsf.org/en/news/holdtheline-campaign-launched-support-maria-ressa-and-independent-media-philippines-0."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0047", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. In this section, the international legal standards relevant to gender equality and freedom of expression are set out and analysed in relation to the challenges and barriers mentioned above and the duties of States to respect, protect and fulfil human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0048", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. States have an obligation not only to respect freedom of opinion and expression, but also to proactively remove the structural and systemic barriers to equality, including sexual and gender-based violence, which impede women’s full enjoyment of freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "A. Equality and expression are mutually reinforcing"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0049", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is guaranteed in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. While gender neutral in their language, articles 2, 3 and 26 of the Covenant are explicit in guaranteeing all rights enshrined in the Covenant without discrimination on the basis of sex. European, Inter-American and African regional human rights instruments also protect freedom of opinion and expression and provide similar guarantees of equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "A. Equality and expression are mutually reinforcing"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — joint citation."}, {"article": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'articles 2, 3 and 26 of the Covenant' — 'the Covenant' refers to ICCPR (the right of freedom of expression context)."}, {"article": "3", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'articles 2, 3 and 26 of the Covenant' — ICCPR."}, {"article": "26", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'articles 2, 3 and 26 of the Covenant' — ICCPR."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0050", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, States are obliged to guarantee women equal enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedoms. The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination and the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls have affirmed that the rights to equality and freedom of expression are mutually supportive.[[fn:79]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "A. Equality and expression are mutually reinforcing"], "footnotes": [{"n": 79, "text": "CERD/C/GC/35, para. 45; Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, A/HRC/23/50, para. 34."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0051", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. The elimination of structural and systemic forms of gender discrimination is essential to protecting freedom of expression on a basis of equality. International law recognizes the obligation of States to address not only discriminatory laws, policies and practices, but also the structural and systemic factors that perpetuate disadvantages, including through socially, culturally and legally entrenched gender stereotypes.[[fn:80]] In its general recommendation No. 25 (2004) on temporary special measures, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women affirmed that States parties must address gender-based stereotypes that affect women individually, in law and in legal and societal structures and institutions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "A. Equality and expression are mutually reinforcing"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "Article 5 (a), Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women. See also A/67/287, paras. 40–54."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0052", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. In a series of resolutions, the Human Rights Council has recognized the intersectionality of gender-based discrimination. It has called on States to eliminate the root causes of structural discrimination against women and girls, including deep-rooted patriarchal and gender stereotypes, negative social norms and systemic racism, and traditional understandings of gender roles that perpetuate unequal power relations, discriminatory attitudes, behaviours, norms, perceptions, customs and harmful practices.[[fn:81]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "A. Equality and expression are mutually reinforcing"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "Human Rights Council resolutions 44/17, 41/6, 38/1 and 35/18."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0053", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The right to freedom of expression is established as a broad and inclusive right in article 19 (2) of the Covenant, encompassing the right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of borders and through any media. The Human Rights Committee has clarified that the protection of information and ideas include those that may shock, offend or disturb.[[fn:82]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "B. The right to information is broad and inclusive"], "footnotes": [{"n": 82, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Handyside v. the United Kingdom, 1976, para. 49."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0054", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. This right incorporates a right to access information, including from public bodies, and places an obligation on States to respond to information requests from the public or the media and proactively publish and widely disseminate information of significant public interest.[[fn:83]] A total of 121 States, comprising 90 per cent of the world’s population, have adopted laws on the right to information, with varying degrees of effectiveness in providing public information and advancing transparent governance.[[fn:84]] While women have used their right to access information to claim other rights and demand accountability, many of them confront significant structural barriers, including a lack of education, a lack of access to the Internet, digital illiteracy, poverty and “time poverty”, as well as cultural and legal norms that deem it inappropriate for women to seek information from public authorities.[[fn:85]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "B. The right to information is broad and inclusive"], "footnotes": [{"n": 83, "text": "E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 44."}, {"n": 84, "text": "Article 19: International Centre against Censorship, “Infographic: Progress on the right to information around the world”, 18 July 2018. Available at: www.article19.org/resources/infographic-progress-on-the-right-to-information-around-the-world/."}, {"n": 85, "text": "Article 19: International Centre against Censorship, Open Development: Access to Information and the Sustainable Development Goals (London, 2017). Available at: www.article19.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Open-Development-Access-to-Information-and-the-SDGs-2017.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0055", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The gender data gap, or the failure of many States to provide disaggregated information, is inconsistent with the obligation of States to uphold the right to information. It is also inconsistent with States’ commitments to gender equality.[[fn:86]] The failure of States to produce disaggregated data and the resultant bias not only undermines the right to information, but may also skew policymaking and have an impact on the enjoyment of a variety of human rights. Too often, the very existence of gender data gaps and data biases is a manifestation of the structural discrimination faced by women, girls and non-binary persons.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "B. The right to information is broad and inclusive"], "footnotes": [{"n": 86, "text": "See submission of APC."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0056", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. In the digital age, the Internet is the main means of accessing and sharing information. Human rights bodies have recognized the gender digital divide as a major constraint on the equal right to freedom of expression of women and girls. The Human Rights Council has affirmed the importance of applying a comprehensive human rights-based approach to providing and expanding access to the Internet, calling on all States to bridge the gender digital divide,[[fn:87]] foster an enabling online environment that is safe and inclusive, and make a gender perspective central to policy decisions and the frameworks that guide ICT policies.[[fn:88]] Community efforts, as an alternative to commercial models led by large companies, also deserve more attention and support.[[fn:89]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "B. The right to information is broad and inclusive"], "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "Human Rights Council resolution 38/7."}, {"n": 88, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 89, "text": "E.g. Zenzeleni, a community-owned Internet service provider in rural South Africa."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0057", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Rooted in systemic and structural discrimination against women and girls, the gender digital divide and data gap are not only concerns for development, but also represent the failure of States to fulfil the right to information.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "B. The right to information is broad and inclusive"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0058", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. While the freedom of opinion is absolute, freedom of expression may be restricted. Under article 19 (3) of the Covenant, all restrictions must be provided by law and must be necessary and legitimate to protect the rights or reputations of others, national security or public order, public health or public morals. The restriction must be the least restrictive and proportionate means of achieving the purported aim. The application of these restrictions by States “may not put in jeopardy the right itself”.[[fn:90]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "C. Restrictions of freedom of expression must be lawful and necessary, and protect legitimate objectives"], "footnotes": [{"n": 90, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 21."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0059", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. As mentioned earlier in the report, States have frequently relied on public morals to improperly restrict gender, sexual and cultural expression. While “public morals” is a potentially broad concept, under international law there are important limits on its application through a three-part test of its lawfulness, legitimate objective, necessity and proportionality. It is also worth recalling that speech that may shock, offend or disturb is protected under article 19 (2) of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "C. Restrictions of freedom of expression must be lawful and necessary, and protect legitimate objectives"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0060", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The Human Rights Committee has clarified that restrictions to protect public morals cannot be based exclusively on a single tradition[[fn:91]] and must respect the universality of human rights and the principle of non-discrimination.[[fn:92]] No restriction may be enshrined in traditional, religious or customary law.[[fn:93]] The Human Rights Council and the General Assembly have reinforced the narrow and specific nature of the public morals limitation, calling on States to ensure that any legislation aimed at preserving morals is compatible with international human rights law,[[fn:94]] and that all policies, administrative measures and legal provisions aimed at preserving public morals are clearly defined, determinable, non-retroactive and compatible with international human rights law.[[fn:95]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "C. Restrictions of freedom of expression must be lawful and necessary, and protect legitimate objectives"], "footnotes": [{"n": 91, "text": "CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.4, para. 8."}, {"n": 92, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 32; see also CCPR/C/106/D/1932/2010 (Irina Fedotova v. Russian Federation), para. 10.5."}, {"n": 93, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 24."}, {"n": 94, "text": "Human Rights Council resolution 22/6."}, {"n": 95, "text": "See General Assembly resolution 68/181, entitled “Promotion of the Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms: protecting women human rights defenders”, para 10; and General Assembly resolution 70/161."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0061", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Furthermore, States bear the burden of proving that the restriction is necessary and proportionate to the aim, and are obliged to interpret all restrictions to freedom of expression narrowly, given “the primary responsibility of the State to secure [recognized] rights and liberties”.[[fn:96]] The principle of necessity and proportionality means that restrictions cannot be justified where the harm to freedom of expression outweighs the benefits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "C. Restrictions of freedom of expression must be lawful and necessary, and protect legitimate objectives"], "footnotes": [{"n": 96, "text": "Alexandre Charles Kiss, “Permissible Limitations on Rights” in The International Bill of Rights: the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Louis Henkin, ed., (New York, Columbia University Press, 1981), p. 304."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0062", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. The prohibition against sexual and gender-based violence is well established in international law and regional human rights instruments. States have an obligation to ensure that State and non-State actors refrain from engaging in or contributing to threats or acts of sexual and gender-based violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "D. Gender-based violence is prohibited online and offline"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0063", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. As noted by the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, the right to be safe from threats and violence applies equally online and offline.[[fn:97]] This report focuses on online violence against women because digital technology has added new and dangerous dimensions that pose a serious threat to freedom of expression. Given the global nature of the issue, the absence of an international definition of online gender-based violence complicates the problem.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "D. Gender-based violence is prohibited online and offline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 97, "text": "A/HRC/38/47. See also European Court of Human Rights, Buturuga v. Romania, 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0064", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Online gender-based violence has some distinct features that differentiate it from violence in the real world. The acts can be committed at any time and from any place by primary perpetrators and amplified by secondary perpetrators, using digital spaces and tools that greatly enhance the rate, speed, replication and permanence of the acts, with significant impacts on survivors.[[fn:98]] Existing laws on violence against women and girls are not suited to addressing these peculiarities.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "D. Gender-based violence is prohibited online and offline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 98, "text": "Zarizana Abdul Aziz, “Due Diligence and Accountability for Online Violence Against Women”, APC Issue Papers. Available at: www.apc.org/sites/default/files/DueDiligenceAndAccountabilityForOnlineVAW.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0065", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. A growing number of States have enacted specific legislation or updated existing laws to criminalize online violence or require social media platforms to remove such violent content.[[fn:99]] Civil society and women’s groups have found that, in many cases, the laws fail to address the distinct nature of online violence or are being implemented poorly.[[fn:100]] Furthermore, because of the absence of physical violence, law enforcement and judicial authorities tend to trivialize the abuse even though it often has real world consequences. In countries that have no specific laws on online gender-based violence, the victims are either left without recourse or resort in the face of defamation, or with privacy laws that do not meet their needs adequately.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "D. Gender-based violence is prohibited online and offline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 99, "text": "See e.g. submission of Gender Links, noting the Cyber Crimes Act, 2021 of South Africa as good practice. See also the submission of Mexico."}, {"n": 100, "text": "See, e.g., A Survival Guide to being a Woman on the Internet (Policy), which examines case studies in Africa."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0066", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The Council of Europe Group of Experts on Action against Violence against Women and Domestic Violence, which monitors the implementation of the Istanbul Convention, has increasingly focused its attention on online violence. It will adopt a general recommendation in 2021 on the digital dimensions of violence and its impact on democratic participation, which is therefore also relevant to women’s freedom of expression.[[fn:101]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "D. Gender-based violence is prohibited online and offline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "See submission of the Council of Europe."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0067", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Like offline violence, addressing online violations requires a mix of criminal, civil, legal, administrative and social responses. States have taken a range of initiatives, such as training police, prosecutors and judges on hate speech and hate crimes in Finland, launching women’s justice centres to empower survivors and support their access to justice in Mexico, and making community-level interventions in Honduras using social media platforms to change cultural norms and the attitudes of young men and women.[[fn:102]] The digital rights organization Access Now operates a digital security helpline open at all times to provide direct support to at-risk users and build capacity in local communities.[[fn:103]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "D. Gender-based violence is prohibited online and offline"], "footnotes": [{"n": 102, "text": "Submissions from Finland, Mexico and Honduras."}, {"n": 103, "text": "Submission of Access Now."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0068", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. As misogyny proliferates on social media platforms, there are increasing calls to prohibit or criminalize gendered hate speech. While important, the issue should be approached with care given the risk of censoring legitimate speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "E. Gendered hate speech must be addressed within the international framework of hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0069", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Although hate speech has no universally accepted definition in international law, it is understood to cover a broad range of hateful expression and the obligations of States vary depending on the level and nature of likely harm.[[fn:104]] The most severe forms of hate speech are prohibited under international law. Under article 20 (2) of the Covenant, “advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence” is prohibited.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "E. Gendered hate speech must be addressed within the international framework of hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 104, "text": "Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect, “United Nations Strategy and Plan of Action on Hate Speech”. Available at: www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/hate-speech-strategy.shtml."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0070", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Although gender and sex are not mentioned in article 20 (2), they can and should be considered grounds for protection in view of the gender equality clauses elsewhere in the Covenant and the broader intersectional approach to non-discrimination that international human rights law has consistently taken in recent decades.[[fn:105]] In addition to the specific requirements set out in article 20 (2) of the Covenant, in the Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence six elements are proposed as a threshold test for hate speech: the context; the speaker; the intent; the content and form of the speech; the extent of the speech act; and the likelihood, including the imminence, of harm. Providing all these elements are satisfied, gendered hate speech can be prohibited under international law. However, it should not be criminalized except in the most egregious cases of real and imminent danger with a clear intention to cause serious harm.[[fn:106]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "E. Gendered hate speech must be addressed within the international framework of hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 105, "text": "A/74/486, p. 6."}, {"n": 106, "text": "A/67/357."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0071", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. The Rabat Plan of Action also offers a framework for distinguishing between different types of speech based on the severity of harm. It sets out three categories: harmful speech that constitutes a crime because it presents real and imminent danger; harmful speech that does not reach that threshold but may justify civil action; and offensive speech that raises concerns in terms of tolerance, hostility or discrimination and should be addressed through non-legal measures, such as condemnation, awareness-raising and education.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "E. Gendered hate speech must be addressed within the international framework of hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0072", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Such a graduated approach could provide an international benchmark for defining gender-based hate speech in a way that protects both women’s safety and freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "E. Gendered hate speech must be addressed within the international framework of hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0073", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. There is no agreed definition of disinformation under international law. It is understood generally to be false information disseminated with the intent of causing social harm. Information cannot be restricted under international law simply because of falsity. False information can be restricted only by measures that meet the three-part test set out in article 19 (3) of the Covenant, meaning that they are lawful, necessary and proportionate to protect one of the specified legitimate objectives, e.g. to prevent serious reputational damage.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "F. Gendered disinformation needs a multifaceted approach"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0074", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Laws purportedly adopted to restrict disinformation (“fake news” laws) are often misused to silence critics.[[fn:107]] The criminalization of disinformation is counterproductive. The most powerful antidote to disinformation is a well-informed and digitally literate population with access to multiple, diverse media and information sources, and multifaceted, multi-stakeholder approaches involving States, companies and civil society, including women’s groups.[[fn:108]] Disinformation is a complex phenomenon, even more so when it is gendered, and would benefit from more research and analysis.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["III. Respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression: the responsibilities of States", "F. Gendered disinformation needs a multifaceted approach"], "footnotes": [{"n": 107, "text": "A/HRC/47/25."}, {"n": 108, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0075", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. Under international law, companies have the responsibility to respect human rights, including gender equality and the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In line with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework, they are expected to exercise due diligence and conduct regular human rights assessments of their products, operations and policies with a view to identifying, preventing or mitigating actual or potential adverse impacts on human rights and provide remediation. There is also an expectation for companies to be transparent about their policies and practices.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0076", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. As the prime space for public discourse, social media platforms have contributed significantly to women’s empowerment by enabling them to access information, communicate, advocate and organize. However, the platforms have failed to respond adequately to the risks and dangers of online violence, hate speech and disinformation that women confront in the digital space.[[fn:109]] The following paragraphs set out some of the concerns.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms"], "footnotes": [{"n": 109, "text": "The present report focuses mainly on Twitter, Facebook and Instagram and publicly viewable videos on YouTube. It should be noted that harmful content is frequently shared in “private” online spaces, e.g. WhatsApp group chats and Telegram channels. Content may also travel between public and private online spaces as well as between legacy and social media."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0077", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. A key concern, noted by the previous Special Rapporteur, is that platforms set their own standards for content moderation, disconnected from human rights.[[fn:110]] Only Facebook has recently adopted a human rights policy, although its impact, if any, on content moderation is unclear.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "A. Content moderation of harmful speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 110, "text": "A/HRC/38/35."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0078", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. The community standards and content governance guidelines of all major social media platforms cover hate speech, hate promotion and harassment, and view gender-based discrimination as propagating hate speech, although none of them refer to human rights.[[fn:111]] The rising tide of online gender-based violence, harassment, trolling, doxing and other harmful activity has led to criticism that the platforms are not treating online gender-based violence with the urgency, seriousness and resources it requires.[[fn:112]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "A. Content moderation of harmful speech", "1. Safety tools"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "Definitions of hate speech by Twitter, YouTube, Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn, Snapchat and TikTok include hate speech as it relates to: age, race, ethnicity, class, religion, sexual orientation, caste, disability or serious illness, migratory status, national origin and gender identity."}, {"n": 112, "text": "Submission of Internet Lab and IT for Change."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0079", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. In 2020 and 2021, the dominant platforms have introduced measures, such as integrated reporting of abuse, blocking, unfriending and muting to alleviate harm, but these features are still largely missing from smaller, newer forms of social media. In June 2021, Facebook, Google, TikTok and Twitter announced their commitment to tackling online abuse and further improving the safety of women on their platforms.[[fn:113]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "A. Content moderation of harmful speech", "1. Safety tools"], "footnotes": [{"n": 113, "text": "Web Foundation, “Facebook, Google, TikTok and Twitter make unprecedented commitments to tackle the abuse of women on their platforms”, 1 July 2021. Available at: https://webfoundation.org/2021/07/generation-equality-commitments/."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0080", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. Safety tools need to be adopted throughout the sector. Furthermore, in order to be effective, the measures need to be accompanied by broader commitments to transparency and accountability, changes in a business model based on the extraction of personal data and a greater awareness of gender and human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "A. Content moderation of harmful speech", "1. Safety tools"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0081", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. There are concerns that insufficient sensitivity to local contexts may endanger women. Platform content moderation is typically performed by a combination of algorithmic sorting, including classifiers to identify prescribed content, and human review. Automated content moderation is capable of image recognition but struggles to detect sentiment, capture nuance or consider relevant linguistic and cultural traits.[[fn:114]] Given that transgressions of social and cultural norms and the consequences for them depend on local contexts, the failure to understand diverse local situations can jeopardize women’s safety.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "A. Content moderation of harmful speech", "2. Contextual analysis"], "footnotes": [{"n": 114, "text": "A/73/348."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0082", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Human moderators of content can also err while enforcing internal policies, training artificial intelligence systems and actively screening and removing offensive material, as well as being subject to the emotional toll of viewing pornographic, violent and other harmful content.[[fn:115]] Given the significant error rates of both human and automated content moderation processes,[[fn:116]] dominant platforms need to invest more in improving accuracy and understanding local contexts, including through partnerships with civil society and women’s groups.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "A. Content moderation of harmful speech", "2. Contextual analysis"], "footnotes": [{"n": 115, "text": "Sarah T. Roberts, Behind the Screen: Content Moderation in the Shadows of Social Media (New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, 2018)."}, {"n": 116, "text": "See e.g. Electronic Frontier Foundation, “TOSsed Out”. Available at: www.eff.org/tossedout."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0083", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Women and gender nonconforming people are subjected to harmful speech, but they also find their own expression suppressed on platforms. There have been many reports of removal of content and imagery produced by women, especially those from minority groups, which show gender bias in content moderation.[[fn:117]] Several reports of pictures of indigenous women nude, including while protesting, were removed for violating community standards.[[fn:118]] It is also claimed in some reports that specific groups of women are particularly subject to removals, such as transgender women.[[fn:119]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Women/girls", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "A. Content moderation of harmful speech", "3. Gender bias"], "footnotes": [{"n": 117, "text": "E.g. on Instagram, women, LGBTQ+ people of African origin, plus-sized people, pole dancers and sex workers or educators have reported bias in taking down content, disabling profiles or pages, and/or rejecting advertisements. For further information, see SaltyWorld, “Algorithmic Bias Report”. Available at: https://saltyworld.net/algorithmicbiasreport-2/."}, {"n": 118, "text": "See, for example: www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/mar/23/facebook-censorship-topless-aboriginal-women."}, {"n": 119, "text": "Online Censorship, “A Resource Kit for Journalists”. Available at: https://onlinecensorship.org/content/a-resource-kit-for-journalists#Issue-Areas."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0084", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. The setting of rules by social media platforms through community guidelines and moderation by algorithms is not objective. It reflects the biases and worldviews of the rule-setters, who tend to be typically from the specific sociocultural context of Silicon Valley: racially monochromatic and economically elite.[[fn:120]] The gender bias evident in content moderation reinforces the argument for companies to base their content moderation on international human rights standards.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "A. Content moderation of harmful speech", "3. Gender bias"], "footnotes": [{"n": 120, "text": "Ysabel Gerrard and Helen Thornham, “Content moderation: Social media’s sexist assemblages”, New Media and Society, Vol. 22, No. 7 (July 2020), pp. 1266–1286."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0085", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. A challenge to the moderation of harmful content is the platform business model that seeks to maximize user engagement by promoting inflammatory and controversial content.[[fn:121]] Gender-based hate speech fuelling controversy and moral outrage is an example of this type of content.[[fn:122]] Content moderation rules may also lead to the amplification and aggravation of sexist and misogynistic speech[[fn:123]] through confirmation bias with the creation of filter bubbles and echo chambers that perpetuate online toxicity.[[fn:124]].", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "B. Business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 121, "text": "A/HRC/47/25, paras. 66–69 and A/74/786, para. 40. See also Amit Goldenberg and James J Gross, “Digital Emotion Contagion”, Harvard Business School, 2020, p. 6."}, {"n": 122, "text": "Molly Crockett, “How Social Media Amplifies Moral Outrage”, The Eudemonic Project, 9 February 2020. Available at: eudemonicproject.org/ideas/how-social-media-amplifies-moral-outrage."}, {"n": 123, "text": "GLAAD, “Social Media Safety Index”, 2021 and Safiya Umoja Noble, Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism (New York, New York University Press, 2018)."}, {"n": 124, "text": "Facebook’s Civil Rights Audit (July 2020) explains that the algorithms used by Facebook “fuel extreme and polarizing content [...]. Facebook should do everything in its power to prevent its tools and algorithms from driving people toward self-reinforcing echo chambers of extremism, and that the company must recognize that failure to do so can have dangerous (and life-threatening) real-world consequences.”"}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0086", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. Some limited steps have been taken to improve the ranking of so-called authoritative content, including by Facebook[[fn:125]] and YouTube,[[fn:126]] typically as temporary crisis measures, for example during election periods or in response to misinformation related to COVID-19. Other proposed measures include introducing “friction” on the viral nature of content, as WhatsApp has done by limiting forwarding;[[fn:127]] temporarily halting the sharing of content until it has been fact-checked; labelling posts; using “scan and suggest” technology; and limiting the auto-playing of videos.[[fn:128]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "B. Business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 125, "text": "Adam Mosseri, “Helping Ensure News on Facebook Is From Trusted Sources”, Facebook, 19 January 2018. Available at: https://about.fb.com/news/2018/01/trusted-sources/."}, {"n": 126, "text": "Greg Bensinger, “YouTube says viewers are spending less time watching conspiracy theory videos. But many still do”, Washington Post, 3 December 2019. Available at: www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/12/03/youtube-says-viewers-are-spending-less-time-watching-conspiracy-videos-many-still-do/."}, {"n": 127, "text": "WhatsApp Blog, “More changes to forwarding”, WhatsApp. Available at: https://blog.whatsapp.com/more-changes-to-forwarding."}, {"n": 128, "text": "See Center for American Progress, Fighting Coronavirus Misinformation and Disinformation: Preventive Product Recommendations for Social Media Platforms (2020), appendix, for a list of options."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0087", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. Researchers and civil society have long called for a greater focus on the role of social media companies’ algorithms and design decisions. It is an open and difficult question on how to reconfigure social media to better incentivize diverse, varied and reliable information while fostering freedom of expression. More informed and multi-stakeholder debate is needed on the societal impact of algorithmic ranking of information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "B. Business model"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0088", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. Appeal mechanisms for wrongful decisions are crucial to offsetting the significant risk inherent in large social media companies using imperfect filters to remove content, or conversely, failing to take action in response to user complaints. Under the Guiding Principles, company-led remediation must begin with an effective way for women to report potential violations of hate speech policies, and a transparent and accessible process to appeal platform decisions, with companies publishing a publicly accessible and reasoned response.[[fn:129]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "C. Remedies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 129, "text": "A/HRC/38/35."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0089", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. The platforms should disclose the kinds of remedies they will impose on those who have violated their gender policies, using graduated responses according to the severity of the violation or the recidivism of the user.[[fn:130]] As part of their due diligence efforts, they should identify rights-compliant tools to address problematic content beyond account suspension and content removal, such as demonetization, fact-checking and, where appropriate, counter-messaging.[[fn:131]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "C. Remedies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 130, "text": "In the context of hate speech, see A/74/486, para. 53."}, {"n": 131, "text": "See the Manila Principles on Intermediary Liability for standards for censorship and takedowns, and the Santa Clara Principles on Transparency and Accountability in Content Moderation for guidelines to create meaningful, fair, unbiased and proportional processes that respect rights of the users of platforms."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0090", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. There are periodic recommendations to require real name identity and allow backdoor access to encrypted products for surveillance and law enforcement.[[fn:132]] Questions have been raised about anonymity as a factor in encouraging online violence with impunity. However, anonymity and the use of encryption and other privacy protocols are an essential facet of women’s enjoyment of freedom of opinion and expression in the online context and must be protected. The anonymous browsing of networks facilitates their safe access to the Internet without fear of discovery or reprisal, especially in the case of feminist and LGBTQ+ activists and female human rights defenders, but also for many others, such as victims of domestic violence.[[fn:133]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "D. Privacy, anonymity and encryption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 132, "text": "Center for Democracy and Technology, “Issue Brief: A “Backdoor” to Encryption for Government Surveillance”, 3 March 2016."}, {"n": 133, "text": "Submission of Access Now."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0091", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. It is critical to formulate principles and guidelines that allow the Internet to continue to be the central global public forum, upholding the right to privacy and being free from government censorship, while ensuring that it is not used as an instrument to commit violations of women’s human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "D. Privacy, anonymity and encryption"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0092", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. A lack of transparency remains a major failing of Internet intermediaries. There are at least three areas where platform transparency needs to be improved: transparency reporting, access to data and audits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "E. Transparency and accountability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0093", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. Industry transparency reports give insights into the number of requests to take down allegedly unlawful content and content that violates platforms’ terms of services. They are an important source of information, but platforms need to standardize reporting procedures and key performance indicators to allow comparative analysis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "E. Transparency and accountability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0094", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. Meaningful disclosures should include, inter alia, disaggregated data on gender-based online violence that tracks the scale and size of the problem, and provides insights into the nature of the multiple forms of identity-based discrimination, harassment and violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "E. Transparency and accountability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0095", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. Platforms should also improve transparency and accountability in algorithm design and implementation to prevent the occurrence of algorithmic discrimination. As the focus is increasingly on how algorithms treat content and what content is amplified, platform transparency should go beyond content removals to also include lesser responses to violations of terms of service.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "E. Transparency and accountability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0096", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. The larger platforms should also promote transparency and accountability by undergoing regular independent audits.[[fn:134]] The draft European Union Digital Services Act makes a similar proposal.[[fn:135]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "E. Transparency and accountability"], "footnotes": [{"n": 134, "text": "Multiple authors, “Online Harms: Bring in the Auditors”, Tony Blair Institute for Global Change, 30 July 2020. Available at: https://institute.global/policy/online-harms-bring-auditors."}, {"n": 135, "text": "European Commission, Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on a Single Market For Digital Services (Digital Services Act) and amending Directive 2000/31/EC (COM(2020) 825 final)."}]}, {"id": "a-76-258-0097", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. Underlying the problems is a deeper issue of the culture of the technology industry in which women are not sufficiently involved in discussions shaping policies on data use, privacy, ethics, algorithmic functions or content moderation. Without meaningful engagement with women in design and governance, technologies will continue to reinforce gender bias inequality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "F. Gender-sensitive environment"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0098", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. Platforms must build greater awareness of and sensitivity to gender issues in their business operations and activities, including through gender training for their program designers, content policy teams, content moderators, fact-checkers and others. At a systemic level, effective and scalable solutions require the needs of female users to be taken on board and addressed. This approach aligns with the obligations to the Contract for the Web to which companies such as Facebook, Instagram, WhatsApp, Google, Microsoft and Twitter have committed themselves.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "F. Gender-sensitive environment"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0099", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. More broadly, fundamental changes are needed to increase the number of women in the workforces of technology companies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["IV. Corporate responsibility for human rights: social media platforms", "F. Gender-sensitive environment"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0100", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. Gender equality and freedom of opinion and expression are mutually reinforcing, indivisible, interdependent and essential to the achievement of peace, democracy and sustainable development. That is why the failure of many States to respect, protect and fulfil women’s equal right to freedom of opinion and expression is a cause for concern.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0101", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. The ability of women to make themselves heard is a key measure of gender equality and democratic freedom. The report exposes appalling levels of gendered censorship against women, combining discriminatory laws, policies and practices with sexism, misogyny and social and cultural norms based on patriarchal values. Major barriers to women’s freedom of opinion and expression, including unequal access to the Internet and information, the spike in online gender-based violence and hate speech, and attacks on female journalists, warrant urgent action.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0102", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. The most pervasive and pernicious form of gendered censorship is the use of online sexual and gender-based violence, hate speech and disinformation to silence women. Digital platforms have provided a vital space for women’s engagement and activism but they have also perpetuated gender power structures, normalizing sexualized attacks online. Female politicians, journalists, human rights defenders and feminist activists, especially those with intersecting marginalized identities, are disproportionately targeted by State and non-State actors. The objective is to intimidate them and drive them off the platforms and out of public life. That has serious consequences for human rights, diversity in public debates and the media, and ultimately, democracy and development.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0103", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. It is imperative to make digital spaces safe for women. The interdependence of human rights affirms that there can be no trade-off between women’s right to be free from violence and the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Preserving that freedom while also protecting women from violence and hate requires a three-fold approach: firstly, a gender-sensitive interpretation of the right to freedom of expression and opinion; secondly, a calibrated approach to ensure that responses are aligned with the level of harm or threat; and, thirdly, a clear understanding of what constitutes online gender-based violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0104", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. Efforts to eradicate online gender-based violence, gendered hate speech and disinformation should not be used as a pretext by States to restrict freedom of expression beyond what is permitted under international law, nor should restrictions of freedom of expression permitted by international law be weaponized to inhibit women’s cultural, gender and sexual expression and academic freedom, or restrict feminist discourse and women’s organizations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0105", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. Gender justice requires more than just an end to unlawful interference with women’s freedom of opinion and expression. It demands the creation of an enabling environment in which women can exercise their agency and participate with full and equal access to “information and ideas of all kinds”, the Internet, diverse media and civic space in which feminist organizations can flourish.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0106", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. States should recognize non-discrimination and inclusion as central to their duty to respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of opinion and expression. They should take appropriate measures as part of their national development plans to eliminate gender stereotypes, negative social norms and discriminatory attitudes through legislative measures, social policies and educational programs.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0107", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. States should adopt specific legislation to prohibit, investigate and prosecute online gender-based violence. The legislation should be grounded in international women’s human rights instruments and international standards on freedom of opinion and expression. The prohibitions should be drafted restrictively and should take into account specific digital traits, such as amplification by secondary perpetrators.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0108", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. Sex and gender should be recognized as protected characteristics for the prohibition of advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence in line with article 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. Misogyny should be prohibited if it reaches the threshold set by articles 19 (3) and 20 (2) of the Covenant.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit treaty attribution for advocacy of hatred prohibition."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination' — explicit treaty attribution."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'articles 19 (3) and 20 (2) of the Covenant' — 'the Covenant' refers to ICCPR (just named in full). ICCPR art. 19(3) is the limitations clause for freedom of expression."}, {"article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second 'article 20 (2)' in 'articles 19 (3) and 20 (2) of the Covenant' — same ICCPR, explicit attribution."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0109", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. All legal measures to restrict gender-based hate speech or gendered disinformation should comply with the three-part test of legality, necessity and proportionality, and legitimate objectives, as set out in article 19 (3) of the Covenant. Criminalization should be avoided except in the most egregious cases of advocacy that constitutes incitement.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0110", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. Gendered disinformation should be addressed through non-legal measures, including fostering diverse and independent media, fact-checking, digital and media literacy, community-based awareness programs. Content that is offensive, shocking or disturbing should not be legally restricted but addressed through such non-legal measures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0111", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. States should respect the protection that gender, sexual and cultural expression enjoys under international law and interpret “public morals” restrictively, in line with international guidance on article 19 (3) of the Covenant. They should refrain from harassment, detention or silencing of artists for their creative and political expressions.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0112", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. States should fulfil the right to information, as well as their commitments under the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, by:\n(a) Guaranteeing affordable open, secure and high-quality access to the Internet, free of restrictions and shutdowns and on a non-discriminatory basis to all;\n(b) Producing and publishing gender-disaggregated data, including on digital inclusion;\n(c) Facilitating women’s access to information on all matters regarding their own bodies, lives and health, including sexual and reproductive health and rights;\n(d) Adopting and enforcing strong data protection regulations;\n(e) Adopting legal and regulatory frameworks and policies to provide comprehensive protection for secure digital communications and promote strong encryption and anonymity enhancing tools, products and services;\n(f) Facilitating opportunities for digital literacy through practical, inclusive lifelong learning to empower women, young people and LGBTQ+ groups to develop their digital skills as a means of bridging the digital divide and protecting themselves in digital contexts.", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0113", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. Over the past several decades, gender equality has been reaffirmed as a fundamental principle of international law. In light of that affirmation, and in order to address some of the emerging challenges to women’s equal expression in the digital space, it would be timely for the international community to acknowledge and promote an explicit, gender-sensitive interpretation of freedom of opinion and expression. More specifically:\n(a) The Human Rights Committee should affirm gender and sex as grounds protected under article 20 (2) of the Covenant and further develop the threshold test for the prohibition of online misogynistic speech;\n(b) The Committee for the Elimination of Discrimination against Women should develop an authoritative legal definition of online gender-based violence;\n(c) The Human Rights Council, in collaboration with the special procedure mandate holders and the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, should initiate a multi-stakeholder consultative process to develop guidelines on gendered hate speech and disinformation, along the lines of the Rabat Plan of Action.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for the international community"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0114", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. The Special Rapporteur stands ready to support these endeavours.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for the international community"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0115", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "115. Digital spaces are owned and managed by private actors but they are public spaces accessed by millions of people. As such, and taking into account the nature of their business, social media platforms should be guided by international human rights standards in their content moderation. Furthermore, in line with the United Nations Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, as a matter of due diligence companies should carry out regular human rights and gender impact assessments to identify and mitigate systemic risks affecting women and gender nonconforming people.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0116", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "116. Platforms have collaborated on best practices for child protection. Guided by international human rights standards and the principles of gender equality, they should take the same coordinated approach to make digital spaces safe and gender-inclusive. Policies on safety from online violence should be developed and made available, with full transparency in relation to algorithms, practices and decision-making processes, in an accessible, non-technical jargon in local languages.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0117", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "117. Companies should improve both their transparency, making it more meaningful, and their remedies, along the lines discussed earlier in the report. In addition, in the interest of greater accountability, they should explore an external appeals system, e.g. independent social media councils.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0118", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "118. Companies should ensure data security and privacy, and ensure that the use of data is in compliance with international human rights law and relevant national laws, and has the full informed consent of data providers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0119", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "119. The prescribed length of the present report does not allow a proper analysis of the challenges of gender and traditional media. Pending a report on the issue in the future, the following broad recommendations are being made to States and media companies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Recommendations for traditional media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0120", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "120. The safety of female journalists is of paramount importance. In consultation with media organizations and female journalists, States should develop and adopt integrated prevention, protection, monitoring and response mechanisms for the online and offline safety of female journalists. State officials should publicly condemn any attack on female journalists and should refrain from making statements that could put the women at risk.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Recommendations for traditional media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0121", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 121, "n": 121, "text": "121. Media outlets should:\n(a) Adopt internal protocols and processes, in consultations with female journalists, to address gender-based violence and harassment at work and in the workplace, and provide comprehensive support, including psychosocial and legal assistance and training;\n(b) Improve workplace culture and promote equal opportunities for female journalists;\n(c) Take targeted measures to increase women’s representation as sources, experts and interviewees in the news, keeping in mind the importance of intersectionality in representation;\n(d) Through news coverage, analysis and other means, seek to dismantle gender stereotypes in the media and combat gender bias and violence against women and non-binary persons among the readership.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Recommendations for traditional media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-76-258-0122", "docId": "a-76-258", "idx": 122, "n": 122, "text": "122. Finally, to all stakeholders – States, international organizations, human rights bodies, civil society and companies – an important recommendation is that women, in all their diversity and intersectionality, must be at the table when policies, laws, treaties, community standards and regulations are being discussed and adopted or when technology is designed and deployed. Women’s voices count.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Recommendations for traditional media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0001", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. Digital technology is a double-edged sword, amplifying opportunities for expression, participation and the sharing of information in ways unimaginable in the past but also multiplying online risks and threats. Gendered disinformation is not a new phenomenon, but, fuelled by new technologies and social media, it has gained traction, threatening, intimidating, harming and silencing women and gender nonconforming persons. The negative consequences go far beyond the targeted individuals and undermine human rights, gender equality, inclusive democracy and sustainable development.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0002", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Despite growing concerns about the disproportionate and harmful impact of online gendered disinformation, there is no agreement on what constitutes the phenomenon nor on how it can best be addressed. There is also a lack of clarity on how gendered disinformation promotes online gender-based violence and is spurred by other inequalities. The absence of an agreed definition and gaps in knowledge underscore the complex, contested and intrinsically political nature of the problem.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0003", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The Special Rapporteur believes that it is vital to clarify the distinct nature of gendered disinformation, which is both a strategy to silence the free expression of women and gender nonconforming persons and a form of online gender-based violence in certain circumstances. It is essential to understand the factors that drive it, who is affected by it and how, and who is behind it and why. It is only by doing so that effective strategies can be developed by States, companies and other stakeholders to combat gendered disinformation while upholding the right to freedom of opinion and expression and other human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0004", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. It is imperative to make digital spaces safe for all, but measures to do so should not lead to restrictions of freedom of expression beyond what is permissible, necessary and proportionate under international law. Freedom of opinion and expression is essential for women’s political, social and economic empowerment, for preserving democracy and for promoting the transformative changes that gender justice demands.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0005", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. During the past year, the Special Rapporteur co-convened a series of regional consultations with civil society organizations and survivors to better understand the lived experiences of those contending with online attacks day in and day out in various contexts around the world.[[fn:1]] She also met with various Governments and companies to discuss her concerns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Association for Progressive Communications for coorganizing regional consultations in Bangkok, Addis Ababa and Beirut for Asia, Africa and the Middle East and North Africa, respectively, and online for Latin America. The Special Rapporteur also consulted with non-governmental organizations (NGOs) during the session of the Human Rights Council held in June 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0006", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Drawing on the consultations and building on her reports on disinformation[[fn:2]] and gender justice,[[fn:3]] in the present report the Special Rapporteur takes a deep dive into the gender dimensions of disinformation online. She identifies key aspects of the phenomenon of online gendered disinformation and briefly analyses the responses of States, companies and civil society, identifying concerns and some emerging good practices. She makes some broad recommendations while acknowledging the need for more research and discussion.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "A/HRC/47/25."}, {"n": 3, "text": "A/76/258."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0007", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. In line with her previous work, the Special Rapporteur adopts a feminist analytical framework that is attentive to the lived realities and needs of women. She takes an intersectional approach, noting that experiences vary according to race, ethnicity, caste, religion, sexual orientation, age, geographical location, social, economic and legal status and other factors.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0008", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Both sex and gender are relevant in the context of gendered disinformation. While focusing primarily on women (using the term to also include girls where relevant), the Special Rapporteur also refers to lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and questioning (LGBTQ+) persons, where appropriate.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0009", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The Special Rapporteur is grateful for having received over 50 written contributions from Governments, companies, civil society organizations and experts in response to her call for submissions.[[fn:4]] In the light of the complex and multifaceted nature of the subject, the present report is of an interim nature and is intended to generate further consultations with States, companies and civil society on the recommendations contained therein and the next steps to be taken.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "All submissions are available at www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-freedom-of-opinion-and-expression."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0010", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Gendered disinformation is a strategy to silence women and gender-diverse voices. It is also a form of online gender-based violence in some situations. The dual nature of the phenomenon in the digital age makes both the definition of the problem and the search for solutions more complex and challenging.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0011", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. In this section of the present report, the Special Rapporteur “unpacks” the distinct nature of gendered disinformation, the contextual challenges and the relevant international legal framework.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0012", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Gendered disinformation is gendered because it targets women and gender nonconforming individuals, because of the gendered nature of the attacks and their gendered impact, and, very importantly, because it reinforces prejudices, bias and structural and systemic barriers that stand in the way of gender equality and gender justice.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "A. The concept"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0013", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Gendered disinformation has multiple aims: portraying women as weak, incompetent and sexualized objects, incapable of leadership; driving women and gender nonconforming persons out of public spaces and places of power; and silencing those who do not comply with gender norms. Gendered disinformation attacks not only individuals but also their collective struggles by seeking to delegitimize feminism and gender rights.[[fn:5]] The overall objective is to undermine human rights, gender equality, sustainable development and democracy.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "A. The concept"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Submission from the Association for Progressive Communications."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0014", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Like all forms of disinformation, gendered disinformation seeks to spread false or misleading information with the intent to cause harm to individuals and to society at large. It combines three defining characteristics of online disinformation – falsity, malign intent and coordination.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "A. The concept"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Wilson Center, Malign Creativity: How Gender, Sex, and Lies are Weaponized Against Women Online (Washington, D.C., Wilson Center, 2021)."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0015", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Unlike other forms of disinformation, gendered disinformation relies not just on false information but also on existing gender narratives to achieve its social and political goals, including maintaining the status quo of gender or creating a more polarized electorate.[[fn:7]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "A. The concept"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Center for Democracy and Technology, Facts and their Discontents: A Research Agenda for Online Disinformation, Race, and Gender (Washington, D.C., Center for Democracy and Technology, 2021), p. 25."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0016", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Information is manipulated and amplified with some degree of coordination to reaffirm gender stereotypes, inflame existing bias and prejudices and push overarching negative gender narratives. It is laced with misogynistic and sexualized language and images and may also contain explicit or implicit threats of gender-based violence. Overlapping tactics of intimidation, shaming and discrediting are frequently used, especially against women to depict them as unfit for leadership.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "A. The concept"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0017", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. In her 2021 report on freedom of expression and gender justice, the Special Rapporteur draws attention to discriminatory laws, policies, practices, social attitudes, cultural norms and patriarchal values that suppress, control and punish women’s expression. As more women and gender nonconforming persons use digital spaces to discuss, debate and build support on issues that are taboo in their homes and communities, the patriarchal and misogynistic norms that prevail in the offline world are replicated and amplified on the platforms.[[fn:8]] Gendered disinformation is a manifestation of that toxic, harmful environment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "B. The context"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "A/76/258, paras. 12–15 and 18."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0018", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Gendered disinformation thrives in contexts where gender equality and women’s freedom of expression are constrained. Increasingly, it is apparent not only in authoritarian States but also in emerging and established democracies as part of a dangerous pattern of backsliding on human rights and pushback on women’s rights.[[fn:9]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "B. The context"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "María Isabel Puerta Riera, “Democratic backsliding in the age of misinformation”, Democracy Paradox, 9 November 2022."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0019", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. As the overarching objective of gendered disinformation is to shape perceptions towards gender and the role of women in society and reinforce patriarchal and heteronormative institutional and cultural structures, it is highly contextualized. Participants at the regional consultations co-organized by the Special Rapporteur emphasized the importance of local context in the content of gendered disinformation.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "B. The context"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Submission from the Association for Progressive Communications."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0020", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. In South Asia, most disinformation lies at the intersection of gender, religion and caste. In Africa, the narrative of “protection of the family” emerges strongly. Women politicians, journalists and human rights defenders are often portrayed as attacking family values. The anti-colonialism narrative is also used in Africa to accuse women’s rights activists and gender rights defenders of succumbing to “Western values”. In Latin America, women and gender nonconforming persons are often attacked for preaching “dangerous gender ideology”.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "B. The context"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0021", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. In Eastern Europe, LGBTQ+ groups are conscious of the links between geopolitics and gendered disinformation, with activists frequently being labelled as traitors and spies of the West.[[fn:11]] In a study on disinformation against LGBTQ+ persons in the European Union, findings included recurrent narratives of LGBTQ+ persons representing “colonialism” by the West and a “threat to child safety” and of sex education promoting unnatural sexuality and gender expressions, and calls for protecting the “natural” family’s rights and restoring the “natural” order as ordained by God.[[fn:12]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "B. The context"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 12, "text": "Cecilia Strand and Jakob Svensson, “Disinformation campaigns about LGBTI+ people in the EU and foreign influence”, European Parliament, July 2021, p. 7."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0022", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. The relationship between gendered disinformation and gender-based violence has been described in several ways. On the one hand, it is seen as a subset of online gender-based violence.[[fn:13]] On the other hand, it flows from the same heteronormative patriarchal context in which people experience online gender-based violence, and in some cases there may be an overlap between gendered disinformation and online gender-based violence.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "C. Relationship to gender-based violence and hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Wilson Center, Malign Creativity, p. 3."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Center for Democracy and Technology, Facts and their Discontents, pp. 24 and 25."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0023", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Tailored responses to gendered disinformation require an understanding of the distinct differences and similarities between the two phenomena. Online violence or threats of violence are often an element of gendered disinformation campaigns, and the reverse is also true. For instance, in a survey measuring the global prevalence of online violence against women, 67 per cent of the cases included “misinformation and disinformation” (defined as spreading rumours and slander to discredit or damage a woman’s character).[[fn:15]] On the other hand, gender-based violence is a much broader phenomenon than gendered disinformation. For instance, the survey mentioned above included eight indicators of harmful online behaviour to describe gender-based violence, of which gendered disinformation was only one.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "C. Relationship to gender-based violence and hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "The Economist Intelligence Unit, “Measuring the prevalence of online violence against women”, 1 March 2021."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0024", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Gendered disinformation also intersects with hate speech. Some forms of gendered disinformation advocate incitement to violence, hostility and discrimination and can amount to hate speech, but hatred can also consist of speech that incites without implicating falsity and thus would not amount to disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "C. Relationship to gender-based violence and hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0025", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. While there is overlap among gendered disinformation, gender-based violence and gendered hate speech, the three phenomena are not synonymous (as illustrated below). This is not just a matter of semantics but also has policy and practical implications.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "C. Relationship to gender-based violence and hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0026", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Firstly, the international legal standards applicable to disinformation, hate speech and gender-based violence are different. Clarification of the relationships can help to ensure not only that differentiated responses are developed but also that the responses are in line with the respective standards.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "C. Relationship to gender-based violence and hate speech", "Relationship among gendered disinformation, online gender-based violence and gendered hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0027", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Secondly, acknowledgement of both the similarities and differences highlights the contextualized nature of gendered disinformation and the importance of avoiding a “one-size-fits-all” approach to solutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "C. Relationship to gender-based violence and hate speech", "Relationship among gendered disinformation, online gender-based violence and gendered hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0028", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. There is a need for more contextualized research of gendered disinformation. Organizations based in the global South have pointed out major gaps in data from low-income and middle-income countries, and, even in cases where data are available, they are not disaggregated by gender or do not reflect the intersectional aspects of the problem.[[fn:16]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "C. Relationship to gender-based violence and hate speech", "Relationship among gendered disinformation, online gender-based violence and gendered hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Neema Iyer, Bonnita Nyamwire and Sandra Nabulega, “Alternate realities, alternate Internets: African feminist research for a feminist Internet”, Association for Progressive Communications, August 2020, p. 8. See also the submission from the Digital Rights Foundation."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0029", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. While gendered disinformation has a negative impact on many human rights, the most relevant rights are those relating to expression, gender equality and protection from violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "D. International legal framework"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0030", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The right to freedom of expression, enshrined in article 19 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, protects all kinds of information and ideas, irrespective of the truth or falsity of the content. In the context of gendered disinformation, it is important to note that international law does not allow speech to be prohibited solely on grounds of falsity. What is or is not false is a contentious issue. Furthermore, speech often consists of opinions and perspectives not suited to this binary categorization. State practice shows that laws that prohibit “false news”, purportedly as a measure against disinformation, are used in effect to suppress speech that is critical of the Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "D. International legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0031", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. In line with article 19 (3) of the Covenant, freedom of expression may be restricted only when such restrictions are provided for by law and are strictly necessary and proportionate for the legitimate aim of respecting the rights and reputation of others and protecting national security, public health, public order or morals. Thus, defamation laws may provide a remedy against gendered disinformation, but in practice civil suits (litigation) are challenging, both because of the difficulties of proving harm caused by falsity and because of the numerous barriers that women face in gaining access to justice in many countries. Criminal defamation is a disproportionate response and is open to abuse, including against women.[[fn:17]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "D. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has called for the abolition of criminal defamation. See A/HRC/47/25, para. 89."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0032", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. While international law does not refer to “hate speech”, it prohibits the equivalent notion of “advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence”.[[fn:18]] This prohibition is considered to extend to sex and gender, on the basis of the principles of gender equality and non-discrimination enshrined in international law. Those forms of gender discrimination that meet the criteria set out in this provision are prohibited.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "D. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 20 (2)."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0033", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. It should be noted that United Nations guidance, developed in consultation with legal experts and endorsed by the Human Right Council, calls for this provision to be applied narrowly and with caution, and only in cases where the advocacy presents a real and imminent danger of incitement to violence.[[fn:19]] Other forms of advocacy of hatred should be addressed by other measures, ranging from administrative sanctions to condemnation by public figures, community-based programmes and policies to raise awareness and promote tolerance and inclusion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "D. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "A/HRC/22/17/Add.4."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0034", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The prohibition against sexual and gender-based violence is well established in international law and regional human rights instruments.[[fn:20]] At the national level, many States have criminalized violence against women, and some have also introduced laws to prohibit online violence. However, many of these laws have come under criticism for being ineffective. In the absence of a precise definition of online gender-based violence or gendered disinformation, there is a risk that such laws may overreach and encroach on freedom of expression, while doing little to address gendered disinformation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Framing gendered disinformation", "D. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "A/HRC/38/47, paras. 24–33."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0035", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. In this section of the present report, the Special Rapporteur identifies who is being harmed and by whom, as well as the wide scope of the harm inflicted by gendered disinformation. In research on the topic, there is a tendency to map out the human rights violations and harmful behaviour relating to both phenomena without making a clear distinction between the two. The Special Rapporteur acknowledges this shortcoming and notes cases where specific information on gendered disinformation is available.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0036", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. According to one global survey, the prevalence of online gender-based violence among Internet users, measured on the basis of eight indicators, including one concerning gendered disinformation, ranges from 74 per cent in Europe to 88 per cent in the Asian and Pacific region, 90 per cent in Africa, 91 per cent Latin America and the Caribbean and 98 per cent in the Middle East.[[fn:21]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "A. Survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "The Economist Intelligence Unit, “Measuring the prevalence of online violence against women”, 1 March 2021."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0037", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Research shows that, the more visible the women are, the more likely they are to be attacked as part of a deliberate strategy to intimidate, silence and exclude them from engaging in political and public life.[[fn:22]] Several studies have highlighted the grave and disproportionate levels of attacks against women politicians,[[fn:23]] journalists[[fn:24]] and human rights defenders.[[fn:25]] According to the Inter-Parliamentary Union, 45 per cent of women parliamentarians in Africa and 58 per cent of women parliamentarians in Europe have been subjected to online attacks.[[fn:26]] In a survey of 1,200 women journalists from around the world, 73 per cent of the respondents said that they had experienced some form of online violence in the course of their work.[[fn:27]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "A. Survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See the submission from the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs."}, {"n": 23, "text": "See, for example, Lucina Di Meco and Kristina Wilfore, “White paper: Canadian women leaders’ digital defence initiative”; Kristina Van Sant, Rolf Fredheim and Gundars Bergmanis-Korāts, Abuse of Power: Coordinated Online Harassment of Finnish Government Ministers (Riga, NATO Strategic Communications Centre of Excellence, 2021); and Reuters, “Dutch Finance Minister Kaag to leave politics citing family concerns”, 13 July 2023."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Julie Posetti and others, The Chilling: Global Trends in Online Violence against Women Journalists (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris, 2021), p. 12."}, {"n": 25, "text": "A/HRC/40/60."}, {"n": 26, "text": "A/77/302."}, {"n": 27, "text": "Posetti and others, The Chilling, p. 12."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0038", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. While research and discourse, especially in the West, have tended to be focused on prominent and professional women in the public space, the fact is that gendered disinformation affects a much larger group of women and gender nonconforming individuals for a variety of reasons, ranging from the political to the personal.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "A. Survivors"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0039", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Online attacks, including gendered disinformation, are a daily reality for many young women and girls in the global South who use the Internet for their communications and entertainment.[[fn:28]] Most girls report their first experience of social media harassment occurring between 14 and 16 years of age.[[fn:29]] Owing to their evolving capacities, children cannot always distinguish between reliable and unreliable information. As a result, not only can they be harmed by disinformation, but they may also spread it among their peers inadvertently.[[fn:30]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "A. Survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Digital Rights Foundation, “Gossip and rumour mongering: analysing casual disinformation from gendered lens” in Policy Papers: Perspectives on Gendered Disinformation, Shmyla Khan, ed. (Lahore, Digital Rights Foundation, 2021) pp. 53–66."}, {"n": 29, "text": "United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), “Accelerating efforts to tackle online and technology facilitated violence against women and girls (VAWG)”, 2022, p. 5."}, {"n": 30, "text": "United Nations Children’s Fund, “Digital misinformation/disinformation and children”, August 2021, p. 13."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0040", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Gendered disinformation exploits existing social divides and tension points (e.g. racism, homophobia and transphobia) by targeting one or more aspects of an individual’s identity. In the survey on women journalists mentioned above, Black, Indigenous, Jewish, Arab and gender-diverse journalists experienced both the highest rates and the most severe consequences of online violence.[[fn:31]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "A. Survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "Posetti and others, The Chilling, p. 12."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0041", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Gendered disinformation affects LGBTQ+ communities disproportionately, perpetuating harmful stereotypes and further marginalizing them.[[fn:32]] Through recent research carried out in 18 countries, it was found that a higher proportion of gender nonconforming persons reported having lies spread about them (29.3 per cent) than heterosexual persons (17.4 per cent).[[fn:33]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "A. Survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "Submission from the International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Suzie Dunn, Tracy Vaillancourt and Heather Brittain, Special Report: Supporting Safer Digital Spaces (Waterloo, Canada, Centre for International Governance Innovation, 2023), p. 38."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0042", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Transgender persons, especially transgender women, have been a target of gendered disinformation campaigns from a variety of sources, including trans-exclusionary radical feminists, with malicious allegations of them causing harm to society or “spreading paedophilia”.[[fn:34]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "A. Survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "Digital Rights Foundation, Policy Papers: Perspectives on Gendered Disinformation, Shmyla Khan, ed. (Lahore, Digital Rights Foundation, 2021), p. 74."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0043", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. During the regional consultations co-organized by the Special Rapporteur, participants from South Asia highlighted the intersections between gender, caste and religion in disinformation campaigns in their region.[[fn:35]] In Pakistan, for example, a disinformation campaign centred on blasphemy allegations against participants in the Aurat March (“Women’s March”)[[fn:36]] has endangered the lives of many of the organizers.[[fn:37]] In 2022, a fundamentalist Islamist political group in the country initiated a disinformation campaign, primarily on social media, about the Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act of 2018 and specific transgender activists.[[fn:38]] In India, Rana Ayyub, a Muslim woman journalist who has reported critically about the Government’s policies and treatment of the Muslim minority, has become the target of vicious coordinated gendered disinformation campaigns.[[fn:39]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "A. Survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "Submission from the Association for Progressive Communications."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Amel Ghani, “Misinformation on YouTube: use of misleading titles to promote hateful narrative against Aurat March in Pakistan”, Media Matters for Democracy, July 2022."}, {"n": 37, "text": "Sustaining Power: Women’s Struggles against contemporary backlash in South Asia, “Online disinformation: a weapon to silence feminists”, 11 October 2021."}, {"n": 38, "text": "Submission from the Digital Rights Foundation."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See communications Nos. UA IND 1/2020 and UA IND 10/2018."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0044", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Other identity-related characteristics beyond race, ethnicity and religion may also feature in gendered disinformation. In Colombia, for example, violent Graphic Interchange Format (GIF) images and video clips in sign language have been used to target women representatives of the deaf community.[[fn:40]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "A. Survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, “Tweets that chill: analyzing online violence against women in politics”, 2019, p. 22."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0045", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Forms of harm emanating from gendered disinformation are varied and deeply consequential to both individuals and society at large. At the individual level, persons who are targeted often pay a heavy price psychologically, physically, socially and economically.[[fn:41]] At the societal level, identity-based attacks online erode civil liberties, diminish public discourse, limit the knowledge available to inform policy and electoral decision-making, and teach all women that activism and public service are unappealing, high-risk endeavours to be avoided.[[fn:42]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "Testimonies provided during regional consultations."}, {"n": 42, "text": "Sarah Sobieraj, Credible Threat: Attacks against Women Online and the Future of Democracy, Oxford Studies Digital Politics Series (New York, Oxford University Press, 2020)."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0046", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Gendered disinformation not only spreads lies but also uses highly emotive and value-laden content, tailored to local contexts, that undermines women’s credibility and competence, stigmatizes them and isolates them. Gender narratives have been invoked against women journalists, sexualizing them and attacking their character, integrity, appearance and intelligence as a way of discrediting their reporting and discouraging them from continuing their work.[[fn:43]] In conservative societies, the “honour” or reputation of women human rights defenders has been attacked.[[fn:44]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "Submission from Demos."}, {"n": 44, "text": "A/HRC/40/60, para. 37."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0047", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Coordinated public shaming can lead family members, colleagues and neighbours to turn against the targeted individuals. In traditional societies where women are dependent on families and communities for protection, they can find themselves in a vulnerable position. During the regional consultation held in the Middle East and North Africa region, participants highlighted this aspect and the role that male family members sometimes play in disinformation campaigns and related violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0048", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Gendered disinformation may lead women in public life or journalism to leave online spaces or may have a chilling effect on their freedom of expression and on their ability to continue their professional activities.[[fn:45]] In a study tracking the engagement of politically active women on X (formerly known as Twitter) before and after they had experienced online attacks, strong evidence was found indicating that online abuse decreased politically active women’s willingness to continue engaging on social media.[[fn:46]] In the digital age, this phenomenon significantly curtails the outreach, influence and impact of public figures and journalists.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "Amanda Lenhart and others, Online Harassment, Digital Abuse, and Cyberstalking in America (New York, Data & Society Research Institute, 2016); and Amnesty International, “Toxic Twitter – a toxic place for women”."}, {"n": 46, "text": "National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, “Tweets that chill”, p. 21."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0049", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. A recent study provided empirical evidence that, among participants who reported experiencing one of the forms of online harm identified in the study, 21.7 per cent said that online forms of harm had a very negative impact on their freedom to express their political and personal views. Looking at lesbian, gay and bisexual persons as a subgroup, it was found in the study that online forms of harm had a very negative impact on their freedom to express their political and personal views (25.5 per cent compared with 19.5 per cent of heterosexual persons).[[fn:47]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "Dunn, Vaillancourt and Brittain, Special Report: Supporting Safer Digital Spaces, p. 42."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0050", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Another debilitating aspect of the various forms of harm is that they often radiate beyond the individuals or groups directly targeted. For instance, gendered disinformation has been found to dissuade women from entering politics, journalism or activism.[[fn:48]] It is particularly harmful to the aspirations of young women and girls, according to a study indicating that one out of four girls felt less confident about sharing their views, one out of five girls stopped engaging in politics or current affairs, and 46 per cent of girls felt sad, depressed, stressed, worried or anxious as a result of online misinformation and disinformation.[[fn:49]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Lucina Di Meco, #ShePersisted: Women, Politics, & Power in the New Media World (2019), pp. 1–58."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Plan International, “The truth gap: how misinformation and disinformation online affect the lives, learning and leadership of girls and young women”, 2021, p. 6."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0051", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Growing evidence shows that online gender-based violence facilitates offline violence and creates “climates of unsafety” within society.[[fn:50]] For instance, in a survey conducted by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 13 per cent of survey respondents and many interviewees said that they had received threats of violence against those close to them, including children and infants.[[fn:51]] In the Economist Intelligence Unit global survey mentioned above, 92 per cent of women reported that online violence had harmed their sense of well-being, and one out of every three women thought twice before posting any content online.[[fn:52]] Psychological distress, trauma and long-term mental health impacts have also been documented. Online gender-based violence often precedes violence carried out against women and girls offline. For instance, one in five women journalists reported that they had been abused and attacked offline in connection with online violence.[[fn:53]] In the Arab States, 44 per cent of women who experienced online violence in the past year reported that the incident had moved offline.[[fn:54]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Jacqueline Hicks, “Global evidence on the prevalence and impact of online gender-based violence (OGBV)”, Institute of Development Studies, 8 October 2021."}, {"n": 51, "text": "Posetti and others, The Chilling, p. 21."}, {"n": 52, "text": "The Economist Intelligence Unit, Measuring the prevalence of online violence against women, 2020."}, {"n": 53, "text": "Posetti and others, The Chilling, p. 12."}, {"n": 54, "text": "UN-Women, “Accelerating efforts to tackle online and technology facilitated violence against women and girls”, p. 6."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0052", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Negative narratives about women and LGBTQ+ persons and their communities legitimize technology-facilitated and physical violence against them. Transphobic and homophobic ideas purporting that there are limited gender and sexual roles are used to condone violence against those who do not fit within these discriminatory norms.[[fn:55]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "Dunn, Vaillancourt and Brittain, Special Report: Supporting Safer Digital Spaces, pp. 13 and 15."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0053", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. In conflict settings, the boundaries between disinformation and violence and between online threats and offline risks can be hard to distinguish, increasing the dangers for women and deterring them from speaking out or participating in peace processes.[[fn:56]] Fear of reprisals resulting from false accusations can make public speaking a risky undertaking, even in the United Nations.[[fn:57]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "EU Disinfo Lab, “Gender-based disinformation: advancing our understanding and response”, 20 October 2021."}, {"n": 57, "text": "Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), “Afghanistan: UN experts alarmed by media outlet’s spreading of disinformation”, 28 July 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0054", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Gendered disinformation violates women’s right to health by spreading false and misleading information on sexual and reproductive health and rights. For instance, in Ireland around the time of the referendum on abortion, false information was spread linking abortion to depression, cancer and Down syndrome.[[fn:58]] In Italy, a campaign by pro-life groups falsely affirmed that abortion was the main cause of femicide around the world.[[fn:59]] A study in Latin America found a thematic predominance of disinformation campaigns focused on gender-based violence and abortion, questioning the right of women to bodily autonomy, as well as polarizing the exercise of that right.[[fn:60]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 58, "text": "Plan International, “The truth gap”, p. 11."}, {"n": 59, "text": "Cooperativa.cl, “Italia: Polémica campaña dice que el aborto es la principal causa de femicidios”, 15 May 2018."}, {"n": 60, "text": "Andrea Malquín-Robles and José Gamir-Ríos, “Disinformation and digital sexism. Feminism and its agenda as an object of hoaxes in Spanish”, ICONO 14, vol. 21, No. 1 (February 2023)."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0055", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. While there are not much data specifically on the economic costs of gendered disinformation, it has been estimated in one study that the economic costs of online gender-based violence to individuals and society in the European Union member States is between 49.0 and 89.3 billion euros per year.[[fn:61]] The gravity of these figures indicate a need for more targeted research to assess the specific costs of gendered disinformation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "B. Forms of harm"], "footnotes": [{"n": 61, "text": "Niombo Lomba, Cecilia Navarra and Meenakshi Fernandes, Combating Gender-Based Violence: Cyberviolence: European Added Value Assessment, European Parliamentary Research Service Study (Brussels, European Parliament, 2021)."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0056", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. An analysis of underlying drivers of online gender-based violence highlights an overarching theme of power and control, and heteronormative expectations around gender roles and sexual practice.[[fn:62]] These same factors also drive gendered disinformation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "C. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "Hicks, “Global evidence on the prevalence and impact of online gender-based violence”, p. 2."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0057", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Non-State actors, motivated by extremist ideologies, religious convictions or political, social or economic objectives, play a significant role in organizing coordinated online gendered disinformation campaigns. “While trolls, white nationalists, men’s rights activists, gamergaters, the ‘alt-right’, and conspiracy theorists may diverge deeply in their beliefs, they share tactics and converge on common issues.”[[fn:63]] For instance, the fact-checking group Chequeado exposed a network of anti-rights groups coordinating to promote disinformation on gender issues in the Americas, including through messaging, the channelling of funds, strategic alliances among organizations, training scholarships and international events.[[fn:64]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "C. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "Alice Marwick and Rebecca Lewis, Media Manipulation and Disinformation Online (New York, Data & Society Research Institute, 2017), p. 1."}, {"n": 64, "text": "Olivia Sohr, “Desinformación de género: cómo se articulan los grupos que difunden falsedades sobre el tema en América Latina”, Chequeado, 29 June 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0058", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. There are also increasing numbers of reports of the alignment of non-State campaigns with State policies and interests in some countries, and of State sponsorship of disinformation campaigns within the States’ borders or abroad.[[fn:65]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "C. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "See sect. IV of the present report."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0059", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. Social media platforms are a key vector in enabling disinformation to reach new levels of scale, speed and reach. The digital context not only mirrors the offline misogyny faced by women but also provides the space and tools for controversial, emotive and sensationalist content to be significantly augmented.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "C. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0060", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Algorithmic recommender systems play a major role in exacerbating the problem. Adversarial narratives exploit the human tendency towards negative content and disproportionately drive engagement on platforms. Algorithmic newsfeeds craft automatically generated, highly personalized adversarial content streams that keep users engaged on the platform, and monetized, and that in the end corrupt the entire global information ecosystem.[[fn:66]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "C. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "Danny Rogers, “Disinformation as adversarial narrative conflict”, Global Disinformation Index, 22 June 2022."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0061", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Coordination, and “coordinated inauthentic behaviour” in particular, is an increasingly important proxy indicator of disinformation campaigns.[[fn:67]] The risk of harm arising from online disinformation results mainly from the power of amplification and coordination, in which perpetrators feed off one another, forming a complex ecosystem.[[fn:68]] While individual posts may not seem too problematic in isolation, when coordination and amplification are carried out, a “virtual mob” launches an operation that, over time, can lead to serious threats.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "C. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "Wilson Center, Malign Creativity, p. 7."}, {"n": 68, "text": "Submission from the Association for Progressive Communications."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0062", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. In addition to opportunistically weaponizing weaknesses, such as endemic gender, racial and religious discrimination, disinformation campaigns also take advantage of “flash points”, such as elections, pandemics[[fn:69]] and other prominent newsworthy events, to achieve greater influence.[[fn:70]] Increasingly, they use “malign creativity” – coded language, iterative, context-based visual and textual memes and other tactics, which make the identification of gendered disinformation more challenging.[[fn:71]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "C. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 69, "text": "Maria Giovanna Sessa, “Misogyny and misinformation: an analysis of gendered disinformation tactics during the COVID-19 pandemic”, EU Disinfo Lab, 4 December 2020."}, {"n": 70, "text": "National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, “Addressing online misogyny and gendered disinformation: a how-to guide”, 2021, p. 21."}, {"n": 71, "text": "Wilson Center, Malign Creativity, p. 1."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0063", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Deliberately or inadvertently, traditional media have been known to reinforce, replicate, legitimize and amplify online gendered disinformation.[[fn:72]] Many media outlets continue to perpetuate in their news and editorial positions gender stereotypes that feed anti-gender narratives. Their failure to apply a gender lens to programming, secure equality in access to professional opportunities, promote gender diversity among their employees or provide care and safety to them sustains an environment in which gendered disinformation thrives.[[fn:73]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "C. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 72, "text": "Digital Rights Foundation, Perspectives on Gendered Disinformation, p. 30. See also OHCHR, “Afghanistan: UN experts alarmed by media outlet’s spreading of disinformation”."}, {"n": 73, "text": "A/76/258, paras. 43 and 44."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0064", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Lack of diversity is also a problem in the digital technology sector and is one of the factors contributing to the gender blindness of policies and products.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Survivors, harm, actors and vectors", "C. Actors and vectors"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0065", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. The General Assembly and the Human Rights Council have affirmed that responses to tackle disinformation must be grounded in international human rights law.[[fn:74]] States are obliged under international law to respect, protect and fulfil human rights, including the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the right of women to be free from gender-based violence online and offline.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 74, "text": "General Assembly resolution 76/227 and Human Rights Council resolution 49/21."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0066", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. State action takes various forms across a spectrum, ranging from laws, policies and programmes to tackle online disinformation and address underlying gender inequalities to disturbing practices of State-sponsored gendered disinformation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0067", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. In their submissions, States note various legal measures to combat gender discrimination and online gender-based violence,[[fn:75]] laws and judicial decisions to protect women political candidates from digital violence and sexist media attacks,[[fn:76]] and programmes to discourage sexist stereotypes in the media.[[fn:77]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 75, "text": "Submissions from Ecuador and Spain."}, {"n": 76, "text": "Submission from Mexico."}, {"n": 77, "text": "Submission from Lebanon."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0068", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Generally, States have adopted three types of laws to tackle gendered disinformation: those relating to online violence, those that specifically address disinformation and regulations on social media to address harmful content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0069", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. As noted earlier in the present report, some forms of gendered disinformation may amount to gender-based violence. A growing number of States have enacted laws or updated existing legislation to prohibit online violence or require social media platforms to remove violent content, without making a specific reference to gendered disinformation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Laws to tackle online violence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0070", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. “The mere existence of a law does not necessarily imply changes.”[[fn:78]] Consultations with civil society indicate that women continue to face serious difficulties in seeking redress against online violence because of inadequate legislation, poor implementation of laws and policies, inadequate understanding by officials of the nature and impact of online threats, and lack of adequate support for survivors.[[fn:79]] Significant improvements and investments are needed, for example, to improve laws, train and provide guidance to police, prosecutors, judges and social workers, and adopt administrative and social measures to support and empower survivors and tackle the root causes of online violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Laws to tackle online violence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 78, "text": "Submission from InternetLab."}, {"n": 79, "text": "A/76/258, para. 65."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0071", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. The European Union is considering criminalizing certain forms of online gender-based violence as part of a directive to combat violence against women and domestic violence, proposed in March 2022.[[fn:80]] The directive will establish minimum criminal standards for the perpetration of cyberstalking, non-consensual sharing of intimate or manipulated material and cyberincitement to violence or hatred.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Laws to tackle online violence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "European Union, Proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on combating violence against women and domestic violence, available at https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52022PC0105."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0072", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. As the risks and dangers of online disinformation become more apparent, many States have adopted laws that prohibit “false news” online.[[fn:81]] These laws raise several concerns. Firstly, they are gender-neutral and thus do not address the distinct challenges of gendered disinformation.[[fn:82]] Secondly, the laws often use vague, overly broad definitions of disinformation, set disproportionately high criminal sanctions and give the authorities excessive discretion to compel the platform in question to remove content without judicial oversight. They largely fail to meet the criteria for restricting freedom of expression, namely, legality, necessity, proportionality and legitimate aim, as set out in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Laws to combat disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "A/HRC/47/25, paras. 52–55."}, {"n": 82, "text": "Submission from the International Commission of Jurists."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0073", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. The criminalization of speech through broad, vaguely framed laws can chill freedom of expression. Adopted to combat disinformation, such laws have been used to prosecute and punish critics of Governments.[[fn:83]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Laws to combat disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 83, "text": "A/HRC/47/25, para. 52."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0074", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Women’s rights activists point out that laws criminalizing speech are increasingly being turned against women, such as the use of laws criminalizing blasphemy to condemn the Aurat March (“Women’s March”) in Pakistan.[[fn:84]] In Indonesia, survivors of sexual violence who have spoken online about their experiences have been prosecuted for criminal defamation in an effort to discredit and silence them.[[fn:85]] In a number of countries, women’s online social behaviour has been punished on grounds of “public morals”, while gendered disinformation on online platforms goes unaddressed.[[fn:86]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Laws to combat disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 84, "text": "Submission from the Digital Rights Foundation."}, {"n": 85, "text": "Submission from the International Commission of Jurists."}, {"n": 86, "text": "A/76/258, paras. 24 and 25."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0075", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. States approach social media regulation in several ways. A number of States have intervened directly with platforms to compel them to remove content that is deemed illegal. Failure to comply is sanctioned with significant fines or the blocking of content.[[fn:87]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Social media regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "See, for example, communications Nos. OL IND 8/2021 and OL BGD 2/2023."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0076", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. Some other States have adopted laws setting out criteria and processes under which platforms are obliged to remove certain content or face consequences. Laws containing vague definitions, short timelines to respond and steep fines for failing to comply create a risk that companies, erring on the side of caution, are likely to rely on automated content moderation using artificial intelligence and to carry out overly broad content removal. Such regulation can be detrimental to freedom of expression without deterring gendered disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Social media regulation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0077", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. Systemic regulation, which emphasizes “architecture over takedown”, allows for more proportionate responses and is likely to be better aligned with freedom of expression standards.[[fn:88]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Social media regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 88, "text": "Submission from Professor Lorna Woods."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0078", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. A good approach has been taken by the European Union through the Digital Services Act, under which the State does not interfere with content but instead demands due diligence, impact assessments and transparency from companies. It requires very large online platforms and search engines to meaningfully assess and mitigate the systemic risks stemming from the design and operation of their services, by carrying out risk assessments overseen by independent audits.[[fn:89]] In the Digital Services Act, specific reference is made to addressing the risks of gender-based violence, and there are numerous references to the risks posed by disinformation to democracy and elections.[[fn:90]] The Act only recently entered into force, on 16 November 2022.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Social media regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "European Union, Regulation 2022/2065 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 October 2022 on a Single Market for Digital Services and amending Directive 2000/31/EC (Digital Services Act). Obligations of service providers include conducting comprehensive assessments of systemic risks to fundamental rights stemming from their services (art. 34), developing and implementing mitigation measures (art. 35) and being subjected to independent audits to assess their efforts (art. 37)."}, {"n": 90, "text": "Ibid., art. 34 and preambular paragraphs 83 and 84."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0079", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. There is also a strengthened European Union code of practice on disinformation for the largest social media platforms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "A. Combating gendered disinformation", "Social media regulation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0080", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. States have an obligation to proactively remove the structural and systemic barriers to gender equality, including patriarchal and gender stereotypes and negative social norms, perceptions, customs and behaviours that drive gendered disinformation. All Governments have made commitments, and many have set up national action plans and programmes to promote gender equality and eradicate gender discrimination and stereotypes. Nevertheless, widespread gendered disinformation and the emergence of State-sponsored and State-condoned disinformation against women and gender nonconforming persons are evidence that much more needs to be done by States to change cultural norms and attitudes towards women, girls and gender nonconforming persons.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "B. Promoting gender equality"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0081", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. Two issues deserve particular attention by States: unequal access of women to the Internet and gender data gaps. States have a responsibility not only to make the Internet safe for women but also to ensure their meaningful connectivity.[[fn:91]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "B. Promoting gender equality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 91, "text": "A/HRC/53/25, paras. 29–31."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0082", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. The Internet is a space for mobilization and an important locus where people can organize around gender issues, including content to challenge gendered disinformation. Women’s unequal access to the Internet, lack of safety tools and more limited familiarity with cybersecurity means that they are at the same time both more vulnerable to disinformation and technology-facilitated violence and less equipped to respond to it. This situation creates a significant imbalance between those who spread anti-gender narratives and those who confront them.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "B. Promoting gender equality"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0083", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Although 132 States have adopted laws on the right to information, not only is women’s access to information patchy, but data on key issues disaggregated by gender are missing in many countries.[[fn:92]] The lack of trustworthy, verifiable information on gender issues increases the risk of disinformation and the spread of false information. States have a positive obligation to fulfil the right to information by proactively providing factual, verifiable data on issues of interest to women, such as on sexual and reproductive health.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "B. Promoting gender equality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 92, "text": "A/76/258, para. 36."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0084", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. The spread of gendered disinformation, whether directly coordinated by State actors or carried out by non-State actors with explicit or tacit support of the State, can be very potent because of the power, resources, media assets, troll farms and influence networks at the disposal of the State, as well as the pressure that State actors exert on digital platforms to not take action against disinformation campaigns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "C. Sponsoring gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0085", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. States use a wide variety of strategies and tactics online and offline, including orchestrated online campaigns on multiple platforms, laws and policies to restrict or manipulate information on gender-related issues. Incendiary, misogynistic statements and negative gender narratives are often spouted by senior officials and political figures, which creates an overall toxic environment in which non-State actors feel emboldened to attack women and gender nonconforming persons. The Special Rapporteur has joined with mandate holders in regional organizations to denounce intolerant, divisive, false and manipulated public statements by politicians and public officials against journalists and human rights defenders and has called on States and political parties to establish and enforce codes of conduct on public communications by their officials.[[fn:93]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "C. Sponsoring gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 93, "text": "Joint Declaration on Politicians and Public Officials and Freedom of Expression, 2021, available at www.osce.org/files/f/documents/9/4/501697_0.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0086", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. In the Philippines, gendered disinformation was triggered at the highest political level of the State against Maria Ressa, Nobel Laureate and journalist, and amplified by followers of then President Duterte.[[fn:94]] Individuals and groups abroad are also targeted by States. Gendered disinformation and online attacks originating from the Islamic Republic of Iran targeted journalists and media workers of the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) Persian broadcast station and other diaspora journalists in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.[[fn:95]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "C. Sponsoring gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 94, "text": "Communication No. AL PHL 12/2018."}, {"n": 95, "text": "Communication No. AL IRN 10/2022."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0087", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. In Brazil, after Jair Bolsonaro was elected President in 2018, anti-rights discourse became a prominent and toxic aspect of politics, marked by discriminatory, incendiary public statements by the President and other senior officials and orchestrated social media campaigns to denigrate journalists reporting on sexual and reproductive health rights, feminists and gender nonconforming activists, especially those with intersectional identities, with some dire consequences for the targeted individuals.[[fn:96]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "C. Sponsoring gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 96, "text": "Horacio Sívori and Bruno Zilli, Anti-Rights Discourse in Brazilian Social Media Digital Networks, Violence and Sex Politics (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Latin American Center on Sexuality and Human Rights, 2022). See also the submission from InternetLab."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0088", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. Stigmatizing statements made by public officials against LGBTQ+ persons create an environment conducive to violence against members of that community, gender rights activists and human rights defenders working to protect the rights of these groups,[[fn:97]] as seen in Hungary[[fn:98]] and Uganda.[[fn:99]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "C. Sponsoring gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 97, "text": "OHCHR, “Defenders of the human rights of LGBT persons constantly at risk, warn UN experts”, 24 March 2022."}, {"n": 98, "text": "See A/HRC/50/29/Add.1."}, {"n": 99, "text": "See communications Nos. AL UGA 4/2022, AL UGA 3/2022 and AL UGA 5/2021."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0089", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. Some States have stigmatized and restricted access to information on sexual and reproductive rights and health on the ground that it perpetuates “gender ideology” and threatens culture, religion, traditional values and parental rights.[[fn:100]] Such misrepresentation is contrary to States’ obligation to fulfil the right to information and contributes to a toxic environment in which fabricated information gains traction, appealing to pre-existing gender stereotypes.[[fn:101]] In Poland, severe restrictions have been imposed on women’s access to safe abortion, accompanied by inflammatory rhetoric, disinformation and misinformation campaigns supported or tolerated by some public officials and political and religious actors.[[fn:102]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "C. Sponsoring gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 100, "text": "A/HRC/38/46, para. 14; A/72/155; and A/76/258, para. 37."}, {"n": 101, "text": "Submission from the Center for Reproductive Rights."}, {"n": 102, "text": "OHCHR, “Poland: upholding full spectrum of rights key to ending violence against women and girls, says UN expert”, 9 March 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0090", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. Impeding access to accurate, factual information on sexual and reproductive health can have serious implications for a range of human rights, including endangering the life and health of women and girls.[[fn:103]] In Kenya, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) successfully challenged a governmental ban on information for adolescents and young people on abortion and on where to obtain help, on the ground that it violated the right to have access to information, the right to freedom of expression and the right to health.[[fn:104]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Roles, responsibilities and responses: States", "C. Sponsoring gendered disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 103, "text": "Communication No. AL BRA 1/2023."}, {"n": 104, "text": "Submission from the Center for Reproductive Rights."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0091", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. Companies have the responsibility to respect all human rights, including gender equality and the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In line with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, social media companies are expected to exercise due diligence and conduct regular human rights assessments of their products, operations and policies, with a view to identifying, preventing or mitigating actual or potential adverse impacts on human rights, and to provide remediation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0092", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. It is not evident to what extent the social media platforms are following these guidelines. What is evident is the widespread prevalence of online gendered disinformation and the overriding sense among women, gender nonconforming persons, civil society and most Governments that companies are failing to tackle such material on their platforms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0093", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. Key concerns relate to content moderation, business models and inadequate transparency of the platforms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0094", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. Many major platforms, including Facebook, X, YouTube, Instagram and TikTok, ban hate speech, harassment, the promotion of violence and abuse and remove offensive content and users who repeatedly violate their terms of service or community guidelines. However, some platforms take pride in minimal content moderation. Telegram, for instance, has been described as having “the most misogynistic and abusive content and seemingly the most ‘hands off’ content moderation and platform policies”.[[fn:105]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 105, "text": "Submission from the Institute for Strategic Dialogue."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0095", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. Platforms that have anti-harassment policies identify abusive content using a combination of proactive detection through automation, human moderation and reactive detection by means of user reporting (which is then adjudicated by automated systems or human moderators). They respond to disinformation through a combination of policies, product interventions, features and enforcement measures that seek to limit its spread, provide users with greater access to authoritative information or context, and promote community response and societal resilience, including through digital literacy and Internet access.[[fn:106]] They frequently partner with external organizations to identify “false” information through fact-checking.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 106, "text": "Vera Zakem, Kip Wainscott and Daniel Arnaudo, “Platform specific engagement for information integrity”, Consortium for Elections and Political Process Strengthening, available at https://counteringdisinformation.org/topics/platforms/0-overview-platforms."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0096", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. A closer analysis of their content moderation policies and practices shows serious shortcomings when applied to gendered disinformation.[[fn:107]] These include a “one-size-fits-all” approach that fails to appreciate or address the distinct nature of gendered disinformation, cumbersome complaints processes, inadequate contextual knowledge and local language skills, as well as the uneven application of community standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 107, "text": "Wilson Center, Malign Creativity, p. 8."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0097", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. Gendered disinformation often goes undetected because the contextual knowledge, local languages and gender awareness required to identify the gender narratives that drive it are lacking among platform content moderators. “Malign creativity”, using various forms of media and coded images that seem innocuous or meaningless without context, can evade automated detection and filters.[[fn:108]] The methods of fact-checking individual posts, providing access to authoritative information or labelling and “nudging” that are used against disinformation are much less effective in relation to gendered disinformation, which relies on deeply held existing prejudices and social divisions to build credibility for its false or manipulated information.[[fn:109]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 108, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 109, "text": "Submission from Demos."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0098", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. Described graphically as “shouting into a void”,[[fn:110]] reporting mechanisms, when available, are cumbersome and sometimes confusing, and they often force users to attribute their experiences to predetermined categories that fail to capture the multifaceted nature of the abuse faced, in particular in cases when online gender-based violence intersects with disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 110, "text": "Viktorya Vilk and Kat Lo, “Shouting into the void: why reporting abuse to social media platforms is so hard and how to fix it”, PEN America, 29 June 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0099", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. Most reporting mechanisms require the targets to report the abuse. Not only is this traumatic and an unfair burden on individuals,[[fn:111]] but it also shows a piecemeal approach to a problem that requires systemic and proactive strategies to tackle the risk factors and systemic causes of gendered disinformation. Coordinated gendered disinformation campaigns cannot be dealt with on a “comment by comment” basis.[[fn:112]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 112, "text": "Submission from Demos."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0100", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. At the core of the problem of the proliferation of gendered disinformation lies the business model of social media companies.[[fn:113]] Attention economics, content curation, automated advertising and the amplification of gendered disinformation are intimately connected.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 113, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has previously noted similar concerns about disinformation. See A/HRC/47/25."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0101", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. Disinformation, including gendered disinformation, is a lucrative business. The main revenue of large intermediaries comes from the buying, selling and marketing of advertisements.[[fn:114]] Platforms monetize attention through targeted advertising, using complex statistical models to predict and maximize engagement with content. The more time a person spends scrolling and clicking, the more data companies can collect and the more ads they can sell.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 114, "text": "Consumer Council of Norway, “Time to ban surveillance-based advertising: the case against commercial surveillance online”, June 2021, available at https://storage02.forbrukerradet.no/ media/2021/06/20210622-final-report-time-to-ban-surveillance-based-advertising.pdf, p. 21."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0102", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. Content curation builds on the profiling and microtargeting of individuals, the ultimate aim of which is to serve platforms’ advertising purposes. Targeted advertising results in algorithms being customized to cultivate attention and engagement. The practice of cultivating attention influences what is prioritized in people’s content and advertising feeds, as well as what is recommended to them.[[fn:115]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 115, "text": "Tech Transparency Project, “Facebook profits from white supremacist groups”, 10 August 2022."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0103", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. Recommender systems tend to promote provocative, attention-grabbing content, which, research shows, is easier to process in terms of cognitive effort and emotional resonance.[[fn:116]] Platforms contribute to the amplification of incendiary, controversial and divisive information, as it directly aligns with the commercial and technological infrastructure of their recommender systems, which are optimized for user engagement.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 116, "text": "Carlos Carrasco-Farré, “The fingerprints of misinformation: how deceptive content differs from reliable sources in terms of cognitive effort and appeal to emotions”, Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, vol. 9, No. 162 (2022)."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0104", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. The ability of platforms to directly collect and mine first-party data is a major component of the attention economic model (and applies not only to social media platforms but also to search engines and search functionalities on other platforms). It undermines the right to privacy and personal data protection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Business model"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0105", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. “Ad tech” policy and inadequate protection of the right to privacy and enforcement of data protection facilitate the monetization of disinformation content that perpetuates and spreads adversarial narratives directed against marginalized and at-risk groups.[[fn:117]] Responses to address gendered disinformation are unlikely to be effective without addressing these aspects of the business model and ensuring robust protection of privacy and data.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Business model"], "footnotes": [{"n": 117, "text": "Global Disinformation Index, “Ad-funded disinformation: misogyny: narratives, affected brands and ad tech companies”, January 2023, available at www.disinformationindex.org/disinfo-ads/2023-01-04-how-is-ad-tech-funding-misogynistic-disinformation/."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0106", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. Internet platforms, and in particular social networking services, need to increase transparency within their operations to allow researchers and activists to better understand the scope, dynamics and nature of disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0107", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. Transparency regarding recommender systems and the use of algorithms can help to hold platforms accountable and enable more evidence-based policymaking. Advertisement transparency is crucial. Given the granularity with which advertisers can target users, the companies must provide much more information about why users are seeing an advertisement and about enforcement of their terms of service regarding advertisements that contain disinformation content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "A. Companies", "Transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0108", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. At the community level, various initiatives have emerged with a focus on enabling and empowering those being targeted.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "B. Civil society: community responses"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0109", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. Counterspeech has been a successful response strategy, which involves challenging or mocking stereotypes and norms, exposing hate speech and calling out gendered disinformation.[[fn:118]] It emphasizes the agency of those being targeted and the solidarity of others towards them. As an example, when some groups associated with the “Gamergate” harassment campaign attacked feminist Internet rights activists associated with the “Take Back the Tech!” campaign and posted false claims about the Association for Progressive Communications, organizations and individuals involved in the campaign and their allies joined forces to reclaim the narrative in a “tweet storm”. In addition, the Association for Progressive Communications issued a statement correcting the false claims made about its work.[[fn:119]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "B. Civil society: community responses", "Counterspeech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 118, "text": "Countering Disinformation, “Understanding the gender dimensions of disinformation”, 2021, pp. 20 and 21, available at https://counteringdisinformation.org/topics/gender/4-promising-approaches-gender-sensitive-counter-disinformation-programming."}, {"n": 119, "text": "Association for Progressive Communications, “Facts on #TakeBacktheTech”, 28 April 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0110", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. Online communities providing support and services have been set up to assist targets or potential targets with counterspeech efforts, monitor digital spaces where the attacks are being carried out and help with the reporting of incidents.[[fn:120]] For instance, TrollBusters,[[fn:121]] a network based in the United States of America, provides support to women journalists, while HER Internet[[fn:122]] in Uganda proactively builds alliances and networks as support systems for mitigating impact and countering false narratives.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "B. Civil society: community responses", "Support for survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 120, "text": "Countering Disinformation, “Understanding the gender dimensions of disinformation”, sect. 4."}, {"n": 121, "text": "www.troll-busters.com."}, {"n": 122, "text": "www.herinternet.org/."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0111", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. Support from national and international bodies is also being mobilized. For example, in Indonesia, support from human rights organizations and “security guarantees” from the national human rights commission have been used to provide solidarity and deter attacks against LGBTQ+ communities.[[fn:123]] When Nighat Dad, a human rights lawyer in Pakistan, faced online intimidation, the Pakistan Bar Council issued a public statement in her support, expressing “grave concern at the vilification campaign” and the “intentional creation of a hostile work environment for female colleagues”.[[fn:124]] At the international level, the special procedures mandate holders have issued strong public statements condemning attacks on women journalists, human rights defenders and gender activists. Alerting international media is also an important tactic, as this is one of the fastest ways to motivate platforms to put in place protection measures or take action on disinformation campaigns.[[fn:125]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "B. Civil society: community responses", "Support for survivors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 123, "text": "Raiz Rizqy and Yulia Dwi Andriyanti, “We rise, we heal, we resist”, GenderIT.org, 22 March 2022."}, {"n": 124, "text": "IAPL Monitoring Committee on Attacks on Lawyers, “Pakistan: Pakistan Bar Council and NGOs condemn smear campaign against advocate Nighat Dad”, 21 December 2020."}, {"n": 125, "text": "EU Disinfo Lab, “Gender-based disinformation”."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0112", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. Researchers, practitioners and civil society actors engage in social media monitoring activities to inform their understanding of gendered disinformation, identify entry points to disrupt gendered disinformation and advocate for laws, regulations and policies to address the growing challenges.[[fn:126]] Consistent social media monitoring is also being used to develop early warning systems.[[fn:127]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "B. Civil society: community responses", "Social media monitoring"], "footnotes": [{"n": 126, "text": "Countering Disinformation, “Understanding the gender dimensions of disinformation”."}, {"n": 127, "text": "MediaFutures, “Disinformation Early Warning Data Tool (DEWARD)”, available at https://mediafutures.eu/projects/disinformation-early-warning-data-tool-deward/ and International Center for Journalists, “Online Violence Early Warning System”, available at www.icfj.org/our-work/online-violence-early-warning-system."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0113", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. Awareness-raising, digital and media literacy and capacity-building are among other measures that civil society organizations are actively providing.[[fn:128]] Major public awareness-raising campaigns have been organized to raise awareness about violence against women in elections.[[fn:129]] Training is being provided and toolkits have been developed covering a range of topics, from digital safety and security to counterspeech.[[fn:130]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "B. Civil society: community responses", "Awareness-raising, digital and media literacy and capacity-building"], "footnotes": [{"n": 128, "text": "See, for example, Foundation for Media Alternatives, “Marian Hukom”, available at https://fma.ph/marian-hukom/; Loyce Kyogabirwe, “Pushing back against gendered disinformation in Uganda”, Collaboration on International ICT Policy for East and Southern Africa, 6 February 2023; and South Asia Check, “Panos media monitoring initiative looks at trends in gendered online violence”, 9 June 2022."}, {"n": 129, "text": "National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, “#NotTheCost: stopping violence against women in politics” and International Foundation for Electoral Systems, “Kenyans say, ‘We are #BetterThanThis,’ aiming to support women’s participation in elections”, 19 July 2017."}, {"n": 130, "text": "See the submission from the Association for Progressive Communications for examples. See also the submission from Media Monitoring Africa."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0114", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. Training and guidance have also been focused on journalists and media outlets, given their dual roles as both targets and vectors of gendered disinformation. For instance, as part of the National Strategy for Women in Lebanon 2022–2030, the National Commission for Lebanese Women, in cooperation with media institutions, launched awareness-raising campaigns, workshops and studies to combat gender stereotypes in the media and in advertising.[[fn:131]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["V. Roles, responsibilities and responses: companies and civil society", "B. Civil society: community responses", "Awareness-raising, digital and media literacy and capacity-building"], "footnotes": [{"n": 131, "text": "Submission from Lebanon."}]}, {"id": "a-78-288-0115", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "115. Gendered disinformation weaponizes gender bias, stereotypes, sexism, misogyny and social and cultural norms based on patriarchal values to threaten, intimidate, silence and exclude women and gender nonconforming persons from public spaces and positions of power. Its most virulent attacks are reserved for those who belong to minority or marginalized communities. It chills both speech and aspirations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0116", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "116. The ultimate aim of gendered disinformation is to reduce public participation and the diversity of voices and views, including in the media, weaken democratic institutions and destroy inclusive societies. This makes gendered disinformation deeply dangerous and concerted action to counter it more urgent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0117", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "117. Gendered disinformation is a human rights challenge, and strategies to fight it must be grounded firmly in human rights, especially freedom of expression. Strategies that undermine freedom of expression in the name of fighting gendered disinformation are counterproductive. Because the goal of gendered disinformation is to disempower women, the priority should be empowerment rather than censorship, agency rather than paternalistic approaches. There can be no trade-off between women’s right to be safe and their right to speak.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0118", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "118. Companies need to move away from a “one-size-fits-all” approach in which the same methods are applied to gendered disinformation as to other forms of disinformation and gender-based violence. Gendered disinformation is highly contextualized and has distinct features and objectives. Platforms need to better understand gendered disinformation and go beyond content moderation based on fact-checking for the purpose of determining truth and falsity. They need to identify the specific factors that increase the risks of gendered disinformation in different contexts and act to minimize them.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0119", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "119. Research shows that gendered disinformation evolves and adjusts to varying contexts and responses. This situation calls for proactive, preventive strategies from States and companies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0120", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "120. States, too, must adjust their responses. Regulation of social media should be “smart”, focused not on content but rather on enforcing the due diligence, impact assessment, transparency and accountability of companies, and requiring them to review design, structure, systems and policies to address the threats.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0121", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 121, "n": 121, "text": "121. States must reinvigorate their efforts to remove the structural and systemic barriers that impede gender equality and that reinforce discrimination, exclusion, prejudice and stereotypes that are being exploited by gendered disinformation campaigns.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0122", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 122, "n": 122, "text": "122. State officials and political leaders have a particular responsibility to set the tone of inclusive public discourse. They play a key role in shaping public debate and opinion and enjoy considerable latitude of political expression in international law. They should exercise that privilege responsibly and ethically to promote tolerance, not to feed hatred.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0123", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 123, "n": 123, "text": "123. While law has an important role to play in the fighting of discrimination and in situations where gendered disinformation amounts to gender-based violence or advocates incitement to violence, legal measures, especially criminal law, have their limits as an effective weapon against the false narratives or entrenched bias and prejudices that lie at the core of gendered disinformation campaigns.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0124", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 124, "n": 124, "text": "124. Fighting gendered disinformation while upholding human rights requires a careful balancing of interests. It cannot be left totally to the discretion of companies, nor treated solely as a matter of regulation by States. The law, especially criminal law, can be a blunt and dangerous instrument in the hands of some States. This situation underlines the importance of global standards and multi-stakeholder approaches that promote the active participation of civil society alongside States and companies. The negotiations on a global digital compact will be an important opportunity to engage all stakeholders and build consensus on standards and approaches to make the Internet accessible and safe for all.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0125", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 125, "n": 125, "text": "125. States should redouble their efforts and take all appropriate measures, including through laws, social policies and programmes, to strengthen gender equality and eliminate gender stereotypes, negative social norms and discriminatory laws, policies, practices and attitudes.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0126", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 126, "n": 126, "text": "126. States should not make, sponsor, encourage or disseminate statements that they know or should reasonably know to be false, nor should they support in any way the dissemination of gendered disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0127", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 127, "n": 127, "text": "127. All measures to restrict gendered disinformation, hate speech or online gender-based violence should comply fully with international human rights standards, and in particular should respect the requirements set out in articles 19 (3) and 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, strictly and narrowly construed.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0128", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 128, "n": 128, "text": "128. States should respect the protection that gender, sexual and cultural information and expression enjoy under international law and should not seek to restrict women’s expression under the guise of protecting public morals.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0129", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 129, "n": 129, "text": "129. Criminal law should be used only in very exceptional and the most egregious circumstances of incitement to violence, hatred or discrimination. Criminal defamation laws should be repealed where they exist and replaced, where necessary, with appropriate civil defamation laws.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0130", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 130, "n": 130, "text": "130. State regulation of social media should be focused on enforcing transparency, due process rights for users, and human rights and gender due diligence by companies, and on ensuring that the independence and remit of the regulators are clearly defined, guaranteed and limited by law.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0131", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 131, "n": 131, "text": "131. States should ensure media freedom and diversity by ensuring the safety of women and gender nonconforming journalists.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0132", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 132, "n": 132, "text": "132. States should adopt strong data protection laws and other relevant laws to limit the pervasive tracking and targeting of individuals and their activities online. Data protection is key to reorienting the advertisement-driven business model of the digital economy, which drives gendered disinformation and online gender-based violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0133", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 133, "n": 133, "text": "133. Media literacy, information literacy and digital literacy empower women and LGBTQ+ persons to benefit from digital technology and build their resilience to disinformation, misinformation and online violence. These forms of literacy should be included in national school curricula and national development plans.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0134", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 134, "n": 134, "text": "134. States should fulfil their duty to ensure the right to information by proactively providing data and information on sexual and reproductive health and rights that are accurate, verifiable and disaggregated by gender.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0135", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 135, "n": 135, "text": "135. States should enhance their efforts to ensure that women have meaningful, free, open, interoperable, reliable and secure access to the Internet, in line with the commitments made under the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0136", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 136, "n": 136, "text": "136. Companies should review their business models and ensure that their business operations, data collection and data processing practices are compliant with international human rights standards. They should conduct regular human rights and gender due diligence and impact assessments of their products, in particular of the role of algorithms and ranking systems in the amplification of disinformation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0137", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 137, "n": 137, "text": "137. Companies should review their advertising models to ensure that they do not have an adverse impact on diversity of opinions and ideas and that they are clear about the criteria used for targeted advertising. They should provide meaningful information about advertisers in online advertisement repositories and give users the choice to opt in to be exposed to advertising.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0138", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 138, "n": 138, "text": "138. Companies should provide clear and meaningful information about the parameters of their algorithms or recommender systems and ensure that those systems enable users to receive a diversity of viewpoints by default, while also enabling them to choose the variables that shape their online experience.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0139", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 139, "n": 139, "text": "139. Companies should develop clear content moderation policies on gendered disinformation that are in line with international human rights standards, with full transparency and the participation of stakeholders. Policies should be accessible and available in non-technical jargon in local languages and should be enforced consistently.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0140", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 140, "n": 140, "text": "140. Companies should be guided by international human rights standards in their content moderation. To address gender-related harmful content, content moderation should be attentive to local contexts and language diversity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0141", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 141, "n": 141, "text": "141. Companies should provide easily accessible, trauma-informed reporting tools that are accessible to individuals with variable technical literacy and that allow for localized interpretations of online abuse. The platforms should develop coordination mechanisms at the country level with the involvement of community organizations to better identify cases of gendered disinformation, receive reports of such cases and escalate actions to combat gendered disinformation, and to develop preventive, proactive strategies.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0142", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 142, "n": 142, "text": "142. Companies should publish comprehensive, detailed and contextualized transparency reports that include a breakdown of the actions taken against gendered disinformation-related content and appeals against those actions, including the number of shares, views, reach, complaints and requests for removal.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0143", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 143, "n": 143, "text": "143. Companies should establish internal appeals mechanisms for a broader range of content moderation decisions and of types of content, such as coordinated inauthentic behaviour. They should also consider the creation of external oversight mechanisms, such as social media councils.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0144", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 144, "n": 144, "text": "144. Companies should ensure data security and privacy and should ensure that the use of data respects international human rights law and relevant national laws and is carried out with the full informed consent of data providers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for social media companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0145", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 145, "n": 145, "text": "145. Employers, including media outlets, political parties, research institutions and others working in areas affected by gendered disinformation, should introduce appropriate policies and processes to identify and support employees targeted by or at risk of becoming a target of gendered disinformation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for others"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0146", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 146, "n": 146, "text": "146. Academics and civil society should continue to deepen their research, engage with stakeholders and provide policy recommendations in relation to gendered disinformation, online gender-based violence and misogynistic hate speech.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for others"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-78-288-0147", "docId": "a-78-288", "idx": 147, "n": 147, "text": "147. Gendered disinformation affects a range of communities, including those working in the areas of gender-based violence and journalistic safety, women human rights defenders, and those working with gender and sexual minorities. Alliances should be built to ensure that such organizations have sufficient access to platform data for the purposes of documentation and risk assessment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for others"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0001", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The conflict in Gaza has unleashed a global crisis of freedom of expression. Rarely has a conflict challenged freedom of opinion and expression so broadly and so far beyond its borders. The global and grave nature of the challenges are the subject of the present report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0002", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Hamas’ attack on Israel on 7 October 2023, the intensity of Israel’s military response, the alarming level of civilian casualties in Gaza, especially of children and women, the massive destruction of infrastructure and the humanitarian catastrophe pushing the population to the brink of famine have outraged people around the world. Public opinion is highly polarized, in support of or in opposition to Palestinian rights and Israel’s action. So too are the positions of States and private actors, shaped by their different understanding of the fraught history of the region, the situation in the occupied Palestinian Territory, Israel’s military operation in Gaza and their own national interests.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0003", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is caught in the crosshairs of this challenging situation. The unprecedented level of killing of journalists, attacks on media infrastructure and restrictions on foreign media have made reporting difficult and dangerous, affecting the right to information of people in Gaza as well as audiences around the world. Social media platforms have played an important role as the main conduit of information to and from the besieged population but have also been a major vector of disinformation and hate speech, sowing hatred, violence, fear and distrust among and within communities and countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0004", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Antisemitism, Islamophobia and anti-Palestinian racism have surged online and offline since 7 October. Confusion over what constitutes antisemitism, poorly drafted and badly implemented national laws, opaque policies and practices of social media platforms and vested political interests have combined to complicate, undermine and weaponize the task of combating hate speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0005", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Around the world, large-scale demonstrations have erupted in solidarity with the Palestinian people and against genocide and occupation. Although largely peaceful, the protests and dissent have been suppressed harshly in several countries. Some private actors, such as universities, cultural institutions and funders, even media outlets, have played a disturbing role, intimidating, isolating and silencing voices that differ from theirs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0006", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The Special Rapporteur has identified three distinct challenges to freedom of opinion and expression emanating from the conflict in Gaza directly and indirectly: first, attacks on journalists and media, endangering access to information about the conflict globally; second, the suppression of Palestinian voices and views in a discriminatory and disproportionate manner, undermining academic and artistic freedom as well as freedom of expression more generally; and third, the blurring of the boundaries between protected and prohibited speech. None of these challenges are new but have become more intense over the past year.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0007", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. The Special Rapporteur examines the practices of States, social media and other private actors in relation to these three challenges and analyses their compatibility with international human rights and, where applicable, humanitarian law. While touching on the situation in the occupied Palestinian Territory, the geographic and thematic scope of the report is global, in line with the mandate of the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0008", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The Special Rapporteur draws on consultations, written submissions from stakeholders and desk research. The Special Rapporteur thanks all those who provided inputs to the report.[[fn:1]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Written submissions are available at www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/2024/call-submissions-thematic-report-special-rapporteur-freedom-expression."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0009", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. At the core of all human rights is the right to non-discrimination.[[fn:2]] It has two important implications for the right to freedom of opinion and expression. First, everyone has an equal right to exercise their freedom of opinion and expression. Second, the equal enjoyment of freedom of expression means that it cannot be used as a licence to incite discrimination, hostility and violence against others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression, para. 26."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0010", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Enshrined in articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as well as in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and in key regional instruments, freedom of opinion and expression guarantees the right to hold opinions without interference, and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, true or false, offensive or enlightened, regardless of frontiers or choice of media. It protects, among other things, media freedom; discourse on political and public affairs; criticism of government officials, policies or institutions; intellectual discourse; advocacy of human rights; and cultural and artistic expression.[[fn:3]] These issues are relevant to the challenges discussed in the present report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Ibid., para. 11."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as well as in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — joint citation to UDHR and ICCPR."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0011", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Freedom of expression may be restricted in accordance with article 19 (3) of the Covenant. Restrictions must be provided by law that is precise, public and does not give undue discretion to the authorities, and it must be necessary to meet the legitimate objective of ensuring respect for the rights or reputation of others, or for protecting national security, public order, public health or public morals. The principle of necessity incorporates the notion of proportionality and the use of the least restrictive means to achieve the purported aim.[[fn:4]] Because of the fundamental role this right plays in empowering people and enabling them to exercise other rights, any restriction must be construed narrowly and must not impair the right itself.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Ibid., para. 22."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0012", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. International human rights law, born in the aftermath of the Holocaust, provides clear standards for addressing hate speech. While international law does not use the term “hate speech”, under article 20 (2) of the International Covenant States must prohibit by law “the advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence.” Advocacy of hatred is not sufficient by itself to justify prohibition and must amount to incitement which is likely to result in discrimination, hostility and violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal standards"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0013", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. The Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence provides valuable guidance on the factors that should be considered in assessing the appropriateness of prohibiting and criminalizing speech. The criteria include the social context, the speaker’s status and intent, the content and form of the speech, the nature of the audience, the reach of the communication and the imminence of harm. By their very nature, these criteria require a contextual analysis of each situation rather than a blanket ban, whether of antisemitism, Islamophobia or other forms of hate speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0014", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Incitement to discrimination, hostility and violence on the grounds of race is also prohibited under article 4 (a) of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. Contextual analysis, similar to the Rabat Plan of Action, is required to determine racist expression that must be punishable by law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal standards"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CERD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0015", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. International criminal law places an important limit on expression. Direct and public incitement to genocide is an international crime.[[fn:5]] Such speech must be intended, understood and communicated publicly as a call to commit genocide; the context, content and speaker are highly relevant in determining liability.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, art. III(c); Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, art. 25(3)(e)."}, {"n": 6, "text": "A/HRC/55/73, paras. 50–52."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0016", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The right to freedom of opinion and expression provides the international legal basis for uncensored and unhindered news media and the right of journalists to work safely and without fear. International humanitarian law is also applicable to the safety of journalists in the occupied Palestinian Territory.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0017", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. There is serious concern that the pattern of killings and arbitrary detention of journalists and destruction of press facilities and equipment in Gaza indicates a deliberate strategy of the Israeli military to silence critical reporting and obstruct documentation of possible international crimes.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "A. Occupied Palestinian Territory"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "International Court of Justice, application instituting proceedings, South Africa v. Israel, 29 December 2023, para. 119."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0018", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Under international humanitarian law, journalists enjoy protection as civilians. The deliberate killing of a journalist is a war crime.[[fn:8]] Journalists may only become a legitimate military objective if they participate directly in hostilities or incite war crimes or other international crimes. While Israel has made claims in the media about some journalists reportedly participating in hostilities, none of the claims has been substantiated.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "A. Occupied Palestinian Territory"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, arts. 51.3 and 79.2."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0019", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. As of 13 August 2024, 113 Palestinian journalists and media workers had been killed and many more injured, making Israel’s military action since October 2023 the deadliest conflict for journalists and media workers globally in the past three decades.[[fn:9]] In addition, three journalists were killed in Israeli shelling near the border of Lebanon. Four Israeli journalists were killed by Hamas in the 7 October attacks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "A. Occupied Palestinian Territory"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See Committee to Protect Journalists, “Journalist casualties in the Israel-Gaza war”, 13 August 2024, available at https://cpj.org/2024/08/journalist-casualties-in-the-israel-gaza-conflict/."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0020", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Journalists, wearing clearly identifiable jackets and helmets marked as “Press” and travelling in well-marked press vehicles, have been attacked by the Israeli army under circumstances that indicate they may have been targeted.[[fn:10]] Investigations into an incident in Gaza in which two journalists were killed and another in southern Lebanon in which several journalists were injured and one killed led to the conclusion that the Israeli military had known or should have known that they were attacking journalists.[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "A. Occupied Palestinian Territory"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See communication ISR 12/2023. All communications mentioned in the present report are available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments. See also www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/08/expert-denounces-killing-two-more-journalists-gaza-and-demands-full."}, {"n": 11, "text": "See L. Loveluck et al, “Drone footage raises questions about Israeli justification for deadly strike on Gaza journalists”, Washington Post, 19 May 2024; and submission of Human Rights Watch."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0021", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Silencing journalists by killing them is the most egregious form of censorship.[[fn:12]] Despite the international obligation to conduct prompt, thorough, independent and impartial investigations into all unlawful killings, impunity has persisted for decades in Gaza or the West Bank.[[fn:13]] The failure of Israel to investigate, prosecute and punish serious crimes against journalists not only denies justice to the victims’ families, it emboldens perpetrators to continue and can have a chilling effect on other journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "A. Occupied Palestinian Territory"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "A/HRC/50/29, para. 29."}, {"n": 13, "text": "See communication ISR 14/2022."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0022", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Media facilities are considered civilian objects under international law and therefore are protected from military attacks. Nonetheless, there has been large-scale destruction of press facilities in Gaza. According to the Palestinian Journalists’ Syndicate, around 70 press organizations, including local radio stations, news agencies, transmission towers and journalist training institutes, have been partially or completely destroyed in Gaza since October 2023. Cameras filming live from the Gaza strip and buildings housing press organizations have been destroyed by the Israeli military. According to one report, “by targeting all press facilities and equipment, the Israeli military not only cuts off any source of images and information in Gaza, but also compromises the logistics journalists need to carry out their mission.”[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "A. Occupied Palestinian Territory"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See https://forbiddenstories.org/the-destruction-of-press-infrastructure-in-gaza-a-strategy-to-blind-the-public/."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0023", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Access to the Internet has been acknowledged as a human right[[fn:15]] and is vital for all civilians, including journalists, in conflict-affected contexts.[[fn:16]] Reporting and access to information have been severely hampered by disruptions to Internet connectivity in Gaza, resulting from a combination of factors, including widespread destruction of civilian telecommunications infrastructure, deliberate restrictions on access to electricity and technical disruptions to telecommunications services.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "A. Occupied Palestinian Territory"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "Human Rights Council resolution 47/16; and General Assembly resolution 77/150."}, {"n": 16, "text": "A/77/288, para. 91."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0024", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Reports of harassment, intimidation and violence by the Israeli authorities against journalists and media workers in the occupied Palestinian Territory have increased since 7 October attacks. Dozens of Palestinian journalists have been arbitrarily detained allegedly by Israeli forces in Gaza and the West Bank.[[fn:17]] Journalists covering the conflict have repeatedly faced obstruction, incommunicado detention,[[fn:18]] confiscation of equipment and physical attacks by the Israeli military.[[fn:19]] Some Palestinian journalists have reported receiving threats from the Israeli authorities to halt their coverage of the war.[[fn:20]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "A. Occupied Palestinian Territory"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See Committee to Protect Journalists, “Arrests of Palestinian Journalists Since Start of Israel-Gaza War”, 25 July 2024, available at https://cpj.org/2024/07/arrests-of-palestinian-journalists-since-start-of-israel-gaza-war/."}, {"n": 18, "text": "See communication ISR 12/2023."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Submission of IFEX."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Submission of PEN International."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0025", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Israel has refused to grant unhindered access to foreign media in Gaza, despite repeated requests. It reduces media diversity and affects access to information. As a result, local journalists carry the burden of reporting what is happening in the Gaza Strip. Despite the psychological toll of the death of colleagues, friends and families and the destruction of their homes, offices and media facilities, they have continued to work valiantly, putting their lives on the line to deliver their mission while enduring the enormous hardship that has been inflicted on all civilians in Gaza. According to one AFP reporter “we see more horrors than anyone else”.[[fn:21]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "A. Occupied Palestinian Territory"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "See “Death, exhaustion and suspicion: AFP journalists on the horrors of Gaza”, AFP, 8 February 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0026", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. The media environment inside Israel appears to have worsened following the October attacks by Hamas and the government military action in Gaza. Some journalists in Israel are afraid to express dissenting views.[[fn:22]] There have been mob attacks on journalists,[[fn:23]] as well as reports of intimidation by the authorities.[[fn:24]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "B. Media freedom elsewhere"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See Emma Goldberg, “Some Israeli Journalists Express Fear About Conveying Dissenting Views”, New York Times, 21 October 2023, available at www.nytimes.com/2023/10/21/business/media/israel-journalists-hamas-war.html."}, {"n": 23, "text": "Submission of PEN International."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Submission of ARTICLE 19."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0027", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. In April 2024 the Israeli Parliament adopted the Foreign Media Law, which gives wide powers to the Executive to ban foreign media and impose other restrictions without prior judicial review.[[fn:25]] The Special Rapporteur communicated her concern to the Government of Israel that banning a media outlet constitutes an unnecessary and disproportionate restriction of freedom of expression, inconsistent with international human rights standards. It affects not only the freedom of expression of journalists but also the public’s right to information from diverse sources, and therefore should be reviewed and repealed. In May 2024 the Government used the Foreign Media Law to temporarily ban Al-Jazeera, citing concerns of national security, incitement and its support for Palestinian factions.[[fn:26]] The ban was made permanent following an amendment of the law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "B. Media freedom elsewhere"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See communication ISR 15/2024."}, {"n": 26, "text": "See https://network.aljazeera.net/en/press-releases/israel-shuts-down-al-jazeera-offices."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0028", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The space for media freedom in the Middle East region has long been limited.[[fn:27]] Following the onset of the recent conflict in Gaza, some Governments have reacted harshly against journalists for their coverage of Israeli or Palestinian issues. For instance, Jordan applied its Cybercrimes Law to detain and interrogate hundreds of individuals, including journalists, for their use of social media posts.[[fn:28]] The media regulator in Egypt banned the website “Mada Masr” for six-months for “publishing false news” and summoned its editor following the publication of a report on the displacement of Gaza residents to Egypt.[[fn:29]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "B. Media freedom elsewhere"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "See https://cpj.org/2021/01/ten-years-after-arab-spring-media-threats-press-freedom-trends/."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Submissions of ICNL and ARTICLE 19."}, {"n": 29, "text": "Submission of ARTICLE 19."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0029", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. In some Western countries, media companies took retaliatory measures against their own journalists, usually Arab or Palestinian, for expressing their personal views online or offline. There are numerous reports of termination, resignation and reassignment of journalists for posting on personal social media accounts, signing petitions in solidarity with the Palestinian people or criticizing the conduct of Israel regarding the war at public events. The overall effect has been to chill diverse views.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "B. Media freedom elsewhere"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0030", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The Los Angeles Times reportedly banned 38 employees from covering issues related to Israel or Palestine after they signed a letter condemning the killing of journalists in Gaza.[[fn:30]] Twenty journalists at the Sydney Morning Herald and The Age were reportedly banned from participating “in any reporting or production relating to the war” after they signed an open letter criticizing how Australian media has covered Israeli military action in Gaza. It has also been reported that the BBC launched an investigation into six of its Arabic Service journalists for bias. Although none of them were found to have violated BBC editorial policies, they were disciplined and one senior journalist resigned.[[fn:31]] While media companies may legitimately wish to address bias or perceptions of bias among its journalists, all such action should be done in a non-discriminatory, proportionate and transparent manner.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "B. Media freedom elsewhere"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "See National Writers Union, “Red lines: Retaliation in the media history during the war on Gaza” (2024), available at https://drive.google.com/file/d/10fUJL7dpmWIYyT-LvzAu-YF-7xb_z6Vd/view?pli=1."}, {"n": 31, "text": "Submission of PEN International."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0031", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. In a refreshing contrast to the action of traditional media outlets noted above, the board of the Pulitzer Prize commended student journalists at Columbia University in the United States of America for their work “to document a major national news event under difficult and dangerous circumstances and at risk of arrest”.[[fn:32]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Journalists under fire", "B. Media freedom elsewhere"], "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "See www.pulitzer.org/news/statement-pulitzer-prize-board-3."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0032", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. State practice has shown a tendency to suppress protests, advocacy and critical expression in a disproportionate and discriminatory manner against Palestinian groups. While this practice has been apparent in the past, the recent conflict in Gaza has expanded its scope and gravity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0033", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Israel’s assault on Gaza sparked a wave of public protests in countries across the world, including Algeria, Australia, India, Indonesia, Japan, Mexico, Malaysia, Nigeria and South Africa. The protests have been particularly strong in the Middle East, and although peaceful, were restricted, banned or disrupted with force in several countries in the region.[[fn:33]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "A. Public protests"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "Submissions of Gulf Centre for Human Rights, Pen International and International Centre for Non-Profit Law."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0034", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Several European Governments imposed specific restrictions, blanket bans or pre-emptive bans on demonstrations in support of Palestinian people, justifying their actions on grounds of “risk to public order and security”, countering “support of terrorism” and “preventing antisemitism”.[[fn:34]] The responses are arbitrary, unfairly equating Palestinian advocacy as antisemitic or in support of terrorism, and discriminatory as no demonstrations in support of Israel appear to have encountered any specific restrictions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "A. Public protests"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "See Amnesty International, “Under protected and over restricted the state of the right to protest in 21 European countries” (London, 2024)."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0035", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. In Germany, the response was among the toughest, imposing a blanket ban on all demonstrations in support of Palestinian people from 7 to 21 October 2023, and pre-emptively banning several such gatherings and explaining its action was to prevent “public celebration of the Hamas terrorist attacks”. On 12 October 2023, the Government of France announced a complete ban on all Palestinian rallies as potentially disturbing the public order, but was overruled by the Conseil d’État, the highest administrative court of France, on the grounds that such decisions should be made by local authorities on a case-by-case basis.[[fn:35]] There have been reports of arbitrary detention and excessive use of force by the police in relation to pro-Palestinian demonstrations in several countries, including Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Greece, Italy and the Kingdom of the Netherlands.[[fn:36]] Jewish protestors who participated in Palestinian protests complained that the authorities failed to protect them from pro-Israeli counter-protestors.[[fn:37]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "A. Public protests"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Ibid., and submission of Canadian Lawyers for International Human Rights."}, {"n": 37, "text": "Submission of Jøder for Retfærdig Fred (af 5784)."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0036", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. In the United States, over 10,000 demonstrations were organized between October 2023 and June 2024 in support of Palestinian people. Ranging from mass street protests and public rallies to student encampments on campus, vigils and other public assemblies, most events were held peacefully. Nevertheless, the authorities resorted to repressive measures, including widespread police action against the demonstrators and stigmatization of Palestinian advocacy as inherently dangerous. In addition, State and federal lawmakers have proposed over 45 pieces of legislation aimed at restricting street protests in support of Palestine, punishing student protestors and stigmatizing their Palestinian advocacy as “terrorism”.[[fn:38]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "A. Public protests"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Submission of International Centre for Non-profit Law."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0037", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The right to peaceful assembly, protected under article 21 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, is closely related to freedom of expression.[[fn:39]] States have an obligation to allow peaceful assemblies, including peaceful civil disobedience, to take place without unwarranted interference, as well as an obligation to protect the participants. The possibility that a peaceful assembly may provoke adverse or even violent reactions from some members of the public is not in itself sufficient reason to prohibit or restrict the assembly.[[fn:40]] Authorities are obliged to take reasonable measures to protect protestors and safely separate counter-protestors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "A. Public protests"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 37 (2020) on the right of peaceful assembly, para. 5."}, {"n": 40, "text": "Ibid., para. 27."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "21", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0038", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Academic freedom, rooted in a number of rights, including freedom of opinion and expression, signifies the right of members of the academic community, including students and scholars, to enjoy, individually and collectively, the freedom to develop, pursue and share knowledge and ideas without censorship, and to express, debate and challenge issues peacefully, without discrimination, fear or censorship.[[fn:41]] Academic freedom also includes the autonomy and self-governance of academic institutions.[[fn:42]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "B. Assault on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "E/C.12/1999/10, para. 39."}, {"n": 42, "text": "A/75/261, para. 9."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0039", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. In the context of Palestinian advocacy following Israeli military operations in Gaza, academic freedom of students and scholars, as well as the autonomy of institutions, have come under scrutiny and attack in several western countries, affecting both Jewish and Palestinian members of the academic communities. A major concern has been the failure of the university authorities to uphold their autonomy and respect the principle of non-discrimination and equal protection of the rights of all students and scholars.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "B. Assault on academic freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0040", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Thousands of students, including many Jewish students, have demonstrated on campuses in Europe and North America since October 2023. In April 2024, encampments were set up by students to express solidarity with Palestinian civilians in Gaza, call for a ceasefire and demand that their universities divest from corporations profiting from the conflict and occupation of the Palestinian territories. In the United States, mass encampments were set up in colleges and universities in more than 25 states. While the protests were largely peaceful, some Jewish student groups reported feeling fearful and complained of antisemitism, antisemitic attacks, marginalization and discrimination, as well as tensions within the Jewish student community between those who participated in Palestinian protests and others who did not.[[fn:43]] There are also claims that police failed to protect protestors in support of Palestine from counter-protestors.[[fn:44]] Jewish students and Jewish student groups participating in Palestinian advocacy have been accused of being “antisemitic”.[[fn:45]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "B. Assault on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "Submission of the European Union of Jewish Students."}, {"n": 44, "text": "See communications OTH 71/2024 and USA 12/2024."}, {"n": 45, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/education/statements/20240510-stm-eom-sr-education-usa.pdf; meeting with student leaders in Geneva, July 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0041", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The responses of some university administrations and local authorities in the United States were particularly harsh and disproportionate.[[fn:46]] Despite the largely peaceful nature of protests, many of the encampments were removed by police on the grounds of maintaining public order, at the request of the university administrations. In several cases, it led to excessive use of force, including the deployment of riot units. Students and faculty members were assaulted, handcuffed and arrested. More than 2,000 people, including students and professors, were reportedly detained by police on university campuses, mainly for trespassing.[[fn:47]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "B. Assault on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "See Inter-American Commission of Human Rights, “United States must respect peaceful protest and academic freedom on campuses”, 9 May 2024, available at www.oas.org/en/iachr/jsForm/?File=/en/iachr/media_center/preleases/2024/095.asp."}, {"n": 47, "text": "See communications OTH 71/2024 and USA 12/2024; and submissions of Human Rights Watch and Defending Rights and Dissent."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0042", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The universities are taking disciplinary measures against the students who participated or planned to participate in the protests, including suspension, possible expulsion, eviction from campus housing and the threat of deportation of some foreign students, which could jeopardize their scholarships and future careers.[[fn:48]] In some cases, the protestors have been identified publicly by unknown groups in a process called “doxing”. Some students have had their employment offers withdrawn because of their activism on Palestine.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "B. Assault on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/07/usa-free-speech-campus-needs-be-protected-not-attacked-say-experts; and communication USA 12/2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0043", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Contravening the generally accepted principle of respecting the independence and autonomy of academic institutions, United States legislators and private donors put political pressure on universities to suppress student protests and dismiss faculty and administrators. Some of the top academic institutions appear to have succumbed to that pressure, putting the United States at the risk of becoming “an exporter of bad models” of academic freedom.[[fn:49]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "B. Assault on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "Observations on recent events on United States campuses (May 2024), Scholars at Risk Network."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0044", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Many scholars believe that the measures, on-campus and off-campus, have had a chilling effect on public discourse, academic research and policy expertise on Middle East issues.[[fn:50]] Students, researchers and faculty members complain about a culture of intimidation in European and North American institutions in which they are afraid to express their views for fear of being deemed “antisemitic”, harassed, threatened, fired from their jobs or denied research funds.[[fn:51]] Scholars, faculty and students have complained of being investigated by their institutions about their social media posts and of being targeted by online smear campaigns, doxing and harassment.[[fn:52]] Israeli scholars have also reported being isolated from conferences on the basis of their perceived association with the actions of Israel.[[fn:53]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "B. Assault on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/education/statements/20240510-stm-eom-sr-education-usa.pdf."}, {"n": 51, "text": "Ibid.; see also Nader Hashemi, “Teaching the Middle East after October 7: Reflections on Academic Freedom, Antisemitism, and the Question of Palestine”, POMEPS Studies 51, April 2024."}, {"n": 52, "text": "Submission of ELSC."}, {"n": 53, "text": "See Marc Lynch, “The Middle East and Middle East Studies After Gaza”, POMEPS Studies 51, April 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0045", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Scores of courses, lectures, seminars or panel discussions about Palestine have been cancelled, and some adjunct faculty members have not had their appointments renewed because they spoke out in solidarity with Palestinians.[[fn:54]] The level of obstruction of independent thought is illustrated by one instance in which, for the first time ever, the website of the well-known Columbia Law Review was shut down by the journal’s board in an attempt to deter the publication of an article by a Palestinian legal scholar.[[fn:55]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "B. Assault on academic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/education/statements/20240510-stm-eom-sr-education-usa.pdf; www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/07/usa-free-speech-campus-needs-be-protected-not-attacked-say-experts; National Writers Union, “Red Lines: Retaliation in the media history during the war on Gaza”, 6 May 2024."}, {"n": 55, "text": "See Prem Thakker, “Columbia Law Review Is Back Online After Students Threatened Work Stoppage Over Palestine Censorship”, The Intercept, 6 June 2024, available at https://theintercept.com/2024/06/06/columbia-law-review-palestine-gaza-rejects/."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0046", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Artistic freedom thrives in open multicultural societies, nourished by the democratic values of tolerance and diversity. The banning of books, films and artwork, retaliation against artists and writers, and demanding that social media platforms take down content or punishing users for posting critical content are practices usually carried out in authoritarian States but appear to have been emulated by public and private institutions in Western Europe and North America in relation to the Israel/Palestine situation. The justification, as in the case of protests and academic freedom, has been the protection of public order and the fight against hate speech. The practices have targeted both those expressing sympathy with Israel and those advocating for Palestinian rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "C. Intolerance of artistic freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0047", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. One manifestation of this behaviour has been “deplatforming”, also colloquially known as “cancel culture”. In effect it is censorship by exclusion. Literature festivals have disinvited guest speakers.[[fn:56]] Major exhibitions have been cancelled.[[fn:57]] Music concerts have been cancelled or musicians threatened.[[fn:58]] Art galleries have dropped long-standing clients over their political views.[[fn:59]] Artistic agencies have terminated relationships with some clients.[[fn:60]] Writers who criticize Israel have found themselves isolated and excluded.[[fn:61]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "C. Intolerance of artistic freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "See P. Oltermann, “Palestinian voices ‘shut down’ at Frankfurt Book Fair, say authors”, The Guardian, 15 October 2023, available at www.theguardian.com/world/2023/oct/15/palestinian-voices-shut-down-at-frankfurt-book-fair-say-authors."}, {"n": 57, "text": "See D. Cassady, “German Photography Biennial Cancelled After Curator’s Social Media Posts Are Called ‘Antisemitic’”, ARTnews, 22 November 2023, available at www.artnews.com/art-news/news/biennale-fur-aktuelle-fotografie-cancelled-freedom-fo-speech-and-antisemitism-1234687537/."}, {"n": 58, "text": "See “Argentine judiciary cautions Roger Waters against making anti-Semitic remarks”, Buenos Aires Herald, 21 November 2023, available at https://buenosairesherald.com/society/argentine-judiciary-cautions-roger-waters-against-making-anti-semitic-remarks."}, {"n": 59, "text": "See K. Burke, “Melbourne’s Anna Schwartz gallery drops artist Mike Parr after political piece on Israel-Gaza war”, The Guardian, 8 December 2023, available at www.theguardian.com/culture/2023/dec/08/melbourne-gallery-drops-mike-parr-performance-artist-israel-hamas-war-piece-anna-schwartz."}, {"n": 60, "text": "See A. Horton, “Susan Sarandon dropped by talent agency after remarks at pro-Palestine rally”, The Guardian, 21 November 2023, available at www.theguardian.com/film/2023/nov/21/susan-sarandon-pro-palestinian-remarks-uta-dropped."}, {"n": 61, "text": "See J. Schuessler, “92NY Pulls Event With Acclaimed Writer Who Criticized Israel”, New York Times, 21 October 2023, available at www.nytimes.com/2023/10/21/arts/92ny-viet-thanh-nguyen-israel.html."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0048", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. These are just some examples of the many ways in which artistic freedom is being censored and intellectual discourse diminished by private actors in collusion with State authorities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Suppression of protest and dissent", "C. Intolerance of artistic freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0049", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Companies have a responsibility under international law to respect human rights and avoid causing or contributing to “adverse human rights impacts”. They have an obligation to prevent or mitigate such impacts by adopting human rights policies, undertaking due diligence and impact assessment and providing remedial processes.[[fn:62]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online"], "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights; see also A/77/288. paras. 74–99."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0050", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. As in other armed conflicts, social media platforms play a dual role in Gaza. On the one hand, they provide a communications lifeline, enabling people in Gaza to share information among themselves and with the outside world. Social media has been central to disseminating information on Gaza, playing a “vital, not complementary, role” given that access to traditional media in Gaza is severely curtailed.[[fn:63]] Young social media “influencers” went from posting entertaining content to being suddenly thrust into a serious role of a source able to convey the reality of Gaza to the world. Women in Gaza have been at the forefront, voicing their situation in a way not done by mainstream media.[[fn:64]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online"], "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "See A. Walker, “How Instagram Cat Influencers Are Helping Break News in Gaza”, The Daily Beast, 12 December 2023, available at www.thedailybeast.com/how-instagram-cats-and-skincare-influencers-help-break-news-in-gaza."}, {"n": 64, "text": "See B. Ferrari, “Pro-Palestine TikTok Creators Aren’t Backing Down”, Vice, 13 December 2023, available at www.vice.com/en/article/pkav5y/pro-palestine-tiktok-gen-z-digital-activism."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0051", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. At the same, the platforms have removed Palestinian content excessively, inadequately addressed hate speech against both sides and enabled information manipulation, disinformation and misinformation. The large platforms have tended to be more lenient regarding Israel and more restrictive about Palestinian expression and content about Gaza, as compared with their policies and practices relating to the invasion by the Russian Federation of Ukraine and Ukrainian expression.[[fn:65]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online"], "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "See “Meta’s Ongoing Efforts Regarding Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine”, 26 February 2022, available at https://about.fb.com/news/2022/02/metas-ongoing-efforts-regarding-russias-invasion-of-ukraine/. See also “Meta’s Ongoing Efforts Regarding the Israel-Hamas War”, 13 October 2023, available at https://about.fb.com/news/2023/10/metas-efforts-regarding-israel-hamas-war/."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0052", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Following the October 7 attacks, disproportionate censorship of content on Palestinian rights and views has increased significantly across platforms, including Meta, X, Google and Telegram.[[fn:66]] Measures have included monitoring and removal, suspension or disabling of accounts, restricting the ability to engage with posts (such as “liking”, commenting or sharing) or to follow or tag other accounts, and “shadow-banning” or decreasing the visibility of user content without notification or adequate justification. Documented cases of censorship include not only Palestinian-generated Arabic language content, but also pro-Palestine, English-language content originating from over 60 countries around the world.[[fn:67]] Users typically have few functional or meaningful ways to appeal these restrictions.[[fn:68]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "A. Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "See communications USA 8/2024; OTH 19/2024; OTH 20/2024; OTH 21/2024; and OTH 22/2024."}, {"n": 67, "text": "See Human Rights Watch, Meta’s Broken Promises, Systemic Censorship of Palestine Content on Instagram and Facebook, 21 December 2023."}, {"n": 68, "text": "Submission of Human Rights Watch."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0053", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The disproportionate censoring of Palestinian content by platforms is not a new problem. For instance, an independent due diligence review commissioned by Meta in 2021,[[fn:69]] as well as the findings of its Oversight Board, identified significant shortcomings in relation to Palestinian content. The company committed itself to addressing the flaws, but its response to the situation in Gaza indicates that many of the problems persist.[[fn:70]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "A. Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 69, "text": "See Business for Social Responsibility, “Human Rights Due Diligence of Meta’s Impacts in Israel and Palestine in May 2021”, September 2022."}, {"n": 70, "text": "See communication OTH 20/2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0054", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. In one study in December 2023 of 1,050 English-language takedowns by Meta, 1,049 involved peaceful content in support of Palestine that was censored or otherwise unduly suppressed, while only one case involved the removal of content in support of Israel.[[fn:71]] Phrases such as “From the River to the Sea, Palestine will be free”, “Ceasefire Now”, and “Stop the Genocide” have been repeatedly removed by Meta’s platforms as “spam”.[[fn:72]] The “emoji” of the Palestinian flag has been hidden as “potentially offensive”, and phrases such as “Palestinian” and “praise be to God” have been translated as “Palestinian terrorists”.[[fn:73]] There have been complaints about inconsistent Arabic translation. There also appears to be inconsistent moderation of the same content in Arabic and Hebrew. For instance, Meta immediately censored the Arabic hashtag #iron_swords (# ﻃﻮﻓﺎﻥ_ﺍﻻﻗﺼﻰ ) on October 7 but did not censor the parallel hashtag in Hebrew (# חרבות_ברזל).[[fn:74]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "A. Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "See Human Rights Watch, “Meta’s Broken Promises”."}, {"n": 72, "text": "Submission of Human Rights Watch."}, {"n": 73, "text": "Some of the moderation measures led the company to apologize. See also communication USA 8/2024."}, {"n": 74, "text": "See communication USA 8/2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0055", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Meta’s “dangerous individuals and organizations” policy, which has underpinned the widespread takedown of pro-Palestine content, is problematic.[[fn:75]] The policy’s vague and overly broad interpretation of what constitutes “glorification” or “support” of terrorism has led to takedowns of legitimate political expression and journalistic coverage of Gaza as claims of support for Hamas.[[fn:76]] Meta updated the policy in January 2024 to “allow for more social and political discourse,” just months before the Oversight Board undertook to review it and found that the policy “substantially and disproportionately restrict(ed) free expression”.[[fn:77]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "A. Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 75, "text": "Dangerous Organizations and Individuals (DOI) Policy Update, Meta Transparency Center, 23 January 2024."}, {"n": 76, "text": "See communication USA 8/2024; and www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/ Opinion/Legislation/Case_2021_009-FB-UA.pdf."}, {"n": 77, "text": "See communication USA 8/2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0056", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Erroneous and inconsistent implementation of community standards relating to “adult nudity and sexual activity,” “violent and graphic content” and “spam” have constrained the sharing of vital information on alleged human rights violations or possible war crimes in the occupied Palestinian Territory on Meta’s platforms. Newsworthiness exceptions were repeatedly ignored and failed to take context into account, resulting in the disruption of reporting on episodes of torture and ill-treatment and of the destruction of hospitals. The censorship has affected Palestinian journalists, activists and human rights defenders, as well as a range of news outlets.[[fn:78]] However, despite these problems, it is important to acknowledge that Meta allows a significant amount of pro-Palestinian expression and denunciations of Israeli government policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "A. Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 78, "text": "Submission of Access Now."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0057", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Other platforms have also taken down content disproportionately and extensively. For instance, Google’s YouTube faced internal scrutiny after it allowed a pro-Israeli military song “HarbuDarbu” on the platform with lyrics such as “One, Two, Shoot!” and descriptions of rodents emerging from tunnels in Gaza, but it labelled an age-restricted content warning on a prominent rapper’s tribute to a six-year-old Palestinian girl killed by Israeli forces in Gaza City.[[fn:79]] YouTube was criticized by its own staff for its lack of balance in content moderation on Gaza, as compared to the Russian Federation-Ukraine conflict.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "A. Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 79, "text": "See Paresh Dave, “YouTube’s Rulings on Gaza War Videos Spark Internal Backlash”, Wired, 2 July 2024, available at www.wired.com/story/youtube-israel-gaza-moderation/."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0058", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. X in general has taken a more permissive approach to Gaza-related content, although there have been reports of throttling or suspension of pro-Palestine accounts such as the United States chapter of the activist group, “PalAction”. Following documented reports of takedowns of “graphic” content on human rights violations, X updated its rules in January 2024 to allow exceptions for graphic content that is “documentary or educational” for evidence preservation.[[fn:80]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "A. Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "7amleh, “The Impact of Platform’s Content Moderation Policies on Palestinian Digital Rights”."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0059", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. Platforms appear to have taken a deferential position when confronted with tens of thousands of take-down requests from Governments, including that of Israel.[[fn:81]] Companies have varying levels of transparency regarding government requests. For instance, twice a year, TikTok publishes data for government takedown requests, which indicates that it received 260 requests from Israel in the second half of 2023, involving 10,191 pieces of content and 529 accounts, 98.2 per cent of which were removed.[[fn:82]] There is often little transparency as to the scope of government-sponsored requests, and users typically have no way of knowing whether their content has been taken down as a result of State-initiated complaints.[[fn:83]] Meta’s Oversight Board recommended that the company review State actor takedown requests for systemic biases, and Meta is now in the process of developing such a system.[[fn:84]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "A. Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "Israel says over 90 per cent of requests were honoured over the period. See Israeli Ministry of Justice, “Fighting Incitement Online”, 26 November 2023, available at www.gov.il/en/pages/news-26-11."}, {"n": 82, "text": "See TikTok Transparency Center, “Government Removal Requests Report”, 6 June 2024, available at www.tiktok.com/transparency/en-us/government-removal-requests-2023-2/."}, {"n": 83, "text": "Human Rights Watch, “Meta’s Broken Promises”."}, {"n": 84, "text": "See letter from Meta to OHCHR, 6 May 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0060", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Overly restrictive, unbalanced content moderation or censorship of Palestinian speech on social media platforms seem to be the result of inherently biased policies, opaque and inconsistent content moderation, heavy reliance on automated tools to moderate and translate and a permissive approach to State requests for content removal. Some platforms, notably Meta, acknowledge the distinct challenges of balancing “voice” and “safety” during crises and took temporary, salient measures to address rapidly changing events in the Gaza conflict, most of which have now ended.[[fn:85]] Overall, there appears to be an absence of heightened human rights due diligence on a consistent basis by platforms in conflict related situations, as recommended by the United Nations business and human rights working group.[[fn:86]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "A. Content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 85, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 86, "text": "A/75/212."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0061", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. There has been an alarming spike in hate speech in the context of Hamas’ attacks on 7 October and the conflict in Gaza.[[fn:87]] Content curation algorithms create a profit incentive for platforms to push harmful or false content to generate more “clicks”, worsening the problem.[[fn:88]] While Jews, Jewish Israelis and Palestinians have all been targeted online, the responses of the platforms show a biased and discriminatory approach towards Palestinians.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "B. Harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "Human Rights Council resolution 55/28."}, {"n": 88, "text": "A/78/288, para. 101."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0062", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Most hate speech, incitement to violence, online harassment and smear campaigns targeting Palestinians have appeared on Facebook, X and Telegram.[[fn:89]] X has been a particularly egregious offender. Over 99 per cent of tracked violent Hebrew-language content appeared on its platform, including statements by Israeli government officials describing Palestinians as “human animals”, “Amalek” and “children of darkness”, among other dehumanizing terms, in apparent violation of X’s own policies. Such language may amount to incitement to genocide.[[fn:90]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "B. Harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "See communications OTH 20/2024; OTH 21/2024; and OTH 22/2024."}, {"n": 90, "text": "See communication USA 8/2024; and A/HRC/55/73 paras. 50–54."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0063", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Telegram, which is known for its “hands off” approach to moderation, has allowed both antisemitic content as well as hate speech against Palestinians. It hosts several Hebrew-language, publicly viewable channels that actively incite violence against Palestinian individuals, share graphic content from Gaza, propagate hate, publish personal information about individuals without consent (doxing) and call for their elimination.[[fn:91]] Threats of doxing often pose a disproportionate threat to women during times of conflict and constitute a form of gender-based violence online.[[fn:92]] Despite repeated complaints, Telegram has failed to act against the channels.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "B. Harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 91, "text": "See communication OTH 21/2024."}, {"n": 92, "text": "A/78/131, para. 67; and A/HRC/50/29, para. 46."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0064", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Platforms have allowed advertisements dehumanizing Palestinians, including from State actors, even when they appear to violate the terms of service of platforms. YouTube reportedly accepted $7.1 million in advertisements sponsored by the Government of Israel, primarily targeted at audiences in Belgium, France, Germany, Switzerland, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States.[[fn:93]] Some of them could constitute incitement to violence, labelling Palestinians as “barbaric terrorists” and featuring graphic, bloody material. Meta reportedly approved ads from the Government of Israel that called for a “holocaust for the Palestinians” and wiping out “Gazan women and children and the elderly”.[[fn:94]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "B. Harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 93, "text": "See communication OTH 19/2024."}, {"n": 94, "text": "See communication OTH 20/2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0065", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. The International Court of Justice has called on Israel to “take all measures within its power to prevent and punish the direct and public incitement to commit genocide in relation to members of the Palestinian group in the Gaza strip.”[[fn:95]] If platforms provide the means to distribute information that constitutes incitement to war crimes or genocide, they may trigger the application of international criminal law or humanitarian law to their operations. Company personnel may incur liability on the basis of their direct action or corporate complicity.[[fn:96]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "B. Harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 95, "text": "International Court of Justice, Order of 26 January 2024."}, {"n": 96, "text": "A/77/288, para. 75."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0066", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. As noted by the Special Rapporteur, conflicts heighten the risks of information manipulation, including online disinformation and misinformation.[[fn:97]] The conflict in Gaza has fuelled widespread instances of disinformation and misinformation on various online platforms, in addition to artificial intelligence-generated deepfakes that increase fears about artificial intelligence-powered models fostering misleading information.[[fn:98]] Meta discovered a coordinated network of fake profiles originating in the Islamic Republic of Iran posted in Hebrew in Israel, across a number of services, including Meta, Telegram, YouTube, X and TikTok. It also found a network between its platform, X and YouTube, originating from Israel and targeting Canadian and United States audiences with pro-Israel content related to the Gaza conflict.[[fn:99]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "B. Harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 97, "text": "A/77/288."}, {"n": 98, "text": "See communication USA 8/2024."}, {"n": 99, "text": "See Meta, “Adversarial Threat Report”, First Quarter 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0067", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. There are rising concerns that activity and information posted on social media, including private information, are possibly being used for purposes of military targeting in artificial intelligence-driven systems.[[fn:100]] These issues require further investigation and transparency by the platforms, as they have grave and uncharted humanitarian implications.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Censorship online", "B. Harmful content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 100, "text": "See “Urgent need to investigate role of technology, social media companies in killing Gazan civilians”, Euro-Med Human Rights Monitor, 21 April 2024, available at https://euromedmonitor.org/en/article/6274/Urgent-need-to-investigate-role-of-technology,-social-media-companies-in-killing-Gazan-civilians."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0068", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Many States and companies that have restricted or prohibited speech, symbols, slogans and protests related to Palestine claim to have done so to combat support for terrorism or antisemitism. The present section contains an analysis as to whether the line between protected and prohibited speech is being correctly drawn in accordance with international human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0069", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Unlike the United Nations, many States have designated Hamas as a terrorist organization under their national anti-terrorism laws. Social media companies cite these laws and the designation of Hamas as a terrorist organization in their national jurisdictions to justify their policies on moderation of Palestinian content.[[fn:101]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "A. Terrorism, incitement and genocidal intent"], "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "See letter from Meta, 6 May 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0070", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Counter-terrorism laws fall under the legitimate objective of national security as grounds for restricting freedom of expression under article 19 (3) of the Covenant. However, the offences under those laws – such as “glorifying”, “praising”, “supporting” or “encouraging” “terrorism” or “extremist activity” – that form the basis for restricting freedom of expression are often vague and poorly defined and fail to meet the international requirement of legality. They leave a lot of room for misuse, which often leads to the silencing of legitimate human rights advocacy.[[fn:102]] In the aftermath of the 7 October attacks by Hamas on Israel, these vague and overly broad offences were used by some States to ban demonstrations to support civilians in the Gaza conflict.[[fn:103]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "A. Terrorism, incitement and genocidal intent"], "footnotes": [{"n": 102, "text": "See A/73/361, A/74/335, and A/77/288, para. 63."}, {"n": 103, "text": "See ARTICLE 19, “From the River to the Sea: Protecting freedom of expression in public discourse on the conflict in Israel and Palestine”, 22 May 2024."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0071", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. Some States have banned and criminalized the display of Palestinian symbols, such as the national flag and the keffiyeh (traditional black and white scarf) as signs of antisemitism and support for Hamas.[[fn:104]] Such general bans do not meet the requirements of necessity and proportionality under article 19 (3) and therefore violate the right to freedom of expression. As general symbols of Palestinian identity, they should be regarded as legitimate forms of expression. Whether or not they are being used in a specific situation to signify intolerance or hatred against Jews or to incite violence or to indicate support for terrorism must be assessed on case-by-case basis, with careful contextual analysis to determine if they should be restricted.[[fn:105]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "A. Terrorism, incitement and genocidal intent"], "footnotes": [{"n": 104, "text": "Submissions by Canadian Lawyers for International Human Rights and Access Now."}, {"n": 105, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 37 (2020) on the right of peaceful assembly, para. 51."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0072", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Blanket bans of Palestinian symbols, by linking Palestinians as a people to terrorism or antisemitism, demonize and stigmatize them and seek to delegitimize their liberation struggle. Equating advocacy of Palestinian rights with terrorism or antisemitism is not only a disproportionate response, but may indicate an underlying institutional racism against Palestinians, violating fundamental human rights. Restricting the use of the Palestinian flag is a denial of the right to self-determination of the Palestinian people, which has been recognized by the General Assembly and the International Court of Justice.[[fn:106]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "A. Terrorism, incitement and genocidal intent"], "footnotes": [{"n": 106, "text": "Legal Consequences arising from the Policies and Practices of Israel in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem, Advisory Opinion, 19 July 2024, para. 274; and General Assembly resolution 78/192."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0073", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. “From the River to the Sea, Palestine Will Be Free”, the most recognizable chant in many Palestinian marches, has been the subject of blanket restrictions by some States and private actors on the grounds that it is a sign of support for Hamas and shows genocidal intent or incitement to violence against Jews. That interpretation of the slogan has been challenged by scholars, human rights experts and Palestinian advocates, including many Jewish groups and scholars who see it as a call for the right to self-determination of Palestinians. Over the past year, the slogan has been used widely during protests in solidarity with Palestinians. In some Western countries, the use of the slogan has been criminalized or otherwise sanctioned. In some others, the courts and law enforcement agencies have recognized the different meanings of the slogan and have refused to impose blanket bans on it.[[fn:107]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "A. Terrorism, incitement and genocidal intent"], "footnotes": [{"n": 107, "text": "ARTICLE 19, “From the River to the Sea”."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0074", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. A general ban or criminalization for the mere utterance of the slogan in all circumstances is disproportionate and not in line with international human rights law. Incitement requires credible proof of intent to incite, as well as the likelihood that it would lead to the intended objective, rather than just arousing feelings of fear, offence or insult. Whether or not in certain specific situations such intent and likelihood exists and prohibition of the slogan is justified should be assessed in accordance with international standards and contextual analysis outlined in the Rabat Plan of Action.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "A. Terrorism, incitement and genocidal intent"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0075", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. In the context of States’ responses to Palestinian advocacy, there has been a tendency to confuse and conflate criticism of the policies of Israel, which is a legitimate exercise of freedom of expression, with antisemitism, which is racial and religious hatred against Jews that must be condemned.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "B. Antisemitism and protection of political expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0076", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. An example of such conflation is the response of some States to the global “boycott, divest and sanctions” movement. The latter makes three demands on Israel: “ending the occupation; ensuring full equality of all citizens and not privileging the rights derived from Jewish identity; and respecting and allowing the right of return for Palestinian refugees.”[[fn:108]] All three are aligned with the international obligations of Israel, which it has so far failed to uphold.[[fn:109]] Many civil society organizations and individuals, including some Jewish groups, support and participate in the movement. A key demand of the campus demonstrators, which included many Jewish groups and students, was the divestment of their universities from Israel-linked companies. Nevertheless, the movement is regarded in some Western countries, including Germany and the United States, as being discriminatory and antisemitic.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "B. Antisemitism and protection of political expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 108, "text": "H.M. Hauge, “Evaluating the Practice of Lawfare against Pro-Palestinian Groups”, Middle East Policy, 2024, pp. 1–16, available at https://doi.org/10.1111/mepo.12764."}, {"n": 109, "text": "Ibid. See also CCPR/C/ISR/CO/4; and A/HRC/20/17/Add.2, para. 34."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0077", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. In a case relating to boycott, divest and sanctions protestors in France, the European Court of Human Rights found that a boycott is a legitimate means of expressing political opinion.[[fn:110]] The court held that differential treatment undertaken with the purpose of ensuring substantive equality and in a proportionate manner does not necessarily amount to inciting discrimination. The Court drew a distinction between expression that serves as a call for antisemitism and is not protected by international law, and political expression, such as the boycott, divest and sanctions movement, which aims to condemn a Government and is unquestionably protected by international law. This decision vindicates the movement as a valid means of protest and pressure on Governments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "B. Antisemitism and protection of political expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 110, "text": "See Baldassi and Others v. France, European Court of Human Rights, 15271/16, 15280/16, 15282/16 et al., 11 June 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0078", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. Antisemitism is a serious form of religious and racial hatred, and States and private actors must take all necessary measures to fight it. The weeks following October 2023 have seen a surge in complaints of antisemitism around the world, compared with the same period the previous year.[[fn:111]] It is vital that the fight against antisemitism be framed according to international human rights standards, so that there is a shared understanding of the problem and its root causes and, consequently, more effective responses to eradicate it. Otherwise, there is a risk that discrimination against one vulnerable group will be replaced with discrimination against another group, which, far from reducing antisemitism, will fuel more hatred and intolerance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "B. Antisemitism and protection of political expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "Submission of the World Jewish Congress."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0079", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. As noted by the European Court of Human Rights, antisemitism should be clearly distinguished from political expression. It is of serious concern that the “working definition” of antisemitism of the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance contravenes this critical international standard of freedom of expression, and yet is being promoted heavily by various entities and Governments. It has been adopted by 43 States and is used in practice as a quasi-legal basis to restrict expression on the grounds of antisemitism.[[fn:112]] Its adoption across Europe has been a source of serious concern in relation to freedom of expression and other human rights.[[fn:113]] The previous Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance found the “working definition” to be “divisive” and “politically instrumentalized”.[[fn:114]] Counter-proposals to “the working definition” have been developed by Jewish scholars and experts on antisemitism.[[fn:115]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "B. Antisemitism and protection of political expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 112, "text": "See Rebecca Ruth Gould, “Legal Form and Legal Legitimacy: The IHRA Definition of Antisemitism as a Case Study in Censored Speech”, Law, Culture and the Humanities, vol. 18 (1), 2022."}, {"n": 113, "text": "A/77/512, para. 74, footnote 4."}, {"n": 114, "text": "Ibid., paras. 71–79."}, {"n": 115, "text": "See Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism, 25 March 2021."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0080", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The “working definition” was never intended to be used as a framework for regulating expression[[fn:116]] and does not meet the international legal standards for restriction or prohibition of speech laid out in the Covenant. First, it is overly broad, vague and equivocal,[[fn:117]] and fails the test of legal certainty, required under article 19 (3) of the Covenant. The overly broad and vague definition of antisemitism offered by the “working definition” is harmful because it can lead to wrongful accusations and damage reputations, distort statistics on antisemitic incidents and divert attention from addressing the real causes of antisemitism. Second, it does not include the element of incitement, as required for prohibition of speech under article 20 (2) of the Covenant. Third, its “illustrative examples” deal not only with the impact of speech on individuals but also on Israel, which contravenes international human rights law and in particular the right to freedom of expression, which permits criticism of all States. Fourth, it is unnecessary as there are universally accepted international standards to address racial and religious hatred, including antisemitism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "B. Antisemitism and protection of political expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 116, "text": "See written testimony of Kenneth S. Stern, United States House of Representatives Committee on the Judiciary, 7 November 2017."}, {"n": 117, "text": "Opinion of Geoffrey Robertson KC, “Antisemitism, the IHRA definition and its consequences for freedom of expression”, para. 2. Available at https://prc.org.uk/upload/library/files/Anti-Semitism_Opinion_03.09.18eds.pdf."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0081", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The central conceptual flaw of the “working definition” is the inherent conflation of Zionism, a political ideology, with antisemitism. The practical consequence is the suppression of legitimate criticism of Israel, not the enhancement of protection of Jews from racial and religious hatred and intolerance. Jewish groups and individuals who engage in anti-Zionist protests have been labelled as antisemitic.[[fn:118]] When Jews celebrating Jewish festivals in solidarity with Palestinians were attacked by pro-Israel supporters, the incident was not considered to be antisemitic.[[fn:119]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "B. Antisemitism and protection of political expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 118, "text": "See National Writers Union, “Red Lines: Retaliation in the media history during the war on Gaza”, 6 May 2024."}, {"n": 119, "text": "Submission of Jøder for Retfærdig Fred (af 5784)."}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0082", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Zionism is not an inherent characteristic of an individual or group, and so it is wrong to equate anti-Zionism with antisemitism. Where there is concern in a specific situation that the term “Zionist” is being used as a proxy for hate speech against Jews, then a contextual analysis should be made on a case-by-case basis in accordance with the universally applicable standards laid out in articles 19 (3) and 20 (2) of the Covenant and the guidance in the Rabat Plan.[[fn:120]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VI. Protected and prohibited expression", "B. Antisemitism and protection of political expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 120, "text": "Meta has revised its policy to restrict speech only where the term “Zionist” is deemed to be a proxy for Jewish people. See Meta Transparency Center, “Update from the Policy Forum on our approach to ‘Zionist’ as a proxy for hate speech”, 9 July 2024. Civil society organizations, like Access Now, are concerned whether Meta will be able to enforce a nuanced policy given its automated decision-making tools and previous history of overenforcement of Palestinian content."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-79-319-0083", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The main conclusion of the present report is that the most fundamental principle of human rights – that all persons have an equal right to enjoy all human rights – has been endangered by an extensive pattern of unlawful, discriminatory and disproportionate restrictions and repression of freedom of expression, primarily of Palestinian activists and their supporters in Western Europe and North America. This trend did not emerge with the Israeli assault on Gaza but has become more widespread in the past year, from the targeted killing of journalists in Gaza to the banning of Palestinian protests, speech and symbols in various countries, especially in North America and Europe.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0084", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. Such repression is particularly disturbing in the light of the recent advisory opinion of the International Court of Justice, which reaffirms the right to self-determination of Palestinians and finds that the Israeli occupation of Palestinian territory is unlawful, with an obligation placed on all other States to ensure that “impediments” to end it are removed. In the opinion, the Court vindicates the legitimacy of Palestinian advocacy for human rights, including the right to self-determination, and creates an imperative for all States to change their laws, policies and practices restricting or prohibiting such advocacy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0085", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. People have the right to express their views and to protest peacefully. States have a duty to respect, protect and facilitate those rights on an equal basis for all persons. Civil disobedience or non-violent protests aimed at challenging unjust proscriptions, as well as campaigns to boycott, seek divestment and promote sanctions, are legitimate forms of political expression that should not be prohibited or criminalized.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0086", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. In recent years, many western Governments have taken a restrictive approach to public protests, viewing them through the lens of security, law enforcement, countering terrorism and violent extremism, that is not in line with human rights standards. Blanket prohibition of Palestinian protests, slogans or symbols is inherently incompatible with international human rights law. Any restriction of freedom of expression must respect scrupulously the requirements of legality, legitimate aims and the necessity and proportionality of measures to achieve those aims, as set out in international law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0087", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. Antisemitism is a serious form of racial and religious hatred that must be condemned. However, the fight against antisemitism should not be instrumentalized and politicized to protect Israel or block criticism of the political ideology of Zionism. The “working definition” of the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance on antisemitism is inconsistent with international human rights law and should not be used to define policy or regulate speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0088", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. International human rights law draws a clear line between political criticism, from which no State can be shielded, and antisemitism as a serious form of religious and racial hatred, which must be condemned. The genocide in Gaza, the violation of human rights in the occupied Palestinian Territory and the failure of Israel to respect its international legal obligations, including the occupation of Palestinian territory, are matters of global public interest. There is no scope for restricting freedom of expression on such matters.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0089", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. Access to information is vital during conflicts, both for civilians trapped in the conflict zone as well as the world outside, which makes the safety of journalists and unhindered access of foreign media to Gaza crucial. The allegations of targeted attacks on media as part of a strategy to cover up evidence of war crimes makes the establishment of international mechanisms to investigate crimes against journalists all the more vital.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0090", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. Not only States, but also organs of society, such as companies, universities and cultural and philanthropic organizations, have reneged on their responsibility to respect freedom of opinion and expression on a non-discriminatory basis. The failure of some of the best academic institutions in the world to ensure equal protection of all members of their academic communities, whether Jewish, Palestinian, Israeli, Arab or Muslim, was disappointing. Academic leaders must do some soul-searching as to what went wrong and how they can put it right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0091", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. Experience shows that, in highly polarized contexts, freedom of opinion and expression – enjoyed on an equal basis by all sides – is an invaluable tool for fighting hate, overcoming prejudice, building mutual respect and encouraging dialogue to resolve disputes. That should be a strong incentive for all stakeholders – States, private actors, civil society and international organizations – to reject double standards and ensure the full and equal protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression of all persons.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0092", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. States must respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of opinion and expression without discrimination against any individual or groups on the grounds of race, religion, political beliefs or other protected characteristics. Any restriction of expression, including in relation to counter-terrorism laws or antisemitism, must follow strictly the criteria set out in articles 19 (3) and 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0093", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. States must refrain from blanket prohibitions of demonstrations, slogans, symbols or other forms expression in support of the Palestinian people. Any decision to prohibit such acts or expressions on the grounds of incitement must be done on a case-by-case basis, taking into account international legal standards as well as specific contextual and other factors, as articulated in the Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0094", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. In the light of the advisory opinion of the International Court of Justice issued in July 2024, States should repeal – or refrain from adopting – laws and policies that penalize opposition to or impede advocacy against Israeli occupation and segregation, such as laws against the boycott, divest and sanctions movement.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0095", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. States must not restrict expression in support of Palestinian self-determination. Advocacy of Palestinians’ human rights, including the right to self-determination, is legitimate expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0096", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. States must condemn antisemitism, anti-Arab racism, particularly anti-Palestinian racism, and Islamophobia, and the use of dehumanizing language by any State official or entity and take all measures in line with international human rights law to combat them, including prompt, thorough, effective, independent and impartial investigation and prosecution of hate crimes against Muslim and Jewish persons.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0097", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. The “working definition” of antisemitism by the International Holocaust Remembrance Association is incompatible with international standards on freedom of expression. States should rescind their adoption and application of it and refrain from promoting it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0098", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. States should promote an environment conducive to diverse views, debate and discussion, using inclusive consultative processes and programmes to promote equality, intercultural dialogue, understanding and tolerance among and within the affected communities, and combat negative stereotypes of Jews, Muslims, Palestinians and Arabs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0099", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. Israel must ensure the safety of all journalists and must refrain from targeting them or destroying media facilities in Gaza. Israel should grant full and free access of foreign media to Gaza.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0100", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. Israel should investigate all attacks on journalists in the occupied Palestinian Territory promptly, effectively, independently and impartially, in line with the Minnesota Protocol on the Investigation of Potentially Unlawful Death.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0101", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. All States, including Israel, as well as social media companies and media outlets, must respect the provisional order of the International Court of Justice to preserve all evidence of atrocities committed in occupied Palestinian Territory.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0102", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. States should not ask platforms to remove content or to enforce measures that do not conform with international human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0103", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. Companies should carry out heightened human rights due diligence and trigger enhanced risk management strategies in the occupied Palestinian Territory, with adequate resources, language and contextual expertise, and the engagement of civil society. Due diligence processes should incorporate a robust analysis of the impact of the companies’ operations, products and services on the specific dynamics of conflict, occupation and segregation, as well as the human rights situation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0104", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. Companies should address the overenforcement of Palestine-related content, including by ensuring that content moderation policies and enforcement are aligned with international human rights law, providing transparency about the use of automation and machine learning to moderate or translate Palestine-related content, sharing information on the classifiers programmed and used and their error rates, and conducting independent audits of content curation and ranking and recommender systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0105", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. Companies should develop predictable, consistent and effective frameworks for addressing hate speech, disinformation and other information manipulation, in line with international human rights and humanitarian law, and ensure user security.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0106", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. In the light of the order of the International Court of Justice on the plausibility of a real and imminent risk of genocide, companies should be vigilant about their own liability and ensure appropriate policies and processes to remove content with genocidal intent. They should take particular care to preserve all evidence of atrocities for future accountability processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0107", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. Companies should ensure effective and swift remedy and redress to affected individuals, including easily accessible, transparent reporting mechanisms to appeal content moderation decisions within reasonable, predictable timelines.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0108", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. Academic institutions should respect the freedom of opinion and expression of students, faculty and staff without discrimination, and should not permit the use of force to disperse peaceful advocacy, protests or civil disobedience on campuses.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for academic and cultural institutions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0109", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. Academic institutions should abstain from retaliation against students and other members of the academic community for their peaceful advocacy and protests, including non-violent civil disobedience, or participation in boycott movements.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for academic and cultural institutions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0110", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. Academic institutions should actively promote an inclusive, safe and enabling environment for academic, evidence-based enquiry, debate and discussion on the Israel-Palestinian question.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for academic and cultural institutions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0111", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. Academic institutions should condemn hate speech, including antisemitism, Islamophobia and anti-Palestinian racism. If they have adopted the International Holocaust Remembrance Association’s “working definition” of antisemitism, they should review their policy in the light of the serious human concerns regarding the definition.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for academic and cultural institutions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0112", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. Cultural and artistic institutions and events sponsors should not discriminate against individuals or deny their participation purely on account of their support or political views regarding Israel or Palestine. The artistic community should reject the “cancel culture”, which chills artistic freedom and encourages discrimination, and use the arts as a means to promote intercultural understanding and fight stereotypes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for academic and cultural institutions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0113", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. The International Criminal Court should prioritize its investigation into the killing of journalists in the occupied Palestinian Territory.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Recommendations for the international community"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-79-319-0114", "docId": "a-79-319", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. The discriminatory and disproportionate responses by State and private actors to protect human rights, including freedom of expression, of the Palestinian people and those who support them raise serious concerns about anti-Palestinian racism that cut across the mandates of several Special Procedures and engage a wide range of stakeholders. The Human Rights Council should consider a cross-mandate, multistakeholder discussion to strengthen the equal protection of human rights for vulnerable groups in this highly polarized environment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Recommendations for the international community"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. This report is submitted to the Human Rights Council by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 7/36. The addendum to the report (A/HRC/14/23/Add.1) contains a summary of the communications sent by the Special Rapporteur between 1 January 2009 and 19 March 2010 and the replies received from Governments between 16 May 2009 and 14 May 2010.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Since he took up his mandate on 1 August 2008, the Special Rapporteur has been working with various stakeholders in a spirit of transparency, openness and positive dialogue. The Special Rapporteur reaffirms his commitment to constructive engagement with all stakeholders in order to further promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression worldwide.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. In his first report to the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/11/4), the Special Rapporteur dealt with two priority issues: the right of access to information in situations of extreme poverty, and the protection of journalists and media professionals in conflict zones. In this report, the Special Rapporteur will examine the right to freedom of opinion and expression of groups in need of particular attention (women, children, those living in extreme poverty, minorities and indigenous peoples) and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination; permissible and impermissible limitations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression in international human rights law; and the protection of journalists and the freedom of the press.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Between 1 January 2009 and 19 March 2010, the Special Rapporteur sent 304 communications, 284 of which were signed jointly with other special procedures mandate holders. The geographical distribution of the communications was as follows: 32 per cent for Asia and the Pacific; 22 per cent for Latin America and the Caribbean; 19 per cent for Africa; 14 per cent for Europe, North America and Central Asia; and 12 per cent for the Middle East and North Africa.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The Special Rapporteur attended many meetings with government authorities and civil society organizations to consider issues relating to the right to freedom of opinion and expression. He also participated in international academic seminars and global forums where topics related to the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression were discussed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. From 20 to 24 April, the Special Rapporteur participated in the Durban Review Conference, held in Geneva. He also took part in a side event, along with the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, concerning freedom of expression and incitement to racial or religious hatred. At that event, which was organized by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), a joint statement was adopted on freedom of expression and incitement to racial and religious hatred.[[fn:1]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See the English text of the declaration at http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/opinion/docs/SRJointstatement22April09New.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. From 26 to 29 April, the Special Rapporteur participated in a seminar in Doha organized by the Al-Jazeera Media Training and Development Centre, in cooperation with the Geneva Institute for Human Rights, on the role of the media in the promotion and protection of human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. On the occasion of World Press Freedom Day, as proclaimed by the General Assembly, from 1 to 3 May the Special Rapporteur participated in a seminar organized by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Doha Centre for Media Freedom. That seminar, which was entitled “The potential of the media: dialogue, mutual understanding and reconciliation”, also served as the venue for the award of the UNESCO/Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize for 2009.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. From 1 to 6 June, he participated in the Global Forum on Freedom of Expression, organized by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. From 29 June to 3 July, the Special Rapporteur participated in the sixteenth Annual Meeting of Special Rapporteurs, Representatives, Independent Experts and Chairpersons of Working Groups of the Human Rights Council in Geneva.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. In July, at the invitation of the Civil Society Advisory Council, the Special Rapporteur travelled to Argentina to take part in various meetings and to support the adoption of the Audiovisual Communication Services Act, which was finally approved.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. On 1 and 2 September, he participated in a meeting of the Working Party on Human Rights (COHOM) in Brussels which focused on freedom of expression on the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. On 10 September, he participated in a workshop in Mexico on standards for regulating radio frequency allocation as a guarantee of diversity in broadcasting. He also took part in the sixth annual Transparency Week, held from 27 to 29 October 2009 by the Federal Institute for Access to Public Information, and in a dialogue on freedom of expression, held on 28 October 2009 at the Italian Cultural Institute, with the support of the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in Mexico.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. From 13 to 15 October, the Special Rapporteur participated in a conference in Seoul entitled “Freedom of Opinion and Expression in Cyberspace: the situation and challenges in East Asia”. The conference was organized by the Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development, the Korean Network for International Human Rights and the Korean University Global Legal Clinic.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. From 9 to 10 November, the Special Rapporteur took part in a seminar organized by the Latin American Association for Educational Radio (ALER) in Quito.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. From 12 to 13 November, the Special Rapporteur attended a meeting of the Permanent Commission on Political and Municipal Affairs and Integration organized by the Latin American Parliament in Buenos Aires.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. From 15 to 18 November, he participated in the fourth annual meeting of the Internet Governance Forum in Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt, where he took part in a discussion on access and diversity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. From 2 to 5 December, the Second United Nations Regional Conference on Human Rights for Young People in Latin America and the Caribbean took place in Mexico City. The Special Rapporteur addressed the issue of freedom of expression and communication skills at the event, which was organized by the United Nations Information Centre OHCHR, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), UNESCO and the United Nations Population Fund.", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. From 8 to 9 December, he participated in a regional consultation in Washington D.C. entitled “Enhancing Cooperation between Regional and International Mechanisms for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights”. The event was organized by OHCHR in coordination with other organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. The Special Rapporteur notes that country visits will remain central to the activities of his mandate. Visits undertaken by the former Special Rapporteur, along with requests made to Governments for official country visits and the trends that emerge from an analysis of communications on freedom of expression and opinion, form the basis of requests sent to Governments for an invitation to visit their countries. Requests for invitations to visit a number of countries have been sent by the Special Rapporteur, taking into consideration the importance of achieving a geographical balance. The Special Rapporteur hopes that visit requests will be favourably received by the Governments concerned.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. For 2010, the Special Rapporteur has received invitations from the following Governments: the Republic of Korea (visit scheduled for 6 to 14 May); Mexico (visit scheduled from 10 to 21 August, to be made in conjunction with the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression for the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Ms. Catalina Botero); and Israel (visit scheduled for September).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "1. Upcoming missions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. The Special Rapporteur would also like to thank the Italian Government for inviting him to visit the country. The dates of the visit have yet to be agreed upon.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "1. Upcoming missions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. As of March 2010, the following requests from the Special Rapporteur were pending: the Islamic Republic of Iran (request made in February 2010), Sri Lanka (request made in June 2009), Tunisia (requested in 2009), and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (requests made in 2003 and in 2009).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "2. Pending requests"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. As provided for in article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the right to freedom of opinion and expression comprises three different elements: (a) the right to hold opinions without interference; (b) the right to seek and receive information and the right of access to information; and (c) the right to impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of one’s choice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The right to freedom of opinion and expression, like all rights, imposes legal obligations upon Governments: (a) to respect that right, or to refrain from interfering with the enjoyment of that right; (b) to protect that right or to exercise due diligence in order to prevent, punish, investigate and provide redress for harm caused by private persons or entities; and (c) to give effect to that right or to take positive or proactive measures to permit the realization of that right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. As stipulated in resolution 12/16 of the Human Rights Council, “the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is one of the essential foundations of a democratic society, is enabled by a democratic environment, which offers, inter alia, guarantees for its protection, is essential to full and effective participation in a free and democratic society, and is instrumental to the development and strengthening of effective democratic systems” (second preambular paragraph).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. The importance of the right to freedom of opinion and expression for the development and reinforcement of truly democratic systems lies in the fact that this right is closely linked to the rights to freedom of association, assembly, thought, conscience and religion, and participation in public affairs. It symbolizes, more than any other right, the indivisibility and interdependence of all human rights. As such, the effective enjoyment of this right is an important indicator with respect to the protection of other human rights and fundamental freedoms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Thus, the right to freedom of opinion and expression should also be understood to be an essential instrument for the promotion and protection of other human rights. It is an important tool for combating impunity and corruption, as well.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Furthermore, freedom of opinion and expression, although an individual right in the broadest sense of its enjoyment, is also a collective right. It endows social groups with the ability to seek and receive different types of information from a variety of sources and to voice their collective views. This freedom extends to mass demonstrations of various kinds, including the public expression of spiritual or religious beliefs or of cultural values. It is also a right of different peoples, who, by virtue of the effective exercise of this right, may develop, raise awareness of, and propagate their culture, language, traditions and values.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. As provided for in article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, everyone has the right to seek information (which goes beyond simply being passive recipients of information); the exercise of this right may be subject to restrictions as specified in article 19, paragraph 3.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "1. Right of access to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. The Human Rights Committee has emphasized the importance of the right of citizens to be informed of the activities of public officials and to have access to information that will enable them to participate in political affairs. In a democracy, the right of access to public information is fundamental in ensuring transparency. In order for democratic procedures to be effective, people must have access to public information, defined as information related to all State activity. This allows them to take decisions; exercise their political right to elect and be elected; challenge or influence public policies; monitor the quality of public spending; and promote accountability. All of this, in turn, makes it possible to establish controls to prevent the abuse of power.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "1. Right of access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Governments should take the necessary legislative and administrative measures to improve access to public information for everyone. There are specific legislative and procedural characteristics that any access-to-information policy must have, including: observance of the principle of maximum disclosure; the presumption of the public nature of meetings and key documents; broad definitions of the type of information that is accessible; reasonable fees and time limits; independent review of refusals to disclose information; and sanctions for noncompliance.[[fn:2]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "1. Right of access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Annual Report of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Organization of American States, 2003, Chapter IV, para. 32."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. If mechanisms to promote the right of access to public information are lacking, then the members of society will not be informed or able to participate, and decision-making will not be democratic. Consequently, the Special Rapporteur urges Governments to adopt legislation to ensure access to public information and to establish specific mechanisms for that purpose. He therefore welcomes the initiative of the United Mexican States to set up the Federal Institute of Access to Public Information (IFAI) as an independent national body.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "1. Right of access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. An important aspect of access to public information is access to historical information and archives and to information on current procedures that may shed light on human rights violations. Such access allows victims to exercise their right to truth, bearing in mind that the truth is the first step towards the right to justice and then the right to compensation, which are fundamental rights of victims. Victims not only have the right to establish the truth: why, how and who violated their human rights; they also have the right to make it public if they so wish, and this is particularly the case when they wish to honour the memory of those whose right to life has been violated.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "1. Right of access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. All the various outlets of the mass media have a social role to play. Electromagnetic frequencies are a public good, and the Government should therefore guarantee access to them and should use them and authorize their use in an equitable and fair way for all sectors of society. It is recommended that an independent, national (public) agency be in charge of administering and managing the allocation of broadcasting frequencies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "2. Access to means of communication"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. In recent years, the mass media have been viewed worldwide as a business, and this has paved the way for the concentration of media into large private or public consortia. This runs counter to the principle of pluralism and diversity that should underpin genuine freedom of expression. It also constitutes a concentration of political power that threatens democratic models.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "2. Access to means of communication"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Access to means of communication and, in particular, to electronic communications is now seen as necessary for achieving development and, therefore, should also be considered as an economic and social right. Governments should take responsibility for facilitating and subsidizing access to electronic media to ensure equitable enjoyment of this right, to combat poverty and to achieve their development goals.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "2. Access to means of communication"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Accordingly, the Special Rapporteur considers that, in order to achieve the Millennium Development Goals, the right of access to electronic communications and freedom of opinion and expression in general must be guaranteed. It is therefore necessary to reduce the digital divide and the gap in technological progress between developed and developing nations, in line with the recommendations contained in the Millennium Declaration (General Assembly resolution 55/2, para. 20). In particular, target 5 of goal 8 states: “in cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications”.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "2. Access to means of communication"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See text at http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/global.shtml."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The Special Rapporteur will focus primarily on the issue of access to electronic communications and freedom of expression on the Internet in his 2011 report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "A. General considerations on the right to freedom of opinion and expression", "2. Access to means of communication"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. The Special Rapporteur considers that Governments should remove all barriers that impede the full exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and that hinder development and decision-making.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. In this context, the right to freedom of expression gains added value when it is used to protect groups or minorities in need of particular attention, such as women, children, those living in extreme poverty, minorities, indigenous peoples and migrant populations.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. In accordance with the Special Rapporteur’s mandate to mainstream women’s human rights and a gender perspective in all his activities, this report reiterates the undeniable link between freedom of expression and women’s human rights, which include the right to express their opinions, to have access to their own means of communication and to work in the existing mass media. The following considerations should be taken into account in this regard.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(a) Women"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. General comment No. 28 of the Human Rights Committee on the equality of rights between men and women (article 3 of the Covenant) states that the causes of the inequality of women throughout the world include traditional, historical, cultural and even religious factors. This situation also influences the enjoyment of and respect for all the rights enshrined in the Covenant, including the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the right to access information in order to make informed decisions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(a) Women"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Everyone has the right to access the information needed to form opinions or to take decisions. However, women, in particular, have sometimes been denied full enjoyment of this right and, in extreme cases, this has led to them being denied information or the education they need. In cases where the State has failed to promote and ensure access to information and education, to means of expressing opinions, and to health and anti-violence programmes, this failure has had a negative impact on women’s ability to make informed decisions freely. Therefore, the Special Rapporteur considers that Governments should prioritize women’s education and access to information in their public policies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(a) Women"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. General recommendation No. 19 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (para. 11) states that the underlying consequences of violence contribute to maintaining women in subordinate roles, to their low level of political participation and to their lower level of education, skills and work opportunities, thereby exposing them to other risks such as the propagation of pornography and other forms of commercial exploitation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(a) Women"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Similarly, in its general recommendation No. 23, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (para. 20 (a)) states that one of the obstacles (in addition to illiteracy and a lack of knowledge and understanding of political systems) to the exercise of women’s right to vote and to be elected is that their access to information about candidates, party political platforms and voting procedures is more restricted than men’s. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur highlights shortcomings in civil registry systems that must be remedied.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(a) Women"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. It is, therefore, fitting to recall the important contribution made by the Beijing Platform for Action of 1995, in which particular concern was expressed about the continued projection of negative and degrading images of women and about their unequal access to information technology. Governments were therefore called upon to empower women by enhancing their skills, knowledge, access to information technology and role in the development of new technologies. The Special Rapporteur considers that the exercise of the freedom of expression necessarily implies an increase in women’s participation in public affairs and in their involvement in decision-making on issues that may directly influence their development.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(a) Women"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. The existence of other effective means notwithstanding, electronic communication media are now available that allow women to disseminate information immediately and cheaply, as well as enabling them to establish contacts and networks and to organize, mobilize and inform themselves more effectively.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(a) Women"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The fact that the possibility of reporting domestic violence, violence against women and child abuse now exists has a direct effect on the fight against impunity. Silence is also a form of impunity, and one way of breaking it is to ensure women’s freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(a) Women"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. The Convention on the Rights of the Child requires Governments to ensure that children are able to exercise their right to freedom of expression (art. 13). The Special Rapporteur considers that freedom of expression is the primary channel for participation and serves as a mechanism for inclusion; this right is therefore necessarily linked to the recognition of and respect for human dignity from childhood onward.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(b) Children"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. The evolution of one’s own thinking, the ability to express one’s thoughts clearly and the capacity to use alternative means of expression, such as art and electronic and audiovisual means of communication, begin to be developed in childhood. Therefore, child protection programmes should make a special effort to focus on respect for children’s freedom of opinion and expression. Early stimulation and learning programmes should also be promoted, as should full access to schooling and participatory educational programmes that encourage critical thinking, the capacity for expression and a culture of peace.[[fn:4]]", "labels": ["Children", "Children in alternative care"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(b) Children"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Declaration and Programme of Action on a Culture of Peace, General Assembly resolution 53/243. Article 1 stipulates that “[a] culture of peace is a set of values, attitudes, traditions and modes of behaviour and ways of life based on […] [r]espect for and promotion of the right of everyone to freedom of expression, opinion and information”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. While upholding the right to freedom of expression, Governments have a duty to protect children from information that could undermine their dignity and development. They should therefore establish protective mechanisms and define their content, scope and implementation methods in their domestic human rights laws (see section C below on limitations).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(b) Children"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Respecting children’s freedom of expression and listening to them attentively are also an important factor in combating child abuse and domestic violence and in ensuring that these acts do not go unpunished.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "1. Women and children and the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression", "(b) Children"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. As poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon that restricts the exercise of all human rights, its eradication would help to ensure the realization of these rights, including the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the right to have access to new communication technologies. The limitation of this right leads to social exclusion and obstructs human development.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "2. Persons living in extreme poverty: access to communication and freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Persons living in poverty find it difficult to make their voices heard. Their circumstances prevent them from exercising their right to free speech; poverty restricts their access to information, to education and to the media. Illiteracy is particularly a problem among the poor, and Governments should therefore continue their efforts to eradicate it.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "2. Persons living in extreme poverty: access to communication and freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Freedom of opinion and expression and access to communication are tools that can contribute to the eradication of poverty. By exercising this right, poor social groups can obtain information, assert their rights and participate in the public debate concerning social and political changes that would improve their situation. Access to communication is also fundamental to economic and social development because it enables communities to obtain the information they need to run their own activities. Governments should therefore ensure access to communication, in general, and to electronic means of communications, in particular, in order to combat poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "2. Persons living in extreme poverty: access to communication and freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Recalling the Colombo Declaration of 2006 on media, development and poverty eradication, which states in paragraph 1: “Freedom of expression should be made available to all. It requires effective local participation to empower individuals and groups to address poverty, hunger, disease, discrimination, vulnerability, social exclusion, environmental degradation and education.” The Declaration also calls on Governments to “expand the reach of information and communication technologies especially to poor and marginalized populations”.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "2. Persons living in extreme poverty: access to communication and freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. In this context, the independent expert on the question of human rights and extreme poverty asserted that “[e]ffective and meaningful participation by people living in poverty requires that a broad set of rights are respected, protected and fulfilled, including freedom of expression […] In practice, this requires the establishment of specific mechanisms and arrangements at different levels to ensure that there are ways in which those living in poverty have a voice and play an effective part in the life of the community”.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "2. Persons living in extreme poverty: access to communication and freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Report of the independent expert (A/63/274), para. 22."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes the importance that exercising the right to freedom of opinion and expression has for minorities and indigenous peoples, as freedom of opinion and expression is a basic tool for ensuring the specific recognition of the rights demanded by these groups.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "3. Minorities and indigenous peoples"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Article 16 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples states that indigenous peoples have the right to establish their own media in their own languages and to have access to all forms of non-indigenous media without discrimination. Therefore, the Special Rapporteur considers that, in addition to fulfilling their duty to ensure freedom of opinion and expression, it is of paramount importance for Governments to honour their obligation to promote indigenous cultural diversity in the public and private media.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "3. Minorities and indigenous peoples"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "16", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 16 of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples' — UNDRIP is a non-treaty declaration."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Consequently, the Special Rapporteur encourages the mass media to ensure that they have a representative and diverse staff. He also urges the press and mass media to provide coverage that creates an atmosphere of respect for cultural diversity and multiculturalism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "3. Minorities and indigenous peoples"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Governments should take into account the ethnic, cultural, religious and ideological diversity of the various social groups. They should also promote and protect the languages of minorities and indigenous peoples by, inter alia, upholding their right to speak their own language and to propagate their culture and traditions, both in private and in public. In no case should restrictions on the freedom of expression be used to stifle minorities’ and indigenous peoples’ legitimate claims to their rights.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "3. Minorities and indigenous peoples"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. In accordance with general comment No. 23 of the Human Rights Committee on the rights of minorities (article 27 of the Covenant), the Special Rapporteur recalls that even when individuals are not citizens of the State where they live or happen to be, “a State party is required […] to ensure that the rights protected under the Covenant are available to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction” (para. 5.1). The Special Rapporteur also reiterates that migrants and migrant communities, regardless of their legal migratory status, are fully entitled to exercise freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "3. Minorities and indigenous peoples"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "27", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. The Special Rapporteur reiterates the comments of the Human Rights Committee in noting that Governments should ensure that minorities exercise their freedom of opinion and expression so that they can enjoy their own culture, profess and practise their own religion and use their own language in accordance with article 27 of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "3. Minorities and indigenous peoples"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "27", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. The final declaration of the Durban Review Conference made an important contribution to our understanding of the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination and racism, highlighting, in paragraph 58 of the outcome document, “that the right to freedom of opinion and expression constitutes one of the essential foundations of a democratic, pluralistic society and stresses further the role these rights can play in the fight against racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance worldwide”. In this regard the Special Rapporteur encourages all Governments to develop a culture of peace based on information, the free exchange of ideas and knowledge, dialogue and tolerance between cultures in order to promote respectful intercultural relations and to break down existing stereotypes and prejudices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "3. Minorities and indigenous peoples"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The right to freedom of opinion and expression includes the freedom for minority and excluded groups to give, receive and transmit information. Community-based media are effective ways to accomplish that, and it is the duty of Governments to assist and support them in doing so and to ensure equitable access. The Special Rapporteur reiterates the call to Governments, made in paragraph 3 of the relevant section of the Colombo Declaration, to “develop national policies that address access to, and participation in, information and communication for people living in poverty, including access to licenses and fair spectrum allocation”.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "4. Community-based media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Protecting disadvantaged social groups’ right to freedom of expression requires Governments to create a legal framework for telecommunications which is based on democratic principles and which seeks to provide access to all sectors of society. Community-based media should serve as a tool for local communities and should be representative of their diverse interests.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "4. Community-based media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. The Special Rapporteur defines community-based media as non-governmental, public interest radio stations and print media that are run by civil society institutions, organizations or associations and any type of non-profit organization run by indigenous peoples for educational, informative, cultural or communal goals purposes. These media work for the development of different sectors of a territorial, ethno-linguistic or other community. They share their communities’ interests, challenges and concerns and seek to improve the quality of life of their community and to contribute to the well-being for all its members. They must not be used as instruments for political campaigning.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "4. Community-based media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. In order for all sectors of society to have access to information and the opportunity to participate in the national public debate, it is important to uphold the principle of media diversity and pluralism and to do away with monopolies and large media consortia. The concentration of the media leads to a concentration of political power and jeopardizes democracy and the ability of all sectors of society to exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "4. Community-based media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. The Special Rapporteur would like to highlight the joint work undertaken with the World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters (AMARC) through a series of regional consultations held for the purpose of identifying and endorsing the principles that should underlie a democratic regulatory framework for community radio and television. Information on these principles is included in the annex. These principles are:\n(a) Media diversity, content and perspectives;\n(b) Recognition and promotion;\n(c) Definition and characteristics;\n(d) Objectives and aims;\n(e) Technological access;\n(f) Universal access;\n(g) Reserved frequencies;\n(h) Competent authorities;\n(i) Licence and frequency allocation procedures;\n(j) Non-discriminatory conditions;\n(k) Evaluation criteria;\n(l) Financing;\n(m) Public funding;\n(n) Digital inclusion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "4. Community-based media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. It is important for Governments to promote measures and adopt good practices oriented toward equity in telecommunications. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur welcomes the promulgation by Argentina of the Audio-visual Materials Distribution Act, which is a good example of such practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "B. Freedom of expression for groups in need of particular attention and the role of freedom of expression in combating discrimination", "4. Community-based media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Although the right to freedom of expression is important for democracy and the exercise of other rights, as highlighted in section A, this right is not absolute. International law, and most national constitutions, recognize that the exercise of the right to freedom of expression carries with it special duties and responsibilities and may be restricted in certain exceptional circumstances. The right to freedom of opinion, on the other hand, is a right to which the Covenant permits no exception or restriction, as stated, inter alia, in general comment No. 10 of the Human Rights Committee.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. In accordance with resolution 7/36 of the Human Rights Council, the mandate of the Special Rapporteur includes reporting on instances in which the abuse of the right of freedom of expression constitutes an act of racial or religious discrimination, as well as formulating recommendations and making suggestions concerning methods of promoting and protecting the right to freedom of opinion and expression in all its forms. Accordingly, as a contribution to the consideration of this issue, in this report the Special Rapporteur proposes a series of principles that will help to determine what constitutes a legitimate restriction or limitation on the right of freedom of opinion and expression and what constitutes an “abuse” of that right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights sets out three factors that should be taken into account when assessing whether restrictions are permissible: (a) they must be provided for by law; (b) they must be necessary; and (c) they must pursue one of the legitimate aims set forth in the article, i.e. (i) the respect of the rights or reputations of others; (ii) the protection of national security or public order (ordre public); or (iii) the protection of public health or morals. In addition, in its article 20, paragraph 2, the Covenant states that “any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. The Special Rapporteur notes that, despite the provisions of the Covenant, States frequently limit or restrict freedom of expression arbitrarily, sometimes by recourse to criminal legislation, in order to silence dissent or criticism. In view of such practices, the Special Rapporteur wishes to draw attention to some of the existing principles that may be used to determine whether or not a limitation or restriction to the right of freedom of expression is legitimate within the framework of existing standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. The limitations and restrictions must be provided for by prior law within the framework of international human rights law and the principles deriving therefrom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. The general principle is that permissible limitations and restrictions must constitute an exception to the rule and must be kept to the minimum necessary to pursue the legitimate aim of safeguarding other human rights established in the Covenant or in other international human rights instruments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. The principles proposed in this document have been compiled by the Special Rapporteur from various public sources, including the Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation Provisions in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (E/CN.4/1985/4, annex) and the general comments adopted by the Human Rights Committee, including No. 10 (article 19 of the Covenant),[[fn:6]] No. 11 (article 20 of the Covenant) and No. 27 (article 12 of the Covenant). Although general comment No. 27 concerns freedom of movement, it encapsulates the Human Rights Committee’s position on permissible limitations on the rights established in the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes that the Human Rights Committee is drafting a general comment on article 19 of the Covenant."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "12", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. The Special Rapporteur proposes the following principles for determining the conditions that must be satisfied in order for a limitation or restriction on freedom of expression to be permissible:\n(a) The restriction or limitation must not undermine or jeopardize the essence of the right of freedom of expression;\n(b) The relationship between the right and the limitation/restriction or between the rule and the exception must not be reversed;\n(c) All restrictions must be provided for by pre-existing statutory laws issued by the legislative body of the State;\n(d) Laws imposing restrictions or limitations must be accessible, concrete, clear and unambiguous, such that they can be understood by everyone and applied to everyone. They must also be compatible with international human rights law, with the burden of proving this congruence lying with the State;\n(e) Laws imposing a restriction or limitation must set out the remedy against or mechanisms for challenging the illegal or abusive application of that limitation or restriction, which must include a prompt, comprehensive and efficient judicial review of the validity of the restriction by an independent court or tribunal;\n(f) Laws imposing restrictions or limitations must not be arbitrary or unreasonable and must not be used as a means of political censorship or of silencing criticism of public officials or public policies;\n(g) Any restrictions imposed on the exercise of a right must be “necessary”, which means that the limitation or restriction must:\n(i) Be based on one of the grounds for limitations recognized by the Covenant;\n(ii) Address a pressing public or social need which must be met in order to prevent the violation of a legal right that is protected to an even greater extent;\n(iii) Pursue a legitimate aim;\n(iv) Be proportionate to that aim and be no more restrictive than is required for the achievement of the desired purpose. The burden of demonstrating the legitimacy and the necessity of the limitation or restriction shall lie with the State;\n(h) Certain very specific limitations are legitimate if they are necessary in order for the State to fulfil an obligation to prohibit certain expressions on the grounds that they cause serious injury to the human rights of others. These include the following:\n(i) Article 20 of the Covenant, which establishes that “any propaganda for war” and “any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law”;\n(ii) Article 3, paragraph 1 (c), of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, which provides that States must ensure that their criminal law covers “producing, distributing, disseminating, importing, exporting, offering, selling or possessing [...] child pornography”;\n(iii) Article 4 (a) of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, which establishes the requirement to “declare an offence punishable by law all dissemination of ideas based on racial superiority or hatred, incitement to racial discrimination, as well as all acts of violence or incitement to such acts against any race or group of persons of another colour or ethnic origin”;\n(iv) Article III (c) of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, which states that “direct and public incitement to commit genocide” shall be punishable;\n(i) Restrictions already established must be reviewed and their continued relevance analysed periodically;\n(j) In states of emergency which threaten the life of the nation and which have been officially proclaimed, States are permitted to temporarily suspend certain rights, including the right to freedom of expression. However, such suspensions shall be legitimate only if the state of emergency is declared in accordance with article 4 of the Covenant and general comment No. 29 of the Human Rights Committee. A state of emergency may not under any circumstances be used for the sole aim of restricting freedom of expression and preventing criticism of those who hold power;\n(k) Any restriction or limitation must be consistent with other rights recognized in the Covenant and in other international human rights instruments, as well as with the fundamental principles of universality, interdependence, equality and non-discrimination as to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other belief, national or social origin, property, birth or any other status;\n(l) All restrictions and limitations shall be interpreted in the light and context of the particular right concerned. Wherever doubt exists as to the interpretation or scope of a law imposing limitations or restrictions, the protection of fundamental human rights shall be the prevailing consideration.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "20", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Context_before names HRC GC No. 11 on 'article 20 of the Covenant' (ICCPR). The principles paragraph discusses limitations under 'the Covenant' (ICCPR per Siracusa context). ICCPR art.20 (incitement) is correct."}, {"article": "3", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "low", "source": "opus", "rationale": "No explicit treaty attribution for art.3 in visible text; the regex may have captured an enumeration. Multiple plausible treaties (ICCPR art.3 equal rights, CERD art.3, CRC art.3) given the document's mixed context. Conservative ambiguous designation appropriate."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "low", "source": "opus", "rationale": "No explicit treaty attribution for art.4; could plausibly be ICCPR art.4 (derogation/limitations), CERD art.4 (hate speech), or CRC art.4 (implementation). The Siracusa/Covenant context suggests ICCPR but without textual cue, AMBIGUOUS is conservative."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "low", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second art.4 occurrence — same analysis: multiple plausible treaties without explicit textual pointer."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The principles set out herein should be understood to be of an exceptional nature. They are suggested as a means of ensuring that States do not abuse restrictions or limitations for political ends and that the application of such restrictions or limitations does not cause other rights to be violated. The principles should be applied in a comprehensive manner.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The Special Rapporteur also wishes to stress that, as provided in paragraph 5 (p) of Human Rights Council resolution 12/16, restrictions on the following aspects of the right to freedom of expression are not permissible:\n(i) Discussion of government policies and political debate; reporting on human rights, government activities and corruption in government; engaging in election campaigns, peaceful demonstrations or political activities, including for peace or democracy; and expression of opinion and dissent, religion or belief, including by persons belonging to minorities or vulnerable groups;\n(ii) The free flow of information and ideas, including practices such as the banning or closing of publications or other media and the abuse of administrative measures and censorship;\n(iii) Access to or use of information and communication technologies, including radio, television and the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. With regard to limitations on freedom of expression justified on the basis of the protection of other rights or the reputation of others, the Special Rapporteur reiterates that this justification must not be used to protect the State and its officials from public opinion or criticism. The Special Rapporteur is of the view that no criminal or civil action for defamation should be admissible in respect of a civil servant or the performance of his or her duties. In addition, all desacato laws should be repealed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The Special Rapporteur believes that any attempt to criminalize freedom of expression as a means of limiting or censuring that freedom must be resisted. He therefore encourages all efforts to decriminalize acts considered to be acts of defamation and to make civil liability proceedings the sole form of redress for complaints of damage to reputation. However, civil penalties for defamation should not be so heavy as to block freedom of expression and should be designed to restore the reputation harmed, not to compensate the plaintiff or to punish the defendant; in particular, pecuniary awards should be strictly proportionate to the actual harm caused, and the law should give preference to the use of non-pecuniary remedies, including, for example, apology, rectification and clarification.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. In addition, criminal defamation laws may not be used to protect abstract or subjective notions or concepts, such as the State, national symbols, national identity, cultures, schools of thought, religions, ideologies or political doctrines. This is consistent with the view, sustained by the Special Rapporteur, that international human rights law protects individuals and groups of people, not abstract notions or institutions that are subject to scrutiny, comment or criticism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. On this basis, and recalling the Joint Declaration issued by the International Mechanisms for Promoting Freedom of Expression in 2008: “The concept of ‘defamation of religions’ does not accord with international standards regarding defamation, which refer to the protection of the reputation of individuals, while religions, like all beliefs, cannot be said to have a reputation of their own.” The Special Rapporteur reiterates that, in his point of view, it is conceptually incorrect to present the issue of “defamation of religions” in an abstract manner as a conflict between the right to freedom of religion and belief and the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. The Special Rapporteur notes and deeply regrets the continuing existence in the world of stereotypes and prejudice against ethnic, racial, linguistic and religious groups that are the result of racism and discrimination or of the erroneous application of national security and anti-terrorism policies. It is essential that this problem be recognized and that it be countered by a developing culture of peace based on intercultural dialogue and tolerance which promotes respect in intercultural relationships.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. The Durban Review Conference outcome document made an important contribution to our understanding of freedom of opinion and expression in the context of the effort to combat discrimination and racism in its paragraph 58, which: “Stresses that the right to freedom of opinion and expression constitutes one of the essential foundations of a democratic, pluralistic society, and stresses further the role that right can play in the fight against racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance worldwide.”", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "C. Permissible restrictions and limitations on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. The right to be informed and to receive information from various media is a key factor in the development of social groups. This right is a cornerstone of democracy and supports the construction of more democratic societies peopled by active citizens who hold informed opinions about the situation in their country and have the capacity and opportunity to propose and contribute to public policies and to demand transparency.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned that providers of information have become targets for threats, assaults and even assassinations. It is deplorable that, between 2008 and 2009, there was an increase in the number of killings, assassinations, assaults and incidents of ill-treatment against persons associated with journalism and mass communication.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. According to the NGO Reporters Without Borders, in 2009 around 76 journalists were killed in the exercise of their profession. This figure represents an increase of at least 26 per cent over the 2008 level.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Reporters Without Borders, “Wars and disputed elections: the most dangerous stories for journalists”, 30 December 2009, www.rsf.org/Wars-and-disputed-elections-The.html."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. The Special Rapporteur calls on the Philippines, Somalia, Iraq, Pakistan, the Russian Federation and Mexico[[fn:8]] (the States accounting for the greatest number of journalists’ deaths, in descending order) to adopt the measures necessary to guarantee the protection of journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Committee to Protect Journalists, “71 Journalists Killed in 2009/Motive Confirmed”, cpj.org/killed/2009/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. The high-risk conditions in which journalists carry out their work, as evidenced by the threats and assaults to which they constantly fall victim, are also a matter of concern.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. A particular concern is the fact that a high percentage of the killings for which the motives have been confirmed were connected to investigations into corruption, organized crime and political crime that the journalists in question were conducting at the time.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. According to the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ), the perpetrators of these offences have enjoyed total impunity in 94 per cent of all cases, while the percentage of cases in which even some partial measure of justice has been obtained is minimal; in only 2 per cent of cases have the offences been tried before the competent authorities and the perpetrators and instigators prosecuted. Although the majority of the victims were male journalists, 11 per cent were women, which is also a matter for concern.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. The States concerned maintain that violence against journalists has varied causes, which may be true. However, the Special Rapporteur believes that States have a duty to carry out exhaustive investigations into each case and to bring criminal charges against those responsible. Failure to perform this duty creates a culture of impunity which perpetuates the violence. Systematically allowing those responsible for killing journalists or social communicators to go unpunished could be interpreted as tolerance or acquiescence on the part of the State.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. Furthermore, kidnappings of journalists and other persons with links to the media are a continuing practice which, in 2009, forced around 157 journalists to seek exile in other countries.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. The Special Rapporteur must also draw attention to the serious risk that exercising freedom of the press in a professional, objective and pluralistic manner constitutes in areas of conflict, where journalists have come to be seen by the parties to the conflict as just another target.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. On this point, it should be noted that Security Council resolution 1738 (2006) condemns intentional attacks against journalists, media professionals and associated personnel in situations of armed conflict and calls upon all parties to put an end to such practices. It also urges all States to comply with the relevant obligations under international law to end impunity and to prosecute those responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. In the aforementioned resolution, the Security Council also urges all parties involved in situations of conflict to respect the professional independence and rights of journalists, media professionals and associated personnel as civilians.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. The Special Rapporteur considers it necessary to remind States of their obligation to ensure that both the national and the international press have access to all the facts and to all conflict zones and to provide members of the press with the protection due them in accordance with the aforementioned resolution.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. The Special Rapporteur is concerned about the alarming and growing tendency to criminalize and institute legal proceedings against community-based communicators, who should also be considered journalists and media personnel, and should thus benefit from the same safeguards as all journalists, since a person’s status as a journalist is determined by the work that he or she performs and is not subject to any job title or form of registration.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. The Special Rapporteur also believes that, if a community-based medium has violated an administrative provision, it is within the administrative framework that a solution should be found; criminal law should not be applied, and community-based communicators should not be criminalized, since this severely limits freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. The Special Rapporteur urges States to take steps to prevent violence against journalists and to improve the protection afforded to them. Drafting and implementing handbooks, guides and protocols on protection would constitute a good practice to this end.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["III. Main themes", "D. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. The right to freedom of opinion and expression should be viewed as a key instrument for the promotion and protection of other human rights and an important tool in the effort to combat impunity and corruption.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. Freedom of opinion and expression is an individual and collective right which affords people the opportunity to issue, seek, receive and impart pluralistic and diverse information that enables them to develop their own lines of reasoning and opinions and to express them in any way they see fit. Freedom of expression is therefore exercised through two routes: the right to access information and the right to self-expression through any medium.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. Freedom of expression is also a right of peoples, in that, through its effective exercise, peoples can develop, impart and reproduce their culture, their language, their traditions and their values.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. Freedom of opinion and expression should be viewed as a means of combating all forms of discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0108", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. Lack of access to information in accordance with the principles of pluralism and diversity results in an ill-informed, non-participatory society in which political decision-making is not democratic.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0109", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. Community-based media are effective instruments for ensuring the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in all social sectors, without any form of discrimination whatsoever, in accordance with the principles of pluralism and diversity that should guide the exercise of this right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0110", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. The Special Rapporteur is concerned about the growing digital divide and the disparity between developed and developing countries in terms of the development of electronic communications technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0111", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. Electronic communication is also an economic right, in that it is an essential factor for development. Accordingly, States should ensure that all sectors of society, and in particular the most disadvantaged among them, have access to electronic communications media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0112", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. Women continue to be denied the full exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression and, as a result, are also limited in the exercise of other fundamental rights, such as the rights to development, to education, to health, to participation and to a life free from violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0113", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. Freedom of opinion and expression is an early form of participation for children and constitutes a mechanism for inclusion that necessarily entails recognition and respect of human dignity. Children’s opinions should therefore be respected and taken into account.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0114", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. The right to freedom of opinion is absolute and may not be limited in any way, whereas the right to freedom is not absolute and may thus be subject to exceptional restrictions and limitations as defined in article 19, paragraph 3, and article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Such restrictions and limitations must be interpreted in accordance with international human rights law and the principles deriving therefrom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0115", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "115. In exceptional circumstances, international human rights law permits certain limitations to freedom of expression. By establishing those limitations, the State is effectively fulfilling its obligation to prohibit certain expressions owing to the serious damage that they cause to the human rights of others, as provided for in article 20 of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0116", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "116. The Special Rapporteur reiterates his view that it is conceptually incorrect to present the issue of “defamation of religions” in the abstract as a conflict between the right to freedom of religion or belief and the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0117", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "117. The Special Rapporteur expresses concern about the violence to which journalists and media professionals continue to fall victim.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0118", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "118. States have an obligation to guarantee to all individuals the full enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression through any medium, while ensuring that their human rights are respected and protected. In particular, they should guarantee the full enjoyment of this right to all persons engaged in journalistic activities in places of internal conflict or war, where the nature of their work places them in a position of greater vulnerability; all social communicators are considered to be journalists for this purpose.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0119", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "119. States should take the necessary steps to guarantee the effective exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression for all individuals and social sectors, without exception or discrimination of any kind.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General considerations concerning freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0120", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "120. States should refrain from criminalizing any manifestation of the freedom of expression as a means of limiting or censoring that freedom. Accordingly, any measure of this kind should be abolished, except for the permissible and legitimate restrictions established in international human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General considerations concerning freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0121", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 121, "n": 121, "text": "121. States should adopt the legislative and administrative measures necessary to facilitate access to public information and should establish specific mechanisms for that purpose.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General considerations concerning freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0122", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 122, "n": 122, "text": "122. It is recommended that States establish a legal framework that recognizes and regulates community-based communication within the framework of the 14 principles presented in this report and that a fair balance be struck in terms of frequency allocation among community-based media, commercial media and public-sector or State media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General considerations concerning freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0123", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 123, "n": 123, "text": "123. It is recommended that frequency allocation should be overseen and managed by an independent State (public-sector) body.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General considerations concerning freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0124", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 124, "n": 124, "text": "124. It is recommended that States, the media and financial institutions implement the recommendations set forth in the Colombo Declaration, which are aimed at strengthening the freedom of expression of marginalized sectors of society and their access to media of their own, including electronic media, with a view not only to promoting freedom of expression and democracy but also to combating poverty and meeting the Millennium Development Goals. It is also recommended that States establish a special fund to subsidize access (which requires both connectivity and the necessary equipment) to electronic media for all sectors.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General considerations concerning freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0125", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 125, "n": 125, "text": "125. It is recommended that States facilitate technology transfer in the field of communications as a means of narrowing the digital and technological divide between the developed world and developing countries and thus contributing to the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General considerations concerning freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0126", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 126, "n": 126, "text": "126. It is recommended that States respect the principles of pluralism and diversity, which are inherent in freedom of expression, in order to prevent and combat the concentration of media ownership in the hands of large-scale public and private consortia which contravene democratic models.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Women/girls", "Children", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General considerations concerning freedom of opinion and expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0127", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 127, "n": 132, "text": "132. It is recommended that States take all actions necessary to ensure that representatives of the national and international press have access to all facts and to all places, including zones of internal or international armed conflict, while guaranteeing the protection necessary to safeguard their lives and their physical and mental integrity, together with the full exercise of their human rights in accordance with international human rights law and international humanitarian law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "3. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-14-23-0128", "docId": "a-hrc-14-23", "idx": 128, "n": 133, "text": "133. With regard to the alarming number of journalists who have been killed, kidnapped or threatened, States are reminded of their duty to investigate and prosecute those responsible for planning and perpetrating such acts in order to eliminate the culture of impunity that perpetuates violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2010, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "3. Protection of journalists and freedom of the press"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0001", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report is submitted to the General Assembly by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 16/4.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0002", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. In his previous report to the General Assembly (A/66/290), the Special Rapporteur underscored the differences between illegal types of expression, which States are required to prohibit under international law, such as direct and public incitement to commit genocide, and those that are considered harmful, offensive, objectionable or undesirable, but which States are neither required to prohibit nor criminalize. He emphasized the need to distinguish between three types of expression: expression that constitutes an offence under international law and can be prosecuted criminally; expression that is not criminally punishable but may justify a restriction and a civil suit; and expression that does not give rise to criminal or civil sanctions, but still raises concerns in terms of tolerance, civility and respect for others. He underlined that those different categories posed different issues of principle and called for different legal and policy responses. In that context, he briefly examined the issue of hate speech and advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constituted incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0003", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur aims to expand on the issue of hate speech, given the continuing challenge faced in identifying ways to reconcile the need to protect and promote the right to freedom of opinion and expression, on the one hand, and to combat intolerance, discrimination and incitement to hatred, on the other. Indeed, the discussions at the four expert regional workshops on the prohibition of incitement to hatred, organized by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), revealed significant differences in legislative patterns, judicial practices and policies on incitement and advocacy of hatred, both between and within regions.[[fn:1]] Such diverse responses to the phenomenon of hate speech are symptomatic of the unclear normative environment surrounding the issue. The Special Rapporteur thus hopes to move the debate forward by underlining basic principles of international human rights law, identifying elements to be used in determining what kinds of expression would meet the threshold of “advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence” and reminding the international community that the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the prohibition of incitement to hatred are not simply compatible but are in fact mutually supportive, given that open public debate of ideas, in addition to interfaith and intercultural dialogue, can be the best antidote to hate and intolerance.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The reports of the four regional workshops are available from www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/ FreedomOpinion/Articles19-20/Pages/ExpertsPapers.aspx."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0004", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The Special Rapporteur, with the support of local organizations, organized regional expert consultations to gather information and input for the present report. They were held in Singapore, on 11 and 12 January 2012; Florence, Italy, on 26 and 27 March 2012; Rome, from 28 to 30 March; Colombia, on 10 and 11 April; and Panama, on 12 and 13 April.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0005", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. On 18 and 19 April, the Special Rapporteur participated in a meeting in Stockholm on the theme “Internet freedom for global development”, organized by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Sweden.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0006", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. On 21 and 22 April, the Special Rapporteur participated as a panellist in a meeting of the Inter-American Press Association held in Cadiz, Spain. On 23 and 24 April, he participated as a panellist in a session on the rule of law and the Internet during the Global INET 2012 event organized by the Internet Society in Geneva.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0007", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. From 2 to 4 May, the Special Rapporteur participated as a panellist at the World Press Freedom Day Conference organized in Tunis by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information in Africa and the University of Pretoria. On 6 May, he participated in a meeting on decriminalization of expression, held in Tunis and organized by the same entities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0008", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. On 8 and 9 May, the Special Rapporteur participated as a keynote speaker at an international conference on freedom of expression online, organized by the Universidad del Rosario and George Washington University in Bogota.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0009", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. On 21 and 22 May, he participated as a keynote speaker at the tenth Austin Forum on Journalism in the Americas, on the theme “Safety and protection for journalists, bloggers and citizen journalists”, organized by the Knight Center for Journalism in the Americas and the Latin America and media programmes of Open Society Foundations in Texas, United States of America.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0010", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. From 29 May to 5 June, the Special Rapporteur taught a class on freedom of expression at American University in Washington, D.C. From 6 to 8 June, he participated in a seminar on human rights defenders and peaceful protests in Oslo, organized by the International Service for Human Rights and the ministries of foreign affairs of Norway and Switzerland.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0011", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. On 18 June, the Special Rapporteur participated as a panellist in the Dublin Conference on Internet Freedom, organized by the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade of Ireland. On 19 June, he presented his annual report to the Human Rights Council, in which he considered the protection of journalists and media freedom (A/HRC/20/17).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0012", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. From 23 to 26 June, the Special Rapporteur participated as a panellist at the International Press Institute World Congress in an event entitled “Media in a Challenging World: A 360 Degree Perspective”, organized by the International Press Institute in Port of Spain.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0013", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. From 9 to 11 July, he participated as a panellist at the Mapping Digital Media Advocacy Summit, organized by Open Society Foundations in Istanbul, Turkey.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0014", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. On 4 April, the Special Rapporteur issued a press release in which he expressed his concern regarding the sentencing of Luis Agustín González, the editor of Cundinamarca Democrática, a Colombian newspaper, to 18 months’ imprisonment and a fine of approximately $5,000 for libel in relation to an editorial published in 2008 in which he questioned the candidacy of a local politician, Leonor Serrano de Camargo. The Special Rapporteur underscored that defamation should be decriminalized and not be applied in cases of criticism of public officials.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Press releases issued"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0015", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. On 30 May, he and the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association issued a joint press release in which they expressed concern over demonstrations in Quebec, Canada, on 24 May, which reportedly involved serious acts of violence and the detention of up to 700 protesters. They also urged the federal and provincial governments of Canada and Quebec to fully respect the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly, expression and association of students affected by two recently adopted pieces of legislation (Act No. 78 of the National Assembly of Quebec, to enable students to receive instruction from the post-secondary institutions that they attend, and the regulation modifying the regulation of the City of Montreal on preventing breaches of peace, security and public order, and on the use of public domain). They underlined that they had been in contact with the Government, which had promised to clarify the issues of concern.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Press releases issued"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0016", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. On 7 June, the Special Rapporteur, the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders and the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association issued a press release in which they called upon the Government of Malaysia and other parties involved to ensure the protection of non-governmental organizations campaigning for reform of the electoral process in the lead-up to the general election scheduled to be held in April 2013. In particular, they urged the authorities to protect Ambiga Sreenevasan and other members of the Coalition for Clean and Fair Elections (Bersih) from acts of harassment and intimidation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Press releases issued"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0017", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. On 12 July, they also issued a press release in which they called for the rejection of a draft law on non-commercial organizations in the Russian Federation. They noted that, if approved, the draft law would brand all foreign-funded non-commercial organizations that engaged in political activities as “foreign agents” and would impose harsh penalties for non-compliance with new regulations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Press releases issued"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0018", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. On 21 June, the Special Rapporteur and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions issued a joint press release on the occasion of the presentation of their reports on the protection of journalists to the Human Rights Council. They underscored that journalists should not be silenced, intimidated, imprisoned, tortured or killed for exposing inconvenient truths, making key recommendations to ensure journalists’ safety and to combat impunity for crimes committed against them.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Press releases issued"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0019", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. On 25 June, the Special Rapporteur, the Representative on Freedom of the Media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression of the Organization of American States and the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information of the African Commission on Human and People’s Rights issued a joint declaration on crimes against freedom of expression.[[fn:4]] The joint declaration contains six sections: general principles; obligations to prevent and prohibit; obligation to protect; independent, speedy and effective investigations; redress for victims; and role of other stakeholders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Press releases issued"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Available from www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID= 12384&LangID=E."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0020", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. The Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Algeria from 10 to 17 April 2011 and to Israel and the occupied Palestinian territory from 6 to 17 December 2011. His main findings and recommendations can be found in documents A/HRC/20/17/ Add.1 and Add.2, respectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "1. Visits carried out in 2011 and 2012"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0021", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Honduras from 7 to 14 August 2012. His preliminary findings are available in the end-of-visit press statement.[[fn:5]] His full report will be submitted to the Human Rights Council in 2013.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "1. Visits carried out in 2011 and 2012"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Available, in Spanish only, from www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx? NewsID=12433&LangID=E."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0022", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Following invitations received from the Governments of Pakistan and Indonesia, on 7 February and 27 April, respectively, the Special Rapporteur is confirming the dates of his visits to those countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "2. Upcoming visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0023", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. As at the time of submission of the present report, the following visit requests from the Special Rapporteur were pending: Ecuador (most recently requested in February 2012), the Islamic Republic of Iran (February 2010), Italy (2009), Sri Lanka (June 2009), Thailand (2012), Tunisia (2009), Uganda (May 2011) and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) (2003 and 2009).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "3. Pending requests"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0024", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. With the increasing speed at which news and information circulate around the world through the mass media and the Internet, manifestations of hate speech have become increasingly visible. Moreover, in the context of rising immigration flows and population movements, declining domestic economies and the emergence of terrorism as a crucial political challenge, there has been a growing tendency to stigmatize specific groups and communities. This has been compounded by flawed national security and anti-terrorism laws and policies, such as racial profiling, demagogic statements by opportunistic politicians and irresponsible reporting by the mass media.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0025", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Regrettably, instances of incitement to hatred continue to be found in all regions, as highlighted in the joint paper submitted to the regional expert workshops on the prohibition of incitement to national, racial or religious hatred by the Special Rapporteur, the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief and the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Available from www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/FreedomOpinion/Articles19-20/Pages/ ExpertsPapers.aspx."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0026", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. In Europe, there have been instances of incitement to racial hatred against Roma; acts of violence perpetrated by neo-Nazi groups against non-European minorities; violence in several countries following the publication of cartoons featuring the Prophet Muhammad by the Jyllands-Posten newspaper in Denmark; and the release of an online film, Fitna, by a member of the parliament of the Netherlands, in which Muslims were associated exclusively with violence and terrorism.[[fn:7]]", "labels": ["Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Expression/ICCPR/Vienna/CRP3Joint_SRSubmission_ for_Vienna.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0027", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. In Africa, there have been violent riots (for example, in Kenya, caused by alleged election-rigging and fuelled by tribal tension, and in Nigeria, on the basis of tribal tensions), leading to the deaths of several thousand people; attacks by Muslim villagers against Coptic Christians in Egypt; and various forms of incitement to violence and hatred on the basis of sexual orientation by politicians, the media and religious leaders in Uganda, as epitomized by the tragic killing of David Kato, whose name, photograph and description had been published by the Sunday Pepper newspaper in what it described as a “killer dossier”.[[fn:8]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Expression/ICCPR/Nairobi/JointSRSubmission NairobiWorkshop.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0028", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Asia and the Middle East have seen killings of presidents of the Ahmadiyya community in Pakistan following a television broadcast during which two maulanas stated that the Ahmadiyya community was deserving of death; incitement by a Government-appointed imam in Saudi Arabia to eliminate all Shia believers in the world; incitement to and acts of violence against the Sufi community in Sri Lanka; increased radicalization and serious instances of incitement to racism in Israel against the Arab population, in addition to acts of violence by Jewish settlers against Muslims; and incitement to religious hatred against Jews in the occupied Palestinian territory.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Expression/ICCPR/Bangkok/SRSubmission BangkokWorkshop.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0029", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. In the Americas, there have been instances of incitement to racial and religious hatred and manifestations of religious intolerance. For example, in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, there has been violence against members of the Catholic and Jewish communities, while in the United States, there have been instances of religious hatred or intolerance towards Islam, including plans by members of a Floridian church, the Dove World Outreach Center, to burn copies of the Koran.[[fn:10]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Expression/ICCPR/Santiago/JointSRSubmission Santiago.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0030", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. While politicians and the media often play a central role in fostering hate speech offline, the ease with which anyone can post comments on the Internet, and that this can be done anonymously, have further helped hate speech to spread. In one recent example, when a Canadian-American campaigner for women’s rights launched an online fundraising campaign for a series of short videos that would examine gender prejudices and the use of violence in video games, she was threatened with violence, death, sexual assault and rape, and an online interactive game was launched in which players were invited to beat her “black and blue”.[[fn:11]] In Maldives, a blogger and human rights campaigner advocating religious freedom was forced to flee the country after being subjected to an online hate campaign in the social media and having his throat slit.[[fn:12]] In addition, radical right-wing, xenophobic or extremist groups have used the Internet to spread messages of hate.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Helen Lewis, “This is what online harassment looks like”, New Statesman, 6 July 2012. Available from www.newstatesman.com/blogs/internet/2012/07/what-online-harassment-looks."}, {"n": 12, "text": "Amnesty International, “Maldives: human rights campaigner attacked, injured: Ismail Rasheed”, 15 June 2012. Available from www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ASA29/003/2012/en/2d510e96-456f-4d5c-af80-3b324dbb1595/asa290032012en.html."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0031", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. The growing number of expressions of hate, incitement to violence, discrimination and hostility in the mass media and on the Internet serves as a reminder that the struggle against intolerance is both an urgent and permanent task. In this context, the question of when and under what circumstances the right to freedom of expression can be legitimately limited has resurfaced with renewed urgency and concern.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0032", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Many of the efforts that Governments are currently making to combat hate speech are, however, misguided. These include requests by Governments to intermediaries to screen and remove user content, registration requirements to identify users’ real names and arbitrary blocking of websites. In addition, vaguely worded and ambiguous laws with disproportionate sanctions are frequently used to silence criticism and legitimate political expression, as highlighted in section II.C. While laws prohibiting incitement to hatred in accordance with international human rights law are necessary and required to tackle the phenomenon of hate speech, the human sentiment of hatred cannot be eliminated by legal prohibition alone, and the deterrent effect of such laws is not absolute, given that radical perpetrators often seek prosecution as a means to obtain access to the mainstream media to promote their ideas. Moreover, when an attempt to prosecute fails, for example where some forms of hate speech do not meet the threshold of incitement to violence, hostility or discrimination (such as bullying and offensive speech that do not incite any acts), there is a risk that that failure would be used as proof of endorsement of the speech, even though such speech merits condemnation. Furthermore, with regard to hate speech on the Internet, both the sheer volume of content posted every day and the cross-boundary nature of the medium considerably complicate effective implementation of the law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0033", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The need to go beyond legal measures to combat hate speech is particularly acute in the light of the increasingly transnational nature of many hate speech incidents and the inability of domestic legal systems to provide adequate responses and suitable remedies. In this regard, the media and Governments have crucial roles to play in preventing the escalation of violence and discrimination, as examined in section IV.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0034", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The principle of equality of all human beings and the right to be free from discrimination is at the heart of human rights, as reflected in article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which asserts that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. All human beings are thus entitled to the same enjoyment of all rights, without discrimination of any kind, including on the basis of race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or any other status, as affirmed in article 2 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Human Rights Committee has found that sexual orientation is included in this scope.[[fn:13]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Its jurisprudence in this regard includes: CCPR/C/KWT/CO/2, CCPR/C/TGO/CO/4, CCPR/C/JPN/CO/5, CCPR/C/JAM/CO/3, CCPR/C/USA/CO/3/Rev.1, CCPR/CO/78/SLV, CCPR/CO/81/NAM, CCPR/C/CO/IRN/CO/3, CCPR/C/MNG/CO/5, CCPR/C/MEX/CO/5, CCPR/C/MDA/CO/2, CCPR/C/ETH/CO/1, CCPR/C/CMR/CO/4, CCPR/CO/83/GRC, CCPR/C/POL/CO/6, CCPR/C/79/Add.119, CCPR/C/RUS/CO/6, CCPR/C/UZB/CO/3, CCPR/CO/82/POL, CCPR/CO/70/TTO and CCPR/C/CHL/CO/5."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "1", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR is a non-treaty instrument."}, {"article": "2", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'article 2 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR is a non-treaty instrument."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0035", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is guaranteed under article 19 of both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which affirm that everyone has the right to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds through any media and regardless of frontiers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'article 19 of both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — joint citation."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0036", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. The Special Rapporteur has consistently underlined the importance of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, not only as a right that should be guaranteed to all, including individuals belonging to marginalized groups, but also as a means to claim and enjoy all other rights. Indeed, it is a fundamental right that safeguards the exercise of all other rights and is a critical foundation of democracy, which depends on the free flow of diverse sources of information and ideas. The Constitution of UNESCO also affirms that peace can be promoted by facilitating the free flow of ideas and understanding among peoples of the world. Moreover, freedom of expression is essential to creating an environment conducive to critical discussions of religious and racial issues and also to promoting understanding and tolerance by deconstructing negative stereotypes. As the Special Rapporteur has previously emphasized, for the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion to be fully realized, robust examination and criticism of religious doctrines and practices — even in a harsh manner — must also be allowed.Error: Reference source not found As with all human rights, however, the exercise of the right to freedom of expression should not be aimed at the violation of any of the rights and freedoms of others, including the right to equality and non-discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0037", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. In particular, the rights of others are undermined when deep-rooted hatred is manifested and expressed under certain circumstances. International human rights law therefore recognizes that the right to freedom of expression can indeed be restricted where it presents a serious danger for others and for their enjoyment of human rights. Indeed, article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights stipulates that the exercise of the right to freedom of expression carries with it special duties and responsibilities. It may therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but only such as are provided by law and are necessary for respect of the rights or reputations of others and for the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0038", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Moreover, article 20 (2) of the Covenant explicitly provides that any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence is to be prohibited by law. This explicit language distinguishes such acts of advocacy from other acts that may be subject to restrictions under article 19 (3).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0039", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Hate speech on the basis of racial or ethnic origin is further prohibited under article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, which stipulates that States parties:\n(a) Shall declare an offence punishable by law all dissemination of ideas based on racial superiority or hatred, incitement to racial discrimination, as well as all acts of violence or incitement to such acts against any race or group of persons of another colour or ethnic origin, and also the provision of any assistance to racist activities, including the financing thereof;\n(b) Shall declare illegal and prohibit organizations, and also organized and all other propaganda activities, which promote and incite racial discrimination, and shall recognize participation in such organizations or activities as an offence punishable by law;\n(c) Shall not permit public authorities or public institutions, national or local, to promote or incite racial discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CERD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0040", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Furthermore, article III (c) of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide provides that direct and public incitement to commit genocide is to be punishable as a criminal offence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0041", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The Special Rapporteur wishes to underscore that any restriction imposed on the right to freedom of expression, on the basis of any of the above-mentioned instruments, must comply with the three-part test of limitations to the right, as stipulated in article 19 (3) of the Covenant. This means that any restriction must be:\n(a) Provided by law, which is clear, unambiguous, precisely worded and accessible to everyone;\n(b) Proven by the State as necessary and legitimate to protect the rights or reputation of others; national security or public order, public health or morals;\n(c) Proven by the State as the least restrictive and proportionate means to achieve the purported aim.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0042", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. In addition, any restriction imposed must be applied by a body that is independent of political, commercial or other unwarranted influences in a manner that is neither arbitrary nor discriminatory, and with adequate safeguards against abuse, including the right of access to an independent court or tribunal. Indeed, the risks that legal provisions prohibiting hate speech may be interpreted loosely and applied selectively by authorities underline the importance of having unambiguous language and of devising effective safeguards against abuses of the law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0043", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. With regard to the prohibition of any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence established under article 20 (2) of the Covenant, it is important to establish a clearer understanding of the terms to prevent any misapplication of the law. This formulation includes three key elements: first, only advocacy of hatred is covered; second, hatred must amount to advocacy which constitutes incitement, rather than incitement alone; and third, such incitement must lead to one of the listed results, namely discrimination, hostility or violence. As such, advocacy of hatred on the basis of national, racial or religious grounds is not an offence in itself. Such advocacy becomes an offence only when it also constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, or when the speaker seeks to provoke reactions on the part of the audience.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See the contribution to the OHCHR initiative on incitement to national, racial or religious hatred by Susan Benesch, consultant to the United Nations Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, 2011 (see www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Expression/ICCPR/Others2011/ SBenesch.doc)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0044", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Moreover, attention is drawn to the following definitions that have been developed through consultations of experts and discussed at the OHCHR regional expert workshops on incitement:\n(a) “Hatred” is a state of mind characterized as intense and irrational emotions of opprobrium, enmity and detestation towards the target group;[[fn:15]]\n(b) “Advocacy” is explicit, intentional, public and active support and promotion of hatred towards the target group;Error: Reference source not found\n(c) “Incitement” refers to statements about national, racial or religious groups that create an imminent risk of discrimination, hostility or violence against persons belonging to those groups;Error: Reference source not found\n(d) “Discrimination” is understood as any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of race, colour, descent, national or ethnic origin, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, language, religion, political or other opinion, age, economic position, property, marital status, disability, or any other status that has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or\nexercise, on an equal footing, of all human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field of public life;[[fn:16]]\n(e) “Hostility” is a manifestation of hatred beyond a mere state of mind. As highlighted by an expert at the regional workshops on the prohibition of incitement, this concept has received scant attention in jurisprudence and requires further deliberation;[[fn:17]]\n(f) “Violence” is the use of physical force or power against another person, or against a group or community, which either results in, or has a high likelihood of resulting in, injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment or deprivation.[[fn:18]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "As defined in principle 12.1 of the Camden Principles on Freedom of Expression and Equality. Available from www.article19.org/data/files/medialibrary/1214/Camden-Principles-ENGLISH-web.pdf."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Based on the grounds of non-discrimination in the jurisprudence of treaty bodies, and as provided for in article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; article 1 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination; article 1 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women; article 1 of the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families; and article 2 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities."}, {"n": 17, "text": "ARTICLE 19, “Towards an interpretation of article 20 of the ICCPR: thresholds for the prohibition of incitement to hatred: work in progress”, study prepared for the regional expert meeting on article 20 organized by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, held in Vienna on 8 and 9 February 2010. Available from www.ohchr.org/ Documents/Issues/Expression/ICCPR/Vienna/CRP7Callamard.pdf."}, {"n": 18, "text": "Adapted from the definition of violence given in Etienne G. Krug and others, eds., World report on violence and health (World Health Organization, Geneva, 2002). Available from http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2002/9241545623_eng.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0045", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. The threshold of the types of expression that would fall under the provisions of article 20 (2) should be high and solid. An important contribution in determining the appropriate threshold has been made by ARTICLE 19, a non-governmental organization, which has proposed a seven-part test using the following elements:\n(a) Severity of hatred, which should amount to “the most severe and deeply felt form of opprobrium”, including an assessment of the severity of what is said, the harm advocated, magnitude and intensity in terms of frequency, choice of media, reach and extent;\n(b) Intent of the speaker to incite discrimination, hostility or violence;\n(c) Content or form of the speech, including form, style, nature of the arguments deployed in the speech, magnitude or intensity of the speech, background of the inciter and the degree to which the speech is provocative or direct. Artistic expression should be considered with reference to its artistic value and context, given that individuals may use art to provoke strong feelings but without the intention of inciting violence, discrimination or hostility;\n(d) Extent of the speech, in terms of its reach and the size of the audience;\n(e) Likelihood or probability of harm occurring. While incitement by definition is an inchoate crime and the action advocated through incitement does not have to be committed for the speech to amount to a crime, a high degree of risk of resulting harm must be identified;\n(f) Imminence of the acts called for by the speech;\n(g) Context, including consideration of the speaker or author, audience, intended harm, existence of barriers in establishing media outlets, broad and unclear restrictions on content of what may be published or broadcast; absence of criticism of Government or wide-ranging policy debates in the media and other forms of communication; and the absence of broad social condemnation of hateful statements on specific grounds when they are disseminated.Error: Reference source not found", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 20 (2) should be high and solid' in a paragraph that opens with 'The threshold of the types of expression that would fall under the provisions of article 20 (2)' — context_before and context_after confirm this is ICCPR art. 20(2) (Human Rights Committee/Rabat Plan discussion on incitement thresholds)."}, {"article": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights' listing non-discrimination grounds — both Covenants have art. 2 non-discrimination. The list order names ICCPR first here alongside ICESCR. Since the text separates them with 'and' and cites both, the first art. 2 is ICCPR's."}, {"article": "1", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 1 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination' — explicit full treaty name attribution for the definition of racial discrimination."}, {"article": "1", "treaty": "CEDAW", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 1 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women' — explicit treaty attribution for the definition of discrimination against women."}, {"article": "1", "treaty": "CMW", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text continues listing 'article 1 of the International Con…' — the partial text and the explicit_treaties list includes CMW; CMW art. 1 defines migrant workers. This is the fourth art. 1 in the non-discrimination grounds list referencing multiple conventions."}, {"article": "2", "treaty": "ICESCR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text earlier lists 'article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights' — this second art. 2 is ICESCR art. 2 non-discrimination obligation."}, {"article": "20", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "The paragraph throughout discusses incitement thresholds under ICCPR art. 20; explicit_treaties lists ICCPR as primary. Art. 20 without paragraph number here refers to ICCPR art. 20 generally (hate speech/incitement prohibition)."}, {"article": "20", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Same as preceding — second reference to 'article 20' in the incitement threshold discussion; ICCPR art. 20 on advocacy of hatred."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0046", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. While some of the above concepts may overlap, the Special Rapporteur considers the following elements to be essential when determining whether an expression constitutes incitement to hatred: real and imminent danger of violence resulting from the expression; intent of the speaker to incite discrimination, hostility or violence; and careful consideration by the judiciary of the context in which hatred was expressed, given that international law prohibits some forms of speech for their consequences, and not for their content as such, because what is deeply offensive in one community may not be so in another. Accordingly, any contextual assessment must include consideration of various factors, including the existence of patterns of tension between religious or racial communities, discrimination against the targeted group, the tone and content of the speech, the person inciting hatred and the means of disseminating the expression of hate. For example, a statement released by an individual to a small and restricted group of Facebook users does not carry the same weight as a statement published on a mainstream website. Similarly, artistic expression should be considered with reference to its artistic value and context, given that art may be used to provoke strong feelings without the intention of inciting violence, discrimination or hostility.[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See, for example, the judgement of the European Court of Human Rights in Vereinigung Bildender Künstler v. Austria, Application No. 68354/01, 25 January 2001, para. 33."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0047", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Moreover, while States are required to prohibit by law any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence under article 20 (2) of the Covenant, there is no requirement to criminalize such expression. The Special Rapporteur underscores that only serious and extreme instances of incitement to hatred, which would cross the seven-part threshold, should be criminalized.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0048", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. In other cases, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that States should adopt civil laws, with the application of diverse remedies, including procedural remedies (for example, access to justice and ensuring effectiveness of domestic institutions) and substantive remedies (for example, reparations that are adequate, prompt and proportionate to the gravity of the expression, which may include restoring reputation, preventing recurrence and providing financial compensation).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0049", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. In addition, while some types of expression may raise concerns in terms of tolerance, civility and respect for others, there are instances in which neither criminal nor civil sanctions are justified. The Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate that the right to freedom of expression includes forms of expression that are offensive, disturbing and shocking.[[fn:20]] Indeed, since not all types of inflammatory, hateful or offensive speech amount to incitement, the two should not be conflated.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "B. International norms and standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See Handyside v. United Kingdom, Application No. 5493/72, 7 December 1976, European Court of Human Rights."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0050", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 50, "n": 51, "text": "51. The Special Rapporteur remains concerned about the continuing existence and the use of flawed domestic laws that purport to combat hate speech but are in fact used to suppress critical or opposing voices. Such laws frequently carry disproportionate sanctions, such as hard labour, long prison sentences, life imprisonment or even capital punishment, for vague offences such as “inciting religious unrest” in Turkmenistan, “promoting division between religious believers and non-believers” in Viet Nam, “incitement to violation” in the Islamic Republic of Iran, “instigating hatred and disrespect against the ruling regime” in Bahrain, “inciting subversion of State power” in China, “incitement to offences that damage public tranquillity” in Myanmar, “blasphemy” in Pakistan, “inciting violence against a religious authority” in Angola, “causing national, racial or religious hate, discord and intolerance” in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (to suppress any criticism of the Macedonian Orthodox Church) and “misrepresenting events and inciting violence” in Somalia (to arrest and detain independent journalists).[[fn:22]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "C. Domestic legislation that contravenes international norms and standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "These and other examples can be found in the documentation available from www.ohchr.org/EN/ Issues/FreedomOpinion/Articles19-20/Pages/ExpertsPapers.aspx."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0051", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 51, "n": 52, "text": "52. Other examples of vague and overbroad legal provisions prohibiting incitement to hatred, which can be abused to censor discussion on matters of legitimate public interest, include “contempt of heavenly religions”, “fanaticism”, “expression of feelings of hostility”, “outraging religious feelings”, “provocation of sectarian or racial division”, “exciting racial hostility”, “inciting unlawful acts”, “all acts creating division among religions”, “promoting one’s own individual opinion on issues that are in disagreement among Islamic scholars”, “inciting people to disputes” and “talking about religions other than Islam”.Error: Reference source not found", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "C. Domestic legislation that contravenes international norms and standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0052", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 52, "n": 53, "text": "53. The Special Rapporteur also reiterates his concern in relation to anti-blasphemy laws, which are inherently vague and leave the entire concept open to abuse. He wishes to underscore once again that international human rights law protects individuals and not abstract concepts such as religion, belief systems or institutions, as also affirmed by the Human Rights Committee (CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 48). Moreover, the right to freedom of religion or belief, as enshrined in relevant international legal standards, does not include the right to have a religion or belief that is free from criticism or ridicule. Indeed, the right to freedom of expression includes the right to scrutinize, debate openly, make statements that offend, shock and disturb, and criticize belief systems, opinions and institutions, including religious ones, provided that they do not advocate hatred that incites hostility, discrimination or violence. The Special Rapporteur thus reiterates his call to all States to repeal anti-blasphemy laws and to initiate legislative and other reforms that protect the rights of individuals in accordance with international human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "C. Domestic legislation that contravenes international norms and standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0053", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 53, "n": 54, "text": "54. At the international level, the Special Rapporteur welcomes the shift from the notion of “defamation of religions” to the protection of individuals against incitement to religious hatred. The Human Rights Council, for the second year, has adopted by consensus a resolution on combating intolerance, negative stereotyping and stigmatization of, and discrimination, incitement to violence and violence against, persons based on religion or belief (resolution 19/25). In that resolution, the Council condemns any advocacy of religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, whether it involves the use of print, audiovisual or electronic media or any other means. It also recognizes that open public debate of ideas, as well as interfaith and intercultural dialogue, at the local, national and international levels can be among the best protections against religious intolerance and can play a positive role in strengthening democracy and combating religious hatred, convinced that a continuing dialogue on these issues can help overcome existing perceptions. Furthermore, it notes the speech given by the Secretary-General of the Organization of the Islamic Conference at the fifteenth session of the Council and draws on his call on States to take various actions to foster a domestic environment of religious tolerance, peace and respect. Lastly, it also calls for strengthened international efforts to foster a global dialogue for the promotion of a culture of tolerance and peace at all levels, based on respect for human rights and diversity of religions and beliefs. The Special Rapporteur is pleased to note that, after several years of debate, the Council has found a way to unanimously address concerns relating to religious intolerance without referring to concepts or notions that would undermine international human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "C. Domestic legislation that contravenes international norms and standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0054", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 54, "n": 55, "text": "55. With regard to discussion of history, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that historical events should be open to discussion and, as stated by the Human Rights Committee, laws that penalize the expression of opinions about historical facts are incompatible with the obligations that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights imposes on States parties in relation to the respect for freedom of opinion and expression (CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 49). By demanding that writers, journalists and citizens give only a version of events that is approved by the Government, States are enabled to subjugate freedom of expression to official versions of events.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Incitement to hatred", "C. Domestic legislation that contravenes international norms and standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0055", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 55, "n": 56, "text": "56. Laws prohibiting incitement to hatred in accordance with international human rights law are indeed necessary and required to ensure that perpetrators are punished and that victims receive effective remedies, and to prevent recurrence of such acts. Penal codes alone, however, will rarely provide the solution to the challenges of incitement to hatred in society. Accordingly, while a legal prohibition and prosecution may be of key importance in some cases, a more effective toolbox containing positive measures is also necessary to tackle the root causes and various facets of hate, including broad-based societal programmes to combat inequality and structural discrimination, in addition to creative policies and measures to promote a culture of peace and tolerance at all levels.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0056", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 56, "n": 57, "text": "57. To this end, strengthening the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is essential. Indeed, States have affirmed the positive role that the right to freedom of opinion and expression can play in combating racial and religious hatred, including in the Durban Declaration and Programme of Action (A/CONF.189/12 and Corr.1, paras. 90 and 147), the outcome document of the Durban Review Conference (A/CONF.211/8, paras. 54 and 58) and Human Rights Council resolutions 12/16 (paras. 9-11) and 19/25 (paras. 4 and 5). Similarly, non-legal measures to combat discrimination and intolerance have been identified in various United Nations documents, including the Declaration and Programme of Action on a Culture of Peace (General Assembly resolutions 53/243 A and 53/243 B), the Global Agenda for Dialogue among Civilizations and its Programme of Action (Assembly resolution 56/6) and the 2005 World Summit Outcome (Assembly resolution 60/1). The Special Rapporteur reminds States to implement such measures outlined in existing international documents.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0057", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 57, "n": 58, "text": "58. A first essential element of any strategy to combat hate speech is prevention. To this end, it is crucial to provide education and raise awareness about human rights, tolerance and knowledge of other cultures and religions. When a State ratifies an international human rights instrument, it has the duty to raise levels of awareness of the rights contained therein among the population at large (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/ Add.13, para. 7). The school education system is a prime avenue to do so. For example, in Sweden, the Living History Forum (www.levandehistoria.se) is a public authority that produces exhibitions and teaching materials around topics of tolerance, democracy and human rights, with the Holocaust and other crimes against humanity as the starting point. Beyond such specific projects, it is crucial, however, to promote values, beliefs and attitudes that encourage children to embrace differences. Values instilled during childhood are likely to have the strongest impact on responses as adults.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "A. Education and awareness-raising"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0058", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 58, "n": 59, "text": "59. Human rights education should not, however, be limited to schoolchildren. Strong information campaigns by public authorities or others can raise awareness about hate speech and the harm that it causes and about the continued importance of a culture of tolerance and peace and its associated ethics. In some instances, responses to offences under article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights may include such campaigns to spread messages of tolerance and respect for others’ rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "A. Education and awareness-raising"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0059", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 59, "n": 60, "text": "60. Lastly, in several instances, it has been found that legislators and judges are unaware of international human rights treaties and the nature of State obligations, including article 20 of the Covenant. Where such lacunae exist, it is important to review the legal education system to redress the situation, including by providing training for judges on the thresholds of incitement to hatred. Law enforcement officers may also benefit from such initiatives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "A. Education and awareness-raising"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0060", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 60, "n": 61, "text": "61. Of equal importance to education is to facilitate greater dialogue, better communication and, thus, deeper understanding. Rather than imposing new restrictions, a culture of public discourse in which one can freely and without fear of retaliation articulate and debate experiences, in addition to continually deconstruct stereotypes, is essential.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "B. Counter-speech and social dialogue"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0061", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 61, "n": 62, "text": "62. The first critical step is to address and redress the indirect censorship, powerlessness and/or alienation felt by many groups and individuals. For example, in many countries, women or women’s groups that publicly criticize discriminatory religious tenets have frequently been the targets of severe harassment and intimidation, both by the State and by non-State actors. Explicitly or implicitly, through such actions an illusion is created that only those with the requisite authority can speak on particular issues. The resulting culture of fear hampers public debate and directly contradicts the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Governments should therefore proactively facilitate counter-speech of individuals belonging to groups that are systematically targeted by hate speech. Moreover, with the advent of the Internet, individuals no longer have to wait for the State to facilitate such processes and can take the initiative themselves. For example, Groundviews (http://groundviews.org) is a citizen journalism initiative in Sri Lanka that documents stories and opinions that the mainstream media may censor owing to fear or reprisals. By allowing voices that have been marginalized and perspectives that generally find little expression to come to the fore, such initiatives play a vital role in fostering debate and greater understanding in society.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "B. Counter-speech and social dialogue"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0062", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 62, "n": 63, "text": "63. At the individual level, it is also important to remember the responsibility of each individual citizen to speak out against human rights violations. Often, extreme manifestations of hatred are the work of only a small group of people or are instigated by political opportunists, yet most people fail to react or to respond. The task of combating hate speech should not, however, be left to those targeted by such speech. Because the Internet has made it possible for hate speech to proliferate much more easily, it becomes all the more important for each individual to take on the responsibility to denounce hate speech publicly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "B. Counter-speech and social dialogue"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0063", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 63, "n": 64, "text": "64. A special responsibility to denounce instances of hate speech continues to rest with public officials, however. Clear, formal rejections of hate speech by high-level public officials and initiatives to engage in interreligious or intercultural dialogue play an important role in alleviating tensions and building a culture of tolerance and respect without resorting to censorship. For example, following the publication by the Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten on 30 September 2005 of cartoons depicting the Prophet Muhammad in a derogatory manner, 11 ambassadors from Muslim-majority countries requested a meeting with the Prime Minister. The request was not granted, however, meaning that an early and important opportunity to defuse tension and to prevent a spiral of violence was missed. In contrast, when Geert Wilders, a member of the parliament of the Netherlands, released his controversial online film, Fitna, on 27 March 2008, the Government acted swiftly to distance itself from the film and to reject the equation of Islam with violence, which was welcomed in the joint press statement issued on 28 March 2008 by the Special Rapporteur, the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief and the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance.[[fn:23]] Interestingly, the film attracted little controversy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "B. Counter-speech and social dialogue"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See also the special rapporteurs’ communication of 14 November 2005 to the Government of the Netherlands (E/CN.4/2006/5/Add.1, paras. 110 and 116)."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0064", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 64, "n": 65, "text": "65. Public condemnation by high-level Government officials is particularly crucial because extremist groups have been attempting to hijack the freedom of expression debate and to cast themselves in the role of the ultimate defenders of free speech. Policymakers and politicians across party lines, rather than using the existence of laws to deal with the matter as an excuse to remain silent in such situations, should have the courage to systematically condemn hate speech publicly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "B. Counter-speech and social dialogue"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0065", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 65, "n": 66, "text": "66. States also have a responsibility to establish a comprehensive strategy of interaction to stimulate tolerance. This can include initiatives to host interreligious platforms for cooperation and dialogue at various levels of leadership, including the local, regional and international levels. Such initiatives should aim not only to achieve greater understanding or to combat prejudices and stereotypes in public and political discourse, but also to facilitate coalition-building across diverse cultural and religious communities and incorporate conflict prevention and de-escalation strategies.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "B. Counter-speech and social dialogue"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0066", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 66, "n": 67, "text": "67. Lastly, States should also take appropriate disciplinary measures with regard to hate speech or incitement to hatred by public officials, as recognized in article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. When high-level officials engage in hate speech, they undermine not only the right to non-discrimination of affected groups, but also the faith of such groups in State institutions and, thus, the quality and level of their participation in democracy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "B. Counter-speech and social dialogue"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CERD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0067", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 67, "n": 68, "text": "68. A third set of measures concerns data collection and analysis, in addition to more targeted research, in relation to freedom of expression and hate speech. This includes various forms of hate speech, the main perpetrators, where and under what circumstances hate speech occurs, who the messages reach and through which avenues, whether and which media outlets contest such messages, and in which cases and under what circumstances hate speech actually constitutes incitement in a manner that links content with action. In most countries, comprehensive data on such areas are glaringly absent. Consequently, policies and legislation are frequently based on perception. Systematic disaggregated data collection and analysis, using human-rights-sensitive methodologies, enable a better understanding of problems in a given country, the creation of better-targeted policies and the possibility of evaluation. For example, the aforementioned Living History Forum in Sweden carries out periodic attitude surveys to ensure that its efforts are focused where they are most needed. Data collection and analysis can also help to establish early warning mechanisms and aid in the effective enforcement of the law. International cooperation in these areas could help to increase not only comparability of data but also knowledge about the nature of hate speech that transcends boundaries. A clear distinction between expression that constitutes incitement, hate speech and merely offensive speech should be at the core of any such data-collection and analysis exercise.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "C. Data collection and research"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0068", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 68, "n": 69, "text": "69. More in-depth research in other areas would also be useful, including on the impact of existing laws and the extent to which they comply with international norms and standards and tackle the problems brought to light by data collection; jurisprudence and best practice; the relationship between incitement to racial hatred and to religious hatred; and the abuse of hate speech legislation to suppress dissent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "C. Data collection and research"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0069", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 69, "n": 70, "text": "70. While the swiftly evolving electronic media landscape has led to a dramatic increase in the volume of information available, the quality of information has not always kept pace. An objective, ethical and informative media therefore remains essential to informing society about contentious societal issues in a balanced manner and to preventing individuals from falling prey to promises of easy solutions and extremist rhetoric. Caution exercised by the media is also essential to preventing the drawing of any unnecessary attention to acts of an extremist individual that can spark violence. For example, when an obscure pastor in the United States threatened to burn the Koran in September 2010, the media played a negative role in unnecessarily drawing attention to the story. Had greater care been taken in reporting on the incident, some of the violence that ensued might have been averted.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "D. Media and ethics"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0070", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 70, "n": 71, "text": "71. Regrettably, increased media concentration, the formation of media oligarchies and political ownership of media outlets have resulted in the erosion of media diversity and a focus on entertainment at the expense of news, current affairs and investigative journalism. According to the International Federation of Journalists, two thirds of all independently owned newspapers have disappeared since 1975.[[fn:24]] At the same time, investments by media houses in training journalists have also declined. Moreover, public media are less able to provide a counterweight to such trends because their online presence is not yet well established, they are subjected to budget cuts and they are losing their audience faster than commercial media, in particular among the younger generation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "D. Media and ethics"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Project for Excellence in Journalism, “The state of the news media: overview/introduction”, 2009. Available from http://stateofthemedia.org/2009/overview/."}]}, {"id": "a-67-357-0071", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 71, "n": 72, "text": "72. All these factors have made the work of journalists as information providers increasingly challenging. If the media are to fulfil their primarily role of informing society, which is a crucial prerequisite in combating hate speech, a principled return to ethical journalism is urgently required. Moreover, it is essential that information regarding the media landscape of each country be made available publicly, including information on media ownership and sources of revenue.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "D. Media and ethics"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0072", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 72, "n": 73, "text": "73. Pluralism and diversity of views and opinions in mainstream media is another crucial element in ensuring equal participation in public debate by all communities in multicultural societies and in enabling their narratives and perspectives to become part of national debates. In Argentina, for example, part of the radio frequency spectrum is reserved for community media, so as to ensure access to the media for all. Training sessions and workshops for journalists on issues relating to diversity, including on how to build trust with underrepresented communities, can also significantly improve the quality of reporting and the portrayal of specific communities, such as migrants, who are often presented negatively as a security or economic problem. In addition to diversity in content and perspectives, pluralism in the media also requires diversity in the workforce of media professionals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "D. Media and ethics"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0073", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 73, "n": 74, "text": "74. Lastly, ensuring accountability for what is reported in the media also remains important. For example, the open journalism paradigm promoted by the Guardian newspaper in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland encourages two-way interaction between journalists and the audience online, which has reinserted journalists’ willingness to engage in debate and be accountable for what they do into the core of journalism. At the very minimum, media outlets and journalists should adopt voluntary ethical codes and standards that do not allow hate speech and promote high standards of professional journalism, in addition to establishing independent and self-regulatory bodies to elevate standards of journalism and to ensure the accountability of all media professionals. Self-regulatory bodies should be seen not only as an exercise in policing and dispute resolution, but also as an opportunity to involve society at large in debates about the role and contribution of the media, to monitor the state of the media, to advocate professional journalism and to promote media literacy. Such bodies can also play a proactive and exemplary role in setting and reinforcing ethical standards for online content and the social media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Addressing expression of hatred and intolerance through non-legal measures", "D. Media and ethics"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0074", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 74, "n": 75, "text": "75. There has been a worrying increase in the number of expressions of hate, incitement to violence and discrimination. Such expressions have often been compounded by politicians and the mass media, while the Internet has also facilitated the multiplication and visibility of hate speech in recent years. These trends are of concern, given that every individual human being is entitled to the same dignity and rights, including the right not to be discriminated against, regardless of national origin, social, racial, ethnic or religious background, disability, gender, sexuality or any other grounds. The promotion and protection of the right to freedom of expression must, however, go hand in hand with efforts to combat intolerance, discrimination and incitement to hatred. While the right to freedom of expression can and should be restricted in extreme cases, such as incitement to genocide and incitement to hatred in accordance with international norms and principles, the right to freedom of expression contributes to exposing harms caused by prejudice, combating negative stereotypes, offering alternative views and counterpoints and creating an atmosphere of respect and understanding between peoples and communities around the world.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0075", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 75, "n": 76, "text": "76. Accordingly, laws to combat hate speech must be carefully construed and applied by the judiciary not to excessively curtail legitimate types of expression. At the same time, while laws are certainly necessary and an important component in addressing hate speech, they should be complemented by a broad set of policy measures to bring about genuine changes in mindsets, perception and discourse. Such a multilayered approach, supported by political and social will and commitment to effecting change, not only aids in addressing less severe forms of hate speech, but also supports awareness-raising and prevention.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0076", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 76, "n": 77, "text": "77. The Special Rapporteur urges States to conduct constitutional and legal reviews to ensure that domestic law on hate speech complies with the three-part test stipulated in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, namely that: the restriction must be provided by law, which is clear and accessible to everyone; it must be proven as necessary and legitimate to protect the rights or reputation of others; national security or public order, public health or morals; and it must be proven as the least restrictive and proportionate means to achieve the purported aim. Any breach of those principles should be subject to review by an independent court or tribunal.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Ensuring compliance of domestic laws with international standards"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0077", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 77, "n": 78, "text": "78. Given that blasphemy laws do not comply with the above-mentioned criteria, the Special Rapporteur urges States to repeal them and to replace them with laws protecting individuals’ right to freedom of religion or belief in accordance with international human rights standards. In addition, any law that provides for disproportionate sanctions for the expression of opinions, such as the death penalty, should be repealed immediately. Similarly, the Special Rapporteur calls upon States to repeal laws that prohibit discussion of historic events. Just as religion, history should always be open to discussion and debate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Ensuring compliance of domestic laws with international standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0078", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 78, "n": 79, "text": "79. To prevent any abusive use of hate speech laws, the Special Rapporteur recommends that only serious and extreme instances of incitement to hatred be prohibited as criminal offences. The Special Rapporteur thus calls upon States to establish high and robust thresholds, including the following elements: severity, intent, content, extent, likelihood or probability of harm occurring, imminence and context. Such examination must be performed on an ad hoc basis, taking context into consideration.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Ensuring compliance of domestic laws with international standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0079", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 79, "n": 80, "text": "80. For other types of hate speech that do not meet the threshold of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred constituting incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, the Special Rapporteur recommends that States adopt civil laws, with the application of diverse procedural and substantive remedies, such as restoring reputation, preventing recurrence and providing financial compensation. Indeed, with regard to speech that raises concern in terms of civility and tolerance for others, rather than lowering the threshold for incitement to hatred, responses to discrimination need to be strengthened, including by enhancing the enjoyment of the rights of ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities (article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights) and adopting policies and effective measures to eliminate racial discrimination (articles 2 and 5 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Ensuring compliance of domestic laws with international standards"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "27", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 27 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit treaty attribution. ICCPR art. 27 protects rights of minorities."}, {"article": "2", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'articles 2 and 5 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination' — explicit full treaty name. CERD art. 2 requires states to eliminate racial discrimination."}, {"article": "5", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Same sentence as art. 2 above: 'articles 2 and 5 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination' — explicit full treaty name. CERD art. 5 lists civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0080", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 80, "n": 81, "text": "81. When hate is expressed by politicians and public authorities, additional sanctions should be imposed, as recognized in article 4 (c) of the Convention. Such sanctions could include those of a disciplinary nature, such as removal from office, in addition to effective remedies for victims.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Ensuring compliance of domestic laws with international standards"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0081", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 81, "n": 82, "text": "82. Training should be offered to the judiciary to ensure a clear and consistent understanding of the forms and thresholds of hate speech under international law. In addition, continuing education opportunities for legal professionals and law enforcement officials in relation to relevant national and international provisions, including thresholds for incitement, should be made widely available.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Ensuring compliance of domestic laws with international standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0082", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 82, "n": 83, "text": "83. To help to provide further guidance to States, the Special Rapporteur recommends that the international human rights mechanisms renew their engagement with States on the issue of hate speech, including ratification of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination and review of any reservations relating to incitement to hatred. Non-State actors should also be involved. In addition, the Human Rights Committee could consider adopting a general comment on article 20 of the Covenant. The Human Rights Committee and the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination could also discuss the relationship between article 20 of the Covenant and article 4 of the Convention.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Ensuring compliance of domestic laws with international standards"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "20", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'ratification of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights … and review of any reservations relating to incitement to hatred' then 'consider adopting a general comment on article 20 of the Covenant' — 'the Covenant' is ICCPR. ICCPR art. 20 is the incitement prohibition."}, {"article": "20", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'the relationship between article 20 of the Covenant and article 4 of the Convention' — first part refers to ICCPR art. 20, matching the Human Rights Committee context."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 4 of the Convention' where 'the Convention' refers to the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD), named earlier in the same sentence via 'the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination'."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0083", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 83, "n": 84, "text": "84. The Special Rapporteur calls upon all States to raise awareness of human rights among the population at large, using, for example, the school education system and strong public information campaigns by public authorities or others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Implementation of non-legal measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0084", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 84, "n": 85, "text": "85. The Special Rapporteur encourages States and religious and community leaders to actively promote tolerance and understanding towards others and to support open debates and exchange of ideas in which everyone can participate on an equal footing without fear that only an established authority should have the right to speak. At the same time, public officials should systematically denounce and condemn hate speech publicly and more frequently than is currently the case.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Implementation of non-legal measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0085", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 85, "n": 86, "text": "86. The Special Rapporteur appeals to States, civil society organizations and the media to proactively facilitate the counter-speech of individuals and groups who are systematically targeted by hate speech, including through the Internet. For example, the media could ensure that such groups have a right to reply, while States could establish comprehensive strategies of interaction to foster tolerance, such as platforms of intercultural and interreligious dialogue from the local to the international levels.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Implementation of non-legal measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0086", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 86, "n": 87, "text": "87. With regard to the dissemination of hate speech online, States should request the removal of content only through a court order and intermediaries should never be held liable for content of which they are not the authors. The right of individuals to express themselves anonymously online must also be fully guaranteed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Implementation of non-legal measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0087", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 87, "n": 88, "text": "88. The Special Rapporteur recommends that States, academic institutions and civil society organizations collaborate in establishing a system to regularly gather and analyse relevant data regarding patterns of hate speech to aid policy formulation and evaluation and to establish early warning mechanisms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Implementation of non-legal measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0088", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 88, "n": 89, "text": "89. The Special Rapporteur urges States to promote pluralism and diversity of views and opinions in the media by encouraging diversity of ownership of media and of sources of information, including through transparent licensing systems and effective regulations to prevent undue concentration of media ownership in the private sector.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Implementation of non-legal measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-67-357-0089", "docId": "a-67-357", "idx": 89, "n": 90, "text": "90. The Special Rapporteur also calls upon media professionals to abide by high ethical and professional standards of journalism to fulfil their role of informing society with accurate facts. He therefore encourages media professionals and media outlets to adopt and adhere to voluntary codes of ethics and professionalism and to establish self-regulatory bodies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Implementation of non-legal measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report, submitted pursuant to Commission on Human Rights resolution 2002/48, is the second general report by Mr. Ambeyi Ligabo (Kenya), appointed Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression on 26 August 2002. The Commission established the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in its resolution 1993/45.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Issues addressed in this report include an updating of the matters analysed in the Special Rapporteur’s previous report (E/CN.4/2003/67), namely access to information with regard to the prevention of HIV/AIDS; the safeguard of human rights, and in particular the right to freedom of opinion and expression while adopting and implementing counter-terrorism measures; a large part of this report is devoted to the phenomenon of access to information as a whole.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. At the beginning of his mandate, the Special Rapporteur decided to endorse the terms of reference and methods of work of his predecessor, Abid Hussein. The Special Rapporteur reiterated that country visits are one of the essential elements of his mandate, enabling him to examine in situ the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. He therefore calls upon Governments to cooperate with him in that regard.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE AND METHODS OF WORK"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The Special Rapporteur considers that exchange of communications with Governments on individual cases of alleged violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is also an important part of his mandate, and he thanks those Governments which cooperate with him in this respect, and wishes to call on other Governments to engage in a transparent and constructive dialogue with him.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE AND METHODS OF WORK"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The Special Rapporteur also emphasized that one of the main characteristics of his mandate would be the development of close cooperation with Governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and all other relevant organizations and institutions, in order to seek and receive credible and reliable information which, in his view, is essential for the discharge of his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE AND METHODS OF WORK"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The Special Rapporteur wished to reiterate that, in carrying out his mandate, he intends to cooperate closely with other geographic and thematic special procedures mandate-holders, the treaty bodies and human rights field operations of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). He also intends to continue and develop the collaboration with the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Representative on freedom of the media and the Organization of American States (OAS) Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression, as well as with the Programme for Freedom of Expression, Democracy and Peace of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE AND METHODS OF WORK"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. One of the most significant features of the Special Rapporteur’s mandate is the analysis of the communications received in order to identify trends, to reiterate issues already discussed in previous reports and to bring to the attention of the international community a number of policies, practices, incidents and measures having an impact on respect for the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Customarily, the Special Rapporteur considered communications brought to his attention from a variety of sources - Governments, international, regional, national and local NGOs; associations of media professionals, trade unions, members of political parties - and from all regions of the world. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that a plurality of sources of information is essential to the discharge of his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The Special Rapporteur notes that a large number of allegations continue to refer to the following situations: electoral processes; civil unrest; situations where the legal and institutional protections and guarantees of human rights exist but are not properly implemented; states of emergency in general; internal armed conflict. The Special Rapporteur also notes that the communications received are not confined to alleged violations in countries where the political, social and economic situation is particularly difficult, but also to alleged violations occurring in emerging or long-established democracies.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The nature of the alleged violations can enormously vary, depending on the level of respect for the rule of law and good governance in a society. The range of violations goes from killings, arbitrary arrest and detention, enforced disappearances, threats and harassment, criminal charges and sentencing to prison terms for libel or defamation, to various types of judicial and administrative measures.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. However, analysing the increasing number of communications sent to the Special Rapporteur, it was clear that the right to freedom of opinion and expression was far from being sufficiently and adequately protected in all regions of the world. While the nature and the seriousness of the violations may significantly vary, even well-established protection systems may be at risk facing sudden crises. In addition, continuing violations to freedom of opinion and expression seems to be a common feature of certain political systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. The Special Rapporteur wished to thank all those Governments that, in a spirit of collaboration and mutual understanding, answered his appeals and letters, thus exercising their right to reply. The correspondence is contained in document E/CN.4/2004/62/Add.1.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. On 16 October 2003, the Special Rapporteur signed a press release, together with four other Special Rapporteurs of the Commission on Human Rights, expressing their concern over the prevailing situation in Bolivia. In particular, they condemned violence during several\nprotests in various parts of the country and urged the Government to take necessary measures to ensure the full protection of the human rights of the demonstrators, including the right to assemble and protest, in the light of the international norms endorsed by Bolivia.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. On 17 October 2003, the Special Rapporteur and the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Human Rights Defenders, Mrs. Hina Jilani, expressed their deep concern over the conviction, on 16 October, of Irene Fernandez, director of “Tenaganita” - a women’s non-governmental organization based in Kuala Lumpur - who was sentenced to 12 months’ imprisonment by a Magistrates Court, in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. On 28 October 2003, the Special Rapporteur and three other experts of the Commission on Human Rights expressed their concern over the post-election situation in Azerbaijan, in particular over the reported use of attacks against, and arrests of demonstrators, in particular opposition leaders and journalists, by security forces and of harassment of some election observers and polling station officials.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. On 12 November 2003, the Special Rapporteur and two other experts of the Commission on Human Rights issued a press release on the situation in Nepal in the wake of the collapse of the ceasefire between the Government and the Communist Party of Nepal (CPN) (Maoist). They expressed particular concern at reports that dozens of individuals have been arrested and are detained secretly, allegedly on suspicion of supporting or being involved with the CPN (Maoist).", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. On the occasion of Human Rights Day on 10 December 2003, the Special Rapporteur joined many other experts of the Commission on Human Rights in a statement condemning all acts of intimidation and reprisal against individuals and groups who seek to cooperate, or have cooperated with the United Nations or representatives of its human rights bodies, and urging States to refrain from violating the rights of witnesses, in particular their rights to life, to be free from torture, to personal freedom and security, and to freedom of expression and to impart information and ideas. In their statement, the experts also called on States to protect witnesses from threats, intimidation and reprisals from private individuals or groups.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. On 22 July 2003, the Special Rapporteur sent a note verbale to all Member States drawing their attention to paragraph 17 of Commission on Human Rights resolution 2003/42 of 23 April 2003 entitled “The right to freedom of opinion and expression”. In that paragraph, the Commission invites the Special Rapporteur “to consider approaches taken to access to information with a view to sharing best practices” and “to continue to seek the views and comments of the Government and others concerned in the elaboration of his report”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "C. Requests for information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. From 2 to 7 December 2002, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Equatorial Guinea (E/CN.4/2003/67/Add.2). As a follow-up of his visit, the Government of Equatorial Guinea sent a letter inviting the Special Rapporteur to visit again the country in\nlate 2003, especially in order to verify the progress made regarding the technical assistance provided through OHCHR. While recognizing the efforts of the Government, in his letter dated 26 September 2003, the Special Rapporteur said that he considered a follow-up visit premature at that stage.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "D. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. On 23 October 2002, the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran invited the Special Rapporteur to visit the country. The mission was originally scheduled from 17 to 27 July 2003, but finally postponed at the request of the Government. Eventually, the Special Rapporteur had the opportunity of visiting the Islamic Republic of Iran from 3 to 11 November 2003. His mission report is contained in document E/CN.4/2004/62/Add.2. A joint mission to Côte d’Ivoire with the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance was cancelled because of the situation prevalent in the country, especially the lack of security. The mission has been tentatively re-scheduled for the beginning of 2004.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "D. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Since his appointment, the Special Rapporteur has received invitations to visit Colombia, Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, which he had already visited in December 2002, and the Islamic Republic of Iran. He would like to thank those Governments for their cooperation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "D. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. In addition, the Special Rapporteur has requested invitations to visit the following countries: Algeria, Angola, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Belarus, China, Cuba, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Italy, Liberia, Nepal, the Russian Federation, Spain, Sudan, Swaziland, Turkmenistan, Venezuela, Viet Nam and Zimbabwe. The Government of Spain, on 4 August 2003, sent the Special Rapporteur a comprehensive reply to his request, without inviting him to visit the country.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "D. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. On 4 April 2003, the Special Rapporteur opened the Commission on Human Rights agenda item on civil and political rights by introducing his general report E/CN.4/2003/67. Mr. Ligabo stated, among other things, that the right to freedom of opinion and expression was a clear indicator of the level of protection and respect for all other human rights in a given society, that it helped promote and strengthen democratic systems, and that it had widespread benefits in other areas, such as in the effectiveness of education and information campaigns on HIV/AIDS prevention.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. In particular, the Special Rapporteur said that alleged violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression occurred in all countries, whatever their systems. Nonetheless, democratic institutions offered more guarantees for protection of the right and also contributed to the existence of sound democratic systems. Some positive trends, the Special Rapporteur continued, could be noted such as the repeal of criminal libel provisions in certain countries, but other developments were still a matter of grave concern. In connection with attacks against journalists, a practice occurring in several countries, the Special Rapporteur stated that he would welcome a specific request from the Commission to undertake an in-depth study on the security of journalists, particularly in situations of armed conflict.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. During the fifty-ninth session of the Commission on Human Rights, the Special Rapporteur had the opportunity of consulting with representatives of the following countries: Canada, Colombia, Côte d’Ivoire, Denmark, Equatorial Guinea, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Norway, Pakistan and Zimbabwe. He also met the Commission on Human Rights Group of African States, the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, Mr. D. Diène and a representative of UNAIDS. Furthermore, he had a briefing with the press and several non-governmental organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. In these consultations, the Special Rapporteur explained the scope of his mandate and his working methods, emphasizing that he envisaged country missions to be carried out in a cooperative spirit. He pointed out that during country visits, special rapporteurs should be allowed to meet with all persons they request to meet and should have free access to prisons. The Special Rapporteur also said that, while on mission, he will seek clarification with relevant country authorities on any allegation he had considered reliable.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. The Special Rapporteur shared with his interlocutors the view that Governments should not feel targeted by the thematic mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights, since these are global mandates relating to all countries. Furthermore, he stated that it was important to establish a constructive dialogue with Governments on communications sent by Special Rapporteurs, and that he will attentively consider all replies which will be ultimately included in the Special Rapporteurs’ reports.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. In those meetings, the Special Rapporteur systematically underlined the importance he gives to the relation between freedom of expression and the combat against HIV/AIDS. Examining the lack of access to information concerning the disease might, he said, directly point to the responsibility of Governments in preserving and guaranteeing the health of citizens, and ultimately, in saving many human lives through timely and comprehensive awareness programmes.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. UNESCO invited the Special Rapporteur to participate in the celebration of World Press Freedom Day on 3 May 2003 in Kingston, Jamaica. In parallel, UNESCO organized, on 2 and 3 May, a conference to discuss the theme “Unpunished crimes against journalists”. Journalists from all over the world debated topics such as safety of journalists, a strategy to reduce impunity and, in general, obstacles to the full enjoyment of freedom of expression in the information society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The Special Rapporteur attended the tenth meeting of the special rapporteurs/representatives, independent experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures and advisory services programme of the Commission on Human Rights, held in Geneva from 23 to 27 June 2003. The report of the meeting is contained in document E/CN.4/2004/4.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. The NGO Article XIX, the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the Media Foundation for West Africa invited the Special Rapporteur to the All Africa Conference on Freedom of Expression to be held in Accra at the beginning of December 2003. Eventually, the Conference was postponed because of a concomitant meeting of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe and its Representative on freedom of the media, jointly with Reporters Without Borders, invited the Special Rapporteur to a round table on “libel and insult laws”, to be held in Paris from 24 to 25 November 2003. Unfortunately, due to his tight schedule, the Special Rapporteur was unable to participate in the round table.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The Special Rapporteur was also invited to the first phase of the World Summit on the Information Society, scheduled from 10 to 12 December 2003, in Geneva. The Special Rapporteur took note of the contents of the PrepCom 2 and PrepCom 3 meetings, respectively, held from 17 to 28 February 2003 in Paris, and from 15 to 26 September 2003 in Geneva, especially with regard to the draft declaration of principles. The Special Rapporteur regrets to note that the first phase of the World Summit on the Information Society largely neglected human rights issues, especially the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In his opinion, a society cannot properly be informed if human rights are not respected or promoted. Freedom of opinion and expression is a fundamental human right. The Special Rapporteur wishes to state that any declaration on the right to information excluding exhaustive references to that right, as well as other basic human rights, is an empty exercise of international relations. The Special Rapporteur hopes that the second phase of the World Summit on the Information Society, to be held in Tunis in 2005, will take remedial action on this serious shortcoming, and human rights will be integrated meaningfully in the final documents of the Summit.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES", "E. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. In paragraph 17 of its resolution 2003/42, the Commission on Human Rights invited, inter alia, the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, within the framework of its mandate:\n(a) With a view to promoting greater efficiency and effectiveness, as well as enhancing his access to the information necessary for him to fulfil his duties, to continue his efforts to cooperate with other special rapporteurs, special representatives, independent experts, working groups, other United Nations mechanisms and procedures in the field of human rights, specialized agencies, including the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, and regional intergovernmental organizations and their mechanisms and further to develop and extend his network of relevant non-governmental organizations, particularly at the local level, with a view to ensuring that he has the full benefit of all pertinent information from such non-governmental organizations;\n(b) To consider approaches taken to access to information with a view to sharing best practices;\n(c) To continue to provide his views, when appropriate, on the advantages and challenges of new information and communication technologies, including the Internet, for the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to seek, receive and impart information and the relevance of a wide diversity of sources, as well as access to the information society for all.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right to access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. Taking into account the requests of the Commission, the Special Rapporteur decided to focus on the question of the existence and extent of the right to access to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. Implementing the right to access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Since the establishment of the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression in 1993, the Special Rapporteur has been concerned with the concept and meaning of the right to information. The Special Rapporteur’s reports to the Commission on Human Rights have often dealt with the concept - or specific aspects of it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Whilst defining the concept definitively will always be difficult, Gopakumar Krishnan and Andrea Figari, writing on Transparency International’s Corruption Online Research and Information System (CORIS) web site, offer a helpful approach:\n[I]t is quite imperative that we talk about a “right” wherein ordinary citizens can get information as an entitlement and not as a favour. Watering down what is now universally regarded as a fundamental right (the concept is clearly articulated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights) to passive concepts like “access” or “freedom” will blur the focus and dilute the effectiveness of any concerted effort to open up records. So let’s get the semantics correct - we are talking about a non-negotiable right of citizens to demand information from the State and other relevant entities to enhance the quality of governance and strengthen the vibrancy of democracy.[[fn:1]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See www.corisweb.org/article/archive/246/."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. In his report E/CN.4/1995/43, the Special Rapporteur stated the basis for, and rationale of, the right to information as “The freedom to seek information is guaranteed in ICCPR Article 19 (2). It entails the right to seek information inasmuch as this information is generally accessible” (para. 34) and as “the right to seek or have access to information is one of the most essential elements of freedom of speech and expression. Freedom will be bereft of all effectiveness if the people have no access to information. Access to information is basic to the democratic way of life. The tendency to withhold information from the people at large is therefore to be strongly checked” (para. 35).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. However, in a more extensive commentary in 1998 (E/CN.4/1998/40), the Special Rapporteur moved beyond understanding the right to information as an element of freedom of expression generally aiming at securing democracy, towards the understanding that: “the right to seek and receive information is not simply a converse of the right to freedom of opinion and expression but a freedom on its own” (para. 11); the right “imposes a positive obligation on States to ensure access to information”, in particular, by “freedom of information legislation, which establishes a legally enforceable right to official documents for inspection and copying” (para. 14); the right to “access to information held by the Government must be the rule rather than the exception” (para. 12).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. The Special Rapporteur clearly affirmed that, insofar as it relates to Government, “‘State activity’, for example, meetings and decision-making forums should be open to the public wherever possible”, and classification systems (breaches of which often lead to officials being prosecuted) should only be employed to capture information “necessary” to prevent harm to the State (ibid., para. 12).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Further, the Special Rapporteur’s commentary on the right to information (E/CN.4/2000/63) - a right “a right in and of itself” - endorsed the set of principles drawn up by the non-governmental organization Article XIX, The Public’s Right to Know: Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation, based on “international and regional law and standards, evolving State practice, and the general principles of law recognized by the community of nations”. The principles are set out in annex II to that year’s report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. In 1996, the Special Rapporteur noted the contribution of non-governmental organizations in furnishing “useful materials” on aspects of the right, in particular the relationship between the right to information and national security. The Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information were endorsed and reproduced in an appendix to that year’s report (E/CN.4/1996/39).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Another expression of relevant principles informing the concept of the right to information, The Lima Principles (adopted by the Seminar on Information for Democracy, Lima, 16 November 2000) were endorsed and set out in annex II of the 2001 report (E/CN.4/2001/64).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. One of the main recommendations contained in the report E/CN.4/1998/40 stated that “As regards information, particularly information held by Governments, the Special Rapporteur strongly encourages States to take all necessary steps to assure the full realization of the right to access to information.” In particular, the Special Rapporteur was of the view that the right to seek, receive and impart information imposes a positive obligation on States to ensure access to information, particularly with regard to information held by Government in all types of storage and retrieval systems, including film, microfiche, electronic capacities and photographs. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur observed that in countries where the right to information was mostly realized, access to governmental information is often guaranteed by freedom of information legislation, which establishes a legally enforceable right to official documents for inspection and copying (para. 14).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. The Special Rapporteur went on to note the importance of such legislation establishing adequately-resourced “independent administrative bodies”, having the power to compel the Government to produce information so that a decision may be made on whether any denial is legitimate and to then issue binding decisions on public authorities (ibid., para. 14).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. In 1998, the Special Rapporteur suggested that it would be useful to “undertake a comparative study of the different approaches taken on this issue in different countries, with regard to the legislative framework, review mechanisms, as well as the implementation in practice” (para. 15).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. This call was repeated in the 1999 report (E/CN.4/1999/64). The different countries would be appraised against the framework that “everyone has the right to seek, receive and impart information and that this imposes a positive obligation on States to ensure access to information, particularly with regard to information held by Government in all types of storage and retrieval systems - including film, microfiche, electronic capacities, video and photographs - subject only to such restrictions as referred to in article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights” (para. 12).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "1. Understanding the right to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. The Special Rapporteur notes the global trend, which is resulting in the adoption of increasing numbers of laws on the right to information. The latest tally is more than 50, in all regions of the world.[[fn:2]] The Special Rapporteur also notes the official and non-official efforts, globally and regionally, to foster, entrench and support the principle, law and practice regarding the right to information. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur would like to mention in particular:\n(a) A seminar, “What Access to Official Documents?”, held under the auspices of the Council of Europe concluded, inter alia, with a call to the Council of Europe’s Steering Committee on Human Rights and Group of Experts on Access to Official Information to “promote a binding instrument on access to official documents, which could be signed and ratified by member Governments;[[fn:3]]\n(b) At its 33rd General Assembly in Santiago, the Organization of American States adopted a resolution on “access to public information: strengthening democracy”.[[fn:4]] The Special Rapporteur wishes to endorse the principles contained in this resolution.\n(c) At the 22nd Governing Council meeting of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), a decision was adopted regarding enhancing the application of principle 10 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development addressing, inter alia, the issue of access to information. That decision (UNEP/GC.22/L.3/Add.1) requests UNEP to “… assess the possibility of promoting, at the national and international levels, the application of principle 10 to determine if there is value in initiating an intergovernmental process to prepare global guidelines on applying principle 10”. Further, the decision “requests UNEP’s Executive Director to produce a report on progress made in preparing the guidelines for review at the Governing Council’s twenty-third session”.[[fn:5]]\n(d) The special focus of Transparency International’s Global Corruption Report 2003 on access to information.[[fn:6]] The chapter on “Freedom of Information legislation: progress, concerns and standards” makes the proposal that “much more needs to be done” to create clear, authoritative global standards such as, for instance, the “adoption of a declaration on freedom of opinion by the United Nations would go some way to addressing this problem and would help to provide an impetus for the adoption of national legislation”.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "2. Global trends"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See www.freedominfo.org/survey.htm."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Sem-AC (2002) 009 def, Strasbourg, 25 March 2003."}, {"n": 4, "text": "Organization of American States, AG doc. 4238/03: AG RES. 1932 (XXX111- O/03), Annex I."}, {"n": 5, "text": "See www//iisd.ca/linkages/unepgc/22gc/, pp. 9-10."}, {"n": 6, "text": "See www.globalcorruptionreport.org/download.shtml."}, {"n": 7, "text": "See www.globalcorruptionreport.org/download/gcr2003/07_Freedom_of_information_legislation_(Mendel).pdf, p. 5."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. However, the Special Rapporteur was acutely aware that the movement towards enhancing the right to information is proceeding against a backdrop of increasing governmental concern over anti-terrorism policies and initiatives. These can have an adverse effect on the right to information. The matter has been well addressed in the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative’s publication, Open Sesame: Looking for the Right to Information in the Commonwealth. This has been published to highlight the right to information as the major topic issue for the 2003 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "2. Global trends"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "See www.humanrightsinitiative.org/publications/chogm/chogm_2003/default.htm."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. The Special Rapporteur also notes, in this connection, the work and proposals for new thinking being done within the book National Security and Open Government: Striking the right balance, a joint project of the Campbell Public Affairs Institute and the Open Society Justice Initiative. The project is, inter alia, redefining the notion of national security; showing how openness can be an “ally” in the war against terror; harnessing the anti-corruption movement in promoting transparency; and how to set the highest standards for the proper application of national security restrictions.[[fn:9]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "2. Global trends"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See www.maxwell.syr.edu/campbell/opengov."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. The Special Rapporteur noted favourably the United Nations Development Programme’s 1997 transparency policy in the context of the relationship between the right to information and the right to development. The Special Rapporteur also commended the work done by UNDP’s Oslo Governance Centre on the right to information, based on addressing the information and communication needs of the poor as an essential feature of the right to information because the poor often lack information that is vital to their lives - information on basic rights and entitlements, information on public services, health, education and employment.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "3. The right to sustainable development and financial transparency"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See www.undp.org/oslocentre/civilsoc.htm."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. UNDP’s activities in access to information focus on: Establishing a legislative framework on access to official information; public awareness-raising on official information legislation; capacity-building of the civil service to meet and monitor official information requests; using the right to information (strengthening of civil society and the media to make use of official information legislation; enforcing the Official Information Legislation (accountability mechanisms that hold national Governments to account for failing to provide official information).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "3. The right to sustainable development and financial transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The Special Rapporteur noted that the development of a “practice note and practice materials to assist UNDP’s country offices in their access to information programming”.[[fn:11]] This Practice Note is based on a “background paper that captures and codifies UNDP’s current practice in access to information while at the same time situating this work within the external context and UNDP’s existing policy framework”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "3. The right to sustainable development and financial transparency"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See www.undp.org/oslocentre/citzpart.htm."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Also in connection with the right to sustainable development, the Special Rapporteur noted with great interest developments concerning the transparency of revenues and payments, in particular regarding the extractive industries - The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI). Following a meeting in London, June 2003, a Statement of Principles and Agreed Actions on this matter was supported by 140 delegates representing 70 Governments, companies, industry groups, international organizations, investors and non-governmental organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "3. The right to sustainable development and financial transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. While impressed in general with the philosophy of transparency lying behind EITI, the Special Rapporteur was concerned at the voluntary aspect of the initiative, having regard to the non-optional nature of the right to information. In the view of the Special Rapporteur, the real viability of financial transparency lies in Governments cooperating to reveal financial flows and this result might be achieved on a country-by-country basis using various incentives and levers. In addition, the Special Rapporteur is concerned that efforts be made to expand the scope of disclosures to encompass government budgets and procurement processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "3. The right to sustainable development and financial transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Finally, the Special Rapporteur noted with great interest related non-governmental initiatives in the area of International Financial and Trade Institutions (IFTI) transparency: “IFTI Watch”, which aims to monitor and promote information disclosure by International Financial\nand Trade Institutions[[fn:12]] and the Global Transparency Initiative, an “informal network of civil society organizations … working together to overcome the secrecy surrounding the operations of the International Financial Institutions”, which has recently formulated a 225-item “matrix” to enable comparative research on the transparency policies.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "3. The right to sustainable development and financial transparency"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "See www.freedominfo.org/ifti.htm."}, {"n": 13, "text": "See www.bicusa.org/policy/InfoDisclosure/workinggroup.htm."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. The Special Rapporteur was aware that, in the context of IFTIs, the disclosure policies of most multilateral development institutions are guided by a presumption in favour of disclosure, in absence of a compelling reason not to disclose. These disclosure policies list a series of constraints to disclosure under which information can be kept confidential. In addition to these provisions, the policies also list a series of documents that are highly recommended for disclosure, normally with the consent of the borrowing Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "3. The right to sustainable development and financial transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. The Special Rapporteur was concerned at the lack of any independent oversight mechanism to evaluate how multilateral development institutions staff and management decides whether or not to disclose a certain document, and how consistent these decisions are. The key issue is whether or not institutions officials are properly weighing the public interest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "3. The right to sustainable development and financial transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. The Special Rapporteur was concerned that the disclosure policies of the multilateral development institutions lack accountability, and that, in line with national right to know laws, multilateral development institutions need to be made accountable to an independent oversight and review mechanism. The role of the independent mechanism would be to: receive appeals from the public when citizens feel that they have been wrongly denied information; to provide opinions to the board and management of the institution on what should be disclosed, and to conduct annual reviews of disclosure policy implementation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "3. The right to sustainable development and financial transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The Special Rapporteur appreciated that, to be effective, States should implement the right to information by establishing specific legislation, conforming to best international principles and practice. The annual review of the right to information laws in the world, carried out by Privacy International’s Freedom of Information Project[[fn:14]] indicates that more than 50 States have adopted such laws. However, ensuring an effective right to information regime entails that the law must comprise certain fundamental structural elements (e.g., regular reporting mechanisms to independent oversight bodies), and systematic official and unofficial monitoring of the implementation of the law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "4. Implementing and monitoring the right to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See www.freedominfo.org/survey.htm."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Increasingly, there are projects designed to facilitate monitoring of the implementation of the right to information, both global/regional and national in scope. Some focus on the right to information in general; others concentrate on environmental information/sustainable development fields.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "4. Implementing and monitoring the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. The Special Rapporteur notes with particular interest the Open Society Justice Initiative’s Access to Information Monitoring Tool.[[fn:15]] Importantly, the tool can be used to measure and track access to information held both by national authorities and by international/supranational organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "4. Implementing and monitoring the right to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See www.justiceinitiative.org/activities/foifoe/foi/foi_aimt."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. The Special Rapporteur awaited with interest the outcome of the pilot project currently being undertaken by the Open Society Justice Initiative, and due to report in late 2003, monitoring the situation with regard to the implementation of the right to information in five countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "4. Implementing and monitoring the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. The Special Rapporteur also noted with interest The Access Initiative (in conjunction with the World Resources Institute)[[fn:16]] which focuses on the provision of environmental information. The Access Initiative is a global coalition of civil society groups working together to promote national-level implementation of commitments to access to information, participation, and justice in decisions affecting the environment. The Initiative has its roots in the 1992 Rio Declaration, Principle 10[[fn:17]] which stated that “At the national level, each individual shall have appropriate access to information concerning the environment that is held by public authorities; including information on hazardous materials and activities in their communities … States shall facilitate and encourage public awareness and participation by making information widely available”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "4. Implementing and monitoring the right to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See www.accessinitiative.org/."}, {"n": 17, "text": "See www.un.org/documents/ga/conf151/aconf15126-1annex1.htm."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. In a joint statement dated 29 November 2002, the late United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Sergio Vieira De Mello and the Special Rapporteur on the right to health, Paul Hunt, stated that: “One crucial step is ensuring access to treatment, care and support. Equally important are prevention measures, including access to appropriate information, education, goods and services. All of these steps are central to the solemn pledge made by all United Nations Member States in the Declaration of Commitment adopted at last year’s General Assembly special session.” The Special Rapporteur welcomed this statement which, inter alia, reflected the substance of the conclusions on this matter made in his 2003 report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. Access to information for the purposes of education on, and prevention of, HIV/AIDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The Special Rapporteur welcomed the adoption of resolution 2003/47, on 23 April 2003, by the Commission on Human Rights. In that resolution, the Commission insisted on the importance of sharing knowledge, experiences and achievements concerning HIV-related issues and urged States to, inter alia, promote effective programmes for the prevention of HIV/AIDS, including through education and awareness-raising campaigns. The Commission also requested States to develop and support services, including legal aid where appropriate, to educate people infected and affected by HIV/AIDS about their rights and to assist them in realizing their rights.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. Access to information for the purposes of education on, and prevention of, HIV/AIDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. In addition to the above, the Special Rapporteur especially welcomed the Commission’s request to States to take all the necessary steps, including appropriate education, training and media programmes, to combat discrimination, prejudice and stigma, and to ensure the full enjoyment of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, including access to care, by people infected and affected by HIV/AIDS. Finally, the Special Rapporteur noted with appreciation the Commission’s request that all special representatives, special rapporteurs and working groups of the Commission, including the special rapporteur on the promotion and protection of freedom of opinion and expression, to integrate the protection of HIV-related human rights within their respective mandates.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. Access to information for the purposes of education on, and prevention of, HIV/AIDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. The Special Rapporteur took note of the valuable speech made by the Sub-Commission on Promotion and Protection of Human Rights Expert, David Weissbrodt, at the fifty-fifth session of the Sub-Commission, on 4 August 2003. Mr. Weissbrodt stated, inter alia, that the rapid spread of the HIV virus was facilitated by the unwillingness of many Governments to support preventive education related to HIV/AIDS. The Sub-Commission expert also said that Governments and non-governmental organizations must give priority to both formal and informal educational programmes that enabled women to develop self-esteem, acquire knowledge, make decisions on, and take responsibility for their own sexual health.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. Access to information for the purposes of education on, and prevention of, HIV/AIDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. The Special Rapporteur noted the adoption of General Assembly resolution 57/219 of 18 December 2002 in which it affirmed that States must ensure that any measure taken to combat terrorism complies with their obligations under international law. The General Assembly also encouraged States to consider the recommendations of the special procedures and mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights and the relevant comments and views of United Nations treaty bodies.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. The Special Rapporteur much appreciated the intervention of the late High Commissioner for Human Rights who placed great emphasis on the need to respect human rights while countering terrorism in his bilateral discussions with Member States. In particular, he underlined the principle that any exceptional measures taken to counter terrorism must be subject to strict limitations, including that they be transparent, necessary, time-limited and otherwise strictly proportional to the exigencies of the situation. The High Commissioner also continued to call attention to certain human rights provisions which are non-derogable under any circumstances, including freedom of thought, conscience and religion (see E/CN.4/2003/120, para. 5).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. The Special Rapporteur welcomed the adoption of Commission on Human Rights resolution 2003/68, entitled “Protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism”, in which the Commission reiterated its interest and concern on this matter.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. In connection with paragraph 4 of Commission resolution 2003/68, the Special Rapporteur expressed his esteem to the Vice-Chairperson of the Human Rights Committee, Sir Nigel Rodley, for the meaningful and balanced speech he made before the Counter-Terrorism Committee of the Security Council on 19 June 2003. The Special Rapporteur found particularly significant the mention the Vice-Chairperson of the Human Rights Committee made of the declaration annexed to Security Council resolution 1456 (2003), paragraph 6, in which the Council demanded that:\n“States must ensure that any measure taken to combat terrorism comply with all their obligations under international law, and should adopt such measures in accordance with international law, in particular international human rights, refugee, and humanitarian law.”", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. The Special Rapporteur noted that the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, at its fifty-fifth session, extensively discussed the nature and the consequences of the human rights violations that terrorism represented, as well as the human rights violations observed in counter-terrorism measures undertaken since 11 September 2001. The Special Rapporteur also took note of the concluding remarks of the Special Rapporteur of the Sub-Commission on human rights and terrorism, Kalliopi Koufa, in which she said that the discussion on terrorism and human rights was complicated, inter alia, by the current international tension that had also somewhat affected the inability of the international community to identify a definition of terrorism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the drafting of “The digest of relevant practice of the United Nations and regional organizations in the area of the protection of human rights while countering terrorism”, in accordance with recommendation No. 5 of the report of the Policy Working Group, submitted to the General Assembly and the Security Council (A/57/273-S/2002/875). Starting from the concept that human rights law establishes a framework in which terrorism can be effectively countered without infringing on fundamental freedoms; the digest examined a number of issues critical to the balance between legitimate national security concerns and fundamental freedoms. Provisions contained in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ECHR), the American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR) and the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, and the decisions taken by the bodies monitoring the implementation of the above conventions constituted the core of the digest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. The three conventions mandate that certain rights may not be derogated from under any circumstances. The American Convention contained strong guarantees on freedom of expression which were designed to reduce to a bare minimum restriction impeding the free circulation of ideas. For instance, the Inter-American Court stated that:\n“Freedom of expression is a cornerstone upon which the very existence of a democratic society rests. ... It represents, in short, the means that enable the community, when exercising its options, to be sufficiently informed. Consequently, it can be said that a society that is not well informed is not a society that is truly free.”[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Inter-American Court H.R., Advisory Opinion OC-5/85, Compulsory Membership in an Association Prescribed by Law for the Practice of Journalism (articles 13 and 29 of the American Convention on Human Rights), 13 November 1985, Ser. A No. 5 (paras. 50, 70)."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. With regard to the content of the right to freedom of thought and expression, those who are protected by the Convention not only have the right and the freedom to express their own thoughts, but also the right and freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds. Consequently, freedom of expression has an individual and a social dimension: “It requires, on the one hand, that no one be arbitrarily limited or impeded in expressing his own thoughts. In that sense, it is a right that belongs to each individual. Its second aspect, on the other hand, implies a collective right to receive any information whatsoever and to have access to the thoughts expressed by others.”[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Olmedo Bustos et al. Case (“Last Temptation of Christ”), I/A Court H.R., Series C No. 73, Judgement of 5 February 2001 (para. 64). -----"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. Finally, the American Convention also pointed out, in article 16, that the freedom of association “shall be subject only to such restrictions established by law as may be necessary in a democratic society, in the interest of national security, public safety or public order, or to protect public health or morals or the rights and freedoms of others”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "16", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. The Special Rapporteur also wishes to draw the attention of the reader to the joint statement of special rapporteurs, independent experts and chairpersons of the working groups of the special procedures of the Commission on Human Rights and of the advisory services programme, released at the end of their 10th meeting, held in Geneva from 23 to 27 June 2003 (E/CN.4/2004/4, p. 22).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The right to freedom of opinion and expression and counter-terrorism measures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. The Special Rapporteur considers that the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is a significant indicator of the level of protection and respect of all other human rights in a given society. The Special Rapporteur notes that positive measures are being taken in a number of countries in favour of a greater protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and in a few cases, also in favour of the promotion of the freedom of opinion and expression. He encourages members and organizations of civil society especially to continue to provide him with information on the realization and violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression around the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. However, in spite of some progress, the situation is still grim: numerous trends and violations patterns remain substantially active and unchanged. The Special Rapporteur remains extremely concerned at the fact that the attacks against journalists and media workers, including killings, continue to occur in many countries. Most of the time these crimes are not adequately punished, if not encouraged or favoured by authorities. He urges Governments to take all necessary measures to protect journalists from attacks, be they from officials, law enforcement officers, armed groups or terrorists, and to provide an enabling environment for their activities. An end to impunity for the perpetrators of such acts and the conduct of serious investigation into these attacks is essential to ensure greater protection for journalists. The Special Rapporteur urges national authorities, both civilian and military, to carry out, for the sake of truth, investigations on the killings and attacks on journalists and reporters in any event and location, including war and conflict zones.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The Special Rapporteur strongly believes that an in-depth study on the issue of the security of journalists, in particular in situations of armed conflicts, based on information from and the experiences of Governments, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, is necessary, and he would welcome a request from the Commission on Human Rights to undertake such a study.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Generally, the number of journalists and reporters working in war zones has increased because modern technologies have made it possible to report instantaneously with minimal equipment. Consequently, the danger is greater as media are now experiencing the same kind of action of combatants. The Special Rapporteur noted that the fact that journalists can report from the front line has some positive and, at the same time, some negative aspects. While the violence and the absurdity of war are fully disclosed, warriors and civilians involved in the conflicts seem to be treated in a different way according to the side they belong to. The Special Rapporteur underlines that media should provide a factual, impartial, overview of the conflict, and that war victims and war prisoners should be treated in accordance with international human rights and humanitarian standards.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The Special Rapporteur believes that democratic institutions, while not preventing punctual violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, do offer guarantees for its protection as well as an enabling environment for its exercise. Freedom of opinion and expression not only benefits from a democratic environment; it also contributes, and is indeed instrumental to the emergence and existence of effective democratic systems. However, violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression may occur in all regions and countries, whatever their system, and may have various forms and shape. The Special Rapporteur urges all concerned Governments to implement the necessary measures to review existing practices and take remedial actions. The Special Rapporteur especially encourages Governments of emerging democracies to promote and protect freedom of opinion and expression and freedom of the press and political parties. As appropriate, Governments may also consider the possibility of seeking technical assistance from OHCHR in order to eliminate the causes of human rights violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. The Special Rapporteur believes that, in the legitimate effort to prevent and eliminate terror, progress towards enhancing the basic right to information is extremely vulnerable and is highly susceptible to unwarranted restrictions. Consequently, the Special Rapporteur would consider the opportunity of reporting annually on the situation of balance/imbalance in this regard, and may evaluate the possibility of intervening as and when necessary in the light of any gross instance occurring in any national jurisdiction.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. The Special Rapporteur is especially concerned about the concentration of large media groups, dominant in a given market, in the hands of a few business corporations. Reversing this phenomenon will allow the emergence of a more pluralistic approach to information and will contribute to more efficient service to customers. The Special Rapporteur encourages Governments to ensure that the exercise of the freedom of opinion and expression through the media is open and accessible to various actors of the civil society, local communities and minorities, vulnerable groups, in addition to economic and political groups.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0086", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. The Special Rapporteur noted that, in some countries, decisions of courts are unavailable to any but the parties involved. This deprives the whole community of the outcome of the full body of judicial decisions, thus hindering their collection and their analysis, constituent elements of the rule of law. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur believes that the monitoring of national legislation, compared to the generally-accepted principles of the public’s right to know, should be carried out in a systematic way, for instance through a global survey of jurisprudence on access to information cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0087", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. As regards legislatures, the Special Rapporteur felt that it would be useful to survey the scope of accessible information held by parliaments e.g. verbatim proceedings of the plenary chamber; background papers and full records of proceedings of committees and subcommittees, and the extent to which draft laws are published prior to their being considered by the legislature. A “trend survey of access to information” would be a useful tool to measure access.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0088", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. The Special Rapporteur encourages and supports the development of initiatives aimed at monitoring the implementation of the right to information. He considers that the United Nations system should increasingly contribute to such initiatives within existing technical and financial resources. In this context, the Special Rapporteur wishes to encourage and support the important work to increase financial transparency and accountability, and its link with sustainable development, with special reference to the activities of multilateral development institutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0089", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. The Special Rapporteur would consider the opportunity of gathering information on proposals to enhance the right to information by the adoption of a global and/or regional, binding and/or authoritative instrument on the right to information. The Special Rapporteur also wishes to give further consideration to the drafting of a set of recommendations supporting a comparative study of measures to better implement the right to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2004-62-0090", "docId": "e-cn-4-2004-62", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. The Special Rapporteur believes that an expert seminar on “Designing and evaluating projects at the global, regional and national level to monitor the effective implementation of the right to information held by national and intergovernmental authorities” should be planned and organized by the relevant United Nations agencies in the future.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2003, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "13", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Footnote says 'articles 13 and 29 of the American Convention on Human Rights' — AmCHR is a regional instrument, not in treaty list."}, {"article": "29", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Footnote says 'articles 13 and 29 of the American Convention on Human Rights' — AmCHR, not in treaty list."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. Journalists in exile is not a new phenomenon, but it has gained momentum in recent years, because of the severe pressure on public interest media in many countries around the world and the growing possibilities, created by digital technology, for journalists to operate from abroad when they are no longer able to do so safely from home. Free, independent, diverse and pluralistic media play a vital role in supporting democracy, informing the public and holding the powerful to account. It is either absent or severely constrained in over a third of the countries in the world, where more than two thirds of the world’s population live.[[fn:1]] The space for independent and critical media is shrinking in democratic States where authoritarian trends are gaining ground, leaving many journalists with no option but to leave their home countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A total of 72 per cent of the world’s population live under authoritarian rule according to Varieties of Democracy Institute, Democracy Report 2023: Defiance in the Face of Autocratization (2023), p. 6."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Armed conflicts have long been a major cause for journalists to seek refuge abroad. In recent years, political repression has become the predominant factor forcing thousands of journalists to leave their countries. Some have been expelled by their Governments. Many have fled their home country to save their lives or to escape detention and imprisonment on trumped up charges. Most have left their countries so that they can investigate and report freely without fear or favour. In some countries, not only have individual journalists left, but entire media outlets, and even complete independent media sectors, have moved out.[[fn:2]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Submission from Inter-American Press Association."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The precise scale of the problem is difficult to assess, in the absence of data from receiving States. Most estimates are based on the numbers of cases of exiled journalists to whom international non-governmental organizations, press freedom groups and media development organizations have provided financial and material assistance in recent years.[[fn:3]] While such data do not capture the full scale of the problem, they point to a clear upward trend of journalists in exile that tracks the rise in authoritarianism and political repression worldwide.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "As an example, according to the submission from the Committee to Protect Journalists, its support to exiled journalists jumped 227 per cent between 2020 and 2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Exiled journalists fulfil a vital need for public interest news for audiences at home as well as around the world. They are often an important alternative for, and possibly the sole independent source of, information about events in conflict zones or in countries where freedom of expression is severely restricted. With their deep knowledge of the country, broad networks and distinct sources, they provide diverse perspectives, challenge official narratives and counter disinformation, which may be difficult for foreign media and dangerous for local media to do. In the absence of exiled media, there would be informational black holes and zones of silence on issues of concern to global and national communities.[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Submission from United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. For some journalists in exile, their work is also a way to preserve the struggle for truth, justice and democracy in beleaguered societies. According to one journalist, “I saw my people suffering, being killed, being forcefully disappeared. I wanted to be their voice. I wanted to bring their stories to the world.”[[fn:5]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Jessica White, Grady Vaughan and Yana Gorokhovskaia, “A light that cannot be extinguished: exiled journalism and transnational repression” (Freedom House, 2023), p. 9."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Exiled journalists often find themselves in precarious situations, vulnerable to physical, digital and legal threats against them and their families from their home State, and without assured legal status or adequate support to continue their profession in their country of refuge. Female journalists removed from their families and with no legal status are at increased risk of sexual abuse and exploitation, with no channels for redress.[[fn:6]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Submission from International Media Support."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. Fearing for their own safety or that of their families back home and struggling to survive financially and overcome the many challenges of living in a foreign country, many journalists eventually abandon their profession. Exile thus becomes yet another way to silence critical voices – another form of press censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Journalists are not above the law, but by virtue of their function and the public interest in disclosure, they are entitled to specific legal protection, whether at home or in exile. The international community needs to invest much more in protecting and supporting exiled journalists and journalism. The United Nations Plan of Action on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity, adopted in 2012, does not even mention exiled journalists.[[fn:7]] It was only in 2022 that the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) established the Safe Spaces project to support displaced journalists and journalists in diaspora and keep public interest journalism alive in crisis situations.[[fn:8]]", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/safety-of-journalists/un-plan-action-safety-journalists-and-issue-impunity."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Submission from UNESCO."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The objective of the present report is to throw light on a category of journalists who deserve better protection and support, both for their own sake and in the broader interests of human rights, media freedom, peace and democracy. Building on her previous report on reinforcing media freedom and the safety of journalists in the digital age,[[fn:9]] the Special Rapporteur analyses the problems, challenges and threats that journalists in exile face, as well as the relevant laws, policies and practices of States and companies that aggravate or seek to resolve them. She notes some good policies and practices and makes recommendations to States, digital and media companies, international organizations and civil society to strengthen the safety of journalists and enhance the viability of independent media in exile.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "A/HRC/50/29."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The Special Rapporteur is grateful for the submissions received from 10 Governments, 36 civil society organizations and one international organization and for the consultations held with experts and other stakeholders, which informed the report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. The international legal framework for media freedom and the safety of journalists was covered by the Special Rapporteur in her previous report.[[fn:10]] In the paragraphs below, she underlines some points of specific relevance to journalists in exile.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Ibid., paras. 10–23."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Who is a journalist in exile? The Human Rights Committee has recognized journalism as a function shared by a wide range of actors, including professional full-time reporters and analysts, as well as bloggers and others who engage in forms of self-publication in print, on the Internet or elsewhere.[[fn:11]] In the context of exiled media, exiled freelancers, independent bloggers and journalists running their Telegram channels or online websites play as significant a role as journalists and media workers employed by media outlets. The term “journalists in exile” in the present report covers this varied group, and the Special Rapporteur uses the term “journalist” to include both journalists and media workers, unless specified otherwise.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para 44; and A/HRC/50/29, paras. 15 and 16."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. It is important at the outset to acknowledge that journalists are in exile because their human rights, in particular their right to freedom of opinion and expression, are endangered in their own country. By protecting exiled journalists (and other exiles), the international legal framework provides a pragmatic response to the human rights failures in the country of origin.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Under international law, no one should be forcefully displaced or sent into exile or be compelled to flee their home country, and all persons have the right to leave and return to their countries of origin freely and to fully enjoy all human rights guaranteed under international law.[[fn:12]] Most journalists regard their exile as a temporary state of affairs and wish to return home or at least to be able to move freely to and from their country of origin. They are often not permitted to do so by their Governments or cannot do so safely.[[fn:13]] Some journalists have also been banned or temporarily prevented from leaving their countries.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Article 12 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}, {"n": 13, "text": "Submissions from Committee to Protect Journalists and Inter-American Press Association."}, {"n": 14, "text": "See communication TKM 1/2023. All communications mentioned in the present report are available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments; see also submission from InterAmerican Press Association."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Article 2 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 2 (2) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights make it clear that the rights in the Covenants apply to all persons without discrimination of any kind. Thus, journalists in exile enjoy the same human rights as nationals and other journalists in the receiving countries. All States are obliged to uphold this principle. It is important to note that international law places a positive obligation on States to protect all persons, including exiled journalists, within their jurisdiction, which requires them to not be complicit in violations committed by foreign agents on their territory. It also requires States to investigate and prosecute fully, promptly and effectively all crimes committed against journalists, no matter who is responsible.[[fn:15]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law and UNESCO Guidelines for Prosecutors on Cases of Crimes Against Journalists."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "2", "paragraph": "1", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 2 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights … make it clear that the rights in the Covenants apply to all persons without discrimination' — explicit treaty attribution."}, {"article": "2", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICESCR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 2 (2) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights' — explicit treaty attribution. ICESCR art. 2(2) is the non-discrimination obligation."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The right to freedom of opinion and expression provides the international legal basis for uncensored and unhindered news media and the right of journalists to work safely and without fear, whether they do so in their home country or elsewhere. Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights explicitly states that everyone is entitled to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, through any media of their choice. The phrase “regardless of frontiers” both anticipates technologies that enable data to cross borders in an instant and also affirms the right of journalists in exile to seek, receive and share information, ideas and images without hindrance or restrictions, except as laid out in article 19 (3). Exile itself is an unlawful restriction of freedom of expression insofar as it hinders the right of journalists to exercise their right to access to and disseminate information and share their views freely in their own country.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Submission from Ecuador."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. According to article 19 (3), freedom of expression can only be restricted by law in precise and clear terms and must be strictly necessary, proportionate and directly relevant to achieving the legitimate objective of respecting the rights and reputations of others or protecting national security, public order, public health or public morals. Restrictions must be construed narrowly, using the least intrusive measure possible.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), paras. 21–36."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The principle of necessity and proportionality deems that journalists should not be prevented from or prosecuted for disseminating information that is of public interest. Journalists in exile often report on sensitive issues that are of public interest, such as corruption, human rights violations or elections. Their reporting may be critical of the policies or activities of the Governments in their home or host countries or could be perceived as having a negative impact on bilateral relations between the receiving and home States. Those considerations are not valid grounds under international law for States to restrict public interest reporting by exiled journalists or retaliate against them, for instance, by expelling them.[[fn:18]] The banning of outlets or websites of exiled media may violate the principle of necessity and proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "TTO 1/2017."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Too often States use laws ostensibly adopted to protect national security, public order or public morals to restrict information that is of public interest or to stifle criticism of the Government. Such practices contravene international standards and obligations. Even when seeking to protect national security, States must show in “specific and individualized fashion” the precise nature of the threat and the necessity and proportionality of any restriction, in particular by establishing a direct and immediate connection between the journalistic activities and the threat.[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 35."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. States are obliged not only to refrain from arbitrary restraints, but also to put in place legislative and regulatory measures in line with international human rights standards to enable journalists to carry out their work safely and without hindrance. That applies to all journalists, national or non-national.", "labels": ["Non-citizens and stateless"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. In line with the principle that rights offline must be protected online, courts have held that journalists must not be subjected to online surveillance without independent judicial oversight.[[fn:20]] Journalistic privilege is deemed to allow for journalists to refuse to reveal their confidential sources of information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Big Brother Watch and Others v. the United Kingdom, Application Nos. 58170/13, 62322/14 and 24960/15, Judgment, 13 September 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Journalists enjoy protection as civilians under international humanitarian law during armed conflict.[[fn:21]] They are also entitled to protection under international refugee law after they leave their country, including from refoulement,[[fn:22]] extradition and expulsion,[[fn:23]] if they have a well-founded fear of persecution on grounds of race, religion, nationality, political opinion or membership of a social group, regardless of whether or not they formally apply for asylum. By specifically noting the persecution of “political opinion” as a ground for granting refugee status and prohibiting expulsion, international refugee law acknowledges the importance of freedom of expression in exile. Even where journalists do not qualify for refugee status, they are protected under international law against forcible return to a territory where they are likely to face torture or ill-treatment.[[fn:24]]", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "A/77/288, para. 48."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Article 33 of the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, which describes refoulement as the expulsion or forcible return of a refugee or asylum to a territory where their life or freedom may be threatened on grounds of race, religion, nationality, political opinion or membership of a social group."}, {"n": 23, "text": "Article 32 of the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Article 3 of the Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. The problems for exiled journalists lie not in the international legal framework but in the failure of States to respect their obligations under international law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. International legal framework"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Hundreds of journalists have fled in recent years from Afghanistan, Belarus, China, Ethiopia, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Myanmar, Nicaragua, the Russian Federation, the Sudan, Somalia, Türkiye and Ukraine, in addition to smaller numbers from a range of other countries, including Burundi, Guatemala, India, Pakistan and Tajikistan, to name just a few.[[fn:25]] However, exile does not always provide safety.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "As examples, the International Federation of Journalists estimates that up to 1,000 journalists left Afghanistan in the aftermath of the Taliban takeover while Agresiones a la Libertad de Prensa de Periodistas y Comunicadores Independientes de Nicaragua estimates at least 242 journalists have left Nicaragua since 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The term “transnational repression” has been used by some organizations to denote human rights violations committed by States outside their own territorial jurisdiction in order to intimidate and silence dissent among the diaspora and exiles.[[fn:26]] It includes physical, legal and digital threats, ranging from physical violence, murder, extradition, renditions and legal prosecution in absentia to online violence, digital surveillance, hacking or the blocking of websites and the disruption of Internet connections. Online attacks can have offline consequences. The full extent of transnational repression is not known, as many incidents are not reported or cannot be verified, and there is no comprehensive system for gathering such data. However, anecdotal evidence, including first-hand testimony from victims, scholarly research and the experience of civil society organizations, suggests a high prevalence among exiled journalists and media outlets.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Submission from Freedom House; and White, Vaughan and Gorokhovskaia, “A light that cannot be extinguished”. See also “‘We will find you’: a global look at how States repress nationals abroad” (Human Rights Watch, 2024)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. The aim of transnational repression is to kill and chill journalism in exile. It induces a climate of physical, mental, digital and legal insecurity, hampering the ability of journalists to report, travel, communicate with their sources, investigate sensitive issues or even live with their families in safety and security. Transnational repression also significantly reduces media freedom by pushing journalists and media workers towards self-censorship.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "See https://mediafreedomcoalition.org/joint-statement/2023/transnational-repression/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. In the sections below, the Special Rapporteur analyses the various threats to the safety and security of journalists in exile, with a particular focus on the role and responsibilities of the home State.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Targeting journalists on foreign soil violates human rights principles as well as the cardinal principle of international law that States are obliged to respect each other’s territorial sovereignty. The butchering of exiled Saudi journalist, Jamal Khashoggi, in the Consulate of Saudi Arabia in Istanbul was an outrageous, audacious act of transnational repression. The enforced disappearance and State-sanctioned killing violated international human rights law, international customary law and the Charter of the United Nations, and Saudi Arabia has never been held to account.[[fn:28]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "A. Physical violence: assassination, assault and abduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-executions/inquiry-killing-mr-jamal-kashoggi. A/HRC/41/36 cites the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations and the prohibition against the extraterritorial use of force in time of peace (in accordance with customary law and the Charter of the United Nations). Article 2, paragraph 4, of the Charter of the United Nations says that all members shall refrain “from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. In June 2023 the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe adopted a resolution condemning transnational repression as a growing threat to the rule of law and human rights. Citing Azerbaijan, Belarus, the Russian Federation and Türkiye as countries of particular concern, it stated that transnational repression violated international obligations under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, as well as the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (European Convention on Human Rights).[[fn:29]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "A. Physical violence: assassination, assault and abduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, Transnational repression as a growing threat to the rule of law and human rights, resolution 2509 (2023), available at https://pace.coe.int/en/files/32999/html."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances found that the Government of Türkiye had engaged in the systematic practice of State-sponsored extraterritorial abductions and forcible returns to Türkiye of at least 100 Turkish nationals, which included journalists, from multiple States. It expressed concern that the Government of Türkiye had continued to resort to the use of enforced disappearance in the context of transnational transfers, using such transfers as a pretext for an effective means to combat terrorism.[[fn:30]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "A. Physical violence: assassination, assault and abduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "A/HRC/51/31, para. 78."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. In communications to the Islamic Republic of Iran, special procedures, including this mandate, have raised grave concerns regarding the targeting of exiled Iranian journalists and exiled media outlets as well as Iranian and Iranian-origin journalists and media workers working for the BBC Persian-language service and some other international media outlets.[[fn:31]] The allegations include violence, threats, harassment, online gender-based violence, smear campaigns and surveillance, as well as criminal investigations, defamation suits and judicial action to confiscate property and assets in the Islamic Republic of Iran. In February 2020, a prominent exiled Iranian woman journalist, Rana Rahimpour, received death threats against herself, her children, her husband and her elderly parents.[[fn:32]] Iran International TV, an Iranian exiled outlet operating from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, has received so many threats that it has been provided with secure police protection by the authorities of the United Kingdom.[[fn:33]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "A. Physical violence: assassination, assault and abduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "IRN 10/2022, IRN 4/2020 and IRN 29/2017."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2020/03/iran-targeting-journalists-threatens-freedom-press-say-un-experts?LangID=E&NewsID=25706."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Submission from the United Kingdom."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. There have also been reports of Russian journalists in exile being subjected to targeted attacks, including two suspected cases of poisoning.[[fn:34]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "A. Physical violence: assassination, assault and abduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "Submission from Reporters without Borders. See also JX Fund, “Sustaining independence: current state of Russian media in exile” (2023), p. 26."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Abduction and rendition to the home country, followed by prosecution and imprisonment, are palpable risks for exiled journalists, especially those without proper legal status in neighbouring countries. The world witnessed a blatant example of forced abduction in May 2021 when the Belarusian authorities, defying international law and air travel protocols, used a false bomb threat to intercept and divert a commercial airliner on which Raman Protasevich, a Belarusian exiled media worker and activist, was travelling from Greece to Lithuania. He was taken off the plane, arrested, charged, convicted and sentenced to eight years in prison and later pardoned.[[fn:35]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "A. Physical violence: assassination, assault and abduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/06/belarus-black-hole-media-freedoms-after-egregious-attacks-say-un-experts; and Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, Opinion No. 50/2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Digital transnational repression has been described as the use of digital tools by the home State or its agents to silence and coerce activists and dissidents living abroad.[[fn:36]] In the case of journalists, the objective is to intimidate and silence them and their sources and encourage self-censorship more broadly, making it more dangerous and difficult for exiled media to gather and disseminate information. As it is often not possible to identify and prosecute who is behind the digital threats, impunity prevails, emboldening the perpetrators.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "B. Digital threats: online violence, surveillance and disruption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "Joint submission by Access Now and Meduza."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The heavy reliance of exiled journalists and newsrooms on social media and digital tools to gather and publish news makes them particularly vulnerable to cyberattacks by their home Governments or their proxies and, occasionally, the authorities in the country of exile. The tools of digital transnational repression are plentiful and cheap. Common practices include recruiting armies of trolls and bots to amplify vicious personal attacks on individual journalists to discredit them and their reporting, blocking exiled news sites or jamming broadcasts and targeted digital surveillance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "B. Digital threats: online violence, surveillance and disruption"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Online attacks, death threats, rape threats, doxing (release of personal information, such as addresses, email details and phone numbers), smear campaigns with sexualized, misogynistic or defamatory elements and impersonations have skyrocketed in the past 10 years, especially against women journalists.[[fn:37]] Women journalists in exile claim to have been targeted by coordinated defamation campaigns of a gendered nature on State and/or State-aligned media outlets as well as social media.[[fn:38]] Social media companies must do more to combat online gender-based violence and gendered disinformation, including against women journalists.[[fn:39]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "B. Digital threats: online violence, surveillance and disruption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "Julie Posetti and others, The Chilling: Global Trends in Online Violence against Women Journalists (UNESCO, 2021)."}, {"n": 38, "text": "Submission from Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See A/78/288 and A/HRC/44/52."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The targeted digital surveillance of exiled journalists has surged over the past decade, as intrusive communications software (spyware) has become available, permitting the authorities to access journalists’ phones and work devices without their knowledge. Once infected, the devices yield a trove of information on journalists’ movements, contacts, interactions with sources and the subject matter of their investigations, which can have devastating implications for the safety and security of exiled journalists, their media outlets and sources in their home countries.[[fn:40]] Because it is difficult to detect spyware or even prove it was ever installed, the mere suspicion of spyware can lead to caution and fear, hindering journalists’ ability to communicate safely with sources, especially in their home countries, and making sources wary of speaking to journalists.[[fn:41]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "B. Digital threats: online violence, surveillance and disruption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "A/HRC/50/29 and A/HRC/41/35."}, {"n": 41, "text": "A/HRC/50/29."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Illegal surveillance by Governments, combined with online harassment and other repressive legal measures, has forced many journalists to flee their countries in search of safety elsewhere. In early 2022, several journalists from El Salvador fled to Costa Rica, Mexico and other countries soon after civil society investigations unearthed 35 cases of hacking of the devices of human rights defenders, activists and journalists through use of Pegasus spyware.[[fn:42]] Some of the journalists reported that they felt their ability to work and maintain the trust of their sources was impaired after the hacking.[[fn:43]] One outlet, El Faro, which was also the target of legal harassment, found that 22 of its staff members had had their devices infected with Pegasus spyware, and it moved its headquarters to Costa Rica in an effort to protect itself.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "B. Digital threats: online violence, surveillance and disruption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "John Scott-Railton and others, “Project Torogoz: extensive hacking of media & civil society in El Salvador with Pegasus spyware”, Citizen Lab Research Report, No. 148 (University of Toronto, 2022)."}, {"n": 43, "text": "Joint submission from Access Now and Meduza."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The effect of targeted digital surveillance can be particularly harmful for women journalists. Not only are they induced to leave their country out of fear for their safety, large volumes of data on their personal and intimate lives are weaponized by bad actors to harass and harm their reputations. In the words of an Arab woman journalist, now living in exile, because we live in such a conservative society, the easiest way to symbolically kill a woman is by killing her reputation.[[fn:44]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "B. Digital threats: online violence, surveillance and disruption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "Submission from Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Civil society investigations have uncovered several cases of journalists who have been subjected to digital surveillance during their exile.[[fn:45]] Surveillance has often preceded or followed threats, arrests or killings. Forensic investigations by civil society entities discovered the Pegasus spyware on the devices of some 10 people connected with slain Saudi journalist, Jamal Khashoggi, including his fiancée.[[fn:46]] In September 2023, it was reported that the telephone of Galina Timchenko, head of Meduza, the Russian language online news website based in Latvia, had been infected with Pegasus spyware shortly after the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation had designated Meduza as an “undesirable” organization, and banned it from operating in the Russian Federation.[[fn:47]] In October 2023, Lê Trung Khoa, editor-in-chief of the Berlin-based Vietnamese news site Thoibao.de was targeted with Predator spyware through the social media platform X, formerly Twitter.[[fn:48]] His website is blocked in Viet Nam, and his Facebook and YouTube pages are frequently targeted by hackers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "B. Digital threats: online violence, surveillance and disruption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "Joint submission from Access Now and Meduza."}, {"n": 46, "text": "See https://forbiddenstories.org/about-the-pegasus-project/; and https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-executions/inquiry-killing-mr-jamal-kashoggi."}, {"n": 47, "text": "Joint submission from Access Now and Meduza."}, {"n": 48, "text": "See https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/10/global-predator-files-spyware-scandal-reveals-brazen-targeting-of-civil-society-politicians-and-officials/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The Special Rapporteur has endorsed the calls by her predecessor and the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights for a moratorium on the sale, trade and use of spyware until proper safeguards can be put in place.[[fn:49]] The Government of the United States of America has restricted the use of commercial spyware,[[fn:50]] but it continues to be used by many other countries in the world.[[fn:51]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "B. Digital threats: online violence, surveillance and disruption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/08/spyware-scandal-un-experts-call-moratorium-sale-life-threatening; see also A/HRC/48/31 and A/HRC/51/17."}, {"n": 50, "text": "Executive Order 14093 of 27 March 2023."}, {"n": 51, "text": "According to the European Parliament Committee of Inquiry 14 Member States and 22 entities of the European Union use Pegasus; see https://www.europarl.europa.eu/committees/en/pega/home/highlights."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Exiled journalists often find themselves facing two major legal hazards from their home State: investigation, prosecution and punishment in absentia and the pursuit of their extradition on trumped up criminal charges.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "C. Legal threats: prosecution, extradition and retaliation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Journalism is not a crime. Nevertheless, some Governments use vague, loosely drafted laws on national security, counter-terrorism, criminal libel or “fake news” to investigate, prosecute and punish journalists, including those in exile.[[fn:52]] For instance, the National Security Law of Hong Kong, augmented by the recently adopted Safeguarding National Security Ordnance, criminalizes secession, subversion, terrorism and “collusion with foreign organizations” in sweeping terms and with extraterritorial reach. The Ordinance has framed the offences so broadly that collaboration with international entities such as the United Nations human rights system could also be affected.[[fn:53]] The Law has been used extensively against independent journalists and media outlets in Hong Kong, many of whom have either been imprisoned or banned or have fled abroad. It has also led many journalists in exile to self-censor and hampered their ability to work safely with contacts and sources in their home country.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "C. Legal threats: prosecution, extradition and retaliation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "A/HRC/50/29."}, {"n": 53, "text": "CHN 3/2022 and CHN 5/2024. See also International Federation of Journalists, “Journalists in exile: a survey of media workers in the Hong Kong diaspora” (2023)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Following the invasion of Ukraine in February 2022, the Russian Federation introduced draconian laws to severely punish anyone who “discredits” the armed forces or disseminates “false information” regarding the armed conflict.[[fn:54]] The enactment of the laws led independent media outlets in the Russian Federation to self-censor and shut down or leave the country. Using these laws, Russian courts have issued sentences in absentia against several exiled journalists. The law banning “undesirable organizations”, adopted in 2015, has been used to outlaw several Russian media outlets operating from abroad.[[fn:55]] Such action not only bans them from operating in the Russian Federation but also makes it a crime for anyone in the Russian Federation to collaborate with or contribute to their work or even post material created by them on social media. As a result, the outlets are no longer able to work openly with correspondents, sources and speakers or engage effectively with audiences in the Russian Federation.[[fn:56]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "C. Legal threats: prosecution, extradition and retaliation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "A/HRC/50/29, para. 61."}, {"n": 55, "text": "See https://cpj.org/2023/06/russia-bans-independent-outlet-novaya-gazeta-europe-adds-to-undesirable-list/; https://cpj.org/2023/07/russia-bans-exiled-outlet-dozhd-tv-as-undesirable/; and https://theins.ru/en/news/253183."}, {"n": 56, "text": "Submission from International Press Institute."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Although the deprivation of nationality is prohibited in international law, some Governments use it as a retaliatory measure against independent journalists. Belarus adopted a law in 2022 that covers 34 crimes applicable only to those in exile, for which they can be convicted in absentia and deprived of their nationality as well as their assets.[[fn:57]] Furthermore, Belarus has prosecuted journalists as well as dissidents and human rights defenders in absentia and doled out heavy sentences. For instance, the court sentenced exiled journalists Stsypan Putsila and Yan Rudzik in absentia to 20 years and 19 years in prison, respectively, in 2022.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "C. Legal threats: prosecution, extradition and retaliation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "BLR 9/2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Nicaragua forcibly deported several dozen journalists, as well as human rights defenders and political activists, and stripped them of their citizenship.[[fn:58]] Carlos Fernando Chamorro, one of the most prominent journalists in Nicaragua who has been in exile in Costa Rica since 2021, was deemed guilty of spreading false news and conspiracy to undermine national integrity and stripped of his citizenship in February 2023.[[fn:59]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "C. Legal threats: prosecution, extradition and retaliation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 58, "text": "See https://100noticias.com.ni/nacionales/121979-periodistas-despojo-nacionalidad-nicaragua/; and Human Rights Council resolution 52/2."}, {"n": 59, "text": "See https://cpj.org/2021/08/nicaraguan-authorities-charge-journalist-carlos-fernando-chamorro-with-financial-crimes/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. In Kyrgyzstan, Bolot Temirov, an investigative journalist and human rights defender, was charged with various trumped up criminal offences, of which he was acquitted by the courts but was nevertheless stripped of his nationality by a judicial decision and expelled to the Russian Federation. The facts of the case suggest that the criminalization and expulsion were in retaliation for his reporting on the corruption of State authorities.[[fn:60]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "C. Legal threats: prosecution, extradition and retaliation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 60, "text": "KGZ 3/2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. In Myanmar, over 200 journalists, including exiled journalists, journalists working for exiled outlets and exiled journalists captured while returning home, have been prosecuted by the military junta with no due process, with harsh sentences meted out.[[fn:61]] The Myanmar military has also banned 14 outlets operating outside Myanmar, the objective being to punish their associates inside Myanmar and prevent them from collaborating with exiled media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "C. Legal threats: prosecution, extradition and retaliation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 61, "text": "Submission from International Center for Not-for-Profit Law."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. These cases are examples of the way in which States are weaponizing the legal and judicial systems to silence journalists in exile. As part of this strategy, some States have sought to bring criminal charges against exiled journalists and requested their arrest through the International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL), using its Red Notice system, so that they can then seek their extradition from the host country.[[fn:62]] Gobeze Sisay, a journalist in exile in Djibouti, was arrested with the assistance of INTERPOL in 2023.[[fn:63]] After Can Dündar, former editor-in-chief of the Turkish daily, Cumhuriyet, fled to Germany, the Government of Türkiye requested a Red Notice for his arrest on espionage charges, but it was refused by INTERPOL.[[fn:64]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "C. Legal threats: prosecution, extradition and retaliation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "UKR 3/2021."}, {"n": 63, "text": "Submission from Committee to Protect Journalists."}, {"n": 64, "text": "High-Level Panel of Legal Experts on Media Freedom, Report on Providing Safe Refuge to Journalists at Risk (International Bar Association Human Rights Institute, 2020), p. 21; Marilyn Clark and William Horsley, A Mission to Inform: Journalists at Risk Speak Out (Council of Europe, 2020); and A/HRC/35/22/Add.3, para. 34."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Although INTERPOL has taken steps to tighten oversight of the Red Notice system, it needs to carry out further improvements, as some States continue to abuse the rules by using the Stolen and Lost Passport Database to seek the arrest of journalists.[[fn:65]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "C. Legal threats: prosecution, extradition and retaliation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, resolution 2509 (2023)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Reprisals against family members, friends and sources have been used by some States as a means to intimidate and retaliate against journalists, activists and human rights defenders. Such actions take a heavy personal toll on exiled journalists who may feel compelled to cut off their ties with loved ones or with sources in the home country in order to protect them. Some journalists have quit their jobs, avoided certain stories or worked anonymously to shield their families from harm.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "D. Repression by proxy: targeting family members"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. According to a survey of Iranian journalists in the United Kingdom, 60 per cent of those surveyed reported the targeting of their relatives, friends and colleagues in Iran (Islamic Republic of).[[fn:66]] There are reports of at least four cases of family members of Bangladeshi journalists in exile who have been threatened and attacked, including with physical violence.[[fn:67]] Some journalists from India living abroad have reported that the harassment of family members at home has led them to self-censor or desist from applying for asylum.[[fn:68]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "D. Repression by proxy: targeting family members"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "Submission from Reporters without Borders."}, {"n": 67, "text": "Submission from Committee to Protect Journalists."}, {"n": 68, "text": "Submission from South Asia Justice Campaign."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Those reporting for the exiled independent Belarusian outlet, Zerkalo, are so fearful for their own safety and that of their families at home that they author content anonymously.[[fn:69]] The pressure tactics used by the Tajik authorities against relatives of exiled journalists have included the confiscation of property and passports as well as interrogations, house arrests and threats of criminal charges, contrary to the country’s international human rights obligations.[[fn:70]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Transnational repression", "D. Repression by proxy: targeting family members"], "footnotes": [{"n": 69, "text": "Submission from International Press Institute."}, {"n": 70, "text": "Submissions from Foundation of Intercultural Integration and AZDA TV."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Often exile is not a single move often but a multiple-stage process in which journalists may first relocate within their home country, then move to a neighbouring country and later, still further abroad. Some try to wait it out in neighbouring countries in the hope that the environment at home will change and allow them to return or because proximity to their home country makes it easier to retain contact with their sources and continue their journalism. Many do not feel safe in countries bordering their homeland and seek to move further away but may be stymied in their efforts by a lack of relocation opportunities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Each stage of exile is marked by multiple challenges, affecting the journalists’ physical and digital safety and security, their freedom of movement and their ability to continue to work in the field of journalism. Political considerations often colour the response of receiving countries. In addition to their various professional and personal challenges, exiled journalists must manoeuvre the political context carefully to avoid being caught in the cross hairs of geopolitics or bilateral relations and to preserve their safety as well as their independence, professionalism and integrity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Policies and practices of digital and media companies can also present challenges for exiled journalists, particularly when the corporate actors themselves come under pressure from Governments to act against exiled media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. In this section, the Special Rapporteur considers the responses – or lack thereof – of host countries and companies to the threats and challenges faced by exiled journalists and media outlets. She also notes some good practices from States and civil society organizations to support journalists in exile.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Exile is not a choice but usually an act of last resort in the face of imminent danger. Journalists whose lives are in danger need emergency short-term visas for themselves and their families to enter another country as well as longer term residence permits to work and travel freely during their exile. Both are in short supply.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. In an in-depth report, the High-Level Panel of Legal Experts on Media Freedom examined the various kinds of visas available to journalists in distress – from conventional visas for work or study abroad to short-term humanitarian visas and permanent resettlement programmes for those recognized as refugees – and found that almost all options were limited in number and beset with difficulties, long delays and bureaucratic obstacles.[[fn:71]] As a result, many journalists use tourist visas to leave their country or move in the first instance to countries that do not require visas from them for a short-term visit, and then overstay those visas when they cannot find a way to relocate elsewhere. Many others enter a neighbouring country illegally, risking arrest and possible deportation back to their home countries.[[fn:72]] Anxiety about the lack of proper legal papers and fear of deportation can induce exiled journalists to self-censor or lead them to quit journalism.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "High-Level Panel of Legal Experts on Media Freedom, Report on Providing Safe Refuge to Journalists at Risk. The High-Level Panel recommended a journalist-specific emergency visa."}, {"n": 72, "text": "TUR 5/2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Only a few countries, such as Germany, Norway, Switzerland and the United States, offer humanitarian visas on urgent grounds to journalists. A number of States members of the European Union have introduced flexible visa policies for human rights defenders that can be applied also to journalists. Such arrangements have been in response to crisis situations and limited to certain nationalities rather than available to all journalists in need. As ad hoc arrangements, another weakness of such visas is that they are dependent on the political will of particular Governments. Ireland provided several hundred humanitarian visas to Afghan human rights defenders, including some journalists, in 2022, while Czechia, Latvia and Lithuania have issued humanitarian visas to several hundred independent journalists, media workers and their family members from Belarus and the Russian Federation.[[fn:73]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "Am Mokkhasen, “Safe refuge for journalists: recent progress from MFC members”, Media Freedom Coalition, 1 November 2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Journalists who meet the criteria for refugee status are entitled to asylum in their first country of refuge, if it is a party to the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, or they may be eligible for resettlement in a third country. Canada has launched a dedicated refugee stream for the resettlement of human rights defenders, including journalists.[[fn:74]] Costa Rica provides asylum to journalists and human rights defenders from Nicaragua.[[fn:75]] The problem is that many countries are either not a party to the Convention or do not uphold its provisions. Even in the case of States parties that respect the Convention, journalists must join the same queue as other asylum-seekers. Processing asylum applications can take a long time and, during that period, journalists are left in a precarious position, an easy target of transnational repression, and unable to travel, work or gain access to the social services available to recognized refugees.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": [{"n": 74, "text": "Media Freedom Coalition, “Media Freedom Coalition: 2022 activity report” (2023), p. 8."}, {"n": 75, "text": "Submission from the Inter-American Press Association."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Treating journalists as part of the general refugee community can be problematic, as it overlooks the specific threats and challenges that journalists face as a result of their work, such as targeted surveillance and other digital threats, attacks from the country of origin, collusion in renditions by the host country or tensions between exiled media and authorities in host countries. The distinct and urgent protection needs of exiled journalists who are refugees require more tailored responses. The Special Rapporteur encourages the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees to give more attention to the specific concerns of this group of refugees.[[fn:76]]", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "Submission from Freedom Press Unlimited."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Fellowships and study programmes at educational institutions, work assignments at foreign news organizations’ hubs, funding from foundations, specific programmes set up by press freedom groups and other organizations are important means by which journalists often find a way to leave their countries safely and survive legally abroad. The downside is that such arrangements are usually few and short-term, while increasingly, exile is becoming longer-term, as the conditions that forced journalists to leave their home countries show no sign of amelioration.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Despite the growing awareness and positive responses of some States, the overall picture on the legal status of exiled journalists remains grim. Demand far outstrips the supply of emergency humanitarian visas and longer-term relocation opportunities, straining the goodwill and resources of developing countries to which journalists have fled. Among the thousand or so Afghan journalists who left after the Taliban takeover in August 2021, only a small proportion found refuge in Europe or North America. Most made their way to neighbouring Pakistan, where they overstayed their short transit visas and are living in hiding, with no possibility of residence there or relocation elsewhere, unable to work and at risk of deportation.[[fn:77]] Many Sudanese journalists who sought refuge in Egypt, Kenya or Uganda find themselves in a similar situation, without legal status or permission to work or travel and facing possible deportation as overstayers.[[fn:78]] Hundreds of journalists as well as human rights defenders and activists from Myanmar live without formal legal status in Thailand, vulnerable to abduction and attacks from agents of the military regime from across the border.[[fn:79]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": [{"n": 77, "text": "Submission from Committee to Protect Journalists."}, {"n": 78, "text": "Submission from Sudanese Journalists Syndicate."}, {"n": 79, "text": "Submission from International Center for Not-for-Profit Law."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. Thanks to the advocacy of civil society, the efforts of the Media Freedom Coalition and the experience gained from the protection available to human rights defenders, there is growing awareness of the need to provide more creative, comprehensive and coordinated support to journalists in distress. The Hannah Arendt Initiative was set up by the Government of Germany in 2022 to support journalists and free speech defenders in their home countries or as close to them as possible but, if need be, also through temporary protection in Germany. The programme, initially limited to Afghanistan, Belarus and the Russian Federation, has been subsequently expanded to include Myanmar.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Another example is the Shelter City project, a global movement that offers safe and inspiring spaces to human rights defenders at risk where they can re-energize, receive tailor-made support and engage with allies in order to reinforce their local actions for change. Shelter cities have also hosted journalists that need support and protection as a result of their reporting on human rights issues.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Related to visas and residence permits is the need for journalists to possess a valid passport – a precondition for travel, which is an essential part of most journalists’ jobs. Some countries, e.g. Belarus and Egypt,[[fn:80]] have introduced decrees requiring their nationals living abroad to return home to renew their passports, which has left some journalists without a valid travel document, further endangering their precarious legal situation. In some cases, home States have revoked the passports of journalists in exile.[[fn:81]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "A. Legal status: emergency visas and residence permits"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "Submissions from International Press Institute and Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy."}, {"n": 81, "text": "Submission from AZDA TV."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. There are many positive and concrete examples of law enforcement authorities of host countries responding rapidly and effectively to provide protection, including armed police protection or other security assistance, to exiled journalists and media. Some large international media outlets also provide guidance and support to exiled journalists among their staff, including legal assistance and digital training, as do some non-governmental organizations.[[fn:82]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "B. Safety and security: role and responsibilities of host States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 82, "text": "See, for instance, submissions from Reporters without Borders and the Committee to Protect Journalists."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. An upsurge of physical, legal and digital threats requires stronger, more consistent responses from host countries. It is incumbent on States to prevent and protect all journalists on their territory, and investigate and prosecute crimes committed against them, both to ensure justice and accountability to the victim and to deter potential perpetrators, whether in the country or abroad. However, only just over one out of every 10 cases of killings of all journalists worldwide are ever resolved,[[fn:83]] a statistic that bodes ill for the safety of exiled journalists. As an example, the investigation into the murder of Arshad Sharif, a Pakistani journalist who was killed in Kenya in October 2022, has yet to be completed, despite pressure from the judiciary in Pakistan.[[fn:84]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "B. Safety and security: role and responsibilities of host States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 83, "text": "UNESCO, Observatory of Killed Journalists, available at https://www.unesco.org/en/safety-journalists/observatory/statistics."}, {"n": 84, "text": "KEN 2/2023."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Safety and security are doubly in peril when the authorities in the host country become an enabler of transnational repression, for instance, by colluding in abductions instigated by the home State. Vietnamese journalist Truong Duy Nhat of Radio Free Asia’s Vietnamese-language service was abducted from Thailand to Viet Nam in January 2019. The following year he was sentenced to 10 years in prison for “abusing his position and power while on duty” as a reporter. The Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concluded that Mr. Nhat had been seized and handed over by the Thai authorities to Vietnamese State agents clandestinely without a fair and public extradition hearing in Thailand.[[fn:85]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "B. Safety and security: role and responsibilities of host States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 85, "text": "VNM 4/2020; A/HRC/WGAD/2020/42; and THA 8/2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. International law places an obligation on States to ensure that journalists are not deported, expelled or extradited to a territory where their life or freedom could be threatened.[[fn:86]] Thousands of journalists, human rights defenders and activists from Myanmar who fled to Thailand after the military takeover in 2022 entered without a visa, have not been able to regularize their stay and therefore have no legal status. Those who are arrested by the Thai authorities for illegal entry risk being deported to Myanmar – with dire consequences there.[[fn:87]] Iranian journalists in Türkiye face similar risks of deportation for illegal entry.[[fn:88]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "B. Safety and security: role and responsibilities of host States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 86, "text": "Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, arts. 32 and 33; and SWE 1/2013."}, {"n": 87, "text": "THA 3/2021."}, {"n": 88, "text": "TUR 5/2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Even where refugee-related concerns are not present, the extradition of a journalist to face serious criminal charges in relation to their professional functions is fundamentally at odds with the right to freedom of expression and media freedom. The Special Rapporteur has raised serious concerns regarding the possible extradition of Julian Assange from the United Kingdom to the United States to stand trial under the Espionage Act, because, if he were to be extradited, he would not be allowed to employ the defence of “disclosure in the public interest” that is available to journalists, he would be subjected to disproportionately harsh punishment and it could have a broader chilling effect on other journalists and publishers.[[fn:89]]", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "B. Safety and security: role and responsibilities of host States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2024/03/ukus-time-end-prosecution-julian-assange-un-expert-says."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. The weaponization of the legal and judicial system by the country of origin against an exiled journalists can worsen their precarious situation in their host countries. An accusation of criminality or terrorism, even if it does not lead to formal charges, extradition, deportation or prosecution, marks out the journalist as a security threat to the host country authorities and raises the suspicions of law enforcement agencies abroad, slowing down or undermining applications for visas, asylum or resettlement, making it more difficult to open a bank account or transfer funds and impeding freedom of movement, which may be necessary for journalistic purposes.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "B. Safety and security: role and responsibilities of host States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Although transnational digital repression is growing, digital threats to the safety and security of journalists are often not addressed by law enforcement in host countries because of gaps in criminal law or their inability or unwillingness to identify the perpetrators. Despite credible evidence of spyware attacks in four specific cases in the European Union, neither Germany nor Latvia, where the attacks appear to have occurred, nor any other State member of the European Union, appear to have carried out investigations or, if they did, to have published the findings.[[fn:90]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "B. Safety and security: role and responsibilities of host States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 90, "text": "According to the joint submission from Access Now and Meduza, Citizen Lab investigations found that the Apple devices of a Latvian journalist, Evgeniy Pavlov, and exiled Russian journalists, Evgeniy Erlich and Maria Epifanova, as well as that of Galina Timchenko, the head of Meduza, all of whom are based in Latvia, had been hacked and concluded that the attacks could have come either from the Russian Federation, one of its allies or a State member of the European Union."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. Political pressure from host countries can be an existential threat to exiled media. For instance, citing national security, Latvia suspended the licence of independent Russian television station, TV Rain, under circumstances that indicate disagreements over the outlet’s reporting on the armed conflict in Ukraine.[[fn:91]] The decision to suspend the outlet’s licence appears to be an unnecessary and disproportionate restriction of freedom of expression, contrary to article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "B. Safety and security: role and responsibilities of host States"], "footnotes": [{"n": 91, "text": "Submission from European Center for Press and Media Freedom. TV Rain was able to obtain a licence to operate in the Netherlands, which allows it to reach audiences in the European Union, including Latvia."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. In line with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, companies have the responsibility to respect human rights. At a minimum, they are required to conduct due diligence to identify and assess the human rights risks associated with their activities, establish clear policies on how to address them, publish transparency reports on the risks that they encounter and how they are being addressed and provide for remedies in case of violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "C. Digital technology: companies’ responsibility for human rights"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. Digital technology plays a significant enabling role for exiled journalism, but it also presents challenges and threats that companies are failing to address adequately.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "C. Digital technology: companies’ responsibility for human rights"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. Connectivity is essential for exiled journalists and outlets. Many exiled media outlets have sought to stay connected to their audiences in their home countries, using a range of digital tools and apps. Location-cloaking virtual private networks (VPNs), censorship circumvention software and mirroring techniques for news outlets are increasingly popular and effective tools for circumventing online restrictions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "C. Digital technology: companies’ responsibility for human rights"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. Despite the greater use of VPNs, connectivity remains a challenge for exiled media and journalists in closed societies. For instance, following the invasion of Ukraine by the Russian Federation in February 2022, several companies took action to disable essential digital services for Russian and Belarusian users for fear of violating the escalating sanctions against individuals and institutions in those countries. Their overzealous compliance with the sanctions restricted the ability of exiled independent media to report on events in Belarus and the Russian Federation, provide news to users in those countries and monetize their content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "C. Digital technology: companies’ responsibility for human rights"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. Some Governments have manipulated social media platforms’ policies to get them to block or take down the journalistic material of exiled media. When companies receive an orchestrated flood of proxy complaints about inappropriate content or copyright infringements, they react by blocking or deleting it without examining the context and determining whether the content is in the public interest, in effect, censoring the content.[[fn:92]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "C. Digital technology: companies’ responsibility for human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 92, "text": "Submission from Reporters without Borders."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. Journalists have complained that their appeals against unjustified content removal or blockage are ignored by companies. Exiled news sites have also found that they have limited audience reach on popular social media platforms, as potentially divisive or political content is down-ranked by social media algorithms. Journalists facing State-directed hacking attempts and cyberharassment campaigns have found the safety tools developed by some social media platforms to be insufficient. Exiled journalists and media outlets invest significant time and resources in self-protection, adopting various digital hygiene practices and precautions. Some major platforms have offered journalists ways to flag abuse or protect their accounts, but it is not possible for overburdened, underresourced outlets and journalists to mitigate the threat from well-funded, State-directed cyberharassment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "C. Digital technology: companies’ responsibility for human rights"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. “By placing the responsibility on targeted journalists to track online abuse and follow a complicated set of protocols to mitigate it, companies reinforce the power imbalance between the perpetrator Governments and their targets.”[[fn:93]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "C. Digital technology: companies’ responsibility for human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 93, "text": "White, Vaughan and Gorokhovskaia, “A light that cannot be extinguished”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Sustaining journalism as a profession in exile is challenging. At the individual level, although most journalists leave their country in order to continue their work, many drop out of the profession once abroad. More than two thirds of Afghan journalists who left the country are no longer working in the media.[[fn:94]] A survey of Hong Kongese journalists and media workers also found that two thirds of respondents had left the media sector after moving abroad.[[fn:95]] According to one survey, about a third of journalists who had fled Belarus and the Russian Federation in the past three years had given up journalism after going into exile.[[fn:96]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 94, "text": "Submission from International Media Support."}, {"n": 95, "text": "International Federation of Journalists, “Journalists in exile: a survey of media workers in the Hong Kong diaspora”."}, {"n": 96, "text": "Submission from Justice for Journalists Foundation."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. The reasons for journalists to leave their profession are manifold, from lack of personal safety and fear of reprisals against their family in the home country to lack of knowledge of the local language and culture in the host country. For some, the skills and knowledge for which they were hired in their home country are no longer relevant in their new country. For others, the bureaucratic and administrative requirements, such as notarial certification of diplomas or journalistic accreditation from their home countries, may be impossible to fulfil.[[fn:97]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 97, "text": "Submission from Fundación por la Libertad de Expresión y Democracia."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. Lack of work permits is a big problem. Many countries where journalists in exile find themselves do not provide residence permits, and, without them, they cannot obtain a work permit. Without a work permit, journalists cannot find work in the local media sector. According to one survey of 120 Afghan journalists who are now in Western countries, almost a third did not have work permits.[[fn:98]]", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 98, "text": "European Fund for Journalists in Exile, “Professional situation and needs of Afghan journalists in exile: an exploratory study (Berlin, Germany, 2023)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. The human cost of exile is also a factor driving journalists away from journalism in exile. The trauma of armed conflict or repression in the home country, fears about safety and surveillance in exile, anxiety about possible retaliation against family and sources back home, uncertainty about visas, residence permits, jobs, income and the future, separation from loved ones and the challenges of integration in the new surroundings can have serious detrimental effects on the physical and mental health of exiled journalists.[[fn:99]] The need for psychosocial support and care is high but insufficiently met.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 99, "text": "Submissions from Inter-American Press Association and Committee to Protect Journalists."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. At the level of media outlets, financial viability is a key challenge. Exiled media organizations struggle to achieve financial sustainability, with only limited opportunities to develop viable commercial revenue. Revenue from online advertising and donations or subscriptions from their home countries are often cut off by legal prohibitions or other measures introduced by the home State. International sanctions may prevent exiled outlets from monetizing news content. In some least developed countries where Internet penetration is low and radio is the main source of news, exiled media cannot rely on the Internet or seek subscriptions from audiences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. At the same time, the outlets must contend with high operating expenses because of the need to invest in keeping their staff and digital infrastructure safe from cyberattacks and physical and legal threats and to find the technical methods to deliver content to domestic audiences who are actively prevented from accessing online independent news outlets.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. Another challenge is that the outlets are cut off from their audiences, subscribers, sponsors and private donors in their home country but must nevertheless ensure that they carry out credible audience research and stay engaged and relevant to their audiences in an environment where access to information is challenging because of State control and censorship. “In sum, outlets are forced to spend money they do not have to continue to deliver information to audiences who cannot pay.”[[fn:100]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 100, "text": "White, Vaughan and Gorokhovskaia, “A light that cannot be extinguished”, p. 8."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. Few exiled media outlets have a sustainable financing model, and most are dependent on civil society funding and philanthropy and likely to remain so for some time.[[fn:101]] On the other hand, donor strategies are geared largely towards providing short-term funding for acute crises. However, thanks to civil society advocacy and efforts, there is growing awareness of the need for longer term and sustained investment from donors and examples of innovative programming. Despite the many problems that exiled outlets face, good practices are emerging, highlighting the resilience, creativity, energy and courage of journalists in exile and the civil society organizations working with them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "Submission from International Media Support, which estimates that exiled groups it helps generate only 3–7 per cent of their revenue from commercial sources."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. In an effort to overcome the funding challenges and operational obstacles, exiled journalists have come together in loose networks to share knowledge and problems. One such group is the Network of Exiled Media Organizations.[[fn:102]] Members share experiences and tips on a range of issues, from censorship circumnavigation software to donor cultivation strategies, and strengthen the understanding of why audiences, donors, policymakers and civil society should support exiled media.[[fn:103]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 102, "text": "See https://www.exiled.media. Founded in 2022 by Nicaraguan outlet Confidencial, based in Costa Rica, Meydan TV of Azerbaijan, based in Berlin, and Zamaneh Media of Iran (Islamic Republic of), which operates out of Amsterdam. The group was later joined by Meduza from Latvia and the Democratic Voice of Burma based in Thailand."}, {"n": 103, "text": "Ayodeji Rotinwa, “Q&A: Cinthia Membreño on the global network helping journalists in exile”, Columbia Journalism Review, 29 November 2023."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. Another interesting initiative is the European Fund for Journalism in Exile, which acts as a clearing-house that bundles offers of help and directs resources where they are best needed, enabling media workers quickly and flexibly to continue their work in exile.[[fn:104]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 104, "text": "See https://jx-fund.org."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. There are also some “good news” stories from exiled media. For instance, Syrian media outlets have turned challenges into opportunities by using the freedom provided by exile to practise ethical journalism, cover issues that were taboo in the home country and develop new approaches to investigative journalism.[[fn:105]] Another example is that of City Dog, originally from Belarus, which has reworked its vision and mission, going from “multiplatform distribution to becoming a multiplatform media brand”, creating and recreating content for each platform.[[fn:106]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["IV. Protection in exile", "D. Journalism in exile: challenges and good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 105, "text": "Submission from International Media Support."}, {"n": 106, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. Journalists, like human rights defenders, are on the front line of the effort to hold the powerful to account, and for that they pay a heavy price, personally and professionally. Exiled journalists are a reminder, on the one hand, of the relentless onslaught on human rights in parts of the world and, on the other, of the human cost of violence and repression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. International human rights and refugee law provide a strong framework to protect journalists in exile. In practice, however, the individuals remain highly vulnerable because of the failure of States to uphold their international obligations. Home States use various methods, from extraterritorial attacks to prosecution in absentia, to pursue and silence journalists. Host States are either unwilling for political reasons or unable for lack of capacity or resources to protect and support journalists in exile. There is no international legal gap, but there is a dangerous protection gap.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. Political and ideological considerations and bilateral relations heavily influence the ways in which States respond to the plight of journalists in exile. Journalists should not be treated as political pawns but as human beings in distress who, at great cost to themselves, serve a critical social purpose – fulfilling people’s right to be informed of issues that affect their lives. Regardless of where the journalists are coming from or where they find refuge, the Special Rapporteur urges States to take a rights-based, human-centred approach to resolving their plight.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. Most journalists want to go home once it is safe for them to do so. However, with authoritarianism and attacks on independent media on the rise in many countries, what once seemed a temporary state of displacement is increasingly becoming a semi-permanent affair. More and more, journalists are facing the prospect that they may not be able to return home for a long time. International and national responses to journalists in exile must adjust to this new reality.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. The needs of journalists in exile are stark. Exiled journalists need the receiving Governments to proactively facilitate the issuing of visas and work permits and their resettlement. They need better protection from physical and online attacks in their new homes. They need coordinated, long-term support from funders, civil society and press freedom groups to enable them to develop sustainable business models and strengthen their capacity in exile. They need companies to ensure that the technologies that are essential to practise journalism are not disrupted or weaponized against them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. The overarching concern of exiled journalists is safety and security. Transnational repression, online and offline, has become the predominant threat against those who raise their voices in exile. It must be condemned by the international community and by States as a form of censorship and a violation of the fundamental principles of international law, human rights and democracy. Neither impunity nor collusion should be tolerated.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. In the digital age, fighting transnational repression is a responsibility not only of States but also companies. Exiled media and journalists need a free and open Internet and digital security. Corporate actors in the digital sector must step up to the challenge.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. Journalists in exile share many of the same problems of human rights defenders who have been forced to leave their countries. When designing protection strategies and tools for human rights defenders, States should keep exiled journalists in mind. There is also considerable overlap between refugees and journalists in exile, and in the normative framework applicable to them, but also some distinct protection needs that only journalists have because of the work that they do. That may require adjusting refugee systems and procedures to respond to the distinct needs of journalists in exile. UNESCO, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) should develop responses that address the specificities as well as similarities between exiled journalists and refugees.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. The high numbers of journalists who are leaving the profession and exiled outlets that are shutting down should be a wake-up call for donors. Exiled media need increased, targeted and sustained funding.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. Data on exiled journalism is patchy. More systematic, reliable data-gathering and research is essential to better understand the issues and find effective responses.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. States should:\n(a) Publicly acknowledge the valuable role of independent public service media, including exiled journalists, in promoting democracy, development and human rights;\n(b) Establish clear legal pathways for journalists at risk to leave their countries and reside abroad with the right to work until they can return home safely. Emergency humanitarian visas should be provided through accelerated procedures to journalists at risk, regardless of their nationality, and their family members to enable them to depart their country of origin safely and rapidly;\n(c) Ensure that all journalists in their jurisdiction, regardless of their legal status, are protected from violence, threats and harassment, as well as refoulement or extradition on criminal charges related to their work;\n(d) Refrain from committing, co-opting or condoning acts of transnational repression, online or offline, and ensure that all acts of transnational repression on their territory are investigated and prosecuted promptly, fully and effectively;\n(e) Where applicable, review and revise national laws or adopt new laws to allow for the prosecution of the perpetrators and facilitators of transnational repression. Foreign State immunity laws should also be revised to enable individuals affected by transnational repression to seek legal remedies in national courts;\n(f) Acknowledge that exiled journalists who qualify for refugee status may face specific risks due to the nature of their work and ensure that they can receive appropriate protection and support and access asylum and resettlement procedures in an expedited manner;\n(g) Take all measures to facilitate exiled media outlets to operate freely and on a non-discriminatory basis and support civil society initiatives to enable exiled journalists and media.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. Social media platforms should:\n(a) Establish accessible “escalation channels” that allow exiled journalists and media outlets to easily report online violence, deplatforming and other digital threats and ensure that complaints are handled promptly with the involvement of humans who have the relevant contextual knowledge, language skills and understanding of the public interest role of journalists;\n(b) Undertake due diligence to identify risks of digital transnational threats against exiled media and journalists, with input from exiled media, and enhance safety tools and other measures to mitigate them;\n(c) Publicly identify the perpetrators, methods and scale of transnational digital repression.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. Civil society is encouraged:\n(a) To work in collaboration with exiled media to develop innovative programmes to strengthen the capacity, safety and longer-term viability of exiled media;\n(b) To enhance social, medical and psychosocial care and support services for exiled journalists and their families;\n(c) To provide concrete support for the capacity and development of exiled media;\n(d) To encourage, develop and invest in networks that connect exiled journalists to enhance funding, learning and support, including with the media in their country of refuge and international outlets.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-53-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-56-53", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. OHCHR, UNESCO and UNHCR should:\n(a) Strengthen their collaboration among themselves and with other stakeholders in countries and regions where exiled journalists are most at risk;\n(b) Ensure that the United Nations Plan of Action on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity is applied to combating impunity for crimes against exiled journalists, including transnational repression;\n(c) Coordinate, under the guidance of UNESCO and in cooperation with States, the systematic collection and dissemination of reliable data, learning and research on issues relating to exiled journalists and media outlets.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2024, "section": ["V. Road ahead: conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report is submitted to the Human Rights Council by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 7/36. In particular, the resolution requests the Special Rapporteur “to continue to provide his/her views, when appropriate, on the advantages and challenges of new information and communication technologies, including the Internet and mobile technologies, for the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to seek, receive and impart information and the relevance of a wide diversity of sources, as well as access to the information society for all”.[[fn:1]] On this basis, the report expands upon the previous mandate holders’ reports on topics related to the Internet,[[fn:2]] taking into account recent developments and information gathered through five regional consultations organized by the Special Rapporteur in 2010 and 2011.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Human Rights Council resolution 7/36, para. 4(f)."}, {"n": 2, "text": "E/CN.4/1998/40; E/CN.4/1999/64; E/CN.4/2000/63; E/CN.4/2001/64; E/CN.4/2002/75; E/CN.4/2005/64; E/CN.4/2006/55; A/HRC/4/27; A/HRC/7/14."}, {"n": 3, "text": "See para. 5 for further information."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. While the Internet has been in existence since the 1960s, its current use throughout the world across different age groups, and incorporation into virtually every aspect of modern human life, has been unprecedented. According to the International Telecommunication Union, the total number of Internet users worldwide is now over 2 billion.[[fn:4]] Active users of Facebook, an online social networking platform, grew from 150 million to 600 million between 2009 and 2011. The Special Rapporteur believes that the Internet is one of the most powerful instruments of the 21st century for increasing transparency in the conduct of the powerful, access to information, and for facilitating active citizen participation in building democratic societies. Indeed, the recent wave of demonstrations in countries across the Middle East and North African region has shown the key role that the Internet can play in mobilizing the population to call for justice, equality, accountability and better respect for human rights. As such, facilitating access to the Internet for all individuals, with as little restriction to online content as possible, should be a priority for all States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "International Telecommunication Union, StatShot No.5, January 2011 Available from: http://www.itu.int/net/pressoffice/stats/2011/01/index.aspx."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur would like to underscore that access to the Internet has two dimensions: access to online content, without any restrictions except in a few limited cases permitted under international human rights law; and the availability of the necessary infrastructure and information communication technologies, such as cables, modems, computers and software, to access the Internet in the first place. The first dimension is addressed in Chapter IV of the report, which outlines some of the ways in which States are restricting the flow of information online through increasingly sophisticated means. The second dimension is examined in Chapter IV. The Special Rapporteur intends to explore the latter issue further in his future report to the General Assembly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Between 20 March 2010 and 31 March 2011, the Special Rapporteur sent 195 communications, 188 of which were submitted jointly with other special procedures mandate holders. The geographical distribution of the communications was as follows: 29 per cent for Asia and the Pacific; 26 per cent for the Middle East and North Africa; 16 per cent for Africa; 15 per cent for Latin America and the Caribbean; and 14 per cent for Europe, Central Asia and North America. The summary of communications sent and replies received from Governments can be found in the first addendum to this report (A/HRC/17/27/Add.1).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Communications"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The Special Rapporteur, with the support of local organizations, organized a series of expert regional consultations, beginning in March 2010 in Stockholm, followed by Buenos Aires (18-19 October 2010), Bangkok (18-19 November 2010), Cairo (11-13 January 2011), Johannesburg (15-16 February 2011), and Delhi (2-3 March 2011). The regional consultations concluded on 30 March 2011 with an expert meeting in Stockholm, organized by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Sweden. These meetings brought together experts and human rights defenders working on a range of Internet and freedom of expression-related issues in order to better understand their experience, needs and priorities in different countries and regions for the purposes of this report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. From 14 to 17 September 2010, the Special Rapporteur attended the Fifth Internet Governance Forum in Vilnius.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. On 30 November 2010, the Special Rapporteur participated in an expert round table entitled “Equality, Non-discrimination and Diversity: Challenge or Opportunity for the Mass Media?” in Geneva, organized by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. On 9 and 10 February 2011 and on 6 and 7 April 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated as an expert in the regional expert workshops on the prohibition of incitement to national, racial or religious hatred organized by OHCHR in Vienna and Nairobi respectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. On 16 March 2011, the Special Rapporteur shared his views regarding the compatibility of blocking child pornography on the Internet with the right to freedom of expression in the context of discussions on the proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on combating the sexual abuse and sexual exploitation of children and child pornography.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The Special Rapporteur also participated in a series of academic events in other countries, including Guatemala, Mexico, the Philippines, South Africa, Sweden and the United States of America.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Participation in meetings and seminars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. The Special Rapporteur notes that country visits remain central to his mandate. Requests sent to Governments to undertake a country mission are based on several factors, such as visits undertaken and requested by the former mandate holders, trends that emerge from communications sent on alleged violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and consideration of geographical balance. The Special Rapporteur hopes that visit requests will be favourably received by the Governments concerned.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. From 5 to 15 May 2010, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to the Republic of Korea. The mission report is included as an addendum to this report (A/HRC/17/27/Add.2).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "1. Missions undertaken in 2010 and 2011"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. From 10 to 21 August 2010, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Mexico, together with the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression for the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Catalina Botero. The mission report is included as an addendum to this report (A/HRC/17/27/Add.3).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "1. Missions undertaken in 2010 and 2011"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. From 3 to 5 April 2011, the Special Rapporteur visited the Republic of Hungary, at the invitation of the Government, to provide expert advice to the Government regarding Hungarian media legislation. The press release with his conclusions and recommendations can be found on the OHCHR website.[[fn:5]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Available from: http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10916&LangID=E."}], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "1. Missions undertaken in 2010 and 2011"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. From 10 to 17 April 2011, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Algeria. The mission report will be presented at a future session of the Human Rights Council in 2012. The press release with his initial conclusions and recommendations can be found on the OHCHR website.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "1. Missions undertaken in 2010 and 2011"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The visit to Israel and the occupied Palestinian territory, which was scheduled to take place in May 2011, has been postponed. The new dates of the visit have yet to be agreed upon.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "2. Upcoming missions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. The Special Rapporteur would like to thank the Italian Government for its letter dated 6 August 2010 in response to his request for a visit. He hopes that a mutually convenient set of dates can be agreed upon for a visit in 2011.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "2. Upcoming missions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. As of March 2011, the following visit requests from the Special Rapporteur were pending: the Islamic Republic of Iran (requested in February 2010), Sri Lanka (requested in June 2009), Tunisia (requested in 2009), and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (requested in 2003 and 2009).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Country visits", "3. Pending requests"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Very few if any developments in information technologies have had such a revolutionary effect as the creation of the Internet. Unlike any other medium of communication, such as radio, television and printed publications based on one-way transmission of information, the Internet represents a significant leap forward as an interactive medium. Indeed, with the advent of Web 2.0 services, or intermediary platforms that facilitate participatory information sharing and collaboration in the creation of content, individuals are no longer passive recipients, but also active publishers of information. Such platforms are particularly valuable in countries where there is no independent media, as they enable individuals to share critical views and to find objective information. Furthermore, producers of traditional media can also use the Internet to greatly expand their audiences at nominal cost. More generally, by enabling individuals to exchange information and ideas instantaneously and inexpensively across national borders, the Internet allows access to information and knowledge that was previously unattainable. This, in turn, contributes to the discovery of the truth and progress of society as a whole.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. General principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Indeed, the Internet has become a key means by which individuals can exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression, as guaranteed by article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The latter provides that:\n(a) Everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference;\n(b) Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice;\n(c) The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of this article carries with it special duties and responsibilities. It may therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary:\n(d) for respect of the rights or reputations of others;\n(e) for the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — joint citation to UDHR and ICCPR."}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. General principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. By explicitly providing that everyone has the right to express him or herself through any media, the Special Rapporteur underscores that article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Covenant was drafted with foresight to include and to accommodate future technological developments through which individuals can exercise their right to freedom of expression. Hence, the framework of international human rights law remains relevant today and equally applicable to new communication technologies such as the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Covenant' — joint citation to UDHR and ICCPR (the Covenant)."}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. General principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is as much a fundamental right on its own accord as it is an “enabler” of other rights, including economic, social and cultural rights, such as the right to education and the right to take part in cultural life and to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress and its applications, as well as civil and political rights, such as the rights to freedom of association and assembly. Thus, by acting as a catalyst for individuals to exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression, the Internet also facilitates the realization of a range of other human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. General principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. The vast potential and benefits of the Internet are rooted in its unique characteristics, such as its speed, worldwide reach and relative anonymity. At the same time, these distinctive features of the Internet that enable individuals to disseminate information in “real time” and to mobilize people has also created fear amongst Governments and the powerful. This has led to increased restrictions on the Internet through the use of increasingly sophisticated technologies to block content, monitor and identify activists and critics, criminalization of legitimate expression, and adoption of restrictive legislation to justify such measures. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur also emphasizes that the existing international human rights standards, in particular article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, remain pertinent in determining the types of restrictions that are in breach of States’ obligations to guarantee the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. General principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. As set out in article 19, paragraph 3, of the Covenant, there are certain exceptional types of expression which may be legitimately restricted under international human rights law, essentially to safeguard the rights of others. This issue has been examined in the previous annual report of the Special Rapporteur.[[fn:7]] However, the Special Rapporteur deems it appropriate to reiterate that any limitation to the right to freedom of expression must pass the following three-part, cumulative test:\n(a) It must be provided by law, which is clear and accessible to everyone (principles of predictability and transparency); and\n(b) It must pursue one of the purposes set out in article 19, paragraph 3, of the Covenant, namely (i) to protect the rights or reputations of others, or (ii) to protect national security or of public order, or of public health or morals (principle of legitimacy); and\n(c) It must be proven as necessary and the least restrictive means required to achieve the purported aim (principles of necessity and proportionality).\nMoreover, any legislation restricting the right to freedom of expression must be applied by a body which is independent of any political, commercial, or other unwarranted influences in a manner that is neither arbitrary nor discriminatory, and with adequate safeguards against abuse, including the possibility of challenge and remedy against its abusive application.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "A/HRC/14/23, paras. 72 - 87."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "section": ["III. General principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. As such, legitimate types of information which may be restricted include child pornography (to protect the rights of children),[[fn:8]] hate speech (to protect the rights of affected communities),[[fn:9]] defamation (to protect the rights and reputation of others against unwarranted attacks), direct and public incitement to commit genocide (to protect the rights of others),[[fn:10]] and advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence (to protect the rights of others, such as the right to life).[[fn:11]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Dissemination of child pornography is prohibited under international human rights law, see e.g. Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, art. 3, para. 1(c)."}, {"n": 9, "text": "See for example Faurisson v. France, United Nations Human Rights Committee, communication 550/1993, views of 8 November 1996. The issue of hate speech has also been addressed in previous reports, see inter alia E/CN.4/1999/64; E/CN.4/2000/63; E/CN.4/2002/75; and A/HRC/4/27."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See for example article 3(c) of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide."}, {"n": 11, "text": "See for example article 20, paragraph 2, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}], "section": ["III. General principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. However, in many instances, States restrict, control, manipulate and censor content disseminated via the Internet without any legal basis, or on the basis of broad and ambiguous laws, without justifying the purpose of such actions; and/or in a manner that is clearly unnecessary and/or disproportionate to achieving the intended aim, as explored in the following sections. Such actions are clearly incompatible with States’ obligations under international human rights law, and often create a broader “chilling effect” on the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. General principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. In addition, the Special Rapporteur emphasizes that due to the unique characteristics of the Internet, regulations or restrictions which may be deemed legitimate and proportionate for traditional media are often not so with regard to the Internet. For example, in cases of defamation of individuals’ reputation, given the ability of the individual concerned to exercise his/her right of reply instantly to restore the harm caused, the types of sanctions that are applied to offline defamation may be unnecessary or disproportionate. Similarly, while the protection of children from inappropriate content may constitute a legitimate aim, the availability of software filters that parents and school authorities can use to control access to certain content renders action by the Government such as blocking less necessary, and difficult to justify.[[fn:12]] Furthermore, unlike the broadcasting sector, for which registration or licensing has been necessary to allow States to distribute limited frequencies, such requirements cannot be justified in the case of the Internet, as it can accommodate an unlimited number of points of entry and an essentially unlimited number of users.[[fn:13]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Center for Democracy & Technology, “Regardless of Frontiers: The International Right to Freedom of Expression in the Digital Age,” version 0.5 - Discussion draft (April 2011), p.5."}, {"n": 13, "text": "However, this does not apply to registration with a domain name authority for purely technical reasons or rules of general application which apply without distinction to any kind of commercial operation."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "section": ["III. General principles on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. As outlined under Chapter III, any restriction to the right to freedom of expression must meet the strict criteria under international human rights law. A restriction on the right of individuals to express themselves through the Internet can take various forms, from technical measures to prevent access to certain content, such as blocking and filtering, to inadequate guarantees of the right to privacy and protection of personal data, which inhibit the dissemination of opinions and information. The Special Rapporteur is of the view that the arbitrary use of criminal law to sanction legitimate expression constitutes one of the gravest forms of restriction to the right, as it not only creates a “chilling effect”, but also leads to other human rights violations, such as arbitrary detention and torture and other forms of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Blocking refers to measures taken to prevent certain content from reaching an end-user. This includes preventing users from accessing specific websites, Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, domain name extensions, the taking down of websites from the web server where they are hosted, or using filtering technologies to exclude pages containing keywords or other specific content from appearing. For example, several countries continue to block access to YouTube,[[fn:14]] a video-sharing website on which users can upload, share and view videos. China, which has in place one of the most sophisticated and extensive systems for controlling information on the Internet, has adopted extensive filtering systems that block access to websites containing key terms such as “democracy” and “human rights”.[[fn:15]] The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned that mechanisms used to regulate and censor information on the Internet are increasingly sophisticated, with multi-layered controls that are often hidden from the public.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See OpenNet Initiative, “YouTube Censored: A Recent History”. Available from: http://opennet.net/youtube-censored-a-recent-history."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Reporters without Borders, “Enemies of the Internet,” March 2010. Available from: http://en.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/Internet_enemies.pdf, pp. 8-12."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "A. Arbitrary blocking or filtering of content"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The Special Rapporteur is also concerned by the emerging trend of timed (or “just-in-time”) blocking to prevent users from accessing or disseminating information at key political moments, such as elections, times of social unrest, or anniversaries of politically or historically significant events. During such times, websites of opposition parties, independent media, and social networking platforms such as Twitter and Facebook are blocked, as witnessed in the context of recent protests across the Middle East and North African region. In Egypt, users were disconnected entirely from Internet access.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "A. Arbitrary blocking or filtering of content"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. States’ use of blocking or filtering technologies is frequently in violation of their obligation to guarantee the right to freedom of expression, as the criteria mentioned under chapter III are not met. Firstly, the specific conditions that justify blocking are not established in law, or are provided by law but in an overly broad and vague manner, which risks content being blocked arbitrarily and excessively. Secondly, blocking is not justified to pursue aims which are listed under article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and blocking lists are generally kept secret, which makes it difficult to assess whether access to content is being restricted for a legitimate purpose. Thirdly, even where justification is provided, blocking measures constitute an unnecessary or disproportionate means to achieve the purported aim, as they are often not sufficiently targeted and render a wide range of content inaccessible beyond that which has been deemed illegal. Lastly, content is frequently blocked without the intervention of or possibility for review by a judicial or independent body.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "A. Arbitrary blocking or filtering of content"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. The Special Rapporteur notes that child pornography is one clear exception where blocking measures can be justified, provided that the national law is sufficiently precise and there are effective safeguards against abuse or misuse, including oversight and review by an independent and impartial tribunal or regulatory body. However, he is also concerned that States frequently rely heavily on blocking measures, rather than focusing their efforts on prosecuting those responsible for the production and dissemination of child pornography. Additionally, as child pornography is often a by-product of trafficking and prostitution of children, the Special Rapporteur urges States to take holistic measures to combat the root problems that give rise to child pornography.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "A. Arbitrary blocking or filtering of content"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The types of action taken by States to limit the dissemination of content online not only include measures to prevent information from reaching the end-user, but also direct targeting of those who seek, receive and impart politically sensitive information via the Internet. Physically silencing criticism or dissent through arbitrary arrests and detention, enforced disappearance, harassment and intimidation is an old phenomenon, and also applies to Internet users. This issue has been explored in the Special Rapporteur’s report to the General Assembly under the section on “protection of citizen journalists” (A/65/284). Such actions are often aimed not only to silence legitimate expression, but also to intimidate a population to push its members towards self-censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "B. Criminalization of legitimate expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The Special Rapporteur remains concerned that legitimate online expression is being criminalized in contravention of States’ international human rights obligations, whether it is through the application of existing criminal laws to online expression, or through the creation of new laws specifically designed to criminalize expression on the Internet. Such laws are often justified on the basis of protecting an individual’s reputation, national security or countering terrorism, but in practice are used to censor content that the Government and other powerful entities do not like or agree with.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "B. Criminalization of legitimate expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. One clear example of criminalizing legitimate expression is the imprisonment of bloggers around the world. According to Reporters without Borders, in 2010, 109 bloggers were in prison on charges related to the content of their online expression.[[fn:16]] Seventy-two individuals were imprisoned in China alone, followed by Viet Nam and Iran, with 17 and 13 persons respectively.[[fn:17]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Available from: http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-barometer-journalists-killed.html?annee=2010."}, {"n": 17, "text": "Reporters without Borders, “Enemies of the Internet,” March 2010. Available from: http://en.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/Internet_enemies.pdf."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "B. Criminalization of legitimate expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Imprisoning individuals for seeking, receiving and imparting information and ideas can rarely be justified as a proportionate measure to achieve one of the legitimate aims under article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate that defamation should be decriminalized, and that protection of national security or countering terrorism cannot be used to justify restricting the right to expression unless the Government can demonstrate that: (a) the expression is intended to incite imminent violence; (b) it is likely to incite such violence; and (c) there is a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the likelihood or occurrence of such violence.[[fn:18]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, Principle 6, as endorsed in E/CN.4/1996/39."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "B. Criminalization of legitimate expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Additionally, the Special Rapporteur reiterates that the right to freedom of expression includes expression of views and opinions that offend, shock or disturb. Moreover, as the Human Rights Council has also stated in its resolution 12/16, restrictions should never be applied, inter alia, to discussion of Government policies and political debate; reporting on human rights, Government activities and corruption in Government; engaging in election campaigns, peaceful demonstrations or political activities, including for peace or democracy; and expression of opinion and dissent, religion or belief, including by persons belonging to minorities or vulnerable groups.[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Human Rights Council resolution 12/16, para. 5(p)."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "B. Criminalization of legitimate expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. One of the unique features of the Internet is that the way in which information is transmitted largely depends on intermediaries, or private corporations which provide services and platforms that facilitate online communication or transactions between third parties, including giving access to, hosting, transmitting and indexing content.[[fn:20]] Intermediaries thus range from Internet service providers (ISPs) to search engines, and from blogging services to online community platforms. With the advent of Web 2.0 services, individuals can now publish information without the centralized gateway of editorial review common in traditional publication formats. The range of services offered by intermediaries has flourished over the past decade, mainly due to the legal protection that they have enjoyed from liability for third-party content that Internet users send via their services. However, the Special Rapporteur notes that in recent years, intermediaries’ protection from liability has been eroding.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, The Economic and Social Role of Internet Intermediaries (April 2010)."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Many States have adopted laws which impose liability upon intermediaries if they do not filter, remove or block content generated by users which is deemed illegal. For example, in Turkey, Law 5651 on the Prevention of Crime Committed in the Information Technology Domain, which was enacted in 2007, imposes new obligations on content providers, ISPs and website hosts. It also grants authority to an agency to issue administrative orders to block websites for content hosted outside of Turkey, and to take down eight broad types of unlawful content,[[fn:21]] including “crimes against Ataturk”, which includes “insulting” the founder of the Republic of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk. In Thailand, the 2007 Computer Crimes Act imposes liability upon intermediaries that transmit or host third-party content and content authors themselves.[[fn:22]] This law has been used to prosecute individuals providing online platforms, some of which are summarized in the first addendum.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "Law 5651, art. 8."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Computer Crimes Act B.E.2550 (2007), sections 14 and 15."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. In other cases, intermediary liability is imposed through privacy and data protection laws. For example, a court in Italy convicted three Google executives for violating the Italian data protection code after a video depicting cruelty to a disabled teenager was posted by a user on the Google video service. Even though the video was taken down within hours of notification by Italian law enforcers, the judge found the Google executives guilty.[[fn:23]] The Government of China requires ISPs and web platforms to conduct surveillance on their users, and they are also held directly responsible for content posted by users.[[fn:24]] Companies that fail to comply with this obligation risk losing their business licences. Holding intermediaries liable for the content disseminated or created by their users severely undermines the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, because it leads to self-protective and over-broad private censorship, often without transparency and the due process of the law.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Reporters without Borders, “Google conviction could lead to prior control over videos posted online”, 24 February 2010."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Reporters without Borders, “Enemies of the Internet,” March 2010. Available from: http://en.rsf.org/IMG/pdf/Internet_enemies.pdf, pp. 8-12."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Several States have sought to protect intermediaries through adopting variations on what is known as a “notice-and-takedown” regime. Such a system protects intermediaries from liability, provided that they take down unlawful material when they are made aware of its existence. For example, under the European Union-wide E-Commerce Directive, a provider of hosting services for user-generated content can avoid liability for such content if it does not have actual knowledge of illegal activity and if it expeditiously removes the content in question when made aware of it.[[fn:25]] Similarly, the Digital Millennium Copyright Act of the United States of America also provides safe harbour for intermediaries, provided that they take down the content in question promptly after notification.[[fn:26]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "E/Commerce Directive, 2000/31/EC, art. 14."}, {"n": 26, "text": "Digital Millennium Copyright Act, Section 512."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. However, while a notice-and-takedown system is one way to prevent intermediaries from actively engaging in or encouraging unlawful behaviour on their services, it is subject to abuse by both State and private actors. Users who are notified by the service provider that their content has been flagged as unlawful often have little recourse or few resources to challenge the takedown.[[fn:27]] Moreover, given that intermediaries may still be held financially or in some cases criminally liable if they do not remove content upon receipt of notification by users regarding unlawful content, they are inclined to err on the side of safety by over-censoring potentially illegal content. Lack of transparency in the intermediaries’ decision-making process also often obscures discriminatory practices or political pressure affecting the companies’ decisions. Furthermore, intermediaries, as private entities, are not best placed to make the determination of whether a particular content is illegal, which requires careful balancing of competing interests and consideration of defences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "N. Villeneuve, “Evasion Tactics: Global Online Censorship is Growing, but so are the Means to challenge it and Protect Privacy”, Index on Censorship Vol. 36 No. 4, (November 2007); Center for Democracy and Technology, “Campaign takedown troubles: how meritless copyright claims threaten online political speech” (September 2010)."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. The Special Rapporteur believes that censorship measures should never be delegated to a private entity, and that no one should be held liable for content on the Internet of which they are not the author. Indeed, no State should use or force intermediaries to undertake censorship on its behalf, as is the case in the Republic of Korea with the establishment of the Korea Communications Standards Commission, a quasi-State and quasi-private entity tasked to regulate online content (see A/HRC/17/27/Add.2). The Special Rapporteur welcomes initiatives taken in other countries to protect intermediaries, such as the bill adopted in Chile, which provides that intermediaries are not required to prevent or remove access to user-generated content that infringes copyright laws until they are notified by a court order.[[fn:28]] A similar regime has also been proposed in Brazil.[[fn:29]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Ley No. 20435, Modifica La Ley No.17.336 Sobre Propiedad Intelectual, chap. III, art. 85-L – art. 85-U, adopted on 4 May 2010."}, {"n": 29, "text": "“New Draft Bill Proposition: Available for Download”, Marco Civil da Internet, 21 May 2010."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Given that Internet services are run and maintained by private companies, the private sector has gained unprecedented influence over individuals’ right to freedom of expression and access to information. Generally, companies have played an extremely positive role in facilitating the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. At the same time, given the pressure exerted upon them by States, coupled with the fact that their primary motive is to generate profit rather than to respect human rights, preventing the private sector from assisting or being complicit in human rights violations of States is essential to guarantee the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability", "Responsibility of intermediaries"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. While States are the duty-bearers for human rights, private actors and business enterprises also have a responsibility to respect human rights. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur highlights the framework of “Protect, Respect and Remedy” which has been developed by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on the issue of human rights and transnational corporations and other business enterprises. The framework rests on three pillars: (a) the duty of the State to protect against human rights abuses by third parties, including business enterprises, through appropriate policies, regulation and adjudication; (b) the corporate responsibility to respect human rights, which means that business enterprises should act with due diligence to avoid infringing the rights of others and to address adverse impacts with which they are involved; and (c) the need for greater access by victims to effective remedy, both judicial and non-judicial.[[fn:30]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "A/HRC/17/31, para. 6."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability", "Responsibility of intermediaries"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The Special Rapporteur notes that multi-stakeholder initiatives are essential to deal effectively with issues related to the Internet, and the Global Network Initiative serves as a helpful example to encourage good practice by corporations.[[fn:31]] Although only three corporations, namely Google, Microsoft, and Yahoo!, have participated in this initiative so far, the Special Rapporteur welcomes their commitment to undertake a human rights impact assessment of their decisions, including before entering a foreign market, and to ensure transparency and accountability when confronted with situations that may undermine the rights to freedom of expression and privacy. Google’s Transparency Report[[fn:32]] is an outcome of such work, and provides information on Government inquiries for information about users and requests for Google to take down or censor content, as well as statistical information on traffic to Google services, such as YouTube. By illustrating traffic patterns for a given country or region, it allows users to discern any disruption in the free flow of information, whether it is due to Government censorship or a cable cut.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "See http://www.globalnetworkinitiative.org/principles/index.php."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See www.google.com/transparencyreport."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability", "Responsibility of intermediaries"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. The Special Rapporteur commends such initiatives to enhance the responsibility of Internet intermediaries to respect human rights. To avoid infringing the right to freedom of expression and the right to privacy of Internet users, the Special Rapporteur recommends intermediaries to: only implement restrictions to these rights after judicial intervention; be transparent to the user involved about measures taken, and where applicable to the wider public; provide, if possible, forewarning to users before the implementation of restrictive measures; and minimize the impact of restrictions strictly to the content involved. Finally, there must be effective remedies for affected users, including the possibility of appeal through the procedures provided by the intermediary and by a competent judicial authority.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability", "Responsibility of intermediaries"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. More generally, the Special Rapporteur encourages corporations to establish clear and unambiguous terms of service in line with international human rights norms and principles, increase transparency of and accountability for their activities, and continuously review the impact of their services and technologies on the right to freedom of expression of their users, as well as on the potential pitfalls involved when they are misused.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "C. Imposition of intermediary liability", "Responsibility of intermediaries"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. While blocking and filtering measures deny access to certain content on the Internet, States have also taken measures to cut off access to the Internet entirely. The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned by discussions regarding a centralized “on/off” control over Internet traffic.[[fn:33]] In addition, he is alarmed by proposals to disconnect users from Internet access if they violate intellectual property rights. This also includes legislation based on the concept of “graduated response”, which imposes a series of penalties on copyright infringers that could lead to suspension of Internet service, such as the so-called “three-strikes-law” in France[[fn:34]] and the Digital Economy Act 2010 of the United Kingdom.[[fn:35]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "“Reaching for the kill switch”, The Economist, 10 February 2011."}, {"n": 34, "text": "Decision 2009-580, Act furthering the diffusion and protection of creation on the Internet, (original: Loi favorisant la diffusion et la protection de la création sur internet), Conseil Constitutionnel, 10 June 2010. Available from: http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/conseil-constitutionnel/root/bank_mm/anglais/2009_580dc.pdf."}, {"n": 35, "text": "Digital Economy Act 2010, sections 3-16."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "D. Disconnecting users from Internet access, including on the basis of violations of intellectual property rights law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Beyond the national level, the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA) has been proposed as a multilateral agreement to establish international standards on intellectual property rights enforcement. While the provisions to disconnect individuals from Internet access for violating the treaty have been removed from the final text of December 2010, the Special Rapporteur remains watchful about the treaty’s eventual implications for intermediary liability and the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "D. Disconnecting users from Internet access, including on the basis of violations of intellectual property rights law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Cyber-attacks, or attempts to undermine or compromise the function of a computer-based system, include measures such as hacking into accounts or computer networks, and often take the form of distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks. During such attacks, a group of computers is used to inundate a web server where the targeted website is hosted with requests, and as a result, the targeted website crashes and becomes inaccessible for a certain period of time. As with timed blocking, such attacks are sometimes undertaken during key political moments. The Special Rapporteur also notes that websites of human rights organizations and dissidents are frequently and increasingly becoming targets of DDoS attacks, some of which are included in the first addendum to this report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "E. Cyber-attacks"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. When a cyber-attack can be attributed to the State, it clearly constitutes inter alia a violation of its obligation to respect the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Although determining the origin of cyber-attacks and the identity of the perpetrator is often technically difficult, it should be noted that States have an obligation to protect individuals against interference by third parties that undermines the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. This positive obligation to protect entails that States must take appropriate and effective measures to investigate actions taken by third parties, hold the persons responsible to account, and adopt measures to prevent such recurrence in the future.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "E. Cyber-attacks"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The right to privacy is essential for individuals to express themselves freely. Indeed, throughout history, people’s willingness to engage in debate on controversial subjects in the public sphere has always been linked to possibilities for doing so anonymously. The Internet allows individuals to access information and to engage in public debate without having to reveal their real identities, for example through the use of pseudonyms on message boards and chat forums. Yet, at the same time, the Internet also presents new tools and mechanisms through which both State and private actors can monitor and collect information about individuals’ communications and activities on the Internet. Such practices can constitute a violation of the Internet users’ right to privacy, and, by undermining people’s confidence and security on the Internet, impede the free flow of information and ideas online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "F. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned by actions taken by States against individuals communicating via the Internet, frequently justified broadly as being necessary to protect national security or to combat terrorism. While such ends can be legitimate under international human rights law, surveillance often takes place for political, rather than security reasons in an arbitrary and covert manner. For example, States have used popular social networking sites, such as Facebook, to identify and to track the activities of human rights defenders and opposition members, and in some cases have collected usernames and passwords to access private communications of Facebook users.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "F. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. A number of States are also introducing laws or modifying existing laws to increase their power to monitor Internet users’ activities and content of communication without providing sufficient guarantees against abuse. In addition, several States have established a real-name identification system before users can post comments or upload content online, which can compromise their ability to express themselves anonymously, particularly in countries where human rights are frequently violated. Furthermore, steps are also being taken in many countries to reduce the ability of Internet users to protect themselves from arbitrary surveillance, such as limiting the use of encryption technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "F. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. The Special Rapporteur also notes that there are insufficient or inadequate data protection laws in many States stipulating who is allowed to access personal data, what it can be used for, how it should be stored, and for how long. The necessity of adopting clear laws to protect personal data is further increased in the current information age, where large volumes of personal data are collected and stored by intermediaries, and there is a worrying trend of States obliging or pressuring these private actors to hand over information of their users. Moreover, with the increasing use of cloud-computing services, where information is stored on servers distributed in different geographical locations, ensuring that third parties also adhere to strict data protection guarantees is paramount.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "F. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. The right to privacy is guaranteed by article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The latter provides that “(1) no one shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to unlawful attacks on his honour and reputation; (2) everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.” Although “correspondence” primarily has been interpreted as written letters, this term today covers all forms of communication, including via the Internet.[[fn:36]] The right to private correspondence thus gives rise to a comprehensive obligation on the part of the State to ensure that e-mails and other forms of online communication are actually delivered to the desired recipient without interference or inspection by State organs or by third parties.[[fn:37]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "Manfred Nowak, UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. CCPR Commentary (Kehl am Rhein, Engel, 2005), p. 401."}, {"n": 37, "text": "Ibid."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "12", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR is a non-treaty instrument."}, {"article": "17", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text says 'article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "F. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. In addition, the protection of personal data represents a special form of respect for the right to privacy.[[fn:38]] States parties are required by article 17(2) to regulate, through clearly articulated laws, the recording, processing, use and conveyance of automated personal data and to protect those affected against misuse by State organs as well as private parties. In addition to prohibiting data processing for purposes that are incompatible with the Covenant, data protection laws must establish rights to information, correction and, if need be, deletion of data and provide effective supervisory measures. Moreover, as stated in the Human Rights Committee’s general comment on the right to privacy, “in order to have the most effective protection of his private life, every individual should have the right to ascertain in an intelligible form, whether, and if so, what personal data is stored in automatic data files, and for what purposes. Every individual should also be able to ascertain which public authorities or private individuals or bodies control or may control their files.”[[fn:39]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 39, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 16 on article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, para. 10."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "F. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. The Special Rapporteur notes that the right to privacy can be subject to restrictions or limitations under certain exceptional circumstances. This may include State surveillance measures for the purposes of administration of criminal justice, prevention of crime or combating terrorism. However, such interference is permissible only if the criteria for permissible limitations under international human rights law are met. Hence, there must be a law that clearly outlines the conditions whereby individuals’ right to privacy can be restricted under exceptional circumstances, and measures encroaching upon this right must be taken on the basis of a specific decision by a State authority expressly empowered by law to do so, usually the judiciary, for the purpose of protecting the rights of others, for example to secure evidence to prevent the commission of a crime, and must respect the principle of proportionality.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "Manfred Nowak, UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. CCPR Commentary (Kehl am Rhein, Engel, 2005), pp. 401-402."}], "section": ["IV. Restriction of content on the Internet", "F. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The Internet, as a medium by which the right to freedom of expression can be exercised, can only serve its purpose if States assume their commitment to develop effective policies to attain universal access to the Internet. Without concrete policies and plans of action, the Internet will become a technological tool that is accessible only to a certain elite while perpetrating the “digital divide”.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. The term “digital divide” refers to the gap between people with effective access to digital and information technologies, in particular the Internet, and those with very limited or no access at all. In contrast to 71.6 Internet users per 100 inhabitants in developed States, there are only 21.1 Internet users per 100 inhabitants in developing States.[[fn:41]] This disparity is starker in the African region, with only 9.6 users per 100 inhabitants.[[fn:42]] In addition, digital divides also exist along wealth, gender, geographical and social lines within States. Indeed, with wealth being one of the significant factors in determining who can access information communication technologies, Internet access is likely to be concentrated among socio-economic elites, particularly in countries where Internet penetration is low. In addition, people in rural areas are often confronted with obstacles to Internet access, such as lack of technological availability, slower Internet connection, and/or higher costs. Furthermore, even where Internet connection is available, disadvantaged groups, such as persons with disabilities and persons belonging to minority groups, often face barriers to accessing the Internet in a way that is meaningful, relevant and useful to them in their daily lives.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "“Key Global Telecom Indicators for the World Telecommunication Service Sector,” International Telecommunication Union, 21 October 2010."}, {"n": 42, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["V. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. The Special Rapporteur is thus concerned that without Internet access, which facilitates economic development and the enjoyment of a range of human rights, marginalized groups and developing States remain trapped in a disadvantaged situation, thereby perpetuating inequality both within and between States. As he has noted previously, to combat situations of inequality it is critical to ensure that marginalized or disadvantaged sections of society can express their grievances effectively and that their voices are heard.[[fn:43]] The Internet offers a key means by which such groups can obtain information, assert their rights, and participate in public debates concerning social, economic and political changes to improve their situation. Moreover, the Internet is an important educational tool, as it provides access to a vast and expanding source of knowledge, supplements or transforms traditional forms of schooling, and makes, through “open access” initiatives, previously unaffordable scholarly research available to people in developing States. Additionally, the educational benefits attained from Internet usage directly contribute to the human capital of States.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "See A/HRC/14/23."}], "section": ["V. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. The Special Rapporteur notes that several initiatives have been taken in an attempt to bridge the digital divide. At the international level, Target 8f of the Millennium Development Goals calls upon States, “in consultation with the private sector, [to] make available the benefits of new technologies, especially information and communications.” The necessity of achieving this target was reiterated in the 2003 Plan of Action adopted at the Geneva World Summit on the Information Society, which outlines specific goals and targets to “build an inclusive Information Society; to put the potential of knowledge and [information communication technologies] (ICTs) at the service of development; to promote the use of information and knowledge for the achievement of internationally agreed development goals.”[[fn:44]] To implement this plan of action, in 2005, the International Telecommunication Union launched the “Connect the World” project.[[fn:45]] Another initiative to spread the availability of ICTs in developing countries is the “One Laptop Per Child” project that has been supported by the United Nations Development Programme. This project distributes affordable laptops that are specifically customized for the learning environment of children. Since this project was mentioned in the previous mandate holder’s report in 2006, 2.4 million laptops have been distributed to children and teachers worldwide.[[fn:46]] In Uruguay, the project has reached 480,000 children, amounting to almost all children enrolled in primary school.[[fn:47]] States in Africa lag behind, but in Rwanda, over 56,000 laptops have been distributed, with plans for the figure to reach 100,000 by June 2011.[[fn:48]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "WSIS-03/GENEVA/DOC/5-E, World Summit on the Information Society, 12 December 2003. Available from: http://www.itu.int/wsis/docs/geneva/official/poa.html."}, {"n": 45, "text": "“Connect the World,” International Telecommunication Union. Available from: http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/connect."}, {"n": 46, "text": "E/CN.4/2006/55, 30 December 2005, para. 34; “Map,” One Laptop per Child. Available from: http://one.laptop.org/map."}, {"n": 47, "text": "Available from: http://laptop.org/en/children/countries/index.shtml."}, {"n": 48, "text": "Frank Kanyesigye, “OLPC Extends to Over 100 Schools,” New Times, 11 February 2011. Available from: http://www.newtimes.co.rw/index.php?issue=14533&article=38241."}], "section": ["V. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. At the national level, the Special Rapporteur notes that a number of initiatives have also been taken by States to address the digital divide. In India, Common Service Centres, or public “e-Kiosks”, have been established by the Government in collaboration with the private sector as part of the National E-Governance Plan of 2006. As of January 2011, over 87,000 centres have reportedly been established,[[fn:49]] although the Special Rapporteur notes that the majority of the country’s population still remains without Internet access. In Brazil, the Government has launched a “computers for all” programme which offers subsidies for purchasing computers.[[fn:50]] Additionally, over 100,000 publicly sponsored Internet access centres, known as “Local Area Network (LAN) Houses” with fast broadband Internet connections, have been established.[[fn:51]] Such public access points are particularly important to facilitate access for the poorest socio-economic groups, as they often do not have their own personal computers at home.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "“ICT Ministers meet tomorrow for speeding-up delivery of e-services,” Press Information Bureau, Government of India, 26 October 2009; and “E-Governance Initiatives-Changing Lives for the better,” Press Information Bureau, Government of India, 24 January 2011. Available from: http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=69324."}, {"n": 50, "text": "Ronaldo Lemos and Paula Martini, “LAN Houses: A new wave of digital inclusion in Brazil”, 21 September 2009. Available from: http://publius.cc/lan_houses_new_wave_digital_inclusion_brazil/091509."}, {"n": 51, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["V. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. In some economically developed States, Internet access has been recognized as a right. For example, the parliament of Estonia passed legislation in 2000 declaring Internet access a basic human right.[[fn:52]] The constitutional council of France effectively declared Internet access a fundamental right in 2009, and the constitutional court of Costa Rica reached a similar decision in 2010.[[fn:53]] Going a step further, Finland passed a decree in 2009 stating that every Internet connection needs to have a speed of at least one Megabit per second (broadband level).[[fn:54]] The Special Rapporteur also takes note that according to a survey by the British Broadcasting Corporation in March 2010, 79% of those interviewed in 26 countries believe that Internet access is a fundamental human right.[[fn:55]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Colin Woodard, “Estonia, where being wired is a human right,” Christian Science Monitor, 1 July 2003."}, {"n": 53, "text": "Decision 2009-580, Act furthering the diffusion and protection of creation on the Internet."}, {"n": 54, "text": "“732/2009, Decree of the Ministry of Transport and Communications on the minimum rate of a functional Internet access as a universal service,” (original: Liikenne- ja viestintäministeriön asetus tarkoituksenmukaisen internet-yhtyeden vähimmäisnopeudesta yleispalvelussa), FINLEX, 22 October 2009. Available from: http://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/2009/en20090732."}, {"n": 55, "text": "“Four in five regard Internet access as a fundamental right: global poll,” BBC News, 8 March 2010. Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/08_03_10_BBC_internet_poll.pdf."}], "section": ["V. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Given that access to basic commodities such as electricity remains difficult in many developing States, the Special Rapporteur is acutely aware that universal access to the Internet for all individuals worldwide cannot be achieved instantly. However, the Special Rapporteur reminds all States of their positive obligation to promote or to facilitate the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression and the means necessary to exercise this right, including the Internet. Hence, States should adopt effective and concrete policies and strategies – developed in consultation with individuals from all segments of society, including the private sector as well as relevant Government ministries – to make the Internet widely available, accessible and affordable to all.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Unlike any other medium, the Internet enables individuals to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds instantaneously and inexpensively across national borders. By vastly expanding the capacity of individuals to enjoy their right to freedom of opinion and expression, which is an “enabler” of other human rights, the Internet boosts economic, social and political development, and contributes to the progress of humankind as a whole. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur encourages other Special Procedures mandate holders to engage on the issue of the Internet with respect to their particular mandates.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that there should be as little restriction as possible to the flow of information via the Internet, except in few, exceptional, and limited circumstances prescribed by international human rights law. He also stresses that the full guarantee of the right to freedom of expression must be the norm, and any limitation considered as an exception, and that this principle should never be reversed. Against this backdrop, the Special Rapporteur recommends the steps set out below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. The Special Rapporteur is cognizant of the fact that, like all technological inventions, the Internet can be misused to cause harm to others. As with offline content, when a restriction is imposed as an exceptional measure on online content, it must pass a three-part, cumulative test: (1) it must be provided by law, which is clear and accessible to everyone (principles of predictability and transparency); (2) it must pursue one of the purposes set out in article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , namely: (i) to protect the rights or reputations of others; (ii) to protect national security or public order, or public health or morals (principle of legitimacy); and (3) it must be proven as necessary and the least restrictive means required to achieve the purported aim (principles of necessity and proportionality). In addition, any legislation restricting the right to freedom of expression must be applied by a body which is independent of any political, commercial, or other unwarranted influences in a manner that is neither arbitrary nor discriminatory. There should also be adequate safeguards against abuse, including the possibility of challenge and remedy against its abusive application.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned by increasingly sophisticated blocking or filtering mechanisms used by States for censorship. The lack of transparency surrounding these measures also makes it difficult to ascertain whether blocking or filtering is really necessary for the purported aims put forward by States. As such, the Special Rapporteur calls upon States that currently block websites to provide lists of blocked websites and full details regarding the necessity and justification for blocking each individual website. An explanation should also be provided on the affected websites as to why they have been blocked. Any determination on what content should be blocked must be undertaken by a competent judicial authority or a body which is independent of any political, commercial, or other unwarranted influences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "1. Arbitrary blocking or filtering of content on the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. With regard to child pornography, the Special Rapporteur notes that it is one clear exception where blocking measures are justified, provided that the national law is sufficiently precise and there are sufficient safeguards against abuse or misuse to prevent any “mission creep”, including oversight and review by an independent and impartial tribunal or regulatory body. However, the Special Rapporteur calls upon States to focus their efforts on prosecuting those responsible for the production and dissemination of child pornography, rather than on blocking measures alone.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "1. Arbitrary blocking or filtering of content on the Internet"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. The Special Rapporteur remains concerned that legitimate online expression is being criminalized in contravention of States’ international human rights obligations, whether it is through the application of existing criminal laws to online expression, or through the creation of new laws specifically designed to criminalize expression on the Internet. Such laws are often justified as being necessary to protect individuals’ reputation, national security or to counter terrorism. However, in practice, they are frequently used to censor content that the Government and other powerful entities do not like or agree with.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "2. Criminalization of legitimate expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "The Special Rapporteur reiterates the call to all States to decriminalize defamation. Additionally, he underscores that protection of national security or countering terrorism cannot be used to justify restricting the right to expression unless it can be demonstrated that: (a) the expression is intended to incite imminent violence; (b) it is likely to incite such violence; and (c) there is a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the likelihood or occurrence of such violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "2. Criminalization of legitimate expression"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Intermediaries play a fundamental role in enabling Internet users to enjoy their right to freedom of expression and access to information. Given their unprecedented influence over how and what is circulated on the Internet, States have increasingly sought to exert control over them and to hold them legally liable for failing to prevent access to content deemed to be illegal.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "3. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that censorship measures should never be delegated to private entities, and that intermediaries should not be held liable for refusing to take action that infringes individuals’ human rights. Any requests submitted to intermediaries to prevent access to certain content, or to disclose private information for strictly limited purposes such as administration of criminal justice, should be done through an order issued by a court or a competent body which is independent of any political, commercial or other unwarranted influences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "3. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. In addition, while States are the primary duty-bearers of human rights, the Special Rapporteur underscores that corporations also have a responsibility to respect human rights, which means that they should act with due diligence to avoid infringing the rights of individuals. The Special Rapporteur thus recommends intermediaries to: only implement restrictions to these rights after judicial intervention; be transparent to the user involved about measures taken, and, where applicable, to the wider public; provide, if possible, forewarning to users before the implementation of restrictive measures; and minimize the impact of restrictions strictly to the content involved. Finally, there must be effective remedies for affected users, including the possibility of appeal through the procedures provided by the intermediary and by a competent judicial authority.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "3. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. The Special Rapporteur commends the work undertaken by organizations and individuals to reveal the worldwide status of online impediments to the right to freedom of expression. He encourages intermediaries in particular to disclose details regarding content removal requests and accessibility of websites. Additionally, he recommends corporations to establish clear and unambiguous terms of service in line with international human rights norms and principles and to continuously review the impact of their services and technologies on the right to freedom of expression of their users, as well as on the potential pitfalls involved when they are misused. The Special Rapporteur believes that such transparency will help promote greater accountability and respect for human rights.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "3. Imposition of intermediary liability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 78, "n": 80, "text": "80. The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned that websites of human rights organizations, critical bloggers, and other individuals or organizations that disseminate information that is embarrassing to the State or the powerful have increasingly become targets of cyber-attacks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "5. Cyber-attacks"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 79, "n": 81, "text": "81. When a cyber-attack can be attributed to the State, it clearly constitutes, inter alia, a violation of its obligation to respect the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Although determining the origin of cyber-attacks and the identity of the perpetrator is often technically difficult, it should be noted that States have an obligation to protect individuals against interference by third parties that undermines the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. This positive obligation to protect entails that States must take appropriate and effective measures to investigate actions taken by third parties, hold the persons responsible to account, and adopt measures to prevent such recurrence in the future.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "5. Cyber-attacks"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 80, "n": 82, "text": "82. The Special Rapporteur is concerned that, while users can enjoy relative anonymity on the Internet, States and private actors have access to technology to monitor and collect information about individuals’ communications and activities on the Internet. Such practices can constitute a violation of Internet users’ right to privacy, and undermine people’s confidence and security on the Internet, thus impeding the free flow of information and ideas online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "6. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 81, "n": 83, "text": "83. The Special Rapporteur underscores the obligation of States to adopt effective privacy and data protection laws in accordance with article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Human Rights Committee’s general comment No. 16. This includes laws that clearly guarantee the right of all individuals to ascertain in an intelligible form whether, and if so what, personal data is stored in automatic data files, and for what purposes, and which public authorities or private individuals or bodies control or may control their files.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "6. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 82, "n": 84, "text": "84. He also calls upon States to ensure that individuals can express themselves anonymously online and to refrain from adopting real-name registration systems. Under certain exceptional situations where States may limit the right to privacy for the purposes of administration of criminal justice or prevention of crime, the Special Rapporteur underscores that such measures must be in compliance with the international human rights framework, with adequate safeguards against abuse. This includes ensuring that any measure to limit the right to privacy is taken on the basis of a specific decision by a State authority expressly empowered by law to do so, and must respect the principles of necessity and proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Restriction of content on the Internet", "6. Inadequate protection of the right to privacy and data protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 83, "n": 85, "text": "85. Given that the Internet has become an indispensable tool for realizing a range of human rights, combating inequality, and accelerating development and human progress, ensuring universal access to the Internet should be a priority for all States. Each State should thus develop a concrete and effective policy, in consultation with individuals from all sections of society, including the private sector and relevant Government ministries, to make the Internet widely available, accessible and affordable to all segments of population.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 84, "n": 86, "text": "86. At the international level, the Special Rapporteur reiterates his call on States, in particular developed States, to honour their commitment, expressed inter alia in the Millennium Development Goals, to facilitate technology transfer to developing States, and to integrate effective programmes to facilitate universal Internet access in their development and assistance policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 85, "n": 87, "text": "87. Where the infrastructure for Internet access is present, the Special Rapporteur encourages States to support initiatives to ensure that online information can be accessed in a meaningful way by all sectors of the population, including persons with disabilities and persons belonging to linguistic minorities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-17-27-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-17-27", "idx": 86, "n": 88, "text": "88. States should include Internet literacy skills in school curricula, and support similar learning modules outside of schools. In addition to basic skills training, modules should clarify the benefits of accessing information online, and of responsibly contributing information. Training can also help individuals learn how to protect themselves against harmful content, and explain the potential consequences of revealing private information on the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to the Internet and the necessary infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The Human Rights Council reviewed the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression at its seventh session in March 2008. As a result, the mandate was extended for a further three years by virtue of resolution 7/36, in paragraphs 3 and 4 of which the Council outlined the terms of reference of the Special Rapporteur, who is mandated:\n(a) To gather all relevant information, wherever it may occur, relating to violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, discrimination against, threats or use of violence, harassment, persecution or intimidation directed at persons seeking to exercise or to promote the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including, as a matter of high priority, against journalists or other professionals in the field of information;\n(b) To seek, receive and respond to credible and reliable information from Governments, non-governmental organizations and any other parties who have knowledge of these cases;\n(c) To make recommendations and provide suggestions on ways and means to better promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression in all its manifestations;\n(d) To contribute to the provision of technical assistance or advisory services by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights to better promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["I. THE MANDATE"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The Council, through this resolution, recognizes that the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is one of the essential foundations of a democratic society, and in paragraph 5 it calls upon all Governments “to cooperate with and assist the Special Rapporteur in the performance of his tasks, to provide all information to respond to communications transmitted by the mandate-holder without undue delay and calls upon Governments to seriously consider responding favourably to the requests of the Special Rapporteur to visit their countries in a spirit of constructive dialogue”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["I. THE MANDATE"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The Special Rapporteur notes with appreciation the request in resolution 7/36 to continue to provide his views, when appropriate, on the advantages and challenges of new information and communication technologies, particularly the reference in paragraph 4 (f) to the right to access to the information society for all. The Special Rapporteur considers access to information as one of the priority issues for the mandate and as such wishes to focus part of this report on access to information in situations of extreme poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["I. THE MANDATE"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. In paragraph 4 (d) of resolution 7/36, the Council further requests that the Special Rapporteur report “on instances in which the abuse of the right of freedom of expression constitutes an act of racial or religious discrimination, taking into account articles 19, paragraphs 3 and 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and general comment No. 15 of the Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, which stipulates that the prohibition of the dissemination of all ideas based upon racial superiority or hatred is compatible with the freedom of opinion and expression”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["I. THE MANDATE"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The Special Rapporteur will continue to pursue the provisions outlined in the resolution in addition to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and other relevant international and regional instruments, which continue to provide the legal framework for the mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["I. THE MANDATE"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. For the effective implementation of his mandate, the Special Rapporteur focuses on information received from a variety of sources, including Governments; local, national, regional or international governmental and non-governmental organizations; associations of media professionals and writers; and trade unions. The communications received from various sources are a means to identify trends, reiterate issues already discussed in previous reports and bring to the attention of the international community a number of policies, practices and measures having an impact on the respect for freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. Information received is a significant indicator of the degree of implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in a given country. The Special Rapporteur may also decide to take initiative motu proprio on issues of general concern that he considers relevant to his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The majority of cases received by the Special Rapporteur concern threats, aggressions, harassment, murder or other sorts of attacks on the physical and psychological integrity of journalists, students, human rights defenders and unionists in retaliation for the exercise of their right to freedom of opinion and expression. In many cases, these attacks are linked to the repression of peaceful protests conducted to express disagreement with a particular governmental policy, at the national or local level, or with the actions of large corporations. While the extent of the repression, its duress and length may substantially vary, allegations received are not confined to countries where the political, social and economic situation is particularly difficult, but also concern violations occurring in transitional or long-established democracies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Analysis of communications also shows a large number of cases of prosecution or imprisonment of individuals including media professionals on charges of defamation, libel and slander, despite the decriminalization of these offences by some countries. Another important trend in many regions has been the adoption of legislation that unduly limits freedom of expression by fostering State interference in editorial independence; by creating subjective licensing procedures that are used to close media outlets; by restricting the ability of journalists, particularly foreign correspondents, to perform their work freely; and by imposing severe limitations on the operation, including funding, of civil society organizations.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. From 5 December 2007 to 31 December 2008, 433 communications were sent on behalf of the Special Rapporteur, 365 of which were signed jointly with other special-procedures mandate-holders. The geographical division of the communications was as follows: 30 per cent in Asia and the Pacific; 20 per cent in Africa; 20 per cent in Latin America and the Caribbean; 17 per cent in the Middle East and North Africa; and 13 per cent in Europe, North America and Central Asia.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Within the scope of his mandate the Special Rapporteur may issue press releases[[fn:1]] in order to highlight his particular concern about current events in relation to freedom of opinion and expression. Since the beginning of his term in August 2008 the Special Rapporteur has issued four joint press statements concerning restrictions on the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The full text of the press statement is available at: http://www.unhchr.ch/huricane/huricane.nsf/view01/875F9C3B794E9AB3C125750500497FDD?opendocument."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. On 18 November 2008, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Myanmar, the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders, and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, issued a joint press release condemning the severe conditions and unfair trials of prisoners of conscience in Myanmar. The experts noted that peaceful demonstrators arrested in 2007 were being tried after one year of arbitrary detention, with dozens of the detainees being sentenced to 65 years’ imprisonment; others were given 25-year sentences. Moreover, defence lawyers had also been sentenced to several months’ imprisonment or were barred from representing their clients. The experts strongly urged authorities in Myanmar to cease these acts of harassment and detention against individuals who were exercising their human rights. They stipulated that all the detainees should be retried respecting fair trials guarantees and that all the defence counsels be released.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. On 27 November 2008, the Special Rapporteur, along with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders and the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, issued a press release regarding the ongoing harassment and intimidation of members of the One Million Signatures Campaign in the Islamic Republic of Iran. The experts noted that peaceful demonstrators had been arrested, detained and persecuted with prison sentences, while women’s rights activists involved in the campaign had been continuously harassed and prevented from travelling. The experts stipulated that women’s participation in public life, to promote equal treatment of women and men in the Islamic Republic of Iran, should be encouraged as a means to build a stronger and healthier society, in which women’s unique contributions can flourish. As such, the Special Rapporteurs urged the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran to abide by its obligations under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, and to respect the rights of women’s rights activists to freedom of association and peaceful assembly, and to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. On 10 December 2008, the Special Rapporteur, along with 35 other special rapporteurs and independent experts, issued a press release welcoming the adoption by the General Assembly of the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which enables those suffering from violations of their economic, social and cultural rights to seek remedies and hold those responsible to account for their actions. The experts expressed their hope that views adopted by the Committee under the Optional Protocol procedures would be used by the human rights community to assist States in taking concrete steps to realize the rights of all and to reach out to the most marginalized and disadvantaged, who are the most likely to see their rights violated. The experts called on all States to sign and ratify the instrument swiftly, so as to secure a speedy entry into force and wide application.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. On 9 February 2009, the Special Rapporteur, together with 10 other independent experts, issued a press statement expressing their deep concern about the deteriorating human rights situation in Sri Lanka, particularly the shrinking space for critical voices and the fear of reprisals against victims and witnesses. The experts noted that impunity for human rights violations continues unabated throughout the country with a climate of fear and intimidation reigning over those defending human rights, especially over journalists and lawyers. The experts also noted the serious and fatal aggression against journalists and the media as now a common occurrence as witnessed in the killing of the journalist Lasantha Wickremetunga and attacks on major media outlets. The experts shared the deep concern of the High Commissioner for Human Rights over the rapidly deteriorating conditions facing those civilians and the significant number of civilian casualties. They also deplored the restrictions on humanitarian access to conflict areas which exacerbate the ongoing serious violations of the most basic economic and social rights. The experts strongly urged the Government of Sri Lanka to immediately take measures to ensure that effective remedial action can be pursued in support of the victims of human rights abuses and their families. They also highlighted that thorough reforms of the general system of governance are needed to prevent the recurrence of further serious human rights violations. The experts called for an immediate end to impunity and to refrain from any reprisals. To strengthen the rule of law and to help ensure the safety and protection of the human rights of all persons in Sri Lanka, the experts noted that they would continue to extend their offer of assistance to the Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. From 2 to 3 October 2008, the Special Rapporteur participated in the “Expert seminar on the links between articles 19 and 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: Freedom of expression and advocacy of religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence”.[[fn:2]] The seminar was organized by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights and was attended by over 200 observers, including representatives of Governments, other United Nations agencies, regional organizations, the media and non-governmental organizations. The aim of the event was to clarify the links between articles 19 and 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights on freedom of expression and advocacy of religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence. The Special Rapporteur presented a paper on the differences and links between permissible limitations under article 19, paragraph 3, in particular when it comes to restrictions aimed at protecting the rights of others, and States’ obligations under article 20 of the Covenant. The Special Rapporteur noted through his participation in the event the importance of resolving tensions based on genuine cultural or religious differences through\nopen debate, emphasizing that free speech is therefore a requirement for, and not an impediment to, tolerance. The Special Rapporteur’s participation in the event falls within the realms of his mandate as outlined in resolution 7/36 of the Human Rights Council.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Details of the event can be viewed at www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/opinion/articles1920_iccpr/."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. From 7 to 8 October 2008, the Special Rapporteur participated in the information session for newly appointed special-procedures mandate-holders, held in Geneva. The meeting primarily discussed the institution-building process conducted by the Human Rights Council and the new methods of work of mandate-holders, as well as issues such as cooperation with civil society, national human rights institutions and among special-procedures mandates.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. While in Geneva to attend the aforementioned events, the Special Rapporteur met with representatives of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) and the Group of Latin American and Caribbean Group States (GRULAC). The Special Rapporteur is keen to maintain open dialogue with all regional groups and plans to meet with those he did not have the opportunity to meet with during his future visits to Geneva.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. On 10 October 2008, the Special Rapporteur participated in a seminar at the European Court of Justice in Strasbourg entitled “The European protection of freedom of expression: reflections on some recent restrictive trends”. The event was organized jointly by Robert Schumann University of Strasbourg, Ghent University and the Open Society Justice Initiative.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. On 26 October the Special Rapporteur met with members of the World Association of Newspapers (WAN) in London.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. On 28 October, the Special Rapporteur attended the International Symposium on Freedom of Expression organized by UNESCO in Paris. The event, entitled “Freedom of expression: development, democracy and dialogue”, was organized to commemorate the sixtieth anniversary of article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. While in Paris for this event, the Special Rapporteur also met with representatives of Reporters Without Borders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'sixtieth anniversary of article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR only, no ICCPR cited."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. On 7 November 2008, the Special Rapporteur attended the international symposium “25th anniversary of AMARC: Development and empowerment through community radio” organized by the World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters (AMARC) in Montreal.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. From 13 to 15 November 2008, the Special Rapporteur participated in an event organized by the Latin American Association for Educational Radio (ALER), in Buenos Aires. The international conference focused on “Freedom of expression, pluralism and diversity in radio”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Following a meeting on 9 December 2008, as part of the Global Forum on World Media Development (held 7-10 December 2008 in Athens), the Special Rapporteur, along with the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Representative on Freedom of the Media, Miklos Haraszti, the Organization of American States (OAS) Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression, Catalina Botero, and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, Faith Pansy Tlakula, issued a joint declaration on defamation of religions, and anti-terrorism and anti-extremism legislation. The declaration noted that the concept of “defamation of religions” did not accord with international standards regarding defamation and that restrictions on freedom of expression should be limited in scope to the protection of overriding individual rights and social interests. Restrictions should never be used to protect particular institutions or abstract notions, concepts or beliefs, including religious ones. The declaration further noted that restrictions on freedom of expression to prevent intolerance should be limited in scope to advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence and it encouraged the General Assembly and the Human Rights Council to desist from further adoption of statements supporting the idea of defamation of religions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. On 11 December 2008, the Special Rapporteur attended an event in London organized by the non-governmental organization Article 19, on “Promoting equality within a free speech framework”, and from 12 to 14 December he participated in an International Expert Roundtable event on freedom of expression organized by the Center for Media and Communication Studies at Central European University in Budapest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. On 5 February 2009 the Special Rapporteur participated in an event entitled “The Agenda for Change: A free speech framework for Nepal” which took place in Kathmandu. A report (“Agenda for Change on Right to Freedom of Expression in Nepal”) prepared as a joint initiative of the non-governmental organizations Freedom Forum, Article 19 and Federation of Nepali journalists (FNJ) was launched as part of the event by Prime Minister Puspa Kamal Dahal.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. On 23 January, the Special Rapporteur addressed the Wilton Park Conference on “the relationship between freedom of expression and freedom of religion: a victim’s perspective”. The event, entitled “Contemporary and future human rights challenges”, took place from 22 to 24 January in London.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. From 25 to 29 January, the Special Rapporteur participated in the regional meeting of Latin American organizations on freedom of expression, organized by the International Freedom of Expression Exchange (IFEX) in Antigua, Guatemala.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. From 13 to 16 March, the Special Rapporteur participated in a round-table event organized by the International Press Society (SIP) in Asunción.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. From 22 to 25 March 2009, the Special Rapporteur participated in an international seminar entitled “Latin America in the 21st century: communication and power”. The event was organized by the Latin American Association for Educational Broadcasting (ALER) and the Universidad Andina Simón Bolívar. The seminar took place in Quito.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "C. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. From 1 to 5 March 2009, the Special Rapporteur undertook an official country visit to the Maldives. This was the Special Rapporteur’s first country mission as mandate-holder. The visit was carried out at the invitation of the Government in order to examine issues of relevance to his mandate. In his conclusions on the visit, the Special Rapporteur highlighted the importance of the ongoing democratic transition in the Maldives and made preliminary recommendations on how to strengthen this process. An addendum (A/HRC/11/4/Add.3) to this report includes the full mission report of the Special Rapporteur on his visit to the country.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "D. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. The Special Rapporteur notes that country visits will remain central to the activities of the mandate. Visits previously undertaken by the former Special Rapporteur, along with requests made to Governments for official country visits, and the emerging trends as they result from the analysis of communications on freedom of expression and opinion form the basis of requests sent to countries requesting an invitation from various Governments. Requests for invitations to visit a number of countries have been sent by the Special Rapporteur, taking into consideration the importance of achieving a geographical balance. The Special Rapporteur hopes that visit requests will be met favourably by the concerned Governments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR", "D. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. As this is the first report of the Special Rapporteur to the Human Rights Council, this chapter highlights his vision for the mandate along with proposed working methods. The Special Rapporteur will also make some preliminary reflections on the issue of limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The report elaborates on two priority areas identified by the Special Rapporteur, including the right of access to information in situations of extreme poverty, and the protection of journalists and the media working in conflict situations.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "A. Main priorities and working methods"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The Special Rapporteur will build on the accomplishments achieved by his predecessors holding the mandate and he presents this report in a spirit of transparency and openness. While recognizing the immutable independence inherent to the position of a special-procedures mandate-holder, the Special Rapporteur believes that open dialogue with all stakeholders should be encouraged and that such interaction will be of fundamental importance to the implementation of the mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "A. Main priorities and working methods"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The Special Rapporteur will continue to analyse trends and challenges facing the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and will aim to develop methods with interested Governments, national institutions, regional mechanisms, diplomatic representatives and relevant branches of international and regional organizations to enhance this fundamental right. The Special Rapporteur would also like to further reinforce follow-up to individual cases brought to his attention through the mandate, and in doing so, will enhance collaboration with stakeholders, including Governments, human rights communities at the national, regional and international levels, regional mechanisms, national institutions, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, including its field presences, human rights components of United Nations country teams and peacekeeping missions, the media, treaty bodies and other special procedures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "A. Main priorities and working methods"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. In fulfilling some of the requirements cited in Council resolution 7/36, which calls upon the mandate of the Special Rapporteur “to make recommendations and provide suggestions on ways and means to better promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression in all its manifestations”[[fn:3]] and “to contribute to the provision of technical assistance or advisory services by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights to better promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression”,[[fn:4]] the Special Rapporteur has proposed developing an online training programme for media personnel on freedom of expression, human rights and multiculturalism. The aim of the programme is to identify ways to strengthen professional commitments to high-quality journalism, while also fostering greater respect for diversity, multiculturalism and human rights education. The programme will aim to address some of the main concerns voiced by various stakeholders in relation to hate speech, intolerance and discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "A. Main priorities and working methods"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Paragraph 3 (c)."}, {"n": 4, "text": "Para. 3 (d)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The Special Rapporteur participated in the Durban Review Conference held in Geneva from 20 to 24 April 2009. The Conference was meant to provide an opportunity to review progress made in the combat against racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance and the actual implementation of the Durban Declaration and Programme of Action at the national, regional and international levels since 2001, as well as to share best practices. The Special Rapporteur’s participation in the event highlights the indivisible link between the promotion of the right to freedom of expression and the fight against racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "A. Main priorities and working methods"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. The exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is a significant indicator of the level of protection and respect of all other human rights in a given society. Democratic institutions, while not preventing all violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, do offer guarantees for its protection as well as an enabling environment for its exercise. Freedom of opinion and expression not only benefits from a democratic environment; it also contributes to, and is indeed instrumental to, the emergence and existence of effective democratic systems. However, violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression may occur in all regions and countries, whatever their system, and may have various forms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "B. Limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The Special Rapporteur notes that freedom of expression is the manifestation of cultures, cultural diversity, religion and ideologies. Therefore, the right to freedom of expression should be approached with a positive view to defending it. Existing international instruments establish a specific limit on freedom of expression. In particular, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provides that “any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law”. The main challenge thus lies in identifying at which point these thresholds are reached. A broad interpretation of these limitations, which has recently been suggested in international forums, is not in line with existing international instruments and would ultimately jeopardize the full enjoyment of human rights. Limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression have more often than not been used by States as a means to restrict criticism and silence dissent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "B. Limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Limitations on freedom of expression should be clearly defined and provided by law. Limitations should not threaten the exercise of the right itself. In addition, they ought to be\nnecessary and proportionate to the objective they propound to achieve, and should include the least intrusive means insofar as freedom of expression is concerned, to prevent a chilling effect. The adjudication of such limitations should be made by an independent judiciary.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "B. Limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The right to freedom of expression cannot be exercised passively, but requires a lasting commitment by States to ensure the mechanisms that guarantee and protect it. Mechanisms for criticism, including of political leaders, are deemed important to hold individuals accountable. Freedom of expression is not limited to statements that are considered appropriate or beneficial; any boundaries should directly adhere to the wording of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "B. Limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. In many countries, overbroad rules in this area are abused by the powerful to limit non-traditional, dissenting, critical or minority voices, or discussion about challenging social issues. Furthermore, resolution of tensions based on genuine cultural or religious differences cannot be achieved by suppressing the expression of differences but rather by debating them openly. The Special Rapporteur notes that free speech is therefore a requirement for, and not an impediment to, tolerance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "B. Limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. The protection of journalists engaged in dangerous missions during an armed conflict is a major concern for the international community and in the last year remained a key obstacle for achieving the full implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In 2008, a total of 60 journalists were killed, some 29 media professionals were kidnapped and 929 were physically attacked or threatened throughout the year.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "C. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals in conflict zones"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Reporters Without Borders, Press Freedom Roundup; see www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=24909."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Violent conflicts in many parts of the world, and specifically in Afghanistan, Iraq, the Middle East, Somalia, the Sudan and recently Ossetia, have a serious impact on the ordinary population, including journalists and media professionals. Large numbers of journalists are either assassinated, wounded by direct armed attacks during the fighting or deliberately targeted and kidnapped by the parties to the conflict. The proliferation of small arms, the use of increasingly sophisticated weapons by belligerents and the concern to win the war of images worsens the situation of physical safety for civilians and media professionals. Such attacks, in blatant violation of international humanitarian and human rights law, are committed in an environment of almost total impunity.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "C. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals in conflict zones"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. The Special Rapporteur received numerous reports concerning deliberate attempts to target journalists, particularly in areas of ongoing armed conflict. The evolution of modern warfare has a serious impact on the freedom of expression, the freedom of the press, and on the quality and independence of information, which are the basic components of a free media. Factors contributing to this are, among others, the loss of the civilian status of media professionals that\nresults in the restriction of their movement and of their access to reliable and objective sources of information, the increasing use of embedded journalists and the insecurity that exists regarding their status of protection.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "C. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals in conflict zones"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. In 2008, the Special Rapporteur received reports that lawyers investigating the killing of Radio Okapi journalist Serge Mahese, were subjected to ongoing threats and harassment. Serge Mahese was shot dead in Bukavu in the Democratic Republic of the Congo on 13 June 2007. He was a respected journalist with Radio Okapi, a national radio station sponsored jointly by the Swiss Hirondelle Foundation and the United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "C. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals in conflict zones"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. The main provisions protecting journalists and other media professionals in situations of armed conflict come from humanitarian law, in particular from special measures contained in article 79 of Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, relating to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts. This article establishes that “journalists engaged in dangerous professional missions in areas of armed conflict shall be considered as civilians” and “shall be protected as such under the Conventions and this Protocol, provided that they take no action adversely affecting their status as civilians”. The civilian status of journalists transcends any type of contractual arrangement that the journalist may have; equal protection is granted to freelance, independent or to journalists belonging to any media.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "C. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals in conflict zones"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "79", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'article 79 of Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949' — IHL, outside the allowed list."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. The Security Council passed resolution 1738 (2006) to express its deep concern “at the frequency of acts of violence in many parts of the world against journalists, media professionals and associated personnel in armed conflict”, and it condemned intentional attacks against this group. The Security Council also underlined the obligation under humanitarian law to grant civilian status to journalists during armed conflicts, as established by the Geneva Conventions.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "C. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals in conflict zones"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The Special Rapporteur supports this Security Council resolution, adopted on the joint initiative of Greece and France, and would encourage States to give renewed attention to the fact that the media, its personnel and its equipment as long as they are not making an effective contribution to military action cannot be considered a legitimate target and attacks against them are illegal under international humanitarian law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "C. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals in conflict zones"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Journalists and media professionals are not only at risk during times of conflict, but many are targeted during public crises and states of emergency. In such cases, journalists are often victims of abuse and harassment by the security forces, and are subjected to arrests and detention. Throughout 2008, the Special Rapporteur has received reports of such human rights violations against journalists, particularly those covering public demonstrations opposing government policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "C. Safety and protection of journalists and media professionals in conflict zones"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Extreme poverty, often described as multidimensional and not limited to income, but also touching livelihood, health, education and housing as well as social, cultural and political participation, affects millions of people worldwide. This multidimensional approach to poverty is paralleled by an integrated understanding of human rights, in which civil and political rights are indivisible from social, economic and cultural rights.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "D. Implementing the right of access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. The impact of the global financial crisis of 2008 has had a considerable impact on the developing world, with slowdowns expected in all emerging economies. These growth declines could have significant effects on the world’s poorest populations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "D. Implementing the right of access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The concept of human poverty that focuses on the denial of opportunities and choices most basic to human development and the lack of respect of others, also highlights a lack of participation in decision-making and in civil, social and cultural life. The Commission on Human Rights, in its resolution 1997/11, reaffirmed that “in accordance with the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, it is essential for States to foster participation by the poorest people in the decision-making process in their communities, in the promotion of human rights and in efforts to combat extreme poverty”. The Special Rapporteur notes that people affected by chronic extreme poverty risk becoming socially excluded from full participation in the society in which they are living. Often the poor, the unemployed and people belonging to ethnic minorities and other vulnerable groups, remain marginalized in the social hierarchy. As such, the Special Rapporteur emphasizes the need for access to information to be guaranteed as a means towards securing participation and accountability.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "D. Implementing the right of access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Strengthening the voices of people living in poverty improves understanding and actions aimed at addressing poverty, injustice and inequality and can inform and influence public agendas locally, nationally and internationally. Adequate access to knowledge and information helps communities work for a better future. The Special Rapporteur believes that the media can play an important role by ensuring the dissemination of information and raising awareness of poverty as well as of a community’s role in eliminating poverty and improving living standards.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "D. Implementing the right of access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The inability of some people to command the processes and benefits of globalization, communications and information included, is a key concern. For many poor people, for whom globalization and the information revolution is still a slow-moving process, careful thought must be given as to how best to include them in local, national, regional and international information flows. The Special Rapporteur urges the international community to address the exclusion of marginalized and vulnerable groups from the media. Minorities, indigenous peoples, migrant workers, refugees and many other vulnerable communities have faced higher barriers, some of them insurmountable, to be able to fully exercise their right to impart and also to access information. For these groups, the media plays the central role of fostering social mobilization, participation in public life and access to information that is relevant for the community. Without a means to disseminate their views and problems, these communities are in effect excluded from public debates, which ultimately hinders their ability to fully enjoy their human rights.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Indigenous peoples", "Migrants", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["III. VISION AND PRIORITIES", "D. Implementing the right of access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. This report outlines the vision and priorities of the Special Rapporteur for his mandate that he wishes to share with Member States and other stakeholders in a spirit of openness and transparency. The Special Rapporteur hopes that this same spirit will characterize his relationship with them throughout his tenure.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. The Special Rapporteur will interpret the mandate by building on the achievements of his predecessors and the knowledge base developed and methods of work used.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Given that this is his first report, the Special Rapporteur has focused on two areas only which he deems as priority for the mandate. Future reports will aim to further develop thematic issues related to the fundamental right of freedom of opinion and expression. As such, the Special Rapporteur will be in a position to present more detailed recommendations based on the activities and trends which he will identify during his first year as mandate-holder.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. Rights to information and freedom of expression should be encouraged at all levels. The Special Rapporteur urges Governments to deregulate the communications and media environment to allow free and fair information to flow more effectively to civil society. Support for enhancing such flows and targeted interventions that support the most vulnerable and marginalized groups within society at large should be given priority.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The Special Rapporteur further encourages States to uphold the rights to freedom of expression and access to information stipulated within article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Public access to information can be systematically denied by Governments and, similarly, Governments can place restrictions on free speech and freedom of expression via legislation and activities that deny rights of political and cultural association. Openness of government and the free flow of information are enshrined within the principle of “maximum disclosure” through which Governments and public institutions become more answerable to the general public. A civil society that is empowered with open information is better placed to advocate for more impartial and transparent service delivery and has a greater sense of participation and ownership in decision-making processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly cites 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — equal cross-instrument cite => AMBIGUOUS."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Governments may be poorly placed to systematically disseminate information to the public or may not be inclined towards such transparency because of high levels of corruption. The Special Rapporteur recommends that in such cases support for the media during times of conflict and deregulation of the communications and media environment be seen as mechanisms for increasing the plurality and diversity of information flows in poor and conflict-prone countries.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. The Special Rapporteur encourages Governments to strengthen public broadcasting and to introduce anti-monopoly legislation in order to achieve a diverse broadcasting system which is accessible to all. Policies should promote freedom of expression and public participation.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Community-based broadcasting provides an alternative social and economic model for media development that can broaden access to information, voice and opinion. People faced with economic exclusion also face systemic obstacles to freedom of expression that are associated with the conditions of poverty, including low levels of education and literacy, poor infrastructure, lack of access to electricity and general communications services. The Special Rapporteur recommends that Governments consider community broadcasting as a vital tool for the voiceless, which would enable them to exercise their right to freedom of\nexpression and access to information. Such programmes should encourage active participation of the community in their initiation, production and presentation to empower the poorest people and communities and as a means of reducing poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Access to information in situations of extreme poverty"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. The Special Rapporteur reiterates the recommendations of his predecessors that Governments should translate their formal concerns about the safety of journalists, elaborated in international forums and treaty law, into concrete measures for enhancing the safety of journalists and other media personnel including at the legislative, administrative and judicial levels. Measures should be taken to protect all media personnel regardless of their professional and political affiliation. The protection of journalists and media workers must be ensured at all times, particularly during armed conflicts, states of emergency and public disorder and electoral processes. Governments are also urged to ensure the protection of other groups at risk, such as trade unionists, social workers, students and teachers, writers and artists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Safety and protection of media professionals"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. Creating a culture of safety for journalism adds to the capacity of media to contribute to building prosperous and confident democracies. The Special Rapporteur urges Governments and State institutions to provide support and an assurance that all acts of violence against journalists are fully investigated. Limiting impunity for the perpetrators of crimes against media professionals will function as an important deterrent against the repetition of these crimes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Safety and protection of media professionals"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The Special Rapporteur encourages Governments to develop protection schemes for media personnel. News associations should be supported in promoting actions that secure the safety of journalists, including safety training, health care, life insurance, and equal access to social protection for freelance employees and full-time staff.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Safety and protection of media professionals"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-11-4-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-11-4", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. The Council may wish to consider the opportunity, as previously suggested by his predecessor, of entrusting the Special Rapporteur with the preparation of a study on the causes of violence against media professionals, based, inter alia, on information from and the experiences of Governments, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, and including a comprehensive set of conclusions and recommendations and the drafting of guidelines for the protection of journalists and other media professionals. This study could represent the first step towards a debate, within the Human Rights Council, on this crucial issue, following the discussions held by other bodies, including the Security Council.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2009, "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Safety and protection of media professionals"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is the eighth report submitted by Mr. Abid Hussain (India), Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The mandate was established by the Commission on Human Rights in its resolution 1993/45 of 5 March 1993. This report is submitted pursuant to Commission resolution 2000/38. Section I of the report contains the terms of reference for the discharge of the mandate. Section II presents an account of the activities undertaken within the framework of his mandate in the past year. Section III provides a brief discussion on a number of issues which the Special Rapporteur considers to be important for the development of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Section IV contains brief summaries of urgent appeals and communications to and from Governments, along with observations of the Special Rapporteur. Lastly, Section V contains the conclusions and recommendations of the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The Special Rapporteur refers to his previous reports as regards the mandate and methods of work adopted by him. The structure of the present report is along the same lines as the previous report. The main body of issues includes an analysis on communications received by the Special Rapporteur (in order to highlight trends), the role of the new information technologies and concerns relating to actions of non-State actors, as well as issues pertaining to the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression of women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "During the period under review, the Special Rapporteur sent 16 allegations and 101 urgent actions. Seeking to avoid unnecessary duplication of the activities of the other thematic rapporteurs and country rapporteurs, the Special Rapporteur has joined during the past year with the Chairman of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention in 32 urgent appeals and with the Special Rapporteur on torture in 29 urgent appeals. In the course of the year, 13 urgent appeals and 1 allegation were sent jointly with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, 2 urgent appeals with the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, one with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women and 1 urgent action with the Special Rapporteur on education. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur also joined with the Special Rapporteurs on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (four urgent appeals) and on the situation of human rights in the Sudan (two urgent appeals). Finally, five urgent appeals were sent together with the Special Representative on the situation of human rights in Iran.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "On 28 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a note verbale to all Member States drawing their attention to the Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation (“The public’s right to know”, E/CN.4/2000/63, annex II) and inviting Governments to reflect upon them and to submit their comments. The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the Governments of the following countries which have sent a reply: Azerbaijan, Cuba, Latvia, Mexico and Qatar. He\nawaits additional responses to undertake an in-depth analysis of the information submitted to him by Governments. It should be noted that the government replies received so far by the Special Rapporteur are available for consultation at the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, in Geneva.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has received a large number of allegations concerning cases of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in 2000. As was the case in previous years, the Special Rapporteur was only able to deal with a limited number of requests for information from some Governments, owing to the insufficient financial and human resources to fulfil his mandate in the manner he would deem appropriate. The matters raised in previous reports to the Commission on Human Rights regarding the circumstances of work (E/CN.4/1995/32, paras. 92-95; E/CN.4/1996/39, para. 6; E/CN.4/1997/31, para. 7; E/CN.4/1998/40, para. 3; E/CN.4/1999/64, para. 3; and E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 4) unfortunately remain of great concern. The mandate requires a substantially increased pool of resources. Within the current constraints, the Special Rapporteur has engaged in an exchange of views with Governments only with regard to a limited number of cases, which are discussed in section IV.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "It should thus be emphasized that the countries discussed in the respective sections in no way reflect the extent of the problem worldwide, as indeed violations of this right take place in almost every country, in spite of the emergence of an increasing number of national institutions which are working for the promotion and protection of human rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The Special Rapporteur cooperates closely with the treaty bodies and human rights field operations, as well as with other specialized bodies within the United Nations system, regional intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, particularly at the local level, concerned with the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur expresses his great satisfaction that the number of meetings and seminars he has attended and has been invited to has remained very high. However, owing to his heavy schedule, he has not been in a position to accept all the invitations transmitted to him.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The Special Rapporteur gave the keynote speech on press freedom and freedom of expression to the Commonwealth Press Union biennial conference, which was held in Bridgetown (Barbados) from 31 October to 3 November 2000. This conference brought together some 300 publishers, owners and editors from across the Commonwealth for three days of discussion and active debate.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "The Special Rapporteur attended a round table discussion on “The protection of journalists in conflict zones” in Berlin (Germany) on 6 November 2000. This event was hosted by the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Germany, Joschka Fischer, and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) Representative for freedom of the media, Freimut Duve. The Berlin Declaration adopted by the participants is attached as annex I to the present report.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "From 14 to 16 November 2000, the Special Rapporteur attended an important seminar in Lima (Peru) on “Information for democracy”, organized by the Peruvian Press Council. The seminar focused on the right to information as a key component of freedom of expression, government transparency and democratic accountability. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the “Lima Principles” which were adopted at the end of the meeting (see annex II). This seminar was held at a time when political instability dominated the country. The Special Rapporteur felt that the quest for freedom of expression and access to reliable information was very important for the Peruvian people. This seminar also provided him with the opportunity to meet with local NGOs to discuss the situation of freedom of opinion and expression in Peru.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "As far as the situation of freedom of expression in Latin America is concerned, the Special Rapporteur welcomes the adoption by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression on 20 October 2000 (see annex III). This declaration is aimed at ensuring more effective protection of the right to freedom of expression, fundamental for the consolidation and development of democracy.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "In regard to cooperation with other intergovernmental organizations, the Special Rapporteur continued his collaboration with the Programme for Freedom of Expression, Democracy and Peace of UNESCO. The Special Rapporteur was also invited by UNESCO to the celebration on 3 May 2000 in Geneva of World Press Freedom Day, which was followed by a round table discussion on “The media in conflict and post-conflict areas”. The Special Rapporteur again made concrete recommendations in his mission report this year (see report on the mission to Albania, E/CN.4/2001/64/Add.1, para. 116), encouraging the use of UNESCO expertise in the field of media legislation and the training of journalists in coordination with the programme of technical cooperation of the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR).", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Positive steps have been taken to establish more systematic collaboration with the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media (Freimut Duve) and the Organization of American States (OAS) Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression (Santiago Canton). Following the first meeting between the three mechanisms last year (see E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 12), where cooperation was initiated, it was decided that they would meet on an annual basis in the context of an international seminar. Thus, on 29 and 30 November 2000, a second international seminar on promoting freedom of expression with the three specialized international mandates took place in London. It was the occasion not only to promote cooperation but also to share information and ideas on the issues of defamation law, contempt of court and hate speech, as well as to hear the views of NGOs and other experts. Areas of cooperation between the three were also discussed. Following the meeting, a joint statement was issued which focused on two issues of concern, namely, attacks on journalists and defamation law (see annex IV). It was also agreed by the three mandate holders that they would issue a joint statement on racism and the media as part of the preparations for the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance. It should be further mentioned that another joint press statement was issued on World Press Freedom Day, 3 May 2000, about the harassment and killing of journalists in conflict situations (see annex V).", "labels": ["Migrants"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "In the context of this cooperation, the Special Rapporteur considers the participation of the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media (Freimut Duve) and the OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression (Santiago Canton) in the annual session of the Commission on Human Rights to be of particular importance. He regrets that Mr. Santiago Canton’s presence was questioned on certain technical grounds at the last session of the Commission, following a statement he made as a representative of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of\nthe OAS. The Special Rapporteur considers his collaboration with the two other mechanisms to be vital to ensure a coherent global strategy on freedom of expression. In this respect, he wishes to thank the United Kingdom Foreign Office as well as ARTICLE 19, the Global Campaign for Free Expression for their continued support.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has been invited to the four regional expert seminars organized, as part of the preparatory process for the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, in Africa, Asia, Latin America and in the Central and Eastern European region. This is in accordance with the General Assembly resolutions asking for contributions from other human rights mechanisms (53/132, para. 35; 54/154, para. 37), as well as Commission on Human Rights resolution 2000/14 asking the special rapporteurs concerned to participate actively in the preparatory process. In paragraph 13 (g) of its resolution 2000/38 on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the Commission requested the Special Rapporteur to contribute effectively to the preparatory process for the World Conference by transmitting to the High Commissioner his recommendations on freedom of opinion and expression which have a bearing on the Conference. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur intends to present a submission to the High Commissioner for Human Rights which would also be submitted as an official document for the next session of the Preparatory Committee of the World Conference.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Additionally, the Special Rapporteur attended the seventh meeting of special rapporteurs/ representatives, experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures and advisory services programme, held in Geneva from 5 to 9 June 2000 (see E/CN.4/2001/6, annex).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur visited Geneva from 5 to 10 April 2000 for consultations and to present his report to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-sixth session. During this period, the Special Rapporteur held a press conference and organized a briefing for NGOs which were both very well attended. He also met with various delegations, and discussed his intentions of undertaking field visits with the Ambassadors of Albania, Egypt, Peru, the Russian Federation and Sri Lanka.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "Finally, the Special Rapporteur considers the carrying out of country visits to be an essential element of the mandate. From 29 May to 2 June 2000, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Albania. For this visit, he has submitted a separate report to the Commission at its current session (E/CN.4/2001/64/Add.1).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "During the year under review, the Special Rapporteur has pursued his efforts to obtain invitations to visit the following countries: China, Indonesia, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Sri Lanka and Viet Nam to examine in situ the situation with regard to the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In the course of 2001, he hopes to be able to visit the three countries which have invited him in 2000 (Argentina, Egypt, Peru). Moreover, the Special Rapporteur has also sent additional official requests for invitations to visit Angola, Colombia, Equatorial Guinea, India and Pakistan.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate that the role of non-governmental organizations in furthering the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression cannot be underestimated. Indeed, it is those organizations which spearhead these concerns and are forcefully advocating, monitoring and lobbying for human rights. Some of them went out of their way to volunteer their time to help the Special Rapporteur. He wishes to express his special thanks to ARTICLE 19, the International Centre Against Censorship, which continues to provide information and material relevant to the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression to the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "In this connection, the Special Rapporteur welcomes the appointment of a Special Representative of the Secretary-General on human rights defenders (Ms. Hina Jilani). He considers this new thematic mechanism to be complementary to his own mandate and that it constitutes an important step towards better promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.\nIII. ISSUES\nA. Trends", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "As was the case last year, during the period under review, the Special Rapporteur has noted a number of characteristics common to the violations reported to him in the framework of his mandate and believes that it would again be helpful to consider what may be called “trends”. It is his hope that the identification of these trends will encourage Governments to review practices and take remedial action where required. It is also hoped that this work will assist OHCHR in developing programmes of technical assistance for interested Governments which will accelerate the process of eliminating the causes of violations of freedom of opinion and expression, the right to information and associated rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The Special Rapporteur again acknowledges that in a number of countries independent media, professional or collegial associations and non-governmental organizations have been allowed to form and function. In such cases, there may well be a continuing need for training and guidance in order to raise professional standards and to develop the capacity of such bodies to thrive in a self-regulating environment. It is the Special Rapporteur’s strongly held view that Governments have a duty to create and encourage an enabling environment in which such training and professional development can be organized and carried out without fear of legal, criminal or administrative sanction by the State.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "The Special Rapporteur received over 1,700 communications from a variety of sources: international, regional, national and local non-governmental organizations, associations of media professionals, trade unions, members of opposition political parties, human rights defenders and activists, concerned individuals and others. It must be emphasized again that resource constraints do not permit the Special Rapporteur to respond to, or act upon, every communication received.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "That being said, it can again be confidently stated that these communications are not confined to alleged violations in countries in which the political and institutional arrangements are implicitly or explicitly undemocratic. It is important to note that allegations refer to incidents and instances in which the rights to freedom of opinion and expression, information, association and assembly are infringed or violated in both emerging democracies and countries with long-established democratic institutions, practices and traditions. It is true, however, that the preponderance of allegations refer to situations where: (a) the legal and institutional protections and guarantees of human rights are, to a greater or lesser degree, circumscribed; (b) internal armed conflict or severe civil unrest exists; or (c) legal and institutional protections and guarantees exist but are not properly implemented.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "A majority of cases received by the Special Rapporteur relate to violations and actions taken against media professionals. Similar actions and violations of rights also occur, however, in relation to political groups, members of opposition political parties, pro-democracy activists, lawyers, students, academics, trade unionists and their leaders, persons participating in general strikes, women, peasants, members of religious minorities, persons belonging to minorities, authors and poets, cartoonists, newspaper vendors, distributors and printers, medical personnel and others.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "With these points in mind, the Special Rapporteur directs the attention of Governments to the following general trends in terms of violations of freedom of opinion and expression and related rights and strongly urges them to take all appropriate actions, consistent with the standards set out in the International Bill of Human Rights and associated instruments, to eliminate not only the violations themselves but also their causes and negative consequences.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction", "II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes with great concern the extent to which efforts to exercise peacefully - and, in some cases, in a professional capacity - the rights to expression, opinion, information, association and assembly continue to carry the very real possibility of physical threat or harm. He would particularly like to express his deep preoccupation at the number of cases in which that effort has lethal consequences. In those cases, it can be said that there exists “censorship by killing”, carried out by all manner of agents of the State or persons with a perceptible, although perhaps not formal, affiliation with the State.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["1. Attacks, threats, harassment, physical harm"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Acts of physical harm, threats or attacks against individuals exercising their right to freedom of opinion and expression, whether in a professional manner or not, referred to in communications by the Special Rapporteur have included: shooting and summary executions; death threats; kidnapping and torture of journalists in efforts to force them to reveal sources; attacks by police and military personnel on newspaper offices and homes; assaults and beatings in the context of elections and voting; use of pepper spray and beating by soldiers or police of participants in, or journalists covering, demonstrations and protests; surveillance of journalists by members of the armed forces; summoning of journalists to the presidential residence, the office of the Attorney-General, armed forces headquarters or police stations for “informal talks”, warnings and reprimands; occupation of a newspaper office by the civilian guard.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["1. Attacks, threats, harassment, physical harm"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has also noted a significant number of cases in which individuals were subjected to intimidation and harassment in the form of: the issuance against journalists of accusations of “wanting to set fire” to the country, of publishing “lies and hypocrisies” or “false news”, or of “fuelling anti-government sentiment”; instructions to party members and local administrations to “find journalists and break their bones”; searches of newspaper offices for\n“subversive and incriminating documents”; the labelling of journalists as “criminals”; warning journalists against reporting “garbage” about government leaders and leaders of opposition parties; threats against journalists for “continuous negative coverage of activities in the State”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["1. Attacks, threats, harassment, physical harm"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has noted that such violations seem to have often occurred: following the publication of accounts of police misconduct, excessive use of force, procedural irregularities in investigations or failure to investigate; as a result of commentary on corruption, involvement in criminal activities and wrong-doing by public officials, by members of the armed forces or the police, by members of municipal, State, regional or federal authorities, or by business and other elites; in State-sanctioned actions to suppress or disperse public demonstrations and protests; in response to the broadcasting of images of army or police repression against demonstrators; in response to published reports on poor and life-threatening conditions in prisons; in response to visits by media professionals to countries that do not enjoy friendly relations with the State.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["1. Attacks, threats, harassment, physical harm"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "Despite changes in the legal and policy frameworks based on the rule of law and respect for rights in a number of countries, there continue to be many cases of arrest and detention without charge or without a legitimate legal basis, or following judicial proceedings of doubtful relevance.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["2. Arrest, detention and related actions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has observed that, in the past year, individuals have been arrested and/or detained on charges: of acting in a manner “prejudicial to the safety of the State; of participating in a peaceful rally to protest election fraud; of “criminal malevolence” for having reported racketeering and corruption in government and State-run companies; of having “obstructed the implementation of martial law” and for having “instigated a violent incident”; of “insulting the head of State and inciting hatred”; of “collecting dissident news and secretly distributing copies of a monthly” linked to an opposition party; of treason for having provided medical treatment to members of an armed liberation movement; of “insulting the magistracy” and “violating the press law”; of having produced a film damaging to the country’s reputation abroad; of having published “anti-patriotic information” and statements considered “seditious and anti-nationalist”; of having “distributed and disclosed false news”; of having made “damaging accusations”; of “the purchase and illegal provision of intelligence to foreign people”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["2. Arrest, detention and related actions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "Such actions against journalists and others have often followed the publication of articles, for example: on police abuse of force causing death; about discontent in the armed forces; revealing misappropriation of funds by a government agency; on local corruption; on a weak voter turn-out for municipal elections and the deteriorating economic situation; on a person who had been tortured while in the custody of the presidential guard; calling on government forces to respect the human rights of those campaigning against impunity; containing objectionable language.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["2. Arrest, detention and related actions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur has noted that such measures have been taken by the police, military, security forces or other government authorities in relation inter alia to: investigations into embezzlement by government officials; the coverage of activities in a refugee camp; the distribution of foreign news articles; a government campaign against “western bourgeois ideas”; the coverage of a protest movement; complaints by private business elites who were implicated in wrongdoing in published articles; a demonstration calling for law reform; “refusal to testify”; the broadcasting of a music video that “violated mores”.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["2. Arrest, detention and related actions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "It should be noted that, if a majority of cases of arrest and detention involved journalists and other media professionals, communications received by the Special Rapporteur this year have also referred, inter alia, to the chairman of a political party charged with planning to hold an unauthorized demonstration and to leaders of an underground cultural movement. It should also be noted that, in a number of these cases, arrest or detention was either preceded by a raid on home or office or by summary action in public places. These actions often resulted in the peremptory and unlawful seizure of such materials as books, magazines, pamphlets, research, video and audio equipment, business documents, computers and other kinds of equipment used by the broadcasting media.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["2. Arrest, detention and related actions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "As some countries slowly make the transition from outright repression to a framework of governance somewhat more consistent with the rule of law and respect for rights, a pattern of administrative and/or legal sanctions which fall short of arrest or detention is emerging. These sanctions result in violations which - while perhaps less intense in their effect than killing, arrest or detention - still result in violations and infringements of the rights that are the subject of this mandate. In a number of cases, the sanctions have a direct, immediate and significant negative impact on the right to seek, receive and impart information. As such, they are of grave concern to the Special Rapporteur and he reminds Governments of their duty to take immediate remedial action to eliminate these sanctions from law and practice.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["3. Administrative and legal measures"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "A significant number of cases brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur concerned bans, closure or seizure of publications and/or other media, such as: the closure of a radio station that had aired a call by political parties for a mass gathering; the closure of a newspaper for reprinting allegations of corruption published by foreign media; the barring of a weekly for allegedly having published defamatory articles about a religious leader; the closure by religious courts of reformist publications; the closure of a radio station on the grounds that it was owned by foreigners; an attempt to close a newspaper through retroactive application of law; the suspension of a weekly that allegedly defamed members of the Government; the suspension of a weekly for “publication of false news”; the banning of a weekly for promoting “anti-country feelings”; the confiscation by police of copies of an independent newspaper; the seizure of publications published outside the country which allegedly supported a foreign regime; the suspension of publications for “defiance of authority”, and “unbalanced reporting”; the refusal to license a publication because of the editor’s link to the political opposition; the seizure and/or banning of weeklies for publishing interviews with, e.g. the leader of an opposition group or exiled critics of the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["3. Administrative and legal measures"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "In a number of cases, measures taken by the authorities against media outlets and actors took the form of the issuing of bans, inter alia on: covering official functions; reporting on military issues; demonstrations by opposition political parties; protest marches, so as not to “embarrass the Government”; political and cultural magazines in order “to protect general security, safety and public order”; a book describing a massacre of religious youth by police. The Special Rapporteur also received cases referring to: a presidential decree of a total media blackout on a murder attempt against a journalist; the closure of publications for having published articles without official permission; the suspension of a radio station for having broadcast one verse of a poem by a writer who was imprisoned.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["3. Administrative and legal measures"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "In addition to these types of administrative measures, the Special Rapporteur has also observed the use of technical and financial measures to impede the right to seek and impart information, measures such as: cutting off electricity to a television station that was broadcasting an interview with a rebel commander; a power blackout silencing media outlets while a state of emergency was declared in response to a social protest movement; the seizure of equipment from a wire service on the basis that it was operating without a permit; the jamming by State-owned media of signals and/or radio programmes of foreign broadcasting services; the seizure of equipment of an independent printing press on the grounds that it belonged to a foreign organization that owed the Government money; the imposition of a fine on bookstores; the seizure of foreign publications featuring articles about an opposition leader, on the basis that the articles were “derogatory to national prestige”; the fining of persons seeking to establish a non-government radio station; the closure of a printing house which was critical of the authorities and was sued for “insulting the nation”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["3. Administrative and legal measures"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Furthermore, it has been noted that pressure has been exerted on media professionals and others through such administrative measures as: the dismissal of journalists and media personnel, inter alia for having broadcast images of pro-democracy protests and for being biased against the governing party; the denial of licences to private stations; the denial of entry permits to, or expulsion of, journalists, authors and editors on the basis that they are “undesirable”; the withdrawal of journalists’ accreditation or imposition of lifetime bans for such reasons as “distributing information of a tendentious and malicious nature on the socio-political situation” in the country, “with the intention of tarnishing the country’s image of peace and stability”, or writing on relations between a State and a neighbouring country.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["3. Administrative and legal measures"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "The recourse to legal and legislative measures has also been noted by the Special Rapporteur, for instance: the filing of suits by the authorities against journalists whose work they find “insults the honour and dignity of the State and the people” or is “contrary to national interests”; charges of “incitement to violence and rebellion” brought against a journalist under the Public Safety Act; amendments to the publications law that make the printing of foreign newspapers subject to the approval of the Minister of the Interior; indictment for blasphemy against a religion and its founder; prosecution of reformist dailies for having reprinted an interview with a public figure under house arrest; a press and publication law that criminalizes the publication of materials that “sully public morals”; prosecution of a singer for having “insulted religious values”; the sentencing of two women novelists and a publisher for publishing work that included “expressions that violate God, and indecent and shameless expression”.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["3. Administrative and legal measures"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "It will be recalled that in his report to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-sixth session (E/CN.4/2000/63) the Special Rapporteur devoted considerable attention to the issue of criminal libel and defamation. Similar to the use of administrative and legal sanctions to inhibit free expression and access to information, the cases received in the past year clearly demonstrate that the abuse of libel and defamation laws continues apace and there has been no significant decrease in the manipulation of such laws by key public figures, both State and private, with the aim of limiting the scope and content of press and other kinds of reports.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["4. Defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "A summary review of the cases received revealed recourse to such laws in response to disclosures and/or publications about: the incompetence of an official; the link between the police and drug traffickers and/or between the Attorney-General and drug traffickers; the failure of a president to make good on election promises; the involvement of a minister in a corruption case; the issuance of false charitable receipts by religious entities; the refusal of a governor to authorize payment of salaries to public employees for three months; the acceptance of a bribe by a judge to decide in favour of one parliamentary candidate over another; the weak reaction of the authorities to racist attacks against nationals residing in a neighbouring country; the threat of a defamation suit to force a journalist to stop working with the independent press; the construction of a multi-billion dollar hydroelectric power project in which one of the players was characterized as “corrupt”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["4. Defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "The information brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur also referred to such cases or subjects as: the implication of a member of the military in the assassination of the financial director of a district; the implication of a religious leader in a killing; corruption in the presidential palace; “insults” against a member of Parliament; the publication of an article deemed offensive to the Supreme Court; links between local law enforcement and organized crime; administrative irregularities in a district judiciary that included the blackmailing of local mayors and abuse of authority; irregularities in the privatization process of a State-owned company; the use of power and influence to gain advantage.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["4. Defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Several cases were also brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur regarding prohibitive fines for libel which in a number of instances would strangle economically the independent press, a political party, an association or any individual. In this regard the Special Rapporteur considers that disproportionate remedies or sanctions can significantly limit the free flow of information and ideas.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["4. Defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "In the light of the cases received this year, the Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate the recommendations made in his previous report (E/CN.4/2000/63 para. 52) and to urge Governments to:\n(a) Repeal criminal defamation laws in favour of civil laws;\n(b) Limit sanctions for defamation to ensure that they do not exert a chilling effect on freedom of opinion and expression and the right to information;\n(c) Prohibit government bodies and public authorities from bringing defamation suits with the explicit purpose of preventing criticism of the Government or even of maintaining public order;\n(d) Ensure that defamation laws reflect the importance of open debate on matters of public interest and the principle that public figures are required to tolerate a greater degree of criticism than private citizens;\n(e) Qualify only patently unreasonable opinions as defamatory;\n(f) Stipulate that defendants are not required to prove the truth of opinions or value statements;\n(g) Ensure that the onus of proof is on those claiming to have been defamed and not on the defendant(s);\n(h) Provide a range of remedies in addition to damage awards, for example, apology and/or correction.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["4. Defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "In this connection, the Special Rapporteur would like to endorse the Principles on Freedom of Expression and Protection of Reputation[[fn:1]] that have been developed by ARTICLE 19, the Global Campaign for Free Expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Defining Defamation: Principles on Freedom of Expression and Protection of Reputation, ARTICLE 19, London, July 2000."}], "section": ["4. Defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to bring to the attention of the Commission on Human Rights and all Governments grave concerns about the actions of non-State actors which, in their effect, infringe upon or negate the rights to opinion, expression, information, assembly and association. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur notes that the traditional approach to the negation of the rights that are set out in international human rights instruments is generally confined to the question of violations of rights by Governments and their agents. Rightly, concern is expressed that any attempt to address the actions of non-State actors runs the risk of detracting from the responsibility of States not to violate the rights of citizens and others living within their territories. The Special Rapporteur also notes that the question of non-State actors has been traditionally defined as relating to the duty of States to exercise due diligence and to ensure that individuals and collective private entities respect the law and do not abuse or infringe upon the rights of others.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["B. Non-State actors"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "The Special Rapporteur accepts that the primary attention must continue to be focused on the commissions and omissions of Governments which lead to violations of fundamental rights. At the same time, however, he cannot remain indifferent to the fact that, with regard to the rights that are the subject of this mandate, an increasing number of actions by non-State individuals and entities have a marked and severely negative impact on the enjoyment of those rights by others.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["B. Non-State actors"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "A review of the communications received clearly indicates that, in a number of instances, the effect of these non-State actions is to impose “repression and intimidation by proxy”. The “proxy effect” is either evident to the extent that the persons or groups involved are clearly affiliated with the ruling party - whether elected or self-appointed - or can be inferred from the facts as presented. Other cases may be characterized as “repression and intimidation by neglect”, to the extent that the State consistently fails to meet its obligation to exercise due diligence and does not ensure that the police, the judiciary and other legally constituted bodies responsible for law and order properly and fully investigate crimes and related actions and hold those responsible to account.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["B. Non-State actors"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also acknowledges that there are circumstances in which the Government does not have effective control of territory within its own boundaries. Under such circumstances, it may not be possible for the State, at that time, to investigate, identify those responsible and ensure that their actions are properly and, under international legal definitions, lawfully sanctioned. The Special Rapporteur would observe, however, that difficulties in the immediate term do not relieve the State of its duty to exercise due diligence in the name of justice for the victims as soon as conditions permit. The Special Rapporteur would also observe that, in an effort to assert or regain control over territory within its boundaries, the State may not engage in actions that, by their very nature, violate rights or are of such a severe nature as to cause those targeted for such actions to react in ways that infringe or negate the rights of innocent persons who, very simply and often, have become trapped in the middle of a war of attrition.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["B. Non-State actors"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "With those points in mind, the Special Rapporteur notes that, in the past year, he has received cases of, among others, the following violations involving paramilitary groups, guerrillas, terrorist groups, mobs and traffickers: the kidnapping of journalists by guerrillas because of the failure of the press to disclose information about human rights violations committed by the army; the kidnapping of journalists by rebels calling on the Government to pledge money for road improvements; the kidnapping of foreign journalists and their use for ransom by armed opposition groups; the murder of journalists by members of a paramilitary group covering municipal elections; a bomb threat, possibly from paramilitaries hostile to a newspaper’s editorial content; the shooting of a journalist who covered criminal bike gangs for years; the murder of a journalist who had reported on the illegal activities of a local mafia involved in drug-trafficking; the abduction by militants of reporters covering a hostage crisis; the sending of a parcel bomb to a journalist by a terrorist or group in armed opposition; the burning of copies of a newspaper by armed rebels.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["B. Non-State actors"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "Moreover, the Special Rapporteur noted a significant number of actions taken against media professionals by members of various opposition groups, political and religious groups, such as: an assault on a journalist by Communist militants; an attempt by students to burn down the offices of a newspaper; threats by security guards of an opposition party and an attempt to prevent journalists from covering a meeting of the party; the siege of an independent newspaper’s offices by supporters of the prime minister criticizing the bias in pre-election coverage; a bomb attack on the offices of a daily newspaper by members of an armed secessionist movement; the bombing of a journalist’s home by members of an armed independence movement; the murder of a journalist by members of an armed underground movement following articles critical of such movements; an attack on press vehicles by members of an armed opposition group; a ban by an opposition party on the media covering its election\nactivities; death threats against editorial staff by a religious militia; the denunciation of a private radio station by the Church for “dangerous proselytism”; an attack by activists on video shops on the basis that they were “immoral” businesses.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["B. Non-State actors"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Many other cases of violations reported to the Special Rapporteur involved other non-State actors, for instance: the shooting of a lawyer who specialized in labour issues and labour rights; the murder of journalists critical of the local administration by gunmen financed by “rich people in the area”; the setting alight of a journalist who had reported on corruption in the privatization of State businesses; an attack by youths on a journalist covering a students’ meeting; an assault on reporters by polling station monitors; attacks on journalists by groups of demonstrators; the bombing of a radio station that had reported on incidents relating to a general strike; the murder of a journalist by a former public official following published comments that his resignation was linked to alleged misconduct; the ransacking and burning of a newspaper office by a mob protesting the murder of a leading religious scholar by unknown gunmen.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["B. Non-State actors"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "In the light of these and other cases, the Special Rapporteur invites the Commission on Human Rights to consider how and by what means the international community may give continuing and coherent attention to the question of non-State actors and actions by them that infringe upon or negate the internationally recognized rights to freedom of opinion, expression, information, belief and conscience, assembly and association.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["B. Non-State actors"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "It will be recalled that in his report to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-fourth session (E/CN.4/1998/40) the Special Rapporteur devoted considerable attention to the question of new technologies and, in particular, concerns expressed about the uses being made of the Internet. The Special Rapporteur noted an increasing interest on the part of some Governments, organizations and individuals in the question of whether or not it was possible to devise a generally applicable regime for regulation of the Internet. The heightened interest in regulation arose, at least in part, from concerns relating to privacy, the dissemination of pornography, racism and hate speech, and the use of the technology to promote, for example, child sex tourism, trafficking in persons and other activities or ventures that are increasingly viewed with opprobrium by individuals and the international community.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "It will also be recalled that faced with the mounting pressures for the development of some sort of regulatory regime, the Special Rapporteur stated (para. 45) that the new technologies and, in particular the Internet “are inherently democratic, provide the public and individuals with access to information sources and enable all to participate actively in the communication process”. At that time, the Special Rapporteur stated (para. 116) with regard to the Internet, that on-line expression should be guided by international standards and be guaranteed the same protection as is awarded to other forms of expression. Nothing has occurred since the report was prepared for the fifty-fourth session that would cause the Special Rapporteur to change his views on this subject.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "On the contrary, the Special Rapporteur looks with dismay on the information he has received on the efforts of some Governments either to control or shut down access to the Internet. Some of the communications received by him referred to: the closure of a weekly publication following the posting on its Web site of an article the Government claimed was biased; a charge of “subversion” against a web dissident, with a possible sentence of five years upon conviction; closure of a Web site acting as a forum for democratic dissidents, and the issuance of an arrest warrant against the webmaster; the arrest of the owner of an Internet site accused of “incitement to subvert the State’s authority” for having published on-line articles critical of the ruling party; regulations on the content of a news Web site and chatrooms under which the sites may only publish on-line news from State-owned media; the requirement that official agreement must be obtained before foreign media news may be posted on-line; a stipulation that Web sites will be held responsible for publication of “subversive information”; a law giving authorities the right to sanction service providers that do not control and censor the content of their sites; the issuance of guidelines banning the use of the Internet, inter alia for “propagating misleading news stories to create doubts among the public, at home or abroad”; revocation of all private Internet licences, allegedly because the persons involved falsified information in mandatory reports to the relevant ministry about the technical and structural details of their services.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Communications were also received relating to: a law requiring Internet users to request administrative authorization, following an incident in which three people, at least one an army officer, were accused of consulting opposition Web sites based in foreign countries; a regulation on “the protection of State secrets” on the Internet, requiring all information to be cleared by the government department responsible for the protection of State secrets and noting that breaches of the regulation could result in heavy jail sentences and fines; the arrest of a person as a “cyber-dissident” and the sentencing of that person for incitement to overthrow the State; the arrest of a person who was preparing to post on the Internet an information bulletin on human rights and the opposition democratic movement; threats by the Government to close down cyber-cafes if they did not monitor Web sites visited by their customers; a government statement that Internet users were not authorized to “take part in any activity that endangers public security, creates disorder or interferes with public rights and interests”.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "On the basis of these and other communications, the Special Rapporteur concludes that it is necessary to reiterate his encouragement to Governments to view the Internet and other information technologies as means to achieve a plurality of voices and to take steps towards their integration into the development process. Actions by States to impose excessive regulations on the use of these technologies on the grounds that control, regulations and denial of access are necessary to preserve the moral fabric and cultural identity of societies are paternalistic. Furthermore, inequalities of access to this technological revolution are liable to widen the gap between the technologically advanced sections of society and others, leading to political and social exclusion which would tend to create instability and explosive situations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "Moreover, the Special Rapporteur wishes to underline the following concerns and commends them to the Commission on Human Rights and other relevant multilateral institutions, for further and continuing attention.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 63, "n": 1, "text": "The gap between technologically advanced countries and societies\nand those with fewer assets and means", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 64, "n": 63, "text": "The new technologies and, in particular, the Internet, are clearly important tools that can and should be put to use in the pursuit of respect for rights and social justice. Therefore, to the extent that there remains a dramatic disparity between rich and poor, developed societies and those less developed, in knowledge of, access to and creative use of these tools, this principle is not fully respected.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 65, "n": 64, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has noted with considerable interest that a number of efforts have and are being made to achieve a balance of access and opportunity. In this regard, he commends two initiatives undertaken by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). The first, MagNet, is a virtual library of the organization’s publications - such as policy documents, discussion papers and governance tools - on good governance, all of which can be downloaded free of charge (http://magnet.undp.org). It must said, however, that the positive impact and effect of this site will be directly proportional to the degree of access and technical capacity in those countries where the needed is greatest and the people are most likely to enjoy the greatest benefit.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 66, "n": 65, "text": "For this reason, the Special Rapporteur finds the second initiative - also by UNDP - to be of particular importance. Through UNDP Africa a Web site has been created with the organization’s partners (http://www.undp.org/rba). This Web site has contributed significantly to the exchange of information and the sharing of ideas and initiatives. It must be stated, however, that the very considerable problem remains of there being too few lines of communication that carry full Internet access to and within countries in Africa. Also, in those places where access exists, it is expensive and often beyond the means of those who would enjoy the greatest benefit.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 67, "n": 66, "text": "In this context, the Special Rapporteur would note that a decision by the international community, individual Governments and private businesses to invest the necessary resources to expand access to the Internet to under-serviced and unserviced areas and regions will be rendered meaningless if Governments initiate or continue policies and practices that have as their only aim to restrict access to information that is of relevance and importance to the people on whose behalf they manage and direct the affairs of the nation. That being said, the Special Rapporteur appeals to States and private interests - separately and together - to make every effort to increase the technological capacities in every country, state, municipality, community and neighbourhood where those capacities either simply do not exist or are not adequate to meet the needs of the people seeking to learn about and to use them.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["C. New technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 68, "n": 67, "text": "Human rights is the theme of the UNDP Human Development Report 2000. The report states that “Providing information on national needs and government priorities can enhance public understanding of difficult trade-offs, creating a greater social consensus in the face of limited resources and multiple demands.”[[fn:2]] The report also states that when “people lack access to information on policies and practices that affect their well-being, there are many additional costs”.[[fn:3]] The costs are noted as including the fact that corruption flourishes, press freedom is compromised and powerful private actors can effectively buy secrecy “even for information that reveals serious threats to public health and safety.[[fn:4]] The report further notes that the promotion of human rights norms can and should occur on three fronts: education of people about human rights; sensitizing officials to human rights; and mobilizing public opinion through the media.[[fn:5]]", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "UNDP, Human Development Report 2000, New York, 2000, chap. 5, section entitled “Realizing the right to information”."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 4, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 5, "text": "Op. cit., chap. 6, section entitled “Promote human rights norms”."}], "section": ["2. Human rights and human development"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 69, "n": 68, "text": "The Special Rapporteur concurs with the view stated in the report that the Internet is an important and related tool in the promotion of human rights and an effective means to disseminate information on civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights and violations of them. The Special Rapporteur firmly believes that the Internet has the potential to become one of the most effective tools available to fight against poverty and exclusion, on whatever grounds.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["2. Human rights and human development"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 70, "n": 69, "text": "The Special Rapporteur further notes that, with regard to reducing global inequality and the marginalization of both people and nations, it will not be enough simply to install the “hardware” required in as many places as possible, as quickly as possible. With this in mind, the Special Rapporteur has noted proposals to establish regional centres of technology with the goal of providing research results, based on appropriate criteria, to poor people through the Internet and other technologies that reduce costs. While this kind of thinking and action is to be encouraged, the Special Rapporteur would again remind States that they must also ensure that there is adequate and unfettered “social and political space” in which the new technologies can be developed in a self-regulating environment and where the exercise and enjoyment of the rights to expression, opinion, information, association and assembly can flourish. In the absence of freedom from excessive regulation and adequate space for expression, participation and action, the results of research will have no meaning and genuine participation, progress and human development will not happen.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["2. Human rights and human development"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 71, "n": 70, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that it has not been possible, thus far, to organize a joint mission with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women in order to assess the relationship between incidents of violence against women and the lack of effective enjoyment of the rights to opinion, expression, information, assembly and association. Neither has it been possible, to date, for the two Special Rapporteurs to develop a framework within which a joint report could be prepared and submitted to the Commission on Human Rights on this or a related matter.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["D. Women"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 72, "n": 71, "text": "That being said, the Special Rapporteur feels it necessary and appropriate to offer the following views with regard to “women, peace and security” as a part of his continued efforts to address consistently the situation of women and their ability, or not, to exercise freely the rights that are the subject of this mandate. During the October 2000 special session of the Security Council - on women, peace and security - the Secretary-General of the United Nations stated that “the potential contribution of women to peace and security remains severely under-valued. Women are still grossly under-represented at the decision-making level, from conflict prevention to conflict resolution to post-conflict reconciliation”.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["D. Women"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 73, "n": 72, "text": "The Special Rapporteur was informed that some of the statements made by participants in that special session referred to the experience of women and girls during armed conflict. For example: in the absence of gender sensitivity, women who have been raped and/or sexually assaulted during armed conflict will not report the incident for fear of being stigmatized or some other potential effect of identifying herself publicly; electoral systems must take women into account, as voters or as candidates; civilian police must address the issues of trafficking and sexual violence which are associated with conflict.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["D. Women"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 74, "n": 73, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has taken note of resolution 1325 (200) adopted by the Security Council following this special session and emphasizes several elements of it for the benefit of the Commission on Human Rights and all States. In that resolution the Security Council, inter alia: stressed women’s equal participation and full involvement in all efforts for the maintenance and promotion of peace and security, and the need to increase their role in decision-making with regard to conflict prevention and resolution; called upon States to ensure increased representation of women at all decision-making levels in national, regional and international institutions and mechanisms for the prevention, management, and resolution of conflict; and requested the Secretary-General to provide to States training guidelines and materials on the protection, rights and the particular needs of women, as well as on the importance of involving women in all peacekeeping and peace-building measures.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["D. Women"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 75, "n": 74, "text": "The Council also called on all actors involved, when negotiating and implementing peace agreements, to adopt a gender perspective, including: measures that support local women’s peace initiatives and indigenous processes for conflict resolution, and that involve women in all of the implementation mechanisms of the peace agreements; and measures that ensure the protection of and respect for the human rights of women and girls, particularly as they relate to the constitution, the electoral system, the police and the judiciary. The Council also invited the Secretary-General to carry out a study on the impact of armed conflict on women and girls, the role of women in peace-building and the gender dimensions of peace processes and conflict resolution. The Special Rapporteur looks forward to the completion and publication of this study, with the hope that aspects of the rights to opinion, expression and information - and violations of those rights directed against women - will figure prominently in it.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["D. Women"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 76, "n": 75, "text": "In conclusion, the Special Rapporteur has raised the issue of women, peace and security out of a deep concern that women are not full participants in efforts to prevent, stop and recover armed conflict. The Special Rapporteur again emphasizes that effective participation depends on the ability to express oneself freely, to have access to the materials needed in order to have an informed opinion, to join with others in common cause for the common good, and to meet openly and without fear in order to discuss more widely the issues at hand and to act upon the decisions taken. None of these actions is possible when the rights to opinion, expression, information, assembly and association are violated. Thus, to the extent that there continues to be either advertent or inadvertent exclusion of women from peace processes, or the consciousness and deliberate enactment or application of laws that discriminate against women, their rights will always be violated and their participation in such critical areas as peace and security will continue to be unlawfully limited.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["D. Women"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 77, "n": 76, "text": "In the light of the above, the Special Rapporteur would urge States to weigh very carefully all of the points raised during the special session of the Security Council and to take all necessary remedial action, including law reform, to correct what is clearly an unbalanced and discriminatory situation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["D. Women"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 78, "n": 77, "text": "This section contains brief summaries of urgent appeals and communications to and from Governments, along with observations of the Special Rapporteur. In view of the time required for Governments to respond, only the communications sent before 15 December 2000 are included in the report.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["D. Women", "IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 79, "n": 78, "text": "On 24 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a communication to the Taliban authorities requesting information concerning their alleged control over the print and broadcast media, in particular the ban on television, the control over editorial work and the strict control over photography. In this context, it was reported that, on 11 August 2000, three foreign journalists, Khawar Mehdi, Jason Flario and Pepe Scobar, were arrested for taking pictures during a football match. The Special Rapporteur also raised the issue of the work of foreign journalists, which is reportedly extensively restricted by a list of “21 points to be respected”. In the same communication, the Special Rapporteur also transmitted cases of intimidation, harassment and violence towards journalists in exile. The following cases were also mentioned: the murder of Mohammad Hashim Paktianae on 2 November 1998 in Hayatabad; the murder attempt against Najeeda Sara Bid on 5 October 1998 in Peshawar (Pakistan); and the death threats received by Inayat-ul-Hay Yasini on 4 July 2000 in connection with the publication of the findings of an opinion poll carried out among Afghan refugees living in camps in Pakistan.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Afghanistan", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 80, "n": 79, "text": "No reply has been received so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Afghanistan", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 81, "n": 80, "text": "From 29 May to 2 June 2000, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Albania, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session (E/CN.4/2001/64/Add.1).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Albania"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 82, "n": 81, "text": "On 18 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a communication requesting information on government practices and measures which ensure a de facto control of print media by the State, in particular the extensive control over printing activities exercised by the five State printing companies (El Moudjahid (SIMPRAL), the Entreprise algérienne de presse (ENAP), the Société d’impression d’Alger (SIA), the Société d’impression de l’Est (SIE), the Société d’impression de l’Ouest (SIO)), as well as the control of paper imports by the State enterprise Algérienne du papier (ALPAP), a control mainly exerted through the alleged use of financial debts to silence certain publications. It was notably reported that the SIA suspended the printing of the weekly El Borhane only a month after its first issue in July 1998, allegedly because of a previous agreement of the weekly with SIMPRAL, which continuously refused to issue it. The publication of El Borhane was reportedly interrupted twice subsequently, in April 1999 and again on 2 January 2000, after the SIA requested payment of the weekly’s debt. The Special Rapporteur also brought to the attention of the Government three cases of alleged disappearance of journalists: Djamil Eddine Fahassi, who disappeared on 6 May 1995; Salah Kitouni, who has not been seen since 9 July 1996; and Aziz Bouabdallah, who disappeared on 12 April 1997 and on behalf of whom the Special Rapporteur had sent a communication on 13 November 1997. The Special Rapporteur requested to be kept informed of the measures taken by the Government to elucidate these disappearances.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Algeria", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 83, "n": 82, "text": "No reply from the Government has been received so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Algeria", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 84, "n": 83, "text": "On 15 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur, jointly with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, sent an urgent appeal regarding the arrest of Andre Domingos Mussamo, a journalist for the Radio Nacional de Angola and Folha 8, on 2 December 1999. According to the information received, he was detained by the Police Criminal Investigation Department (DNIC) in N’Dalatando, allegedly in connection with an unpublished article he wrote referring to a letter from the provincial governor to President dos Santos.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Angola", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 85, "n": 84, "text": "On 1 November 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a communication concerning the drafting of a new press law. The Special Rapporteur welcomed the initiative and the fact that an open public debate on the draft law was taking place, and expressed his wish that the public’s views would be taken into consideration in the elaboration of the law. At the same time, the Special Rapporteur voiced his concern at some provisions of the draft, in particular articles 53, 55, paragraphs 2 and 3, and 57, in accordance with which press offences, as well as the publication of information considered as State secrets, would be punishable by terms of imprisonment of from 2 to 8 years.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Angola", "Communications sent"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "53", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "55", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0086", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 86, "n": 85, "text": "On 17 November 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a communication to the Government requesting information regarding the judicial harassment to which the privately-owned weekly Folha 8 has reportedly been subjected since October 1999. The Special Rapporteur referred in particular to the detention of William Tonet, editor of Folha 8, on 2 October 1999, allegedly in connection with his articles on government corruption; to the prohibition of travel delivered on 31 October 1999 to Gilberto Nero, a journalist for Folha 8, allegedly in relation with an article concerning the arrest in August 1999 of journalists of Rádio Ecclesia. Furthermore, it has been reported that Mr. Tonet, along with Joaquim Manuel Aguiar dos Santos, director of Agora, and Leopoldo Baio, director of Actual, were ordered to retract stories concerning government corruption on 10 December 1999. The Special Rapporteur also transmitted a series of allegations concerning the following persons: Josefa Lamberga, a journalist with Voice of America, who was assaulted by a soldier on 28 April 1999; Isidoro Natalicío, a journalist based in N’Dalatando, who was subpoenaed on 7 November 2000 by the DNIC in connection with a report issued on Radio Ecclesia about a public rally, and who also has an appeal pending in the provincial court against an eviction order to leave his home, issued on 20 June 2000, allegedly because of his journalistic activities; Jose Paulo, director of information for Radio Ecclesia, who was reportedly kidnapped by four unidentified armed men on 25 June 2000 in Luanda, allegedly in connection with earlier broadcasts on Radio Ecclesia about government corruption and acts of intimidations committed by the authorities; Isaias Soares, a journalist for Voice of America and Radio Ecclesia, who was banned on 2 August 2000 from covering official events and reporting on military issues in Malanje.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Angola", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0087", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 87, "n": 86, "text": "In his communication dated 17 November 2000, the Special Rapporteur requested the Government to extend an invitation to him to carry out an official visit to Angola in the near future.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Angola", "Visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0088", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 88, "n": 87, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has been informed that Rafael Marques, on behalf of whom he had sent an urgent appeal on 20 October 1999 (see E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 59) was convicted on 27 October 2000 to a six-month suspended prison sentence on charges of defamation, injury and slander against the President. In the context of the sentencing of Rafael Marques and of the content of the new draft press law, the Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate that, as recommended in his previous report to the Commission on Human Rights (E/CN.4/2000/63), Governments should, in accordance with international standards, “ensure that press offences are no longer punishable by terms of imprisonment”. The Special Rapporteur would also like to reiterate his wish to undertake an official visit in Angola in the near future. Furthermore, he awaits replies from the Government.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Angola", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0089", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 89, "n": 88, "text": "An official invitation to carry out a visit to Argentina was extended to the Special Rapporteur by the Government on 30 March 2000. The Special Rapporteur hopes to undertake this visit in 2001.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Argentina"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0090", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 90, "n": 89, "text": "On 6 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a communication concerning the new draft law on the independence of the mass media. The Special Rapporteur voiced his concerns that the provisions for the registration of mass media outlets with the Ministry of Justice rather than the Ministry of Information and the Press could lead to stricter control over the press and the media, especially with regard to granting licences, accreditation of journalists, widening the scope of what is considered as defamation, and court proceedings against the mass media.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Azerbaijan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0091", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 91, "n": 90, "text": "On 2 June 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a communication regarding the closure of the Baku-based Monitor Weekly on 8 May 2000. The magazine was reportedly accused of failing to present a financial report for the first quarter of 2000. The Special Rapporteur also referred to the continued ban on Sara Radio/TV since 8 October 1999 on the grounds that it was owned by foreigners. In addition, he requested further information concerning the attack on 27 May 2000 on the offices of the Bu Gun newspaper, when two journalists, Revan Chinghizoglu and Eldeniz Bedelsoy, were beaten by the police and briefly detained.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Azerbaijan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0092", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 92, "n": 91, "text": "The Special Rapporteur, jointly with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, sent an urgent appeal on 28 August 2000 concerning the arrest of Rauf Arifoglu, editor-in-chief of Yeni Musavat. According to the information received, on 22 August 2000, he was arrested for illegal possession of firearms, participation in an attempted plane hijacking, and terrorism, after a handgun was discovered during a search of his apartment, which was allegedly illegal. The charges against Mr. Arifoglu reportedly resulted from the coverage by Yeni Musavat of an attempted plane hijacking by a member of the opposition Musavat Party in Nakhchivan four days earlier.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Azerbaijan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0093", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 93, "n": 92, "text": "In a letter dated 28 February 2000, the Government of Azerbaijan replied to the concerns the Special Rapporteur raised in his communication of 6 December 1999. The Government explained that the new bill was drafted in compliance with European standards and provided clarifications with regard to a number of provisions of the law. One of the superlative characters of the new law on the mass media was that registration of the mass media had been eliminated. In response to concerns about the issuing of licences by the Ministry of Justice, the Government replied that the new law did not include any provision about licence issuing procedure. It also stated that any control of newspapers by the executive bodies had been completely lifted and there was no provision in the law that could envisage permission being given by the executive bodies to close down media publishing. The Government added that no provision allowed for the control of the media on the basis of information interpreted as “insulting the honour and dignity of the Azerbaijani State and people” and “contradicting national interests”. Finally, it said that, although the accreditation of journalists continued to be done through State bodies, the Government hoped to establish accreditation of journalists through the Association of Journalists in the near future.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Azerbaijan", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0094", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 94, "n": 93, "text": "In reply to the communication of the Special Rapporteur dated 2 June 2000, the Government provided, on 21 July 2000, information on the closure of the Monitor Weekly which was said to be the result of a court judgment against a predecessor publication, the Monitor, found to have insulted the Azerbaijani people, its history and national identity. The Government explained that, after the Monitor Weekly refused to comply with a court judgment, Ministry of Taxation officials suspended banking operations and instituted criminal proceedings against Mr. Huseinov, the company director and chief editor. Concerning the closure of the television company Sara, the Government indicated that it had cancelled the registration of the television company on 6 October 1999 after it continued to violate its charter and the Media Act by engaging in Islamic fundamentalist propaganda. Regarding the incidents involving the two Bu Gun journalists, the Government stated that they were taken to Yasamal district police station after the police had requested that they stop taking photographs of a police operation. One of the photographers, Ravan Chingiz olgy Soltanov (Revan Chinghiyoglu), fell and sustained minor injuries while attempting to flee the scene. The Government explained that they were released following explanation, but that criminal proceedings had subsequently been instituted and an investigation opened.", "labels": ["Children"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Azerbaijan", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0095", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 95, "n": 94, "text": "In a communication dated 15 September 2000, the Government of Azerbaijan informed the Special Rapporteur of the result of the investigation concerning Rauf Arifoglu, which established that he was an accomplice in the highjacking. The Government assured the Special Rapporteur that the rights of Mr. Arifoglu had been guaranteed.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Azerbaijan", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0096", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 96, "n": 95, "text": "In a communication sent on 14 November 2000, the Government of Azerbaijan transmitted comments to the Special Rapporteur with regard to his note verbale of 28 August 2000 concerning the Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation (“The public’s right to know”) (see E/CN.4/2000/63, annex).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Azerbaijan", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0097", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 97, "n": 96, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its replies. Furthermore, he welcomes the release from solitary confinement on 5 October 2000 of Rauf Arifoglu after 45 days of pre-trial detention. He remains concerned, however at the fact that charges against Mr. Arifoglu are still pending and that his rights have been limited, in particular his right to run for office and his right to freedom of movement.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Azerbaijan", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0098", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 98, "n": 97, "text": "On 7 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal jointly with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention regarding the detention of Abdul-Wahab Hussain, a prominent Shia leader and religious scholar. According to the information received, Mr. Hussain has been held since 22 January 1996 without charges, in connection with a petition calling for constitutional changes and was awaiting a hearing on 14 March 2000. The urgent appeal also drew attention to the arbitrary detention since January 1996 of Hasan Sultan, Ali Ashur, Hussain Al-Dahi, Hasan Mishama’a and Sayyid Ibrahim Adnan Al-Alwai.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Bahrain", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0099", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 99, "n": 98, "text": "In a communication dated 7 February 2000, the Government replied to the communication of the Special Rapporteur of 6 July 1999 concerning the case of Abdul Amir Al Jamri (see E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 63). The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Al Jamri was convicted on 7 July 1999 on a number of charges and sentenced to a 10-year prison term, a DB 5,000 fine and a DB 5.7 million compensation order. However, the Government explained that, following a public apology and a pledge of future good behaviour, Mr. Al Jamri was pardoned and released on 8 July 1999.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Bahrain", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0100", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 100, "n": 99, "text": "The Special Rapporteur welcomes the pardon and release of Abdul Amir Al Jamri and thanks the Government for its reply. However, the Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply from the Government to the communication dated 7 March 2000 has been received so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Bahrain", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0101", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 101, "n": 100, "text": "On 7 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur received a response from the Government of Bangladesh to his communication dated 11 November 1999 (see E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 65) concerning alleged attacks on journalists and photographers by the police in October and November 1999. In its reply, the Government explained that the incidents referred to by the Special Rapporteur took place during a police intervention in connection with strikes called by the opposition political parties, in which the journalists were not in any way targets of police action.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Bangladesh", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0102", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 102, "n": 101, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply but remains concerned over the use of force by the police during a political demonstration.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Bangladesh", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0103", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 103, "n": 102, "text": "On 20 July 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government of Belarus regarding the alleged disappearance of Dmitry Zavadsky, Russian Public Television (ORT) cameraman on 7 July 2000. According to the information received, his disappearance was reported after he failed to show up for a meeting at Minsk Airport with Pavel Sheremet, another ORT journalist. It has been alleged that the Belarusian secret service was involved in Mr. Zavadsky’s disappearance, owing to his continuing work on a documentary about Belarus. Moreover, it has been reported that the Belarusian opposition was accused by the first deputy chief of the Belarusian Presidential Administration of Mr. Zavadsky’s disappearance.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Belarus", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0104", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 104, "n": 103, "text": "The Special Rapporteur acknowledges the communication of the Government of Belarus dated 8 August 2000 which indicates that an investigation into Dmitry Zavadsky’s disappearance was opened with the notable assistance of the Internal Affairs authorities.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Belarus", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0105", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 105, "n": 104, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply and welcomes the opening of an investigation into the disappearance of Mr. Zavadsky. However, he remains very concerned about the fate of Mr. Zavadsky.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Belarus", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0106", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 106, "n": 105, "text": "On 14 April 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions concerning the arrest on 7 and 8 April 2000 of the following individuals: Gabriel Herbas, a member of the Environmental Forum (“Foro del Medio Ambiente”); Walter Antezana, head of the Departmental Labour Centre (“Central Obrera Departamental”); Emilio Sejas, manager of Heavy Transport of Cochabamba (“Transporte Pesado de Cochabamba”); Ascencio Picha, leader of “Tropico de Cochabamba”; Felipe Quispe Huanca, head of the Bolivian Farmers Trade Union Federation (“Federacion Sindical Unica de Trabajadores Campesinos de Bolivia”); Fred Nunez, head of the Rural Teachers Trade Union (“Sindicato de Profesores Rurales”); Angel Claur; Sacarías Pereira; Víctor Cossio; Francisco Partis; Santiago Gareca; Víctor Nina; Enriqueta Imaca; Emilio Rodríguez; Filomeno Rivera; Felipe Flores; Osvaldo Toco; Juan Yapura; and Pedro Soto. Reportedly arrested for participating in demonstrations against the Government, it was reported that most of them were held incommunicado and might be victims of torture and ill-treatment.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Bolivia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0107", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 107, "n": 106, "text": "On 18 April 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions with regard to the arrest between 8 and 10 April 2000 of David Goitia Benito, Franz Guzmán, Noel Guzmán, Wilfredo Plaza, Edwin Huanca and Bartolomé Flores, and the alleged torture to which they were subjected. It was reported that they had been released but that there was still fear for their safety. Moreover, concern was expressed about Gloria Eyzaguirre and Jaime Buitrago, two journalists who received death threats on 13 April 2000 and a bomb threat at work. It was further reported that Oswaldo Rojas and other members of the television network Periodistas Asociados Televisión had received death threats after they filmed and transmitted the shooting of Hugo Daza.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Bolivia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0108", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 108, "n": 107, "text": "The Special Rapporteur awaits replies from the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Bolivia", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0109", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 109, "n": 108, "text": "On 2 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning the arrest on 23 February 2000 of Erick Guimaraes, Marco Studard and Valdir Gomez Soares of the newspaper O Povo in Fortaleza (province of Ceara). They were reportedly arrested and assaulted while investigating reports of corruption in the municipal government of Hidrolandia.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Brazil", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0110", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 110, "n": 109, "text": "On 10 March 2000, the Government acknowledged receipt of the urgent appeal of 2 March 2000 and informed the Special Rapporteur that the communication had been transmitted to the relevant authorities.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Brazil", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0111", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 111, "n": 110, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for acknowledging receipt of his communication. He awaits further information on the above-mentioned case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Brazil", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0112", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 112, "n": 111, "text": "On 8 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal, together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, regarding the arrest and detention on 1 December 1999 in Ouagadougou of Paulin Yaméogo, editor of San Finna. He was reportedly interrogated in connection with a picture he published which showed a person who was allegedly victim of military brutality. The Special Rapporteur also drew attention to the reported detention of Halidou Quedraogo, Tolé Sagnon, André Tibiri, Benewende Sankara and Bourteima Sigue, in connection to their participation in the preparation of a commemoration of the anniversary of the murder of the journalist Norbert Zongo.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Burkina Faso", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0113", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 113, "n": 112, "text": "On 17 April 2000, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on torture, transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government concerning the arrest of Halidou Ouédraogo, Tolé Sagnon, Norbert Tiendrébéogo and Bénéwendé Sankara on 13 April 2000, as well as the arrest of Pierre Bidima and Etienne Traoré, along with 33 other people, on 10 April 2000. According to the information received, these individuals were detained in connection with their activity as members of democratic organizations and political parties fighting against impunity and for the respect of fundamental freedoms following the murder of a journalist, Norbert Zongo. It was reported that the six individuals were detained without charges and that they had their heads shaved.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Burkina Faso", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0114", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 114, "n": 113, "text": "In its reply of 22 December 1999, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Paulin Yaméogo was never arrested but only detained in order to be interrogated and released after 72 hours. Moreover, the Government explained that the other five men were not arrested but only questioned and then released. Both cited incidents were said to be simple cases of police investigation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Burkina Faso", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0115", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 115, "n": 114, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply and welcomes reports of the unconditional release on 15 April 2000 of Halidou Ouédraogo, Tolé Sagnon, Norbert Tiendrébéogo, Bénéwendé Sankara and Pierre Bidima. However, the Special Rapporteur notes that the Government has not sent any official reply to his communication dated 17 April 2000, nor any official confirmation of the release. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur remains concerned about the situation of Etienne Traoré.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Burkina Faso", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0116", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 116, "n": 115, "text": "On 6 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, sent an urgent appeal regarding the re-internment of Wang Wanxing, a political dissident, at Angank psychiatric facility. It was reported that he had been held at Angank for seven years from 1992 to 1999 in connection with a protest banner he displayed in Tiananmen Square in 1992. His recent re-internment was reportedly linked to his intention to hold a news conference to describe his experiences as a psychiatric patient.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0117", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 117, "n": 116, "text": "On 18 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal concerning the arrest of four writers of the underground publication China Culture Revival Bulletin. According to the information received, Xiong Jinren and Chen Wei were arrested on 11 January 2000 in Guiyang, Wang Yiliang was arrested on 30 January 2000, while Hu Jun was detained on 31 January 2000 by the Shangai police. All four individuals were reportedly arrested in connection with their work for the China Culture Revival Bulletin, which promotes human rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0118", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 118, "n": 117, "text": "On 13 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government regarding the conviction of Rebiya Kadeer on 21 February 2000 for “ignoring the law of the country and giving information to separatists outside the borders”. According to the information received, she was detained on 11 August 1999 while she was on her way to a meeting with a United States congressional staff delegation to whom she reportedly intended to give information about political prisoners in Xinjiang.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0119", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 119, "n": 118, "text": "Jointly with the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 22 March 2000 concerning Xu Wenli, a writer and human rights defender. According to the information received, Xu Wenli, who is serving the second year of a 13-year sentence for “damaging State security” and for secretly planning to set up a “Chinese democratic party”, was officially diagnosed with hepatitis B. It was reported, however, that he was not receiving sufficient medical care and that the conditions of detention were causing a deterioration in his health.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0120", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 120, "n": 119, "text": "On 15 June 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal regarding Qi Yachen, a freelance journalist and Web dissident, who reportedly was charged with subversion on 30 May 2000 by a court in Hebei province and faced a five-year prison sentence in connection with his writings and articles for Kaifang and VIP Reference. Moreover, it was reported that Huang Qi, editor of a Web site on human rights in China, had been detained since 3 June 2000 in Sichuan province and had been accused of subversion following the publication of articles on his Web site which denounced the Tiananmen Square events.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0121", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 121, "n": 120, "text": "The Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 25 August 2000 with regard to the arrest of Jiang Shihua, the owner of an Internet café and a computer teacher, on 16 August 2000 in Nanchong (Sichuan province), allegedly in connection with the publication of pro-democracy articles. He was reportedly accused of incitement to subvert the State’s authority and faces a 10-year jail sentence. Moreover, it has been reported that, in the context of the creation of a police unit in charge of controlling the Internet by the Ministry of State Security in August 2000, the New Culture Forum Web site was closed and banned on 3 August 2000. It was further alleged that a group of five operators of this Web site had subsequently to go into hiding after its shut-down.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0122", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 122, "n": 121, "text": "On 19 January 2000, the Government of China replied to the communication of the Special Rapporteur dated 6 December 1999 regarding the case of Wang Wanxing. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that he was found to be suffering from paranoia in 1992 by the medical authorities at Angank Hospital. The Government also explained that he was put back in the hospital after a three-month trial out-patient procedure, because specialists determined he was suffering from a recurrence of his ailment. The Government added that, under the Chinese Penal Code, mentally-ill individuals cannot be held criminally responsible for damage caused as a result of their illness but that therapy can be imposed on them by the Government. Moreover, the Government stated that Wang Wanxing was receiving treatment out of regard for his health and that his internment had nothing to do with his exercise of freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0123", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 123, "n": 122, "text": "On 21 November 2000, the Government replied to the communication of the Special Rapporteur dated 22 March 2000. The Government indicated that Xu Wenli is currently serving his sentence at Beijing Yanqing Prison and undergoes regular physical examination. The Government contends that the allegation that his health is worsening because of a lack of medical treatment is at variance with the facts and that a check-up performed in August 2000 indicated that Xu Wenli’s condition was back to normal.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0124", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 124, "n": 123, "text": "A reply from the Government to the communication dated 15 June 2000 was received on 11 December 2000 and was in the process of being officially translated at the time of completion of this report.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0125", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 125, "n": 124, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for the replies received thus far and awaits further responses to his communications dated 3 November 1999, 18 February 2000, 13 March 2000, 15 June 2000 and 25 August 2000. He would also like to reiterate his wish to visit China in the near future, as requested by letter dated 17 June 1999.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["China", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0126", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 126, "n": 125, "text": "On 4 July 2000 the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal jointly with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions concerning Roberth Cañarte Montealegre, a trade unionist who had been allegedly abducted by members of the paramilitary group Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia. According to the information received, Roberth Cañarte Montealegre was abducted on 29 June 2000 in the south west of the department of Valle del Cauca, after he allegedly received death threats from members of the above-mentioned paramilitary group.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Colombia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0127", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 127, "n": 126, "text": "On 9 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions regarding alleged harassment of and threats against Gerardo González, a member of the Central Unitaria de Trabajadores, of the Sindicato de Pequeños Agricultores de Cundinamarca, and a member of the Consultative Council dependant on the International Labour Organization. It was reported that a document announcing a paramilitary offensive in Bogota, as well as the execution of some people including Mr. González, was published on 5 May 2000. On August 1999, his name had reportedly been included in a list of individuals targeted by the Ejército Rebelde Colombiano.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Colombia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0128", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 128, "n": 127, "text": "On 22 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a communication regarding reported acts of intimidation and violence committed against journalists in Colombia since 1999. In particular, it has been reported that Carlos Augusto Pulgarín Guevara, a journalist for El Tiempo in Montéria, had to flee the country when he received death threats in June 2000 after writing an article about the conflict between Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), the authorities and paramilitary groups in the region. Moreover, it was brought to the Special Rapporteur’s attention that Jineth Bedoya Lima, a journalist for El Espectador, was reportedly abducted near the “La Modelo” prison in Bogotá, and later found beaten up with her hands tied near Villavicencio. In addition, it was reported that her abductors also threatened other journalists.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Colombia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0129", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 129, "n": 128, "text": "On 30 November 2000, the Special Rapporteur, jointly with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, transmitted an urgent appeal pertaining to the arrest on 14 November 2000 of Luis Gabriel Caldas León, the Executive Director of the Corporation of the Group for Non-violent Action of Desarollo Humano Integral y Vocero Continental de la Red de Objeción de Conciencia Latinoamericana y del Caribe. He was reportedly accused of not having fulfilled his military service duties, charges on which he had already been arrested in 1995.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Colombia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0130", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 130, "n": 129, "text": "In its reply dated 9 August 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the abduction of Roberto Cañate Montealegre occurred on 29 June 2000 between La Playa Prison and Galicia Prison close to Zarzal while he was driving a trash van. The Government stated that the alleged abductors could be members of the Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia, who wore military clothes.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Colombia", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0131", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 131, "n": 130, "text": "In its letter dated 26 September 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that, with regard to the alleged threats and harassment against Gerardo González and his family, it had transmitted the communication to the competent authorities. At that point no information had been received about the adoption of specific actions.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Colombia", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0132", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 132, "n": 131, "text": "In its communication dated 22 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur requested the Government to extend an invitation to him to carry out an official visit to Colombia in the near future.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Colombia", "Visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0133", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 133, "n": 132, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its replies and reiterates his wish to undertake a visit to Colombia in the near future. In this context, he expresses a concern about the current situation in Colombia with regard to the abduction of and death threats to journalists and persons seeking to exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression, as well as with regard to the murder of 11 journalists in 2000.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Colombia", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0134", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 134, "n": 133, "text": "On 17 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning Oscar Elyas Biscet González, a physician and the President of the Lawton Foundation for Human Rights, reportedly detained since 3 November 1999 in Havana. He was allegedly accused of “dishonouring national symbols”, “public disorder” and “inciting delinquent behaviour” in connection with a press conference held on 28 October 1999 on the occasion of the Ibero-American Summit, during which he criticized human rights violations in Cuba. It was reported that his attorney was denied access to his files for 49 days after his arrest, that he had been detained 26 times in the past within a period of 18 months, and that he had previously been mistreated by the authorities and suffered harassment and intimidation.\nCommunication received", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Cuba", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0135", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 135, "n": 134, "text": "On 6 March 2000, the Government sent a reply concerning Oscar Elyas Biscet González, explaining that he had been detained under provisions of the Penal Code and that further information about this case would be sent at a later time.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Cuba", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0136", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 136, "n": 135, "text": "In its reply dated 4 July 2000, the Government transmitted further information concerning Oscar Elyas Biscet González, explaining that Dr. Biscet González was a violent and aggressive person and that, since 1996, he had conducted himself in a notorious way against the public order. The Government also said that, during Dr. Biscet González’s trial, due process had been respected, that the defendant was allowed to choose his own lawyer and that his detention was not arbitrary. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Dr. Biscet González was sentenced for dishonouring national symbols, public disturbance and incitement to offences. It also stated that, at the trial, information was issued connecting Dr. Biscet González with the Cuban-American National Foundation, which is considered as a terrorist organization, as well as information suggesting that the Lawton Human Rights Foundation did not exist legally. The Government denied that he had been the victim of any physical or moral ill-treatment.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Cuba", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0137", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 137, "n": 136, "text": "In a communication dated 3 October 2000, the Government transmitted comments to the Special Rapporteur with regard to his note verbale of 28 August 2000 regarding the Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation (“The public’s right to know”, E/CN.4/2000/63, annex).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Cuba", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0138", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 138, "n": 137, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its replies. He would also like to reiterate his wish to undertake a visit to Cuba.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Cuba", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0139", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 139, "n": 138, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate his wish, as expressed in letters dated 18 March 1996 and 10 November 1999, to undertake an official visit to the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea in the near future.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Democratic People’s Republic of Korea", "Visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0140", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 140, "n": 139, "text": "Jointly with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 24 March 2000 with regard to the arrest of Donatien Nyembo Kimuni, a journalist for La Tribune, on 13 March 2000 in Lubumbashi/Kamalondo by agents of the National Information Agency. It was reported that he had been detained in connection with the publication of an article regarding alleged abuses of power by Georges Manzila Nfundi, the director of the Agence Nationale de Reseignements (ANR)/Katanga.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0141", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 141, "n": 140, "text": "On 10 May 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Special Rapporteur on torture and the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers concerning the arrest and the charges brought against Freddy Loseke Lisunbu La Yayenga, editor of La Libre Afrique. He was reportedly charged on 31 December 1999 in connection with articles published regarding an alleged conspiracy within the Congolese army against President Kabila. It was reported that Freddy Loseke, who has allegedly been detained since 25 February 2000 at the Penitentiary and Reeducation Centre in Kinshasa, faced a 10-year prison sentence. Concerns were expressed for his health in the light of reported mistreatment at the detention centre, as well as of his hunger strike.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0142", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 142, "n": 141, "text": "On 29 June 2000, together with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government regarding the arrest of Richard Nsamba Olangi, editor of Le Messager Africain, and Emile-Aimé Kakese Vinalu, journalist and editor of Le Carrousel. According to the information received, Mr. Olangi was arrested on 14 June 2000 and brought to the Penitentiary and Reeducation Centre in Kinshasa on charges of defamation against Charles Otoko. Moreover, it was reported that Mr. Vinalu was arrested on 24 June 2000 by members of the police special services and sent to the National Information Agency (ANR/Fleuve) in connection with two articles published about the Congolese opposition.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0143", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 143, "n": 142, "text": "On 17 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur, jointly with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, sent an urgent appeal to the Government regarding a ministerial order dated 14 September 2000 prohibiting the broadcasting of news programmes and certain cultural and evangelization programmes by nine private broadcasting and television stations, namely Radio Elikya, Radio Malebo Broadcast Channel, Radio RTKM, Radio Sentinelle, Radio Kintuadi, Antenne A télévision, Channel Kin 1 and Kin 2, as well as Télévision TKM. According to the information received, only Radio Raga in Kinshasa still had permission to broadcast limited news bulletins.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0144", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 144, "n": 143, "text": "The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release on 4 January 2001 of Freddy Loseke Lisumbu, Emile-Aimé Kakese Vinalu and Jean-Pierre Ekanga Mukuna. However, he remains concerned at the fact that these three journalists were tried and sentenced for their work by a special military tribunal. The Special Rapporteur also regrets that no reply from the Government has been received so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0145", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 145, "n": 144, "text": "On 24 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a communication requesting further information regarding the arrest of Mariano Oyono Ndong on 25 May 1999 and of Carmelo Biko Ngua three days later in Okas Obe, on accusations by a member of the ruling Partido Democrático de Guinea Ecuatorial of holding an illegal political meeting. They were reportedly held in incommunicado detention and had been physically ill-treated. It was also reported that Antonio Engonga Bibang was arrested a week later in Añisok in connection with a letter he had sent to Mariano Oyono Ndong, which was interpreted by the authorities as a reference to a plot to overthrow the Government. It was said that these three individuals were arrested because of their political affiliation with the Fuerza Demócrata Republicana. Moreover, following a trial in December 1999, Mariano Oyono Ndong was reportedly sentenced to three years’ imprisonment for possession of an Amnesty International document, while Antonio Engonga Bibang and Carmelo Biko Ngua were respectively sentenced to three years and six months in prison on charges of insulting the Government and the armed forces. In addition, the Special Rapporteur raised the case of Juan Obiang Latte and Teodoro Abeso Nguema who were detained in November 1999 for possessing a copy of a newspaper article and charged with “insults and calumny against the State”. They were reportedly provisionally released in January 2000. It was further reported that Pedro Nolasko was dismissed as a journalist working for Radio-Television of Equatorial Guinea in 1992, that he had been receiving threats since 1997 and had been subjected to intimidation, especially since March 1998 following the publication of articles in La Opinión. Furthermore, it was alleged that the Ministry of Information had ordered the removal of Manuel Nze Nzogo from the presidency of the Press Association (ASOPGE) in April 1999 because he reportedly resisted alleged attempts by the authorities to turn the organization into a showcase for the Government.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Equatorial Guinea", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0146", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 146, "n": 145, "text": "In its communication of 24 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur requested that the Government extend an invitation to him to carry out an official visit to Equatorial Guinea in the near future.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Equatorial Guinea", "Visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0147", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 147, "n": 146, "text": "The Special Rapporteur awaits a reply from the Government and reiterates his wish to undertake a visit to the country.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Equatorial Guinea", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0148", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 148, "n": 147, "text": "On 22 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning Hafez Abu Sa’ada, who was charged on 13 February 2000 for having accepted a cheque from a foreign country in 1998 without giving the required notification to the authorities. It was alleged that the charges were connected with the publication of a sensitive report on human rights violations which occurred in Al-Kushh in January 2000.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Egypt", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0149", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 149, "n": 148, "text": "In a communication sent on 23 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur requested information about the cases of Salah Badawi, Essam Hanafi and Magdi Hussein of the Al-Sha’ab newspaper, sentenced on 14 August 1999 to two years in prison and a fine for libelling the Minister of Agriculture and the Deputy Prime Minister of Egypt in a series of articles. They were reportedly released in December 1999 after a ruling that they had not been given a fair trial. The Special Rapporteur also raised the case of Mohammad Al Ghanam, who has repeatedly been threatened since 1997, allegedly in connection with articles he wrote about police corruption and prison conditions, and subjected to harassment. It was further reported that the publication of 14 newspapers was suspended on 19 January 2000 on the basis of a decree by the Prefect of Cairo allegedly targeting newspapers critical of the Government’s policies. Finally, the Special Rapporteur expressed concerns about a draft law on publishing, which defined publication criteria in broad and vague terms.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Egypt", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0150", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 150, "n": 149, "text": "On 10 July 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal regarding the arrest on 30 June 2000 of Dr. Saad El Din Ibrahim, a professor at the American University in Cairo and Director of the Ibn Khaldoun for Developmental Studies, and the ensuing security raid on his house and the Ibn Khaldoun Centre where he works. It was reported that documents and computers were confiscated, and that two of the centre’s staff, Nadia Abdel Nour and Ossama Hamad, were also arrested. According to the information received, the three of them faced charges of forgery relating to the forthcoming parliamentary elections.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Egypt", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0151", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 151, "n": 150, "text": "On 21 August 2000, the Government replied to the communication dated 23 February 2000, informing the Special Rapporteur that the sentence of two years in prison and a fine against Magdi Ahmed Hussein and Salah Badeiwi, the sentence of one year in prison and a fine against Essam Hanafi, as well as the fine imposed on Adel Hussein, had been reconfirmed on appeal and enforced on 1 April 2000. The Government explained that the accused had lodged another appeal with the Court of Cassation and that the judgement was to come under review on 5 September 2000. It also explained that the penalties imposed on these citizens had nothing to do with their profession or with denial of freedom of opinion and expression, but were penalties to which any citizen, regardless of his profession, is liable for offences of libel. In addition, the Government stated that publication of the 14 newspapers mentioned in the communication was suspended because they had been published illegally, without a licence from the Higher Press Council. Moreover, the Government recalled that the press was regarded as a fourth State authority and formed the subject of a special chapter of the Constitution of 1980.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Egypt", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0152", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 152, "n": 151, "text": "In a communication of 14 December 2000, the Government replied to the concerns raised in the allegation transmitted on 23 February 2000, explaining that the appeal presented by the accused journalists to the Court of Appeal had been rejected on 29 September 2000 after due process of law.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Egypt", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0153", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 153, "n": 152, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Egypt for the replies received. Following a request to visit the country pending since 18 March 1996 and reiterated by the Special Rapporteur on 26 June 2000, an official invitation from the Government was extended to him on 3 July 2000. He hopes to undertake this visit in 2001.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Egypt", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0154", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 154, "n": 153, "text": "On 17 July 2000, together with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal regarding information received about threats formulated against Ileana Alamilla, director of the information agency CERIGUA and other journalists of the same agency. It was reported that on 23 June and on 10 July 2000, the agency received phone calls proffering death threats against the director and the journalists of CERIGUA.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Guatemala", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0155", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 155, "n": 154, "text": "In its communication dated 15 August 2000, the Government provided information on the measures taken by the authorities, and in particular by the Presidential Commission for Human Rights (COPREDEH), to investigate the threats and to offer protection to the staff of CERIGUA, notably police surveillance in the vicinity of CERIGUA’s headquarters, and to guarantee the life and physical integrity of Ileana Alamilla.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Guatemala", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0156", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 156, "n": 155, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Guatemala for its reply.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Guatemala", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0157", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 157, "n": 156, "text": "In a joint communication with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions dated 6 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur requested an invitation from the Government to carry out an official visit to India, in the context of a joint mission to both India and Pakistan, in the near future.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["India", "Visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0158", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 158, "n": 157, "text": "The Special Rapporteur, jointly with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on torture, sent an urgent appeal on 6 January 2000 concerning the detention of Syaifuddin Gani and Nazaruddin Ibrahim, two human rights lawyers, in the province of Aceh. According to the information received, they were arrested on 4 January 2000 by Indonesian police in the town of Sigli and were held at Sigli Police Resort. They were reportedly arrested in the context of a vast police operation against presumed members of the separatist group Gerakan Aceh Merdeka (GAM). Fears were expressed for their safety.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Indonesia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0159", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 159, "n": 158, "text": "On 10 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent appeal together with the Special Rapporteur on torture and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions regarding the incommunicado detention of 15 people reportedly arrested on 6 October 2000 during a demonstration supporting Papuan independence. Furthermore, it was reported that Yorenius Wenda and Alex Meage were taken from their homes by members of the Indonesian National Army a few days prior to the demonstration. Fears were expressed that they might be at risk of torture and summary, arbitrary or extrajudicial execution.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Indonesia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0160", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 160, "n": 159, "text": "The Special Rapporteur, jointly with the Special Rapporteur on torture, sent an urgent appeal on 7 December 2000 concerning the detention since 20 November 2000 of Muhammad Nazar, a leading activist of the Aceh Referendum Information Centre (SIRA), at the Aceh Police Headquarters (Polda Aceh). It was reported that he was officially charged in connection with his involvement in a boycott of the celebration of Indonesian Independence Day on 17 August 2000. It was, however, believed that he was arrested for his participation in the pro-independence rally in Banda Aceh on 10 and 11 November 2000. Fears were expressed that he might still be at risk of torture after he was allegedly tortured and ill-treated while in police custody.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Indonesia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0161", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 161, "n": 160, "text": "On 12 December 2000, together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal with regard to the arrest on 2 December 2000 by Indonesian police in Jayapura (Irian Jaya) of Oswald Iten, a Swiss journalist working for Neue Zürcher Zeitung. It was reported that he was accused of carrying out journalistic activities with only a tourist visa, that he was detained in Jayapura prison in extremely difficult conditions and that he was facing up to five years’ imprisonment.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Indonesia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0162", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 162, "n": 161, "text": "On 14 February 2000, the Government of Indonesia provided information on the detention and arrest of Syaifuddin Gani and Nazaruddin Ibrahim, indicating that the two men’s right to physical and mental integrity and to be free from arbitrary detention had been respected. The Government further explained that the two men had been questioned at the Pidie Police Resort in connection with documents relating to the activities and the organizational structures of GAM found in their car. They were released the next day because the police did not have sufficient evidence and they were reportedly allowed to be accompanied by their lawyers.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Indonesia", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0163", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 163, "n": 162, "text": "The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release on 13 December 2000 of Oswald Iten from a prison in Jayapura after 12 days in detention. Furthermore, he thanks the Government for its reply but awaits further responses to his communications. The Special Rapporteur would also like to reiterate his wish, as expressed in his communications dated 18 March 1996 and 9 May 2000, to undertake an official visit to Indonesia in the near future.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Indonesia", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0164", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 164, "n": 163, "text": "On 26 April 2000, together with the Special Representative on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal regarding the indefinite closure of 14 newspapers and magazines announced on 23 and 24 April 2000. The 14 publications, namely Asr-e-Azadegan, Fat’h, Aftab-e-Emrooz, Arya, Gozaresh-e-Ruz, Bamdad-e-No, Payam-e-Azadi, Azad, Payam-e-Hajar, Aban, Arzesh, Iran-e Farda, Sobh-e Emrooz and Akhbar Egtesad, were reportedly closed for continuing to publish articles against “the bases of the luminous ordinances of Islam and the religious sanctities of the noble people of Iran and the pillars of the sacred regime of the Islamic Republic”. In addition, it was reported that Latif Safari, a journalist with the banned daily Neshat, was imprisoned on 23 April 2000 following his conviction on charges of defamation, inciting unrest and “insulting the sanctity and tenets of Islam”, in connection with articles he published in Neshat. Moreover, Akbar Ganji, a journalist with Sobh-e Emrooz, was reportedly arrested on 22 April 2000 in connection with complaints filed against him by the Government concerning articles he had published in Iranian newspapers.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iran (Islamic Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0165", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 165, "n": 164, "text": "The Special Rapporteur, jointly with the Special Representative on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur on violence against women and the Special Rapporteur on torture, sent an urgent appeal on 11 May 2000 concerning the detention since 29 April 2000 of two women’s rights activists, Mehrangiz Kar and Shahla Lahiji, as well as that of Ali Afshari, a representative of Daftar-e Tahkim-e Vahdat, reportedly arrested on 30 April 2000. It was reported that the three individuals were accused of “acting against national security” in connection with their participation in a conference in Berlin organized by the Heinrich Boell Institute in April 2000 at which political and social reforms in Iran were debated. It was believed that they were held in incommunicado detention and that they were at risk of torture or other forms of ill-treatment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iran (Islamic Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0166", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 166, "n": 165, "text": "On 30 June 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent appeal with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on torture regarding the arrest on 26 June 2000 of Ezzatollah Sahabi, a journalist and managing editor of Iran-e Farda, allegedly in connection with his participation in the conference in Berlin in April 2000. It was reported that his home was searched on 20 June 2000 and that he was held without charges and in incommunicado detention. In addition, it was reported that Khalil Rostamkhani was also arrested on 8 May 2000 in connection with his work as a translator at the conference in Berlin in April 2000. It was alleged that he was also held in incommunicado detention without charges and that he had been denied the right to legal representation. Fears were expressed that both individuals might be at risk of torture.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iran (Islamic Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0167", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 167, "n": 166, "text": "Jointly with the Special Representative on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government on 11 August 2000 with regard to the arrest on 5 August 2000 of Hasan Yousefi Eshkevari, Director of the Ali Shariati Research Centre and a contributor to the banned newspaper Iran-e Farda, on grounds of defamation and “acting against national security” in connection with a speech he gave at the conference in Berlin in April 2000. It was further reported that Ahmad Zeidabadi, a journalist with Hamshahri, was arrested on 7 August 2000 in connection with articles he wrote for now-banned newspapers, and that Massoud Behnoud was arrested on 9 August 2000 on the basis of more than 50 complaints about his writings for several banned newspapers. In addition, it was alleged that more than 20 publications have been banned since March 2000, in particular the daily Bahar, banned on 8 August 2000, and the weekly Cheshmeh Ardebil, suspended for four months on 7 August 2000 for “disturbing public opinion” and “insulting Islamic sanctities”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iran (Islamic Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0168", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 168, "n": 167, "text": "On 5 September 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning Baghi Emadeddin, a journalist, who was sentenced to five and a half years’ imprisonment on 29 May 2000 by the Revolutionary Press Court and sent to Evin Prison in Tehran. According to the information received, he was charged with publishing articles questioning the validity of Islamic Law and disseminating unsubstantiated new stories, allegedly in connection with a series of articles he published in Neshat implicating Iranian officials in the murders of a number of intellectuals and dissidents in recent years.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iran (Islamic Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0169", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 169, "n": 168, "text": "Together with the Special Representative on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 16 November 2000 concerning the situation of Akbar Ganji, a freelance journalist arrested on 22 April 2000, allegedly in connection with his participation in the conference in Berlin in April 2000. Reportedly accused of threatening national security, disseminating propaganda against the Islamic system and insulting religious edicts and figures, he appeared before the Revolutionary Court in Tehran on 9 November 2000 when he told how he had been beaten and tortured in Evin prison. He reportedly explained that he had been held in solitary confinement for 80 days, without access to his family nor his lawyer.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iran (Islamic Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0170", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 170, "n": 169, "text": "On 16 November 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent appeal with the Special Representative on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions concerning the conviction of Hasan Yousefi Eshkevari on charges of defamation, of insulting the founder of the Islamic Republic and of apostasy in connection with his participation in the conference in Berlin in April 2000. It was alleged that he could be facing the death sentence, that he was held in solitary confinement and that he was denied both medical check-ups and access to legal counsel.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iran (Islamic Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0171", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 171, "n": 170, "text": "On 24 March 2000, the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran replied to the communication of the Special Rapporteur dated 13 July 1999 (see E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 115) concerning incidents during student demonstrations on 8 July 1999 at Tehran University. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the individuals who were arrested in the context of the demonstrations were members of illegal groups and not students making legitimate appeals. Moreover, the Government explained that 30 of the 50 individuals arrested had been released on bail. The Government stated that it was studying the issue and that the judiciary was independently following up on it.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iran (Islamic Republic of)", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0172", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 172, "n": 171, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran for having sent him information on recent developments regarding the situation of freedom of opinion and expression in the Islamic Republic, as well as for its reply concerning the case of student demonstrators. He also welcomes the release on bail of Massoud Behnoud on 16 December 2000 and hopes to be kept informed about his situation. However, he would like to draw attention to the arrest and detention of many individuals who participated in the conference in Berlin in April 2000 which discussed political and social reforms in Iran. The Special Rapporteur awaits further replies.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iran (Islamic Republic of)", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0173", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 173, "n": 172, "text": "On 7 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a communication concerning the alleged use of direct and indirect censorship by the Government to hamper the freedom of independent media on the eve of the presidential elections. The Special Rapporteur requested information about cases of indictment under the Law on National Security and the Law on “Honour and Dignity”, in particular: the case of the publishing company TOO Big-L which was closed on 25 October 1998 in connection with an article which allegedly incited to national enmity; the case of Madel Ismailov convicted on 7 April 1998 of insulting the honour and dignity of the President during a peaceful opposition demonstration in Almaty in November 1997; the case of Petr Svoik charged with incitement to national hatred, slander and offending an official in connection with an article published in March 1998 entitled “Kazakhstan and Russia: will they enter into a new union?”. Moreover, it was reported that on 27 October 1998, a six-month suspension of publication of Soroko was ordered by the Karaganda Regional Procurator’s Office, allegedly because of violations of the Law on the Media, a suspension which was later extended two days before the presidential elections. In addition, on 10 September 1998, a court ruling in Almaty awarded sizeable compensation to the head of the government-funded Kazakhstan television channel in his libel suit against the newspaper Dat, which reportedly frequently published articles on the Government. The Special Rapporteur also requested information about the alleged confiscation by the police of editions of Dat on 4 November 1999 on charges that they had been illegally transported across the border and about the damage caused to the editorial offices of the Almaty-based XXI Vek by a firebomb in September 1998.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kazakhstan", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0174", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 174, "n": 173, "text": "The Special Rapporteur awaits a reply from the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kazakhstan", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0175", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 175, "n": 174, "text": "On 22 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning the arrest and detention of Johann Wandetto, sentenced on 15 February 2000 to 18 months in prison in connection with an article published on 6 March 1999 in The People. The article reportedly discussed the alleged disarmament of the elite presidential guards by a militia in the West Pokot region.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kenya", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0176", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 176, "n": 175, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has yet been received.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kenya", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0177", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 177, "n": 176, "text": "On 26 January 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government regarding the sentencing on 22 January 2000 of Dr. Alya Shu’ayb, Laila Al-’Othman and Yahia Al-Rubay’an to two months in jail and a fine for writings that were said to “cause harm to religion and to morality” since they mentioned lesbian relationships.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kuwait", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0178", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 178, "n": 177, "text": "In its reply dated 10 April 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the prison sentences of Dr. Alya Shu’ayb, Laila Al-’Othman and Yahia Al-Rubay’an were annulled on 26 March 2000. Dr. Shu’ayb was sentenced to pay a fine of KD 100 on the charge of distributing and selling a book without a licence, Mr. Al-Rubay’an was sentenced to pay a\nfine of KD 100 on charges of failing to notify the Department of Publications in writing before publication of the book, while Ms. Al-’Othman and Mr. Al-Rubay’an were both sentenced to pay KD 1,000 for publishing Ms. Al-’Othman’s book.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kuwait", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0179", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 179, "n": 178, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Kuwait for its reply.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kuwait", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0180", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 180, "n": 179, "text": "In a communication sent on 28 September 2000, the Special Rapporteur requested information concerning acts of intimidation and harassment against journalists of the independent daily Delo No. According to the information received, Viktor Zapolsky, Svetlana Krasilnikova and Vadim Nochevkin were detained and questioned on 16 August 2000, allegedly without access to a lawyer. Moreover, Ms. Krasilnikova was admitted to the National hospital in Bishnek following the questioning. The three journalists were reportedly interrogated in connection with Mr. Nochevkin’s article on the trial of former government minister Feliks Kulov. Furthermore, it was reported that the Web site Politika KG, which had published a letter denouncing the harassment of these journalists, was closed down on 25 August 2000.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kyrgyzstan", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0181", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 181, "n": 180, "text": "On 13 November 2000, the Government of Kyrgyzstan responded to the letter of the Special Rapporteur dated 28 September 2000, indicating that the materials published in Delo No consisted of comments made on the testimony which was heard in camera. The information in question was about undercover agents of the special services and therefore constituted State secrets. The disclosure of this information was a violation of the law. Since Mr. Nochevkin, Mr. Zapolsky and Ms. Krasilnikova were being questioned as witnesses in a criminal case, the questioning was conducted without the presence of a lawyer, in accordance with the Code of Criminal Procedure. The Government explained that the questioning took place in one of the offices where investigating officers normally work and that, during the questioning, no coercion or other forms of pressure were applied. On 18 December 2000, the Special Rapporteur received further information concerning the case of the Delo No. The Government informed him that the Investigations Department of the Ministry of National Security had initiated criminal proceedings for breach of State secrecy in relation to the article published in Delo No and that the Investigations Department had questioned Mr. Zapolsky, Ms. Krasilnikova and Mr. Nochevkin on 16 August 2000 in compliance with the requirements of the law on criminal procedure. The Government explained that the interrogations were shorter than indicated in the Special Rapporteur’s communication, that the questions put to the three journalists were not of the nature of threats or intimidation and that no violations of s. 61(1) of the Kyrgyz Code of Criminal Procedure occurred.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kyrgyzstan", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0182", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 182, "n": 181, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Kyrgyzstan", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0183", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 183, "n": 182, "text": "On 17 December 1999, an urgent appeal was sent by the Special Rapporteur regarding the arrest on 9 November 1999 of Thongpaseuth Keuakoun, Khamphouvieng Sisa-Ath, Seng-Aloun Phengphanh, Bouavanh Chanhmanivong, Keochay and several other colleagues, teachers and students. Mr. Keuakoun and his colleagues were allegedly arrested for planning a march to ask for freedom, democracy and human rights. According to the information received, the organizers of the march were detained first at a detention centre and then in a labour camp in Vientiane.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Lao People’s Democratic Republic", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0184", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 184, "n": 183, "text": "The Government informed the Special Rapporteur, in a communication dated 31 May 2000, that the information concerning the arrest of students on 9 November 1999 was false. The Government explained that the Lao authorities concerned had arrested on that day a group of about 10 people who were said to have violated the laws of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic because they created trouble and disorder by preparing to distribute leaflets against the Government. Furthermore, the Government stated, the arrests were made under legal procedures and those people were awaiting trial in compliance with the country’s legal procedures.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Lao People’s Democratic Republic", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0185", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 185, "n": 184, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Lao People’s Democratic Republic", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0186", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 186, "n": 185, "text": "In a communication sent on 31 October 2000, the Government of Latvia transmitted comments to the Special Rapporteur with regard to his note verbale of 28 August 2000 regarding the Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation (“The public’s right to know”) (see E/CN.4/2000/63, annex).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Latvia", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0187", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 187, "n": 186, "text": "On 9 May 2000, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, sent an urgent appeal concerning the situation of lawyer Muhamad Mugraby. It had been reported that a statement by the Prosecutor General published in local newspapers indicated that Mr. Mugraby, an active human rights defender, might be prosecuted for defamation for statements he made concerning cases of corruption involving members of the judiciary. Further allegations had been received suggesting that he might be subject to precautionary arrest.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Lebanon", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0188", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 188, "n": 187, "text": "In its reply dated 11 July 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that legal charges against lawyers in Lebanon had to be approved by the Ordre des Avocats and to be based on acts committed in the context of legal practice. On 19 May 2000, the Ordre des Avocats ruled that the complaints against Muhamad Mugraby were not connected to his legal practice. The Government explained that the charges against Mugraby were pending.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Lebanon", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0189", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 189, "n": 188, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Lebanon", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0190", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 190, "n": 189, "text": "On 22 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning the illegal closure of the privately owned Star Radio on 14 March 2000. According to the information received, while the articles of incorporation of Star Radio allegedly allowed it to disseminate information without time restrictions, the Information Minister informed the station that it had only been granted a temporary licence allowing it to broadcast during the 1997 elections and there was no reason for it to continue airing “political talk shows, news and interviews”. In addition, the Special Rapporteur received information concerning the closing down of Radio Veritas, and the seizing by the police of documents and broadcasting equipment. Journalists and technicians were allegedly manhandled during the intervention.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Liberia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0191", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 191, "n": 190, "text": "On 22 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal regarding the arrest of Gugulakhe Radebe, David Barrie, Tim Lambon and Sorious Samura in Monrovia on 18 August 2000 by a team of police. It was reported that the four journalists, who work for the London-based Insight News Television and were in Liberia shooting a documentary series, had been arrested for carrying out “acts against the security of the State” and charged with “spying against the Republic of Liberia”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Liberia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0192", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 192, "n": 191, "text": "The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release on 25 August 2000 of the four foreign journalists after they gave their apologies to the Liberian nation. He awaits replies from the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Liberia", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0193", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 193, "n": 192, "text": "On 8 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture concerning Sami Muhammad Sami, ’Abd al-Hafez Muhammad al Naggar, Ashraf Sulayman al-Hamrouni, Imam ’Awad Khabouli, Gamal Mabrouk Abu Sha’ala, ’Adel Salim Kakouka and Iamn Muhammad ’Attiya, who were allegedly forcibly returned to the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya from Jordan on 4 January 2000 under suspicion of being sympathizers of Islamist groups. According to a Jordanian official, they had been found on 7 March distributing leaflets critical of the Libyan authorities. It was believed that they had been arrested upon return.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Libyan Arab Jamahiriya", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0194", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 194, "n": 193, "text": "The Special Rapporteur awaits a reply from the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Libyan Arab Jamahiriya", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0195", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 195, "n": 194, "text": "On 17 January 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government of Malaysia concerning the charges brought against Zulkifli Sulong and Chia Lim Thye, respectively editor and publisher of the bi-weekly Harakah, on 12 January 2000. According to the information received, they were accused of sedition for an article published on 2 August 1999 which accused the media of supporting the authorities in their prosecution of Anwar Ibrahim. It was further reported that Chandra Muzaffar, the author of the article and Deputy President of the Keadilan Party, was also charged with sedition. If convicted, they were said to face the maximum penalty of a M$ 5,000 fine and three years’ imprisonment. Moreover, concerns were expressed with regard to threats articulated by the Ministry of Home Affairs to suspend the bi-weekly, as well as the pro-opposition publications Detik, Wasilah, Tamadun, and Eksklusif.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0196", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 196, "n": 195, "text": "Jointly with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 19 April 2000 concerning Tian Chua, the Vice-President of the National Justice Party (PKN); Roslan Kassim, PKN Information Chief; Mohd Ezam Mohd Nor, PKN Youth Chief; N. Gopalankrishnan, PKN Supreme Council member; Abdul Malek Hussain, Mohd Hafiz Hashim and 46 other members of the PKN. It was reported that they were arrested in connection with a demonstration on 15 April marking the first anniversary of the jailing of the former Deputy Prime Minister, Anwar Ibrahim. Roslan Kassim was reportedly arrested on 14 April 2000 and ordered to be detained for seven days on suspicion of inciting others to attend an illegal assembly. All the others were reportedly arrested on 15 April 2000 and were held in custody for up to six days. Six of them were allegedly assaulted and were later denied medical treatment. It was said that they had only limited access to their lawyers and that they were not allowed to see their families. It was reported that Tian Chua was suffering from asthma and was on daily medication for food poisoning.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0197", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 197, "n": 196, "text": "On 9 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture regarding Lokman Noor Adam, N. Gopalakrishnan, Norazimah Mohd. Noor, Zanaib Rahmah and three others known as Monas Suffian, Rahimah and Munawar, who had reportedly been arrested during a demonstration on 4 August 2000. The demonstration was said to be in support of the former Deputy Prime Minister, Anwar Ibrahim, the verdict in whose trial was expected to be handed down, and of about 30 people who were on trial charged with participating in an illegal assembly. It is further reported that in a similar demonstration on 8 August 2000, Tian Chuan, Abdul Malek Hussein, Monas Suffian, Norsuria b. Ismail, Putra b. Zulkarnain, Sabran b. Hamzah, Mohd. Jasni Zakaria, Nekmat b. Abu and four women were also arrested. It was believed that seven of them had been charged with participating in an illegal assembly. On 4 August 2000, Lokman Noor Adam, youth leader of the PKN, was reportedly beaten by five plain-clothed men at the time of arrest and charged with taking part in an illegal assembly. On 8 August 2000, Tian Chuan was detained at Ibu Pejat Kontijen, where he was separated from the other demonstrators and taken to the Serious Crime Department. He was then reportedly surrounded by a number of police officers, including a superintendent and two chief inspectors, whereupon he was allegedly kicked and pushed to the floor. He was then reportedly taken to a police cell, where other inmates were encouraged by the police to assault him. When Sabran B. Hamzah was arrested at the demonstration on 8 August 2000, he was reportedly punched in the face and kicked in the stomach by four or five uniformed police officers.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Malaysia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0198", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 198, "n": 197, "text": "The Government of Malaysia replied on 10 April 2000 concerning the case of Zulkifli Sulong and Chia Lim Thye, explaining that their arrests were carried out in accordance with the law and as a consequence of full investigation of offences by the police.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Malaysia", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0199", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 199, "n": 198, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply and awaits further responses to his communications.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Malaysia", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0200", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 200, "n": 199, "text": "On 10 January 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on torture concerning the detention of Umar Jamal, Ibrahim Ahmed Maniku and Abdul Rasheed, all candidates in the November 1999 parliamentary elections. It was reported that Umar Jamal was arrested at his house on 29 October 1999 after an argument with a rival candidate and taken to Dhoonidhoo detention centre. The two other candidates had reportedly been detained since early November 1999. Before being transferred to house arrest, they were first reportedly taken to Dhoonidhoo detention centre, where they were allegedly deprived of sleep for several days, being forced to sit on stools in rain and storms and beaten every time they fell asleep.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Maldives", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0201", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 201, "n": 200, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply from the Government has been received so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Maldives", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0202", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 202, "n": 201, "text": "On 30 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a communication to the Government regarding the suspension of a number of newspapers under article 11 of the Mauritanian Press Law. The Special Rapporteur drew particular attention to the following cases: the one-month suspension of L’Eveil Hebdo on 9 February 2000 and its seizure on 12 April 2000; the seizure on 23 March 2000 of issues 7 and 9 of Errouya Al Watania; the seizure of Nouakchott-Infos on 17 May 2000, of two editions of La Tribune on 3 July and 23 August 2000, as well as of issue number 21 of Le Carrefour on 24 August 2000.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mauritania", "Communication sent"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "11", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0203", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 203, "n": 202, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply from the Government has been received so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mauritania", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0204", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 204, "n": 203, "text": "On 9 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal together with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions regarding death threats received by Juan López Villanueva, a lawyer for Area Jurídica del Centro de Derechos Humanos, and Arturo Solis, Director of the Centro de Estudios Fronterizos y Promoción de los Derechos Humanos (CEF-PDH). It was reported that these threats were linked to the accusations they had articulated against alleged drug traffickers who reportedly threatened journalists who denounced the state of violence in Ciudad Miguel Aleman.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0205", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 205, "n": 204, "text": "On 7 July 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent the Government of Mexico an urgent appeal concerning the charges of defamation brought against Arturo Solís, Director of CEF-PDH in Reynosa, by a governmental organization after he reportedly publicly accused officials of the National Migration Institute (INM) in Tamaulipas of illegal traffic of migrants, extortion and foul treatment of them. It was reported that several witnesses who had spoken in his defence had received death threats and that Mr. Solís and his family had been followed by strangers in vehicles without licence plates. Furthermore, staff of the CEF-PDH had reportedly received anonymous death threats on 9 February 2000.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0206", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 206, "n": 205, "text": "On 14 July 2000, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, sent an urgent appeal with regard to Freddy Secundino Sanchez, who works for Epoca Magazine. It was reported that on 15 June 2000 he was approached in front of his home by two armed individuals who claimed to be from the “Judicial Police” and ordered him to get into a taxi. He was reportedly detained in the car for two hours and held at gunpoint by one of his kidnappers, who told him “you should already know why we are here”. During this time he reportedly received several death threats in connection with articles published by his magazine and he was beaten up.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0207", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 207, "n": 206, "text": "On 4 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal after being informed that, in the context of the forthcoming elections in the State of Tabasco on 15 October 2000, opposition parties had denounced the lack of balanced and impartial coverage of the electoral process by Televisión Tabasqueña S.A. de C.V. - Channel 7 (TVT). It was reported that this television channel had repeatedly refused to sell space for the transmission of television spots featuring Caesar Raul Ojeda Zubieta, Democratic Revolution Party candidate for Governor. Opposition parties further alleged that campaign coverage on channels 7 and 9 was partial and discriminatory. Moreover, it was alleged that Roberto Madrazo Pintado, the then-Governor and candidate for the Institutional Revolutionary Party, was directly responsible for Channel 7 as a result of the Government of the State of Tabasco holding 98 per cent of the share capital of Televisión Tabasqueña S.A. de C.V..", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0208", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 208, "n": 207, "text": "On 26 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur together with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions sent an urgent appeal to the Government regarding death threats received by electronic mail by Jaime Avilés, a journalist with La Jornada, on 21 October 2000 in Mexico City. It was reported that, on the same day, La Jornada had published an article in which Jaime Avilés connected the Governor of the State of Tabasco, Roberto Madrazo Pintado, with different cases of corruption. It was further alleged that, in May 2000, Jaime Avilés had received another death threat by electronic mail after writing a series of articles on the performance of the Government in the indigenous communities of the State of Chiapas.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0209", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 209, "n": 208, "text": "On 13 December 2000, the Government of Mexico replied to the communications dated 6 September 1999, 16 September 1999 and 1 November 1999 concerning death threats against Digna Ochoa Plácido and other members of the Human Rights Centre “Agustín Pro-Juárez” (PRODH) (see E/CN.4/2000/63, para.145). The Government stated that the Mexican authorities gave special attention to the rights of human rights defenders and that in the case of threats, the authorities would immediately take the necessary steps to guarantee victims’ safety, in accordance with article 40 of the Law on the National Human Rights Commission. The Government expressed its concern over the reported death threats against Digna Ochoa Plácido and transmitted information on her case received from the Comisión Nacional de derechos humanos (CNDH) and from the Comisión de Derechos Humanos del Distrito Federal. On 3 September, the CNDH had registered the complaint through the Coordinación del programa de atención de agravios a periodistas y defensores civiles de derechos humanos and, the same day, had requested that the necessary steps be taken to guarantee Digna Ochoa Plácido’s safety. The declaration and testimony of Digna Ochoa Plácido were reportedly taken and the investigation initiated. Despite an earlier refusal, Digna Ochoa Plácido finally accepted personal protection and the head office of PRODH received 24-hour protection from the judiciary police.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications received"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "40", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0210", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 210, "n": 209, "text": "On 18 May 2000, the Government transmitted information concerning Luis Mario García Rodríguez, on behalf of whom the Special Rapporteur had sent a communication on 6 October 1999 (see E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 146). The Government explained that an investigation had been initiated on 13 February 1998 by the Office of the Government Procurator of the Federal District and that it was impossible to provide more information as the procedures were confidential.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0211", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 211, "n": 210, "text": "In a reply dated 21 May 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that an investigation had been opened in relation to the threats against members of the Centro de Derechos Humanos “Agustín Pro-Juárez” and Digna Ochoa y Plácido in particular, and that preventive measures necessary to protect the life and physical integrity of the victims had been immediately implemented. The Government explained that, on 18 November 1999, Digna Ochoa y Plácido had accepted an offer of personal protection and, from 4 November 1999, received 24-hour protection from members of the judiciary police on the premises of the Centro de Derechos Humanos “Miguel Agustín Pro Juárez”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0212", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 212, "n": 211, "text": "In reply to his communication of 9 February 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur on 26 May 2000 that, concerning the threats received by Arturo Solis, the National Human Rights Commission had begun an investigation into complaints of threats, intimidation and censorship against Mr. Solis. Moreover, his request to have the investigation carried out under the Programme for the Protection of Journalists and Human Rights Defenders had been brought to the attention of the Office of the Attorney-General in order for it to make the necessary arrangements. In the case of Juan López Villanueva, the State had informed the Mexican League for the Protection of Human Rights on 14 January 2000 that those concerned in the case should apply to the representative of the Public Prosecutor’s Office in order to lodge a complaint for appropriate legal action. In a communication dated 14 June 2000, the Government provided additional information concerning Arturo Solis, explaining that he had declined the suggestion of the Attorney-General to make a formal complaint to the Procurator’s Office since he believed that the circumstances threatening his personal safety no longer existed.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0213", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 213, "n": 212, "text": "In a communication dated 14 September 2000, the Government provided further information about Arturo Solis in reply to the Special Rapporteur’s communication of 7 July 2000, explaining that protective measures had been put in place by the Office of the Attorney-General in the State of Tamaulipas on 11 July 2000 to guarantee the safety of Mr. Solis.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0214", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 214, "n": 213, "text": "In a reply dated 14 September 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur, with regard to the situation of Freddy Secundino Sánchez, that the case had been transmitted to the relevant competent authorities and that a preliminary inquiry had been opened by the Human Rights Commission of the Federal District, which had on repeated occasions requested effective and timely protection for Freddy Secundino Sánchez and his family.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0215", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 215, "n": 214, "text": "On 30 November 2000, the Government replied to the Special Rapporteur’s communication of 26 October 2000, informing him that the Secretariat of the Governor had offered Jaime Avilés an investigation and the necessary protection. The Directorate of Juridical Affairs of the Secretariat of the Government of the State of Tabasco informed the Special Rapporteur that it firmly denied that the Governor of the State of Tabasco, on his own or through any intermediary, had generated, promoted, favoured or carried out any action with the intention of harming people in any way that contravened, inter alia, constitutional principles or the rights to freedom of expression enshrined in the Constitution.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0216", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 216, "n": 215, "text": "In a communication sent on 10 November 2000, the Government of Mexico transmitted comments to the Special Rapporteur in response to his note verbale of 28 August 2000 regarding the Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation (“The public’s right to know”) (E/CN.4/2000/63, annex).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0217", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 217, "n": 216, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its replies.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Mexico", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0218", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 218, "n": 217, "text": "On 5 December 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal concerning the decision of the Government to close the weekly newspapers Le Journal, Assahifa and Demain on the basis of article 77 of the Press Code. It was reported that the three newspapers were accused of threatening the stability of the State in connection with the publication of a letter from Mohamed Basri, a political opponent, which allegedly implicated the current Prime Minister in the attempted coup d’état of 1972 against King Hassan II. In addition, the Special Rapporteur expressed his concerns about the brief closure during 2000 of seven newspapers: Le Reporter, Le Quotidien du Maroc/Economie, Al Moustaquil, Jeune Afrique-L’Intelligent, Le Journal, Assahifa and Le Figaro.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Morocco", "Communication sent"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "77", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0219", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 219, "n": 218, "text": "The Special Rapporteur welcomes the resumption of publication of Le Journal and Assahifa on 12 January 2001, but awaits a reply from the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Morocco", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0220", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 220, "n": 219, "text": "Together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 11 April 2000 concerning U Than Chaun, the 70-year-old owner of a coffee shop in Shwe-Goo township, Kachin State. Arrested on 18 December 1999 because he reportedly had tuned in to a Voice of America programme, he was allegedly charged on 19 January 2000 under article 505 (B) of the Criminal Code and sentenced to two years’ imprisonment. It was reported that he had no access to legal representation and that he was suffering from medical problems which were becoming life-threatening in detention.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Myanmar", "Communications sent"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "505", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0221", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 221, "n": 220, "text": "On 4 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent appeal with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention regarding the arrest and detention, on 24 June 2000, by local government officials in Magwe Division, of Thaung Sein, Soe, Par Lay and Pu, all members of the National League for Democracy (NLD). They had reportedly been trying to contact the International Committee of the Red Cross on behalf of U Wine San, a NLD local leader, who was said to be serving a seven-year prison sentence with hard labour. On 26 June 2000, they were charged with attempting to destabilize the Government and sentenced to two years’ imprisonment with hard labour. It was alleged that the charges against them were purely politically motivated.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Myanmar", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0222", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 222, "n": 221, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has been received from the Government of Myanmar so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Myanmar", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0223", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 223, "n": 222, "text": "On 7 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal regarding Krishna Sen, the editor of the Nepal language weekly Janadesh. According to the information received, he was first arrested in Kathmandu on 19 April 1999 in connection with the publication of an interview with Baburam Bhattarai, considered a leader of the Maoist insurgency in Nepal. He was reportedly kept in detention despite a Supreme Court order for his release on 10 August 1999. According to the authorities, he was released on 9 February 2000 and arrested again on 13 February 2000. However, it was believed that he was instead transferred to Siraha Jail and was allegedly charged with carrying illegal weapons.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Nepal", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0224", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 224, "n": 223, "text": "In its reply dated 12 April 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Krishna Sen was not under police detention.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Nepal", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0225", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 225, "n": 224, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Nepal", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0226", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 226, "n": 225, "text": "On 6 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government regarding the arrest and detention of Zahoor Ansari and Ayub Khoso, respectively publisher and columnist of the newspaper Alakh. It was reported that they were sentenced to 10 years in prison for allegedly making derogatory remarks against the prophets and hurting religious feelings in an article published on 5 September 1999. They were reportedly given additional seven-year prison terms under the 1997 Anti-Terrorism Act and fined PRs 17,000 each, or two further years in jail in the case of non-payment of the fine.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Pakistan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0227", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 227, "n": 226, "text": "On 2 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government regarding Gohar Ali, a correspondent for Surkhab, and Malik Rab Nawaz, a reporter with Maidan. According to the information received, the two journalists were arrested\non 29 February 2000 in Batkhela, while reporting on alleged official involvement in timber smuggling, and charged with fraud. They were reportedly not eligible for bail and were kept in police custody.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Pakistan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0228", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 228, "n": 227, "text": "The Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 28 June 2000 with regard to the arrest of Ahmed Jan Siddiqui, a correspondent of the Ausaf in Sadda newspaper, and the issuing of an arrest warrant against Iqbal Hussain, a correspondent of the Rawalpindi-based Jang. It was reported that Ahmed Jan Siddiqui was arrested on 7 June 2000 by policemen in Sadda for having published articles denouncing corruption within the local civil administration. Moreover, it was reported that Iqbal Hussain went into hiding after an arrest warrant was issued against him on 23 May 2000. His brother and father were reportedly arrested on 6 June 2000 and released on 10 June, with threats of going back to jail if Iqbal Hussain did not give himself up to the police within two weeks. It was alleged that Iqbal Hussain had written reports on the arrest of a group of people during a demonstration on behalf of a religious scholar who was in conflict with the authorities.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Pakistan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0229", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 229, "n": 228, "text": "On 10 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions with regard to the death threats received by Inayat-ul-Haq Yasini, a journalist at the Pushto-language daily Wahdat in Peshawar. It was reported that he had been receiving threatening telephone calls since he published, on 26 June 2000, a survey based on comments made by Afghan refugees and leaders in camps in north-west Pakistan. He was also said to have been threatened by an anonymous person calling “from the Taliban”. It was alleged that he had received an anonymous letter advising him “not to favour the movement of General Al-Maroof Shariati” if he did not want to pay a “high price”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Pakistan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0230", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 230, "n": 229, "text": "In a joint communication with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions dated 6 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur requested the Government to extend him an invitation to carry out an official visit to Pakistan in the near future, in the context of a joint mission to both Pakistan and India.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Pakistan", "Visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0231", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 231, "n": 230, "text": "The Special Rapporteur awaits a reply from the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Pakistan", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0232", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 232, "n": 231, "text": "On 2 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, sent an urgent appeal concerning the arrest and detention of leading Palestinian intellectuals, including Yasser Faek Abu Saifeh, Abdel Sattar Qassem, Abdul Rahim Kittani, Adil Samara, Ahmed Qatamesh, Bassam Shaka’a and Wahi Al Hamdallah. They were reportedly arrested by the Palestinian police on 28 November 1999 following the issuing of a public statement criticizing the Palestinian Authority for corruption and calling for presidential and parliamentary elections. Shaker Dooden, Afif Sualiman Al-Judah and Adnan Odeh were also allegedly arrested on 29 November 1999 as the authors of the public statement. Ahmed Qatamesh, Adil Samara and Abdel Sattar Qassem had reportedly been transferred to the General Intelligence detention centre, while Yasser Faek Abu Safieh, Afif Sualiman Al-Judah and Adnan Odeh were held at the police criminal department in Nablus. Some of them were reportedly detained without charge and had been denied access to their lawyers.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Palestinian Authority", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0233", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 233, "n": 232, "text": "On 22 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal with regard to Khaled Amayreh, editor and chief of the newspaper The Hebron Times, who had reportedly been summoned on 11 February 2000 by the Palestinian Authority General Intelligence concerning an article in which he allegedly criticized President Arafat on the issue of refugees. He was also reportedly summoned by the Israeli District Coordination Office on 15 February 2000 in connection with the same article. On 16 February 2000, he was allegedly asked to publish material favourable to President Arafat if he did not want to see the publication close.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Palestinian Authority", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0234", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 234, "n": 233, "text": "Jointly with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal on 8 June 2000 concerning the arrest on 21 May 2000 of Mohammad Muqbel, Director General in the Ministry of Youth and Sports. It was reported that he had been arrested and detained without an arrest warrant or due legal procedure and that he was held in solitary confinement in Ramallah Central Prison. It was believed that his detention was linked to his active participation in a demonstration for Palestinian prisoners the same day. Fears were expressed concerning his safety and health, given his respiratory problems and the incommunicado nature of his detention.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Palestinian Authority", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0235", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 235, "n": 234, "text": "On 23 June 2000, together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal regarding Maher Abdul Majeed Al Alami, a Palestinian journalist, reportedly detained since 6 June 2000. Summoned for an interview by the Palestinian General Intelligence at the Ramallah and Al Bireh Governor’s Headquarters, he was taken to Ramallah Central Prison without being interviewed or informed of any charges against him. Although the arrest order stated that he had “broken the law”, the reason for his arrest was believed to be his taking part in a television broadcast on 31 May 2000 during which he participated in a discussion on the Palestinian National Authority’s policy of shutting down local television and radio stations, as well as his opinions published in the Al Istiqlal newspaper.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Palestinian Authority", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0236", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 236, "n": 235, "text": "On 30 June 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on torture with regard to the arrest of Abed al-Fattah Ghanem, one of the President’s advisers on refugee affairs and a political leader of the Palestinian Liberation Front. It was reported that he was arrested on 21 June 2000 by the Palestinian police in Ramallah, allegedly in connection with statements he made to Jordanian and Arab Gulf newspapers regarding a just and final settlement of the refugee question and the alleged administrative corruption surrounding the issue. He was believed to be held in incommunicado detention and to be denied access to his lawyer and his family.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Palestinian Authority", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0237", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 237, "n": 236, "text": "The Special Rapporteur welcomes the release of Abed al-Fattah Ghanem from Ramallah Central Prison on 12 October 2000. However, the Special Rapporteur awaits a reply from the Palestinian authorities.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Palestinian Authority", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0238", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 238, "n": 237, "text": "On 20 January 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a communication to the Government requesting information regarding the reported closure on 9 December 1999 of the radio station Radio Libertad by the Ministry of Transportation and Communications, allegedly because it lacked official authorization and was airing clandestine broadcasts. It was also reported that Carlos Burmester, director of the programme Voice from the Street, had been threatened with civil, criminal and administrative sanctions unless he changed his independent journalistic style. Moreover, charges of slander and defamation had reportedly been brought against Rolando Rodrich Sarango, director of the Correo de Piura newspaper, and Vilma Herrea de Soto, following investigations carried out by the newspaper into administrative irregularities and abuse of authority within the judiciary. It was further alleged that Henry Vasquez Limo and Edgar Valladares Orozco, journalists for Frecuencia Latina - Canal 2, were beaten by a group of extremist members of the National Solidarity Party on 18 December 1999, while covering the launching of Luis Castañeda Lossio’s presidential campaign. In addition, it was reported that Horacio Potest, a journalist with Caretas, received a one-year suspended prison sentence and was fined 20,000 new soles on charges of defamation in connection with articles alleging that a lawyer, Javier Corrochano Patrón, alleged to be linked to Vladimiro Montesinos, was involved in criminal activities. Furthermore, Carlos Infante Yupanqui, manager of the weekly Democracia, was reportedly threatened by Celestino Torres, a member of the Huamanga municipal council following the publication in the newspaper of a report on irregularities in a number of local institutions and organizations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0239", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 239, "n": 238, "text": "On 6 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning the case of Luis Villanueva López, the director of the radio programme La voz informativa, who had allegedly received death threats from Mayor Lorenzo Sanchez Cabanillas on 26 February 2000 after Mr. López reported irregularities about the mayor. It was also reported that Mr. Sánchez Cabanillas, a member of President Fujimori’s party, had threatened to close Mr. López’s radio programme. Mr. López had been allegedly threatened by another representative of the party on 12 May 1999 after he had criticized the local government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0240", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 240, "n": 239, "text": "On 29 May 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture concerning Fabián Salazar Olivares, a journalist who had reportedly been beaten and tortured because he was in possession of information about corruption during the presidential elections. It was reported that, on 24 May 2000, four men had entered his office claiming they belonged to the Superintendencia Nacional de Administracion Tributaria. They allegedly tortured Mr. Salazar Olivares and tried to throw him out of the window. He had reportedly stated previously that he was under surveillance by the Servicio de Inteligencia Nacional. Fears had been expressed that Salazar Olivares might be tortured again.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0241", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 241, "n": 240, "text": "On 11 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a communication expressing concern at harassment and violence against journalists, most of them belonging to the opposition. According to the information received, the harassment suffered by the journalists included physical and verbal aggression and threats. On 16 May 2000, Santiago González Coronado, of the La República and El Popular newspapers, allegedly received death threats from the mayor of Putumayo district, Pablo Cumary Ashanga. On 22 January 2000, Armando Murrieta García, the programme director of Tercer Tiempo in Iquitos (Loreto) was allegedly assaulted. Furthermore, it was reported that, on 12 May 2000, freelance journalist Roger Luciano, Hugo González Hinestrosa from the newspaper Liberación and Omar Robles Torres, editor of Presencia were assaulted by a group of government officials. It was further alleged that, on 28 May 2000, Manuel Rosa Matos, programme director of Radio Loreto was attacked by the National Police and that Leddy Mozombite Linares, who works for Radio Santa Rosa, was reportedly attacked on 29 May 2000 and suffered sexual harassment. According to the information received, on 8 June 2000, Mónica Vecco, a journalist with La República, was physically assaulted by members of an organization called Grupo 5 de Abril. Furthermore, in June 2000, the Municipality of San Borja allegedly ordered the closure of the offices of the opposition newspaper Liberación. It was also reported that, on 12 September 2000, Alexis Fiestas Quintos and Víctor Granada, who work for the newspaper El Popular, were attacked by the mayor of San Juan de Lurigancho district, Ricardo Chiroque, and his security personnel.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0242", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 242, "n": 241, "text": "On 24 March 2000, the Government of Peru replied to the communication dated 20 January 2000 concerning the case of Carlos Burmester Landauro, explaining that an inspector of the Ministry of Transportation and Communications had gone to the premises of the Radio Company “Libertad” on 9 December 1999 to verify its legal situation, licence and payment of taxes and the operational condition of the equipment. Although all the documents proved to be in order, the closure of the station were requested on the basis of Acta de verificación. It was reported that the Ministry subsequently requested that the closure would not be enforced and acknowledged that the inspector had misused his power. On 10 December 1999, Mr. Burmester was informed that the radio channel Libertad could continue its normal activities. The Government also provided information about Rolando Rodrich Sarango, stating that he had been tried, found guilty of defamation and sentenced to pay US$ 100,000 compensation. The sentence was contested and an appeal was pending at the time the response was sent. With regard to Henry Vasquez Limo and Edgard Valladares Orozco, the authors of the assault were still unknown and investigations were being conducted by the National Police. In addition, the Government explained that Borazio Marcelo Potesta Zapata had been tried, found guilty of defamation on 22 December 1999 and received a suspended sentence of one year’s imprisonment. An appeal of the sentence was still pending at the time of the reply. Furthermore, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that personal protection measures were taken on 11 January 2000 by the prefecture of Hamanga on behalf of Carlos Infante Yupanuqui, at the request of the Association of Journalists of Ayacucho.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0243", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 243, "n": 242, "text": "On 28 March 2000, the Government replied that, in the case of Luis Villanueva López, the alleged facts were being investigated by the competent authorities, in particular the Chepén Peruvian National Police station, with the involvement of the Government Procurator’s Office, in accordance with the appropriate legal and administrative procedures. On 30 November 2000, the Government transmitted further information on the results of the investigation. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that it had not been possible to find reliable evidence of crimes of coercion and attempted murder committed against Luis Villanueva López.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0244", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 244, "n": 243, "text": "In a reply dated 26 July 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the authorities of Peru had taken all necessary measures to guarantee the physical integrity of Salazar Olivares. However, Salazar Olivares had refused all protection and failed to give needed information to officials in charge of the investigations, hindering the investigations themselves, which were still being carried out at the time of the reply.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0245", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 245, "n": 244, "text": "On 7 December 2000, the Government transmitted a reply to the communication dated 11 October 2000. No complaint had been lodged with the Office of the Attorney-General concerning the alleged threats and attacks against Leddy Moxombit Linares, Mónica Vecco, César Hildebrant, Alexis Fiestas Quintos and Victor Granada. Neither had any complaint been received concerning, or request to investigate, the alleged violation of freedom of opinion and expression against Santiago Gonzales Coronado, Armando Murrieta García and Manuel Rosa Mattos.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0246", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 246, "n": 245, "text": "Following the request to visit the country sent by the Special Rapporteur on 15 November 1999, an official invitation from the Government of Peru was extended to the Special Rapporteur on 4 April 2000. Several proposals as to dates were exchanged between the Special Rapporteur and the Government, which were not suitable to one or other side. The Special Rapporteur was unfortunately unable to visit the country on the latest date agreed to by the Government because of an unexpected commitment. He hopes to undertake the visit in the summer of 2001, after the presidential elections in Peru.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent", "Visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0247", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 247, "n": 246, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Peru for its replies and for having sent him information on the situation of freedom of opinion and expression in the country.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Communications sent", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0248", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 248, "n": 247, "text": "In a communication sent on 25 October 2000, the Government of Qatar transmitted comments to the Special Rapporteur in response to his note verbale of 28 August 2000 regarding the Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation (“The public’s right to know”) (E/CN.4/2000/63, annex).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Qatar", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0249", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 249, "n": 248, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the Government for its reply.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Qatar", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0250", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 250, "n": 249, "text": "Jointly with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 1 February 2000 with regard to the charges brought against Andrey Babitsky, a journalist with Radio Liberty, accused by officials of being pro-Chechen in his accounts of the conflict in Chechnya. It was believed that Andrey Babitsky was held incommunicado in Urus-Martan without access to his family or to a lawyer. It was reported by the Russian authorities that he was being held because he lacked special accreditation documents required for journalists to report from Chechnya and because of information implicating him with illegal armed groups.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Russian Federation", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0251", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 251, "n": 250, "text": "A second joint urgent appeal concerning Andrey Babitsky was sent by the Special Rapporteur on 7 February 2000, this time with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and the Special Rapporteur on torture. According to the information received, Mr. Babitsky had been handed over to Chechen fighters in exchange for captured Russian soldiers. It was reported that he was in detention in Khankala, in Chechnya, and would shortly be transferred to the city of Mozdok, in the Republic of North Ossetia, and then to Moscow.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Russian Federation", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0252", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 252, "n": 251, "text": "Together with the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 6 June 2000 regarding Taisa Isayeva, a Chechen journalist. She had reportedly been arrested by Russian forces on 2 June 2000 when she tried to cross the border from North Ossetia in the Russian Federation into Georgia at the “Nizhny Zaramag” border checkpoint, because she was carrying a video camera and a portable computer. She was allegedly held incommunicado at a secret “filtration camp”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Russian Federation", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0253", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 253, "n": 252, "text": "On 19 September 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and the Special Rapporteur on torture concerning Ruslan Alikhadzhiyev, the Speaker of the Chechen separatist “Republic of Incheria” Parliament, who had reportedly been arrested on 17 May 2000 in Shali by Russian troops. It was reported that, at a press briefing on 25 May 2000, the Deputy Chief of the General Staff of the Russian Army, General Manilov, confirmed that he had been captured. Ruslan Alikhadzhiyev had reportedly been taken first to a Russian military intelligence (GRU) facility in the Chechen town of Argun, before being transferred to a prison in Moscow, possibly the Lefortovo, run by the Russian Federal Security Service, where he is held incommunicado.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Russian Federation", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0254", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 254, "n": 253, "text": "By letter dated 22 August 2000, the Government responded that on 1 June 2000, Taisa Mutsolayevna Isaeva and F. Kovroyeva had been invited to go to the Vladikavkaz border unit in order to clarify the circumstances of their arrival at the “Nizhny Zaramag” checkpoint. Under a bilateral agreement between the Republic of Georgia and Russia, residents of the Chechen Republic could only enter Georgia via the “Verkhny Lars” checkpoint. After their identity had been established, it was suggested to them that they spend the night in the hotel of the border unit, which they agreed to do. They were not detained and no property was confiscated and, on 2 June, they left the border unit. They did not submit any complaints to the border officials and their whereabouts were not known. Law enforcement bodies in the North Causasus had been instructed to continue inquiries to determine the whereabouts of T. Isayeva.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Russian Federation", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0255", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 255, "n": 254, "text": "In a reply dated 9 October 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that R.S. Alikhadzhiev had not been arrested by federal troops and was not held by the Federal Security Service. The Government explained that he had been abducted in Shali on 17 May 2000 by unknown persons with firearms. On 27 July 2000, the procurator’s office for the Shalinsk district had instituted criminal proceedings and a number of investigations had been undertaken to determine the identity of the perpetrators and R.S. Alikhadzhiev’s whereabouts.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Russian Federation", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0256", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 256, "n": 255, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its replies and reiterates his wish to visit the country, as requested in letters dated 9 March 1999. He would also like to acknowledge the information he received about the sentencing on 13 December 2000 of Andrey Babitski by the Supreme Court of Dagestan to a fine of 8,350 roubles (US$300) for possession of a false passport.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Russian Federation", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0257", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 257, "n": 256, "text": "On 3 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions concerning the death threats allegedly received by Jayalath Jayawardene, a member of Parliament and lawyer. It was reported that he had received threatening telephone calls since he was accused of facilitating contacts between the United National Party (UNP) and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. He had reportedly been followed on several occasions by persons who threatened him.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sri Lanka", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0258", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 258, "n": 257, "text": "The Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal on 8 June 2000 concerning restrictions imposed on the media following the announcement of emergency regulations under the existing public security ordinance. These measures enable the Government to suspend television and radio programmes, and to seize or close down any publication, including the Internet, which it considers a danger to national security. A number of newspapers were reportedly closed under these regulations: on 19 May 2000, the Sri Lankan army allegedly closed down the Jaffna newspaper Uthayan; on 22 May 2000, the Sunday Leader and the Sunday Peramuna were reportedly closed down for six months on accusations of publishing articles without official permission. Moreover, on 18 May 2000, the news editor of the private television station Teshan Network was interrogated by the police in connection with its report on a bomb attack which occurred in Batticaloa, in eastern Sri Lanka. In addition, it was reported that P. Seevagan, Taraki, Roy Denish and Saman Waagarachchi, all senior journalists, had written to the President of Sri Lanka seeking protection against death threats, aired on 3 June 2000 on the State-owned television network ITN, from the organization called Deshabhaktha Madhiya Viyaparaya.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sri Lanka", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0259", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 259, "n": 258, "text": "On 27 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint communication to the Government with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and the Representative of the Secretary-General on internally displaced persons to express their concern over the murder on 19 October 2000 of Mylvaganam Nimalarajan, a journalist who worked as the Jaffna correspondent of numerous media, including the BBC. He was reportedly killed by unidentified attackers who shot him through a window of his home in Jaffna. It was alleged that this attack was the work of the Eelam People’s Democratic Party (EPDP), which had previously threatened him in connection with an article he wrote on 10 October. Mylvaganam Nimalarajan had been covering the Jaffna situation, including alleged widespread election rigging and the plight of internally displaced persons.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sri Lanka", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0260", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 260, "n": 259, "text": "On 31 January 2000, the Government of Sri Lanka replied to the communications sent by the Special Rapporteur on 18 June 1998 concerning the journalist Iqbal Athas and on 24 June 1998 regarding Lasantha Wickrematunga. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that on 12 February 1998 armed men had entered the house of Iqbal Athas and threatened him and his family. A complaint was reportedly made to the Mirihana police station and an investigation was opened. The Government explained that, as a result of confidential inquiries, two people, Don Pradeep Sanjeewa Kannangara and H. M. Rukman Herath, were taken into custody and were to stand trial on 24 and 26 May 2000. Furthermore, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur, concerning alleged attacks against the journalist Lasantha Wickrematunga, that gunshots had been fired at his house on 17 June 1998, and that the police authorities concerned were conducting further investigations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sri Lanka", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0261", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 261, "n": 260, "text": "On 13 December 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur, in reply to his communication of 3 February 2000, that, with regard to the alleged death threats against Jayalath Jayawardena, the Criminal Investigations Department had inquired into these allegations and had not been able to pursue its investigations in the absence of specific information or evidence with regard to the alleged threatening telephone calls he had received. The law enforcement authorities had conducted a further threat assessment concerning the personal security of Mr. Jayawardena which indicated that there was no specific threats against him. The Government stated that he had been provided with security at State expense and he was able to perform the normal functions of a member of Parliament.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sri Lanka", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0262", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 262, "n": 261, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its replies and awaits further information on the cases he raised this year. He would also like to reiterate his wish to visit the country, as requested in letters dated 29 April 1998 and 10 November 1999.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sri Lanka", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0263", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 263, "n": 262, "text": "On 28 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent appeal with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Sudan and the Special Rapporteur on torture concerning the arrest of Sidahmed Al Hardalou, a poet and former diplomat, and five journalists of the Al Sahafa newspaper: Kamal Hassan Bakheit, Ahmed Omar Rabie, Abdelgadir Hafiz, Rabie Hamid and Anwar Altikaina. It was reported that Al Hardalou and Bakheit were arrested on 22 March 2000 by Sudanese security forces and taken to the security offices in Khartoum North. The four other journalists were reportedly arrested on 23 March 2000. These arrests were allegedly linked to the publication of a number of articles in Al Sahafa supporting the National Democratic Alliance. It was alleged that they were held incommunicado and fears had been expressed that they might be at risk of torture.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sudan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0264", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 264, "n": 263, "text": "On 4 July 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture and the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Sudan regarding a series of arrests and alleged acts of violence perpetrated against students following a seminar entitled “the current Crisis in the Sudan and future prospects” at the University of Sennar on 18 June 2000. Uniformed soldiers were said to have opened fire on people at the seminar, killing a student named ‘Mirghami Mahmoud Al-Norman and injuring several others, including Salah Houli and Abu Shaiba. It was reported that, in the following days, there were many incidents of arrest, brief detention and torture of students by the police. In particular, the following students were reportedly arrested and tortured on 25 June 2000 by the security forces: Own Christopher, Mohamed Suliman Mahmoud, Tarig Awad, Alaa Eldeen Ahmed Osman, Medani Medani Mohamed, Khalid Hassan, Nizar Mohamed Awad, Alobied Hassan and Omer Mohamed Toam.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sudan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0265", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 265, "n": 264, "text": "On 13 December 2000, together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning the arrest of Ali al Said, Tijani Mustafa, Mohamed Mahjoub, Joseph Okailo, Mohamed Wida Ala, Suleiman Mustafa and Stans Jimmy Wongo, leading members of banned political parties and trade unions. They were reportedly arrested on 6 December 2000 by the Sudanese authorities during a meeting with a United States diplomat in Khartoum and accused of plotting an uprising backed by the rebel forces controlling southern Sudan and of passing on information to the rebels. It was reported that they had not been formally charged and had been held incommunicado. Fears were expressed that they might be at risk of torture.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sudan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0266", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 266, "n": 265, "text": "In a reply sent on 3 May 2000, the Government of the Sudan informed the Special Rapporteur that the summoning by government agents of the five journalists of Al Sahafa and Sidahmed Al Hardalou was predicated on the circumstances which gave rise to the declaration of the state of emergency. The Government explained that the purpose of the summoning was to conduct an inquiry, that the persons summoned were reportedly immediately released after completion of the investigation and that they were not subjected to any form of torture.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sudan", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0267", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 267, "n": 266, "text": "On 10 October 2000, the Government responded to the communication dated 4 July 2000, explaining that only four graduates from the University of Sennar had been summoned for investigation on suspicion of stirring up violence during the demonstrations and that they had been released immediately after signing affirmations to keep tranquillity and public peace in the University.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sudan", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0268", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 268, "n": 267, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its replies. He expresses his concern, however, at the continued detention of Ali al Said, Tijani Mustafa, Mohamed Mahjoub, Joseph Okailo, Mohamed Wida Ala, Suleiman Mustafa and Stans Jimmy Wongo.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Sudan", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0269", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 269, "n": 268, "text": "On 26 May 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture concerning the detention of Nizar Nayouf, editor-in-chief of the monthly Sawt al-Democratiyya and Secretary-General of the Committee for the Defence of Democratic Freedoms in Syria. Arrested in January 1992 and sentenced by a military court to 10 years’ of forced labour, he had reportedly been detained in harsh conditions and was suffering from serious injuries, allegedly due to torture inflicted on him by the prison authorities. He was reportedly unable to walk without a stick and to be suffering from an eye infection and back pain. It was also reported that Nizar Nayouf was returned to Mezze prison, after he had been taken from it on 26 April 2000 and after he refused to sign an undertaking not to be involved in any unauthorized political activity in exchange for his release.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Syria", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0270", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 270, "n": 269, "text": "In a reply dated 6 June 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Nizar Nayouf was receiving appropriate medical care and that he had been transferred to a hospital where he was under medical surveillance. Moreover, the state of health of Nizar Nayouf had been improving since he was placed on medication. The Government denied allegations that he had been offered his release in exchange for signing an undertaking.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Syria", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0271", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 271, "n": 270, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Syria for its reply. However, he reiterates his concern over the continued imprisonment of Nizar Nayouf, who was the laureate of UNESCO on World Press Freedom Day, 3 May 2000, and who is still in detention, whereas 600 political prisoners, including some journalists, were released on 16 November 2000.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Syria", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0272", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 272, "n": 271, "text": "In an urgent appeal sent on 23 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur requested information with regard to Khémais Ksila, Vice-President of the Ligue tunisienne de défense des droits de l’homme. It was reported that, since his release on 22 September 1999, and in particular since the visit of the Special Rapporteur to Tunisia, from 6 to 10 December 1999, he had been subjected to constant surveillance by police officers. Furthermore, he was reportedly involved in a suspicious car accident involving a police vehicle on 14 December 1999.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Tunisia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0273", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 273, "n": 272, "text": "Together with the Special Rapporteur on the right to education, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government on 17 August 2000 concerning Moncef Marzouki, a professor of medicine and spokesman for the Conseil national pour les libertés en Tunisie. According to the information received, he was discharged from his position as a professor at the University of Sousse following a hearing with the Ministry of Health on 27 July 2000. His dismissal reportedly followed his return from a trip to Europe and the United States, after a five-year revocation of his passport, during which he participated in meetings concerning the situation of human rights in Tunisia.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Tunisia", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0274", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 274, "n": 273, "text": "In a reply dated 21 January 2000, the Government of Tunisia informed the Special Rapporteur that Khemaïs Ksila had not been subjected to police surveillance since his release and that no accident involving an administrative vehicle was recorded on 14 December 1999.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Tunisia", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0275", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 275, "n": 274, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply. However, he awaits further information on the case of Mr. Marzouki, who was recently sentenced to one year’s imprisonment. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur would like to make some observations on the response of the Government to the report on his mission to Tunisia contained in a letter dated 26 May 2000 from the Permanent Representative of Tunisia to the United Nations Office at Geneva addressed to the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (E/CN.4/2001/4). The Special Rapporteur would like to correct a misperception and would draw the attention of the Tunisian authorities to the fact that a copy of his report was transmitted to them on 29 February 2000, before it was issued, in accordance with the standard United Nations practice. The Special Rapporteur wishes to stress that his report was based on information transmitted to him before, during and after his mission by independent and credible sources and that each allegation was carefully verified to the best of his ability. Throughout his report the Special Rapporteur tried to take a balanced view, noting the positive achievements in Tunisia, but also the inadequacies with respect to freedom of opinion and expression with a view to helping the Tunisian authorities to examine them and find suitable correctives. The Special Rapporteur encourages the Government to continue to cooperate fully with him and other thematic mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Tunisia", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0276", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 276, "n": 275, "text": "On 26 January 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal concerning the charges brought against Nazmi Gur, the Secretary-General of the Human Rights Association of Turkey (IHD) on 25 January 2000. Nazmi Gur was reportedly charged with having assisted a terrorist group in contravention of article 169 of the Turkish Penal Code, following the publication on 1 September 1999 of an article by him entitled “It is not hard to reach peace”. If convicted, he allegedly faces imprisonment for three to seven and a half years.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Turkey", "Communications sent"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "169", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0277", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 277, "n": 276, "text": "The Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government on 21 March 2000 with regard to the situation of Akin Birdal, ex-Chairman of the Association of Human Rights in Turkey. According to the information received, he was sentenced on 16 December 1998 to two one-year terms of imprisonment for speeches made in 1995 and 1996 in which he called on the Turkish authorities to negotiate a peaceful end to the conflict in the south-east of the country. Akin Birdal, who was imprisoned on 3 June 1999, was reportedly released on 25 September 1999 for six months on medical grounds. However, the charges against him were not dropped and he was allegedly due to go back to prison on 23 March 2000. It was further reported that he was to stand trial for a second time in Adana for a speech he allegedly made during the election campaign in December 1995.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Turkey", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0278", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 278, "n": 277, "text": "In a communication sent on 19 October 2000, the Special Rapporteur requested further information about cases of intimidation and harassment against journalists which had been brought to his attention, in particular: an assault by the police against Unal Cetiner, a cameraman for Flash TV on 5 August 2000 while he was covering a demonstration in Istanbul; the beating, short detention and interrogation of Jülide Kaliç, a reporter with Yeni Evrensel, on 17 August 2000; the arrest and brief detention of Ergüren Top, a journalist with Yeni Gündem, on 27 August 2000, in connection with his coverage of a press conference by relatives of political prisoners; the brief detention of Cengiz Kapman and Meral Kocamis, who photographed Ergüren Top being arrested; the imprisonment of Esber Yagmurdereli, a human rights lawyer and playwright, rearrested on 1 June 1998 after he had been partially amnestied and released in November 1997 on health grounds. In addition, the Special Rapporteur addressed the suspension of newspapers and radio stations by the authorities brought to his attention: the seizing of Roja Teze on 24 June 2000 in connection with two articles referring to “Kurdistan” and the “Kurdish national movement”; the 90-day suspension by the Audio-visual Council of Turkey (RTÜK) of Umut Radio on 27 July 2000 for “inciting to violence, terror and ethnic discrimination” by broadcasting a song by the extreme-left group, Cemo; the one-year suspension by the RTÜK of Özgür Radyo on 23 August 2000 for broadcasting a song by the extreme-left group, Kizilrmak; the seizing of Yeni Gündem on 31 August 2000 by the Security Court of the State of Istanbul for publishing an article on the “Kurdish revolution”; the 10-day suspension of Yeni Evrensel on 6 October 2000 following publication of an article entitled “The Kurdish issue and the fight for equal rights”, and the sentencing of its editor-in-chief, Tuncay Seyman, to a fine.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Turkey", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0279", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 279, "n": 278, "text": "The Government, in a reply sent on 6 June 2000, informed the Special Rapporteur that Nazmi Gur was acquitted by a decision of the State Security Court of Ankara on 3 February 2000.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Turkey", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0280", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 280, "n": 279, "text": "On 25 September 2000, the Government of Turkey replied to the communication sent on 21 March 2000 concerning Akin Birdal, explaining that he was released on 23 September 2000, the day on which his sentence was completed. The Government further informed the Special Rapporteur that, as of 28 March 2000, while serving the last part of his sentence, he had received regular physiotherapy treatment in prison.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Turkey", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0281", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 281, "n": 280, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its replies. He welcomes the following important acquittals and releases which took place in Turkey in the past year: the acquittal of Nazmi Gur, the release of Akin Birdaland and the acquittal by the Beyoglu District Penal Court in Istanbul on 29 September 2000 of Nadire Mater, on behalf on whom he had sent a communication to the Government on 7 October 1999, and the lifting of the banning order on her book Mehmed’s Book. Finally, the Special Rapporteur was delighted to learn that Esber Yagmurdereli, lawyer, playwright and human rights activist, was freed on 18 January 2001, after a review of his sentence under an amnesty announced in December 2000. The Special Rapporteur hopes that the above-mentioned individuals will no longer face imprisonment and harassment solely for the expression of their views.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Turkey", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0282", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 282, "n": 281, "text": "Together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 10 January 2000 concerning Nurberdy Nurmammedov, the leader of the Democratic National Movement (Agzybirlik), reportedly arrested on 5 January 2000 at his home by officers of the Committee of National Security (KNB). Although details of the charges against him remained unknown, his arrest was believed to be linked to an interview he gave to a foreign radio station in December 1999 in which he described as unconstitutional the proclamation of President Niyazov as “President for life”. He was reportedly detained at the internal detention facility of the KNB and had stated that he would go on hunger strike.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Turkmenistan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0283", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 283, "n": 282, "text": "On 1 December 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture and the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the detention of Nikolai Nikolaevich Gherasimov, a correspondent for the Azerbaijan Azerpress news agency, in Krasnovodsk in a special isolation facility since his arrest on 7 November 2000. He had allegedly been sentenced to a five-year prison term for “fraud” after what had been described as a speedy trial. It had not been confirmed whether he had had access to his lawyer since his arrest.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Turkmenistan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0284", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 284, "n": 283, "text": "No reply has been received from the Government so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Turkmenistan", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0285", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 285, "n": 284, "text": "On 21 September 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture concerning the disappearance of Géorgiy Gongadze, founder and editor of the Internet newsletter Pravda Ukrayiny. According to the information received, Géorgiy Gongadze, who had complained that the police had intimidated and threatened him, failed to return to his home in Kiev on 16 September 2000. It is believed that his arrest is connected to his activities as editor of a newsletter which reportedly criticizes the Government, in particular on issues such as corruption of senior officials. His whereabouts were not known and fears were expressed that he might be at risk of torture or other forms of ill-treatment. Furthermore, it was reported that Oleg Yeltsov, a reporter for the same newsletter, had received threats on 15 September.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Ukraine", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0286", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 286, "n": 285, "text": "The Special Rapporteur expresses his deep concern about the reported discovery on 2 November 2000 of the decapitated body of Géorgiy Gongadze in Tarachtcha, close to Kiev. The Special Rapporteur awaits further information from the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Ukraine", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0287", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 287, "n": 286, "text": "On 12 May 2000, the Special Rapporteur received a communication from the Government in connection with his visit to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland from 24 to 29 October 1999 (E/CN.4/2000/Add.3). The Government commented on some sections of the report, in particular concerning the draft freedom of information bill and other legal issues mentioned by the Special Rapporteur in his mission report.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland", "Follow-up to the 24-29 October 1999 visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0288", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 288, "n": 287, "text": "The Government’s reply is being issued in a document of the Commission on Human Rights at its present session (E/CN.4/2001/10, annex, pages 13-17).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland", "Follow-up to the 24-29 October 1999 visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0289", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 289, "n": 288, "text": "The Special Rapporteur received additional communications in connection with his report on the visit to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, showing the interest raised by the issue of freedom of opinion and expression in this country. In particular, he received a letter on 24 July 2000 from Rear Admiral Nick Wilkinson, Secretary of the Defence, Press and Broadcasting Advisory Committee, commenting on paragraphs 58 to 61 of the report. Mr. Wilkinson mentioned, inter alia, that he is independent of the Government, but nevertheless a public servant, which made him accountable to the public. In addition, Mr. Wilkinson stated that there was absolutely no penalty on the media if they ignored D-notices, since use of the system was voluntary. He also mentioned that the areas of national security covered by the D-notice committee were not used to stifle debate but to prevent publication of genuinely damaging details. Finally, Mr. Wilkinson stressed that in neither of the two cases mentioned in the report - those of Tony Geraghty and David Shayler - was the D-notice system involved.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland", "Follow-up to the 24-29 October 1999 visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0290", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 290, "n": 289, "text": "The Special Rapporteur replied to Mr. Wilkinson in a letter dated 10 August 2000 in which he emphasized that the section of his report that referred to the issuing of D-notices was drafted on the basis of allegations received during his mission from various well-known and credible organizations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland", "Follow-up to the 24-29 October 1999 visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0291", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 291, "n": 290, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of the United Kingdom for its clarifications.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland", "Follow-up to the 24-29 October 1999 visit"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0292", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 292, "n": 291, "text": "On 8 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal concerning the alleged censorship of the Tanzanian media. It was reported that, at a ceremony launching the Tanzanian Media Council newsletter “Media watch” on 26 February 2000, the Director of the Tanzanian Information Services, Kassim Mpenda, threatened to shut down all newspapers which published stories or cartoons that defamed the President or were found to be seditious.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["United Republic of Tanzania", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0293", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 293, "n": 292, "text": "The Special Rapporteur awaits a reply from the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["United Republic of Tanzania", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0294", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 294, "n": 293, "text": "On 10 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture concerning more than 400 peaceful demonstrators arrested by the Philadelphia police in the wake of the Republican Party Convention. Most of these individuals were said to have been arrested on 1 August 2000 in downtown Philadelphia where, it is reported, peaceful demonstrations against the death penalty, prison conditions, racism and related issues were taking place. More than 250 demonstrators were alleged to be still held in custody and were said to have been denied access to food, water and to the bathroom for extended periods. Some had reportedly been denied essential medication.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["United States of America", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0295", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 295, "n": 294, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has been received from the Government so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["United States of America", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0296", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 296, "n": 295, "text": "On 24 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal concerning the removal from his post as chief of police of Alvaro Vergar, Director of the Jefatura de Policía of Montevideo. According to the information received, he was dismissed as Director of the Jefatura de Policía and transferred to another unit with a hierarchically lower position after making a presentation on human rights and police practices at a seminar entitled “Violence, public order and democratic government” organized by the United Nations Development Programme from 21 July to 4 August 2000.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Uruguay", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0297", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 297, "n": 296, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has been received from the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Uruguay", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0298", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 298, "n": 297, "text": "On 20 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the detention of Ismail Adylov, a member of the Independent Human Rights Organization of Uzbekistan (NOPCHU) and of the opposition movement Birlik. According to the information received, he was detained on 10 July 1999 after plainclothes officers of the Ministry of Internal Affairs came to his home without a warrant and took him to an unknown location. His whereabouts allegedly remained unknown until the lawyer engaged by his family was able to locate him on 21 July 1999 in Tashkent City prison. He was reportedly sentenced to six years’ imprisonment on 29 September 1999 on charges of attempting to overthrow the constitutional order, sabotage and possessing materials constituting a threat to public security and order. Although the charges were officially brought in connection with documents allegedly found in his home, it was reported that he was detained for his human rights activities and his support for the democratic political opposition.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Uzbekistan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0299", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 299, "n": 298, "text": "The Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal on 20 January 2000 concerning the closure on 20 November 1999 of the television station TV ALC in Urgench City. According to the information received, the transmission by the television station was stopped on the grounds that its transmitter was not guarded and could thus be taken over for anti-State propaganda, as well as on the basis of claims that its licence had expired. Both claims were allegedly unfounded. It was reported that Shuhrat Babadjanov, the director of the station, had received ultimatums from various governmental bodies concerning the broadcasting of programmes without prior review and approval.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Uzbekistan", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0300", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 300, "n": 299, "text": "No reply from the Government has been received so far.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Uzbekistan", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0301", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 301, "n": 300, "text": "Together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 18 November 1999 concerning Thich Quang Do, a Buddhist monk, member of the Unified Buddhist Church of Vietnam (UBCV) and a human rights defender. Allegedly accused by the authorities of “threatening national security”, he was summoned on 6 August 1999 to the headquarters of the Phu Nhuan Ward People’s Committee in Ho Chi Minh City in connection with a letter he wrote on 20 June 1999 to ambassadors of the European Union present in Hanoi calling for the release of prisoners of conscience in Vietnam. It was reported that a warrant for his arrest was issued on 17 September 1999, as well as for that of two other UBCV monks, Thich Khong Tanh and Thich Tue Sy. Given Thich Quang Do’s prior detention, on which the Working Group had taken action in 1997, it was feared that he faced imminent arrest and detention.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Viet Nam", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0302", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 302, "n": 301, "text": "On 15 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a communication requesting information on cases of imprisonment in labour camps, in particular that of Nguyn Dinh Huy, sentenced in 1995 to 15 years’ of imprisonment and hard labour for organizing an international conference on economic development; Nguyen Ngoc Tan, sentenced to 11 years in prison in 1995; Thich Huyen Quang, Supreme Patriarch of the Unified Buddhist Church allegedly held without charges for 14 years; brother Mai Duc Chuong, a member of the Catholic Congregation of the Mother Co-Redemtprix, serving a sentence of 16 1/2 years for holding training courses and distributing religious books; Nguyen Ngo Dai, sentenced to 20 years for his “Essay on humanism”. The Special Rapporteur also requested information concerning cases of harassment and house arrest following release from prison: Nguyen Dan Que, who spent more than 18 years in prison for his demanding free and multiparty elections and who had his telephone line cut, his Internet account cancelled and his mail intercepted after his call for freedom, democracy and an end to human rights abuses on 11 May 1999; Ha Si Phu, who served a 12-month sentence in 1996 for criticizing the Communist Party’s policies and who was subjected to a six-week-long interrogation in April 1999; Tieu Dao Bao Cu and Bu Minh Quoc, who were subjected to interrogations and strict surveillance by security officials because of their writings, which allegedly protested the imprisonment of Ha Si Phu; Nguyen Hoang Ling, who was arrested in October 1997 because of a report on corruption among customs officials, sentenced to one year and 13 days’ imprisonment for damage to the interests of the State and released after the trial; Nguyen Than Giang who was imprisoned in March 1999 for two months for possessing anti-socialist propaganda and who was the victim of police harassment and interrogation in October 1999; Thich Tue Sy, who spent 17 years in prison up until 1998 and was interrogated by the local police in September 1999. In addition, cases of former Vietnamese Communist Party members harassed because of their writings advocating reform were brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur, in particular the cases of Tran Do, Nguyen Ho, Duong Thu Huong and Hoang Tien. Furthermore, it was reported that Doan Viet Hoat, released from prison in September 1998, was expelled from Viet Nam. Finally, the Special Rapporteur expressed his concerns about the Administrative Detention Directive, in particular article 2, which authorizes security officials to detain individuals for up to two years without trial and keep them under house arrest on grounds of national security.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Viet Nam", "Communications sent"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0303", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 303, "n": 302, "text": "On 4 July 2000, together with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning the scientist and political essayist Dr. Nguyen Xuan Tu, better known by his pen name, Dr. Ha Sy Phu. According to the information received, the police raided his home in Dalat on 28 April 2000 and confiscated some of his personal property. On 12 May 2000, he was reportedly placed under house arrest in Dalat, without any legal justification being provided by the Vietnamese judicial authorities, under Administrative Detention Directive 31/CP, which provides for indefinite house arrest without due process.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Viet Nam", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0304", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 304, "n": 303, "text": "On 25 August 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture with regard to Thich Huyen Quang, the Supreme Patriach of the Unified Buddhist Church of Viet Nam (UBCV), who was believed to have been detained under house arrest since December 1994 in Nghia Hanh village, Quang Ngai province. Arrested on 29 December 1994 following a government clamp-down on the activities of the UBCV, he\nwas allegedly detained without trial. On 5 July 2000, he was reportedly subjected to renewed interrogation and harassment by the security police because of a letter he sent in April 2000 in which he called for national reconciliation and respect for human rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Viet Nam", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0305", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 305, "n": 304, "text": "In a communication dated 31 July 2000, the Government of Viet Nam informed the Special Rapporteur that a case against Ha Sy Phu was brought to the local court in Lam Dong province on 10 May 2000 in connection with his involvement in activities which violated the provisions of the Criminal Code of Viet Nam. The Government explained that he was allowed to stay at home because the court had not issued an arrest warrant against him. The Government denied that he was held under Administrative Detention Directive 31/CP.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Viet Nam", "Communication received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0306", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 306, "n": 305, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply but awaits further information on the cases he raised this year. He would also like to reiterate his wish to undertake a visit in the country, as expressed in letters dated 18 March 1996 and 10 November 1999.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Viet Nam", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0307", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 307, "n": 306, "text": "On 28 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government concerning Jamal Amer, editor and columnist for the opposition weekly newspaper Al-Wahdawi. According to the information received, on 22 February 2000, a Sana’a court ordered a 30-day suspension of the publication and permanently banned Jamal Amer from practising journalism in Yemen after he published an article on 10 August 1999 describing the struggles that allegedly took place within the Saudi royal family in 1999.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yemen", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0308", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 308, "n": 307, "text": "In a reply dated 27 March 2000, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Jamal Amer was sentenced to pay a fine of 5,000 rials as a public disciplinary measure and was prohibited from practising the profession of journalism as an additional penalty - which was not a lifelong penalty. The Government explained that the sentence, issued in connection with the article which was said to have harmed relations between the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Yemen, was in accordance with the provision of article 106 (a) of the Press and Publications Act. It further stated that the defendant had the right to lodge an appeal against the judgement.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yemen", "Communication received"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "106", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0309", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 309, "n": 308, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yemen", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0310", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 310, "n": 309, "text": "On 15 December 1999, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal regarding the defamation charges brought on 8 December 1999 against the newspapers Blic, Danas, and Studio B by the Information Minister, Aleksandar Vucic, and the Deputy Prime Minister, Vojislav Seselj. The accusations were allegedly raised in connection with an article published on 4 December 1999 which reported statements made by Vuk Draskovic implicating the Serbian Secret Service in a recent assassination attempt against him. The three newspapers were penalized with heavy fines, which they were required to pay within 24 hours or risk seizure of corporate assets. It was reported that individuals might face up to 30 days in prison for non-payment of fines.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yugoslavia (Federal Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0311", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 311, "n": 310, "text": "The Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal on 24 February 2000 with regard to threats reportedly made on 10 February 2000 by the Deputy Prime Minister, Vojislav Seselj, against the following print and electronic media: B2-92, Danas, Glas Javnosti, Vecernje Novosti and Blic. According to the information received, the Deputy Prime Minister accused independent Serbian journalists of being “traitors” and “accomplices” in the killing of Yugoslav Defence Minister Pavle Bulatovic and threatened violence against those journalists working for a “traitorous media”. Moreover, after the Yugoslav Minister of Information stated on 11 February 2000 that some elements of the Serbian media were working to destabilize the country, concerns were expressed that this was part of a strategy of intimidation directed at journalists working for media not controlled by the State.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yugoslavia (Federal Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0312", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 312, "n": 311, "text": "On 13 March 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning the charges brought against Studio B on 6 March 2000. It was reported that the Yugoslav Minister of Telecommunications served Studio B with an order to pay Serbian Telecom 10,755,314 dinars in fees usually charged for the temporary use of radio frequencies and television channels. As the holder of permanent licences, Studio B should reportedly have been exempted from that fee. Moreover, it was reported that, on 6 March 2000, Studio B had its transmission equipment stolen by attackers who reportedly wore police uniforms. In addition, the editor-in-chief and general manager of Studio B was reportedly fined 450,000 dinars for alleging involvement of the police in the attack on Studio B.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yugoslavia (Federal Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0313", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 313, "n": 312, "text": "The Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal on 17 May 2000 concerning the police raid and seizure of the offices of Studio B on 17 May 2000. It was reported that the Serbian authorities took control of the station because it had repeatedly called for the overthrow of the Serbian Government, and that they dismissed the management and appointed Ljuboslav Aleksic, known to be close to the Serbian Government, as editor-in-chief of the station. Moreover, the attack on Studio B stopped the transmission of Radio B2-92, which broadcast from Studio B’s facilities. In addition, it was reported that access to the building housing Radio Index and the daily Blic was blocked to their journalists.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yugoslavia (Federal Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0314", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 314, "n": 313, "text": "On 28 July 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government concerning the sentencing, on 26 July 2000, of Miroslav Filipovic, a journalist with the independent daily Danas and with Agence France Presse, and a member of the Helsinki Committee on Human Rights, to five years’ imprisonment for espionage and to an additional two years for propagation of false information following a trial held in camera. He was reportedly arrested on 8 May 2000 by the Serbian Security Forces, released on 12 May, rearrested 10 days later and kept in custody for 30 days by the Military Court of Nis on allegations of espionage and dissemination of false information. His detention was allegedly prolonged by the military tribunal in order to prevent him from leaving the country he was indicted on 14 June 2000 in connection with the publication of articles regarding crimes committed by the Yugoslav army during the North Atlantic Treaty Organization intervention in Kosovo.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yugoslavia (Federal Republic of)", "Communications sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0315", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 315, "n": 314, "text": "On 13 September 2000, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal concerning measures and actions taken against independent media in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Two bans on television broadcasts had been brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur: on 9 September 2000, the Yugoslav police seized the transmitter of TV Cacak, a measure allegedly taken in relation to the broadcasting of the election campaign of Vojislav Kostunica; on 7 September 2000, the staff of TV Rosulja was reportedly evicted from its offices by the municipal authorities of Vlsotince following frequent broadcasts by opposition candidates. In addition, it was reported that, on 29 August 2000, the Federal Ministry of Information ordered Novi Sad cable network stations to stop broadcasting the news programmes of five non-Serbian television stations, RTV Crna Gora, HRT2, HRT3, OBN and Duna-TV, under article 27 of the Law of Information. It was also reported that the work of two independent radio stations, Radio Jasenica and Radio Globus, was disrupted when their signals were jammed on 16 August and 22 August 2000 respectively. The Special Rapporteur expressed his concern about reports linking the disruption of the work of these independent radio and television stations with the federal presidential and legislative elections planned for 24 September 2000.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yugoslavia (Federal Republic of)", "Communications sent"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "27", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0316", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 316, "n": 315, "text": "By a letter dated 18 May 2000, the Permanent Mission of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia informed the Special Rapporteur that violations of the freedom and independence of reporting of media and journalists in Kosovo and Metohija had been perpetrated by the International Security Force in Kosovo (KFOR) and the United Nations Interim Administration in Kosovo (UNMIK) in May 2000.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yugoslavia (Federal Republic of)", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0317", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 317, "n": 316, "text": "By a letter dated 28 August 2000, the Permanent Mission of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia informed the Special Rapporteur that the High Representative of the international community in Bosnia and Herzegovina had given an ultimatum on 18 August to the personnel of the Radio Yugoslavia transmission centre in Bijeljina to vacate the centre within 48 hours and stop broadcasting the programme of the State radio.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yugoslavia (Federal Republic of)", "Communications received"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0318", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 318, "n": 317, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for the information provided regarding issues pertaining to freedom of expression in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, but awaits further information on the cases he raised this year. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur\nwelcomes the release of Miroslav Filipovic on 10 October 2000 after an appeal court overturned his conviction for espionage and spreading false information and after incoming President Vojislav Kostunica pardoned him the previous day.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Yugoslavia (Federal Republic of)", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0319", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 319, "n": 318, "text": "On 1 February 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal concerning an alleged crack-down on journalists working for newspapers which have been critical of the Government. It was reported that David Kapangalwendo, a member of Parliament for the ruling party, had made comments threatening the safety and security of journalists, in particular in the Post newspaper, saying “they have gone too far”. He reportedly requested that the Ministry of Home Affairs and the Government “do something about such newspapers” and urged that action be taken against newspapers which make negative statements about the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "Communication sent"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0320", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 320, "n": 319, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply from the Government has yet been received.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "Observations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0321", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 321, "n": 320, "text": "While the Special Rapporteur notes with satisfaction a growing tide in favour of human rights and that almost all Governments seem to be upholding the sanctity of the principles of freedom of opinion and expression, at the same time he is still encountering innumerable cases of great violations of human rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0322", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 322, "n": 321, "text": "The Special Rapporteur cannot help but view with dismay the content of the communications received in the past year. It is clear from them that the rights to freedom of opinion, expression and information are violated, almost as a matter of routine, in States with widely different political systems and institutional frameworks for governance. There are countries where these rights do not enjoy even the minimum protections and guarantees set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and associated international human rights instruments. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur encourages all States that have not ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to do so. Furthermore, he again urges all Governments to scrutinize their domestic legal systems with a view to bringing them into line with international standards governing the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Particularly with regard to the issue of national security, the Special Rapporteur urges all Governments to review not only laws specifically intended to protect national security but also ordinary criminal laws which may be used to infringe the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to information. The criminal justice and the police systems also need to be overhauled to ensure a greater sense of justice and fairness on the part of the police. The Governments may also consider the feasibility of setting up national human rights commissions and positions of Ombudsman where these institutions do not exist.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0323", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 323, "n": 322, "text": "In the light of the large number of allegations received relating to the abuse of libel and defamation laws, the Special Rapporteur would like to recall the recommendation made in his report last year (E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 205) that Governments should ensure that press offences are no longer punishable by terms of imprisonment, except in cases involving racist or discriminatory comments or calls to violence. Along the same lines, the Special Rapporteur would urge all Governments to ensure that the fines which the media or any organization/\nindividual are sentenced to pay for offences such as “defamation”, “libel”, “insults” and publication of “false” or “alarmist” information are not out of proportion to the harm suffered by the victims. In no event should such fines be used by Governments with the intention of limiting the free flow of information and ideas.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0324", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 324, "n": 323, "text": "The Special Rapporteur considers the increasing involvement of non-State individuals and entities in violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression to be of grave concern. He invites the Commission on Human Rights to consider how and by what means the international community may give continuing and coherent attention to the question of non-State actors and actions by them that infringe upon or negate the rights to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0325", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 325, "n": 324, "text": "As regards the impact of new information technology on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the Special Rapporteur would like to recall that new technologies, and in particular the Internet, are inherently democratic, provide the public and individuals with access to information sources and enable all to participate actively in the communication process. He remains concerned at information received regarding the efforts of some Governments either to control or shut down access to the Internet. The Special Rapporteur would, to the contrary, encourage Governments to increase the capacities in every country, in order to democratize the new technologies and to reduce the gap between the technologically advanced countries and others.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0326", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 326, "n": 325, "text": "With respect to the right to freedom of opinion and expression of women, the Special Rapporteur urges Governments to take all necessary steps to remove formal and cultural obstacles to the exercise by women of their right to freedom of expression, including to receive information, and ultimately to give effect to all their rights. He would like to draw the particular attention of Governments to the recent adoption by the Security Council of resolution 1325 (2000), in which it urged States to ensure increased representation of women at all decision-making levels in national, regional and international institutions and mechanisms for the prevention, management and resolution of conflicts. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur reiterates his hope of being able to prepare a report jointly with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, to be submitted to the Commission on Human Rights next year. In this regard, he again invites submissions by Governments, intergovernmental organizations and specialized agencies, as well as non-governmental bodies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0327", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 327, "n": 326, "text": "Finally, in accordance with Commission resolution 1999/49 requesting the Special Rapporteur to integrate the protection of HIV-related human rights within his mandate, the Special Rapporteur would like to call on all Governments, NGOs and other specialized organizations to provide him with information relating to the issue of HIV and access to information, in order for him to present his recommendations to the Commission on Human Rights at its next session.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0328", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 328, "n": 1, "text": "Access to information as a human right\nEvery person has the right to be free to seek, receive, have access to and disseminate information without interference from the public authorities, prior censorship or indirect restrictions due to the abuse of official control. There is no obligation on the individual to state the motive for exercising this right. Access to information is both an individual right and necessary for a democratic society. The right covers both those who actively seek information and those who expect to receive information through the media and/or through official channels.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0329", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 329, "n": 2, "text": "Access to information in a democratic society\nEvery person has the right to ensure accountability in the work of the public administration, of State entities in general, and of public service companies. In order to carry out this task effectively, people require access to information held by the authorities. The authorities must be legally required to make information available to people in a timely and complete manner. It is the Government’s responsibility to create and maintain public records in a serious and professional way, so that the right to information can be exercised effectively. Records should not be arbitrarily destroyed. This, in turn, requires a public policy which preserves and develops a corporate memory within the institutions of government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0330", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 330, "n": 3, "text": "Transparency and development\nAccess to information is indispensable for the scrutiny of and adequate debate on government action that are essential not only for transparent management of public bodies, but also to avoid corruption and other abuses of power. This right permits people to participate in public affairs and in decision-making and, more generally, permits the identification of public servants’ responsibilities, the objective evaluation of facts and the forming of opinion in order to increase participation in the political, economic, social and cultural life of the country.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0331", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 331, "n": 4, "text": "The authorities’ obligations\nInformation belongs to the citizens. Information is not the property of the State and access to it is not to be granted as a governmental favour. The Government holds information only in its role as the representative of the citizens.\nThe State and public service companies are obligated to respect and guarantee access to information for all individuals and to adopt the necessary legislative or other measures to promote respect for this right and to ensure its effective recognition and implementation. It is the State’s obligation to promote a culture of transparency in society and in the public sector and to act with due diligence in facilitating access to information, identifying those who should provide information, forestalling actions which prevent its disclosure and sanctioning offenders.\nThe conduct of officials who refuse access to information and the existence of legislation that allows this undermine this right.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0332", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 332, "n": 5, "text": "Journalism and access to information\nGovernments are obliged to guarantee and respect journalists’ right to exercise their profession, and the independence of the media. Journalists must be guaranteed the necessary conditions to obtain and disseminate information. Officials who interfere with this process must be subject to sanctions.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0333", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 333, "n": 6, "text": "Protection of journalists’ sources\nNo journalist should be compelled by a judicial or other public authority to reveal his or her sources of information or the content of notes or personal or professional files.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0334", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 334, "n": 7, "text": "Legislation on access to information\nNorms establishing the right of access to information must guarantee the maximum amount of transparency and must specify that every person is entitled to exercise this right; that the information should be presented in the format requested by the applicant or at least in its original format; that the costs of the search, subsequent processes and transmission of the information will be assumed by the applicant through payment of a fee, which should not exceed the cost of the service; that the deadlines for access to and provision of information should be reasonable; and that appropriate sanctions will be established for officials who refuse to provide the requested information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0335", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 335, "n": 8, "text": "Exceptions to the right of access to information\nExceptions to the right of access to information may be legitimately provided for only in the Constitution and by law, in accordance with the principles of a democratic society, to a limited extent and only where necessary to protect a legitimate national security interest or the individual’s legitimate right to privacy. Information shall not be kept secret on the basis of unpublished regulations. Any person or official who refuses to provide access to requested information will have to justify this refusal in writing and demonstrate that the information is included in the restricted category of exceptions. If the person seeking the information so requests, an impartial and competent judicial authority may review such refusal and may order the release of the information.\nThe withholding of information under a broad and imprecise definition of national security is unacceptable. Any restrictions on the grounds of national security will only be valid when their aim is to protect the territorial integrity of the country and in exceptional circumstances of extreme violence that threaten the imminent collapse of the democratic order. Any restrictions based on grounds of national security are not legitimate if their purpose is to protect the Government’s interests rather than those of society as a whole.\nPrivacy laws should not inhibit or restrict investigation and dissemination of any information in the public interest.\nThe law, having defined specified categories of classified information, shall establish reasonable deadlines and procedures for declassification as soon as the national security interest allows. In no case may information remain classified indefinitely.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0336", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 336, "n": 9, "text": "Protection of whistleblowers\nNo public servant or other person should be subject to any sanction for the disclosure of information classified under the restrictions referred to above, if the public interest in being informed outweighs the consequences that might arise from disclosure. In such cases the individual may benefit from special protection.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0337", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 337, "n": 10, "text": "Legal protection of the right of access to information\nThe autonomy and independence of the judiciary is fundamental to guaranteeing the right of access to public information in cases where the authorities or officials refuse to disclose information or place restrictions on its exercise. Prompt judicial action is indispensable to protect this right and to generate public confidence and transparency in the exercise of power. Added to these judicial mechanisms of protection is the right to petition other institutions, such as the Ombudsman’s office, and supranational bodies established to protect this and other rights.\nAny existing regulations which contravene these principles should be abolished.\nAdopted by the Seminar on Information for Democracy\nLima, 16 November 2000\nAnnex III\nINTER-AMERICAN DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES\nON FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION\nPreamble\nReaffirming the need to ensure respect for and full enjoyment of individual freedoms and fundamental rights of human beings under the rule of law,\nAware that consolidation and development of democracy depends upon the existence of freedom of expression,\nPersuaded that the right to freedom of expression is essential for the development of knowledge and understanding among peoples that will lead to true tolerance and cooperation among the nations of the hemisphere,\nConvinced that any obstacle to the free discussion of ideas and opinions limits freedom of expression and the effective development of a democratic process,\nConvinced that guaranteeing the right to access to information held by the State will ensure greater transparency and accountability of governmental activities and the strengthening of democratic institutions,\nRecalling that freedom of expression is a fundamental right recognized in the American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of Man and the American Convention on Human Rights, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, resolution 59 (1) of the United Nations General Assembly, resolution 104 adopted by the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, as well as in other international documents and national constitutions,\nRecognizing that the member States of the Organization of American States are subject to the legal framework established by the principles of article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights,\nReaffirming article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights, which establishes that the right to freedom of expression comprises the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas, regardless of borders and by any means of communication,\nConsidering the importance of freedom of expression for the development and protection of human rights, the important role assigned to it by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and the full support given to the establishment of the Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression as a fundamental instrument for the protection of this right in the hemisphere at the Summit of the Americas in Santiago, Chile,\nRecognizing that freedom of the press is essential for the full and effective exercise of freedom of expression and an indispensable instrument for the functioning of representative democracy, through which individuals exercise their right to receive, impart and seek information,\nReaffirming that the principles of the Declaration of Chapultepec constitute a basic document that contemplates the protection and defence of freedom of expression, freedom and independence of the press and the right to information,\nConsidering that the right to freedom of expression is not a concession by the States but a fundamental right,\nRecognizing the need to protect freedom of expression effectively in the Americas, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, in support of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression, adopts the following Declaration of Principles:", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Zambia", "V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0338", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 338, "n": 1, "text": "Freedom of expression in all its forms and manifestations is a fundamental and inalienable right of all individuals. Additionally, it is an indispensable requirement for the very existence of a democratic society.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0339", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 339, "n": 2, "text": "Every person has the right to seek, receive and impart information and opinions freely under terms set forth in article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights. All people should be afforded equal opportunities to receive, seek and impart information by any means of communication without any discrimination for reasons of race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinions, national or social origin, economic status, birth or any other social condition.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "13", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights' — regional instrument."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0340", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 340, "n": 3, "text": "Every person has the right to access to information about himself or herself or his/her assets expeditiously and not onerously, whether it be contained in databases or public or private registries, and if necessary to update it, correct it and/or amend it.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0341", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 341, "n": 4, "text": "Access to information held by the State is a fundamental right of every individual. States have the obligation to guarantee the full exercise of this right. This principle allows only exceptional limitations that must be previously established by law in case of a real and imminent danger that threatens national security in democratic societies.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0342", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 342, "n": 5, "text": "Prior censorship, direct or indirect interference in or pressure exerted upon any expression, opinion or information transmitted through any means of oral, written, artistic, visual or electronic communication must be prohibited by law. Restrictions to the free circulation of ideas and opinions, as well as the arbitrary imposition of information and the imposition of obstacles to the free flow of information violate the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0343", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 343, "n": 6, "text": "Every person has the right to communicate his/her views by any means and in any form. Compulsory membership or the requirements of a university degree for the practice of journalism constitute unlawful restrictions of freedom of expression. Journalistic activities must be guided by ethical conduct, which should in no case be imposed by the State.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0344", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 344, "n": 7, "text": "Prior conditioning of expressions, such as truthfulness, timeliness or impartiality is incompatible with the right to freedom of expression recognized in international instruments.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0345", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 345, "n": 8, "text": "Every social communicator has the right to keep his/her source of information, notes, personal and professional archives confidential.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0346", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 346, "n": 9, "text": "The murder, kidnapping, intimidation of and/or threats to social communicators, as well as the material destruction of communications media violate the fundamental rights of individuals and strongly restrict freedom of expression. It is the duty of the State to prevent and investigate such occurrences, to punish their perpetrators and to ensure that victims receive due compensation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0347", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 347, "n": 10, "text": "Privacy laws should not inhibit or restrict investigation and dissemination of information of public interest. The protection of a person’s reputation should only be guaranteed through civil sanctions in those cases in which the person offended is a public official, a public person or a private person who has voluntarily become involved in matters of public interest. In addition, in these cases, it must be proven that in disseminating the news, the social communicator had the specific intent to inflict harm, was fully aware that false news was disseminated, or acted with gross negligence in efforts to determine the truth or falsity of such news.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0348", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 348, "n": 11, "text": "Public officials are subject to greater scrutiny by society. Laws that penalize offensive expressions directed at public officials, generally known as “desacato laws”, restrict freedom of expression and the right to information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0349", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 349, "n": 12, "text": "Monopolies or oligopolies in the ownership and control of the communication media must be subject to anti-trust laws, as they conspire against democracy by limiting the plurality and diversity which ensure the full exercise of people’s right to information. In no case should such laws apply exclusively to the media. The concession of radio and television broadcast frequencies should take into account democratic criteria that provide equal opportunity of access for all individuals.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2001-64-0350", "docId": "e-cn-4-2001-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2001, "idx": 350, "n": 13, "text": "The exercise of power and the use of public funds by the State, the granting of customs duty privileges, the arbitrary and discriminatory placement of official advertising and government loans; the concession of radio and television broadcast frequencies, among others, with the intent to put pressure on and punish or reward and provide privileges to social communicators and communications media because of the opinions they express threaten freedom of expression, and must be explicitly prohibited by law. The means of communication have the right to carry out their role in an independent manner. Direct or indirect pressures exerted upon journalists or other social communicators to stifle the dissemination of information\nare incompatible with freedom of expression.\nApproved by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights\nat its 108th regular session\nAnnex IV\nJOINT United Nations-OSCE-OAS PRESS RELEASE\n3 May 2000\nFree journalism - the shield of democracy in periods of conflict\nOn the occasion of World Press Freedom Day, 3 May 2000, Abid Hussain, United Nations Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression, Freimut Duve, OSCE Representative on freedom of the media and Santiago Canton, OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression joined in a statement about the harassment and killing of journalists in conflict situations:\nWe note with deep concern that, in 1999, 87 journalists and media personnel were reportedly killed while carrying out their assignments, many in the context of conflict or post-conflict situations.\nWe emphasize the importance of access to information and, in particular, the right of journalists to seek, receive and impart information. Journalists are the shields of democracy - all the more during periods of conflict and tension. Free access to war zones is essential in order to enable journalists to fulfil their mission of informing the public.\nWe urge Governments to respect and protect fully the right to freedom of expression, and the right of access to information in particular, by guaranteeing the security and safety of journalists in conflict and post-conflict areas. Guarantees should also be provided to prevent journalists from being subject to influence and pressure, so that the information they provide remains fair, impartial and non-partisan.\nWe recall that, in accordance with international standards, during periods of conflict and tension, only the narrowest limitations may be imposed on the right to freedom of expression and information, and the law must have prescribed these. Consequently, all national laws that restrict this right in an abusive manner should be repealed.\nWe reaffirm that in post-conflict situations the re-establishment of a free, independent and pluralist press constitutes an essential step towards rebuilding and strengthening democratic institutions.\nWe reiterate that Governments and other power groups should refrain from using the media as a propaganda machine to call for violence and to disseminate racial hatred.\nWe express concern about the lack of common principles regarding the access of journalists to areas of conflict or tension and request the international community to take adequate steps to ensure minimum standards applicable to all.\nAbid Hussain\nUnited Nations Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression\nFreimut Duve\nOSCE Representative on freedom of the media\nSantiago Canton\nOAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression\nAnnex V\nJoint declaration by the united nations special\nrapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression,\nthe osce representative on freedom of the media\nand the oas special rapporteur on freedom\nof expression\nHaving met with representatives of NGOs, UNESCO, journalists’ associations and human rights experts in London on 29 and 30 November 2000, under the auspices of ARTICLE 19, Global Campaign for Free Expression, assisted by Canadian Journalists for Free Expression;\nRecalling and reaffirming their Joint Declaration, made in London on 26 November 1999;\nNoting the importance of regional mechanisms in promoting the right to freedom of expression and the need to promote such mechanisms in every region of the world;\nWelcoming the recommendation of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights Seminar on Freedom of Expression and the African Charter that a special rapporteur or other mechanism on freedom of expression be established for Africa;\nEncouraging moves in ASEAN and in the Asia and Pacific region to develop regional mechanisms for the promotion and protection of human rights;\nSupporting the Inter-American Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights;\nEndorsing the ARTICLE 19 document, “Defining defamation: principles on freedom of expression and protection of reputation”;\nStating our intention to adopt a joint statement on racism and the media as part of the preparatory process for the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance;\nAdopt the following Declaration:\nTwo threats to freedom of expression and the free flow of information and ideas have now reached crisis proportions in many parts of the world:\nAttacks on journalists and others exercising their right to freedom of expression (censorship by killing); and\nThe abuse of restrictive defamation and libel laws.\nCensorship by killing\nAttacks such as the murder, kidnapping, harassment of and/or threats to journalists and others exercising their right to freedom of expression, as well as the material destruction of communications facilities, pose a very significant threat to independent and investigative journalism, to freedom of expression and to the free flow of information to the public.\nStates are under an obligation to take adequate measures to end the climate of impunity and such measures should include devoting sufficient resources and attention to preventing attacks on journalists and others exercising their right to freedom of expression, investigating such attacks when they do occur, bringing those responsible to justice and compensating victims.\nDefamation\nAll States should review their defamation laws in order to ensure that they do not restrict the right to freedom of expression and to bring them into line with their international obligations.\nAt a minimum, defamation laws should comply with the following standards:\nThe repeal of criminal defamation laws in favour of civil laws should be considered, in accordance with relevant international standards;\nThe State, objects such as flags or symbols, government bodies, and public authorities of all kinds should be prevented from bringing defamation actions;\nDefamation laws should reflect the importance of open debate about matters of public concern, and the principle that public figures are required to accept a greater degree of criticism than private citizens; in particular, laws which provide special protection for public figures, such as desacato laws, should be repealed;\nThe plaintiff should bear the burden of proving the falsity of any statements of fact on matters of public concern;\nNo one should be liable under defamation law for the expression of an opinion;\nIt should be a defence, in relation to a statement on a matter of public concern, to show that publication was reasonable in all the circumstances; and\nCivil sanctions for defamation should not be so large as to exert a chilling effect on freedom of expression and should be designed to restore the reputation harmed, not to compensate the plaintiff or to punish the defendant; in particular, pecuniary awards should be strictly proportionate to the actual harm caused and the law should prioritize the use of a range of non-pecuniary remedies.\nAt the same time, the three special mechanisms recognize that new communications technologies are of enormous value in promoting the right to freedom of expression and the free flow of information and ideas, and express their intention to include this as a topic for discussion at their next joint meeting.\nAbid Hussain\nUnited Nations Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression\nFreimut Duve\nOSCE Representative on freedom of the media\nSantiago Canton\nOAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression\n30 November 2000", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Principles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. Early in the digital age, John Perry Barlow declared that the Internet would usher in “a world where anyone, anywhere may express his or her beliefs, no matter how singular, without fear of being coerced into silence or conformity”.[[fn:1]] Although the Internet remains history’s greatest tool for global access to information, such online evangelism is hard to find today. The public sees hate, abuse and disinformation in the content users generate. Governments see terrorist recruitment or discomfiting dissent and opposition. Civil society organizations see the outsourcing of public functions, like protection of freedom of expression, to unaccountable private actors. Despite taking steps to illuminate their rules and government interactions, the companies remain enigmatic regulators, establishing a kind of “platform law” in which clarity, consistency, accountability and remedy are elusive. The United Nations, regional organizations and treaty bodies have affirmed that offline rights apply equally online, but it is not always clear that the companies protect the rights of their users or that States give companies legal incentives to do so.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "John Perry Barlow, A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace, 8 February 1996."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. In the present report the Special Rapporteur proposes a framework for the moderation of user-generated online content that puts human rights at the very centre.[[fn:2]] He seeks to answer basic questions: What responsibilities do companies have to ensure that their platforms do not interfere with rights guaranteed under international law? What standards should they apply to content moderation? Should States regulate commercial content moderation and, if so, how? The law expects transparency and accountability from States to mitigate threats to freedom of expression. Should we expect the same of private actors? What do the processes of protection and remedy look like in the digital age?", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "“Moderation” describes the process by which Internet companies determine whether user-generated content meets the standards articulated in their terms of service and other rules."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. Previous reports have addressed some of these questions.[[fn:3]] The present report focuses on the regulation of user-generated content, principally by States and social media companies but in a way that is applicable to all relevant actors in the information and communications technology (ICT) sector. The Special Rapporteur outlines the applicable human rights legal framework and describes company and State approaches to content regulation. He proposes standards and processes that companies should adopt to regulate content in accordance with human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "A/HRC/35/22 and A/HRC/32/38."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Research into the companies’ terms of service, transparency reporting and secondary sources provided the initial basis for the report. Calls for comments generated 21 submissions from States and 29 from non-State actors (including 1 company submission). The Special Rapporteur visited several companies in Silicon Valley and held conversations with others in an effort to understand their approaches to content moderation.[[fn:4]] He benefited from civil society consultations held in Bangkok and Geneva in 2017 and 2018 and online discussions with experts in Latin America, the Middle East and North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa in 2018.[[fn:5]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "The Special Rapporteur visited the headquarters of Facebook, Github, Google, Reddit and Twitter and held conversations with representatives of Yahoo/Oath, Line and Microsoft. He also visited the non-profit Wikimedia Foundation. He hopes to visit companies in Beijing, Moscow, Seoul and Tokyo in work related to the present report."}, {"n": 5, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank his legal adviser, Amos Toh, and students at the International Justice Clinic at the University of California, Irvine, School of Law."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The activities of companies in the ICT sector implicate rights to privacy, religious freedom and belief, opinion and expression, assembly and association, and public participation, among others. The present report focuses on freedom of expression while acknowledging the interdependence of rights, such as the importance of privacy as a gateway to freedom of expression.[[fn:6]] Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provides globally established rules, ratified by 170 States and echoing the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, guaranteeing “the right to hold opinions without interference” and “the right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers” and through any medium.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See A/HRC/29/32, paras. 16−18."}, {"n": 7, "text": "See also African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, art. 9; American Convention on Human Rights, art. 13; Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, art. 10. See also Centro de Estudios en Libertad de Expresión y Acceso a la Información submission."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights provides globally established rules' as the primary instrument, with UDHR mentioned only secondarily as 'echoing'. Primary attribution is to the ICCPR."}], "section": ["II. Legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Human rights law imposes duties on States to ensure enabling environments for freedom of expression and to protect its exercise. The duty to ensure freedom of expression obligates States to promote, inter alia, media diversity and independence and access to information.[[fn:8]] Additionally, international and regional bodies have urged States to promote universal Internet access.[[fn:9]] States also have a duty to ensure that private entities do not interfere with the freedoms of opinion and expression.[[fn:10]] The Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, adopted by the Human Rights Council in 2011, emphasize in principle 3 State duties to ensure environments that enable business respect for human rights.[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Joint Declaration on Freedom of Expression and “Fake News”, Disinformation and Propaganda, 3 March 2017, sect. 3. See also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression, paras. 18 and 40; A/HRC/29/32, para. 61 and A/HRC/32/38, para. 86."}, {"n": 9, "text": "See Human Rights Council, resolution 32/13, para. 12; Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Standards for a Free, Open and Inclusive Internet (2016), para. 18."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See general comment No. 34, para. 7."}, {"n": 11, "text": "A/HRC/17/31."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. States may not restrict the right to hold opinions without interference. Per article 19 (3) of the Covenant, State limitations on freedom of expression must meet the following well-established conditions:\nLegality. Restrictions must be “provided by law”. In particular, they must be adopted by regular legal processes and limit government discretion in a manner that distinguishes between lawful and unlawful expression with “sufficient precision”. Secretly adopted restrictions fail this fundamental requirement.[[fn:12]] The assurance of legality should generally involve the oversight of independent judicial authorities.[[fn:13]]\nNecessity and proportionality. States must demonstrate that the restriction imposes the least burden on the exercise of the right and actually protects, or is likely to protect, the legitimate State interest at issue. States may not merely assert necessity but must demonstrate it, in the adoption of restrictive legislation and the restriction of specific expression.[[fn:14]]\nLegitimacy. Any restriction, to be lawful, must protect only those interests enumerated in article 19 (3): the rights or reputations of others, national security or public order, or public health or morals. Restrictions designed to protect the rights of others, for instance, include “human rights as recognized in the Covenant and more generally in international human rights law”.[[fn:15]] Restrictions to protect rights to privacy, life, due process, association and participation in public affairs, to name a few, would be legitimate when demonstrated to meet the tests of legality and necessity. The Human Rights Committee cautions that restrictions to protect “public morals” should not derive “exclusively from a single tradition”, seeking to ensure that the restriction reflects principles of non-discrimination and the universality of rights.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Ibid. para. 25; A/HRC/29/32."}, {"n": 13, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 14, "text": "See general comment No. 34, para. 27."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Ibid., para. 28."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Ibid., para. 32."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Restrictions pursuant to article 20 (2) of the Covenant — which requires States to prohibit “advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence” — must still satisfy the cumulative conditions of legality, necessity and legitimacy.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Ibid., para. 50. See also A/67/357."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Internet companies have become central platforms for discussion and debate, information access, commerce and human development.[[fn:18]] They collect and retain the personal data of billions of individuals, including information about their habits, whereabouts and activities, and often claim civic roles. In 2004, Google promoted its ambition to do “good things for the world even if we forgo some short term gains”.[[fn:19]] Facebook’s founder has proclaimed a desire to “develop the social infrastructure to give people the power to build a global community that works for all of us”.[[fn:20]] Twitter has promised policies that “improve — and do not detract from — a free and global conversation”.[[fn:21]] VKontakte, a Russian social media company, “unites people all over the world”, while Tencent reflects the language of the Government of China when noting its aims to “help build a harmonious society and to become a good corporate citizen”.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "B. Company responsibilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "See, for example, Supreme Court of the United States, Packingham v. North Carolina, opinion of 19 June 2017; European Court of Human Rights, Times Newspapers Ltd. (Nos. 1 and 2) v. The United Kingdom (application Nos. 3002/03 and 23676/03), judgment of 10 March 2009, para. 27."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Securities Registration Statement (S-1) under the Securities Act of 1933, 18 August 2004."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Mark Zuckerberg, “Building global community”, Facebook, 16 February 2017."}, {"n": 21, "text": "Twitter, S-1 Registration Statement, 13 October 2013, pp. 91–92."}, {"n": 22, "text": "VKontakte, company information; Tencent, “About Tencent”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Few companies apply human rights principles in their operations, and most that do see them as limited to how they respond to government threats and demands.[[fn:23]] However, the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights establish “global standard[s] of expected conduct” that should apply throughout company operations and wherever they operate.[[fn:24]] While the Guiding Principles are non-binding, the companies’ overwhelming role in public life globally argues strongly for their adoption and implementation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "B. Company responsibilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Danish Institute for Human Rights submission. Cf. Yahoo/Oath submission, 2016."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Guiding Principles, principle 11."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. The Guiding Principles establish a framework according to which companies should, at a minimum:\n(a) Avoid causing or contributing to adverse human rights impacts and seek to prevent or mitigate such impacts directly linked to their operations, products or services by their business relationships, even if they have not contributed to those impacts (principle 13);\n(b) Make high-level policy commitments to respect the human rights of their users (principle 16);\n(c) Conduct due diligence that identifies, addresses and accounts for actual and potential human rights impacts of their activities, including through regular risk and impact assessments, meaningful consultation with potentially affected groups and other stakeholders, and appropriate follow-up action that mitigates or prevents these impacts (principles 17−19);\n(d) Engage in prevention and mitigation strategies that respect principles of internationally recognized human rights to the greatest extent possible when faced with conflicting local law requirements (principle 23);\n(e) Conduct ongoing review of their efforts to respect rights, including through regular consultation with stakeholders, and frequent, accessible and effective communication with affected groups and the public (principles 20−21);\n(f) Provide appropriate remediation, including through operational-level grievance mechanisms that users may access without aggravating their “sense of disempowerment” (principles 22, 29 and 31).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Legal framework", "B. Company responsibilities"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Governments seek to shape the environment in which companies moderate content, while the companies predicate individual access to their platforms on user agreement with terms of service that govern what may be expressed and how individuals may express it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. States regularly require companies to restrict manifestly illegal content such as representations of child sexual abuse, direct and credible threats of harm and incitement to violence, presuming they also meet the conditions of legality and necessity.[[fn:25]] Some States go much further and rely on censorship and criminalization to shape the online regulatory environment.[[fn:26]] Broadly worded restrictive laws on “extremism”, blasphemy, defamation, “offensive” speech, “false news” and “propaganda” often serve as pretexts for demanding that companies suppress legitimate discourse.[[fn:27]] Increasingly, States target content specifically on online platforms.[[fn:28]] Other laws may interfere with online privacy in ways that deter the exercise of freedom of opinion and expression.[[fn:29]] Many States also deploy tools of disinformation and propaganda to limit the accessibility and trustworthiness of independent media.[[fn:30]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "A. Government regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "Ireland has established co-regulatory mechanisms with companies to restrict illegal child sexual abuse material: Ireland submission. Many companies rely on a picture recognition algorithm to detect and remove child pornography: submissions by Open Technology Institute, p. 2 and ARTICLE 19, p. 8."}, {"n": 26, "text": "See A/HRC/32/38, paras. 46−47. On Internet shutdowns, see A/HRC/35/22, paras. 8−16 and examples of communications of the Special Rapporteur: Nos. UA TGO 1/2017, UA IND 7/2017 and AL GMB 1/2017."}, {"n": 27, "text": "Communication Nos. OL MYS 1/2018; UA RUS 7/2017; UA ARE 7/2017, AL BHR 8/2016, AL SGP 5/2016 and OL RUS 7/2016. Azerbaijan prohibits propaganda of terrorism, religious extremism and suicide: Azerbaijan submission."}, {"n": 28, "text": "See communication Nos. OL PAK 8/2016 and OL LAO 1/2014; Association for Progressive Communications, Unshackling Expression: A Study on Laws Criminalising Expression Online in Asia, GISWatch 2017 Special Edition."}, {"n": 29, "text": "A/HRC/29/32."}, {"n": 30, "text": "See, for example, Gary King, Jennifer Pan and Margaret E. Roberts, “How the Chinese Government fabricates social media posts for strategic distraction, not engaged argument”, American Political Science Review, vol. 111, No. 3 (2017), pp. 484−501."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Liability protections. From early in the digital age, many States adopted rules to protect intermediaries from liability for the content third parties publish on their platforms. The European Union e-commerce directive, for instance, establishes a legal regime to protect intermediaries from liability for content except when they go beyond their role as a “mere conduit”, “cache” or “host” of information provided by users.[[fn:31]] Section 230 of the United States Communications Decency Act generally provides immunity for providers of “interactive computer service[s]” that host or publish information about others, but this has since been curtailed.[[fn:32]] The intermediary liability regime in Brazil requires a court order to restrict particular content,[[fn:33]] while the intermediary liability regime in India establishes a “notice and takedown” process that involves the order of a court or similar adjudicative body.[[fn:34]] The 2014 Manila Principles on Intermediary Liability, developed by a coalition of civil society experts, identify essential principles that should guide any intermediary liability framework.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "A. Government regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "Directive No. 2000/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2000."}, {"n": 32, "text": "47 United States Code § 230. See also the Allow States and Victims to Fight Online Sex Trafficking Act (H.R. 1865)."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Marco Civil da Internet, federal law 12.965, arts. 18−19."}, {"n": 34, "text": "Supreme Court of India, Shreya Singhal v. Union of India, decision of 24 March 2015."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Imposition of company obligations. Some States impose obligations on companies to restrict content under vague or complex legal criteria without prior judicial review and with the threat of harsh penalties. For example, the Chinese Cybersecurity Law of 2016 reinforces vague prohibitions against the spread of “false” information that disrupts “social or economic order”, national unity or national security; it also requires companies to monitor their networks and report violations to the authorities.[[fn:35]] Failure to comply has reportedly led to heavy fines for the country’s biggest social media platforms.[[fn:36]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "A. Government regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "Articles 12 and 47; Human Rights in China submission, 2016, p. 12. For comments on an earlier draft of the Cybersecurity Law, see communication No. OL CHN 7/2015. See also Global Voices, “Netizen Report: Internet censorship bill looms large over Egypt”, 16 March 2018; Republic of South Africa, Films and Publications Amendment Bill (B 61—2003)."}, {"n": 36, "text": "PEN America, Forbidden Feeds: Government Controls on Social Media in China (2018), p. 21."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Obligations to monitor and rapidly remove user-generated content have also increased globally, establishing punitive frameworks likely to undermine freedom of expression even in democratic societies. The network enforcement law (NetzDG) in Germany requires large social media companies to remove content inconsistent with specified local laws, with substantial penalties for non-compliance within very short time frames.[[fn:37]] The European Commission has even recommended that member States establish legal obligations for active monitoring and filtering of illegal content.[[fn:38]] Guidelines adopted in 2017 in Kenya on the dissemination of social media content during elections require platforms to “pull down accounts used in disseminating undesirable political contents on their platforms” within 24 hours.[[fn:39]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "A. Government regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "Act to Improve Enforcement of the Law in Social Networks (Network Enforcement Act), July 2017. See communication No. OL DEU 1/2017."}, {"n": 38, "text": "European Commission, recommendation on measures to effectively tackle illegal content online (last updated: 5 March 2018)."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See communication No. OL KEN 10/2017; Javier Pallero, “Honduras: new bill threatens to curb online speech”, Access Now, 12 February 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. In the light of legitimate State concerns such as privacy and national security, the appeal of regulation is understandable. However, such rules involve risks to freedom of expression, putting significant pressure on companies such that they may remove lawful content in a broad effort to avoid liability. They also involve the delegation of regulatory functions to private actors that lack basic tools of accountability. Demands for quick, automatic removals risk new forms of prior restraint that already threaten creative endeavours in the context of copyright.[[fn:40]] Complex questions of fact and law should generally be adjudicated by public institutions, not private actors whose current processes may be inconsistent with due process standards and whose motives are principally economic.[[fn:41]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "A. Government regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "See European Commission, Proposal for a Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on Copyright in the Digital Single Market, COM (2016) 593 final, art. 13; Daphne Keller, “Problems with filters in the European Commission’s platforms proposal”, Stanford Law School Center for Internet and Society, 5 October 2017; Fundación Karisma submission, 2016, pp. 4–6."}, {"n": 41, "text": "Under European Union law, search engines are required to determine the validity of claims brought under the “right to be forgotten” framework. European Court of Justice, Google Spain v. Agencia Española de Protección de Datos and Mario Costeja González (case C-131/12), judgment (Grand Chamber) of 13 May 2014; submissions by ARTICLE 19, pp. 2−3 and Access Now, pp. 6–7; Google, “Updating our ‘right to be forgotten’ Transparency Report”; Theo. Bertram and others, Three Years of the Right to be Forgotten (Google, 2018)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Global removals. Some States are demanding extraterritorial removal of links, websites and other content alleged to violate local law.[[fn:42]] Such demands raise serious concern that States may interfere with the right to freedom of expression “regardless of frontiers”. The logic of these demands would allow censorship across borders, to the benefit of the most restrictive censors. Those seeking removals should be required to make such requests in every jurisdiction where relevant, through regular legal and judicial process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "A. Government regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "See, for example, PEN America, Forbidden Feeds, pp. 36–37; Supreme Court of Canada, Google Inc. v. Equuestek Solutions Inc., judgment of 28 June 2017; European Court of Justice, Google Inc. v. Commission nationale de l’informatique et des libertés (CNIL) (case C-507/17); Global Network Initiative submission, p. 6."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Government demands not based on national law. Companies distinguish between requests for the removal of allegedly illegal content submitted through regular legal channels and requests for removal based on the companies’ terms of service.[[fn:43]] (Legal removals generally apply only in the requesting jurisdiction; terms of service removals generally apply globally.) State authorities increasingly seek content removals outside of legal process or even through terms of service requests.[[fn:44]] Several have established specialized government units to refer content to companies for removal. The European Union Internet Referral Unit, for instance, “flag[s] terrorist and violent extremist content online and cooperat[es] with online service providers with the aim of removing this content”.[[fn:45]] Australia also has similar referral mechanisms.[[fn:46]] In South-East Asia, parties allied with Governments reportedly attempt to use terms of service requests to restrict political criticism.[[fn:47]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "A. Government regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "Compare Twitter Transparency Report: Removal Requests (January−June 2017) with Twitter Transparency Report: Government Terms of Service Reports (January−June 2017). See also Facebook, Government requests: Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)."}, {"n": 44, "text": "Submissions by ARTICLE 19, p. 2 and Global Network Initiative, p. 5."}, {"n": 45, "text": "European Union, Internet Referral Unit, Year One Report, sect. 4.11; submissions by European Digital Rights (EDRi), p. 1 and Access Now, pp. 2−3."}, {"n": 46, "text": "Australia submission."}, {"n": 47, "text": "Southeast Asian Press Alliance, p. 1."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. States also place pressure on companies to accelerate content removals through non-binding efforts, most of which have limited transparency. A three-year ban on YouTube in Pakistan compelled Google to establish a local version susceptible to government demands for removals of “offensive” content.[[fn:48]] Facebook and Israel reportedly agreed to coordinate efforts and staff to monitor and remove “incitement” online. The details of this agreement were not disclosed, but the Israeli Minister of Justice claimed that between June and September 2016, Facebook granted nearly all government requests for removal of “incitement”.[[fn:49]] Arrangements to coordinate content actions with State input exacerbate concerns that companies perform public functions without the oversight of courts and other accountability mechanisms.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "A. Government regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Digital Rights Foundation submission."}, {"n": 49, "text": "7amleh − The Arab Center for the Advancement of Social Media submission."}, {"n": 50, "text": "Association for Progressive Communications, p. 14 and 7amleh."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The 2016 European Union Code of Conduct on countering illegal hate speech online involves agreement between the European Union and four major companies to remove content, committing them to collaborate with “trusted flaggers” and promote “independent counter-narratives”.[[fn:51]] While the promotion of counter-narratives may be attractive in the face of “extremist” or “terrorist” content, pressure for such approaches runs the risk of transforming platforms into carriers of propaganda well beyond established areas of legitimate concern.[[fn:52]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "A. Government regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "“Trusted flaggers … refers to the status given to certain organisations which allows them to report illegal content through a special reporting system or channel, which is not available to normal users.” European Commission, Code of Conduct on countering illegal hate speech online: First results on implementation (December 2016)."}, {"n": 52, "text": "The same companies created the Global Internet Forum to Counter Terrorism, an effort to develop industry-wide technological tools to remove terrorist content on their platforms. Google, “Update on the Global Internet Forum to Counter Terrorism”, 4 December 2017."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Each company is committed in principle to comply with the local law where it does business. As Facebook puts it: “If, after careful legal review, we determine that the content is illegal under local law, then we make it unavailable in the relevant country or territory.”[[fn:53]] Tencent, the owner of the mobile chat and social media app WeChat, goes considerably further, requiring anyone using the platform within China and Chinese citizens using the platform “anywhere in the world” to comply with content restrictions that mirror Chinese law or policy.[[fn:54]] Several companies also collaborate with one another and regulatory bodies to remove images of child sexual abuse.[[fn:55]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company compliance with national law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "Facebook, Government requests: FAQs. See also Google legal removal requests; Twitter rules and policies; Reddit content policy."}, {"n": 54, "text": "Tencent, Terms of Service: Introduction; Tencent, Agreement on Software License and Service of Tencent Wenxin."}, {"n": 55, "text": "United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Fostering Freedom Online: The Role of Internet Intermediaries (Paris, 2014), pp. 56−57."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. The commitment to legal compliance can be complicated when relevant State law is vague, subject to varying interpretations or inconsistent with human rights law. For instance, laws against “extremism” which leave the key term undefined provide discretion to government authorities to pressure companies to remove content on questionable grounds.[[fn:56]] Similarly, companies are often under pressure to comply with State laws that criminalize content that is said to be, for instance, blasphemous, critical of the State, defamatory of public officials or false. As explained below, the Guiding Principles provide tools to minimize the impact of such laws on individual users. The Global Network Initiative, a multi-stakeholder initiative that helps ICT companies navigate human rights challenges, has developed additional guidance on how to employ these tools.[[fn:57]] One tool of minimization is transparency: many companies report annually on the number of government requests they receive and execute per State.[[fn:58]] However, companies do not consistently disclose sufficient information about how they respond to government requests, nor do they regularly report government requests made under terms of service.[[fn:59]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company compliance with national law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "See Maria Kravchenko, “Inappropriate enforcement of anti-extremist legislation in Russia in 2016”, SOVA Center for Information and Analysis, 21 April 2017; Danielle Citron, “Extremist speech, compelled conformity, and censorship creep”, Notre Dame Law Review, vol. 93, No. 3 (2018), pp. 1035−1071."}, {"n": 57, "text": "Global Network Initiative, Principles on Freedom of Expression and Privacy, sect. 2. Social media companies participating in the Initiative include Facebook, Google, Microsoft/LinkedIn and Yahoo/Oath."}, {"n": 58, "text": "See paragraph 39 below. In addition, Automattic, Google, Microsoft/Bing and Twitter are among the companies that regularly, although not necessarily comprehensively, post government takedown and intellectual property requests to the Lumen database."}, {"n": 59, "text": "Ranking Digital Rights, 2017 Corporate Accountability Index, p. 28."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Internet companies require their users to abide by terms of service and “community standards” that govern expression on their platforms.[[fn:60]] Company terms of service, which users are required to accept in exchange for use of the platform, identify jurisdictions for dispute resolution and reserve to themselves discretion over content and account actions.[[fn:61]] Platform content policies are a subset of these terms, articulating constraints on what users may express and how they may express it. Most companies do not explicitly base content standards on any particular body of law that might govern expression, such as national law or international human rights law. The Chinese search giant Baidu, however, prohibits content that is “opposed to the basic principles established by the Constitution” of the People’s Republic of China.[[fn:62]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company moderation standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 60, "text": "Jamila Venturini and others, Terms of Service and Human Rights: An Analysis of Online Platform Contracts (Rio de Janeiro, Revan, 2016)."}, {"n": 61, "text": "Baidu user agreement (“[We] remove and delete any content in this service based on Baidu’s own discretion for any reason.”); Tencent terms of service (“We reserve the right to block or remove Your Content for any reason, including as is in our opinion appropriate or as required by applicable laws and regulations.”); Twitter terms of service (“We may suspend or terminate your account or cease providing you with all or part of the Services at any time for any or no reason.”)."}, {"n": 62, "text": "Baidu terms of service, sect. 3.1."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The development of content moderation policies typically involves legal counsel, public policy and product managers, and senior executives. Companies may establish “trust and safety” teams to address spam, fraud and abuse, and counter-terrorism teams may address terrorist content.[[fn:63]] Some have developed mechanisms for soliciting input from outside groups on specialized aspects of content policies.[[fn:64]] The exponential increase in user-generated content has triggered the development of detailed and constantly evolving rules. These rules vary according to a range of factors, from company size, revenue and business model to the “platform’s brand and reputation, its tolerance for risk, and the type of user engagement it wishes to attract”.[[fn:65]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company moderation standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "Monika Bickert, “Hard questions: how we counter terrorism”, 15 June 2017."}, {"n": 64, "text": "See, for example, Twitter Trust and Safety Council and YouTube Trusted Flagger Program."}, {"n": 65, "text": "Sarah Roberts, Content Moderation (University of California at Los Angeles, 2017). See also ARTICLE 19 submission, p. 2."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Vague rules. Company prohibitions of threatening or promoting terrorism,[[fn:66]] supporting or praising leaders of dangerous organizations[[fn:67]] and content that promotes terrorist acts or incites violence[[fn:68]] are, like counter-terrorism legislation, excessively vague.[[fn:69]] Company policies on hate, harassment and abuse also do not clearly indicate what constitutes an offence. Twitter’s prohibition of “behavior that incites fear about a protected group” and Facebook’s distinction between “direct attacks” on protected characteristics and merely “distasteful or offensive content” are subjective and unstable bases for content moderation.[[fn:70]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Areas of concern around content standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "Twitter rules and policies (violent extremist groups)."}, {"n": 67, "text": "Facebook community standards (dangerous organizations)."}, {"n": 68, "text": "YouTube policies (violent or graphic content policies)."}, {"n": 69, "text": "See A/HRC/31/65, para. 39."}, {"n": 70, "text": "Facebook community standards (hate speech); Twitter rules and policies (hateful conduct policy)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Hate, harassment, abuse. The vagueness of hate speech and harassment policies has triggered complaints of inconsistent policy enforcement that penalizes minorities while reinforcing the status of dominant or powerful groups. Users and civil society report violence and abuse against women, including physical threats, misogynist comments, the posting of non-consensual or fake intimate images and doxing;[[fn:71]] threats of harm against the politically disenfranchised,[[fn:72]] minority races and castes[[fn:73]] and ethnic groups suffering from violent persecution;[[fn:74]] and abuse directed at refugees, migrants and asylum seekers.[[fn:75]] At the same time, platforms have reportedly suppressed lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer activism,[[fn:76]] advocacy against repressive Governments,[[fn:77]] reporting on ethnic cleansing[[fn:78]] and critiques of racist phenomena and power structures.[[fn:79]]", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Migrants", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Areas of concern around content standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "Amnesty International, Toxic Twitter: A Toxic Place for Women; Association for Progressive Communications submission, p. 2."}, {"n": 72, "text": "Submissions by 7amleh and Association for Progressive Communications, p. 15."}, {"n": 73, "text": "Ijeoma Oluo, “Facebook’s complicity in the silencing of black women”, Medium, 2 August 2017; submissions by Center for Communications Governance, p. 5 and Association for Progressive Communications, pp. 11−12."}, {"n": 74, "text": "Statement by the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Myanmar, Yanghee Lee, to the thirty-seventh session of the Human Rights Council, 12 March 2018."}, {"n": 75, "text": "Association for Progressive Communications submission, p. 12."}, {"n": 76, "text": "Electronic Frontier Foundation submission, p. 5."}, {"n": 77, "text": "Ibid.; submissions by Association for Progressive Communications and 7amleh."}, {"n": 78, "text": "Betsy Woodruff, “Facebook silences Rohingya reports of ethnic cleansing”, The Daily Beast, 18 September 2017; ARTICLE 19 submission, p. 9."}, {"n": 79, "text": "Julia Angwin and Hannes Grasseger, “Facebook’s secret censorship rules protect white men from hate speech but not black children”, ProPublica, 28 June 2017."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The scale and complexity of addressing hateful expression presents long-term challenges and may lead companies to restrict such expression even if it is not clearly linked to adverse outcomes (as hateful advocacy is connected to incitement in article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights). Companies should articulate the bases for such restrictions, however, and demonstrate the necessity and proportionality of any content actions (such as removals or account suspensions). Meaningful and consistent transparency about enforcement of hate speech policies, through substantial reporting of specific cases, may also provide a level of insight that even the most detailed explanations cannot offer.[[fn:80]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Areas of concern around content standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "See paras. 52 and 62 below."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Context. Companies emphasize the importance of context when assessing the applicability of general restrictions.[[fn:81]] Nonetheless, attention to context has not prevented removals of depictions of nudity with historical, cultural or educational value;[[fn:82]] historical and documentary accounts of conflict;[[fn:83]] evidence of war crimes;[[fn:84]] counter speech against hate groups;[[fn:85]] or efforts to challenge or reclaim racist, homophobic or xenophobic language.[[fn:86]] Meaningful examination of context may be thwarted by time and resource constraints on human moderators, overdependence on automation or insufficient understanding of linguistic and cultural nuance.[[fn:87]] Companies have urged users to supplement controversial content with contextual details, but the feasibility and effectiveness of this guidance are unclear.[[fn:88]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Areas of concern around content standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "Twitter, “Our approach to policy development and enforcement philosophy”; YouTube policies (the importance of context); Richard Allan, “Hard questions: who should decide what is hate speech in an online global community?”, Facebook Newsroom, 27 June 2017."}, {"n": 82, "text": "Submissions by OBSERVACOM, p. 11 and ARTICLE 19, p. 6."}, {"n": 83, "text": "WITNESS submission, pp. 6−7."}, {"n": 84, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 85, "text": "Electronic Frontier Foundation submission, p. 5."}, {"n": 86, "text": "Association for Progressive Communications submission, p. 14."}, {"n": 87, "text": "See Allan, “Hard questions”."}, {"n": 88, "text": "YouTube policies (the importance of context); Facebook community standards (hate speech)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Real-name requirements. In order to deal with online abuse, some companies have “authentic identity” requirements;[[fn:89]] others approach identity questions more flexibly.[[fn:90]] The effectiveness of real-name requirements as safeguards against online abuse is questionable.[[fn:91]] Indeed, strict insistence on real names has unmasked bloggers and activists using pseudonyms to protect themselves, exposing them to grave physical danger.[[fn:92]] It has also blocked the accounts of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer users and activists, drag performers and users with non-English or unconventional names.[[fn:93]] Since online anonymity is often necessary for the physical safety of vulnerable users, human rights principles default to the protection of anonymity, subject only to limitations that would protect their identities.[[fn:94]] Narrowly crafted impersonation rules that limit the ability of users to portray another person in a confusing or deceptive manner may be a more proportionate means of protecting the identity, rights and reputations of other users.[[fn:95]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Areas of concern around content standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "Facebook community standards (using your authentic identity). Note that Facebook now permits exceptions to its real-name policy on a case-by-case basis, but this has been criticized as insufficient: Access Now submission, p. 12. Baidu even requires the use of personally identifying information: Baidu user agreement."}, {"n": 90, "text": "Twitter Help Center, “Help with username registration”; Instagram, “Getting started on Instagram”."}, {"n": 91, "text": "J. Nathan Matias, “The real name fallacy”, Coral Project, 3 January 2017."}, {"n": 92, "text": "Access Now submission, p. 11."}, {"n": 93, "text": "Dia Kayyali, “Facebook’s name policy strikes again, this time at Native Americans”, Electronic Frontier Foundation, 13 February 2015."}, {"n": 94, "text": "See A/HRC/29/32, para. 9."}, {"n": 95, "text": "Twitter rules and policies (impersonation policy)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Disinformation. Disinformation and propaganda challenge access to information and the overall public trust in media and government institutions. The companies face increasing pressure to address disinformation spread through links to bogus third-party news articles or websites, fake accounts, deceptive advertisements and the manipulation of search rankings.[[fn:96]] However, because blunt forms of action, such as website blocking or specific removals, risk serious interference with freedom of expression, companies should carefully craft any policies dealing with disinformation.[[fn:97]] Companies have adopted a variety of responses, including arrangements with third-party fact checkers, heightened enforcement of advertisement policies, enhanced monitoring of suspicious accounts, changes in content curation and search ranking algorithms, and user trainings on identifying false information.[[fn:98]] Some measures, particularly those that enhance restrictions on news content, may threaten independent and alternative news sources or satirical content.[[fn:99]] Government authorities have taken positions that may reflect outsized expectations about technology’s power to solve such problems alone.[[fn:100]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Areas of concern around content standards"], "footnotes": [{"n": 96, "text": "Ibid.; Allen Babajanian and Christine Wendel, “#FakeNews: innocuous or intolerable?”, Wilton Park report 1542, April 2017."}, {"n": 97, "text": "Joint Declaration 2017."}, {"n": 98, "text": "Submissions by Association for Progressive Communications, pp. 4–6 and ARTICLE 19, p. 4."}, {"n": 99, "text": "Association for Progressive Communications submission, p. 5."}, {"n": 100, "text": "See communication No. OL ITA 1/2018. Cf. European Commission, A Multi-Dimensional Approach to Disinformation: Final Report of the Independent High-level Group on Fake News and Disinformation (Luxembourg, 2018)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Automated flagging, removal and pre-publication filtering. The massive scale of user-generated content has led the largest companies to develop automated moderation tools. Automation has been employed primarily to flag content for human review, and sometimes to remove it. Automated tools scanning music and video for copyright infringement at the point of upload have raised concerns of overblocking, and calls to expand upload filtering to terrorist-related and other areas of content threaten to establish comprehensive and disproportionate regimes of pre-publication censorship.[[fn:101]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company moderation processes and tools"], "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland reportedly developed a tool to automatically detect and remove terrorist content at the point of upload. Home Office, “New technology revealed to help fight terrorist content online”, 13 February 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Automation may provide value for companies assessing huge volumes of user-generated content, with tools ranging from keyword filters and spam detection to hash-matching algorithms and natural language processing.[[fn:102]] Hash matching is widely used to identify child sexual abuse images, but its application to “extremist” content — which typically requires assessment of context — is difficult to accomplish without clear rules regarding “extremism” or human evaluation.[[fn:103]] The same is true with natural language processing.[[fn:104]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company moderation processes and tools"], "footnotes": [{"n": 102, "text": "Center for Democracy and Technology, Mixed Messages? The Limits of Automated Media Content Analysis (November 2017), p. 9."}, {"n": 103, "text": "Open Technology Institute submission, p. 2."}, {"n": 104, "text": "Center for Democracy and Technology, Mixed Messages?, p. 4."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. User and trusted flagging. User flags give individuals the ability to log complaints of inappropriate content with content moderators. Flags typically do not enable nuanced discussions about appropriate boundaries (e.g., why content may be offensive but, on balance, better left up).[[fn:105]] They have also been “gamed” to heighten pressure on platforms to remove content supportive of sexual minorities and Muslims.[[fn:106]] Many companies have developed specialized rosters of “trusted” flaggers, typically experts, high-impact users and, reportedly, sometimes government flaggers.[[fn:107]] There is little or no public information explaining the selection of specialized flaggers, their interpretations of legal or community standards or their influence over company decisions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company moderation processes and tools"], "footnotes": [{"n": 105, "text": "On user flags, see generally Kate Crawford and Tarleton Gillespie, “What is a flag for? Social media reporting tools and the vocabulary of complaint”, New Media and Society, vol. 18, No. 3 (March 2016), pp. 410−428."}, {"n": 106, "text": "Ibid., p. 421."}, {"n": 107, "text": "YouTube Help, YouTube Trusted Flagger Program; YouTube Help, “Get involved with YouTube contributors”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. Human evaluation. Automation often will be supplemented by human review, with the biggest social media companies developing large teams of content moderators to review flagged content.[[fn:108]] Flagged content may be routed to content moderators, which will typically be authorized to make a decision — often within minutes — about the appropriateness of the content and to remove or permit it. In situations where the appropriateness of particular content is difficult to determine, moderators may escalate its review to content teams at company headquarters. In turn, company officials — typically public policy or “trust and safety” teams with the engagement of general counsel — will make decisions on removals. Company disclosure about removal discussions, in aggregate or specific cases, is limited.[[fn:109]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company moderation processes and tools"], "footnotes": [{"n": 108, "text": "See Sarah Roberts, “Commercial content moderation: digital laborers’ dirty work”, Media Studies Publications, paper 12 (2016)."}, {"n": 109, "text": "Cf. Wikipedia: BOLD, revert, discuss cycle. Reddit moderators are encouraged to offer “helpful rule explanations, tips and links to new and confused users” (Reddit Moddiquette)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Account or content action. The existence of inappropriate content may trigger a range of company actions. Companies may limit content removal by jurisdiction, a range of jurisdictions, or across an entire platform or set of platforms. They may apply age limitations, warnings or demonetization.[[fn:110]] Violations may lead to temporary account suspensions, while repeat offences may lead to account deactivation. In very few cases outside of copyright enforcement do the companies provide “counter-notice” procedures that permit users posting content to challenge removals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company moderation processes and tools"], "footnotes": [{"n": 110, "text": "YouTube policies (nudity and sexual content policies); YouTube Help, “Creator influence on YouTube”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Notification. A common complaint is that users who post reported content, or persons complaining of abuse, may not receive any notification of removal or other action.[[fn:111]] Even when companies issue notifications, these typically indicate merely the action taken and a generic ground for action. At least one company has attempted to provide more context in its notifications, but it is unclear whether additional detail in stock notifications constitutes sufficient explanation in all cases.[[fn:112]] Transparency and notifications go hand in hand: robust operational-level transparency that improves user awareness of the platform’s approaches to content removals alleviates the pressure on notifications in individual cases, while weaker overall transparency increases the likelihood that users will be unable to understand individual removals in the absence of notifications tailored to specific cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company moderation processes and tools"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "Submissions by ARTICLE 19, p. 7 and Association for Progressive Communications, p. 16."}, {"n": 112, "text": "See https://twitter.com/TwitterSafety/status/971882517698510848/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Appeals and remedies. Platforms permit appeals of a range of actions, from profile or page removals to removals of specific posts, photos or videos.[[fn:113]] Even with appeal, however, the remedies available to users appear limited or untimely to the point of non-existence and, in any event, opaque to most users and even civil society experts. It may be, for instance, that reinstatement of content would be an insufficient response if removal resulted in specific harm — such as reputational, physical, moral or financial — to the person posting. Similarly, account suspensions or content removals during public protest or debate could have significant impact on political rights and yet lack any company remedy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Company moderation processes and tools"], "footnotes": [{"n": 113, "text": "Electronic Frontier Foundation and Visualizing Impact, “How to appeal”, onlinecensorship.org. Facebook and Instagram allow only the appeal of account suspensions. Cf. Github submission, p. 6."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Companies have developed transparency reports that publish aggregated data on government requests for content removal and user data. Such reporting demonstrates the kinds of pressures the companies face. Transparency reporting identifies, country by country, the number of legal removal requests,[[fn:114]] the number of requests where some action was taken or content restricted[[fn:115]] and, increasingly, descriptions and examples of selected legal bases.[[fn:116]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Transparency"], "footnotes": [{"n": 114, "text": "Twitter Transparency Report: Removal Requests (January−June 2017); Google Transparency Report: Government Requests to Remove Content; 2016 Reddit Inc., Transparency Report. Facebook does not provide the total number of requests received per country."}, {"n": 115, "text": "See, for example, Facebook Transparency Report (France) (January−June 2017); Google Transparency Report: Government Requests to Remove Content (India); Twitter Transparency Report (Turkey)."}, {"n": 116, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. However, as the leading review of Internet transparency concludes, companies disclose “the least amount of information about how private rules and mechanisms for self- and co-regulation are formulated and carried out”.[[fn:117]] In particular, disclosure concerning actions taken pursuant to private removal requests under terms of service is “incredibly low”.[[fn:118]] Content standards are drafted in broad terms, leaving room for platform discretion that companies do not sufficiently illuminate. Media and public scrutiny have led companies to supplement general policies with explanatory blog posts[[fn:119]] and limited hypothetical examples,[[fn:120]] but these fall short of illuminating nuances in how internal rules are developed and applied.[[fn:121]] While terms of service are generally available in local languages, transparency reports, company blogs and related content are not, providing even less clarity to non-English-speaking users. Accordingly, users, public authorities and civil society often express dissatisfaction with the unpredictability of terms of service actions.[[fn:122]] The lack of sufficient engagement, coupled with growing public criticism, has forced companies into a constant state of rule evaluation, revision and defence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Key concerns with content regulation", "B. Company moderation of content", "Transparency"], "footnotes": [{"n": 117, "text": "Ranking Digital Rights submission, p. 4. Original italics."}, {"n": 118, "text": "Ibid., p. 10."}, {"n": 119, "text": "See Elliot Schrage, “Introducing hard questions”, Facebook Newsroom, 15 June 2017; Twitter Safety, “Enforcing new rules to reduce hateful conduct and abusive behavior”, 18 December 2017."}, {"n": 120, "text": "See, for example, YouTube policies (violent or graphic content policies)."}, {"n": 121, "text": "Angwin and Grasseger, “Facebook’s secret censorship rules”."}, {"n": 122, "text": "Submissions by Ranking Digital Rights, p. 10; OBSERVACOM p. 10; Association for Progressive Communications, p. 17; International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions, pp. 4–5, Access Now, p. 17; and EDRi, p. 5."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The founder of Facebook recently expressed his hope for a process in which the company “could more accurately reflect the values of the community in different places”.[[fn:123]] That process, and the relevant standards, can be found in human rights law. Private norms, which vary according to each company’s business model and vague assertions of community interests, have created unstable, unpredictable and unsafe environments for users and intensified government scrutiny. National laws are inappropriate for companies that seek common norms for their geographically and culturally diverse user base. But human rights standards, if implemented transparently and consistently with meaningful user and civil society input, provide a framework for holding both States and companies accountable to users across national borders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 123, "text": "Kara Swisher and Kurt Wagner, “Here’s the transcript of Recode’s interview with Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg about the Cambridge Analytica controversy and more”, Recode, 22 March 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. A human rights framework enables forceful normative responses against undue State restrictions — provided companies play by similar rules. The Guiding Principles and their accompanying body of “soft law” provide guidance on how companies should prevent or mitigate government demands for excessive content removals. But they also establish principles of due diligence, transparency, accountability and remediation that limit platform interference with human rights through product and policy development. Companies committed to implementing human rights standards throughout their operations — and not merely when it aligns with their interests — will stand on firmer ground when they seek to hold States accountable to the same standards. Furthermore, when companies align their terms of service more closely with human rights law, States will find it harder to exploit them to censor content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Human rights principles also enable companies to create an inclusive environment that accommodates the varied needs and interests of their users while establishing predictable and consistent baseline standards of behaviour. Amidst growing debate about whether companies exercise a combination of intermediary and editorial functions, human rights law expresses a promise to users that they can rely on fundamental norms to protect their expression over and above what national law might curtail.[[fn:124]] Yet human rights law is not so inflexible or dogmatic that it requires companies to permit expression that would undermine the rights of others or the ability of States to protect legitimate national security or public order interests. Across a range of ills that may have more pronounced impact in digital space than they might offline — such as misogynist or homophobic harassment designed to silence women and sexual minorities, or incitement to violence of all sorts — human rights law would not deprive companies of tools. To the contrary, it would offer a globally recognized framework for designing those tools and a common vocabulary for explaining their nature, purpose and application to users and States.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 124, "text": "Global Partners Digital submission, p. 3; Guiding Principles, principle 11."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. The digital age enables rapid dissemination and enormous reach, but it also lacks textures of human context. Per the Guiding Principles, companies may take into account the size, structure and distinctive functions of the platforms they provide in assessing the necessity and proportionality of content restrictions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "A. Substantive standards for content moderation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Human rights by default. Terms of service should move away from a discretionary approach rooted in generic and self-serving “community” needs. Companies should instead adopt high-level policy commitments to maintain platforms for users to develop opinions, express themselves freely and access information of all kinds in a manner consistent with human rights law.[[fn:125]] These commitments should govern their approach to content moderation and to complex problems such as computational propaganda[[fn:126]] and the collection and handling of user data. Companies should incorporate directly into their terms of service and “community standards” relevant principles of human rights law that ensure content-related actions will be guided by the same standards of legality, necessity and legitimacy that bind State regulation of expression.[[fn:127]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "A. Substantive standards for content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 125, "text": "Guiding Principles, principle 16."}, {"n": 126, "text": "See Samuel Wooley and Philip Howard, Computational Propaganda Worldwide: Executive Summary (Computational Propaganda Research Project working paper No. 2017.11 (Oxford, 2017)."}, {"n": 127, "text": "Global Partners Digital submission, pp. 10–13."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. “Legality”. Company rules routinely lack the clarity and specificity that would enable users to predict with reasonable certainty what content places them on the wrong side of the line. This is particularly evident in the context of “extremism” and hate speech, areas of restriction easily susceptible to excessive removals in the absence of rigorous human evaluation of context. Further complicating public understanding of context-specific rules is the emerging general exception for “newsworthiness”.[[fn:128]] While the recognition of public interest is welcome, companies should also explain what factors are assessed in determining the public interest and what factors other than public interest inform calculations of newsworthiness. Companies should supplement their efforts to explain their rules in more detail with aggregate data illustrating trends in rule enforcement, and examples of actual cases or extensive, detailed hypotheticals that illustrate the nuances of interpretation and application of specific rules.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "A. Substantive standards for content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 128, "text": "See Joel Kaplan, “Input from community and partners on our community standards”, Facebook Newsroom, 21 October 2016; Twitter rules and policies."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Necessity and proportionality. Companies should not only describe contentious and context-specific rules in more detail. They should also disclose data and examples that provide insight into the factors they assess in determining a violation, its severity and the action taken in response. In the context of hate speech, explaining how specific cases are resolved may help users better understand how companies approach difficult distinctions between offensive content and incitement to hatred, or how considerations such as the intent of the speaker or the likelihood of violence are assessed in online contexts. Granular data on actions taken will also establish a basis to evaluate the extent to which companies are narrowly tailoring restrictions. The circumstances under which they apply less intrusive restrictions (such as warnings, age restrictions or demonetization) should be explained.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "A. Substantive standards for content moderation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Non-discrimination. Meaningful guarantees of non-discrimination require companies to transcend formalistic approaches that treat all protected characteristics as equally vulnerable to abuse, harassment and other forms of censorship.[[fn:129]] Indeed, such approaches would appear inconsistent with their own emphasis that context matters. Instead, when companies develop or modify policies or products, they should actively seek and take into account the concerns of communities historically at risk of censorship and discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "A. Substantive standards for content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 129, "text": "See, for example, International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, arts. 1 (4) and 2 (2)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. As company transparency reports show, Governments pressure them to remove content, suspend accounts and identify and disclose account information. Where required by local law, it may appear that companies have little choice but to comply. But companies may develop tools that prevent or mitigate the human rights risks caused by national laws or demands inconsistent with international standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Responses to government requests"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Prevention and mitigation. Companies often claim to take human rights seriously. But it is not enough for companies to undertake such commitments internally and provide ad hoc assurances to the public when controversies arise. Companies should also, at the highest levels of leadership, adopt and then publicly disclose specific policies that “direct all business units, including local subsidiaries, to resolve any legal ambiguity in favour of respect for freedom of expression, privacy, and other human rights”. Policies and procedures that interpret and implement government demands to narrow and “ensure the least restriction on content” should flow from these commitments.[[fn:130]] Companies should ensure that requests are in writing, cite specific and valid legal bases for restrictions and are issued by a valid government authority in an appropriate format.[[fn:131]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Responses to government requests"], "footnotes": [{"n": 130, "text": "See A/HRC/35/22, paras. 66−67."}, {"n": 131, "text": "Submissions by Global Network Initiative, pp. 3−4 and GitHub, pp. 3−5."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. When faced with problematic requests, companies should seek clarification or modification; solicit the assistance of civil society, peer companies, relevant government authorities, international and regional bodies and other stakeholders; and explore all legal options for challenge.[[fn:132]] When companies receive requests from States under their terms of service or through other extralegal means, they should route these requests through legal compliance processes and assess the validity of such requests under relevant local laws and human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Responses to government requests"], "footnotes": [{"n": 132, "text": "See A/HRC/35/22, para. 68."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Transparency. In the face of censorship and associated human rights risks, users can only make informed decisions about whether and how to engage on social media if interactions between companies and States are meaningfully transparent. Best practices on how to provide such transparency should be developed. Company reporting about State requests should be supplemented with granular data concerning the types of requests received (e.g., defamation, hate speech, terrorism-related content) and actions taken (e.g., partial or full removal, country-specific or global removal, account suspension, removal granted under terms of service). Companies should also provide specific examples as often as possible.[[fn:133]] Transparency reporting should extend to government demands under company terms of service[[fn:134]] and must also account for public-private initiatives to restrict content, such as the European Union Code of Conduct on countering illegal hate speech online, governmental initiatives such as Internet referral units and bilateral understandings such as those reported between YouTube and Pakistan and Facebook and Israel. Companies should preserve records of requests made under these initiatives and communications between the company and the requester and explore arrangements to submit copies of such requests to a third-party repository.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Responses to government requests"], "footnotes": [{"n": 133, "text": "See, for example, Twitter Transparency Report: Removal Requests (January−June 2017)."}, {"n": 134, "text": "Twitter has begun to publish data on “non-legal requests submitted by known government representatives about content that may violate the Twitter Rules” prohibiting abusive behaviour, promotion of terrorism and intellectual property infringement. Ibid. See also Microsoft, Content Removal Requests Report (January−June 2017)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Due diligence. Although several companies commit to human rights due diligence in assessing their response to State restrictions, it is unclear whether they implement similar safeguards to prevent or mitigate risks to freedom of expression posed by the development and enforcement of their own policies.[[fn:135]] Companies should develop clear and specific criteria for identifying activities that trigger such assessments. In addition to revisions of content moderation policies and processes, assessments should be conducted on the curation of user feeds and other forms of content delivery, the introduction of new features or services and modifications to existing ones, the development of automation technologies and market-entry decisions such as arrangements to provide country-specific versions of the platform.[[fn:136]] Past reporting also specifies the issues these assessments should examine and the internal processes and training required to integrate assessments and their findings into relevant operations. Additionally, these assessments should be ongoing and adaptive to changes in circumstances or operating context.[[fn:137]] Multi-stakeholder initiatives such as Global Network Initiative provide an avenue for companies to develop and refine assessments and other due diligence processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Rule-making and product development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 135, "text": "Ranking Digital Rights submission, p. 12; Guiding Principles, principle 17."}, {"n": 136, "text": "See A/HRC/35/22, para. 53."}, {"n": 137, "text": "Ibid., paras. 54−58."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Public input and engagement. Participants in consultations consistently raised concerns that companies failed to engage adequately with users and civil society, particularly in the global South. Input from affected rights holders (or their representatives) and relevant local or subject matter experts, and internal decision-making processes that meaningfully incorporate the feedback received, are integral components of due diligence.[[fn:138]] Consultations — especially in broad forms such as calls for public comment — enable the companies to consider the human rights impact of their activities from diverse perspectives, while also encouraging them to pay close attention to how seemingly benign or ostensibly “community-friendly” rules may have significant, “hyper-local” impacts on communities.[[fn:139]] For example, engagement with a geographically diverse range of indigenous groups may help companies develop better indicators for taking into account cultural and artistic context when assessing content featuring nudity.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Rule-making and product development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 138, "text": "See Guiding Principles, principle 18 and A/HRC/35/22, para. 57."}, {"n": 139, "text": "Chinmayi Arun, “Rebalancing regulation of speech: hyper-local content on global web-based platforms”, Berkman Klein Center for Internet and Society Medium Collection, Harvard University, 2018; Pretoria News, “Protest at Google, Facebook ‘bullying’ of bare-breasted maidens”, 14 December 2017."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Rule-making transparency. Companies too often appear to introduce products and rule modifications without conducting human rights due diligence or evaluating the impact in real cases. They should at least seek comment on their impact assessments from interested users and experts, in settings that guarantee the confidentiality of such assessments if necessary. They should also clearly communicate to the public the rules and processes that produced them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Rule-making and product development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Automation and human evaluation. Automated content moderation, a function of the massive scale and scope of user-generated content, poses distinct risks of content actions that are inconsistent with human rights law. Company responsibilities to prevent and mitigate human rights impacts should take into account the significant limitations of automation, such as difficulties with addressing context, widespread variation of language cues and meaning and linguistic and cultural particularities. Automation derived from understandings developed within the home country of the company risks serious discrimination across global user bases. At a minimum, technology developed to deal with considerations of scale should be rigorously audited and developed with broad user and civil society input.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Rule enforcement"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. The responsibility to foster accurate and context-sensitive content moderation practices that respect freedom of expression also requires companies to strengthen and ensure professionalization of their human evaluation of flagged content. This strengthening should involve protections for human moderators consistent with human rights norms applicable to labour rights and a serious commitment to involve cultural, linguistic and other forms of expertise in every market where they operate. Company leadership and policy teams should also diversify to enable the application of local or subject-matter expertise to content issues.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Rule enforcement"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Notice and appeal. Users and civil society experts commonly express concern about the limited information available to those subject to content removal or account suspension or deactivation, or those reporting abuse such as misogynistic harassment and doxing. The lack of information creates an environment of secretive norms, inconsistent with the standards of clarity, specificity and predictability. This interferes with the individual’s ability to challenge content actions or follow up on content-related complaints; in practice, however, the lack of robust appeal mechanisms for content removals favours users who flag over those who post. Some may argue that it will be time-consuming and costly to allow appeals on every content action. But companies could work with one another and civil society to explore scalable solutions such as company-specific or industry-wide ombudsman programmes. Among the best ideas for such programmes is an independent “social media council”, modelled on the press councils that enable industry-wide complaint mechanisms and the promotion of remedies for violations.[[fn:140]] This mechanism could hear complaints from individual users that meet certain criteria and gather public feedback on recurrent content moderation problems such as overcensorship related to a particular subject area. States should be supportive of scalable appeal mechanisms that operate consistently with human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Rule enforcement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 140, "text": "See ARTICLE 19, Self-regulation and ‘Hate Speech’ on Social Media Platforms (London, 2018), pp. 20−22."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. Remedy. The Guiding Principles highlight the responsibility to remedy “adverse impacts” (principle 22). However, few if any of the companies provide for remediation. Companies should institute robust remediation programmes, which may range from reinstatement and acknowledgment to settlements related to reputational or other harms. There has been some convergence among several companies in their content rules, giving rise to the possibility of inter-company cooperation to provide remedies through a social media council, other ombudsman programmes or third-party adjudication. If the failure to remediate persists, legislative and judicial intervention may be required.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Rule enforcement"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. User autonomy. Companies have developed tools enabling users to shape their own online environments. This includes muting and blocking of other users or specific kinds of content. Similarly, platforms often permit users to create closed or private groups, moderated by users themselves. While content rules in closed groups should be consistent with baseline human rights standards, platforms should encourage such affinity-based groups given their value in protecting opinion, expanding space for vulnerable communities and allowing the testing of controversial or unpopular ideas. Real-name requirements should be disfavoured, given their privacy and security implications for vulnerable individuals.[[fn:141]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Rule enforcement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 141, "text": "See para. 30 above."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Mounting concerns about the verifiability, relevance and usefulness of information online raise complex questions about how companies should respect the right to access information. At a minimum, companies should disclose details concerning their approaches to curation. If companies are ranking content on social media feeds based on interactions between users, they should explain the data collected about such interactions and how this informs the ranking criteria. Companies should provide all users with accessible and meaningful opportunities to opt out of platform-driven curation.[[fn:142]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Rule enforcement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 142, "text": "Facebook, for example, permits users to view stories in their News Feed in reverse chronological order, but warns that it will “eventually” return to its default curation settings. Facebook Help Centre, “What’s the difference between top stories and most recent stories on News Feed?”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Notwithstanding advances in aggregate transparency of government removal requests, terms of service actions are largely unreported. Companies do not publish data on the volume and type of private requests they receive under these terms, let alone rates of compliance. Companies should develop transparency initiatives that explain the impact of automation, human moderation and user or trusted flagging on terms of service actions. While a few companies are beginning to provide some information about these actions, the industry should be moving to provide more detail about specific and representative cases and significant developments in the interpretation and enforcement of their policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Decisional transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. The companies are implementing “platform law”, taking actions on content issues without significant disclosure about those actions. Ideally, companies should develop a kind of case law that would enable users, civil society and States to understand how the companies interpret and implement their standards. While such a “case law” system would not involve the kind of reporting the public expects from courts and administrative bodies, a detailed repository of cases and examples would clarify the rules much as case reporting does.[[fn:143]] A social media council empowered to evaluate complaints across the ICT sector could be a credible and independent mechanism to develop such transparency.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["IV. Human rights principles for company content moderation", "B. Processes for company moderation and related activities", "Decisional transparency"], "footnotes": [{"n": 143, "text": "See, for example, Madeleine Varner and others, “What does Facebook consider hate speech?”, ProPublica, 28 December 2017."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Opaque forces are shaping the ability of individuals worldwide to exercise their freedom of expression. This moment calls for radical transparency, meaningful accountability and a commitment to remedy in order to protect the ability of individuals to use online platforms as forums for free expression, access to information and engagement in public life. The present report has identified a range of steps, include the following.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. States should repeal any law that criminalizes or unduly restricts expression, online or offline.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Recommendations", "Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Smart regulation, not heavy-handed viewpoint-based regulation, should be the norm, focused on ensuring company transparency and remediation to enable the public to make choices about how and whether to engage in online forums. States should only seek to restrict content pursuant to an order by an independent and impartial judicial authority, and in accordance with due process and standards of legality, necessity and legitimacy. States should refrain from imposing disproportionate sanctions, whether heavy fines or imprisonment, on Internet intermediaries, given their significant chilling effect on freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Recommendations", "Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. States and intergovernmental organizations should refrain from establishing laws or arrangements that would require the “proactive” monitoring or filtering of content, which is both inconsistent with the right to privacy and likely to amount to pre-publication censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Recommendations", "Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. States should refrain from adopting models of regulation where government agencies, rather than judicial authorities, become the arbiters of lawful expression. They should avoid delegating responsibility to companies as adjudicators of content, which empowers corporate judgment over human rights values to the detriment of users.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Recommendations", "Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. States should publish detailed transparency reports on all content-related requests issued to intermediaries and involve genuine public input in all regulatory considerations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Recommendations", "Recommendations for States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Companies should recognize that the authoritative global standard for ensuring freedom of expression on their platforms is human rights law, not the varying laws of States or their own private interests, and they should re-evaluate their content standards accordingly. Human rights law gives companies the tools to articulate and develop policies and processes that respect democratic norms and counter authoritarian demands. This approach begins with rules rooted in rights, continues with rigorous human rights impact assessments for product and policy development, and moves through operations with ongoing assessment, reassessment and meaningful public and civil society consultation. The Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, along with industry-specific guidelines developed by civil society, intergovernmental bodies, the Global Network Initiative and others, provide baseline approaches that all Internet companies should adopt.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Recommendations", "Recommendations for ICT companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. The companies must embark on radically different approaches to transparency at all stages of their operations, from rule-making to implementation and development of “case law” framing the interpretation of private rules. Transparency requires greater engagement with digital rights organizations and other relevant sectors of civil society and avoiding secretive arrangements with States on content standards and implementation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Recommendations", "Recommendations for ICT companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-35-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-38-35", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Given their impact on the public sphere, companies must open themselves up to public accountability. Effective and rights-respecting press councils worldwide provide a model for imposing minimum levels of consistency, transparency and accountability to commercial content moderation. Third-party non-governmental approaches, if rooted in human rights standards, could provide mechanisms for appeal and remedy without imposing prohibitively high costs that deter smaller entities or new market entrants. All segments of the ICT sector that moderate content or act as gatekeepers should make the development of industry-wide accountability mechanisms (such as a social media council) a top priority.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2018, "section": ["V. Recommendations", "Recommendations for ICT companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0001", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. “Hate speech”, a shorthand phrase that conventional international law does not define, has a double ambiguity. Its vagueness and the lack of consensus around its meaning can be abused to enable infringements on a wide range of lawful expression. Many Governments use “hate speech”, similar to the way in which they use “fake news”, to attack political enemies, non-believers, dissenters and critics. However, the phrase’s weakness (“it’s just speech”) also seems to inhibit Governments and companies from addressing genuine harms, such as the kind resulting from speech that incites violence or discrimination against the vulnerable or the silencing of the marginalized. The situation gives rise to frustration in a public that often perceives rampant online abuse.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0002", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. In a world of rising calls for limits on hate speech, international human rights law provides standards to govern State and company approaches to online expression (A/HRC/38/35, para. 45).[[fn:1]] In the present report, the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression explains how those standards provide a framework for Governments considering regulatory options and companies determining how to respect human rights online. The Special Rapporteur begins with an introduction to the international legal framework, focusing on United Nations treaties and the leading interpretations of provisions related to what is colloquially called “hate speech”. He then highlights key State obligations and addresses how content moderation by companies may ensure respect for the human rights of users and the public. He concludes with recommendations for States and companies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The term “hate speech” is used in the present report to refer to obligations and limitations in human rights law in which that particular term is not used. See Susan Benesch, “Proposals for improved regulation of harmful online content”, paper prepared for the Israel Democracy Institute, 2019. Benesch coined a sibling term, “dangerous speech”, to identify a “capacity to catalyse violence by one group against another”. See also Susan Benesch, “Dangerous speech: a proposal to prevent group violence”, 2012."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0003", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The present report is the sixth in a series of reports published since 2015 in which the Special Rapporteur has addressed the human rights standards applicable to the freedom of opinion and expression in the information and communications technology (ICT) sector.[[fn:2]] It should be read in the light of the standards and recommendations previously proposed, which are not necessarily repeated herein. As in his previous reports, the Special Rapporteur draws extensively from existing international standards and from considerable civil society input over the past several years.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See A/HRC/29/32, on encryption and anonymity, A/HRC/32/38, on mapping the impact of the ICT sector on rights, A/HRC/35/22, on the digital access industry, A/HRC/38/35, on online content moderation, and A/73/348, on artificial intelligence and human rights."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0004", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Under international human rights law, the limitation of hate speech seems to demand a reconciliation of two sets of values: democratic society’s requirements to allow open debate and individual autonomy and development with the also compelling obligation to prevent attacks on vulnerable communities and ensure the equal and non-discriminatory participation of all individuals in public life.[[fn:3]] Governments often exploit the resulting uncertainty to threaten legitimate expression, such as political dissent and criticism or religious disagreement.[[fn:4]] However, the freedom of expression, the rights to equality and life and the obligation of non-discrimination are mutually reinforcing; human rights law permits States and companies to focus on protecting and promoting the speech of all, especially those whose rights are often at risk, while also addressing the public and private discrimination that undermines the enjoyment of all rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See, in particular, the report on hate speech of the previous Special Rapporteur Frank La Rue (A/67/357)."}, {"n": 4, "text": "Ibid., paras. 51–54."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0005", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Article 19 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights protects the right to hold opinions without interference, and article 19 (2) guarantees the right to freedom of expression, that is, the right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, through any media. Numerous other treaties, global and regional, expressly protect the freedom of expression.[[fn:5]] The Human Rights Committee, the expert monitoring body for the Covenant, has emphasized that these freedoms are “indispensable conditions for the full development of the person … [and] constitute the foundation stone for every free and democratic society”. They “form a basis for the full enjoyment of a wide range of other human rights”.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See, e.g., the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, art. 5; the Convention on the Rights of the Child, art. 13; the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, art. 21; the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, art. 13; the American Convention on Human Rights, art. 13; the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights, art. 9; and the European Convention on Human Rights, art. 10."}, {"n": 6, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression, paras. 2 and 4; see also ibid., paras. 5–6."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0006", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Since the freedom of expression is fundamental to the enjoyment of all human rights, restrictions on it must be exceptional, subject to narrow conditions and strict oversight. The Human Rights Committee has underlined that restrictions, even when warranted, “may not put in jeopardy the right itself”.[[fn:7]] The exceptional nature of limitations is described in article 19 (3) of the Covenant, recognizing that States may restrict expression under article 19 (2) only where provided by law and necessary to respect the rights or reputations of others or protect national security, public order, public health or morals. These are narrowly defined exceptions (see, in particular, A/67/357, para. 41, and A/HRC/29/32, paras. 32–35), and the burden falls on the authority restricting speech to justify the restriction, not on the speakers to demonstrate that they have the right to such speech.[[fn:8]] Any limitations must meet three conditions:\n(a) Legality. The restriction must be provided by laws that are precise, public and transparent; it must avoid providing authorities with unbounded discretion, and appropriate notice must be given to those whose speech is being regulated. Rules should be subject to public comment and regular legislative or administrative processes. Procedural safeguards, especially those guaranteed by independent courts or tribunals, should protect rights;\n(b) Legitimacy. The restriction should be justified to protect one or more of the interests specified in article 19 (3) of the Covenant, that is, to respect the rights or reputations of others or to protect national security, public order, public health or morals;\n(c) Necessity and proportionality. The restriction must be demonstrated by the State as necessary to protect a legitimate interest and to be the least restrictive means to achieve the purported aim. The Human Rights Committee has referred to these conditions as “strict tests”, according to which restrictions “must be applied only for those purposes for which they were prescribed and must be directly related to the specific need on which they are predicated”.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Ibid., para. 21. The Human Rights Committee clarified that “restrictions must not impair the essence of the right”, adding that “the laws authorizing the application of restrictions should use precise criteria and may not confer unfettered discretion on those charged with their execution” (Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 27 (1999) on freedom of movement, para. 13)."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 27."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Ibid., para. 22."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0007", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. States regularly assert proper purposes for imposing limitations on expression but fail to demonstrate that their limitations meet the tests of legality or necessity and proportionality (see A/71/373). For this reason, the rules are to be applied strictly and in good faith, with robust and transparent oversight. Under article 2 (3) (b) of the Covenant, States are obligated to ensure that individuals seeking remedy for a violation of the Covenant have their right thereto “determined by competent judicial, administrative or legislative authorities, or by any other competent authority provided for by the legal system of the State” (see also A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, para. 31).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0008", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Under article 20 (2) of the Covenant, States parties are obligated to prohibit by law “any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence”. States are not obligated to criminalize such kinds of expression. The previous Special Rapporteur explained that article 20 (2) relates to (a) advocacy of hatred, (b) advocacy which constitutes incitement, and (c) incitement likely to result in discrimination, hostility or violence (A/67/357, para. 43).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0009", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. United Nations human rights standards offer broader protection against discrimination than that afforded through the focus in article 20 (2) on national, racial or religious hatred. Article 2 (1) of the Covenant guarantees rights to all individuals “without distinction of any kind”, and article 26 expressly provides that “the law shall prohibit any discrimination and guarantee to all persons equal and effective protection against discrimination on any ground”. International standards ensure protections against adverse actions on grounds of race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status, including indigenous origin or identity, disability, migrant or refugee status, sexual orientation, gender identity or intersex status.[[fn:10]] The scope of protection has expanded over time, such that other categories, such as age or albinism, are also now afforded explicit protection. Given the expansion of protection worldwide, the prohibition of incitement should be understood to apply to the broader categories now covered under international human rights law.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Indigenous peoples", "Migrants", "Women/girls", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See also, Article 19, “Hate Speech” Explained: A Toolkit (London, 2015), p. 14. On online violence against women, see A/HRC/38/47."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "26", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0010", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. A critical point is that the individual whose expression is to be prohibited under article 20 (2) of the Covenant is the advocate whose advocacy constitutes incitement. A person who is not advocating hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, for example, a person advocating a minority or even offensive interpretation of a religious tenet or historical event, or a person sharing examples of hatred and incitement to report on or raise awareness of the issue, is not to be silenced under article 20 (or any other provision of human rights law). Such expression is to be protected by the State, even if the State disagrees with or is offended by the expression.[[fn:11]] There is no “heckler’s veto” in international human rights law.[[fn:12]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 11."}, {"n": 12, "text": "See Evelyn M. Aswad, “To ban or not to ban blasphemous videos”, Georgetown Journal of International Law, vol 44, No. 4 (2013)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0011", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. In the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, adopted the year before the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, States are called upon to “eradicate all incitement to, or acts of” racial discrimination, with due regard to other rights protected by human rights law, including the freedom of expression (see articles 4 and 5 of the Convention). Under article 4 of the Convention, States parties are obligated, inter alia, to: (a) “declare an offence punishable by law all dissemination of ideas based on racial superiority or hatred, incitement to racial discrimination, as well as all acts of violence or incitement to such acts against any race or group of persons of another colour or ethnic origin”; and (b) “declare illegal and prohibit organizations, and also organized and all other propaganda activities, which promote and incite racial discrimination, and shall recognize participation in such organizations or activities as an offence punishable by law”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'articles 4 and 5 of the Convention' referring to 'the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination' named in the same sentence — explicit treaty attribution."}, {"article": "5", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Same sentence as art. 4 above: 'articles 4 and 5 of the Convention' (CERD) — explicit treaty attribution."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'Under article 4 of the Convention, States parties are obligated …' — same CERD, explicit attribution with full quote of CERD art. 4 obligations."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0012", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Article 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination address specific categories of expression, often characterized as “hate speech”.[[fn:13]] The language in these provisions is ambiguous, compared with that of article 19 (2) of the Covenant.[[fn:14]] Whereas the freedom of expression defined in article 19 (2) involves expansive rights embodied by active verbs (seek, receive, impart) and the broadest possible scope (ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, through any media), the proscriptions under article 20 (2) of the Covenant and article 4 of the Convention, while much narrower than generic hate speech prohibitions, involve difficult-to-define language of emotion (hatred, hostility) and highly context-specific prohibition (advocacy of incitement). The Human Rights Committee has concluded that articles 19 and 20 of the Covenant “are compatible with and complement each other”.[[fn:15]] Even so, they require interpretation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "See Jeremy Waldron, The Harm in Hate Speech (Harvard University Press, 2012)."}, {"n": 14, "text": "The ambiguity is not surprising, considering the negotiating history. See Jacob Mchangama, “The sordid origin of hate-speech laws”, Policy Review (December 2011 and January 2012)."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 50."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination address specific categories of expression' — explicit treaty attribution."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Same sentence: 'article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination' — explicit treaty attribution."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 19 (2) involves expansive rights' in the same sentence as 'article 19 (2) of the Covenant' — explicit attribution to ICCPR (the Covenant)."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'that of article 19 (2)' — second reference in the comparison between art. 19(2) and art. 20(2). Same ICCPR art. 19(2)."}, {"article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'the proscriptions under article 20 (2) of the Covenant' — explicit ICCPR attribution."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'article 4 of the Convention' referring to CERD (just named in full at the start of this paragraph)."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'articles 19 and 20 of the Covenant \"are compatible with and complement each other\"' — 'the Covenant' is ICCPR. Art. 19 without paragraph is the general freedom of expression provision."}, {"article": "20", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Same sentence: 'articles 19 and 20 of the Covenant' — ICCPR art. 20 incitement prohibition."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0013", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. In its general comment No. 34 (2011), the Human Rights Committee found that whenever a State limits expression, including the kinds of expression defined in article 20 (2) of the Covenant, it must still “justify the prohibitions and their provisions in strict conformity with article 19”.[[fn:16]] In 2013 , a high-level group of human rights experts, convened under the auspices of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, adopted an interpretation of article 20 (2).[[fn:17]] In the Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, key terms are defined as follows:\n“Hatred” and “hostility” refer to intense and irrational emotions of opprobrium, enmity and detestation towards the target group; the term “advocacy” is to be understood as requiring an intention to promote hatred publicly towards the target group; and the term “incitement” refers to statements about national, racial or religious groups which create an imminent risk of discrimination, hostility or violence against persons belonging to those groups (A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, appendix, footnote 5).[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Ibid., para. 52, and, in the context of art. 20 (2) of the Covenant in particular, see para. 50."}, {"n": 17, "text": "See, e.g., Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, general recommendation No. 35 (2013) on combating racist hate speech."}, {"n": 18, "text": "The previous Special Rapporteur Frank La Rue defined as a key factor in the assessment of incitement whether there was “real and imminent danger of violence resulting from the expression” (A/67/357, para. 46). See also Article 19, Prohibiting Incitement to Discrimination, Hostility or Violence (London, 2012), pp. 24–25."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0014", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. A total of six factors were identified in the Rabat Plan of Action to determine the severity necessary to criminalize incitement (ibid, para. 29):\n(a) The “social and political context prevalent at the time the speech was made and disseminated”;\n(b) The status of the speaker, “specifically the individual’s or organization’s standing in the context of the audience to whom the speech is directed”;\n(c) Intent, meaning that “negligence and recklessness are not sufficient for an offence under article 20 of the Covenant”, which provides that mere distribution or circulation does not amount to advocacy or incitement;\n(d) Content and form of the speech, in particular “the degree to which the speech was provocative and direct, as well as the form, style, nature of arguments deployed”;\n(e) Extent or reach of the speech act, such as the “magnitude and size of its audience”, including whether it was “a single leaflet or broadcast in the mainstream media or via the Internet, the frequency, the quantity and the extent of the communications, whether the audience had the means to act on the incitement”;\n(f) Its likelihood, including imminence, meaning that “some degree of risk of harm must be identified”, including through the determination (by courts, as suggested in the Plan of Action) of a “reasonable probability that the speech would succeed in inciting actual action against the target group”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0015", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. In 2013, the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, the expert monitoring body for the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, followed the lead of the Human Rights Committee and the Rabat Plan of Action. It clarified the “due regard” language in article 4 of the Convention as meaning that strict compliance with freedom of expression guarantees is required.[[fn:19]] In a sign of converging interpretations, the Committee emphasized that criminalization under article 4 should be reserved for certain cases, as follows:\nThe criminalization of forms of racist expression should be reserved for serious cases, to be proven beyond reasonable doubt, while less serious cases should be addressed by means other than criminal law, taking into account, inter alia, the nature and extent of the impact on targeted persons and groups. The application of criminal sanctions should be governed by principles of legality, proportionality and necessity.[[fn:20]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, general recommendation No. 35 (2013), para. 19. The Committee understands the due-regard clause as having particular importance with regard to freedom of expression, which, it states, is “the most pertinent reference principle when calibrating the legitimacy of speech restrictions”."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, general recommendation No. 35 (2013), para. 12."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CERD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CERD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0016", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination explained that the conditions defined in article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights also apply to restrictions under article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination.[[fn:21]] With regard to the qualification of dissemination and incitement as offences punishable by law, the Committee found that States must take into account a range of factors in determining whether a particular expression falls into those prohibited categories, including the speech’s “content and form”, the “economic, social and political climate” during the time the expression was made, the “position or status of the speaker”, the “reach of the speech” and its objectives. The Committee recommended that States parties to the Convention consider “the imminent risk or likelihood that the conduct desired or intended by the speaker will result from the speech in question”.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "Ibid., paras. 4 and 19–20."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Ibid., paras. 15–16."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination'."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0017", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. The Committee also found that the Convention requires the prohibition of “insults, ridicule or slander of persons or groups or justification of hatred, contempt or discrimination”, emphasizing that such expression may only be prohibited where it “clearly amounts to incitement to hatred or discrimination”.[[fn:23]] The terms “ridicule” and “justification” are extremely broad and are generally precluded from restriction under international human rights law, which protects the rights to offend and mock. Thus, the ties to incitement and to the framework established under article 19 (3) of the Covenant help to constrain such a prohibition to the most serious category.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Ibid., para. 13."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0018", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. In the Rabat Plan of Action, it is also clarified that criminalization should be left for the most serious sorts of incitement under article 20 (2) of the Covenant, and that, in general, other approaches deserve consideration first (A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, appendix, para. 34). These approaches include public statements by leaders in society that counter hate speech and foster tolerance and intercommunity respect; education and intercultural dialogue; expanding access to information and ideas that counter hateful messages; and the promotion of and training in human rights principles and standards. The recognition of steps other than legal prohibitions highlights that prohibition will often not be the least restrictive measure available to States confronting hate speech problems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0019", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Other kinds of speech may not meet the article 20 (2) or article 4 definitions or thresholds but involve, for example, advocacy of hatred. The question arises as to whether States may restrict advocacy of hatred that does not constitute incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence. In other words, the question is whether States may restrict hate speech when defined, as was done recently in the United Nations Strategy and Plan of Action on Hate Speech, as speech “that attacks or uses pejorative or discriminatory language with reference to a person or a group on the basis of who they are, in other words, based on their religion, ethnicity, nationality, race, colour, descent, gender or other identity factor”.[[fn:24]] Clearly such language stops short of the article 20 (2) and article 4 meanings of incitement, and while States and companies should combat such attitudes with education, condemnation and other tools, legal restrictions will need to meet the strict standards of international human rights law.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Hateful expression that may not constitute advocacy or incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "In the Rabat Plan of Action, reference is made to speech that is below the thresholds established under article 20 (2) of the Covenant but that either “may justify a civil suit or administrative sanctions” or gives rise to no sanctions but “still raises concern in terms of tolerance, civility and respect for the rights of others” (A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, para. 20)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0020", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. For content that involves the kind of speech as defined in the United Nations Strategy on Hate Speech, that is, speech that is hateful but does not constitute incitement, article 19 (3) of the Covenant provides appropriate guidance. Its conditions must be applied strictly, such that any restriction – and any action taken against speech – meets the conditions of legality, necessity and proportionality, and legitimacy. Given its vagueness, language similar to that used in the Strategy, if meant to guide prohibitions under law, would be problematic on legality grounds, although it may serve as a basis for political and social action to counter discrimination and hatred. Any State adopting such a definition would also need to situate a restriction among the legitimate grounds for limitation. In most instances, the rights of others, as defined in article 19 (3), may provide the appropriate basis, focused on rights related to discrimination or interference with privacy, or protecting public order. However, in each case, it would remain essential for the State to demonstrate the necessity and proportionality of taking action, and the harsher the penalty, the greater the need for demonstrating strict necessity.[[fn:25]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Hateful expression that may not constitute advocacy or incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "The public morals exception provided under article 19 (3) of the Covenant would be an unlikely basis, but it bears noting that the Human Rights Committee has clarified that “the purpose of protecting morals must be based on principles not deriving exclusively from a single tradition” (Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 32, quoting Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 22 (1993) on the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, para. 8)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0021", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Some restrictions are specifically disfavoured under international human rights standards. As a first example, the Human Rights Committee noted that “prohibitions of displays of lack of respect for a religion or other belief system, including blasphemy laws, are incompatible with the Covenant”, except in cases in which blasphemy also may be defined as advocacy of religious hatred that constitutes incitement of one of the required sorts.[[fn:26]] To be clear, anti-blasphemy laws fail to meet the legitimacy condition of article 19 (3) of the Covenant, given that article 19 protects individuals and their right to freedom of expression and opinion; neither article 19 (3) nor article 18 of the Covenant protect ideas or beliefs from ridicule, abuse, criticism or other “attacks” seen as offensive. Several human rights mechanisms have affirmed the call to repeal blasphemy laws because of the risk they pose to debate over religious ideas and the role that such laws play in enabling Governments to show preference for the ideas of one religion over those of other religions, beliefs or non-belief systems (see, in particular, A/HRC/31/18, paras. 59–61).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Hateful expression that may not constitute advocacy or incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 48. In this case, the blasphemy would be beside the point; only the advocacy constituting incitement would be relevant."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "18", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0022", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Second, laws that “penalize the expression of opinions about historical facts are incompatible” with article 19 of the Covenant, calling into question laws that criminalize the denial of the Holocaust and other atrocities and similar laws, which are often justified through references to hate speech. The Human Rights Committee noted that opinions that are “erroneous” and “an incorrect interpretation of past events” may not be subject to general prohibition, and any restrictions on the expression of such opinion “should not go beyond what is permitted” under article 19 (3) or “required under article 20” of the Covenant.[[fn:27]] In the light of these and other interpretations, the denial of the historical accuracy of atrocities should not be subject to criminal penalty or other restrictions without further evaluation under the definitions and context noted above. The application of any such restriction under international human rights law should involve the evaluation of the six factors noted in the Rabat Plan of Action.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Hateful expression that may not constitute advocacy or incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 49. See Sarah Cleveland, Hate Speech at Home and Abroad, in Lee C. Bollinger and Geoffrey R. Stone, eds., The Free Speech Century (New York, Oxford University Press, 2019). See also A/67/357, para. 55."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0023", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. A third kind of non-incitement speech may involve a situation in which a speaker is “individually targeting an identifiable victim” but not seeking to “incite others to take an action against persons on the basis of a protected characteristic”.[[fn:28]] Again, in reference to article 19 (3) of the Covenant, such speech may be subject to restriction in order to protect the rights of others or to protect public order. Often States restrict such expression under the general rubric of “hate crimes”, whereby the penalty for a physical attack on a person or property is exacerbated by the hateful motivation behind it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Hateful expression that may not constitute advocacy or incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Article 19, “Hate Speech” Explained, p. 22."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0024", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Fourth, it is important to emphasize that expression that may be offensive or characterized by prejudice and that may raise serious concerns of intolerance may often not meet a threshold of severity to merit any kind of restriction. There is a range of expression of hatred, ugly as it is, that does not involve incitement or direct threat, such as declarations of prejudice against protected groups. Such sentiments would not be subject to prohibition under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights or the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, and other restrictions or adverse actions would require an analysis of the conditions provided under article 19 (3) of the Covenant. The six factors identified in the Rabat Plan of Action for criminalizing incitement also provide a valuable rubric for considering how to evaluate public authorities’ reactions to such speech. Indeed, the absence of restriction does not mean the absence of action; States may (and should, consistent with Human Rights Council resolution 16/18) take robust steps, such as government condemnation of prejudice, education, training, public service announcements and community projects, to counter such intolerance and ensure that public authorities protect individuals against discrimination rooted in these kinds of assertions of hate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Hateful expression that may not constitute advocacy or incitement"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text refers to 'article 19 (3) of the Covenant'; throughout document a-74-486 'the Covenant' consistently means ICCPR (explicit_treaties confirm ICCPR and CERD, and art.19(3) is an ICCPR provision on restriction of freedom of expression)."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0025", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Finally, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide requires States to criminalize incitement to genocide. In some situations, such as in Myanmar, State inaction against incitement to genocide may contribute to very serious consequences for vulnerable communities. Such inaction itself is condemnable, just as the incitement itself must be opposed and punished.[[fn:29]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Hateful expression that may not constitute advocacy or incitement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See, in particular, A/HRC/39/64, para. 73. Article III (c) of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide calls for the criminalization of “direct and public incitement to commit genocide”."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0026", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Human rights systems in Europe, the Americas and Africa also articulate standards related to hate speech. The European Court of Human Rights has emphasized that freedom of expression protects the kinds of speech that may “offend, shock or disturb”.[[fn:30]] However, the Court has adopted relatively deferential attitudes towards States that continue to ban blasphemy by law on the grounds of prohibiting hate speech or continue to criminalize genocide denial, in contrast to trends observed at the global level.[[fn:31]] Often the Court avoids the hate speech question altogether, relying not on freedom of expression but on “abuse of rights” grounds to find that claims of violation are inadmissible.[[fn:32]] European norms may be in flux when it comes to making intermediaries liable for hate speech on their platforms.[[fn:33]] By contrast, standards in the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights have tended to be similar to the international standards explained above, while standards in the African system are at a comparatively early stage.[[fn:34]] Regional human rights norms cannot, in any event, be invoked to justify departure from international human rights protections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Human rights norms at the regional level"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Handyside v. the United Kingdom, application No. 5493/72, Judgment, 7 December 1976, para. 49. See Sejal Parmer, “The legal framework for addressing ‘hate speech’ in Europe”, presentation at the international conference on addressing hate speech in the media, Zagreb, November 2018."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See Council of Europe, “Hate speech”, fact sheet, October 2019; and Evelyn M. Aswad, “The future of freedom of expression online”, Duke Law and Technology Review, vol. 17 (August 2018)."}, {"n": 32, "text": "For an overview of practice, see Council of Europe, “Guide on article 17 of the European Convention on Human Rights: prohibition of abuse of rights”, updated 31 August 2019."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Compare European Court of Human Rights, Grand Chamber, Delfi AS v. Estonia, application No. 64569/09, Judgment, 16 June 2015, with European Court of Human Rights, Fourth Section, Magyar Tartalomszolgáltatók Egyesülete and Index.hu Zrt v. Hungary, application No. 22947/13, Judgment, 2 February 2016. See also Article 19, “Responding to ‘hate speech’: comparative overview of six EU countries”, 2018."}, {"n": 34, "text": "See Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, “Hate speech and incitement to violence”, in Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Violence against Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Persons in the Americas (2015)."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0027", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. The Human Rights Committee has specifically rejected the European Court’s margin of appreciation doctrine , noting that “a State party, in any given case, must demonstrate in specific fashion the precise nature of the threat to any of the enumerated grounds listed in paragraph 3 that has caused it to restrict freedom of expression”.[[fn:35]] The Committee does not grant discretion to the State simply because the national authorities assert that they generally are better placed to understand their local context.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Human rights norms at the regional level"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 36."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0028", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The international human rights framework has evolved in recent years to rationalize what appear, on the surface, to be competing norms. In short, the freedom of expression is a legal right of paramount value for democratic societies, interdependent with and supportive of other rights throughout the corpus of human rights law. At the same time, anti-discrimination, equality and equal and effective public participation underpin the entire corpus of human rights law. The kind of expression captured in article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination presents challenges to both sets of norms, something that all participants in public life must acknowledge. Thus, restrictions on the right to freedom of expression must be exceptional, and the State bears the burden of demonstrating the consistency of such restrictions with international law; prohibitions under article 20 of the Covenant and article 4 of the Convention must be subject to the strict and narrow conditions established under article 19 (3) of the Covenant, and States should generally deploy tools at their disposal other than criminalization and prohibition, such as education, counter-speech and the promotion of pluralism, to address all kinds of hate speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. “Hate speech” regulation in international human rights law", "Summary of United Nations instruments on hate speech"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "20", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination'."}, {"article": "20", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second reference: 'prohibitions under article 20 of the Covenant' — 'the Covenant' is ICCPR throughout this document."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second reference: 'article 4 of the Convention' paired with ICCPR art.20, and 'the Convention' in this parallel construction refers to ICERD/CERD as throughout document a-74-486."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text refers to 'article 19 (3) of the Covenant'; ICCPR art.19(3) is the restriction test for freedom of expression, consistent throughout document."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0029", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Strict adherence to international human rights law standards protects against governmental excesses. As a first principle, States should not use Internet companies as tools to limit expression that they themselves would be precluded from limiting under international human rights law. What they demand of companies, whether through regulation or threats of regulation, must be justified under and in compliance with international law. Certain kinds of action against content are clearly inconsistent with article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, such as Internet shutdowns and the criminalization of online political dissent or government criticism (see A/HRC/35/22). Penalties on individuals for engaging in unlawful hate speech should not be enhanced merely because the speech occurred online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0030", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. It is useful to contemplate a hypothetical State that is considering legislation that would hold online intermediaries liable for the failure to take specified action against hate speech. Such an “intermediary liability” law is typically aimed at restricting expression, whether of the users of a particular platform or of the platform itself, sometimes with a view to fulfilling the obligation under article 20 (2) of the Covenant. Any legal evaluation of such a proposal must address the cumulative conditions established under article 19 (3) to ensure consistency with international standards on free expression.[[fn:36]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "For a statement on the principles that should apply in the context of intermediary liability, see Electronic Frontier Foundation, “Manila principles on intermediary liability”, 2015."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0031", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Article 19 (3) of the Covenant requires that, when imposing liability for the hosting of hate speech, the phrase itself and the factors involved in identifying the instances of hate speech must be defined. In a proposal to impose liability for a failure to remove “incitement”, the content of such incitement must be defined consistent with article 20 (2) of the Covenant and article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, including by defining the key terms in the Rabat Plan of Action noted above. If a State wishes to regulate hate speech on grounds other than those provided under article 20 of the Covenant and article 4 of the Convention, it must define the content that is in fact unlawful;[[fn:37]] the precision and clarity required under article 19 (3) of the Covenant mean that State laws should constrain the excessive discretion of government actors to enforce the rules or of private actors to use the rules to suppress lawful expression and must provide for individuals to be given appropriate notice to regulate their affairs.[[fn:38]] Without clarity and precision in the definitions, there is significant risk of abuse, restriction of legitimate content and failure to address the problems at issue. States addressing hate speech should tie their definitions closely to the standards of international human rights law, such as those established under article 20 (2) of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech", "Legality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "States have largely distinguished terrorist and “extremist” content from “hate speech”, but the same principles of legality must apply to those subjects as well. See, e.g., A/HRC/40/52, para. 75 (e). The term “extremism” is often used as a substitute for “hate speech”, albeit as a term that is not rooted in law. The term “violent extremism” does not add much clarity. Governments that use the term “extremism” in good faith in an online context seem to focus on the problem of the virality of “terrorist and violent extremist ideologies” and seem to have as their goal to counter “extremist” narratives and “prevent the abuse of the internet” (Christchurch Call to Eliminate Terrorist and Violent Extremist Content Online)."}, {"n": 38, "text": "This is not to preclude the possibility of civil claims that one individual may bring against another for traditional torts that take place online instead of offline. However, defining the expression that may cause legally redressable harm is required under article 19 of the Covenant."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CERD", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CERD", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CERD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CERD", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CERD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CERD", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CERD", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0032", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Several States have adopted or are considering adopting rules that require Internet companies to remove “manifestly unlawful” speech within a particular period, typically within 24 hours or even as brief as 1 hour, or otherwise to remove unlawful content within a lengthier period. The most well-known of these laws, the Network Enforcement Act of Germany, imposes requirements on companies to remove from their platforms speech that is unlawful under a number of specifically identified provisions of the German Criminal Code.[[fn:39]] For example, section 130 of the Criminal Code provides, inter alia, for the sanction of a person who, “in a manner capable of disturbing the public peace, incites hatred against a national, racial, religious group or a group defined by their ethnic origins, against segments of the population or individuals because of their belonging to one of the aforementioned groups or segments of the population or calls for violent or arbitrary measures against them”.[[fn:40]] The law evidently does not define its key terms (especially “incite” and “hatred”),[[fn:41]] and yet, through the Network Enforcement Act, it imposes significant fines on companies that fail to adhere to its provisions. The underlying law is problematically vague. While the Network Enforcement Act should be understood as a good-faith effort to deal with widespread concern over online hate and its offline consequences, the failure to define these key terms undermines the claim that its requirements are consistent with international human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech", "Legality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "Germany, Act to Improve Enforcement of the Law in Social Networks (Network Enforcement Act) (2017), sect. 1 (3)."}, {"n": 40, "text": "Similar references are made in the French bill concerning online hate speech. See communication FRA 6/2019 and the response of the Government of France, available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}, {"n": 41, "text": "See, however, Germany, Federal Court of Justice, Judgment of 3 April 2008, Case No. 3 StR 394/07."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0033", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Few States have involved their courts in the process of evaluating platform hate speech that is inconsistent with local law, but they should allow for the imposition of liability only according to orders by independent courts and with the possibility of appeal at the request of the intermediary or other party affected by the action (such as the subject user).[[fn:42]] Governments have been increasing the pressure on companies to serve as the adjudicators of hate speech. The process of adoption should also be subject to rigorous rule of law standards, with adequate opportunity for public input and hearings and evaluation of alternatives and of the impact on human rights.[[fn:43]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech", "Legality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "The previous Special Rapporteur noted that “any restriction imposed must be applied by a body that is independent of political, commercial or other unwarranted influences in a manner that is neither arbitrary nor discriminatory, and with adequate safeguards against abuse” (A/67/357, para. 42)."}, {"n": 43, "text": "See communication AUS 5/2019 and the response from the Permanent Mission of Australia to the United Nations Office and other international organizations in Geneva, available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0034", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Legislative efforts to incentivize the removal of online hate speech and impose liability on Internet companies for the failure to do so must meet the necessity and proportionality standards identified above. In recent years, States have pushed companies towards a nearly immediate takedown of content, demanding that they develop filters that would disable the upload of content deemed harmful. The pressure is for automated tools that would serve as a form of pre-publication censorship. Problematically, an upload filter requirement “would enable the blocking of content without any form of due process even before it is published, reversing the well-established presumption that States, not individuals, bear the burden of justifying restrictions on freedom of expression”.[[fn:44]] Because such filters are notoriously unable to address the kind of natural language that typically constitutes hateful content, they can cause significant disproportionate outcomes.[[fn:45]] Furthermore, there is research suggesting that such filters disproportionately harm historically underrepresented communities.[[fn:46]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech", "Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "Communication OTH 71/2018, available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments. See also, European Commission, recommendation (EU) 2018/334 of 1 March 2018 on measures to effectively tackle illegal content online, para. 36, which calls for “proactive measures, including by using automated means, in order to detect, identify and expeditiously remove or disable access to terrorist content”."}, {"n": 45, "text": "See Center for Democracy and Technology, “Mixed messages? The limits of automated social media content analysis”, 28 November 2017."}, {"n": 46, "text": "Regarding the serious concerns about freedom of expression raised on the matter of upload filters, see Daphne Keller, “Dolphins in the Net: Internet content filters and the Advocate General’s Glawischnig-Pieczek v. Facebook Ireland opinion”, Stanford Center for Internet and Society, 4 September 2019."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0035", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The push for upload filters for hate speech (and other kinds of content) is ill-advised, as it drives the platforms towards the regulation and removal of lawful content. They enhance the power of the companies with very little, if any, oversight or opportunity for redress. States should instead be pursuing laws and policies that push companies to protect free expression and counter lawfully restricted forms of hate speech through a combination of features: transparency requirements that allow public oversight; the enforcement of national law by independent judicial authorities; and other social and educational efforts along the lines proposed in the Rabat Plan of Action and Human Rights Council resolution 16/18.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech", "Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0036", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Some States have taken steps to address illegal hate speech through other creative and seemingly proportionate means. While India has, problematically, adopted Internet shutdowns as a tool to deal with content issues in some instances, interfering disproportionately with the population’s access to communications,[[fn:47]] some states in India have adopted alternative approaches. One approach involved the creation of hotlines for individuals to report WhatsApp content to law enforcement authorities, while another involved the establishment of “social media labs” to monitor online hate speech. While these kinds of approaches require careful development to be consistent with human rights norms, they suggest a kind of “creative” and “out of the box” approach to address hate speech without outsourcing the role of content police to distant companies.[[fn:48]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech", "Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "See communications IND 7/2017 and IND 5/2016, available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments; see also Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, “United Nations rights experts urge India to end communications shutdown in Kashmir”, press release, 22 August 2019."}, {"n": 48, "text": "Chinmayi Arun and Nakul Nayak, “Preliminary findings on online hate speech and the law in India”, 8 December 2016, p. 11."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0037", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. In 2019, an official commission in France proposed an approach to the regulation of online content that would seem to protect expression while also giving room to address unlawful hate speech. While the status of the commission’s work was unclear at the time of writing, its proposals involve judicial authorities addressing hate speech problems and multi-stakeholder initiatives to provide oversight of company policies. The commission concluded as follows:\nPublic intervention to force the biggest players to assume a more responsible and protective attitude to our social cohesion therefore appears legitimate. Given the civil liberty issues at stake, this intervention should be subject to particular precautions. It must (1) respect the wide range of social network models, which are particularly diverse, (2) impose a principle of transparency and systematic inclusion of civil society, (3) aim for a minimum level of intervention in accordance with the principles of necessity and proportionality and (4) refer to the courts for the characterisation of the lawfulness of individual content.[[fn:49]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech", "Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "France, “Creating a French framework to make social media platforms more accountable: acting in France with a European vision”, interim mission report submitted to the French Secretary of State for Digital Affairs, May 2019."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0038", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. This approach deserves further development and consideration, as it addresses issues of freedom of expression and social cohesion in ways that appear to enable respect for international human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech", "Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0039", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Government regulation of online intermediaries should be subject to the same guidelines for legitimacy as those contained in human rights law applied to all government restriction of speech. As noted above, certain kinds of speech that States may characterize as “hate speech” should not be subject to prohibition under articles 19 or 20 (2) of the Covenant. In addition, legal terms that restrict incitement that, for example, instigates “hatred against the regime” or “subversion of State power” are unlawful bases for restriction under article 19 (3) of the Covenant (A/67/357, paras. 51–55). Overly broad definitions of hate speech, for example proscribing incitement of “religious discord” or speech that might subject a country to violent acts,[[fn:50]] typically enable speech restrictions for illegitimate purposes, or, in the case of government regulation of online intermediaries, demands on those intermediaries that are inconsistent with human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "A. State obligations and the regulation of online hate speech", "Legitimacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "See communication JOR 3/2018, available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0040", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. It is on the platforms of Internet companies where hateful content spreads online, seemingly spurred on by a business model that values attention and virality.[[fn:51]] The largest companies deploy “classifiers”, using artificial intelligence software to identify proscribed content, with perhaps only intermittent success, on the basis of specific words and analysis. The companies operate across jurisdictions, and the same content in one location may have a different impact elsewhere. Online hate speech often involves unknown speakers, with coordinated bot threats, disinformation and so-called deep fakes, and mob attacks.[[fn:52]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "See Tim Wu, The Attention Merchants: The Epic Scramble to Get Inside Our Heads (New York, Vintage Books, 2016)."}, {"n": 52, "text": "See Gayathry Venkiteswaran, “Let the Mob Do the Job”: How Proponents of Hatred are Threatening Freedom of Expression and Religion Online in Asia (Association for Progressive Communications, October 2017)."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0041", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Internet companies shape their platforms’ rules and public presentation (or brand).[[fn:53]] They have an enormous impact on human rights, particularly but not only in places where they are the predominant form of public and private expression, where a limitation of speech can amount to public silencing or a failure to deal with incitement can facilitate offline violence and discrimination (A/HRC/42/50, paras. 70–75). The consequences of ungoverned online hate can be tragic, as illuminated by Facebook’s failure to address incitement against the Rohingya Muslim community in Myanmar. Companies do not have the obligations of Governments, but their impact is of a sort that requires them to assess the same kind of questions about protecting their users’ right to freedom of expression.[[fn:54]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "See Kate Klonick, “The new governors: the people, rules, and processes governing online speech”, Harvard Law Review, vol. 131, No. 6 (April 2018); and David Kaye, Speech Police: The Global Struggle to Govern the Internet (New York, Columbia Global Reports, 2019)."}, {"n": 54, "text": "See A/HRC/32/38, paras. 87–88; see also Business for Social Responsibility and World Economic Forum, “Responsible use of technology”, white paper, August 2019."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0042", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. In previous reports, it has been argued that all companies in the ICT sector should apply the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights of the United Nations and integrate human rights into their products by design and by default. However, companies manage hate speech on their platforms almost entirely without reference to the human rights implications of their products.[[fn:55]] This is a mistake, as it deprives the companies of a framework for making rights-compliant decisions and articulating their enforcement to Governments and individuals, while hobbling the public’s capacity to make claims using a globally understood vocabulary. The Special Rapporteur reiterates the call for companies to implement human rights policies that involve mechanisms to:\n(a) Conduct periodic reviews of the impact of the company products on human rights;\n(b) Avoid adverse human rights impacts and prevent or mitigate those that arise;\n(c) Implement due diligence processes to “identify, prevent, mitigate and account for how they address their impacts on human rights” and have a process for remediating harm.[[fn:56]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "At the time of writing, Facebook had just released a revised statement of values indicating that it would “look to international human rights standards” to make certain judgments concerning community standards. See Monika Bickert, “Updating the values that inform our community standards”, Facebook, 12 September 2019."}, {"n": 56, "text": "Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework (A/HRC/17/31, annex), principles 12 (with commentary), 13 and 15."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0043", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. There will always be difficult questions about how to apply United Nations human rights standards to a wide range of content, just as there are difficult questions about national laws and regional human rights law.[[fn:57]] However, the guidance mentioned above can help to shape company protection of rights at each stage of the moderation of content: product development, definition, identification, action and remedy. Global norms provide a firm basis for companies with global users communicating across borders, and they are called for by the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (principle 12).[[fn:58]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "See Benesch, “Proposals for improved regulation”."}, {"n": 58, "text": "See Business for Social Responsibility, Human Rights Impact Assessment: Facebook in Myanmar (October 2018)."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0044", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Dealing with hate speech should start with due diligence at the product development stage. Unfortunately, it seems likely that few if any major Internet companies have conducted a rights-oriented product review related to hate speech; if so, it has not been made public. However, products in the ICT sector are constantly being updated and revised, and thus it is critical for companies to conduct regular impact assessments and reassessments in order to determine how their products infringe upon the enjoyment of human rights. Under the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, businesses should, among other things, have an ongoing process to determine how hate speech affects human rights on their platforms (principle 17), including through a platform’s own algorithms (see A/73/348). They should draw on internal and independent human rights expertise, including “meaningful consultation with potentially affected groups and other relevant stakeholders” (principle 18). They should regularly evaluate the effectiveness of their approaches to human rights harms (principle 20).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Human rights due diligence and review"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0045", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. The lack of transparency is a major flaw in all the companies’ content moderation processes. There is a significant barrier to external review (academic, legal and other) of hate speech policies as required under principle 21: while the rules are public, the details of their implementation, at the aggregate and granular levels, are nearly non-existent. Finally, the companies must also train their content policy teams, general counsel and especially content moderators in the field, that is, those conducting the actual work of restriction (principle 16, commentary). As part of the training, the norms of human rights law that the content moderation is aimed at protecting and promoting should be identified. In particular, companies should assess whether their hate speech rules infringe upon freedom of expression by assessing the legality, necessity and legitimacy principles identified above.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Human rights due diligence and review"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0046", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Company definitions of hate speech are in general difficult to understand, although companies vary on this matter. In some companies such definitions are non-existent, and in others they are vague. For example, the Russian social network VK prohibits content that “propagandizes and/or contributes to racial, religious, ethnic hatred or hostility, propagandizes fascism or racial superiority” or “contains extremist materials”.[[fn:59]] The Chinese messaging app WeChat prohibits “content … which in fact or in our reasonable opinion … is hateful, harassing, abusive, racially or ethnically offensive, defamatory, humiliating to other people (publicly or otherwise), threatening, profane or otherwise objectionable”.[[fn:60]] Other definitions are dense and detailed, involving serious efforts to spell out exactly the kind of content that constitutes hate speech subject to restriction, yet the density paradoxically can create confusion and a lack of clarity. The policies of the three dominant American companies – YouTube, Facebook and Twitter[[fn:61]] – have evolved and improved over many years, each layering their policies in ways that have converged to a recognizably similar set of rules. However, while they use different terms to signal the restriction of content that “promotes” violence or hatred against specific protected groups, they do not clarify how they define promotion, incitement, targeting groups and so forth. Among other issues, subjects such as intent and result are difficult to identify in the policies (A/HRC/38/35, para. 26).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Legality standard"], "footnotes": [{"n": 59, "text": "See https://vk.com/terms."}, {"n": 60, "text": "See www.wechat.com/en/acceptable_use_policy.html."}, {"n": 61, "text": "See https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/2801939?hl=en, www.facebook.com/communitystandards/hate_speech and https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/hateful-conduct-policy."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0047", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. The companies should review their policies, or adopt new ones, with the legality test in mind. A human rights-compliant framework on online hate speech would draw from the definitional guidance mentioned above and provide answers to the following:\n(a) What are protected persons or groups? Human rights law has identified specific groups requiring express protection. Companies in the ICT sector should aim to apply the broadest possible protection in keeping with evolving laws and normative understandings. The companies should be clear that they would not restrict “the promotion … of a positive sense of group identity” in particular in the context of historically disadvantaged groups, while acknowledging that some expressions of group identity, such as white supremacy, may in fact constitute hateful content;[[fn:62]]\n(b) What kind of hate speech constitutes a violation of company rules? Companies should develop hate speech policies by considering the kinds of interference users may face on the platform. Human rights law provides guidance, in particular by noting the legitimacy of restrictions to protect the rights of others. For example, companies could consider how hateful online expression can incite violence that threatens life, infringes upon the freedom of expression and access to information of others, interferes with privacy or the right to vote and so forth. The companies are not in the position of Governments to assess threats to national security and public order, and hate speech restrictions on those grounds should be based not on company assessment but on legal orders from States, themselves subject to the strict conditions established under article 19 (3) of the Covenant;\n(c) Is there specific hate speech content that the companies restrict? Companies should indicate how they prohibit, if they do, the kind of expression covered under article 20 (2) of the Covenant and article 4 of the Convention. In defining such prohibited expression, they should draw from the instruments identified above. However, incitement is only one part of the problematic content that may constitute hate speech. Companies should identify what that category includes in addition to incitement, as some companies have already done through their evolving policies. They should do more than simply identify; they should also show, through the development of a kind of case law, exactly how their categories play out in the actual enforcement of the rules (A/HRC/38/35, para. 71);\n(d) Are there categories of users to whom the hate speech rules do not apply? International standards are clear that journalists and others reporting on hate speech should be protected against content restrictions or adverse actions taken against their accounts. Moreover, an application of the context standards of the Rabat Plan of Action would lead to the protection of such content. Politicians, government and military officials and other public figures are another matter. Given their prominence and potential leadership role in inciting behaviour, they should be bound by the same hate speech rules that apply under international standards. In the context of hate speech policies, by default public figures should abide by the same rules as all users. The evaluation of context may lead to a decision to make an exception in some instances, when the content must be protected as, for example, political speech. However, incitement is almost certainly more harmful when uttered by leaders than by other users, and that factor should be part of the evaluation of platform content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Legality standard"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "Article 19, Camden principles on freedom of expression and equality, principle 12."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0048", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. When company rules differ from international standards, the companies should give a reasoned explanation of the policy difference in advance, in a way that articulates the variation. For example, were a company to decide to prohibit the use of a derogatory term to refer to a national, racial or religious group – which, on its own, would not be subject to restriction under human rights law – it should clarify its decision in accordance with human rights law. Moreover, companies should be especially alert to the abuse of their platforms through disinformation that constitutes hate speech; in particular in environments of rising tension, the companies should clearly state their policies, develop comprehensive understanding through community and expert engagement and firmly counter such incitement. International human rights standards can guide such policies, while the virality of hateful content in such contexts may require rapid reaction and early warning to protect fundamental rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Legality standard"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0049", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The companies should define how they determine when a user has violated the hate speech rules. At the present time, it is difficult to know the circumstances under which the rules may be violated. There seems to be very significant inconsistency in the enforcement of rules. The opacity of enforcement is part of the problem. A set of factors is identified in the Rabat Plan of Action that is applicable to the criminalization of incitement under article 20 (2) of the Covenant, but those factors should have weight in the context of company actions against speech as well. They need not be applied in the same way as they would be applied in a criminal context. However, they offer a valuable framework for examining when the specifically defined content – the posts or the words or images that comprise the post – merits a restriction.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Legality standard"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0050", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Companies may find that detailed contextual analysis is difficult and resource-intensive. The largest companies rely heavily on automation in order to do at least the first-layer work of identifying hate speech, which requires having rules that divide content into either one category (ignore) or another (delete). They use the power of artificial intelligence to drive these systems, but the systems are notoriously bad at evaluating context (see A/73/348). However, if the companies are serious about protecting human rights on their platforms, they must ensure that they define the rules clearly and require human evaluation. Human evaluation, moreover, must be more than an assessment of whether particular words fall into a particular category. It must be based on real learning from the communities in which hate speech may be found, that is, people who can understand the “code” that language sometimes deploys to hide incitement to violence, evaluate the speaker’s intent, consider the nature of the speaker and audience and evaluate the environment in which hate speech can lead to violent acts. None of these things are possible with artificial intelligence alone, and the definitions and strategies should reflect the nuances of the problem. The largest companies should bear the burden of these resources and share their knowledge and tools widely, as open source, to ensure that smaller companies, and smaller markets, have access to such technology.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Legality standard"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0051", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Companies have tools to deal with content in human rights-compliant ways, in some respects a broader range of tools than that enjoyed by States. This range of options enables them to tailor their responses to specific problematic content, according to its severity and other factors. They can delete content, restrict its virality, label its origin, suspend the relevant user, suspend the organization sponsoring the content, develop ratings to highlight a person’s use of prohibited content, temporarily restrict content while a team is conducting a review, preclude users from monetizing their content, create friction in the sharing of content, affix warnings and labels to content, provide individuals with greater capacity to block other users, minimize the amplification of the content, interfere with bots and coordinated online mob behaviour, adopt geolocated restrictions and even promote counter-messaging. Not all of these tools are appropriate in every circumstance, and they may require limitations themselves, but they show the range of options short of deletion that may be available to companies in given situations. In other words, just as States should evaluate whether a limitation on speech is the least restrictive approach, so too should companies carry out this kind of evaluation. And, in carrying out the evaluation, companies should bear the burden of publicly demonstrating necessity and proportionality when so requested by affected users, whether the user is the speaker, the alleged victim, another person who came across the content or a member of the public.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0052", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Evelyn Aswad identifies three steps that a company should take under the necessity framework: evaluate the tools it has available to protect a legitimate objective without interfering with the speech itself; identify the tool that least intrudes on speech; and assess whether and demonstrate that the measure it selects actually achieves its goals.[[fn:63]] This kind of evaluation is in line with the call made in the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights for businesses to ensure that they prevent or mitigate harms, in particular because such an approach enables the companies to evaluate the two sets of potential harms involved: the restrictions on speech caused by the implementation of their rules and the restrictions on speech caused by users deploying hate speech against other users or the public. An approach that draws from this framework enables the companies to determine how to respond not only to genuine incitement but also to the kinds of expression that are common online – borderline hate speech and non-incitement.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Necessity and proportionality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "Aswad, “The future of freedom”, pp. 47–52."}]}, {"id": "a-74-486-0053", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The mechanisms of international human rights law provide a wealth of ideas for the remediation of online hate speech. Article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 6 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination require that remedies be available for violations of the provisions contained therein, and the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights also require access to remedy. In his 2018 report on content moderation, the Special Rapporteur highlighted the responsibility of companies to remedy adverse human rights impacts under the Guiding Principles (A/HRC/38/35, para. 59), and therefore it need not be repeated in detail in the present report. In short, the process of remediation must begin with an effective way for individuals to report potential violations of hate speech policies and must ensure protections against abuse of the reporting system as a form of hate speech. It should include a transparent and accessible process for appealing platform decisions, with companies providing a reasoned response that should also publicly accessible.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Remedy"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'Article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'."}, {"article": "6", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 6 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination'; CERD art.6 provides effective protection and remedies."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0054", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. At a minimum, the companies should publicly identify the kinds of remedies that they will impose on those who have violated their hate speech policies. It may be that user suspension is insufficient. Companies should have graduated responses according to the severity of the violation or the recidivism of the user. They should develop strong products that protect user autonomy, security and free expression to remedy violations. Their approaches may involve the de-amplification and de-monetization of problematic expressions that they do not want to ban, for whatever reason, but companies should, again, make the policies clear and known in advance to all users, based on accessible definitions, with warnings for all and the opportunity to withdraw and, if necessary, remedy the consequences of an offending comment. They may develop programmes that require suspended users who wish to return to the platform to engage in kinds of reparations, such as apology, or other forms of direct engagement with others they harmed. They should have remedial policies of education, counter-speech, reporting and training. Remedy should also include, for the most serious lapses, post-violation impact assessments and the development of policies to end the violations.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Remedy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0055", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The Rabat Plan of Action and Human Rights Council resolution 16/18 also provide ideas that companies may draw on in providing remedies for hateful content. According to the Rabat Plan of Action, “States should ensure that persons who have suffered actual harm as a result of incitement to hatred have a right to an effective remedy, including a civil or non-judicial remedy for damages”. Such remedies could include pecuniary damages, the “right of correction” and “right of reply” (A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, appendix, paras. 33–34). In its resolution 16/18, the Human Rights Council identifies tools such as training government officials and promoting the right of minority communities to manifest their belief. The previous Special Rapporteur urged procedural remedies, such as “access to justice and ensuring effectiveness of domestic institutions”, and substantive ones, such as “reparations that are adequate, prompt and proportionate to the gravity of the expression, which may include restoring reputation, preventing recurrence and providing financial compensation” (A/67/357, para. 48). However, he also urged a set of non-legal remedies, which the companies should evaluate and implement given their responsibility as creators of platforms on which hateful content thrives. Such remedial action could include educational efforts concerning the harms of hate speech and the way in which hate speech is often aimed at pushing vulnerable communities off the platforms (i.e., to silence them); promoting and giving greater visibility to mechanisms for responses to hate speech; public denunciation of hate speech, such as promoting public service announcements and statements of public figures; and stronger collaborations with social science researchers to evaluate the scope of the problem and the tools that are most effective against the proliferation of hateful content (ibid, paras. 56–74).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Governing online hate speech", "B. Company content moderation and hate speech", "Remedy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0056", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. International human rights law should be understood as a critical framework for the protection and respect for human rights when combating hateful, offensive, dangerous or disfavoured speech. Online hate speech, the broad category of expression described in the present report, can result in deleterious outcomes. When the phrase is abused, it can provide ill-intentioned States with a tool to punish and restrict speech that is entirely legitimate and even necessary in rights-respecting societies. Some kinds of expression, however, can cause real harm. It can intimidate vulnerable communities into silence, in particular when it involves advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement to hostility, discrimination or violence. Left unchecked and viral, it can create an environment that undermines public debate and can harm even those who are not users of the subject platform. It is therefore important that States and companies address the problems of hate speech with a determination to protect those at risk of being silenced and to promote open and rigorous debate on even the most sensitive issues in the public interest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0057", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. State approaches to online hate speech should begin with two premises. First, human rights protections in an offline context must also apply to online speech. There should be no special category of online hate speech for which the penalties are higher than for offline hate speech. Second, Governments should not demand – through legal or extralegal threats – that intermediaries take action that international human rights law would bar States from taking directly. In keeping with these foundations, and with reference to the rules outlined above, States should at a minimum do the following in addressing online hate speech:\n(a) Strictly define the terms in their laws that constitute prohibited content under article 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination and resist criminalizing such speech except in the gravest situations, such as advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, and adopt the interpretations of human rights law contained in the Rabat Plan of Action;\n(b) Review existing laws or develop legislation on hate speech to meet the requirements of legality, necessity and proportionality, and legitimacy, and subject such rule-making to robust public participation;\n(c) Actively consider and deploy good governance measures, including those recommended in Human Rights Council resolution 16/18 and the Rabat Plan of Action, to tackle hate speech with the aim of reducing the perceived need for bans on expression;\n(d) Adopt or review intermediary liability rules to adhere strictly to human rights standards and do not demand that companies restrict expression that the States would be unable to do directly, through legislation;\n(e) Establish or strengthen independent judicial mechanisms to ensure that individuals may have access to justice and remedies when suffering cognizable harms relating to article 20 (2) of the Covenant or article 4 of the Convention;\n(f) Adopt laws that require companies to describe in detail and in public how they define hate speech and enforce their rules against it, and to create databases of actions taken against hate speech by the companies, and to otherwise encourage companies to respect human rights standards in their own rules;\n(g) Actively engage in international processes designed as learning forums for addressing hate speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for States"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination'."}, {"article": "20", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second reference: 'article 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' repeated in the same list item."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second reference: 'article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination' repeated in the same list item."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-74-486-0058", "docId": "a-74-486", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Companies have for too long avoided human rights law as a guide to their rules and rule-making, notwithstanding the extensive impacts they have on the human rights of their users and the public. In addition to the principles adopted in earlier reports and in keeping with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, all companies in the ICT sector should:\n(a) Evaluate how their products and services affect the human rights of their users and the public, through periodic and publicly available human rights impact assessments;\n(b) Adopt content policies that tie their hate speech rules directly to international human rights law, indicating that the rules will be enforced according to the standards of international human rights law, including the relevant United Nations treaties and interpretations of the treaty bodies and special procedure mandate holders and other experts, including the Rabat Plan of Action;\n(c) Define the category of content that they consider to be hate speech with reasoned explanations for users and the public and approaches that are consistent across jurisdictions;\n(d) Ensure that any enforcement of hate speech rules involves an evaluation of context and the harm that the content imposes on users and the public, including by ensuring that any use of automation or artificial intelligence tools involve human-in-the-loop;\n(e) Ensure that contextual analysis involves communities most affected by content identified as hate speech and that communities are involved in identifying the most effective tools to address harms caused on the platforms;\n(f) As part of an overall effort to address hate speech, develop tools that promote individual autonomy, security and free expression, and involve de-amplification, de-monetization, education, counter-speech, reporting and training as alternatives, when appropriate, to the banning of accounts and the removal of content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations for companies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. In December 2021, two journalists – Maria Ressa from the Philippines and Dimitry Muratov from the Russian Federation – were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their “courageous fight for freedom of expression … as representatives of all journalists who stand up for this ideal in a world in which democracy and freedom of the press face increasingly adverse conditions”.[[fn:1]] Within weeks of that event, six journalists were killed in Mexico, underscoring the urgent need to galvanize action to end impunity for crimes against journalists.[[fn:2]] Then, at the end of February 2022, the invasion of Ukraine and the subsequent targeting of media workers and media installations by the Russian Federation brought the escalating threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom into sharp focus in the context of attacks on peace, security and human rights in the digital age.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2021/summary/."}, {"n": 2, "text": "Reporters without Borders, “Tragic month for Mexico’s media”, 3 February 2022."}, {"n": 3, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/03/ukraine-protecting-life-must-be-priority-un-human-rights-experts."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Digital technology has enabled groundbreaking investigative reporting, new models of cross-border collaboration, cooperative fact-checking with audiences and access to treasure troves of data and diverse sources with a mouse-click. However, it has also given rise to unprecedented challenges and changes for the news industry, aggravating existing threats and creating new ones.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The challenges are multiple, complex and often interconnected. Longstanding problems of violent attacks on and legal harassment of journalists with impunity, censorship of content and manipulation of regulatory authorities have been entrenched, aggravated and augmented by digital technology. Notable new manifestations include gender-based online violence, targeted surveillance of journalists, legislation restricting information online, “media capture” by State or corporate interests and viral disinformation campaigns that undermine public trust in independent journalism.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Digital technology has blurred the distinctions between print and broadcast media, and between media outlets and their audiences, changing the concepts of who is a journalist and what is media freedom. The business models of digital and social media platforms have weakened news media with a flood of competing content of lesser quality and the diversion of advertisement revenue.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. In a climate of surging authoritarianism, many Governments have taken advantage of the pandemic to justify new restrictions on freedom of expression and access to information online.[[fn:4]] Populist leaders have actively sought to demonize and discredit independent journalists to consolidate their own power, while deadly conflicts in places like Afghanistan, Ethiopia, the Syrian Arab Republic, Ukraine and Yemen have heightened the risks journalists face.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See submission from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/calls-input/call-comments-opportunities-challenges-and-threats-media-digital-age."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Media freedom and the safety of journalists are in dangerous decline in almost every region of the world.[[fn:5]] The present report to the Human Rights Council is a call for urgent action to reverse that trend.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. This year marks the tenth anniversary of the United Nations Plan of Action on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity (United Nations Plan of Action). It has provided a common framework for States, international organizations and civil society to share experiences, identify good practices, improve coordination, increase awareness of the problems and inspire other collaborative initiatives. Drawing lessons from those experiences, renewed efforts must be made to counter the evolving ecosystem of threats and challenges to media freedom and the safety of journalists, including those spawned by new technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The report calls for a holistic response, going beyond physical threats to address legal and digital risks, as well as the enabling environment that sustains them, and the mobilization of the political will for sustained action. It analyses key challenges and threats, including the impact of digital technology, assesses the compliance of States and companies with relevant international legal standards, notes good practice and sets out recommendations for States, the international community, companies and civil society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Written contributions from 16 States, 29 civil society organizations, including a consortium of 40 partners, scholars and journalists, and 4 international organizations, and consultations with various stakeholders, have informed the report.[[fn:6]] The Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression thanks all the stakeholders for their contributions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "The submissions are available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/calls-input/call-comments-opportunities-challenges-and-threats-media-digital-age."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The right to freedom of opinion and expression provides the international legal basis for uncensored and unhindered news media, and the right of journalists to work safely and without fear. This right is enshrined in article 19 of both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which state that everyone is entitled to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds regardless of frontiers through any media of their choice, and is reaffirmed in regional instruments.[[fn:7]] It encompasses the right to information, provides an expansive understanding of protected expression – whether true, false, offensive or enlightened – and anticipates the continued development of media, including new technologies that enable data to cross borders in an instant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "This formulation is also reflected in the American Convention on Human Rights (art. 13 (1)) and the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (art. 10 (1)). The Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa, adopted in 2002, uses similar terms to elaborate the rights initially set out in the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (art. 9)."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'enshrined in article 19 of both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — equal cross-instrument cite => AMBIGUOUS."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. A free, independent and diverse media fulfils society’s right to know, as well as journalists’ right to seek, receive and impart information.[[fn:8]] It has been acknowledged as a key pillar of democracy and sustainable development in numerous General Assembly and Human Rights Council resolutions.[[fn:9]] The right to information is a target of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, and the safety of journalists is a success indicator.[[fn:10]] Decisions of regional human rights courts, activities of regional organizations and joint declarations by the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression and regional mechanisms, have affirmed and enhanced international standards for the protection and promotion of media freedom and the safety of journalists.[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Compulsory Membership in An Association Prescribed by Law for the Practice of Journalism, Advisory Opinion OC-5/85 of 13 November 1985, Series A No. 5, para. 32. See also European Court of Human Rights, Thoma v. Luxembourg, application No. 38432/97, judgment of 29 March 2001."}, {"n": 9, "text": "See, e.g., General Assembly resolutions 76/173, 74/157, 72/175, 70/162, 69/185 and 68/163; and Human Rights Council resolutions 45/18, 39/6, 33/2, 27/5 and 21/12."}, {"n": 10, "text": "Sustainable Development Goal target 16.10."}, {"n": 11, "text": "E.g., regional platforms for the safety of journalists set up by the Council of Europe (https://fom.coe.int/en/accueil) and the African Union (https://safetyofjournalistsinafrica.africa/). See also Commission recommendation (EU) 2021/1534 of 16 September 2021 on ensuring the protection, safety and empowerment of journalists and other media professionals in the European Union and the Joint Declaration on Media Independence and Diversity in the Digital Age by the Special Rapporteur and regional experts on freedom of expression of 2 May 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. In recent years several important initiatives have been launched by Governments, intergovernmental organizations and civil society to protect journalists, nurture media freedom, independence and pluralism, and secure a viable future for public interest journalism.[[fn:12]] The Special Rapporteur welcomes these initiatives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "E.g., the United Nations Plan of Action on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity; Groups of Friends on the Safety of Journalists in Paris, New York, Geneva, Vienna and Strasbourg; the Media Freedom Coalition of 50 States; the UNESCO Global Media Defence Fund; and the International Civil Society Coalition on the Safety of Journalists."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. The societal relevance of independent, free and pluralistic news media – as a pillar of democracy, a tool to support accountability and transparency, and a means to sustain open deliberation and encourage the exchange of diverse views – underscores the importance of journalism as a public good. Journalists are not above the law, but by virtue of their function and the public interest in disclosure, they are entitled to specific legal protection. States are obliged not only to refrain from arbitrary restraints, but also to put in place legislative and regulatory measures in line with international human rights standards to enable journalists to carry out their work safely and without hindrance.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Centro Europa 7 S.r.l. v. Italy, application No. 38433/09, judgment of 7 June 2012."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Public interest media, and in particular investigative journalism, play a crucial role in ensuring access to reliable information on vital issues such as elections, conflicts, the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) crisis, corruption, organized crime and climate change. As recognized in the Windhoek+30 Declaration, the preconditions for information as a public good include the economic viability of journalism, the transparency of Internet companies and the media and information literacy of the public. All three require reinforcement in the digital age.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "A. International legal framework"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Today, neither the concept of a journalist nor the practice of journalism is limited to those employed by news publishers. The Human Rights Committee has recognized journalism as a function shared by a wide range of actors, including professional full-time reporters and analysts, as well as bloggers and others who engage in forms of self-publication in print, on the Internet or elsewhere.[[fn:14]] While limited accreditation and registration schemes can facilitate privileged access for journalists to certain places or events in particular situations, general State systems of registration or licensing of journalists are incompatible with international human rights law.[[fn:15]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "B. Key concepts", "1. Who is a journalist?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "General comment No. 34 (2011), para. 44. See also A/HRC/20/17, para. 4."}, {"n": 15, "text": "General comment No. 34 (2011), para. 44."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. While the rise of digital media has significantly expanded the possibilities for creating and disseminating content, citizen news sites, blogs and the news services of non-governmental organizations complement rather than replace news outlets. Some scholars have argued in favour of legal protection being defined in connection with “acts of journalism”, rather than through the definition of the professional functions of a journalist.[[fn:16]] In other words, the professional designation of the individual is less relevant than the nature of the content and its public interest function.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "B. Key concepts", "1. Who is a journalist?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See Julie Posetti, Protecting Journalism Sources in the Digital Age (Paris, UNESCO, 2017)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. The term “media freedom” is used in this report to mean the freedom, independence and plurality of the news media, including the production, publication and dissemination of journalism across all mediums and platforms. Some scholars have sought to define media freedom as a distinct right with particular prerogatives.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "B. Key concepts", "2. What is media freedom?"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See Damian Tambini, “A Theory of Media Freedom”, Journal of Media Law, vol. 13, No. 2 (2021)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Media independence is understood as editorial independence from political interference and the preservation of professional journalistic standards through self-regulation and independent regulatory authorities. Media pluralism is the existence of multiple actors, spanning public, private and community media, and is a precondition for content diversity and for the promotion of gender equality and social inclusion in and through the media.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "B. Key concepts", "2. What is media freedom?"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Like other forms of expression, media freedom can be restricted only in line with the three-part test set out in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Firstly, the restriction must be provided by law in precise and clear terms, and not left to the unfettered discretion of those responsible for its execution. Secondly, it can be imposed only for the specific legitimate objective of respecting the rights or reputations of others or protecting national security, public order, public health or public morals. Thirdly, the restriction must be strictly necessary, appropriate, proportionate and directly relevant to achieving the legitimate objective. Restrictions must be construed narrowly, using the least intrusive measure possible and never going so far as to impair the essence of the right itself.[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "C. Restrictions on media freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 31 (2004), para. 6."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Although the principle of necessity and proportionality deems that journalists should not be prosecuted for disseminating information that is of legitimate public interest, many Governments use laws protecting national security, public order and public morals to clamp down on reporting that is critical of their policies. The Special Rapporteur considers the weaponization of the law against journalists as a major threat to media freedom (see sect. IV below). Prior censorship is deemed disproportionate control of the media, and the outright banning of particular media outlets or websites and Internet shutdowns in many cases also violate the principle of necessity and proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "C. Restrictions on media freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. While States are obliged to both respect human rights and to protect them from attacks by others, in line with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, corporate entities also have the responsibility to respect human rights. At a minimum, corporations should conduct due diligence to identify and assess the human rights risks associated with their activities, establish clear policies on how to address them, publish transparency reports on the risks they encounter and how they are addressed, and provide for remedies in case of violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "D. Corporate responsibility for media freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Particularly relevant to the present report are the role and responsibilities of social media platforms – as enablers of media, as well as vectors of coordinated digital attacks against journalists and viral disinformation that undercuts credible journalism – and those of spyware companies, which provide electronic surveillance tools that threaten the safe practice of journalism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "D. Corporate responsibility for media freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Media companies as employers and key players in the news industry are also responsible for upholding the rights of journalists, ensuring their safety and promoting diversity and inclusion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Media freedom based on human rights", "D. Corporate responsibility for media freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. The right of journalists to work safely and without fear is inseparable from the concept of media freedom. Whether online or offline, the objective of those who threaten journalists remains the same: to chill public interest reporting by increasing the risks faced by journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The United Nations Plan of Action defines the safety of journalists as encompassing not only physical attacks but also prosecution, arrest, imprisonment and denial of journalistic access, as well as impunity for crimes against journalists. In the digital age, attacks on journalists are recognized as including psychological as well as physical harms emanating from digital threats.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Three major contemporary threats to the safe and free practice of journalism in the digital age are addressed below: impunity for crimes against journalists; gender-based online attacks; and targeted digital surveillance.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. A related threat is the rise of transnational digital attacks targeting diaspora journalists. For instance, Iranian journalists working for the BBC Persian service and other Farsi-language news outlets outside the Islamic Republic of Iran have faced online attacks, harassment and surveillance, as well as criminal investigations, the freezing of their assets and defamation suits by the Iranian authorities in contravention of international human rights law.[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/Pages/NewsDetail.aspx?NewsID=25706&LangID=E."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 455 journalists were killed while doing their jobs between 2016–2021.[[fn:20]] These cases include deaths as a result of extrajudicial killings, targeted terrorists attacks and in conflicts. In more than eight out of ten cases, the perpetrators have not been brought to justice.[[fn:21]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "A. Impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See UNESCO, Observatory of killed journalists, database. Available at https://bit.ly/3vZ2chY."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/9-out-10-killings-journalists-remain-unsolved-said-unesco-ahead-international-day-end and https://cpj.org/thetorch/2021/10/226-journalists-murdered-with-impunity-in-the-last-decade/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Silencing journalists by killing them is the most egregious form of censorship. The failure of the State to prosecute and punish serious crimes against journalists denies justice to the victims’ families, emboldens perpetrators and can deter other journalists from reporting high-risk stories. Countries with high rates of impunity also have high rates of journalist fatalities, underscoring the correlation between impunity and the perpetuation of such crimes.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "A. Impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See Julie Posetti and others, The Chilling: Global Trends in Online Violence against Women Journalists, research discussion paper (Paris, UNESCO, 2022)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Strong advocacy from civil society and growing awareness of the problem have led the Security Council and the Human Rights Council to adopt a series of resolutions calling for prompt and effective investigations into attacks on journalists. In 2021, for the first time in the context of international efforts to combat crime, States recognized the importance of ending impunity for crimes against journalists in General Assembly resolution 76/181.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "A. Impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. National action plans inspired by the United Nations Plan of Action are gaining momentum. In 2021, 14 Governments introduced legislation and reformed law enforcement procedures to protect journalists, while 11 carried out capacity development in this area.[[fn:23]] Drawing on lessons learned, Mexico has undertaken to strengthen its prevention and protection mechanisms with civil society participation.[[fn:24]] Some States have provided resources to the UNESCO Global Media Defence Fund and a global defamation defence fund for journalists set up by the United States of America.[[fn:25]] A number of States have set up special visa regimes for journalists at risk.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "A. Impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See submission from Mexico."}, {"n": 25, "text": "See https://www.rfi.fr/en/us-to-cover-costs-for-journalists-under-legal-pressure."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. At the regional level, the Council of Europe Platform for the Protection of Journalism and Safety of Journalists is a good example of an early warning and rapid response mechanism, engaging Governments and journalists’ organizations. Hundreds of journalists have also benefited from the European Union mechanism for the protection of human rights defenders.[[fn:26]] At the global level, UNESCO supports the capacity development of judges and prosecutors and has produced guidelines for the prosecution of crimes against journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "A. Impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See submission from the European Commission."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. A good practice example from journalists themselves is Forbidden Stories, a non-profit news organization committed to investigative journalism into the killings and imprisonment of journalists. Its motto is: “Killing the journalist won’t kill the story”.[[fn:27]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "A. Impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "See https://forbiddenstories.org/about-us/. See also the joint submission from the Greater Internet Freedom Consortium and the International Center for Not-For-Profit Law for civil society initiatives."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Notwithstanding these efforts, high levels of impunity persist in both conflict and non-conflict situations because of the failure of States to comply with international human rights standards. Key factors are weak and corrupt law enforcement and judicial systems and a nexus between political actors, corrupt business leaders and organized crime, as noted in the report of the public inquiry into the murder of Maltese investigative journalist, Daphne Caruana Galizia.[[fn:28]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "A. Impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "See https://www.daphne.foundation/en/2021/11/20/public-inquiry-translation."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The special procedure mandate holders, including the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression,[[fn:29]] the High-Level Panel of Legal Experts on Media Freedom,[[fn:30]] some States and civil society groups[[fn:31]] have called for tough measures to fight impunity for crimes against journalists, including an independent international investigative mechanism, enhanced capacity for existing United Nations mechanisms, the use of targeted sanctions and capacity-building of civil society. The recommendations deserve serious consideration by the Human Rights Council as well as UNESCO and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) in the context of the United Nations Plan of Action.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "A. Impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26465&LangID=E."}, {"n": 30, "text": "See https://www.ibanet.org/Investigations-report-launch-2020."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See https://www.icj.org/report-launch-the-future-of-accountability-mechanisms-twenty-recommendations/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Online attacks against women journalists are one of the most serious contemporary threats to their safety, gender equality and media freedom.[[fn:32]] Vicious, coordinated, highly sexualized and malicious,[[fn:33]] the attacks often target women from religious and ethnic minorities or gender non-conforming people.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "B. Online attacks against women journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "See Posetti and others, The Chilling."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Online gender-based violence can include threats of rape, murder and sexual violence as well as deep fakes, “doxing’, “trolling”, “sextortion”, non-consensual dissemination of intimate images and smear campaigns (see A/HRC/44/52)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Drawing on the results of a survey conducted in 2020 and other research, a UNESCO-commissioned report by the International Center for Journalists found that such violence inflicts very real psychological injury, chills public interest journalism, kills women’s careers and deprives society of important voices and perspectives.[[fn:34]] Analysing millions of social media posts directed at two prominent journalists, Maria Ressa and Carole Cadwalladr, the report found disturbing patterns of abuse, including death and rape threats, digital misogyny and networked gaslighting linked to political actors.[[fn:35]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "B. Online attacks against women journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "See Posetti and others, The Chilling."}, {"n": 35, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Since 2017, the General Assembly and the Human Rights Council have adopted several resolutions condemning online violence against women journalists. States are called upon to create and maintain, in law and in practice, a safe and enabling environment for journalists, including with a strong focus on combating, both online and offline, sexual and gender-based discrimination and violence against women journalists, as well as the particularities of online threats and harassment of women journalists.[[fn:36]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "B. Online attacks against women journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "See, e.g., General Assembly resolution 76/173."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The ultimate responsibility rests with States, as the primary duty bearers of human rights, to ensure that women journalists are safe from online violence. As the main vectors of online attacks, social media companies are also responsible for exercising due diligence and taking measures to ensure the safety of journalists on their platforms in accordance with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "B. Online attacks against women journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. News media employers should ensure training and support for women journalists, including freelance contributors. Furthermore, news organizations should avoid instituting social media policies that effectively penalize women journalists for speaking out against their abusers or documenting the attacks they experience.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "B. Online attacks against women journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. An example of emerging good practice comes from the Canadian news industry, where the International Women’s Media Foundation and the International Center for Journalists have set up the Online Violence Response Hub.[[fn:37]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "B. Online attacks against women journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See https://onlineviolenceresponsehub.org/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The rise in gender-based online violence against journalists and its connection to offline harm points to the need for an early warning system to prevent the escalation of threats. The Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office of the United Kingdom is funding research designed to support the development of such a system.[[fn:38]] Steps have also recently been taken by the European Commission[[fn:39]] and the Scottish Government[[fn:40]] to identify misogynous offences and sex-based hate speech, including online attacks on women journalists, through a proposed directive and model legislation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "B. Online attacks against women journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "See https://www.icfj.org/news/towards-early-warning-system-violence-against-women-journalists."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/aid_development_cooperation_fundamental_rights/com_2022_105_1_en.pdf."}, {"n": 40, "text": "See https://www.gov.scot/binaries/content/documents/govscot/publications/independent-report/2022/03/misogyny-human-rights-issue/documents/misogyny-human-rights-issue/misogyny-human-rights-issue/govscot%3Adocument/misogyny-human-rights-issue.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Targeted electronic surveillance of journalists poses a challenge to investigative journalism, puts the confidentiality of journalistic sources at risk and exposes both journalists and their sources to increased physical harm. The full scale and impact of targeted surveillance of journalists is unknown given the lack of transparency surrounding the practice and the market that supports it; however, information that has come to light suggests it is used widely, in blatant disregard of international human rights law, with severe consequences for media freedom and the safety of journalists.[[fn:41]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "C. Targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See A/HRC/41/35; A/70/361; the submission from Access Now, p. 3; and the submission from Amnesty International, p. 2."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Advanced surveillance technology is designed to provide the authorities with access to the entirety of an infected device and allows them to access information that might otherwise be protected by encryption. While many companies have been implicated in targeted digital surveillance of journalists over the past decade, in 2021 the Pegasus Project[[fn:42]] revealed that at least 180 journalists in 20 countries were potentially targeted by Governments using Pegasus spyware developed by NSO Group Technologies (NSO Group).[[fn:43]] In early 2022, other investigations revealed the use of Pegasus against more than 30 individuals associated with media organizations in another country.[[fn:44]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "C. Targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "The Pegasus Project is a consortium of more than 80 reporters from 17 media organizations in 11 countries coordinated by Forbidden Stories with the technical support of the Amnesty International Security Lab. See https://forbiddenstories.org/pegasus-project-articles/."}, {"n": 43, "text": "See Phineas Rueckert, “Pegasus: The New Global Weapon for Silencing Journalists,” Forbidden Stories, 18 July 2021; Amnesty International submission, p. 3; Omer Benjakob, “The NSO File: A Complete (Updating) List of Individuals Targeted With Pegasus Spyware”, Haaretz, 7 February 2022. See also https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26564."}, {"n": 44, "text": "See https://citizenlab.ca/2022/01/project-torogoz-extensive-hacking-media-civil-society-el-salvador-pegasus-spyware/; and Access Now submission, p. 4."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Targeted digital surveillance ultimately serves as a means of intimidation, increasing the risks faced by journalists and their sources and undercutting critical reporting. In a number of cases, it has been a documented precursor or follow-on to physical harm, detention, legal harassment, imprisonment and smear campaigns.[[fn:45]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "C. Targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "Submission from the Committee to Protect Journalists, p. 4."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Women journalists have been disproportionately targeted in some countries[[fn:46]] and have experienced severe harm from targeted digital surveillance, which operates as a form of gender-based violence.[[fn:47]] Personal information of women journalists obtained through surveillance appear to have been used in online violence campaigns (including doxing).[[fn:48]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "C. Targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "Greater Internet Freedom Consortium/International Center for Not-For-Profit Law submission, p. 8 (detailing State surveillance of women journalists in Georgia)."}, {"n": 47, "text": "Access Now submission, pp. 4–6; and Amnesty International submission, pp. 3–4."}, {"n": 48, "text": "Submission from the Association for Women’s Rights in Development, p. 9."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Widespread digital surveillance practices ultimately discourage confidential sources from communicating with journalists, with significant chilling effects on whistle-blowing and investigative journalism.[[fn:49]] The extraterritorial reach of targeted digital surveillance allows States to control expression beyond their jurisdictions, possibly stifling investigative reporting at the global level. The use of targeted digital surveillance technologies against journalists to monitor the work they do is contrary to international human rights law, according to which both reporter and source enjoy rights that may be limited only in accordance with the strict requirements of article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "C. Targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "See Phineas Rueckert, “Pegasus”."}, {"n": 50, "text": "A/HRC/41/35, para. 26."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Targeted digital surveillance also increases the costs of engaging in journalism, which may further undermine news media viability and pluralism. Digital security training, tools and vigilance have become essential aspects of a journalist’s work, requiring resources and constant adaptation.[[fn:51]] Journalists regularly rely on end-to-end encryption, the availability of which is itself under threat in some jurisdictions.[[fn:52]] However, even advanced encryption techniques and constant vigilance cannot prevent zero-click attacks like those offered by the NSO Group.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "C. Targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "See, e.g., Greater Internet Freedom Consortium/International Center for Not-For-Profit Law submission, pp. 8–9."}, {"n": 52, "text": "A/HRC/29/32, paras. 36–46; and Phineas Rueckert, “Pegasus”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. States claim they require targeted digital surveillance technologies to prevent crime and terrorism, and companies such as NSO Group argue that the use of their surveillance tools is strictly limited to these purposes.[[fn:53]] However, extensive evidence has emerged of a broad parallel use by States of advanced surveillance technologies to target journalists whose work may be critical of Governments or focus on sensitive political or social issues. States have used targeted digital surveillance to limit investigative journalism, control public narratives, crack down on journalists and track journalists’ sources, in violation of article 19 of the International Covenant.[[fn:54]] In this context, State efforts to legalize the use of targeted digital surveillance – such as changes to German legislation initiated in 2021 that removed exemptions for journalists from surveillance and hacking during terrorism investigations – are deeply disturbing.[[fn:55]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "C. Targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "NSO Group, Transparency and Responsibility Report 2021, pp. 7–8."}, {"n": 54, "text": "A/HRC/41/35, para. 24 (c)."}, {"n": 55, "text": "Submission from the Council of Europe Information Society and Action against Crime Directorate, p. 4. See also submission from the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Regional Coalition to #StopDigitalDictatorship, pp. 16–21."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. States and companies are largely shielded from scrutiny regarding targeted surveillance due to the invocation of national security, State secrecy and State immunity rationales for their activities.[[fn:56]] Recent changes to export regulations in the European Union may provide some data, but do not sufficiently address the problem.[[fn:57]] Various legal actions[[fn:58]] and inquiries are under way, including lawsuits by WhatsApp against NSO Group, the establishment of a committee of inquiry by the European Parliament,[[fn:59]] the order by the Supreme Court of India for an independent inquiry[[fn:60]] and the blacklisting of two companies by the United States, signalling the strong concern of civil society, certain Governments, oversight bodies and digital technology companies. However, impunity will persist unless robust international rules and national laws are adopted and enforced to protect journalists and journalism from targeted digital surveillance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Threats to the safety of journalists and media freedom", "C. Targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "See, e.g., NSO Group, Transparency and Responsibility Report 2021, pp. 9–10."}, {"n": 57, "text": "Amnesty International submission, p. 4."}, {"n": 58, "text": "Access Now submission, p. 7."}, {"n": 59, "text": "European Parliament Decision 2022/2586 (RSO), Setting up a committee of inquiry to investigate the use of the Pegasus and equivalent surveillance spyware, 10 March 2022."}, {"n": 60, "text": "See https://ipi.media/the-state-of-media-freedom-in-india."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Laws – from sedition to censorship – have long been used to punish journalists and suppress media freedom. That practice has been revived by some States with a new ferocity in the digital age. The arsenal of legal weapons has broadened to include criminal cyberlibel, anti-terrorism, cybersecurity and fake news laws. In many instances, punishment for online publication is more severe than print or broadcast.[[fn:61]] Additionally, libel, income tax or other financial investigations and vexatious and frivolous lawsuits are commonly used to harass and intimidate journalists or media outlets.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 61, "text": "See, e.g., https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=22145."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Possibly the strongest emblem of legal weaponization is Nobel Laureate Maria Ressa. She has faced an onslaught of legal actions in the Philippines covering tax violations, ownership and securities fraud and multiple libel suits, including criminal cyberlibel for which she was convicted retroactively. When combined, the criminal charges carried a cumulative sentence of almost 100 years.[[fn:62]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "See https://www.cbc.ca/radio/thecurrent/the-current-for-june-18-2020-1.5616058/facing-possible-jail-time-totalling-100-years-journalist-maria-ressa-says-she-won-t-stop-fighting-for-justice-1.5617289."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Arrests and prosecutions of journalists leading to heavy fines and harsh prison sentences serve not only to intimidate and punish the individuals charged but also to create a climate of fear, chilling critical reporting by other journalists. In recent years the Special Rapporteur has expressed serious concern at draconian laws and tough sentencing in countries as diverse as Belarus,[[fn:63]] Egypt,[[fn:64]] Iran (Islamic Republic of),[[fn:65]] Myanmar,[[fn:66]] the Russian Federation,[[fn:67]] Sri Lanka,[[fn:68]] the Syrian Arab Republic,[[fn:69]] Turkey,[[fn:70]] Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)[[fn:71]] and Viet Nam.[[fn:72]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/06/belarus-black-hole-media-freedoms-after-egregious-attacks-say-un-experts?LangID=E&NewsID=27146."}, {"n": 64, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26743."}, {"n": 65, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2020/03/iran-targeting-journalists-threatens-freedom-press-say-un-experts?LangID=E&NewsID=25706."}, {"n": 66, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-briefing-notes/2021/02/myanmar-military-must-restore-democracy-allow-people-protest-and?LangID=E&NewsID=26808."}, {"n": 67, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26459."}, {"n": 68, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/02/sri-lanka-experts-dismayed-regressive-steps-call-renewed-un-scrutiny-and-0?LangID=E&NewsID=26725."}, {"n": 69, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26164."}, {"n": 70, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26050."}, {"n": 71, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26338."}, {"n": 72, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/01/viet-nam-arrests-send-chilling-message-key-party-meeting-un-experts?LangID=E&NewsID=26661; and https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26688."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Following her correspondence with the Government of the Republic of Korea on the draft Press Arbitration Act in 2021, the Special Rapporteur welcomed the decision of the parliament to form a cross-party special committee on media reform to re-examine the bill and other media reform issues.[[fn:73]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom"], "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26629."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. National security is often used as a justification to prosecute journalists who criticize government policies or officials. The sedition law was used to arrest journalists and shut down all independent media in Hong Kong, China.[[fn:74]] In India, journalists were arrested under sedition and anti-terrorism laws for critically reporting on events in Kashmir as well as the farmers’ protests in Delhi.[[fn:75]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "A. Criminalization of journalism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 74, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26592."}, {"n": 75, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26053; and https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2019/08/un-rights-experts-urge-india-end-communications-shutdown-kashmir?LangID=E&NewsID=24909."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. States are obliged to ensure that national security laws are crafted and applied in a manner that conforms to the strict requirements of legality, necessity and proportionality, as set down in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.[[fn:76]] Nevertheless, common problems with security laws include a lack of clear definitions of key terms, like “terrorism” or “violent extremism”, or the use of vague terms, such as “apology”, “glorification”, “advocacy” or “propaganda of terrorism”, which allow considerable leeway for misuse.[[fn:77]] For instance, in Turkey, where 41 journalists remained in prison at the end of 2021, the Penal Code and anti-terrorism legislation criminalize broad categories of speech in ambiguous terms, including expressions that “denigrate the Turkish nation” or “insult the President”.[[fn:78]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "A. Criminalization of journalism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 30."}, {"n": 77, "text": "See, e.g., reports of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism (A/74/335 and A/73/361); https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26677; and https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Opinion/Legislation/OL_FRA_20.08.19.pdf."}, {"n": 78, "text": "See communication AL TUR (3.2022), which will be made available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Criminal defamation and lese-majesty laws are frequently used against journalists who criticize government officials or members of royal families.[[fn:79]] Not only are criminal penalties, especially imprisonment, inherently disproportionate when used against journalists who are simply doing their job, they are an abuse of power by public officials. Those who serve in public office should expect a higher degree of public scrutiny and be open to criticism.[[fn:80]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "A. Criminalization of journalism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 79, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=23525."}, {"n": 80, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2022-04/Joint-Declaration-2021-Politicians_EN.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Domestic courts in Uganda,[[fn:81]] Zambia[[fn:82]] and Zimbabwe[[fn:83]] have found criminal defamation laws to be unconstitutional and unjustified in modern democratic societies. In 2016, the regional court in West Africa found that the laws defining the criminal offences of sedition, fake news and criminal defamation in the Gambia infringed international law and ordered them to be repealed.[[fn:84]] The Human Rights Committee has called on States to consider abolishing criminal defamation. Nevertheless, criminal laws against defamation persist in 160 countries in the world, including some in the European Union, a strong champion of media freedom.[[fn:85]] The Special Rapporteur repeats her call for a global ban on the criminalization of defamation and seditious libel online and offline.[[fn:86]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "A. Criminalization of journalism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "Uganda, Supreme Court, Charles Onyango Obbo v. Attorney General, constitutional appeal No. 2 of 2002, judgment, 10 February 2004."}, {"n": 82, "text": "Zambia, High Court, Chipenzi v. the People, HPR/03/2014, 4 December 2014."}, {"n": 83, "text": "Zimbabwe, Supreme Court, Chavunduka v. Minister of Home Affairs, case No. 2000 JOL 6540 (ZS), 22 May 2000."}, {"n": 84, "text": "Community Court of Justice of the Economic Community of West African States, Federation of African Journalists v. the Gambia, judgment No. ECW/CCJ/JUD/04/18, 13 February 2018."}, {"n": 85, "text": "See http://legaldb.freemedia.at/defamation-laws-in-europe/."}, {"n": 86, "text": "A/HRC/47/25, para. 89."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. There are also examples where journalism has ostensibly been criminalized to protect the right to privacy but effectively suppresses the disclosure of adverse information affecting powerful political or business interests. In Switzerland, the Federal Banking Law provides for imprisonment of up to five years for whistle-blowing by bank employees or the dissemination of such information by third parties, including journalists.[[fn:87]] The effect of the law seems to be to hamper investigative journalism, to stifle legitimate reporting on allegations of financial crimes and to chill Swiss media interest.[[fn:88]] Where financial wrongdoing is at issue, States should recognize the public interest in disclosure and respect media freedom.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "A. Criminalization of journalism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=27138."}, {"n": 88, "text": "See https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/20/business/credit-suisse-leak-swiss-bank.html."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. International human rights law provides strong protection for whistle-blowers, journalistic sources and public interest reporting. In this context, the continuing efforts of the United States to prosecute Julian Assange, the founder of Wikileaks, raise concerns that the Espionage Act charges could establish a precedent for punishing not only whistle-blowers but also journalists, without considering whether their reporting is in the public interest.[[fn:89]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "A. Criminalization of journalism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "See Sissel McCarthy “Why is the Espionage Act Being Used to Punish Whistleblowers and Journalists?” News Literacy Matters, 21 September 2020; https://www.justice.gov/opa/press-release/file/1165556/download; and https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/08/us/politics/julian-assange-indictment.html."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. A week after the invasion of Ukraine by the Russian Federation, the Russian parliament adopted a law making it a serious criminal offence to publish news regarding the war in Ukraine that differed from official Russian government information – including even referring to it as a “war”. The fake war news law led Russian media outlets to self-censor their reporting on the situation in Ukraine. Some independent outlets closed down or suspended their activities due to the increased restrictions on reporting. Fearing for the safety of their staff, several international media outlets announced their intention to suspend reporting from Moscow or were blocked partially or fully from reporting by the Russian authorities. This total information blackout is one in a series measures taken by the authorities to restrict media freedom in the Russian Federation.[[fn:90]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "B. Fake news laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 90, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/03/russia-un-experts-alarmed-choking-information-clampdown."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. In late February 2022, the European Commission banned two media outlets owned and controlled by the Russian Federation from broadcasting in the European Union on the grounds that they spread disinformation and propaganda and so constituted a threat to public order and security.[[fn:91]] The total ban of a media outlet is a severe restriction of freedom of expression. While international law permits restriction of freedom of expression to protect public order and national security, it requires the measure to be strictly necessary and proportionate.[[fn:92]] As disinformation can be addressed without banning media outlets, there is concern about the proportionality of the response of the European Union.[[fn:93]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "B. Fake news laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 91, "text": "See https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ:L:2022:065:FULL&from=EN."}, {"n": 92, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), para. 34."}, {"n": 93, "text": "See also https://ipi.media/ipi-statement-on-banning-of-rtand-sputnik; and https://europeanjournalists.org/blog/2022/03/01/fighting-disinformation-with-censorship-is-a-mistake/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. The best way of countering disinformation is not through censorship or banning of outlets but through the promotion of free, independent and pluralistic media.[[fn:94]] Nevertheless, especially since the outbreak of the pandemic, many Governments have adopted legislation ostensibly to prohibit fake news or disinformation online. The real objective, however, seems to be to clamp down on criticism of government policies. In Egypt, for instance, journalists and human rights defenders have been prosecuted for spreading fake news after they published reports on the human rights situation in the country.[[fn:95]] In Cambodia, six media outlets had their licences revoked for reporting on COVID-19 in 2021.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "B. Fake news laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 94, "text": "See A/HRC/47/25."}, {"n": 95, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-briefing-notes/2020/11/press-briefing-note-egypt-detention-human-rights-defenders?LangID=E&NewsID=26523."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Fake news laws generally fail to meet the three-pronged test of legality, legitimate aims and necessity set out in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. An example of such flawed legislation is the Digital Security Act of Bangladesh, which imposes draconian punishments for a wide range of vaguely defined acts encompassing national security, criminal cyberlibel and disinformation, and bestows significant and highly intrusive investigative, search and seizure powers on the authorities. Its use has led to the arbitrary detention, torture and custodial death of journalists, and chilled journalism online and offline.[[fn:96]] The Special Rapporteur repeats her call for the law to be repealed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "B. Fake news laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 96, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=23838. See also https://www.ohchr.org/en/2021/03/bangladesh-bachelet-urges-review-digital-security-act-following-death-custody-writer?LangID=E&NewsID=26815."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. Other examples of countries that have recently adopted or enforced legislation that is not compliant with international standards include Cuba,[[fn:97]] France,[[fn:98]] Italy,[[fn:99]] Malaysia,[[fn:100]] Qatar[[fn:101]] and Singapore,[[fn:102]] among others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "B. Fake news laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 97, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26674."}, {"n": 98, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Opinion/Legislation/OL-FRA-5-2018.pdf."}, {"n": 99, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=23704."}, {"n": 100, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26287."}, {"n": 101, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=25158."}, {"n": 102, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Opinion/Legislation/OL_SGP_3_2019.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. In some countries, journalists have been threatened with investigations and prosecutions for matters unrelated to reporting, such as violations of COVID regulations[[fn:103]] or tax laws,[[fn:104]] but in circumstances that suggest the legal action has been brought as retaliation or intimidation.[[fn:105]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "C. Legal and judicial harassment of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 103, "text": "See A/HRC/44/49."}, {"n": 104, "text": "E.g., https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/03/belarus-crackdown-human-rights-defenders-deepens-expert?LangID=E&NewsID=26922."}, {"n": 105, "text": "E.g., https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=25873."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Furthermore, Governments as well as private actors are increasingly targeting journalists and news outlets – and human rights defenders – with lawsuits, generally for libel or defamation, seeking exorbitant damages. Known as strategic lawsuits against public participation (SLAPPs), the point of the legal action is not necessarily to win the lawsuit but to intimidate or exhaust the resources and morale of the other party.[[fn:106]] By masquerading as ordinary lawsuits such actions convert matters of public interest into private disputes.[[fn:107]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "C. Legal and judicial harassment of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 106, "text": "See the submissions from the European Broadcasting Union, the Human Rights House Foundation and 112 Watch. Strategic lawsuits against public participation are also gaining new life through criminal defamation laws."}, {"n": 107, "text": "See the information note from the former Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association, “SLAPPs and FoAA rights”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Daphne Caruana Galizia, who was killed in 2017 for her work as an investigative journalist, was confronted with 42 civil libel suits brought by Maltese politicians and their business associates. Four years after her murder, her family is still fighting in the courts to have eight pending cases dismissed. Her plight stirred up action to create an effective law against such lawsuits in Europe. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the decision of the Council of Europe to draft a recommendation relating to strategic lawsuits against public participation and the proposal by the European Commission to include measures against such lawsuits in the proposed Media Freedom Act.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "C. Legal and judicial harassment of journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Much more needs to be done by States to address this growing abuse of the judicial system.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "C. Legal and judicial harassment of journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. The Working Group on the issue of human rights and transnational corporations and other business enterprises has called on companies to desist from bringing frivolous lawsuits against journalists and human rights defenders.[[fn:108]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "C. Legal and judicial harassment of journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 108, "text": "See A/HRC/47/39/Add.2."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. A welcome development in improving the legal protections for journalists worldwide has been the creation of the Legal Network for Journalists at Risk. The platform, led by several civil society organizations, coordinates the different resources and types of support currently offered pro bono by various organizations to journalists and media outlets in need of critical legal support.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. Turning the law against journalists and media freedom", "C. Legal and judicial harassment of journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. In a world where disinformation increasingly masquerades as news and authoritarian and populist leaders attack journalists and media outlets to sow public distrust, critical independent journalism produced in the public interest is essential. Its absence or decline in many countries represents a major assault on media freedom. Journalism must be able to function safely and independently, free from State control and other forms of interference. It must also be economically viable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. This section briefly analyses the key threats to media independence, pluralism and economic viability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. In a number of countries, media freedom is effectively non-existent as a result of tight State control over the practice, production and dissemination of journalism in contravention of international human rights standards.[[fn:109]] In some other countries, there has been visible backsliding on media independence and pluralism in recent years, with serious implications for democracy, freedom of expression and the diversity of political participation. Some research suggests that when inducements (“soft censorship”) fail, restrictions are triggered with the aim of stopping information from reaching politically important constituencies, including through partial or fuller media capture.[[fn:110]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "A. Media capture"], "footnotes": [{"n": 109, "text": "See https://rsf.org/en/ranking/2021."}, {"n": 110, "text": "See Jukka Ruhonen, “Reassessing measures for press freedom”, arXiv, 19 June 2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. Media capture can be defined as the process by which formerly independent institutions fall under the sway of Governments, plutocrats and corporations.[[fn:111]] It usually entails political interference with regulatory bodies[[fn:112]] and with public service media, converting them into governmental mouthpieces;[[fn:113]] the takeover of independent news media by political actors or conglomerates controlled by wealthy political donors or business entrepreneurs; and the instrumentalization of public advertising and State-administered subsidies to undermine media critical of the Government and strengthen those favoured by the Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "A. Media capture"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "See Anya Schiffrin, ed., Media Capture: How Money, Digital Platforms, and Governments Control the News (New York: Columbia University Press, 2021); and Marius Dragomir, Reporting Facts: Free From Fear or Favour (Paris, UNESCO, 2020)."}, {"n": 112, "text": "The 2020 Rule of Law Report of the European Commission highlighted a serious risk of the politicization of media regulatory bodies in Hungary, Malta and Poland."}, {"n": 113, "text": "See European Broadcasting Union Submission."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. In a number of countries, including in Central and Eastern Europe, there is a creeping trend towards State control over public service media through political domination of its governance and pressure on funding, or the weakening or marginalizing of public service media in favour of privately owned media that serves the political or economic interests of those in power.[[fn:114]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "A. Media capture"], "footnotes": [{"n": 114, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. During an official visit to Hungary in November 2021, the Special Rapporteur found a classic case of media capture, which included the exercise of political influence over media regulatory bodies, the consolidation of pro-government ownership of the media along with substantial State advertisement funds and other support, and the ostracization of media reporting critically on the Government.[[fn:115]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "A. Media capture"], "footnotes": [{"n": 115, "text": "See A/HRC/50/29/Add.1."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the initiative of the European Commission to draft a European Media Freedom Act. She urges the Commission to pay particular attention to strengthening the rules on the independence of media regulators, the transparency of media ownership and editorial freedom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "A. Media capture"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. Concentration of media ownership has long been acknowledged as a major threat to media pluralism. The more plural the news media – in terms of the production, funding and distribution of journalism – the more difficult it is to control the entirety of media output. Consolidation of media ownership via monopolies under State control, the ruling party or powerful private interests linked to political actors is not only an issue of economic competition and rent-seeking, it is a major risk to media freedom and, more generally, to freedom of expression and the right to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "B. Threats to media pluralism and diversity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. Tools for undermining pluralism include controls (or the lack thereof) over ownership and competition; the exploitation of national laws against foreign ownership; and threats to news media viability through cuts in public funding.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "B. Threats to media pluralism and diversity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. There are examples of the concentration of news media ownership in liberal democracies that have led to heavily partisan coverage, which in turn has undercut trust in credible journalism and led to damaging divisive political debate on issues such as elections, climate change and migration. One global media concentration index has ranked the Australian newspaper market as the third most concentrated in the world after China and Egypt.[[fn:116]] This level of concentration and domination is damaging to media diversity and democratic deliberation.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "B. Threats to media pluralism and diversity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 116, "text": "See Eli Noam and the International Media Concentration Collaboration, Who Owns the World’s Media? Media Concentration and Ownership Around the World (Oxford Scholarship Online, January 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Media plurality and diversity are diminished by gender inequality in and through the news media. Globally, only 25 per cent of news sources and subjects are women.[[fn:117]] They are underrepresented in managerial and top executive positions in the media sector. Other disadvantaged groups face similar problems. While some progress has been made to enhance gender equality and diversity, much remains to be done.[[fn:118]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "B. Threats to media pluralism and diversity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 117, "text": "See UNESCO submission."}, {"n": 118, "text": "See submissions from the International Civil Society Organization on the Safety of Journalists Coalition and the Council of Europe."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Many States understand their “abstention role” as allowing liberalization of the media sector through deregulation and privatization. While it has opened up space for media pluralism and independent journalism, measures to ensure independent regulation, recognized self-regulation and legal status (for example, for community media) – which are necessary conditions for media freedom to flourish – are frequently absent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "B. Threats to media pluralism and diversity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. Good practices regarding media pluralism, viability and independence include sustained and adequate support for public service broadcasting in several Nordic and Baltic countries and steps to strengthen independent public broadcasting in South Africa.[[fn:119]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "B. Threats to media pluralism and diversity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 119, "text": "See https://mediamonitoringafrica.org/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. Media viability is a matter of human rights, not just a question of economics. If independent public interest media cannot survive – let alone thrive – disinformation will flourish, journalists will be further imperilled and societies’ right to information will be undermined.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "C. Crisis of media viability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. The collapse of the advertising-based news media business model in recent years has led to a financial crisis, resulting in staff cutbacks and news outlet closures in many countries. There has been a reversal in news media pluralism and density at the level of local news publishing and with regard to diversity of languages. The crisis has been intensified by the COVID-19 pandemic, with dire consequences for journalists[[fn:120]] and media pluralism.[[fn:121]] While national and international news providers and niche news producers are managing through subscriptions, paywalls, reader contributions and subsidies (in fact, some are even thriving with innovative funding models), many others could face a “media extinction event”.[[fn:122]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "C. Crisis of media viability"], "footnotes": [{"n": 120, "text": "See the Journalism and the Pandemic Project of the International Center for Journalists and the Tow Center, https://www.icfj.org/news/new-global-survey-raises-red-flags-journalism-covid-19-era."}, {"n": 121, "text": "In the United States, about 2,200 local print newspapers have closed since 2005, and the number of newspaper journalists fell by more than half between 2008 and 2020. See https://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine/interactive/2021/local-news-deserts-expanding/."}, {"n": 122, "text": "See https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/craigsilverman/coronavirus-news-industry-layoffs."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. The major shift of advertising revenue to social media and search engines over the past decade and the growth in the power of Internet companies controlling advertising technology have further eroded the economic foundations for news media pluralism, facilitated media capture, weakened diversity in news content and made it more difficult for news providers to resist other pressures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "C. Crisis of media viability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. Governments have used various measures to address media viability, with mixed results, including State support for journalistic innovation, subsidies, tax relief and public service or community media grants. The dependence of the media on either government or owner subsidies presents a risk to media independence.[[fn:123]] For instance, various State schemes were set up to support public interest journalism during the financial crisis accompanying the COVID-19 pandemic. However, in some cases, those funds were disbursed in such a way as to support only news publishers who were sympathetic to government policies, bypassing those engaged in critical reporting.[[fn:124]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "C. Crisis of media viability"], "footnotes": [{"n": 123, "text": "See Greater Internet Freedom Consortium/International Center for Not-For-Profit Law submission."}, {"n": 124, "text": "See https://ipi.media/the-covid-19-crisis-highlights-greeces-media-problem/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. The Australian News Media Bargaining Code[[fn:125]] and the European Parliament rules for hyperlinks to news articles[[fn:126]] require Internet communications companies to share revenue with the news media. There is some concern that the Australian model could leave smaller news outlets further marginalized in the face of bilateral agreements being cut between their bigger counterparts and the Internet companies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "C. Crisis of media viability"], "footnotes": [{"n": 125, "text": "See https://www.acma.gov.au/news-media-bargaining-code."}, {"n": 126, "text": "See https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20190321IPR32110/european-parliament-approves-new-copyright-rules-for-the-internet."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. The growing dependence of media on Internet platforms, on the one hand, and the largely unchecked power of those platforms, especially large search engines and social media platforms, on the other, raise serious concerns. Digital platforms are important distribution and audience engagement channels for many media outlets. As digital gatekeepers, they have a profound impact on media independence, pluralism, diversity and viability, as well as public access to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "D. Dependence on digital media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. Digital platforms control the availability, dissemination and accessibility of content based on algorithms, community standards and economic interests but have no public accountability and little transparency. Through their curatorial and content moderation roles they make important editorial decisions. Automated content moderation has led to the non-transparent removal or suspension of accounts of journalists and activists based on algorithms.[[fn:127]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "D. Dependence on digital media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 127, "text": "See International Civil Society Organization on the Safety of Journalists Coalition submission."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. Platforms are also under increased pressure from Governments to take down, delist, de-index, block and filter content, including journalistic content, leading to a form of opaque, privatized censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "D. Dependence on digital media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. Some of the biggest Internet companies operate major digital advertising gateways, with their automated advertising technology often functioning to reward or fuel content that violates human rights with advertisements, while penalizing news content and thereby depriving news media of a significant revenue stream.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "D. Dependence on digital media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. As the media’s dependence on digital platforms grows, there have been calls for regulation of the platforms to reflect the changed landscape of media and communications.[[fn:128]] Although the Special Rapporteur supports self-regulation and some co-regulation of social media based on human rights standards,[[fn:129]] she cautions that digital regulation by Governments should not be used to restrict freedom of expression online beyond what is permissible under international law. Nor should the platforms use their policies, practices or business models to undermine the freedom, independence, plurality and economic viability of the media.[[fn:130]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "D. Dependence on digital media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 128, "text": "See Council of Europe, Recommendation CM/Rec (2018)2 of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the roles and responsibilities of internet intermediaries."}, {"n": 129, "text": "See A/HRC/47/25."}, {"n": 130, "text": "See Council of Europe submission. The European Parliament has called for intermediary services to respect freedom of expression, media freedom and pluralism in the context of the Digital Services Act."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. There is a palpable decline of public trust in the media.[[fn:131]] It has translated at times into hostility towards journalists by members of the public.[[fn:132]] Lack of trust in the media parallels the decline of public trust in factual information and the rise of parallel narratives and conspiracy theories, which have serious consequences for human rights, democracy and social stability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "E. Declining trust in the media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 131, "text": "See 2021 Edelman Trust Barometer."}, {"n": 132, "text": "See International Civil Society Organization on the Safety of Journalists Coalition submission."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. The spread of disinformation on social media platforms is a significant factor in weakening public trust in credible, independent journalism, threatening both journalists and the information ecosystem in which they work. Online smear campaigns, particularly directed at women journalists, and disinformation narratives, which include labelling international journalists as “foreign agents”, contribute to the erosion of trust.[[fn:133]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "E. Declining trust in the media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 133, "text": "See, e.g., https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=26852."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. Also worrying is the rise in harsh public attacks by politicians, designed to delegitimize and discredit journalists and news outlets that are critical of their policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "E. Declining trust in the media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. The role of State controlled, “captured” or heavily partisan news media – which often act as a conduit for misinformation and disinformation – also needs to be acknowledged as a major factor in undermining public trust in journalism. In this context, audience mistrust in fact-based journalism is further weaponized to undermine the credibility of news outlets and individual journalists who speak truth to power.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "E. Declining trust in the media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. To counter these trends, an innovative self-regulatory media scheme, the Journalism Trust Initiative, has been designed to promote trustworthy journalism through adherence to an agreed set of trust and transparency standards.[[fn:134]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["V. Erosion of independence, pluralism and media viability", "E. Declining trust in the media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 134, "text": "The Initiative was launched by Reporters Without Borders, Agence France Presse, the European Broadcasting Union and the Global Editors Network."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. The decline of media freedom and the rise in threats to the safety of journalists is a worldwide trend, most sharply evident in backsliding democracies and recalcitrant totalitarian States. The consequences for human rights, democracy, public participation and development are worrying.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. Independent public interest journalism faces a perfect storm. Threats and challenges – from online gender-based violence and orchestrated disinformation campaigns against journalists to targeted surveillance of journalists, legal restrictions on freedom of expression online and offline and erosion of media independence, pluralism and viability – are surging in a multifaceted, technology-enabled information ecosystem.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. International human rights law provides ample protection for media freedom. The General Assembly and the Human Rights Council have affirmed that the rights protecting the free and safe practice of journalism offline also apply online. The overriding problem is not one of gaps in international law but of failures in compliance and implementation, rooted in a lack of political will.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. States, companies and international organizations must respond urgently and holistically to the complex mesh of physical, legal and digital threats. Without concrete action backed by political will, the prognosis for media freedom and the safety of journalists is grim.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. The Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression makes the following recommendations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. At the national level, States should develop and implement national action plans, based on human rights obligations and tailored to online as well as offline issues, to advance the freedom, independence and pluralism of the media; set up prevention and protection mechanisms for the safety of journalists; and promote awareness about human rights standards and best practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Translate commitment into action"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. States should consult with civil society and journalists’ organizations in developing, monitoring and assessing their national action plans in a transparent and inclusive way.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Translate commitment into action"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. The Human Rights Council should encourage States to use the universal periodical review and the voluntary national review of the Sustainable Development Goals to report on compliance, challenges and good practices relating to media freedom and the safety of journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Translate commitment into action"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0108", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. States should adopt laws – or review and revise existing ones – relating to freedom of expression online and offline to ensure they are aligned with international standards. Any restriction of freedom of expression should adhere strictly to the requirements of legality, necessity, proportionality and legitimate aim set out in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and acknowledge the public interest role of journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Align laws and policies with international human rights law"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0109", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. States must ensure the legal framework governing the media protects editorial freedom, upholds the independence of regulatory bodies and guarantees content diversity among and within media outlets.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Align laws and policies with international human rights law"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0110", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. States should refrain from compelling digital companies to restrict or remove journalistic content without judicial due process. As part of transparency reporting, digital companies should inform the public and the media about content restrictions requested by States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Align laws and policies with international human rights law"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0111", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. States should repeal criminal defamation and seditious libel laws and laws criminalizing the criticism of State institutions and officials. Criminalization of speech (other than in the most egregious cases of incitement to violence and hatred) is disproportionate, gags journalism and damages democratic discourse and public participation. The Special Rapporteur urges the European Union to set an example by inserting in the proposed Media Freedom Act a requirement for member States to repeal laws criminalizing defamation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Decriminalize defamation and similar laws"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0112", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. The rule of law is essential for the exercise of free and safe journalism. States should strengthen the capacity and expertise of the judiciary, national human rights institutions and lawmakers to uphold the human rights on which media freedom is based.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Strengthen the rule of law"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0113", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. States should discourage frivolous or vexatious legal action (strategic lawsuits against public participation) against journalists and news outlets by adopting laws and policies that allow early dismissal of such cases, limit the damages claimed in civil defamation suits against journalists and media outlets, permit the defence of “public interest” and “no malice” for journalists, provide legal support to victims of strategic lawsuits against public participation, end “forum shopping” and sanction the use of strategic lawsuits against public participation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Stop the weaponization of courts against journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0114", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. States should ensure that all attacks against journalists are investigated promptly, effectively, impartially and independently, in line with the Minnesota Protocol on the Investigation of Potentially Unlawful Death. Specialized capacity and expertise should be developed to investigate and prosecute crimes against journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "End impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0115", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "115. States should set up prevention and protection mechanisms, in consultation with civil society, media outlets and journalists. Such mechanisms should be adequately resourced, gender responsive and fully integrate online and offline spaces. They should be regularly assessed by an independent, dedicated multi-stakeholder body.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "End impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0116", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "116. The Human Rights Council should establish an independent task force to support international and national efforts to prevent, investigate and prosecute attacks against journalists. Additionally, it should strengthen the capacity of the relevant special procedures to monitor and report on impunity for crimes against journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "End impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0117", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "117. OHCHR should update the Minnesota Protocol with an annex specifically focused on investigating crimes against journalists.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "End impunity for crimes against journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0118", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "118. There must be no trade-off between the safety of women journalists and the right to freedom of expression on which their vocation is based. The Special Rapporteur reiterates her call on international treaty bodies to provide clear guidelines defining online violence, so that the right to freedom of opinion and expression is not compromised in efforts to safeguard women from online violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Protect women journalists from gender-based online violence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0119", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "119. States should adopt specific legislation to prohibit, investigate and prosecute online violence against women and ensure its proper implementation by law enforcement authorities, the judiciary and social media platforms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Protect women journalists from gender-based online violence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0120", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "120. Companies should create safe online space for women journalists. They should improve their transparency and moderation functions, make it easier to report online violence and create direct, accessible routes for the escalation of complaints. They should ensure that the relevant teams have the necessary expertise on the safety of journalists, gender-based violence and the cultural context.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Protect women journalists from gender-based online violence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0121", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 121, "n": 121, "text": "121. News organizations should ensure gender-sensitive and holistic digital safety support. They should also address gender discrimination and promote diversity by including women and marginalized groups and their perspectives in the journalistic work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Protect women journalists from gender-based online violence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0122", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 122, "n": 122, "text": "122. The Special Rapporteur calls on the Human Rights Council and other relevant United Nations bodies to develop a consensus on impermissible targets of State cyberespionage and cyberattack. At a minimum, a presumption of protection from targeted digital surveillance and cyberattack should apply to journalists and media outlets.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Prohibit targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0123", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 123, "n": 123, "text": "123. States should incorporate adequate safeguards in national laws, such as judicial oversight, to ensure that digital surveillance laws and activities do not undermine international standards on the protection of journalists and their sources. They should hold surveillance companies accountable for foreseeable use of their technology by their clients to target journalists, and amend sovereign immunity laws to permit civil action against States engaged in cross-border digital attacks on journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Prohibit targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0124", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 124, "n": 124, "text": "124. Surveillance technology companies should publicly affirm their responsibility to respect human rights in line with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights and Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development guidelines, and conduct and publicly disclose robust human rights due diligence for all proposed transfers of surveillance technology. They should refrain from exporting surveillance technology if there is a significant risk it will be used to commit human rights violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Prohibit targeted digital surveillance of journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0125", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 125, "n": 125, "text": "125. Digital service companies should conduct due diligence and impact assessment to prevent or mitigate any adverse impact on human rights resulting from their operations, products or services, including attacks on journalists and the erosion of media freedom. They should enhance their transparency and review their business models to reverse commercial incentives that discriminate against the monetization of public interest media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Respect the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0126", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 126, "n": 126, "text": "126. Social media platforms should ensure that algorithms and human moderators recognize credible information sources and that journalists and news organizations can access fast-track appeal and remedy procedures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Respect the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0127", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 127, "n": 127, "text": "127. Governments should promote the economic viability of independent news media while respecting their professional autonomy and freedom. For example, tax benefits or State advertising revenue can be given to independent news outlets in a fair and transparent manner, and without compromising editorial independence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Ensure independence, pluralism and viability of the media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0128", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 128, "n": 128, "text": "128. Governments should adopt anti-monopoly rules to prevent undue concentration of media ownership, direct or indirect, and legislate for transparency with regard to media ownership, the licensing of broadcasters and the distribution of government advertising.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Ensure independence, pluralism and viability of the media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0129", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 129, "n": 129, "text": "129. The independence of the media regulatory authorities should be clearly established by law, with a transparent governance system and appointment procedures, free from political influence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Ensure independence, pluralism and viability of the media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0130", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 130, "n": 130, "text": "130. Well-funded independent public service media both reinforces and is reinforced by democracy. States should respect the standards for public service media, including editorial freedom, and provide adequate funding. Public service media should ensure services for minority, marginalized, linguistically diverse and otherwise disadvantaged audiences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Ensure independence, pluralism and viability of the media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0131", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 131, "n": 131, "text": "131. States should refrain from imposing licensing requirements on journalists, and recognize community media as a distinct and legitimate part of the news sector.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Ensure independence, pluralism and viability of the media"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0132", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 132, "n": 132, "text": "132. Civil society should continue to play its vital watchdog role, holding Governments to account for applying human rights standards on media freedom. Civil society should continue to raise public awareness of the risks faced by journalists and advocate for their safety.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Build resilience in society"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0133", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 133, "n": 133, "text": "133. State and civil society should collaborate to encourage all individuals to develop media and information literacy skills so that they are able to differentiate between reliable, verified information and unverified information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Build resilience in society"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0134", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 134, "n": 134, "text": "134. Upholding media freedom and ensuring the safety of journalists in the digital age is a multi-stakeholder endeavour, involving States, civil society and digital and media companies. The Special Rapporteur calls on UNESCO and OHCHR to convene a multi-stakeholder advisory group under the United Nations Plan of Action on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity, in which State and civil society coalitions as well as digital and media companies can engage to further advance the Plan.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Strengthen multi-stakeholder cooperation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0135", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 135, "n": 135, "text": "135. Given the importance of free, independent and plural media for democracy and sustainable development, the international community should ensure that media development is an integral part of international cooperation and is owned and driven locally. The United Nations should enhance technical assistance and programmatic support on media development through the United Nations country teams.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Strengthen multi-stakeholder cooperation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-29-0136", "docId": "a-hrc-50-29", "idx": 136, "n": 136, "text": "136. The Secretary-General’s Global Digital Compact should include a concrete commitment by all stakeholders to respect media freedom and safety of journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "Strengthen multi-stakeholder cooperation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The General Assembly has condemned unlawful or arbitrary surveillance and interception of communications as “highly intrusive acts” that interfere with fundamental human rights (see General Assembly resolutions 68/167 and 71/199). However, unlawful surveillance continues without evident constraint. Submissions for the present report detailed case after case of Governments using surveillance software developed, marketed and supported by private companies. Surveillance of specific individuals – often journalists, activists, opposition figures, critics and others exercising their right to freedom of expression – has been shown to lead to arbitrary detention, sometimes to torture and possibly to extrajudicial killings. Such surveillance has thrived amid weak controls on technology transfers to Governments with well-known policies of repression. The market is shrouded in secrecy; indeed, our knowledge of the problem exists mainly because of the digital-forensic work of non-governmental researchers and tenacious reporting by civil society organizations and the media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The problem is serious enough that the Special Rapporteur concludes the present report with a call not merely for tighter regulation of surveillance exports and restrictions on their use, but for an immediate moratorium on the global sale and transfer of the tools of the private surveillance industry until rigorous human rights safeguards are put in place to regulate such practices and guarantee that Governments and non-State actors use the tools in legitimate ways.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The Special Rapporteur proposes a legal and policy framework for regulation, transparency and accountability within the private surveillance industry. He begins by identifying the problem, emphasizing its focus on targeted surveillance, leaving aside the issue of bulk interception, collection and retention of private data (often referred to as “mass surveillance”). He then highlights the obligations human rights law imposes on States and the related responsibilities of companies. In part IV, he proposes a framework to improve on existing laws and policies by incorporating protection of the rights to freedom of opinion and expression, based on existing international human rights law. He concludes by making recommendations for key actors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Preparation of the present report benefited from 11 submissions by States and 33 by civil society. The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights organized a two-day consultation with experts in Bangkok in December 2018. The submissions and the talks held during the consultation are summarized in an addendum to the present report.[[fn:1]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "I especially want to thank Amos Toh, Desiree Murray, Cristina Butoiu, Matthew Marcoly and Kyoolee Park of the International Justice Clinic, University of California, Irvine School of Law, for their assistance in the preparation of the present report and its addendum."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. We live in an age of readily available, easy to abuse and difficult to detect tools of digital surveillance. In his groundbreaking surveillance report in 2013, the previous mandate holder, Frank La Rue, noted that weak regulatory environments had provided fertile ground for arbitrary and unlawful infringements of the rights to privacy and freedom of opinion and expression (A/HRC/23/40, para. 3). In his inaugural report the following year on privacy in the digital age, the High Commissioner for Human Rights concluded that practices in many States involved a lack of adequate national legislation and/or enforcement, weak procedural safeguards and ineffective oversight, all of which had contributed to a lack of accountability for unlawful digital surveillance (A/HRC/27/37, para. 47).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Some States develop targeted surveillance tools within their own agencies and departments, others repurpose existing “off the shelf” crimeware products and others may purchase sophisticated commercial spyware on the international surveillance market.[[fn:2]] In the present report, the Special Rapporteur is most concerned with the last category of tools. Digital surveillance is no longer the preserve of countries that enjoy the resources to conduct mass and targeted surveillance based on in-house tools. Private industry has stepped in, unsupervised and with something close to impunity. According to Privacy International, in 2016 there were well over five hundred companies developing, marketing and selling such products to government purchasers.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Citizen Lab, Communities @ Risk: Targeted Digital Threats Against Civil Society (Toronto, Monk School of Global Affairs, University of Toronto, 2014), Executive Summary, pp. 8–11."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Privacy International submission, p. 1."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur is principally concerned with technologies that enable an actor to gain surreptitious access to the digital communications, work product, browsing data, research, location history and online and offline activities of individuals. Key targeted surveillance technologies and practices are described below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Types of surveillance considered in the present report"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Surveillance technologies may enable intruders to gain access to an individual’s computer or network. The range of such interference is substantial.[[fn:4]] For instance, in 2017, an appeals court in the United States of America heard the case of foreign State-sponsored surveillance on United States soil.[[fn:5]] The case concerned a citizen of the United States born in Ethiopia and living in the state of Maryland who had been providing technical assistance to members of the Ethiopian diaspora community. A document originally sent to an activist by agents of the Government of Ethiopia infected his computer with an intrusive form of malware, a program called FinSpy marketed by a German-British company, Gamma Group.[[fn:6]] FinSpy allegedly recorded the man’s and his family’s Internet video calls, emails and other communications, including by logging his keyboard strokes, sending the data back to servers based in Ethiopia.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See, e.g., Ronald J. Deibert, Black Code: Inside the Battle for Cyberspace (Toronto, Signal, 2013), pp. 186–190."}, {"n": 5, "text": "Doe v. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, 851 F.3d 7 (D.C. Cir. 2017)."}, {"n": 6, "text": "For FinSpy’s promotional material, see Wikileaks, “The spy files: remote monitoring and infection solutions: FINSPY”."}, {"n": 7, "text": "For details of the allegations, see the first amended complaint, Doe v. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (18 July 2014)."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Types of surveillance considered in the present report", "Computer interference"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Private surveillance products also offer the capability of hacking directly into mobile devices. The NSO Group’s Pegasus spyware is a paradigmatic example and its alleged use in Mexico is instructive. Beginning in 2015, numerous individuals reporting on corruption and the drug trade received text messages or links on their mobile devices, some from seemingly legitimate sources suggesting detailed knowledge of the targets. Journalists, politicians, United Nations investigators, human rights advocates and others received these texts. A Canadian research and advocacy organization, Citizen Lab, found that the links infected the devices with the Pegasus spyware, allowing the targets to be monitored remotely. Citizen Lab has identified Pegasus software being used as a surveillance tool targeting individuals in 45 countries, including Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Togo, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "See Bill Marczak and others, “Hide and seek: tracking NSO Group’s Pegasus spyware to operations in 45 countries”, Citizen Lab, 18 September 2018."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Types of surveillance considered in the present report", "Mobile device hacking"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Many of the technologies described above are accompanied by strategies to lure a target into unwittingly downloading malware on their devices. For example, emails containing malicious links either impersonate the target’s contacts or trick the target into believing that they are clicking on a benign link related to their work, advocacy or personal affairs. For example, a WhatsApp message linked by researchers to Pegasus spyware was sent to an Amnesty International staff member urging him to cover a protest, including a link that it claimed would lead to additional information.[[fn:9]] Clicking on the link would likely have downloaded the spyware on his device.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See Bill Marczak, John Scott-Railton and Ron Deibert, “NSO Group infrastructure linked to targeting of Amnesty International and Saudi dissident”, Citizen Lab, 31 July 2018."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Types of surveillance considered in the present report", "Social engineering"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Some technologies work on a network to enable targeted surveillance. For instance, the Russian System for Operative Investigative Activities involves the installation of a device on telecommunications networks that enables interception of communications. The system is privately manufactured and marketed and is widely used in the Russian Federation and further afield in Central Asia. For example, the company Protei manufactures equipment that ensures that the system’s technologies, such as eavesdropping and Internet interception tools, work in countries like Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan.[[fn:10]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Andrei Soldatov and Irina Borogan, The Red Web: The Struggle Between Russia’s Digital Dictators and the New Online Revolutionaries (New York, PublicAffairs, 2015), pp. 190–191."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Types of surveillance considered in the present report", "Network surveillance"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Facial recognition technology seeks to capture and detect the facial characteristics of a person, potentially profiling individuals based on their ethnicity, race, national origin, gender and other characteristics, which are often the basis for unlawful discrimination.[[fn:11]] Affect recognition seeks to infer a person’s feelings, emotions or intentions from facial expressions, based on highly questionable classification systems.[[fn:12]] Perhaps no other environment demonstrates the comprehensive intrusiveness of these technologies better than China. Credible reporting suggests that the Government of China, using a combination of facial recognition technology and surveillance cameras throughout the country, “looks exclusively for Uighurs based on their appearance and keeps records of their comings and goings for search and review”.[[fn:13]] Much of the technology deployed by the Government appears to be produced domestically, by both State-owned and private enterprises.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See, e.g., Internet Lab submission, p. 6; and Center for Internet and Society submission, p. 12."}, {"n": 12, "text": "AI Now Institute, AI Now Report 2018 (New York, New York University, 2018), pp. 13–14."}, {"n": 13, "text": "See Paul Mozur, “One month, 500,000 face scans: how China is using A.I. to profile a minority”, New York Times, 14 April 2019."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Human Rights in China submission, pp. 2–3. See also A/HRC/39/29, para. 14."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Types of surveillance considered in the present report", "Facial and affect recognition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. International Mobile Subscriber Identity catchers mimic nearby cell towers to intercept communications and location data being transmitted by personal communication devices. Such catchers are widely used around the world, often by law enforcement and intelligence agencies. A private company in the United Kingdom allegedly sold such catchers and other spyware to the Philippines, and many fear that these tools were used to track and monitor drug users in the Government’s widely criticized war on drugs.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See Sofia Tomacruz, “You think your data, communication devices are safe? Think again”, Rappler, 17 March 2018."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Types of surveillance considered in the present report", "International Mobile Subscriber Identity catchers (Stingray)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Deep Packet Inspection enables the monitoring, analysis and redirection of traffic passing through communications and Internet networks. It can also be used to redirect users to sites infected with malware and block them from accessing certain websites. Such devices were reportedly installed on Türk Telekom’s network, and deployed to redirect users in Turkey and the Syrian Arab Republic to download spyware when they attempted to download legitimate software applications.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See Bill Marczak and others, “Bad traffic: Sandvine’s PacketLogic devices used to deploy government spyware in Turkey and redirect Egyptian users to affiliate ads?”, Citizen Lab, 9 March 2018."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Types of surveillance considered in the present report", "Deep Packet Inspection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Governments and the private sector are close collaborators in the market for digital surveillance tools. Governments have requirements that their own departments and agencies may be unable to satisfy. Private companies have the incentives, the expertise and the resources to meet those needs. They meet at global and regional trade shows designed, like dating services, to bring them together.[[fn:17]] From there, they determine whether they are a match. Whether companies carry out any kind of due diligence to evaluate the human rights record of purchasers is unknown.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See, e.g., www.issworldtraining.com; and Patrick Howell O’Neill, “ISS World: the traveling spyware roadshow for dictatorships and democracies”, Cyberscoop, 20 June 2017."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Public-private collaboration"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The seller’s intentions may be legitimate. It may be that companies genuinely intend their products to be deployed for “lawful interception” by authorized public authorities against legitimate targets, with the authorization of judicial or other independent actors. However, this cannot be known for certain because every aspect of such collaboration – from due diligence and sales to end-user support – typically operates with limited oversight and transparency. In fact, nearly all the publicly available information about the private surveillance industry has been gathered during the forensic work carried out by non-governmental and academic institutions, such as Citizen Lab, and investigative reporting.[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "The story of private surveillance is also a story of the critical importance of free and independent research and media. Such investigations have also put the investigators at risk of surveillance. See, e.g., Raphael Satter, “Undercover agents target cybersecurity watchdog”, Associated Press, 26 January 2019."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Public-private collaboration"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. The operation of the so-called “vulnerabilities market” is especially murky. Governments and private actors are known to purchase security vulnerabilities in commonly available software from security researchers, to be utilized as “zero-day exploits” for the purpose of gaining access to individual communications and devices.[[fn:19]] So long as they remain undisclosed to the device or software manufacturer, vulnerabilities may serve as an entry point for surveillance. When Governments and companies fail to disclose such vulnerabilities, they put at risk the security of end users, including government and private sector clients that store sensitive financial, health, employment or law enforcement data in commercially developed databases. To date, there has been no agreement as to whether Governments and companies have a responsibility to share their knowledge of vulnerabilities, and the sale of such vulnerabilities is unregulated. In fact, not only has the situation facilitated the development of a valuable market in vulnerabilities, it has led many Governments and companies to guard their knowledge of vulnerabilities jealously in the hope of using them for offensive purposes.[[fn:20]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See Privacy International, “Exploiting privacy: surveillance companies pushing zero-day exploits”, 7 February 2018."}, {"n": 20, "text": "See the discussion in Sarah McKune submission, pp. 2–4; Centre for European Policy Studies, Software Vulnerability Disclosure in Europe: Technology, Policies and Legal Challenges (Brussels, June 2018); and Sven Herpig and Ari Schwartz, “The future of vulnerabilities equities processes around the world”, Lawfare, 4 January 2019."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Public-private collaboration"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. It is also evident that public-private collaboration does not end at the point of sale and transfer of product. Leaked documents have demonstrated that private surveillance companies provide after-sales support. For example, in 2014, FinFisher reportedly entered into “annual support contract[s]” with government clients to provide technical upgrades and updates to the products and other forms of customer support.[[fn:21]] They also conduct training on how to optimize their malware to compromise the digital communications, computer devices and Wi-Fi networks of surveillance targets.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "See Privacy International, “Six things we know from the latest FinFisher documents”, 15 August 2014."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Public-private collaboration"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Just as the companies and the purchasers are tightly connected, so too are the companies and Governments in the countries in which they are based. Some of the companies have powerful voices in their countries’ export control regimes and have undermined efforts to strengthen them. For instance, in 2016, credible allegations suggested that, as a result of pressure from industry lobbyists, certain forms of surveillance technology had been removed from a proposed list of additions to the European Union list of dual-use goods and technologies subject to export controls.[[fn:23]] During recent negotiations on the European Union export control regime, business interests were alleged to have influenced the decision to significantly curtail the inclusion of human rights safeguards in proposed regulatory changes, despite broad agreement on their adoption in the European Parliament.[[fn:24]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See Reporters Without Borders, “International regulations: broken or blocked by lobbies”, 14 March 2017."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See Daniel Moßbrucker, “Surveillance exports: how EU Member States are compromising new human rights standards”, netzpolitik.org, 29 October 2018."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Public-private collaboration"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. It has also been indicated in recent reports that many individuals with intelligence and law enforcement expertise and experience move between government and private sector positions. This revolving door may enable former government experts to support private actors whose tools may be used to violate human rights.[[fn:25]] In a 2019 report, Reuters revealed that several former United States National Security Agency employees moved to a private company to support United Arab Emirates signals intelligence programmes under the code-name “Project Raven”.[[fn:26]] The employees in question allegedly deployed their expertise to surveil political opponents of the authorities of the United Arab Emirates and target citizens of the United States. Government regulation of the “revolving door” with respect to the private surveillance industry appears at best weak and likely does not exist in many, if not most, legal systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See Privacy International, “Switching hats: why South Africa’s surveillance industry needs scrutiny”, 14 December 2016; and Alex Kane, “How Israel became a hub for surveillance technology”, The Intercept, 17 October 2016."}, {"n": 26, "text": "See Christopher Bing and Joel Schectman, “Inside the UAE’s secret hacking team of American mercenaries”, Reuters, 30 January 2019; Robert Chesney, “Project Raven: what happens when U.S. personnel serve a foreign intelligence agency”, Lawfare, 11 February 2019; and Sarah McKune submission, pp. 7–8."}], "section": ["II. Governments and the private surveillance industry", "Public-private collaboration"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Targets of surveillance suffer interference with their rights to privacy and freedom of opinion and expression whether the effort to monitor is successful or not.[[fn:27]] The target need have no knowledge of the attempted or successful intrusion for the interference with their right to privacy to be complete. Indeed, Governments generally seek tools that intrude without the knowledge of the target. However, it is critical to see such interference as part of an overall effort to impose consequences on the target. If conducted for unlawful purposes, the attempt at surveillance – and the successful operation – may be used in an effort to silence dissent, sanction criticism or punish independent reporting (and sources for that reporting).[[fn:28]] The sanctions may not be applied to the targets but to their networks of contacts. In environments subject to rampant illicit surveillance, the targeted communities know of or suspect such attempts at surveillance, which in turn shapes and restricts their capacity to exercise the rights to freedom of expression, association, religious belief, culture and so forth. In short, interference with privacy through targeted surveillance is designed to repress the exercise of the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "Global Justice Clinic, New York University School of Law, submission, p. 6."}, {"n": 28, "text": "See Human Rights Foundation submission."}], "section": ["III. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. It is not necessary to duplicate the extensive human rights reporting that has already been conducted by previous Special Rapporteurs, other mandate holders, the High Commissioner, the Human Rights Council, the Human Rights Committee and others, in which they highlighted the following key features of the human rights legal framework that protects against targeted surveillance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. First, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights protect everyone’s rights to privacy, opinion and expression. Article 19 of both instruments protects everyone’s right to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers and through any media. Article 17 (1) of the Covenant, echoing article 12 of the Declaration, provides that “[n]o one shall be subjected to arbitrary or unlawful interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "medium", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'Article 19 of both instruments' referring to ICCPR and UDHR jointly. Sonnet flagged as AMBIGUOUS for the dual citation; conservative keep. Strict reading of 'AMBIGUOUS = 2+ treaties' could favor ICCPR (since UDHR is non-treaty), but author treats them as parallel sources, making the primary referent indeterminate."}, {"article": "17", "paragraph": "1", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'Article 17 (1) of the Covenant' — 'the Covenant' = ICCPR per immediately preceding sentence."}, {"article": "12", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'echoing article 12 of the Declaration' — 'the Declaration' = UDHR, non-treaty."}], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Privacy and expression are intertwined in the digital age, with online privacy serving as a gateway to secure exercise of the freedom of opinion and expression (A/HRC/29/32; and A/HRC/23/40, para. 24). Article 17 permits interference with the right to privacy only where it is “authorized by domestic law that is accessible and precise and that conforms to the requirements of the Covenant”, is in pursuit of “a legitimate aim” and “meet[s] the tests of necessity and proportionality” (A/69/397, para. 30). Article 19 articulates a three-part test requiring that restrictions be provided by law and be necessary to protect the rights or reputations of others, national security or public order, or public health or morals.[[fn:29]] The Human Rights Committee has emphasized that these principles, at a minimum, mean the following:\n(a) Provided by law/legality: any restriction must be formulated with sufficient precision to enable an individual to regulate his or her conduct accordingly and it must be made accessible to the public. Any restriction may not be unduly vague or overbroad such that it could confer unfettered discretion on officials;[[fn:30]]\n(b) Necessity and proportionality: the State has the burden of proving a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the threat and that the restriction it seeks to impose is the least intrusive instrument among those that might achieve the same protective function;[[fn:31]]\n(c) Legitimacy: article 19 (3) imposes specific limits on the interests justifying restrictions. While it is common for States to seek to justify restrictions, especially targeted surveillance, on the bases of national security, the Special Rapporteur has found that this rationale should be limited in application to situations in which the interest of the whole nation is at stake, which would thereby exclude restrictions in the sole interest of a Government, regime or power group (A/71/373, para. 18).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Detailed explication of the three-part test under article 19 may be found in Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression, paras. 5–9 and 22–36; and A/HRC/38/35."}, {"n": 30, "text": "General comment No. 34, para. 25."}, {"n": 31, "text": "Ibid., paras. 34–35."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "section": ["III. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The Human Rights Committee put these principles into practice in its 2017 concluding observations on the sixth periodic report of Italy under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (CCPR/C/ITA/CO/6, para. 36). It determined that the right to privacy required that robust, independent oversight systems were in place regarding surveillance, interception and hacking, including by ensuring that the judiciary was involved in the authorization of such measures, in all cases, and by affording persons affected with effective remedies in cases of abuse, including, where possible, an ex post notification that they had been placed under surveillance or that their data had been hacked (ibid., para. 37). The General Assembly, in its resolution 73/179, echoed these principles, noting that surveillance of digital communications must be consistent with international human rights obligations and must be conducted on the basis of a legal framework, which must be publicly accessible, clear, precise, comprehensive and non-discriminatory.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. While these principles apply in all cases of targeted surveillance, they have particular force when expression in the public interest is implicated. Targeted surveillance creates incentives for self-censorship and directly undermines the ability of journalists and human rights defenders to conduct investigations and build and maintain relationships with sources of information (A/HRC/38/35/Add.2, para. 53). The Committee has emphasized that restrictions may never be invoked as a justification for the muzzling of any advocacy of multiparty democracy, democratic tenets and human rights.[[fn:32]] Attacks on a person because of the exercise of his or her right to freedom of expression may not be justified by article 19 (3).[[fn:33]] The Committee further singled out the importance of protecting journalists and persons who engaged in the gathering and analysis of information on the human rights situation and who published human rights-related reports, including judges and lawyers.[[fn:34]] These protections extend to the confidentiality of sources, which international and regional human rights mechanisms (in the African, European and inter-American systems) have emphasized should be protected under law (A/70/361, para. 5).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "General comment No. 34, para. 23."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 34, "text": "Ibid."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "section": ["III. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. In addition to the primary obligations not to interfere with privacy or restrict expression, States also have duties to protect individuals against third-party interference. Article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, reflecting the primary duties of States, imposes an obligation to respect and to ensure to all individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the Covenant.[[fn:35]] Article 17 (2) of the Covenant provides that everyone has the right to the protection of the law against unlawful interference with his or her privacy. However, it is not clear that States generally afford affirmative legal protections against targeted surveillance. This is certainly true of transnational surveillance, even when committed by foreign entities against one’s own citizens.[[fn:36]] In one instance concerning the allegations of targeted surveillance in Mexico, the Special Rapporteur for freedom of expression in the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression conducted a joint mission to the country in which they raised the issue of the Government’s use of the Pegasus spyware. They urged the Government to allow an independent investigation of the allegations that the spyware was deployed against journalists (A/HRC/38/35/Add.2, paras. 52–55). To date, the efforts to investigate the allegations have not clarified the situation, despite the orders of the National Institute for Transparency, Access to Information and Personal Data Protection of Mexico that the Government reveal the nature of its contracts to obtain Pegasus.[[fn:37]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 31 (2004) on the nature of the general legal obligation imposed on States parties to the Covenant. Note that under general comment No. 31, article 17 on privacy is specifically included as an example of an article in which there are positive obligations on States parties to address the activities of private persons or entities."}, {"n": 36, "text": "See Nate Cardozo, “D.C. circuit court issues dangerous decision for cybersecurity: Ethiopia is free to spy on Americans in their own homes”, Electronic Frontier Foundation, 14 March 2017."}, {"n": 37, "text": "See Instituto Nacional de Transparencia, Acceso a la Información y Protección de Datos Personales, “Fiscalía general de la República tiene oportunidad histórica para acabar con la impunidad en caso Pegasus: Salas Suárez”, 27 March 2019; and Juan Arvizu, “Ordena Inai a PGR abrir contrato de compra de Pegasus”, El Universal, 17 April 2018."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "section": ["III. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. It is clear from the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework adopted by the Human Rights Council in 2011, that a State’s duty to protect includes a duty to take appropriate steps to prevent, investigate, punish and redress human rights abuse by third parties (A/HRC/17/31). In the Guiding Principles, States are urged to exercise adequate oversight in order to meet their international human rights obligations when they contract with, or legislate for, business enterprises to provide services that may have an impact on the enjoyment of human rights (ibid., p. 10).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Legal framework", "A. State obligations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Because the companies in the private surveillance industry operate under a cloak of secrecy, the public lacks any information about the way in which they may – if at all – consider the human rights impacts of their products. Given the nature of the industry and the widespread use of its products for purposes that are inconsistent with international human rights law, it is difficult to imagine that they do in fact take such impacts into account. Put another way: given the broad public knowledge of the repression practised by many of their clients, the companies cannot seriously claim to lack insight into the repressive uses of their tools.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "B. Corporate responsibility"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The Guiding Principles provide a framework for assessing whether surveillance companies respect the rights of those affected by their products and services. In particular, there is an emphasis in the Guiding Principles on policy commitments to respect human rights; due diligence processes to identify, prevent, mitigate and account for human rights impacts; consultation with affected groups; ongoing evaluation of the effectiveness of human rights policies; and effective grievance mechanisms for affected rights holders (A/HRC/17/31, paras. 15–25).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "B. Corporate responsibility"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. By every measure, the companies would appear to fail to meet even these minimum baselines. The few companies that have published their customer policies gesture vaguely at the need to respect human rights. Hacking Team, for instance, states that it reviews “potential customers before a sale to determine whether or not there is objective evidence or credible concerns that Hacking Team technology provided to the customer will be used to facilitate human rights violations”, but does not explain what it does with such information, or even identify which human rights its technologies might implicate.[[fn:38]] The NSO Group claims to operate in accordance with a Business Ethics Committee, “which includes outside experts from various disciplines, including law and foreign relations”, and suggests that it may cancel work if its products are put to “improper use”.[[fn:39]] On its website, it also states that it will “investigate any credible allegation of product misuse”, but there is no indication of whether that includes human rights violations.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "B. Corporate responsibility"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Hacking Team, Customer Policy."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See NSO statement of 17 September 2018. Available at https://citizenlab.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/NSO-Statement-17-September-2018.pdf. As a Citizen Lab puts it, “NSO’s statements about a Business Ethics Committee recall the example of Hacking Team’s ‘outside panel of technical experts and legal advisors … that reviews potential sales.’ This ‘outside panel’ appears to have been a single law firm, whose recommendations Hacking Team did not always follow” (Marczak and others, “Hide and seek”)."}, {"n": 40, "text": "See www.nsogroup.com/about."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. In short, companies have not disclosed instances of meaningful action, such as putting in place due diligence processes that identify and avoid causing or contributing to adverse human rights impacts through their own activities and that prevent or mitigate adverse human rights impacts that are directly linked to their operations, products or services by their business relationships (A/HRC/17/31, annex, principle 13) There is, for example, no public information suggesting that human rights assessments are a routine component of due diligence during sales, that companies give decisive weight to these assessments and that these assessments continue throughout the life cycle of the product and any contract for after-sales support. Indeed, mounting evidence of the industry’s central role in facilitating gross human rights abuses, coupled with its steadfast refusal to explain its safeguards, makes it difficult to avoid the conclusion that such self-regulation lacks substance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "B. Corporate responsibility"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The guidance of the European Commission on implementing the Guiding Principles in the information and communications technology sector highlights the importance of “human rights by design”.[[fn:41]] The extraordinary risk of the misuse of surveillance products means that companies should anticipate the illicit use of their software and begin engineering solutions for the inevitable negative impacts. In a promising move, the Government of the United Kingdom, in partnership with a technology industry association, produced a set of guidelines for the cybersecurity industry in which they stress the importance of preventing and mitigating human rights risks “through appropriate design modification” at the earliest stages of product development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "B. Corporate responsibility"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See European Commission, ICT Sector Guide on Implementing the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (Luxembourg, 2013)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Export controls are an important element of the effort to reduce the risks caused by the private surveillance industry and the repressive use of its tools. However, their effectiveness is limited. First, the relevant international export control regime – the non-binding Wassenaar Arrangement on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies, in which 42 States participate – is tailored to reduce threats to regional and international security. While that is a laudable and necessary objective, the framework is ill-suited to addressing the threats that targeted surveillance pose to human rights; indeed, it lacks guidelines or enforcement measures that would directly address human rights violations caused by surveillance tools. Second, the focus on exports is an imperfect proxy for addressing the central problem: the use of such technologies to target lawful expression, dissent, reporting and other examples of the exercise of human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "C. International and domestic export control"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The Wassenaar Arrangement nevertheless promotes important goals of “transparency and greater responsibility in transfers of conventional arms and dual-use goods and technologies”. Participating States are expected to apply export controls to all items on the list of dual-use goods and technologies.[[fn:42]] As such, the Wassenaar Arrangement has been (or should be) internalized in domestic law and policy by participating and non-participating States; unfortunately, there is no enforcement mechanism to ensure its translation into domestic law or its implementation by the relevant domestic agencies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "C. International and domestic export control"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "See Wassenaar Arrangement, “List of dual-use goods and technologies and munitions list”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. In 2013, the participating States added items related to “intrusion software” and Internet Protocol network communications surveillance systems to the list of dual-use technologies. According to the list, intrusion software is “‘software’ specially designed or modified to avoid detection by ‘monitoring tools’, or to defeat ‘protective countermeasures’”, which either extracts data from a computer or network device or modifies the “standard execution path” of a program to allow “the execution of externally provided instructions”.[[fn:43]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "C. International and domestic export control"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "Ibid., p. 221."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The detailed reports of surveillance-related abuses demonstrate that the export control regime centred on the Wassenaar Arrangement has not meaningfully limited the spread of surveillance technologies and their use for repressive purposes. A stalled effort by European parliamentarians to strengthen the human rights protections in European export laws and policies demonstrated the challenges of reform. Their effort explicitly called for expansion of the list of dual-use items and catch-all controls, and the consideration of “respect for human rights in the country of final destination” of the surveillance technologies.[[fn:44]] In January 2018, this proposal went through first reading in the European Parliament, originally gathering support to implement stronger controls on exports of dual-use technology.[[fn:45]] However, the proposal has since received criticism from at least nine member States, which argued for weaker human rights protections.[[fn:46]] The future of the legislation is now unclear.[[fn:47]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "C. International and domestic export control"], "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "See European Commission, “Proposal for a regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council setting up a Union regime for the control of exports, transfer, brokering, technical assistance and transit of dual-use items (recast)”, 28 September 2016; and Lucie Krahulcova, “The European Parliament is fighting to strengthen the rules for surveillance trade”, Access Now, 8 December 2017."}, {"n": 45, "text": "For an overview of the legislative history of the aforementioned proposed regulation, see EUR-Lex, Doc. 52016PC0616."}, {"n": 46, "text": "Delegations of Cyprus, Czechia, Estonia, Finland, Ireland, Italy, Poland, Sweden and the United Kingdom, “For adoption of an improved EU Export Control Regulation 428/2009 and for cyber-surveillance controls promoting human rights and international humanitarian law globally”, WK 5755/2018 INIT (15 May 2018); and Access Now, “EU: States push to relax rules on exporting surveillance technology to human rights abusers”, 11 June 2018."}, {"n": 47, "text": "See Catherine Stupp, “Nine countries united against EU export controls on surveillance software”, Euractiv, 11 June 2018; and Moßbrucker, “Surveillance exports”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. At the domestic level, the enforcement of export controls varies, even among participating States in the Wassenaar Arrangement. For example, the United States has yet to adopt the 2013 additions of items related to intrusion software and Internet protocol network communications surveillance systems.[[fn:48]] However, the United States Commerce Department is conducting a broad review of the current framework and has been commissioned to establish an inter-agency process for setting new controls for both “emerging” and “foundational” technologies under the Export Control Reform Act of 2018.[[fn:49]] Israel, a non-participating State, has adopted export controls on dual-use items regulated under the Wassenaar Arrangement, but its enforcement of these controls is shrouded in secrecy.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "C. International and domestic export control"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Privacy International submission, p. 5."}, {"n": 49, "text": "John S. McCain National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2019, Public Law No 115–232 (2018)."}, {"n": 50, "text": "See “Israel-U.S. export controls”, export.gov, 20 July 2018. See also para. 43 below."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. As part of a State’s duty to respect and ensure enjoyment of human rights, article 2 (3) (a) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights imposes an obligation to provide victims of violations with access to an effective remedy. It is specified in article 2 (3) (b) that claims of such violations must be determined by competent judicial, administrative or legislative authorities, or by any other competent authority provided for by the legal system of the State. The Human Rights Committee has stressed that law enforcement and prosecutorial authorities should investigate allegations of violations promptly, thoroughly and effectively through independent and impartial bodies.[[fn:51]] The duty to provide effective remedies also entails an obligation to protect individuals from acts by private sector entities that cause infringements, by exercising due diligence to prevent, punish, investigate or redress the harm caused by such acts by private persons or entities.[[fn:52]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "D. Absence of remedies for targeted surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "General comment No. 31, para. 15."}, {"n": 52, "text": "Ibid., para. 8."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "2", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "2", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Victims of targeted surveillance have had little success in their efforts to obtain recognition of the harm suffered, let alone remedies for such harm. This is so even though, as explained by both the European Court of Human Rights and the High Commissioner for Human Rights, the mere threat of surveillance, even when secret, coupled with the lack of remedy, can constitute an interference with the right to privacy.[[fn:53]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "D. Absence of remedies for targeted surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Roman Zakharov v. Russia (application No. 47143/06), judgment of 4 December 2015, para. 171; and A/HRC/27/37, para. 20."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Litigation as a course of action to seek remedy against private surveillance companies that manufacture and sell tools and Governments that deploy them is uncertain. The lack of causes of action and remedies raises serious concerns about the likelihood of holding companies accountable for human rights violations. Alleged victims have commenced litigation or formal complaints against private surveillance companies or Governments in at least eight countries.[[fn:54]] However, the barriers to successful litigation and formal complaints are significant, including the lack of judicial oversight, remedies, causes of action, enforcement and data preservation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "D. Absence of remedies for targeted surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "See Siena Anstis, “Litigation and other formal complaints concerning targeted digital surveillance and the digital surveillance industry”, Citizen Lab, 12 December 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. In some cases, civil society organizations have requested that Governments investigate unlawful surveillance, but these requests are frequently rejected. In the United Kingdom, Privacy International made a criminal complaint against Gamma Group to the National Crime Agency, arguing that the company had violated multiple domestic laws when its subsidiary, FinFisher, sold surveillance technologies and provided assistance to the Government of Bahrain.[[fn:55]] The European Centre for Constitutional and Human Rights and Privacy International also filed a criminal complaint in Munich, Germany, calling for an investigation into the company, but the public prosecution authorities refused the request.[[fn:56]] Even when States open investigations to determine whether government surveillance violated human rights norms or State laws, the investigations can be arbitrary or disorganized.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "D. Absence of remedies for targeted surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "See Privacy International, “Criminal complaint to national cyber crime unit on behalf of Bahraini activists”, 13 October 2014. Lawsuits against the NSO Group have also been filed in Israel and Cyprus: see David D. Kirkpatrick and Azam Ahmed, “Hacking a prince, an emir and a journalist to impress a client”, New York Times, 31 August 2018."}, {"n": 56, "text": "See European Centre for Constitutional and Human Rights, “FinFisher: no investigation into German-British software company”, 12 December 2014."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Alternatives to litigation, providing for remedies consistent with international human rights law, appear unavailable. For instance, after an Amnesty International staff member was the target of a suspicious WhatsApp message allegedly linked to Pegasus, the organization wrote to the Ministry of Defence of Israel asking that the NSO Group’s export licence be revoked.[[fn:57]] The country’s Defence Export Control Agency sent a letter in response, stating that it does not provide information on its policies on granting export licences or any information on the actual licences themselves.[[fn:58]] The Agency did not confirm or deny the existence of the export licence, but did note that “that export licences issued by the Israeli [Ministry of Defence] to NSO Group in relation to its government clients are consistent with international obligations”.[[fn:59]] The lack of regional and international pressure and non-disclosure policies justified on the basis of national security prove to be significant barriers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "D. Absence of remedies for targeted surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "Amnesty International submission, p. 8."}, {"n": 58, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 59, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Privacy International has also filed complaints with the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) National Contact Points for Germany and the United Kingdom against Gamma and Trovicor for their alleged roles in the targeted surveillance of political opponents by the Government of Bahrain.[[fn:60]] The complaint against Trovicor asked the National Contact Point for Germany to “ascertain whether the company breached the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises by exporting surveillance products to Bahrain, where the authorities use such products in human rights abuses, including the arrest, detention and torture of political opponents and dissidents”.[[fn:61]] However, the National Contact Point rejected the complaint on the basis that the evidence of Trovicor’s presence in Bahrain was not sufficient. In a virtually identical complaint to the National Contact Point for the United Kingdom, multiple civil society organizations alleged similar violations against Gamma.[[fn:62]] The National Contact Point accepted the complaint and released an initial assessment in June 2013, in which it was stated that: “while neither party has provided direct evidence about a supply by Gamma to Bahrain, the evidence provided suggests that the company’s product may have been used against Bahraini activists. The [National Contact Point] considers that this substantiates the issues in respect of the company’s obligations to do appropriate due diligence and to address impacts.”[[fn:63]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "D. Absence of remedies for targeted surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 60, "text": "According to the organization’s website, the main role of a National Contact Point “is to further the effectiveness of the Guidelines by undertaking promotional activities, handling enquiries, and contributing to the resolution of issues that may arise from the alleged non-observance of the guidelines in specific instances”."}, {"n": 61, "text": "See Privacy International, “OECD complaint: Trovicor exporting surveillance technology to Bahrain”, 1 February 2013."}, {"n": 62, "text": "See Privacy International, “German OECD NCP unwilling to investigate role of German company in human rights violations in Bahrain”, 20 December 2013."}, {"n": 63, "text": "United Kingdom, Department for Business Innovation and Skills, “Initial assessment by the UK National Contact Point for the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises: complaint from Privacy International and others against Gamma International UK Limited, June 2013” (London, 2013), para. 25."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Although the final report of the National Contact Point made several recommendations based on human rights standards, there is no evidence that Gamma has implemented them or even acknowledged the report.[[fn:64]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Legal framework", "D. Absence of remedies for targeted surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 64, "text": "See Amitpal Singh, “OECD finds actions of Gamma International to be in violation of human rights”, Citizen Lab, 3 March 2015; and “UK National Contact Point for the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises – Privacy International and Gamma International UK Ltd: final statement after examination of complaint”, December 2014."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. It is insufficient to say that a comprehensive system for control and use of targeted surveillance technologies is broken. It hardly exists. While human rights law provides definite restrictions on the use of surveillance tools, States conduct unlawful surveillance without fear of legal consequence. The human rights law framework is in place, but a framework to enforce limitations is not. It is imperative, urgently so, that States limit the uses of such technologies to lawful ones only, subjected to the strictest forms of oversight and authorization, and that States condition private sector participation in the surveillance tools market – from research and development to marketing, sale, transfer and maintenance – on human rights due diligence and a track record of compliance with human rights norms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. The previous mandate holder insisted that States should take measures to prevent the commercialization of surveillance technologies, paying particular attention to research, development, trade, export and use of these technologies, considering their ability to facilitate systematic human rights violations (A/HRC/23/40, para. 97). This call remains just as relevant today. In this section, the Special Rapporteur reviews the main elements of a framework to protect individuals from the uses of surveillance technology that interfere with the enjoyment of human rights. The steps proposed in the present report require action and implementation by: States, as users of these technologies and as exporting countries; by companies, in accordance with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights; by States and companies working together with civil society; and by the Human Rights Council.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Private companies are creating, transferring and servicing – and States are purchasing and using – surveillance technologies in troubling ways. Credible allegations have shown that companies are selling their tools to Governments that use them to target journalists, activists, opposition figures and others who play critical roles in democratic society. Some of these companies object to the allegations, arguing that they do not permit the use of their products for illicit purposes, they have mechanisms to evaluate sales to “sensitive” end users and they abide by national laws on the control of exports. It is possible that companies are making genuine attempts to address the charges of complicity in surveillance-based repression and abuses. There is, however, no particular reason to take private companies at their word without subjecting them to public disclosure and accountability processes. The gravity of the allegations demands transparency in companies’ relationships and processes, not to mention a range of other steps, which are described below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "A. Moratorium on the export and use of targeted surveillance technologies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Implementing the steps in the present report will take time. In the meantime, scores of journalists, activists, human rights defenders and government critics will be at the mercy of Governments emboldened by the array of highly intrusive surveillance tools at their disposal. It is therefore essential that companies immediately cease the sale and transfer of and support for such technologies, until they have provided convincing evidence that they have adopted sufficient measures (as outlined below) concerning due diligence, transparency and accountability to prevent or mitigate the use of these technologies to commit human rights abuses. Governments should also impose an immediate moratorium on granting licences for the export of surveillance technologies, until there is convincing evidence that the use of these technologies can be technically restricted to lawful purposes that are consistent with human rights standards, or that these technologies will only be exported to countries in which their use is subject to authorization – granted in accordance with due process and the standards of legality, necessity and legitimacy – by an independent and impartial judicial body. For now, however, the mounting evidence that privately developed surveillance tools are being used for manifestly illegitimate purposes offers a strong case for a moratorium on these transfers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "A. Moratorium on the export and use of targeted surveillance technologies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. As a primary step, Governments deploying surveillance tools must ensure that they do so in accordance with a domestic legal framework that meets the standards required by international human rights law. Surveillance should only be authorized in law for the most serious criminal offences. To be compliant with those standards, national laws must:\n(a) Emphasize that everyone enjoys the right not to be subjected to unlawful or arbitrary interference with his or her privacy and the right to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas regardless of frontiers and through any media;\n(b) Require that any legislation governing surveillance be contained in precise and publicly accessible laws and only be applied when necessary and proportionate to achieve one of the legitimate objectives enumerated in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights;\n(c) Ensure that a surveillance operation be approved for use against a specific person only in accordance with international human rights law and when authorized by a competent, independent and impartial judicial body, with all appropriate limitations on time, manner, place and scope of the surveillance;\n(d) Require, given the extreme risks of abuse associated with targeted surveillance technologies, that authorized uses be subjected to detailed record-keeping requirements. Surveillance requests should only be permitted in accordance with regular, documented legal processes and the issuance of warrants for such use. Surveillance subjects should be notified of the decision to authorize their surveillance as soon as such a notification would not seriously jeopardize the purpose of the surveillance.[[fn:65]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "B. Obligations of Governments as users of surveillance technologies", "1. Reinforce national laws limiting surveillance in accordance with the obligations of international human rights law"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "See “Necessary and proportionate: International Principles on the Application of Human Rights to Communications Surveillance” (May 2014)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. It is common for States to impose a high burden of proof on criminal investigations seeking access to the work of journalists (A/70/361, para. 24). Surveillance technologies are often used to target those who play significant roles in promoting democratic values. The Special Rapporteur recognizes that some States may believe that there are situations in which, for instance, journalists use the cover of their profession to engage in serious criminal offences. In his experience, these claims are almost always false or overstated. Too often, Governments use these sorts of claims to undermine journalism and dissenting voices or to target journalists for surveillance even when they are not the target of a legitimate criminal investigation, causing a disproportionate impact on the free press. In this context, the law’s default position should be to prohibit the use of digital surveillance tools against individuals in the media. Of course, this does not provide journalists with immunity from other forms of legitimate legal process, including non-digital surveillance. It is simply that, in the context of the intrusive technologies of digital surveillance, the possibility of abuse or “leakage” from a legitimate criminal investigation into areas involving other journalistic work is very real and difficult, if not impossible, to contain. Its very possibility would likely serve to deter journalists from working on the most sensitive sorts of topics, not to mention the willingness of sources and whistle-blowers to come forward.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "B. Obligations of Governments as users of surveillance technologies", "1. Reinforce national laws limiting surveillance in accordance with the obligations of international human rights law"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Judicial authorization of government use of surveillance technologies is necessary but insufficient. The purchase of these technologies should also be subject to meaningful public oversight, consultation and control. In recent years, as the use of surveillance technologies has proliferated among law enforcement bodies in the United States, several communities have instituted civilian control boards to regulate their use and purchase. The city of Oakland in California, for instance, adopted an ordinance with several features regarding the purchase of surveillance technology that could be replicated by States.[[fn:66]] These include:\n(a) An approval process, carried out by the relevant departments, that takes into account the State’s human rights obligations;\n(b) Public notice of such purchases through regular processes, and public consultations on issues such as the human rights implications of such purchases and whether the technologies at issue will be effective at achieving their intended purposes;\n(c) Regular public reporting on such approvals, purchases and uses.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "B. Obligations of Governments as users of surveillance technologies", "2. Establish public mechanisms for approval and oversight of surveillance technologies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "See American Civil Liberties Union of Northern California, “Oakland becomes latest municipality to reclaim local control over surveillance technologies used by local law enforcement”, 2 May 2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Particularly in States that allow subnational organs a certain autonomy in the purchase of law enforcement tools, community control of such purchases should be encouraged and enforced. Given the clear public interest in maintaining the privacy and security of widely available commercial software, public oversight mechanisms should also be empowered to set policies on the stockpiling of vulnerabilities and the development of relevant exploits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "B. Obligations of Governments as users of surveillance technologies", "2. Establish public mechanisms for approval and oversight of surveillance technologies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. For the reasons described above, it is difficult for the targets of unlawful or arbitrary surveillance to bring claims against Governments. Some of the barriers are structural, such as the unavailability in many legal systems for claims against government actors. Both legislatures and the courts may also bar these claims when they grant excessive deference to perceived national security and law enforcement interests. Some claims may be difficult to pursue because of the difficulty and expense of proving the existence of surveillance or attributing the surveillance to State actors – or even to specific State agencies that would be the targets of a lawsuit. Individual targets of surveillance often do not know of the surveillance being carried out against them – or, if they do, it may be beyond the tolling of a statute of limitations.[[fn:67]] It is, in other words, extremely rare for a claimant to succeed in domestic legal claims arising from allegedly unlawful surveillance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "B. Obligations of Governments as users of surveillance technologies", "3. Provide victims with domestic legal tools of redress"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "See Roman Zakharov v. Russia."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. States that are serious about the abuse of surveillance technologies should take steps to enable individual claims against both State and non-State actors. This will, for many States, necessarily involve ensuring that the rules concerning jurisdiction, evidence, timeliness and other basic threshold conditions are fit for purpose in the digital age. They should, for instance, ensure that courts can accept and evaluate as evidence the forensic analysis of technical experts. National legislation should also establish causes of action against private entities that take into account changes in corporate ownership (known as “disposals” or “makeovers”), which often complicate the efforts of victims to seek accountability and redress.[[fn:68]] Alternative forms of redress, such as truth commissions that enable victims of gross human rights abuses facilitated by digital surveillance to give testimony and that examine corporate complicity in these abuses, should also be considered.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "B. Obligations of Governments as users of surveillance technologies", "3. Provide victims with domestic legal tools of redress"], "footnotes": [{"n": 68, "text": "Access Now submission, p. 8."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. At the same time, targeted surveillance is not always territorially contained. When States reach beyond their borders to conduct targeted surveillance, it may be difficult for the individuals targeted by such surveillance to bring claims against the offending State. Some of the same evidentiary and other burdens as in domestic claims may be present in these cases as well. Moreover, as in the Doe case noted above, courts may be unwilling to entertain lawsuits against foreign sovereigns. While the rules for such suits vary, States should interpret the norms of sovereign immunity to ensure that their courts may entertain suits against foreign Governments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "B. Obligations of Governments as users of surveillance technologies", "3. Provide victims with domestic legal tools of redress"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. The Wassenaar Arrangement is not the final word on the control of exports of surveillance technologies; the enforcement of control lists depends upon national implementation. Neither does the Arrangement involve the participation of all major exporting countries: Israel, a major player in the surveillance technology market, claims that it is “fully compliant” with the Arrangement, although it has yet to become a participating State.[[fn:69]] It is also a limited framework, since, notwithstanding its important objectives related to regional and international peace and security, it does not have a human rights orientation. Nonetheless, given that the Arrangement establishes standards that carry the expectation of broad implementation and compliance, participating States should leverage this valuable forum to impose rights-based limitations on the transfer of surveillance technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "C. Obligations of Governments licensing export of surveillance technology"], "footnotes": [{"n": 69, "text": "See Wassenaar Arrangement, “IL – Israel cybersecurity export control policy” (PowerPoint presentation), June 2016."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. In order to improve its role in developing global export standards, participating States would benefit from a human rights working group that could propose and consider standards for exports that integrate human rights concerns in technology transfers. But whether it adopts such a working group or other mechanism, it should develop a framework under which the licensing of any technology would be conditional upon a national human rights review and companies’ compliance with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, as discussed below. As Privacy International put it, participating States, as well as other exporting Governments, should deny licensing “where there is a substantial risk that those exports could be used to violate human rights, where there is no legal framework in place in a destination governing the use of a surveillance item, or where the legal framework for its use falls short of international human rights law or standards”.[[fn:70]] To ensure compliance when export licences are denied on this basis, the surveillance technologies in question should be incorporated into existing sanctions regimes.[[fn:71]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "C. Obligations of Governments licensing export of surveillance technology"], "footnotes": [{"n": 70, "text": "Privacy International submission, p. 8."}, {"n": 71, "text": "Ibid., pp. 3–4."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. While such standards would be valuable additions to the Wassenaar Arrangement, the ability of the public or specific civil society organizations to monitor their implementation will depend on stronger transparency obligations at the national and international levels. The Arrangement itself should promote such transparency by setting clear and enforceable guidelines for intergovernmental information-sharing and public disclosures concerning licensing standards, decisions to authorize, modify or reject licences, incidents or patterns of misuse of surveillance technologies and related human rights violations, and the treatment of digital vulnerabilities. National export laws should also allocate sufficient resources for public record-keeping and accessibility concerning export licensing decisions, and mandate relevant government agencies to solicit public input and conduct multi-stakeholder consultations when they are processing applications of export licences. Finally, States should also establish safe harbours for security research and exempt encryption items from export control restrictions.[[fn:72]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "C. Obligations of Governments licensing export of surveillance technology"], "footnotes": [{"n": 72, "text": "Ibid., p. 5."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Given the extraordinary risk of abuse of surveillance technologies, the granting of export licences should be prohibited under domestic law unless a company regularly demonstrates that it has rigorously implemented its responsibilities under the Guiding Principles with respect to the design, sale, transfer or support of such technologies. This would effectively establish the Guiding Principles as preconditions for companies to participate in the surveillance market. In previous reports, the Special Rapporteur has explained how the information and communications technology sector should fulfil its responsibilities to respect human rights (A/HRC/35/22, paras. 45–75). For private surveillance companies to meet these responsibilities, they must develop, at a minimum, the following:[[fn:73]]\n(a) Customer policies that unequivocally affirm the responsibility of companies to respect freedom of expression, privacy and related human rights throughout their operations, and that client compliance with international human rights law is a condition for the approval and completion of a sale, transfer or contract of support;\n(b) Human rights due diligence processes (such as human rights impact assessments) that are triggered when companies engage in activities that have a bearing on freedom of expression and privacy, such as the design, sale, transfer and servicing of surveillance products and services;\n(c) Internal policies and standard contractual clauses that establish clear and specific prohibitions on product customization, targeting, servicing or assistance that violates international human rights law;\n(d) Internal processes that ensure design and engineering choices incorporate human rights safeguards, such as flagging systems that detect misuse and kill switches that are triggered in the event of misuse;\n(e) Regular programmes of audits and human rights verification processes to ensure that use of their products and services comply with international human rights law, including a commitment to publicly disclose key findings from these audits and verification processes;\n(f) Notification processes that promptly report misuses of their tools to the relevant government oversight bodies (such as national human rights institutions) or intergovernmental bodies (such as special procedures complaints mechanisms);\n(g) Transparency reporting that discloses the potential uses and capabilities of their products and the types of after-sales support provided, incidents of misuse and data concerning the number and type of sales to law enforcement, intelligence or other government agencies or their agents;\n(h) Regular consultations with affected rights holders, civil society groups and digital rights organizations about the ongoing or potential impacts of their products and services and the human rights safeguards required to prevent or mitigate these impacts, with particular emphasis on engaging those at risk of surveillance-based discrimination or repression, such as racial and ethnic minorities and historically marginalized groups;\n(i) Grievance mechanisms that enable individuals to submit complaints concerning human rights abuses facilitated by company products and services, and provide for independent assessment of those complaints and meaningful follow-up;\n(j) Remedial mechanisms that enable complainants to seek compensation, apologies and other forms of redress, as appropriate, in cases in which complaints are independently verified.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "D. Companies’ implementation of the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "Many of these standards draw from the submissions of civil society, which can be found in the addendum to the present report and on the Special Rapporteur’s website."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. The approaches of States and companies, as described here, may be insufficient to address the global problem of targeted surveillance. They also lack several important inputs – those of civil society actors, whether activists, technologists, academics, victims or those belonging to more than one of these categories. Co-regulatory governance that involves meaningful participation from State, business and civil society actors may provide a blueprint for human rights accountability in the private surveillance industry. In particular, co-regulatory initiatives developed to instil accountability and oversight among companies in the private security industry is instructive. Like private surveillance companies, the risks that private security companies assume are connected to their inherent involvement with State functions, particularly in the area of national security. Therefore, the co-regulation of private security companies requires efforts to educate companies about human rights concerns and creates incentives for multi-stakeholder participation (certification based on civil society-inclusive audit and monitoring processes), which may transfer well to the private surveillance industry.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "E. Co-regulatory initiatives"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Two aspects of the regulatory environment of private security companies are worth considering in the context of private surveillance companies. The Montreux Document on pertinent international legal obligations and good practices for States related to operations of private military and security companies during armed conflict outlines recommendations for good State practices in such situations.[[fn:74]] Although non-binding, it contains existing international law obligations for private security companies, as well as recommendations in the form of best practices for contracting States, territorial States and home States. Its principles of public disclosure and due diligence predate and mirror responsibilities found in the Guiding Principles.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "E. Co-regulatory initiatives"], "footnotes": [{"n": 74, "text": "See Switzerland, Federal Department of Foreign Affairs, and the International Committee of the Red Cross, “The Montreux Document on pertinent international legal obligations and good practices for States related to operations of private military and security companies during armed conflict” (Berne, 2008)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. The International Code of Conduct for Private Security Service Providers may also be an appropriate model. Established with the support of civil society, private industry and the Government of Switzerland, it is one of the few approaches that involves the participation of private security companies. The International Code of Conduct for Private Security Service Providers’ Association is a multi-stakeholder initiative involving representatives from States, private security companies and civil society organizations. The non-binding Code is intended to supplement monitoring and oversight, articulating the international law obligations of companies and creating the structure of a framework for accountability to the Association. The Association consists of a general assembly, in which the stakeholder groups are represented, and a board of directors, which has 12 elected members who are representative of the three groups of stakeholders. Notably, company membership is contingent on compliance with the Code, including the Association’s certification, auditing and verification processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "E. Co-regulatory initiatives"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. As stated in the articles of association, the key idea of the Code is to promote the responsible use of private security services, as well as respect for international human rights law. The Code itself outlines both the general commitments of States and private security companies and other private security service providers, and specific principles for conduct in areas including: use of force, detention, apprehending persons, torture and other punishments, gender-based violence, human trafficking, slavery and forced labour, discrimination, and identification and registration of private security personnel.[[fn:75]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "E. Co-regulatory initiatives"], "footnotes": [{"n": 75, "text": "See also Sarah McKune submission, p. 10."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. The Human Rights Council has created, to real benefit, several working groups with mandates to address key themes on implementation of international human rights norms. The Council or its special procedures may consider a new mechanism to provide the kind of attention to specific cases that individual mandate holders may be unable to sustain and evaluate. A new working group, a cross-mandate task force, or a mandated plan of action could devote specific attention to claims that national surveillance practices – which touch on many areas of human rights law and thus many mandates of special procedures – interfere with fundamental human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. Framework for the protection of fundamental rights against targeted surveillance", "F. New focus in the United Nations on surveillance practices"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. For States:\n(a) States should impose an immediate moratorium on the export, sale, transfer, use or servicing of privately developed surveillance tools until a human rights-compliant safeguards regime is in place;\n(b) States that purchase or use surveillance technologies (“purchasing States”) should ensure that domestic laws permit their use only in accordance with the human rights standards of legality, necessity and legitimacy of objectives, and establish legal mechanisms of redress consistent with their obligation to provide victims of surveillance-related abuses with an effective remedy;\n(c) Purchasing States should also establish mechanisms that ensure public or community approval, oversight and control of the purchase of surveillance technologies;\n(d) States that export or permit the export of surveillance technologies (“exporting States”) should ensure that the relevant government agencies solicit public input and conduct multi-stakeholder consultations when they are processing applications for export licences. All records pertaining to export licences should be stored and made available to the greatest extent possible. They should also establish safe harbours for security research and exempt encryption items from export control restrictions;\n(e) Exporting States should join the Wassenaar Arrangement and abide by its rules and standards to the extent that these are consistent with international human rights law;\n(f) States participating in the Wassenaar Arrangement should develop a framework by which the licensing of any technology would be conditional upon a national human rights review and companies’ compliance with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. Such a framework could be developed through a specially established human rights working group. Additionally, they should set clear and enforceable guidelines on transparency and accountability with respect to licensing decisions, surveillance-related human rights abuses and the treatment of digital vulnerabilities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["V. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. For companies:\n(a) Private surveillance companies should publicly affirm their responsibility to respect freedom of expression, privacy and related human rights, and integrate human rights due diligence processes from the earliest stages of product development and throughout their operations. These processes should establish human rights by design, regular consultations with civil society (particularly groups at risk of surveillance), and robust transparency reporting on business activities that have an impact on human rights;\n(b) Companies should also put in place robust safeguards to ensure that any use of their products or services is compliant with human rights standards. These safeguards include contractual clauses that prohibit the customization, targeting, servicing or other use that violates international human rights law, technical design features to flag, prevent or mitigate misuse, and human rights audits and verification processes;\n(c) When companies detect misuses of their products and services to commit human rights abuses, they should promptly report them to the relevant domestic, regional or international oversight bodies. They should also establish effective grievance and remedial mechanisms that enable victims of surveillance-related human rights abuses to submit complaints and seek redress.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["V. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. For the United Nations: the Organization, particularly the Human Rights Council, should create a working group or cross-mandate task force to monitor and provide recommendations on trends in, and individual cases of, human rights abuses facilitated by digital surveillance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["V. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-35-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-41-35", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. For all stakeholders: States, the private sector, civil society and other relevant stakeholders should establish co-regulatory initiatives that develop rights-based standards of conduct for the private surveillance industry and implement these standards through independent audits, and learning and policy initiatives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2019, "section": ["V. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. “If you cannot enfranchise poor people, if they do not have a right to expression, if there is no searchlight on corruption and inequitable practices, you cannot build the public consensus needed to bring about change”.[[fn:1]] Drawing lessons from a World Bank project that recorded the lived experience of 60,000 individuals trapped in poverty, James Wolfensohn, then President of the Bank, put his finger squarely on the vital contribution of freedom of expression in overcoming the challenges that often undermine or derail development.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "James D. Wolfensohn, “Voices for the poor”, The Washington Post, 10 November 1999."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The meaningful engagement of poor and marginalized communities is essential to good development. When people are informed and consulted, when they can express their views freely and take part in making decisions that affect their lives and livelihoods, they are better able to overcome deprivation, exclusion and insecurity. By enabling people to be active participants in, rather than passive recipients of development, freedom of expression promotes voice and agency and improves the quality and sustainability of development outcomes.[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Irene Khan, The Unheard Truth: Poverty and Human Rights (New York, Norton, 2009)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. Freedom of expression is an essential enabler of sustainable development. In addition to empowering individuals, communities and civil society, it facilitates a range of other rights, including those underpinning sustainable development, such as the rights to health, education, water and a clean environment.[[fn:3]] It allows Governments to be better informed and more responsive to the needs of their people. It enables civil society, the media and citizens to hold Governments and corporate power to account, making democracy meaningful. It also generates economic dividends. Research has shown that in societies where public debate is open and information flows freely from diverse sources, markets operate more efficiently and public institutions are more effective and accountable.[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, arts. 12 and 13; Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Right, general comment No. 13 (1999), general comment No. 14 (2000) and general comment No. 15 (2002); and United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, art. 6 (a)."}, {"n": 4, "text": "See submission from Open Government Partnership."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Illicit financial flows, corruption, tax evasion and illegal activities, such as illegal deforestation, illicit mining and trafficking in rare species, are major obstacles to sustainable development because they rob valuable national resources. Access to information, which is at the heart of freedom of expression, is a vital tool to expose and counter such activities. Transparency, civic space and independent media – which thrive in contexts where freedom of expression is upheld – are powerful drivers in ensuring that much-needed public funds or natural resources for sustainable development are not destroyed or diverted for private use.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The link between sustainable development and freedom of expression is not only about information. Equally fundamentally, it is about voice – the right to articulate views, debate, discuss, criticize, challenge, protest and demand. If development is to be meaningful, then the voices of those most disadvantaged in society must be heard and heeded, and civil society and the media must have the freedom and space to use information and voice to hold the powerful to account.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The right to freedom of opinion and expression, enshrined in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and in various international and regional instruments, encompasses the right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas, regardless of frontiers and in any media.[[fn:5]] The rights to public participation, of peaceful assembly and to freedom of association are closely linked to freedom of opinion and expression.[[fn:6]] The expansive language of freedom of expression underscores the obligation for proactive disclosure of information by duty bearers, and the entitlement of rights holders to full and active participation in the development process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 19 (2)."}, {"n": 6, "text": "Ibid., arts. 21, 22 and 25; OHCHR guidelines for States on the effective implementation of the right to participate in public affairs (A/HRC/39/28)."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "AMBIGUOUS", "confidence": "medium", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — parallel dual citation. Sonnet=AMBIGUOUS; conservative keep. (Strict 'AMBIGUOUS=2+ treaties' would favor ICCPR since UDHR is non-treaty, but Sonnet's caution is defensible for the symmetric grammatical structure.)"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. Freedom of expression is not absolute. It can be restricted by measures that are lawful, non-discriminatory, necessary and proportionate to respect the rights and reputation of others or to protect national security, public order and public health and morals.[[fn:7]] Furthermore, advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence is prohibited under international law.[[fn:8]] Given the importance of freedom of expression for the enjoyment of other rights, and for promoting transparency and accountability, the restrictions should be exceptional and narrowly construed, and must not jeopardize the right itself.[[fn:9]] They must not be overly broad or so vaguely framed that they can be misused by the authorities to suppress criticism of government policies, or by companies and powerful public figures to evade disclosure in the public interest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 19 (3)."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Ibid., art. 20 (2)."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The explicit recognition of human rights in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development marks a paradigm shift in international development.[[fn:10]] Some earlier international agreements had acknowledged the instrumental role of voice, participation and access to information in tackling poverty, reducing inequalities and protecting the environment.[[fn:11]] The 2030 Agenda goes much further, framing the fulfilment of fundamental freedoms as an objective of sustainable development, not simply a pathway to it. The Agenda acknowledges that development is sustainable, not only because it incorporates economic, social and environmental dimensions, but also because respect for human rights makes it just, inclusive and transformational.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "General Assembly resolution 66/288, annex, paras. 43 and 44."}, {"n": 11, "text": "Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, principle 10 (A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1(Vol.I) and A/CONF.151/26/Rev.1(Vol.I)/Corr.1); and United Nations Millennium Declaration (General Assembly resolution 55/2), para. 25."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The Sustainable Development Goals and their associated targets include some 20 commitments relating to participation, expression and information.[[fn:12]] A cluster of key commitments are in Goal 16, which is to promote peaceful and inclusive societies. The targets of that goal include developing effective, accountable and transparent institutions, ensuring equal access to justice for all, substantially reducing corruption, ensuring responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making, ensuring public access to information and protecting fundamental freedoms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "E.g., target 3.7: ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health information; target 6.b: support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management; and target 9.c: strive to provide universal and affordable access to the Internet."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The 2030 Agenda endorses both the information and voice aspects of freedom of expression. That is evident in the two indicators selected by Member States to measure progress with regard to the objectives to “ensure public access to information” and “protect fundamental freedoms” in target 16.10: (a) the safety of journalists, associated media personnel, trade unionists and human rights advocates; and (b) the enactment of laws to promote access to information.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "See https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/indicators/indicators-list/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Notwithstanding the value that freedom of expression brings to sustainable development and its affirmation in the 2030 Agenda, the reality remains grim in many parts of the world. A confluence of multiple and interlocking political, economic and climate crises, a debilitating pandemic and entrenched conflicts have not only stalled progress on the Sustainable Development Goals but also wiped out some important past gains, pushing 100 million more people back into poverty and leaving many more facing an uncertain future marked by deprivation, inequalities, exclusion, insecurity and injustice.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Against a background of rising authoritarianism and shrinking civic space, journalists, environmental activists, trade unionists and human rights defenders are threatened, attacked and killed in many countries. The voices of young people calling for gender equality and social, economic, environmental and climate justice are crushed. Individuals, communities and civil society organizations are blocked from effective participation in decision-making processes. Where public participation occurs, often it is uninformed and tokenistic, more performative than participatory. Laws on access to information have been widely adopted, but requests for information are often denied. Verifiable information is suppressed, and disinformation and misinformation are amplified on digital platforms.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Universal access to an open, free, interoperable and secure Internet is essential for the enjoyment of human rights and for the advancement of sustainable development. While the Internet is relevant to all human rights, it is particularly significant for freedom of expression, expanding the opportunities to access information, communicate, organize and participate, but it also increases threats to the safety of women, children and minorities. The Internet is not equally available or accessible to all, deepening existing inequalities and inequities and creating new divides. The inequalities that are holding women back in the offline world are also holding them back from accessing the Internet on an equal basis.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. As world leaders prepare to gather at the United Nations Headquarters in September 2023 to review progress on meeting the Sustainable Development Goals and the impact of multiple crises, it is vital that Member States focus on the threats and challenges to freedom of expression that are holding back progress on the 2030 Agenda. With less than seven years left to reach 2030, the gap between the promise to leave no one behind and its realization on the ground remains unacceptably wide. The need to reinforce and reinvest in human rights is urgent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. The present report is a call to action on the right to freedom of expression. The objective of the report is three-fold: (a) to highlight the vital and multidimensional contribution of freedom of expression to sustainable development; (b) to assess the opportunities, threats and challenges to freedom of expression that affect sustainable development; and (c) to revitalize political commitment to uphold freedom of expression. In the first section of the report, the relationship between the right to freedom of expression and sustainable development has been set out. Sections two and three cover information and voice, the two main dimensions of freedom of expression, including some aspects of digital technology. In the final section, conclusions are draw and some recommendations made to Governments and other stakeholders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The Special Rapporteur recognizes the complexities of the issues and the challenges that corporate power and digital technology pose to freedom of expression in the context of sustainable development, which cannot be addressed adequately within the word limit of the present report. She intends to cover some of those issues further in her future work on freedom of expression and sustainable development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. The Special Rapporteur is grateful for written submissions from 15 States, 53 civil society organizations and academia, 12 national institutions and 5 international and multi-stakeholder organizations, and for online consultations with legal and policy experts.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["I. Freedom of expression as an enabler of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "The submissions are available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/2023/call-submissions-thematic-report-special-rapporteur-freedom-opinion-and."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. During the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, the lack of trustworthy public information, or worse still, outright misinformation and disinformation by government officials and others, contributed to the loss of millions of lives, mismanagement of billions of dollars of public funds and the loss of trust in public institutions and the integrity of public information.[[fn:15]] It was a stark reminder of the importance of access to verifiable, diverse sources of information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See A/HRC/44/49 and Article 19: International Centre against Censorship, “Ensuring the public’s right to know in the COVID-19 pandemic”, May 2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Over the past three decades, access to information has been incorporated as a right in international agreements, national constitutions and laws. Multi-stakeholder models to promote transparency have also emerged. In the present section, positive developments and good practices, as well as the gaps, failures and challenges in the context of access to information, are reviewed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. The Human Rights Committee indicated in 2011 that States should make every effort to ensure easy, prompt, effective and practical access to government information of public interest through proactive legislative and policy measures.[[fn:16]] The 2030 Agenda also requires States to adopt laws and policies that guarantee public access to information.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011), paras. 18 and 19. See also General Assembly resolutions 74/5 and S-19/2."}, {"n": 17, "text": "Sustainable Development Goal 16.10 and indicator 16.10.2."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 135 States and numerous self-governing jurisdictions have adopted laws or national policies to ensure public access to information, covering over 90 per cent of the world’s population.[[fn:18]] However, nearly one third of the States Members of the United Nations still do not have any laws or regulation on access to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "See submission from UNESCO."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Furthermore, many of the laws which have been enacted do not meet international or regional standards.[[fn:19]] Key problems include overly broad or vaguely framed exemptions, gender discrimination, poor implementation of the law, lack of independent oversight, and inadequate or non-existent appeals.[[fn:20]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See https://www.rti-rating.org/ and A/HRC/49/38."}, {"n": 20, "text": "See submission from Article 19: International Centre against Censorship."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Vague, overly broad definitions of national security and official secrecy are used by Governments often to exclude large swathes of information from public scrutiny. The authorities of the United States of America have withheld information from affected communities about dangerous chemicals on military bases in the United States and around the world which could poison local water supplies.[[fn:21]] In Malaysia, a range of laws give the Government broad powers to classify information that it holds. Those provisions have been used to block publication of government reports even where there is a public interest in disclosure.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "1. Broad exemptions from disclosure"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "See AL USA 11/2018."}, {"n": 22, "text": "See OL MYS 6/2018."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. In Bangladesh, Rozina Islam, an investigative journalist, has been charged under the Official Secrets Act for seeking information from the Ministry of Health on the procurement of vaccines against COVID-19. Her case continues, even though the authorities admitted in court that after two years of investigation, they have not found any evidence to substantiate the charge.[[fn:23]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "1. Broad exemptions from disclosure"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See AL BGD 4/2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Access to information is excluded and requests are denied regularly, including, for instance, for public contracts or communications between officials, on the grounds that they would entail disclosure of personal information in violation of the right to privacy and obligations on data protection.[[fn:24]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "2. Privacy and data protection exceptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "United States of America, Department of Justice, “Summary of annual FOIA reports for fiscal year 2021” and India, Central Information Commission, Annual Report 2021–22."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. In Switzerland, article 47 of the Federal Act on Banks and Savings Banks criminalizes the unauthorized disclosure of bank account holders’ personal information by whistle-blowers or its publication by journalists, regardless of financial wrongdoing or criminal activity by the account holders.[[fn:25]] In India, the Digital Personal Data Protection Bill, 2022, has been criticized for limiting access to nearly all information that identifies any person, effectively removing the public interest exception for access to personal data in the Right to Information Act.[[fn:26]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "2. Privacy and data protection exceptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See OL CHE 1/2022."}, {"n": 26, "text": "Digital Personal Data Protection Bill, 2022, art. 30. See submission from International Solidarity for Academic Freedom in India."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "47", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. The Court of Justice of the European Union has ruled that public registers of corporate beneficial owners violate data protection rules.[[fn:27]] As a result, several member States of the European Union have closed their registers to the public, raising serious concern among journalists and activists who rely on such information to pursue illicit financial flows and other criminal activities, and risking “retrogression in protection of economic, social, cultural and environmental rights”.[[fn:28]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "2. Privacy and data protection exceptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "Court of Justice of the European Union, joined cases C-37/20 and C-601/20, judgment of 22 November 2022. See also submission from Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Andres Knobel, “Dear European Court of Justice: you were played”, Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project, 5 December 2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The relationship between data protection, the right to privacy and the right to information is complex and requires a careful balancing of interests. That in turn requires that laws and policies clearly define, on the one hand, the personal information that is protected legitimately under the right to privacy and, on the other, the public interest justifying disclosure. Under such a test, even if the information is determined to be personal and its release would infringe privacy, it may be disclosed if the public interest in release is more important than the privacy interest. That test is used in several countries, including Ireland, New Zealand, Slovenia and the United States of America.[[fn:29]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "2. Privacy and data protection exceptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "David Banisar, The Right to Information and Privacy: Balancing Rights and Managing Conflicts, World Bank Institute Governance Working Paper (Washington, D.C., The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank, 2011)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Access to information is key to women’s empowerment and agency, but structural inequalities and specific restrictions combine to undermine it.[[fn:30]] Significant barriers include low literacy levels resulting from unequal educational opportunities, a lack of access to the Internet, digital illiteracy, language problems, income poverty and time poverty, cultural and legal norms that deem it inappropriate for women to seek information from public authorities, and lack of responsive policies.[[fn:31]] For instance, Indigenous women in Chiapas, Mexico, were unable to access vital life-saving information during the COVID-19 pandemic because it was provided in the official State language, which they did not speak.[[fn:32]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Women/girls", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "3. Gender discrimination"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "See https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2023-03/CSW67_Agreed%20Conclusions_Advance%20Unedited%20Version_20%20March%202023.pdf."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See submission from Association for Progressive Communications."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See submission from Article 19: International Centre against Censorship."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Information of particular interest to women, for instance relating to gender-based violence, workplace inequities or sexual and reproductive health, is often unavailable, outdated or difficult to find. Some Governments and private actors restrict access to information on reproductive and sexual health and rights, including safe abortion, in contravention of international human rights law.[[fn:33]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "3. Gender discrimination"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See A/76/258."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Gender disaggregated data, including on Internet access and use by women, are lacking in many countries, despite the recognition of the need for such data by the Group of 20, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the Freedom Online Coalition.[[fn:34]] The discrimination in access to gender-relevant information and the gender data gap are inconsistent with the commitment of States to uphold gender equality under international law and under various goals and targets of the 2030 Agenda.[[fn:35]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "3. Gender discrimination"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "Beatrice Mariottini, “Report: the Italian presidency of the G20 and gender equality”, Associazone italiana donne per lo sviluppo (AIDOS), 2022, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Toolkit for Mainstreaming and Implementing Gender Equality (2018), and Freedom Online Coalition, “FOC Joint Statement on Digital Inclusion” (2020)."}, {"n": 35, "text": "Only 47 per cent of the data required to track progress on Sustainable Development Goal 5, on gender equality, are currently available. See United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women) “Turning promises into action: gender equality in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” (2108), available at https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/Library/Publications/2018/SDG-report-Gender-equality-in-the-2030-Agenda-for-Sustainable-Development-2018-en.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Poor record-keeping, inadequate capacity and resources, high fees, an absence of independent and effective oversight and non-existent, ineffective or expensive appeals mechanisms are major barriers to access of information.[[fn:36]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "4. Poor implementation of laws and policies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "UNESCO, “To recovery and beyond: 2021 UNESCO report on public access to information (SDG 16.10.2)” (Paris, 2022)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Information laws in China, Indonesia, Japan, Mongolia, Nepal and Thailand have no provision on records management, nor do they require guidelines to be developed.[[fn:37]] In many countries, public officials are not adequately trained and lack resources to respond to requests. In some cases, even where information is released proactively or in response to a request, it may be late and incomplete.[[fn:38]] Fees are sometimes too high, while appeals are slow and expensive. The lack of independence of oversight bodies is also a major problem. Data show a correlation between dedicated, independent oversight mechanisms and effective implementation and enforcement of the right to information laws.[[fn:39]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "4. Poor implementation of laws and policies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See submission from Article 19: International Centre against Censorship."}, {"n": 38, "text": "See submission from Malawi Human Rights Commission."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See submission from UNESCO."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. As most States do not comprehensively track requests and denials for information, there are inadequate data to measure progress on access to information at the national level. That also makes it difficult to assess progress globally on indicator 16.10.2.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "A. States’ obligation to disclose: achievements and challenges", "4. Poor implementation of laws and policies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "UNESCO, “To recovery and beyond”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights recognize the responsibility of companies to respect the right to information in relation to their operations and activities.[[fn:41]] The 2030 Agenda encourages companies to adopt sustainable practices, exercise due diligence and make information public. The reference in target 16.10 of the Sustainable Development Goals to “public access to information”, rather than access to public information, recognizes that information from other sources should also be accessible if it is of public interest.[[fn:42]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "B. Corporate responsibility to disclose"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See A/HRC/17/31."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See submission from International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Increasingly, regional instruments and national laws and regulations require private entities receiving public funds or performing public functions as a contractor or through public-private partnerships to provide information on their activities, either directly or through the body with which they have contracted.[[fn:43]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "B. Corporate responsibility to disclose"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information in Africa (2019), principles 26, 29 and 30, and Inter-American Model Law 2.0 on Access to Public Information (OEA/Ser.D/XIX.12 2020), art. 3."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. In line with the Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information in Africa, adopted by the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, a number of African States have incorporated the right to access information held by private entities in constitutional and legal provisions.[[fn:44]] In some countries, the corporate obligation to provide information has been applied to national entities that are regulated, receive foreign funding, or are private monopolies or privatized public services such as water and telecommunications. In Argentina, for instance, the Federal Administrative Court ruled that Telefónica de Argentina SA was required to release information on its telephone services.[[fn:45]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "B. Corporate responsibility to disclose"], "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, Rwanda and South Africa. See Access Info Europe and Centre for Law and Democracy, “Global right to information rating”, available at https://www.rti-rating.org/."}, {"n": 45, "text": "See submission from the Government of Argentina, and Cámara Contencioso Administrativo Federal, Asociación Civil por la Igualdad y la Justicia c/ Telefónica de Argentina SA s/Amparo Ley 16.986, Causa No. 91/2020, 2 December 2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Many Governments have placed obligations on companies to disclose information on environmental and health risks from pollution, hazardous substances and genetically modified organisms. In over 40 countries, public registers provide information about pollution and toxic chemicals released by factories for use by national and local groups that are monitoring the targets of the Sustainable Development Goals relating to health, water and the environment.[[fn:46]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "B. Corporate responsibility to disclose"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "See A/HRC/30/40."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. At the level of the European Union, there has been a gradual expansion of requirements from the Non-Financial Reporting Directive,[[fn:47]] which mandated disclosure only of environmental and other impacts, to the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive,[[fn:48]] which requires companies to disclose environmental, social and governance risks (and additional requirements are being contemplated).[[fn:49]] Some countries have gone further in requiring disclosures. In Norway, under the Transparency Act, individuals have the right to demand information from any large Norwegian company or international company regarding their human rights practices.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "B. Corporate responsibility to disclose"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "Directive 2014/95/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 October 2014."}, {"n": 48, "text": "Directive (EU) 2022/2464 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 December 2022."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Regulation (EU) 2019/2088 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 November 2019 on sustainability‐related disclosures in the financial services sector. Further expansion is being contemplated in a new directive, see https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52022PC0071."}, {"n": 50, "text": "LOV-2021-06-18-99, arts. 6 and 7."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Despite regional and national legislation extending the right to information to private entities, in practice, accessing information on corporate activities that have an impact on human rights is often problematic and restricted excessively on grounds of commercial confidentiality.[[fn:51]] Although publication of corporate information relating to environmental risks is increasing, in the absence of clear legal obligations, many companies publish only limited and often misleading information.[[fn:52]] Furthermore, the data that are published are often in formats that are hard to use or in highly technical databases that the average individual cannot navigate in a meaningful way.[[fn:53]] Ultimately, the lack of corporate transparency is a reflection of the weakness of State institutions to enforce the rules and hold powerful businesses to account.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "B. Corporate responsibility to disclose"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "A/HRC/30/40, para. 17. See also https://cer.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/ATI-Network-Shadow-Report-2018.pdf, chap. 3, and submission from Information and Data Protection Commissioner of Albania."}, {"n": 52, "text": "World Benchmarking Alliance, “Corporate human rights benchmark 2022: insights report” (2022)."}, {"n": 53, "text": "See submission from Open Contracting Partnership."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Although many countries have made access to the Internet a legal right,[[fn:54]] States spectacularly failed to reach the target set in the 2030 Agenda to “significantly increase access to information and communications technology and strive to provide universal and affordable access to the Internet in least developed countries by 2020”.[[fn:55]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "C. Digital divide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "See submission from Government of Argentina (Ley No. 27.078), and Constitution of Mexico, art. 6."}, {"n": 55, "text": "Target 9.c of the Sustainable Development Goals."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The digital divide, or the lack of universal and meaningful connectivity, is a major barrier to accessing information. An estimated 2.7 billion people worldwide are not online. In the least developed countries and landlocked developing countries, only 36 per cent of the population use the Internet.[[fn:56]] A majority among those who have access do not have meaningful connectivity.[[fn:57]] Practices like zero-rated services – where access is free but limited to certain sites or applications – limit the information that users can access, which can, for instance, hinder their ability to fact-check in the context of disinformation and misinformation.[[fn:58]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "C. Digital divide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "International Telecommunication Union, “Measuring digital development: facts and figures 2022” (2022)."}, {"n": 57, "text": "“‘Meaningful connectivity’ is a level of connectivity that allows users to have a safe, satisfying, enriching and productive online experience at an affordable cost.” See United Nations, Office of the Secretary-General’s Envoy on Digital Technology, “Achieving universal and meaningful digital connectivity: setting a baseline and targets for 2030”."}, {"n": 58, "text": "Aishwarya Shaji, “Is zero-rating a threat to human rights?”, Human Rights Pulse, 22 January 2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Internet access among women is significantly lower than among men, and within countries the gender digital divide cuts across other axes of discrimination. There are significant differences in mobile subscription, gender, age and urban/rural usage.[[fn:59]] Although information and communications technology can provide significant opportunities for persons with disabilities to engage and participate in public life,[[fn:60]] they face considerable barriers to participating and accessing information, online and offline.[[fn:61]] Internet access is significantly lower among persons with disabilities.[[fn:62]] The Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean (Escazu Agreement) explicitly prohibits the use of information and communications technology to provide access to information or in consultations in a discriminatory way (art. 4 (9)).", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "C. Digital divide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 59, "text": "See submission from Ombudsman of Ecuador."}, {"n": 60, "text": "A/HRC/31/62, paras. 75–77."}, {"n": 61, "text": "UNESCO Issue brief, “Access to information laws: a guarantee of inclusion and disability rights” (2021)."}, {"n": 62, "text": "United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Disability and Development Report: Realizing the Sustainable Development Goals by, for and with persons with disabilities, 2018 (New York, 2019)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "paragraph": "9", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. The main reason behind the unequal access to the Internet is affordability, with broadband access costing 30 times more in the least developed countries than in developed countries. That in turn is a result of the huge disparities in investment and misplaced priorities of companies and Governments which are seeking to further enhance the connectivity of those who are already well connected, while billions who could have been connected for a fraction of that sum are left without meaningful access to the Internet or no access at all. Investments in machine-to-machine connectivity also appear to be attracting more investment and attention than connecting the unconnected.[[fn:63]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "C. Digital divide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "Alison Gillwald, “South Africa is caught in the global hype of the fourth industrial revolution”, The Conversation, 20 August 2019."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. More attention needs to be given in unconnected communities to community networks established, owned and run by communities themselves. As local networks with local control and content, community networks hold great potential for empowering and enabling marginalized groups, yet they have received little support from Governments or the private sector to date.[[fn:64]] They can give voice to disadvantaged persons and communities, creating opportunities for their expression by cutting costs, enhancing reach and encouraging new forms of journalism.[[fn:65]] In some countries, community-based centres have been set up to facilitate access and promote digital skills in marginal urban and rural areas.[[fn:66]]", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "C. Digital divide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 64, "text": "See submission from Association for Progressive Communications."}, {"n": 65, "text": "See submission from Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe."}, {"n": 66, "text": "See submission from Ombudsman of Ecuador."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. There are positive examples of the use of right to information laws by individuals, communities and civil society groups to claim social and economic rights or address corruption and misuse of development funds. For instance, in Mexico, local groups are using the law to demand information on access to health services.[[fn:67]] In India, researchers have used geospatial, procurement and health data to review public health spending in the state of Assam and found that funds are not reaching the districts where mothers and babies are most in need.[[fn:68]] Civil society groups, on their own or partnering with government bodies, have used procurement and right to information laws to access information about contracts and expose corruption.[[fn:69]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "D. Good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "See submission from Article 19: International Centre against Censorship."}, {"n": 68, "text": "See submission from Open Contracting Partnership."}, {"n": 69, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Transparency in public procurement data systems has led to better spending decisions, benefiting many more citizens, including women and marginalized groups. For instance, the Mexican state of Nuevo Leon improved transparency and management of its infrastructure projects significantly with a digital platform powered by open data and supported by a multi-stakeholder coalition, including civil society organizations, to engage citizens and businesses.[[fn:70]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "D. Good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 70, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Some multi-stakeholder global initiatives have successfully enhanced engagement among States, companies and civil society. The Open Government Partnership provides a platform for States to work dynamically with civil society to facilitate reforms through research, learning, guidance and advocacy of good practices.[[fn:71]] The Open Contracting Partnership, a non-governmental organization, focuses on improving transparency in procurement processes.[[fn:72]] A growing number of countries have adopted the Open Contracting Data Standard, which facilitates open data standards with procurement to improve access and monitoring.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "D. Good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "Suzanne J. Piotrowski, Daniel Berliner and Alex Ingrams, The Power of Partnership in Open Government: Reconsidering Multistakeholder Governance Reform (Cambridge, Massachusetts, The MIT Press, 2022)."}, {"n": 72, "text": "See submission from Open Contracting Partnership."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Public access to information on beneficial ownership, in other words, who controls anonymous “shell” companies, is supported by a growing number of Governments, civil society and international organizations, as a good practice that helps to expose corruption and illicit funds.[[fn:73]] The Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, a multi-stakeholder initiative which sets standards on the information that countries and companies in extractives should release, requires companies engaged in extractive industries in member countries to make their beneficial ownership publicly available.[[fn:74]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "D. Good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “Beneficial ownership information: supporting fair taxation and financial integrity”, Policy Brief No. 148, January 2023."}, {"n": 74, "text": "See submission from Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, and https://eiti.org/eiti-requirements, requirement 2.5."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Over 100 countries are now committed to open public registers.[[fn:75]] Journalists and civil society groups frequently use public registers of beneficial owners to investigate corruption. In Nigeria, the Mining Cadastre Office uses public registers to identify owners of companies with mining contracts with previous unpaid debts and reject unsuitable applications. In Kenya, they are used to publicize the ownership of companies that receive government contracts.[[fn:76]] Transparency is also important in the return of stolen assets, where access to information and the involvement of civil society organizations and independent bodies not only help to advance investigations effectively but can ensure that the assets are returned to the victims or used for socially beneficial purposes.[[fn:77]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Access to information as a driver of sustainable development", "D. Good practices"], "footnotes": [{"n": 75, "text": "See https://www.openownership.org/en/map/."}, {"n": 76, "text": "Alanna Markle and Tymon Kiepe, “Who benefits? How company ownership data is used to detect and prevent corruption” Policy brief (EITI and Open Ownership, 2022)."}, {"n": 77, "text": "Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, “OHCHR recommended principles on human rights and asset recovery principles” (Geneva, 2022), principle 7."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Voice is a fundamental attribute of the right to freedom of expression and, combined with access to information, gives individuals and communities the agency to shape the conditions affecting their lives and to demand accountability. Voice in that context is the right to share information and ideas, express diverse views, participate in decision-making processes, criticize government and corporate policies and practices, and expose wrongdoing without fear. Voice, combined with access to information, reinforces transparency and accountability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. This notion of voice, well grounded in international human rights principles and standards, is acknowledged also in the 2030 Agenda. In its targets and indicators, Sustainable Development Goal 16 recognizes that a robust civil society, an open and thriving media space, and legal and institutional frameworks that foster participation and accountability in all areas of public life are essential features of peaceful, just and inclusive societies. Various other Sustainable Development Goals promote voice and participation at the individual, community, societal and global levels, encouraging inclusive approaches that enhance the participation of women, Indigenous Peoples and other disadvantaged populations.[[fn:78]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development"], "footnotes": [{"n": 78, "text": "See, e.g, target 5.5 (ensure women’s full participation in political, economic and public life), target 6.b (support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management), target 16.7 (ensure responsive, inclusive, participatory and representative decision-making at all levels) and target 16.8 (broaden and strengthen the participation of developing countries in the institutions of global governance)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The present section examines the ways in which voice is enabled but also unfortunately, only too frequently inhibited and, in some contexts, throttled.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Informed public participation, long recognized as an important facilitator of sustainable development, has been incorporated in international and regional agreements.[[fn:79]] International instruments also require States to ensure the “free, prior and informed consent”[[fn:80]] of Indigenous Peoples in development projects through processes that are “free from intimidation, coercion, manipulation and harassment”.[[fn:81]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "1. International commitments"], "footnotes": [{"n": 79, "text": "Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, 1998; Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean, 2018; Revised African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, 2003. See also Nay Pyi Taw Declaration on the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Community’s Post­2015 Vision."}, {"n": 80, "text": "United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, and Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169)."}, {"n": 81, "text": "A/HRC/39/62, para. 20 (a)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Those commitments have been bolstered by recent treaties that specifically seek to safeguard and promote civic engagement. A notable example is the Escazu Agreement, which not only strengthens open, inclusive public participation in all aspects of environmental decision-making, but also specifically protects human rights defenders working on environmental issues.[[fn:82]] The Aarhus Compliance Committee monitors compliance of the equivalent treaty in Europe, North America and Central Asia and has established a rapid response mechanism for the protection of environmental defenders.[[fn:83]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "1. International commitments"], "footnotes": [{"n": 82, "text": "Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean, art. 9."}, {"n": 83, "text": "Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus Convention)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Environmental impact assessments are recognized as a standard tool with which Governments can engage affected communities in large development projects.[[fn:84]] They are required under numerous international treaties, including the Convention on Biological Diversity[[fn:85]] and the Antarctic Treaty,[[fn:86]] and mandated by most international financial institutions as part of their lending requirements.[[fn:87]] In some circumstances, the International Court of Justice has found environmental impact assessments to be part of customary international law.[[fn:88]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "1. International commitments"], "footnotes": [{"n": 84, "text": "United Nations Environment Programme, Guidelines for Conducting Integrated Environmental Assessments (2019)."}, {"n": 85, "text": "Art. 14 (1), and the Akwé: Kon Voluntary Guidelines for the Conduct of Cultural, Environmental and Social Impact Assessments regarding Developments Proposed to Take Place on, or which are Likely to Impact On, Sacred Sites and On Lands and Waters Traditionally Occupied or Used by Indigenous and Local Communities."}, {"n": 86, "text": "Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, art. 8."}, {"n": 87, "text": "See International Finance Corporation Sustainability Framework, available at https://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/topics_ext_content/ifc_external_corporate_site/sustainability-at-ifc/policies-standards/ifcsustainabilityframework_2012#SustainabilityPolicy."}, {"n": 88, "text": "Pulp Mills on the River Uruguay (Argentina v. Uruguay), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2010, p. 14; Certain Activities Carried Out by Nicaragua in the Border Area (Costa Rica v. Nicaragua) and Construction of a Road in Costa Rica along the San Juan River (Nicaragua v. Costa Rica), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 2015, p. 665."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Multi-stakeholder initiatives have been established to bring together Governments, civil society organizations, private sector entities and other stakeholders to jointly develop plans relating to governance,[[fn:89]] extractive industries,[[fn:90]] infrastructure construction,[[fn:91]] fishing[[fn:92]] and medicines.[[fn:93]] The largest such initiative, mentioned earlier in the present report, is the Open Government Partnership, which includes 76 Governments and over 100 local members.[[fn:94]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "1. International commitments"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "Open Government Partnership."}, {"n": 90, "text": "Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative."}, {"n": 91, "text": "Infrastructure Transparency Initiative."}, {"n": 92, "text": "See submission from Fisheries Transparency Initiative."}, {"n": 93, "text": "Medicines Transparency Alliance."}, {"n": 94, "text": "See submission from the Open Government Partnership."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Both within multi-stakeholder arrangements and independently of them, civil society organizations and social movement networks, activists and human rights defenders, including environmental, land and Indigenous defenders, have proactively forged spaces in sustainable development processes at the global, regional, national and local levels. They contribute to identifying and shaping national development priorities, monitor development projects and programmes, promote the participation of communities in decision-making, critique development projects and suggest alternative approaches.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "2. Civil society"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. Their specific expertise, relationships of trust and connections with communities make them effective advocates, valuable partners and important interlocutors. For instance, in Uganda, civil society played a leading role in demanding greater transparency from the authorities about sovereign debt obligations and the performance of debt-funded projects.[[fn:95]] In Indonesia, Corruption Watch, a non-governmental organization, teamed up with the State Corruption Eradication Commission to improve online access to information on contracts and build the capacity of journalists, researchers and other non-governmental organizations to identify irregularities and report them to the authorities for action.[[fn:96]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "2. Civil society"], "footnotes": [{"n": 95, "text": "See joint submission from Unión Nacional de Instituciones para el Trabajo de Asociación Social (Bolivia (Plurinational State of)), Confederación Colombiana de ONG (Colombia), Actions pour la Lutte Contre les Injustices Sociales (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Alerte congolaise pour l’environnement et les droits de l’homme (Democratic Republic of the Congo), Consortium of Ethiopian Human Rights Organizations, Indonesian Center for Environmental Law, Alternativa y Capacidades, A.C. (Mexico), NGO Federation of Nepal, IBON International Foundation (Philippines), National Union of Peoples’ Lawyers (Philippines), Alliance for Finance Monitoring (Uganda) and International Center for Not-for-Profit Law (United States)."}, {"n": 96, "text": "See submission from Open Contracting Partnership."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. At the international level, civil society monitoring and reporting on the Sustainable Development Goals provides a much-needed counterpoint to that conducted by Governments and intergovernmental bodies. As an example, the annual Spotlight on Sustainable Development offers a global shadow report on the Goals, drawing attention not only to achievements, but also to structural and systemic barriers to progress and proposing solutions.[[fn:97]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "2. Civil society"], "footnotes": [{"n": 97, "text": "Global Civil Society Report on the 2030 Agenda and the SDGs, Spotlight on Sustainable Development 2021: Demanding justice beyond rhetoric – Time to overcome contradictions and hypocrisy in the COVID-19 crisis (2021)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Free, independent, diverse and pluralistic media fulfil the public’s right to know as well as the individual’s right to freedom of expression. Numerous General Assembly and Human Rights Council resolutions have acknowledged them as a key pillar of democracy and sustainable development.[[fn:98]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "3. Role of the media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 98, "text": "See, e.g., General Assembly resolutions 76/173, 74/157, 72/175, 70/162, 69/185 and 68/163; and Human Rights Council resolutions 45/18, 39/6, 33/2, 27/5 and 21/12."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. As early as 1952, the General Assembly noted in its resolution 633 (VII) that the development of information media contributes greatly to the economic and social progress of peoples. Public interest media is an educator and a messenger between Governments and communities. Community media that are locally based and managed are useful in reflecting the needs and issues of the community and are protected and facilitated by law in a number of countries.[[fn:99]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "3. Role of the media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 99, "text": "See submission from Government of Mexico."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Investigative journalism plays a vital watchdog role, exposing human rights violations, environmental harms, organized crime, corruption and illicit financial and arms flows, which directly and indirectly thwart progress towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Investigative reporting on the response to the COVID-19 pandemic revealed corruption and bribery worth billions of dollars around the world.[[fn:100]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "3. Role of the media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 100, "text": "See https://www.occrp.org/en/impact-to-date."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. In many cases, media reporting of wrongdoing has triggered public campaigns for accountability and induced policymakers to initiate reforms. An important case in point was the Panama Papers, in which over 100 media organizations worked together to analyse and reveal stories from leaked databases containing 11.5 million documents about stolen or untaxed assets and complex tax evasion and avoidance schemes. It also revealed how complex secret shell companies were involved in land-grabbing, displacement, deforestation and deadly haze fires.[[fn:101]] It resulted in resignations, investigations and prosecutions,[[fn:102]] as well as fines and payment of over one billion dollars in unpaid taxes.[[fn:103]] It led to new laws on ensuring the transparency of beneficial ownership of companies. Tax fairness gained greater prominence in public discussions and led to General Assembly resolution 77/244.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "3. Role of the media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "Jake Bernstein, Secrecy World: Inside the Panama Papers Investigation of Illicit Money Networks and the Global Elite (New York, Henry Holt, 2017), and Scilla Alecci, “Leaked records reveal offshore’s role in forest destruction”, International Consortium of Investigative Journalists, 8 November 2017."}, {"n": 102, "text": "Lucas Graves and Nabeelah Shabbir, “Gauging the global impacts of the ‘Panama Papers’ three years later”, Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism, March 2019."}, {"n": 103, "text": "Sean McGoey, “Panama Papers revenue recovery reaches $1.36 billion as investigations continue”, International Consortium of Investigative Journalists, 6 April 2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. Whistle-blowers have been a key source of information for journalists in numerous global investigations, but they remain unprotected and open to retaliation in the absence of adequate protection in most jurisdictions, despite the recommendations of regional bodies in Africa, the Americas and Europe calling on States to adopt comprehensive whistle-blower protection laws.[[fn:104]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "A. Enablers of voice", "3. Role of the media"], "footnotes": [{"n": 104, "text": "See A/70/361; Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information in Africa (2019), principle 35; Organization of American States, Model Law to Facilitate and Encourage the Reporting of Acts of Corruption and to Protect Whistleblowers and Witnesses (2013); Council of Europe, Recommendation CM/Rec(2014)7 of the Committee of Ministers to member States on the protection of whistleblowers; and European Union, Directive (EU) 2019/1937 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2019 on the protection of persons who report breaches of Union law."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The most alarming inhibitors of free expression and full participation are threats, attacks, arbitrary detention and killing of journalists and activists. The statistics are damning. According to UNESCO, 455 journalists died in the course of their work between 2016 and 2021 and hundreds more were imprisoned.[[fn:105]] In the Sustainable Development Goals Report 2022, it is noted that there were 320 fatal attacks against human rights defenders, journalists and trade unionists in 35 countries in 2021.[[fn:106]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "1. Attacks and reprisals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 105, "text": "UNESCO, “Journalism is a public good: world trends in freedom of expression and media development, global report 2021/2022” (Paris, 2021)."}, {"n": 106, "text": "See https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2022/The-Sustainable-Development-Goals-Report-2022.pdf, p. 58."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. More than half of the human rights activists killed globally in 2021 were land, environment or Indigenous rights defenders.[[fn:107]] Indigenous advocate Bruno Araújo Pereira and British journalist Dom Phillips were killed while documenting Indigenous rights defenders’ efforts to combat illegal fishing and mining in the Brazilian Amazon.[[fn:108]] In Honduras, Berta Cáceres, who led protests against the construction of a dam which threatened the traditional lands and water resources of the Lenca community, was killed in 2016. One person was convicted after five years, but those who masterminded her killing are still at large.[[fn:109]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "1. Attacks and reprisals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 107, "text": "See A/HRC/46/35."}, {"n": 108, "text": "OHCHR, “Briefing notes on Brazil: Missing journalist and Indigenous rights defender”, 10 June 2022."}, {"n": 109, "text": "See UA HND 2/2020, https://www.globalwitness.org/en/blog/remembering-berta-c%C3%A1ceres-seven-years-on-the-fight-for-justice-continues/ and https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2016/03/indigenous-peoples-un-expert-condemns-killing-rights-defender-berta-caceres."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Killing activists and journalists with impunity is the most egregious form of censorship.[[fn:110]] According to UNESCO, 9 out of 10 such cases go unpunished. Impunity thrives because of the powerful vested interests behind the crimes. It denies justice to the victims’ families, emboldens perpetrators and risks intimidating others into silence. The failure to address impunity is a violation of the international obligation of States to protect the right to life. It is also a failure to respect the political commitment States have made under the 2030 Agenda on the safety of journalists and activists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "1. Attacks and reprisals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 110, "text": "See, e.g., AL HTI 1/2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. An increasingly high proportion of women journalists, human rights defenders, political activists and feminist leaders are targeted with online attacks which are vicious, coordinated, highly sexualized and malicious.[[fn:111]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "1. Attacks and reprisals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "See A/76/258 and submissions from UNESCO and Association for Progressive Communications."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. There is also increased evidence of targeted digital surveillance of investigative journalists and human rights defenders by Governments, using highly sophisticated and intrusive spyware.[[fn:112]] Such surveillance has a chilling effect not only on journalists, but also on their sources.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "1. Attacks and reprisals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 112, "text": "A/HRC/50/29, paras. 43–50. See also submission from Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. In some contexts, the authorities have sought to publicly denounce, stigmatize and discredit journalists, civil society organizations and activists, endangering their security or exposing them to threats and violence by others. For instance, there are reports that activists in the Philippines who criticize the environmental and social costs of development projects or advocate for marginalized communities have been “red-tagged” as terrorists or Communist sympathizers, implying they are a threat to national security.[[fn:113]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "1. Attacks and reprisals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 113, "text": "See AL PHL 1/2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Counter-terrorism, national security, cybercrime and even income tax and financial crime laws are used frequently against human rights defenders, activists, whistle-blowers, journalists and civil society organizations to threaten, intimidate and punish them.[[fn:114]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "2. Weaponization of the law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 114, "text": "See AL USA 2/2020 and AL PHL 12/2018. See also submission from IBON International Foundation."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. Increasingly non-governmental organizations, community leaders, media organizations and journalists are being targeted by powerful business and political figures with frivolous or vexatious libel lawsuits that seek exorbitant damages. The point of those strategic lawsuits against public participation actions is not necessarily to win the lawsuit but to distract, intimidate, silence and exhaust the resources and morale of the person or organization being sued, and to intimidate others into silence.[[fn:115]] A survey of such cases found that over half of them targeted environmental-related advocacy, and another third or so were against human rights defenders and labour rights advocates.[[fn:116]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "2. Weaponization of the law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 115, "text": "See the submissions from the Government of Slovakia, Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project, UNESCO and Laura Knöpfel."}, {"n": 116, "text": "International Center for Not-for-Profit Law, Protecting Activists from Abusive Litigation: SLAPPs in the Global South and How to Respond (2020), and AL THA 3/2020."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. The European Court of Human Rights and the Constitutional Court of South Africa have found that such lawsuits violate the right to free expression.[[fn:117]] A number of Governments, including those of Australia, Canada and Lithuania, and some jurisdictions in the United States, have adopted legislation to deter such lawsuits. The European Union is considering a directive,[[fn:118]] and the Council of Europe is drafting a recommendation.[[fn:119]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "2. Weaponization of the law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 117, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, OOO Memo v. Russia, Application No. 2840/10, Judgment of 15 March 2022, and Constitutional Court of South Africa, Mineral Sands Resources Propriety Limited and Another v. Christine Reddell and Others, Case No. CCT 66/21, Judgment of 14 November 2022."}, {"n": 118, "text": "See https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52022PC0177."}, {"n": 119, "text": "See https://www.coe.int/en/web/freedom-expression/msi-slp."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. As in relation to access to information mentioned above, women’s participation in decision-making and development processes is constrained by multiple layers of discrimination, inequalities and inequities, ranging from discriminatory social, cultural and legal norms to poverty, low literacy, lack of language skills, Internet access or digital skills and high levels of sexual and gender-based violence online and offline.[[fn:120]] Gendered censorship is pervasive, with women’s voices being suppressed by State, non-State and private actors.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "3. Barriers to women’s effective participation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 120, "text": "See A/76/258 and submission from Article 19: International Centre against Censorship."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. Gender-based violence, hate speech and disinformation on digital platforms are a serious barrier to women’s ability to speak, engage and organize online.[[fn:121]] Those with intersecting marginalized identities, such as women who are of African descent, Indigenous women, Dalit women, migrant women, LBTQI+ women and women with disabilities, are at higher risk of being silenced or excluded online and offline.[[fn:122]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "3. Barriers to women’s effective participation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 121, "text": "See A/76/258."}, {"n": 122, "text": "See AL IND 1/2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. Women’s rights groups play an important role in the struggle for gender equality and in promoting the agency of women. They have come under pressure as civic space has shrunk in a number of countries, the most egregious example being Afghanistan, where women’s public presence has been totally erased by the Taliban.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "3. Barriers to women’s effective participation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. Many States have failed to respect the participatory rights of Indigenous people in international and regional instruments. Some countries refuse to even acknowledge that Indigenous communities exist, identifying them in contorted legalistic terms to avoid obligations.[[fn:123]] As noted above, those from Indigenous communities who seek to defend their land, environmental and other rights are at heightened risk of harassment, threats and violence.[[fn:124]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "4. Barriers to participation of Indigenous communities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 123, "text": "Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Right to Self-Determination of Indigenous and Tribal Peoples (2021), chap. 4, and International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, “Indigenous Peoples in Myanmar”, available at https://iwgia.org/en/myanmar."}, {"n": 124, "text": "See inputs received by the Expert Mechanism on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, available from https://www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/free-prior-and-informed-consent-report. See also https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2023/02/mexico-must-clarify-fate-and-whereabouts-human-rights-defenders-ricardo."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. Free, prior and informed consent is often an empty promise. Frequently, communities are not informed of the decisions and processes concerning the obligations for consultation and appeals. The processes often do not adequately engage with the communities and do not give them the full power to choose to engage or not or to refuse the development plans.[[fn:125]] As an example, in Brazil a bill which seeks to establish conditions for mineral, hydrocarbon and hydropower activities on Indigenous lands does not contemplate any means by which to include the views of the affected groups on the impacts suffered and remedies.[[fn:126]] Furthermore, only 24 countries have ratified the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169) of the International Labour Organization.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "4. Barriers to participation of Indigenous communities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 125, "text": "See AL THA 4/2021, AL DNK 2/2021, AL NAM 2/2021 and AL CAN 2/2022."}, {"n": 126, "text": "See OL BRA 4/2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. Environmental impact assessments are often ineffective tools of engagement for Indigenous communities as they tend to be highly technical documents which are not understandable and in many cases, not available or accessible in local languages, and do not adequately allow the affected communities to shape the projects.[[fn:127]] Civil society groups claim that development finance institutions, which fund many major projects in developing countries, often take a top-down approach to project development, engaging only superficially with communities in violation of their own environmental and social impact assessment policies.[[fn:128]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "4. Barriers to participation of Indigenous communities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 127, "text": "See, e.g., Synda Obaji, “Environmental impact assessments don’t work in Nigeria: here’s why”, The Conversation, 1 September 2022, and Joseph Foti and Lalanath de Silva, “A seat at the table: including the poor in decisions for development and environment”, World Resources Institute (2010)."}, {"n": 128, "text": "See submissions from Defenders in Development, The Sentry and Green Advocates International."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. Despite the commitment in the 2030 Agenda to make the Internet universally available and accessible, Governments have imposed Internet shutdowns or slowdowns or blocked mobile communications for intermittent or prolonged periods in 74 countries in the past five years.[[fn:129]] The disruptions have occurred most frequently in the context of conflicts, armed operations, political unrest, large-scale protests, elections and examinations.[[fn:130]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "5. Internet shutdowns and disruptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 129, "text": "See www.accessnow.org/keepiton/#coalition."}, {"n": 130, "text": "See A/HRC/50/55. See also AL IRN 37/2021."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Not only do Internet disruptions undermine freedom of expression and peaceful assembly, they also have severe negative consequences on economic and social rights, disrupting education, health and other essential online services, as well as financial, commercial and industrial activities and people’s everyday lives. For instance, in the state of Tigray in Ethiopia, the shutdown of the Internet for over two years disrupted communications, essential social services and humanitarian assistance, causing great distress to the civilian population.[[fn:131]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "5. Internet shutdowns and disruptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 131, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/2021/11/tigray-conflict-report-calls-accountability-violations-and-abuses-all-parties."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Intentional disruption of access to the Internet by States constitutes disproportionate interference with the right to freedom of expression.[[fn:132]] Blanket Internet shutdowns and generic blocking and filtering of services have been considered by the United Nations human rights mechanisms and regional courts to be in violation of international human rights law.[[fn:133]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "5. Internet shutdowns and disruptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 132, "text": "Special Rapporteur’s joint declarations with regional mechanisms on freedom of expression made in 2011, 2015, 2016, 2018, 2019 and 2020, available from Resources | OHCHR, and A/HRC/RES/32/13, para. 10."}, {"n": 133, "text": "See Human Rights Council resolutions 44/20 and 38/7, and Community Court of Justice of the Economic Community of West African States, SERAP v. Federal Republic of Nigeria, Application No. ECW/CCJ/APP/23;24;26&29/21, Judgment of 14 July 2022. See also the Special Rapporteur’s amicus curiae brief, available from https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-freedom-of-opinion-and-expression/comments-legislation-and-policy."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. The dangers of disinformation and misinformation to human rights and recommendations to address the problems have been covered extensively by the Special Rapporteur elsewhere.[[fn:134]] Given their serious impact on sustainable development, she would like to recall four points.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "6. Disinformation and misinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 134, "text": "See A/HRC/47/25. Disinformation refers to the intentional spreading of false or misleading information, whereas misinformation means false information spread without awareness or malicious intent. See also A/77/288."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. Firstly, misinformation and disinformation online are a serious threat, not only to freedom of expression, but also to life, health, gender equality, effective response to climate change, humanitarian crises and a host of other issues relevant to sustainable development. By eroding people’s trust in institutions and scientific knowledge, they not only aggravate the problems, but also undermine policy responses and contribute to polarizing the political environment.[[fn:135]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "6. Disinformation and misinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 135, "text": "See, e.g., Dietram A. Scheufele and Nicole M. Krause. “Science audiences, misinformation, and fake news”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 116, No. 16 (16 April 2019)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. Online disinformation often targets scientists, journalists and human rights defenders, as well as vulnerable groups, including ethnic minorities and gender identity-based groups, and can contribute to violence, hatred and discrimination. Gendered disinformation seeks to discredit women, intimidate them from speaking freely online and prevent others from accessing the ideas and opinions they might otherwise share.[[fn:136]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "6. Disinformation and misinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 136, "text": "See A/76/258. See also submission from Association for Progressive Communications."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. Secondly, when there is an information gap, people tend to turn to social networks, where disinformation and misinformation thrive. A good way to counter that is for Governments to enhance their own transparency and proactively inform citizens.[[fn:137]] Proactive disclosure tends to support policy implementation and promotes government accountability, helping to build public trust. States have an obligation to issue truthful, verifiable, factual information. They should not make, sponsor, encourage or disseminate statements that they know or should reasonably know to be false.[[fn:138]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "6. Disinformation and misinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 137, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2020/03/covid-19-governments-must-promote-and-protect-access-and-free-flow."}, {"n": 138, "text": "See A/HRC/47/25."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. Thirdly, using “fake news” laws to restrict media freedom or criminalize online speech on grounds of falsity is not only contrary to international human rights standards, but is also counterproductive in combating disinformation and misinformation. Stopping the free flow of diverse sources of news creates more distrust, aggravating rather than addressing the problem. Free, independent, diverse and pluralistic media allows fact-checking of disinformation and misinformation and builds public trust.[[fn:139]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "6. Disinformation and misinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 139, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. Fourthly, social media regulation should respect the international standards on freedom of expression. It should encourage companies to adopt policies in line with international human rights standards, undertake human rights due diligence and ensure transparency and adequate remedies for users. The roles of algorithms, ranking systems and platform design in amplifying disinformation are relevant concerns. Regulation can help by requiring companies to undertake risk assessments, audits and other forms of systemic transparency. Laws on data collection and data processing practices in line with international standards and good practice are vital to addressing concerns about the business model of platforms.[[fn:140]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "6. Disinformation and misinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 140, "text": "See A/77/288."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. Finally, media, information and digital literacy empowers people and builds their resilience against disinformation and misinformation.[[fn:141]] Several countries have launched programmes and campaigns that indicate emerging good practices.[[fn:142]] They deserve higher priority in national development plans.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["III. Voice as participation in sustainable development", "B. Inhibitors of voice", "6. Disinformation and misinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 141, "text": "General Assembly resolution 75/267."}, {"n": 142, "text": "See https://en.unesco.org/creativity/policy-monitoring-platform/media-literacy-finland-national."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. These are difficult times for freedom of expression. The implications for sustainable development are significant and must be addressed urgently.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. Almost 97 per cent of the world’s population today is estimated to be living in countries where civic space is either closed, severely repressed, obstructed or has narrowed.[[fn:143]] Shrinking civic space means that marginalized communities, such as Indigenous Peoples, women living in poverty and individuals with disabilities, are less able to organize and voice their concerns. Those whom the 2030 Agenda pledged not to leave behind remain the least heard in decision-making, the most excluded from access to information, and the most exposed to harassment, discrimination and violence.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Women/girls", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Conclusions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 143, "text": "CIVICUS Monitor, People Power Under Attack 2022."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. Those who dare to speak truth to power or shine the light on human rights violations, corruption and illegal exploitation of natural resources are censored, intimidated, prosecuted, attacked or killed with impunity. While some important strides have been made to assert the right to information, a culture of official secrecy, serious gaps in the scope and implementation of laws, lack of capacity and resources and uneven Internet access have overshadowed the gains.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. States which most vocally profess their support for the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development are also among those which most virulently suppress the rights to information, expression and participation that the 2030 Agenda promotes. Where civil society and the media have been restricted, access to information is denied regularly, dissent has been suppressed and opacity, impunity and authoritarianism have eroded public trust and democratic accountability, efforts to reduce inequalities, promote inclusion and pursue sustainability are more challenging.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. Conversely, good practices and good results on sustainable development are emerging where multi-stakeholder partnerships have built transparency and trust, the media have been able to operate with freedom and independence to expose corruption and wrongdoing, and civil society has enjoyed the space to participate in development processes and contribute with ideas, opinions and information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. The halfway point of the 2030 Agenda, combined with the challenges of post-pandemic recovery and global crises, has created a new imperative to invest in sustainable development. The Special Rapporteur believes that one of the most impactful “investments” that States can make is to uphold freedom of expression as a catalyst as well as an integral component of sustainable development. States must respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of expression holistically. Both information and voice must be guaranteed with equal rigour if sustainable development processes are to be effective, inclusive, participatory and accountable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. States should protect those on the frontlines of the struggle for sustainable development, including disadvantaged communities, human rights defenders (including environmental, land and Indigenous rights defenders) and journalists.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. States must investigate and prosecute effectively, impartially, independently and promptly all those who threaten, harass, attack or kill human rights defenders, journalists and activists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. Specific laws and policies should be adopted to prevent, prohibit, investigate and prosecute gender-based online attacks against women human rights defenders, community leaders and journalists. Those laws should be grounded in international human rights law, including provisions on gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. States should put in place effective and adequately resourced prevention and protection measures for human rights defenders and journalists, designed in consultation with them and assessed regularly for their efficacy and further improvements.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. States should affirm publicly the critical and legitimate role of human rights defenders and journalists in advancing sustainable development and should send an unequivocal message that attacks against them will not be tolerated or left unpunished.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. The Human Rights Council should signal an end to impunity by establishing an independent task force to support international and national efforts to prevent, investigate and prosecute attacks against human rights defenders and journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. States should strengthen freedom of expression and the right to information online and offline, in line with international human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. States should repeal laws on criminal defamation, seditious libel and those prohibiting criticism of State policies, institutions and officials online or offline, and refrain from applying counter-terrorism and security legislation to legitimate activities of civil society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. States should enact laws and policies to discourage and deter frivolous and vexatious legal actions (strategic lawsuits against public participation) against journalists and human rights defenders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. States should enact or revise existing national laws on access to information to ensure they are in line with international human rights standards, including maximum disclosure in the public interest. Exemptions from disclosure should be provided clearly in the law, be narrowly defined and be necessary and proportionate to protect the rights or reputation of others, national security, public order or public health and morals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. Independent oversight bodies should be set up to monitor the effective application of the right to information law. Clear guidelines should be developed on record management, and robust monitoring mechanisms should be put in place with input from civil society to track, assess and publish data on implementation to ensure comprehensive reporting on progress made with regard to indicator 16.10.2 of the Sustainable Development Goals at the national and international levels.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0108", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. States should refrain from imposing Internet shutdowns and slowdowns or disruptions to mobile connections. Such actions are an inherently disproportionate response and violate the right to information and freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0109", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. States’ responses to disinformation and misinformation should be grounded in human rights. They should encourage the free flow of diverse sources of information, increase their own transparency, proactively disclose official data online and offline, affirm media freedom, independence, pluralism and diversity and ensure the safety of journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0110", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. Multi-stakeholder initiatives have helped to enhance transparency, accountability, collaboration and participation of civil society on various issues of sustainable development. More efforts should be made by States and other participants to expand existing initiatives and develop new ones. Transparent, rigorous assessments should be carried out with input from all stakeholders to draw lessons and improve results.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0111", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. States should proactively publish comprehensive information on their activities, including budgets, expenditures, revenues and public procurement, as timely, open data in ways that enable citizens to freely access, use and participate in decision-making and ensure that public funds are spent equitably, sustainably and responsibly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0112", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. States should establish publicly accessible registers of the beneficial owners of companies, trusts, foundations and other relevant legal vehicles. The European Union should examine how best its member States can do that in the light of the recent decision of the Court of Justice of the European Union to ensure the privacy of beneficial owners.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0113", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. Prior to investing in projects, development finance institutions should conduct comprehensive human rights due diligence, and country- and project-specific risk assessments in relation to freedom of expression. They should ensure adequate conditions for safe participation of civil society, meaningful processes for free, prior and informed consent, full transparency and accountability at all stages, and mitigation of risks of reprisals.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0114", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. Companies should fully disclose information relating to their potential impacts on human rights, in accordance with principle 17 of the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, and on sustainability issues. They should also assess and report on their compliance with obligations to consult and engage with local communities and civil society, in line with international human rights standards. States should extend the duty of maximum disclosure to private entities when contracting on sustainable development related issues.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0115", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "115. States, international organizations and companies should work with civil society to support the empowerment, agency and meaningful participation of women, Indigenous Peoples and other disadvantaged groups in development processes.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0116", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "116. States, the private sector and the international community, including relevant United Nations entities, should redouble their efforts to ensure universal and meaningful connectivity to an open, free, interoperable and secure Internet for all before 2030. Particular attention should be given to closing the gender digital divide.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0117", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "117. Information, media and digital literacy should be included in all national school curricula and adult learning programmes and monitored as an indicator of the education and equality goals of the 2030 Agenda. Particular effort should be made to ensure that those programmes address the needs of women, girls and disadvantaged groups.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0118", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "118. Specific gender-sensitive measures should be introduced to ensure the participation of women, including measures to address their lack of language, literacy and digital skills, practical constraints of income-poverty or time-poverty, legal identity, cultural constraints and gender discrimination. Those measures should take into account the intersectional nature of gender discrimination and prioritize those who are furthest behind.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0119", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "119. States, in collaboration with international organizations and civil society, should create an enabling environment for community-based networks and Internet infrastructure, including through funding and regulations consistent with international human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0120", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "120. States should ensure that their national development plans include clear, concrete actions to strengthen freedom of expression, including access to information online and offline and participation of civil society, women and disadvantaged communities in development processes.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0121", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 121, "n": 121, "text": "121. States should strengthen efforts to gather and analyse quality gender disaggregated data to enable tracking of progress and timely and systematic reporting on the freedom of expression-related indicators of the 2030 Agenda, including indicators 16.10.1 and 16.10.2.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0122", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 122, "n": 122, "text": "122. The universal periodic review and the voluntary national review processes should focus particular attention on States’ compliance with freedom of expression in the context of sustainable development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-25-0123", "docId": "a-hrc-53-25", "idx": 123, "n": 123, "text": "123. The international community should reaffirm and reflect the integral role of information, expression and participation in advancing the Sustainable Development Goals in the political declaration of the 2023 high-level summit.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2023, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is the fourth presented by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Mr. Abid Hussain (India), since the mandate was established by the Commission on Human Rights in resolution 1993/45 of 5 March 1993. In pursuance of Commission resolutions 1993/45, 1994/33 and 1995/40, all adopted without a vote, the Special Rapporteur submitted reports to the Commission at its fiftieth (E/CN.4/1994/33), fifty-first (E/CN.4/1995/32) and fifty-second (E/CN.4/1996/39 and Add.1-2) sessions respectively. The present report is submitted pursuant to resolution 1996/53, in which the Commission decided to renew the mandate of the Special Rapporteur for a period of three years.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "As the Special Rapporteur has indicated in his previous reports (E/CN.4/1996/39, para. 4; E/CN.4/1995/32, para. 12; and E/CN.4/1994/33, para. 40) he would like to touch on certain basic questions concerning the right to freedom of opinion and expression as guiding parameters for his work.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "The large number of cases brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur during the past four years strongly indicates that Governments continue to place undue emphasis on permissible restrictions relating to the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur thus believes that several comments made in the second report (E/CN.4/1995/32) bear repeating. In particular, the Special Rapporteur wishes to re-emphasize the importance of the principle of proportionality in the process of establishing whether any limitation of the right to freedom of expression is legitimate. The scope of protection offered by article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights is comprehensive and, in general, protection of the freedom is the rule and restriction of such freedom should be the exception to the rule. However, the Special Rapporteur would also like to note that the Covenant must be read as a whole, and that in particular, article 19 must be read in conjunction with article 20. While article 19 (3) refers to “restrictions” only, there are wider purposes for interference with the right to freedom of expression, notably article 20 of the Covenant, which obligates States to interfere with the right to freedom of expression as well as with other rights enumerated in the Covenant by prohibiting propaganda for war and the advocacy of racial hatred.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "As regards restrictions on the right to freedom of expression imposed on the basis of protecting public order, the danger exists, in light of the vagueness inherent in the notion of public order, that the application of such restrictions undermines the right to freedom of expression itself. A general tendency to perpetuate or concentrate excessive and arbitrary authority in the hands of the executive branch vitiates an environment congenial to freedom of opinion and expression and restricts the independence of the judiciary and the legal system. The Special Rapporteur thus wishes to reiterate his view that to safeguard the protection of the freedom of expression as a general rule, as opposed to an exception, any appeal on the part of the State to restrict the exercise of the freedom of expression on the grounds of protecting public order should, in the eyes of the Special Rapporteur, meet strict requirements indicating its necessity. As a general rule, States should not invoke any custom, tradition or religious considerations to avoid meeting their obligations with respect to the safeguarding of the right to freedom of expression (see E/CN.4/1995/32, para. 53). The Special Rapporteur reiterates the importance of reflecting a judicious balance between the need and the right of States to protect legitimate national interests and the obligation of States to protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur urges all Governments to review not only laws specifically intended to protect national security but also ordinary criminal laws which may be used to infringe the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Furthermore, because of the fundamental social and political role of information, the right of everyone to receive information and ideas must be adequately protected. This right is not simply a converse of the right to impart information but is a separate freedom on its own. And, since the right to seek and receive information is one of the most essential elements of freedom of expression, the protection of this right must also be the rule and restrictions may only be the exception. The Special Rapporteur, therefore, underscores once again that the tendency of many Governments to withhold information from the people at large through such measures as censorship is to be strongly checked (see E/CN.4/1995/32, para. 35).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "It shall also be recalled that the final report of the Special Rapporteurs of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities on the right to freedom of opinion and expression emphasized the fact that “information is a tradeable commodity available to the haves and inaccessible to the have-nots and a component of economic, political or military power”. The Special Rapporteurs also observed that “the precise meaning of the term [information] should be defined concretely in the context of the relevant circumstances, proceeding from the principle that all types of information should be available to everyone” (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1992/9, para. 13). In light of the importance and complexity of the right to seek and receive information, the Special Rapporteur intends to develop further his commentary in his next report to the Commission.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has received a large number of detailed allegations concerning cases of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in 1996. As was the case in previous years, the Special Rapporteur was only able to transmit a limited number of requests for information to some Governments, owing to the insufficient financial and human resources to fulfil his mandate in the manner he would deem appropriate. The concerns raised in previous reports to the Commission concerning the circumstances of work (E/CN.4/1995/32, paras. 92-95 and E/CN.4/1996/39, para. 6) remain equally valid in relation to the year under scrutiny in this report.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "It should thus be emphasized that the presentation of the situations in the following section in no way reflects the extent of the problem worldwide. As indicated in paragraph 7 of last year's report, the Special Rapporteur has received information concerning a much larger number of countries. However, if there is to be any meaningful exchange of views with Governments, the mandate requires a substantially increased pool of resources. Within the current constraints, the Special Rapporteur has engaged in a dialogue with Governments only with regard to a limited number of cases, which are discussed in section III.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "An important element in carrying out his mandate is, in the view of the Special Rapporteur, the carrying out of country visits. From 20 to 25 September 1996, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Turkey, on which he has submitted a separate report to the Commission at its current session (E/CN.4/1997/31/Add.1).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "To date, the Special Rapporteur is in possession of standing invitations for a visit by the Governments of Belarus, Poland and the Sudan. Moreover, during 1996, the Special Rapporteur requested an invitation to visit Albania, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Egypt, Indonesia, Peru and Viet Nam to examine in situ the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate his interest in conducting visits to those countries.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Finally, in the view of the Special Rapporteur, the exchange of views among all relevant actors concerned with issues relating to freedom of opinion and expression is indispensable. To this end, on 31 May 1996, the London-based organization ARTICLE 19, the International Centre Against Censorship, hosted, for the second time, a day-long consultation with the Special Rapporteur. During this consultation, he was able to exchange views on issues relating to his mandate with a number of non-governmental organizations active in the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and with representatives of the Government of Canada and the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, as well as of the Council of Europe. The Special Rapporteur would like to express his gratitude to the host organization and all participants for the valuable contribution they have made to his work.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "In this context, the contribution of a number of non-governmental organizations regarding several aspects of relevance to the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression bears repeating. The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the organizations concerned for their continuous support of the mandate and encourages them to continue to provide materials useful in carrying out the mandate, and ultimately in furthering the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The Special Rapporteur in this section reports on the communications sent out and replies received during 1996. This, however, in no way implies that all cases of earlier communications have been closed to the satisfaction of the Special Rapporteur, in particular because in a significant number of cases he has not received replies from the Governments concerned. He refers to section III of last year’s report to the Commission (E/CN.4/1996/39) for a list of cases previously examined.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to draw attention to one important positive development, namely the increased cooperation of Governments in providing information on the cases in question. While in previous years a large number of Governments abstained from responding, this year, all the Governments have responded except one, from whom a reply is expected soon. While this is, of course, no reflection on the state of respect for freedom of opinion and expression in those countries or the world, it is a positive sign in that it opens the possibility for the Special Rapporteur to engage in a dialogue aimed at addressing the concerns as regards respect for freedom of opinion and expression. The opportunity for dialogue is even greater during country missions, and the Special Rapporteur wishes to express his hope for the continued cooperation of Governments in this regard.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "By letters dated 30 June 1994 and 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted to the Government information he had received concerning Mr. Alexander Frangaj, editor-in-chief of Koha Jone, and its reporter Mr. Martin Leka. According to this information, they were arrested for publishing State secrets, the latter also accused of “slander and publication of fallacious data”, though they had not been charged nor formally released. Allegedly, these accusations had stemmed from an article by Mr. Leka about a document signed by the Minister of Defence.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Albania"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "By letter dated 21 March 1996 the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Martin Leka and Mr. Alexander Frangaj had been accused of rendering public State secrets in complicity, according to articles 122 and 13 of the Penal Code of Albania. The former was sentenced to one year and six months' imprisonment, the latter was acquitted in accordance with article 71, paragraph 7, of the Penal Procedure Code of Albania. The Court of Appeal had partially reversed the judgement of the District Court, thus declaring Mr. Leka guilty and, in compliance with article 20 of Press Act No. 7756 of 11 November 1993, sentenced him to 10 months in prison. Further, having been previously declared guilty of slander, the prison sentence for Mr. Leka was extended to one year and six months. The Court of Appeal had also reversed the judgement of the District Court in the case of Mr. Frangaj, declaring him guilty, and, in compliance with article 20 of Press Act No. 7756 of 11 November 1993, he was sentenced to five months' imprisonment. It is further noted that before the case was to be judged in the Court of Cassation, both journalists were pardoned by the President of the Republic of Albania on 3 May 1994, in accordance with article 28, paragraph 14, of Act No. 7491, dated 29 April 1991. Moreover, the Court of Cassation acquitted the two journalists on 31 May 1994.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Albania"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "122", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "71", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "28", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Albanian Government for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. He intends to seek further clarifications regarding the grounds for the initial convictions and the application of national legislation in relation to the State’s obligation to protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Albania"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "By letter of 14 December 1995, the Special Rapporteur conveyed his concern to the Government on the fate of Mr. Hacene Ouandjeli, editor of the Algiers-based daily Liberté, and Mr. Abrous Outoudert, director of Liberté. According to information received by the Special Rapporteur both men were arrested at Algiers airport on 10 December 1995. Reportedly, the Ministry of the Interior ordered the closure of the daily, on the same day, for the duration of 15 days.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "By letter dated 8 April 1996, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Ouandjeli was never prosecuted, but rather that it was Mr. Abrous Outoudert and Mr. Samir Kneyaze, editor and a journalist with the daily Liberté, respectively, who were prosecuted. An application for the opening of examination proceedings against them on charges of defamation and using insulting language, under articles 144, 296 and 298 of the Penal Code and article 45 of the Information Code, was submitted by the Government Procurator to the Court of Algiers. Mr. Outoudert and Mr. Kneyaze, who were placed in custody on 10 and 11 December 1995, respectively, were tried and released on 13 December 1995, the former receiving a suspended sentence of four months’ imprisonment, the latter a suspended sentence of two months. An appeal was lodged by all parties with the Court of Algiers.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "144", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "296", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "298", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "45", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "In its reply, the Government also noted that freedom of conscience, opinion, expression, association and assembly are guaranteed in articles 35 and 39 of the Algerian Constitution. Concerning the legal framework for the exercise of the right to information, article 3 of the law of 13 April 1990 was cited. The reply further recalled that the democratization introduced by the Constitution of 1989 had brought a prodigious expansion in the information media, with the launching of some 100 new publications in the public and private sectors as well as the political press. The new publications in the private sector are managed by journalists’ cooperatives which avail themselves of the facilities of the fund for the promotion of the written and audiovisual media. The daily circulation of all titles is estimated at almost 1.5 million. Finally, the response noted that since the advent of political pluralism and the increase in the number of organs of the press, journalists first formed a professional action movement (Algerian Journalists’ Movement) and then the Algerian Journalists’ Association (AJA), in order to better defend their corporate interests. In its dealings with the authorities, it focuses on promoting the status of journalists and improving the conditions in which they work.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "35", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "39", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "By letter dated 18 December 1995, the Special Rapporteur conveyed his concern to the Government regarding the deliberate killing of 26 press professionals between 6 January and 5 December 1995, the names of whom were noted in paragraph 19 of the report of the Special Rapporteur to the Commission in 1996 (E/CN.4/1996/39).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "By letter dated 8 April 1996, the Government conveyed to the Special Rapporteur that the violent acts carried out against journalists over the past few years were attributable exclusively to armed terrorist groups, who attacked indiscriminately all members of social and professional categories, as well as members of the security forces and the civilian section of the population. The commitment of journalists to democracy, and their denunciation and condemnation of the murders, attacks and other acts of sabotage on which they reported regularly, made them a prime target of armed groups. Since 1993, 78 journalists and other media personnel had been victims of particularly brutal terrorist attacks. As part of the Algerian Government’s efforts to end the terrorist violence, a number of measures had been taken to improve the security of journalists, including better protection for journalists at their place of work, a firm commitment by the State to provide organs of the press whose offices had been car-bombed with new and more suitable premises, as well as the institution of legal proceedings against the perpetrators. Furthermore, it provided a list of specific measures taken by the Government to illustrate the Government’s determination to subject those guilty of terrorist crimes to the full rigour of the law, including action taken with regard to the murders of Djamel Bouhidel, photographer for the newspaper Nouveau TELL; Farah Ziane, journalist for Révolution Africaine; Said Mekbel, journalist and editor of the daily Le Matin; Ahmed Said, an ENTV journalist, and Yasser Laakal, journalist for Quotidien El-Massa; Salah Aliou, journalist for El Houria; and Djamel Eddine Zaiter, journalist for El-djoumhouria.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Algeria for the replies provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. However, the Special Rapporteur regrets that no information was provided regarding the alleged closure of the daily Liberté for the duration of 15 days. The Special Rapporteur remains concerned about the climate of violence in the country, and urges the Government to take all measures to ensure that the human rights of all its citizens are respected.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "By letter of 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government alleging intimidation and the use of violence against Mr. Reinaldo Cabral, a correspondent in the State of Alagoas for the Rio de Janeiro-based newspaper Jornal do Brazil.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Brazil"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "By letter dated 5 June 1996, the Government conveyed to the Special Rapporteur information on this case, transmitted by the Office of the Attorney-General of the Republic. It was noted that a police inquiry (No. 21/93) was opened in the police station of the second district of Maceió to investigate the allegations raised by Mr. Cabral, namely that on 8 April 1993, two armed men approached his residence and, while being pursued by two watchmen, set fire to his car and fled. The incident was described by Mr. Cabral as an attempt on his life, motivated by the articles he had written denouncing police violence. The Government noted that the inquiry could not confirm the allegations and concluded that there had been an “attempt to provoke material damages by means of fire”. The perpetrators of the incident could not be identified. It is further noted that after communicating the results of the inquiry to Mr. Cabral, the Public Prosecutor, Mr. Luiz Barbosa Carnaúba, placed himself at the disposal of Mr. Cabral for further discussion, without receiving a reply until 21 February 1994.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Brazil"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Brazil for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Brazil"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "By letter dated 14 December 1995, in a joint initiative with the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the fate of Mr. Wei Jingsheng and expressed, inter alia, his concern that the detention and trial of Mr. Wei were solely motivated by his non-violent pro-democracy activities, and therefore appeared to be in violation of his right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "By letter dated 18 March 1996, the Government of China informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Wei Jingsheng, while on parole and deprived of his political rights, had once again carried out activities aimed at overthrowing the Government and the judicial organs of China had therefore brought him to trial and rendered judgement according to the law, with the proceedings of the case in full conformity with the provisions of the law of China and the relevant international human rights instruments. It was further noted that, according to relevant stipulations of the laws of China, the judicial organs of China enjoy independent jurisdiction over criminal cases and that no other administrative organs, social organizations or individuals had the right to excise such powers, nor were they able to intervene in the proceedings of the judiciary.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "As regards the facts and proceedings of Wei's case involving conspiracy to overthrow the Government, it was noted that on 13 December 1995, Beijing No. 1 Intermediate People's Court held an open hearing of Wei's case and, in accordance with the law, sentenced him at first instance to a 14-year fixed-term imprisonment and a 3-year deprivation of political rights for the crime of conspiring to overthrow the Government. Further, his previous sentence of 15 years of fixed-term imprisonment and 3 years of deprivation of political rights by an intermediate people's court of Beijing in 1979 for providing important military information to foreigners and for openly carrying out activities endangering national security aimed at overthrowing State power was recalled. Wei Jingsheng had been released on parole in accordance with the law on 14 September 1993. While on parole and deprived of his political rights, Wei Jingsheng once again conspired to overthrow the Government. With the approval of a branch of the People's Procuratorate of Beijing, the Public Security Bureau of Beijing arrested Wei on 21 November 1995 in accordance with the law.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "The Government further noted that after conclusion of the investigation by the Public Security Bureau of Beijing, the case had been transferred to the branch of the People's Procuratorate of Beijing on 23 November for review. The branch of the People's Procuratorate of Beijing initiated a public prosecution on 1 December at Beijing No. 1 Intermediate People's Court in accordance with article 100 of the Criminal Procedure Law of China. The bill of prosecution accused Wei of plotting to overthrow the Government, stating that his acts constituted a crime and that he should be punished accordingly.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "100", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Government further informed the Special Rapporteur that, during the proceedings, it was identified that Wei had masterminded and drawn up a plan of action for the purpose of overthrowing the Government, which included the establishment of fund-raising institutions in order to “finance the democratic activities”, the purchase of several newspapers, setting up companies to organize cultural activities, organization of some non-governmental activities, such as expositions of paintings, cultural performances and producing publications with a view to establishing footholds to facilitate liaison and propaganda as part of a scheme to “set off storms big enough to shake the current Government”. It was further noted that Wei had actively organized the implementation of the above plan, had purchased a 12.5 per cent share of a certain city credit cooperative, and handed over to persons responsible for a certain organization overseas “A Brief Introduction to Projects in Need of Help” written by himself. In addition, he had asked for tens of thousands of United States dollars as operational funds. He had also registered a “Shengtao Corporation Ltd.” in Hong Kong in the name of his younger brother and organized painting expositions in Beijing in the Corporation's name, in an attempt to form “forces and organizations” favourable to himself. Wei had also been very active in making secret contacts with certain elements within and outside China, studying the so-called tactics of struggle, plotting to unite the forces of the illegal organizations, “building up capacity and waiting for the opportunities”, making organizational preparations for the purpose of overthrowing the Government. Furthermore, Wei had published a number of articles outside China through illegal channels, in which he attacked the Chinese Government, slandered the socialist system and the leadership of the Communist Party of China, as well as advocated the independence of Tibet. In this way, he had colluded with outside forces and organizations hostile to China in instigating the overthrow of the people's democratic dictatorship and the socialist system, and the splitting up of China.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The Court had written evidence shown, such as “A Brief Introduction of Projects in Need of Help” written by Wei himself and numerous articles and drafts, and had testimonies of witnesses read. It was further noted that Wei had openly admitted the facts identified by the Court. The Court made the above judgement in accordance with articles 90, 92, 52 and 60 of the Criminal Law of China. Wei had entrusted his relatives to engage a counsel who defended his case in court. Wei had also made full defence for himself in court, and made a final statement after conclusion of the court debate. Several dozen people, including journalists and Wei's relatives, were present at the hearing.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "90", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "92", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "52", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "60", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "Regarding the concern that the detention and trial of Mr. Wei Jingsheng were solely motivated by his “non-violent pro-democracy activities”, it was noted that China is a country in which the rule of law prevails. The Constitution of China and the relevant laws guarantee and protect the rights and fundamental freedoms of its citizens, while stipulating that the citizens must fulfil the obligations under the Constitution and the relevant laws. One can be brought to justice only when he or she has violated the law. The Government expressed the view that having different political views without committing acts endangering national security does not constitute a crime. The crime of endangering national security, for example, consists not only of the goal of overthrowing the Government and the socialist system, but also of the commission of acts to overthrow the Government, or undermine the territorial integrity of China, or acts of armed mass rebellion, or acts of espionage, this category of crime being punishable in other countries as well. It was further noted that facts and evidence have proved that Wei engaged in acts of plotting to overthrow the Government while on parole and deprived of political rights and, therefore, it was only just and reasonable that the Chinese judiciary should give its judgement in the case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "Finally, it was noted that the Criminal Procedure Law of China stipulates that the accused has the right to defence and, in addition to exercising the right to defend himself in the proceedings, the accused may also engage lawyers, close relatives or other citizens to defend him. After the court has decided to open the court session and adjudicate the case, a copy of the bill of prosecution should be delivered to the accused no later than seven days before the opening of the court session, so that the accused will be informed of the charges and causes, and will have sufficient time to prepare his defence and contact his counsels. The Government noted that during the proceedings, the Court followed strictly the Constitution and the Criminal Procedure Law of China, and provided effective guarantee for the right to defence of the accused. The Government further expressed the view that Beijing No. 1 Intermediate People's Court had conducted a fair trial of Wei's case of plotting to overthrow the Government. The whole of the proceedings was not only totally in conformity with the provisions of China's laws, but also in line with the relevant provisions governing fair trials set forth in international instruments, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights to which China has not yet acceded.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The Special Rapporteur expresses his appreciation to the Government of China for the reply offered in the case of Mr. Wei Jingsheng. He is pleased to note the position of the Government that “having different political views without committing acts endangering national security does not constitute a crime”. He also welcomes the Government’s reference to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, in spite of China not being a party to that Covenant. In the opinion of the Special Rapporteur, the Government has thereby indicated its commitment to the promotion and protection of universal human rights as laid down in the framework of the United Nations. The reply by the Government of China and the cooperative spirit which underlies it permits the Special Rapporteur to deepen his understanding of the position of the Government as regards the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression under international and national law. The Special Rapporteur would appreciate continuing his cooperation with the Government of China, in particular with regard to a number of specific questions concerning the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression through national legislation. These questions relate to the plan of action referred to, the publications by which the defendant Mr. Wei was considered to have colluded with outside forces and organizations hostile to China and the criteria used in the application of the articles 90, 92, 52 and 60 of the Criminal Law.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "90", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'criteria used in the application of the articles 90, 92, 52 and 60 of the Criminal Law' — articles of China's domestic Criminal Law, not ICCPR (which has 53 articles total). Regex misfired. (Upgrading confidence from Sonnet's 'low' to 'high' — the text is unambiguous about domestic law attribution.)"}, {"article": "92", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same as art.90: article of China's domestic Criminal Law, not a UN treaty article."}, {"article": "52", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same as above: article of China's Criminal Law cited in domestic criminal proceedings context."}, {"article": "60", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same as above: article of China's Criminal Law. Regex misidentified as ICCPR; number exceeds ICCPR's article range."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "By letter dated 21 November 1996, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government regarding the fate of Mr. Liu Xiaobo, former lecturer in Chinese literature and resident of Beijing. According to information received by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Liu was arrested at his home in Beijing on 8 October 1996 and summarily sentenced by an administrative court on 9 October 1996 to serve three years of forced labour in a camp at an undisclosed location.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "By letter dated 30 December 1996, the Government of China conveyed to the Special Rapporteur that investigations showed that Liu was arrested in 1989 in accordance with the law for engaging in subversive activities against the Government in violation of the Criminal Code. He was subsequently treated with leniency and released without being subjected to disciplinary action. However, Liu was unrepentant and continued to collude with anti-Chinese organizations from abroad to foment trouble and disrupt the social order. After issuing many warnings without effect, a public security organ finally had to invoke the Decision on Re-education through Labour and, with the explicit approval of the Bejing Municipal Labour Rehabilitation Board, decided to commit Liu to three years of education through labour. The reply further pointed out that labour rehabilitation is a compulsory re-education and reform measure taken to prevent and reduce crime and safeguard the social order, and by its nature is not a criminal punishment, and that it applies to urban persons whose habitual anti-social behaviour is incorrigible by other means or whose delinquency, though not so serious as to be deemed criminal, yet clearly transgresses against statutory interdictions and therefore qualified for rehabilitation. An individual undergoing labour rehabilitation, while having to submit to administrative measures imposed by statutes that restrict some of his rights, nevertheless keeps the many rights of a citizen endowed by the Constitution and the laws, including his right to freedom of expression and of opinion.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of China for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. The Special Rapporteur intends to seek further clarifications on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "By letter dated 26 February 1996, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government concerning the fate of Mrs. María de los Angeles Gutierrez Gonzales, administrator in the service of the Bureau of Independent Press of Cuba (BPIC). Reportedly, Mrs. de los Angeles Gutierrez Gonzales had been detained for four hours on 4 October 1995, had been summoned by the State Police of Havana on 12 October 1995, and had been arrested at home and subsequently detained for one hour on 16 October 1995.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cuba"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "By letter dated 26 February 1996, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government with regard to the fate of Mr. Héctor Peraza Linares, journalist with the Havana Press Agency. According to information received, Mr. Peraza was detained in Quiricam, Havana province, on 3 October 1995 and was summoned by the police of Quiricam on 10 October 1995.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cuba"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "By letter dated 26 February 1996, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government concerning the fate of Mr. Olance Noguera, journalist with the (BPIC). Reportedly, Mr. Noguera was held by officers of the State Police in Cienfuegos province on 7 October 1995 and was given to understand that a news story written by him for the Havana Press Agency had angered local authorities and that he would have to find a job with a State entity within 30 days or face charges of “vagrancy”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cuba"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "By letter dated 26 February 1996, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government with regard to the fate of Mrs. Roxana Valdivia, journalist with the BPIC. According to information received, Mrs. Valdivia had been detained for 28 hours, together with her husband, in Malecon prison, Havana, as of 3 October 1995, and was subsequently forced to board a train to Ciego de Avila, Cienfuegos province, and threatened with punitive measures if she were to contact the director of her Havana-based news agency, Mr. Yndamiro Restano.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cuba"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been received by him from the Government on the cases in question and hopes that the Government would soon respond.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cuba"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "By letter dated 26 April 1996, the Special Rapporteur, in a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture, conveyed information to the Government concerning a confrontation between university students protesting a rise in transport fares and military personnel which had reportedly broken out in Ujung Pandang, Sulawesi, on 22 April 1996. On 24 April 1996, 212 students and members of the security forces were reportedly wounded, after the military entered 4 university campuses to quell the protests. In the course of the operations, some soldiers, after initially firing warning shots, allegedly fired directly at demonstrators, as a result of which some students received bullet wounds. At least three students, Andi Sultan, Syaiful and Adnan, died, allegedly after being subjected to severe beatings. A number of students were reportedly taken into custody, up to eight of whom were said to remain detained at the District Military Command in Ujung Pandang (26 April 1996).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Indonesia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "By letter dated 10 May 1996, the Government replied that the demonstrations on 22 and 23 April 1996 held by university students against the hike in public transportation fares was peaceful and turned violent only on 24 April, when a number of students continued the demonstration and clashed with the Association of Public Transportation Drivers, who also held a demonstration aimed at demanding higher fares. The confrontation resulted in a number of injuries, material destruction and attacks on innocent bystanders resulting in injuries, by uncontrolled and aggressive students. In the attempt to restore public order, the security officers used rubber, not live bullets, tear-gas, water canons and other standard instruments. In the ensuing chaos, many students fled or jumped into the Pampang River. Three students, whose correct names are Szaiful Bya, Andi Sultan Iskandar and Tasrif were found drowned in the Pampang River the next day. It was further noted that on 25 April, the students gathered to roam around the city of Ujung Pandang, causing material damage, and not for the purpose of exercising the right to freedom of opinion. An investigation team was appointed on 27 April by the VII Military District Command to examine the manner in which security officers had dealt with the student demonstrators. The National Commission on Human Rights too sent an investigation team to Ujung Pandang and stated to the press in its preliminary conclusion that it regretted the incident and that there were leads pointing to possible irresponsible conduct by the security officers. The investigation team of the VII Military District Command concluded that a number of security officers were suspected of having acted irresponsibly. Twelve officers, including three senior officers and nine privates, were arrested and will face military court in May 1996. In this connection, the Chief of Staff for Political Affairs of the Armed Forces had publicly stated that the incident was indeed regrettable and should never have happened. Finally, it was noted that since the incident, peaceful demonstrations to show solidarity with the students of Ujung Pandang have taken place in many universities in Indonesia. These have neither been banned, interfered with nor repressed by the Government in any way.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Indonesia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Indonesia for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. He would appreciate being informed of the motivation for any action taken against the security officers suspected of having acted irresponsibly.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Indonesia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "By letter dated 29 May 1996, the Special Rapporteur conveyed his deep concern to the Government regarding the alleged arrest of 190 people, possibly more, during the preceding few days by the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). According to information received, these people had been detained by the SLORC. Allegedly, the arrests had been accompanied by threats in the State-controlled media against Aung San Suu Kyi and other pro-democracy leaders, raising serious fears for their safety. The Special Rapporteur also noted that new measures were being applied to deny the international press access to Myanmar.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Myanmar"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "On 11 June 1996, the Government replied by sending materials concerning the developments in question, namely a report on “Events Pertaining to the Recent Activities of the National League for Democracy (NLD)”; a news cutting regarding the press conference held by the SLORC Information Committee in Yangon on 23 May 1996; and a news cutting entitled “NLD delegates return home”, which appeared in the newspaper The New Light of Myanmar on 1 June 1996. The letter noted its hope that the information would provide the Special Rapporteur with a true picture of the situation prevailing in Myanmar, the endeavours of the Government to maintain peace and tranquillity in the country, and the status of the persons called in for questioning.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Myanmar"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The material provided indicates that, as the conference and mass rally planned by the NLD for 26 to 29 May 1996 was considered to possibly cause disruption of peace and stability in the country, some delegates were called in for questioning as a preventive measure. It noted the efforts of the NLD to achieve a transfer of power since the 1990 elections, including the writing of a temporary State constitution, and how some members went underground to organize an armed movement to form a parallel government, which forced the Government of the Union of Myanmar to adopt these preventive measures, including the restriction and detention of persons. In 1992, most of the detainees were released according to SLORC Declaration No. 11/92. It further noted that after the lifting of restrictions placed on Daw Aung San Suu Kyi, the position and attitude of the NLD changed, internal as well as foreign pressure ultimately having led to the departure of NLD delegates from the National Convention. Moreover, it is noted that Daw Aung San Suu Kyi and her associates have been stepping up criticism of the current government while issuing frequent press releases to that effect. Finally, due to the threat of a breakdown of peace and stability in the country and in order to prevent a repeat of the unrest of 1988, the Government of Myanmar had to undertake what it perceived to be the best possible action for all the people of the country.\nThose who had been called in for questioning were not arrested or put into prisons or detention centres, but rather lodged at guest houses and given good treatment. The authorities sent home the delegates called in for questioning on 31 May 1996.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Myanmar"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Myanmar for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. Nevertheless, the Special Rapporteur refers to the report submitted by the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Myanmar to the General Assembly, in which he had found the right to freedom of expression in Myanmar to be seriously restricted by several combined laws which are difficult to reconcile with article 19 of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights, also affecting freedom of information through any of the media (see A/51/466, paras. 83-94). In particular, the Special Rapporteur notes that the Government of Myanmar refers to a threat of a breakdown of peace and stability as a reason to undertake measures for all the people of the country. In this respect, the Special Rapporteur shall seek further information on the nature of that threat to peace and security and on the proportionality of the measures taken by the Government to counter such threats.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Myanmar"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "By letter dated 13 November 1996, the Special Rapporteur conveyed his concern to the Government regarding the fate of Dr. Jayalath Jayawardena, member of Parliament in Colombo. According to information received, the Criminal Investigation Department(CID) is currently investigating a charge, based on an undated and anonymous petition, that Dr. Jayawardena has drawn a salary from the State for three years without performing his duties as medical officer to the former heads of State (President R. Premadasa and President D.B. Wijetunge). Allegedly, the CID had failed to respect its obligation to inform the Honourable Speaker of Parliament prior to its initiation of investigations and its obligation to conduct it in a confidential manner. It is furthermore alleged that the charge related to a possible lapse on the part of the administration for which a civil case would have been more appropriate. Lastly, it is alleged that the CID had instructed the Attorney-General to charge Dr. Jayawardena for cheating in respect of public property, which is a non-bailable offence and would imply that Dr. Jayawardena could be kept in custody indefinitely and would thereby effectively be prevented from assuming his important responsibilities as a member of Parliament.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "By letter dated 8 January 1997, the Government of Sri Lanka offered a number of observations on the case in question. Clarifying the circumstances of service as a government doctor, the letter noted that the investigations into the case had commenced on 24 January 1996 for the sole purpose of gathering evidence, oral and documentary, to assist the Attorney-General to make a well-considered decision as to whether or not an indictment should be forwarded to the High Court. While the investigation by the CID started on the basis of certain allegations made in an anonymous petition, it is noted that the subsequent investigation was fair, impartial and comprehensive. After giving fullest consideration to all material placed before the Attorney-General by the CID as well as Dr. Jayawardena, two indictments were forwarded to the High Court of Colombo on 7 October 1996. The offences with which Dr. Jayawardena is charged are:\n(a) The offence of criminal misappropriation in respect of salaries drawn by the suspect in the years 1991 and 1992 without reporting for work;\n(b) The offence of cheating the Director-General Hospital (the chief authority regarding the payment of salaries) by not informing him that he was not reporting for work and thereby representing that he was reporting for work and intentionally inducing the said Director to omit to do what he would have otherwise done had he known the truth, namely to stop the suspect’s salary, the said omission causing a loss to the Government by the suspect drawing the salaries for the months specified in the charges.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "The charges are framed under sections 5 (1) and 5 (2) of the Offences against Public Property Act No. 12 of 1982, as the salaries originated from government funds. The Government noted that there has, therefore, been no violation of the freedom from arbitrary arrest and wrongful confinement. Dr. Jayarwardena has also been given every opportunity of presenting his case to the prosecuting authorities prior to the filing of the indictments and would be entitled to all the judicial safeguards provided to an accused person under the law of the land.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Sri Lanka for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate, and hopes to receive, in due course, relevant information so as to keep himself apprised of the developments of the case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "By letter of 10 November 1995, the Special Rapporteur conveyed his concern to the Government and requested information on the fate of Mrs. Alya Chérif-Chamari, lawyer, and Mr. Khemaïs Chamari, co-founder of the Arab Institute of Human Rights and the Mediterranean Centre for Human Rights. According to information received by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. and Mrs. Chamari were barred from leaving the country and their passports confiscated on Sunday, 29 October 1995, on or around 1600 hours, when they were on the verge of leaving Tunisia by air to attend a colloquium of the Mediterranean Centre for Human Rights in Valetta, Malta.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "By letter dated 21 June 1996, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the decision to prevent Mr. Khemaïs Chamari and his wife, Mrs. Alya Chérif-Chamari, from leaving the country on 29 October 1995 to attend a symposium in Malta was in no way connected with their right to freedom of opinion and expression, a right which is guaranteed by the Tunisian Constitution. Rather, this measure was taken after Mr. Chamari was apprehended by the Tunis-Carthage airport police, flagrante delicto, in possession of suspicious documents while preparing to leave the country with his wife. In view of Mr. Chamari’s status as a Deputy, the Government Attorney ordered the airport police to photocopy the documents, regardless of the flagrante delicto, which would otherwise have been sufficient grounds for taking him into custody. It is also noted that on 27 October 1995, the examining magistrate requested the Minister of Justice to waive the parliamentary immunity of Mr. Chamari, who was involved in a case currently before the courts, so that he could be brought to trial for the acts of which he was accused and which constitute a crime under Tunisian law, namely, divulging confidential information obtained during the investigation of matters constituting a risk to national security, in accordance with article 60 bis of the Penal Code. As regards his wife, it is noted that she was prevented from leaving the country in accordance with an order issued by the examining magistrate on 28 October 1995, prohibiting her from travelling abroad.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "60", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Tunisia for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate, and hopes to receive, in due course, relevant information so as to keep himself apprised of the developments of the case and to assess the motivation of the airport police and Government Attorney involved in the case as well as the proportionality of the measures taken against Mr. Chamari.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "From 20-25 September 1996, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Turkey, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session (E/CN.4/1997/31/Add.1).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "The Special Rapporteur welcomes the increased cooperation on the part of Governments, which is reflected both in the fact that almost all the current requests for information received replies, as well as in the numbers of invitations received. He once again urges all Governments to cooperate with the mandate as well as to scrutinize their national legal systems with a view to bringing them into line with international standards governing the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Overall, the Special Rapporteur considers the rising trend in favour of defending the right to freedom of expression and the increasing acknowledgment of the right of people to express their opinion as very encouraging. This development is equally reflected in the fact that supporters of the opposite view are increasingly on the defensive rather than the offensive. On the whole, it is to be considered a positive development that a number of countries have set up national commissions for human rights, to which independent persons, such as judges, are appointed.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Nevertheless, the Special Rapporteur is compelled to conclude, as in previous years, that violations of the right to freedom of expression occur in all parts of the world. In a number of instances, these violations concur with violations of other human rights, including those related to enforced or involuntary disappearances, extrajudicial, arbitrary or summary executions, torture, religious intolerance and arbitrary detention as well as with the problem of terrorism.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has in the past noted that the right to freedom of expression can be described as an essential test right, the enjoyment of which illustrates the degree of enjoyment of all human rights enshrined in the United Nations Bill of Human Rights, and that respect for this right reflects a country’s standard of fair play, justice and integrity. He would like to emphasize here that actions by Governments to ban certain publications, disband independent organizations and unions, rescind or deny licences to independent media are also frequently good indicators of situations in which the protection of all human rights will, in future, be weakened. It is the view of the Special Rapporteur that the international community and specifically the Commission on Human Rights should give the required attention to reports of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In light of the value of such information for indicating a deterioration of the human rights and political situation in a specific country or region as a whole, this information should be increasingly integrated into early warning systems aimed at preventing human rights disasters and mass exoduses. The Special Rapporteur urges the Commission to consider how the information available through this mechanism can be integrated more effectively in an early warning system. Violations of human rights and humanitarian crises often cause and almost always result from violent conflicts.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "The Special Rapporteur remains deeply concerned with the cases brought to his attention in relation to the right to freedom of opinion and expression of women. While often silenced by formal as well as informal cultural pressure, women are emerging as a new factor in the public arena. The Special Rapporteur considers it of utmost importance that this trend be encouraged, and calls upon States to actively support women attempting to make their voices heard and to ensure that they are welcomed as active participants in public life. He further urges Governments to ensure that effective measures are taken to eliminate the atmosphere of fear that often prevents many women from communicating freely on their own behalf or on behalf of other women who have been victims of violence either in domestic or community settings or as a result of internal or trans-border conflict.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "The Special Rapporteur expresses his sincere desire to work more closely with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women not only to identify the obstacles to freedom of opinion and expression for women but to establish a framework through which violations of women’s right to freedom of expression can be systematically documented and addressed. The Special Rapporteur encourages organizations and associations working on women’s human rights to establish closer links with non-governmental organizations for which freedom of opinion and expression is the primary mandate and to coordinate their communications with both mechanisms. The Special Rapporteur also requests that the Commission on Human Rights consider how this initiative can best be implemented within the United Nations system and to provide any additional resources that may be required.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would also like to highlight the important link between the ability of people, both individually and collectively, to participate in the public life of their communities and country, and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression, including freedom to seek and receive information, an issue which has been noted in various studies conducted by the United Nations and in the reports of the Working Group on the Right to Development. The Special Rapporteur has followed with considerable interest the debates on the right to development as well as the discussions of this right by the Commission’s Working Group on the Right to Development. The consensus achieved by States at the fifty-second session of the Commission on Human Rights indicated the international community’s willingness to address the very important questions attached to this right in a systematic and cooperative manner, including the fundamental issue of popular participation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "As discussions on the implementation of the right to development continue, laws and governmental practices which violate the rights to freedom of opinion, expression, information, dissent, association and participation must be taken into account. The reports of several of the mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights clearly indicate that violations of these rights are among the most common and occur in virtually every country in the world. The rights are violated in many ways including through the suppression of political expression, denial of access to family planning information for women, discrimination against women through personal status laws, prohibitions on the establishment of independent trade unions, prohibitions or restrictions on the operations of independent media, restrictions on access to information on subjects of public interest and importance, suppression of the use of minority languages, infringements on the right to freedom of conscience, belief and religion, restrictions on the right to peaceful assembly, repression of the right to peaceful dissent, and resort to arguments based on a supposed need to maintain discipline or political order and stability, or respond to the imperative of modernization and nation-building.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that future discussions on implementation of the right to development take full account of the need for all Governments to fully promote and protect the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to seek and receive information. These rights are fundamental prerequisites to ensure public participation, without which the realization of the right to development, as a prerogative of people rather than States, will remain in jeopardy.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1997-31-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-1997-31", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1997, "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "Finally, the Special Rapporteur, regrettably, deems it necessary to repeat his deep concern as regards the imbalance between the requirements set out by the mandate and the inadequate financial and human resources put at his disposal at the Centre for Human Rights. Given the fairly recent establishment of the mandate, there is a pressing need for compiling and analysing information on a global level so as to identify trends and obstacles with regard to the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression at the country-specific, regional, as well as the global level. Such analysis would provide the necessary basis for the development of strategies, in cooperation with the Governments concerned, to ensure the full realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Furthermore, in order to engage in a productive and useful dialogue with Governments, there is a need for both responding effectively to the numerous allegations received, as well as engaging in follow-up activities both as regards cases transmitted as well as countries visited. While the Special Rapporteur has sought to remedy this inadequacy by prioritizing among the tasks listed and by seeking outside support, notably with NGOs, the current means available to the Special Rapporteur in no way suffice to meet the demands, and it will remain difficult to comply with the whole range of activities called for by the Commission in previous resolutions until this issue has been addressed.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "At its forty-ninth session, the Commission on Human Rights decided, by its resolution 1993/45 of 5 March 1993, to appoint, for a period of three years, a special rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "On 2 April 1993, the Chairman of the Commission appointed Mr. Abid Hussain (India) Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur, in pursuance of Commission resolutions 1993/45, 1994/33 and 1995/40, submitted reports to the Commission at its fiftieth (E/CN.4/1994/33) and fifty-first (E/CN.4/1995/32) sessions.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "In conformity with paragraph 18 of Commission resolution 1993/45, the Special Rapporteur hereby presents his third report to the Commission.\nI.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "As the Special Rapporteur has indicated in his previous reports (E/CN.4/1995/32, para. 12, and E/CN.4/1994/33, para. 40) he would like to touch on certain basic questions concerning the right to freedom of opinion and expression in order to facilitate his work. The Special Rapporteur notes in this context that a number of non-governmental organizations have provided him with useful materials on the consequences for the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression of applying national legislation aimed at protecting national security. In particular, the London-based organization Article 19, the International Centre against Censorship submitted the Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, drafted by a group of experts in international law, national security and human rights. The Special Rapporteur finds that these Principles offer useful guidance in assessing the often competing claims of freedom of expression and national security. The Principles are contained in the annex to the present report.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["TERMS OF REFERENCE"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The Special Rapporteur refers to resolution 1995/4, entitled \"Prevention of incitement to hatred and genocide, particularly by the media\", adopted on 18 August 1995 by the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, and has followed with great interest the Sub-Commission’s consideration of the pernicious role of the so-called \"hate media\".\nII.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["TERMS OF REFERENCE"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "During 1995, the Special Rapporteur received a substantially larger number of detailed allegations concerning cases of violation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression than during the previous year. As was the case for his 1995 report to the Commission (E/CN.4/1995/32), the Special Rapporteur was only able to transmit a limited number of requests for information to some Governments, owing to insufficient financial and human resources. In this connection, he recalls the concerns raised in paragraphs 92 to 95 of his previous report. Those concerns are also valid with regard to the year under review in the present report. In view of the substantially larger number of allegations he has received, however, this difficult situation has become more acute.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "As a consequence of the difficult circumstances surrounding his work, the incorrect impression might be given that the Special Rapporteur is concerned with only a limited number of countries, namely those included in chapter III below, whereas in reality he is concerned with a much larger number of countries. Furthermore, this impression risks being reinforced in that the report reflects communications with Governments that are engaged in a dialogue with the Special Rapporteur for the purpose of seeking to promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In order to put his concerns in proper perspective, the Special Rapporteur in this report presents the Commission with the list of the States concerning which he has received information relating to events that took place in 1995. The preliminary consideration of these events has raised questions on the adequacy of the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression as guaranteed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The following 103 States and territories are concerned: Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Angola, Argentina, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Belarus, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Brazil, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon, Canada, Central African Republic, Chad, Chile, China, Colombia, Congo, Costa Rica, Côte d’Ivoire, Croatia, Cuba, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Ethiopia, France, Gambia, Greece, Guatemala, Guinea, Haiti, India, Indonesia, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kazakstan, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lebanon, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Lithuania, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Republic of Moldova, Morocco, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Niger, Nigeria, Palestine, Paraguay, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, Republic of Korea, Romania, Russian Federation, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Somalia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Swaziland, Syrian Arab Republic, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Togo, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uganda, Ukraine, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United States of America, Uruguay, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Viet Nam, Yugoslavia, Zaire, Zambia and Zimbabwe.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "From 10 to 13 December 1994, in Aman, the Special Rapporteur attended the Round Table Conference on Strengthening the Universality of Human Rights, which he addressed. It was organized by the International Movement for the Promotion and Realization of Human Rights and Responsibilities, Rights and Humanity, under the patronage of His Royal Highness El Hassan bin Talal, Crown Prince of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. He is grateful for having been provided with the opportunity to attend this meeting, which served to build greater understanding of Western and Islamic views on human rights and strengthen global commitment to universal human rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "On 22 May 1995, in London, the Special Rapporteur met with representatives of a number of non-governmental organizations active in the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and a representative of the Communication Division of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization for the purpose of exchanging views on work related to his mandate. The Special Rapporteur would like to express his gratitude to the host organization, Article 19, the International Centre against Censorship, and all participants for their valuable contribution to his work.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["ACTIVITIES"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "The Special Rapporteur attended the Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing from 4 to 15 September 1995. At a symposium on the issue of violence against women, the Special Rapporteur emphasized the importance of protecting the right to freedom of opinion and expression of women as a prerequisite for the effective protection of women against violence. He was impressed with the overwhelming feeling at the World Conference with regard to the need to promote the human rights of women and its concern at the plight of such prominent women as Daw Aung San Suu Kyi and Ms. Taslima Nasreen.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "From 15 to 17 June 1995, in Stockholm, the Special Rapporteur attended a conference on relations between European and Islamic cultures and the position of Muslims in Europe. Taking advantage of this opportunity, the Special Rapporteur, on 19 June 1995, met with representatives of a number of non-governmental organizations based in Sweden working on freedom of expression and with members of the academic community concerned with human rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "From 25 to 30 June 1995, the Special Rapporteur visited the Republic of Korea. He has submitted a separate report on that visit (E/CN.4/1996/Add.1).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "From 6 to 10 January 1996, the Special Rapporteur visited the Islamic Republic of Iran. He has submitted a separate report to the Commission on that visit (E/CN.4/1996/Add.2).\nIII.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The Special Rapporteur in this section reports on communications concerning certain countries. For the list of all the countries and territories on which he has received information that raises questions as to the adequacy of protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, he refers to paragraph 7 above.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "By a letter dated 30 June 1994 and two further letters dated 29 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted to the Government information he had received which led him to assume that the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression of the following press professionals had been subjected to arbitrary interference: Mr. Alexander Frangaj, Mr. Martin Leka, Mr. Teodor Keko, Mr. Shyqyri Meka, Mr. Ilirian Zhupa, Mr. Tassos Dimopoulos, Mr. Kostas Papadopoulos, Mr. Anthi Vavoritou, Mr. Alekos Markellos and Mr. Vassiliki Siouri.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Albania"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Albania"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "By letter dated 12 December 1994, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the following journalists and persons working in the information sector had been killed as a result of terrorist violence between 1 February and 3 December 1994: Mr. Olivier Quemeneur, Mr. Khaled Bougharbal, Mr. Mouloud Baroudi, Mr. Smail Sbaghi, Mr. Lahcène Bensadallah, Mr. Tayeb Bouterfif, Mr. Ziane Farrah, Mr. Kaddour Bensselham, Mr. Mohamed S. Benachour, Mr. Ahmed Issaad, Mr. Yasser Laakal and Mr. Said Mekbel.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "By letter dated 14 December 1995, the Special Rapporteur conveyed to the Government his concern about the fate of Mr. Hacene Ouandjli, editor of the Algiers-based daily Liberté, and Mr. Outoudert Abrous, director of Liberté. According to information received by the Special Rapporteur, both men were arrested at Algiers airport on 10 December 1995. Reportedly, the Ministry of the Interior ordered the closure of the newspaper, on the same day, for a period of 15 days.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "By letter dated 18 December 1995, the Special Rapporteur conveyed to the Government his concern about the deliberate killing between 6 January and 5 December 1995 of the following press professionals: Ms. Khedidja Dahmani, Mr. Hamid Mahiout, Mr. Ahmed Belkhefellah, Ms. Saidja Djebaili, Mr. Omar Ouartilan, Mr. Said Brahimi, Ms. Radja Brahimi, Ms. Yasmina Brikh, Mr. Brahim Guaraoui, Mr. Said Tazrout, Mr. Ameur Ouagueni, Ms. Naima Hamouda, Mr. Ahmed Takouchet, Mr. Mourad Hmaizi, Mr. Bakhti Benaouda, Ms. Malika Sabour, Mr. Azzedine Saidj, Mr. Mekhlouf Boukzer, Mr. Mohammed Abderrahmani, Mr. Ali Boukerbache, Ms. Rachida Hammadi, Mr. Djamel Ziater, Mr. Nacer Ouari, Mr. Abdelhamid Yahiaoui, Mr. Ali Abboud and Mr. Zineddine Aliou Salah.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "By letter dated 22 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted to the Government information on incidents which occurred between July and September 1993 of threats of or the use of violence against the following press professionals: Mr. Hernan Lopez Echagüe, Mr. Marcello Bonelli and Mr. Santo Biasatti.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Argentina"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Argentina"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "By letter dated 9 November 1995, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur of a number of issues relating to the case of Ms. Taslima Nasreen, who had been charged with having committed acts offending the religious feelings of a section of the population and whose case was referred to in the Special Rapporteur’s previous report to the Commission (E/CN.4/1995/32, paras. 101-103). The Government informed the Special Rapporteur, inter alia, that the intent or implications of Ms. Nasreen’s quoted public pronouncement, and not her views or opinions themselves, had been considered to constitute a violation of article 295 (A) of the Penal Code, which guaranteed the rights of all religious communities to non-discriminatory protection by the State.\nThe Government informed the Special Rapporteur that action had been initiated under the law for the purpose of protecting public order and respecting the rights and reputations of others.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Bangladesh"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "295", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes decision No. 5/1995 of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention concerning the press professionals, Mr. Toab Khan and Mr. Borhan Ahmed, who have been charged and imprisoned under article 295 (A) of the Penal Code (the same article under which Ms. Nasreen has been charged) for \"insults to the religious feelings of the Muslim community of Bangladesh\" in relation to an article, published by the defendants on 12 May 1994, focusing on an interpretation of the Koran by a group of religious scholars.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Bangladesh"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "295", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted to the Government information alleging intimidation of and the use of violence against Mr. Reinaldo Cabral, a correspondent in the State of Alagoas of the Rio de Janeiro based newspaper Jornal do Brazil.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Brazil"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Brazil"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "In a letter dated 28 March 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government concerning the fate of the journalists Mr. Ndame Maloune and Mr. Jacques Doumbe, who allegedly were arrested on 3 November 1993 and subjected to torture by police officers after attending a press conference that reportedly had been prohibited by the authorities. In a letter dated 5 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the seizure of the 21 and 24 March 1994 editions and an order banning the 6 April 1994 edition of the daily Le Messager, reportedly for the purpose of protecting public order.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cameroon"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cameroon"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The Special Rapporteur received information alleging the persecution of press professionals and other persons seeking to exercise the right to freedom of expression, including the right to seek and receive information. In relation to this information, the Special Rapporteur sent the following communications to the Government.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "By letter dated 2 September 1994, he transmitted information on the fate of the following persons: Mr. Liu Nianchun, Mr. Nick Driver, Mr. Matthew Forney, Ms. Caroline Straathof and Ms. Carrie Gracie.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "By letter dated 7 September 1994, he transmitted information on the fate of Mr. Xi Yang and Mr. Tian Ye.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on these cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "By letter dated 14 December 1995, in a joint initiative with the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the fate of Mr. Wei Jingsheng and expressed, inter alia, his concern that the detention and trial of Mr. Wei appeared to be in violation of his right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government alleging threats against the life of a journalist, Mr. Alvaro Martinez Pinzon, in relation to the publication of an article in the press in which it was stated that a military unit was responsible for the death of a child. By letter dated 23 November 1994, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the authorities had learned from the person in question that the threats and harassment to which he had been subjected had ceased. The Special Rapporteur took note with appreciation of the protection measures the Government indicated it had offered to Mr. Alvaro Martinez.", "labels": ["Children"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Colombia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The Special Rapporteur considers this case closed to his satisfaction.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Colombia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "By letter dated 28 March 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the arrest, on 13 August 1993, and detention of Mr. Domiciano Torres Roca, vice-president of the unofficial Civil Democratic Party, on the charge of possessing enemy propaganda. According to this information, Mr. Torres Roca was beaten on his mouth and stomach at the time of his arrest and was held for an unspecified duration at a psychiatric hospital, among persons suffering from grave mental problems. At the time of writing of the letter, Mr. Torres Roca was reportedly held in the El Pitirre prison in Havana.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cuba"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "By letter dated 15 December 1995, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that, upon his arrest, Mr. Torres Roca had been tried by the People’s Provincial Court of the City of Havana (case No. 3/91); that he had repeatedly committed common criminal acts and had also distributed, spread and systematically dispatched to foreign countries false and distorted information about the situation in Cuba; that he had gone beyond the exercise of the rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Constitution of the Republic of Cuba by acting in breach of the provisions of the criminal law in force; and that he had been tried with all legal guarantees.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cuba"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "The Special Rapporteur refers to decision No. 46/1994 adopted on 1 December 1994 by the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, in which the detention of Mr. Rocca was considered to be arbitrary, falling under category II of its terms of reference. (See E/CN.4/1996/40/Add.1; the text of the decision is issued in Spanish only.)", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Cuba"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994 the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the arrest of Mr. Ibrahim Saad, a journalist with the Middle East News Agency. According to this information, Mr. Saad had been arrested for allegedly belonging to an illegal organization called El-Gama’a El-Islamiyya and had had no access to legal representation after his arrest.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "By letter dated 1 November 1994, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Ibrahim Saad, whose full name is Ibrahim al-Sayyid Muhammad Musaad, had been taken into custody for questioning by the Department of Public Prosecutions in Higher State Security Case No. 235 of 1994, relating to the \"blowing up of banks\", and that a lawyer had been present during questioning.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "By letter dated 22 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government concerning the trial of 13 defendants who had been charged with involvement in the killing of a writer, Mr. Faraj Foda. Allegedly, one of the defendants, Sheik Muhammad Ghazali, a religious scholar had stated in his defence that anyone who opposed the application of Sharia law was \"an apostate liable to be killed\"; he had cited the opinion of renowned religious scholars that \"killing Faraj Foda was our Islamic duty\".", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the arrest and detention in a military prison of Mr. Abdel-Sattar Abu-Hussein, a journalist with the daily Al-Shaab. According to this information, Mr. Hussein had been interrogated in the absence of a lawyer and charged with publishing classified information concerning proposed joint international military manoeuvres. Reportedly, this information was confirmed later in a public statement by the Minister of Defence.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the two above-mentioned cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "By letter dated 2 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government alleging the disappearance of a journalist, Mr. Negusse Gamma, and indicating that his relatives did not know his whereabouts.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Ethiopia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "By letter dated 3 July 1995, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Gamma, editor of the newspaper Taffa, had been briefly detained under a court order for publishing material contrary to the Press Law and the criminal laws of the country and that his case had been investigated initially by the police under file number 3186 and subsequently by the public prosecutor under file number 53886. The Government specified that no information had been brought to the attention of the law enforcement officials substantiating the alleged disappearance of Mr. Gamma and indicated that the files in question could be examined through the proper legal procedure by any interested party.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Ethiopia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "By letter dated 30 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government alleging the arrest and incommunicado detention of a radio newsreader, Mr. Nang Vecka-Brice, and the ransacking and burning by Presidential Guard military personnel, amid civil unrest, of the premises of the radio station Radio Liberté in Libreville.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Gabon"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Gabon"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "By letter dated 20 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information alleging threats by the authorities against Mr. Elizbar Javelidze, editor-in-chief of the daily Sakartvelos Samreklos, and Mr. Gotsirizde, editor-in-chief of the daily Iberia Spektr, causing Mr. Javelidze to feel compelled to hide.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Georgia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Georgia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government concerning the fate of Mr. Nuku Suleiman. According to this information Mr. Suleiman, a student and human rights activist, was arrested on 25 November 1993 and sentenced to four years’ imprisonment on 24 February 1994 for having distributed, during a peaceful protest outside the building of the National Parliament, stickers on which the acronym for a well-known lottery, SDSB, was paraphrased to convey the following opinion on the President: \"Suharto is the mastermind of all disasters\" (\"Suharto Dalang Segala Bencana\"). Reportedly, the stickers cited allegations of human rights violations committed by the security forces during the President’s term of office. Reportedly, the trial of Mr. Suleiman lacked fairness, since the District Court of Central Jakarta had allowed 19 witnesses for the prosecution to be heard and only 1, out of a requested 17, for the defence.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Indonesia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "By letter dated 4 November 1994, the Government, promptly and in detail, informed the Special Rapporteur, inter alia, of the following: that Mr. Suleiman had staged a demonstration against the national lottery, intentionally distributing his defamatory stickers and at the same time launching baseless allegations and further defamatory statements against the President; that he had been arrested for publicly speaking and publishing the defamatory statement, injuring the reputation of the President and diminishing esteem, respect, good will or confidence towards him, all of which amounted to a criminal offence; that the prosecutor’s indictment was not against the act of distribution per se, but the wilful intent of Mr. Suleiman to defame the President, in violation of article 134 of the Penal Code, which stipulated the offence to be punishable by up to six years’ imprisonment; that the prosecutor had contended the defendant should be imprisoned for six years; that most of the 17 witnesses to vindicate Mr. Suleiman were not by any means directly or indirectly related to the defamation case nor could they be considered as expert witnesses.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Indonesia"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "134", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "The Government also informed the Special Rapporteur that the panel of judges of the Court of First Instance of Central Jakarta had found Mr. Suleiman guilty on the charge of defamation of the President, considering that he had had the deliberate intention of injuring the reputation of, or of provoking adverse, derogatory or unpleasant feelings or opinions against the President; that by distributing his defamatory stickers to more than four persons and launching baseless and unsubstantiated allegations, he had had the intention to expose the President to contempt, hatred, ridicule or obloquy; and that Mr. Soleiman, by not making any attempt whatsoever to seek clarification as to whether the content of the defamatory statement was true or false, plainly had shown that an element of malice existed.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Indonesia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "The Government furthermore informed the Special Rapporteur that, upon appeal by the defence counsel, the Appellate Court of Jakarta, on 26 May 1994, had decided that Mr. Suleiman’s sentence was to be increased to five years’ imprisonment, considering the contempt of court shown by the defendant, his obstruction of court proceedings and the fact that he was a second offender.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Indonesia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "The Government expressed the view that in exercising his right to freedom of opinion and expression, Mr. Suleiman was substantially not protected by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and that his evil intent and malice constituted nothing but a violation of article 29 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 19.3 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Indonesia"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "29", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'article 29 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, non-treaty."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'article 19.3 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — unambiguous ICCPR attribution. (Note: text mentions 19.3 but regex captured paragraph as null; Sonnet preserved that.)"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "The Special Rapporteur refers to decision 31/1994, adopted on 29 September 1994 by the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, in which the detention of Mr. Suleiman was considered to be arbitrary, falling under categories II and III of its terms of reference (see E/CN.4/1995/31/Add.2).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Indonesia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "From 6 to 10 January 1996, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to the Islamic Republic of Iran, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session (E/CN.4/1996/39/Add.2).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Islamic Republic of Iran"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "By letter dated 11 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the issuance of a writ for the arrest of Ms. Susan O’Keeffe, a journalist and a British national, for her refusal to reveal sources when she disclosed, in a television programme, the existence of illegal practices in the beef industry.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Ireland"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Ireland"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "By letter dated 22 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the fate of the press professionals working in the Gaza area. Allegedly, on 21 June 1993, Mr. Majdi al-Arabid, a cameraman for Worldwide Television News was shot in the leg by an army officer who threatened to shoot Mr. Al-Arabid in the head if he were to continue filming a clash between demonstrators and soldiers in a refugee camp. Allegedly, Mr. Talal Abu Rahma, a reporter with Cable News Network (CNN) was arrested and detained by military personnel during a raid on his apartment and was forced, during his detention, to stand barefoot on a burning hot floor. Allegedly, Mr. Ahmad Jadallah, a photographer for Reuters, was assaulted by military personnel and had his film confiscated after he had taken photographs of military personnel beating a taxi driver.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Israel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "By letter dated 25 July 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the assault by a group of armed individuals on Mr. Robert Friedman, a freelance reporter on assignment for the weekly New Yorker, on 10 January 1994, in the West Bank settlement of Kfar Tapauch. Reportedly, after having fought off his attackers, Mr. Friedman attempted to file a complaint at the police station of the settlement of Ariel, where officers were reluctant to take his statement and refused to cooperate in identifying his assailants. Reportedly, Mr. Friedman has been receiving death threats since 1988, in relation to a book written by him, entitled The False Prophet.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Israel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "By letter dated 5 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the wounding by a rubber bullet, fired by military personnel, of a journalist, Hervé Deguine, while he was talking to a number of Palestinians in Jericho on 11 May 1994. Reportedly, during the first nine months of 1994, at least seven journalists were wounded and at least five arrested and briefly detained by military personnel in Gaza and Transjordan. Furthermore, the authorities reportedly banned the access to certain areas of the occupied territories to journalists.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Israel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "By letter dated 5 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the wounding, by military personnel, of Mr. Hicham Charabati, a cameraman for Worldwide Television News, and Mr. Pierre Haski, correspondent of the daily Libération, in Halhoul, Transjordan, on 3 April 1994.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Israel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "By letter dated 11 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the arrest of Mr. Adnan Abu Hasna, correspondent for Qatar Radio and the daily Al-Quds, at his home in Gaza City, on 25 April 1994.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Israel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Israel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "By letter dated 30 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the confiscation of 10,000 copies of the magazine Finance and the seizure of an unspecified number of copies of the magazines Society and Economic Review from the Colourprint printing house on 1 August 1994. Allegedly, police officers had forcibly entered the printing house, had beaten up the watchman, Mr. Edo Hussein, threatened to kill another employee who was present and warned a reporter of the Daily Nation covering the police action to \"disappear with that pen immediately or we [will] come for you. You have no business being here.\"", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Kenya"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the arrest of Mr. Ngumo Wa Kuria and Mr. Peter Makori (on 16 March 1994) and Mr. Kamau Kanyanga and Mr. John Nyaosi (on 23 March 1994), all press professionals with the publication Standard. Allegedly these persons had been charged with subversive activities and were released on bail on 31 March 1994. Also, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the arrest, on 11 April 1994, of a Daily News journalist Mr. Mutegi Njau. Reportedly, his arrest was related to an article he had published on inter-ethnic conflicts in the country.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Kenya"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the arrest, on 13 June 1994, of Mr. Bedan Mbugua, editor-in-chief of The People, and Mr. David Makali, a journalist with that weekly, on charges of contempt of court, allegedly for the publication of an article critical of a court decision to dismiss a number of scholars who had attempted to establish a trade union and for stating that the decision of the court had been influenced by the Government.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Kenya"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "By letter of 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the deportation to Australia, by the Kenyan immigration service, of Mr. John Lawrence, an Australian national and a correspondent for the Melbourne daily The Age and journalist with the Kenyan Daily Nation. Allegedly, the authorities stated Mr. Lawrence’s continued stay in Kenya was against the country’s interest. Allegedly, the deportation was related to an article published by Mr. Lawrence on 27 June 1994 that was critical of a government decision to recruit medical doctors from India and Pakistan for the purpose of replacing Kenyan medical doctors on strike.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Kenya"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Kenya"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "The Special Rapporteur refers to paragraph 2 of Addendum 1 to the present report. It is his intention to visit the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea at the Government’s earliest convenience.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Democratic People’s Republic of Korea"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "From 25 to 30 June 1995, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to the Republic of Korea, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its current session (E/CN.4/1996/39/Add.1).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Republic of Korea"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "By letter dated 22 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the closure of the dailies Nida’ al-Watan (on 30 April 1993), Al-Safir (on 11 May 1993) and Al-Sharq (on 28 May 1993) and the television network ICN TV (on 29 April 1994), reportedly because they had published and broadcast material critical of government policies. Allegedly, in connection with these closures, the press professionals Mr. Muhammad Shams al-Din, Mr. Faisal Salman and Mr. Ibrahim al-Amin had been charged and were facing three years’ imprisonment.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Lebanon"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Lebanon"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "By letter dated 2 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the deportation to the Philippines of Ms. Leah Palma Makabenta, Kuala Lumpur correspondent for Inter Press Service and a national of the Philippines. According to this information, Ms. Makabenta was informed, on 25 March 1994, by the Director-General of Immigration that the Government intended to cancel her press pass owing to an article published by her that threatened national security. Reportedly, the Director-General declined to indicate the article in question. Allegedly, Ms. Makabenta’s press pass was revoked on 1 April 1994 and she was ordered to leave the country within 48 hours. On 3 April, the Deputy Home Affairs Minister reportedly stated that Ms. Makabenta had been deported for writing a \"very negative\" article on the mistreatment of migrant labourers from neighbouring countries. Reportedly, the Deputy Minister announced, on 6 March 1994, that all foreign journalists who published what the Government considered to be negative reports on Malaysia would be banned from working in the country. Reportedly, this statement was delivered two weeks after the publication, in the British newspaper Sunday Times, of a report that a British contractor had made \"special payments\" totalling US$ 50,000 to Malaysian politicians \"at the highest level\" while bidding for a contract to build an aluminium smelter. Reportedly, in this statement, the Deputy Minister also announced an investigation to determine whether any Malaysian national had collaborated in compiling the Sunday Times report.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Malaysia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Malaysia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "By letter dated 27 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on anonymous threats against the following press professionals, all working with the daily La Jornada: Mr. Carlos Payan Velver, Ms. Carmen Lira, Ms. Blanche Petrick, Mr. Josetxo Zaldua, Mr. Elio Henriquez and Mr. Gaspar Morquecho. According to this information, a group referred to as the \"Mexican Anti-Communist Movement\" had started a libel campaign against the daily, which it considered to be the organ of an organization named the \"Zapatist Army of National Liberation\". Reportedly, on 3 January 1994, another journalist of La Jornada, Mr. Ismael Romero, was wounded by bullets in Chiapas.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Mexico"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Mexico"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "By letter dated 5 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the seizure by customs officers at Casablanca airport, on 8 June 1994, of half of the 6,000 copies of the weekly Jeune Afrique destined for distribution in Morocco and of a similar number of copies of the same weekly from news-stands throughout the country, on 30 May 1994. According to this information, customs officers have been instructed not to allow the import of over 3,000 copies per issue of the weekly.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Morocco"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the matter in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Morocco"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "By letter dated 27 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the arrest (in August 1993) and sentencing to 20 years’ imprisonment (in October 1993) of Dr. Ma Thida, a physician, writer and political activist, for \"endangering public tranquillity, having contact with unlawful organizations and distributing unlawful literature\".", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Myanmar"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Myanmar"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "By letter dated 1 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following information to the Government. Reportedly, between 21 and 23 July 1993, the police raided and closed down the offices of the Concord Press (publisher of the National Concord, the African Concord and at least six other publications), the dailies Punch and Newsday, the Sketch Group (publisher of the Daily Sketch and the Sunday Sketch) and the publication The Observer. Reportedly, on 16 August 1994, the Government issued Decree 48 proscribing the publications of the Concord Press and the Sketch Group, and also Punch and The Observer. Reportedly, the previously issued Decree 43 had established a press registration board whose chairman was to be appointed by the Government, required all newspapers to register annually with the Government against payment of a registration fee referred to as \"steep\", and rendered the publication of \"false information\" punishable by a prison term of 10 years or a fine equalling US$ 11,000. Reportedly, on various dates in 1993 and 1994, the following persons were arrested: Mr. Nosa Igiebo, Mr. Onome Osifo-Whiskey, Mr. Kolawole Ilori, Mr. Kayode Akinkuotu (all four editors with the magazine Tell), Mr. Yinka Tella (reporter for The News), Mr. Ken Saro-Wiwa (writer and President of the Association of Nigerian Authors) and Mr. Chris Okolie (editor-in-chief and publisher of Newbreed Magazine).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the arrest, incommunicado detention and deportation to the United States of America of Ms. Geraldine Brooks, a reporter for the United States based daily Wall Street Journal, and the confiscation of her material, in April 1994. Also, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the arrest, on 7 April 1994, of Mr. Dan Agbesse, Mr. Ray Ekpu and Mr. Yakubu Mohammed, press professionals working or having worked for the publication Newswatch, and on the alleged detention without charge of Mr. Alex Kabaa, a press professional working for the publication The News.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "By letter of 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted additional information to the Government on the arrest, on 22 May 1994, of Mr. Ken Saro-Wiwa. According to this information, Mr. Saro-Wiwa was being held incommunicado in military detention in Port Harcourt, was being denied access to medical services while in need of regular medication to control high blood pressure, and had not been charged - although he had been publicly accused by the Military Administrator of Rivers State of having incited the killing of four prominent members of the Ogoni minority. Furthermore, reportedly, Mr. Saro-Wiwa had previously been held incommunicado in military detention for a number of weeks in or around July 1993 in relation to the exercise of his right to freedom of expression and, reportedly, during this period of detention he had suffered heart attacks and was denied medical attention.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the cases in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "By letter dated 10 November 1995, the Special Rapporteur conveyed to the Government his concern with regard to the fate of Mr. Ken Saro-Wiwa. The Special Rapporteur stated he had received information which led him to assume that the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression by Mr. Saro-Wiwa had been subjected to arbitrary interference, that he had been sentenced to death by hanging on charges of incitement to murder and that his sentence had been upheld in last instance on 9 November 1995. The Special Rapporteur strongly urged the Government not to carry out the sentence on Mr. Saro-Wiwa in view of the many questions that had arisen with respect to the fairness and legality of the procedures followed in his trial.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0086", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "On the same day, 10 November 1995, the Special Rapporteur received information indicating that Mr. Saro-Wiwa had been executed in the early morning of that day.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0087", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "By letter dated 20 November 1995, the Government replied to the Special Rapporteur’s letter of 10 November 1995, providing the Special Rapporteur with a description of events surrounding the case of Mr. Saro-Wiwa. The Government also informed the Special Rapporteur, inter alia, that Mr. Saro-Wiwa had been charged, under Charge No. OCDT/PH/1/95, as follows:\n\"As President of MOSOP [Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People] and founder of the NYCOP [the youth wing of MOSOP], he masterminded and led the riots of 21 May under the pretext of holding Constitutional Conference rally on a day that the law did not permit and which exercise he had earlier directed members of MOSOP and NYCOP to boycott and in which he was not a bona fide candidate. He had orchestrated the campaign to eliminate the ’vultures’ [pejorative description of certain prominent members of the Ogoni minority]. He was heard on the day of the riots to have said that he was not blaming those who had prevented him to go to the rally ground because they were sent by the ’vultures’ meeting in Giokoo. A prosecution witness, whose house has been burnt down by members of NYCOP, testified that when she complained to Mr. Saro-Wiwa about this, he cautioned her that a revolution was taking place and that ’heads would roll in Gokana’.\"", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0088", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "The Government furthermore informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Saro-Wiwa had been \"found guilty of murder contrary to section 316 of the Criminal Code as incorporated in section 3 of the Civil Disturbances (Special Tribunal) Act and item 13 in the First Schedule to the Act [and] sentenced to death by hanging\".", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0089", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "By letter dated 30 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the killing of Mr. Rehmat Masih and wounding of Mr. Manzoor Masih, Mr. Salamat Masih (13 years of age) and Mr. John Masih by unidentified assailants riding motorbikes who opened fire on these persons as they were leaving their lawyers’ office and after having appeared before a hearing at the Pakistan High Court of Lahore, on 5 April 1994, where the first three persons had been summoned to appear on charges relating to blasphemy. The three persons had allegedly been accused of \"defiling the Holy Prophet’s name in writings on walls and slips of paper\", an offence reportedly punishable by a mandatory death sentence under article 295-C of the Penal Code.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Pakistan"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "295", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0090", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Pakistan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0091", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the arrest and detention of leading members of the political party, Mohajir Qoumi Movement. According to this information, the senators Mr. Ishtiaq Azhar (72 years of age), Ms. Nasreen Jalil and Mr. Aftab A. Sheikh were arrested on 25 April 1994 and detained for two weeks and Mr. Farooq Sattar, a member of the Sindh Province Assembly, was held, on or around that date, by Sindh Province security forces. Allegedly, all four persons were being denied treatment that was in accordance with human rights standards in the administration of justice.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Pakistan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0092", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "By letter dated 15 July 1995, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that \"a number of cases of heinous crimes like murder have been registered against Mr. Ishtiaq Azhar, Begum Nasreen Jalil, Mr. Aftab Ahmed Sheikh and Mr. Farooq Sattar and their cases are pending trial in different courts\".", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Pakistan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0093", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "By letter dated 11 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the use of violence against press professionals by the police during demonstrations. Allegedly, on 2 May 1994 in Tacuara, Mr. Mariano Godoy, a correspondent for the daily ABC Color, was shot at. On the same day in Ciudad de Este, Mr. Juan Carlos Salinas and Mr. Gualberto Areco (journalists with the daily Noticias), Mr. Cesar Palacios and Mr. Blas Ceferino Pena (journalists with the daily ABC Color), Ms. Dolly Galeano (a journalist with the daily Ultima Hora) and Mr. Celso Salcedo (a journalist with Canal 13) were reportedly beaten.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Paraguay"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0094", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on these cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Paraguay"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0095", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the sentencing, in February 1993, of the press professionals Mr. Cesar Hildebrandt and Ms. Cecilia Valenzuela to one year’s imprisonment on libel charges in relation to a television report alleging the involvement of a military officer, referred to by name, in committing human rights violations.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Peru"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0096", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the sentencing, on 29 April 1993, of the press professional Mr. Jesus Alfonso Castiglione Mendoza to 20 years’ imprisonment for collaboration with terrorists.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Peru"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0097", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on these cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Peru"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0098", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "By letter dated 11 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the interruption by the authorities, on 29 August 1994, of the broadcasts by the private television company Polsat 1, allegedly because it had not obtained a licence. Reportedly, police raided the office of the company and seized film material that was made on this action.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Poland"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0099", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Poland"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0100", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "By letter of 7 March 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the arrest, on 27 November 1993 in Freetown, of the press professionals Mr. Paul Kamara and Mr. Salio Kamara, editor-in-chief and assistant editor of the daily For Di People. Allegedly, documents and photographs were seized from the house of Mr. Paul Kamara and the two press professionals were interrogated on a project entitled \"jumelage\" that had been financed and sustained by UNESCO and that provided for cooperation between the daily concerned and the Swedish daily Expressen.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sierra Leone"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0101", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sierra Leone"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0102", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "By letter dated 30 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following information to the Government on the use of violence against press professionals. Mr. Abdul Shariff, a photographer with the Associated Press, was killed on 9 January 1994 in the township of Katlehong when unidentified assailants opened fire. In the same attack, Mr. Charles Moikanyang and Mr. Anthea Warner, a television reporter and a radio reporter with the South African Broadcasting Corporation, were wounded.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "South Africa"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0103", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on these cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "South Africa"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0104", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on Mr. Hemal Warnakula, a journalist with Radio Veritas, who had allegedly received a number of anonymous death threats in March 1994. On 24 March 1994, reportedly, a number of journalists had been assaulted by a number of politicians and, allegedly, no inquiries were made into the incident by the police.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0105", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "By letter dated 23 January 1995, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Mr. Warnakula had received death threats in the early months of 1994, that inquiries had been initiated by the Criminal Investigation Department of Colombo with a view to tracing the source of the threats and that Mr. Warnakula had since stated that as of August 1994 he had not received any threats and therefore did not want the investigations pursued further. Also, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that, on 24 March 1994, Mr. R.M. Bandaragala Hasaka, a journalist with the newspaper Rawaya, had complained to the police at Hambantota that a fellow journalist named Jayawardena Jagoda had been kicked by the chairman of the Provincial Council of Hambantota, that the respondent had subsequently been arrested by the police and that no prosecution had been initiated because Mr. Jagoda’s injuries were of a trivial nature.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0106", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "By letter dated 29 April 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on a police raid, on or around 24 February 1994, on the office of the daily Al Sudani al-Doulia, the seizure of documents from the office and the arrest of the daily’s news editor Mr. Mutasim Mahmoud, allegedly for having undertaken \"anti-State activities\". Allegedly, Mr. Mahmoud had not been charged and it was not known where he was being detained. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the closure of this daily, on 4 April 1994, and the arrest of its publisher, Mr. Mahjoub Mohamed El Hassan Erwa and two more of its staff members, Mr. Ahmed Ali Bagadi and Mr. Mutwakil Abdel Daff’eh. Allegedly, the Government had publicly stated the daily had been closed down permanently for trying to destroy the \"National Salvation Revolution and its symbols\".", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0107", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "By letter dated 25 July 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted further information to the Government on the above-mentioned persons arrested on 4 April 1994. According to this information, the press professionals concerned were accused of, but not charged with, spreading \"false news\", reportedly by expressing opinions in favour of a return to multi-party politics and by alleging corruption among government officials. Reportedly, the whereabouts of the three detained press professionals were unknown.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0108", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "By letter dated 25 July 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted further information on the fate of Mr. Mutasim Mahmoud and the closure of the daily concerned, indicating that, on 12 March 1994, the daily had also been suspended by a Government appointed press and publications committee. In addition, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the alleged arrest of another press professional working with the daily concerned, Mr. Nour al-Dine Madani, on 4 April 1994.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0109", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur presented further information to the Government on the closure of the daily referred to in the preceding paragraphs and on the suspension of the weekly Darfour Al Gadida, since 12 March 1994.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0110", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on these cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0111", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "By letter dated 10 August 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on the alleged killing of and use of violence against the following press professionals: Mr. Saidmurov Yerov of the magazine Farkhang, whose body was found on 2 February 1993 in a mass grave in Dushanbe; Mr. Zukhuruddin Suyari of the magazine Todzhikiston was found dead in March 1993 in Kurgan-Tiube; Mr. Igor Rotar of the daily Nezavisinaya Gazeta was threatened and beaten by law enforcement officials in May 1993; and Mr. Pirimkul Sattori of the daily Khatlon was found dead in May 1993. Furthermore, the radio and television professionals Mr. Mirbobo Mirrakhimov, Mr. Akhmadsho Kamilov, Mr. Khairiddin Kasymov and Mr. Khurshed Nazarov were allegedly charged, early in 1993, with \"conspiracy to overthrow the Government through the mass media\" and publicly accused of slander by the speaker of Parliament in relation to a video tape showing human rights abuses committed by government officials.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tajikistan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0112", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on these cases.\nThe former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tajikistan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0113", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "By letter dated 26 August 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the confiscation of printed material from Mr. Ilija Ilievski by the border police, on 22 June, 5 July and 28 December 1991, on 18 March 1992 and on 26 March 1993. The material reportedly included works on the history of the national liberation movement.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tajikistan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0114", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on the confiscation in question.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tajikistan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0115", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "By letter dated 10 November 1995, the Special Rapporteur conveyed his concern to the Government and requested information on the fate of Ms. Alya Chérif-Chammari, a lawyer, and Mr. Khemaïs Chammari, co-founder of the Arab Institute of Human Rights and the Mediterranean Centre for Human Rights. According to information received by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. and Ms. Chammari were prohibited from leaving the country and had their passports confiscated on Sunday, 29 October 1995, on or around 4 p.m., when they were about to leave Tunisia by air to attend a colloquium of the Mediterranean Centre for Human Rights in Valetta, Malta.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0116", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on these cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0117", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "By letter dated 10 August 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the killing of the press professionals Mr. Ugur Mumcu of the daily Cumhuriyet (on 24 January 1993), Mr. Kemal Kilic of the daily Özgür Gündem (on 18 February 1993) and Mr. Ferhat Tepe of Özgür Gündem (in early August 1993); on the arrest and detention of the press professionals Mr. Davut Karadag of Özgür Gündem (on 15 July 1993), Ms. Nezahat Ozen of Özgür Gündem (on 16 July 1993) and Mr. Ahmet Ibili of the daily Mücadele (on 18 August 1993); and on the disappearance of Ms. Aysel Malkac of Özgür Gündem (on 7 August 1993). Allegedly, Ms. Ozen, who was seven months pregnant at the time of her arrest, was ill-treated during her interrogation, as a result of which she was transferred to hospital.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0118", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "By letter dated 10 August 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the arrest and detention, on 17 April 1994, of two press professionals in the service of the magazine Alinteri, Mr. Derya Tanrivermis and Mr. Zafer Sakin.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0119", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "By letter dated 12 August 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the lifting, allegedly without respect for proper procedure, of the parliamentary immunity and immediate subsequent arrest, detention and interrogation of the following members of Parliament, on 2 and 3 March 1994: Mr. Mahmut Alinak, Mr. Hatip Dicle, Mr. Orhan Dogan, Mr. H. Mezarci, Mr. Sirri Sakik, Mr. Ahmet Türk and Ms. Leyla Zana. According to this information, Mr. Mezarci was accused of having insulted the late President Kemal Atatürk. The other parliamentarians were allegedly detained for having publicly expressed their opinions, as members of Parliament, in favour of the recognition of a degree of autonomy in the region of the country where a majority of the population is of Kurdish origin.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0120", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on these cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0121", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 121, "n": 121, "text": "By letter dated 6 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the fate of the following 13 press professionals. Mr. Tacettin Vural of Flash TV and Mr. Nevzat Yilmaz of the daily Aydinlik were allegedly beaten by police officers in Antalya on 16 March and in Istanbul on 7 February 1994 respectively. Mr. Hans Peter Wyman, Mr. Michael Enger and Ms. Corinna Gutstadt of the German Flash TV were allegedly harassed, detained and interrogated by police officers, who destroyed part of their equipment and confiscated film in two incidents in Tatvan, on 19 March 1994, and in Dolunay village (near Lice), on 23 March 1994. Mr. Nazim Babaoglu of Özgür Gündem and Mr. Murat Yogunlu of the Anatolian News Agency reportedly disappeared in March 1994, as did Mr. Aysul Malkac of Özgür Gündem as of 7 August 1994. Mr. Ali Tevfik Berber and Mr. Erhan Akyildiz of HBB Television reportedly were sentenced to two months’ imprisonment by a military court, on 11 February 1994, for interviewing conscientious objectors to military service in their television programme \"Anten\". Mr. Ferit Ilselver and Mr. Hale Soysu of Aydinlik were reportedly sentenced to 10 months’ imprisonment by the Second Criminal Court of Istanbul, on 28 December 1993, for \"insulting the military\", following a complaint brought by the Office of Joint Chiefs of Staff. The Special Rapporteur transmitted further information in relation to the fate of Mr. Davut Karadag, whose case he had taken up in a letter of 10 August 1994. The Special Rapporteur transmitted information on repeated closures of Özgür Gündem in 1993 and 1994 and on the confiscation of nine issues of the weekly Azadi in the first three months of 1994.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0122", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 122, "n": 122, "text": "By letter dated of 20 March 1995, the Government transmitted the following information on the cases referred to by the Special Rapporteur in his letter of 6 September 1994, with the exception of the cases involving Mr. Malkac, Mr. Berber and Mr. Akyildiz, Mr. Soysu and the weekly Azadi.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0123", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 123, "n": 123, "text": "An inquiry concerning the beating of Mr. Nevzat Yilmaz by the police was undertaken by decision of the Basic Criminal Court and the allegation was decided to be unfounded. A request by his legal representatives to reverse this decision was turned down by the High Criminal Court No. 2 of the Kadiköy District of Istanbul.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0124", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 124, "n": 124, "text": "Mr. Nazim Babaoglu has allegedly been missing since 12 March 1994. An inquiry into his case is being conducted by the Office of the Chief Public Prosecutor of the State Security Court in Diyarbakir Province.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0125", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 125, "n": 125, "text": "The Istanbul High Criminal Court sentenced Mr. Ferit Ilsever to 10 months’ imprisonment on the charge of publishing an article in the 13 July 1993 issue of Aydinlik defaming and insulting the State security forces. The case is currently pending with the Court of Appeal.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0126", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 126, "n": 126, "text": "The Office of the Chief Public Prosecutor has established that the incident concerning Mr. Tacettin Vural took place when a number of journalists tried to board the Prime Minister’s helicopter, which was already full. No inquiry was deemed necessary since the incident was related to the security of the flight.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0127", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 127, "n": 127, "text": "The Office of the Chief Public Prosecutor in Tatvan established that no complaints had been lodged concerning the alleged incidents involving Mr. Wyman, Mr. Enger and Ms. Gutstadt. It was furthermore established that these persons had been involved in a fight with local people, on 19 March 1994, as a result of which they were taken from the district of Tatvan to the province of Bitlis by the security forces.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0128", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 128, "n": 128, "text": "The Istanbul State Security Court No. 2 and the Istanbul High Criminal Court No. 2, in public trials held in 1993 and 1994, repeatedly sentenced Mr. Seyh Davut Karadag, editor-in-chief of Özgür Gündem, to prison terms ranging from five months to two years and, simultaneously, to fines ranging from the equivalent of US$ 1,300 to 7,000, in relation to various articles printed in that newspaper, for the publication of which Mr. Karadag was charged with aiming at the destruction of the territorial integrity and the political unity of the Turkish Republic, with publishing propaganda material in favour of the terrorist organization PKK, with publishing views of the terrorist organization PKK, and with publishing separatist propaganda, thereby breaching relevant articles of Press Law No. 5680 and Anti-Terror Law No. 3713. Both courts, furthermore, had ordered suspension of publication of the daily concerned for various periods of 15 days, in accordance with Law No. 5680 on a number of occasions. The Government stated that these proceedings had been initiated on the ground of criminal offences against the national security, territorial integrity and public safety of the State and in conformity with article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, to which Turkey was a party.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "10", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'in conformity with article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, to which Turkey was a party'. ECHR is a regional instrument outside the allowed list."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0129", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 129, "n": 129, "text": "The same court sentenced Mr. Karadag, on 13 July 1993, to two years’ imprisonment and a fine the equivalent of US$ 5,680 upon charges of propagating ideas against the State security forces taking part in anti-terror activities through the publishing of three articles in the 5 July 1993 issue of Özgür Gündem. The court acquitted Mr. Karadag of the charges of provoking the public to hostility and of propagating separatist ideas.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0130", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 130, "n": 130, "text": "By letter dated 7 June 1995, the Government invited the Special Rapporteur to visit Turkey. As yet, no dates have been agreed upon. The Special Rapporteur intends to visit the country at the earliest possible date.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0131", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 131, "n": 131, "text": "By letter dated 26 July 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on unidentified persons reported to have thrown a bomb into the building that houses the weekly Cincinnati Herald, on 29 March 1994, totally destroying its newsroom. Allegedly, the publisher of the weekly, Mr. William Spillers, had received threatening telephone calls and hate mail in the week prior to the bombing.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "United States of America"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0132", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 132, "n": 132, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "United States of America"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0133", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 133, "n": 133, "text": "By letter dated 28 March 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the fate of the following press professionals.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0134", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 134, "n": 134, "text": "Mr. Doan Viet Hoat was reportedly arrested with his wife and son at their home in Ho Chi Minh Ville on 17 November 1990; he was convicted on 29 March 1993, on the charge of having expressed \"anti Communist\" views, and sentenced under article 73 of the Penal Code to 20 years’ forced labour and 5 years’ suspension of his civil rights. Reportedly, his sentence was commuted on 9 July 1993 to 15 years’ imprisonment and 5 years’ house arrest. He was reported to be imprisoned in camp No. 4, Phan Dang Luu, in Ho Chi Minh Ville.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "73", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0135", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 135, "n": 135, "text": "Mr. Le Duc Vuong was reportedly arrested and detained in December 1990, accused of having published in the unlicensed publication Dien Dan Tu Do (Freedom Forum), and sentenced under article 73 of the Penal Code, in April 1993, to seven years’ imprisonment. Reportedly his sentence was commuted on 9 July 1993 to five years’ imprisonment and three years’ house arrest. He was reported to be imprisoned in Phan Dang Luu, in Ho Chi Minh Ville.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "73", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0136", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 136, "n": 136, "text": "Mr. Pham Duc Kham was reportedly arrested and detained in November 1990, accused of having published in Dien Dan Tu Do, and sentenced under article 73 of the Penal Code, in April 1993, to 15 years’ imprisonment. Reportedly his sentence was commuted on 9 July 1993 to 12 years’ imprisonment and 5 years’ house arrest.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "73", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0137", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 137, "n": 137, "text": "Mr. Nguyen Van Thuan (alias Chau Son) was reportedly arrested and detained in December 1990, accused of having published in Dien Dan Tu Do and sentenced under article 73 of the Penal Code, in April 1993, to 12 years’ imprisonment. Reportedly his sentence was commuted on 9 July 1993 to eight years’ imprisonment and four years’ house arrest.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "73", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0138", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 138, "n": 138, "text": "Mr. Thai Nhu Sieu, former editor-in-chief of the journal Tan Viet Hoa (Sino-Vietnamese Renaissance) was reportedly arrested on 21 July 1978 and sentenced to 20 years’ imprisonment for activities related to his profession. Reportedly, he is imprisoned in Hoa Lo prison in Hanoi.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0139", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 139, "n": 139, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information on Mr. Doan Viet Hoat, a writer, who reportedly is serving a 15-year prison term for activities related to his profession and who has been repeatedly transferred from prison to prison, as a result of which his family’s efforts to supply him with otherwise unprovided medical care and warm clothing have been hampered. Reportedly, he was most recently transferred on 25 April 1994, from Ba Sao prison in Nam Ha Province to Thanh Cam prison, some 90 kilometres from Thanh Hoa City.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0140", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 140, "n": 140, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0141", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 141, "n": 141, "text": "By letter dated 26 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the suspension and confiscation of equipment of the weekly Yemen Times, in Sana’a on 10 May 1994. Reportedly, the action was taken upon publication by the weekly of a number for casualties caused by fighting between the armies of the former North and South Yemen that contradicted official estimates.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Yemen"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0142", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 142, "n": 142, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Yemen"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0143", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 143, "n": 143, "text": "By letter dated 11 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the suspension of the authorization to exercise their profession of the following press professionals of the Zairian Office of Radio and Television: Mr. Kalunga Wa Kalunga and Mr. Kabeya Pindi Pasi (in February 1994); Mr. Charles Djungu Singa Kamatanda, Mr. Michael Museme Diawé, Mr. Léonard Mulumba Kalala, Mr. Charles Dimanja Wembi and Mr. Jean René Mputu Bidwaya (on 4 June 1993); and Mr. Elonge Osako, Mr. Kafka Rujamizi and Mr. Ntumba Mudingayi (in July 1993). Reportedly, this action had been taken in relation to their membership of the Association for a Free and Democratic Press.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Zaire"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0144", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 144, "n": 144, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on these cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Zaire"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0145", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 145, "n": 145, "text": "By letter dated 11 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government on the arrest, charging with insulting the President and release on bail of Mr. Fred M’Membe and Mr. Bright Mwape, on 29 April 1994. Reportedly, the men were arrested in relation to an article published in the 29 March 1994 issue of the daily The Post quoting a former Minister of Community Development as having referred to the President as \"a twit\". Reportedly, the arrests occurred after several instances of intimidation by government officials of press professionals in the service of the daily, including the arrest of a reporter who had photographed police officers beating a suspect.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Zambia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0146", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 146, "n": 146, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no information has yet been forwarded by the Government on this case.\nIV.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Zambia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0147", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 147, "n": 147, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is compelled to conclude, as in previous years, that violations of the right to freedom of expression occur in all parts of the world. In a number of instances, these violations concur with violations of other human rights, including those related to enforced or involuntary disappearances, extrajudicial, arbitrary or summary executions, torture, religious intolerance and arbitrary detention, as well as with the problem of terrorism.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0148", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 148, "n": 148, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is concerned about the continued intimidation, harassment and use of violence against writers, press professionals and other persons seeking to exercise the right to freedom of opinion and expression. He is concerned at the many different manifestations of intolerance, both on the part of Governments and on the part of private persons, in relation to opinions expressed in the public arena. He is also concerned at the many instances of persecution of such professionals and other persons, and about the many reports of convictions under national legislation of such professionals and persons to severe sentences, including prolonged prison terms and corporal punishment, in violation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression as affirmed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0149", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 149, "n": 149, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is concerned at the cases brought to his attention in relation to the right to freedom of opinion and expression of women. He considers the creative freedom for women to express themselves, to create and nourish culture and to bring into the light suffering that stays hidden because of societal taboos an essential means to overcome the many manifestations of the use of violence against women, that can negatively affect their enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. A number of obstacles, however, stand in the way of the full enjoyment of freedom of opinion and expression by women. State censorship is among them, as are more informal types of censorship and self-censorship imposed on women by powerful groups in society that are inspired by fundamentalism of various kinds and claim the culture or self-esteem of the society at large is endangered by the free flow of ideas. The Special Rapporteur is aware the issue bristles with sensitivities given the diversity of cultural and religious traditions and he cautions against inaction that might result from them.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0150", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 150, "n": 150, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is concerned that private individuals regularly resort to acts of violence, threats, and intimidation against other private persons for the purpose of settling religious or ideological disputes. The Special Rapporteur considers that this phenomenon provokes a dangerous spiral of violence for which the authorities cannot deny responsibility if no adequate action is taken to protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur notes that violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to seek and receive information, result not only from actions undertaken by the State and its representatives, but equally result from the inaction of the State, at governmental and other levels, under circumstances that unmistakeably call for the protection of this right and which compel the Special Rapporteur to take side with the victims and potential victims of these violations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0151", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 151, "n": 151, "text": "The Special Rapporteur expresses his sincere appreciation to all Governments that, in accordance with the request of the Commission contained in resolution 1993/45, have cooperated with and assisted the Special Rapporteur in the performance of his tasks and have furnished all the information requested by him. He is committed to cooperating fully with Governments in their efforts to strengthen the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and to solve the many problems in the area of his mandate.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0152", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 152, "n": 152, "text": "The Special Rapporteur appeals to all the Governments that he has requested to cooperate, to engage in a dialogue with him and to enable him to establish the facts and arrive at a well-informed opinion on matters relating to his mandate, including by visits to the countries concerned.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0153", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 153, "n": 153, "text": "The Special Rapporteur expresses his sincere appreciation to all non-governmental organizations active in the area of his concern with which he has been able to nurture a close relationship that is of great importance for the success of his work. He notes the intrinsic hesitation of State bureaucracies to admit voluntarily to violations of human rights and stresses that the integrity and vitality of any human rights review process also depends on information provided by non-governmental organizations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0154", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 154, "n": 154, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is pleased to report that Governments, though some more than others, are proving willing to engage in a constructive dialogue with him on freedom of opinion and expression. He is concerned, however, at what he perceives to be a certain lack of appreciation of all the implications of the adequate promotion and protection of this right and regrets that at times bureaucratic explanations are provided in reply to his requests for information that appear to be designed to camouflage rather than to reveal problems and inadequacies in the protection of this right. He is aware that often there are no easy answers in cases where the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is called for, especially under circumstances in which the Government feels compelled to act for the purpose of protecting the legitimate interests of society, including those of public morality and national security. For these reasons and for the purpose of assisting all Governments to promote and protect the right to freedom of expression and to move expeditiously and effectively towards achieving this goal, the Special Rapporteur recommends that the Commission on Human Rights endorse the Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, which are contained in the annex to the present report and which the Special Rapporteur considers give useful guidance for protecting adequately the right to freedom of opinion, expression and information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1996-39-0155", "docId": "e-cn-4-1996-39", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1996, "idx": 155, "n": 155, "text": "The Special Rapporteur finds that the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression is not always adequately guaranteed through ratification by States of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and other relevant international instruments. In his opinion, such protection requires a continuous political commitment that includes implementation of specific policies and programmes. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur much regrets the existence of, sometimes prolonged, crises in which violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression are justified on the basis of outmoded notions of national security, manipulation by authoritarian regimes and the view expressed by some Governments that human rights are part of an alien culture not suited to being transposed to the countries they govern. The Special Rapporteur believes the effective implementation of the important mandate entrusted to him requires the pursuit of intellectually vigorous and novel approaches conducive to surmounting these and other problems on which he has reported to the Commission. If provided with the necessary support by the Commission, the Special Rapporteur is convinced he could more effectively assist in generating intellectual and political forces to achieve tangible progress in this field, including by stimulating public will and by building institutions to prevent violations from taking place. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur once again recommends that the Commission consider the question of financial and human resources in the light of the remarks contained in paragraph 6 of the present report and paragraphs 92 to 95 and 145 of his previous report (E/CN.4/1995/32).\nAnnex\nTHE JOHANNESBURG PRINCIPLES ON NATIONAL SECURITY, FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION AND ACCESS TO INFORMATION\nIntroduction\nThese Principles were adopted on 1 October 1995 by a group of experts in international law, national security and human rights convened by Article 19, the International Centre against Censorship, in collaboration with the Centre for Applied Legal Studies of the University of the Witwatersrand, which met in South Africa.\nThe Principles are based on international and regional law and standards relating to the protection of human rights, evolving state practice (as reflected, inter alia, in judgments of national courts), and the general principles of law recognized by the community of nations.\nThese Principles acknowledge the enduring applicability of the Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation Provisions in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the Paris Minimum Standards of Human Rights Norms in a State of Emergency. 1/\nPreamble\nThe participants involved in drafting the present Principles:\nConsidering that, in accordance with the principles proclaimed in the Charter of the United Nations, recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world;\nConvinced that it is essential, if people are not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law;\nReaffirming their belief that freedom of expression and freedom of information are vital to a democratic society and are essential for its progress and welfare and for the enjoyment of other human rights and fundamental freedoms;\nTaking into account relevant provisions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary, the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, the American Convention on Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights;\nKeenly aware that some of the most serious violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms are justified by Governments as necessary to protect national security;\nBearing in mind that it is imperative, if people are to be able to monitor the conduct of their Government and to participate fully in a democratic society, that they have access to government-held information;\nDesiring to promote a clear recognition of the limited scope of restrictions on freedom of expression and freedom of information that may be imposed in the interest of national security, so as to discourage Governments from using the pretext of national security to place unjustified restrictions on the exercise of these freedoms;\nRecognizing the necessity for legal protection of these freedoms by the enactment of laws drawn narrowly and with precision, and which ensure the essential requirements of the rule of law; and Reiterating the need for judicial protection of these freedoms by independent courts;\nAgree upon the following Principles and recommend that appropriate bodies at the national, regional and international levels undertake steps to promote their widespread dissemination, acceptance and implementation:\nI.\nGENERAL PRINCIPLES\nPrinciple 1. Freedom of opinion, expression and information\n(a) Everyone has the right to hold opinions without interference.\n(b) Everyone has the right to freedom of expression, which includes the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his or her choice.\n(c) The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph (b) may be subject to restrictions on specific grounds, as established in international law, including for the protection of national security.\n(d) No restriction on freedom of expression or information on the ground of national security may be imposed unless the Government can demonstrate that the restriction is prescribed by law and is necessary in a democratic society to protect a legitimate national security interest. 2/ The burden of demonstrating the validity of the restriction rests with the Government.\nPrinciple 1.1. Prescribed by law\n(a) Any restriction on expression or information must be prescribed by law. The law must be accessible, unambiguous, drawn narrowly and with precision so as to enable individuals to foresee whether a particular action is unlawful.\n(b) The law should provide for adequate safeguards against abuse, including prompt, full and effective judicial scrutiny of the validity of the restriction by an independent court or tribunal.\nPrinciple 1.2. Protection of a legitimate national security interest\nAny restriction on expression or information that a Government seeks to justify on grounds of national security must have the genuine purpose and demonstrable effect of protecting a legitimate national security interest.\nPrinciple 1.3. Necessary in a democratic society\nTo establish that a restriction on freedom of expression or information is necessary to protect a legitimate national security interest, a Government must demonstrate that:\n(a) The expression or information at issue poses a serious threat to a legitimate national security interest;\n(b) The restriction imposed is the least restrictive means possible of protecting that interest; and\n(c) The restriction is compatible with democratic principles.\nPrinciple 2. Legitimate national security interest\n(a) A restriction sought to be justified on the ground of national security is not legitimate unless its genuine purpose and demonstrable effect is to protect a country’s existence or its territorial integrity against the use or threat of force, or its capacity to respond to the use or threat of force, whether from an external source, such as a military threat, or an internal source, such as incitement to violent overthrow of the Government.\n(b) In particular, a restriction sought to be justified on the ground of national security is not legitimate if its genuine purpose or demonstrable effect is to protect interests unrelated to national security, including, for example, to protect a Government from embarrassment or exposure of wrongdoing, or to conceal information about the functioning of its public institutions, or to entrench a particular ideology, or to suppress industrial unrest.\nPrinciple 3. States of emergency\nIn time of public emergency which threatens the life of the country and the existence of which is officially and lawfully proclaimed in accordance with both national and international law, a State may impose restrictions on freedom of expression and information but only to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation and only when and for so long as they are not inconsistent with the Government’s other obligations under international law.\nPrinciple 4. Prohibition of discrimination\nIn no case may a restriction on freedom of expression or information, including on the ground of national security, involve discrimination based on race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, nationality, property, birth or other status.\nII.\nRESTRICTIONS ON FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION\nPrinciple 5. Protection of opinion\nNo one may be subjected to any sort of restraint, disadvantage or sanction because of his or her opinions or beliefs.\nPrinciple 6. Expression that may threaten national security\nSubject to Principles 15 and 16, expression may be punished as a threat to national security only if a Government can demonstrate:\n(a) That the expression is intended to incite imminent violence;\n(b) It is likely to incite such violence; and\n(c) There is a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the likelihood or occurrence of such violence.\nPrinciple 7. Protected expression\n(a) Subject to Principles 15 and 16, the peaceful exercise of the right to freedom of expression shall not be considered a threat to national security or subjected to any restrictions or penalties. Expression which shall not constitute a threat to national security includes, but is not limited to, expression that:\n(i) Advocates non-violent change of government policy or the Government itself;\n(ii) Constitutes criticism of, or insult to, the nation, the State or its symbols, the Government, its agencies, or public officials, 3/ or a foreign nation, State or its symbols, Government, agencies or public officials;\n(iii) Constitutes objection, or advocacy of objection, on grounds of religion, conscience or belief, to military conscription or service, a particular conflict, or the threat or use of force to settle international disputes;\n(iv) Is directed at communicating information about alleged violations of international human rights standards or international humanitarian law.\n(b) No one may be punished for criticizing or insulting the nation, the State or its symbols, the Government, its agencies or public officials, or a foreign nation, State or its symbols, Government, agency or public official unless the criticism or insult was intended and likely to incite imminent violence.\nPrinciple 8. Mere publicity of activities that may threaten national security\nExpression may not be prevented or punished merely because it transmits information issued by or about an organization that a Government has declared threatens national security or a related interest.\nPrinciple 9. Use of a minority or other language\nExpression, whether written or oral, can never be prohibited on the ground that it is in a particular language, especially the language of a national minority.\nPrinciple 10. Unlawful interference with expression by third parties\nGovernments are obliged to take reasonable measures to prevent private groups or individuals from interfering unlawfully with the peaceful exercise of freedom of expression, even where the expression is critical of the Government or its policies. In particular, Governments are obliged to condemn unlawful actions aimed at silencing freedom of expression, and to investigate and bring to justice those responsible.\nIII.\nRESTRICTIONS ON FREEDOM OF INFORMATION\nPrinciple 11. General rule on access to information\nEveryone has the right to obtain information from public authorities, including information relating to national security. No restriction on this right may be imposed on the ground of national security unless the Government can demonstrate that the restriction is prescribed by law and is necessary in a democratic society to protect a legitimate national security interest.\nPrinciple 12. Narrow designation of security exemption\nA State may not categorically deny access to all information related to national security, but must designate in law only those specific and narrow categories of information that it is necessary to withhold in order to protect a legitimate national security interest.\nPrinciple 13. Public interest in disclosure\nIn all laws and decisions concerning the right to obtain information, the public interest in knowing the information shall be a primary consideration.\nPrinciple 14. Right to independent review of denial of information\nThe State is obliged to adopt appropriate measures to give effect to the right to obtain information. These measures shall require the authorities, if they deny a request for information, to specify their reasons for doing so in writing and as soon as reasonably possible; and shall provide for a right of review of the merits and the validity of the denial by an independent authority, including some form of judicial review. The reviewing authority must have the right to examine the information withheld. 4/\nPrinciple 15. General rule on disclosure of secret information\nNo person may be punished on national security grounds for disclosure of information if (1) the disclosure does not actually harm and is not likely to harm a legitimate national security interest, or (2) the public interest in knowing the information outweighs the harm from disclosure.\nPrinciple 16. Information obtained through public service\nNo person may be subjected to any detriment on national security grounds for disclosing information that he or she learned by virtue of government service if the public interest in knowing the information outweighs the harm from disclosure.\nPrinciple 17. Information in the public domain\nOnce information has been made generally available, even through illegal means, any justification for trying to stop further publication will be overridden by the public’s right to know.\nPrinciple 18. Protection of journalists’ sources\nProtection of national security may not be used as a reason to compel a journalist to reveal a confidential source.\nPrinciple 19. Access to restricted areas\nAny restriction on the free flow of information may not be of such a nature as to thwart the purposes of human rights and humanitarian law. In particular, Governments may not prevent journalists or representatives of intergovernmental or non-governmental organizations with a mandate to monitor adherence to human rights or humanitarian standards from entering areas where there are reasonable grounds to believe that violations of human rights or humanitarian law are being, or have been, committed. A government may not exclude journalists or representatives of such organizations from areas that are experiencing violence or armed conflict except where their presence would pose a clear risk to the safety of others.\nIV.\nRULE OF LAW AND OTHER MATTERS\nPrinciple 20. General rule of law protections\nAny person accused of a security-related crime 5/ involving expression or information is entitled to all of the rule of law protections that are part of international law. These include, but are not limited to, the following rights: (a) the right to be presumed innocent; (b) the right not to be arbitrarily detained; (c) the right to be informed promptly in a language the person can understand of the charges and the supporting evidence against him or her; (d) the right to prompt access to counsel of choice; (e) the right to a trial within a reasonable time; (f) the right to have adequate time to prepare his or her defence; (g) the right to a fair and public trial by an independent and impartial court or tribunal; (h) the right to examine prosecution witnesses; (i) the right not to have evidence introduced at trial unless it has been disclosed to the accused and he or she has had an opportunity to rebut it; and (j) the right to appeal to an independent court or tribunal with power to review the decision on law and facts and set it aside.\nPrinciple 21. Remedies\nAll remedies, including special ones, such as habeas corpus or amparo, shall be available to persons charged with security-related crimes, including during public emergencies which threaten the life of the country, as defined in Principle 3.\nPrinciple 22. Right to trial by an independent tribunal\n(a) At the option of the accused, a criminal prosecution of a security-related crime should be tried by a jury where that institution exists or else by judges who are genuinely independent. The trial of persons accused of security-related crimes by judges without security of tenure constitutes prima facie a violation of the right to be tried by an independent tribunal.\n(b) In no case may a civilian be tried for a security-related crime by a military court or tribunal.\n(c) In no case may a civilian or member of the military be tried by an ad hoc or specially constituted national court or tribunal.\nPrinciple 23. Prior censorship\nExpression shall not be subject to prior censorship in the interest of protecting national security, except in time of public emergency which threatens the life of the country under the conditions stated in Principle 3.\nPrinciple 24. Disproportionate punishments\nA person, media outlet, political or other organization may not be subject to such sanctions, restraints or penalties for a security-related crime involving freedom of expression or information that are disproportionate to the seriousness of the actual crime.\nPrinciple 25. Relation of these Principles to other standards\nNothing in these Principles may be interpreted as restricting or limiting any human rights or freedoms recognized in international, regional or national law or standards.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "low", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Visible 'Article 19' references the NGO of that name; however SR Freedom of Expression mandate ICCPR is the relevant treaty for any genuine treaty-article reading. Keeping Sonnet's ICCPR with low confidence."}, {"article": "25", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "low", "source": "opus", "rationale": "ICCPR is the only explicit treaty mentioned; art. 25 (political participation) plausible but text basis is thin."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. At its forty-ninth session, the Commission on Human Rights requested its Chairman, in resolution 1993/45 of 5 March 1993, to appoint, for a period of three years, a special rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. In the same resolution the Commission on Human Rights requested the Special Rapporteur: to gather all relevant information, wherever it might occur, of discrimination against, threats or use of violence and harassment, including persecution and intimidation, directed at persons seeking to exercise or to promote the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression as affirmed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and, where applicable, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, taking into account the work being conducted by other mechanisms of the Commission and Sub-Commission which touched on that right, with a view to avoiding duplication of work; as a matter of high priority, to gather all relevant information, wherever it might occur, of discrimination against, threats or use of violence and harassment, including persecution and intimidation, against professionals in the field of information seeking to exercise or to promote the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression; to seek and receive credible and reliable information from governments and nongovernmental organizations and any other parties who have knowledge of these cases; and to submit to the Commission, beginning at its fiftieth session, a report covering the activities relating to his or her mandate, containing recommendations to the Commission and providing suggestions on ways and means to better promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression in all its manifestations.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The Commission on Human Rights urged all Governments to cooperate with and assist the Special Rapporteur in the performance of his or her tasks and to furnish all information requested, and requested the Secretary-General to provide the Special Rapporteur with all necessary assistance, in particular the staff and resources deemed necessary, within existing overall United Nations resources, to fulfil his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. On 2 April 1993 the Chairman of the Commission on Human Rights, following consultations with the Bureau of the forty-ninth session, appointed Mr. Abid Hussain (India) as Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The Economic and Social Council, in its decision 1993/268, of 28 July 1993 approved the Commission's decision to appoint a special rapporteur and its request to the Secretary-General to provide him with all necessary assistance. However, resources were made available to the Centre for Human Rights for the mandate only in November 1993. Therefore, the Special Rapporteur could initiate his work only at the end of 1993.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The present report thus contains only preliminary considerations that will be revised, refined or developed in subsequent reports. To that end the Special Rapporteur hopes that the necessary resources will be made available.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. In section I of the present report the Special Rapporteur presents considerations on the terms of reference that constitute the legal framework within which he will carry out his mandate. Section II sets out the methods of work that he envisages using in the fulfilment of his mandate. In section III the Special Rapporteur reflects upon the issue of resources. Finally, section IV contains his concluding observations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The Special Rapporteur considers that the effective promotion of the human rights of persons who exercise or seek to exercise the right to freedom of opinion and expression is of fundamental importance to the safeguarding of human dignity. The Special Rapporteur also notes that the right to freedom of opinion and expression is interrelated with and enhances the exercise of all other human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The Special Rapporteur, in promoting and protecting the right to freedom of opinion and expression, will be guided by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which affirms, in article 19, the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'guided by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which affirms, in article 19, the right to freedom of opinion and expression'. UDHR, non-treaty. ICCPR is mentioned in the next paragraph (context_after) as a separate reference, so this art.19 is solely UDHR."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The Special Rapporteur will take into consideration, where applicable, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which reaffirms, in article 19, the right of everyone to hold opinions without interference, as well as the right to freedom of expression, and states that the exercise of the right to freedom of expression carries with it special duties and responsibilities and may therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but that these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary for respect of the rights or reputations of others, or for the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health and morals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. The Special Rapporteur, in taking into consideration article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, will bear in mind General Comment 10 [19] (Article 19) of the Human Rights Committee (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1 of 19 May 1989), which states, inter alia, that the Covenant permits no exception or restriction to the right to hold opinions without interference. When, subject to conditions, certain restrictions on the exercise of freedom of expression are imposed, these may not put in jeopardy the right itself.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. The Special Rapporteur will bear in mind article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which states that any propaganda for war or any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. The Special Rapporteur will also bear in mind General Comment 11 [19] (Article 20) of the Human Rights Committee (CCPR/C/21/Rev.1 of 19 May 1989), which states, inter alia, that the required prohibitions are fully compatible with the right to freedom of expression as contained in article 19, the exercise of which carries with it special duties and responsibilities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. The Special Rapporteur takes note of resolution 1983/32 of 6 September 1983 of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities and of Commission on Human Rights resolutions 1984/26 of 12 March 1986, 1985/17 of 11 March 1985, 1986/46 of 12 March 1986, 1987/32 of 10 March 1987, 1988/37 and 1988/39 of 8 March 1988, 1989/31 of 6 March 1989, 1989/56 of 7 March 1989, 1990/32 of 2 March 1990, 1991/32 of 5 March 1991 and 1992/22 of 28 February 1992.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. The Special Rapporteur also takes note of several resolutions of the Commission on Human Rights in which special rapporteurs are asked to pay particular attention to a number of issues within the framework of their mandates or which refer to the right to freedom of opinion and expression. These include in particular the following: resolutions 1993/24, entitled \"Rights of persons belonging to national or ethnic, religious and linguistic minorities\", 1993/30, entitled \"International Year of the World's Indigenous People, 1993\", 1993/36, entitled \"Question of arbitrary detention\", 1993/39, entitled \"Staff members of the United Nations and of the specialized agencies in detention\", 1993/41, entitled \"Human rights in the administration of justice\", 1993/46, entitled \"Integrating the rights of women into the human rights mechanisms of the United Nations\", 1993/47, entitled \"Human rights and thematic procedures\", 1993/48, entitled \"Consequences for the enjoyment of human rights of acts of violence committed by armed groups that spread terror among the population and by drug traffickers\", 1993/59, entitled \"Strengthening of United Nations action in the field of human rights through the promotion of international cooperation, and the importance of nonselectivity, impartiality and objectivity\", and 1993/64, entitled \"Cooperation with representatives of United Nations human rights bodies\". The Special Rapporteur will strive, in the discharge of his mandate, to comply with the requests contained therein, whenever they are applicable to his mandate.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. In addition, the Special Rapporteur takes note of the preliminary report on the freedom of opinion and expression (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1990/11) and the updated preliminary report (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1991/9) submitted to the Sub-Commission at its forty-second and forty-third sessions, respectively, by the Special Rapporteurs, Mr. Louis Joinet and Mr. Danilo Türk.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur takes note of the final report on the right to freedom of opinion and expression (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1992/9) and the conclusions and recommendations (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1992/9/Add.1) submitted by the Special Rapporteurs to the Sub-Commission at its forty-fourth session.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The Special Rapporteur takes note of the reports of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention to the extent that they address concerns that are common to the two mandates. Particular attention will be paid to the criteria adopted by the Working Group to assess whether cases of detention would be considered arbitrary - the \"Principles applicable in the consideration of cases submitted to the Working Group\" (contained in Annex I to the first report of the Working Group to the Commission (E/CN.4/1992/20)), and in particular to category II of these Principles, in accordance with which are considered to be arbitrary: \"Cases of deprivation of freedom when the facts giving rise to the prosecution or conviction concern the exercise of the rights and freedoms protected by articles 7, 13, 14, 18, 19, 20 and 21 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and articles 12, 18, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26 and 27 of the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights.\" The Special Rapporteur also takes note of the pertinent conclusions reached by the Working Group in its second report to the Commission (E/CN.4/1993/24, paras. 35 and 36), and of the Working Group's decisions by which certain cases of detention are declared arbitrary as they fall within the above-mentioned category II dealing with violations of the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"article": "7", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicit UDHR list: 'articles 7, 13, 14, 18, 19, 20 and 21 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights'. Art.7 belongs to UDHR list. Non-treaty."}, {"article": "13", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same UDHR list. Non-treaty."}, {"article": "14", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same UDHR list. Non-treaty."}, {"article": "18", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same UDHR list (first occurrence of art.18 in UDHR list). Non-treaty."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same UDHR list (first occurrence of art.19). Non-treaty."}, {"article": "20", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same UDHR list. Non-treaty."}, {"article": "21", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same UDHR list (first occurrence of art.21). Non-treaty."}, {"article": "12", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicit ICCPR list: 'articles 12, 18, 19, 21, 22, 25, 26 and 27 of the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights'. Art.12 ICCPR = freedom of movement."}, {"article": "18", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second art.18 occurrence — belongs to ICCPR list. Art.18 ICCPR = freedom of thought/conscience/religion."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second art.19 occurrence — belongs to ICCPR list. Art.19 ICCPR = freedom of expression."}, {"article": "21", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second art.21 occurrence — belongs to ICCPR list. Art.21 ICCPR = right of peaceful assembly."}, {"article": "22", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "ICCPR list. Art.22 ICCPR = freedom of association."}, {"article": "25", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "ICCPR list. Art.25 ICCPR = right to political participation."}, {"article": "26", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "ICCPR list. Art.26 ICCPR = equality before the law."}, {"article": "27", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "ICCPR list. Art.27 ICCPR = rights of minorities."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned by numerous reports of detention of, as well as discrimination, threats and acts of violence and harassment, including persecution and intimidation, against professionals in the field of information, including journalists, editors, writers and authors, publishers and printers. Accordingly, a major concern of the Special Rapporteur is the protection of the rights and freedoms of professionals in the field of information.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. The protection of professionals in the field of information is a matter of high priority, but it does not exclude the protection of other persons referred to in paragraph 12 of Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/45.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The Special Rapporteur is aware that the concerns he is addressing are also of interest to other special rapporteurs and working groups, in particular as regards violations that fall within the purview of other thematic and country-specific mandates.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. The Special Rapporteur looks forward to periodic meetings with other special rapporteurs and representatives with experts and with members and chairmen of working groups that will enable them to harmonize and rationalize their work, as called for in the Joint Declaration of the Independent Experts Responsible for the Special Procedures for the Protection of Human Rights (A/CONF.157/9 of 18 June 1993).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Within this context it is important to recall that the right to freedom of opinion and expression should not be seen in isolation, but in the context of other human rights to which the right to freedom of opinion and expression is intrinsically linked.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. In adopting methods of work the Special Rapporteur will draw upon the practice established and experience acquired through the various thematic mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights, particularly those on enforced or involuntary disappearances, extrajudicial, arbitrary or summary executions, torture, religious intolerance, and arbitrary detention. He will adopt the methods and modalities that he deems most appropriate for his specific tasks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The Special Rapporteur is mandated to promote and protect the freedom of opinion and expression. This implies a combined approach that considers the general situation as well as concrete incidents and individual cases. Therefore, the work of the Special Rapporteur will involve both the study of phenomena related to the freedom of opinion and expression, and action on concrete incidents and cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. To that end the Commission on Human Rights has requested the Special Rapporteur to seek and receive credible and reliable information from governments, non-governmental organizations and any other parties who have knowledge of pertinent situations and cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. A wide and unrestricted range of sources is needed for operating effectively. Therefore, by a circular letter, the Special Rapporteur has contacted governments, specialized agencies, and non-governmental organizations which are concerned with the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and has sought pertinent information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. Upon the receipt of prima facie credible and reliable information, the Special Rapporteur will transmit the information to the government concerned and request it to provide comments and observations. In resolution 1993/47, the Commission on Human Rights encouraged governments to respond expeditiously to such requests so that the thematic special rapporteurs concerned might carry out their mandates effectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. The Special Rapporteur intends to adopt the urgent action procedure for cases that are of a life-threatening nature, used in several other special thematic procedures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. As of January 1994 the Special Rapporteur, owing to the large number of communications he has already received providing details of incidents and cases of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, has begun to transmit summaries of these cases to the governments concerned.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. The dialogue established with governments by the Special Rapporteur and the transmission of allegations concerning their countries in no way implies any kind of accusation or value judgment on the part of the Special Rapporteur, but rather a request for clarification with a view to trying to ensure, along with the government concerned, the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. The Special Rapporteur views on-site visits as an essential component of his mandate. With respect to such visits the consent of the government concerned is required. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur wishes to stress the importance of the proposals for joint missions of independent experts made in the Joint Declaration of the Independent Experts Responsible for the Special Procedures for the Protection of Human Rights (A/CONF.157/9).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The Special Rapporteur will endeavour to respond effectively to credible and reliable information coming before him, and to carry out his work with discretion and independence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Although this first report merely contains preliminary considerations, the Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned at the considerable number of communications he has already received that allege serious violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression throughout the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The cases contained in these communications give evidence of the urgent need for the effective promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. In view of the wealth and complexity of information pertaining to his mandate, as well as the fact that violations occur in almost all countries of the world, an objective and even-handed approach requires appropriate financial and human resources to fulfil his mandate. At a minimum, there should be one Professional in the Centre for Human Rights who is able to assist the Special Rapporteur on a full-time basis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. If these resources are not made available to the Special Rapporteur, he will not be able to carry out his work thoroughly and with the necessary degree of efficiency.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. The Commission on Human Rights, in resolution 1993/45, requested the Special Rapporteur to promote the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and he will do so through the conclusions and recommendations of subsequent reports.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The conclusions and recommendations will be action-oriented. The Special Rapporteur's experiences in practice will form their basis. Their object will be the better protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and their purpose the elimination of violations of this right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. At the same time, however, it seems to be unavoidable to touch on certain more theoretical questions in determining the nature and the scope of the right as a prerequisite for action. The Special Rapporteur will elaborate upon this component of his work in subsequent reports.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The Special Rapporteur intends to adopt a flexible and dynamic approach in which he considers different situations on their merits. Thus, attention will be paid to the question of admissible restrictions or derogations in an action-oriented manner that focuses on individual cases and specific circumstances. In general terms, however, it is to be recalled that such restrictions must meet certain criteria. They are: legitimacy, legality, proportionality and democratic necessity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Although such restrictions or derogations may also limit the freedom of the press, it is to be noted that there should be independent and democratic, that is to say pluralist, media, also in situations of conflict and tension. The Special Rapporteur will dwell on this issue in subsequent reports.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. The Special Rapporteur notes the urgent need for close cooperation with related mandates. In particular, with respect to the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on religious intolerance, there is a need for a clear conceptual distinction to be made between the freedom of thought, conscience and religion, and the freedom of opinion and expression. Special attention will be paid to this distinction in order to avoid unnecessary duplication of work and inconsistencies in the approach taken.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1994-33-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-1994-33", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes once more that effective action under his mandate to promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression can only be ensured with the adequate support of the Centre for Human Rights and the full cooperation of governments and non-governmental organizations. -----", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report analyses the implications of States’ surveillance of communications for the exercise of the human rights to privacy and to freedom of opinion and expression. While considering the impact of significant technological advances in communications, the report underlines the urgent need to further study new modalities of surveillance and to revise national laws regulating these practices in line with human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Innovations in technology have increased the possibilities for communication and protections of free expression and opinion, enabling anonymity, rapid information-sharing and cross-cultural dialogues. Technological changes have concurrently increased opportunities for State surveillance and interventions into individuals’ private communications.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. Concerns about national security and criminal activity may justify the exceptional use of communications surveillance technologies. However, national laws regulating what would constitute the necessary, legitimate and proportional State involvement in communications surveillance are often inadequate or non-existent. Inadequate national legal frameworks create a fertile ground for arbitrary and unlawful infringements of the right to privacy in communications and, consequently, also threaten the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. In previous reports (A/HRC/17/27 and A/66/290), the Special Rapporteur has analysed the unprecedented impact of the Internet on expanding the possibilities of individuals to exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression. He expressed concerns at the multiple measures taken by States to prevent or restrict the flow of information online, and highlighted the inadequate protection of the right to privacy in the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Building on his previous analysis, the aim of this report is to identify the risks that the new means and modalities of communications surveillance pose to human rights, including the right to privacy and the freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The following terms are used in this report to describe the most common modalities of surveillance of communications:\n(a) Communications surveillance: the monitoring, interception, collection, preservation and retention of information that has been communicated, relayed or generated over communications networks;\n(b) Communications data: information about an individual’s communications (e-mails, phone calls and text messages sent and received, social networking messages and posts), identity, network accounts, addresses, websites visited, books and other materials read, watched or listened to, searches conducted, resources used, interactions (origins and destinations of communications, people interacted with, friends, family, acquaintances), and times and locations of an individual, including proximity to others);\n(c) Internet filtering: automated or manual monitoring of Internet content (including websites, blogs and online media sources, as well as e-mail) to restrict or suppress particular text, images, websites, networks, protocols, services or activities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. During the reporting period, the Special Rapporteur participated in multiple international and national events related to the issues he addressed in his previous reports such as freedom of expression in the Internet, prevention of hate speech, and the protection of journalists. He paid particular attention to national initiatives promoting the protection of journalists; in this regard, he participated in meetings on initiatives developed in Brazil, Colombia, Honduras and Mexico. He also participated in the \"United Nations Inter-Agency Meeting on the Safety of Journalists and the Issues of Impunity\", held in November 2012 in Vienna.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. His last report to the United Nations General Assembly focused on prevention of hate speech and incitement to hatred.[[fn:1]] The same topic was addressed in a side event to the General Assembly jointly organized by the Special Rapporteur and the Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide in February 2013. In the same month, he further addressed these issues in the launch of the “Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence” in Geneva and in the Fifth United Nations Alliance of Civilizations Global Forum in Vienna.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A/67/357."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Honduras from 7 to 14 August 2012. His main findings and recommendations on this visit can be found in the addendum to this report (A/HRC/20/40/Add.1). He was invited by the Indonesian Government to visit the country in January 2013. Regrettably, the Government requested the visit to be postponed and new dates for the visit are yet to be confirmed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. For the preparation of this report, the Special Rapporteur revised relevant studies and consulted with experts on matters related to the surveillance of communications. In December 2012, he participated in the Workshop on Electronic Surveillance and Human Rights organized by the Electronic Frontier Foundation. In February 2013, he organized an expert consultation for the preparation of this report which took place in parallel to the activities of the \"World Summit on the Information Society+10 Meeting\" held at the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Paris, where he also participated in the opening plenary panel.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Innovations in technology have facilitated increased possibilities for communication and freedom of expression, enabling anonymity, rapid information sharing, and cross-cultural dialogues. At the same time, changes in technologies have also provided new opportunities for State surveillance and intervention into individuals’ private lives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The evolution of technology of surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. From the inception of the first form of remote communications, States have sought to intercept and monitor individuals’ private communications to serve law enforcement and national security interests. Through communications, the most personal and intimate information, including about an individual’s or group’s past or future actions, can be revealed. Communications represent a valuable source of evidence upon which the State can draw to prevent or prosecute serious crimes or forestall potential national security emergencies.", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The evolution of technology of surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Innovations in technology throughout the twentieth century changed the nature and implications of communication surveillance. The means by, and frequency with which people are able to communicate expanded significantly. The transition from fixed-line telephone systems to mobile telecommunication and the declining costs of communications services resulted in dramatic growth in telephone usage. The advent of the Internet saw the birth of a number of new tools and applications to communicate at no cost, or at very affordable rates. These advancements have enabled greater connectivity, facilitated the global flow of information and ideas, and increased the opportunities for economic growth and societal change.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The evolution of technology of surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. As information and communication technologies evolved, so did the means by which States sought to monitor private communications. With increased use of telephones came the use of wiretapping, which consists of placing a tap on a telephone wire to listen to private phone conversations. With the replacement of analogue telephone networks with fibre optics and digital switches in the 1990s, States redesigned the networking technology to include interception capabilities (“backdoors”) to permit State surveillance, rendering modern telephone networks remotely accessible and controllable.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The evolution of technology of surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. The dynamic nature of technology has not only changed how surveillance can be carried out, but also “what” can be monitored. In enabling the creation of various opportunities for communication and information-sharing, the Internet has also facilitated the development of large amounts of transactional data by and about individuals. This information, known as communications data or metadata, includes personal information on individuals, their location and online activities, and logs and related information about the e-mails and messages they send or receive. Communications data are storable, accessible and searchable, and their disclosure to and use by State authorities are largely unregulated. Analysis of this data can be both highly revelatory and invasive, particularly when data is combined and aggregated. As such, States are increasingly drawing on communications data to support law enforcement or national security investigations. States are also compelling the preservation and retention of communication data to enable them to conduct historical surveillance.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The evolution of technology of surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Changes in technology have been paralleled by changes in attitudes towards communications surveillance. When the practice of official wiretapping first commenced in the United States of America, it was conducted on a restricted basis, and was only reluctantly sanctioned by the courts.[[fn:2]] It was viewed as such a serious threat to the right to privacy that its use had to be restricted to detecting and prosecuting the most serious crimes. Over time, however, States have expanded their powers to conduct surveillance, lowering the threshold and increasing the justifications for such surveillance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The evolution of technology of surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "In the first judicial validation of wiretapping, Justice Brandeis of the United States Supreme Court wrote a scathing dissent that noted that wiretapping was a “subtler and more far-reaching means of invading privacy” that could not be justified under the Constitution. In a chillingly accurate forecast, the eminent jurist predicted: “Ways may some day be developed by which the government, without removing papers from secret drawers, can reproduce them in court, and by which it will be enabled to expose to a jury the most intimate occurrence of the home. Advances in the psychic and related sciences may bring means of exploring unexpressed beliefs, thoughts and emotions.” Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438 (1928)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. In many countries, existing legislation and practices have not been reviewed and updated to address the threats and challenges of communications surveillance in the digital age. Traditional notions of access to written correspondence, for example, have been imported into laws permitting access to personal computers and other information and communications technologies, without consideration of the expanded uses of such devices and the implications for individuals’ rights. At the same time, the absence of laws to regulate global communications surveillance and sharing arrangements has resulted in ad hoc practices that are beyond the supervision of any independent authority. Today, in many States, access to communications data can be conducted by a wide range of public bodies for a wide range of purposes, often without judicial authorization and independent oversight. In addition, States have sought to adopt surveillance arrangements that purport to have extra-territorial effect.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The evolution of technology of surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Human rights mechanisms have been equally slow to assess the human rights implications of the Internet and new technologies on communications surveillance and access to communications data. The consequences of expanding States’ surveillance powers and practices for the rights to privacy and freedom of opinion and expression, and the interdependence of those two rights, have yet to be comprehensively considered by the Human Rights Council, special procedures mandate holders or human rights treaty bodies. This report seeks to rectify this.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The evolution of technology of surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is guaranteed under articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which affirm that everyone has the right to hold opinions without interference, and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds through any media and regardless of frontiers. At the regional level, the right is protected by the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (art. 9), the American Convention on Human Rights (art. 13); and the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (art. 10).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "medium", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'. Dual citation, but regex extracted as ICCPR and Sonnet resolved as ICCPR. Conservative keep; note Sonnet's resolution of similar dual patterns elsewhere (Records 7, 8) is AMBIGUOUS — inconsistency, but conservative principle favors keeping Sonnet's call here."}, {"article": "9", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (art. 9)'. Regional instrument outside the allowed list."}, {"article": "13", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'American Convention on Human Rights (art. 13)'. Regional instrument outside the allowed list."}, {"article": "10", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (art. 10)' = ECHR. Regional instrument outside the allowed list."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. At both the international and regional levels, privacy is also unequivocally recognized as a fundamental human right. The right to privacy is enshrined by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (art. 12), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR, art. 17), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (art. 16), and the International Convention on the Protection of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (art. 14). At the regional level, the right to privacy is protected by the European Convention on Human Rights (art. 8) and the American Convention on Human Rights (art. 11).", "labels": ["Migrants", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "12", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'Universal Declaration of Human Rights (art. 12)' — non-treaty."}, {"article": "17", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR, art. 17)'."}, {"article": "16", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'Convention on the Rights of the Child (art. 16)'."}, {"article": "14", "treaty": "CMW", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'International Convention on the Protection of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (art. 14)'."}, {"article": "8", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'European Convention on Human Rights (art. 8)' — regional."}, {"article": "11", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'American Convention on Human Rights (art. 11)' — regional."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Despite the widespread recognition of the obligation to protect privacy, the specific content of this right was not fully developed by international human rights protection mechanisms at the time of its inclusion in the above-mentioned human rights instruments. The lack of explicit articulation of the content of this right has contributed to difficulties in its application and enforcement.[[fn:3]] As the right to privacy is a qualified right, its interpretation raises challenges with respect to what constitutes the private sphere and in establishing notions of what constitutes public interest. The rapid and monumental changes to communications and information technologies experienced in recent decades have also irreversibly affected our understandings of the boundaries between private and public spheres.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "UNESCO, Global Survey on Internet Privacy and Freedom of Expression, 2012, p. 51."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Privacy can be defined as the presumption that individuals should have an area of autonomous development, interaction and liberty, a “private sphere” with or without interaction with others, free from State intervention and from excessive unsolicited intervention by other uninvited individuals.[[fn:4]] The right to privacy is also the ability of individuals to determine who holds information about them and how is that information used.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Lord Lester and D. Pannick (eds.). Human Rights Law and Practice. London, Butterworth, 2004, para. 4.82."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. In order for individuals to exercise their right to privacy in communications, they must be able to ensure that these remain private, secure and, if they choose, anonymous. Privacy of communications infers that individuals are able to exchange information and ideas in a space that is beyond the reach of other members of society, the private sector, and ultimately the State itself. Security of communications means that individuals should be able to verify that their communications are received only by their intended recipients, without interference or alteration, and that the communications they receive are equally free from intrusion. Anonymity of communications is one of the most important advances enabled by the Internet, and allows individuals to express themselves freely without fear of retribution or condemnation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. The right to privacy is often understood as an essential requirement for the realization of the right to freedom of expression. Undue interference with individuals’ privacy can both directly and indirectly limit the free development and exchange of ideas. Restrictions of anonymity in communication, for example, have an evident chilling effect on victims of all forms of violence and abuse, who may be reluctant to report for fear of double victimization. In this regard, article 17 of ICCPR refers directly to the protection from interference with “correspondence”, a term that should be interpreted to encompass all forms of communication, both online and offline.[[fn:5]] As the Special Rapporteur noted in a previous report,[[fn:6]] the right to private correspondence gives rise to a comprehensive obligation of the State to ensure that e-mails and other forms of online communication are actually delivered to the desired recipient without the interference or inspection by State organs or by third parties.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework", "A. Interrelations between the rights to privacy to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "ICCPR commentary, p.401."}, {"n": 6, "text": "A/HRC/17/23."}, {"n": 7, "text": "ICCPR commentary, p.401."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The Human Rights Committee analysed the content of the right to privacy (art. 17) in its General Comment No. 16 (1988), according to which article 17 aims to protect individuals from any unlawful and arbitrary interferences with their privacy, family, home, or correspondence, and national legal frameworks must provide for the protection of this right. This provision imposes specific obligations relating to the protection of privacy in communications, underlining that “correspondence should be delivered to the addressee without interception and without being opened or otherwise read. “Surveillance, whether electronic or otherwise, interceptions of telephonic, telegraphic and other forms of communication, wire-tapping and recording of conversations, should be prohibited.”[[fn:8]] The General Comment also indicates that “the gathering and holding of personal information on computers, data banks and other devices, whether by public authorities or private individuals or bodies, must be regulated by law.”[[fn:9]] At the time this General Comment was adopted, the impact of advances in information and communications technologies on the right to privacy was barely understood.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework", "A. Interrelations between the rights to privacy to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Centre for Civil and Political Rights (CCPR) General Comment No. 16. (General Comments), p.8."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Ibid., p.10."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. In its General Comment No. 34 (2011) on the right to freedom of expression, the Human Rights Committee indicated that States parties should take account of the extent to which developments in information and communication technologies have substantially changed communication practices. The Committee also called on States parties to take all necessary steps to foster the independence of these new media. The General Comment also analyses the relationship between the protection of privacy and freedom of expression, and recommends that States parties respect that element of the right of freedom of expression that embraces the limited journalistic privilege not to disclose information sources.[[fn:10]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework", "A. Interrelations between the rights to privacy to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "CCPR General Comment No. 34."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Tensions also exist between the right to privacy and the right to freedom of expression, for example, when information considered to be private is disseminated through the media. In this sense, article 19 (3) provides for restrictions on freedom of expression and information to protect the rights of others. However, as it happens for all permissible limitations to the right to freedom of expression (see below), the principle of proportionality must be strictly observed, since there is otherwise danger that freedom of expression would be undermined. Particularly in the political arena, not every attack on the good reputation of politicians must be permitted, since freedom of expression and information would otherwise be stripped of their crucial importance for the process of forming political opinions,[[fn:11]] advocating for transparency and combating corruption The international jurisprudence at regional level indicates that in situations of conflict between privacy and freedom of expression, reference should be made to the overall public interest on the matters reported.[[fn:12]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework", "A. Interrelations between the rights to privacy to freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Nowak, Manfred, United Nations Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: CCPR Commentary (1993), p.462"}, {"n": 12, "text": "UNESCO, Global Survey on Internet Privacy and Freedom of Expression, 2012, pp. 53 and 99."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The framework of article 17 of the ICCPR enables necessary, legitimate and proportionate restrictions to the right to privacy by means of permissible limitations. In contrast with the provisions of article 19, paragraph 3, which spell out elements of a test for permissible limitations,[[fn:13]] the formulation of article 17 does not contain a limitation clause. Despite these differences in wording, it is understood that article 17 of the Covenant should also be interpreted as containing elements of a permissible limitations test already described in other General Comments of the Human Rights Committee.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework", "B. Permissible limitations to privacy and freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Lists of permissible limitations are also included in art. 12, (3), on the right to liberty of movement and freedom to choose his residence; art. 18, (3), on the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; art. 21, on the right of peaceful assembly; and art. 22, (2), on the right to freedom of association."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Ibid."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur takes the position that the right to privacy should be subject to the same permissible limitations test as the right to freedom of movement, as elucidated in General Comment 27.[[fn:15]] The test as expressed in the comment includes, inter alia, the following elements:\n(a) Any restrictions must be provided by the law (paras. 11-12);\n(b) The essence of a human right is not subject to restrictions (para. 13);\n(c) Restrictions must be necessary in a democratic society (para. 11);\n(d) Any discretion exercised when implementing the restrictions must not be unfettered (para. 13);\n(e) For a restriction to be permissible, it is not enough that it serves one of the enumerated legitimate aims. It must be necessary for reaching the legitimate aim (para. 14);\n(f) Restrictive measures must conform to the principle of proportionality, they must be appropriate to achieve their protective function, they must be the least intrusive instrument amongst those which might achieve the desired result, and they must be proportionate to the interest to be protected (paras. 14-15).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework", "B. Permissible limitations to privacy and freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See also CCPR General Comment No. 34."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. In previous reports, the Special Rapporteur has assessed the impact of the Internet on the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression (A/HRC/17/27 and A/66/290). He noted that, while Internet users can enjoy relative anonymity on the Internet, States and private actors also have access to new technologies to monitor and collect information about individuals’ communications and activities. Such technologies have the potential to violate the right to privacy, thereby undermining people’s confidence and security on the Internet and impeding the free flow of information and ideas online. The Special Rapporteur urged States to adopt effective privacy and data protection laws in accordance with human rights standards, and to adopt all appropriate measures to ensure that individuals can express themselves anonymously online.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework", "C. Recent considerations by international mechanisms for the protection of human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "A/HRC/17/27, p.22."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Other Special Procedures mandate holders considered the issue of interferences with the right to privacy. The Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism studied developments in surveillance practices and technologies that have adversely affected the right to privacy using the justification of combating terrorism.[[fn:17]] The Special Rapporteur underscored that these measures have not only led to violations of the right to privacy, but have also had an impact on due process rights and the rights to freedom of movement, freedom of association and freedom of expression. He urged Governments to articulate in detail how their surveillance policies uphold the principles of proportionality and necessity, in accordance with international human rights standards, and what measures have been taken to protect against abuse. The Special Rapporteur also called for the adoption of comprehensive data protection and privacy laws and the establishment of strong independent oversight bodies mandated to review the use of intrusive surveillance techniques and the processing of personal information. He further called for research and development resources to be devoted to privacy-enhancing technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework", "C. Recent considerations by international mechanisms for the protection of human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "A/HRC/13/37."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Other human rights protection mechanisms have also recently paid attention to the impact of the surveillance of communications on the protection of the rights to privacy and freedom of expression. The Human Rights Committee voiced concerns, for example, at allegations of State monitoring the use of the Internet and blocking access to some websites[[fn:18]] and recommended the review of legislation providing the executive with wide powers of surveillance in respect of electronic communications.[[fn:19]] The Universal Periodic Review has also included recommendations to ensure, for example, that legislation relating to the Internet and other new communication technologies respects international human rights obligations.[[fn:20]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework", "C. Recent considerations by international mechanisms for the protection of human rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "CCPR/C/IRN/CO/3."}, {"n": 19, "text": "CCPR/C/SWE/CO/6."}, {"n": 20, "text": "A/HRC/14/10."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Modern surveillance technologies and arrangements that enable States to intrude into an individual’s private life threaten to blur the divide between the private and the public spheres. They facilitate invasive and arbitrary monitoring of individuals, who may not be able to even know they have been subjected to such surveillance, let alone challenge it. Technological advancements mean that the State’s effectiveness in conducting surveillance is no longer limited by scale or duration. Declining costs of technology and data storage have eradicated financial or practical disincentives to conducting surveillance. As such, the State now has a greater capability to conduct simultaneous, invasive, targeted and broad-scale surveillance than ever before.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. States have access to a number of different techniques and technologies to conduct communications surveillance of a targeted individual’s private communications. Real-time interception capabilities allow States to listen to and record the phone calls of any individual using a fixed line or mobile telephone, through the use of interception capabilities for State surveillance that all communications networks are required to build into their systems.[[fn:21]] An individual’s location can be ascertained, and their text messages read and recorded. By placing a tap on an Internet cable relating to a certain location or person, State authorities can also monitor an individual’s online activity, including the websites he or she visits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "A. Targeted communications surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "See, for example, the United States Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act 1994 (United States); Telecommunications Act 1997, Part 15 (Australia); Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000, ss12-14 (United Kingdom); Telecommunications (Interception Capability) Act 2004."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. Access to the stored content of an individual’s e-mails and messages, in addition to other related communications data, can be obtained through Internet companies and service providers. The initiative of the European standards-setting authority, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute, to compel cloud providers[[fn:22]] to build “lawful interception capabilities” into cloud technology to enable State authorities to have direct access to content stored by these providers, including e-mails, messages and voicemails, raises concerns.[[fn:23]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "A. Targeted communications surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "A cloud provider offers services of networked online storage of data."}, {"n": 23, "text": "ETSI DTR 101 567 VO.0.5 (2012-14), Draft Technical Report: Lawful Interception (LI); Cloud/Virtual Services (CLI)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. States can track the movements of specific mobile phones, identify all individuals with a mobile phone within a designated area, and intercept calls and text messages, through various methods. Some States use off-the-air mobile monitoring devices called International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) catchers, which can be installed in a location temporarily (such as at a protest or march) or permanently (such as at an airport or other border crossings). These catchers imitate a mobile phone tower by sending and responding to mobile phone signals in order to extract the unique subscriber identification module (SIM) card number of all mobile phones within a certain territory.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "A. Targeted communications surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. States are also increasingly acquiring software that can be used to infiltrate an individual’s computer, mobile phone or other digital device.[[fn:24]] Offensive intrusion software, including so-called “Trojans” (also known as spyware or malware), can be used to turn on the microphone or camera of a device, to track the activity conducted on the device, and to access, alter or delete any information stored on the device. Such software enables a State to have complete control of the device infiltrated, and is virtually undetectable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "A. Targeted communications surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Toby Mendel, Andrew Puddephatt, Ben Wagner, Dixi Hawtin, and Natalia Torres, Global Survey on Internet Privacy and Freedom of Expression, UNESCO Series on Internet Freedom (2012), p. 41."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Costs and logistical hurdles to conduct surveillance on a mass scale continue to decline rapidly, as technologies allowing for broad interception, monitoring and analysis of communications proliferate. Today, some States have the capability to track and record Internet and telephone communications on a national scale. By placing taps on the fibre-optic cables, through which the majority of digital communication information flows, and applying word, voice and speech recognition, States can achieve almost complete control of tele- and online communications. Such systems were reportedly adopted, for example, by the Egyptian and Libyan Governments in the lead-up to the Arab Spring.[[fn:25]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "B. Mass communications surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies, Policy Department, After the Arab Spring: New Paths for Human Rights and the Internet in European Foreign Policy (2012), pp. 9-10."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. In many States, mandatory data retention is facilitating massive collection of communications data that can later be filtered and analysed. Technologies enable the State to scan phone calls and text messages to identify the use of certain words, voices or phrases, or filter Internet activity to determine when an individual visits certain websites or accesses particular online resources. “Black boxes” can be designed to inspect the data flowing through the Internet in order to filter through and deconstruct all information about online activity. This method, called “deep-packet inspection”, allows the State to go beyond gaining simple knowledge about the sites that individuals visit, and instead analyse the content of websites visited. Deep-packed inspection, for example, has been reportedly employed by States confronted with recent popular uprisings in the Middle East and North Africa region.[[fn:26]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "B. Mass communications surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Mendel et al., op. cit., p. 43."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Another tool used regularly by States today is social media monitoring. States have the capacity physically to monitor activities on social networking sites, blogs and media outlets to map connections and relationships, opinions and associations, and even locations. States can also apply highly sophisticated data mining technologies to publicly available information or to communications data provided by third party service providers. At a more basic level, States have also acquired technical means to obtain usernames and passwords from social networking sites such as Facebook.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "B. Mass communications surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "European Parliament, op. cit., p. 6."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. In addition to intercepting and tracking the content of individuals’ communications, States may also seek access to communications data held by third party service providers and Internet companies. As the private sector collects progressively larger amounts of varied data that reveal sensitive information about peoples’ daily lives, and individuals and businesses choose to store the content of their communications, such as voicemails, e-mails and documents, with third party service providers, access to communications data is an increasingly valuable surveillance technique employed by States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "C. Access to communications data"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The communications data collected by third party service providers, including large Internet companies, can be used by the State to compose an extensive profile of concerned individuals. When accessed and analysed, even seemingly innocuous transactional records about communications can collectively create a profile of individual's private life, including medical conditions, political and religious viewpoints and/or affiliation, interactions and interests, disclosing as much detail as, or even greater detail than would be discernible from the content of communications alone.[[fn:28]] By combining information about relationships, location, identity and activity, States are able to track the movement of individuals and their activities across a range of different areas, from where they travel to where they study, what they read or whom they interact with.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "C. Access to communications data"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Alberto Escudero-Pascual and Gus Hosein, “Questioning lawful access to traffic data”, Communications of the ACM, Volume 47 Issue 3, March 2004, pp. 77–82."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Instances of access to communications data by States are growing rapidly. In the three years that Google has been reporting the numbers of requests for communications data it receives, such requests have almost doubled, from 12,539 in the last six months of 2009, to 21,389 in the last six months of 2012.[[fn:29]] In the United Kingdom, where law enforcement authorities are empowered to self-authorize their own requests for communications information, approximately 500,000 such requests were reported every year.[[fn:30]] In the Republic of Korea, a country of nearly 50 million people, there are approximately 37 million requests for communications data reported every year.[[fn:31]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "C. Access to communications data"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See http://www.google.com/transparencyreport/userdatarequests/."}, {"n": 30, "text": "See http://www.intelligencecommissioners.com/docs/0496.pdf."}, {"n": 31, "text": "Money Today, 23 October, 2012, citing the disclosure made by the Korean Communication Commission for the Annual National Audit of 2013 to Assemblywoman Yoo Seung-Hui, http://www.mt.co.kr/view/mtview.php?type=1&no=2012102309430241764&outlink=1."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Advances in technology have not only facilitated interception of and access to communications in specific cases, but have also enabled States to conduct widespread, even nationwide, filtering of online activity. In many countries, Internet filtering is conducted under the guise of maintaining social harmony or eradicating hate speech, but is in fact used to eradicate dissent, criticism or activism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "D. Internet filtering and censorship"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. Filtering technologies mentioned above also facilitate the monitoring of web activity in order to enable the State to detect forbidden images, words, site addresses or other content, and censor or alter it. States can use such technologies to detect the use of specific words and phrases, in order to censor or regulate their use, or identify the individuals using them. In countries with high levels of Internet penetration, Internet filtering reportedly enables the censorship of website content and communications and facilitates the surveillance of human rights defenders and activists.[[fn:32]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "D. Internet filtering and censorship"], "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies, Policy Department, After the Arab Spring: New Paths for Human Rights and the Internet in European Foreign Policy (2012), p. 12."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. In addition to technologies that facilitate filtering and censorship, many States are conducting manual Internet filtering, by creating online police forces and inspectors in order to physically monitor the content of websites, social networks, blogs and other forms of media. In some States, “cyber police forces” are tasked with inspecting and controlling the Internet, searching websites and critical nodes within websites (particularly online discussion forums) with a view to block or shut down websites whenever they contain content the Government disapproves of, including or criticism of the country’s leadership. The burden of such policing is transferred to private intermediaries, such as search engines and social network platforms, through laws that widen liability for proscribed content from the original speaker to all intermediaries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "D. Internet filtering and censorship"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. One of the most important advances facilitated by the advent of the Internet was the ability to anonymously access and impart information, and to communicate securely without having to be identified. Initially, this was possible given that there was no “identity layer” to the Internet; originally, it was not possible to know who was behind a specific communication, e-mail address, or even a given computer. However, in the name of security and law enforcement, gradually States have been eradicating the opportunities for anonymous communication. In many States, individuals must identify themselves at cybercafés and have their transactions on public computers recorded. Increasingly, identification and registration are also required when buying a SIM card or mobile telephone device, for visiting certain major websites, or for making comments on media sites or blogs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "E. Restrictions on anonymity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Restrictions on anonymity facilitate State communications surveillance by simplifying the identification of individuals accessing or disseminating prohibited content, making such individuals more vulnerable to other forms of State surveillance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "E. Restrictions on anonymity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. In this sense, restrictions on anonymity have a chilling effect, dissuading the free expression of information and ideas. They can also result in individuals’ de facto exclusion from vital social spheres, undermining their rights to expression and information, and exacerbating social inequalities. Furthermore, restrictions on anonymity allow for the collection and compilation of large amounts of data by the private sector, placing a significant burden and responsibility on corporate actors to protect the privacy and security of such data.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Modalities of communications surveillance", "E. Restrictions on anonymity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Generally, legislation has not kept pace with the changes in technology. In most States, legal standards are either non-existent or inadequate to deal with the modern communications surveillance environment. As a result, States are increasingly seeking to justify the use of new technologies within the ambits of old legal frameworks, without recognizing that the expanded capabilities they now possess go far beyond what such frameworks envisaged. In many countries, this means that vague and broadly conceived legal provisions are being invoked to legitimize and sanction the use of seriously intrusive techniques. Without explicit laws authorizing such technologies and techniques, and defining the scope of their use, individuals are not able to foresee – or even know about – their application. At the same time, laws are being adopted to broaden the breadth of national security exceptions, providing for the legitimization of intrusive surveillance techniques without oversight or independent review.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Inadequate legal standards increase the risk of individuals being exposed to violation of their human rights, including the right to privacy and the right to freedom of expression. They also have an adverse impact on certain groups of individuals – for example, members of certain political parties, trade unionists or national, ethnic and linguistic minorities – who may be more vulnerable to State communications surveillance. Without strong legal protections in place, journalists, human rights defenders and political activists risk being subjected to arbitrary surveillance activities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Surveillance of human rights defenders in many countries has been well documented. On these occasions, human rights defenders and political activists report having their phone calls and e-mails monitored, and their movements tracked. Journalists are also particularly vulnerable to becoming targets of communications surveillance because of their reliance on online communication. In order to receive and pursue information from confidential sources, including whistleblowers, journalists must be able to rely on the privacy, security and anonymity of their communications. An environment where surveillance is widespread, and unlimited by due process or judicial oversight, cannot sustain the presumption of protection of sources. Even a narrow, non-transparent, undocumented, executive use of surveillance may have a chilling effect without careful and public documentation of its use, and known checks and balances to prevent its misuse.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The following subsections list common concerns regarding laws that allow State surveillance of communications surveillance in circumstances that threaten the rights to freedom of expression and privacy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Whereas traditionally communications surveillance was required to be authorized by the judiciary, increasingly this requirement is being weakened or removed. In some countries, interception of communications can be authorized by a governmental minister, their delegate, or a committee. In the United Kingdom, for example, interception of communications is authorized by the Secretary of State;[[fn:33]] in Zimbabwe, interception of communications is authorized by the Minister for Transport and Communication.[[fn:34]] Progressively, communications surveillance can also be authorized on a broad and indiscriminate basis, without the need for law enforcement authorities to establish the factual basis for the surveillance on a case-by-case basis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "A. Lack of judicial oversight"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "Section 5, Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000."}, {"n": 34, "text": "Section 5, Interception of Communications Act 2006."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Many States have dispensed with the need for law enforcement agencies to return to the court for ongoing supervision after an interception order is issued. Under the Kenyan Prevention of Terrorism Act 2012, for example, interception of communications can be conducted over an indefinite period of time, without any requirement that law enforcement agencies report back to a court or seek an extension. Some States impose time limits on the execution of interception orders but enable law enforcement authorities to renew such orders repeatedly and indefinitely.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "A. Lack of judicial oversight"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Even when judicial authorization is required by law, often it is de facto an arbitrary approval of law enforcement requests. This is particularly the case where the threshold required to be established by law enforcement is low. For example, the Ugandan Regulation of Interception of Communications Act 2010 only requires law enforcement authorities to demonstrate that “reasonable” grounds exist to allow the interception to take place. In such instances, the burden of proof to establish the necessity for surveillance is extremely low, given the potential for surveillance to result in investigation, discrimination or violations of human rights. In other countries, a complex array of laws authorizes access to and surveillance of communications under a range of different circumstances. In Indonesia, for example, the Psychotropic Law, Narcotics Law, Electronic Information and Transaction Law, Telecommunications Law and the Corruption Law all contain communications surveillance components. In the United Kingdom, over 200 agencies, police forces and prison authorities are authorized to acquire communications data under the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act, 2000. As a result, it is difficult for individuals to foresee when and by which State agency they might be subjected to surveillance.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "A. Lack of judicial oversight"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. In many States, communication service providers are being compelled to modify their infrastructure to enable direct surveillance, eliminating the opportunity for judicial oversight. For example, in 2012 the Colombian Ministries of Justice, and Information and Communication Technologies, issued a decree that required telecommunication service providers to put in place infrastructure allowing direct access to communications by judicial police, without an order from the Attorney General.[[fn:35]] The above-mentioned Uganda’s Regulation of Interception of Communications Act 2010 (s3) provides for the establishment of a monitoring centre and mandates that telecommunications providers ensure that intercepted communications are transmitted to the monitoring centre (s8(1)(f)). The Government of India is proposing to install a Centralized Monitoring System that will route all communications to the central Government, allowing security agencies to bypass interaction with the service provider.[[fn:36]] Such arrangements take communications surveillance out of the realm of judicial authorization and allow unregulated, secret surveillance, eliminating any transparency or accountability on the part of the State.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "A. Lack of judicial oversight"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "Ministries of Justice and ICTs Decree 1704. Rooted in the Criminal Procedure Code of 2004."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Department of Communications. Government of India. Annual Report 2011-2012 pg. 58 – http://www.dot.gov.in/annualreport/AR%20Englsih%2011-12.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Vague and unspecified notions of “national security” have become an acceptable justification for the interception of and access to communications in many countries. In India, for example, the Information Technology Act of 2008 allows interception of communications in the interest of, inter alia, “the sovereignty, integrity, or defense of India, friendly relations with foreign States, public order and the investigation of any offence” (section 69).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "B. National security exceptions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. In many cases, national intelligence agencies also enjoy blanket exceptions to the requirement for judicial authorization. For example, in the United States, the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act empowers the National Security Agency to intercept communications without judicial authorization where one party to the communication is located outside the United States, and one participant is reasonably believed to a member of a State-designated terrorist organization. German law allows warrantless automated wiretaps of domestic and international communications by the State’s intelligence services for the purposes of protecting the free democratic order, existence or security of the State.[[fn:37]] In Sweden, the Law on Signals Intelligence in Defense Operations authorizes the Swedish intelligence agency to intercept without any warrant or court order all telephone and Internet traffic that take place within Sweden’s borders. In the United Republic of Tanzania, the Intelligence and Security Service Act 1996 enables the country’s intelligence services to conduct any investigations and investigate any person or body which it has reasonable cause to consider a risk or a source of risk or a threat to the State security.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "B. National security exceptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "G-10 law."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The use of an amorphous concept of national security to justify invasive limitations on the enjoyment of human rights is of serious concern.[[fn:38]] The concept is broadly defined and is thus vulnerable to manipulation by the State as a means of justifying actions that target vulnerable groups such as human rights defenders, journalists or activists. It also acts to warrant often unnecessary secrecy around investigations or law enforcement activities, undermining the principles of transparency and accountability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "B. National security exceptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Counter-terrorism Human Rights Council resolutions."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Access to communications data held by domestic communications service providers is often mandated by legislation or a condition upon which licences are issued. As a result, States are generally provided with carte blanche access to communications data with little oversight or regulation. For example, a 2012 Brazilian law on money laundering gives police the power to access registration information from Internet and communication providers without a court order.[[fn:39]] At the international level, the provision of access to communications data is regulated by bilateral Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties. However, this cooperation also often occurs outside of the law on the basis of the voluntary compliance of the service provider or Internet company. As such, access to communications data can be obtained in many States without independent authorization and with limited oversight.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "C. Unregulated access to communications data"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "Brazilian Federal Law 12683/2012. Article 17-B. Available at: http://www.planalto.gov.br/ccivil_03/_Ato2011-2014/2012/Lei/L12683.htm."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. A number of the surveillance capabilities listed above fall outside of existing legal frameworks, but have nevertheless been widely adopted by States. Offensive intrusion software such as Trojans, or mass interception capabilities, constitute such serious challenges to traditional notions of surveillance that they cannot be reconciled with existing laws on surveillance and access to private information. These are not just new methods for conducting surveillance; they are new forms of surveillance. From a human rights perspective, the use of such technologies is extremely disturbing. Trojans, for example, not only enable a State to access devices, but also enable them to alter – inadvertently or purposefully – the information contained therein. This threatens not only the right to privacy and procedural fairness rights with respect to the use of such evidence in legal proceedings. Mass interception technology eradicates any considerations of proportionality, enabling indiscriminate surveillance. It enables the State to copy and monitor every single act of communication in a particular country or area, without gaining authorization for each individual case of interception.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "D. Extra-legal surveillance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Governments often do not acknowledge the use of such technologies to conduct surveillance, or argue that such technologies are being legitimately employed under the ambit of existing surveillance legislation. Although it is clear that many States possess offensive intrusion software, such as Trojan technology, the legal basis for its use has not been publicly debated in any State, with the exception of Germany. In that context, the province of North Rhine-Westphalia passed legislation in 2006 authorizing the “secret access to an information technology system” (§ 5.2 no. 11, North Rhine-Westphalia Constitution Protection Act), which was understood to be technical infiltration which is effected either by installing a spy programme or taking advantage of the security loopholes of the system. The German Federal Constitutional Court quashed the law in February 2008, ruling that such measures would only be in conformity with human rights if they were subject to judicial authorization and review, and occurred only in situations where there might be a concrete danger to a predominantly important legal interest.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "D. Extra-legal surveillance"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "Available in German. BVerfG, 1 BvR 370/07 vom 27.2.2008, Absatz-Nr. (1 - 67), http://www.bverfg.de/entscheidungen/rs20080227_1bvr037007.html."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. In response to the increased data flows across borders and the fact the majority of communications are stored with foreign third party service providers, a number of States have begun to adopt laws that purport to authorize them to conduct extra-territorial surveillance or to intercept communications in foreign jurisdictions. This raises serious concern with regard to the extra-territorial commission of human rights violations and the inability of individuals to know that they might be subject to foreign surveillance, challenge decisions with respect to foreign surveillance, or seek remedies. In South Africa, for example, the General Intelligence Laws Amendment Bill allows for surveillance of foreign communications outside of South Africa or passing through South Africa.[[fn:41]] In October 2012, the Dutch Ministry of Justice and Security proposed legislative amendments to the Dutch Parliament that would allow the police to break into computers and mobile phones both within the Netherlands and abroad in order to install spyware and search and destroy data.[[fn:42]] In December 2012, Pakistan’s National Assembly passed the Fair Trial Act of 2012, paragraph 31 of which provides for the execution of surveillance warrants in foreign jurisdictions. Later that month, the United States renewed the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Amendment Act of 2008 extending the Government’s power to conduct surveillance of non-American persons locate outside the United States (§1881a), including any foreign individual whose communications are hosted by cloud services located in the United States (such as Google and other large Internet companies).[[fn:43]] Also in 2012, the European Telecommunications Standards Institute created draft standards for interception of foreign cloud-based services by European Governments.[[fn:44]] These developments suggest an alarming trend towards the extension of surveillance powers beyond territorial borders, increasing the risk of cooperative agreements between State law enforcement and security agencies to enable the evasion of domestic legal restrictions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "E. Extra-territorial application of surveillance laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "Section 1. c. General Intelligence Laws Amendment Bill. Available at: http://www.parliament.gov.za/live/commonrepository/Processed/20111201/385713_1.pdf."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See http://www.edri.org/edrigram/number10.20/dutch-proposal-state-spyware."}, {"n": 43, "text": "See European Parliament Directorate-General for Internal Policies Policy Department C: Citizens Rights and Constitutional Affairs, Fighting crime and protecting privacy in the cloud: study, 2012."}, {"n": 44, "text": "Draft ESTI DTR 101 567 Lawful Interception (LI) Vo.1.0 (2012 - 05); Cloud/Virtual Services (CLI). Available at: www.3gpp.org."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. In order to increase the storage of communications data that they are able to access, some States are adopting mandatory data retention laws requiring Internet and telecom service providers (collectively, “communications service providers”) continuously to collect and preserve communications content and information about users’ online activities. Such laws enable the compilation of historical records about individuals’ e-mails and messages, locations, interactions with friends and family, etc.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "F. Mandatory data retention"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. In delivering services to their users, communications service providers give subscribers’ devices or network an Internet Protocol (IP) address[[fn:45]] that changes periodically. Information about an IP address can be used to ascertain the identity and location of an individual and track their online activity. Mandatory data retention laws force communications service providers to keep records of their IP address allocations for a certain period of time, allowing the State greater ability to require communications service providers to identify an individual on the basis of who had a given IP address at a particular date and time. Some States are also now seeking to compel third party service providers to collect and retain information that they would not normally collect.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "F. Mandatory data retention"], "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "An IP address is a unique numeric code that identifies all computers or other devices connected to the Internet."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. National data retention laws are invasive and costly, and threaten the rights to privacy and free expression. By compelling communications service providers to create large databases of information about who communicates with whom via a telephone or the Internet, the duration of the exchange, and the users’ location, and to keep such information (sometimes for years), mandatory data retention laws greatly increase the scope of State surveillance, and thus the scope for infringements upon human rights. Databases of communications data become vulnerable to theft, fraud and accidental disclosure.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "F. Mandatory data retention"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. In many States, laws require the provision of identification at cybercafés. Such laws are particularly problematic in countries where personal computer ownership is low and individuals rely heavily on publicly available computers. In India, for example, the Information Technology (Guidelines for Cyber Cafes) Rules 2011 require that cybercafé owners obtain identification documents from any individual visiting the cybercafé, which records must be kept for at least one year (Rule 4(2)). The cybercafé must maintain a log- register, containing, among other information, log in time and log out time, and computer terminal identification for a minimum period of one year (Rule 5(1) & 5(2)); store and maintain backups of log records of each access or login by any user for at least one year (Rule 5(4)).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "G. Identity disclosure laws"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Individuals are now also required to use their real names online in many States, and to provide official identification in order to establish their identity. In the Republic of Korea, the Information Communications Law, adopted in 2007, required users to register their real names before accessing websites with more than 100,000 visitors per day, ostensibly in order to reduce online bullying and hate speech. The law was recently overturned by the Constitutional Court on the basis that it restricted freedom of speech and undermined democracy.[[fn:46]] China recently adopted the Decision to Strengthen the Protection of Online Information, requiring Internet and telecommunications providers to collect personal information about users when they sign up for Internet access, landline, or mobile phone service. Service providers allowing users to publish online are required to be able to link screen names and real identities. These real name registration requirements allow authorities to more easily identify online commentators or tie mobile use to specific individuals, eradicating anonymous expression.[[fn:47]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "G. Identity disclosure laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "Constitutional Court Decision 2010Hun-Ma47 (“Real names” decision), 23 August 2012. An official summary of the Court’s decision is available on the Court’s website at http://www.ccourt.go.kr/home/bpm/sentence01_list.jsp only in Korean."}, {"n": 47, "text": "\"China to Strengthen Internet Information Protection\" - http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/BeijingInformation/BeijingNewsUpdate/t1292298.htm."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. A further initiative preventing communications anonymity is the gradual adoption of policies that require the registration of SIM cards with a subscriber's real name or government-issued identity document. In 48 countries in Africa, laws requiring individuals to register their personal information with their network provider prior to activation of pre-paid SIM cards are reportedly facilitating the establishment of extensive databases of user information, eradicating the potential for anonymity of communications, enabling location-tracking, and simplifying communications surveillance.[[fn:48]] In the absence of data protection legislation, SIM users' information can be shared with Government departments and matched with other private and public databases, enabling the State to create comprehensive profiles of individual citizens. Individuals are also at risk of being excluded from use of mobile phone services (which may enable not only communication but also access to financial services) if they are unable or unwilling to provide identification to register.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "G. Identity disclosure laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Kevin P. Donovan and Aaron K. Martin, “The Rise of African SIM Registration: Mobility, Identity, Surveillance and Resistance,” Information Systems and Innovation Group Working Paper Series, no. 186, London School of Economics and Political Science (20012)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. The security and anonymity of communications are also undermined by laws that limit the use of privacy-enhancing tools that can be used to protect communications, such as encryption. Many States have now adopted laws that mandate an individual enable decryption when so ordered. The South African Regulation of Interception of Communications and Provisions of Communication-Related Information Act of 2002 requires decryption assistance from any person who possesses the decryption key.[[fn:49]] Similar laws exist in Finland (Section 4(4)(a) Coercive Measures Act 1987/450), Belgium (Art. 9, Law on computer crime of 28 November 2000), and Australia (Sections 12 and 28 Cybercrime Act 2001).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VI. Concerns on national legal standards", "H. Restrictions on encryption and key disclosure laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "Section 29. South African Regulation of Interception of Communications and Provisions of Communication - Related Information Act 2002. Available at: http://www.dac.gov.za/acts/Regulation%20of%20Interception%20of%20Communications%20Act.pdf."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "9", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. The vital developments in technology that have enabled new and dynamic forms of communication have been occurred primarily in the private sector. In this sense, many of the changes in the way we communicate, receive and impart information are based on the research and innovations of corporate actors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VII. The roles and responsibilities of the private sector"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. The private sector has also played a key role in facilitating State surveillance of individuals, in a number of ways. Corporate actors have had to respond to requirements that digital networks and communications infrastructure be designed to enable intrusion by the State. Such requirements were originally adopted by States in the 1990s and are becoming compulsory for all communications services providers. Increasingly, States are adopting legislation requiring that communications service providers allow States direct access to communications data or modify infrastructure to facilitate new forms of State intrusion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VII. The roles and responsibilities of the private sector"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. In developing and deploying new technologies and communications tools in specific ways, corporate actors have also voluntarily taken measures that facilitate State surveillance of communications. In its simplest manifestation, this collaboration has taken the form of decisions on how corporate actors collect and process information, which allows them to become massive repositories of personal information that are then accessible to States upon demand. Corporate actors have adopted specifications that enable State access or intrusion, collect excessive and revelatory information, or restrict the application of encryption and other techniques that could limit access to information by both the companies and governments. The private sector has also often failed to deploy privacy-enhancing technologies, or has implemented them less than secure ways that do not represent the state of the art.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VII. The roles and responsibilities of the private sector"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. In the most serious circumstances, the private sector has been complicit in developing technologies that enable mass or invasive surveillance in contravention of existing legal standards.[[fn:50]] The corporate sector has generated a global industry focused on the exchange of surveillance technologies. Such technologies are often sold to countries in which there is a serious risk that they will be used to violate human rights, particularly those of human rights defenders, journalists or other vulnerable groups. This industry is virtually unregulated as States have failed to keep pace with technological and political developments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VII. The roles and responsibilities of the private sector"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "For some examples of surveillance technology designed by the private sector and utilized in Libya, Bahrain, the Syrian Arab Republic, Egypt and Tunisia, see European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies, Policy Department, After the Arab Spring: New Paths for Human Rights and the Internet in European Foreign Policy (2012), pp. 9-10."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. States' human rights obligations require that they not only respect and promote the rights to freedom of expression and privacy, but protect individuals from violations of human rights perpetrated by corporate actors. In addition, States should exercise adequate oversight in order to meet their international human rights obligations when they contract with, or legislate for, corporate actors where there may be an impact upon the enjoyment of human rights.[[fn:51]] Human rights obligations in this regard apply when corporate actors are operating abroad.[[fn:52]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VII. The roles and responsibilities of the private sector"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework, Principle 5."}, {"n": 52, "text": "Human Rights Committee, Concluding Observations, Germany, December 2012."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. States must ensure that the private sector is able to carry out its functions independently in a manner that promotes individuals’ human rights. At the same time, corporate actors cannot be allowed to participate in activities that infringe upon human rights, and States have a responsibility to hold companies accountable in this regard.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VII. The roles and responsibilities of the private sector"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. Communications techniques and technologies have evolved significantly, changing the way in which communications surveillance is conducted by States. States must therefore update their understandings and regulation of communications surveillance and modify their practices in order to ensure that individuals’ human rights are respected and protected.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. States cannot ensure that individuals are able to freely seek and receive information or express themselves without respecting, protecting and promoting their right to privacy. Privacy and freedom of expression are interlinked and mutually dependent; an infringement upon one can be both the cause and consequence of an infringement upon the other. Without adequate legislation and legal standards to ensure the privacy, security and anonymity of communications, journalists, human rights defenders and whistleblowers, for example, cannot be assured that their communications will not be subject to States’ scrutiny.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. In order to meet their human rights obligations, States must ensure that the rights to freedom of expression and privacy are at the heart of their communications surveillance frameworks. To this end, the Special Rapporteur recommends the following:", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. Communications surveillance should be regarded as a highly intrusive act that potentially interferes with the rights to freedom of expression and privacy and threatens the foundations of a democratic society. Legislation must stipulate that State surveillance of communications must only occur under the most exceptional circumstances and exclusively under the supervision of an independent judicial authority. Safeguards must be articulated in law relating to the nature, scope and duration of the possible measures, the grounds required for ordering them, the authorities competent to authorize, carry out and supervise them, and the kind of remedy provided by the national law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Updating and strengthening laws and legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Individuals should have a legal right to be notified that they have been subjected to communications surveillance or that their communications data has been accessed by the State. Recognizing that advance or concurrent notification might jeopardize the effectiveness of the surveillance, individuals should nevertheless be notified once surveillance has been completed and have the possibility to seek redress in respect of the use of communications surveillance measures in their aftermath.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Updating and strengthening laws and legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Legal frameworks must ensure that communications surveillance measures:\n(a) Are prescribed by law, meeting a standard of clarity and precision that is sufficient to ensure that individuals have advance notice of and can foresee their application;\n(b) Are strictly and demonstrably necessary to achieve a legitimate aim; and\n(c) Adhere to the principle of proportionality, and are not employed when less invasive techniques are available or have not yet been exhausted.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Updating and strengthening laws and legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. States should criminalize illegal surveillance by public or private actors. Such laws must not be used to target whistleblowers or other individuals seeking to expose human rights violations, nor should they hamper the legitimate oversight of government action by citizens.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Updating and strengthening laws and legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. The provision of communications data by the private sector to States should be sufficiently regulated to ensure that individuals’ human rights are prioritized at all times. Access to communications data held by domestic corporate actors should only be sought in circumstances where other available less invasive techniques have been exhausted.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Updating and strengthening laws and legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. The provision of communications data to the State should be monitored by an independent authority, such as a court or oversight mechanism. At the international level, States should enact Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties to regulate access to communications data held by foreign corporate actors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Updating and strengthening laws and legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. Surveillance techniques and practices that are employed outside of the rule of law must be brought under legislative control. Their extra-legal usage undermines basic principles of democracy and is likely to have harmful political and social effects.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Updating and strengthening laws and legal standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. States should refrain from compelling the identification of users as a precondition for access to communications, including online services, cybercafés or mobile telephony.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Facilitating private, secure and anonymous communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. Individuals should be free to use whatever technology they choose to secure their communications. States should not interfere with the use of encryption technologies, nor compel the provision of encryption keys.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Facilitating private, secure and anonymous communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. States should not retain or require the retention of particular information purely for surveillance purposes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Facilitating private, secure and anonymous communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. States should be completely transparent about the use and scope of communications surveillance techniques and powers. They should publish, at minimum, aggregate information on the number of requests approved and rejected, a disaggregation of the requests by service provider and by investigation and purpose.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Increasing public access to information, understanding and awareness of threats to privacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. States should provide individuals with sufficient information to enable them to fully comprehend the scope, nature and application of the laws permitting communications surveillance. States should enable service providers to publish the procedures they apply when dealing with State communications surveillance, adhere to those procedures, and publish records of State communications surveillance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Increasing public access to information, understanding and awareness of threats to privacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. States should establish independent oversight mechanisms capable to ensure transparency and accountability of State surveillance of communications.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Increasing public access to information, understanding and awareness of threats to privacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. States should raise public awareness on the uses of new communication technologies in order to support individuals in properly assessing, managing, mitigating and making informed decisions on communications-related risks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Increasing public access to information, understanding and awareness of threats to privacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. States should ensure that communications data collected by corporate actors in the provision of communications services meets the highest standards of data protection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Regulating the commercialization of surveillance technology"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. States must refrain from forcing the private sector to implement measures compromising the privacy, security and anonymity of communications services, including requiring the construction of interception capabilities for State surveillance purposes or prohibiting the use of encryption.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Regulating the commercialization of surveillance technology"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. States must take measures to prevent the commercialization of surveillance technologies, paying particular attention to research, development, trade, export and use of these technologies considering their ability to facilitate systematic human rights violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Regulating the commercialization of surveillance technology"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. There is a significant need to advance international understanding on the protection of the right to privacy in light of technological advancements. The Human Rights Committee should consider issuing a new General Comment on the right to privacy, to replace General Comment No. 16 (1988).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "E. Furthering the assessment of relevant international human rights obligations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-40-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-23-40", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. Human rights mechanisms should further assess the obligations of private actors developing and supplying surveillance technologies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "E. Furthering the assessment of relevant international human rights obligations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. At its forty-ninth session, the Commission on Human Rights decided by its resolution 1993/45 of 5 March 1993, to appoint, for a period of three years, a special rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. In the same resolution the Commission on Human Rights requested the Special Rapporteur to gather all relevant information, wherever it might occur, of discrimination against, threats or use of violence and harassment, including persecution and intimidation, directed at persons seeking to exercise or to promote the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression as affirmed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and, where applicable, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, taking into account the work being conducted by other mechanisms of the Commission and Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities which touched on that right, with a view to avoiding duplication of work.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The Commission on Human Rights also requested the Special Rapporteur, as a matter of high priority, to gather all relevant information, wherever it might occur, of discrimination, threats or use of violence and harassment, including persecution and intimidation, against professionals in the field of information seeking to exercise or to promote the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression as affirmed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and, where applicable, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The Commission further requested the Special Rapporteur to seek and receive credible and reliable information from Governments, non-governmental organizations and any other parties who had knowledge of those cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Finally, the Commission requested the Special Rapporteur to submit to the Commission, beginning at its fiftieth session, a report covering the activities relating to his or her mandate, noting the work being conducted by other mechanisms of the Commission and Sub-Commission which touches on the right to freedom of expression and opinion, containing recommendations to the Commission and providing suggestions on ways and means to better promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression in all its manifestations, as affirmed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and, where applicable, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The Commission on Human Rights urged all Governments to cooperate with and assist the Special Rapporteur in the performance of his tasks and to furnish all information requested, and requested the Secretary-General to provide the Special Rapporteur with all necessary assistance, in particular the staff and resources deemed necessary, within existing overall United Nations resources, to fulfil his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. On 2 April 1993, Mr. Abid Hussain (India) was appointed Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The Economic and Social Council, in its decision 1993/268, of 28 July 1993, approved the Commission's decision to appoint a special rapporteur and its request to the Secretary-General to provide him with all necessary assistance. Resources were made available to the Centre for Human Rights in November 1993 enabling the Special Rapporteur to initiate his work at the end of 1993.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. On 26 January 1994, the Special Rapporteur presented a report to the fiftieth session of the Commission on Human Rights (E/CN.4/1994/33) in which he presented some initial observations on the terms of reference and methods of work of his mandate and in which he requested that attention be paid by the Commission on Human Rights at its fiftieth session to the critical situation concerning the resources available to him which the Special Rapporteur felt did not meet the minimum required to carry out his work in a satisfactory manner.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. In its resolution 1994/33 of 4 March 1994, the Commission welcomed the observations contained in the report of the Special Rapporteur on the methods of work, in particular on the means of responding effectively to information which comes before him and requested him to submit to the Commission at its fifty-first session a report covering the activities relating to his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. In chapter I of the present report the Special Rapporteur presents observations on the terms of reference that constitute the legal framework within which he will carry out his mandate. Chapter II sets out the methods of work that he is using or envisages using in the fulfilment of his mandate. In chapter III the Special Rapporteur elaborates on the activities he has undertaken in the fulfilment of his mandate. Chapter IV deals with country situations. In the last section of the report the Special Rapporteur presents preliminary conclusions and recommendations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. As the Special Rapporteur indicated in paragraph 40 of his previous and first report (E/CN.4/1994/33), he would like to touch on certain more basic questions in determining the nature and scope of the right to freedom of expression as a prerequisite for action to be undertaken by him. In this chapter the Special Rapporteur makes a beginning with this component of his work. He presents some considerations on the nature and scope of the right to freedom of expression, as well as on its permissible restrictions, for the purpose of clarifying the legal framework within which he will carry out his mandate and that he has previously considered in paragraphs 7-23 of his last report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. As the Special Rapporteur indicated in paragraph 25 of his previous report, his work will also involve the study of phenomena related to the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In this report the Special Rapporteur presents some preliminary considerations on these phenomena, as yet only in relation to his visit to Malawi. He intends to take up this aspect in greater detail in his next report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is a core right of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. It is both a civil right, in its capacity of protecting this sphere of life of the individual against undue infringements of the State, and a political right, in its capacity of guaranteeing the participation of the individual in political life, including that of State institutions. As such, the right to freedom of expression can be described as an essential test right, the enjoyment of which illustrates the degree of enjoyment of all human rights enshrined in the United Nations Bill of Rights, that comprises the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The respect for this right reflects a country's standard of fair play, justice and honesty.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights reads: \"1. Everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference. \"2. Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice. \"3. The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of this article carries with it special duties and responsibilities. It may therefore be subject to certain restrictions, but these shall only be such as are provided by law and are necessary: \"(a) For respect of the rights or reputations of others; \"(b) For the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals.\"", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The right to freedom of opinion and expression comprises a number of basic elements that define its content and which the Special Rapporteur would like to consider in order to determine the nature and the scope of this right. These basic elements include the terms \"freedom\", \"opinion\", \"expression\", \"information and ideas\" and \"duties and responsibilities\".", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. In order to better grasp the boundaries of the scope of protection offered by the right to freedom of expression the Special Rapporteur addresses the question of restrictions and limitations to this right, including the permissible purposes of these restrictions and limitations. The Special Rapporteur envisages, at a later stage, addressing the question of sanctions affecting persons who express their opinions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The Special Rapporteur furthermore considers the right to freedom of opinion and expression in relation to a number of articles other than article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, notably article 20 on the prohibition of propaganda for war and advocacy of hatred; article 18 on freedom of thought, conscience, religion and belief; and article 17 on the right to privacy. He envisages considering at a later stage the right to freedom of opinion and expression in relation to the general provisions of the Covenant in its Part II (arts. 2-5).", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "18", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. At the outset of the Special Rapporteur's attempt at clarifying the nature and scope of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, he would like to address the question of the nature of the freedom concerned. Fundamental to the right to freedom of expression is the dual conception of freedom on which it is founded. From this dual conception of freedom flows much of the scope of protection of this right. The two fundamental elements of the conception of freedom are the freedom of access to the State and the freedom from the State. The former refers to the participation of the individual in matters of the State. It has a collective connotation and leads into the realm of the freedom of individuals to assemble and organize among themselves. The latter refers to the realm of privacy of the individual and requires absolute protection against any undue external interference. Here, in principle, the State is not obligated to guarantee the right with positive measures. Only in cases where the expression of an opinion interferes directly with the rights of others or where it constitutes a direct threat to the society is the Government obligated to intervene.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. These two fundamental elements of the conception of freedom can be traced to liberal thinking. They have been magnificently captured by John Stuart Mill in an often quoted passage from his \"Essay on Liberty\" (1859). He writes, when discussing the appropriate region of human liberty: \"It comprises, first, the inward domain of consciousness; demanding liberty of conscience, in the most comprehensive sense; liberty of thought and feeling; absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects, practical or speculative, scientific, moral, or theological. The liberty of expressing and publishing opinions may seem to fall under a different principle, since it belongs to that part of the conduct of an individual which concerns other people; but, being almost of as much importance as the liberty of thought itself, and resting in great part on the same reasons, is practically inseparable from it. Secondly, the principle requires liberty of tastes and pursuits; of framing the plan of our life to suit our own character; of doing as we like, subject to such consequences as may follow: without impediment from our fellow-creatures, so long as what we do does not harm them, even though they should think our conduct foolish, perverse, or wrong. Thirdly, from this liberty of each individual, follows the liberty, within the same limits, of combination among individuals; freedom to unite, for any purpose not involving harm to others: the persons combining being supposed to be of full age, and not forced or deceived.\" (In: Walter Laqueur and Barry Rubin (eds.), The Human Rights Reader, New York (revised edition), 1990; p. 87.)", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Next to the liberal conception of freedom its socialist counterpart should be considered. In this conception freedom should be understood as a directive to be free and its aim is not so much warding off interference of the State in the private realm of the individual but rather the social integration of the individual in society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Both conceptions of freedom have been the subject of abuse for immediate political purposes. In many instances, and until this day, the liberal conception of freedom has led to the neglect in practice by many States of the necessity for many of the developing countries to begin by building up a political and legal framework before being able to properly guarantee civil and political rights. Many developing countries argue that such efforts require not only political commitment but also resources on the part of the State. Alternatively, the socialist conception of freedom has led to the subjugation, even in constitutional and statutory law, of the legitimate enjoyment of those aspects of freedom that are related to a private sphere of the individual as completely distinct from and beyond the legitimate interference by the State. Socialist government has thus allowed for undue and virtually unchecked domination of the State over the private lives of its citizens.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Both conceptions of freedom have, in a more positive light, contributed to the understanding that the protection and promotion of human rights require - and, in legal terms, obligate - the State to take action or refrain from doing so whenever human rights so require, either to protect individuals from undue interference by the State or by third parties, or to safeguard their effective participation in the social, cultural, civil, economic and political life of society. This understanding resulted from the clash of the ideas of liberalism and socialism where they touched upon the issue of human rights. It will guide the Special Rapporteur in his endeavours to promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. During the discussion at the Commission on Human Rights on the formulation of article 19, freedom of opinion was said to be strictly a private matter while freedom of expression was said to be a public one. The freedom to form an opinion was held to be absolute and, in contrast to freedom of expression, not allowed to be restricted by law or any other power. It is for these reasons that the Covenant in article 19 (1) declares an independent right to hold opinions without interference. The absolute character of the protection offered by article 19 (1) is furthermore underlined by article 19 (3), which stipulates that special duties and responsibilities are only carried with the exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of article 19, i.e. solely the right to freedom of expression and not the right to hold opinions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Exactly what aspects of the private realm of the individual are covered by the notion of \"opinion\" is unclear. It is clear, however, that freedom of opinion should be distinguished from, yet at the same time is closely linked to, the freedom of thought that is protected in article 18 of the Covenant. On the relationship between opinion and thought one knowledgeable author has remarked that the notion of thought may be nearer to religion or other beliefs and the notion of opinion nearer to political convictions. Another knowledgeable author noted that the expression of an opinion relates to secular and political matters rather than religious ones and the expression of a thought relates to religious matters rather than secular ones. The Special Rapporteur notes that these interpretations appear to be linked primarily to the articles of the Conventions wherein we find the notions of thought and opinion. He stresses that he finds the frontiers between the notions of thought and opinion not very clear. As a consequence the protection of the freedom of opinion calls for the careful consideration of the specific aspects of each individual case.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "18", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. The prohibition to interfere with the freedom of opinion is directed not only at interference by the State but also at interference by private parties. The Special Rapporteur recalls in this respect that the majority of the delegates that were involved in the drafting of article 19 (1) voiced support for protection against every form of interference. This recognition of horizontal effects implies that States parties to the Covenant are also obligated pursuant to article 2 (1) to protect freedom of opinion against interference by third parties.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. What exactly constitutes an impermissible interference with the freedom of opinion is not an easy matter to determine. In general, it is possible to speak of such an interference when an individual is influenced against his will and when this influence is exerted by threat, coercion or the use of force.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. At the outset of the attempt to clarify the notion of \"expression\", that is referred to in article 19 (2), the Special Rapporteur would like to remark that in his opinion it is hard to see how the act of seeking or receiving information can be included in the act of expression as is suggested by the wording of article 19 (2). Having said this, the Special Rapporteur notes that the scope of protection by article 19 (2) leads into the area of public life and thereby touches upon a fundamental aspect of democracy. This scope is clarified by the following jurisprudential considerations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. The European Court of Human Rights expressed the opinion that freedom of expression is applicable not only to information and ideas that are favourably received or regarded as inoffensive or as a matter of indifference, but also to those that offend, shock or disturb the State or any sector of the population. The European Court furthermore stated that such are the demands of pluralism, tolerance and broadmindedness without which there can be no democratic society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. A judge from India held that there can indeed be no freedom unless thought is free and unrestricted; not free thought for those who agree but freedom for the thought others or we ourselves dislike. It is only from the clash of ideas that truth can emerge, for the best test of truth is the power of thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market of ideas. Freedom of expression is central to that competition.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Freedom of expression is protected in article 19 (2) with respect to \"information and ideas of all kinds\". This implies that every communicable type of idea, information, opinion, news, advertising, art, critical political commentary, etc. falls within the scope of protection. Also, as the travaux préparatoires of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights indicate, the anonymous publication of an opinion or of information is protected by article 19 (2). Most importantly, it is impossible, in view of the wording of article 19 as a whole, to attempt to exclude undesirable opinions or expressions, such as blasphemy or pornography, solely by restrictively defining or interpreting the scope of protection offered by article 19 (2). On the other hand, the exercise of the right to freedom of expression carries with it special duties and responsibilities on the question of which the Special Rapporteur elaborates below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. With respect to the ways in which information and ideas of all kinds can be sought, received or imparted, the relationship between articles 19 and 17 of the Covenant should be borne in mind. Article 17 refers to correspondence as such a means. Letters and conversations, however, do fall within the scope of protection of article 19. As does, it can be imagined, the expression of feelings. Article 19 furthermore expressly mentions oral, written and printed communication as well as works of art and \"any other media of his choice\". The scope of protection offered by article 19 is therefore quite comprehensive, as is also confirmed by the travaux préparatoires of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. To guide his future interpretation of article 19, the Special Rapporteur notes that the travaux préparatoires indicate a strong will on the part of the negotiating parties to the Covenant to protect the content of messages imparted by the media. No provision, for example, was included in the article dealing with the licensing of media enterprises. Here it should be added that with the age of soap-box oratory and political pamphleteering coming to an end, television has become the most powerful medium for the communication of ideas and the dissemination of information. The enjoyment of freedom of expression therefore includes the freedom to use such a medium.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The freedom to seek information is guaranteed in article 19 (2). It entails the right to seek information inasmuch as this information is generally accessible. It is subject to debate whether the press and other media can derive any privileged right to seek information above and beyond generally accessible information. In this respect the Special Rapporteur would like to note the important role the press and other media have to play in imparting information, and thereby informing the general public of all events to their interest. Bearing in mind the aforementioned dual notion of freedom, its element concerning the freedom of the individual from the State necessarily entails that the individual in his private realm is protected against undue interference by the State with respect to information only or mainly accessible to the State. The Special Rapporteur notes that this aspect of the freedom to seek information touches on the right to privacy as protected under article 17 of the Covenant and begets added weight in our era of information and electronic means of communication.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. In contemporary society, because of the social and political role of information, the right of everyone to receive information and ideas has to be carefully protected. This right is not simply a converse of the right to impart information but it is a freedom in its own right. The right to seek or have access to information is one of the most essential elements of freedom of speech and expression. Freedom will be bereft of all effectiveness if the people have no access to information. Access to information is basic to the democratic way of life. The tendency to withhold information from the people at large is therefore to be strongly checked.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. In article 19 (3) reference is made to special duties and responsibilities. The Special Rapporteur notes that the emphasis on special duties and responsibilities in article 19 contrasts with the general nature of the Covenant that establishes rights of the individual and duties of States. The special duty and responsibility referred to can therefore be said to be part of the general principle that is embodied in human rights that are horizontally effective. This means that the exercise of freedom of expression might entail a violation of the rights of others. Examples of such horizontal effects can be found in the realm of privacy, the influencing of public opinion, or the monopolization of the press. Thus, these responsibilities obligate the opinion makers not to abuse their power at the expense of others and obligate the State to interfere in such cases where the rights of others are violated. Also, they obligate the State to take action in those instances where a concentration of the media threatens the diversity of opinion or the access to published opinion. As indicated in the travaux préparatoires of the Covenant, the reference to special duties and responsibilities was included in article 19 for the purpose of offering States the possibility to counter such abuse of power by mass media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The issue of duties and responsibilities was subject to some debate during the travaux préparatoires. Those who opposed proposals stipulating that the right to freedom of expression carries with it duties and responsibilities contended that the general purpose of the Covenant was to set forth civil and political rights and to guarantee and protect them rather than to lay down duties and responsibilities and to impose these upon individuals. It was furthermore contended that since each right carried with it a corresponding duty and since in no other article was this corresponding duty of any right set out, article 19 should not be an exception to this rule. It was principally upon the argument that the modern media could exert a powerful influence on the exercise and enjoyment of freedom of expression that those supporting proposals to include a reference to duties and responsibilities in the article maintained their position. It was for these reasons that in the ultimately adopted text of article 19 the word \"special\" was included before the words \"duties and responsibilities\".", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Article 19 (3) lists the permissible purposes for State interference with the right to freedom of expression. A closer look at the travaux préparatoires reveals that at a given point in time during the negotiating process a choice had to be made between inserting a general limitations clause in the article or inserting an exhaustive listing of all permissible purposes for interference. Article 19 (3) results from a compromise arrived at between these two different positions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The entire discussion on permissible restrictions to the right to freedom of opinion and expression related to freedom of expression and excluded freedom of opinion. In this respect, paragraph 3 of article 19 leaves no room for misunderstandings. No interference with the right to hold opinions is allowed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Article 19 (3) of the Covenant refers only to \"restrictions\" which may, in the eyes of the Special Rapporteur, include procedural matters and formalities such as taxation of printed works and the licensing of broadcasting companies, or penalties such as on criminal offences for the purpose of protecting the rights of others. In this respect, the Special Rapporteur notes that, contrary to the Covenant, the European Convention on Human Rights more explicitly permits \"formalities, conditions, restrictions or penalties\".", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text says 'Article 19 (3) of the Covenant refers only to restrictions' and contrasts the Covenant with the ECHR. The Covenant discussed throughout this document is the ICCPR. Article 19(3) ICCPR governs permissible limitations on freedom of expression."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Article 19 (3) allows for the restriction of the right to freedom of expression and information only under certain conditions. Most importantly, any restriction or limitation must be provided by law, must serve one of the listed purposes mentioned in the article and must be necessary for attaining this purpose.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The term \"provided by law\" implies that restrictions and limitations on the right to freedom of expression must have been formally enacted in law. Such act should specify the permissibility of interference by enforcement organs. The degree of such specification is important. Any interference that is solely based on administrative provisions prima facie violates article 19.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Any permissible limitation to the right to freedom of expression must not only be provided by law, it must also be necessary to attain one of the following purposes: - (a) To respect the rights or reputations of others; - (b) To protect national security; - (c) To protect public order; - (d) To protect public health; - (e) To protect public morals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. The Special Rapporteur recalls the importance of the principle of proportionality in the process of establishing whether any limitation of the right to freedom of expression is necessary. In this respect, the general rule is the protection of the freedom; restriction of such freedom should be the exception to this rule. The restriction may not be applied in such a way that the expression of an opinion on any particular matter is merely suppressed. It may be restricted only in so far as it is necessary to attain one of the above-mentioned purposes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. The Special Rapporteur notes that, in spite of the fact that article 19 (3) refers to \"restrictions\" only, there are wider purposes for interference with the right to freedom of expression. Notably, article 20 of the Covenant obligates States to interfere with the right to freedom of expression as well as with other rights enumerated in the Covenant by prohibiting propaganda for war and the advocacy of racial hatred.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The Special Rapporteur also notes that during the travaux préparatoires concerning article 19 of the Covenant, more than 30 proposals for restrictions and limitations were tabled. These proposals related to expressions instigating to criminal actions or the violent overthrow of the Government, or expressions that infringe on the rights of others to mental and moral integrity. Thus, the issues of pornography and blasphemy were subject to debate. The fact that the final wording of article 19 (3) does not include a reference to these matters does, of course, not imply that interference on the part of the State for the purpose of protecting these interests is prohibited without exception. The limited scope for permissible interference that we find in article 19 (3) - limited especially as compared to regional human rights instruments - suggests to the Special Rapporteur that any interference, and especially restriction or limitation, should be interpreted narrowly in case of doubt.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Respect for the rights and reputations of others may justify certain restrictions on the right to freedom of expression for purposes including the protection of freedom of religion, the protection against discrimination and the protection of minorities. Most importantly, however, as experience in practice suggests, the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression of others may justify such restrictions. Regarding the respect of the reputations of others, the Special Rapporteur notes that article 19 (3) when read in conjunction with article 17 obligates the State to provide legal protection against any intentional infringement on the honour and reputation by untrue assertions. In all cases, the principle of proportionality must be strictly observed for the purpose of preventing the undermining of the freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. For the purpose of protecting national security, the right to freedom of expression and information can be restricted only in the most serious cases of a direct political or military threat to the entire nation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The Special Rapporteur would like to refer in this connection to the passionate and eloquent speech which Sir Winston Churchill delivered in defence of the freedom to criticize the Government in the House of Commons at the moment when Britain was under severe threat of defeat at the hands of Nazi Germany's forces.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Replying to this historic moment of censure, Sir Winston Churchill said that the criticism that he and his Government had received were a remarkable example of the unbridled freedom of Britain's parliamentary institutions in time of war. He remarked that everything that could be thought of or made up had been used in weakening the confidence in the Government, in proving that Ministers are incompetent and in making the army feel distressed. He furthermore remarked that this served to weaken the confidence workers in weapons factories had in themselves and had undermined the Prime Minister in his own heart. All these criticisms, Sir Winston Churchill furthermore remarked, were poured out by cable and radio to all parties of the world to the distress of all of Britain's friends and to the delight of all of Britain's foes. At the close of his address, Sir Winston Churchill remarked, however, that he was in favour of this freedom even in times of mortal peril such as those through which Britain was at that moment passing.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. In the eyes of the Special Rapporteur, these words stand out as a beacon light to all who believe in human rights. They furthermore serve to underline the strongly held opinion of the Special Rapporteur that the purpose of protecting national security, which is in itself a legitimate one, should not be called upon too lightly by Governments in an attempt to justify infringements on the right to freedom of expression that might be unnecessary and impermissible because they do not serve its stated purpose.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Restrictions on the right to freedom of expression can be imposed for the purpose of protecting public order (ordre public). The Special Rapporteur notes that, whereas the notion of public order is in itself somewhat vague, it is possible to include in it the more narrow notion of the \"prevention of disorder or crime\", which is in use in article 10 (2) of the European Convention on Human Rights. In addition to the prevention of disorder and crime, one can also include under the notion of public order the universally accepted fundamental principles on which a democratic society is based and that are consistent with respect for human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"article": "10", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'article 10 (2) of the European Convention on Human Rights'. ECHR is regional, outside the allowed list."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. In view of the vagueness that inheres in the notion of public order, the danger exists that its application undermines the right to freedom of expression itself. To safeguard the protection of the freedom of expression as a general rule, as opposed to an exception, any appeal on the part of the State to restrict the exercise of the freedom of expression on the grounds of protecting public order should, in the eyes of the Special Rapporteur, meet strict requirements indicating its necessity. Any minimum requirements flowing from a common international standard for the protection of this right may not be set too low. For example, national legislation permitting the exercise of the right to freedom of expression only in the interest of a specific purpose such as a belief or religion would violate this international minimum standard. As a general rule, States should not invoke any custom, tradition or religious consideration to avoid meeting their obligations with respect to the safeguarding of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In these instances, limitations on freedom of expression can be justified only when the public order of the State is truly compromised. Such a limitation may then be in effect only for a limited period of time and under certain specific circumstances, and any restrictions must be clearly established so that everyone may know precisely what is prohibited, and what is subject to such limitations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. The protected interest of public health allows for the prohibition of misleading publications on health-threatening substances or on social or culturally inspired practices negatively affecting health. In this respect, the Special Rapporteur refers to traditional practices affecting the health of women and children. These practices include female genital mutilation, dowry debts and bride-burning. Publications on these matters that can be considered as misleading entail a positive obligation on the part of the Government to take steps to protect the interests of public health, if necessary by curtailing the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The protected interest of public morals is a further ground on which States can interfere with the right to freedom of expression. Typical examples of restrictions in this domain relate to pornography and blasphemy. The Special Rapporteur notes that public morals differ widely and depend in large measure on the national context that includes matters of politics and culture. A margin of appreciation must therefore be accorded to the State. The Special Rapporteur would like to note, however, that restrictions applied on the freedom of expression should not be applied in such a manner as to promote prejudice and intolerance. He furthermore recognizes the importance to protect the freedom of expression of minority views including those views that might be offensive or disturbing to a majority.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. In this chapter the Special Rapporteur describes the methods of work adopted by him. The activities resulting from his approach are described in the next chapter.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. As indicated in his previous report, the methods of work of the Special Rapporteur have been drawn from the practice established by and the experience acquired through the various thematic mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights. They include in particular those on enforced or involuntary disappearances, extrajudicial, arbitrary or summary executions, torture, religious intolerance, and arbitrary detention. The Special Rapporteur adopts the methods of work that he deems most appropriate for his specific tasks. This implies a combined approach wherein country situations in general and individual cases are considered. The Special Rapporteur will furthermore study phenomena facilitating or impeding the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and take action on concrete cases reported to him.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Following the request of the Commission on Human Rights, the Special Rapporteur seeks credible and reliable information from Governments, non-governmental organizations and other parties who have knowledge of pertinent situations and cases. A wide range of sources is being used.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. By the sending of circular letters the Special Rapporteur contacts Governments, specialized agencies and non-governmental organizations which are concerned with the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and seeks pertinent information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Upon the receipt of prima facie credible and reliable information, the Special Rapporteur transmits the information to the Government concerned and requests it to provide him with comments and observations. In resolution 1993/47 the Commission on Human Rights encouraged Governments to respond expeditiously to such requests so that the special rapporteurs with thematic mandates might carry out these mandates effectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Upon the receipt of replies from the Governments concerned, the Special Rapporteur establishes whether the information received can be considered as explaining to his satisfaction the circumstances of the case, the applicable laws and regulations and the reasons for the act or omission on the part of the State that provided the initial ground for an allegation of an impermissible infringement on the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. The Special Rapporteur subsequently decides to either consider the case as closed to his satisfaction, or to seek and exchange further information or clarification with the Government concerned.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. It should be stressed that the dialogue established with Governments by the Special Rapporteur and the transmission of allegations concerning their countries in no way implies any kind of accusation on the part of the Special Rapporteur, but constitutes a request for clarification with a view to finding, along with the Government concerned, ways and means to promote and protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. The Special Rapporteur adopts an urgent action procedure for cases that are of a life-threatening nature, as is used in several other special procedures of the United Nations for the protection and promotion of human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. Finally, the Special Rapporteur would like to stress that in implementing his mandate, he is keen to respond effectively to credible and reliable information coming before him, and to carry out his work with discretion and independence. In this context, he refers to the many difficulties he encounters as a result of a lack of financial and human resources, as described in chapter III of this report, that impede the effective discharging of the Special Rapporteur's mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The Special Rapporteur seeks to hold consultations with all persons and organizations that can be of interest to him in the fulfilment of his mandate. Unfortunately, the absence of resources for this purpose as well as the strict regulations governing the activities he can undertake in the exercise of his work do not allow him to actively engage himself in the organization of such consultations. For these reasons, the Special Rapporteur expresses the hope that those organizations that can contribute to his work will not hesitate to contact him for the purpose of holding consultations. He expresses his appreciation to those organizations that have already done so.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. The Special Rapporteur views on-site visits as an essential component of his mandate. He undertook a mission to Malawi from 3 to 6 October 1994, as described in chapter III of this report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. The Special Rapporteur reiterates the need for close cooperation with related mandates as he has noted in the concluding observations of his previous report (sect. IV, para. 43). He mentions in this respect the Special Rapporteur on religious intolerance, the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture, the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. The Special Rapporteur notes that some overlap exists between his mandate and that of other United Nations procedures in the promotion and protection of human rights. Inasmuch as this overlap can be attributed to the scope of protection offered by the right to freedom of opinion and expression itself, it is unavoidable. It is the case, for example, with the work of the Special Rapporteur on religious intolerance, inasmuch as it concerns the non-religious beliefs that fall within the scope of protection of article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The Special Rapporteur notes that these rights do not exist in isolation and that what is done in one area to protect them has more than a merely psychological effect on the protection of other rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "18", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Part of the other activities undertaken by the Special Rapporteur in the fulfilment of his mandate is the granting of interviews to the press so as to make his work better known to the general public and to gather support from the public for his work.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. By circular letters dated 25 January, 10 February and 23 March 1994, the Special Rapporteur has contacted Governments, specialized agencies and non-governmental organizations which are concerned with the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and has sought to receive information pertinent to his mandate from them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. As at 31 October 1994, the following 23 Governments have responded: Belarus, Burkina Faso, China, Cuba, El Salvador, Germany, Greece, Haiti, Israel, Jamaica, Japan, Lesotho, Madagascar, Mexico, Monaco, Nepal, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, Philippines, Sudan, Sweden and Yugoslavia.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. Of these Governments, some have acknowledged receipt of the circular letter only. Others have brought their national legislation on the right to freedom of opinion and expression to the attention of the Special Rapporteur or have responded referring to their report to the Human Rights Committee. At a later stage the Special Rapporteur wishes to present some thoughts on these replies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. The Special Rapporteur has furthermore received replies and information from the following nine non-governmental organizations in consultative status with the Economic and Social Council or with specialized agencies or other United Nations bodies: Amnesty International, Article XIX: The International Centre Against Censorship, Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs, Inc., Human Rights Watch, International Federation of Journalists, International PEN, International Press Institute, International Union of Lawyers, and Reporters Without Borders - International.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his appreciation for the replies to his circular letters and other information he received from Governments and non-governmental organizations. He strongly encourages Governments and non-governmental organizations that as yet have not been in a position to respond to his circular letter to do so at their earliest convenience. He also expresses the sincere wish that non-governmental organizations which have already offered him information will continue to do so.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. As of September 1994 the Special Rapporteur had received a large number of detailed allegations concerning cases of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Owing to constraints of time and lack of human resources he was able to transmit only a few summaries of these cases to some of the Governments concerned.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. The Special Rapporteur requested 47 Governments for information, in accordance with paragraphs 12, 13, 14 and 15 of Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/45 (see paras. 2-4 and 6).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. Communications were transmitted to the following 47 Governments: Albania, Algeria, Argentina, Bangladesh, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Cameroon, China, Colombia, Cuba, Egypt, Ethiopia, Gabon, Georgia, Guatemala, Haiti, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Ireland, Kenya, Lebanon, Malaysia, Mexico, Morocco, Myanmar, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Paraguay, Peru, Poland, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Tajikistan, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Tunisia, Turkey, United States of America, Yemen, Yugoslavia, Viet Nam, Zaire and Zambia.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. In these communications the Special Rapporteur requested the views and comments of the Governments concerned on the facts reported to him and requested them furthermore to provide him with the results of any investigations which might have been carried out.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. As of 31 October 1994, the Governments of the following 10 countries had replied to the allegations transmitted to them: Algeria, Bangladesh, China, Ethiopia, Hungary, India, Republic of Korea, Sudan, Tunisia and Turkey. The situations in these countries are the subject of chapter IV of this report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The Special Rapporteur visited Geneva from 7 to 10 November 1994 for the purpose of holding consultations with the Secretariat. During the first year of his mandate he met with some special rapporteurs, with representatives of Governments and non-governmental organizations, and with persons who in their individual capacity provided him with pertinent information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Pursuant to Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/45, the Special Rapporteur has visited Malawi from 3 to 6 October 1994 following an invitation by the Malawi Government. The Special Rapporteur undertook his mission on the basis of information received from a number of non-governmental organizations that are active in the field of his mandate concerning allegations of threats of violence, harassment and intimidation of persons seeking to exercise or to promote the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Of special interest to him was the emerging democratic climate as a result of recent and profound political changes in the country. The Special Rapporteur met with officials of the Government and administration, members of Parliament, members of the press corps, religious leaders, members of the business community, members of the academic community and practising lawyers. The Special Rapporteur also met with representatives of diplomatic missions as well as with aid workers active in the country.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The Special Rapporteur has found that the Malawi population at present enjoys the right to freedom of opinion and expression as enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. In those instances where allegations were made concerning infringements on this right, all persons with whom the Special Rapporteur was in contact agreed that such allegations were, or could be, tested as to their legality under the rule of law that is currently being established in Malawi. The Special Rapporteur has found that the current gap between the long-term stated goals and principles enshrined in the preliminary Constitution and the existing statutory laws and practices of the previous political era are a major concern of many persons.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. The Special Rapporteur also noted that in many instances the enjoyment to its fullest possible extent of the right to freedom of opinion and expression met with constraints of a structural nature. For example, the country has no more than one Government-operated radio station and a few privately owned printing presses. These limited printing facilities, moreover, according to some persons with whom the Special Rapporteur spoke, were not managed exclusively on a commercial basis, but instead were used to a limited degree in a political way, i.e. by the alleged delayed printing of some newspapers. In general, the Special Rapporteur notes that the high rate of illiteracy, the general state of poverty of the large majority of the population, the lack of transportation and education are all factors impeding the full implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. For these reasons, the enjoyment of that right cannot be analysed in a legal vacuum. The Special Rapporteur, at a later stage, wishes to consider these structural impediments to the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression at a more general level.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. The Special Rapporteur considers that the lack of debate on the preliminary Constitution of Malawi and the limited general knowledge of its content are factors that hamper the effective protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur, after having discussed these matters with interested parties, would venture to suggest that possible contributions to a solution of this problem might include the translation of the Constitution into local languages, as well as education and dissemination projects with the use of university graduates.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0086", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. The Special Rapporteur would like to encourage donor countries represented in Malawi to contribute, financially as well as through offering their expertise, to the undertaking of projects that assist in establishing the wider legal framework needed to channel the executive power in its actions and policies. In this respect, the Special Rapporteur notes it is an essential part of consolidating constitutional government in the country that due attention be given to international human rights instruments and notably to those treaties to which Malawi is a party and which are part of the law of the country as is stipulated in the nation's preliminary Constitution. In general, the international jurisprudence established by the various human rights treaty monitoring bodies should be thoroughly considered in the country's attempt at consolidating its newly found and fragile political process which seeks to establish and sustain democracy and the rule of law. With respect to the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the Special Rapporteur would like to refer as well to the terms of reference of his mandate as contained in chapter I of this report which can be of assistance in this consolidation effort.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0087", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. In the coming year of his mandate, the Special Rapporteur proposes to visit three countries situated in Asia, Latin America and Eastern Europe respectively. At a later stage, he would like to visit countries in other regions of the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0088", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. With respect to the undertaking of further visits in the pursuit of his mandate, the Special Rapporteur would like to remark that such missions can only gain optimal results when they are well organized. The undertaking of such missions requires a planning that goes beyond the mere short term. Such planning, furthermore, requires continuity in the support offered by the Centre for Human Rights. The Special Rapporteur refers in this respect to his considerations presented elsewhere in this report on the as yet still less than appropriate financial and human resources that are needed to fulfil his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0089", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. The prospects of working with the United Nations Development Programme in carrying out visits are bright. UNDP is institutionally, as well as conceptually, well placed to enable effective and systematic consultation with Governments. The Special Rapporteur would like to consider how to strengthen support received from UNDP and how to move beyond the level of consultations to the level of real coordination in this extremely sensitive, but very important area of work. An agreed framework has to be put in place to achieve this coordination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0090", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. Whereas the Special Rapporteur recognizes the importance of cooperating with other human rights procedures, he feels compelled to note that the human resources at the Centre for Human Rights are inadequate to allow for such cooperation to take place in any systematic manner. At present, cooperation is taking place on an ad hoc basis and includes the exchange of information concerning individual cases of allegations of human rights violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0091", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. The Special Rapporteur has regular contacts with the press in order to make his work known to the general public. During his visit to Malawi he granted an interview to the national radio and during his most recent visit to Geneva to a French radio station.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0092", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. As stated in his first report, submitted to the Commission on Human Rights in 1994, the Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned at the considerable number of communications he received that allege serious violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression throughout the world. The cases contained in these communications give evidence of the continuous need for the effective promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In view of the wealth and complexity of information pertaining to his mandate, as well as of the fact that violations occur in many countries of the world, an objective and even-handed approach requires sufficient financial and human resources to fulfil his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0093", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. The Special Rapporteur recalls that the Commission on Human Rights, in its resolution 1994/33 of 4 March 1994, requested the Secretary-General ... to provide, within existing overall United Nations resources, all the assistance necessary to the Special Rapporteur, in particular by strengthening the human and material resources placed at his disposal ... The Special Rapporteur strongly feels that, at a minimum, there should be one Professional staff member in the Centre for Human Rights assisting him on a full-time basis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0094", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. At this point in time, after a little more than one year of his mandate has elapsed, the Special Rapporteur feels compelled to convey to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-first session the somewhat distressing observation that the Centre for Human Rights is still not in a position to free one Professional staff member on a full-time basis for the purpose of assisting him in his work. Moreover, since he began his mandate, the Special Rapporteur has received assistance from three different Professional staff members consecutively, leading to a situation which did not contribute to the necessary continuity in the fulfilment of his mandate. Furthermore, these staff members carry many additional responsibilities, including the assisting of other Special Rapporteurs. This situation clearly illustrates the well-known fact that the Centre for Human Rights is severely understaffed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0095", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. With respect to the mandate of this Special Rapporteur and, as he presumes, that of many of his colleagues, the question arises whether the Commission on Human Rights should continue covering new areas by establishing special procedures without apparently being in a position to guarantee the provision of adequate human and financial resources for the unfolding of such activities. Current practice indicates that the existing overall United Nations resources are inadequate. If these resources are not made available to the Special Rapporteur, he will not be able to carry out his work thoroughly and with the necessary degree of efficiency. It is the ultimate concern of the Special Rapporteur that this situation would be not only to the detriment of the effectiveness of his own activities but could also jeopardize the effectiveness of the very important work of the Commission on Human Rights in the field of the promotion and protection of human rights. IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0096", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. In a communication dated 22 June 1994, addressed to the Government of Algeria, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following information: \"It has been reported that Mr. Rebah Zenati, a journalist with the Algerian national television station, was killed on 3 August 1993 by an unidentified attacker, apparently because of a story he wrote in March on an anti-terrorism demonstration. Mr. Zenati had previously received death threats in the mail.\"", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0097", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. In another communication, dated 26 July 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following information to the Government of Algeria: \"It has been reported that, on 14 February 1994, Abdelaziz Smati, a television producer, was seriously wounded when two men shot him outside his home in a suburb of Algiers. On 28 February 1994, television journalist, Albdelkader Hireche was killed by three gunmen in an eastern suburb of Algiers. On 1 March 1994, Miloud Zaatar, the Tiaret correspondent for the French-language daily Alger Republicain, was hit by five bullets outside his home. Zaatar was hospitalized and is recovering. On 5 March 1994, television journalist Hassan Benaouda was shot in the head by unidentified assailants in the Cabash section of Algiers. Benaouda died of his wound one week later. On 8 March 1994, Abed Charef, a journalist with the French-language weekly La Nation, survived two attempts on his life. A neighbour of Charef was killed in the first attempt, and later that day, gunmen sprayed his car with bullets in front of his child's day care facility. Charef was not in the car, his driver escaped injury. On 19 March 1994, Yahia Djamel Benzaghou, a journalist with the Prime Minister's press office and formerly a reporter for El Moudjahid and the state agency Algerie Press Service, was gunned down outside his home in Bab El Oued. Furthermore, on 21 March 1994, several gunmen raided the Algiers office of the independent weekly L'Hebdo Libéré, shot and killed photographer Madjid Yacef, a driver with the paper, and seriously injuring a female employee and two others.\"", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0098", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. On 29 August 1994, the Government of Algeria sent the following observations on the above-mentioned communications and a list of journalists and persons working in the media sector who have been victims of murders perpetrated by terrorists. The list included the names of the seven journalists referred to in the second communication. \"By acceding to all of the international instruments on the promotion and protection of human rights, Algeria has clearly demonstrated its unfailing devotion and commitment to respect for human rights. Anxious to build a modern, democratic State and convinced that human rights are the mainspring for the achievement of this objective, Algeria is working towards the elimination of extremism and its attendant violence, which are a negation of the most sacred right, the right to life. With regard to the killings of journalists, particularly that of Mr. Rabah Zenati, a journalist with the Algerian television station, the Algerian Government strongly condemns those acts and is bringing every effort to bear to punish those responsible, in the framework of the law. The journalistic community has already paid heavily for the armed violence linked to religious extremism. There have been many calls for killings and attempts against the lives of journalists. Since becoming one of the terrorists' targets, 17 journalists have paid with their lives for their anti-fundamentalist stand and 3 more were the victims of murder attempts. It should also be noted that the buildings housing the press and television have been subjected to bombings, which, fortunately, resulted only in material damage. Below is a list of journalists and people working in the information sector who have been the victims of terrorist attacks. Omar Belhouchet (17 May 1993). Director and manager of the national daily 'El Watan', he was shot at in a murder attempt while leaving his home in Bab Ezzouar (eastern suburbs of Algiers). Tahar Djaout (26 May 1993). Journalist with the weekly newspaper 'Rupture', a writer and poet, he was the victim of a shooting while leaving his home in Baînem (western suburbs of Algiers). He died of his injuries on 2 June 1993. Merzak Baghtache (31 July 1993). A journalist and writer, he was the victim of a shooting near his home in Algiers. He has been left with considerable physical and psychological after-effects. Rabah Zenati (3 August 1993). A journalist with the National Television Corporation (ENTV). Shot to death near his home in Cherarba (eastern suburbs of Algiers). Abdelhamid Benmennt (9 August 1993). Middle manager at the weekly newspaper 'Algérie Actualité', he was shot to death at his home in Eucalyptus Grove (eastern suburbs of Algiers). Saïd Bakhtaoui (11 August 1993). Journalist with 'El Mebar', the APUA party newspaper, abducted near his home (eastern suburbs of Algiers), he was shot to death and found dead at Larabaâ. Djamel Bouhidel (15 September 1993). A photographer with the newspaper 'Nouveau Tell', a regional publication in Bliaa, he was shot to death. Abderrahmane Chergou (28 September 1993). A journalist and writer with 'Alger Républicain' and 'Hebdo Libéré', former officer of the National Liberation Army, he was stabbed to death in the entrance to his home in Mohammadia (eastern suburbs of Algiers). Mustapha Abada (14 October 1993). Journalist, former director of the Algerian national television station in 1992, he was shot to death near his home in Alger Plage (eastern suburbs of Algiers). Ismaïl Yefsah (18 October 1993). A journalist with the national television station, he was shot to death while leaving his home in Bab-Ezzouar (eastern suburbs of Algiers). Youcef Sebti (28 December 1993). A journalist and contributor to several periodicals, Secretary-General of the 'El Jahaidia' cultural association. His throat was cut in his company apartment located on his work premises. Aziz Smati (15 February 1994). Radio and television producer. Victim of a shooting near his home at Chéraga (suburb of Algiers). He has had after-effects from this attack (motor handicap). Abdelkader Hireche (1 February 1994). Journalist with the national television station. Shot to death near his home in Algiers. Mohamed Hassaine (1 March 1993). Correspondent for the daily newspaper 'Alger Républicain'. He was abducted from his home in Larabaâtach (Blida) and has not been found to date. > Mouloud Zaatar (1 March 1994). Journalist with the daily newspaper 'Alger Républicain', victim of an attack at Tiaret, he has had serious physical after-effects. Hassan Benaouda (5 March 1994). Journalist with the national television station, he was the victim of a shooting in Algiers. He died of his injuries on 12 March 1994. Yahia Benzeghou (19 March 1994). Journalist with 'Algérie Presse Service' and the daily newspaper 'El Moudjahid', head of the communications service attached to the office of the Head of Government, he was shot to death near his home in Algiers. Madjid Yacef (21 March 1994). Reporter-photographer for 'Hebdo Libéré', he was killed during an attack on the 'Hebdo Libéré' premises by an armed group. Mohammed Meceffeur (13 April 1994). Journalist with 'El Watan' and 'Directive', he was shot to death at Mostaganem. Ferhat Cherkit (7 June 1994). Journalist and head of the economy section of the daily newspaper 'El Moudjahid', he was shot to death in Algiers. Hichem Guenifi (7 June 1994). A trainee technician at the national radio station, he was shot to death near his home at Bachdjarah (eastern suburbs of Algiers). Yasmina Drici (11 July 1994). Proofreader for the daily newspaper 'Soir d'Algérie', she was abducted by a group of terrorists and later found with her throat cut at Kharouba (Boumerdes). Mohamed Lamine Legoui (20 July 1994). Correspondent in M'sila for 'Algérie Presse Service', he was shot to death and his throat cut near his home in Bousaada. Brahim Taouchichet (14 August 1994). Director of the magazine 'Horoscope', he was abducted by a terrorist group.\"", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0099", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. As the communications transmitted to the Government of Algeria and the reply received from it shows, journalists, writers and persons working in the media section are particularly exposed to terrorist attacks from Islamic fundamentalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0100", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned at this situation and hopes that the Government of Algeria will be able to identify the perpetrators of the killings and abductions mentioned in his communication and to provide journalists the protection that they need to continue their work.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0101", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. In a communication dated 27 June 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following information to the Government of Bangladesh: \"It has been reported that a second 'fatwa' has been issued against feminist writer Taslima Nasreen as a result of a statement made in an interview published in an Indian newspaper. According to Nasreen, she had been misquoted as saying that 'the Koran should be revised thoroughly' with respect to women's rights. Muslim cleric, Moulana Amini, protested against the statement by Nasreen saying that it was more 'filthy' than those made by Salman Rushdie in 'The Satanic Verses'. Furthermore, Amini demanded that she be arrested and executed. An Islamic party leader, Azharul Islam, called Nasreen 'an apostate appointed by imperialist forces to vilify Islam'. Around 5,000 members of the militant Jamaiat Islami party marched through Dhaka carrying a banner calling for the hanging of anyone who blasphemes Islam and warned that if their calls for the arrest of Nasreen were to be ignored, they would instigate unrest against the Government. The renewal of threats against Nasreen coincided with the publication into French and English of her novel, Lajja.\"", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0102", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. On 13 July 1994, the Government of Bangladesh sent the following observations on the above-mentioned communication transmitted to it by the Special Rapporteur: \"As regards the statement made by Taslima Nasreen in an interview with a correspondent of the Calcutta-based English daily 'Statesman', the paper in its 9 May 1994 issue quoted her as saying: 'The Koran should be revised thoroughly'. The sweeping remark made by the writer on the Holy Quran was quoted extensively in Bangladesh news media and created deep anguish and consternation among believers, resulting in widespread protest and demand for action under the law. Apparently, the intensity of protest led the writer to modify her statement in a letter to the Editor's column of the 'Statesman', which was published on 11 May, saying: 'I do not hold the view that the Koran should be revised thoroughly'. It is important to note that nowhere in her rejoinder did she claim to have been misquoted. There is no report to suggest that a 'Muslim cleric' said to be named as Moulana Amini and 'an Islamic Party Leader' identified as Azharul Islam had made such remarks as alleged in the annexure to the Special Rapporteur's letter. It would be appreciated, if the details of identity of these persons and their alleged statements, including respective sources as well as dates and places, could be made available to this Mission. Regarding demonstrations calling for the 'hanging of anyone who blasphemes Islam' as well as the 'announcement of rewards for killing someone', the position of the Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh has been adequately reflected in a press note issued on > 28 June 1994. It noted that the Government had been observing the issuance of threat against the lives of some persons from time to time and announcement of reward for the killers by certain persons and organizations. The press note said that this kind of announcement is a punishable offense in the eyes of the law. It also expressed the Government's hope that all concerned would refrain from making such illegal announcements and show respect for the law, otherwise, the Government would be compelled to take legal action against them. While on this subject, it may be mentioned that a complaint has already been lodged by a relation of Taslima Nasreen before a court of law in the city of Khulna. It is, therefore, for the court to declare whether there is credible evidence to establish the alleged death threats against her by any individual or any group of individuals. It may be mentioned that the Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh contains wide-ranging and detailed provisions on Fundamental Rights including, inter alia, those on equality before law; protection of right to life and personal liberty; freedom of thoughts, conscience and speech; and safeguards against discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth. At the same time, the right to freedom of opinion and expression, if exercised by an individual in total disregard for the sentiments and religious feelings of others in a society, may provoke exercise of similar rights. This, in turn, may lead to disruption of law and order. Therefore, the legal system of Bangladesh, like other legal systems, defines the concept of balance between the rights of the individual and those of the society.\"", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0103", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his gratitude for the willingness to cooperate shown by the Government of Bangladesh. However, he notes that in spite of the position taken by the authorities against those who threaten to kill Ms. Nasreen, her life was in danger and she felt compelled to seek asylum in Sweden. The Special Rapporteur remains deeply concerned at the issuance of a warrant of arrest by the Chief Metropolitan Magistrate of Dhaka against Taslima Nasreen under Section 295A of the Penal Code and that she is to be tried on 10 December 1994 in her absence. The Special Rapporteur intends to seek further clarification on this case.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0104", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. In a communication dated 7 March 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following message to the Government of China: \"It has been reported that Fu Shenqui was detained on 26 June 1993 for allegedly encouraging political activists to write letters to the Government and stage a hunger-strike in protest against the detention of two dissidents in Shanghai. He was also accused of speaking to foreign journalists about the activities of pro-democracy supporters in Shanghai. He was administratively sentenced without a trial on 4 July 1993 to three years of 're-education through labour'. According to the source, Fu Shenqui is being detained solely for the expression of his non-violent opinions.\"", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0105", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. On 27 May 1994, the Government of China responded, making the following observations: \"The Chinese Government has mounted a painstaking inquiry into the allegations made in the annex to the communication, and its findings make it plain that Fu Shenqui's committal to re-education through labour had nothing to do with the exercise of the freedom of opinion and expression that China's constitution confers upon its citizens. The facts are as follows: In 1993, Wang ..., who suffers from mental disorders, became seriously ill and begun to injure and wound himself, endangering his own and others' safety. In the circumstances, the authorities responsible had him taken to a mental care institution for treatment. Fu, knowing full well that Wang was receiving medical treatment because he was ill, deliberately distorted the facts of the matter as a pretext for instigating a disturbance and causing an incident, thereby severely disrupting public order. To maintain law and order, in accordance with articles 10 (4) and 13 of the Provisional Methods of Re-education through Labour, the Shanghai Municipal Re-education Through Labour Administrative Committee committed Fu Shenqui to three years re-education through labour on 4 August 1993. On two occasions, 9 August and 19 August 1993, Fu appealed to the Committee to reconsider. In December 1993, the Administrative division of Huangpu District People's Court in Shanghai reviewed the case of Fu Shenqui, in accordance with the law, and on 23 December, it upheld the decision of Re-education Through Labour Committee in every particular, instructing the Dafeng County People's Court in Jiangsu Province to notify Fu of its ruling. The re-education through labour to which Fu was committed is not, under the Chinese legal system, a form of criminal punishment but an administrative measure of mandatory educative reform used by the Chinese Government to prevent and reduce crime and to uphold the social order. Re-education through labour committee in the people's governments of provinces, autonomous regions, directly administered municipalities and large medium-sized cities considered and approve committals. They consist of senior officials from the people's government and the department of public security and of labour. Re-education through labour facilities have been set up locally by the government at each level to take in individuals committed for re-education. The intention is to redeem them, to concentrate on their education, to handle them lawfully, strictly, scientifically and in a civilized manner, while guaranteeing their constitutional and legal rights. If an individual disagrees with the decision to commit him to re-education through labour he is entitled to apply to the Re-education Through Labour Committee to reconsider, or he may bring suit under the Administrative Suits Act. It will be seen that Fu's committal to re-education through labour was because of his illegal disruption of public order and unrelated to the 'expression of non-violent opinions'. The Shanghai Municipal Re-education Through Labour Administrative Committee's treatment of Fu was in accordance with Chinese law as regards both the facts and the procedure. Fu made full use of his right to appeal and bring suit against the Committee's decision. The Huangpu District People's Court conscientiously heard Fu's administrative suit and rendered its decision in accordance with the law. The allegations in the communication are completely without foundation.\"", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "10", "paragraph": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0106", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his appreciation to the Government of China for the information provided on the case of Mr. Fu Shenqui. He is of the opinion that the circumstances under which Mr. Fu was sentenced, as set out in the communication of the Chinese Government, remain somewhat unclear. The Special Rapporteur intends to seek further clarification as to how Mr. Fu Shenqui \"distorted the facts of the matter as a pretext for instigating a disturbance and causing an incident, thereby severely disrupting public order\". He will then examine the proportionality between the charges brought against Mr. Fu Shenqui and the sanctions applied.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0107", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. In a communication dated 7 March 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following allegations to the Government of India: \"On 11 January 1994 police allegedly raided the offices of the Punjab daily Aj Di Awaz (Today's Voice) and arrested Gurdeep Singh, the managing editor, along with seven other staff members of the newspaper (Malkir Singh, Jasbir Singh Khalsa, Jasbir Singh Manowan, Devinder Singh, Amrik Singh, Kuldeep Singh) who were then taken to police premises. The police reportedly denied later that they were holding Gurdeep Singh and Malkir Singh. According to the source, these individuals have been detained solely for the expression of their opinions.\"", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0108", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. On 9 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur received from the Government of India the following comments relating to the above-mentioned allegations: \"The authorities concerned in India have investigated the allegations which have been proved to be deliberately misrepresented and grossly distorted. As would be evident from the brief facts of the case given below, Gurdeep Singh Bhatinda, Jasbir Singh Rode and others were arrested for their involvement in terrorist activities and not for the expression of their opinions. Further, the arrest of Gurdeep Singh and Malkiat Singh have not been denied. 'Aaj Di Awaj', was established in 1985 by some Sikh terrorists and secessionist elements as a mouthpiece of their activities. It never practised bona fide journalism in any form. Its founder and former Editor-in-Chief, Bharpur Singh Balbir was arrested in 1986 in a conspiracy case after the revelation of his close links with some Sikh terrorists in Canada who were conspiring to blow up the Parliament House in New Delhi. One of the trustees of this newspaper, Jasbir Singh Rhode, has a consistent record of publicly encouraging and applauding acts of murder and destruction carried out by Sikh terrorists. The present Editor-in-Chief of 'Aaj Di Awaj', Gurdeep Singh Bhatinda has been acting as a front and mouthpiece for secessionist and terrorist organizations, a number of whom have been given refuge in Pakistan and have been directing murder and arson in India from Pakistan territory. These include Wassan Singh Zaffarwal and Lakhbir Singh Rhode. Questioning of a Pakistani trained terrorist Nisar Ahmed Shah arrested at Jalandhar revealed the association of Gurdip Singh Bhatinda with a Pakistani Intelligence Agent Abdul Karim Hakim who was responsible for explosions on six trains in December 1993. Reliable information was also received by the authorities concerned that Jasbir Singh Rode and Gurdip Singh Bhatinda, guided by the Pakistan based terrorist leaders Wassan Singh Zafarwal and Lakhbir Singh Rode were planning to carry out acts of terror including attempts on the life of the Chief Minister of Punjab and the premises of the daily 'Aaj Di Awaj' was being used as a hide-out and meeting place of terrorists for planning their activities. Jasbir Singh Rode and his colleagues had also met several times with the underground terrorists Harmik Singh, Jasbir Singh Brahampura and Awtar Singh Brahampur to plan these activities. To fund these activities, Lakhbir Singh Rode and his co-conspirators received large illegal remittances from Pakistan as well as from Sikh extremist groups based in the United Kingdom. In view of the compelling evidence of the association of Gurdip Singh Bhatinda and Jasbir Singh Rode as well as some of their subordinates on the staff of 'Aaj Di Awaj' in planning acts of armed terror, the police searched the premises of the newspaper on 11 January 1994. Criminal charges have been brought against all these eight persons who have been remanded to judicial custody and action is being taken against them under due process of law. Subsequent to their arrest, the search of a flat in New Delhi rented by a UK-based extremist Shamsher Bhadur Singh Gill Shera led to the recovery of an AK-56 rifle, ammunition, 16 bags of explosives and a large sum of Indian currency. Further investigation in this case revealed that Jasbir Singh Rode was the intermediary in India for carrying out these preparations for premeditated acts of terror under the guidance of Pakistan to use terrorists Wassan Singh Zaffarwal and Lakhbir Singh Rode. It would, therefore, be amply clear from the foregoing that these arrests had nothing to do with any violation of Right to Freedom of Expression and that they were made due to their active involvement in planning acts > of armed terror. The question of freedom of opinion and expression is not germane to the present allegations forwarded to the Government of India. The Government of India would also respectfully submit that article 19 of the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights which encapsulates the freedoms to be enjoyed in this respect equally states in subparagraph (iii) that special duties and responsibilities are also involved in the exercise of these rights. Far from respecting these duties and responsibilities, the subjects of the allegations have shown their contempt of human rights through their acts.\"", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0109", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his appreciation to the Government of India for providing information on the case of Punjab Daily Aj Di Awaz (Today's Voice) and persons arrested in that case. He has noted the Government's position that Gurdeep Singh and others were arrested for their involvement in terrorist activities and not for the expression of their opinion. The Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate that there can be no freedom unless thought is free and unrestricted. He has taken cognizance of the fact that the Government of India has endorsed its commitments to honour and respect the right of freedom of expression and opinion. The Special Rapporteur is contented that the Government concerned has shown due respect for fundamental rights. He expects the State to uphold this right. Regarding the acts of terrorism alleged to have been perpetrated by the persons arrested, he is informed that action is being taken against them under due process of the law. The Special Rapporteur hopes for an early disposal of this case. The State may be firm in its belief that persons arrested were fomenting terrorist activities but it should remain equally committed to providing a fair trial to the accused persons.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0110", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. In a communication dated 7 March 1994 addressed to the Government of Ethiopia, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following information (relating to cases involving the persons Nigusie Ayele Teka, Metsihafe Syrak, Belete Abeba, Tesfaye Birhanu, Girmai Gebre Tsadik, Kidist Belachew, Tefera Asmare, Befekadu Moreda, Tamirat Gebre Giorgis, Girma Lemma, Mintesnot Zena, Kibret Mekonnen, Mesele Addis, Netsanet Tesfaye, Kifle Mulat and Nebiyu Eyassu): \"The above-mentioned persons are journalists for privately owned publications who have allegedly been jailed in the past few months for periods ranging from a few hours to more than 50 days. They were held on charges of incitement under the Ethiopian Press Proclamation, but reports indicate that none of the cases have been prosecuted as of 20 January 1994. According to the source, these journalists are reported to have been detained solely for the expression of their opinions.\"", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0111", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. On 22 March 1994, the Government of Ethiopia sent the following information to the Special Rapporteur: \"The Transitional Period Charter, as the supreme law of the country, has introduced a legal regime which has recognized individual human rights as laid down in the Declaration of Human Rights. As part of the practical measures taken by the Transitional Government to enforce those rights, a Press Law has been issued abolishing censorship and any limitation of a similar nature. The new proclamation has enabled numerous periodic publications to carry out their work without interference. Accordingly, the present political situation of the country is characterized by free expression of ideas and active political participation. As for the allegation that journalists, editors and publishers are being detained illegally as a campaign against freedom of press, I would like to assure you that no action has been taken against those independent journalists who operate in accordance with the provisions of Proclamation 34/1985 on the freedom of press. However, those who violate the Press Law and other Criminal Laws are brought before justice. This is even more urgently required when their publications contravene the interests of public security, the rights of nations, nationalities, religions and individuals. Therefore, the 18 journalists who are now in detention were arrested on account of violating the Press Law and not solely for expressing their opinions. In this regard, it should also be noted that the accused have the right to defend themselves in accordance with the provisions of the Ethiopian Criminal Procedure Code and article 8 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights since independent Courts have been established by Proclamation 23/1984. The detainees also have access to defence lawyers of their own choice. The human rights of the detainees are fully respected. In fact, the petitions of some of them for bail are being considered by the Courts. The Transitional Government remains committed to the protection and promotion of human rights.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"article": "8", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly attributes article 8 to 'the Universal Declaration of Human Rights'. UDHR is non-treaty."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0112", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. The Special Rapporteur appreciates the reply provided by the Government of Ethiopia and its commitment to protect and promote human rights. This commitment will no doubt be reflected in the Government's actions at the operational level to provide the defendants with all the facilities necessary to defend themselves, in accordance with applicable international standards and provisions of the national law. The Special Rapporteur intends to seek further clarification of these cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0113", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. In a communication dated 1 September 1994, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following allegations to the Government of Hungary: \"On 3 March 1994, 129 journalists of Magyar Radios, the Hungarian national broadcasting company, were dismissed. In addition, 12 journalists of '168 hours', popular weekly political production of Radio Kossuth (one of the three national broadcasting stations), were also dismissed. Vice President of Hungarian Radio Laszlo Csucs stated that the lay-off was necessary due to budgetary problems, but journalists see it as an attempt to silence government criticism two months before the scheduled > national elections. Mr. Csucs also stated that this measure was effective 12 April, yet he ordered immediate suspension of those journalists from their jobs in his 4 March announcement. Allegedly, Mr. Tom Kennedy, an advisor of the Government on media matters, declared that the journalists were fired because they were 'former communist alcoholics'.\"", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0114", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. On 17 October 1994, the Special Rapporteur received from the Government of Hungary the following reply: \"The situation of the 129 journalists of Magyar Radios and the 12 of '168 hours' has already been solved, since all the journalists having not attained the age of retirement established by law, who so desired, had been reinstated with appropriate reimbursement of their salaries. All possible concerns regarding the situation now have been dispelled.\"", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0115", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "115. The Special Rapporteur appreciates the prompt reply provided by the Government of Hungary. He hopes that the reinstallation of the journalists dismissed together with the allocation to them of appropriate compensation have contributed to the restoration of a climate of confidence in which journalists can carry out their activities without constraints.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0116", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "116. In a communication dated 7 March 1994, addressed to the Government of South Korea, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following allegations concerning Mr. Hwang Sok-yong: \"It has been reported that Hwang Sok-yong, a 50-year-old writer, was arrested upon his arrival at Kimpo Airport in Seoul on 27 April 1993 by the Agency for National Security Planning (ANSP). Reportedly Mr. Hwang Sok-yong has been held by the ANSP for 20 days, during which time he was allegedly subjected to lengthy interrogation, threats and sleep deprivation. He was then transferred to Seoul Detention Centre under the care of the prosecution who interrogated him for a further 30 days before charges were brought under several articles of the National Security Law for forming and participating in an 'anti-State' organization, for visiting North Korea as an 'operational' fee and of forming and participating in Pomminyon (Pan National Alliance for the Reunification of Korea). Hwang Sok-yong was tried and convicted and is currently being held in Seoul Prison. According to the source, Mr. Hwang Sok-yong has been convicted solely for the expression of his non-violent opinions. Specifically, it is alleged that the charges stem from his opinions on the reunification of North and South Korea.\"", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0117", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "117. In a letter dated 19 April 1994, the Government of Korea informed the Special Rapporteur that it had already submitted its observations on the case of Mr. Hwang Sok-yong to the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, on 20 October 1993.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0118", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "118. The information concerning Mr. Hwang Sok-yong is to be found in the report of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention (E/CN.4/1995/31/Add.2, decision No. 30/1994).", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0119", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "119. In a communication dated 29 April 1994 addressed to the Government of Tunisia, the Special Rapporteur transmitted the following allegations concerning Mr. Moncef Marzouki, Mr. Abderrahmane Hani and Mr. Ahmed Kahlaoui: \"(1) It was reported that Moncef Marzouki, a doctor and former President of the Tunisian Human Rights League (LTDH), was arrested on 24 March and charged with dissemination and propagation of false reports likely to disturb public order and for slandering the judicial authorities, in accordance with articles 49, 50, 51, 68 and 69 of the Press Code and article 32 of the Penal Code. Mr. Marzouki was also allegedly charged with insulting the authorities in an interview he granted a Spanish newspaper. According to our source, Mr. Marzouki denies these charges and it is alleged that his arrest is connected with the fact that he sent the press highly critical statements regarding the state of civil liberties in Tunisia. For example, he reportedly described as unacceptable the complete silence of the Tunisian press concerning his candidature for the post of President. (2) It is reported that Mr. Abderrahmane Hani, a Tunis lawyer who is head of a movement called the Arab 'avant-gardes unionnistes', which is not recognized by the Government, was arrested on 15 February and charged with 'illegally forming a non-recognized political organization and spreading false and defamatory reports'. Before his arrest, Mr. Hani allegedly issued a press release in which he demanded the introduction 'of genuine pluralism that will enable Tunisians to choose their President freely'. (3) It was reported that Ahmed Kahlaoui, a trade unionist, was arrested in early March for distributing leaflets. He is accused of not respecting the obligation regarding the statutory deposit of publications. The leaflets allegedly dealt with the massacre at Hebron in the occupied West Bank and the international embargo against Iraq.\"", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "49", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "50", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "51", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "68", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "69", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "32", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0120", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "120. On 24 September 1994, the Government of Tunisia transmitted to the Special Rapporteur the following observations concerning the above-mentioned allegations: \"1. The case of Mr. Moncef Marzouki First of all, it should be pointed out that Mr. M. Marzouki was released on 13 July 1994 following a decision by the examining magistrate of the Tunis court of first instance. Indeed, Mr. Marzouki was able to leave Tunisia for a business trip abroad. As to the facts that gave rise to his arrest, Mr. Marzouki was charged with disseminating false reports likely to disturb public order, and slandering the legal system, under articles 50 and 51 of the Press Code. Mr. Marzouki has not denied the facts, contrary to the allegations which have reached you, and has stated that he did indeed make statements to foreign journalists, though he does not rule out the possibility that the reporter from the Spanish daily Diaro 16 tried to achieve a sensational impact by twisting the statements attributed to him. In fact, the newspaper Diaro 16, in its 13 May 1994 issue, published an article noting that an unfortunate error had crept into the interview granted by Moncef Marzouki, an error due to the translation from English into French, and then from French into Spanish. Subsequently, after his lawyer had lodged a request for his temporary release, supported by a disclaimer sent to the newspaper in question on behalf of his client and a copy of the newspaper constituting proof that the disclaimer had been published, the examining magistrate decided on the basis of this new evidence to release Mr. Moncef Marzouki. As for the allegations that Mr. Marzouki's arrest was connected with the fact that he has sent to the press highly critical statements regarding the state of civil liberties in Tunisia, and that he described as unacceptable the complete silence of the Tunisian press concerning his candidature for the post of President, there are no grounds for making such a surprising and untoward linkage. In this regard, the Tunisian Government wishes to make it clear that Mr. M. Marzouki's arrest was not connected with his candidature in any way, and that the accusations laid against him cannot be regarded as an obstacle to freedom of opinion and expression, still less to his earlier activities or political opinions. The charges are based on precise facts which constitute offences under Tunisian law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "50", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "51", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0121", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 121, "n": 2, "text": "2. The case of Ahmed Kahlaoui Mr. Ahmed Kahlaoui was indeed arrested on 4 March 1994 as he was distributing leaflets prepared by him at his home which called for confrontation with all Jews, both in Tunisia and in other Arab countries, and for a boycott of all conferences and scientific meetings in which they participate. He also argued against any economic or political dealings with Jews, placing special emphasis on the need for the people of Tunisia to take on the Jewish community in Djerba. Mr. Kahlaoui was brought from custody before the correctional division of the Tunis court of first instance on 8 March 1994, charged with inciting hatred between races, religions and populations and publishing leaflets of a type likely to prejudice public order. His case was registered as No. 11623/494 and set for hearing on 24 March 1994; it was later deferred successively to 31 March 1994 and 14 April 1994. On 27 June 1994 the fourth division of the Tunis court of first instance heard this case and decided to sentence the accused to two years' imprisonment together with a fine of 1,000 dinars for incitement to racial hatred, eight months' imprisonment for publishing leaflets and a fine of 100 dinars for infringement of the regulations regarding statutory deposit of publications. Mr. A. Kahlaoui was found guilty on the basis of the above-mentioned facts and offences under articles 12, 44 and 62 of the Press Code and article 52 bis of the Penal Code, which provide for penalties for any person inciting racial or religious hatred and fanaticism by any means whatsoever. Consequently, Mr. A. Kahlaoui's arrest and conviction cannot in any way be equated with a violation of freedom of opinion and expression - a freedom guaranteed and protected under Tunisian law.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "12", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "44", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "62", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "52", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0122", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 122, "n": 3, "text": "3. The case of Mr. Abderrahmane El Hani Mr. A. El Hani has been accused of illegally distributing leaflets containing defamatory material likely to jeopardize public order, under articles 49, 50 and 51 of the Press Code, and maintaining in activity a non-recognized party, under articles 8 and 26 of the Act of 3 May 1988. Mr. El Hani appeared before the correctional division of the Tunis court of first instance, without having been placed in custody. His case has been registered as No. 21767/494 and is pursuing its normal course. Mr. El Hani remains at liberty. Consequently, the Tunisian Government wishes to make it clear that the charges brought against Mr. El Hani in no way constitute a violation of his right to freedom of expression or opinion, since they bear no relation to the assertions made to you regarding \"a press release in which he demanded the introduction of genuine pluralism that could enable Tunisians to choose their President freely\".", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "49", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "50", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "51", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "8", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "26", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0123", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 123, "n": 121, "text": "121. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his appreciation to the Government of Tunisia for providing information on cases referred to him. The Government of Tunisia has reaffirmed its firm commitment to respect civil and political rights, including that to express opinions on matters of State, which the Special Rapporteur finds important and worthy of attention. It is this course which should be followed meticulously in the cases referred to. The Special Rapporteur wishes to stress that ideological differences that may exist within a society should not be used as a justification to incite hatred between races, religions and peoples, or to take action against persons expressing views contrary to the establishment. The Special Rapporteur hopes that the Tunisian Government would ensure that this principle will continue to guide them and that the pending cases will be decided rapidly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0124", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 124, "n": 122, "text": "122. In three communications dated 7 March, 30 June and 10 August 1994, respectively, the Special Rapporteur transmitted to the Government of Turkey the following allegations he had received concerning the detention of lawyers, police operations against newspapers and the detention and abduction of journalists: \"It has been reported that members of the Bar Association in Diyarbakir named above, were all detained during the week of 15 November and are said to be held at the Gendarmerie Headquarters in Diyarbakir. The lawyers have acted as defence counsel in many political trials before Diyarbakir State Security Court, notably of defendants in PKK trials. According to the source, these individuals are being detained merely for their representation of defendants in PKK trials.\" \"It has been reported that on 7 December 1993 police detained lawyers Iman and Arzu Sahin. It is believed that they may have been transferred to Diyarbakir. The lawyers have acted as defence counsel in many political trials, notably of defendants in PKK. The detention of the lawyers reportedly is on the basis of statements given to the police by a political prisoner in Diyarbakir Prison who had become a police informer. According to the source, the lawyers are being detained merely for their representation of defendants in PKK trials.\" \"Dogu Perincek, the former leader of the Turkish Socialist Party, which was closed down in July 1992, was sentenced to two years' imprisonment and a fine of 50 million Turkish lira by the Ankara State Security Court on 15 January 1993. The charge, under article 8 (1) of the Anti-Terror Law, was making 'separatist propaganda' during the election campaign in the autumn of 1991. According to the source, Mr. Perincek is being prosecuted solely for the expression of his non-violent opinions.\" Istanbul: Gurbetelli Ersoz, editor-in-chief; Fahri Ferda Cetin, editor; Gulten Kisanak, news editor; Muslum Yucel, journalist; Mahmut Dogan, journalist; Ferhat Tugan, journalist; Yurdusev Ozsokmenler, journalist; Nursel Polat, journalist; Dogan Guzel, cartoonist; Ali Riza Halis, administrator; Mehmet Balamir, administrator; Duzgun Deniz, archive manager; Faysal Dagi, research desk manager; Mucahir Kuas, accountant; Huseyin Solgun; Mehtap Gurbuz, sub-editor; Ali Seyhan, cook; Semsettin Ecevit, driver. Diyarbakir: Hasan Ozgun, representative; M. Sirac Koc, journalist; Neamiye Aslan, journalist; Mehmet Sah Yildiz, journalist; Nuray Tekdag, journalist; Bitan Onen, journalist. Izmir: Sezai Karakoc, representative, Riza Zingal, news editor; Serdar Caycioglu, journalist; Namik Alkan, journalist; Emin Unay, journalist; Ciller Yesil, journalist; Leyla Akgul, secretary. Adana: Haci Cetinkaya, representative; Sukru Kaplan, journalist; Ihsan Kurt, journalist; Aslan Sarac, journalist; Beyhan Gunyeli, journalist. Elazig: Cengiz Tas, representative; Menaf Avci, journalist; Yalcin Sevinc, journalist. Batman: Slih Dinc. Mardin: Rezzan Gunes. \"It has been reported that on 9 December 1993 the Turkish police began a series of nationwide police operations against the newspaper Ozgur Gundem. On that date the police allegedly raided the newspaper's office in Diyarbakir and on 10 December the police raided its central office in Istanbul, in which some 110 people were detained and material, including archives and computer disks, seized. Reportedly some 200 police officers raided the main office, and for 24 hours searched the computer files and the premises, detaining all those present and taking them to Istanbul Police Headquarters. By the evening of 11 December, all but 18 had been released. On Saturday 11 December, the newspaper's offices in Izmir, Adana, Elazig, Batman, Mardin, Antop and Van were also raided and its correspondents and staff detained. Nobody was working in the Mardin office when it was searched, but one member of its staff, Rezzan Gunes, was detained when the police raided her home. It is not known whether any of these detainees have been released. According to the source, these individuals are being detained solely for the expression of their non-violent opinions.\" \"It has been reported that Kutlu Esendemir and Levent Ozturk, two television journalists who were working on a piece for the private TGRT TV were kidnapped by Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) guerrillas on 27 January 1994. The regional PKK command stated that the journalists were taken into custody for not having permission to enter the region and film for their television programme which makes its clear that the PKK ban on Turkish journalists is still in effect. According to the source, the PKK indicated that Esendemir and Ozturk would not be freed until 'murders in Kurdistan are revealed'.\" \"According to information received by us, two journalists from the magazine Alinteri in Ankara, Derya Tanrivermis, the head of the office, and Zafer Sakin, a correspondent, have been detained by the police since 7 April 1994, at political police headquarters (Ankara). It is alleged that several repressive measures have already been taken against Alinteri by the Turkish authorities. On 21 February 1993, in particular, the police reportedly searched its offices in Izmir and briefly detained correspondent Halime Özcelik and, on 11 January, five of its distributors were allegedly questioned by the police. In addition to the two journalists, 14 people who were on Alinteri premises were allegedly arrested by the police.\"", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "8", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0125", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 125, "n": 123, "text": "123. On 21 March 1994, the Government of Turkey transmitted to the Special Rapporteur the following information concerning allegations (1) and (2): \"(a) General information on lawyers who have been detained. Sixteen lawyers have been subject to investigation on grounds that they had established organic links with the separatist terrorist organization PKK, and that, in this connection, they had: - Acted as courier between PKK members imprisoned at the Diyarbakir E-Type prison and the terrorists at large, - Established the Legal Bureau of the said terrorist organization, - Provided imprisoned PKK terrorist with cyanide poison and weaponry, - Coordinated activities among the various branches of the PKK and imprisoned terrorists, - Persuaded terrorist leaders for assassinating a Prosecutor at the State Security Court and thus attempt at intimidating the Courts of Law. The above listed acts fall within the scope of articles 168 and 169 of the Turkish Penal Code and are qualified as acts of terror and therefore necessitate criminal investigation. - (b) Specific cases. - (1) Sabahattin Acar was taken into custody on 15 November 1993, on charges of providing imprisoned terrorists with cyanide and of acting as courier for the terrorist PKK organization. He was released on 10 December 1993. - (2) Sinasi Tur was detained on 15 November as suspect for acting as courier for the terrorist PKK organization and providing shelter and assistance to terrorists. He was set free on 10 December 1993. - (3) Baki Demirhan was taken into custody on 16 November 1993 on grounds of handing over a knife to imprisoned terrorists. Following his interrogation, Baki Demirhan was released on 10 December 1993. - (4) Arif Altunkale, Mesut Bestas and Meral Bestas were detained on 16 November 1993 on charges of acting as messengers for the terrorist PKK organization. They were released on 10 December 1993. Following the appeal of the Diyarbakir Prosecutor's Office, the Court ruled their arrest, in absentia, on 13 December 1993. - (5) Huseyin Olmez was taken into custody on 16 November 1993 on grounds of acting as courier for the terrorist PKK organization. The court ruled his arrest on 10 December 1993. - (6) Nevzat Kaya was detained on 18 November 1993, on grounds of acting as courier for the terrorist PKK organization. He was liberated on 10 December 1993. - (7) Iman Sahin and Arzu Sahin were taken into custody on 7 December 1993 on charges that they acted as couriers for the terrorist PKK organization. The Diyarbakir State Security Court ruled their arrest on 21 December 1993.\"", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "168", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "169", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0126", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 126, "n": 124, "text": "124. As for the search conducted by security forces at the offices of the Ozgur Gundem newspaper (allegation No. 4), the following explanations have been provided by the Turkish authorities: \"The freedom of press is guaranteed in Turkey, where the pluralist democratic system is functioning with all its institutions. It is provided in the Constitution that the press is independent and that it is free from censorship. In order to verify the implementation of the above-mentioned constitutional provisions it is sufficient to go through the multitude of daily newspapers which profess a wide spectrum of thoughts and beliefs. The search, based on a warrant issued by the competent Court, conducted by security forces at the Ozgur Gundem newspaper should not be considered as a hindrance to the freedom of press. Moreover, Ozgur Gundem is still being published. The testimonies of captured militants of the terrorist PKK organization has led law enforcement officials to suspect a close link between some of the staff of the Ozgur Gundem newspaper and the PKK. Allegations in this respect include reports that some of the staff have been trained at PKK camps, the publication of the paper as per instructions received from PKK leaders, as well as financial support to the newspaper from the terrorist organization and the presence of a variety of PKK documents in the newspaper office premises. Based on these motivations, the Court issued a search warrant, following which the Ozgur Gundem newspaper was searched on 10 December 1993, and 111 persons from the staff of the newspaper were interrogated. Following the investigation, 92 persons thought to have no connection with the PKK were released. The investigation regarding the remaining 19 persons on grounds of providing assistance and shelter to the terrorist PKK organization was under way on 27 December 1993. During the search at the Ozgur Gundem offices, two unregistered handguns, three bullet magazines, six bullets, an ERNK (a branch of the terrorist PKK organization) seal, a PKK receipt for 400 million Turkish lira, two bloodstained military identity cards with bullet holes belonging to Muzaffer Ulutas, a gendarme slain by PKK terrorists in Sirnak on 9 March 1993, gas masks, an abundance of injections to stop haemorrhage, menacing letters, photographs of a number of officers and privates abducted by the PKK, and numerous publications on PKK were seized. These objects are currently being examined by the Istanbul State Prosecutor's Office. It is clear from the information furnished above that the search does not have anything to do with violating the freedom of expression, but with the capture of persons who have committed acts which are termed as crime in the Turkish Penal Code. It should not go unnoticed that the term 'acts' mentioned above, also covers involvement in the slaughtering of innocent civilians, women, children, the elderly, doctors, teachers and engineers.\"", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0127", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 127, "n": 125, "text": "125. Concerning the case of Mr. Dogu Perincek (allegation No. 3), the Government of Turkey in a communication dated 7 July 1994 stated: \"[he] has been penalized by the Ankara State Security Court for contravening article 8 of Law No. 3713. The sentence was annulled by the High Court of Appeal and the case was sent back to the Ankara State Security Court for a retrial. Following the second trial, the Court sentenced Dogu Perincek, on the same grounds, to two year's imprisonment and to a fine of 50 million Turkish lira. The defence lawyers have appealed the sentence, which was brought before the High Court of Appeals. Dogu Perincek is currently free. Article 8 of Law No. 3713 prohibits written and oral propaganda aimed against the unity and territorial integrity of the Republic of Turkey.\"", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "8", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "8", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0128", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 128, "n": 126, "text": "126. On 2 September 1994, the Government of Turkey transmitted the following observations on the allegations mentioned above, under (5): \"It has been established that Kutlu Esendemir and Levent Ozturk, both working for the TGRT television network, were abducted by PKK terrorists on 26 January 1994, in the vicinity of the Güclükonak country of the Sirnak province. They remained in the hands of the terrorists until they were set free on 28 April 1994. The south-eastern region of Turkey has been the scene of a savage terrorist campaign launched by an organization called the PKK. The bloody campaign launched by the PKK has claimed more than 15,000 innocent lives including women, children and the elderly, since it began in 1984. In 1993 alone, the PKK indiscriminately killed more than 1,200 civilians, mainly of Kurdish origin. Abduction and arbitrary killings of civilians is a common practice of the PKK which, apart from trying to hinder newspeople from doing their work, as illustrated in this particular case, also exploits freedoms as covers for promoting their sinister designs. The PKK's misuse of the freedom of opinion and expression in an attempt to legitimize its terrorist strategy and to praise the misdeeds and cruelties of its members constitutes a vivid example in this regard.\"", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0129", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 129, "n": 127, "text": "127. On the allegations mentioned above under (6), the Government of Turkey presented the following comments in a letter dated 6 September 1994: \"Part of the south-eastern region of Turkey has been afflicted for several years by the separatist terrorism of an organization bearing the name PKK. This organization has been denounced and condemned as a terrorist organization by most of the Member Governments of the United Nations. It is a fact that, as in similar cases observed on an international scale, this terrorist organization uses some of its militants in various areas of society at large, in particular in newspapers and magazines used to further its cause. Most of the latter use journalism as a cover for their main activities, which are either terrorism or propaganda in support of terrorism. Nearly all of these so-called journalists do not meet the requirements for practising the profession and acceding to the status of journalist. This said, I am afraid that some of the names included in the list annexed to your letter fall within this category. Although I understand that, because of the gaps in the communications system of the competent United Nations bodies, it is difficult for you to make a distinction between these people and real journalists, it is difficult for me not to react when I see the name of a journalist such as Mr. Ugur Mucu, whose murderers are alleged to be terrorists belonging to a foreign fundamentalist movement, in the above-mentioned category of cases that are deliberately being used by the terrorist organization through the communications systems as propaganda material. The PKK's Marxist-Leninist ideology and strategy, with its attendant atheistic propaganda and rejection of all of south-eastern Anatolia's age-old values, has led to a reaction among certain social strata that has in turn produced another terrorist organization, \"Hizbullah\", whose ideology is religious fundamentalism. Most of the killings or attempted killings of so-called journalists affiliated with daily newspapers such as Ozgur Gundem were perpetrated by members of Hizbullah. The judicial authorities have clarified approximately 70 per cent of these cases. The Turkish Government also provides information on the newspaper Ozgur Ulke, the successor to Ozgur Gundem. A reading of a single issue of this newspaper is sufficient indication that it is a party organ which is directly dependent on the PKK and takes advantage of freedom of the press in Turkey to incite terrorism and separatism. The PKK leaders write regularly for this newspaper, whose circulation is between 6,000 and 8,000 copies a day. The letters I am transmitting to you in an annex relating to the counter-truths published in this newspaper on Turkey's relations with the United Nations human rights bodies are only a very small illustration of the systematic disinformation work being carried out by the newspaper. Freedom of opinion and expression does exist in Turkey, so much so that it is frequently abused by certain circles. It is obviously no easy matter to determine where freedom of expression as a universal standard stops. However, you are no doubt well aware that such a freedom can become an offence when it is knowingly used as a provocation to human rights violations, criminality, armed violence and separatist goals, all the more so in a context where the threat of terrorism brings all its weight to bear. It is true that those responsible for such provocation have been prosecuted and that some of them have been convicted by the Turkish judicial authorities. Some would consider these judicial proceedings to be proof of alleged restrictions on freedom of expression in Turkey, which is in fact exercised very widely, as should be the case in a pluralistic democracy. However, democracies must also lay down certain conditions for the exercise of freedom of expression if they are to preserve their own values, for their proper functioning and even survival depend on such values. As crucially important as it is to protect these values, it would not be possible to do so without guarantees such as territorial integrity, crime prevention, national security and public safety, to name but a few. These guarantees are recognized in many international instruments. In this connection, article 10, paragraph 2, of the European Convention on Human Rights, to which Turkey is a party as a member of the Council of Europe since 1949, is one of the best examples.\"", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994, "citedArticles": [{"article": "10", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "low", "source": "opus", "rationale": "The visible Turkey government letter does not explicitly attribute article 10 to any specific treaty. Context (Turkey, freedom of expression) most plausibly suggests ECHR art.10, but no explicit citation in the excerpt. Conservative non-treaty '?' is appropriate; no secure resolution possible."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0130", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 130, "n": 128, "text": "128. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his appreciation to the Government of Turkey for providing information on cases referred to it. From a close reading of the allegations made and the information received from the Government, the Special Rapporteur feels that in the present situation of Turkey, the political process should go hand-in-hand with the law and order approach. The view that a complicated historical process can be resolved by terrorism is erroneous. History has demonstrated that many upheavals accompanied by terrorist acts which looked very formidable at the time did not succeed in the end. Terrorism has proven to be a road to disaster and should be avoided. Nor can a mere law and order approach suffice to meet the situation; a genuine solution involves a greater appreciation of the grievances of the people. It is only by demonstrating moral values and concern for human rights that one gains the approbation of society and thus outflank the anti-social forces. The Special Rapporteur expresses the sincere hope that an effective balance between freedom and authority will be struck. He notes that such a balance implies that persons arrested will be provided with every opportunity to prove their innocence and that the State at the same time will ensure peace and stability by handling the terrorist acts effectively. In addition, the State should provide journalists the protection they need to pursue their professional responsibilities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0131", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 131, "n": 129, "text": "129. The Special Rapporteur is compelled to conclude that violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression have not ceased to occur. In many instances, these violations concur with violations of other human rights, including those related to enforced or involuntary disappearances, extrajudicial, arbitrary or summary executions, torture, religious intolerance, arbitrary detention and the problem of terrorism.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0132", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 132, "n": 130, "text": "130. Most constitutions no doubt guarantee the fundamental right of free speech. Free expression and freedom of the press have been regarded as freedoms implicit in this larger freedom and are part of it. The press performs a vital service in a democracy by providing a political arena for debate and the exchange of information and ideas. Its institutional needs therefore have to be safeguarded. The free flow of news and information both within and across national boundaries deserves the fullest support.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0133", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 133, "n": 131, "text": "131. The free press needs help. Journalists must be secure in their pursuits and be given full protection of the law. No doubt such laws exist, but they have to be implemented creatively and imaginatively with a view to advancing the constitutional values and spelling out and strengthening the basic human rights enshrined in them. Advancing the constitutional values and enhancing the protection of people's rights require limiting and structuring the executive and legislative powers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0134", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 134, "n": 132, "text": "132. The Special Rapporteur is concerned about the continued intimidation and harassment of writers and journalists in several countries across the world. Often, such harassment is disguised, covert and subtle; occasionally it is blatant and institutionalized. A free media is essential not merely as an instrument of democracy but as a precondition for social stability and equality. Whatever the excesses of an unprofessional media, on balance, freedom tends to smooth out rough edges.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0135", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 135, "n": 133, "text": "133. Independent press commissions can perform vital functions in guiding and balancing institutions that check the power of both the executive and the media. While freedom is not a privilege but a right, its exercise by the media calls for responsibility. A declared code of conduct for the media is essential for all journalists. Such a code will only work effectively, however, if it is voluntarily adopted by the profession itself.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0136", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 136, "n": 134, "text": "134. Apart from its function to ensure freedom and protect democracy, a free press functions also as a social and an economic asset. Social scientists have demonstrated how freedom of information can contribute to higher degrees of productivity and motivation for work and to ensuring the quick and fair delivery of public services, especially in times of natural disaster.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0137", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 137, "n": 135, "text": "135. The Special Rapporteur recognizes that the right to information is vitally important other than as a guarantee of a free press. Governments and private businesses tend to be excessively secretive. While recognizing the importance of a legally protected right to intellectual property, the Special Rapporteur notes that the denial of the right to information is not in the public interest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0138", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 138, "n": 136, "text": "136. The media could consider exposing itself to public criticism through the formal institution of an ombudsman to whom both individuals and organizations could appeal in cases of perceived misuse of the right to freedom of expression. Such an ombudsman could have a purely advisory role, chastising or commending the media in specific cases referred to him.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0139", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 139, "n": 137, "text": "137. The exercise of freedom carries with it responsibilities and duties. It demands wisdom, sagacity and a sense of responsibility. The exercise of freedom is therefore subject to reasonable conditions and limitations prescribed by law and necessary in a democratic society, but it should always be kept in mind that freedom of expression is the primary freedom and the first condition of liberty. It occupies a preferred position in the hierarchy of liberties, giving succour and protection to other liberties. For these reasons, freedom of the press is indispensable in a democracy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0140", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 140, "n": 138, "text": "138. A freedom of such amplitude involves risks of abuse. The point must be made, however, that even in the interests of specific segments of society, any restrictions imposed should be proportionate to the need giving rise to them, proportionate to the harm they seek to prevent. Two competing interests have to be balanced, and that task is to be carried out with statesmanship by the judiciary and executive. The basic rights of free speech and expression should not lightly be allowed to be smothered and curtailed, because they are at the core of all human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0141", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 141, "n": 139, "text": "139. With respect to all the activities undertaken by the Special Rapporteur in the fulfilment of his mandate, it is of vital importance that he receive public support. Freedom of expression and opinion is a fundamental attribute of a good civil society in which all fundamental commitments require a base of public support if they are to be sustained. Human rights do not prevail unless there is a public function for them. People should be made aware of their value. Their commitment can only be obtained through open public debate and discussion. The logic of the political process of democracy needs the creation of an atmosphere in which attempts to undermine human rights are countered and in which support for human rights is clearly articulated. An enlightened public opinion created through the organization and publicizing of seminars, conferences, brainstorming sessions and other meetings touching on the issue of freedom of expression would strengthen the basis sustaining the work of the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0142", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 142, "n": 140, "text": "140. The Special Rapporteur recognizes the primordial role that can be played, and that should be played, by non-governmental organizations active in the defence of human rights. Their task is burdensome. No one organization can hope to address these problems alone. The sharing of information and of responsibilities, therefore, becomes necessary. The approach of the Special Rapporteur has been to build a close relationship with NGOs that are active in the area of his concern. He strongly encourages common initiatives among them and with them, not only on pragmatic, but also on moral grounds. There are NGOs that share our fundamental values and which act as watchdogs. The Special Rapporteur is most eager to synchronize his efforts with those NGOs effectively. Such attempts at synchronization should not be at cross purposes with Governments, but should rather serve the purpose of furthering the cause of freedom of expression on a global scale.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0143", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 143, "n": 141, "text": "141. The Special Rapporteur cannot be indifferent to the incidents referred to him. Without completing his inquiries with the Governments concerned he cannot form a well-informed opinion. Some of the allegations of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression have been pending for months or even years. The Special Rapporteur would risk mortgaging his future if he turned a blind eye to delays in the responses of Governments. Delays win no awards.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0144", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 144, "n": 142, "text": "142. The Special Rapporteur recognizes that the attitudes of Governments to such cases must, of necessity, remain nuanced. Yet he also notes that despite all these difficulties, Governments have it in their power to respond swiftly and have the capacity to put down those practices from which human rights crusaders derive their raison d'être, strength and appeal. The Special Rapporteur encourages all those seeking to protect the right to freedom of opinion and expression to avoid oversimplifications of complex issues which entail difficult but necessary choices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0145", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 145, "n": 143, "text": "143. The judiciary of all countries should be aware that the violation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression leaves no room for impartiality. It is within their competence to order the release of detainees who are held merely for expressing their non-violent opinions.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0146", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 146, "n": 144, "text": "144. The Special Rapporteur urges all Governments to scrutinize their national legal systems with a view to bringing them into line with international standards governing the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0147", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 147, "n": 145, "text": "145. The Special Rapporteur recommends to the Commission on Human Rights to consider the question of financial and human resources in the light of his remarks in chapter III of this report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1995-32-0148", "docId": "e-cn-4-1995-32", "idx": 148, "n": 146, "text": "146. The Special Rapporteur stands committed to offering his full cooperation in the efforts of Governments and non-governmental organizations to solve the problems in the area of his mandate. Through unity and cooperation in defending and protecting them, the frontiers of human rights, which are the most basic moral values of our present-day civilisation, can be extended. -----", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1994}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report focuses on the protection of journalists and media freedom, an issue of central importance for the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur previously considered the issue more comprehensively in his report to the General Assembly of 11 August 2010 (A/65/284), in which he examined trends with respect to violence against journalists in both conflict and non-conflict situations; the obligation of States under international human rights law and international humanitarian law and difficulties faced by so-called “citizen journalists.” He also provided recommendations to enhance the protection of journalists and citizen journalists alike, in both conflict and non-conflict situations. The Special Rapporteur and previous mandate holders have also included a section on the protection of journalists and freedom of the press in their annual reports to the Human Rights Council.[[fn:1]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See for example A/HRC/4/27, A/HRC/7/14, A/HRC/11/4, A/HRC/14/23."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Given the ongoing repression of journalists and media freedom worldwide, aimed at suppressing information deemed “inconvenient,” and increasing restrictions placed on the work of journalists who also disseminate information through the Internet, the Special Rapporteur wishes to again bring the issue to the attention of the Human Rights Council. The present report focuses on the protection of journalists outside of armed conflict situations as the majority of human rights violations against journalists take place outside of armed conflict, and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions will be presenting his annual report regarding the protection of journalists in conflict situations to the Human Rights Council. Moreover, the Human Rights Council held a panel discussion on the protection of journalists in armed conflict situations on 4 June 2010 (A/HRC/15/54), and the United Nations Security Council, whose binding powers do not extend to human rights violations in times of peace or when peace is not threatened, has condemned attacks against journalists in conflict situations in resolution 1738, adopted on 23 December 2006.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The Special Rapporteur affirms that journalism must be seen as an activity and profession that constitutes a necessary service for any society, as it provides individuals and society as a whole with the necessary information to allow them to develop their own thoughts and to freely draw their own conclusions and opinions. By exercising the right to “seek and receive information,” individuals can make informed decisions and express their opinions freely and participate actively in a democratic system.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Against this backdrop, and defined by their function and service, journalists are individuals who observe and describe events, document and analyse events, statements, policies, and any propositions that can affect society, with the purpose of systematizing such information and gathering of facts and analyses to inform sectors of society or society as a whole. Such a definition of journalists includes all media workers and support staff, as well as community media workers and so-called “citizen journalists” when they momentarily play that role.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Indeed, the Human Rights Committee, in its general comment No. 34, has also adopted a functional definition of journalism, by defining journalism as “a function shared by a wide range of actors, including professional full-time reporters and analysts, as well as bloggers and others who engage in forms of self-publication in print, on the Internet or elsewhere” (para. 44).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The Special Rapporteur also emphasizes that journalists must seek to develop their professional abilities academically and in practice; journalists may form professional associations to guarantee professionalism and common ethical standards; and journalists may register for the purposes of obtaining an identification card to allow them to have access to certain events. However, under no circumstances should such conditions be imposed by State authorities as preconditions to practice journalism, given that journalism as a profession can only fulfil its role if it has full guarantees of freedom and protection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. Between 1 April 2011 and 20 March 2012, the Special Rapporteur sent 218 communications, 213 of which were submitted jointly with other special procedures mandate holders. The geographical distribution of the communications was as follows: 29 per cent for Asia and the Pacific; 23 per cent for the Middle East and North Africa; 21 per cent for Latin America and the Caribbean; 15 per cent for Europe, Central Asia and North America; and 12 per cent for Africa. The summary of communications sent and replies received from Governments can be found in the following special procedures communications reports: A/HRC/18/51, A/HRC/19/44 and A/HRC/20/30.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Communications"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Algeria from 10 to 17 April 2011. His main findings and recommendations to the Government can be found in the addendum to this report (A/HRC/20/17/Add.1).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Country visits", "1. Missions undertaken in 2011"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The Special Rapporteur visited Israel and the occupied Palestinian territories from 6 to 17 December 2011. His main findings and recommendations can be found in the addendum to this report (A/HRC/20/17/Add.2).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Country visits", "1. Missions undertaken in 2011"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Following an invitation received from the Government of Honduras on 25 October 2011, the Special Rapporteur is in the process of finalizing dates for a joint visit with the Special Rapporteur for freedom of expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Country visits", "2. Upcoming missions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Following an invitation received from the Government of Pakistan on 7 February 2012, the Special Rapporteur is in the process of confirming the specific dates of the visit.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Country visits", "2. Upcoming missions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. As of March 2012, the following visit requests from the Special Rapporteur were pending: Ecuador (requested most recently in February 2012), Iran (Islamic Republic of) (requested in February 2010), Italy (requested in 2009), Sri Lanka (requested in June 2009), Thailand (requested in 2012), Tunisia (requested in 2009), Uganda (requested in May 2011) and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) (requested in 2003 and 2009).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Country visits", "3. Pending visit requests"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. On 22 March 2011, the Special Rapporteur issued a joint press release[[fn:2]] on the deteriorating situation in Bahrain, noting that the Government had failed to implement human rights commitments made in February 2012. He called on the Government to fully respect the right to fully guarantee the rights of peaceful demonstrators expressing their legitimate concerns and grievances.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Press releases issued by the Special Rapporteur are available at http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/NewsSearch.aspx?NTID=PRS&MID=SR_Freedom_Expressio."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. On 5 April 2011, at the end of his three-day visit to Hungary, the Special Rapporteur highlighted his outstanding concerns regarding the Hungarian media legislation, such as restrictions on media content based on vague concepts, insufficient guarantees to ensure the independence and impartiality of the regulatory body empowered to apply the law, excessive fines and other administrative sanctions that can be imposed on the media, and lack of sufficient protection of journalistic sources. He recommended that the Government undertake broad public consultations on the “media law package” as a whole, as well as on ongoing constitutional reforms, to ensure that the right to freedom of expression is fully guaranteed in accordance with Hungary’s international human rights obligations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. On 27 April 2011, the Special Rapporteur expressed deep shock and sorrow over the killing of Ahmed Kerroumi, a political activist he had met on a recent official visit to Algeria. He called on the Government of Algeria to conduct a detailed and independent investigation into his killing and to bring those responsible to justice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. On 2 May 2011, on the occasion of World Press Freedom Day of 3 May, the Special Rapporteur issued a press release on the right to freedom of expression on the Internet, expressing particular concern regarding journalists, bloggers and activists who have been targeted in countries such as Libya, Syrian Arab Republic and Yemen. He called on all Governments to choose reform over repression, to embrace diverging views, to listen to the people, and to build a strong society based on the consent of the governed, whose freedom of expression must be upheld.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. On 1 June 2011, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States, the Representative on Freedom of the Media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, and the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, issued a joint declaration establishing guidelines to protect freedom of expression on the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. On 11 July 2011, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Chair-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, expressed his dismay at the use of tear gas and water cannons by security authorities in Malaysia against peaceful protestors during the Bersih 2.0 rally on 9 July 2011, reportedly leading to injuries and one death. The mandate-holders also expressed concern over the arrest of more than 1,600 people, as well as the continued detention of six leaders from the Socialist Party of Malaysia on the basis of the Emergency Ordinance, which allows for detention without trial for up to 60 days.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. On 5 August 2011, the Special Rapporteur, together with other mandate holders, warned that the scale and gravity of the violent crackdown in the Syrian Arab Republic continues unabated, and reiterated their call for an immediate end to the violent strategies adopted by the Government to quash ongoing demonstrations. The Special Rapporteur expressed his deep concern at the Government’s continued attempt to prevent the world from knowing the extent of atrocities unfolding on the ground, by refusing access to foreign journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. On 10 October 2011, the Special Rapporteur urged the Government of Thailand to hold broad-based public consultations to amend its criminal laws on lèse majesté primarily section 112 of the Thai penal code and the 2007 Computer Crimes Act, which provides for imprisonment of up to fifteen years and five years respectively. He underscored that the threat of a long prison sentence and vagueness of what kinds of expression constitute defamation, insult, or threat to the monarchy encourage self-censorship and stifle important debates on matters of public interest, and that the recent spike in lèse majesté cases pursued by the police and the courts shows the urgency to amend them. He also expressed continuing concern at the blocking of hundreds of thousands of websites that contain commentary on the Thai monarchy.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. On 14 October 2011, the Special Rapporteur, together with other mandate holders, warned that the current public draft of the Law on Associations and Non-Governmental Organizations in Cambodia, if adopted, risks breaching fundamental rights, including the right to freedom of opinion and expression of human rights defenders. Noting the statement by the Ambassador of Cambodia to the Human Rights Council to undertake further consultations, the mandate holders called on the Government of Cambodia to review the draft law in open and meaningful discussions with associations and NGOs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. On 1 November 2011, the Special Rapporteur, together with other mandate holders, voiced grave concern over reports of restrictions of fundamental rights of monks, who have been calling for religious freedom in and around the area of the Tibetan Buddhist Kirsti monastery in Sichuan province, China. Noting that the tension in the area has escalated since March 2011, he expressed deep concern about allegations of restrictions to Internet access and mobile messaging services within Aba Country, as well as lack of access to the region by journalists. The mandate holders urged the Government to fully respect and uphold the rights of minorities, cease any restrictive practices, and refrain from use of any violence or intimidation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. On 21 November 2011, the Special Rapporteur, together with other mandate holders, expressed alarm at the degree of violence and the deteriorating situation in Egypt ahead of parliamentary elections planned for 28 November 2011. The Special Rapporteur urged the Government to ensure that diverse views and opinions, including criticism of authorities, can be expressed peacefully by all.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. On 24 November 2011, the Special Rapporteur, in a joint press release, warned that the new legislative amendments adopted by the National Assembly of Belarus may severely and arbitrarily restrict the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly, association, and expression. The mandate holders noted that the amendments to various laws in Belarus can worsen the climate of fear and intimidation in the country, and that such amendments may be linked to the situation of Ales Bialiatski, President of the Viasna human rights centre, and the current legal proceedings against him for alleged tax evasion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. On 7 December 2011, the Special Rapporteur, together with other mandate holders, warned that a new Peaceful Assembly Bill in Malaysia may arbitrarily and disproportionally restrict the right to assemble peacefully. They expressed concern at restrictions ranging from a ban on street protests and the prohibition on non-citizens and citizens under 21 years of age to assembly peacefully to conditional access for media to public gatherings.", "labels": ["Persons in street situations"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. On 23 December 2011, the Special Rapporteur, together with other mandate holders, denounced the continued secret detention of Gao Zhisheng, a prominent Chinese human rights lawyer who was arbitrarily arrested in 2006 in China. They expressed concern that a Beijing court had withdrawn Mr. Gao’s five-year probation and ordered an additional three-year sentence.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. On 2 February 2012, the Special Rapporteur, together with other mandate holders, issued a press release expressing dismay at the continuing abuse of anti-terrorism legislation to curb freedom of expression in Ethiopia. The Special Rapporteur condemned the sentencing of three journalists and two opposition politicians whose sentences range from 14 years to life imprisonment.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. On 16 February 2012, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights of the Organization of American States, issued a joint press release regarding the sentencing by the National Court of Justice of Ecuador of three executives and a journalist from El Universo newspaper to three years’ imprisonment and a fine of USD 40 million for the publication of an article which offended President Rafael Correa.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. On 21 February 2012, the Special Rapporteur, together with other mandate holders, condemned the arrest of at least 16 persons in Syrian Arab Republic, including prominent Syrian human rights figures, and expressed concern that their arrests and detention are directly linked to the activities of the Syrian Centre for Media and Freedom of Expression. Concern was also expressed that they may be subjected to torture and ill treatment.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. On 24 February 2012, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association, urged the Senegalese authorities to take all necessary measures to ensure free, fair and transparent presidential elections that reflect the will of the Senegalese people. They also called on all parties to refrain from using violence before, during and after the elections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. On 28 February 2012, the Special Rapporteur, together with other mandate holders, called on the Government of Bangladesh to ensure that any policy concerning open-pit coal mining includes robust safeguards to protect human rights. In the interim, they called on the Government of Bangladesh not to allow the Phulbari coal mine to proceed, as it could displace hundreds of thousands of people and lead to the violation of fundamental human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. On 19 March 2012, the Special Rapporteur, together with 21 other mandate holders, called on States to incorporate universally agreed international human rights norms and standards with strong accountability mechanisms into the goals of the United Nations Rio+20 Conference on Sustainable Development, as the first round of informal-informal negotiations began in New York.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "C. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. From 1 to 3 May 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in the global conference “World Press Freedom Day” on 21st century media, organized by UNESCO in Washington D.C.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. On 16 and 17 May 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in the workshop “Civil Protest and Peaceful Change: Upholding Human Rights,” organized by the Geneva Academy of International Human Rights Law and Human Rights in Geneva.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. From 30 May to 1 June 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in the Expert Consultation Meeting on National Security and Access to Information, organized by the Open Society Institute and hosted by Central European University in Budapest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. On 6 and 7 July 2011 and on 12 and 13 October 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in expert regional workshops on the prohibition of incitement to national, racial or religious hatred, organized by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) in the Asia-Pacific region and in the Americas, respectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. From 8 to 16 July 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in academic events on freedom of expression, organized by the Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development (FORUM-ASIA) in Bangkok, Phnom Penh, Kuala Lumpur and Jakarta.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. On 13 and 14 September 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in the United Nations Inter-Agency meeting on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity, organized by UNESCO in Paris.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. From 17 to 19 September 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in the Pan-African Conference on Access to Information, hosted by the Working Group on the African Platform on Access to Information, UNESCO, and the African Union Commission at the International Convention Centre in Cape Town, South Africa.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. On 23 and 24 September 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in the International Conference on Freedom of Expression and Press Freedom in Nuremburg, Germany.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. From 27 to 30 September 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated as a panellist in the 2011 Internet Governance Forum, held at the United Nations Office in Nairobi.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. From 7 to 11 November 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in the meeting “Asia Civil Society Consultation on National Security and Rights to Information Principles,” organized by the Open Society Foundation, Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development (FORUM-ASIA), Yayasan Tifa, and the Institute for Defense, Security and Peace Studies in Jakarta.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. On 23 November 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated in the expert consultation meeting, “Safety of journalists: Towards a more effective international protection framework,” organized by the Austrian Federal Ministry for European and International Affairs in Vienna.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. From 10 to 16 January 2012, the Special Rapporteur participated in a series of consultations in Thailand, and attended the Regional Symposium on Social Media, Freedom of Expression and Incitement to Hatred in Asia, organized by the Asian Forum for Human Rights and Development (FORUM-ASIA) in Singapore.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. On 29 February 2012, the Special Rapporteur participated as a panellist in the Human Rights Council panel discussion on freedom of expression on the Internet in Geneva, Switzerland.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. On 1 and 2 March 2012, the Special Rapporteur participated in the experts meeting on the Safety of Journalists, organized by the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and the Centre of Governance and Human Rights at University of Cambridge, United Kingdom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. From 25 to 27 March 2012, and from 28 to 30 March 2012, the Special Rapporteur participated in several academic meetings in Florence and Rome, Italy, respectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "D. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. The challenges that journalists encounter in undertaking their professional work are manifold. While the death or plight of foreign journalists in armed conflict situations frequently draw the attention of the international community, local journalists continue to face daily challenges in situations that have not reached the threshold of an armed conflict, but may be characterized by violence, lawlessness and/or repression. These range from restrictions to movement, including deportations and denial of access into a country or a particular area; arbitrary arrests and detention, particularly during public crises or demonstrations; torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, including sexual violence against female journalists; confiscation of and damages to equipment, information theft, illegal surveillance and office break-ins; intimidation, including summons to police stations for questioning, harassment of family members, death threats, stigmatization and smear campaigns to discredit journalists; abductions or enforced disappearance to killings.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Since 1 January 2011, the Special Rapporteur has addressed communications relating to instances of restrictions or violence against journalists to the governments of Angola, Azerbaijan, Belarus, China, Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Georgia, Honduras, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Iraq, Kazakhstan, Libya, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Mexico, Morocco, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Russian Federation, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Syrian Arab Republic, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Uzbekistan, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of), Viet Nam and Yemen.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See A/HRC/18/51, A/HRC/19/14, A/HRC/20/30."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. A notable trend in 2011 was the increase in the number of attacks against journalists during coverage of street protests and demonstrations, such as arbitrary arrests and detention, verbal and physical attacks, confiscation or destruction of equipment, as well as killings in countries such as Angola, Belarus, Egypt, Georgia, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Libya, Malawi, Maldives, Russian Federation, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia and Yemen.[[fn:4]]", "labels": ["Persons in street situations"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Attacks against journalists may be perpetrated by a range of actors – State or non-State – such as organized crime groups, terrorist groups, security forces or militia. Journalists are placed at risk of attack for documenting and disseminating information deemed to be “inconvenient,” including on human rights violations, environmental issues, corruption, organized crime, drug trafficking, public crises, emergencies or public demonstrations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Female journalists also face additional risks, such as sexual assault, mob-related sexual violence aimed against journalists covering public events, or sexual abuse in detention or captivity. Many of these attacks are not reported as a result of powerful cultural and professional stigmas.[[fn:5]] A gender-sensitive approach is therefore needed when considering measures to address the issue of violence against journalists.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Lauren Wolfe, “The silencing crime: Sexual violence against journalists,” Special report, Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ), 7 June 2011. Available at http://cpj.org/reports/2011/06/silencing-crime-sexual-violence-journalists.php."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Another threat to the freedom of journalists and to press freedom is the increasing use of criminal law on defamation, slander or libel by public officials to silence criticism regarding their personal activities or public policies. The mere use of such “judicial harassment” generates a climate of fear and a “chilling effect” which encourages self-censorship. This issue is further explored under section D below on criminalization of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. An attack against a journalist is not only a violation of his or her right to impart information, but also undermines the right of individuals and society at large to seek and receive information, both of which are guaranteed under articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights respectively. Indeed, without respect for freedom of expression, and in particular freedom of the press, an informed, active and engaged citizenry is impossible. An attack against a journalist is therefore an attack against the principles of transparency and accountability, as well as the right to hold opinions and to participate in public debates, which are essential for democracy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly pairs 'articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights respectively', and the regex_ref is attributed to ICCPR. The ICCPR citation is clear."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. In addition to articles 19 of the Declaration and of the Covenant, which protect the right of journalists to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of any kind through any medium of communication, journalists are also protected under other provisions in international human rights law, including the right to life, freedom from torture and arbitrary arrests and detention, and the right to an effective remedy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Despite the existence of provisions in international human rights law which protect their right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, journalists across the world continue to face risks and challenges in carrying out their work. The Special Rapporteur reiterates that the problem with regard to continued and increasing violence against journalists is not a lack of legal standards, but the lack of implementation of existing norms and standards (A/65/284, para. 83). It is therefore essential that these existing norms and standards be implemented at the national level. The Special Rapporteur wishes to emphasize again that although the origin of the acts of violence may not initially be known, the primary responsibility of protecting journalists, fully investigating each case and prosecuting those responsible lies with Governments and State institutions (A/HRC/4/27).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. As well as having an obligation to prevent human rights violations against journalists, such as killings, ill-treatment or unlawful arrest, States also have a responsibility to ensure that their national legal systems do not permit impunity in cases when such violations take place. The issue of impunity is further discussed below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. The Special Rapporteur would like to underscore that given that the causes of violence, as well as of impunity, vary in each context, strategies or protection mechanisms established to protect journalists must be tailored to local needs with context-specific consideration of the differing needs of journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. States are also responsible for ensuring that legal measures, such as anti-terrorism or national security laws, are not used to limit freedom of expression by leading to the arrest and detention, or to fear of arrest and detention, among journalists. The issue of criminalization of freedom of expression, which has a direct impact on the ability of journalists to carry out their work, is further examined below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. For their part, journalists and media organizations also have a responsibility to take precautionary safety measures to ensure their own protection. Additionally, by voluntarily adhering to global standards of professionalism, journalists can also enhance their credibility in the eyes of society and their legitimate protection concerns. Such standards of journalistic professionalism include those that have been developed and adopted by journalists and media workers themselves, such as the Declaration of Principles on the Conduct of Journalists of the International Federation of Journalists, which proclaims that “respect for truth and the right of the public to truth is the first duty of the journalist.”[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "A. Overview"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See http://www.ifj.org/en/articles/ifj-declaration-of-principles-on-the-conduct-of-journalists."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Most of the offline media have developed an online alternative, and given that the Internet has become an essential and economic medium for disseminating news to a global audience, leading to an emergence of “online journalists” – both professionals and so-called “citizen journalists” who are untrained, but who play an increasingly important role by documenting and disseminating news as they unfold on the ground. Such an expansion of individuals involved in spreading information has enriched the media landscape by increasing access to sources of information, stimulating informed analysis and promoting the expression of diverse opinions, particularly in moments of crises.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "B. Safety and protection of online journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. The Special Rapporteur has already examined issues related to the right to freedom of expression on the Internet (A/HRC/17/27) and citizen journalists (A/65/284), but remains concerned about the increasing risks against individuals who disseminate information via the Internet. The killing of Mexican reporter, Maria Elizabeth Marcias Castro, whose decapitated body was found near the city of Nuevo Laredo, along with a note saying she had been killed for reporting news on social media websites, is a case in point.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "B. Safety and protection of online journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Additionally, the Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned by harassment of online journalists and bloggers, such as illegal hacking into their accounts, monitoring of their online activities, arbitrary arrests and detention, and the blocking of websites that contain information that are critical of authorities. Such actions constitute intimidation and censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "B. Safety and protection of online journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. The Special Rapporteur reiterates that the right to freedom of expression should be fully guaranteed online, as with offline content. If there is any limitation to the enjoyment of this right exercised through the Internet, it must also conform to the criteria listed in article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. This means that any restriction imposed as an exceptional measure must (i) be provided by law, which is clear and accessible to everyone; (ii) pursue one of the legitimate purposes set out in article 19, paragraph 3, of the Covenant; and (iii) be proven as necessary and the least restrictive means required to achieve the purported aim.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "B. Safety and protection of online journalists"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. One of the biggest challenges to ensuring the protection of journalists is impunity or the failure to bring to justice the perpetrators of human rights violations. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur has on many occasions stressed that impunity for those who attack and/or kill journalists is a central obstacle to guaranteeing the protection of journalists and press freedom, as it emboldens perpetrators as well as would-be perpetrators to attack journalists with no legal consequences. Indeed, impunity is one, if not the main cause of the unacceptably high number of journalists who are attacked or killed every year. States must recognize that in cases of violence against journalists, impunity generates more violence in a vicious cycle.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. According to the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ), in nine out of 10 cases in which journalists are murdered, the perpetrators go free. As at 20 March 2012, 565 journalists have been murdered with impunity since 1992.[[fn:7]] The root causes of impunity may vary from context to context, but can mainly be attributed to lack of political will to pursue investigations, including for fear of reprisal at the hands of powerful criminal networks, inadequate legal framework and a weak judicial system, ineffectiveness of police forces and judicial bodies and lack of expertise, lack of resources allocated to law enforcement and the justice system, as well as negligence and corruption. Against these obstacles, many journalists choose not to report threats or incidents of physical attack, further fuelling the cycle of impunity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See CPJ, Global Campaign Against Impuntiy, at http://www.cpj.org/campaigns/impunity/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the efforts by various organizations to combat impunity, as well as the declaration by the International Freedom of Expression Exchange (IFEX) network in 2011 of 23 November as the International Day to End Impunity. This date has been chosen by the network to mark the second anniversary of the Maguindanao massacre in the Philippines, during which over 30 journalists were killed. As mentioned in Chapter II, the Special Rapporteur attended the Inter-Agency meeting on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity, and welcomes efforts to adopt a United Nations joint Plan of Action on the Protection of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity, which is being coordinated by UNESCO. He hopes that such a joint plan of action will strengthen the protection of journalists on the ground through the presence of various United Nations agencies, funds and programmes in the field. He calls on all States to support the plan.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. In the case of Guatemala, the International Commission against Impunity in Guatemala (CICIG), which began operations in September 2007, has an unprecedented mandate among United Nations and other international efforts to promote accountability and strengthen the rule of law. The Commission aims to investigate and dismantle violent criminal organizations in Guatemala, which are believed to be among the cornerstones of impunity in the country, threatening the justice system and democratic institutions. The Commission carries out independent investigations in accordance with international human rights standards under Guatemalan law and following Guatemalan procedure. It fortifies Guatemala’s public policy framework and justice sector institutions, making proposals for legal reforms, providing technical assistance to justice sector institutions, and working closely with the Attorney General’s Office on the prosecution of symbolic cases. Although the CICIG is not specifically directed towards journalists, it draws attention to issues at the heart of the problem of impunity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. With regard to initiatives that address journalists in particular, efforts made to provide protection to journalists in Colombia have been welcomed, primarily as it recognizes that it is an important issue within the country and that measures must be taken to address the phenomenon. The Protection Programme for Journalists and Social Communicators, together with the Programme for the Protection of Human Rights Defenders, was created by the Government of Colombia in 2000, with the approval of Decree No.1592. The aim of the programme is to protect journalists and media workers in situations of risk or threat because of their work. Civil society organizations have contributed to the programme by presenting, investigating and following up on threats against journalists; and the Risk Evaluation and Regulation Committee (CRER) an inter-institutional committee determines and implements the necessary protection measures in each case.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Various protection programmes in Colombia, including the programme for the protection of journalists, were subsequently merged into one programme, which was formally institutionalized under the Ministry of Interior following the adoption of Decree No. 4912 in December 2011. Such a programme was necessitated by the high number of assassinations of journalists during the previous administration, in which eight journalists were killed in the first year, and six killed in the last six years. However, the situation in Colombia is still not an optimal one for journalists; in fact, Colombia has dropped in its ranking on the Press Freedom Index of Reporters Without Borders, from 114th out of 179 countries in 2002 to 143rd in 2011-2012.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. OHCHR Colombia has welcomed the protection programme of the Ministry of Interior and Justice, but has also highlighted concerns, including the delays in assessing risks and implementing protection measures, the absence of a contextual approach and the transfer of protection schemes to private companies. OHCHR Colombia continues to provide assistance and advice to help to create more homogeneity and coordination between the different protection mechanisms. Despite these shortcomings, the Special Rapporteur welcomes the positive steps taken to combine different protection programmes based on coordination between State institutions, journalists and civil society organizations, and considers it an important step forward in preventing the assassination of journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. The establishment in Colombia of the National Unit for the Protection of Journalists and other vulnerable sectors is also a good practice worth mentioning. However, this mechanism only addresses so-called “material measures of protection,” such as mobile phones, bulletproof vehicles, emergency evacuations and transfers to other regions of the country or abroad, such as those granted under witness protection programmes. The Special Rapporteur considers it important to mention that the protection of journalists requires a holistic approach that includes material, legal, and political measures of protection, in particular public condemnation of attacks against journalists and support for press freedom by high-level State officials.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. In Mexico, reacting to the seriousness of the situation of journalists in the country, the Federal State established the Special Prosecutor’s Office for Crimes against Freedom of Expression (FEADLE) within the Office of the Attorney General of the Republic (PGR).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. However, during the Special Rapporteur’s mission to Mexico in 2010, reservations were expressed regarding the paucity of results achieved by the FEADLE and its tendency to decline competency over certain cases referred to its jurisdiction, due in part to the lack of will on the part of officials to take up cases and implement an adequate work programme, but also due to lack of autonomy and resources, and the fact that acts of violence against journalists are not prohibited under federal law. Although the Special Rapporteur welcomed the work plan which the FEADLE was implementing at the time of his mission to Mexico (A/HRC/17/27/Add.3), he emphasized the importance of immediately creating a national mechanism to protect journalists, designed and implemented through a high-level official and inter-institutional committee, led by a federal authority with the capacity to coordinate between diverse authorities, having its own sufficient resources, and with the participation of journalists and civil society organizations in its design, integration, functioning and evaluation. The Special Rapporteur underlines the importance of such institutions having sufficient autonomy and resources, as well as investigatory powers and the competency to make recommendations to the Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. The Special Rapporteur also recommended that the Congress in Mexico criminalize acts of violence against journalists and give federal courts the competency to prosecute such matters. He has been informed that Congress has passed such a law, which is currently being considered for adoption by the authorities of each state in Mexico.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. Although the above examples of challenges and good practices relating to the protection of journalists in situations of widespread violence or impunity have been drawn from Latin America, this is not the only region in which these issues are a concern. The Special Rapporteur has sent communications to several countries regarding issues such as impunity, journalists reporting on violence and organized crime, as outlined in chapters II and III above.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. Combating impunity and ensuring the protection of journalists requires strengthening respect for the rule of law and ensuring that the domestic legal framework and institutions promote the right to freedom of expression and support the establishment of free, independent and pluralistic media. The Special Rapporteur notes with concern the continuing existence and application of domestic legislation which criminalize expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "C. Impunity and prevention of attacks against journalists", "Initiatives to combat impunity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. Ensuring that journalists can effectively carry out their work means not only preventing attacks against journalists and prosecuting those responsible, but also creating an environment where independent, free and pluralistic media can flourish and journalists are not placed at risk of imprisonment. The Special Rapporteur expresses his deep concern that the current total number of journalists imprisoned worldwide is reportedly the highest since 1996, with 179 journalists behind bars as at 1 December 2011.[[fn:8]] Reportedly, the work of 86 imprisoned journalists – half of the total imprisoned – has primarily appeared online. In addition, journalists may be victims of short-term detentions, which can also heighten the climate of intimidation. Such detentions are often difficult to document statistically.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "See CPJ special report, “Imprisonments jump worldwide, and Iran is worst,” available at http://www.cpj.org/reports/2011/12/journalist-imprisonments-jump-worldwide-and-iran-i.php."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. Indeed, the Special Rapporteur remains concerned at the continuing existence and use of criminal laws against journalists and members of the media, which are often used by authorities to suppress “inconvenient” information and to prevent journalists from reporting on similar matters in the future. Consequently, there is a chilling effect which stifles reporting on issues of public interest. Charges such as treason, subversion and acting against national interests continue to be brought against journalists worldwide, as well as allegations of terrorism and criminal defamation for reporting false news or engaging in ethnic or religious insult.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. As stressed previously, including in the report to the General Assembly (A/66/290), there are four types of expression or information which States are required to prohibit under international law: child pornography; incitement to genocide; advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence and incitement to terrorism. Other types of information or expression, which States are not required to prohibit, but may be restricted in exceptional and limited circumstances primarily to protect the rights of others, are established under article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. However, while protecting individuals from false and malicious accusations, protecting national security or countering terrorism are legitimate interests, the Special Rapporteur remains concerned that such pretexts are used by authorities to unduly control and censor the media and to evade transparency or to silence criticism of public policies.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The Special Rapporteur reiterates that any restriction to the right to freedom of expression must satisfy the three-part test stipulated in article 19, paragraph 3, of the Covenant: (i) the restriction imposed must be provided by law, which is clear and accessible to everyone; (ii) it must be proven as necessary and legitimate to protect the rights or reputation of others; national security or public order, public health or morals; and (iii) it must be proven as the least restrictive and proportionate means to achieve the purported aim.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Moreover, any legislation restricting the right to freedom of expression must be applied by a body which is independent of any political, commercial, or other unwarranted influences in a manner that is neither arbitrary nor discriminatory, and with adequate safeguards against abuse, including the possibility of challenge and remedy against its abusive application.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Defamation laws protect an individual’s reputation from false and malicious attacks, and constitute valid grounds for restricting freedom of expression. Nearly all countries have some form of defamation legislation, although different terms are used, such as libel, calumny, slander, insult, desacato, or lèse majesté. However, the problem with defamation cases is that they frequently mask the determination of political and economic powers to retaliate against criticisms or allegations of mismanagement or corruption, and to exert undue pressure on the media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression", "1. Defamation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. In particular, the Special Rapporteur remains concerned that defamation remains classified as a criminal offence rather than a civil tort in many countries around the world. As he has emphasized on many occasions, criminal defamation laws are inherently harsh and have a disproportionate chilling effect on free expression. Individuals face the constant threat of being arrested, held in pretrial detention, subjected to expensive criminal trials, fines and imprisonment, as well as the social stigma associated with having a criminal record.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression", "1. Defamation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. Even in countries where defamation is classified as a civil tort, the financial sanctions imposed may be high and disproportionate, which can bankrupt small and independent media and have adverse consequences on media freedom in a country.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression", "1. Defamation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. Many journalists continue to inform the Special Rapporteur that the systematic use of unjustified criminal prosecution or even civil tort prosecution with disproportionate financial sanctions paralyzes journalistic investigation and generates an atmosphere of intimidation, which constitutes a form of judicial harassment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression", "1. Defamation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. The Special Rapporteur thus calls on all States to repeal criminal defamation provisions allowing prosecution of authors of media content, as well as to limit civil law penalties for defamation so that it is proportionate to the harm done. He emphasizes that criminal prosecution for defamation inevitably becomes a mechanism of political censorship, which contradicts freedom of expression and of the press.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression", "1. Defamation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur underscores that public officials, including heads of State and public figures, must tolerate a higher degree of scrutiny than ordinary individuals because of their public functions, and should not be granted a higher level of protection against defamatory statements in media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression", "1. Defamation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. The Special Rapporteur remains concerned that laws purported to protect national security or to counter terrorism continue to be used against journalists who report on sensitive or critical matters of public interest, or to force journalists to reveal their sources of information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression", "2. National security and counter-terrorism legislation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes the importance of journalists’ right to access information, which is part of the right to seek and receive information under articles 19 of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and political Rights, respectively. He would like to stress that Governments should classify only those data which are proven to harm national security and other vital interests of the State. Moreover, there should be clear classification criteria and register of classified information, which is both established by law and accessible to everyone. Further, classified data should be subject to regular review and declassified if confidentiality is no longer necessary.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression", "2. National security and counter-terrorism legislation"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. The Special Rapporteur also remains concerned at journalists being held accountable for receiving, storing and disseminating classified data which was obtained in a way that is not illegal, including leaks and information received from unidentified sources. In this regard, he emphasizes that journalists should not be held responsible for, or be forced to reveal, their sources of information. The Special Rapporteur further stresses that it is also important for States to facilitate access to historical archives of official information to enable victims of human rights violations to exercise their right to truth, as well as journalists and academics for investigative purposes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["III. Challenges to the protection of journalists and media freedom outside of armed conflict situations", "D. Criminalization of expression", "2. National security and counter-terrorism legislation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. Despite provisions in international human rights law, including the Universal Declaration on Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which guarantee the rights of journalists, journalists continue to be targeted for disseminating “inconvenient” information. The problem lies not in the lack of international standards, but in the inability or unwillingness of Governments to ensure the protection of journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. While armed conflict situations may place journalists at risk, the Special Rapporteur notes that the majority of attacks against journalists take place outside of armed conflict situations. Individuals who cover public demonstrations, report on issues such as corruption, human rights violations, environmental issues, organized crime, drug trafficking, public crises or emergencies are placed at particular risk of violence. Nevertheless, the Special Rapporteur also reiterates the importance of the following concerns.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. Central challenges in relation to human rights violations committed against journalists include various forms of intimidation, physical attacks – including abductions and killings –, arbitrary detention, as well as impunity and the use of criminal laws to imprison and intimidate journalists. Female journalists face additional risks, such as sexual assault, mob-related sexual violence at public events or sexual abuse in detention or captivity. Due to social, cultural and professional stigmas, many of these attacks are not reported.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. The presence of such risks deters journalists from continuing their work, or encourages self-censorship on sensitive matters. Consequently, society as a whole may not be able to access important information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. The emergence of “online journalists” – both professionals and untrained so-called “citizen journalists” – play an increasingly important role in documenting and disseminating news in real time as they unfold on the ground. Journalists who publish their work online should be afforded the same protection under articles 19 of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights and of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Any restriction applied to online content must also be in conformity with the three-part test set out in article 19, paragraph 3, of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. Laws that criminalize expression continue to be used by States to imprison journalists who disseminate “inconvenient” information. Journalists may be arrested and detained, particularly in the run-up to elections, often on the basis of vague anti-terrorist or national security laws. The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned that the current number of journalists in prison is the highest since 1996. Criminal prosecution of journalists creates a “chilling effect” that stifles reporting on issues of public interest.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. The precarious situation of journalists is further exacerbated by a culture of impunity. Failure to undertake effective investigations and to prosecute those responsible for attacks against journalists perpetrates further violence and undermines the ability of journalists to report on similar matters in the future.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. The protection of journalists and combating impunity requires context-specific measures that address the specific risks in each situation and effectively addresses the root causes of attacks. While there are many organizations committed to ensuring the protection of journalists at all levels, there has not been much collaboration and joint strategies adopted at the international level. The Special Rapporteur thus welcomes the initiative to draft a United Nations joint Plan of Action on the Protection of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity and looks forward to its effective implementation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. Bearing in mind that standards exist in international human rights law for the protection of professional journalists outside of armed conflict situations, the Special Rapporteur urges States, with whom the primary responsibility for the protection of journalists lies, to implement those standards at the national level. This includes ensuring that no legislation is passed to unduly limit the freedom of expression of journalists, ensuring the physical and psychological integrity of journalists, and taking steps to tackle impunity for perpetrators of human rights violations against journalists.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. To combat impunity and to prevent human rights violations against journalists, States must take measures to facilitate awareness among the judiciary, journalists and civil society of the relevant international standards and show willingness to work towards the implementation of these standards.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. Necessary resources must be dedicated to preventing and investigating attacks, or bringing those responsible to justice. Special measures should be put in place to deal with attacks and to support journalists who are displaced by attacks.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. The Special Rapporteur also calls on all States to publicly condemn all forms and incidents of attacks against journalists at the highest political level.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. As part of their positive obligation to promote the right to freedom of expression, States should give full political support to strengthening media freedom and ensuring that independent, plural and diverse media can flourish. Any laws regulating the work of the media should adhere to the highest international standards on freedom of opinion and expression and allow uninhibited debate in the media, in line with principles of diversity and plurality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. Defamation should be decriminalized in all States. Criminal defamation laws are inherently harsh and have a disproportionate chilling effect on the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. In countries where defamation is classified as a civil tort, the financial sanctions imposed must be strictly proportionate to the harm caused and limited by law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. Journalists should not be held accountable for receiving, storing and disseminating classified data which they have obtained in a way that is not illegal, including leaks and information received from unidentified sources.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0108", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. Governments should only classify those data which are proven to cause direct harm to national security and other vital interests of the State. Classified data should be subject to regular review and be declassified if confidentiality is no longer necessary. Clear classification criteria and a register of classified information should be established by law and published.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0109", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. Journalists working both offline and online should be free to use diverse sources of information, including from those who do not wish to be identified. Journalists should never be forced to reveal their sources except for certain exceptional cases where the interests of investigating a serious crime or protecting the life of other individuals prevail over the possible risk to the source. Such pressing needs must be clearly demonstrated and ordered by an independent court.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0110", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. The Special Rapporteur recognizes efforts in countries, such as Colombia and Mexico, to create bodies to offer, inter alia, greater protection to journalists. The Special Rapporteur underlines the importance of the willingness and ability of such bodies to take on a broad range and high number of cases and issues under its competency; to work with autonomy; to have their own and sufficient resources and to have the capacity to coordinate between different authorities. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur recommends that journalists and civil society organizations participate in the design, integration, functioning and evaluation of these bodies; that they have investigatory powers; that they have the competency to make recommendations to the Governments of their respective countries; that risk-assessment is prompt and efficient; that measures are implemented promptly; and that a contextual approach is adopted. Protection measures must be holistic, including a range of physical, legal, and political measures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0111", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. The Special Rapporteur recommends that civil society organizations work to raise awareness of the risks faced by journalists, the international standards which exist to protect them, and how these might be implemented through campaigns and training initiatives; that civil society organizations, including journalists, make efforts to ensure that global standards of professional conduct are met in order to enhance the credibility and protection of journalists; and that they coordinate with one another and with the United Nations in order to ensure that their work is complementary.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Civil society"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0112", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. Civil society associations, including journalists, should engage actively with Government initiatives to establish protection mechanisms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Civil society"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0113", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. The Special Rapporteur welcomes United Nations initiatives, such as the innovative International Commission against Impunity in Guatemala (CICIG). He supports the idea of considering the implementation of similar initiatives in other countries where impunity for human rights violations is prevalent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "3. United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0114", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. United Nations field presences should support States in implementing measures for the protection of journalists, as in the case of OHCHR in Colombia which offers support for the protection mechanisms in Colombia.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "3. United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0115", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "115. The Special Rapporteur encourages coordination between United Nations agencies and initiatives, such as the United Nations joint Plan of Action on the Protection of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity. Greater coordination between United Nations agencies, in terms of funding and programmes, may result in more efficient use of resources and less duplication of work. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the fact that civil society was consulted as part of the initiative and encourages strengthened links between United Nations agencies and civil society in the protection of journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "3. United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0116", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "116. In keeping with the United Nations Action 2 programme, the Special Rapporteur encourages other United Nations agencies to support the protection of journalists by ensuring that United Nations actions at the country level are grounded in human rights principles and guided by international norms and standards. Training and toolkits, such as those provided by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in relation to journalists working on HIV/AIDS and corruption, for example, could be tailored to the protection of journalists.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "3. United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-17-0117", "docId": "a-hrc-20-17", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "117. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the support for freedom of expression and the protection of journalists in different regional mechanisms, as well as measures taken, such as the establishment of Special Rapporteurs. In cases where regional actors have not yet set standards for the protection of journalists, the Special Rapporteur encourages them to do so in consonance with those already existing at the international level.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2012, "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "4. Regional actors"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0001", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. On matters of public concern, how does information that is unjustifiably hidden become known? In some situations, formal oversight mechanisms and access to information laws compel disclosure. Even where they do exist, however, they are not always effective. Other approaches may be needed, for as a general rule, secrets do not out themselves. Rather, disclosure typically requires three basic elements: a person with knowledge who is willing and able to shed light on what is hidden; a communicator or a communication platform to disseminate that information; and a legal system and political culture that effectively protect both. Without that combination — source, dissemination and protection — what is secret all too often remains hidden, and the more that remains hidden, the less authorities are held accountable and individuals are able to make informed decisions about matters that may most affect them and their communities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0002", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Those are the principal rationales for legal and political frameworks that promote and guarantee access to information and protect the individuals and organizations that often make such access possible. Notwithstanding formal progress, Governments, international organizations and private entities often target persons disclosing secret information, in particular when they bring to light uncomfortable truths or allegations. Those who wish to call attention to malfeasance may find internal channels blocked, oversight bodies ineffective and legal protection unavailable. The absence of recourse often forces whistle-blowers to become sources for public disclosure, which may make them vulnerable to attack. International, regional and national trends toward greater formal protection do not necessarily translate into effective protection for sources and whistle-blowers. Ineffective protection results from gaps in law; a preference for secrecy over public participation; technology that makes it easy for institutions to breach privacy and anonymity; overly broad application of otherwise legitimate restrictions; and suspicion or hostility towards sources, whistle-blowers and the reporters who make such information known.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0003", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The disclosure of secret information runs across a broad spectrum, with some instances, such as Edward Snowden’s revelations of surveillance practices, making a deep and lasting impact on law, policy and politics, while others struggle for attention and response. While the present report may be read in the light of all such cases, the Special Rapporteur does not analyse herein specific situations, but aims instead to highlight the main elements that should be part of any framework protecting sources and whistle-blowers consistent with the right to freedom of expression. He begins by reviewing everyone’s right to receive information of all kinds, especially information held by public bodies. He then highlights the principal elements of the international legal frameworks for source and whistle-blower protection, while also drawing on the practice of States, international and regional mechanisms and non-governmental initiatives. The report concludes with a set of recommendations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0004", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. As part of the preparations for the present report, a questionnaire was sent to States seeking input on national laws and practices, to which 28 States responded.[[fn:1]] Civil society organizations and individuals also contributed with critically important submissions. State responses and submissions, along with recommendations for further research into best practices, which could not be cited in the report, are available on the web page of the Special Rapporteur.[[fn:2]] On 11 June 2015, a meeting convened in Vienna drew upon civil society and academic expertise in source and whistle-blower protection.[[fn:3]] The Special Rapporteur thanks all who made contributions to the preparation of the present report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "By August 2015, the following States had responded: Angola, Argentina, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Colombia, Cuba, Estonia, Finland, Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Guatemala, Ireland, Kazakhstan, Morocco, Mauritania, Netherlands, Norway, Oman, Republic of Korea, Saudi Arabia, Slovakia, Switzerland, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Turkey and United States of America."}, {"n": 2, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/FreedomOpinion/Pages/ProtectionOfSources.aspx."}, {"n": 3, "text": "The meeting was jointly organized by the International Press Institute and the Government of Austria, with the generous support of the latter."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0005", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Source and whistle-blower protections rest upon a core right to freedom of expression. Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights guarantees the right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights enshrines the same rights in its article 19, which emphasizes that the freedom applies to information and ideas of all kinds. Sources and whistle-blowers enjoy the right to impart information, but their legal protection when publicly disclosing information rests especially on the public’s right to receive it. That right has been emphasized by previous special rapporteurs and experts in the European, African and inter-American systems.[[fn:4]] As indicated in general comment No. 34 of the Human Rights Committee on article 19: Freedoms of opinion and expression, it extends to information held by all public bodies, whether legislative, executive or judicial, and it applies to other entities when they are carrying out public functions (paras. 7 and 18.) The right to receive information advances several principles that underlie and animate human rights.[[fn:5]] It advances the individual’s ability to seek out information of all kinds, allowing the development of opinions protected against interference under article 19 (1) of the Covenant.[[fn:6]] It encourages participation in public affairs, which is independently protected by article 25 of the Covenant. It encourages accountability, increasing the costs for those who might engage in wrongdoing.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Right of access to information", "A. Legal foundation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See, for example, the joint declaration by the Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Representative on Freedom of the Media and the Organization of American States Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression (1999) (E/CN.4/2000/63, annex I)."}, {"n": 5, "text": "See Article 19, The Public’s Right to Know: Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation (London, 1999)."}, {"n": 6, "text": "See general comment No. 25 of the Human Rights Committee on the right to participate in public affairs, voting rights and the right of equal access to public service; Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Claude-Reyes et al. v. Chile (2006); and A/HRC/14/23, para. 31."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First art.19 in text: 'Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights'. UDHR, non-treaty."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second art.19: 'The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights enshrines the same rights in its article 19'. Explicit ICCPR."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Third art.19: 'general comment No. 34 of the Human Rights Committee on article 19'. Human Rights Committee = ICCPR treaty body; GC34 is on ICCPR art.19."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'article 19 (1) of the Covenant' — 'the Covenant' = ICCPR throughout this passage."}, {"article": "25", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'article 25 of the Covenant' — ICCPR art.25 (participation in public affairs)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0006", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Regional and international human rights instruments also advance the public’s right to receive information.[[fn:7]] The Convention on the Rights of the Child obliges States parties to ensure that children have access to information in order to support individual development and a capacity to participate in public life (art. 17). The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities requires States parties to promote appropriate forms of assistance and support to persons with disabilities to ensure their access to information (art. 9 (2) (f)). The Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health and the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights have highlighted the importance of the right of access to information to the realization of social and economic rights (see A/HRC/20/15 and A/HRC/23/36). The right is further reflected in international standards on the environment, efforts to combat corruption and development.[[fn:8]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Right of access to information", "A. Legal foundation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, art. 9; the American Convention on Human Rights, art. 13; and the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, art. 10."}, {"n": 8, "text": "See the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, principle 10; the United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 13; and “Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” (General Assembly resolution 69/315, annex)."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "17", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'The Convention on the Rights of the Child obliges States parties to ensure that children have access to information... (art. 17)'; CRC art.17 covers access to information and mass media."}, {"article": "9", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "CRPD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities requires States parties to promote appropriate forms of assistance and support to persons with disabilities to ensure their access to information (art. 9 (2) (f))'; CRPD art.9(2) covers accessibility obligations."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0007", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. International bodies, recognizing the role played by the media in providing access to information, emphasize the importance of protecting “a free, uncensored and unhindered press or other media” (see general comment No. 34 of the Human Rights Committee, para. 13). The right to information is grounded in the public’s right to know “information of public interest” (see A/68/362, para. 19). The Security Council has affirmed that the work of a free, independent and impartial media constitutes one of the essential foundations of a democratic society (see Council resolutions 2222 (2015) and 1738 (2006)). The General Assembly in 2014 and 2015 called upon States to maintain a safe environment for journalists to work independently and without undue interference (see Assembly resolutions 68/163 and 69/185). The Human Rights Council in 2012, in its first resolution on the protection of journalists, highlighted the need to ensure greater protection for all media professionals and for journalistic sources (see Council resolution 21/12).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Right of access to information", "A. Legal foundation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0008", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. In adopting the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and other measures, Governments did not preclude themselves from keeping certain kinds of information hidden from public view, but because article 19 promotes so clearly a right to information of all kinds, States bear the burden of justifying any withholding of information as an exception to that right. Article 19 (3) provides that any restriction on freedom of expression must be provided by law and be necessary to achieve one or more of the enumerated legitimate objectives, which relate to respect of the rights or reputations of others or to the protection of national security or of public order or of public health or public morals (see A/HRC/29/32, paras. 30-35). Limitations must be applied strictly so that they do “not put in jeopardy the right itself” (see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 21), a point that the Human Rights Council emphasized when it urged States not to restrict the free flow of information and ideas (see Council resolution 12/16).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Right of access to information", "B. Restrictions on the right to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0009", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Three considerations deserve emphasis. First, to be necessary, a restriction must protect a specific legitimate interest from actual or threatened harm that would otherwise result. As a result, general or vague assertions that a restriction is necessary are inconsistent with article 19. However legitimate a particular interest may be in principle, the categories themselves are widely relied upon to shield information that the public has a right to know. It is not legitimate to limit disclosure in order to protect against embarrassment or exposure of wrongdoing, or to conceal the functioning of an institution.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Right of access to information", "B. Restrictions on the right to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See Article 19, International Centre against Censorship, The Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, principle 2 (b), in E/CN.4/1996/39, annex. See also A/HRC/20/17, A/HRC/13/37 and A/HRC/29/32."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0010", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Second, under the well-accepted proportionality element of the necessity test, disclosure must be shown to impose a specific risk of harm to a legitimate State interest that outweighs the public’s interest in the information to be disclosed. If a disclosure does not harm a legitimate State interest, there is no basis for its suppression or withholding (see general comment No. 34 of the Human Rights Committee, para. 30). Some matters should be considered presumptively in the public interest, such as criminal offences and human rights or international humanitarian law violations, corruption, public safety and environmental harm and abuse of public office.[[fn:10]] The importance of the public’s interest has been emphasized repeatedly in other regional mechanisms.[[fn:11]] National laws relating to the right to information also commonly provide for a public interest analysis.[[fn:12]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Right of access to information", "B. Restrictions on the right to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See the Global Principles on National Security and the Right to Information, principle 37; and Maeve McDonagh, “The public interest test in FOI legislation”, available from www.right2info.org/resources/publications/eu-mcdonagh-maeve-the-public-interest-test-in-foi-legislation/view."}, {"n": 11, "text": "See Council of Europe, recommendation CM/Rec(2014)7, p. 5; African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa, principles IV (2) and XII (2); and Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Inter-American Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression, principle 10."}, {"n": 12, "text": "See, for example, Supreme Court of Slovenia, Ranc v. Ministry of Internal Affairs, 10 October 2007."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0011", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Third, restrictions on access to information must not be left to the sole discretion of authorities. Restrictions must be drafted clearly and narrowly, designed to give guidance to authorities, and subjected to independent judicial oversight (see A/HRC/29/32, paras. 29-33). Layers of internal governmental oversight should ensure that restrictions on access to information meet the standards of article 19 and related national laws.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Right of access to information", "B. Restrictions on the right to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0012", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Effective access to information begins with how Governments categorize, or classify, information as secret or otherwise not subject to disclosure. Over-classification occurs when officials deem material secret without appropriately assessing the public’s interest in access to it or determining whether disclosure would pose any risk to a legitimate interest. Secrecy should be imposed only on information that would, if disclosed, harm a specified interest under article 19 (3); even in the event of a risk of harm, a process should be in place to determine whether the public interest in disclosure outweighs that risk. Processes that allow for evaluation of classification decisions, within institutions and by the public, including penalties for over-classification, should be considered and adopted in order to ensure the greatest possible access to information in the public interest. The Swedish Constitution and its Freedom of the Press Act provide perhaps a welcomed translation of the principle of maximum disclosure when it comes to access to information held by public bodies, protecting the right of all public officials to communicate information and, except for specified situations, prohibiting public officials from sanctioning others for communicating information outside their institutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Right of access to information", "B. Restrictions on the right to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0013", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. While the Special Rapporteur evaluates herein legal frameworks, law alone is a necessary but insufficient basis for protection of any right under the umbrella of freedom of expression. A strong formal framework on the right to information will not overcome an official culture of secrecy and disrespect for the rule of law. Protection requires a political and bureaucratic culture that values transparency and public participation. An independent judiciary and legal profession, broad and non-discriminatory access to justice, and basic law enforcement capacity and willingness to confront violence and intimidation form the basic infrastructure of protection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Right of access to information", "B. Restrictions on the right to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0014", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Everyone depends upon well-sourced stories in order to develop informed opinions about matters of public interest. Professional reporting organizations emphasize that named sources are preferable to anonymous ones.[[fn:13]] Nonetheless, reporters often rely upon, and thus promise confidentiality to, sources who risk retaliation or other harm if exposed.[[fn:14]] Without protection, many voices would remain silent and the public uninformed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "A. Norm of confidentiality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "See The Canadian Association of Journalists Ethics Advisory Committee, “Ethics guidelines” (2011). See also Reuters, “The Essentials of Reuters sourcing”; and One Caribbean Media Limited, “Statement of Editorial Principles and Operational Guidelines”."}, {"n": 14, "text": "See, for example, David Banisar, “Silencing sources: an international survey of protections and threats to journalists’ sources” (Privacy International Global Survey Series, 2007); and Julie Posetti, “Protecting journalism sources in the digital age”, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Series on Internet Freedom (UNESCO Publishing, 2015)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0015", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. International human rights law has developed well-established principles protecting source confidentiality. At the international level, such rules derive from the guarantee of the right to seek, receive and impart information enshrined in article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.[[fn:15]] The European Court of Human Rights celebrates the “vital public watchdog role of the press” as underlying source protection and has established a high level of protection for journalists who are reporting on matters of public interest.[[fn:16]] In May 2015, the East African Court of Justice ruled that journalists could not be compelled to reveal sources merely because the information they provided related to national security or defence.[[fn:17]] The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights has emphasized that “every social communicator has the right to keep his/her source of information, notes, personal and professional archives confidential”.[[fn:18]] The African Commission on Human and People’s Rights has stated that “media practitioners shall not be required to reveal confidential sources of information or to disclose other material held for journalistic purposes”, except where meeting certain specified exceptions.[[fn:19]] The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe recommends that States provide “explicit and clear protection of the right of journalists not to disclose information identifying a source”.[[fn:20]] International criminal tribunals also protect sources.[[fn:21]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "A. Norm of confidentiality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See the United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 33; and general comment No. 34 of the Human Rights Committee, para. 45. See also United Nations Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Representative on Freedom of the Media, the Organization of American States Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, “Joint declaration on defamation of religions, and anti-terrorism and anti-extremism legislation” (2008)."}, {"n": 16, "text": "See European Court of Human Rights, Goodwin v. United Kingdom, application No. 17488/90, judgement of 27 March 1996, para. 39; Sunday Times v. United Kingdom, application No. 6538/74, judgement of 26 April 1979; and Tillack v. Belgium, application No. 20477/05, judgement of 27 February 2007."}, {"n": 17, "text": "See Burundi Journalists Union v. Attorney General of the Republic of Burundi, East African Court of Justice, case No. 7 of 2013, judgement of 15 May 2015, paras. 107-111."}, {"n": 18, "text": "See Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression, principle 8. The Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission has stated that “sources and materials related to the disclosure of confidential information must be protected by law”, see Annual Report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 2013: Annual Report of the Office of the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression, vol. II (Washington, D.C., 2013), chap. IV, para. 171."}, {"n": 19, "text": "See African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa, principle XV."}, {"n": 20, "text": "See Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers recommendation No. R (2000) 7, appendix, principle 1."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See, for example, Prosecutor v. Radoslav Brdjanin and Momir Talic, case No. IT-99-36-AR73.9, judgement of 11 December 2002."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0016", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. National legal systems have also widely adopted the norm of protection of confidentiality. In a strong statement of legal protection, the 2010 Media Services Act of Estonia establishes that persons who are “processing information for journalistic purposes shall have the right not to disclose the information that would enable identification of the source of information” (sect. 15 (1)). The 1987 German Code of Criminal Procedure establishes a right to refuse to testify on professional grounds (sects. 53 (1(5)) and (2)). In Sweden, the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression of 1991 prohibits journalists from disclosing their sources and has criminalized the non-consensual disclosure of source identity (chap. 2, arts. 3-5). The Constitution of Cabo Verde guarantees that “no journalist shall be forced to reveal his sources of information” (art. 48 (8)). The laws of Argentina, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Chile, Colombia, India, Mozambique and the Philippines are among the many other States in which the principle of source protection is recognized.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "A. Norm of confidentiality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See Constitution of Argentina (1994), sect. 43; Law on protection against defamation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, art. 9; Bulgaria, Law for the Radio and Television (1998), art. 10 (1 (3)); Chile, Law 19.733 of 2001, art. 7; Constitution of Colombia (1991), arts. 73-74; India, Whistle Blowers Protection (Amendment) Bill (2015), sect. 6; Constitution of Mozambique (2005), art. 48 (3); Philippines Republic Act No. 53, as amended by Republic Act No. 1447."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "48", "paragraph": "8", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0017", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Confidential sources rely on others to invoke the right to confidentiality on their behalf. Historically, States have enabled a professional class of journalists to invoke the right, but the revolution in the media and in information over the past 20 years demands reconsideration of such limitations. Article 19, which protects freedom of expression through any media, requires that States take into account a contemporary environment that has expanded well beyond traditional print and broadcast media. The protection available to sources should be based on the function of collection and dissemination and not merely the specific profession of “journalist”. The practice of journalism is carried out by “professional full-time reporters and analysts, as well as bloggers and others who engage in forms of self-publication in print, on the Internet or elsewhere” (Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 44).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "B. Those who may invoke source confidentiality"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0018", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Today, journalists and other “social communicators” may claim the right of confidentiality for the source.[[fn:23]] Persons other than journalists inform the public and carry out a “vital public watchdog role”. International bodies increasingly use terms more general than “journalist”, such as “media professionals” or “media workers”.[[fn:24]] The African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights refers to “media practitioners”[[fn:25]] and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Representative on Freedom of the Media refers to “new participants in journalism”.[[fn:26]] All those terms demonstrate an understanding that those performing the same journalistic functions should enjoy the right to protect sources. The Council of Europe has defined the term “journalist” functionally as “any natural or legal person who is regularly or professionally engaged in the collection and dissemination of information to the public via any means of mass communication”.[[fn:27]] For the purposes of source protection — when, as the Norwegian Supreme Court has noted, the broadest protection should be available[[fn:28]] — any person or entity involved in collecting or gathering information with the intent to publish or otherwise disseminate it publicly should be permitted to claim the right to protect a source’s confidentiality. Regular, professional engagement may indicate protection, but its absence should not be a presumptive bar to those who collect information for public dissemination.[[fn:29]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "B. Those who may invoke source confidentiality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression, principles 8 and 13."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See, for example, Human Rights Council resolutions 27/5 and 21/12; General Assembly resolution 68/163; and Security Council resolution 1738 (2006)."}, {"n": 25, "text": "See the Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa, principle XV."}, {"n": 26, "text": "See 2nd Communiqué on Open Journalism. Available at www.osce.org/fom/128046?download=true."}, {"n": 27, "text": "Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers recommendation No. R (2000) 7, appendix, definition (a)."}, {"n": 28, "text": "See Supreme Court of Norway, case No. 2013/1196, reference No. HR-2013-2170-A (2013)."}, {"n": 29, "text": "Posetti, “Protecting journalism sources in the digital age”."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0019", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Two categories, for example, expand beyond officially recognized journalists. First, there are those who most closely reflect the professional engagement in collection and dissemination: members of civil society organizations who conduct research and issue findings, and researchers — academics, independent authors, freelance writers and others — who regularly participate in gathering and sharing information publicly. It is common for such people to adopt and publish methodologies that underscore the degree of professionalism upon which their work depends. Many non-governmental organizations are themselves publishers of well-sourced content that, in form and substance, is virtually identical to the work of the press, often the result of thorough research, in-the-field reporting and analysis.[[fn:30]] It is common for human rights researchers to rely upon sources who require confidentiality for safety.[[fn:31]] Recognizing a broad scope of protection, the European Court of Human Rights indicated that “non-governmental organisations, like the press, may be characterised as social ‘watchdogs.’ In that connection their activities warrant similar Convention protection to that afforded to the press”.[[fn:32]] The Information Commissioner’s Office in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland granted a non-governmental organization, Global Witness, an exemption from the national Data Protection Act because its work, and those of other non-media organizations, “constitutes a journalistic purpose even if they are not professional journalists and the publication forms part of a wider campaign to promote a particular cause”.[[fn:33]] In Canada, a judge of the Superior Court of Quebec upheld a researcher’s right to protect confidential information.[[fn:34]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "B. Those who may invoke source confidentiality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "See, for example, www.hrw.org/about-our-research."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See Youth Initiative for Human Rights v. Serbia, European Court of Human Rights, application No. 48135/06, judgement of 25 June 2013."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See European Court of Human Rights, Österreichische Vereinigung zur Erhaltung, Stärkung und Schaffung eines wirtschaftlich gesunden land- und forst-wirtschaftlichen Grundbesitzes v. Austria, application No. 39534/07, judgement of 28 November 2013."}, {"n": 33, "text": "See letter from Information Commissioner’s Office to Global Witness, 15 December 2014. Available from www.globalwitness.org/sites/default/files/141215%20letter%20from%20ICO%20to%20GW%20(2)%20(1).pdf."}, {"n": 34, "text": "See Parent and Bruckert v. Her Majesty the Queen, Province of Quebec District of Montreal, case No. 500-36-006329-125, judgement of 21 January 2014. See also Dotcom v. Her Majesty’s Attorney-General, Supreme Court of New Zealand, case No. [2014] NZSC 199, judgement of 23 December 2014."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0020", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Second, “citizen journalists” and bloggers and other media “non-professionals” engage in independent reporting and disseminate their findings through a wide variety of media, from print and broadcast to social media and other online platforms.[[fn:35]] They frequently work in ways similar or identical to, or even more rigorous than, the work of traditional journalists. Some States have adopted rules that provide important protection for them. For example, the Irish High Court, in Cornec v. Morrice and Ors, found that bloggers might claim source protection because they could constitute an “organ of public opinion” and because the right to influence public opinion would be jeopardized if they were forced to disclose their sources.[[fn:36]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "B. Those who may invoke source confidentiality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See A/65/284; see also Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers recommendation CM/Rec(2011)7."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Irish High Court, Cornec v. Morrice and Ors, 2012, para. 66. See also California Court of Appeals, O’Grady v. Superior Court (Apple), 2006."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0021", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Some authorities refer to a journalistic “privilege” not to disclose a source’s identity, but both reporter and source enjoy rights that may be limited only according to article 19 (3).[[fn:37]] Revealing or coercing the revelation of the identity of a source creates disincentives for disclosure, dries up further sources to report a story accurately and damages an important tool of accountability. In the light of the importance attached to source confidentiality, any restrictions must be genuinely exceptional and subject to the highest standards, implemented by judicial authorities only.[[fn:38]] Such situations should be limited to investigations of the most serious crimes or the protection of the life of other individuals.[[fn:39]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "C. Nature and scope of protection"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See Tillack v. Belgium, European Court of Human Rights, application No. 20477/05, judgement of 27 February 2008."}, {"n": 38, "text": "See Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers recommendation No. R (2000) 7, appendix, principles 3 and 5."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See A/HRC/20/17, para. 109. See also A/HRC/7/14."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0022", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. National laws should ensure that protections apply strictly, with extremely limited exceptions. Under Belgian law, journalists and editorial staff may be compelled by a judge to disclose information sources only if they are of a nature to prevent crimes that pose a serious threat to the physical integrity of one or more persons, and upon a finding of the following two cumulative conditions: (a) the information is of crucial importance for preventing such crimes; and (b) the information cannot be obtained by any other means. The same conditions apply to investigative measures, such as searches, seizures and telephone tapping, with respect to journalistic sources.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "C. Nature and scope of protection"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "See Banisar, “Silencing sources”."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0023", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Protection must also counter a variety of contemporary threats. A leading one is surveillance. The ubiquitous use of digital electronics, alongside government capacity to access the data and footprints that all such devices leave behind, has presented serious challenges to confidentiality and anonymity of sources and whistle-blowers.[[fn:41]] The problem of unintended self-disclosure has been a recurrent feature in the leading cases involving journalistic sources in recent years, in which the Government of the United States of America discovered probable source identities through telephone and e-mail records.[[fn:42]] Writers themselves report concern that their ability to protect sources is much diminished in the face of surveillance.[[fn:43]] National and regional courts in Europe have appropriately criticized extralegal approaches to compromising confidentiality. The Italian Supreme Court of Cassation, for example, protected the telephone records of a journalist because they were openly instrumental to the identification of those who had provided confidential information.[[fn:44]] The European Court of Human Rights emphasized the importance of providing “the individual adequate protection against arbitrary interference” caused by surveillance.[[fn:45]] The Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe recommends that interception, surveillance and other digital searches “should not be applied if their purpose is to circumvent” source protection.[[fn:46]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "C. Nature and scope of protection"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See Posetti, “Protecting journalism sources in the digital age”."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See, for example, United States of America v. Sterling, 724 F.3d 482 (2013)."}, {"n": 43, "text": "See PEN America, “Chilling effects: NSA surveillance drives U.S. writers to self-censor” (New York, 2013); and Human Rights Watch and American Civil Liberties Union, “With liberty to monitor all: how large-scale U.S. surveillance is harming journalism, law and American democracy” (New York, 2014)."}, {"n": 44, "text": "See decision of the Supreme Court of Cassation, Sixth Criminal Chamber, 21 January 2004, No. 85, concerning the appeal filed by Paolo Moretti against a ruling by the Court of Como."}, {"n": 45, "text": "See Telegraaf Media Nederland Landelijke Media B.V. and Others v. the Netherlands, European Court of Human Rights, application No. 39315/06, judgement of 22 November 2012, para. 90."}, {"n": 46, "text": "See Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers recommendation No. R (2000) 7, appendix, principle 6 (a)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0024", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Journalists are often subjected to searches of their persons, homes or offices, including their papers, hard drives and other digital devices. In addition to the normal rules that apply to such searches, a higher burden should be imposed in the context of journalists and others gathering and disseminating information.[[fn:47]] The United States Privacy Protection Act of 1980, for example, protects journalists and others from searches and seizures of their work product, while the Police and Criminal Evidence Act of 1984 of the United Kingdom excludes journalistic material from the scope of seizure authorities.[[fn:48]] The Code of Criminal Procedure of France enables searches of the offices of media only where “such investigations do not violate the freedom of exercise of the profession of journalist and do not unjustifiably obstruct or delay the distribution of information”.[[fn:49]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "C. Nature and scope of protection"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "See Canadian Broadcasting Corp. v. Lessard, Supreme Court of Canada, case No. 21629, report No. [1991] 3 S.C.R. 421; and the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany, 1 BvR 538/06, judgement of 27 February 2007."}, {"n": 48, "text": "See United States, Title 42 U.S. Code sect. 2000aa; United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Police and Criminal Evidence Act (1984)."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Code of Criminal Procedure of France, art. 56-2."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0025", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Source protection extends beyond the immediate reporting person to include editors, publishers and others engaged in the work. In Norway, the Dispute Act of 2005 provides that editors and media staff may refuse to provide access to evidence about who is the author of an article or report in the publication or the source of any information contained therein. The Criminal Code in Switzerland provides similar protection to refuse to identify sources; the Press Law of 2004 in Turkey provides that periodical owners and editors cannot be forced to either disclose their news sources or to legally testify on that issue; and the Press Law of 2006 in Angola extends protection against compelled disclosure to editors.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Protection of sources of information", "C. Nature and scope of protection"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "See Banisar, “Silencing sources”."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0026", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. States have responded to the problem of hidden wrongdoing with laws to protect those who take steps to report it. However, individuals who report alleged wrongdoing are still subjected to harassment, intimidation, investigation, prosecution and other forms of retaliation. All too often, States and organizations implement the protections only in part or fail to hold accountable those who retaliate against whistle-blowers. Moreover, beyond law, the right to information also requires a bedrock of social and organizational norms that promote the reporting of wrongdoing or other information in the public interest. The strengthening of such norms requires training at all levels of organizations, supportive policies and statements from political and corporate leaders, international civil servants, the courts and others, and accountability in cases of reprisals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0027", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. At least 60 States have adopted some form of whistle-blower protection as a part of their national laws.50 The United Nations Convention against Corruption protects persons who report corruption offences; the Council of Europe has recommended broad whistle-blower protections; and the Organization of American States has adopted a model law on the protection of whistle-blowers.[[fn:51]] International organizations have adopted protections that, to some extent, mirror national practice. The following principles draw on international law, State practice and a range of civil society projects; they are not exhaustive of the legal, policy and drafting issues in framing whistle-blower protections.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "See United Nations Convention against Corruption, art. 33; Council of Europe, recommendation CM/Rec(2014)7, appendix; Organization of American States, Model Law to Facilitate and Encourage the Reporting of Acts of Corruption and to Protect Whistle-blowers and Witnesses (2013)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0028", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. International authorities and national jurisdictions adopt a variety of definitions of whistle-blowing. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur adopts a broad definition in order to account for relevant purposes of whistle-blowing, in particular the right to know, accountability and democratic governance. For the purposes of the present report, a whistle-blower is a person who exposes information that he or she reasonably believes, at the time of disclosure, to be true and to constitute a threat or harm to a specified public interest, such as a violation of national or international law, abuse of authority, waste, fraud, or harm to the environment, public health or public safety.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "1. The term “whistle-blower” should be broadly defined and focus attention on alleged wrongdoing"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0029", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Protection laws often limit whistle-blowers to those who blow the whistle “in the context of their work-based relationship”.[[fn:52]] However, a person may come into contact with public interest information even when outside such a relationship. The United Nations Convention against Corruption contains no employment limitation. Broad definitions are also found in, for example, Ghanaian law, which protects employees and “any person” making a disclosure, and Indian law, which covers “any public servant or any other person including any non-governmental organisation”.[[fn:53]] Non-work-related whistle-blowers may include patients who blow the whistle on wrongdoing in a hospital, parents who blow the whistle on wrongdoing in a child’s school and students themselves. Typically, a whistle-blower will enjoy a work status, but because of the range of others who may report wrongdoing allegations, such as consultants, interns, job applicants, students, patients and others who do not enjoy a legally protected relationship with an organization, such a limitation is not recommended.[[fn:54]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "1. The term “whistle-blower” should be broadly defined and focus attention on alleged wrongdoing"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "See Council of Europe, recommendation CM/Rec(2014)7, appendix, definition (a). See also United Kingdom Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998."}, {"n": 53, "text": "See Ghana, Whistleblower Act 720, sect. 12 (2006); India, The Whistle Blowers Protection Act, 2011, chap. II, sect. 4 (1)."}, {"n": 54, "text": "See, for example, Serbia, draft law on protection of whistle-blowers (2013), art. 7."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0030", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Protection mechanisms should promote disclosure and not require potential whistle-blowers to undertake precise analyses of whether perceived wrongdoing merits penalty under existing law or policy. Otherwise, the protection itself would be hollow, encouraging disclosure and signalling potential retaliation at the same time. In general, a reasonable belief requirement may encourage whistle-blowing based on thoughtful consideration of the facts known to a person at the time of disclosure. Whistle-blowers who, based on a reasonable belief, report information that turns out not to be correct should nonetheless be protected against retaliation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "1. The term “whistle-blower” should be broadly defined and focus attention on alleged wrongdoing"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0031", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. The whistle-blower’s motivations at the time of the disclosure should also be immaterial to an assessment of his or her protected status.[[fn:55]] Variation centres around the inclusion of “good faith” as an element of reporting, from the exclusion of a good faith requirement, to a good faith requirement only in the context of compensation as a remedy for retaliation, to inclusion of both “good faith” and reasonable belief.[[fn:56]] “Good faith,” however, could be misinterpreted to focus on the motivation of the whistle-blower rather than the veracity and relevance of the information reported. It should not matter why the whistle-blower brought the information to attention if he or she believed it to be true. Irish law serves as a model, given that it provides that “the motivation for making a disclosure is irrelevant to whether or not it is a protected disclosure”.[[fn:57]] Application of protection should focus on the public interest information underlying the whistle-blowing. Bosnia and Herzegovina, addressing that problem, seeks to protect against the risk of focusing on motivation by defining good faith as meaning the stance of the whistle-blower “based on facts and circumstances of which the whistle-blower has his or her own knowledge and which he or she deems to be true”.[[fn:58]] In Zambia, the Public Interest Disclosure Act (2010) protects disclosures made by an employee in reasonable belief and limits the relevance of motivation to when a person discloses “for purposes of personal gain, excluding any reward payable in terms of any law”.[[fn:59]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "1. The term “whistle-blower” should be broadly defined and focus attention on alleged wrongdoing"], "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "See the Global Principles on National Security and the Right to Information, principle 38. According to the Norwegian Working Environment Act, bad faith does not rule out lawful reporting."}, {"n": 56, "text": "See United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, United Nations Convention against Corruption: Resource Guide on Good Practices in the Protection of Reporting Persons (New York, 2015)."}, {"n": 57, "text": "See Ireland, Protected Disclosures Act 2014, part 2, sect. 5 (7)."}, {"n": 58, "text": "See Bosnia and Herzegovina, Law on Whistleblower Protection in the institutions of Bosnia-Herzegovina, art. 2 (h)."}, {"n": 59, "text": "See Zambia, Public Interest Disclosure (Protection of Whistleblowers) Act (2010), part III, sect. 22 (a) (ii)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0032", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Whistle-blowing does not always involve specific individual wrongdoing, but it may uncover hidden information that the public has a legitimate interest in knowing. International authorities and States often provide a general protection for the disclosure of information in the public interest, or disclosure of specific categories of information, or both. The Council of Europe Committee of Ministers recommends that States adopt protections for those who report threats or harms to the public interest, which it says “should, at least, include violations of law and human rights, as well as risks to public health and safety and to the environment”.[[fn:60]] Zambian law provides an extensive definition that covers a range of maladministration, abuse of public trust, criminal and disciplinary offences and waste or fraud.59 The legislation of the United States specifies violations of a law, rule or regulation; gross mismanagement; a gross waste of funds; an abuse of authority; and a substantial and specific danger to public health and safety.[[fn:61]] While the term “public interest” may appear capacious as a basis for whistle-blower protection, a State might define “public interest” as involving information that contributes to public debate, promotes public participation, exposes serious wrongdoing, improves accountability or benefits public safety.[[fn:62]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "2. Public interest information should be disclosed"], "footnotes": [{"n": 60, "text": "See Council of Europe, recommendation CM/Rec(2014)7, appendix, sect. I (2), and explanatory memorandum CM(2014)34 addfinal, para. 43."}, {"n": 61, "text": "See Whistleblower Protection Enhancement Act of 2012 and Whistleblower Protection Act of 1989."}, {"n": 62, "text": "See Parliamentary Assembly of Council of Europe, Committee on Legal Affairs and Human Rights, Memorandum of Arcadio Díaz Tejera, document No. 13293, 3 September 2013, para. 46. The Irish Protected Disclosures Act 2014 provides a list of matters which qualify as relevant wrongdoings."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0033", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Regardless of the approach taken, the scope of protected disclosures should be easily understandable by potential whistle-blowers. Legalistic definitions may lead potential whistle-blowers not to report because of a lack of clarity about what is covered by a protection framework.56", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "2. Public interest information should be disclosed"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0034", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. When working properly, internal mechanisms provide a way for someone who perceives wrongdoing to seek a competent authority’s investigation. They allow for timely attention by those who may be in the best position to address problems, while also providing a basis for balancing legitimate interests in secrecy and the redress of wrongdoing. However, internal mechanisms present potential whistle-blowers with serious risks. They often lack strong measures of confidentiality and independence from the organization in which they are embedded, putting whistle-blowers at risk of retaliation. Many mechanisms are widely perceived as ineffective, so that the risk of retaliation may appear too great in the face of low odds of success. For those reasons, among others, studies suggest that employees have relatively low confidence in whistle-blowing mechanisms.[[fn:63]] If States aim to have working whistle-blowing procedures that reduce public disclosure, they must ensure the effectiveness and trust in the full independence of whistle-blowing processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "2. Public interest information should be disclosed"], "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "See Public Concern at Work and the University of Greenwich, Whistleblowing: The Inside Story (London, 2013); Stephen Bolsin, Rita Pal, Peter Wilmshurst and Milton Pena, “Whistleblowing and patient safety: the patient’s or the profession’s interests at stake?”, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, vol. 104, No. 7 (July 2011)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0035", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. When whistle-blowers reasonably perceive that an internal process lacks effective redress and protection, they should have access to two other permissible avenues of disclosure. One would be external but not public, such as a government-wide ombudsman or oversight institution or a legislative oversight body. Belgium, Ireland, New Zealand, the Republic of Korea and the United Kingdom, among others, provide explicitly for various forms of external but non-public whistle-blowing.56 The legislation of Ghana provides for protected disclosures to nearly 20 categories of competent recipients apart from the whistle-blower’s employer.[[fn:64]] At the same time, it is critical that, once a whistle-blower makes a disclosure outside his or her institution, the law does not hold the person to any pre-existing duties of confidentiality owed to the employer.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "2. Public interest information should be disclosed"], "footnotes": [{"n": 64, "text": "See Ghana, Whistleblower Act 720, sect. 3 (1) (2006)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0036", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Whistle-blowers may reasonably perceive that neither internal nor oversight mechanisms provide effective protection or a likelihood of addressing wrongdoing. They may leave whistle-blowers exposed to retaliation and the absence of redress even if the formal legal framework and the mechanisms appear sufficiently protective. Whistle-blowers often reasonably doubt that such protections will work for them; the more a State can demonstrate that whistle-blowing results in changed institutional behaviour, individual accountability and protection, the more likely it is that whistle-blowers will not go public. When a Government seeks to prosecute or otherwise penalize a publicly disclosing whistle-blower, the burden should be on the State to show that the whistle-blower’s perceptions of non-protection or non-redress were unreasonable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "2. Public interest information should be disclosed"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0037", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Where other mechanisms to disclose information about wrongdoing are unavailable or ineffective, the whistle-blower may disclose information of alleged wrongdoing to external entities, either the media or others in civil society, or by self-publishing. The public-disclosure whistle-blower in such circumstances should be protected. The European Court of Human Rights weighs six factors in assessing the legitimacy of restrictions imposed on those who make public disclosure. Those factors are whether the whistle-blower had available any “competent authority” to which he or she could make disclosure, or “any other effective means of remedying the wrongdoing”; the public interest in the information, which “can sometimes be so strong as to override even a legally imposed duty of confidence”; the information’s authenticity, requiring a person to “carefully verify, to the extent permitted by the circumstances, that it is accurate and reliable”; the damage that the public institution may suffer by public disclosure, including whether it outweighs the public’s interest in knowing the information; the motive and good faith of the whistle-blower, which could implicate the “level of protection” available; and an evaluation of the proportionality of the penalty imposed upon the whistle-blower.[[fn:65]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "2. Public interest information should be disclosed"], "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "See European Court of Human Rights, application No. 14277/04, judgement of 12 February 2008, paras. 73-78. See also Heinisch v. Germany, application No. 28274/08, judgement of 21 July 2011 and Bucur and Toma v. Romania, application No. 40238/02, judgement of 1 August 2013."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0038", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Notwithstanding such balancing, the public may have an exceptionally strong right to know about some kinds of information or allegations, such that they override even potentially effective internal or oversight processes. For example, public disclosure of serious violations of international human rights law, international humanitarian law or other fundamental rights in a State’s constitutional or statutory framework should be encouraged regardless of the effectiveness of internal mechanisms. The same may hold true where the value of the public’s knowledge of the information depends upon its timely or urgent disclosure. The public has an overriding interest in knowing of allegations of serious violations of fundamental legal norms (see A/68/362).", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "2. Public interest information should be disclosed"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0039", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Maintaining the confidentiality of whistle-blowers may be especially difficult, depending on the nature, size and scope of the institution. Even so, whistle-blower laws should protect strongly against the risk that persons who disclose facts that indicate wrongdoing may be subject to personal attack and other forms of retaliation. Guarantees and mechanisms of confidentiality provide important protection against retaliation. States should not breach the confidentiality of the source by putting pressure on the media or any other organization or person to whom the whistle-blower disclosed the information. Whistle-blowing mechanisms should provide for secure submissions and take other steps to ensure the confidentiality of disclosures, including by defining intentional or negligent breaches of confidentiality as a form of retaliation subject to penalty.[[fn:66]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "4. Whistle-blowers should be guaranteed confidentiality and the possibility of anonymity in their reporting"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Mexico have initiatives promoting anonymous reporting."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0040", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Some institutions permit anonymous disclosures in order to enable people to report without identifying themselves to any competent authority. Unlike confidentiality guarantees, in which a whistle-blower is known to the internal mechanism, anonymous disclosure should allow individuals to provide information without identifying themselves to anyone in the internal mechanism. Anonymity has some drawbacks; it may diminish the ability of authorities to conduct follow-up, or encourage frivolous or malicious reporting. In situations in which few persons enjoy access to disclosed information, reporting persons may be easily exposed. However, anonymous reporting provides a safeguard for those situations where the potential whistle-blower lacks confidence in the ability of existing legal mechanisms to provide protections against retaliation and yet wishes not to make a public disclosure. It enables a focus on the elements of the disclosure rather than on the person. Moreover, those who make anonymous disclosures who are later exposed should still receive whistle-blower protections.[[fn:67]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "4. Whistle-blowers should be guaranteed confidentiality and the possibility of anonymity in their reporting"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "See Slovakia, Act No. 307/2014 Coll. on Certain Measures Related to the Reporting of Antisocial Activities and on Amendments to Certain Acts (2015)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0041", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Without protection against retaliation and the possibility of redress, few would disclose wrongdoing. Protection should be detailed explicitly in law, providing whistle-blowers and others with clarity about the nature of the protection that they may seek. In particular, whistle-blowers must be protected against coercion or harassment of themselves or their families, discrimination, physical harm to a person or property, threats of retaliation, job loss, suspension or demotion, transfer or other hardship, disciplinary penalty, blacklisting or prosecution on grounds of breach of secrecy laws, libel or defamation.56 In the event of investigation or prosecution, whistle-blowers should be permitted to raise all of the principles identified above in their defence, especially that the disclosure was to protect a specified public interest that outweighed harm to a governmental interest. Whistle-blower laws should provide a mechanism to redress wrongdoing and prohibit those forms of retaliation, among others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "4. Whistle-blowers should be guaranteed confidentiality and the possibility of anonymity in their reporting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0042", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Impunity for reprisals sends a message to all potential whistle-blowers that the institution lacks commitment to their protection, while serious and effective penalties are necessary to overcome the structural and cultural protection of secrecy. Whistle-blower laws should therefore include specific rules that make clear the penalties that those who commit reprisals will face, including civil or criminal repercussions for officials in leadership positions. Zambian law, for example, provides for substantial penalties (fines and imprisonment) against “a person who takes any detrimental action that is in reprisal for a person who makes a protected disclosure”.[[fn:68]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "A. Legal protection of whistle-blowers", "4. Whistle-blowers should be guaranteed confidentiality and the possibility of anonymity in their reporting"], "footnotes": [{"n": 68, "text": "Zambia, Public Interest Disclosure Act (see footnote 59 above). See also Norway, Dispute Act, sect. 2-5 (2005)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0043", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. States have long sought to keep secret information that, if disclosed, could undermine efforts to protect the public from grave harms such as terrorism or armed conflict. The protection of confidential information is a necessary by-product of some government activity, and article 19 (3) recognizes the legitimacy of limitations to protect specific interests such as national security. Institutions that operate in national security, such as institutions of defence, diplomacy, internal security and law enforcement, and intelligence, may have a greater claim not to disclose information than other public bodies, but they have no greater claim to hide instances of wrongdoing or other information where the value of disclosure outweighs the harm to the institution. Yet whistle-blower protections are often weak, or simply unavailable, in the area of national security and intelligence. Those who disclose wrongdoing in national security institutions are often subject to retaliation, such as job loss or transfer, denial or revocation of security clearance, and investigation, prosecution and harsh sentencing, and they lack redress because of legal doctrines that support an infrastructure of secrecy. Whistle-blowing’s main function thus loses all force, and while the lack of protection ultimately denies members of the public access to critical information about their Government, national security institutions also lose a tool of accountability.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "B. Whistle-blowing and national security"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0044", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. In 2013, dozens of organizations, academic institutions and experts from 70 countries — including the special rapporteurs on freedom of expression in the United Nations and the African, European and Inter-American systems — concluded a two-year study of national security and the right to information. The resulting Global Principles on National Security and the Right to Information, known as the Tshwane Principles, provide guidance for States seeking to balance their interests in protecting information and ensuring the public’s right to know. The principles and their detailed explanatory discussions deserve widespread study and implementation. Already, the Council of Europe has recognized that a special whistle-blower framework applicable in the context of national security may be valuable.[[fn:69]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "B. Whistle-blowing and national security"], "footnotes": [{"n": 69, "text": "See Council of Europe, recommendation CM/Rec(2014)7, appendix, sect. II (5). See also Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe, “Improving the protection of whistle-blowers”, document No. 13791 (19 May 2015)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0045", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. All of the principles identified above should apply in the context of national security, modified as appropriate according to the principles below. Full coverage means that no institution should be accorded such a wide measure of discretion as to eliminate the protections themselves. National security institutions enjoy secrecy as a norm of behaviour. Moreover, non-disclosure is often buttressed by a network of secrecy and espionage laws — often with harsh criminal penalties — that all but eliminate genuine whistle-blower protection, in particular by removing the whistle-blower’s ability to advocate on the basis of the public’s interest in the disclosed information. In those situations, States should rationalize their laws so that whistle-blower protections, and the public interest basis for them, apply regardless of the institution involved.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "B. Whistle-blowing and national security", "1. Full coverage"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0046", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Where internal or external oversight mechanisms have not operated or do not operate so as to provide protection and effective redress in the face of a disclosure, the following principles apply generally in the context of external, public disclosure.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "B. Whistle-blowing and national security", "1. Full coverage"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0047", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. States may find it appropriate to apply specific rules to public national security disclosures. To be consistent with article 19 (3), they should nonetheless strictly adhere to the standard that restrictions be necessary and proportionate to protect national security. National security exclusions have traditionally involved information about ongoing defence plans, weapons systems and communications, critical infrastructure and intelligence operations, sources and methods.[[fn:70]] States have also long protected sensitive security-related diplomatic activity. National security restrictions on disclosure should apply only in such situations, and disclosure should not be limited in the absence of the Government’s showing of “a real and identifiable risk of significant harm to a legitimate national security interest”.[[fn:71]] Law should clearly define what may be withheld from disclosure. A “legitimate national security interest” must be genuine, not a cover for “protection of government or officials from embarrassment or exposure of wrongdoing; concealment of information about human rights violations, any other violation of law, or the functioning of public institutions; strengthening or perpetuating a particular political interest, party, or ideology; or suppression of lawful protests”.[[fn:72]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "B. Whistle-blowing and national security", "2. Narrowly and clearly define prohibited disclosures"], "footnotes": [{"n": 70, "text": "See the Global Principles on National Security and the Right to Information, principle 9."}, {"n": 71, "text": "Ibid., principle 3 (b)."}, {"n": 72, "text": "Ibid. To be clear, the relevant national law must also be consistent with international law."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0048", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. To satisfy the principle of proportionality, the relevant institution should also be prepared to show that the harm to the specific legitimate national security interest outweighs the public interest in disclosure. The Tshwane Principles propose that public disclosure should be protected where the internal or oversight mechanism would be ineffective, futile or lack timeliness in the face of a serious threat. Furthermore, reflecting a point of general applicability, the whistle-blower should disclose only the “amount of information that was reasonably necessary to bring to light the wrongdoing” and do so on the reasonable belief that the public interest in disclosure outweighed any harm to any specific and legitimate national security interest.[[fn:73]] Any disclosures that meet those tests should merit full protection. Those principles should be available to whistle-blowers whether they are claiming protection or defending themselves against investigation or prosecution.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "B. Whistle-blowing and national security", "3. Promote public interest disclosures that outweigh any identifiable harm to a legitimate national security interest"], "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "Ibid., principle 40."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0049", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The question posed most sharply in the national security area is whether, when individuals assess the balance between public interest disclosure and national security harm, they should lose the protection they would otherwise enjoy if their assessment differs from that of the Government, as is likely. Criminal or civil penalties may advance the Government’s interest in concealing certain information, but they do so at a steep cost to the public interest in ensuring that whistle-blowers do come forward to disclose instances of wrongdoing or other information that it is in the public’s interest to know.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "B. Whistle-blowing and national security", "4. Sanctioned disclosures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0050", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Where States nonetheless pursue criminal or civil penalties against whistle-blowers, limiting the spillover risk of deterring whistle-blowing should involve three critical protections. First, in any such action, States should bear the burden of proving that the harm to a legitimate national security interest outweighed the public interest in disclosure. Second, States should provide defendants with the basic tools of defence, including access to the information necessary for a defence, relaxation of secrecy laws in the context of closed court sessions if necessary and the ability to make a genuine case that disclosure’s benefit outweighed the asserted harm. Lastly, in the event of a conviction or penalty, sentences or fines must be proportionate to the underlying act, including taking into account the extent to which the whistle-blower’s disclosure advanced the public interest, even if a court found the harm to national security to outweigh the value of disclosure.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "B. Whistle-blowing and national security", "4. Sanctioned disclosures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0051", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. The principles of whistle-blower protection adopted by States and regional mechanisms apply with equal force in the context of international organizations. The United Nations and other international organizations have adopted rules and regulations with the purpose of enabling whistle-blowing and prohibiting retaliation against those who disclose wrongdoing.[[fn:74]] Nonetheless, allegations of retaliation against whistle-blowers plague international organizations.[[fn:75]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "C. Whistle-blowing in international organizations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 74, "text": "See ST/SGB/2005/21; World Bank, staff rule 8.02: Protections and Procedures for Reporting Misconduct (Whistleblowing) (2008)."}, {"n": 75, "text": "See Government Accountability Project, “International best practices for whistleblower policies” (2013)."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0052", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Basic structural gaps in international organizations leave whistle-blowers at risk in ways that those who report wrongdoing in national systems may avoid. In particular, nearly all international organizations are opaque to the public, which has limited access to information, and few have effective policies on access to information. As bureaucratically dominated organizations, they avoid the strict scrutinization by the press that is often found in national contexts, and they are naturally isolated from direct contact with members of the public or the press. They are, moreover, subject to reputational demands in order to maintain financial and political support of Governments. Furthermore, persons who report wrongdoing have limited access to independent systems of justice. They generally lack access to national courts when complaining about retaliation, and the human rights bodies are unlikely to apply protection in the face of retaliation. The immunities enjoyed by international organizations in national and other external jurisdictions result in minimal legal pressure on the organizations to respond effectively to allegations of wrongdoing. The mechanisms themselves generally face substantial problems of independence because of those structural barriers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "C. Whistle-blowing in international organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0053", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The track record for whistle-blowers in the United Nations system reinforces the difficulties. Very few whistle-blower complaints are fully investigated. Between 2006 and 2014, only 15 cases of a total of 403 “inquiries” sent to the Ethics Office of the United Nations were found to meet prima facie standards for retaliation, while only 4 were established as retaliatory cases. The low numbers, in a system of more than 40,000 employees, are likely to send a message to employees that the reporting system will not provide effective protection or redress. Some international organizations do have strong formal protections for whistle-blowers.[[fn:76]] However, all international organizations should adopt the principles applicable in national situations and consider at least the following steps to improve their approaches.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "C. Whistle-blowing in international organizations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "See African Development Bank Group, “Whistle-blowing and complaints handling policy” (Tunis, 2007), sect. 4."}]}, {"id": "a-70-361-0054", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. First, whistle-blower definitions should apply broadly to encourage all disclosures of wrongdoing that implicate the interests of the organization and all stakeholders, including Governments and civil society. As it stands, many organizations’ protections apply to reports of staff failures to comply with obligations, rather than applying to the full range of wrongdoing of which a person may gain knowledge. A public interest standard for reporting would cover a wider scope of wrongdoing to which the United Nations and its staff become privy. Policies should also protect all whistle-blowers from retaliation, not just staff members but others who may be associated with the organization.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "C. Whistle-blowing in international organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0055", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Second, the existing mechanisms, while well-intentioned, lack real independence and effectiveness. As long as internal reporting channels require implementing actions by various individuals in the organization’s management, they will fail to enjoy the credibility that comes with independent review. Whistle-blowers should enjoy access to formal justice mechanisms, not merely mechanisms that, as is the case with the Ethics Office at the United Nations, involve only recommendatory powers. Punishment of those who retaliate should be serious, not merely disciplinary, and should include the possibility of removal from their post and personal liability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "C. Whistle-blowing in international organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0056", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Third, international organizations — and the States that established and support them — should adopt serious and effective policies of transparency to enable the public to have greater access to information. The public should enjoy access not only to information about the policies and practices of the organizations, but also to information about whistle-blowing. Subject to the requirements of privacy protections, investigations of whistle-blowing complaints should avoid the strictures of confidentiality, providing for public knowledge of complaints. As it stands, whistle-blowing complaints are very rarely made public, or if they are, such publicity follows only after years of delay and secrecy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "C. Whistle-blowing in international organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0057", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Lastly, those who identify wrongdoing — especially evidence of serious legal violations and human rights abuses, such as sexual and gender-based violence — should be protected from retaliation when they make public disclosures to the media, civil society or Governments. To be sure, disclosures should respect the rights and reputations of others, but in the absence of effective internal systems, external disclosure provides a necessary safety valve to promote accountability and ensure that the public has information about serious wrongdoing.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Protection of whistle-blowers", "C. Whistle-blowing in international organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0058", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. A common thread ties together the right of access to information, the protection of sources of information and the protection of whistle-blowers: the public’s right to know. Human rights law protects the right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, while also permitting restrictions of the right on narrow, specified grounds. When the right and the restriction clash, as they are often purported to do, Governments and international organizations should not adopt laws and policies that default in favour of the restrictions. Rather, laws should favour disclosures of information in the public interest. In cases of source and whistle-blower disclosures, public institutions have most of the power — the power to intimidate, to investigate, to prosecute. They also have greater access to information and, thus, the ability to make their case, while the source or whistle-blower typically has only a window into broader policies and practices, hindered by secrecy laws that preclude an adequate defence. If a disclosure genuinely harms a specified legitimate State interest, it should be the State’s burden to prove the harm and the intention to cause harm. States and international organizations are urged to adopt or revise laws accordingly, consistent with the well-recognized centrality of the right to freedom of expression and access to information in democratic governance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0059", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. Basic protections are critical to an effective right to freedom of expression, accountability and democratic governance. Individual cases of disproportionate treatment and retaliation against sources and whistle-blowers have been in the public eye over recent years, relating to intelligence agencies, asylum programmes, public health, environmental protection, corruption in the business and financial sectors, international organizations and many other domains. The Special Rapporteur has avoided mentioning specific cases in the present report. Moving forward, the principles identified in the present report will be applied in communications with Governments and international organizations on specific cases. The Special Rapporteur looks forward to a dialogue with Governments to help to improve their legal frameworks and establish effective protection of sources and whistle-blowers.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0060", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. National legal frameworks establishing the right to access information held by public bodies should be aligned with international human rights norms. Exceptions to disclosure should be narrowly defined and clearly provided by law and be necessary and proportionate to achieve one or more of the above-mentioned legitimate objectives of protecting the rights or reputations of others, national security, public order, or public health and morals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States", "Ensure that national legal frameworks provide for the right of access to information in accordance with international standards"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0061", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. National legal frameworks must protect the confidentiality of sources of journalists and of others who may engage in the dissemination of information of public interest. Laws guaranteeing confidentiality must reach beyond professional journalists, including those who may be performing a vital role in providing wide access to information of public interest such as bloggers, “citizen journalists”, members of non-governmental organizations, authors and academics, all of whom may conduct research and disclose information in the public interest. Protection should be based on function, not on a formal title.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States", "Adopt or revise and implement national laws protecting the confidentiality of sources"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0062", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Any restrictions on confidentiality must be genuinely exceptional and subject to the highest standards, and implemented by judicial authorities only. Circumventions, such as secret surveillance or metadata analysis not authorized by judicial authorities according to clear and narrow legal rules, should not be used to undermine source confidentiality. States should promote tools, such as encryption and anonymizing programs, to ensure protection of sources. Authorities compelling revelation of sources must demonstrate that reasonable alternative measures to the disclosure do not exist or have been exhausted and that the legitimate interest in the disclosure clearly outweighs the public interest in the non-disclosure. These should be limited to investigations of the most serious crimes or the protection of life.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States", "Adopt or revise and implement national laws protecting the confidentiality of sources"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0063", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. State law should protect any person who discloses information that he or she reasonably believes, at the time of disclosure, to be true and to constitute a threat or harm to a specified public interest, such as a violation of national or international law, abuse of authority, waste, fraud or harm to the environment, public health or public safety. Upon disclosure, authorities should investigate and redress the alleged wrongdoing without any exception based on the presumed motivations or “good faith” of the person who disclosed the information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States", "Adopt or revise and implement national legal frameworks protecting whistle-blowers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0064", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Internal institutional and external oversight mechanisms should provide effective and protective channels for whistle-blowers to motivate remedial action. In the absence of channels that provide protection and effective remediation, or that fail to do so in a timely manner, public disclosures should be permitted. Disclosure of human rights or humanitarian law violations should never be the basis of penalties of any kind.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States", "Adopt or revise and implement national legal frameworks protecting whistle-blowers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0065", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. Protections against retaliation should apply in all public institutions, including those connected to national security. Given that prosecutions generally deter whistle-blowing, States should avoid them, reserving them, if at all, for exceptional cases of the most serious demonstrable harm to a specific legitimate interest. In such situations, the State should bear the burden of proving an intent to cause harm, and defendants should be granted (a) the ability to present a defence of an overriding public interest in the information, and (b) access to all information necessary to mount a full defence, including otherwise classified information. Penalties should take into account the intent of the whistle-blower to disclose information of public interest and meet international standards of legality, due process and proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States", "Adopt or revise and implement national legal frameworks protecting whistle-blowers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0066", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Acts of reprisals and other attacks against whistle-blowers and the disclosure of confidential sources must be thoroughly investigated and those responsible for those acts held accountable. When the attacks are condoned or perpetrated by authorities in leadership positions they consolidate a culture of silence, secrecy and fear within institutions and beyond, deterring future disclosures. Leaders at all levels in institutions should promote whistle-blowing and be seen to support whistle-blowers, and particular attention should be paid to the ways in which authorities in leadership positions encourage retaliation, tacitly or expressly, against whistle-blowers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States", "Establish personal liability for those who retaliate against sources and whistle-blowers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0067", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Law enforcement and justice officials must be trained to ensure the adequate implementation of standards establishing protection of the right to access information and the consequent protections of confidentiality of sources and whistle-blowers. Authorities in leadership positions should publicly recognize the contribution sources and whistle-blowers make by sharing information of public relevance and should condemn attacks against them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States", "Actively promote respect for the right of access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0068", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. State entities should also support civil society organizations that are expert in the areas of access to information, protection of journalists and their sources, and whistle-blower promotion and protection. Many such organizations may offer technical advice and training. States should ensure that civil society can participate fully in all efforts to adopt or revise source and whistle-blower laws, regulations and policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations to States", "Actively promote respect for the right of access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-70-361-0069", "docId": "a-70-361", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. All the above recommendations to States apply to the United Nations and other international organizations. In addition, the United Nations and international organizations should adopt effective norms and policies of transparency to enable the public to have greater access to information. Specific norms protecting whistle-blowers should follow similar criteria to those provided in the recommendations to States: wide scope of application, promotion of disclosure of information in the public interest and clarity in the mechanisms for reporting and requesting protection. Particular attention must be paid to the effectiveness and independence of existing reporting and justice mechanisms, given the lack of access of whistle-blowers to any other formal justice system.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations to the United Nations and other international organizations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0001", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. In the present report, submitted in accordance with Human Rights Council resolution 25/2, the Special Rapporteur focuses on the right of the child to freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0002", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. In the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the recognition of children as full subjects of rights is underscored. In accordance with the Convention, it is not acceptable to use the immaturity of children as a justification for depriving them of rights that would otherwise be enjoyed only by adults. Children are not mini-human beings, with mini-human rights. On the contrary, the Convention expands on the protection of children’s civil and political rights and sets out some specific measures to ensure that every child develops his or her personality to the fullest potential. Also according to the Convention, the right to freedom of expression should be exercised progressively as the child matures.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0003", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. Nobody questions the importance of protecting children from harm and the duty of adults to guide children. All too often, however, the possible risks that children face as a consequence of their young age and relative immaturity are overstated and used as an excuse for unduly restricting the rights of both adults and children to freedom of expression. These restrictions may emerge from vague and broad definitions of what constitutes harmful information or simply be perpetuated through the tacit acceptance of authoritarian attitudes in schools, families and society in general.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0004", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. If the Internet is widely recognized as an indispensable tool for promoting development and human rights, it also stands to reason that the Internet is an indispensable tool for children. Concerns have emerged, however, about the use of these tools for violent or abusive purposes. Widespread restrictions on the use of digital communications and censorship are not only unacceptable but also ineffective solutions to these concerns. Human rights norms call for a balanced approach where restrictions on communications conform to strict tests of necessity and proportionality.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0005", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur describes how the right of the child to freedom of expression is articulated in international human rights treaties, paying particular attention to the Convention on the Rights of the Child. He then details important obstacles to the realization of this right, including direct restrictions on children’s rights to freedom of expression and access to information, as well as blanket restrictions that ostensibly aim to protect children but in effect limit adults’ freedom of expression. He also describes some experiences of protecting and promoting children’s right to freedom of expression. Given the unparalleled impact of the Internet on contemporary societies, the Special Rapporteur discusses the importance of new technologies for the promotion of children’s rights and some specific concerns that are emerging in this domain. Lastly, he concludes by providing recommendations on the alignment of national laws and practices with relevant standards established by international human rights law.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0006", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. During the reporting period, the Special Rapporteur continued to participate in national and international events relating to the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In July 2014, the Special Rapporteur presented his latest annual report to the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/26/30), in which he addressed freedom of expression in elections and the regulation of political communications. Before that, in April, he presented his reports on his visits to Montenegro (A/HRC/26/30/Add.1), the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (A/HRC/26/30/Add.2) and Italy (A/HRC/26/30/Add.3). Also during the twenty-sixth session of the Council, the Special Rapporteur participated in a panel discussion on the safety of journalists and in side events on the safety of journalists, freedom of expression in elections and the space for civil society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0007", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. As he concluded his term as mandate holder, the Special Rapporteur reiterated his regret at the lack of response from Indonesia and Pakistan to his attempts to set up dates for a visit despite having received formal invitations from both countries in 2012. Requests for visits to the following countries also remained pending: Iran (Islamic Republic of) (requested in February 2010), Sri Lanka (requested in June 2009), Thailand (requested in 2012), Uganda (requested in May 2011) and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) (requested in 2003 and 2009).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0008", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. To prepare the present report, the Special Rapporteur reviewed relevant studies and consulted experts on the right of children to freedom of expression. The report also benefited from information compiled by the Child Rights International Network. In addition, the Special Rapporteur organized expert consultations on the topic in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), Florence (Italy), Mexico City and Johannesburg (South Africa).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0009", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Freedom of expression is enshrined in all international and regional human rights instruments on civil and political rights.[[fn:1]] In article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, it is recognized that everyone has the right to freedom of expression, which includes the right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds regardless of frontiers. All forms of expression and the means of their dissemination are protected under that article (see para. 2). This right includes the expression and receipt of communications of every kind of idea and opinion that can be transmitted to others, subject to the limitations set out in articles 19, paragraph 3, and 20 of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "A. Right to freedom of expression in international human rights law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights and article 9 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0010", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Traditionally, the right to freedom of expression has not been associated with children, even though, as individuals, children benefit from all of the civil rights enunciated in the Covenant.[[fn:2]] Earlier international instruments dealing with children, such as the Geneva Declaration on the Rights of the Child of 1924 and the Declaration of the Rights of the Child (General Assembly resolution 1386 (XIV)), did not include any reference to this right, on the assumption that children were not able, because of their immaturity, to make meaningful choices. The Convention on the Rights of the Child marks a watershed in the protection of the rights and the inherent dignity of children. Unlike previous international legal instruments, the Convention promotes a dramatic shift in emphasis, from an approach based on the obligations of adults towards children (see the Declaration of the Rights of the Child) to one focusing on the child as a rights-holder.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "A. Right to freedom of expression in international human rights law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Official Records of the General Assembly, Forty-fourth Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/44/40), annex VI, para. 2."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0011", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. The Convention on the Rights of the Child is the first international legal instrument proclaiming the right of children to freedom of expression.[[fn:3]] The wording of article 13 closely follows that of article 19, paragraphs 2 and 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. According to some, there is little value in article 13 itself, since it was simply “lifted” from article 19 of the Covenant with little attempt to apply it to children.[[fn:4]] However, read in conjunction with the provisions set out in articles 12 and 17 of the Convention, which protect the right to be heard and the right to have access to information, article 13 provides a level of protection to the child’s right to freedom of expression that is comparable, if not superior, to that afforded by article 19 of the Covenant.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See also article 7 of the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, which entered into force in 1999."}, {"n": 4, "text": "Sylvie Langlaude, “On how to build a positive understanding of the child’s right to freedom of expression”, Human Rights Law Review, vol. 10, No. 1 (2010), pp. 33-66."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "13", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text states 'The Convention on the Rights of the Child is the first international legal instrument proclaiming the right of children to freedom of expression. The wording of article 13 closely follows...' — first mention of art.13 in a CRC-focused sentence."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 19, paragraphs 2 and 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'; ICCPR art.19 covers freedom of expression."}, {"article": "13", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second reference: 'there is little value in article 13 itself, since it was simply lifted from article 19 of the Covenant' — art.13 here is CRC art.13 (the CRC freedom of expression provision being compared)."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second reference: 'lifted from article 19 of the Covenant' — the Covenant is ICCPR, confirmed by preceding full name citation."}, {"article": "12", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text states 'read in conjunction with the provisions set out in articles 12 and 17 of the Convention'; 'the Convention' is CRC throughout this paragraph; CRC art.12 is the right to be heard."}, {"article": "17", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text states 'articles 12 and 17 of the Convention'; 'the Convention' is CRC; CRC art.17 covers access to information."}, {"article": "13", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Third reference: 'article 13 provides a level of protection to the child's right to freedom of expression'; clearly CRC art.13 — the subject throughout the paragraph."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Third reference: 'that afforded by article 19 of the Covenant'; 'the Covenant' is ICCPR, comparing CRC art.13 protection to ICCPR art.19 protection."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0012", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. There is no reference in article 13 to the child’s evolving capacities, nor is a minimum age or a certain degree of maturity for the exercise of the right to freedom of expression fixed. In this sense, freedom of expression has been regarded as having a developmental aspect, since its aim is to enable children to develop their minds and themselves in society with others and grow into citizens participating in public life.[[fn:5]] Children’s freedom of expression does not — and cannot — start when children become capable of expressing their views autonomously or become teenagers; they cannot be expected to develop as autonomous beings and participants in society at the magical age of 18 years without having had the opportunity beforehand.4", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Herdís Thorgeirsdóttir, A Commentary on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child: Article 13 — The Right to Freedom of Expression (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2006)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0013", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Nevertheless, children are not adults, and the fact that they have evolving capacities cannot be avoided. This principle, enshrined in article 5 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, simply reflects the need to take children’s “childness” into account, as well as the fact that children evolve and exercise their rights differently from adults. The role accorded to parents and others responsible for the child under article 5 of the Convention suggests that, in practice, children’s enjoyment of their right to freedom of expression may not be as expansive as that of adult holders of similarly expressed rights under non-child-specific international human rights instruments.[[fn:6]] The exercise of the right to freedom of expression expands as children mature, whereas the appropriate direction and guidance provided by parents under article 5 diminishes correspondingly.4", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Aoife Nolan, Human Rights Law in Perspective: Children’s Socio-Economic Rights, Democracy and the Courts (Oxford, Hart Publishing, 2011)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "5", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CRC", "article": "5", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CRC", "article": "5", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0014", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Although the wording of article 13 of the Convention generally follows that of article 19 of the Covenant, certain provisions are omitted. First, article 13 does not include the right to hold opinions without interference, provided in article 19, paragraph 1, of the Covenant. It may be reasoned, however, that this right is implied in article 13, paragraph 1, or covered either by article 12 or article 14 of the Convention.[[fn:7]] Secondly, article 13 does not include the first sentence of article 19, paragraph 3, of the Covenant: “The exercise of the rights provided for in paragraph 2 of this article carries with it special duties and responsibilities.” The inclusion of this sentence, which was introduced in the Covenant because of the powerful influence of modern media of expression, was apparently not found necessary with regard to the child’s freedom of expression.7", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Sharon Detrick, A Commentary on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1999)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "12", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "14", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0015", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. The scope of the right to freedom of expression is quite wide. According to the Committee on the Rights of the Child, article 13 of the Convention confers a right that can be exercised not only against the State, but also within the family, in the community, at school, in public policy decisions and in society.4", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0016", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The family, in particular, is regarded as one of the most important pillars in realizing the rights of the child to freedom of expression. It is widely acknowledged that parents assume the primary responsibility for the upbringing and development of their child, and hold the child’s best interests as a fundamental concern. The Committee encourages the implementation of a participatory family structure in which a child learns to freely express his or her views, and thus becomes equipped with the skills necessary to participate in society. The duty of family members includes the obligation to hear the child’s views and take them seriously and to support children in the realization of their rights under the Convention (see CRC/C/43/3, paras. 999-1,002).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0017", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. The right to seek information set out in article 13, paragraph 1, of the Convention on the Rights of the Child has often been associated with the right to access to information, in particular information held by public authorities. This right is also closely related to the provisions of article 17 of the Convention, which aims to ensure that children have access to information and material from a diversity of national and international sources.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression", "Right to seek information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CRC", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0018", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Seeking and accessing information is essential for the child’s development and represents an essential precondition for participating in social life. Therefore, the Committee on the Rights of the Child has construed this right as imposing a positive obligation on States to provide access to information held by public authorities. The Human Rights Committee has observed that, to give effect to this right, States should make every effort to ensure easy, prompt, effective and practical access to information of public interest, and enact the necessary procedures, whereby one may gain access to information, such as by means of freedom of information legislation (see CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 19).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression", "Right to seek information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0019", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. The child also has the right to receive information and ideas of all kinds. The Committee on the Rights of the Child does not often refer to this provision in its concluding observations and recommendations. The only emerging principles are that measures must be taken to acquaint children with different cultures, that the media must help children to learn about other civilizations and that steps should be taken to encourage the publication, dissemination and availability of children’s literature to all children.4", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression", "Right to receive information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0020", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. The right to receive information is closely linked to the provisions of article 28, according to which States parties recognize the right of the child to education, and article 29, in which it is emphasized that education of the child shall, inter alia, aim at the development of the child’s personality, talents and mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression", "Right to receive information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "28", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "29", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0021", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Lastly, children have the right to impart information to others. As is the case for the right to receive information, there are few references to this right in the jurisprudence of the Committee on the Rights of the Child. The Committee has stated, for example, that children have the right to contribute to children’s magazines, television and other media, to engage in political activities both within and outside the school and to set up Internet chat rooms.4", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression", "Right to impart information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0022", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. In article 13, paragraph 2, of the Convention on the Rights of the Child it is expressly stated that the exercise of the right to freedom of expression may be subject to certain restrictions, which are set out. The Committee on the Rights of the Child has not developed comprehensive jurisprudence on permissible limitations to this right.4 However, the analysis made by the Human Rights Committee on the interpretation and application of article 19, paragraph 3, of the Covenant applies, mutatis mutandis, to the child’s right to freedom of expression (see CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 21).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression", "Permissible limitations"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CRC", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0023", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. First, restrictions must be provided by law made accessible to the public and be formulated with sufficient precision to enable an individual to regulate his or her conduct accordingly. Second, restrictions may be imposed only on the grounds set out in paragraphs 2 (a) and (b) of article 13, namely, for respect for the rights or reputations of others and for the protection of national security, of public order or of public health or morals.[[fn:8]] Third, restrictions must conform to the strict tests of necessity and proportionality.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "B. Article 13: the right of the child to freedom of expression", "Permissible limitations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "During the travaux préparatoires for the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the inclusion of a reference to “the spiritual and moral well-being of the child” as an additional legitimate ground for restriction was rejected on the basis that it would be unfair to impose such a restriction on children alone and that the matter had already been dealt with under article 17, on access to information. See Sharon Detrick, A Commentary on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0024", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Article 12 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child represents a unique provision in international human rights law. This is a right that only children have, not adults, since children do not have a general right expressly set out in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights to express their views in all situations concerning them.4 That children are not always listened to justifies the inclusion in the Convention of a general right to be heard. The aim of article 12 is to address the legal and social status of children, who, on the one hand, lack the full autonomy of adults but, on the other, are subjects of rights (see CRC/C/GC/12, para. 1).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "C. Article 12: the right of children to express their views freely and to have their views given due weight"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "12", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'Article 12 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child represents a unique provision'; CRC art.12 is the child's right to be heard."}, {"article": "12", "treaty": "CRC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second reference: 'the aim of article 12 is to address the legal and social status of children' — continuing discussion of the same CRC art.12 provision throughout the paragraph."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0025", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Paragraph 1 of the article accords to the child who is capable of forming his or her views the right to express those views freely in all matters affecting him or her, and the subsequent right to have those views given due weight in accordance with his or her age and maturity. Paragraph 2 asserts the right of the child to be heard in any judicial or administrative proceedings affecting him or her.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "C. Article 12: the right of children to express their views freely and to have their views given due weight"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0026", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. The right of all children to be heard and taken seriously constitutes one of the fundamental values of the Convention. The Committee on the Rights of the Child has identified article 12 as one of the four general principles of the Convention, which highlights the fact that this article establishes not only a right in itself, but should also be considered in the interpretation and implementation of all other rights (see CRC/C/GC/12, para. 2).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "C. Article 12: the right of children to express their views freely and to have their views given due weight"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "12", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0027", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. In accordance with article 12, States parties are obliged to recognize that right in their legal system, to adopt appropriate mechanisms to facilitate the active involvement of children in all actions and decision-making processes affecting them and to fulfil the obligation to give due weight to those views once expressed. The Committee on the Rights of the Child has noted that, while appearing to listen to children is relatively unchallenging, giving due weight to their views requires real change. According to the Committee, listening to children should not be seen as an end in itself, but rather as a means by which States make their interactions with children and their actions on behalf of children ever more sensitive to the implementation of children’s rights (see CRC/GC/2003/5).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "C. Article 12: the right of children to express their views freely and to have their views given due weight"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "12", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0028", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The right to freedom of expression is often confused with the right to be heard set out in article 12. The Committee on the Rights of the Child considers that, while both articles are strongly linked, they articulate different rights and should not be confused. Article 12 relates to the right of expression of views specifically about matters which affect the child, and the right to be involved in actions and decisions that have an impact on the child’s life. This provision imposes an obligation on States parties to adopt appropriate measures to facilitate the active involvement of children in all decisions and processes affecting them, and to fulfil the obligation to give due weight to those views, while freedom of expression requires no such engagement or response from States parties. The Committee considers, however, that the creation of an enabling environment for children to express their views freely also contributes to building children’s capacities to exercise their right to freedom of expression (see CRC/C/GC/12, para. 81).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "C. Article 12: the right of children to express their views freely and to have their views given due weight"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "12", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CRC", "article": "12", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0029", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. Another interesting aspect of article 12 relevant to freedom of expression is the emphasis on participation. Although the term is not found in the article, the Committee on the Rights of the Child has stated on various occasions that children’s participation in society enables them to be heard, to be informed about public affairs and to play a role in the life of their country (see, for example, CRC/C/SR.379, para. 55). Participation should be encouraged within the family, at school and in society at large; it should concern political, social, economic and cultural life; and it should happen through existing institutions and through the creation of children-specific bodies. The rationale behind encouraging the children’s participatory rights is to facilitate their development, given that children cannot be expected to mature into full members of society if they lack the experience of participating in school and community life (see, for example, CRC/C/SR.277, para. 50).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "C. Article 12: the right of children to express their views freely and to have their views given due weight"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "12", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0030", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Article 17 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child deals with the right of the child to have access to information, and addresses the role of the State in encouraging the mass media to provide such information. The provision aims to ensure that the child has access to information and material from a diversity of national and international sources, in particular those aimed at the promotion of his or her well-being and health. It also recognizes the important function performed by the mass media and lists a number of measures that States parties need to adopt to implement the child’s rights under article 17. These include a positive right to seek and access information, notably through books, magazines, newspapers, television, radio programmes and libraries.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "D. Article 17: the child’s right to have access to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CRC", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0031", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. States parties are required under article 17 (e) to develop appropriate guidelines for the protection of the child from information and material injurious to his or her well-being. Accordingly, although children should be given access to an increasing range of material as they mature, depending on their evolving capacities, they should also be protected from material that is likely to be harmful to their development. The Committee’s jurisprudence has not provided a comprehensive definition of “harmful and injurious material”, except in general references to violent, racist or pornographic material.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "D. Article 17: the child’s right to have access to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0032", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. This right is closely related to the right to seek information set out in article 13 of the Convention, since its exercise aims to enable children to inform themselves and thus be able to participate in social life. The Committee on the Rights of the Child has noted that the fulfilment of this right also constitutes a prerequisite for the effective exercise of the right to be heard (art. 12). The Committee has clarified that children need access to information in formats appropriate to their age and capacities on all issues of concern to them, for example information relating to their rights, any proceedings affecting them, national legislation, regulations and policies, local services, and appeals and complaints procedures.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "D. Article 17: the child’s right to have access to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "12", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0033", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The Committee has also observed that the media play an important role both in promoting awareness of the rights of children to express their views and in providing opportunities for the expression of such views (see CRC/C/GC/12, para. 83). Other duties of the media under this provision include: providing access to different sources of information; portraying the positive contribution of young people to society; disseminating information on the existence of services, facilities and opportunities for children; promoting egalitarian principles and roles; and minimizing the level of pornography, drugs and violence portrayed (see General Assembly resolution 45/112, annex).", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Right of children to freedom of expression", "D. Article 17: the child’s right to have access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0034", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Children face particular hurdles to the realization of their right to freedom of expression as a result of entrenched paternalistic attitudes that often overstate the risks of allowing children to communicate freely and underestimate their agency. In addition, the rights of children are also affected by all the barriers hampering the freedom of expression of adults.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0035", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. The Committee on the Rights of the Child has commented to numerous States that traditional attitudes towards children in all spheres, including the home, school and society in general, continue to delay the acceptance of children’s right to express themselves freely (see, for example, CRC/C/SGP/CO/2-3, para. 33, and CRC/C/ECU/CO/4, para. 40). Obstacles to the freedom of expression of children are particularly prevalent in settings in which the power of adults over children remains unquestioned. Educational settings highlight with particular clarity some of the tensions between the recognition of children as human beings with rights, views and feelings of their own on the one hand, and paternalistic perceptions of them on the other.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0036", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. In paragraph 8 of its general comment No. 1, on the aims of education, the Committee on the Rights of the Child stated:\nChildren do not lose their human rights by virtue of passing through the school gates. Thus, for example, education must be provided in a way that respects the inherent dignity of the child and enables the child to express his or her views freely in accordance with article 12 (1) and to participate in school life.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "12", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0037", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. In many countries, however, children are denied the right to express themselves freely because of the idea that education serves as a tool for adults to mould children into predetermined shapes. This is evident in the prevalence of authoritarian school environments and teaching methods that, for instance, often preclude students from expressing their views on how their school is run (see CRC/C/KOR/CO/3-4, para. 40). In some places, rote learning continues to be the norm rather than participatory methods of teaching that encourage children to develop and express their views (CRC/C/15/Add.148, para. 39).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0038", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Many schools do not permit students to organize and express political or controversial views. The 1969 case Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District is perhaps the first important case on the protection of children’s freedom of expression. In December 1965, three school students (aged 13, 15 and 16) planned to wear black armbands with peace symbols to school in protest at the Vietnam War. When their local school administration heard of the planned protest, they banned armbands in school and suspended the students involved. The students appealed to the courts with support from the American Civil Liberties Union and their appeal was upheld, in 1969, by the Supreme Court of the United States of America.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0039", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Judicial systems often play a significant role in altering engrained authoritarian practices. There are as yet few examples of court decisions affirming children’s right to freedom of expression and access to information. However, there is a growing number of examples within educational settings, especially in the United States. For example, a student at a Florida high school was banned from wearing any symbol of support for gay rights at school because the principal believed that any symbol featuring rainbows would make students picture gay people having sex. In a decision quoting the Tinker case mentioned above, a federal judge ruled in May 2008 that the school had violated the students’ rights.[[fn:9]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "American Civil Liberties Union, “Federal judge rules that students can’t be barred from expressing support for gay people” (13 May 2008)."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0040", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Student-run publications are another important means by which students can express their views. They provide a source of support because they contain reports on topics that are of concern to young people and that adults may not feel comfortable discussing. Students’ writing has, however, been censored for covering issues such as teenage pregnancy and the effects of parental divorce. Increasingly, students’ posts on social media are also under scrutiny and, in some cases, children have been expelled for posting criticism of their school.", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0041", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Children’s access to cultural activities may also be censored without justification. In the 1993 case Dunduzu Chisiza Jr. v. Minister Kate Kainja, a judge in Malawi upheld the complaint of an actor who had challenged a ban on all plays and other performances by independent groups in public schools as violating freedom of expression.[[fn:10]] There are also reports of some schools banning music lessons for religious reasons.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See Article 19, “Kid’s talk: freedom of expression and the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child” (1999)."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0042", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Restrictions on the content of school curricula may also affect children’s access to diverse sources of information. In this regard, the banning of books and teaching materials containing ideas that run counter to those supported by the school administration is another concern. In the 1982 case Board of Education v. Pico, for example, a court in the United States ruled that books could not be removed from school libraries for ideological reasons.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0043", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. In addition to banning information outright, some school curricula present biased accounts of history or prejudiced views of certain groups, such as girls, sexual or ethnic minorities or children with disabilities, which can negatively affect children’s freedom to form their own views and instead perpetuate discrimination — a situation raised by various United Nations treaty bodies in their recommendations to States.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0044", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. This issue has also been addressed by the European Committee of Social Rights, which in 2009 found that the Croatian school curriculum covering sex education discriminated on the basis of sexual orientation. The Committee asserted that some statements in the curriculum stigmatized homosexuals and were based upon negative, distorted, reprehensible and degrading stereotypes.[[fn:11]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "International Centre for the Legal Protection of Human Rights v. Croatia."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0045", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. The effects of limits on children’s right to freedom of expression spill out of the school gates into public life. Children, just as adults, may be subject to excessive violence or arbitrary detention for expressing political views. For example, the Committee on the Rights of the Child recently highlighted such violations to the Syrian Arab Republic in relation to the arrest and incommunicado detention of a group of children between 8 and 15 years of age accused of painting anti-government graffiti on a school wall in the southern town of Dara'a (see CRC/C/SYR/CO/3-4, para. 46). It also expressed its concern to Belarus about the detention of adolescents during demonstrations held in the context of presidential elections in December 2010 (see CRC/C/BLR/CO/3-4, para. 35).", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0046", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Disproportionate legal restrictions interfere with the rights of both adults and children. This includes legislation containing vaguely worded limitation clauses citing, for example, the requirement to interpret freedom of expression in the light of “Islamic principles” or excessively wide interpretations of risks to security, which could exceed the restrictions set out in articles 13, paragraph 2, and 15 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (see CRC/C/15/Add.254, para. 40, and CRC/C/PRK/CO/4, paras. 27-28).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0047", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Undue restrictions on the child’s right to peaceful assembly mirror some of the common obstacles to their freedom of expression. In a recent report, the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association noted:\nThere may be safety concerns when young people participate in some public demonstrations. However, … laws such as that of Malaysia [where children under 15 years of age cannot participate in a public demonstration] are not tailored narrowly enough to specifically address that concern. Rather, a blanket ban on individuals of a certain age eliminates the right to participate in peaceful public assemblies for an entire portion of the population, without exception, contrary to article 15 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. (See A/HRC/26/29, para. 24.)", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Restrictions to children’s right to freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "15", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0048", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. In some domains, there may be legitimate and understandable concerns for children’s safety and well-being in gaining access to some types of information. For example, many countries regulate broadcasting, and television in particular, with a view, among other things, to protecting children. National regulations often include some kind of watershed system, for example, and establish independent bodies to enforce that system. Content generally considered unsuitable for children includes sexually explicit content, violence and offensive language. Regulations can, however, have a significant impact on freedom of the media. Moreover, the definition of what constitutes harmful information is subjective. Accordingly, any regulations aimed at protecting children and the mechanisms adopted to enforce them should be reviewed regularly, in an open and transparent way, in order to prevent the imposition of disproportionate or arbitrary restrictions that curtail the rights of both adults and children. Furthermore, it is crucial to ensure the independence of the bodies tasked with enforcing these regulations — rules regarding membership, for example, should be defined so as to protect them against any interference, in particular by political forces or economic interests.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Child protection used as a justification for disproportionate restrictions on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0049", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The result of vague and broad definitions of harmful information, for example in determining how to set Internet filters, can prevent children from gaining access to information that can support them to make informed choices, including honest, objective and age-appropriate information about issues such as sex education and drug use. This may exacerbate rather than diminish children’s vulnerability to risks (see more in section VII below, on the Internet).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Child protection used as a justification for disproportionate restrictions on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0050", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. The imposition of prior censorship to protect children from harmful material provides an example of disproportionate restrictions that run counter to international human rights standards. For instance, in the case The Last Temptation of Christ (Olmedo Bustos et al) v. Chile, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights ruled that the Government of Chile had violated article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights, on freedom of thought and expression, in banning Martin Scorsese’s film The Last Temptation of Christ in order to protect the morals of children. The Court reasoned that children could easily be protected by adopting less restrictive measures than prior censorship, such as controlling their entrance to cinemas.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Child protection used as a justification for disproportionate restrictions on freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "13", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights, on freedom of thought and expression'. Regional instrument outside the allowed list."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0051", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. In a more recent case on prior censorship (Print Media South Africa and Another v. Minister of Home Affairs and Another), the High Court of South Africa declared that an amendment to the South African Films and Publications Act (No. 65 of 1996) infringed the constitutional right to freedom of expression. The amendment required publishers, with some exceptions, to submit publications for prior approval to prevent the exposure of children to age-inappropriate material and to ban child pornography. The decision indicated concerns about a system of prior restraint and the vague and overly broad criteria for classifying publications.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Child protection used as a justification for disproportionate restrictions on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0052", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Child protection arguments are part of a new pattern in which children are increasingly used to justify restrictions not only on their access to information, but also on the rights of adults. In many cases, the restrictions are rooted in a genuine, well-meaning desire to protect children from harmful information, while in others they have been used to defend discrimination and censorship.", "labels": ["Children", "Children in alternative care"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Child protection used as a justification for disproportionate restrictions on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0053", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Most disturbingly, child protection arguments are being used to block access to information on, for example, lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender issues and thereby legitimize discrimination against sexual minorities. In the Russian Federation, amendments to the administrative code and law protecting children from harmful information entered into force in July 2013, outlawing “propaganda of non-traditional sexual relations” among children.[[fn:12]] The Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association publicly expressed concern about that law in a joint statement with other mandate holders. The child protection rationale for the Russian anti-homosexuality law has also been rejected by the European Court of Human Rights in its 2011 case Alekseyev v. Russia. Despite the criticism, other countries have followed suit. In Ukraine, in 2013, it was recommended that a draft law prohibiting “propaganda of homosexual relations” aimed at children be considered by the parliament.[[fn:13]] In the draft law “propaganda” is defined as any public action aimed at spreading information about same-sex relations. In June 2014, the human rights committee of the parliament of Kyrgyzstan approved a bill criminalizing the dissemination of information “aimed at forming positive attitudes towards non-traditional sexual relations”.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Children in alternative care"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Child protection used as a justification for disproportionate restrictions on freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "See Russian Federation Federal Law No. 135-FЗ (29 July 2013)."}, {"n": 13, "text": "See draft law No. 1155 on the prohibition of propaganda of homosexual relations aimed at children (June 2011)."}, {"n": 14, "text": "See draft law on the protection of children from information harmful to their health or development (2014)."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0054", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Besides protecting the right of children to freedom of expression, States are also obliged to promote children’s freedom of expression. It is not sufficient to encourage children’s participation in activities organized by adults such as music, art and drama to guarantee their freedom of expression. Children should have satisfactory opportunities and space to articulate their views orally or by other means, without fear of punishment, and have access to information from diverse sources and across borders — and this applies to all children without discrimination. This positive obligation should also be kept in mind during times of economic crisis, when funds for public libraries, activities such as music lessons and facilities such as playing fields are often among the first to get cut. Some examples of how children’s freedom of expression can be actively promoted are listed below.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0055", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Increasingly, structures are available to children to participate in politics — from youth mayorships to children’s parliaments. In Iceland, following the financial crisis, it was agreed that civilians would rewrite the Constitution in 2008. As part of this, the Young People’s Constitution Project was established to ensure that the opinions of children and young people were also taken into account in the constitutional amendment process. In the Dominican Republic, municipal councils dealing with issues such as the provision of safe drinking water in schools are formed and elected by young people.", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "A. Encouraging children’s freedom to organize and participate in politics"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0056", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. The engagement of a new generation of children in politics is beneficial for renewing political culture and increasing participation in elections. Some countries have lowered the minimum voting age to 16 years — a positive start that serves to officially legitimize children’s views and encourage their participation in politics. Children of all ages should have the opportunity to be involved, if so they choose, in political processes and consultations on public policy in some way.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "A. Encouraging children’s freedom to organize and participate in politics"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0057", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Campaigns initiated by children have generated important debates and brought benefits to society as a whole. Student unions often play a central role in articulating child-led advocacy initiatives: in 2011, for example, thousands of secondary school and university students in Chile protested against the exorbitant costs of education. The political impact of their mobilization continues to be felt in the ongoing debates on the Chilean education system. Similar student protests against the costs of education have occurred in multiple countries.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "B. Encouraging child-led advocacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0058", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. In the Republic of Korea, high school students have promoted a major social mobilization against authoritarian practices within the education system. As a result of the public debate generated by the students, in January 2012, the Seoul Metropolitan Council adopted a students’ rights ordinance ensuring, inter alia, the right of students to protest, a ban on corporal punishment, the elimination of mandatory participation in religious activities and the protection of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender students and pregnant students against discrimination. Action for Youth Rights of Korea, an association established by Korean students in the context of this mobilization, continues to promote student activism.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "B. Encouraging child-led advocacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0059", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. A 13-year-old from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland took a stand against his school’s discriminatory dress code, which allows girls to wear skirts in the summer months but does not allow boys to wear shorts. Chris Whitehead took advantage of a loophole in the school’s uniform policy, whereby boys are not forbidden from wearing a skirt. Around 30 fellow pupils joined the protest, prompting the school to review its uniform policy. Meanwhile, Chris Whitehead was nominated for a Liberty Human Rights Award.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "B. Encouraging child-led advocacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "Lucy Sherrif, “Chris Whitehead, schoolboy who wore skirt to school, up for human rights award”, Huffington Post (21 November 2011)."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0060", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. In India, members of the Adolescent Girls’ Clubs against Child Marriage network help to persuade families not to marry their daughters off at a young age by educating people about the harmful consequences of early marriage. They offer a lifeline not only to girls who want to resist family pressure, but also to parents afraid that going against gender-based expectations will leave their daughters ostracized.[[fn:16]]", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "B. Encouraging child-led advocacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Melanie Kramers, “Indian girls persuade parents they are too young for marriage”, Guardian, 29 June 2011."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0061", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. For children to be able to form their own views and become informed and responsible citizens, they also need to have access to information from a range of sources. This access is limited for many children, in particular for those living in isolated communities and those deprived of their liberty. The Committee on the Rights of the Child has also raised the issue of accessibility of information for minority groups, which may not be sufficiently relevant to their needs or in their own language, and for children with disabilities.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "C. Ensuring access to information from a range of sources"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0062", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. In recommendations arising from its day of general discussion on “The child and the media”, the Committee affirmed the importance of budgetary support from the State to ensure the production and dissemination of books, magazines, music, theatre and other forms of expression for children, and of assistance through international cooperation (CRC/C/15/Add.65, para. 256). Investments in community and public broadcasting often play a central role in the promotion of access to information from a diversity of sources and in the inclusion of children’s voices in the media. In Argentina, for example, the Law on Communication and Audiovisual Services establishes the obligation for public broadcasting entities to dedicate programming time to children and other sectors of the population not contemplated by commercial broadcasting. The public entity tasked with overseeing the implementation of the law promotes public hearings, including with children, to discuss communication and audiovisual services. It has also recently supported the promotion of radio activities led by students within their own schools. Moreover, the Ministry of Education of Argentina has supported the establishment of a channel aimed at promoting child-sensitive educational programming, including through the active participation of children in the production of the content.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "C. Ensuring access to information from a range of sources"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0063", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. In addition to providing budgetary support, States can encourage media organizations to self-regulate the way in which they cover and involve children. The International Federation of Journalists has devised a set of draft guidelines and principles for reporting on issues involving children that have been adopted by journalism organizations in 70 countries. They include provisions on avoiding the use of stereotypes and the sensational presentation of stories involving children.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "D. Promoting media self-regulation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0064", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Children also have participatory rights in the media, and some publications are run entirely by children. In its recommendations arising from the above-mentioned day of general discussion, the Committee on the Rights of the Child promoted children’s participatory rights in the media, asserting that students should be enabled to relate to and use the media in a participatory manner, as well as to learn how to decode media messages, including advertising (CRC/C/15/Add.65, para. 256).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Promoting children’s freedom of expression", "D. Promoting media self-regulation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0065", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. The Internet has dramatically improved the ability of children and adults in all regions of the world to communicate quickly and cheaply. It is therefore an important vehicle for children to exercise their right to freedom of expression and can serve as a tool to help children claim their other rights, including the right to education, freedom of association and full participation in social, cultural and political life. It is also essential for the evolution of an open and democratic society, which requires the engagement of all citizens, including children. The potential risks associated with children accessing the Internet, however, also feature prominently in debates about its regulation, with protection policies tending to focus exclusively on the risks posed by the Internet and neglecting its potential to empower children. More worryingly, some States resort to disproportionate and ineffective measures, whether out of a genuine desire to protect children or as a front for censorship, such as broad and insensitive filtering and blocking systems that undermine online communication for all.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0066", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The spread of the Internet has allowed millions of people to learn, publish and communicate on an unprecedented scale. The Internet can provide great educational benefits through its potential for interactive use in schools and the wide array of information it makes available. Plan Ceibal in Uruguay, for example, is a remarkable example of promoting Internet access through the education system. More specifically, as suggested by the Committee on the Rights of the Child, the Internet plays an important role in education owing to its ability to provide education for children who cannot travel to schools, through mobile school programmes that rely on the Internet (see CRC/C/GC/11, para. 61).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0067", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Furthermore, the Internet provides unique avenues for young people to participate in public debates. For example, in the United States a 17-year-old boy reportedly organized a Twitter campaign to protest against a bill that would have banned teachers from discussing homosexuality in schools.[[fn:17]]", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Shira Lazar, “Is it okay to say gay? Devon Hicks protests Tennessee bill”, Huffington Post, 25 May 2011."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0068", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Social networking sites are also increasingly important to children as a means of fostering relationships and facilitating information exchange and interaction.[[fn:18]] Children report that social networking encourages creativity, enables choices and opinions to be informed by peer preferences, facilitates discussion and provides a platform for self-expression that is unavailable offline.[[fn:19]] These sites may serve an especially important role for members of minority groups, such as the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender community, who might otherwise feel isolated.18", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, Child Safety Online: Global Challenges and Strategies (May 2012)."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre, Understanding Online Social Network Services and Risks to Youth: Stakeholder Perspectives (2006)."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0069", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Nevertheless, Internet use does pose some risks to children. Widely acknowledged risks associated with Internet use include exposure to pornographic material, cybergrooming and cyberbullying.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0070", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. In the case of sexual exploitation, for example, advances in technology, including faster Internet connections and new ways of transmitting material that circumvent Internet service providers, have facilitated the sharing of images involving child abuse. Cybergrooming also involves the use of the Internet, this time to “befriend” and facilitate online sexual contact or a physical meeting with a child or young person for the purpose of committing sexual abuse.18 Offenders often use online forums such as chat rooms, social networking sites and instant messaging for this purpose; these “deconstruct traditional boundaries of privacy” and result in children being exposed to risks.18 Lastly, cyberbullying is understood as the psychological bullying and hazing by adults or other children through information and communications technologies. Cyberbullying can take various forms, including threats and intimidation, harassment, cyberstalking, vilification and defamation, exclusion or peer rejection, impersonation, unauthorized publication of private information or images, and manipulation. This is particularly problematic for groups that are already considered vulnerable in society.18", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0071", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. The popular fear that the Internet is dangerous to all children is misleading and oversimplifies the reality that the Internet can be both harmful and beneficial in certain circumstances. Understanding children’s vulnerability to online risks from a wider social and cultural perspective can give greater insight into the nature of these concerns and how they should be framed. Children’s use of the Internet, their behaviour and vulnerabilities to risks are different at different ages and depend on the individual child. Protection measures must seek to recognize the evolving capacities of children rather than use absolute blocking or censorship measures that adversely affect children and adults alike.18", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet", "A. Concerns regarding the adoption of disproportionate restrictions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0072", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. The Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association has previously noted with concern the increase in restrictions on the Internet, for instance by blocking and monitoring online activities in order to target and silence activists and critics and criminalize legitimate expression — in some cases, Governments have adopted restrictive legislation to justify such measures (see A/HRC/17/27, para. 23). These restrictions are often imposed without transparency, which makes the reporting of censorship issues difficult. Furthermore, even where some level of restriction may be justified, blanket bans on material beyond unlawful content are disproportionate to the goal of protection (ibid., para. 44). Indeed, such measures also have unintended consequences that range from excessively limiting adults’ right to freedom of expression to putting children in greater danger by inhibiting discussion about online risks.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet", "A. Concerns regarding the adoption of disproportionate restrictions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0073", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. The Special Rapporteur has pointed out that blanket bans by State actors are not necessary when parents and school authorities can use software to control children’s access to the Internet and can guide children regarding online safety (see A/HRC/17/27, para. 27). In fact, such broad bans determined by State actors are inconsistent with article 18 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child because they prevent parents and caregivers from exercising their judgement to determine children’s access to the Internet. In addition, there are some projects under way to assist content providers with self-regulation strategies.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet", "A. Concerns regarding the adoption of disproportionate restrictions"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "18", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0074", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. The limited understanding of children’s use of the Internet frequently leads to the adoption of more restrictive approaches aimed at safeguarding children.[[fn:20]] In fact, the vast majority of children and young people do not believe that their online behaviour leads to victimization or harm. Children already use a range of strategies to protect themselves from the Internet, including consulting online or offline friends, blocking or ignoring unwanted content and changing privacy settings.18 Research reveals that, when parents and teachers are less familiar with the Internet, children engage in more risky online behaviour.20 Conversely, evidence also suggests that informed and actively engaged parents who discuss the Internet and their experience with their children are the strongest protective measures for ensuring a safer online experience.18 Perhaps this suggests that measures taken by parents and caregivers are more effective at protecting children than the current trend towards extensive restrictions.", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet", "A. Concerns regarding the adoption of disproportionate restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "Sonia Livingstone and Monica E. Bulger, “A global agenda for children’s rights in the digital age: recommendations for developing UNICEF’s research strategy” (September 2013)."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0075", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. There is a need to create an environment in which information and communications technologies, including the Internet, are regulated and monitored from the perspective of empowering children to use these technologies in a way that promotes children’s rights and development while also promoting safety (see CRC/C/GC/13). The European Commission provides a useful example of strategies to improve the online safety of children in its European Strategy for a Better Internet for Children.[[fn:21]] Empowerment is more than just making the Internet a safer space for children, however: it is also necessary to focus attention on how the Internet is a tool for accessing information and supporting children to think critically.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet", "B. Empowering children to use the Internet"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "See also Brian O’Neill, “Policy influences and country clusters: a comparative analysis of Internet safety policy implementation” (London School of Economics, 2014)."}]}, {"id": "a-69-335-0076", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. Empowering children must include training parents and professionals who work with children to support them in using the Internet, keeping in mind their evolving capacities.18 A positive way to introduce online safety and information beneficial to the development of children is through school curricula, including by involving children in the development of school policies on information and communications technologies. Non-governmental organizations and public communications such as radio messages can provide similar support to children who are not in school.16 Some examples of child safety initiatives are SaferNet Brasil, the Slovak Safer Internet Centre and Manos por la Niñez y Adolescencia (Hands for Children and Adolescents) in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet", "B. Empowering children to use the Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0077", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. It is important to engage children when creating Internet protection and promotion strategies to meet their needs and to use their diverse intellectual and creative strengths, especially given that children and young persons tend to be more in touch with the latest technologies. Such a strategy of engagement can also help to build trust and encourage open communication. The Committee on the Rights of the Child has recommended that all countries establish accessible and child-friendly reporting systems, with child-friendly helplines for protection (see CRC/C/GC/12, para. 120).", "labels": ["Children", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet", "B. Empowering children to use the Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0078", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. More research is needed to clarify the role of the Internet in the exercise of the rights of the child, in particular with regard to how children use the Internet, how they can learn to do so safely and how the Internet can be viewed as a positive rather than a destructive tool by parents, caregivers and States. It is also important that current restrictions on Internet use be looked at carefully and critically in order to uncover potentially negative consequences for children and adults, encourage practical solutions to Internet safety concerns and maximize opportunities for children on the Internet.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Children’s access to the Internet", "C. Expanding research"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0079", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. Children’s right to freedom of expression is well established by international human rights treaties, including the Convention on the Rights of the Child, which represents a milestone for the protection of all children’s rights. In practice, recognizing children as full subjects of rights — the vision set out in the Convention — requires a shift in laws, policies and attitudes. Respecting, protecting and promoting the right of children to freedom of expression is at the heart of this shift.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0080", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights establish the right to freedom of opinion and expression in their articles 19, but do not state that this right is enjoyed exclusively by adults. In fact, in the preamble to the Covenant it is established that, in accordance with the principles proclaimed in the Charter of the United Nations, recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world. Also in the preamble, it is recognized that these rights derive from the dignity inherent to all persons.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "medium", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'their articles 19' referring jointly to UDHR and ICCPR. Sonnet resolved as ICCPR (medium) since regex_default=ICCPR and context (SR Freedom of Expression, ICCPR-based mandate, references to 'the Covenant' in surrounding text) supports ICCPR. Conservative keep."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0081", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. Despite the almost universal ratification of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, too little has been done to give effect to the right of children to freedom of expression and many obstacles to the realization of this right for children remain. Unchallenged authoritarian attitudes frequently shape the relationship between adults and children in schools and within families. More worryingly, as communications technologies evolve, some States have adopted disproportionate restrictions on freedom of expression, presenting them as measures to protect children from harm while, in effect, they limit the rights of children and adults.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0082", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. It is clear that States have a fundamental obligation to protect children and that it is the duty of adults to provide children with guidance. Child protection and freedom of expression must not, however, be addressed as opposing goals. On the contrary, it is by supporting children to develop good communication skills and to learn the positive uses of new technologies that we can enhance their capacity to protect themselves from harm.", "labels": ["Children", "Children in alternative care"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0083", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Children may not have the same maturity as adults, but childhood is an evolving process during which maturity is gained gradually. The ability to develop opinions, as well as to express them clearly, stems from a learning process that begins at the earliest stages of our lives and that needs appropriate respect and encouragement to develop completely. If neglecting the duty to protect children from harm brings serious risks, so too does denying them space to develop their minds, critical thinking and opinions. Depriving children of information on certain matters and prohibiting their participation in public debate can only intensify their isolation and political alienation. Ensuring that children are able to exercise their right to be heard is not only an obligation: it is crucial to enhancing the effectiveness of protective measures.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0084", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. States must never forget to keep the goal of the best interest of the child at the forefront of all their public policies. This includes establishing regulatory norms to protect children from harm and, at the same time, ensuring that all norms comply with the international standards related to the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0085", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. The Special Rapporteur recommends that States take the actions set out below.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0086", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. States should revise national laws, regulations and policies that limit the right of children to express themselves, as well as to access information, to align them with international human rights standards. Any law limiting the freedom of expression of adults or children must also comply with the three established criteria for restricting this right, namely, prescription by an unambiguous law, pursuit of a legitimate purpose and respect for the principles of necessity and proportionality.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "Revise laws, regulations and policies in order to eliminate undue restrictions on freedom of expression of children"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0087", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. States should carefully revise laws and regulations concerning the protection of children in broadcasting activities, the Internet and any other media. Classification systems are acceptable for the protection of children in broadcasting activities, for example, but the prior suppression of any particular expression before it is made public is unacceptable. The independence of authorities mandated to enforce regulations on communications should be protected from political and economic interference.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "Revise laws, regulations and policies in order to eliminate undue restrictions on freedom of expression of children"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0088", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. States should pay particular attention to the removal of authoritarian norms and practices within education systems given the centrality of schools in the promotion of children’s agency.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "Revise laws, regulations and policies in order to eliminate undue restrictions on freedom of expression of children"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0089", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. States should actively promote the right of children to freedom of expression, including access to information, in all settings. Traditional authoritarian attitudes towards children in all spheres, including the home, school and society in general, can be challenged. In particular, the State should pay attention to the creation of channels for child-led activism.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "Promote the right of children to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0090", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. States should encourage the use of diverse forms of communication by children in schools, including oral, written and all forms of art. Schools curricula should impart knowledge on social communications, media and journalism.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "Promote the right of children to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0091", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. States should promote programming with educational and recreational content for children of different ages and with content produced by children.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "Promote the right of children to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0092", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. States should take proactive measures to promote children’s access to the Internet in all settings. The Internet’s central role in the promotion of all the rights of children, in particular the right to freedom of expression, to participation in public life and to education, should be taken into consideration within education systems. Efforts should be made to reframe the Internet as a positive resource — with benefits for both the individual child and society as a whole — as opposed to a negative or otherwise dangerous medium. For example, the Internet is an excellent tool for accessing books for children from all social origins.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "Promote access to the Internet and online safety"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0093", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. States should address the risks posed by the Internet to the safety of children through holistic strategies that include the enhancement of users’ capacities to protect themselves from online harm. Strategies should include training parents and professionals who work with children. Children should be actively engaged in the design and implementation of initiatives aimed at fostering online safety. Further research on the impact of the Internet on children’s lives is also required.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "Promote access to the Internet and online safety"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-69-335-0094", "docId": "a-69-335", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. Regular attention to violations of the right of children to freedom of expression should be paid by all international human rights protection mechanisms. In particular, the Committee on the Rights of the Child could pursue articles 13 and 17 systematically in its recommendations to States.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "Increase global attention to the right of children to freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "13", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0001", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report is submitted by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 16/4. It is focused on the right to access information and its relationship with the right to truth.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0002", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Global and regional human rights standards secure not only the right freely to impart information but also the right freely to seek and receive it as part of freedom of expression. The right to access information is one of the central components of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, as established by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (art. 19), the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (art. 19 (2)) and regional human rights treaties.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text lists 'Universal Declaration of Human Rights (art. 19)' first (paragraph null) — corresponds to the UDHR citation, non-treaty."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (art. 19 (2))' — explicit ICCPR art.19(2)."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0003", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. Obstacles to access to information can undermine the enjoyment of both civil and political rights, in addition to economic, social and cultural rights. Core requirements for democratic governance, such as transparency, the accountability of public authorities or the promotion of participatory decision-making processes, are practically unattainable without adequate access to information. Combating and responding to corruption, for example, require the adoption of procedures and regulations that allow members of the public to obtain information on the organization, functioning and decision-making processes of its public administration.[[fn:1]] In this sense, global commitments to promote development also reflect the centrality of access to information; for example, in its recent report (A/67/890, annex), the High-level Panel of Eminent Persons on the Post-2015 Development Agenda calls for a transparency revolution.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See, for example, article 10 of the United Nations Convention against Corruption (General Assembly resolution 58/4, annex)."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0004", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. National legal frameworks increasingly reflect this understanding and protect this right by establishing the right to government-held information, as well as procedures for the public to request and receive it. Over the past two decades, new instruments protecting the right to information have been adopted in more than 50 countries. This trend has often been a consequence of recent democratic transitions and certainly responds to the much more active participation of civil society organizations in public life around the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0005", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. In the present report, particular attention is paid to the relationship between the right to access information and the right to truth. Elucidating past and present human rights violations often requires the disclosure of information held by a multitude of State entities. Ultimately, ensuring access to information is a first step in the promotion of justice and reparation, in particular in the aftermath of periods of authoritarianism. In the sections below, the Special Rapporteur describes how the rights to truth and to access information have been established through international human rights law and jurisprudence. Based on this same framework, he also addresses permissible limitations to the right to access information, including limitations aimed at the protection of national security.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0006", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. In addition, in view of recent experience with national legislation on the right to information, the Special Rapporteur recalls basic principles developed to guide the design and implementation of national laws on the right to information and examines some common obstacles to the public’s access to information. He concludes by providing recommendations for the better translation of international human rights standards into the emerging norms and practices that promote access to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "10", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0007", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. During the reporting period, the Special Rapporteur continued to participate in national and international events relating to the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In June 2013, he presented his annual report to the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/23/40 and Corr.1), in which he addressed the impact of mass surveillance of communications on the rights to privacy and freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0008", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Montenegro from 11 to 17 June and a mission to the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia from 18 to 21 June. His preliminary findings on both visits are available in the end-of-mission press statements; a full report will be submitted to the Human Rights Council in 2014. The Special Rapporteur was invited by the Government of Indonesia to visit that country in January 2013 but, only a few days before its agreed start, the authorities requested that the visit should be postponed. The Special Rapporteur regrets that, at the time of preparation of the present report, he has not received a response to his request for new dates. In 2011, the Government of Pakistan also extended an invitation to visit the country but dates for the visit have still not been agreed upon. The Government of Italy has invited the Special Rapporteur to visit the country in the first half of November 2013.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0009", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. At the time of submission of the present report, the following States had not yet responded to requests for visits by the Special Rapporteur: Iran (Islamic Republic of) (visit requested in February 2010); Sri Lanka (visit requested in June 2009); Thailand (visit requested in 2012); Uganda (visit requested in May 2011); and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) (visit requested in 2003 and in 2009).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0010", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. In May, the Special Rapporteur participated in the World Press Freedom Day International Conference 2013, held in San José, and used the occasion to hold working meetings on mechanisms for the protection of journalists in Brazil, Colombia, Honduras and Mexico. Also in May, he visited Uruguay to participate in discussions on the new legislation on audiovisual services. In July, the Special Rapporteur participated in a public forum organized by the New America Foundation in Washington, D.C., at which the impact of State surveillance of communications was discussed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0011", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. For the purpose of the present report, the Special Rapporteur reviewed relevant studies and consulted experts on the right to access information and the right to truth. The Special Rapporteur organized two expert consultations focusing on the interrelationships between the right to access information and the right to truth. The first was held in Washington, D.C., in May and the second in Mexico City in July. In May, the Special Rapporteur participated in an expert meeting on the right to information and national security, convened in Pretoria by the Open Society Justice Initiative; the meeting resulted in the presentation of the Global Principles on National Security and the Right to Information.[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Available from www.opensocietyfoundations.org/publications/global-principles-national-security-and-freedom-information-tshwane-principles."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0012", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Historically, in particular in countries that have experienced situations of serious and systematic human rights violations, lack of access to information and, often, the circulation of misinformation, have been central issues for subsequent governments and society as a whole when seeking to address the past and constitute an important challenge in the transitional justice process. Over the years, especially following the transition to democracy experienced by countries in Latin America and Eastern Europe in the 1980s and 1990s, the right to the truth has been recognized in a number of forums and documents as a distinct right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "A. Right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0013", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. In 2011, in establishing a specific mandate to monitor the promotion of truth, justice, reparation and guarantees of non-recurrence, the Human Rights Council emphasized the importance of a comprehensive approach incorporating the full range of judicial and non-judicial measures in order to, among other things, ensure accountability, serve justice, provide remedies to victims, and promote healing and reconciliation (Human Rights Council resolution 18/7).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "A. Right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0014", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. At the national level, the right to truth can be characterized as the right to know, to be informed or to freedom of information. In resolution 12/12, its most recent on the right to truth, the Human Rights Council emphasized that the public and individuals were entitled to have access, to the fullest extent practicable, to information regarding the actions and decision-making processes of their Government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "A. Right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0015", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. International human rights bodies and mechanisms have recognized and developed the right to truth as a distinct right. Principle 4 of the updated set of principles for the protection and promotion of human rights through action to combat impunity (E/CN.4/2005/102/Add.1) notes the existence of the right to know the truth, irrespective of any legal proceedings. Both the Inter-American Court of Human Rights and the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights have noted the importance of this right, separately from judicial proceedings. The Inter-American Commission has stated that the right to know the truth is a collective right which ensures society access to information that is essential for the workings of democratic systems, and is also a private right for relatives of the victims, which affords a form of compensation, in particular, in cases in which amnesty laws are adopted.[[fn:3]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "A. Right to truth"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Lucio Parada Cea and others v. El Salvador, Report No. 1/99, Case 10.480, 27 January 1999, para. 151."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0016", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The European Court of Human Rights has also recognized the importance of the right of victims and families to know the truth, in particular with regard to circumstances or events relating to serious violations of fundamental rights, such as the right to life.[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "A. Right to truth"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Association “21 December 1989” and others v. Romania, Applications Nos. 33810/07 and 18817/08, Judgement of 24 May 2011, para. 135, and Janowiec and others v. Russia, Applications Nos. 55508/07 and 29520/09, Judgement of 16 April 2012, paras. 150-167."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0017", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Although the jurisprudence of the right to truth generally relates to situations in which there has been a failure to ensure justice and reparations, the right to truth is closely associated with the right to access information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "A. Right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0018", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The right to seek and receive information is an essential element of the right to freedom of expression. It is, as noted in a previous report of the Special Rapporteur, a right in and of itself and one of the rights upon which free and democratic societies depend (E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 42). Accordingly, the Special Rapporteur has, since the establishment of the mandate, carried out a number of studies regarding certain aspects of its implementation (see, for example, E/CN.4/1999/64, E/CN.4/2000/63, E/CN.4/2003/67, E/CN.4/2005/64 and Corr.1, A/HRC/11/4 and A/HRC/17/27). In more recent reports, the Special Rapporteur has focused on rights and limitations regarding access to the Internet, which are in numerous respects closely linked to the right to seek and receive information (A/HRC/17/27, sects. II to VI, and A/66/290, sects. III to V).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "B. Right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0019", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. The right to access information has many aspects. It encompasses both the general right of the public to have access to information of public interest from a variety of sources and the right of the media to access information, in addition to the right of individuals to request and receive information of public interest and information concerning themselves that may affect their individual rights. As noted previously, the right to freedom of opinion and expression is an enabler of other rights (A/HRC/17/27, para. 22) and access to information is often essential for individuals seeking to give effect to other rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "B. Right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0020", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Furthermore, public authorities act as representatives of the public, fulfilling a public good; therefore, in principle, their decisions and actions should be transparent. A culture of secrecy is acceptable only in very exceptional cases, when confidentiality may be essential for the effectiveness of their work. There is consequently a strong public interest in the disclosure of some types of information. Moreover, access to certain types of information can affect the enjoyment by individuals of other rights. In such cases, information can be withheld only in very exceptional circumstances, if at all.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "B. Right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0021", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. A particular dimension of the right to seek and receive information concerns access to information on human rights violations. Such access often determines the level of enjoyment of other rights, is a right in itself and, as such, has been addressed by a number of human rights instruments and documents. It has also been the object of decisions and reports from various human rights mechanisms and bodies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "B. Right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0022", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Notably, article 6 of the Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (known also as the Declaration on Human Rights Defenders), adopted by the General Assembly in resolution 53/144, expressly provides for access to information on human rights, stating that everyone has the right, individually and in association with others, (a) to know, seek, obtain, receive and hold information about all human rights and fundamental freedoms, including having access to information as to how these rights and freedoms are given effect in domestic legislative, judicial or administrative systems; and (b) as provided for in human rights and other applicable international instruments, freely to publish, impart or disseminate to others views, information and knowledge on all human rights and fundamental freedoms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "B. Right to access information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "6", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0023", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Those seeking to gain access to information on human rights violations have, however, frequently been confronted with a number of obstacles, especially with regard to past grave and/or systematic violations. Reluctance by the authorities to carry out their duty to investigate the facts adequately often prevents persons accessing information. On various occasions, public authorities have also refused to disclose information, allegedly in order to protect national security concerns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "B. Right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0024", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. The right to truth and the right to access information are clearly interrelated. The right to seek and receive information on human rights violations is not limited to past grave and/or systematic violations; countries that have experienced such situations have, however, faced particular challenges in that regard and, in a number of cases, developed processes and norms to address them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "C. Access to information on human rights violations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0025", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The gravity and the scale of the practice of disappearances by the regimes that were in power in Latin America from the 1960s, and the subsequent struggle of family members and society in general to establish the fate of the victims and to ensure investigation into the facts and punishment of the perpetrators, was initially at the centre of the development of the right to truth. During those regimes, the justice systems of the countries in which such acts occurred were completely ineffective in carrying out investigations into the facts. Moreover, many of the countries concerned adopted amnesty laws that not only ensured impunity for the perpetrators but, in effect, also impeded investigations by the justice systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "C. Access to information on human rights violations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0026", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. In an attempt to address this issue, in particular since the 1980s, numerous countries have created inquiry commissions, more commonly known as truth commissions, to, in most cases, carry out investigations, make public their findings and provide recommendations regarding reparations and reconciliation. These commissions have largely reported on both the general circumstances leading to and surrounding human rights violations and individual cases. Such commissions were first established in Latin America following the collapse of military regimes and/or the end of armed conflicts that had given rise to large-scale, serious and systematic human rights violations, such as extrajudicial executions, disappearances and even genocide.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "C. Access to information on human rights violations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0027", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Moreover, the existing human rights protection systems, at both the international and regional levels, have on a number of occasions also been confronted with the question of access to information in the context of human rights violations and have, over the years, outlined the obligations of States concerning several aspects of that right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "C. Access to information on human rights violations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0028", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The Special Rapporteur recalls that, as stated by the Human Rights Committee in its general comment No. 34 (2011), to give effect to the right to freedom of expression, States parties should proactively put in the public domain government information of public interest, and that, in ensuring access to such information, States parties should also enact the necessary procedures, such as by means of freedom of information legislation (CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 19).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0029", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. In addition, in the context of serious human rights violations, there is a particular obligation which requires States to inform not only the victims and their families but also society as a whole of what has happened.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0030", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. In this context, the pursuit of judicial investigations into human rights violations is a core responsibility of the State and a major starting point for the realization of the right to truth. The judicial investigation of individual cases is not sufficient in itself, however; the right to truth implies not only the clarification of the immediate circumstances of particular violations, but also the clarification of the general context, the policies and the institutional failures and decisions that enabled their occurrence. Beyond this, the realization of the right to truth may require the dissemination of information on violations in order to restore confidence in State institutions and ensure non-repetition.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0031", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Global and regional bodies for the protection of human rights have addressed the right to truth both from an individual perspective (the rights of victims and their families to know the truth about violations affecting their lives) and from a collective perspective (the right of society as a whole to know and the obligation of States to inform society of past violations).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0032", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. The Inter-American Court has repeatedly recognized this right.[[fn:5]] In addition, the Basic Principles on Reparations and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law include, as a measure of satisfaction, verification of the facts and full and public disclosure of the truth to the extent that such disclosure does not cause further harm to the victims, as well as inclusion of an accurate account of the violations that occurred in international human rights law and international humanitarian law training and in educational material at all levels (General Assembly resolution 60/147, annex, paras. 22 (b) and (h)).", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See, for example, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Bámaca Velásquez v. Guatemala, Judgement of 22 February 2002, Series C, No. 9, paras. 76 and 77; Carpio-Nicolle and others v. Guatemala, Judgement of 22 November 2004, Series C, No. 117, para. 128; Gomes Lund and others (“Guerrilha do Araguaia”) v. Brazil, Judgement of 24 November 2010, Series C, No. 219, para. 200; Massacres of El Mozote and nearby places v. El Salvador, Judgement of 25 October 2012, Series C, No. 252, para. 320; and García and family v. Guatemala, Judgement of 29 November 2012, Series C, No. 258, para. 176."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0033", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The set of principles for the protection and promotion of human rights through action to combat impunity, as updated in 2005 by the independent expert appointed for that purpose (A/CN.4/2005/102/Add.1), also spells out the obligations of States to inform society of what has happened and recognizes the inalienable right of every people to know the truth (principle 2), emphasizing also the preservation and facilitation of access to archives (principles 14 and 15).", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0034", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The set of principles provides also that a people’s knowledge of the history of its oppression is part of its heritage and, as such, must be ensured by appropriate measures in fulfilment of the State’s duty to preserve archives and other evidence concerning violations of human rights and humanitarian law and to facilitate knowledge of those violations, and that such measures shall be aimed at preserving the collective memory from extinction.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0035", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. These principles outline guarantees to give effect to the right to truth, including judicial and non-judicial processes and detailed general principles for the setting up and functioning of truth commissions (principles 6 to 13).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0036", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. As mentioned above, the right to truth affects and has many implications for other rights; for example, (a) it is in itself part of the reparation for the victims and their families, and it honours the memory of the victims; (b) it is the first step in eliminating impunity and striving towards the right to justice and reparation; (c) it is part of the guarantee of non-repetition; (d) it is essential for the individual and his or her social and mental health recovery; (e) it is part of the reconstruction of the social network of relationships, peaceful coexistence and reconciliation; and (f) it is part of the historical heritage of a nation and is, therefore, open to academic research and investigative journalism. Only people who have the right to fully acknowledge their past can be truly free to define their future.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0037", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. As observed above, the State has an obligation to disclose information, and in particular, certain types of information, such as that regarding violations of human rights or humanitarian law. This is clearly information of public interest, engaging a high presumption of disclosure. The overriding public interest in the disclosure of information concerning serious violations of human rights and humanitarian law, in addition to the obligation of States to take proactive measures to ensure the preservation and dissemination of such information, is generally acknowledged. Limitations to these obligations, especially in situations of transitional justice, can be invoked only under very specific circumstances.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0038", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. By its resolution 65/196, the General Assembly proclaimed 24 March as the International Day for the Right to the Truth concerning Gross Human Rights Violations and for the Dignity of Victims, in recognition of the work and values of Monsignor Oscar Arnulfo Romero of El Salvador, who was killed in 1980. In his message on the day in 2013,[[fn:6]] the Secretary-General emphasized the individual and collective dimension of the right to truth, noting that each victim had the right to know the truth about violations against them, but that the truth also had to be told more widely as a safeguard to prevent violations from happening again.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "D. Obligation to inform the public and collective dimension of the right to truth"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Available from www.un.org/en/events/righttotruthday/2013/sgmessage.shtml."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0039", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. The right to seek and receive information comprises the right of individuals to access general information and, more particularly, information of public interest that can contribute to public debate.[[fn:7]] Another aspect of this right is that of access by persons to personal data being held by public authorities.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "E. Right of victims and their families to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "European Court of Human Rights, Youth Initiative for Human Rights v. Serbia, Application No. 48135/06, Judgement of 25 June 2013, para. 24, and Claude Reyes and others v. Chile, Judgement of 19 September 2006, Series C, No. 151, paras. 77 and 87; and Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (CCPR/C/GC/34), paras. 18 and 19)."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 18."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0040", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. In the context of human rights violations, and especially in cases of serious violations, the rights of victims and their families to access information can have several aspects. First, gaining access to information regarding the circumstances surrounding a human rights violation is usually essential in order to give effect to other rights, such as due process, guarantees to a fair trial and the right to a remedy. Moreover, clarifying what occurred is in itself one of the elements of reparations for victims and family members.[[fn:9]] Lastly, in cases of violations such as disappearances, the violation is continuing and ceases only once family members are able to ascertain the facts and determine the fate of the disappeared person. The refusal of the State to provide information, or the provision by it of false information, constitutes an additional violation because it prolongs and deepens the anguish, in addition to the moral and emotional pain.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "E. Right of victims and their families to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See, for example, the Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law (General Assembly resolution 60/147, annex), article 16 of which includes, as a measure of satisfaction, verification of the facts and full and public disclosure of the truth."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0041", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. Human rights bodies at the global and regional levels have in a number of instances concluded that States should carry out investigations and provide information on serious human rights violations to victims or their family members and, in particular, ensure that those responsible do not go unpunished and that the victims obtain redress through the courts.[[fn:10]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "E. Right of victims and their families to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See, for example, Human Rights Committee, Ali Bashasha and Hussein Bashasha v. Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Communication No. 1776/2008 (views adopted on 20 October 2010, 100th session), para. 9; European Court of Human Rights, Tanis and others v. Turkey, Application No. 65899/01, Judgement of 2 August 2005, para. 225; and Aksoy v. Turkey, Application No. 21987/93, Judgement of 18 December 1996, para. 98; Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Massacres of El Mozote and nearby locations v. El Salvador, Judgement of 25 October 2012, Series C, No. 252, para. 242; and African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Zimbabwe Human Rights NGO Forum v. Zimbabwe, Communication No. 245/2002, Decision of 21 May 2006, paras. 211 and 215."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0042", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The Inter-American Court has developed extensive jurisprudence regarding the various aspects of the right to know and to seek and receive information in the context of human rights violations. The Court has consistently recognized victims’ and/or their families’ rights to access information regarding violations suffered. In its findings, the Court has often associated the right to seek and receive information with basic human rights and State obligations, such as the obligation of the State to protect and ensure human rights, and the right to judicial protection and a fair trial and/or due diligence guarantees.[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "E. Right of victims and their families to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See, for example, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Bámaca Velásquez v. Guatemala, Judgement of 22 February 2002, Series C, No. 91, paras. 76 and 77; Blake v. Guatemala, Judgement of 24 January 1998, Series C, No. 36, para. 97; Barrios Altos v. Peru, Judgement of 14 March 2001, Series C, No. 75, para. 43; Almonacid Arellano and others v. Chile, Judgement of 26 September 2006, Series C, No. 154, para. 126; and Massacres of El Mozote and nearby places v. El Salvador, Judgement of 25 October 2012, Series C, No. 252, para. 298."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0043", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. The Inter-American Court has recently has found that violations of the right to know the truth can be a breach of the right to access information set forth in article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights, which recognizes freedom of expression.[[fn:12]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "E. Right of victims and their families to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Gomes Lund and others (“Guerrilha do Araguaia”) v. Brazil, Judgement of 24 November 2010, Series C, No. 219, para. 225."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "13", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights, which recognizes freedom of expression'. Regional instrument outside the allowed list."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0044", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. As described above, the right of victims and their families to access information and know the truth has different aspects and principles.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "E. Right of victims and their families to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0045", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. In its considerations, the Court has emphasized that the State must demonstrate a certain amount of due diligence in searching and providing information. For example, it was of the view that the State could not seek protection in arguing the lack of existence of the requested documents but, to the contrary, must establish the reason for denying the provision of the said information, demonstrating that it had adopted all the measures within its power to prove that, in effect, the information sought did not exist. Furthermore, the Court deemed it essential that, in order to guarantee the right to information, the public powers should act in good faith and diligently carry out the actions necessary to ensure the effectiveness of that right, especially when it dealt with the right to the truth of what had occurred in cases of gross violations of human rights, such as those of enforced disappearances and extrajudicial execution in the case under consideration.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "E. Right of victims and their families to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Ibid., para. 211."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0046", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The Court has also considered judicial proceedings to be essential to the right to know the truth, holding that States may establish truth commissions, which contribute to the creation and preservation of historical memory, elucidation of the facts and the determination of institutional, social and political responsibilities during certain historical periods in society. Nevertheless, the Court considers that this does not complete, or substitute for, the State’s obligation to establish the truth through judicial proceedings; hence, the State has the obligation to open and expedite criminal investigations in order to determine the corresponding responsibilities.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "E. Right of victims and their families to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Massacres of El Mozote and nearby places v. El Salvador, Judgement of 25 October 2012, Series C, No. 252, para. 298."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0047", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Lastly, the circulation of false information has been considered in certain cases to be a violation in itself, especially where individuals or groups of individuals have been submitted to odium, stigmatization, public scorn, persecution or discrimination by means of public declarations by public officials.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "E. Right of victims and their families to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See for example, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Ríos and others v. Venezuela, Judgement of 28 January 2009, Series C, No. 194, paras. 148 and 149; Perozo and others v. Venezuela, Judgement of 28 January 2009, Series C, No. 195, para. 160; and GómezPaquiyauri Brothers v. Peru, Judgement of 8 July 2004, para. 182."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0048", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. As with aspects of the right to freedom of expression, the right to access information is subject to limitations. Article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights sets out the areas in which restrictions are permissible. These, and the conditions under which they can be applied, were further addressed in some detail by the Human Rights Committee in its general comment No. 34 (CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 22).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "F. Limitations to the right to access information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0049", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The Special Rapporteur has, in previous reports, examined limitations to the right to freedom of opinion and expression and proposed a set of general principles for determining the conditions that must be satisfied for a limitation or a restriction to freedom of expression to be permissible, which he considers to be generally applicable (A/HRC/14/23, para. 79, and A/67/357, paras. 41-46).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "F. Limitations to the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0050", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. The overarching notion is that all information in the possession of the State belongs to the public, with limited and qualified exceptions that must be justified by State authorities. Nonetheless, the application of limitations to the right to access information on human rights violations raises a number of specific issues that require greater analysis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "F. Limitations to the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0051", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. The Special Rapporteur wishes to recall that, whenever a State imposes restrictions on the exercise of the right to freedom of expression, such restrictions may not put in jeopardy the right itself,[[fn:16]] much less when the information requested relates to human rights violations. Restrictions must be defined by law that is accessible, concrete, clear and unambiguous, and compatible with the State’s international human rights obligations. They must also strictly conform to tests of necessity and proportionality.[[fn:17]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "F. Limitations to the right to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See A/HRC/14/23, para. 79 (a), and Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 21."}, {"n": 17, "text": "A/HRC/14/23, paras. 79 (c), (d) and (g), and Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 22."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0052", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. For a restriction to be necessary, it must be based on one of the grounds for limitations recognized by the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and address a pressing public or social need. Any restriction must also be proportionate to the aim invoked and must not be more restrictive than is required for the achievement of the desired purpose or protected right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "F. Limitations to the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0053", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. When invoking a legitimate ground for restriction of freedom of expression, the authorities must demonstrate, in specific and individualized fashion, the precise nature of the imminent threat, as well as the necessity for and the proportionality of the specific action taken. A direct and immediate connection between the expression (or the information to be disclosed) and the alleged threat must be established.[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "F. Limitations to the right to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 35."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0054", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Moreover, there must be recourse to a review of a refusal to provide information in national legislation. This review must include a prompt, comprehensive and efficient judicial review of the validity of the restriction by an independent court or tribunal (A/HRC/14/23, para. 79; see also A/HRC/16/48, para. 39).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "F. Limitations to the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0055", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. In a number of instances, States have continued to limit access to information concerning action carried out under previous regimes, even when they took place many years before. In the absence of detailed justification, allegations that information regarding such past violations can affect national security have little credibility. The Special Rapporteur considers that it is difficult to justify a continuing public interest in imposing limitations to information from former regimes.[[fn:19]] As noted, authorities in countries undergoing a process of transitional justice have a particular obligation to proactively ensure the preservation and dissemination of information on serious violations of human rights and humanitarian law that took place in the past.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "F. Limitations to the right to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See European Court of Human Rights, Turek v. Slovakia, Application No. 57986/00, Judgement of 14 February 2006, para. 115."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0056", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. The protection of national security explicitly appears in international human rights law as an acceptable reason to limit a number of freedoms, including freedom of expression. On the other hand, as detailed above, restrictions to the exercise of basic freedoms, including all possible restrictions to the right to access information, must still be clearly and objectively established by law and must also conform to the strict tests of necessity and proportionality.[[fn:20]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 22."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0057", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. The recurrent use of national security concerns as a justification for the denial of access to various types of information predicates a need to study carefully the promotion of confidentiality on such grounds. Widespread secrecy justified on national security grounds is particularly problematic in the context of investigations of human rights violations because it may represent one of the main obstacles to the clarification of responsibilities and consequences of serious violations, ultimately becoming a barrier to the promotion of justice and reparation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0058", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Although national security is a legitimate State concern, one of the main challenges faced when information is classified on national security grounds has frequently been the lack of transparency of the process as a whole. In cases of human rights violations, the situation may occur whereby those who decide to classify such information could belong or be linked to the entities allegedly responsible for the violations. The persistent denial of information on human rights violations potentially involving national security bodies often weakens public trust in these institutions, ultimately reversing the alleged justification for secrecy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0059", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. In this context, the Inter-American Court has stated that, in cases of human rights violations, the State authorities cannot resort to mechanisms such as declaring the information an official secret or confidential, or using reasons of public interest or national security, to refuse to supply the information required by the judicial or administrative authorities in charge of the ongoing investigation or proceeding.[[fn:21]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Myrna Mack Chang v. Guatemala, Judgement of 25 November 2003, Series C, No. 101, para. 180; and Tiu Tojín v. Guatemala, Judgement of 26 November 2008, Series C, No. 190, para. 77."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0060", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. A State therefore cannot refuse to provide information to judicial or other authorities investigating gross violations of human rights or humanitarian law on the grounds of national security. In cases of other human rights violations, restrictions should not be applied in a manner that would prevent accountability or deprive a victim or family members of an effective remedy. Decisions to classify must be subjected to external judicial control and recourse must be made available.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0061", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Another serious issue in this context is the lack of outside control and of the possibility to challenge decisions that deny access to information. The authorities usually do not provide specific information on the precise nature of the threat, or on the necessity for and proportionality of such a measure.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0062", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. The Inter-American Court has also noted that, when a punishable fact is being investigated, the decision to define the information as secret and to refuse to submit it can never depend exclusively on a State body whose members are deemed responsible for committing the illegal act. Thus, what is incompatible with the rule of law and effective judicial protection is not that there are secrets, but rather that they are outside legal control.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Myrna Mack Chang v. Guatemala, Judgement of 25 November 2003, Series C, No. 101, para. 181."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0063", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. The Special Rapporteur understands that legitimate national security interests can be protected fully only through the respect of all human rights, including the right to freedom of expression. The most secure nations are those that pay greater attention to their human rights obligations. The importance of respecting all human rights and fundamental freedoms in responses to terrorism, for example, is widely recognized by States (see Commission on Human Rights resolution 2005/80). Promoting access to information, besides being an obligation, is a basic requirement for the rapid identification of malpractice and for the consequent enhancement of the work of all public bodies, including those working in the promotion of national security.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0064", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Bearing in mind these concerns, civil society organizations and academic centres, in consultation with experts from more than 70 countries, developed the Global Principles on National Security and the Right to Information (known as the Tshwane Principles).2 The principles provide detailed guidance to those engaged in drafting, revising or implementing national norms relating to the State’s authority to withhold information on national security grounds or to punish in cases of disclosure of such information. While preparing the present report, the Special Rapporteur participated in various consultations relating to these principles.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0065", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. The Special Rapporteur considers that the Tshwane Principles provide a key tool for States to ensure that national laws and practices regarding the withholding of information on national security grounds fully comply with international human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0066", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The Special Rapporteur wishes to highlight the importance of the references made to the disclosure of information on violations of human rights and humanitarian law, stipulated in section A of principle 10 of the Tshwane Principles, namely:\n(a) There is an overriding public interest in disclosure of information regarding gross violations of human rights or serious violations of international humanitarian law, including crimes under international law, and systematic or widespread violations of the rights to personal liberty and security. Such information may not be withheld on national security grounds in any circumstances;\n(b) Information regarding other violations of human rights or humanitarian law is subject to a high presumption of disclosure, and in any event may not be withheld on national security grounds in a manner that would prevent accountability for the violations or deprive a victim of access to an effective remedy;\n(c) When a State is undergoing a process of transitional justice, during which the State is especially required to ensure truth, justice, reparation and guarantees of non-recurrence, there is an overriding public interest in disclosure to society as a whole of information regarding human rights violations committed under the past regime. A successor government should immediately protect and preserve the integrity of, and release without delay, any records that contain such information that were concealed by a prior government.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0067", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. In the context of access to information on violations of human rights, the references made in the Tshwane Principles to public interest disclosures (part VI) and limits on measures to sanction or restrain the disclosure of information to the public (part VII) are of particular relevance. Among various recommendations, it is proposed that national law should protect from retaliation public personnel who make disclosures of information showing wrongdoing (such as human rights violations), regardless of whether the information is classified or otherwise confidential. It is further suggested that public bodies establish internal procedures and designate specific persons to receive protected disclosures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0068", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Information on human rights violations involving the activities of national security and intelligence bodies that operate under strict secrecy procedures are often only disclosed by those working within these entities (see A/HRC/10/3). In this regard, the Special Rapporteur has recalled the importance of ensuring the protection of whistle-blowers, that is, persons with a connection to the State who, having a legal obligation to ensure confidentiality, disclose to the public information that they reasonably consider to reveal human rights violations. The Special Rapporteur has indicated that a whistle-blower should not be subjected to legal, administrative or disciplinary sanctions as long as he or she has acted in good faith, pursuant to international standards on the subject.[[fn:23]] In fact, every person who is involved in or witnesses a human rights violation should assume the moral responsibility to denounce it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Special Rapporteur on the Protection and Promotion of the Right to Freedom of Opinion and Expression and Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, “Joint declaration on surveillance programmes and their impact on freedom of expression”, June 2013, para. 16. Available from www.oas.org/en/iachr/expression/ showarticle.asp?artID=927&lID=1."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0069", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur has highlighted[[fn:24]] the fact that, under no circumstances, may journalists, members of the media or members of civil society who have access to and distribute classified information on alleged violation of human rights be subjected to subsequent punishment. Equally, confidential sources and materials relating to the disclosure of classified information must be protected by law. In this context, journalistic self-regulatory mechanisms and codes can significantly contribute to drawing attention to eventual risks in the communication of complex and sensitive issues.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. The right to truth and the right to access information", "G. National security and the right to access information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Ibid., para 15."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0070", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Over the past 20 years, numerous national norms have been adopted with the aim of promoting the right to access information. It is currently estimated that more than 50 national constitutions guarantee a right to information or of access to documents, or impose an obligation on State institutions to make information available to the public. More than 90 countries have adopted national laws establishing the right to request information and procedures for the public to obtain government-held information,[[fn:25]] thus responding to their human rights obligations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See www.right2info.org/access-to-information-laws/access-to-information-laws-overview-and-statutory#_ftn7; and Toby Mendel, Freedom of Information: A Comparative Legal Survey, 2nd ed. (Paris, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 2008)."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0071", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. These efforts were frequently stimulated by the democratic transitions experienced in various regions over the past decades. The increasing pressure for broader access to information is also a result of the work of international and national non-governmental organizations. Lastly, the rapid evolution of information technology has significantly expanded the capacity of States and individuals to process and communicate all types of information in a timely manner. Naturally, this has raised expectations that public entities (and other private actors) proactively disclose relevant information to society regularly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0072", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Acknowledging the relevance of access to information in democratization and development efforts, international organizations have encouraged the adoption of national norms regulating access to information and produced publications aimed at assisting national processes with, for example, a description of the features of a freedom of information regime[[fn:26]] and tools for measuring the impact of right to information models.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See Toby Mendel, Freedom of Information, A Comparative Legal Survey, 2nd ed. (Paris, UNESCO, 2008), pp. 31-43."}, {"n": 27, "text": "United Nations Development Programme, A Guide to Measuring the Impact of Rights to information Programmes, Practical Guidance Note (April 2006)."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0073", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. Described below are the principles developed to guide the design and implementation of national legislation on access to information, in addition to common obstacles to the implementation of such laws.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0074", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Notwithstanding the positive steps taken by a number of States, as reflected in the many national legal instruments regulating access to information, multiple obstacles are frequently encountered in their implementation. Altering long-standing practices of government workforces is a complex process, especially when public bodies have been established or subjected to reforms during a previous authoritarian rule. The provision of information in a timely manner requires not only improvement of the technical capacity of public bodies to process and share information, but also the training and awareness-raising of public officials at all levels with regard to their duty to respond to public requests for information, while assigning absolute priority to information relating to human rights violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "A. Principles guiding the design and implementation of national laws on access to information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0075", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. While reviewing multiple experiences that promote the right to access information, experts have developed some core principles to guide the design and implementation of relevant laws and practices.[[fn:28]] The same principles had been endorsed and presented to the Commission on Human Rights by the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression in 2000 and were further reflected in other declarations prepared by international mechanisms for promoting freedom of expression.[[fn:29]] The Special Rapporteur considers that these principles continue to represent a crucial tool for translating into practice the various human rights obligations concerning the right to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "A. Principles guiding the design and implementation of national laws on access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Article 19 Global Campaign for Free Expression, The Public’s Right to Know: Principles on Freedom of Information Legislation (London, 1999)."}, {"n": 29, "text": "Joint declarations by the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Opinion and Expression, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Representative on Freedom of the Media and the Organization of American States Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression, 1999 (E/CN.4/2000/63, annex I) and 2004 (www.oas.org/en/iachr/expression/showarticle.asp ?artID=319&lID=1)."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0076", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. The core principles include:\n(a) Maximum disclosure. National legislation on access to information should be guided by the principle of maximum disclosure. All information held by public bodies should be subject to disclosure and this presumption may be overcome only in very limited circumstances;\n(b) Obligation to publish. Freedom of information implies not only that public bodies accede to requests for information, but also that they widely publish and disseminate documents of significant public interest, subject only to reasonable limits based on resources and capacity;\n(c) Promotion of open government. The full implementation of national laws on access to information requires that the public be informed about their rights and that government officials adhere to a culture of openness. Dedicated efforts are required to disseminate information to the general public on the right to access information and to raise the awareness of and train government staff to respond appropriately to public demands;\n(d) Limited scope of exceptions. Reasons for the denial of access to information should be clearly and narrowly designed, bearing in mind the three-part test suggested in the interpretation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.[[fn:30]] Non-disclosure of information must be justified on a case-by-case basis. Exceptions should apply only where there is a risk of substantial harm to the protected interest and where that harm is greater than the overall public interest in having access to the information;\n(e) Processes to facilitate access. Procedures to request information should allow for fair and rapid processing and include mechanisms for an independent review in cases of refusal. Public bodies should be required to establish open, accessible internal systems for ensuring the public’s right to receive information. The law should provide for an individual right of appeal to an independent administrative body in respect of a refusal by a public body to disclose information;\n(f) Costs. Individuals should not be deterred by excessive cost from making requests for information;\n(g) Open meetings. In line with the notion of maximum disclosure, legislation should establish a presumption that meetings of governing bodies are open to the public;\n(h) Disclosure takes precedence. To ensure maximum disclosure, laws which are inconsistent with this principle should be amended or repealed. The regime of exceptions provided for in the freedom of information law should be comprehensive and other laws should not be permitted to extend it;\n(i) Protection for individuals who disclose relevant information (whistle-blowers). National laws on the right to information should provide protection from liability for officials who, in good faith, disclose information pursuant to right to information legislation. Individuals should be protected from any legal, administrative or employment-related sanctions for releasing information on wrongdoing, including the commission of a criminal offence or the failure to comply with a legal obligation. Special protection should be provided for those who release information concerning human rights violations.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "A. Principles guiding the design and implementation of national laws on access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 22."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0077", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. As indicated in a comprehensive comparative study of national experiences promoting access to information,[[fn:31]] the adoption of national laws should be regarded only as the first step: full implementation requires political will (full endorsement by various relevant authorities of the principles enshrined by the new normative framework), an active civil society (advocating and monitoring the implementation of the norms) and respect for the rule of law. In fact, a number of frequent obstacles can be noted in the review of national practices implementing legal frameworks protecting the right to information.[[fn:32]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "Toby Mendel, Freedom of Information, A Comparative Legal Survey, 2nd ed. (Paris, UNESCO, 2008), principles 1 to 9."}, {"n": 32, "text": "Ibid., and David Banisar, Freedom of Information around the World 2006: A Global Survey of Access to Government Information Laws (Privacy International, 2006)."}]}, {"id": "a-68-362-0078", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. The overall lack of capacity to process information is an obvious problem for public institutions. Some public institutions have no human or technical capacity to manage and communicate data adequately. Technological advances notwithstanding, officials are also often unaware of the information stored by the bodies that they service and are unable to locate it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information", "1. Lack of technical capacity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0079", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. Unreasonable delays in responding to requests for information are a very frequent concern. National laws often establish the requirement for public institutions to respond to a request without delay, setting in some cases a maximum time frame for response. These deadlines, however, are sometimes not enforced.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information", "2. Unreasonable delays and lack of responses"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0080", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The absence of any response by the public authorities responsible for the provision of information is also critical. The lack of mechanisms to monitor independently the compliance of public bodies with regulations on access to information and the lack of specific sanctions for wrongful denial of access or the destruction of information by public officials certainly contribute to the limited enforcement of some national laws.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information", "2. Unreasonable delays and lack of responses"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0081", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. There are concerns regarding the inclusion of unnecessary procedural formalities that unreasonably restrict possibilities for submitting demands for information. This can include, for example, requirements for those who request information to show a specific legal interest or to submit separate requests to each of the multiple entities involved in providing a response to a given request.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information", "3. Restrictive procedures"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0082", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. There are financial costs related to the collection of information and national laws often allow public institutions to charge fees to the requestor. Some fees can cover costs relating to, for example, applications, searching or copying. The charging of fees for gaining access to information can also, however, be a barrier to such access, in particular for those living in poverty. In the absence of any oversight, some fees can be imposed abusively.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information", "4. Imposition of fees"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0083", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The inclusion of vaguely defined or inappropriate exceptions in national laws on access to information is also a common obstacle that seriously compromises the impact of the instruments. Inappropriate exceptions include, for example, reference to the protection of good relations with other States and intergovernmental organizations. As mentioned above, the widespread and unspecified use of national security concerns as a reason for the denial of access to information is another common occurrence. Some laws explicitly exclude some public bodies from the ambit of national norms, preventing consideration of whether information pertaining to those bodies should be disclosed at all.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information", "5. Inclusion of vague and inappropriate exceptions within the law"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0084", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. In some cases, the continued use of parallel national laws and regulations justifying multiple grounds for secrecy, some predating the adoption of the laws regulating access to information, continues to hamper information access.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information", "6. Conflict with other norms providing grounds for secrecy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0085", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. The review of national experiences also demonstrates important positive elements in existing laws and practices. It is clear that provisions establishing objective procedural guarantees which detail the processes required to request and obtain information, in addition to the responsibilities of public bodies in these processes, are a central element for the successful implementation of national norms. The establishment of a broad scope for the right to access to information in national laws is central to the success of the norms. The inclusion of pragmatic instructions among principles, such as that of ensuring that access is rapid, inexpensive and not unduly burdensome, is also positive.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information", "6. Conflict with other norms providing grounds for secrecy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0086", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. There are also good practices regarding the appointment of dedicated officials to assist in the implementation of national laws on access to information. These can be established through the appointment of information officers, or the establishment of an office, such as the Mexican Federal Institute for Access to Information. Such mechanisms may undertake multiple functions relating to the promotion of access to information, such as processing requests, ensuring the proactive publication of information by public bodies, providing assistance to applicants, proposing adapted procedures to implement the law, training and raising the awareness of other officials, monitoring the implementation of the law, and reporting.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["IV. Promoting the right to access information at the national level", "B. Challenges in the implementation of national laws on access to information", "6. Conflict with other norms providing grounds for secrecy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0087", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. Notwithstanding the different historical processes that marked the development of the right to truth and the right to access information, the right to truth should be understood as directly connected to the right to access information, as established by the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0088", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. Over the past three decades, the right to truth has most often been invoked in situations relating to the failure of the State to ensure accountability for systematic violations of human rights and to provide appropriate reparations. It has also commonly been related to the right of victims and their relatives to demand investigations and information as a first step in achieving justice. As international jurisprudence has evolved, it has become evident that the right to truth has also a clear, collective dimension. There is a shared interest in the clarification of human rights violations and in the dissemination of information on the context in which they occurred, especially so as to re-establish trust in State institutions and to ensure non-repetition of the violations. The realization of the right to truth, at both the individual and the collective levels, requires access to and, often, also the dissemination of information on human rights violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0089", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. In parallel, the global recognition of the overall importance of transparency of public institutions in the consolidation of peace, democracy and development is unquestionable. Explicitly included as a component of the right to freedom of expression, the right to access information is increasingly protected by national laws. Technological advances, democratic transitions and the expansion of civil society activity have contributed to a significant increase in the demand for all types of information held by public bodies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0090", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. If State officials act as representatives of the people of the nation and seek the common good, every decision or initiative taken by them should, in principle, be publicly known. The right to access information, however, can in exceptional circumstances be subject to limitations so as to protect the rights of others and the effectiveness of some State initiatives. Nevertheless, such limitations cannot override the public interest to know and to be informed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0091", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. Given that the promotion, protection and guarantee of human rights and fundamental freedoms are the ultimate responsibility of any State, there is a greater responsibility in the disclosure of information held by public bodies concerning human rights violations, as identified in the jurisprudence relating to the right to truth.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0092", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. In this context, the Special Rapporteur concludes that the right to access information on human rights violations, as enshrined by the right to freedom of expression, should be considered to be part of the right to truth in all circumstances — whether it relates to past or present situations, is claimed by victims, their relatives or by anyone in the name of public interest, in situations of political transition or not, and irrespective of the existence of legal proceedings, including when judicial action has expired.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0093", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. Given that the enjoyment of human rights also implies responsibilities, and is based on the principles of universality, equality and interdependence, there is a shared responsibility in denouncing human rights violations whenever they occur. Such responsibility is of greater importance in the case of public officials. Therefore, the disclosure in good faith of relevant information relating to human rights violations should be accorded protection from liability. On the other hand, the silence of State officials on violations that they witness can be interpreted as complicity. Transitions to peace and democracy based on silence over past crimes, atrocities or impunity are not sustainable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0094", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. The adoption of national laws protecting access to information in all regions of the world is a positive step that reflects international human rights principles and norms. These processes, however, have mostly been disconnected from the debate on the right to truth and a number of obstacles to access information relating to past and present human rights violations persist.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0095", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. The effective implementation of national laws on information continues to be limited by the reluctance of public bodies and officials to comply with the new norms and the continued acceptance of multiple grounds for secrecy. Particular attention should therefore be paid to overseeing the steps taken to institutionalize norms regulating access to information and to examining the true relevance of confidentiality. Ultimately, legitimate national security interests can be fully protected only through respect of all human rights, including the right to access information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0096", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. In this regard, and based on previous considerations, the Special Rapporteur wishes to recall a number of recommendations that should continue to guide State efforts in the consolidation of norms and practices concerning the realization of the right to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0097", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. The Special Rapporteur calls upon States to implement the measures set out below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0098", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. The adoption of a national normative framework that objectively establishes the right to access information held by public bodies in the broadest possible terms is crucial to give effect, at the national level, to the right to access information. Legislation should be grounded by the principle of maximum disclosure.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Revision or adoption of national laws to ensure the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0099", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. National laws should contain a clearly and narrowly defined list of exceptions or an explanation of the grounds for refusing the disclosure of information. Exceptions should apply only where there is a risk of substantial harm to the protected interest and where that harm is greater than the overall public interest in having access to the information, and should be determined by an independent body, preferably a court, and not the body holding the information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Revision or adoption of national laws to ensure the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0100", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. Alternative laws establishing additional grounds for secrecy must be revised or revoked in order to ensure that they meet the norms on access to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Revision or adoption of national laws to ensure the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0101", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. National laws should establish the right to lodge complaints or appeals to independent bodies in cases in which requests for information have not been dealt with properly or have been refused.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Revision or adoption of national laws to ensure the right to access information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-68-362-0102", "docId": "a-68-362", "idx": 102, "n": 108, "text": "108. Only if the information released is related to the above principles should the person be considered a whistle-blower and, therefore, bear no liability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2013, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Revision of norms regarding the promotion of secrecy on national security grounds and ensuring the protection of whistle-blowers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur focuses on the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral contexts, paying particular attention to the establishment and enforcement of legal instruments regulating political communications.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The free flow of ideas is incontestably a core requirement for the promotion of democratic spaces. Ensuring an open space for the multiple voices of politicians, the press, minorities or citizens in general is a permanent challenge for entities tasked with overseeing electoral processes. The recognized need to establish and enforce regulations on political campaigning is inevitably accompanied by the concern that, depending on their application, such regulations may be used to obstruct or even impede the natural flow of ideas. How to ensure all voices have a space in the public debate, including newly established groups? How to avoid having the most powerful groups in a society take unfair advantage of their political or economic powers to exclude dissident voices from the debate?", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. A quick overview of recent electoral processes in all regions of the world can easily identify numerous structural, legal and practical barriers which impede the equitable enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression during electoral processes. In some situations politically dominant groups directly attack and intimidate voices of dissent and criticism which are crucial for the promotion of democratic debate; journalists, activists and political leaders are violently attacked, harassed through multiple legal procedures or arbitrarily detained. In others, economic and political imbalances permit some groups to dominate the public debate to a point where divergent ideas are often excluded from public debate. In these very different contexts, freedom of expression can be affected both by the absence of regulations for political communications and campaigning, and by the adoption of inadequate norms that disproportionately restrict political communications and jeopardize public debate.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The report will analyse some common challenges in the establishment and enforcement of legal instruments regulating communications in electoral processes. It will begin by describing the human rights framework applicable to the question of freedom of opinion and expression in political communications and electoral processes. It will analyse in more depth the main concerns regarding possible violations of free expression in this context. The Special Rapporteur will then propose some key principles that can guide the establishment and implementation of national legal frameworks regulating political communications.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. Common concerns relating to the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression studied by the Special Rapporteur in his recent reports are all relevant to the regulation of communications during electoral processes; the responsibility of States to “prohibit” incitement of hatred, hostility, discrimination and violence,[[fn:1]] for example, is particularly relevant in electoral periods. Unfortunately, one can observe today in all regions of the world, especially during political and economic crises, candidates making use while campaigning of a language of hatred and hostility, targeting, inter alia, women, racial, linguistic or religious minorities, homosexuals and foreign migrant workers. The protection of journalists from violence[[fn:2]] is central to ensuring that the press exercises its crucial role of informing the public about candidates, their platforms and the ongoing debates. Unfortunately, attacks against the press often increase during electoral periods. The full realization of the right to access information,[[fn:3]] is another crucial element in the promotion of free and fair democratic elections. As further detailed below, informed political debate requires transparency, with respect to the conduct of political organizations, the financing and promotion of political campaigns, and the ownership of media groups.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See A/67/357."}, {"n": 2, "text": "See A/HRC/20/17."}, {"n": 3, "text": "See A/HRC/68/362."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. During the reporting period, the Special Rapporteur continued to participate in national and international events relating to the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In October 2013, he submitted his report to the General Assembly (A/68/362), in which he addressed the right to access information held by public bodies, emphasizing its relation with the right to truth. In 2013, he also undertook missions to Montenegro from 11 to 17 June, to the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia from 18 to 21 June, and to Italy from 11 to 18 November. His preliminary findings on these visits are detailed in the three additional reports to the 27th session of the Human Rights Council.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. The Special Rapporteur regrets never having received a response from the Government of Indonesia to his repeated requests for a new date to visit the country, after the Government asked for his visit, previously scheduled for January 2013, to be postponed. He also expresses disappointment that the Government of Pakistan did not provide a date for his visit to the country, despite having invited the mandate holder to visit in early 2012. The following States never responded to requests for visits by the Special Rapporteur: Islamic Republic of Iran (visit requested in February 2010); Sri Lanka (visit requested in June 2009 and 2012); Thailand (visit requested in 2012); Uganda (visit requested in May 2011); and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (visit requested in 2003 and in 2009).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The Special Rapporteur has attended a number of international events at which topics studied in his previous reports were debated. In particular, he contributed to various seminars addressing freedom of expression and privacy in digital communications. In September 2013, he participated in a side event focusing on the topic at the twenty-fifth session of the Human Rights Council. In October 2013, he participated in a hearing at the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights on freedom of expression and communications surveillance by the United States of America, in the Americas and at the Council of Europe Conference of Ministers responsible for Media and Information Society in Belgrade. Since November 2013, he has been a member of the High-level Panel on Global Internet Cooperation and Governance Mechanisms. The panel brings together representatives of government, civil society and industry with the aim of proposing frameworks for Internet cooperation and a road map to address Internet governance challenges. In February 2014, he participated in an expert seminar on the right to privacy in the digital age, hosted in Geneva by the Permanent Missions of Austria, Brazil, Germany, Liechtenstein, Mexico, Norway and Switzerland.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. For the preparation of the present report, the Special Rapporteur reviewed studies on communications in electoral processes. He also organized a sequence of regional expert meetings, bringing together electoral authorities, researchers, journalists, activists and representatives of international organizations working on matters related to communications in electoral process in various regions. The consultations took place in Bangkok (co-hosted by the Southeast Asian Press Alliance and FORUM-ASIA); Johannesburg, South Africa (co-hosted by the University of Pretoria); Guatemala City (co-hosted by the Instituto DEMOS); Madrid (co-hosted by the Fundación Cultura de Paz and the Complutense University of Madrid); Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (co-hosted by the Ford Foundation); and Washington D.C. (co-hosted by the Open Society Foundations).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The right to freedom of opinion and expression is a central pillar of democratic societies; and a guarantor of free and fair electoral processes, and meaningful and representative public and political discourse. It is during times of political change that the right to freedom of expression is most essential, ensuring that a well-informed and empowered public is free to exercise its civil and political rights. Providing the conditions for free and open political communication is an essential element of ensuring fair and democratic electoral processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Freedom of expression and communication in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. In the context of elections and political communications, dedicated attention is to be afforded to the free expression rights of the main actors: the voters, who depend on the right to freedom of expression to receive full and accurate information, and express their political affiliation without fear; candidates and political organizations, who need to exercise their rights through campaigning and communicating their political messages freely without interference or attacks; and the media, which rely on the right to freedom of expression to play their essential democratic role of informing the public, scrutinizing political parties and platforms, and providing checks and balances in the electoral process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Freedom of expression and communication in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Common and continuing challenges to the promotion and protection of freedom of expression that persist in all aspects of society – censorship, violence against journalists, speech that incites hatred, discrimination and political violence – increase in both frequency and severity during electoral processes. Ensuring an open public debate where all the main stakeholders in an electoral process – namely, the voters, the political leaders and groups, and the media – can freely share information and opinions is a permanent challenge for democratic societies. In some cases, inadequate regulation of communications can unduly restrict the freedom of the media or of political actors. In other situations, the political debate is dominated by powerful political and economic groups that take advantage of poorly regulated and enforced legal frameworks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Freedom of expression and communication in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. International human rights standards do not provide detailed models for regulating political communications. However, some core principles can be identified: efforts must be deployed to promote the pluralism of the media and ensure a plural political debate, ensure transparency in the promotion and financing of political campaigns, and guarantee accountability and fair enforcement of political regulations to prevent those in power from taking advantage of domestic regulatory regimes to dominate and manipulate public debate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Freedom of expression and communication in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. States must take measures to eliminate the structural, legal and practical barriers to the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression. At a fundamental, structural level, economic power enables political influence to be concentrated in, and exercised by, small segments of society, thereby undermining the democratic ideal. Those who own and finance media organizations and outlets are often able to use their economic power and influence to enhance the visibility of certain political candidates or groups, and impede the communication and expression of others. This is particularly the case where national legislative frameworks do not sufficiently provide for free, direct access by political candidates to publicly or privately owned media outlets for campaigning purposes. Even when such provisions are in place, many media organizations are able to use the unequal provision of air time, partisan editorial commentary, or the facilitation of paid political advertising to promote one political candidate or group over another. The situation is exacerbated when media ownership is obscured by complex corporate structures and there is no public transparency as to the corporate and private interests entwined with media coverage. Especially in circumstances in which a State’s media ownership is concentrated in only a handful of corporate entities, this can threaten the ability of all political entities to freely and effectively express their positions and platforms, and impede individuals from receiving information about their electoral choices on an equal and impartial basis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Freedom of expression and communication in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes is also threatened when economic power is exerted over the political process through campaign financing and paid political advertising. Wealthy societal segments and corporate interest lobbies can directly exert political influence through exploiting unregulated political finance structures, and opportunities for paid political advertising. In many States neither the donor nor the recipient is required publicly to disclose financial contributions. Wealthy groups and candidates are also disproportionately advantaged when there are no restrictions in place as to how political campaigns can use and disburse campaign funds.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Freedom of expression and communication in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The over- or under-regulation of electoral processes may also threaten enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Legal barriers to the free flow of communication and expression during electoral processes include thematic restrictions on political expression and discourse (which often include prohibitions on criticism of incumbent politicians or political groups), regulation of the content of print and online media sources, and limitations on protests and demonstrations during electoral processes. Lacunae in legal frameworks also erode free expression and communication in political discourse; failures to articulate regulatory frameworks related to equal direct access to publicly-owned media outlets, polling, campaign financing and paid political advertising create conditions that may unfairly disadvantage particular political candidates or groups, thereby undermining the equal and free flow of ideas and communications that is an essential prerequisite to a truly democratic electoral process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Freedom of expression and communication in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. In addition to the structural and legal threats to free expression rights in electoral processes, States are also actively restricting the practical enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in political communications. Such measures include multiple forms of censorship, such as restrictions on particular websites and social media sites, sources of political commentary, including local and international media, or even Internet services more broadly; harassment of the media; violence against and imprisonment of journalists, activists and bloggers; direct attacks on dissident political groups; and measures to impede public demonstrations and other forms of valid political expression. These common violations of freedom of expression rights occur outside electoral processes as well, but are often more frequent or acute during moments of political change or upheaval, and are especially damaging during such times.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Freedom of expression and communication in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The right to freedom of opinion and expression, as articulated in articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, is fundamentally interrelated with article 25 of the Covenant, on the right to participation in government through free and fair elections. During electoral processes and in the context of political communication, the equal and unimpeded exchange of contrasting ideas is a crucial prerequisite to ensuring that the voting public can make informed choices and is thus a basic pillar of any democratic system. In the absence of protections to ensure the freedom to express, communicate, publish and discuss political and electoral issues, genuine and effective political participation cannot be realized.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "medium", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'. Dual citation. Sonnet resolved as ICCPR (medium); context_after invokes HRC GC34 on art.19 (ICCPR-specific). Conservative keep."}, {"article": "25", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'article 25 of the Covenant' — 'the Covenant' clearly ICCPR throughout; art.25 ICCPR = political participation/elections."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. In its general comment No. 34 (2011) on article 19 on freedoms of opinion and expression, the Human Rights Committee noted that:\nThe free communication of information and ideas about public and political issues between citizens, candidates and elected representatives is essential. This implies a free press and other media able to comment on public issues without censorship or restraint and to inform public opinion. The public also has a corresponding right to receive media output.[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 13."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. This finding builds on general comment No. 25 (1996) on article 25 (the right to participate in public affairs), in which it is stipulated that States must take positive measures to protect and promote the freedom of expression in the context of political and electoral processes in order to ensure the full realization of article 25.[[fn:5]] The General Assembly, in its resolution 59/201, declared that freedom of association and peaceful assembly were essential elements of democracy, together with the right to vote and to be elected at genuine periodic free elections, and encouraged the strengthening of political party systems and civil society organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "CCPR/C/2/Rev.1/Add.7, paras. 8 and 12."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "25", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "25", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Both the right to free expression and the right to political participation are enshrined in numerous other regional and international human rights instruments.[[fn:6]] Importantly, their critical relationship and mutual dependency are also borne out in a number of human rights texts. It is stipulated in article 3 of the first protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights that contracting parties must “hold free elections at reasonable intervals by secret ballot, under conditions which will ensure the free expression of the opinion of the people in the choice of the legislature”. The European Court of Human Rights has repeatedly emphasized that the fundamental importance of freedom of political expression rests in large part on the importance of an informed electorate to the functioning of a genuine democracy, and that “freedom of political debate is at the very core of the concept of a democratic society”.[[fn:7]] Free and impartial media are key to ensuring the necessary vibrant political debate that underpins democratic elections and political processes. The Court has noted that:\nFreedom of the press affords the public one of the best means of discovering and forming an opinion of the ideas and attitudes of their political leaders. In particular, it gives politicians the opportunity to reflect and comment on the preoccupations of public opinion; it thus enables everyone to participate in the free political debate which is at the very core of the concept of a democratic society.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (art. 9), the American Convention on Human Rights (art. 13); and the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (art. 10)."}, {"n": 7, "text": "Lingens v. Austria, Judgment of 8 July 1986, Series A no. 103, para. 42, available from http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/eng/pages/search.aspx?i=001-57523"}, {"n": 8, "text": "Castells v. Spain, Judgment of 23 April 1992, Series A no. 236, para. 43, available from http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/sites/eng/pages/search.aspx?i=001-57772."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "3", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'article 3 of the first protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights'. ECHR Protocol 1 is a regional instrument outside the allowed list."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. The press is also recognized as playing a crucial role in informing the public about matters of public interest and acting as a ‘public watchdog’:\nIt is ... incumbent on [the press] to impart information and ideas on matters of public interest. Not only does it have the task of imparting such information and ideas: the public also has a right to receive them. Were it otherwise, the press would be unable to play its vital role of ‘public watchdog’.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Thorgeirson v. Iceland, Judgment of 25 June 1992, Series A no. 239, para. 63. See also Castells v. Spain (see footnote 8); The Observer and Guardian v. UK (Spycatcher case), Judgment of 26 Nov. 1991, Series A no. 216, para. 59(b); The Sunday Times v. UK(II) (companion Spycatcher case), Judgment of 26 Nov. 1991, Series A no. 217, para. 50(b)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Accordingly, all political parties and candidates should have access to the media in a fair and impartial way. As articulated in the Document of the Copenhagen Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), States must “ensure that the will of the people serves as the basis of the authority of government” by, inter alia, ensuring “that no legal or administrative obstacle stands in the way of unimpeded access to the media on a non-discriminatory basis for all political groupings and individuals wishing to participate in the electoral process”.[[fn:10]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Para. 7.8 of the Document of the Copenhagen Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension of the CSCE, 29 June 1990, as reproduced in appendix I and in 29 International Legal Materials 1305, 1308. See also the Charter of Paris, signed on 21 November 1990 by the CSCE Heads of State, endorsing democracy and reaffirming the principles set forth in the Document of the Copenhagen Meeting and the Document of the Moscow Meeting on the Human Dimension of the CSCE (3 October 1991)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. The Inter-American Court on Human Rights has equally emphasized that free expression rights are the cornerstone for the debate during electoral processes, because they act:\nas an essential instrument for the formation of public opinion among the electorate, strengthen the political contest between the different candidates and parties taking part in the elections, and are an authentic mechanism for analyzing the political platforms proposed by the different candidates.[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "I/A Court H. R., Case of Ricardo Canese v. Paraguay. Merits, Reparations and Costs. Judgment of August 31, 2004. Series C No. 111. paras. 88–90."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Accordingly, the Inter-American Court has said, restrictions on political expression during electoral processes undermine the right to freedom of opinion and expression: “everyone must be allowed to question and investigate the competence and suitability of the candidates, and also to disagree with and compare proposals, ideas and opinions, so that the electorate may form its opinion in order to vote.”[[fn:12]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Canese v. Paraguay (see footnote 11), para. 90."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. In a joint statement with the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe Representative on Freedom of the Media, the Organization of American States Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression and Access to Information, the Special Rapporteur reiterated the positions of both the European and Inter-American Courts, emphasizing that free and fair elections are possible only where the electorate is well-informed and has access to pluralistic and sufficient information, and that only a diverse media environment can ensure that all viewpoints and political perspectives are aired during election campaigns.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "www.oas.org/en/iachr/expression/showarticle.asp?artID=744&lID=1."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Similar wording is found in the Windhoek Declaration on Promoting Independent and Pluralistic Media (1991): “an independent, pluralistic and free press is essential to the development and maintenance of democracy in a nation.”", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The importance of ensuring access to the media as part of the electoral process is also well-established in a number of regional human rights instruments. The South African Development Community Principles and Guidelines Governing Democratic Elections, for example, reiterate that, in the conduct of democratic elections, all political parties should have access to State media (principle 2.1.5). The same principle is enshrined in article 17 of the African Charter on Democracy, Elections and Governance, on the importance of ensuring access by political candidates and parties to State-controlled media during elections. The Declaration of Principles of Freedom of Expression in Africa also affirms that “the public service ambit of public broadcasters should be clearly defined and include an obligation to ensure that the public receive adequate, politically balanced information, particularly during election periods” (art. VI).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. The need for a vibrant and critical debate, with no restrictions on the form or content of political expression, has been explored in depth by the European Court of Human Rights, which has emphasized that “the limits of permissible criticism are wider with regard to the Government than in relation to a private citizen, or even a politician”.[[fn:14]] The State authorities may adopt, “in their capacity as guarantors of public order”, penalties for defamation that are proportionate to the injury but only where the accusations are “devoid of foundation or formulated in bad faith”.[[fn:15]] The reference to public order suggests that discretion of a government to restrict potentially defamatory statements against it should be limited to situations in which public order is threatened:\nWhile freedom of expression is important for everybody, it is especially so for an elected representative of the people. He represents his electorate, draws attention to their preoccupations and defends their interests. Accordingly, interferences with the freedom of expression of an opposition member of parliament, like the applicant, call for the closest scrutiny on the part of the Court.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "Castells v. Spain (see footnote 8), para. 46."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Ibid., para. 46."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Ibid., para. 42."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. United Nations human rights mechanisms have also considered the permissible limitations upon speech in the context of electoral processes. The Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination has noted that “the fundamental right to freedom of expression does not protect the dissemination of ideas of racial superiority or incitement to racial hatred”.[[fn:17]] In a recent review, the Committee underlined that\nthe fundamental right of freedom of expression should not subtract from the principles of equality and non-discrimination as the exercise of the right to freedom of expression carries with it special responsibilities, among which is the obligation not to disseminate ideas on racial superiority or hatred.[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "CERD/C/ITA/CO/16-18, para. 17."}, {"n": 18, "text": "Ibid., para. 17 (a)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. The Committee recommended that the State inter alia reinforce the mandate of the authority which monitors the media to ensure that racist statements are prosecuted and victims granted reparations; ensure that the media do not stigmatize, stereotype or negatively target non-citizens and ethnic minorities; invite the media to strictly respect the Charter of Rome (2008) in order to avoid racist, discriminatory or biased language; and raise awareness among media professionals of their responsibility not to disseminate prejudice and to avoid reporting in a way that would stigmatize communities subject to historical discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Additionally, in another review, the Committee encouraged the State to thoroughly investigate and prosecute, where appropriate, the use during election campaigns of statements by politicians that would incite racial hatred against persons of minority ethnic origin.[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. International human rights framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "CERD/C/AUT/CO/18-20, para. 12."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes can be jeopardized through numerous overlapping legal and practical State measures. In the present section some of the primary threats to freedom of opinion and expression during electoral processes are identified.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Violence against, and harassment of, the press during electoral and political processes remains a common way of impeding the free expression of political ideas in many countries. Throughout his mandate, the Special Rapporteur has received numerous communications alleging serious violence against reporters, journalists, bloggers, television reporters and writers in the lead-up to, during and in the aftermath of elections.[[fn:20]] Attacks against the media function both as a specific means of deterring targeted journalists from investigating and reporting on a particular issue or candidate, and as a means of more generally deterring the media from reporting freely and impartially on political issues. In this context, violence against the media is one of the most destructive forms of violation of free expression in electoral processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "A. Direct attacks against journalists, activists and political candidates and groups"], "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See, for example, the report of the Special Rapporteur of 20 April 2010 (A/HRC/14/23)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. In the course of his mandate, the Special Rapporteur has addressed, through communications and public statements, reports of violence against or harassment of journalists in Belarus, where it was reported that, in the lead-up to the December 2010 presidential elections, journalists had their equipment seized and photographs deleted;[[fn:21]] and in the Islamic Republic of Iran, where, as at May 2013, 40 journalists had reportedly been imprisoned as a means of silencing free speech and debate ahead of the June 2013 elections.[[fn:22]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "A. Direct attacks against journalists, activists and political candidates and groups"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "Joint urgent appeal (JUA) 22/12/10, case No. BLR 1/2010 (see A/HRC/8/51, p. 22)."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), “Iran: UN experts concerned at barring of women presidential candidates and freedom restrictions”, press release, 29 May 2013."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. The State is not the only perpetrator of violence against journalists during elections; however it has a permanent responsibility to ensure the safety of all journalists at all times. In some countries, media organizations, independent editors and journalists receive threats and intimidation from militant groups or political parties demanding coverage for their messages. In many cases the State fails to take sufficient measures to protect journalists from such harassment, and responds by fining or otherwise punishing the media for broadcasting messages by banned organizations, despite the media being forced to do so under threat.[[fn:23]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "A. Direct attacks against journalists, activists and political candidates and groups"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See, for example, “Final report of the EU Election Observation Mission 2013”, available from www.eueom.eu/files/pressreleases/english/eu-eom-pakistan-2013-final-report_en.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. Attacks on journalists, activists and political candidates and groups also occur in the context of measures to limit the enjoyment of the freedoms to associate and assemble during electoral processes. The prohibition of protests and demonstrations and the harassment and intimidation of demonstrators during electoral processes remain common means of impeding the free expression of political ideas and the free conduct of public political debate. Such restrictions may take the form of harsh penalties for protesters who fail to comply with articulated requirements.[[fn:24]] In some countries, suppression of the right to peacefully assemble in the lead-up to elections takes the form of arbitrary arrest of demonstrators. Such actions deter the exercise of free expression and assembly by activists, opposition supporters and civil society groups. Requirements that protests receive prior State approval can also impede the free exercise of rights by creating the conditions for bribery and manipulation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "A. Direct attacks against journalists, activists and political candidates and groups"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "In Azerbaijan, for example, amendments to the law on freedom of assembly in November 2012 saw the imposition of harsh fines on protesters and introduced a two-year prison sentence. See OHCHR, “UN experts urge Azerbaijan to recognize and enable the role of rights defenders in run up to elections”, press release, 4 October 2013."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Restrictions on political expression take a variety of forms – from defamation and slander laws, to blanket bans on critical expression relating to incumbent politicians, to the prohibition of whole media sources, outlets and websites – and impact not only the individuals or groups which might run afoul of them, but the media outlets or intermediaries that publish restricted, or what is considered to be illegal, political expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "B. Regulatory and legal measures that restrict or undermine freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Violations of the right to freedom of expression during electoral processes often take the form of State interference in media content. The adoption of laws to control or regulate political speech immediately before and during elections is an important concern in this regard. For example, a series of legislative measures in Azerbaijan, including the criminalization of “online slander or insults”, reportedly had the effect of restraining the role of the media in the lead-up to the October 2013 elections.[[fn:25]] Violations of the right to freedom of expression also arise more broadly when existing laws are selectively interpreted or enforced by the State to crack down on specific forms of media content. Laws that are overly broad in scope and incorporate insufficient accountability mechanisms and protections against abuse are vulnerable to selective interpretation and enforcement.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "B. Regulatory and legal measures that restrict or undermine freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Recent reports testify that States also seek to restrain free expression during elections by prohibiting access to certain media sources and outlets, for example through blocking online websites and blogs. In 2013, civil society reported restrictions on critical newspaper distribution networks, and the blocking of opposition websites, Facebook and YouTube in the run-up to four different elections. The Special Rapporteur publicly joined other experts in indicating their concern at reports of harassment of human rights defenders and attempts to silence media outlets and websites in Malaysia before elections scheduled to take place in May 2013.[[fn:26]] In March 2014, the Special Rapporteur voiced his serious concerns at Government measures taken to restrict access to YouTube and Twitter before elections in Turkey.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "B. Regulatory and legal measures that restrict or undermine freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "OHCHR, “Malaysia: UN rights experts call for the protection of NGOs working for free and fair elections”, press release, 7 June 2012."}, {"n": 27, "text": "OHCHR, “Turkey: First Twitter, now YouTube – UN rights experts concerned at attempts to restrict access before elections”, press release, 28 March 2014."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The effective functioning of a vibrant democratic political system rests on the realization by the State of its responsibility to ensure an environment in which a diverse range of political opinions and ideas can be freely and openly expressed and debated. The realization of the right to freedom of expression during electoral processes thus depends on the promotion of the independence and diversity of media and of the pluralism of political candidates and groups, by means of which political ideas can be tested, analysed and communicated to the voters.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "C. Absence of pluralistic political and media environments"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. The media play a fundamental and critical role in guaranteeing and facilitating free expression during electoral processes: as the conduit between the voters and their political representatives, the media provide a platform for the transmission of political ideas; educate voters about candidates and their affiliations and about the election process itself; scrutinize political promises and test their strength and veracity; and ensure accountability in the electoral process by reflecting the mood of the populace, conducting polls, examining election procedures and identifying undue influence in the electoral process. The only way to ensure that each of the essential functions is conducted in an equal and unimpeded manner is to provide the media with an independent space to publish freely, without fear of retribution or attack.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "C. Absence of pluralistic political and media environments"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. A pluralistic electoral process is also undermined by the unregulated financing of, and spending by, political campaigns. As the Global Commission on Elections, Democracy and Security (a joint initiative by the Kofi Annan Foundation and the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance) recognized in 2012, “uncontrolled political finance threatens to hollow out democracy and rob it of its unique strengths”.[[fn:28]] In many countries, the absence of regulations controlling campaign financing and spending creates the conditions for wealthy individuals and groups to exert influence and power over political candidates and groups, and provides an unequal advantage to wealthy political participants. Furthermore, groups of organized criminals are able to exploit unregulated and unenforced political financing regimes to buy political influence and even protection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "C. Absence of pluralistic political and media environments"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Global Commission on Elections, Democracy and Security, “Deepening Democracy: A Strategy for Improving the Integrity of Elections Worldwide”, 2012, available from www.idea.int/publications/deepening-democracy/loader.cfm?csModule=security/getfile&pageid=54594, p. 3."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Unregulated campaign financing practices have recently been recognized by some authorities as a key contributor to political corruption.[[fn:29]] Countries such as Switzerland and Sweden have received criticism for the absence of national regulation of political financing, and political party financing systems in Denmark, Germany and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland have also been called into question by transparency advocates.[[fn:30]] Evaluations by the Council of Europe Group of States against Corruption on Andorra, Denmark and Malta[[fn:31]] identified as a concern the legal gaps allowing anonymous party and campaign financing, in contravention of its transparency recommendations.[[fn:32]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "C. Absence of pluralistic political and media environments"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See, for example, “Don’t Trivialise Corruption, Tackle It”, address by Dr. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala at TEDxEuston, available from www.modernghana.com/news/516652/1/dont-trivialise-corruption-tackle-it-dr-ngozi-okon.html."}, {"n": 30, "text": "Transparency International, “Money, politics, power: corruption risks in Europe”, www.transparency.org/enis/report, p. 13."}, {"n": 31, "text": "Council of Europe, Group of States against Corruption, Interim compliance report on Denmark (14–16 May 2012), Second compliance report on Malta (2–6 December 2013), Compliance report on Andorra (14–18 October 2013)."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See www.independent.com.mt/articles/2014-01-26/news/maltas-compliance-with-political-finance-reforms-globally-unsatisfactory-3789389827/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. A lack of laws regulating political financing and requiring full disclosure of information on the functioning of political organizations can also give rise to the suggestion or appearance of corruption, causing public mistrust in the political process. Research shows that in the vast majority of European countries, more than 50 per cent of people believe political parties to be “corrupt” or “extremely corrupt” because of illicit financing practices. The perception of widespread political corruption as a result of the failure to regulate political financing often precipitates demonstrations and unrest in the lead-up to elections.[[fn:33]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Common concerns regarding the right to freedom of opinion and expression in electoral processes", "C. Absence of pluralistic political and media environments"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "Transparency International, “Money, politics, power: corruption risks in Europe” (see footnote 30)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The State has a duty to provide a regulatory environment that facilitates a diverse range of political positions and ensures that voters have access to comprehensive, accurate and reliable information about all aspects of the electoral process. This may require the imposition of regulations that stipulate restrictions on campaigning, advertising, polling, spending and financing. Such restrictions must be designed to achieve the objective of providing a pluralistic and fair playing field, upon which political groups can communicate their ideas, and must have at their heart the protection and promotion of freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. In the present section, the Special Rapporteur attempts to canvass in broad terms the pillars of an equitable legal framework that would ensure the protection of the freedom of opinion and expression during electoral processes. He recognizes, however, that a plurality of political systems exists and does not attempt to prescribe, in absolute terms, how States should design their legal systems. He simply suggests the types of regulatory framework that are most conducive to protecting human rights in the context of political communications and electoral processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "States should take general measures to encourage a diverse and pluralistic political process that is hospitable to ideologies from across the political spectrum. An important element of achieving this is ensuring that all political candidates’ parties have access to the media for campaigning and advertising purposes. Public campaigning is the central means that political parties and candidates employ to publicize their platforms and express their opinions, and to communicate their message to the voters. Political campaigns generally employ a diverse range of mediums, from pamphlets, posters and direct mail-outs, to addresses via radio and television, online and in the print media. Access by all political candidates and parties to all campaigning mediums is essential to ensuring an equal and pluralistic electoral process that facilitates the free flow of information and ideas.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "1. Political campaigning and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. One important element of political campaigning during electoral processes is the provision to all parties and candidates of direct access to media outlets for allotted times. While the media play an essential role in facilitating political campaigns and providing scrutiny and analysis of political positions, direct access to broadcast media enables parties to speak in their own voice. The vast majority of established democracies have put in place regulations stipulating that all candidates be able to directly access publicly-owned broadcast media services for specific times on an equal basis. In some cases, these provisions also extend to access to privately owned broadcasters.[[fn:34]] The order of direct access is generally determined either on the basis of the previous performance of a given party or candidate, or through a ballot process. Media guidelines issued by the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC)[[fn:35]] include the principle of fair access to media outlets for all parties contesting the election, which was a central concern.[[fn:36]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "1. Political campaigning and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "See Global Campaign for Free Expression, “Freedom of expression and the Angolan elections”, available from www.article19.org/data/files/pdfs/publications/angola-foe-elections.pdf."}, {"n": 35, "text": "UNTAC, Media Guidelines for Cambodia (1992), pream., para. 4."}, {"n": 36, "text": "See especially ibid., guidelines 2, 4 and 7–10."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. It is essential to the protection of freedom of expression during electoral processes that political parities and candidates are free to express ideas and communicate about any issue that they see fit. Unregulated expression and access to information are at their most crucial during times of political change, and any restrictions upon political expression can seriously threaten the democratic process. The European Court of Human Rights has previously spoken out against restraints on political speech, particularly prior restraints.[[fn:37]] Accordingly, campaign speech should not be regulated or restrained, unless it falls within a well-recognized understanding of restricted expression as recognized under international human rights law. The United Nations Technical Team on the Malawi Referendum has noted that, in order to ensure free political expression during electoral processes, any restrictions on expression must be exceptional and “should not be so vague or broadly defined as to leave an overly wide margin of discretion to the authorities responsible for enforcing the law, since uncertainty over legal boundaries has a dampening effect on the exercise of this right [to freedom of expression] and may encourage discrimination in ... [the restrictions’] application”.[[fn:38]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "1. Political campaigning and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "For example, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) has ruled that, “freedom of political debate is at the very core of the concept a democratic society….” Lingens v. Austria, Judgment of 8 July 1986, Application No. 9815/82 (see footnote 7), para. 42."}, {"n": 38, "text": "Report of the United Nations Technical Team on the Conduct of a Free and Fair Referendum on the Issue of a One Party/Multiparty System in Malawi (15–21 Nov. 1992), para. 29."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Another way that political parties and candidates seek to publicize their platforms and garner votes is by paying for political advertising. The regulation of political advertising is a contentious issue. Whereas political advertising can be an important means by which political parties, particularly those with less public visibility, can educate voters, unlimited and unregulated paid political advertising increases dependence on campaign finance and gives an unfair advantage to well-financed political candidates.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "1. Political campaigning and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. States have taken a variety of approaches to paid political advertising. In some countries paid political advertising is a central pillar of political processes and is not strictly regulated.[[fn:39]] Other States, particularly those with a strong history of public broadcasting, have an outright prohibition of paid campaign advertising on radio and television.[[fn:40]] Some legal frameworks have taken a middle ground approach, putting in place financial limits on paid advertising spending, paired with rules on equitable pricing, timing, duration and scheduling of advertising.[[fn:41]] In other situations, it is the electoral authority which is mandated to allocate electoral publicity by channelling public funds to different contenders in proportion to previous election results, with basic minimum support assured for new parties.[[fn:42]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "1. Political campaigning and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "This is the case, for example, of the United States of America. See Centre for Law and Democracy, “Regulation of paid political advertising: a survey”, available from www.law-democracy.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/03/Elections-and-Broadcasting-Final.pdf."}, {"n": 40, "text": "This is the case, for example, in the United Kingdom, France, Ireland and Belgium: See Centre for Law and Democracy, “Regulation of Paid Political Advertising: A Survey” (see footnote 39)."}, {"n": 41, "text": "This is the case, for example, in Barbados, Canada and Poland; see Centre for Law and Democracy, “Regulation of paid political advertising: a survey” (see footnote 39)."}, {"n": 42, "text": "This would be the case of Mexico."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Those who support unregulated paid political advertising often argue that it is an essential guarantor of freedom of expression in political and electoral processes. However, where paid political advertising presents an unfair advantage to certain political parties over others, and increases reliance on campaign financing, it may create unequal conditions for electoral processes. The European Court of Human Rights has recently recognized this, stating that the prohibition of paid political advertising was a justifiable limitation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression because it could protect against “powerful financial groups with advantageous access to influential media … obtain[ing] competitive advantages in the area of paid advertising and thereby curtail[ing] a free and pluralist debate, of which the State remains the ultimate guarantor.”[[fn:43]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "1. Political campaigning and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "Case of Animal Defenders International v. The United Kingdom, Application no. 48876/08, 22 April 2013, para. [111]."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. States should therefore consider whether unrestricted paid political advertising may destabilize the playing field and impede the equal participation of certain parties or candidates in political campaigns. In all circumstances, paid political advertising should always be identified as such, and should not be disguised as news or editorial coverage.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "1. Political campaigning and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. The ability of a political party to generate funds to support the various costs related to political communication and campaigning is an additional determining factor as to whether a party is able to participate fully in elections, and is thus a central pillar of ensuring plurality in political and electoral processes. A political party may be indirectly prevented from participating fully in an election if it is unable to raise financing from diverse sources. Poorly regulated political finance has the potential to undermine the integrity of elections by enabling individuals or groups to exert undue influence on political candidates or parties, and may facilitate vote buying or bribery. Equally, restrictions that limit the ways in which a political party may disburse funds raised may also impede full and free participation in political and electoral processes, while unlimited political spending benefits wealthier candidates and parties and undermines political equality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "1. Political campaigning and expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Pluralistic electoral processes depend on the existence of a diverse range of media sources to convey ideas and educate the voters. States have the obligation to guarantee the right to access information and this entails, inter alia, promoting the independence and diversity of media. The media provide a platform for candidates to publicize their platforms and messages, and for analysing proposed policies, scrutinizing the political process and ensuring its integrity, and holding candidates and incumbents to account. A level electoral playing field is impossible without free, pluralistic and unrestricted media. To this end, national legal frameworks should be based on the fundamental premise that the media must be free from political influence and should not be restricted or regulated, particularly during electoral processes. Self-regulation is arguably the most effective means of ensuring that the media live up to their own ethical standards while remaining free from the influence of the State.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "2. Media diversity and independence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. However, the media must be encouraged to put in place mechanisms to ensure that all media actors adhere to the highest ethical standards of objective reporting, and guarantee equal coverage of political parties in a way that facilitates broad voter education and ensures all parties across the political spectrum are heard.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "2. Media diversity and independence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Where media are State-owned, national legal frameworks should ensure that all political parties have access to them and are treated fairly and equitably. When paid political advertising is allowed, private media outlets should be required to charge all parties and candidates the same rates without discrimination.[[fn:44]] The incumbent government or candidates should not be given preferential or disproportionately large media coverage.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "2. Media diversity and independence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "Global Commission on Elections, Democracy and Security, “Media access and freedom of expression”, available from www.idea.int/publications/ies/upload/10.%20Media%20access%20and%20freedom%20of%20expression.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. State-owned or public media broadcasters bear an extra responsibility to ensure that the political platforms of all candidates and parties across the political spectrum are given coverage. Furthermore, public media sources have an important role in ensuring critical analysis and the availability of countervailing viewpoints. Several national courts have ruled that State-run media have a responsibility to publish replies by critics of the Government to government statements on controversial issues.[[fn:45]] The Supreme Court of India, for example, recognized the right of reply to political statements in the columns of a government-owned publication. The Court held that a public-sector agency publishing an in-house journal, owing to its status as an instrument of government, had a duty of fairness to its readers, and demanded that both viewpoints be placed before its readers, however limited be their number, to enable them to draw their own conclusions.[[fn:46]] The media guidelines issued by UNTAC also set out the duty of balance and impartiality in detail. Guideline 8 provides: “Media outlets should give parties, groups or individuals whose views have been misrepresented or maligned by a publication or broadcast the ‘right of response’ in the same media outlet”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "2. Media diversity and independence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "Guidelines for Election Broadcasting in Transitional Democracies (1994, reprinted 1997), available from www.article19.org/data/files/pdfs/tools/electionbroadcastingtrans.pdf."}, {"n": 46, "text": "Manubhai Shah v. Life Insurance Corp. of India [1992] 3 SCC 637."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Any regulation requiring impartiality should only extend to licensed broadcasters, and should not purport to restrict the content of print or online media sources, which should be available as a means of communicating all political viewpoints. Self-regulation is the most appropriate means of ensuring that the media are able to fulfil their important duty to facilitate the free flow of ideas and communications across the political spectrum. The media must be empowered to publish any and all political communications and campaign speeches, including those containing criticism of an incumbent government or candidate.[[fn:47]] In a broad sense, media should not be made liable for disseminating, without endorsement, unlawful statements, or be restrained from publishing such statements; this principle is of particular importance during electoral processes given the imperative for timely dissemination of information. Imposing liability on the media promotes self-censorship by privately owned media and de facto government censorship of government-controlled media.[[fn:48]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "A. Promoting plurality", "2. Media diversity and independence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "See Global Campaign for Free Expression, “Freedom of expression and the Angolan elections” (see footnote 35)."}, {"n": 48, "text": "Guidelines for Election Broadcasting in Transitional Democracies (see footnote 46), p. 58."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Critically, any regulatory framework pertaining to electoral processes must have as a key objective the achievement of transparency in all facets of political life and discourse. A transparent political process is open to scrutiny by the voters and the media, and enables all players in the process to be held accountable, from political candidates, to public broadcasters, to the electoral authorities. This is the most effective means of ensuring that opinions and ideas can be freely and fully expressed, communicated, debated and promoted during electoral processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "B. Ensuring transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Transparency of political financing is a critical prerequisite for any effective democratic process, and a key means of ensuring the equitable protection of free expression rights. Political finance may come either from private financing, in the form of individual campaign contributions or contributions from the private sector, or from public financing, where the Government contributes. Increasingly, States are focusing on regulating political finance to ensure transparency and to attempt to achieve an equal playing field for political parties.[[fn:49]] There is a general regulatory trend towards the restriction of private financing and the prohibition of donations from foreign States or companies, public authorities and anonymous persons. This is particularly the case given the rise of third-party financing, where individuals, or more often groups or corporate entities, campaign for or against a political party to which they are ostensibly unrelated.[[fn:50]] Whereas third-party financing can be an important means for private sector groups or civil society organizations to promote their chosen candidates or parties, it can also make it difficult for the voting public to know what interests are exerting influence on particular political parties and candidates.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "B. Ensuring transparency", "1. Political financing"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "See Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, “Transparency and integrity in political finance”, available from www.oecd.org/about/membersandpartners/publicaffairs/Transparency%20and%20Integrity%20in%20Political%20Finance.pdf."}, {"n": 50, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. At the same time, many States are moving towards increased public funding for political parties to promote a level playing field and reduce dependence on private funding. In some countries this takes the form of a direct transfer of money without restrictions upon its use; in others public financing includes free access to specific State services such as transport, media or government property, or tax exemptions on contributions made to political parties.[[fn:51]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "B. Ensuring transparency", "1. Political financing"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "Transparency and accountability around political financing are key to ensuring the fairness and integrity of elections. The Global Commission on Elections, Democracy and Security identified the regulation of uncontrolled, undisclosed or opaque political finance as one of five major challenges that must be overcome to conduct elections with integrity.[[fn:52]] Increasingly, States are setting limits on how parties may spend their funds, in order to reduce the costs of elections and minimize the potential for undue influence of donors on political candidates. Many States also require the disclosure of expenditure reports of parties and candidates, in order to promote public scrutiny and informed voting by citizens. Political finance reporting should be comprehensive, timely, available to the public and subject to stringent sanctions for inadequate disclosure or timeliness.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "B. Ensuring transparency", "1. Political financing"], "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "See Global Commission on Elections, Democracy and Security “Deepening Democracy: A Strategy for Improving the Integrity of Elections Worldwide”, 2012 (see footnote 28)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. Political finance is a key concern when protecting and promoting the freedom of opinion and expression in electoral and political processes are being considered. Restraining campaign spending and creating an equal playing field for political parties and candidates are key to ensuring that citizens have access to a diverse range of opinions and political choices. At the same time, the provision of financial support to a political party may in itself be an act of political expression. A careful balance must therefore be struck by each State, reflecting local political values and legal frameworks, while at the same time conforming with international human rights norms. This would require, at a minimum, that States ensure that there is independent monitoring and oversight of political financing, and that every effort is made to ensure that organized crime is prohibited from using campaign financing as a means to gain political influence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "B. Ensuring transparency", "1. Political financing"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. An essential area of transparency during electoral processes relates to the ownership of, and influence exerted over, the media. The increasing consolidation of media outlets in the hands of fewer and fewer companies is of serious concern in the context of political communication. Given the critical public service role played by the media, this monopolization undermines diversity of opinion, raises the risk that information will be controlled or censored, and creates opportunities for bribery, manipulation or exploitation by powerful political or social groups. Furthermore, with increasing frequency, national media sources are, in part or in full, foreign owned. While foreign ownership of media outlets does not in itself undermine the ability of media sources to promote freedom of opinion and expression, it obfuscates the influence structures and may create mistrust in the voting public.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "B. Ensuring transparency", "2. Media ownership and influence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. Transparency of media ownership enables readers, viewers and voters to understand the structures of influence that underpin the campaign, advertising and editorial content that so often determine their political choices. States should find a way, either through regulatory policy or industry-led self-regulation processes, to promote greater transparency in media ownership and influence. The public has a right to know the identities of the corporate entities and individuals that influence the media sources upon which it relies for information during electoral processes. However, the requirement for transparency of private media ownership should not be used as a means of de facto media licensing.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "B. Ensuring transparency", "2. Media ownership and influence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. States should ensure that, in addition to promoting diversity of media ownership and making financing and influence structures transparent, they educate the public about the importance of understanding how media outlets are financed, and encourage critical thinking about how editorial content is developed and how it might reflect the persuasions or biases of media owners.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "B. Ensuring transparency", "2. Media ownership and influence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. The only way for States to ensure that freedom of opinion and expression is freely enjoyed and protected during electoral processes is to ensure that mechanisms are in place to monitor, record, address and provide redress for violations of free expression rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "C. Advancing accountability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Harassment of, and violence or threats against, journalists, bloggers or other members of the media, activists or political candidates or parties must be prohibited by law and subject to criminal penalties. Equally, as the Human Rights Council recognized in its resolution 21/12 on the safety of journalists, States must ensure accountability through the conduct of impartial, speedy and effective investigations into such acts and bring to justice those responsible, as well as ensuring that victims have access to appropriate remedies. Accountability mechanisms are the only way to ensure that such attacks do not occur with impunity, undermining not only the free expression rights of those involved, but the integrity of the electoral process. States should also ensure that legal frameworks protect the rights to peaceful assembly and association during electoral processes, and should eliminate any practical barriers to the conduct of protests and demonstrations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "C. Advancing accountability", "1. Redress for attacks against journalists, activists and political candidates"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. In many States, electoral commissions are endowed with a range of responsibilities that are an essential guarantee against violations of the right to freedom of expression during electoral processes. Those responsibilities include election monitoring, the regulation of political funding, the provision of direct access to public broadcasting media and the monitoring of political speech. However, electoral commissions are often badly resourced and lack the necessary regulatory mandate and enforcement powers to fulfil their responsibilities and guarantee accountability and transparency in the electoral process. In order to ensure that electoral commissions are integral in a free, fair and accountable democratic process, States should ensure that they are given sufficient financial and human resources, and enforcement powers, to carry out their duties effectively and efficiently.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "C. Advancing accountability", "2. Electoral commissions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Opinion polls can be an important source of accountability, by providing information for voters, educating them about the political landscape and contextualizing the electoral process. However, some argue that opinion polls may also operate to influence the voting pattern of electorates on the basis of the opinions of a small and non-representative segment of society. When opinion polls are conducted by corporate media entities, there are also concerns that they may allow the private sector to exert influence on the outcome of electoral processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "C. Advancing accountability", "3. Opinion polls"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. Concerns about the possible manipulation of opinion polls to influence electoral processes lead some States to restrict the dissemination of poll results for short periods leading up to an election; in general the period ranges from 24 to 36 hours. This restriction is sometimes justified by the limited capacity for verification of the methodology used by the polling agency before the election takes place. In order to ensure transparency and avoid the misuse of opinion polls, some countries have adopted requirements on the public disclosure of the methodology implemented in opinion polling exercises.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "C. Advancing accountability", "3. Opinion polls"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Exit polling, where voters are surveyed upon exiting a polling booth, are also considered risky when their results are reported while votes are being counted. Thus, many countries prevent the publication of exit polls until the conclusion of voting.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Towards a legal framework that protects freedom of expression in electoral processes", "C. Advancing accountability", "3. Opinion polls"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. Freedom of expression plays a central role in ensuring that political processes are open, free and fair, thus guaranteeing a functioning and effective democracy. The right to participate in public life cannot be fully realized without ensuring the right to freedom of opinion and expression in all its dimensions. Free elections become impossible if candidates and political groups are unable to freely promote their ideas or if the media cannot operate with safety and independence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. During electoral processes, States must ensure that the right to freedom of expression is guaranteed to political candidates and their supporters, opposition groups, political lobbies and the whole spectrum of media actors, from news media to bloggers, commentators and analysts. Political communications must be unhindered by restrictions that hamper the fluid exchange of opinions, whether such restrictions come in the form of explicit prohibitions of certain political positions, or limitations that indirectly “chill” the expression of the opinions of political groups, such as controls of media content or on public demonstrations. At the same time, the absence of a regulatory framework to control political financing and spending, or to ensure accountability and redress for rights violations, also undermines the ability of voters, political groups and the media to exercise the right to freedom of expression during electoral processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. The call for an open political debate should not be misunderstood as a call for unregulated political campaigns. The adequate regulation of political communications is crucial to ensuring a just and equitable space for public dialogue and access to information. In a democratic society, elections must never be ruled by market logic, with those having greater access to financial support controlling the public debate through their disproportionate access to publicity and the media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. Examples from around the world indicate that the regulation of political and electoral communications can both enhance and undermine the enjoyment of free expression rights during political processes. Therefore, States must carefully evaluate the impact of each norm and ensure that an equitable balance is struck in providing for a structural environment that will enhance freedom of expression while not hindering the independent role of the media or the content of political expression. To ensure the adequate translation of norms into practice, it is critical that judicial entities and electoral authorities tasked with overseeing respect for the right to freedom of expression in electoral processes are totally independent and sufficiently resourced to implement their mandates in a timely and effective way. States should also take measures to prevent speech that constitutes incitement to hatred, hostility, discrimination and violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. Whereas the international human rights framework does not establish specific prescriptions for national regulation of political and electoral communications, it does provide very clear guiding principles that should frame the establishment and implementation of all regulations. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that, besides promoting an adequate environment for the work of the media, States should seek to ensure the fulfilment of three key tenets in order to ensure the protection and promotion of freedom of expression during electoral processes: pluralism, transparency and accountability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. In conclusion, the Special Rapporteur provides the following recommendations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. In order to secure a diverse and pluralistic political process which is hospitable to candidates and parties from across the political spectrum, States should:\n(a) Remove any regulation of or restriction upon political speech and expression, outside of restrictions that fall within well-recognized understandings of the permissible limitations on freedom of expression as recognized in international human rights law;\n(b) Remove any restrictions or regulations that might place the media under political influence or compromise the vital role of the media as public watchdog; and take appropriate action, consistent with relevant human rights standards, to promote media diversity and prevent undue media dominance or concentration;\n(c) Put in place measures to ensure that all political candidates and parties have direct access to State-owned broadcast media services for specific times on an equal basis, which access is determined either on the basis of the previous performance of a given party or candidate or through a ballot process, and that they are treated fairly and equitably by those services;\n(d) Permanently assess the impact of private financing of political communication in the promotion of a plural debate; and consider adopting ceilings for donations to political campaigns in order to prevent financial imbalances from destabilizing the playing field and disproportionately limiting the participation of certain parties or candidates in political campaigns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Promote pluralism"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. The obligations to promote the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression require that States guarantee the transparency of all aspects of political and electoral processes, and should particularly put in place measures to:\n(a) Enact regulations requiring the submission of periodic financial reports by parties, political organizations and candidates, entailing full disclosure of all resources collected, in monetary form or in kind, and their origin, and all expenditure, in order to promote public scrutiny and informed voting by citizens. Political finance reporting should be comprehensive, timely, available to the public, and subject to stringent sanctions for inadequate disclosure or timeliness;\n(b) Put in place measures to ensure that, in all circumstances, paid political advertising is identified as such and not disguised as news or editorial coverage, and that the origin of its financial backing is evident;\n(c) Ensure that the implementation of political financing regulations is overseen, monitored and enforced by the electoral authorities, the judiciary and other independent bodies;\n(d) Take measures to prevent those involved in criminal activity from using campaign financing as a means to gain political influence;\n(e) Promote transparency of media ownership, making public the identity of the owners and how it might reflect their persuasions or biases;\n(f) Ensure that there is sufficient transparency around the means and methodology of opinion polling; and consider prohibiting the dissemination of polling results 24 to 36 hours preceding voting.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Ensure transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-30-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-26-30", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. Accountability mechanisms are a crucial means of ensuring that regulatory frameworks are enforced and abuses of power are rectified. Impunity is a root cause of the lack of safety faced by journalists. In the context of promoting free expression during electoral processes, States should:\n(a) Ensure that electoral authorities or independent oversight bodies are given sufficient financial and human resources, and enforcement powers to carry out their duties effectively, making all political entities accountable for irregularities, including all forms of abuse of political and economic powers;\n(b) Guarantee the safety of journalists and media workers; legislative and policy measures must be adopted to prevent attacks against journalists and to eradicate impunity in relation to episodes of violence and intimidation;\n(c) Call on journalists and the media to seek the highest standards of professionalism and ethics through the promotion of self-regulation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Ensure accountability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0001", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report is submitted to the General Assembly by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression pursuant to Human Rights Council resolutions 7/36 and 16/4. In particular, in resolution 7/36, the Council requested the Special Rapporteur “to continue to provide his/her views, when appropriate, on the advantages and challenges of new information and communications technologies, including the Internet and mobile technologies, for the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to seek, receive and impart information and the relevance of a wide diversity of sources, as well as access to the information society for all”.[[fn:1]] On that basis, the report expands upon the last report submitted to the Council by the Special Rapporteur on key trends and challenges to the right of all individuals to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds through the Internet (A/HRC/17/27).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Human Rights Council resolution 7/36, para. 4 (f)."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0002", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The report addresses the issue through two equally important dimensions of Internet access: access to content online (sect. III), and access to Internet connection (sect. IV). While there are countries where Internet access is widely available, online content may be heavily restricted. In other countries, even though individuals may have access to online content free of censorship, Internet access may not be widely available for the majority of the population. The Special Rapporteur thus emphasizes that both aspects of access should be effectively ensured by all States as part of their existing obligation to respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["I. Introduction"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0003", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. On 6 and 7 April 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated as an expert in the second regional workshop on the prohibition of incitement to national, racial or religious hatred in Nairobi, organized by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0004", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. Between 1 and 3 May 2011, the Special Rapporteur took part in a number of events and conferences for the World Press Freedom Day in Washington, D.C. On 16 and 17 May, the Special Rapporteur participated as a panellist in a conference on “Civil protest and peaceful change: Upholding human rights”, organized by the Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights. On 30 and 31 May, the Special Rapporteur participated in a conference with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Parliament of the Netherlands, and in a conference at the University of Leiden.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0005", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. On 1 and 2 June 2011, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Hungary, at the invitation of the Government, to meet with members of the Parliament and civil society representatives concerning media legislation. On 3 June, the Special Rapporteur presented his annual report to the Human Rights Council in Geneva. On 5 June, the Special Rapporteur participated in a panel on freedom of expression and youth violence prevention at the General Assembly of the Organization of American States.", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0006", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. On 6 and 7 July 2011, the Special Rapporteur participated as an expert in the third of the regional workshops on the prohibition of incitement to national, racial or religious hatred in Bangkok, organized by OHCHR. From 8 to 16 July, the Special Rapporteur participated in a series of academic events organized by civil society organizations in Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia and Indonesia.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "A. Participation in meetings and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0007", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. From 10 to 17 April 2011, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Algeria. The mission report will be presented at a future session of the Human Rights Council in 2012. The press release with his initial conclusions and recommendations can be found on the OHCHR website.[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Country visits", "1. Missions undertaken in 2011"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Available from http://www.ohchr.org."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0008", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. The visit of the Special Rapporteur to Israel and the Occupied Palestinian territory has been postponed. The visit will take place from 4 to 18 December 2011.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Country visits", "2. Upcoming missions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0009", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. As of March 2011, the following visit requests from the Special Rapporteur were pending: the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (requested 2003 and 2009); the Islamic Republic of Iran (requested February 2010); Sri Lanka (requested June 2009); Tunisia (requested 2009); and Uganda (requested 2011).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["II. Activities of the Special Rapporteur", "B. Country visits", "3. Pending requests"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0010", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The Internet has become a vital communications medium which individuals can use to exercise their right to freedom of expression, or the right to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, as guaranteed under articles 19 of both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Like no other communications medium before it, the Internet allows individuals to communicate instantaneously and inexpensively, and it has had a dramatic impact on the way information and ideas are shared and accessed, and on journalism itself.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text: 'articles 19 of both the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'. Regex_ref=ICCPR, explicit treaty=ICCPR. While UDHR is also cited, the mandatory ICCPR reference is explicit and unambiguous."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0011", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. While the Internet offers new and expanded opportunities to disseminate and access information and ideas of all kinds, it would be naive and dangerous to ignore its simultaneous use as a tool to monitor, identify, locate and target individuals who disseminate critical or sensitive information via the Internet. Moreover, the vast amount of personal information that is made available online, including through social networking sites, also pose serious concerns regarding the right to privacy, such as who has access to specific personal information, how the information is used, and whether, and for how long, the information is stored. The Special Rapporteur has previously underscored the importance of the role of Governments in fully guaranteeing the right to privacy of all individuals, without which the right to freedom of opinion and expression cannot be fully enjoyed.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See A/HRC/17/27, paras. 53-59."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0012", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Despite the potential for the Internet to be misused in illegal activities, the Special Rapporteur believes that the Internet can primarily be used as a positive tool to increase transparency over the conduct of those in power, access diverse sources of information, facilitate active citizen participation in building democratic societies and counter authoritarian regimes, as demonstrated by the “Arab spring”. Hence, the Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate that, as a general rule, there should be as little restriction as possible to the flow of information on the Internet, except under a few, very exceptional and limited circumstances prescribed by international law for the protection of other human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0013", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Anyone with access to the Internet can now potentially disseminate information to a global audience. In situations where journalists have limited access, for example during times of humanitarian crises or natural disasters, images recorded on mobile phones or messages posted online by bloggers and social networking sites have played a key role in keeping the international community informed of the situation on the ground. Indeed, with the increased use of Web 2.0 platforms, information is no longer an exclusive preserve of professional journalists, since a far wider range of people take part in gathering, filtering and distributing news. “Crowdsourcing” is one example which exemplifies such a trend. At the same time, traditional communications media, such as television, radio and newspaper, can also use the Internet to expand their audiences at nominal cost. While the increasing relevance and reliance on amateur videos and first-hand account of events posted on the Internet have had a profound effect on the news industry, professional journalists continue to play an indispensable role in researching, organizing and providing analysis and context to news events. The Internet should thus be seen as a complementary medium to mass media that has been based on a one-way transmission of information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0014", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. The Special Rapporteur reiterates that the framework of international human rights law, in particular the provisions relating to the right to freedom of expression, continues to remain relevant and applicable to the Internet. Indeed, by explicitly providing that everyone has the right to freedom of expression through any media of choice, regardless of frontiers, articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights were drafted with the foresight to include and accommodate future technological developments through which individuals may exercise this right.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text: 'articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights were drafted with the foresight to include and accommodate future technological developments'. Regex=ICCPR, explicit_treaty=ICCPR. The ICCPR citation is co-equal but the mandatory treaty is clear."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0015", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Hence, the types of information or expression that may be restricted under international human rights law in relation to offline content also apply to online content. Similarly, any restriction applied to the right to freedom of expression exercised through the Internet must also comply with international human rights law, including the following three-part, cumulative criteria:\n(a) Any restriction must be provided by law, which must be formulated with sufficient precision to enable an individual to regulate his or her conduct accordingly and must be made accessible to the public;\n(b) Any restriction must pursue one of the legitimate grounds for restriction set out in article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant, namely (i) respect of the rights or reputation of others; or (ii) the protection of national security or of public order, or of public health or morals;\n(c) Any restriction must be proven as necessary and proportionate, or the least restrictive means to achieve one of the specified goals listed above.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0016", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The Special Rapporteur welcomes the recently adopted general comment No. 34 of the Human Rights Committee on article 19 of the International Covenant, which underscores that when a State invokes a legitimate ground for restriction of the right to freedom of expression, it must demonstrate in specific and individualized fashion the precise nature of the threat, the necessity and the proportionality of the specific action taken, in particular by establishing a direct and immediate connection between the expression and the threat.[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 36."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0017", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. The Special Rapporteur also deems it appropriate to reiterate that the restriction must not put in jeopardy the right itself, and the relationship between right and restriction and between norm and exception must not be reversed.[[fn:5]] In addition, any legislation restricting the right to freedom of expression must be applied by a body that is independent of any political, commercial or other unwarranted influences in a manner which is neither arbitrary nor discriminatory, and with adequate safeguards against abuse, including the possibility of challenge and remedy against its abusive application.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Ibid., para. 21."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0018", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. The Special Rapporteur underscores that there are differences between illegal content, which States are required to prohibit under international law, such as child pornography, and those that are considered harmful, offensive, objectionable or undesirable, but which States are neither required to prohibit nor criminalize. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur believes that it is important to make a clear distinction between three types of expression: (a) expression that constitutes an offence under international law and can be prosecuted criminally; (b) expression that is not criminally punishable but may justify a restriction and a civil suit; and (c) expression that does not give rise to criminal or civil sanctions, but still raises concerns in terms of tolerance, civility and respect for others. These different categories of content pose different issues of principle and call for different legal and technological responses.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0019", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. In the light of the ongoing debate regarding the regulation of content on the Internet, the Special Rapporteur outlines the types of expression which States are exceptionally required to prohibit under international criminal law and/or international human rights law (III.A) and then refers to impermissible restrictions (III.B).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0020", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Addressing child pornography online has become a major focus for regulation owing to the fact that the Internet has become the main gateway for the distribution of such content. The dissemination of child pornography is explicitly prohibited under international law, notably in the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography (defined in article 2 (c)). The Optional Protocol requires States parties to ensure that, as a minimum, producing, distributing, disseminating, importing, exporting, offering, selling or possessing child pornography (for purposes set out in article 3) are fully covered under its criminal or penal law, whether such offences are committed domestically or transnationally or on an individual or organized basis (article 3, para. 1 (c)).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "1. Child pornography"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "2", "treaty": "CRC-OPSC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'defined in article 2 (c)' referring to the Optional Protocol to the CRC on the sale of children — CRC-OPSC art. 2 (definition of child pornography). Regex defaulted to CRC but textual evidence is unambiguous."}, {"article": "3", "treaty": "CRC-OPSC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "First occurrence: 'for purposes set out in article 3' — the same Optional Protocol (CRC-OPSC) art. 3 (offences to be criminalised)."}, {"article": "3", "paragraph": "1", "treaty": "CRC-OPSC", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second occurrence: 'article 3, para. 1 (c)' — explicitly CRC-OPSC art. 3(1)(c)."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0021", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Child pornography is therefore a clear exception to the rule, and dissemination of content via the Internet is legitimately restricted, and States are even required to prohibit it as a criminal offence. As noted by the Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography in her report to the Council at its twelfth session, the relevant legislation should be clear and comprehensive and should treat child pornography on the Internet as a grave violation of the rights of the child and as a criminal act.[[fn:6]] The Special Rapporteur considers that child pornography constitutes an act of violence against children and an offence to their human dignity, which provokes more violence against children. Moreover, the victim’s privacy must be protected and appropriate protection measures and care adapted to the needs and characteristics of children must be available.Error: Reference source not found", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "1. Child pornography"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See A/HRC/12/23."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0022", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. The Special Rapporteur underscores that, as with any limitation, legislation prohibiting the dissemination of child pornography through the Internet, for example through the use of blocking and filtering technologies, must be sufficiently precise, and that there must be adequate and effective safeguards against abuse or misuse, including oversight and review by an independent and impartial tribunal or regulatory body. In addition, the Special Rapporteur reiterates that given the links between the sale of children, trafficking in children, forced labour, child prostitution, sex tourism and child pornography, States must also go beyond blocking measures to address the root causes of exploitation of children in a holistic manner and must investigate and prosecute those responsible.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "1. Child pornography"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0023", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. International criminal law prohibits direct and public incitement to commit genocide under article 3 of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, article 25, 3 (e), of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, article 4, 3 (c), of the statute of the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, and article 2, 3 (c), of the statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. Incitement to commit genocide has historically been justified as a criminal offence owing to the particularly reprehensible nature of genocide as “the crime of crimes”.[[fn:7]] Indeed, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda has repeatedly underscored the “utmost gravity” of the crime of direct and public incitement to genocide, and has stressed that the media as a key tool used by extremists in Rwanda to mobilize and incite the population to genocide, a view which led it to deny an application by Georges Ruggiu for early release.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "2. Direct and public incitement to commit genocide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See Prosecutor v. Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96-4-T, October 1998, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Prosecutor v. Riggiu, Case No. ICTR-97-32-S (Trial Chamber), 12 May 2005, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "25", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0024", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Since the first conviction for the crime of incitement to commit genocide in 1998,Error: Reference source not found this subject has become the focus of a substantial new body of jurisprudence.[[fn:9]] There are three defining requirements of the crime: it must be direct, public and committed with specific intent (mens rea). The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda has interpreted “direct and public” to include many forms of communication, by stating that “direct and public incitement must be defined … as directly provoking the perpetrator(s) to commit genocide, whether through speeches, shouting or threats uttered in public places or at public gatherings, or through the sale or dissemination, offer for sale or display of written material or printed matter in public places or at public gatherings, or through the public display or placards or posters, or through any other means of audiovisual communication”.Error: Reference source not found", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "2. Direct and public incitement to commit genocide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See, inter alia, Prosecutor v. Nahimana et al., Case No. ICTR-99-52-A, 28 November 2007, and Prosecutor v. Simon Bikindi, Case No. ICTR-01-72-T, 2 December 2008, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0025", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The Special Rapporteur notes the concern that the Internet may be used as a means of inciting others to commit genocide, particularly given its capacity to reach a large audience. In order to prevent any excessive and undue limitation to the right to freedom of expression, the Special Rapporteur underscores that incitement to commit genocide must first be prohibited in domestic law and that any restriction imposed, for example through blocking or removing such expression via the Internet, must only be applied after a careful assessment of the threat of such expression to directly incite genocide, including factors such as the speaker, the intended audience, the content or meaning of the speech, the socio-historical context, the mode of transmission,[[fn:10]] and other indicators as outlined by the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination in its decision on follow-up to the declaration on the prevention of genocide (CERD/C/67/1). The Special Rapporteur also underlines that incitement to commit genocide, which is of utmost gravity, must be distinguished from other types of incitement, such as incitement to discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "2. Direct and public incitement to commit genocide"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See the contribution to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) Initiative on Incitement to National, Racial or Religious Hatred by Susan Benesch, consultant to the United Nations Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, 2011 (see http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/opinion/articles1920_iccpr/experts_papers.htm)."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0026", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. The dissemination of “hate speech” via the Internet has also spurred efforts to regulate online content. There is, however, no definition of hate speech in international law, and the Special Rapporteur notes that many forms of hate speech do not meet the level of seriousness set out in article 20, paragraph 2, of the International Covenant, which stipulates that States shall prohibit by law any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "3. Advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0027", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. As noted in the recently adopted general comment No. 34 on article 19 of the International Covenant by the Human Rights Committee, articles 19 and 20 of the Covenant are compatible with and complement each other, and the acts that are addressed in article 20 are all subject to restriction pursuant to article 19, paragraph 3. Hence, a limitation that is justified on the basis of article 20 must also comply with article 19, paragraph 3.[[fn:11]] Moreover, the Committee has clarified that what distinguishes the acts addressed in article 20 from other acts that may be subject to restriction under article 19, paragraph 3, is that for the acts addressed in article 20, the Covenant indicates the specific response required from the State: their prohibition by law. It is only to this extent that article 20 may be considered as lex specialis with regard to article 19.[[fn:12]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "3. Advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 50."}, {"n": 12, "text": "Ibid., para. 51."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0028", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. There are two key elements of the type of expression that is prohibited under article 20, paragraph 2, of the International Covenant: first, only advocacy of hatred[[fn:13]] is covered, and second, it must constitute incitement[[fn:14]] to one of the three listed results. Thus, advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred is not a breach of article 20, paragraph 2, of the Covenant on its own. Such advocacy becomes an offence only when it also constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence; in other words, when the speaker seeks to provoke reactions (perlocutionary acts) on the part of the audience,Error: Reference source not found and there is a very close link between the expression and the resulting risk of discrimination, hostility or violence. In this regard, context is central to the determination of whether or not a given expression constitutes incitement.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "3. Advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "As noted in principle 12.1 of the Camden Principles on Freedom of Expression and Equality, “hatred” refers to intense and irrational emotions of opprobrium, enmity and detestation towards the target group. Available from http://www.article19.org/data/files/pdfs/standards/the-camden-principles-on-freedom-of-expression-and-equality.pdf."}, {"n": 14, "text": "The term “incitement” refers to statements about national, racial or religious groups which create an imminent risk of discrimination, hostility or violence against persons belonging to those groups (principle 12.1 of the Camden Principles)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0029", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. As highlighted in joint papers for a series of expert workshops on the prohibition of incitement to national, racial or religious hatred organized by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) in 2011,[[fn:15]] the Special Rapporteur remains concerned by the vague formulation of some domestic legal provisions that prohibit incitement. These include combating “incitement to religious unrest”, “promoting division between religious believers and non-believers”, “defamation of religion”, “inciting to violation”, “instigating hatred and disrespect against the ruling regime”, “inciting subversion of state\npower” and “offences that damage public tranquillity”.[[fn:16]] Such vague and broad terms clearly do not meet the criterion of legal clarity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "3. Advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "Available from http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/opinion/articles1920_iccpr/experts_papers.htm."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Joint submission by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief and the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance is available from http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/opinion/articles1920_iccpr/docs/experts_papers.htm."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0030", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The Special Rapporteur reiterates that restrictions must be formulated in a way that makes clear that its sole purpose is to protect individuals from hostility, discrimination or violence, rather than to protect belief systems, religions or institutions as such from criticism. The right to freedom of expression implies that it should be possible to scrutinize, openly debate and criticize, even harshly and unreasonably, ideas, opinions, belief systems and institutions, including religious ones, as long as this does not advocate hatred that incites hostility, discrimination or violence against an individual or a group of individuals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "3. Advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0031", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. In addition, article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination stipulates that States parties shall declare all dissemination of ideas based on racial superiority or hatred and incitement to racial discrimination an offence punishable by law. In its general recommendation No. 15, the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination stated that “in the opinion of the Committee, the prohibition of the dissemination of all ideas based upon racial superiority or hatred is compatible with the right to freedom of opinion and expression”.[[fn:17]] Moreover, the Committee has also stated that it regards article 4 of the Convention as a mandatory obligation of States parties to the Convention. It regards the obligation as consistent with the freedoms of opinion and expression affirmed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and notes that such kind of acts mentioned above specifically outlaws inciting racial discrimination, hatred and violence. It views the provisions as necessary to prevent organized racial violence.[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "3. Advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cerd/comments.htm."}, {"n": 18, "text": "Presentation at the Bangkok workshop on the prohibition of incitement to national, racial or religious hatred by Huang Yongan, July 2011, available from http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/opinion/articles1920_iccpr/docs/expert_papers_Bangkok/HuangYongan.pdf."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly names 'article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination' for both instances."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Second reference also explicitly names CERD art. 4 as a mandatory obligation of States parties to that Convention."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0032", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. In addition to the four types of incitement discussed above, a fifth form of incitement, incitement to terrorism, is the subject of Security Council resolution 1624 (2005), in which the Council called upon States to “prohibit by law incitement to commit a terrorist act or acts” and to prevent such conduct.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "4. Incitement to terrorism"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0033", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. The Special Rapporteur is concerned, however, particularly given the absence of an agreed definition of “terrorism” in international law,[[fn:19]] that States have a broad margin of discretionary power to interpret what kinds of expression constitute incitement to terrorism. Noting this lacuna, the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism has proposed a model definition of terrorism, as well as incitement to terrorism, based on best practices. With regard to the latter, he has proposed the following formulation as the model offence of incitement to terrorism: “it is an offence to intentionally and unlawfully distribute or otherwise make available a message to the public with the intent to incite the commission of a terrorist offence, where such conduct, whether or not expressly advocating terrorist offences, causes a danger that one or more such offences may be committed”.[[fn:20]] This formulation encompasses two requirements: (a) an intent to incite the commission of a terrorist offence; and (b) the existence of an actual risk that such an offence will be committed as a consequence.[[fn:21]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "4. Incitement to terrorism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "The United Nations defines terrorism indirectly by relying on 16 international legal instruments which define “terrorist acts”, see http://www.un.org/terrorism/instruments.shtml."}, {"n": 20, "text": "See A/HRC/16/51, para. 32."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See A/HRC/6/17/Add.1, A/HRC/10/3/Add.2 and A/HRC/16/51."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0034", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The Special Rapporteur reiterates that any domestic criminal laws that prohibit incitement to terrorism must meet the three-part test of restrictions to the right to freedom of expression. This entails that incitement of terrorism: (a) must be limited to the incitement of conduct that is truly terrorist in nature, as properly defined;[[fn:22]] (b) must restrict the right to freedom of expression no more than is necessary for the protection of national security, public order and safety or public health or morals; (c) must be prescribed in law in precise language, including by avoiding reference to vague terms such as “glorifying” or “promoting” terrorism; (d) must include an actual (objective) risk that the act incited will be committed; (e) should expressly refer to two elements of intent, namely intent to communicate a message and intent that this message incite the commission of a terrorist act; and (f) should preserve the application of legal defences or principles leading to the exclusion of criminal liability by referring to “unlawful” incitement to terrorism.[[fn:23]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "4. Incitement to terrorism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "The Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms while countering terrorism has proposed the following model definition of terrorism: “Terrorism means an action or attempted action where: “1. The action: (a) Constituted the intentional taking of hostages; or (b) Is intended to cause death or serious bodily injury to one or more members of the general population or segments of it; or (c) Involved lethal or serious physical violence against one or more members of the general population or segments of it; and “2. The action is done or attempted with the intention of: (a) Provoking a state of terror in the general public or a segment of it; or (b) Compelling a Government or international organization to do or abstain from doing something; and “3. The action corresponds to: (a) The definition of a serious offence in national law, enacted for the purpose of complying with international conventions and protocols relating to terrorism or with resolutions of the Security Council relating to terrorism; or (b) All elements of a serious crime defined by national law.” (A/HRC/51, para. 28)."}, {"n": 23, "text": "A/HRC/16/51, para. 31."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0035", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. At the same time, as noted by the Working Group on Countering the Use of Internet for Terrorist Purposes, one of the nine working groups of the Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force, the available means to suppress content deemed to be incitement to terrorism are often “clumsy or ineffective, or both”,[[fn:24]] and thus it may be more effective to devise strategies that work with the Internet rather than against it, including the dissemination of rapid counter-narratives to extremist messages which constitute incitement to terrorism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "4. Incitement to terrorism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Report of the Working Group on Countering the Use of the Internet for Terrorist Purposes, para. 88 (available from http://www.un.org/terrorism/pdfs/wg6-internet_rev1.pdf)."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0036", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. That being the case, in addition to the prohibition of incitement to terrorism in domestic legislation, the Special Rapporteur notes that, at a practical level, a more effective strategy than attempting to restrict materials deemed to incite terrorism may be to use the Internet as a positive means of countering such incitement. Participants at the Riyadh Conference on the Use of the Internet to Counter the Appeal of Extremist Violence recommended, inter alia, that counter-narratives should be disseminated through all relevant media channels, including on social networking websites, to counter the appeal of extremist messages.[[fn:25]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "A. Exceptional types of expression that States are required to prohibit under international law", "4. Incitement to terrorism"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "Riyadh Conference on the Use of the Internet to Counter the Appeal of Extremist Violence,24-26 January 2011, summary and follow-up recommendations available from http://www.un.org/terrorism/pdfs/CTITF%20Riyadh%20Conference%20-%20Summary%20&%20Recommendations.pdf."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0037", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The four types of expression examined above (III.A) fall under the first category of the types of expression that constitute offences under international criminal law and/or international human rights law and which States are required to prohibit at the domestic level. However, as they all constitute restrictions to the right to freedom of expression, they must also comply with the three-part test of prescription by: unambiguous law; pursuance of a legitimate purpose; and respect for the principles of necessity and proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "B. Impermissible restrictions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0038", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. The most common method of restricting the types of prohibited expression on the Internet is through the blocking of content (see III.A above). In this regard, the Special Rapporteur reiterates the recommendations made in his most recent report to the Human Rights Council that States should provide full details regarding the necessity and justification for blocking a particular website, and determination of what content should be blocked should be undertaken by a competent judicial authority or a body which is independent of any political, commercial, or other unwarranted influences to ensure that blocking is not used as a means of censorship.[[fn:26]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "B. Impermissible restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "A/HRC/17/27, para. 70."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0039", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. In addition, the Human Rights Committee has affirmed that any “restrictions on the operation of websites, blogs or any other Internet-based, electronic or other such information dissemination system, including systems to support such communication, such as Internet service providers or search engines, are only permissible to the extent that they are compatible with paragraph 3 [of article 19]. Permissible restrictions generally should be content-specific; generic bans on the operation of certain sites and systems are not compatible with paragraph 3. It is also inconsistent with paragraph 3 to prohibit a site or an information dissemination system from publishing material solely on the basis that it may be critical of the government or the political social system espoused by the government”.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "B. Impermissible restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 43."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0040", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Moreover, given the importance of the right to freedom of expression and free flow of information as a foundation for every free and democratic society,[[fn:28]] the Special Rapporteur underscores that all other types of expression that are not mentioned above should not be criminalized, including defamation laws aimed at protecting the reputation of individuals, as criminalization can be counter-effective and the threat of harsh sanctions exert a significant chilling effect on the right to freedom of expression. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur reiterates the view that for the types of expression that do not rise to criminal or civil sanctions, but still raise concerns in terms of civility and respect for others, effort should be focused on addressing the root causes of such expression, including intolerance, racism and bigotry by implementing strategies of prevention.16", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "B. Impermissible restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Ibid., para. 2."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0041", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. To do so, and to bring about real changes in mindsets, perceptions and discourse, a broad set of policy measures are necessary, for example in the areas of intercultural dialogue or education for diversity, equality and justice and in strengthening freedom of expression and promoting a “culture of peace”. Indeed, the Special Rapporteur has previously stated that the strategic response to expressions deemed as offensive or intolerant is more speech: more speech that educates about cultural differences; more speech that promotes diversity and understanding; more speech to empower and give voice to minorities and indigenous peoples, for example through the support of community media and their representation in mainstream media.16 More speech can be the best strategy to reach out to individuals, changing what they think and not merely what they do, as has been recognized in the outcome document of the Durban Review Conference, which also affirmed the role that the right to freedom of opinion and expression can play in the fight against racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance worldwide.[[fn:29]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "B. Impermissible restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "A/CONF.211/8, chap. I, para. 58."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0042", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur stresses that, as stipulated in Human Rights Council resolution 12/16 (para. 5 (p) (i)), the following types of expression should never be subject to restrictions: discussion of government policies and political debate; reporting on human rights, government activities and corruption in government; engaging in election campaigns, peaceful demonstrations or political activities, including for peace or democracy; and expression of opinion and dissent, religion or belief, including by persons belonging to minorities or vulnerable groups.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "B. Impermissible restrictions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0043", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. Similarly, the Human Rights Committee has asserted that article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on limitations “may never be invoked as a justification for the muzzling of any advocacy of multi-party democracy, democratic tenets and human rights. Nor, under any circumstance, can an attack on a person, because of the exercise of his or her freedom of opinion and expression, including such forms of attack as arbitrary arrest, torture, threats to life and killing, be compatible with article 19”.[[fn:30]] The Committee has also noted that journalists and bloggers are frequently subjected to such threats, intimidation and attacks because of their activities, as are persons who engage in the gathering and analysis of information on the human rights situation and who publish human rights-related reports, including judges and lawyers. Indeed, the Special Rapporteur remains deeply concerned about such threats and attacks against, as well as killings and imprisonment, of bloggers, journalists and human rights defenders who rely upon the Internet to carry out their work.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "B. Impermissible restrictions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 23."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0044", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. States should thus forbid restrictions to the right to freedom of expression, except for the specific categories mentioned above, in order to prevent the illegitimate imprisonment of individuals and should vigorously investigate all attacks and prosecute the perpetrators in a timely fashion and, in the case of killings, provide effective redress to the victims’ representatives.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "B. Impermissible restrictions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0045", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. In addition to the availability of relevant content online which is free of censorship, the Special Rapporteur also notes the importance of ensuring that individuals possess the necessary skills to make full use of the Internet, or what is often referred to as “digital literacy”. The Special Rapporteur encourages States to provide support for training in information and communications technology (ICT) skills, which can range from basic computer skills to creating web pages. In terms of the right to freedom of expression, course modules should not only clarify the benefits of accessing information online, but also of responsibly contributing information, which can also contribute to combating the third type of expression mentioned above.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0046", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. In addition, the Special Rapporteur believes that Internet literacy should be included in school curricula, as well as in learning modules outside of schools. One example is the ThutoNet programme in Botswana, which will not only provide all schools in Botswana with computers and access to the Internet, but will train teachers on how to use ICT as a classroom tool, including formal ICT education as part of the school curriculum. This programme aims to assist the country’s children for success in the digital age, and will also involve the development of locally produced educational software to assist with e-learning and to ensure local content and subject relevance.[[fn:31]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "See International Telecommunication Union (ITU)/United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Broadband: A Platform for Progress, a report by the Broadband Commission for Digital Development, June 2011 (see http://www.broadbandcommission.org/report2/full-report.pdf)."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0047", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. The Special Rapporteur also underscores the importance of educating individuals about Internet safety and security, including fraud, potential consequences of revealing private information on the Internet and the use of encryption or circumvention technologies to protect information from unwarranted interference, which is of particular importance for human rights defenders. Children should also be trained from an early age with regard to Internet safety.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0048", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur calls upon States to empower marginalized groups by ensuring that they receive effective digital literacy training. As the Special Rapporteur has noted in his previous reports, it is critical to strengthen the voice of those without power, especially people living in extreme poverty. Having access to the Internet allows people who are disadvantaged, discriminated against or marginalized to obtain information, assert their rights and participate in the public debate concerning social and political changes. Furthermore, the Internet allows minorities and indigenous peoples to express and reproduce their cultures, language and traditions, preserving their heritage and making a valuable contribution to others in a truly multicultural world. However, basic ICT skills are essential if users are to benefit from the full potential of the Internet.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0049", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Persons with disabilities often face additional obstacles in making full and effective use of the Internet. For example, in the United States of America, where 81 per cent of the total population has access to the Internet, this figure reaches only 54 per cent among people with disabilities.[[fn:32]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "1. Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "Susannah Fox, “Americans living with disability and their technology profile”, Pew Internet & American Life Project, 21 January 2011 (http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2011/Disability.aspx)."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0050", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities outlines general principles to which States that have ratified the Convention should adhere, including full and effective participation and inclusion in society and accessibility (article 3, paras. (c) and (f)). The Convention further stipulates that States should “promote the availability and use of new technologies, including information and communications technologies, mobility aids, devices and assistive technologies, suitable for persons with disabilities, giving priority to technologies at an affordable cost” (article 4, para. 1 (g)), and “promote access for persons with disabilities to new information and communications technologies and systems, including the Internet” (article 9, para. 2 (g)). To ensure fulfilment of these obligations, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has recommended the following principles for ICT accessibility: equal access, functional equivalency, accessibility, affordability and design for all.[[fn:33]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "1. Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See ITU, “e-Accessibility Policy Handbook for Persons with Disabilities”, 2010."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRPD", "article": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CRPD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "CRPD", "article": "9", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0051", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. The Special Rapporteur underscores that the needs of persons with disabilities should be taken into account when designing and implementing Internet infrastructure at all levels. This can be in relation to distribution, user facilities as well as access devices.31 Some positive examples include the “Community Access” programme in Canada, which seeks to provide an appropriate number of sites with enhanced accessibility to meet the broad range of needs of persons with disabilities. The programme also aims to provide Internet access to less likely users, such as individuals with low incomes, rural or Aboriginal population, the elderly and immigrants.[[fn:34]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Persons with disabilities", "Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "1. Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "http://www.ic.gc.ca/cic/site/cap-pac.nsf/eng/home."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0052", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. In the United States of America, the Senate unanimously passed the “Twenty-first Century Communications and Video Accessibility Act” in 2010. The Act seeks to ensure full access for users who are deaf, hard of hearing, late deafened or deaf-blind to evolving high-speed broadband, wireless and other Internet protocol technologies. Moreover, the Act stipulates that accessibility features are preserved when materials are offered online, that telephones used over the Internet must be compatible with hearing aids and that television programmes must also be captioned when delivered over the Internet.31", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "1. Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0053", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The Special Rapporteur welcomes such initiatives, and stresses the need for States to ensure that everyone, including persons with disabilities, can fully participate in the information society.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "1. Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0054", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. With a few languages dominating the online environment, language barriers can also be a further impediment to access online content. However, the Special Rapporteur notes the increasing number of sophisticated online translation services.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "2. Language barriers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0055", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Other positive initiatives to overcome language barriers include, for example, the World Digital Library, which provides free, multilingual access to documentary heritage held in institutions around the world, aimed at a diverse audience, from students, teachers to ordinary members of the public.[[fn:35]] Furthermore, the content is contributed by partner institutions in the language of origin and is accessed through an interactive interface in seven languages, and allows for voice enabled browsing and can allow easy access to people with visual disabilities.[[fn:36]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "2. Language barriers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "World Digital Library (http://www.wdl.org/en/)."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Partners in the World Digital Library are mainly libraries, archives or other institutions that have collections of cultural content that they contribute to the Library. Partners may also include institutions, foundations and private companies that contribute to the project in other ways, for example by sharing technology, convening or co-sponsoring meetings of working groups, or contributing financially."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0056", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. The Special Rapporteur also notes that the Board of the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers has approved the internationalized domain name (IDN) ccTLD Fast Track Process, which enables countries and territories that use languages based on scripts other than Latin to offer their user’s domain names in non-Latin characters.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "2. Language barriers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0057", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. The Special Rapporteur also reiterates his call on Governments to honour their obligation to promote indigenous cultural diversity in the public and private media.[[fn:37]] This includes making governance information available in all relevant languages, including minority languages, in line with the principles enshrined in the 1992 Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "2. Language barriers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "A/HRC/14/23, para. 60."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0058", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. The Special Rapporteur underlines the importance of equal and effective access to the Internet for women, which can play a key role in promoting their empowerment. Indeed, as highlighted in the latest report by the Broadband Commission, the Internet promotes empowerment by connecting women to a wide range of resources, for example to improve health, bolster education, allow for informed decisions and pursue economic opportunities.31 In this regard, there is an ongoing research project in India, which focuses on how ICT, such as mobile phone services, can facilitate women’s entrepreneurship in the country, and also seeks to identify factors which enhance the ability of technology to transform women’s economic experiences.[[fn:38]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "3. Internet access and gender dimension"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "ITU, “Women entrepreneurs in India and ICT”, 14 July 2011 (http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/sis/newslog/CategoryView,category,Gender.aspx)."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0059", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. The United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative, evolving from the Millennium Villages project, is an example of “e-education” initiatives which also help promote girls’ education. This initiative has launched a global campaign to promote universal and equality Internet access in secondary education in developing countries, with an emphasis on girls’ education. ICT skills will be used to enhance the quality of education and to connect schoolchildren worldwide.31", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "3. Internet access and gender dimension"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0060", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The Special Rapporteur encourages further research on concrete initiatives around the world and on how ICT can help women to further improve their skills and knowledge, in particular in the employment sphere as well as citizen participation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["III. Access to online content", "C. Digital literacy", "3. Internet access and gender dimension"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0061", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Although access to the Internet is not yet a human right as such, the Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate that States have a positive obligation to promote or to facilitate the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression and the means necessary to exercise this right, which includes the Internet. Moreover, access to the Internet is not only essential to enjoy the right to freedom of expression, but also other rights, such as the right to education, the right to freedom of association and assembly, the right to full participation in social, cultural and political life and the right to social and economic development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0062", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Recently, the Human Rights Committee, in its general comment No. 34 on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, also underscored that States parties should take all necessary steps to foster the independence of new media, such as the Internet, and to ensure access of all individuals thereto.[[fn:39]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34, para. 15."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0063", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Indeed, given that the Internet has become an indispensable tool for full participation in political, cultural, social and economic life, States should adopt effective and concrete policies and strategies, developed in consultation with individuals from all segments of society, including the private sector as well as relevant Government ministries, to make the Internet widely available, accessible and affordable to all.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0064", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. Public and private policies aimed at extending Internet access have substantially increased the presence of Internet facilities in developing States. Yet despite these efforts, Internet usage is still lagging in developing States, perpetuating the “digital divide”, a term that refers to the gap between people with effective access to digital and information technologies, in particular the Internet, and those with very limited or no access at all. In his previous report, the Special Rapporteur expressed concern that without Internet access, which facilitates economic development and the enjoyment of a range of human rights, marginalized groups and developing States remain trapped in a disadvantaged situation, thereby perpetrating the existing socio-economic disparities both within and between States.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "A. The digital divide and the Millennium Development Goals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "A/HRC/17/27, para. 62."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0065", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. There are a number of factors that pose challenges to ensuring Internet access at the national level. For example, in many countries, the Internet market, and particularly the backbone infrastructure and international gateway, remain under the monopoly of one or very few telecommunications operators. Furthermore, both limited competition and scarce international Internet bandwidth tend to keep prices for Internet access high and often unaffordable in the area of fixed broadband access.[[fn:41]] Moreover, the relatively high cost of accessing the Internet and the purchase of basic equipment makes it impossible for many people to have Internet access at home, with public access the only way to go online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "A. The digital divide and the Millennium Development Goals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See World Telecommunication/ICT Development Report 2010: Monitoring the WSIS Targets: A mid-term review, p. 201 (http://www.itu.int/ITU-D/ict/publications/wtdr_10/material/WTDR2010_e_v1.pdf)."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0066", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. To overcome these barriers, it is particularly important for States to play a proactive role, for example, by making the Internet more affordable, and by allowing as many people as possible to have Internet access at home while at the same time ensuring public access for people in rural areas and for people with low income levels. States can use their regulatory powers in circumstances where competition is limited, as a way to limit costs. States should also consider the possibility of subsidizing Internet services and the necessary hardware to facilitate access to the poorest sectors of the population.", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "A. The digital divide and the Millennium Development Goals"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0067", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. The Millennium Development Goals, including target 8.F, aim to make available, in cooperation with the private sector, the benefits of new technologies, especially ICT. This target is measured by the indicators of the number of telephone lines, mobile cellular subscriptions and Internet users per 100 people. Currently access to the Internet is far less widespread than mobile communications. At the end of 2009, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) estimated that some 1.7 billion people around the world were using the Internet, or just over a quarter of the world’s population (26 per cent). In developing countries, around 17.8 per cent were online. By the end of 2010, only Europe had achieved the target, with average Internet penetration rate at 67 per cent, and the Americas had reached around 50.7 per cent.41 These figures include public, communal centres and other kinds of Internet access. Moreover, according to the latest Millennium Development Goals Report 2011, although the number of Internet users continues to expand, penetration levels in the developing world remain relatively low, at 21 per cent at the end of 2010, compared to 72 per cent in the developed regions. Globally, two out of three people are not using the Internet. In the least developed countries, Internet penetration was as low as 3 per cent at the end of 2010.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "A. The digital divide and the Millennium Development Goals"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0068", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. An increasing number of web services require high-speed Internet connectivity, in particular to access content on video-oriented websites. Thus, to effectively use the Internet, broadband access is increasingly becoming the norm. However, there is also a significant digital divide between those who enjoy fast access to multimedia content online and those still struggling with slow, shared dial-up links.[[fn:42]] The Special Rapporteur notes that, according to ITU, 24.6 per cent of inhabitants in developed States have access to fixed broadband Internet connection, versus 4.4 per cent in developing States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "B. Access to broadband connection"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "See United Nations, The Millennium Development Goals Report 2010 (http://www.un.org/ millenniumgoals/)."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0069", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. There are, however, some encouraging initiatives to promote broadband Internet connection at the national level. Sweden, for example, was the first European country to develop a broadband policy in 1999, with the Government aiming to provide broadband in rural and remote areas where there is no market incentive to do so.[[fn:43]] In Brazil, the Government has been active in developing programmes that make broadband Internet access available to people in lower income brackets. For example, the e-government citizens’ support service (GESAC) was set up in early 2002 for the purpose of increasing social inclusion by promoting digital inclusion, with the use of wireless technologies, such as satellite and WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access), to roll out broadband to poorly served areas. The Government also operates a network of community telecentres that offer Internet access free of charge. Through GESAC, the Government aims to ensure that all of Brazil’s 5,565 municipalities have at least one broadband access point.31", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "B. Access to broadband connection"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "Ministry of Enterprise, Energy and Communications, Sweden (www.sweden.gov.se/sb/d/573/a/ 12566/action/search/type/simple?query=broadband+access)."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0070", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. The importance of the Internet as an educational tool needs to be properly recognized. It provides access to a vast and expanding source of knowledge, supplements or transforms traditional forms of schooling and makes, through “open access” and active initiatives, previously unaffordable scholarly research available to people in developing States. Internet access allows students, teachers and parents alike to communicate more frequently and to keep abreast of the latest developments and issues related to their fields. Furthermore, the educational benefits attained from Internet usage directly contribute to the human capital of States. Therefore, the Special Rapporteur believes that access to the Internet will progressively be a key element of the right to education.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "C. Access to the Internet and the right to education"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0071", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. Keeping the above in mind, the Special Rapporteur strongly emphasizes the importance of promoting and providing support to projects which seek to ensure the access to information and communication. In this regard, the global project “One Laptop per Child” is a good initiative. As stated in the most recent report of the Special Rapporteur to the Human Rights Council,[[fn:44]] this kind of initiative helps to spread the availability of ICT in developing countries. The project, supported by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and several partners, has benefited not just children, but their families as well, since one of the essential aspects of the permanently connected laptop is its free use at home, which allows the child and the family to increase their access to information and to the outside world. Two important elements of these laptops are that they can be charged by solar or mechanical power; and they have been designed to provide an engaging wireless network, which allows the laptops to be connected automatically to others nearby.[[fn:45]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "C. Access to the Internet and the right to education"], "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "A/HRC/17/27, para. 63."}, {"n": 45, "text": "See http://wiki.laptop.org/go/Core_principles/lang-en."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0072", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. The Special Rapporteur wishes to highlight how the successful example of “Plan Ciebal” in Uruguay has expanded and replicated around the world, and is a good example of partnership between the different private and public sectors. Among the countries participating in the “One Laptop per Child” project include Afghanistan, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Cambodia, Canada, China, India, Iraq, Nepal, South Africa, Rwanda, Thailand, Lebanon and Niue.[[fn:46]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "C. Access to the Internet and the right to education"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "See http://wiki.laptop.org/go/Deployments and http://one.laptop.org."}]}, {"id": "a-66-290-0073", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. Another example of national strategies is that of Brazil, where in early 2008 a “Broadband in Schools” programme was launched in Brazil through a partnership involving the federal Government, the regulator National Telecommunications Agency (ANATEL) and several telecommunications operators. The project aims to connect 56,865 state schools nationwide, which would then benefit 37.1 million pupils, or 84 per cent of the Brazilian student population.31", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "C. Access to the Internet and the right to education"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0074", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. In New Zealand, a Government-funded programme, the Rural Broadband Initiative, aims to improve the availability of fibre backhaul links in less-urbanized parts of the country, as well as to provide country schools with reliable, high-speed connectivity.", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "C. Access to the Internet and the right to education"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0075", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. The digital divide in terms of access to mobile technology is much smaller than the Internet, with an estimated 67.6 per cent of individuals in developing States using mobile phones.31 While cellular phones do not provide the same benefits as direct computer-based Internet access, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that mobile technology can be a stepping stone to attain Internet connectivity, especially in remote areas where fixed line access is more difficult to establish.", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "D. Mobile technology"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0076", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. Recent reports show that access to the Internet using mobile phones is a growing trend, including in many developing countries and regions, including in Africa.41 According to the ITU, almost three quarters of the world’s rural inhabitants were covered by mobile cellular signal by the end of 2008. Moreover, the report suggests that coverage in rural parts of Africa could exceed 90 per cent by 2015, with mobile cellular technology playing a crucial role in expanding communications networks.41", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "D. Mobile technology"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0077", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. Broadband Internet access through mobile phones is also increasing rapidly. According to ITU statistics, by the end of 2010, the total number of mobile broadband subscriptions worldwide had reached 940 million. This number is expected to top 1 billion in 2011, from 73 million in 2005. One key reason for the growth in mobile broadband is that operators are offering both competitive and affordable data packages. This development is complemented and supported by new technologies, which are bringing more efficiency to networks.31 Singapore is one such example with a 100 per cent penetration rate for mobile phones, and with a majority of households having at least one mode of broadband access.31 In addition, in 2008 and 2009, the Government selected two companies to work on a coordinated nationwide roll-out of the network. As stipulated under the terms of the broadband deployment, one of these companies will waive all installation charges for home and building owners when the network first reaches their area. These companies are also to provide network connectivity to outdoor locations.31", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["IV. Access to Internet connection", "D. Mobile technology"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0078", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. The Internet has become one of the most important vehicles by which individuals exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression, and it can play an important role to promote human rights, democratic participation, accountability, transparency and economic development. However, as with all technological innovations, the Internet can also be used to cause harm, which has raised concerns among Governments as to whether to regulate content online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0079", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. The general rule should be to maintain openness and the free flow of information over the Internet, with limitations, which should conform to the criteria established under international human rights law, as the exception. To protect the right to freedom of expression from undue restrictions, the Special Rapporteur has attempted to distinguish the types of expression: (a) which constitute an offence under international law and which States are required to prohibit; (b) which are not criminally punishable but may justify a civil suit; and (c) which do not give rise to criminal or civil sanctions, but still raise concerns in terms of tolerance, civility and respect for others. Each category poses different issues of principle, and thus requires different legal responses, as highlighted below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0080", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The Special Rapporteur also remains concerned that the majority of the world’s population remain without access to Internet connection. Although access to the Internet is not yet recognized as a right in international human rights law, States have a positive obligation to create an enabling environment for all individuals to exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0081", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. States are obliged to guarantee a free flow of ideas and information and the right to seek and receive as well as to impart information and ideas over the Internet. States are also required under international law to prohibit under its criminal law the following types of content: (a) child pornography; (b) direct and public incitement to commit genocide; (c) advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence; and (d) incitement to terrorism. However, the Special Rapporteur reminds all States that any such laws must also comply with the three criteria of restrictions to the right to freedom of expression, namely: prescription by unambiguous law; pursuance of a legitimate purpose; and respect for the principles of necessity and proportionality.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0082", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. With regard to technical measures taken to regulate the above-mentioned type of prohibited expression, such as the blocking of content, the Special Rapporteur reiterates that States should provide full details regarding the necessity and justification for blocking a particular website and that the determination of what content should be blocked must be undertaken by a competent judicial authority or a body that is independent of any political, commercial or other unwarranted influences in order to ensure that blocking is not used as a means of censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0083", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The Special Rapporteur recommends that all other types of expression which do not fall under the above-mentioned category be decriminalized, as criminalization may be counter-effective and the threat of harsh sanctions can exert a significant chilling effect on the right to freedom of expression. Moreover, States should focus their efforts on combating the root problems of racist or offensive speech, such as bigotry and bias, which includes promoting more speech to counter such negative types of expression, improving understanding among peoples of the world and building a culture of peace.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0084", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. Enabling individuals to effectively use the content made available via the Internet requires a number of elements, including the skills to use the technology. The Special Rapporteur thus recommends that States include Internet literacy skills in school curricula and support similar learning modules outside of schools. In addition to basic skills training, modules should clarify the benefits of accessing information online and of responsibly contributing information. Training can also help individuals learn how to protect themselves against harmful content, such as the potential consequences of revealing private information on the Internet, as well as against undue restrictions by States or corporations through the use of encryption or circumvention technology.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0085", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. The Special Rapporteur encourages the translation of websites into multiple languages, including languages spoken by minorities and indigenous peoples, and their accessibility to persons with disabilities. Allowing people speaking different languages or with disabilities to participate in the same communication platform facilitates a truly global society. In addition, he recommends that all States ensure that all relevant governance information, including on the local levels, is available and accessible in the language of all those concerned.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0086", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. The Special Rapporteur also underscores the importance of applying a gender dimension for Internet access and recommends that States develop strategies for ensuring effective access to online content, including through ICT training.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Access to online content"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0087", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that the access to information, the ability to exercise the right to freedom of expression and the participation that the Internet provides to all sectors of society is essential for a truly democratic society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to Internet connection"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0088", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. Moreover, given the essential role played by the Internet to facilitate the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, as well as other rights, such as education, freedom of association and assembly, citizen participation and economic and social development, the Special Rapporteur believes that it is not only important but imperative that States adopt effective and concrete policies and strategies, developed in consultation with individuals from all segments of society, including the private sector and relevant Government ministries, in order to make the Internet widely available, accessible and affordable to all, based on the principles of non-discrimination of any kind, including on the grounds of race, colour, sex, language, disability, economic origin or any other status.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to Internet connection"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0089", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. In particular, the Special Rapporteur recommends that States take proactive measures to ensure that Internet connectivity is available on an individual or communal level in all inhabited localities of the State, by working on initiatives with the private sector, including in remote or rural areas. Such measures involve the adoption and implementation of policies that facilitate access to Internet connection and to low-cost hardware, including in remote and rural areas, including the subsidization of service, if necessary.", "labels": ["Persons living in rural/remote areas"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to Internet connection"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0090", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. Given the increasing amount of multimedia content online, broadband access should also be actively promoted and encouraged by States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to Internet connection"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0091", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. As mobile technology is increasingly being used, and is more accessible in developing States, the Special Rapporteur recommends that States support policies and programmes to facilitate connection to the Internet through the use of mobile phones.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to Internet connection"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-66-290-0092", "docId": "a-66-290", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. At the international level, the Special Rapporteur reiterates his call on States, in particular developed States, to honour their commitment, expressed, inter alia, in the Millennium Development Goals, to facilitate technology transfer to developing States and to integrate effective programmes to facilitate universal Internet access in their development and assistance policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2011, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Access to Internet connection"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is the sixth report presented by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Mr. Abid Hussain (India), since the mandate was established by Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/45 of 5 March 1993. It is submitted pursuant to resolution 1998/42. Chapter I of the present report contains the terms of reference for the discharge of the mandate. In chapter II, the Special Rapporteur presents an account of the activities undertaken within the framework of his mandate in the past year. Chapter III provides a brief discussion on a number of issues which the Special Rapporteur considers to be important for the development of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Chapter IV contains brief summaries of urgent appeals and communications to and from Governments, along with observations of the Special Rapporteur. Lastly, chapter V contains the conclusions and recommendations of the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The Special Rapporteur refers to his previous reports as regards the mandate and methods of work adopted by him. In accordance with the need to examine a number of specific questions concerning the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the structure of the present report is along the same lines as the previous report. Consequently, the main body of analysis of issues related to the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression will be discussed in section III, focusing on matters referred to by the Commission on Human Rights in resolution 1998/42 and which the Special Rapporteur considers as warranting special attention. These issues include the right to seek and receive information, concerns relating to national security laws and to criminal libel, the new information technologies, as well as the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression by women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has received a large number of allegations concerning cases of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in 1998. As was the case in previous years, the Special Rapporteur was only able to deal with a very limited number of requests for information to some Governments, owing to the insufficient financial and human resources to fulfil his mandate in the manner he would deem appropriate. The matters raised in previous reports to the Commission on Human Rights regarding the circumstances of work (E/CN.4/1995/32, paras. 92-95; E/CN.4/1996/39, para. 6; E/CN.4/1997/31, para. 7 and E/CN.4/1998/40, para. 3) unfortunately remain of great concern. The mandate requires a substantially increased pool of resources. Within the current constraints, the Special Rapporteur has engaged in an exchange of views with Governments only with regard to a limited number of cases, which are discussed in section IV.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "It should thus be emphasized that the countries discussed in the respective sections in no way reflect the extent of the problem worldwide, as indeed violations of this right take place in almost every country in spite of the emergence of an increasing number of national institutions which are regionally working for the promotion and protection of human rights. To avoid unnecessary duplication of effort, the Special Rapporteur has increased his cooperation with other special rapporteurs. In the past year, he has sent joint urgent appeals together with the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, the Special Rapporteurs on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Nigeria, and the Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography.", "labels": ["Children"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Closer cooperation is envisaged with treaty bodies and human rights field operations, as well as other specialized bodies within the United Nations system, and regional intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, particularly at the local level, concerned with the right to freedom of expression. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur held two meetings (Paris, May 1998 and Montreal, September 1998) with Mr. Alain Modoux, Director of the Unit for Freedom of Expression and Democracy of UNESCO, to discuss closer cooperation between the two mechanisms. It was an occasion to examine the possibility for UNESCO to follow up the Special Rapporteur’s recommendations by providing expertise to the States undergoing a democratization process to assist them in the field of media legislation or transformation of their Government-controlled radio and/or television into an editorially independent public broadcasting service. The Special Rapporteur would like to encourage this kind of cooperation, which can help to realize the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "From 26 to 29 May 1998, the Special Rapporteur attended the fifth meeting of special rapporteurs/representatives, experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures and advisory services programme, held in Geneva. He also addressed the fourth session of the Sub-Commission's Working Group on Minorities about his mandate.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The Special Rapporteur visited Geneva from 30 March to 3 April 1998 for consultations and to present his report to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-fourth session. During this period, the Special Rapporteur met, among others, with representatives of the Government of Turkey to follow up on his earlier visit to that country and with the representative of Hungary to discuss his proposed visit to that country.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The Special Rapporteur considers the carrying out of country visits to be an essential element of the mandate. From 20 to 24 October 1998, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Malaysia, followed by a visit to Hungary from 9 to 13 November 1998, on which he has submitted separate reports to the Commission at its current session (E/CN.4/1999/64/Add.1 and 2).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "To date, the Special Rapporteur has a standing invitation to visit the Sudan from the Government of that country and hopes to visit in May or June 1998. While he has also been in touch with the Governments of Albania, Argentina, Egypt, Indonesia, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Peru, Sri Lanka, Tunisia and Viet Nam to examine in situ the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, he regrets that invitations have not so far been received from them. The Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate his interest in visiting those countries.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "From 24 to 27 June 1998, the Special Rapporteur participated in a seminar on Press and Democracy in Kathmandu, Nepal. The Special Rapporteur had the opportunity to attend another conference in Montreal, Canada, from 10 to 12 September 1998 on “Human Rights and the Internet” (see para. 31 below). Furthermore, he attended a meeting in New York with representatives from the Committee to Protect Journalists to discuss specific concerns regarding the mandate, particularly in view of the visit the Special Rapporteur was going to undertake to Malaysia. Lastly, the Special Rapporteur participated in the Commonwealth Editors Forum, held in Penang, Malaysia, on 21 October 1998.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate that the role of non-governmental organizations in furthering the promotion and the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression cannot be overestimated. Indeed, it is those organizations which spearhead these concerns and are forcefully advocating, monitoring and lobbying for human rights. Some of them have gone out of their way to help the Special Rapporteur in his mission. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his special thanks to Article 19 - The International Centre Against Censorship, which continues to provide information and material relevant to the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression to the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "In resolution 1998/42 (para. 9 (d)), the Commission invited the Special Rapporteur to “develop further his commentary on the right to seek and receive information and to expand on his observations and recommendations arising from communications”. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur expresses again his view, and emphasizes, that everyone has the right to seek, receive and impart information and that this imposes a positive obligation on States to ensure access to information, particularly with regard to information held by Government in all types of storage and retrieval systems - including film, microfiche, electronic capacities, video and photographs - subject only to such restrictions as referred to in article 19, paragraph 3, of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Freedom of the press is a vital step in the free flow of information and in ensuring freedom of expression. It is the fundamental duty of the State to stand as a guarantor for freedom of the press. Every right carries with it a responsibility. Every freedom carries with it an obligation. The press is a powerful influence for good and evil. Ideally, it should be left to the press itself to determine what its responsibilities and corresponding obligations are. Where freedom of the press is wanting or curtailed, people cannot settle their differences through open debate and the authorities overreact, fearing the overall impact of dissent. Uprisings and fear follow. Freedom of the press may not guarantee peace, but it is a vital first step. Therefore, special care has to be taken to ensure that writers, poets, journalists and editors are not intimidated or prevented from expressing their views in their writings through censorship or other covert methods, or official sponsorship of press organs. Abuses against the press, journalists and writers have to be halted by launching investigations and publishing findings, in the press itself or by interested NGOs, with a view to raising public consciousness and making the Government act according to international standards. The Special Rapporteur appreciates that studies have been done to expose abuses of power to thwart the free expression of views and opinions. The Special Rapporteur, through his missions, would like to continue to lend his support to such exercises. In this regard, his contribution should be assessed objectively. He also wishes to mention in this context the ruling of the Hungarian constitutional court to the effect that freedom of expression protects all opinions, regardless of their value.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "A genuine writer serves a cause higher than himself, i.e. the cause of the welfare of the people. Although at times a writer may make outrageous statements, even wounding cultural sensitivities and commonly held beliefs, literature remains a basic medium through which imagination and the striving of the human mind are expressed most freely and in the most provocative forms. A writer is a seer in many ways, and a sage in many respects. Any society which stifles its writers closes its windows to fresh ideas and stunts its own growth. The freedom of expression of writers should therefore be strongly defended and their cause encouraged.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "The Special Rapporteur continues to receive allegations of bias in broadcasting which severely limits or seriously compromises the right to seek, receive and impart information. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur wishes to recall points made in previous reports.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "There are several fundamental principles which, if promoted and respected, enhance the right to seek, receive and impart information. These principles are: a monopoly or excessive concentration of ownership of media in the hands of a few is to be avoided in the interest of developing a plurality of viewpoints and voices; State-owned media have a responsibility to report on all aspects of national life and to provide access to a diversity of viewpoints; State-owned media must not be used as a communication or propaganda organ for one political party or as an advocate for the Government to the exclusion of all other parties and groups; laws governing the registration of media and the allocation of broadcasting frequencies must be clear and balanced; any regulatory mechanism, whether for electronic or print media, should be independent of all political parties and function at an arms-length relationship to Government; access to technology, newsprint, printing facilities and distribution points should only be regulated by the supply and demand of the free market.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "With these broad principles in mind, the Special Rapporteur wishes to emphasize that in pre-election periods, and in the interest of enuring the most fully informed electorate possible, the State must ensure that media are given the widest possible latitude. This can be best achieved when, inter alia:\n(a) Media inform the public about the political parties, candidates, campaign issues and voting processes; government media are balanced and impartial in election reporting, do not discriminate against any political party or candidate in granting access to air time and ensure that news, interviews and information programmes are not biased in favour of, or against, any party or candidate;\n(b) Censorship of any election programme is not allowed and the media are encouraged to broadcast and/or publish election-related programmes and are not penalized for programmes critical of the Government, its policies or the ruling party;\n(c) The media are exempt from legal liability for provocative statements by candidates or party representatives; the right of reply is provided, as well as correction or retraction, in cases where defamation is alleged; the manner and extent of remedy is determined by an independent body;\n(d) There is a clear distinction between news and press conferences related to functions of office and activities by members of the Government, particularly if the member concerned is seeking election;\n(e) Air time for direct access programmes is granted on a fair and non-discriminatory basis; the time allocated to parties or candidates is sufficient for them to communicate their messages and for the voters to inform themselves about the issues, party positions, qualifications and character of the candidates;\n(f) Programmes provide an effective opportunity for journalists, current affairs experts and/or the general public to put questions to party leaders and other candidates, and for the candidates to debate with each other;\n(g) Media, and especially government media, engage in voter education, including by providing information on how to use the voting process, when and where to vote, how to register to vote and verify proper registration, the secrecy of the ballot, the importance of voting, the functions of the offices under contention and other matters; and\n(h) Print and broadcast media make available reports and programmes that will reach the largest number of voters possible, including in minority languages and for those who may have been traditionally excluded from the political process, such as ethnic or religious minorities, women and indigenous groups.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The Special Rapporteur continues to be concerned about the manner in which anti-terrorism and national security laws can, on occasion, be misused by officials agencies to violate both the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the right to seek, receive and impart information. The Special Rapporteur refers to his report on his mission to Malaysia (E/CN.4/1999/64/Add.1) in which the issue of Malaysia’s national security laws is discussed.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. National security laws"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Organized terrorism is a curse for all of civilized society. In their quest to gain headlines in the media terrorist groups resort to acts of spectacular violence. Mainly it is the innocent who are the victims. It is proverbially said that vengeance begets vengeance. Governments on their part may act with equal ferocity in dealing with terrorist activity. A vicious circle follows and needs to be broken. While effective action by Governments may be necessary, Governments must at the same time ensure that the safety valve of free expression of genuine or supposed grievances is available to its citizen of all hues and opinions.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. National security laws"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Human rights are sacrosanct but certainly cannot be manipulated to condone, encourage or foment terrorist activities. It is the primary obligation of Government to take pre-emptive action to forestall terrorist activities and restore order and tranquillity. In recent years the United Nations and the Commission on Human Rights have adopted successive resolutions on human rights and terrorism which unequivocally condemn terrorism and incitement of hatred and violence and call upon States to take all necessary effective measures to deal with terrorist groups. Terrorism is a vicious assault on human rights and laws enacted to counter terrorism have to be appreciated in the context of national and international situations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. National security laws"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "In addition to the problems and issues outlined in his mission reports, the Special Rapporteur notes here that abuse of the powers granted under such laws often lead to: both prolonged and short-term arbitrary detention; torture; extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary execution; disappearances; threats and intimidation; the closure of media outlets; the banning of publications and programming; bans on public gatherings; bans and prohibitions on organizations, groups and associations that are in no way associated with terrorism and violence; strict censorship on all forms of communications; and tolerance of, if not actual support for, the abuses and crimes committed by police, security services, the armed forces and paramilitary groups.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. National security laws"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "As with broadcasting and the print media in pre-election periods, there are several points or principles which must be taken into account within the context of anti-terrorism and national security laws if the rights to opinion, expression and information are to be fully protected and promoted. These points include:\n(a) No restriction may be justified on the ground of national security when it is actually intended to protect a Government from embarrassment or exposure of wrongdoing, to conceal information about the functioning of public institutions, entrench a particular ideology or suppress industrial unrest;\n(b) Expression which transmits information by or about an organization that has been declared a threat to national security or a related interest may not be punished; expression in a particular language, and especially in a language of a national minority, may not be prohibited;\n(c) No restriction on access to information may be imposed unless it has been demonstrated that the restriction is necessary to protect a legitimate national security interest;\n(d) The public interest in knowing the information shall be a primary consideration in all laws and decisions concerning the right to obtain information;\n(e) The public's right to know must override any justification for trying to stop further publication of information that has been made generally available, by whatever means, whether lawful or not; and\n(f) Any restriction on the free flow of information may not be of such a nature as to thwart the purposes of human rights and humanitarian law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. National security laws"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "In setting out these points, the Special Rapporteur reiterates his recommendation to the Commission on Human Rights to endorse the Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information. The Special Rapporteur remains convinced that the Principles give useful guidance for protecting adequately the right to freedom of opinion, expression and information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. National security laws"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Article 19 (a) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights allows a limited restriction on the right to freedom of opinion and expression in the interest of “respect of the rights or reputations of others”. The Special Rapporteur’s attention has been drawn to cases and a number of instances in which libel and defamation suits, or even the threat of such suits, has had, or has potentially had, a direct and negative impact on freedom of expression, access to information and the free exchange of ideas. The effect is often described as “libel chill”, a climate of fear in which writers, editors and publishers become increasingly reluctant to report and publish on matters of great public interest not only because of the large awards granted in these cases but also because of the often ruinous costs of defending such actions.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. Criminal libel"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "In this regard, the Special Rapporteur wishes to refer to his report on the mission to Malaysia (E/CN.4/1999/64/Add.1) in which he raises the issue of defamation laws used to stifle freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. Criminal libel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "International case law in the area of libel and defamation has consistently found in favour of disclosure and public criticism of public figures, when warranted. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur notes that, in Verbitsky v. Argentina, in which a writer was convicted under the desacato (“contempt”) law for defaming the Argentine Supreme Court Minister, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights stated, “in democratic societies political and public figures must be more, not less, open to public scrutiny and criticism”. In this case, the conviction was reversed and the 1 Government repealed the desacato law. The European Court of Human Rights has also considered a number of cases, one of the most famous possibly being Lingens v. Austria. In that case a journalist accused the Chancellor of, inter alia, the “basest opportunism” and “immoral” and “undignified” behaviour. At the time the case came before the courts, Austrian law 2 required that the truth of the allegations be proved. The journalist was convicted partly for failure to do this. On appeal, the European Court held, inter alia, that: the law was unreasonable; it was impossible to prove the truth of opinions; the characterization of the politician had been reasonable; and the journalist's article had been part of a larger political debate and not merely a gratuitous attack on the individual concerned.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. Criminal libel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "A review of cases contained in various thematic and country reports before the Commission on Human Rights shows that, in some countries, disclosure of criminal or corrupt behaviour on the part of the authorities and/or officials continue to lead to death threats, harassment, intimidation, assault and murder - often usually by the armed forces, police, security service or individuals acting with the knowledge of such bodies. This is for instance the case in Croatia where the office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in Zagreb reported that as of May 1998, some 400 civil and 130 criminal cases for defamation were pending against journalists and publishers.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. Criminal libel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Following on from this, the Special Rapporteur believes strongly that it is critical to raise the public conscience to ensure that criminal laws are not used (or abused) to stifle public awareness and suppress discussion of matters of general or specific interest. At minimum, it must be understood that:\n(a) The only legitimate purpose of defamation, libel, slander and insult laws is to protect reputations; this implies defamation will apply only to individuals - not flags, States, groups, etc.; these laws should never be used to prevent criticism of government or even for such reasons as maintaining public order for which specific incitement laws exist;\n(b) Defamation laws should reflect the principle that public figures are required to tolerate a greater degree of criticism than private citizens; defamation law should not afford special protection to the president and other senior political figures; remedy and compensation under civil law should be provided;\n(c) The standards applied to defamation law should not be so stringent as to have a chilling effect on freedom of expression;\n(d) To require truth in the context of publications relating to matters of public interest is excessive; it should be sufficient if reasonable efforts have been made to ascertain the truth;\n(e) With regard to opinions, it should be clear that only patently unreasonable views may qualify as defamatory;\n(f) The onus of proof of all elements should be on those claiming to have been defamed rather than on the defendant; where truth is an issue, the burden of proof should lie with the plaintiff;\n(g) In defamation and libel actions, a range of remedies should be available, including apology and/or correction; and\n(h) Sanctions for defamation should not be so large as to exert a chilling effect on freedom of opinion and expression and the right to seek, receive and impart information; penal sanctions, in particular imprisonment, should never be applied.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. Criminal libel"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "In resolution 1998/42 the Commission on Human Rights invited the Special Rapporteur to “assess the advantages and challenges of new telecommunications technologies, including the Internet, on the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to seek, receive and impart information”, bearing in mind the work undertaken by the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. New information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "At the outset, the Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate his opinion that the new technologies and, in particular, the Internet are inherently democratic, provide the public and individuals with access to information sources and will, over time, enable all to participate actively in the communication process. He also wishes to reiterate his view that actions by States to impose excessive regulations on the use of these technologies and, again, particularly the Internet - on the grounds that control, regulation and denial of access are necessary to preserve the moral fabric and cultural identity of societies - ignore the capacity and resilience of individuals and societies - whether on a national, State, municipal, community or even neighbourhood level - often to take self-correcting measures to re-establish equilibrium without excessive interference or regulation by the State.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. New information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Special Rapporteur had the opportunity to attend a conference in Montreal, Canada, from 10 to 12 September 1998. The conference was hosted by the Canadian Human Rights Foundation (Fondation canadienne des droits de la personne) and the subject was “Human Rights and the Internet”. Participants came from both developed and developing countries. On the basis of the presentations at that conference and discussions with participants, the Special Rapporteur makes the following few observations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. New information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "It is clear that the Internet is an increasingly important human rights education tool which contributes to a broader awareness of international human rights standards, provisions and principles. It is also one of the most effective tools to combat intolerance by opening the gateway to messages of mutual respect, enabling them to circulate freely worldwide, and by encouraging collective actions to oppose and bring to an end such phenomena as hate speech, racism and the sexual and commercial exploitation of, in particular, women and children. The instinct or tendency of Governments to consider regulation rather than enhancing and increasing access to the Internet is, therefore, to be strongly checked. While perhaps unique in its reach and application, the Internet is, at base, merely another form of communication to which any restriction and regulation would violate the rights set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and, in particular, article 19.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. New information technologies"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text explicitly: 'violate the rights set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and, in particular, article 19'. Article 19 attributed solely to UDHR. Non-treaty."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "Another point to be made is that the ideal of universal access to the Internet should not just remain an ideal. In a large number of countries there still is a huge need to improve, or even install, the technology needed to create access to the Internet; this same need is common in a number of developed countries with regard to remote or marginalized communities and peoples. The inherently democratic character of the Internet will be eroded to the extent that universal access is not achieved. Following on from this, there is a clear and urgent need to ensure that no one language or culture dominates and dictates the use of the technical capacities at the expense of all others. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur notes that participants at the conference were clear: to have an Internet for all, it is necessary to have information from all.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. New information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recalls that in his report to the fifty-fourth session of the Commission on Human Rights, he referred to actions by several Governments to prohibit or severely restrict access to new information technologies, including the Internet. Significantly, the instances cited related to developing countries and it is in those and other developing countries where people are most in need of access to these technologies in order to tell their own stories to a worldwide audience. If progress is to be made to defeat racism, hate speech and intolerance on a national and international scale, it is incumbent upon all Governments to see the Internet and other information technologies not as things requiring regulation and restriction but rather as the means to achieve a genuine plurality of voices. The Special Rapporteur strongly believes that the world needs more, not less, speech - in as many languages and reflecting as many cultures as are known to exist.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. New information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "It is the Special Rapporteur's strongly held view that the main challenge presented by new information technologies is not how to impose restrictions creatively in order not to exceed the grounds for restriction set out in international human rights instruments. The challenge is to integrate fully new information technologies into a development process. This process must benefit all equally, must not privilege those who are already among the elite and must open the gateway to information from a diversity of sources. The process must create a capacity to identify that which is common, appreciate that which is different, and combat a use of these technologies which crosses the internationally established threshold, becomes crime and ceases to be speech.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. New information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "The Internet should not be a “law-free zone”. The Special Rapporteur is planning to work with other international and national organizations to prevent it from becoming a “safe haven” for conduct threatening human rights. Various forms of Internet watch-activities can be developed to protect consumers and children. But we should not be excessively preoccupied with the dark side of the new technologies for these are giving power and influence to the disenfranchised, empowering the powerless.", "labels": ["Children"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. New information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "At its fifty-fourth session the Commission on Human Rights invited the Special Rapporteur, in cooperation with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, to continue to pay particular attention “to the situation of women and the relationship between the effective promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and incidents of discrimination based on sex, creating obstacles for women with regard to their right to seek, receive and impart information”. The Special Rapporteur regrets that constraints of time and resources limited the extent to which the work could be jointly undertaken with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women. This remains an area of critical importance to him and he sincerely hopes that in the near future more deliberate efforts can be made in this area.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "That being said, the Special Rapporteur notes the important discussions held during the forty-second session of the Commission on the Status of Women (see E/CN.6/1998/12). From these discussions it is clear that central to the issues of equal access for women to rights, equal opportunities for the enjoyment of rights, and equal treatment in that enjoyment is the actual extent to which women may exercise their rights to opinion, expression and information without discrimination and the degree to which women actually enjoy the right to participation in public life. The Special Rapporteur states again that the problem does not lie in the manner in which international human rights standards have been elaborated but rather in the restrictive and traditional interpretations and applications of human rights law. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that it is not acceptable for women still to be dependent on men to represent their views and protect their interests nor is it acceptable that women continue to be consistently excluded from decision-making processes that not only affect them but society in general.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "The Special Rapporteur remains convinced that any real consideration of how to ensure the realization of all human rights for all women necessarily includes consideration of the rights to opinion, expression, participation, information, association and assembly. There can be no doubt that in the absence of these rights, de jure or de facto or both, women will remain under-represented and societies will continue to ignore not only their rights and needs but the creative contribution they can make towards a general improvement of societies. It is therefore imperative that real, qualitative and quantitative measures be taken to ensure women's participation, as equal partners, in private and public life. On that basis, the following two points must be kept in mind.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "First, violence and fear of violence in public and private life remains one of the main concerns of women worldwide and, in order to break the silence and taboos surrounding violence, public awareness campaigns on the impact of violence are essential. These campaigns must be devised with women as full participants and must proceed on the understanding that most women do not seem to seek help from crisis services or the police, because of ignorance, fear or shame. Many women are still not aware of existing laws or their rights and frequently they have no access to the judicial system, especially if they are poor, illiterate or migrants.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Second, it is generally acknowledged that violence against women is one of the most constant and enduring characteristics of armed conflict. Efforts to ensure that violence against women is fully incorporated into the Statute of the new International Criminal Court are welcome. Feelings of shame associated with everyday abuses in the context of family and workplace need to be articulated. Unfortunately, there is a history of official inattention to women’s experience of disaster and violence. For instance, the suffering of women Hibakusha (atomic bomb survivors) in Japan has been portrayed only through themes of suffering motherhood with the stereotypical mythical mother with inhuman strength and endurance. The gender-specific nature of atrocities committed against women is also evident in testimony before the Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa where women had to be urged to speak not only about the horrendous experiences of their husbands, sons and brothers, but also the harm done to themselves.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is convinced of the need not only to pay more attention to women as victims of this violence but also to their potential as agents of preventive diplomacy, peacekeeping and peace-building. The importance of fully involving women in designing rehabilitation policies in post-conflict situations cannot be overstated, nor can the need to increase, through measures of affirmative action if necessary, women's participation and leadership in decision-making and conflict prevention at both the national and international levels.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "With those points in mind, the Special Rapporteur draws attention again to General Recommendation No. 23, adopted in 1997 by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women. The Committee noted that “despite women's central role in sustaining the family and society and their contribution to development, they have been excluded from political life and the decision-making process, which nonetheless determine the pattern of their daily lives and the future of societies. Particularly in times of crisis, this exclusion has silenced women's voices and rendered invisible their contribution and experiences.” The Special Rapporteur also underlines again the link between political participation and participation in the decision-making process and article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "The Special Rapporteur attaches considerable importance and priority to the question of the link between freedom of opinion and expression and the elimination of discrimination and violence against women. He urges States, United Nations organ and bodies, human rights NGOs and organizations working with and/or on behalf of women to provide him with information on, for example, individual cases, general situations and/or legal impediments to women's full enjoyment of the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and the right to seek, receive and impart information. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur wishes to refer to the annex to the present report which provides guidelines on how to bring information to the Special Rapporteur in the framework of his mandate.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "The Special Rapporteur in this section reports on the communications sent out and replies received during 1998. This, however, in no way implies that all cases of earlier communications have been closed to the satisfaction of the Special Rapporteur, as in a number of cases, he has not received replies from the Governments concerned. He refers to his earlier reports for cases previously examined.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to encourage Governments to continue their cooperation with the mandate by providing information on the cases in question. He wishes to reiterate that good cooperation is essential in that it opens the possibility for the Special Rapporteur to engage in a dialogue aimed at addressing the concerns as regards respect for freedom of opinion and expression. The opportunity for dialogue is even greater during country missions, and the Special Rapporteur wishes to express his hope for the continued cooperation of Governments in this regard.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "By letter dated 26 January 1998, the Government of Algeria conveyed information to the Special Rapporteur regarding the case of Omar Belhouchet which was mentioned in the report of last year (E/CN.4/1998/40). With regard to the legal process, the Government noted that Omar Belhouchet, Director of the French-language daily El-Watan, was charged with flagrant insult to administrative authorities and defamation. On 10 April 1996 he was first sentenced to one year's imprisonment and to a fine of DA 500, which was then cancelled by a decision of a court in Algiers on 5 November 1997. The Government emphasized that Mr. Belhouchet had always appeared freely before the court and, having appealed and the recourse having suspensive effect, he could travel, even to foreign countries.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Algeria for its reply and would appreciate being kept informed about the result of the appeal of Omar Belhouchet. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur refers again to his previous reports with regard to the killing of journalists and would like to receive information on the progress made in the investigation of these cases and the prosecution of those responsible.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "On 27 May 1998, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an allegation to the Government of concerning the constant intimidation by certain sectors of the police against journalists and members of the Unión de Trabajadores de Prensa de Buenos Aires (UTPBA). One member of UTPBA, Ms. A.M. Careaga, was reported to have been followed and photographed allegedly for her testimony in a case that concerned the disappearance of Spanish citizens during Argentina’s military Government. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, the Government also sought to restrict the freedom of the press by attempting to introduce legislation which would impose disproportionately heavy penalties for slander and defamation. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur received information concerning the assassination of J.L. Cabezas and M. Bonnino, two journalists and members of UTPBA, in January 1997 and November 1993, respectively. It is alleged that the Government has not carried out a thorough investigation into the assassination of Mr. Bonnino and that no results of any investigation have been made known. The investigation of Mr. Bonnino's death reportedly remains pending before the local court of first instance, and the case of Mr. Cabezas' murder is supposedly pending before a district court in Buenos Aires.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Argentina"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "In the same letter the Special Rapporteur requested an invitation to carry out a country visit to Argentina in the course of 1998, as such a visit would enable him to better understand the situation relating to the freedom of opinion and expression in the country and to make a more dispassionate and realistic assessment of the situation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Argentina"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that at the time of the finalization of the present report no reply had been received from the Government on the concerns raised and hopes that the Government will respond soon.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Argentina"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "On 25 September 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government of Azerbaijan jointly with the Special Rapporteur on torture on the alleged beating and harassment of more than 30 journalists in Baku on 12 September 1998. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, the following journalists, including some members of the Labour Union of Azerbaijani Journalists, were beaten and some had their equipment confiscated by the police as they were covering a banned opposition rally: Azer Sariyev, correspondent for Express newspaper; Faiq Qazanfaroglu, correspondent for Millet newspaper; Mahammad Ersoy, deputy editor of Yurd yeri newspaper; Ibrahim Niyazly, correspondent for Democratic Azerbaijan newspaper; Anar Mammadli, correspondent for Azerbaijan Gencleri newspaper; Movsun Mammadov, correspondent for Monitor magazine; Xaliq Mammadov, Haji Zamin and Khalig Bakhadyr, of Azadliq newspaper; Elmir Suleymanov, cameraman for ANS TV; Ilqar Shahmaroglu, Nebi Rustamov and Taghi Yusifov, correspondents for Qanun magazine; Tahir Pasha and Natiq Javadli, correspondents for Olaylar newspaper; Tapdiq Farhadoglu, correspondent for the Turan agency; Sarvan Rizvanov, editor of Azadliq newspaper; Movlud Javadov, Sebuhi Mammadli and Zamina Aliqizi, correspondents for Yeni Musavat newspaper; Kamil Taghisoy, head of department of Yeni Musavat; Shahin Jafarli and Azer Qarachanli, editors of Yeni Musavat; Allahverdi Donmez, correspondent for Tezadlar newspaper; Mehseti Sherif, correspondent for Rezonans newspaper; Talekh Zafarli and Rasul Mursaqulov, correspondents for Chag newspaper; Tunzale Rafiqqizi, correspondent for Ana Veten newspaper; Rey Kerimoglu, correspondent for Sharq newspaper; Azer Rashidoglu, correspondent for Ayna newspaper; Ajdar, cameraman for Azadliq newspaper; Lachin Semra, correspondent for Muxalifet newspaper; Eldaniz Badalov, cameraman for Bu gun newspaper; Tahir Mammadov, deputy editor-in-chief of Chag; Elman Maliyev, correspondent for Hurriyyet newspaper; and Shahbaz Xuduoglu, editor of Qanun.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Azerbaijan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "It is also reported that police attempted to break into the office building of several opposition and independent news outlets, among them the Azadliq and Chag newspapers and the Turan agency. It is alleged that two of the above-mentioned journalists, Tahir Mammadov and Shahbaz Xuduoglu, were arrested by the police, along with Elman Maliyev, who was taken to the police station. The Special Rapporteur specifically requested the Government of Azerbaijan to provide pertinent information on the court, agency or other competent body which was, or is, responsible for investigation of the allegations and the prosecution of those responsible.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Azerbaijan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "By letter dated 3 December 1998, the Government of Azerbaijan indicated that on 12 September 1998 a group of about 300 persons used force against police officers on duty in an area close to a stadium where an authorized opposition rally was supposed to take place. These unlawful actions are said by the Government to have seriously disrupted public order and were therefore the object of criminal proceedings by the Office of the Procurator-General of Baku. Thirty nine persons were subsequently charged. Only one of them complained of physical and psychological pressures. The Government further confirmed that the Procurator-General received in mid-September letters of complaint from the Turan news agency and the Labour Union of Azerbaijani Journalists, but that no individual submitted any official complaint, although they had been invited to do so. The Government stated that most of the persons mentioned in the Special Rapporteurs' letter either did not complain, or indicated to the Office of the Procurator-General that the losses they had suffered during the clash with the police were negligible. However, the investigators are said to plan to verify whether the rights of other journalists mentioned have been violated. Finally, the Government indicated that the Procurator-General has communicated to the Ministry of Internal Affairs his views on the need for urgent action to prevent the violation of the journalists' rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Azerbaijan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Azerbaijan for the detailed reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Azerbaijan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "On 18 June 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent an allegation to the Government of Chad relating to the case of Ngarléjy Yorongar, a member of Parliament whose parliamentary immunity was lifted on 26 May 1998 before he was reportedly arrested on 2 June 1998 and placed in custody awaiting trial. According to the information received, Ngarléjy Yorongar had criticized the construction plan for a pipeline and allegedly implicated the head of State and the President of the Parliament in this project.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Chad"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "The Government of Chad provided the Special Rapporteur with a reply on 29 July 1998 in which it confirmed that the parliamentary immunity of Ngarléjy Yorongar was lifted before any criminal action was taken. According to the Government, Mr. Yorongar had received a fair trial. The Government also contested information according to which Mr. Yorongar was arrested several times and harrassed by the police. Finally, the Government considered that the case to be simply one of defamation, despite the lack of cooperation from the accused and the behaviour of his defence lawyers.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Chad"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Chad for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. The Special Rapporteur would appreciate being informed on further developments in this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Chad"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "By letter dated 24 February 1998, the Government of China replied to the Special Rapporteur’s letter of 12 November 1997 (see E/CN.4/1998/40, para. 76) in which he communicated to the Government his concerns for the following individuals whose right to freedom of opinion and expression had been subjected to arbitrary interference: Wang Dan, Wang Ming, Gao Yu, Liu Nianchun, Li Hai, Yao Zhenxiang, Yao Zhenxian, Fu Guoyong, Chen Longde, and Wang Donghai.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Wang Dan was found guilty in 1991 of advocating the overthrow of the Government, sentenced to four years in prison and stripped of his political rights for one year. On 17 February 1993, he was paroled but rearrested on 3 October 1996 for having colluded with foreign organizations and posing a threat to national security while he was stripped of his political rights. Wang Dan was sentenced to 11 years in prison for having conspired to overthrow the Chinese State and the socialist system. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Wang Dan was in good health, held at the Jinshou prison in Liaoning Province, and permitted to meet with his family frequently.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "In regard to Wang Ming, the Government stated that he, along with others, had provoked disturbances and disrupted public order in Guizhou, Sichuan, and elsewhere. Hence, on 6 December 1996, Wang Ming was assigned to three years’ re-education through labour. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Gao Yu was sentenced on 10 November 1994 to six years in prison for allegedly having disclosed State secrets. She is being held at the Yanqing Prison in Beijing and is reported to be in good health after her high blood pressure was treated with medication.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "Concerning Liu Nianchun, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that he was sentenced in 1991 to three years in prison for counter-revolutionary activities. Since 1993, it is alleged that Liu Nianchun and others had planned to set up an illegal organization, provoked and disrupted public order by engaging in unlawful activities in Beijing, Shanghai and elsewhere. On 14 May 1996, Liu Nianchun was assigned to three years of re-education. The Government wished to inform the Special Rapporteur that the allegation that Liu Nianchun had received no medical attention was erroneous, as he was sent to two different hospitals four times for examination in August 1996 and, at the family’s request, to a third hospital on 26 February 1997, which confirmed no visible medical problems.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "Li Hai, as reported by the Government, was sentenced on 18 May 1997 to nine years in prison for having gathered State secrets. He was also stripped of his political rights for two years and is now serving his sentence in a Beijing prison. In July 1996, the brothers Yao Zhenxiang and Yao Zhenxian, were assigned to three and two years of re-education through labour, respectively, for having duplicated and broadcast obscene materials. The two brothers are in good health since they receive appropriate medical care.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "In regard to Fu Guoyong, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that he was assigned to re-education through labour in 1990 for provoking a disturbance, but he remained unreformed and allegedly continued to provoke disturbances and disrupt public order. On 5 November 1996, he was assigned to three years in re-education.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "Wang Donghai, who was first sentenced in July 1989 to two years in prison for counter-revolutionary propaganda and provocation, was assigned to a year at a re-education facility on 29 May 1996 for continuing to engage in activities that endangered State security after his first release. Wang Donghai completed his assignment on 28 May 1997, and the public security authorities have never placed him under house arrest.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "Chen Longde was sentenced in September 1989 to three years in prison for counter-revolutionary propaganda and provocation. The Government stated that in May 1996, he, in conjunction with others, plotted and provoked a disturbance and disrupted public order, for which he was assigned to three years of re-education on 26 July 1996. The Government asserted that torture and beatings do not take place at the facility.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "Furthermore, the Government noted that Chinese citizens have the right under its Constitution and other laws to freedom of opinion, the press, assembly, association, the freedom to march and to hold demonstrations. However, its Constitution also states that citizens must accept the duties imposed by the Constitution and laws and must not harm the interests of the State, society, and the collective or the legitimate rights of other citizens. Furthermore, no one can be punished simply for holding dissident political views or exercising the right to freedom of opinion. The individuals named above were punished under the law because they committed crimes.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of China for the detailed reply provided and the willingness that it has indicated to cooperate with the mandate. Above all, the Special Rapporteur welcomes the release of Wang Dan from prison on 20 April 1998 for medical reasons, and his transfer to the United States. He would, however, appreciate if the Government could provide him with further information on the case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "On 28 October 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government in a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Concern was expressed with regard to the fate of three journalists: Paulin Tusumba Nkazi-a-Kanda, editor of the newspaper Le Peuple, Jean-Marie Kanku and Professeur Muamba Kayembe or “Ali Kamba”, both from the newspaper L'alerte.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Democratic Republic of the Congo"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "According to the information received, the first of the above-mentioned journalists was arrested on 16 October 1998 and is currently detained in the court prison for having published an article on the August 1998 rebellion against the ruling Government. The two other journalists were reportedly arrested on 19 October 1998 for having published an article which was said to defame the Minister for Home Affairs.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Democratic Republic of the Congo"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has yet been received from the Government on the cases in question and hopes for an early response.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Democratic Republic of the Congo"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "On 9 September 1998, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an allegation to the Government of Egypt concerning the confiscation of the first two issues and prohibition of further distribution of Alf Lela, a cultural journal based in Cyprus, by the Egyptian authorities in August 1998. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, as a foreign publication in Egypt, Alf Lela is subject to the authority of the Censorship Department of the Ministry of Information. It is reported that the reason given by the authorities for the confiscation of Alf Lela’s 12 August 1998 issue was that it had “contained articles of a political nature”. No reason was supposedly given for the banning of the second issue on 19 August 1998.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "By letter of 4 December 1998, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government of Egypt, jointly with the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on the independence on judges and lawyers, to express their concern over the detention of Mr. Hafez Abu Se’da, a lawyer and the Secretary-General of the Egyptian Organization for Human Rights (EOHR). According to the information received, the Egyptian Higher State Security Prosecution ordered the detention of Mr. Hafez Abu Se’da on 1 December 1998 for a period of 15 days after he appeared as a witness in a court hearing about EOHR's financing. It has been reported that Mr. Hafez Abu Se’da faces charges of: (i) “accepting funds from a foreign country with the aim of fulfilling acts that would harm Egypt”; (ii) “disseminating false information abroad that would harm national interests”; and (iii) “receiving donations without obtaining permission from the competent authorities”. It is claimed that the current whereabouts of Mr. Hafez Abu Se’da are unknown, and neither his lawyers nor his family have apparently been informed of his whereabouts or been allowed to visit him.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to point out that the reply to be provided by the Government in this case will be published in next year's report.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "On 2 October 1998 the Special Rapporteur sent a joint allegation to the Government of Georgia with the Special Rapporteur on torture. Concern was expressed in regard to two Georgian journalists, Constantine (Kote) Vardzelashvili and Giorgi (Gogi) Kavtaradze, from the non-governmental Liberty Institute in Tbilisi, who were beaten and threatened by the police on 21 September 1998 after having tried to obtain information from the head of the Special Police Unit, Temur Mgebrishvili, about the alleged use of force by the police against a crowd of people.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Georgia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "On 26 November 1998 the Government of Georgia sent a preliminary reply in which it informed the Special Rapporteur that the two journalists were taken by police to the police station after they offered resistance to the police forces who were carrying out law enforcement measures on Agmashenebeli Avenue. Mr. Vardzelashvili and Mr. Kavtaradze were released the same evening. After a complaint by the two journalists that the police had physically abused them, an investigation is being monitored by the Prosecutor General of Georgia. The Government of Georgia added that it would send more complete information on the results of the investigation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Georgia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the Government of Georgia for its prompt reply and welcomes the fact that an investigation has been ordered. The Special Rapporteur is looking forward to receiving additional information on the results of this investigation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Georgia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "From 9 to 13 November 1998, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Hungary, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session (E/CN.4/1999/64/Add.2).\nIran (Islamic Republic of)", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Hungary"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "By letter of 30 October 1998, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government of Iran with regard to the closing down of the newspapers Rah-e-No and Tarana on 17 September 1998. The two newspapers were said to have published criticism of Iran’s hard-line leadership and its position on Afghanistan. In addition, a Press Court in Tehran reportedly revoked on 29 September 1998 the printing licence for the monthly magazine Jameh-Salem for having allegedly defamed the late spiritual leader Ayatollah Khomeiny. Jameh-Salem’s director, Siavoch Gouran, was reportedly given a one-year suspended jail sentence and ordered to pay a fine equivalent to US$ 1,000. It is further reported that on 6 October 1998 a Press Court also suspended the publication of the weekly magazines Asre-Ma for six months and Sobh for four months. Asre-Ma’s director, Mohammad Salamati, was allegedly sentenced to a fine equivalent to US$ 1,000 for having published “insulting and deceitful” articles. Sobh’s director, Mehdi Nassirj, was also said to have been fined the same amount.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Hungary"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur raised his concerns for the following three journalists from the daily Tous, who were allegedly arrested after the closing down of the newspaper on 16 September 1998: editor Mashallah Shamsolva’ezin, publishing director Hamid Reza Jalaipour, and sub-editor Mohammad Javadi Hessar. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, the three journalists are awaiting trial by the Revolutionary Court, along with their colleague, Tous columnist Ibrahim Nabavi, who was arrested on 18 September 1998. Although it is reported that Hama Reza Jalaipour was released on 13 October 1998 and the others around 2 October 1998, the four journalists are still charged with having carried out subversive activities against State security. It has also been reported that some of the four journalists may be charged with the offence moharebe ba khoda, or enmity with God, which supposedly carries the death penalty.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Hungary"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "The Special Rapporteur anxiously awaits a reply from the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran on the cases in question and hopes for an early response.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Hungary"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "In a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, the Special Rapporteur sent on 13 July 1998 an allegation to the Government of Japan concerning over 10,000 web pages, bulletin boards and news-servers in Japan which allegedly distribute images of child pornography over the Internet. According to the information received, images of children, sometimes as young as eight or nine years old, depicting their rape, torture, and even murder, can be downloaded easily by anyone with basic knowledge of the Internet. The source reports that although this is a global phenomenon, the proliferation of such Websites from Japanese news-servers is said to be particularly marked.", "labels": ["Children"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Japan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that at the time of the finalization of the present report, no reply had been received from the Government of Japan on the concerns raised. The Special Rapporteur would like to refer to article 34 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child which stipulates States parties shall protect the child from all forms of sexual exploitation and abuse, and urges the Government of Japan to take all appropriate measures to guarantee the physical and psychological integrity of all children who have access to the Internet, or whose images are portrayed thereon. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur urges the Government to carry out an impartial and thorough investigation into the facts as described above and to identify those responsible.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Japan"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CRC", "article": "34", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "From 20 to 24 October 1998, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Malaysia, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session (E/CN.4/1999/64/Add.1).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Malaysia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "On 13 February 1998, the Government of Mexico, responding to the Special Rapporteur’s letter of 30 October 1997 (see E/CN.4/1998/40, para. 83), provided detailed information about the investigations carried out on the cases of René Solorio, Ernesto Madrid and Gerardo Segura, journalists at TV Azteca, who were abducted and tortured for several hours, presumably because of the revelations made of alleged abuses and misdeeds committed by law enforcement agents. More details have been also communicated by the Government about the cases of Daniel Lizárraga and David Vicenteno, journalists at La Reforma, who were kidnapped and assaulted. Further explanations were given for the killing of Abdel Jesus Bueno León, publisher and editor of 7 Días; questions raised about the deaths of Benjamin Flores González, working at La Prensa, and Victor Hernández Martínez, journalist for the weekly Como, were answered as well. According to the Mexican authorities, all of these cases are still under investigation or already in the prosecution stage.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Mexico"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0086", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "As regards the abduction, assault and torture allegedly suffered by Mr. Solorio, Mr. Madrid and Mr. Segura, the Government of Mexico states that the ongoing investigation by the Attorney-General's Office has found some contradictions in several of the victims' accounts; they are not cooperating with the authorities in the investigation. The cases of Mr. Lizárraga and Mr. Vicenteno, allegedly object of abduction, assault and threats, are under investigation at the National Commission on Human Rights in an information-gathering stage. Mr. Hernández Martínez's death is also being investigated by the National Commission on Human Rights where the file is soon to be completed. As regards the murder of Mr. Bueno León, the Commission has started an investigation as it could be linked to the death of another journalist, Leoncio Pontor García. With respect to the case of Mr. Flores González's death, the judicial authorities have ordered the detention of five persons on charges of homicide and criminal association. They are in prison awaiting trial.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Mexico"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0087", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks and takes note of the information provided by the Government of Mexico. He would like to be provided with additional information about the ongoing investigations and prosecution processes.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Mexico"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0088", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "On 8 June 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent action to the Government of Nigeria jointly with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Nigeria, the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention and the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, relating to the case of Mr. Niran Malaolu. According to the information received, Mr. Malaolu, the editor of an independent daily newspaper (The Diet), was arrested on 28 December 1997 and sentenced to life imprisonment by a Special Military Tribunal on 28 April 1998 for concealment of treason. Prior to his arraignment, Mr. Malaolu was denied access to a lawyer, a doctor and members of his family. Mr. Malaolu was allegedly punished for news stories published by his paper concerning an alleged coup plot involving Lieutenant General Oladipo Diya, as well as other military officers and civilians who also were convicted by the Tribunal and sentenced.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0089", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has been provided by the Government on this case and hopes to receive one soon.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0090", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "By letter dated 30 June 1998, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government in regard to legal limitations on the right to freedom of expression and opinion, in particular article 33 of the Constitution, which enables State authorities to fine or arrest any person who offends or shows disrespect to them in the performance of their duties; articles 172, 173 and 173A of the Criminal Code, which impose penalties of fines or imprisonment for “slander and offence”; and Law 67 of 1978, which prohibits the exercise of the profession of journalism by individuals who do not possess an alleged “professional competence”. The authorities are said to have used the above-mentioned legislation to prosecute and punish those who criticize the Government, such as in the case of journalist Gustavo Gorriti and Dr. Miguel Antonio Bernal, who was reportedly prosecuted for having implicated the national police in incidents which had occurred in Coiba Island penitentiary.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Panama"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "33", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "172", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "173", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0091", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "On 5 October 1998 the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that Panama’s Criminal Code governs issues relating to calumny and insult in order to preserve the dignity and good name of the individual. Victims of false statements have recourse to the appropriate legal authority and can request an investigation and compensation for damages. The Government has set up a special commission to undertake an examination of the provision contained in article 173A of the Criminal Code and hopes to be able to promote national consensus on this issue.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Panama"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0092", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "The Government also informed the Special Rapporteur that Act No. 67 of 1978 is applicable to the communication media and contains provisions on the purely formal requirements which must be fulfilled before publication in regard to their owners and directors, and on other administrative mechanisms relating to violation of the law. In addition, the Government stated that there is full consensus on the advisability of repealing the provisions on sanctioning the media for the publication of false news, and the Government has drawn up a proposal which was included in the bill to decriminalize intentional calumny and insult by the communication media.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Panama"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0093", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "In the context of the nationalization of the media, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that there are various contradictory opinions: some maintain that foreign journalists should be allowed to exercise their profession in Panama while others hold that the nationality requirement should be maintained.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Panama"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0094", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "On the proposed amendment to the Administrative Code, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the proposal does not interfere with individual or public freedoms because it is a purely administrative regulation of the freedom of assembly. It does not limit, diminish or eliminate the freedom of assembly, as this right is established in the Constitution. It is an attempt to punish those who, under cover of exercising their freedom of assembly, carry or use firearms or bombs, gas or other chemical materials which could cause harm to individuals or property. The bill would also punish those who hide their faces under hoods or masks, prevent public movement through deliberate closure of public access, and destroy properties.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Panama"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0095", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "In regard to the regulations on the professional ethics of university teaching staff, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the regulations were approved by the University General Council, the autonomous and highest body of the co-government of the University of Panama, without being subjected to the executive or any other institutional instruments of the State.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Panama"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0096", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "In the context of the criminal proceedings against Miguel A. Bernal for calumny and insult, the Government stated that the cause for the complaint was that he had accused the members of the National Police of being responsible for the murder of the inmates who had escaped from the penitentiary where they were being held.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Panama"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0097", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for its reply to the specific concerns raised in his allegation letter and for the other relevant documentation that the Government submitted. The Special Rapporteur would strongly recommend a more focused public debate in the country on the regulations referred to above which remain a cause of concern and constitute limits on freedom.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Panama"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0098", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "On 22 July 1998 the Special Rapporteur requested information from the Government about the cases of Ham Yun Shik and Son Chung Mu, charged with criminal defamation and imprisoned for their coverage of the 1997 presidential campaign. Ham Yun Shik, the publisher of One Way Magazine, who printed highly critical articles concerning presidential candidate Kim Dae Jung’s background and political ideology, was taken to court by Kim Dae Jung’s political party (National Congress for New Politics - NCNP) after his successful bid for the presidency. Mr. Ham was reportedly arrested on 28 February 1998 and is currently serving a jail term after a Seoul court sentenced him to one year in prison on 2 July 1998. Son Chung Mu, the publisher of Inside the World magazine, was arrested on 1 June 1998 allegedly for his magazine’s coverage of the 1997 presidential campaign. He is being detained while awaiting his court appearance, which was scheduled for 20 July 1998.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Republic of Korea"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0099", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "On 10 August 1998 the Government of the Republic of Korea informed the Special Rapporteur that Ham Yun Shik's criminal history dated back to 1967 and that he was arrested after having issued and distributed 100,000 copies of his magazine in which he allegedly libelled Kim Dae Jung with reports on his birth, ideology, military service and health condition. As regards Son Chung Mu, the Government recalled that he had been found guilty of “defamation by printed materials” for which he was sentenced to one year's imprisonment on 17 February 1994. The sentence was suspended for two years. Mr. Son wrote Kim Dae Jung, X File, a book in which he accused Mr. Kim of being a communist, allegedly on the basis of falsified documents. The NCNP lodged a complaint against Mr. Son which was filed for prosecution on 20 February 1998 without physical detention. The two cases are pending in Seoul District Court. The Government also recalled that within the context of the guaranteed rights of freedom of press and publication, Korean legislation provides reasonable limitations in order to ensure fair and just elections. The Public Office and Election Malpractice Prevention Act, enacted in 1994, provides sanctions in article 251 against those with the intention to libel candidates while article 309 of the Korean Criminal Code protects against crimes against reputation committed through printed materials.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Republic of Korea"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "251", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "309", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0100", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Korea for its reply; however, further details would be most welcomed on the fate of the two above-mentioned persons awaiting trial.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Republic of Korea"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0101", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "On 22 June 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal to the Government of Saudi Arabia with the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention. Concern was expressed about the fate of a Dutch national, Wim den Hertog, and six Filipino citizens, Ariel Ordona, Angelito Sizon, Juanito Manalili, Ruben Aguirre, one unnamed man and Yolai Aguilar, who was said to be nine months pregnant. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, the above-mentioned individuals were arrested for the peaceful expression of their religious beliefs. Mr. den Hertog was reportedly detained on 13 June 1998, at his home and had not been heard of since his arrest. The Filipino citizens were said to have been arrested between 5 and 12 June 1998.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Saudi Arabia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0102", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has yet been received from the Government of Saudi Arabia on the cases in question and hopes for an early response.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Saudi Arabia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0103", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "On 21 January 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent to the Government of Sierra Leone a joint urgent appeal with the Special Rapporteur on torture in regard to Sylvanus Kanyako, David Koroma, and Anthony Swaray, three journalists who were allegedly arrested without charge and detained in Freetown. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, the arrests on 10 January 1998 of Sylvanus Kanyako and David Koroma, both from the Herald Guardian newspaper, were related to the publication of an article which anticipated the arrest of a senior member of the Armed Forces Revolutionary Council. Anthony Swaray, a freelance journalist, was reportedly arrested around 14 January 1998 because of his alleged links with an illegal radio station. While Sylvanus Kanyako was reportedly held at the Criminal Investigation Department (CID) headquarters in Freetown, his arms were said to have been secured tightly behind his back. David Koroma was allegedly ill-treated while in custody and was later admitted to hospital. Anthony Swaray was also allegedly beaten.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sierra Leone"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0104", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that at the time of the finalization of the present report, no reply had been received from the Government of Sierra Leone. The Special Rapporteur would like to urge the Government of Sierra Leone to take any steps which might be necessary in order to investigate these cases and to prosecute and impose appropriate sanctions on any persons guilty of torture and violating the freedom of opinion and expression, regardless of any rank, office or position they may hold, as well as to take effective measures to prevent the recurrence of such alleged acts and to compensate the victims or their relatives, in accordance with the relevant international standards.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sierra Leone"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0105", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "On 18 June 1998, the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government of Sri Lanka on the case of Iqbal Athas, a journalist who was allegedly the target of an abduction attempt on 12 February 1998. The Special Rapporteur was informed that Iqbal Athas was being subjected to continued harassment which is believed to be related to his investigations into corruption in the top echelons of the security forces as well as in connection with some of the military actions undertaken in the ongoing conflict between the security forces and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam. In his communication, the Special Rapporteur welcomed President Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga’s order for the Criminal Investigation Department to conduct an investigation into this incident.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0106", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "On 24 June 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government of Sri Lanka concerning Lasantha Wickrematunge, an editor and journalist of an independent weekly openly critical of the Government, who reportedly was the target of an armed attack. According to the information transmitted to the Special Rapporteur, Lasantha Wickrematunge had received anonymous telephone threats and was attacked by an unidentified number of individuals who opened fire from a van outside his house after he and his family had returned home on the night of 17 June 1998. It was also alleged that he had been the target of an assault three years ago and that his house had been watched by persons in unmarked vehicles. The Special Rapporteur welcomed the fact that Mangala Samaraweera, the Minister of Post, Telecommunications, and Media, had condemned that attack and called for a thorough police investigation into the later incident.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0107", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "On 29 April 1998, the Special Rapporteur requested the Government of Sri Lanka to extend an invitation to him to carry out an official visit to the country in the course of 1998.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0108", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "Despite an acknowledgement sent by the Government on 4 May 1998, no further reply has been provided to the Special Rapporteur, in particular with regard to the above-mentioned cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sri Lanka"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0109", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "On 28 May 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent a letter to the Government of the Sudan proposing that he visit the country in late summer or early autumn 1998, following an invitation the Government had extended to him in 1996.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0110", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "The Government of the Sudan replied by letter dated 14 September 1998 and suggested that the Special Rapporteur visit the Sudan during September 1998. Unfortunately, previous commitments forced a delay in the visit which is now proposed for May or June 1999, as the Special Rapporteur suggested in his letter dated 6 October 1998 to the Government of the Sudan.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0111", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "On 29 April 1998 the Special Rapporteur sent a letter to the Government reminding it that he had requested, by letter dated 4 December 1997, an invitation to visit the country. He emphasizes that this visit should consolidate the cooperation between Tunisia and the Commission on Human Rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0112", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "On 10 June 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent a joint urgent appeal with the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention to the Government of Turkey on the case of Esber Yagmurdereli, a journalist and lawyer. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, Esber Yagmurdereli was arrested on 1 June 1998 after his release in November 1997 on health grounds. In 1991, Mr. Yagmurdereli had supposedly been partially amnestied for a 23-year prison term he had been serving since 1978. With the new arrest and imprisonment, it is alleged that he would have to serve the remaining years of the first sentence in addition to the 10 months for his new conviction.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0113", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "By letter dated 23 June 1998, the Government of Turkey stated that Mr. Yagmurdereli, who was sentenced to life imprisonment, first had been released under a conditional amnesty on 1 August 1991. According to the Government, Mr. Yagmurdereli broke the conditions of his amnesty a month after his release, on 8 September 1991, when he contravened article 8 of the Anti-Terror Law, which deals with incitement to violence against the State through propaganda. He was then sentenced to 10 months' imprisonment on 28 May 1997 by the State Security Court and taken to prison on 20 October 1997 after his appeal was rejected by the Court. He was released on 9 November 1997 because of his poor health, which did not represent an amnesty. Mr. Yagmurdereli then rejected the required medical examination at the Forensic Science Institute. The 3d Specialized Board of the Forensic Science Institute, therefore, decided that suspension of the execution of the imprisonment sentence was not required. Consequently, the Chief Prosecutor decided to remove the suspension on the execution of the verdict of Mr. Yagmurdereli, in accordance with article 399/1 of the Turkish Code of Criminal Procedure.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "8", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "399", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0114", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "By letter dated 18 June 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent an allegation to the Government of Turkey on the case of Ragip Duran, a journalist and a founding member of the Turkish Human Rights Association. Ragip Duran started serving his 10-month prison term on 16 June 1998 after being convicted in October 1997 for his article in the now banned newspaper Ozgur Gündem, which analysed interviews he had had with Abdullah Ocalan, the leader of the Kurdistan Worker’s Party (PKK).", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0115", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "The Government of Turkey responded by letter dated 2 July 1998, stating that Mr. Duran had been lawfully convicted, in conformity with article 7/12 of the Anti-Terror Law, No. 3713, for having misused his freedom of expression to propagate an illegal terrorist organization and its leader. The Government of Turkey added that Mr. Ragip Duran was not convicted for his interviews with the leader of the PKK, which were published on 12 April 1994, as he was acquitted of that suit filed against him. The Government emphasized that Mr. Duran’s conviction was related to his praises of an illegal terrorist organization and its leader, which appeared in the article “Apo 91 Ocalan 94”.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "7", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0116", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to thank the Government of Turkey for its willingness to cooperate and for the information provided. However, the Special Rapporteur remains concerned about the removal of the suspension of the imprisonment sentence of Esber Yagmurdereli, as well as about his health.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0117", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "On 16 September 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent an allegation to the Government of Uzbekistan concerning Shadi Mardiev, a reporter for the State-run Samarkand radio station and well-known writer for the journal Mushtum, who was arrested on 15 November 1997 and charged for his broadcast on 19 June 1997, in which he satirized the reportedly corrupt practices of Talat Abdulkhalikzada, the Samarkand deputy prosecutor. On 11 June 1998, Mr. Mardiev was reportedly sentenced to 11 years in prison for defamation and extortion. The Special Rapporteur was also informed that Mr. Mardiev had suffered two brain haemorrhages while he was in solitary confinement and awaiting the result of his appeal. On 3 August 1998, the Supreme Court confirmed Mr. Mardiev’s 11-year sentence.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Uzbekistan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0118", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that at the time of the finalization of the present report, no reply had been received from the Government of Uzbekistan; he expects a response soon.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Uzbekistan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0119", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "On 25 May 1998 the Special Rapporteur transmitted an urgent appeal to the Government of Viet Nam in regard to Prof. Doan Viet Hoat, who is detained at Than Cam prison, inter alia for publication of the newsletter Dien Dan Tu Do (Freedom Forum). He was first sentenced in late March 1993 to 20 years of hard labour for his involvement with the newsletter; the sentence was reduced to 15 years on appeal. It was alleged that in addition to his poor health, Prof. Doan's family was denied access to him.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0120", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets not having received any reply from the Government of Viet Nam. He would highly appreciate if the Government could provide him with precise details on the legislation applied in, and the legal basis for, the detention of Prof. Doan Viet Hoat.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Viet Nam"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0121", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 121, "n": 121, "text": "On 15 October 1998, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government of Yugoslavia concerning a decree Issued by Serbian authorities on 8 October 1998, which prohibits local media from “retransmitting foreign media programmes which threaten the interests of our country, incite fear, panic and defeatism or present a negative image of citizens’ ability to defend the integrity of Serbia and Yugoslavia”. It was alleged that this decree has been used by the authorities to restrict the retransmission of foreign radio programmes by independent media and also to impede the reporting of foreign and Yugoslav correspondents from Kosovo.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Yugoslavia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0122", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 122, "n": 122, "text": "After the decree was issued, officials from the Yugoslav Telecommunications Ministry reportedly closed down the independent Radio Senta in Vojvodina on 9 October 1998 and Radio Index in Belgrade on 10 October 1998. On 12 October 1998, the independent Belgrade daily Danas allegedly received a warning notice and was served a banning order a day later by the Serbian Information Ministry. Another independent Belgrade daily, Dnevni Telegraf, also was said to have been closed down by the Information Ministry and the police on 13 October 1998. Both newspapers have reportedly been accused of breaching the above-mentioned decree. A third independent daily, Nasa Borba, also allegedly received a warning notice from the Information Ministry on 12 October 1998, for its reporting on Kosovo. In his communication to the Government, the Special Rapporteur expressed his great concern for the independent media and the physical integrity of journalists, who had been reportedly threatened.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Yugoslavia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0123", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 123, "n": 123, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that at the time of the finalization of the present report, no reply had been received from the Government. He wishes to express his concern over the recent developments in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. He has furthermore been informed that a new Public Information Law has been adopted which reportedly falls short of international standards, in particular with regard to the right to receive or impart information, regardless of frontiers. The Special Rapporteur would be grateful to the Government if he could receive relevant information on this matter.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Yugoslavia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0124", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 124, "n": 124, "text": "The Special Rapporteur encourages all States that have not ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to do so. Furthermore, he again urges all Governments to scrutinize their domestic legal systems with a view to bringing them into line with international standards governing the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Particularly with regard to the issue of national security, the Special Rapporteur urges all Governments to review not only laws specifically intended to protect national security but also ordinary criminal laws which may be used to infringe the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0125", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 125, "n": 125, "text": "As regards information, particularly information held by Governments, the Special Rapporteur strongly encourages States to take all necessary steps to ensure the full realization of the right to access to information. The Special Rapporteur proposes to undertake a comparative study of the different approaches taken in the various countries and regions in this regard.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0126", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 126, "n": 126, "text": "As regards the impact of new information technology on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the Special Rapporteur considers it of pre-eminent importance that they be considered in light of the same", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0127", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 127, "n": 1, "text": "Verbitsky v. Argentina, 20 September 1994, Case No. 11.012, Report No. 22/94, 3 HRR 52; the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0128", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 128, "n": 2, "text": "Lingens v. Austria, 8 July 1986, 8 EHRR 407, para. 42. international standards as other means of communication and that no measures be taken which would unduly restrict freedom of expression and information; in case of doubt, the decision should be in favour of free expression and flow of information. With regard to the Internet, the Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate that on-line expression should be guided by international standards and be guaranteed the same protection as is awarded to other forms of expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0129", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 129, "n": 127, "text": "In this context, he also recommends that all reasonable steps be taken to promote access to the Internet. For instance, Governments should promote an economic and regulatory environment which encourages the extension of telecommunication lines to rural and other previously under-serviced areas. Wherever possible, government information should be made available through the Internet.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0130", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 130, "n": 128, "text": "Concerning the link between the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the rights of women, the Special Rapporteur expresses his great concern at the continuing silencing of women by various devices. He urges Governments to take all necessary steps to remove formal and cultural obstacles to the exercise by women of their right to freedom of expression, including to receive information, and, ultimately, to give effect to all their rights. In light of the importance of freedom of expression and how it relates to violence against women, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that a special effort should be made both to gather and to analyse more information along the lines described in the present report. The Special Rapporteur would like to reiterate his wish to be able to prepare a report jointly with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, to be submitted to the Commission on Human Rights next year. In this regard, he invites submissions by Governments, intergovernmental organizations and specialized agencies, as well as non-governmental bodies.\nANNEX\nHow to bring information before the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression Overview\nThe mandate of the Special Rapporteur is concerned with the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to seek, receive and impart information. In view of the complexity and multifaceted nature of this right, the Special Rapporteur views the mandate as not focusing only on individual cases and incidents or being confined only to the issue of freedom of the press or the media. The work of the Special Rapporteur, therefore, involves both action on individual cases and incidents as well as consideration of laws and practices relating to the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to seek, receive and impart information.\nAny individual, group, non-governmental organization, intergovernmental agency or Government with reliable knowledge of situations and cases in areas relating to the mandate are encouraged to bring the relevant information to the attention of the Special Rapporteur. The Special Rapporteur invites correspondents to provide information on problems within the scope of his mandate. He is particularly interested in receiving information on problems and violations related to:\n(a) Detention of, discrimination against, or threats or use of violence and harassment, including persecution and intimidation, directed at persons seeking to exercise or to promote the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, including professionals in the field of information;\n(b) Activities of political opposition parties and trade union activists, whether a group or an individual;\n(c) Actions against the media (print and broadcast) or impediments to their independent operation;\n(d) Actions against publishers and performers in other media, including books, magazines, film and theatre and the studio arts;\n(e) Activities of human rights defenders (e.g. lawyers, community activists);\n(f) Women’s human rights, within the context of obstacles - including laws and practices - which impede the right of women to express their views and be heard, participate in the decision-making process, have equal standing before the law, and seek and receive information on matters of particular relevance to them such as family planning and violence against women;\n(g) Obstacles to access to information at the local, regional and national levels on projects and initiatives proposed by the Government to advance the right to development and obstacles to participation in the decision-making process, as well as obstacles to access to information on other subjects such as environmental and health impact studies, national budgets, social spending, industrial development projects and trade policies.\nThe Special Rapporteur seeks to balance communications with Governments between those related to individual cases and incidents, which may be considered the symptoms, and those that relate to general patterns of violations - including the legal framework and its application as regards the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to seek and receive information - which may be considered the root causes of violations.\nMethod\nUpon receipt of prima facie credible and reliable information, the Special Rapporteur transmits the information to the Government concerned and requests it to provide him with comments and observations. Upon receipt of the replies, the Special Rapporteur establishes whether the information received can be considered as explaining to his satisfaction the circumstances of the case, the applicable laws and regulations and the reasons for the act or omission on the part of the State that provided the initial ground for an allegation of an impermissible infringement on the right to freedom of opinion and expression.\nThe Special Rapporteur has adopted an urgent action procedure for cases that are of a life-threatening nature or other situations where the particular circumstances of the incident require urgent attention.\nAPPENDIX\nGuidelines for the submission of information to the Special Rapporteur\nIn order for the Special Rapporteur to be able to take action regarding a communication on a case or incident, the following information, as a minimum, must be received.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0131", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 131, "n": 1, "text": "Allegation regarding a person or persons:\nAs detailed a description of the alleged violation as possible, including date, location and circumstances of the event;\nName, age, gender, ethnic background (if relevant), profession;\nViews, affiliations, past or present participation in political, social, ethnic or labour group/activity;\nInformation on other specific activities relating to the alleged violation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0132", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 132, "n": 2, "text": "Allegation regarding a medium of communication:\nAs detailed a description of the alleged infringement on the right as possible, including date, location and circumstances of the event;\nThe nature of the medium affected (e.g. newspapers, independent radio); including circulation and frequency of publication or broadcasting, public performances, etc.;\nPolitical orientation of the medium (if relevant).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0133", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 133, "n": 3, "text": "Information regarding the alleged perpetrators:\nName, State affiliation (e.g. military, police) and reasons why they are considered responsible;\nFor non-State actors, description of how they relate to the State (e.g. cooperation with or support by State security forces);\nIf applicable, State encouragement or tolerance of activities of non-State actors, whether groups or individuals, including threats or use of violence and harassment against individuals exercising their right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to seek, receive and impart information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0134", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 134, "n": 4, "text": "Information related to State actions:\nIf the incident involves restrictions on a medium (e.g. censorship, closure of a news organ, banning of a book, etc.); the identity of the authority involved (individual and/or ministry and/or department), the legal statute invoked, and steps taken to seek domestic remedy;\nIf the incident involves arrest of an individual or individuals, the identity of the authority involved (individual and/or ministry and/or department), the legal statute invoked, location of detention if known, information on provision of access to legal counsel and family members, steps taken to seek domestic remedy or clarification of person’s situation and status;\nIf applicable, information on whether or not an investigation has taken place and, if so, by what ministry or department of the Government and the status of the investigation at the time of submission of the allegation, including whether or not the investigation has resulted in indictments.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1999-64-0135", "docId": "e-cn-4-1999-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1999, "idx": 135, "n": 5, "text": "Information on the source of the communications:\nName and full address;\nTelephone and fax numbers and e-mail address (if possible);\nName, address, phone/fax numbers and e-mail address (if applicable) of person or organization submitting the allegation.\nNote: In addition to the information requested above, the Special Rapporteur welcomes any additional comments or background notes that are considered relevant to the case or incident.\nFollow-up\nThe Special Rapporteur attaches great importance to being kept informed of the current status of cases and thus very much welcomes updates of previously reported cases and information. This includes both negative and positive developments, including the release of persons detained for exercising their rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to seek, receive and impart information, or the adoption of new laws or policies or changes to existing ones that have a positive impact on the realization of the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and information.\nRoot causes\nIn order to carry out his work regarding the root causes of violations, which is of particular importance to the Special Rapporteur, he is very much interested in receiving information on and/or texts of draft laws relating to or affecting the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to seek, receive and impart information. The Special Rapporteur is also interested in laws or government policies relating to electronic media, including the Internet, as well as the impact of the availability of new information technologies on the right to freedom of opinion and expression.\nCommunications\nWhere requested or considered necessary by the Special Rapporteur, information on the source of the allegations will be treated as confidential.\nAny information falling within this description of the mandate of the Special Rapporteur should be sent to:\nSpecial Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression c/o Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights United Nations Office at Geneva 1211 Geneva 10 Switzerland\nFax: +41 22 917 9003", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is the fifth report presented by the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Mr. Abid Hussain (India), since the mandate was established by Commission on Human Rights resolution 1993/45 of 5 March 1993. It is submitted pursuant to resolution 1997/27. Previously the Special Rapporteur, in pursuance of Commission resolutions 1993/45, 1994/33, 1995/40 and 1996/53, all adopted without a vote, submitted the reports contained in documents E/CN.4/1994/33, E/CN.4/1995/32, E/CN.4/1996/39 and Add.1 and 2, and E/CN.4/1997/31 and Add.1 to the Commission at its fiftieth, fifty-first, fifty-second and fifty-third sessions respectively.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The Special Rapporteur refers to his previous reports as regards the mandate and methods of work adopted by him. In accordance with the need for examining a number of specific questions concerning the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the structure of the present report has been amended. Consequently, the main body of analysis of issues related to the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression will be discussed in section III, focusing on matters referred to by the Commission on Human Rights in resolution 1997/27 and which the Special Rapporteur considers as warranting special attention. These issues include the right to seek and receive information, the media in countries in transition and their role in elections, the impact of new information technologies on the enjoyment of the right, concerns relating to national security, as well as the right to freedom of expression as it relates to violence against women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has received a large number of allegations concerning cases of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in 1997. As was the case in previous years, the Special Rapporteur was only able to transmit a very limited number of requests for information to some Governments, owing to the insufficient financial and human resources to fulfil his mandate in the manner he would deem appropriate. The concerns raised in previous reports to the Commission on Human Rights regarding the circumstances of work (E/CN.4/1995/32, paras. 92-95; E/CN.4/1996/39, para. 6; and E/CN.4/1997/31, para. 7) unfortunately remain of great concern. The mandate requires a substantially increased pool of resources. Within the current constraints, the Special Rapporteur has engaged in an exchange of views with Governments only with regard to a limited number of cases, which are discussed in Section IV.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "It should thus be emphasized that the countries discussed in the respective sections in no way reflect the extent of the problem worldwide, as indeed violations of this right take place in almost every country. In an effort to avoid unnecessary duplication of effort, the Special Rapporteur has increased his cooperation with other special rapporteurs. In the past year, he has sent joint urgent appeals together with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, the Special Representative on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Sudan. Closer cooperation is envisaged with treaty bodies and human rights field operations, as well as other specialized bodies within the United Nations system, and regional intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, particularly at the local level, concerned with the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "From 20 to 23 May 1997, the Special Rapporteur participated in the fourth meeting of special rapporteurs/representatives, experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures and advisory services programme, held in Geneva.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The Special Rapporteur visited Geneva from 22 to 29 March for consultations and to present his report to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-third session. During this period, the Special Rapporteur met with representatives of the Governments of Belarus, Egypt, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Peru, Poland, the Republic of Korea, the Sudan, Turkey and Viet Nam to follow up on or discuss possible visits to the respective countries. He furthermore held a meeting with NGO representatives to discuss specific concerns regarding the mandate.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The Special Rapporteur considers the carrying out of country visits to be an essential element of the mandate. From 24 to 28 May 1997, the Special Rapporteur visited Poland, followed by a visit to Belarus from 28 May to 1 June 1997, on which he has submitted separate reports to the Commission at its current session (E/CN.4/1998/40/Add.1 and 2).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "To date, the Special Rapporteur is in possession of a standing invitation from the Government of the Sudan and hopes to visit the country during this calendar year. While he has also requested an invitation to visit Albania, Egypt, Indonesia, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Peru and Viet Nam to examine in situ the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, he regrets that no invitations have so far been received from them. The Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate his interest in conducting a visit to those countries. In December 1997, in a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, the Special Rapporteur has requested an invitation to visit Tunisia.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "On 6 June 1997, the Special Rapporteur participated in a conference on protection of freedom of speech and cities of asylum held in Stavanger, Norway. The aim of the meeting was to discuss new threats to which writers are exposed and appropriate responses.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Finally, the role of non-governmental organizations in furthering the promotion and the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression cannot be overestimated. Indeed, it is those organizations which spearhead these concerns. The Special Rapporteur wishes to expressly thank ARTICLE 19, the International Centre Against Censorship, which continues to provide significant support to the mandate. He encourages all organizations and individuals to continue to provide information and materials relevant to the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression to the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ACTIVITIES"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has consistently stated that the right to seek and receive information is not simply a converse of the right to freedom of opinion and expression but a freedom on its own. It will also be recalled that in the resolutions on freedom of opinion and expression adopted at its fifty-first (1995/40), fifty-second (1996/53) and fifty-third (1997/27) sessions the Commission requested the Special Rapporteur “to develop further his commentary on the right to seek and receive information ...”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to address the issue of the right to information as it relates to government. He believes that the right to access to information held by the Government must be the rule rather than the exception. Furthermore, there must be a general right of access to certain types of information related to what may be called “State activity”, for example, meetings and decision-making forums should be open to the public wherever possible. In a number of democracies there has been a growing trend towards broadcasting, through radio and/or television, the debates and proceedings of sessions of national, regional, State and local assemblies as well as the courts. The Special Rapporteur recommends that this trend be strongly encouraged and hopes that more States and local Governments will adopt this practice.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also notes that there have been a number of instances in which Governments have attempted to prosecute civil servants and others who make available public information which has been classified and that States in every region and with different structures of government continue to classify far more information than could be considered necessary. “Necessary” in this context means that serious harm to the State’s interest is unavoidable if the information is made public and that this harm outweighs the harm to the rights of opinion, expression and information. The tendency to classify or withhold information on the basis of, for example, “Cabinet confidentiality” is too often the practice, which adversely affects access to information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is of the view that the right to seek, receive and impart information imposes a positive obligation on States to ensure access to information, particularly with regard to information held by Government in all types of storage and retrieval systems, including film, microfiche, electronic capacities and photographs. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur has observed that in countries where the right to information is most fully realized, access to governmental information is often guaranteed by freedom of information legislation, which establishes a legally enforceable right to official documents for inspection and copying. In many cases the right to information is facilitated by independent administrative bodies which have been provided with adequate resources to fulfil their mandate and purpose. These bodies have the power to receive requests for information from the public and to issue decisions binding upon the government department or agency concerned. In those cases where the relevant department or agency has sought to deny access, the arbiter, i.e. the information commissioner or ombudsman, has had the power and authority to compel the Government to produce the information so that a decision may be made on whether the denial is legitimate. In general, the procedures established for requests for information filed by individuals, and for the receiving and processing of requests by agencies, are simple, accessible and reasonably rapid and the decisions are generally issued in writing, within a limited period of time. In those cases where a request has been denied, the reasons are provided and in a number of instances an individual whose request has been refused is entitled to seek a judicial review of the decision.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "In light of the importance of access to Government-held information for democracy and public participation in the governance of the country, as well as the positive effect on accountability, the Special Rapporteur would consider it useful to undertake a comparative study of the different approaches taken on this issue in different countries, with regard to the legislative framework, review mechanisms, as well as the implementation in practice.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Finally, the Special Rapporteur supports the view that Governments have a responsibility to facilitate access to information which is already in the public domain such as the reports and recommendations of truth and reconciliation commissions, the State’s reports to United Nations human rights treaty bodies, recommendations arising from consideration of the State’s report by one of these treaty bodies, studies and impact assessments conducted by or on behalf of the Government in areas such as the environment and industrial development, and constitutional and legal provisions relating to rights and remedies. He notes that Governments may discharge this obligation for instance by systematically integrating information about key civic issues, such as human rights, international treaties binding on the State, elections and other political processes, into the education system and popularizing the information through the media. Access to records such as court reports and parliamentary proceedings can be published in a timely fashion and disseminated through major public and university libraries throughout the country and, where technology permits, the Internet.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur believes that one of the best guarantees of respect for the rights to freedom of expression and information lies in the existence of independent media, electronic and print, in which ownership is diversified and there is a maximum of self-regulation and a minimum of State interference. In this context, the Special Rapporteur observes that independent and State-owned media contribute most effectively to the realization of the right to information in countries where there is a statutory presumption that journalists are not required to disclose their sources except in the most limited and clearly defined circumstances. Without such protection for both journalists and sources, the media’s access to information and their ability to communicate that information to the public are likely to be compromised.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "A final point to be made in this context relates to the right to seek, receive and impart information and popular participation. It will be recalled that in his report to the fifty-third session of the Commission, the Special Rapporteur highlighted “the important link between the ability of people, both individually and collectively, to participate in the public life of their communities and country, and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression, including freedom to seek and receive information” (E/CN.4/1996/31, para. 64). The Special Rapporteur further commented that “as discussions on the implementation of the right to development continue, laws and governmental practices which violate the rights to freedom of opinion, expression, information, dissent, association and participation must be taken into account ... (paragraph 65)” and noted violations which, in several aspects, touch on the right to information. These aspects include suppression of political expression, denial of access to family planning information for women, discrimination against women through personal status laws, prohibition on the establishment of independent trade unions, prohibitions or restrictions on the operations of independent media and restrictions on access to information on subjects of public interest and importance. The Special Rapporteur recommended to the Commission on Human Rights that future discussions on implementation of the right to development take full account of the need fully to promote and protect the right to seek, receive and impart information because it, as well as the right to freedom of opinion and expression, is a fundamental prerequisite to ensure public participation, without which the realization of the right to development will remain in jeopardy (E/CN.4/1997/31, para. 66).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has also noted with the greatest interest the elaboration by the United Nations Development Programme of a policy on disclosure of information to the public which was announced in June 1997. The policy is intended “to ensure that information concerning UNDP operational activities will be made available to the public in the absence of a compelling reason for confidentiality (emphasis added)”. 1/ While the operations of agencies within the United Nations system are not generally the concern of the Special Rapporteur, the point to be made in citing UNDP’s policy is the presumption in favour of public disclosure. In the Special Rapporteur’s opinion Governments everywhere should proceed on the same basis and in those States where there is either no policy at all or one based on a presumption of the need for restrictions, steps should be taken to enact a law or establish an effective administrative mechanism for the realization of the people’s right to know and participate. The Special Rapporteur also believes that as regards the implementation of the right to development, full consideration must be given to the relationship between information, the active participation of the entire population and sustainable human development through which every individual can and will benefit.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "A. The right to seek and receive information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Since the assumption of his mandate, the Special Rapporteur has observed a number of trends with regard to countries in transition from authoritarian rule to democracy in providing for the protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and information. In the area of mass media, this has included in many cases the transformation of a system in which the State had a complete monopoly over the media and other means of communication to a society in which freedom of the media and the press, freedom of assembly and association, as well as other ways of expression, play an essential role. The process of transition has taken vastly different directions in different countries.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Undoubtedly, historical experiences such as previous periods of democratic rule, the extent to which freedom of expression was possible, or the existence of a civil society are important elements to be considered. A wide variety of other factors also come into play; this could certainly be the subject of a study on its own. The point to be made here is the importance of freedom of expression and information in all stages of transitions. This is common to all countries in transition and in the view of the Special Rapporteur is an indispensable ingredient in charting the path towards a successful democratic transition and consolidation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "During his visits to Belarus and Poland, the Special Rapporteur was able to look at the different problems arising within the context of transition, particularly in the context of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, but which may equally be relevant to countries in other regions. The Special Rapporteur finds that a predominant factor was the need for establishing national independent television and radio services with a public broadcasting mandate, ensuring the independence of regulatory frameworks for private broadcasting, as well as ensuring that licensing procedures are apolitical and administrative matters only. Other issues of increasing importance was the reported lack of access to information held by the Government, as well as the protection of journalists' sources. Furthermore, it became clear that one question to be addressed concerns how to strike the balance between freedom and responsibility. In countries transforming their economic policies to follow the logic of the market rather than the State, additional problems have appeared, such as overwhelming influence of foreign media and the control by powerful interest groups of the main mass communications, thus creating the potential danger of depriving the population of balanced information from a variety of sources.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "To return to the issue of independent broadcasting, the role of broadcasting media in all countries in shaping democratic processes and public opinion hardly needs to be re-emphasized. In the light of the unprecedented influence of television and radio broadcasting on the way of thinking and on modern society as a whole, little doubt remains as to their power as educational tools. However, if lacking a democratic basis, they may also be used for inherently undemocratic processes, whether subject to State or private interests.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "The Special Rapporteur particularly wishes to emphasize the role of the media in elections in the process of transition to democracy, specifically in ensuring that the population’s right to receive complete and impartial information is fully guaranteed so as to enable the electorate to form an opinion on candidates’ views and qualifications as well as on the programmes of political parties.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "In this connection, the Special Rapporteur wishes to recall his observation, resulting from his visit to Belarus, expressing concern at the biased coverage with regard to the elections in 1995 and the November 1996 referendum. He notes the observations made by the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the territory of the former Yugoslavia in her report on the situation of human rights in the Republic of Croatia. With regard to the elections of 15 June 1997, it was noted that the election observer mission of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) had concluded that the election may have been free but was not fair, and did not meet minimum democratic standards because the State media - particularly television - showed favouritism towards the ruling Croatian democratic Union (HDZ) (see E/CN.4/1998/14). Equally, she observed in her report on the human rights situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina that during the period preceding the September 1997 elections, “participation in political life was hindered by various obstacles, notably to freedom of the press”. These problems prevented genuine inter-entity (as well as intra-Federation) campaigning, and negatively affected the right of citizens to information (E/CN.4/1998/13, para. 16). In the latest report of the Secretary-General to the General Assembly on the situation of human rights in Cambodia, fair and equal access to the media as a crucial requirement of a free and fair election was equally emphasized (A/52/489, annex, para. 51). The Special Rapporteur received many complaints with regard to a number of countries about the interference with the free flow of information and the imposition of restrictions on the media prior to elections or referendums, compromising the ability of populations to choose their Governments.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thus considers it of vital importance to address the issue of election broadcasting in transitional democracies where a strong tradition of pluralism and diversity in the media does not exist. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur wishes to highlight some principles to be observed to establish the minimum conditions for a free flow of information, views and opinions during election periods, the validity of which is not limited to Eastern Europe.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "As regards the government media, the Special Rapporteur emphasizes that in the period prior to elections, they must inform the public about the political parties, candidates, campaign issues and voting processes and provide voter education. They must furthermore be balanced and impartial in election reporting, not discriminate against any political party or candidate in granting access to air time, and ensure that news, interviews and information programmes are not biased in favour of, or against, any party or candidate. They should not refuse to transmit an election broadcast unless it constitutes a clear and direct incitement to violence or hatred. Their news and current affairs programmes should be accurate, balanced and impartial. Parties and candidates should be granted air time for direct access programmes on a fair and non-discriminatory basis. In referendums, equal time should be granted to both sides. 2/", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Furthermore, Governments should abolish all laws not in conformity with international law and standards on freedom of expression, and make special efforts to investigate all acts or threats of acts of violence, intimidation or harassment directed against media personnel or offices and bring those responsible to justice. In addition, no censorship of election programmes may be allowed. Finally, election broadcasts should be monitored and regulated by an independent, impartial body. 3/", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "These points are emphasized by the Special Rapporteur with a view to ensuring that a number of problems affecting the media’s ability to operate freely and in a balanced way during the election process are overcome. These problems include censorship by Government-controlled media and government agencies, threats of censorship, banning access for certain political parties, media closures, confiscation, bringing sedition charges, intimidation, attacks, detention and prosecution of journalists, and failure to protect journalists from attack. In any electoral process where one or more of these problems remains unaddressed and where no corrective action has been taken, the public’s right to receive and impart information is violated and the opportunity to make an informed decision is limited.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "B. The media in countries of transition and in elections"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recalls that in the resolution adopted at its fifty-second session (1996/53) the Commission on Human Rights noted the need to raise awareness about the linkage between media, including modern telecommunication technologies, and the right to freedom of expression. It may also be recalled that in the resolution adopted by the Commission at its fifty-third session (1997/27, para. 12 (f)) the Special Rapporteur was invited “to consider, in his next report, all aspects of the impact that the availability of new information technology may have on the equal opportunity of access to information and on the exercise of the right to freedom of expression as set out in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Special Rapporteur observes that the question of the capacities and impact of new information technology is highly complex, involving not only the users and providers of information but also the designers of the technology and service providers. As such, the Special Rapporteur is of the opinion that the invitation by the Commission for him to consider “all aspects” of this question goes beyond the technical competence of the Special Rapporteur and, further, that in order for the Commission’s expectations to be met, the allocation of significant additional resources (financial and expert) is required before comprehensive and in-depth work on the question can be carried out. That being said, and in light of the importance of the matter, the Special Rapporteur is in a position to offer only some preliminary views and to suggest areas where further work may be done in future.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The reference by the Commission on Human Rights to “all aspects” of the new information technology explicitly acknowledges the scope of the question at issue. Bearing that in mind, it must be said that the different views on the issue on the part of Governments, non-governmental organizations and individuals often merely reflect a particular aspect of the problem. There is often a natural tension between what are viewed as competing or mutually exclusive interests or values and the debate often tends to be less about the present and potential benefits of the new technology than it is about restrictions, often in the absence of a clear understanding and all-encompassing analysis of the implications of introducing measures of regulation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "It must again be acknowledged that the international instruments on human rights recognize, as ground for restrictions on opinion, expression and information, the legitimate interest of society in the protection of national security or public order, public health or morals and the rights and freedoms of others. That the new technology has opened alternative avenues for expression and opinion and the transfer of information is not in question.\nNeither is it in doubt that the use of these additional sources by some groups and individuals has raised serious concerns particularly related to, for example, racism and hate speech, incitement to violence, pornography (especially child pornography and sex tourism), privacy and reputation and cultural or societal values.", "labels": ["Children"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "In his report to the fifty-first session of the Commission, and in each report since then, the Special Rapporteur has consistently and strongly emphasized that the general rule is the protection of the freedom of expression and opinion and the right to information, and that the restriction of such freedom and the right must be the exception.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The current debate over the use and, some would say, abuse of the Internet by individuals and groups to express and disseminate racist and intolerant views is one example of the issues raised by the introduction of a new technology and the natural tension that exists between rights and restrictions or, it could be said, between the rights of one person or group and those of others. General recommendation XV (1993) of the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination recalls the mandatory nature of the provisions of article 4 in the Convention explained in general recommendation VII, and states that article 4 (a) requires States parties to penalize: (a) dissemination of ideas based on racial superiority or hatred; (b) incitement to racial hatred; (c) acts of violence against any race or group of persons of another colour or ethnic origin; and, (d) incitement to such acts. General recommendation XV also states that, “In the opinion of the Committee, the prohibition of the dissemination of all ideas based upon racial superiority or hatred is compatible with the right to freedom of opinion and expression.” Additionally, the Committee referred to article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, recalling that it stipulates that “any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "The ambivalence surrounding points related to the principle of the need to balance rights and protections is evident in the positions taken by Governments through the declarations and reservations they have entered to article 4 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. A review of these reservations and declarations shows that many of them are based on the need to reconcile the rights to opinion, expression, association and assembly with prohibitions on certain kinds of activities. 4/", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "CERD", "article": "4", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "Regrettably, the Special Rapporteur was unable to attend the seminar organized by the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights and held in Geneva from 10 to 14 November 1997 on the role of the Internet with regard to the provisions of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. He considered with great interest the materials made available, although the report on the seminar had not yet been available at the time of finalization of the present report. He nevertheless notes the conclusions and recommendations of the seminar and the differing views expressed regarding the establishment of an open-ended working group to draft guidelines for the ethical use of the Internet, as well as the possible role of the Commission on Human Rights in deciding on the status and the mandate of such a group. In particular, he notes the absence of consensus on the issue of a formulation of a code of conduct for Internet users and service providers and concerns raised that such a code may lead to abuse and undue infringement on the right to freedom of expression. In this context, the Special Rapporteur wishes to emphasize that great care must be taken to achieve an appropriate balance between the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to receive and impart information and the prohibition on speech and/or activities promoting racist views and inciting violence.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The Special Rapporteur further observes that the range of national models is so extensive as to raise serious doubt as to the possibility of adopting one particular approach as to the best way to tackle the problems and challenges posed by the Internet in the foreseeable future. For instance, in the United States, there is virtually an absolute right to expression and the United States Supreme Court recently decided that censorship provisions in the Communications Decency Act, an amendment to the Telecommunications Reform Act (1996), were unconstitutional and, further, that free speech on the Internet deserved constitutional protection. In some other countries, the actual state of the rights to expression, opinion, information, association and assembly is so restricted as to make any consideration of the dangers presumed to be posed by racism on the Internet virtually irrelevant. And in others, where a balance between rights and restrictions has been established in domestic legislation, the focus has been less on enacting further legislation than on enforcing existing law and working with Internet service providers to ensure that those using the technology to express and promote their views are doing so in conformity with the law.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also wishes to emphasize that there is a distinction to be drawn between speech which offends and hurts and that which exceeds the threshold of tolerance, ceases to be speech and becomes crime under international law. In this regard, while Governments consider what would constitute an appropriate, fair and feasible approach that might be taken to problems raised by the Internet, it is vital that attention continue to be given to the incidence of Governments cooperating or being directly active in the manipulation of media for the promotion of racist views and the incitement to violence on the scale that occurred, for instance, in the former Yugoslavia or Rwanda.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "Another aspect arising from the Internet that has come to the Special Rapporteur’s attention is the inclination of Governments to regulate and control access to this electronic network. The bases on which Governments have taken action include, for example, broadly worded and vague statements on the need to protect public morals or national security. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur noted a number of incidents and trends reported from several countries.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "The Special Rapporteur views with concern measures taken by Governments to impede the free flow of information. Of particular concern are the actions by Governments which provide for extremely harsh punitive measures against groups and individuals seeking to benefit from new information technologies. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur recalls information in the report to the fifty-third session of the Commission by the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Myanmar (E/CN.4/1997/64, para. 18) according to which:\n“the Computer Science Development Law of 27 September 1996 makes the unauthorized import, possession, and use of certain types of computer equipment, for example computers with networking capability, punishable with sentences of 7 to 15 years' in prison and/or a fine. A 'Myanmar Computer Science Council' will be established to approve the type of equipment to be restricted. According to the Government-controlled newspaper New Light of Myanmar (NLM), the punishment is prescribed for anyone setting up links with a computer network without permission or who uses computer networks or information technology for undermining State security, law and order, national unity, the national economy or national culture or who obtains or transmits State secrets. Members of unauthorized computer clubs may, according to reports, be sentenced to prison terms of a minimum of three years. A punishment of 5 to 10 years’ imprisonment is prescribed for anyone who imports or exports computer software or information banned by the Myanmar Computer Science Council.”", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "On a separate but related issue, the Special Rapporteur remains concerned at the policies of some Governments to ban new technology extending the reach of news, information and entertainment programming. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur recalls the report prepared following his visit to Iran in 1996 (E/CN.4/1996/39/Add.2) and information he received on legislation making it illegal to import, distribute, possess or use satellite antennae. The Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the law had been enacted “for the purpose of safeguarding the cultural identity of the Islamic Republic of Iran against unwarranted influence by the international mass media through the broadcasting of destructive and indecent satellite programmes, and not for the purpose of obstructing or hampering the possibilities for the general public to obtain information (paragraph 51)”. The Government suggested that the prohibition should be regarded as an issue related to public morality. The Special Rapporteur recalls that he strongly encouraged the Government to repeal the law prohibiting the use of satellite antennae.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has received information on the same issue regarding Egypt, according to which, in July 1995, the Government banned the import without prior authorization of satellite decoders, in order to “preserve and protect the values, morals and traditions of society”. 5/", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "A preliminary examination of some issues raised by the new telecommunications and information technologies highlights several themes of continuing concern to the Special Rapporteur. First, it may be recalled that some years ago, developing countries called for a new world information and communication order to create a freer, broader and more balanced flow of information. It may also be recalled that, in 1980, UNESCO adopted a resolution which set out a number of points upon which a new world information and communication order could be based. These points included, inter alia: elimination of imbalances in the existing means and manner of information dissemination; elimination of the negative effects of public and private monopolies of media ownership; elimination of excessive concentration of ownership; creation of a plurality of sources and channels of information; freedom for media professionals with an associated responsibility to exercise that freedom wisely; respect for the cultural identity of peoples; respect for the right of each country to inform the world about its interests, aspirations and social and cultural values; and respect for the right of the public, ethnic and social groups and of individuals to have access to information sources and to participate actively in the communication process.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is of the opinion that the new technologies and, in particular, the Internet are inherently democratic, provide the public and individuals with access to information sources and enable all to participate actively in the communication process. The Special Rapporteur also believes that action by States to impose excessive regulations on the use of these technologies and, again, particularly the Internet, on the grounds that control, regulation and denial of access are necessary to preserve the moral fabric and cultural identity of societies is paternalistic. These regulations presume to protect people from themselves and, as such, they are inherently incompatible with the principles of the worth and dignity of each individual. These arguments deny the fundamental wisdom of individuals and societies and ignore the capacity and resilience of citizens, whether on a national, State, municipal, community or even neighbourhood level, often to take self-correcting measures to re-establish equilibrium without excessive interference or regulation by the State.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "C. The impact of new information technologies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "The use and abuse by Governments of anti-terrorism and national security legislation remains a grave concern. The Special Rapporteur again notes that many Governments use these laws to restrict freedom of opinion and expression and the right to receive and impart information. Further, abuse of the powers granted under such laws often leads to: both prolonged and short-term arbitrary detention; torture; extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions; disappearances; threats and intimidation; the closure of various media outlets; the banning of publications and programming; bans on public gatherings; bans and prohibitions on organizations, groups and associations that are in no way associated with terrorism and violence; strict censorship on all forms of communication; and tolerance of, if not actual support for the abuses and crimes committed by police and paramilitary groups.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. National security"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "During visits to various countries and in discussions with government representatives the Special Rapporteur has taken up the issue of national security laws and encouraged the Governments either to repeal the law and consider other measures consistent with article 19 of the Covenant for the protection of the State's national security interests, or to amend the relevant law or laws to ensure a precise and unambiguous definition of the activities and crimes covered by the legislation. For instance, during his visit to the Republic of Korea, he discussed in depth with the authorities the concerns with regard to the National Security Law as reflected in paragraphs 12 to 21 of his report on that visit (E/CN.4/1996/39/Add.1) in which he strongly encouraged the Government to repeal this law.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. National security"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "The Special Rapporteur reiterates his recommendation to the Commission on Human Rights to endorse the Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information (see E/CN.4/1996/39, annex).\nThe Special Rapporteur remains convinced that the Principles give useful guidance for protecting adequately the right to freedom of opinion, expression and information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "D. National security"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "In resolution 1997/27 the Commission on Human Rights invited the Special Rapporteur to continue to pay particular attention to the situation of women and the relationship between the effective promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and incidents of discrimination based on sex, creating obstacles for women with regard to their right to seek, receive and impart information, and to consider how those obstacles impeded the ability of women to make informed choices in areas of particular importance to them, as well as in areas related to the general decision-making processes in the societies in which they lived. The Special Rapporteur offers the following information and preliminary observations on this subject.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "In his report to the fifty-first session of the Commission on Human Rights (E/CN.4/1995/32), the Special Rapporteur stated that the right to freedom of opinion and expression reflects a country's standard of fair play, justice and honesty (paragraph 14). The Special Rapporteur wishes to emphasize here that the degree to which States respect, protect and promote the right to freedom of opinion and expression of women, which may be exercised through activities and in ways distinctly different from those of men, will also reflect a country's standard of fair play, justice and honesty with regard to women and the status accorded to them in society.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also recalls that in his report to the fifty-third session of the Commission (E/CN.4/1997/31) he called upon States “to actively support women attempting to make their voices heard and to ensure that they are welcomed as active participants in public life”. He further urged Governments “to ensure that effective measures are taken to eliminate the atmosphere of fear that often prevents many women from communicating freely on their own behalf or on behalf of other women who have been victims of violence either in domestic or community settings or as a result of internal or transborder conflict” (paragraph 62).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes that violence against women has been one of the most enduring features of war and conflict. Thus, what has changed is not that such violence occurs but rather that more people are willing to recognize the occurrence of such practices and are actively attempting to counter them. The two recent tragedies of the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda are, understandably, most frequently cited now when discussing violence against women in the context of armed conflict. There is a lot of evidence regarding the terrible atrocities which were committed against women which must find an expression of protest. Such protest should come out clearly in the media and no restrictions whatsoever should be maintained which would suppress the voices of women. In this context, the Special Rapporteur also believes that far greater attention must be given to positive measures to break the silence. For instance, witness protection programmes are needed, for it is partly through the establishment and proper functioning of such programmes that women and girls will be able to fully exercise their right to expression, recount their stories and give testimony and evidence, without shame and without fear of social exclusion, retribution or reprisals against them or members of their families. Such programmes should also provide for the appropriate support services.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Furthermore, in considering the relationship between violence against women in the domestic and community contexts and freedom of opinion and expression, the Special Rapporteur has had occasion to refer to the report of the Canadian Panel on Violence against Women. The report stated that “Canadian women have not enjoyed freedom of expression; rather, their fear makes them reluctant to speak out about the violence they experience. Canadian institutions have contributed to this situation - by denying that such violence can exist, they have supported misogyny and abuse of power.” 6/ The Panel also noted that women victims of violence in Canada, in common with women in every country, often keep silent about what has or is happening to them for a number of reasons, including fear of reprisal, shame, the belief that they are somehow responsible for the violence, the knowledge that they will not be believed, and, in some cases, suppression of the memory of violence because it is too painful to recall. And, finally, the Special Rapporteur was struck by the Panel’s observation that research on the issue of violence against women in Canada remains incomplete because of exclusion, that is, that very little research has focused on the experiences of Inuit and Aboriginal women, women of colour, immigrant and refugee women, rural, poor or homeless women, women with disabilities, women with low literacy skills and lesbians. The Panel also stated that while much research has been carried out in French and/or English, women who do not understand or speak either of these languages have been excluded. 7/", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons in street situations", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "The issues of fear, shame and exclusion are of great concern to the Special Rapporteur not only because they have an enormous impact on the ability of women to exercise freely their right to expression but also because they reflect, in some countries, inadequacies in the legal protections available to women and, in others, continuing attitudes and practices that are justified on the basis of customary practices, cultural history and social norms. In this context, the Special Rapporteur wishes to refer only to a few cases that have been brought to his attention, some of which he had referred to in previous reports.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "For instance, in the report following his visit to Turkey (E/CN.4/1997/31/Add.1), the Special Rapporteur elaborated on the case of Ms. Ismet Celikaslan, who was allegedly detained shortly after stating on television that her daughter had been raped while in police custody in Ankara (paragraph 14), as well as the case of Ms. Gulcin Ozgur, who was allegedly arrested and detained after having publicly stated that she had been sexually assaulted and tortured during a previous period of detention (paragraph 21). The report on his visit to the Islamic Republic of Iran (E/CN.4/1996/39/Add.2) in paragraph 35 refers to the Penal Code adopted in November 1995 which allows for up to two months' imprisonment or 74 lashes for women not respecting the dress code. Paragraph 63 refers to the existence of institutionalized and legally sanctioned forms of distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex and their impact on the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur further refers to the joint urgent appeal to the Government of Sudan noted in section IV of the present report, concerning an incident of 1 December 1997 when a group of approximately 50 women attempted to peacefully demonstrate their opposition to the compulsory military conscription of their sons and brothers to fight the civil war in southern Sudan.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "The Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan noted in his most recent report to the General Assembly a further deterioration of the situation of the rights of Afghan women. Significantly, he noted that many Afghan women are cut off from the media and other sources of information and their sense of desperation was aggravated because they lived under the impression that the world was not aware of the extent of their plight. He further noted that “one of their principal grievances was that they felt that they did not have the opportunity to raise their voice”, which even some Afghan refugee women living in Pakistan believed to be true (A/52/493, annex, para. 85). In another case brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur, in Peru, a woman received death threats because of her activities in a women's group that organizes educational programmes and provides legal and social assistance to working women. 8/ In Papua New Guinea, compensation for the killing of a clan leader, based on a complex tribal calculation, was determined to be $15,000, 25 pigs and an 18-year-old woman named Miriam Wilngal; the young woman said “no” because she wanted to finish high school and learn to be a typist; Miriam Wilngal was forced to take refuge in Port Moresby, some 500 kilometres from her angry relatives. 9/ Finally, the Special Rapporteur of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities on traditional practices affecting the health of women and children referred to a case in Ethiopia (see E/CN.4/Sub.2/1997/10, para. 27). In May 1997, according to the Ethiopian Press Agency (ENA), six girls of the Woreda tribe in eastern Ethiopia had committed suicide to avoid abusuma, the traditional marriage between cousins. It was further noted that most of the girls subject to this tradition are about 15 years old and that many of them prefer death to being married off to men who are 80 years old while others have refused this type of marriage because they consider it to be a sort of “women’s slavery”.", "labels": ["Children", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes that in 1997, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) issued general recommendation No. 23 on political and public life, in which it notes that “despite women's central role in sustaining the family and society and their contribution to development, they have been excluded from political life and the decision-making process, which nonetheless determine the pattern of their daily lives and the future of societies. Particularly in times of crisis, this exclusion has silenced women's voices and rendered invisible their contribution and experiences”. The Special Rapporteur underlines the link between political participation and participation in the decision-making process and article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text explicitly states 'article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights', linking political participation to the ICCPR freedom of expression provision."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "It will be recalled that the Governments participating in the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in September 1995 asserted, in the Beijing Declaration and Programme of Action, that they were “acknowledging the voices of all women everywhere” (paragraph 4 of the Declaration). The Special Rapporteur feels compelled to express some scepticism about this assertion for the simple reason that, as indicated above, there are many instances and circumstances in which the voices of women cannot possibly have been heard because women have not dared to speak openly about what has happened and/or is happening to and around them. On the other hand, the Special Rapporteur fully concurs with the statement made by Governments in Beijing that:\n“The gap between the existence of rights and their effective enjoyment derives from a lack of commitment by Governments to promoting and protecting those rights and the failure of Governments to inform women and men alike about them ... (paragraph 217 of the Programme of Action).\n“... Unless the human rights of women, as defined by international human rights instruments, are fully recognized and effectively protected, applied, implemented and enforced in national law as well as in national practice in family, civil, penal, labour and commercial codes and administrative rules and regulations, they will exist in name only” (paragraph 218).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. ISSUES", "E. Women and freedom of expression"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "The Special Rapporteur in this section reports on the communications sent out and replies received during 1997. This, however, in no way implies that all cases of earlier communications have been closed to the satisfaction of the Special Rapporteur, as in a number of cases, he has not received replies from the Governments concerned. He refers to his previous reports for cases previously examined.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to encourage Governments to continue their cooperation with the mandate by providing information on the cases in question. He wishes to reiterate that good cooperation is essential in that it opens the possibility for the Special Rapporteur to engage in a dialogue aimed at addressing the concerns as regards respect for freedom of opinion and expression. The opportunity for dialogue is even greater during country missions, and the Special Rapporteur wishes to express his hope for the continued cooperation of Governments in this regard.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "By letter of 13 November 1997, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government of Algeria with regard to the fate of two individuals, namely Mr. Aziz Bouabdallah, journalist with the Arabic-language daily Al-Alam Al-Siyassi, and Mr. Omar Belhouchet, Director of the French-language daily El Watan. According to information received by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Aziz Bouabdallah disappeared on 12 April 1997, after having been abducted by three individuals who had allegedly identified themselves as members of the security forces, in front of his family. Reportedly, the family has not been able to obtain information on his fate since that date. The Special Rapporteur had also received information alleging that Mr. Bouabdallah was held in a detention centre in Algiers and had been tortured during the first month of his detention. According to the information received, concern had been expressed regarding a possible link between his disappearance and his journalistic work, and his coverage of the activities of Islamist groups in Algeria.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "With regard to Mr. Omar Belhouchet, the Special Rapporteur received information that he had been sentenced on 5 November 1997 to one year in prison for an interview he had given in November 1995 to the French television station Canal+ in which he had speculated on the possible responsibility of the Government in the assassinations of journalists since May 1993. Reportedly, Mr. Belhouchet had appealed his conviction. The Special Rapporteur furthermore received information on the summoning of Mr. Belhouchet to the central police station of Algiers shortly after the verdict, where he was questioned for four hours in connection with an article which appeared on 29 October 1997 in his newspaper, written by the journalist Yasser Ben Miloud, who had criticized President Liamine Zeroual and other government officials.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "By letter dated 18 December, the Government of Algeria informed the Special Rapporteur that with regard to the case of Mr. Aziz Bouabdallah, the investigation undertaken by the Ministry of Justice had shown that he was neither questioned nor arrested by the security forces. Therefore, the allegations as to his detention in Algiers had no basis.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government for the reply regarding the case of Mr. Bouabdallah and hopes that all necessary action will be taken to establish his fate. However, a reply regarding the case of Mr. Omar Belhouchet is still awaited.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "The Special Rapporteur remains concerned at the overall situation in the country and the continuing violence and the massacres of civilians. He wishes to express his view that in the present situation in Algeria, accurate information about the crimes being committed, as well as transparency and the free flow of information, become all the more important. He encourages the Government to take all necessary measures to provide for the conditions in which all media are able to play their role in providing accurate, reliable and pluralistic information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "The Special Rapporteur further refers to his previous reports with regard to the killings of journalists and would appreciate being kept informed about progress made in the investigation of these cases and the prosecution of those responsible.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Algeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "In a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, an urgent appeal was communicated by the Special Rapporteur to the Government on 3 July 1997 with regard to death threats, attacks and harassment of journalists Ariel Garbarz, Magdalena Ruiz Guiñazú and Antonio Fernández Llorente, and their respective families, all of whom have been involved in covering stories related to the death of José Luis Cabezas, photographer for the magazine Noticias, in January 1997.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Argentina"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that at the time of the finalization of the present report, no reply had been received from the Government on the concerns raised and hopes that the Government will respond soon. He urges the Government to ensure that complaints of death threats, attacks and harassment of journalists, especially those calling for clarification of the circumstances of the murder of Mr. Cabezas, are investigated and to provide for an environment where journalists can operate free from attack.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Argentina"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "By letter of 1 August 1997, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government regarding proposed amendments to the Act on the Press and other Mass Media, as well as the fate of Pavel Sheremet, Dmitry Zavadsky and Yaroslav Ovchinnikov. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, amendments to the Act on the Press and other Mass Media which would seem to have a serious impact on the freedom of the media had been approved by the lower chamber of the Parliament of Belarus in late June 1997.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Belarus"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "As regards the above-named individuals, the Special Rapporteur communicated to the Government his concern with regard to their detention on 26 July 1997, allegedly in connection with an incident relating to the filming of the Belarusian border with Lithuania on 22 July. Reportedly, they were held on charges of violating article 80 of the Criminal Code for illegal border crossing. Furthermore, the offices of Russian Public Television (ORT) and Mr. Sheremet’s home were allegedly searched by police on 27 July and various documents confiscated. Several journalists protesting the arrest had allegedly also been arrested on 31 July. In addition, the Special Rapporteur expressed his deep concern regarding the withdrawal of accreditation from Mr. Sheremet by the Foreign Ministry in early July, allegedly for biased reporting, an act recalling the revocation of accreditation and subsequent expulsion of Alexander Stupnikov, journalist with the Russian independent television channel NTV, in late March 1997 based on similar accusations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Belarus"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "80", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "By letter dated 4 September 1997, the Government conveyed to the Special Rapporteur information regarding the above concerns. With regard to the withdrawal of the accreditation of Mr. Sheremet, the Government noted the view of the responsible committee in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs that Mr. Sheremet’s reports systematically provided biased information about events in the Republic of Belarus and that the dissemination of such tendentious material resulted in the misinformation of the public, both in Belarus and in the Russian Federation. Alexander Stupnikov was deprived of his accreditation in the Republic of Belarus in connection with the dissemination on the NTV channel of deliberately false information about events in the Republic of Belarus, and with his reports, which were characterized by a one-sided approach to the coverage of events in Belarus. According to the response received, the activity of Mr. Stupnikov was contributing to the misinformation of the Russian public. Both decisions to withdraw the licences were taken on the basis of article 42 of the Act on the Press and other Mass Media.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Belarus"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "42", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "It was noted in the reply that on 30 July, the press service of the President of the Republic of Belarus issued a statement indicating that P. Sheremet and two other persons charged with illegally crossing the State border were Belarusian citizens but, irrespective of this decision, the management of ORT had continued to employ P. Sheremet to prepare reports from Belarus. The Government further noted that the Information and Public Relations Centre of the Committee for State Security (KGB) had issued a clarification regarding the illegal border crossing of an ORT film crew, stating that on 25 July 1997 criminal proceedings were instituted on the grounds that the film crew of ORT’s Belarusian office, consisting of P. Sheremet, D. Zavadsky and Y. Ovchinnikov, had illegally crossed the State border of the Republic of Belarus on 22 July. Furthermore, it was noted that on 26 July, the representative of the Republic of Belarus for the Smorgon section of the border with the Republic of Lithuania was officially advised in writing by the commanding officer of the Vilnius detachment of the border police that a violation of the State border of the Republic of Lithuania had occurred. In that connection, a request for an investigation was made, with its findings to be communicated in writing. On 27 July, the above-mentioned persons were detained on suspicion of having committed the offence referred to in article 80 of the Criminal Code and the case was passed on to the investigations department of the KGB Directorate for the Grodno region. On 30 July, in the course of these criminal proceedings, P. Sheremet and D. Zavadsky were charged with illegally crossing the border and were taken into custody as a precautionary measure with the approval of the Public Prosecutor of the Grodno region, in accordance with the law.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Belarus"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "80", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "Regarding the amendments to the Act on the Press and other Mass Media, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that it was unable to provide the Special Rapporteur with more detailed information, as the text of the amendments passed in first reading had not yet been promulgated by the House of Representatives of the National Assembly.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Belarus"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Belarus for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. With regard to the cases of Pavel Sheremet and Alexander Stupnikov, the Special Rapporteur notes that media professionals working for foreign media should not have their licences withdrawn, be expelled or threatened in any other way because of the content of their reporting. The rights of journalists to report and comment on all aspects of society, which includes the expression of views opposed to those of the authorities, and the right of the Belarusian public to receive such information must be guaranteed and should in no case be subject to restrictions other than those provided for by international law. He refers to his comments regarding foreign media in his report on the visit to the Republic of Belarus, contained in addendum 1 to the present report.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Belarus"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "As regards the amendments to the Act on the Press and other Mass Media, the Special Rapporteur invites the Government to keep him informed of further developments and encourages the Government to benefit from the assistance provided by international organizations in this area.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Belarus"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "The information received by the Special Rapporteur indicates continued concern with regard to the right to freedom of opinion and expression in China. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur, by letter dated 12 November 1997, transmitted information to the Government with regard to several individuals, namely, Wang Dan, Wang Ming, Gao Yu, Liu Nianchun, Li Hai, Yao Zhenxiang and Yao Zhenxian, Fu Guoyong, Chen Longde and Wang Donghai. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, their right to freedom of opinion and expression had been subjected to arbitrary interference. They had been arrested for alleged offences such as conspiring to subvert the Government, leaking State secrets or endangering State security. The Special Rapporteur had received information indicating that seven among the above individuals have been convicted to “re-education through labour” for periods of between one and three years.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes that he has not yet received a reply from the Government of China and hopes that he will soon be receiving a response from them. With regard to the case of Gao Yu, the Special Rapporteur notes that the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention decided, in decision No. 46/1995 of 30 November 1995, to declare the detention of Gao Yu as arbitrary, in terms of category II of the principles applicable in the consideration of the cases submitted to the Working Group (i.e. contrary to article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights regarding the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "China"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First art.19 explicitly attributed to 'Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR is not a UN core treaty."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second art.19 explicitly attributed to 'International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "On 25 June 1997, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government expressing his concern regarding the alleged arrests of Hamdein Sabbahi, journalist, Mohamed Abdu, veterinarian, Mohamed Soliman Fayad, lawyer and Hamdi Heikal, lawyer. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, on 17 June Hamdein Sabbahi, Director of the Al-Watan-Arabi Information Centre, was arrested by members of the State Security Investigation (SSI) for having expressed his opposition to Law 96 of 1992 and being in possession of printed material critical of this law, which regulates the relations between landowners and tenants. He was allegedly charged with several offences under the anti-terrorism law and has been given a 15-day detention order pending the outcome of further investigations. The other three individuals were allegedly arrested the same day on similar grounds. All four individuals were reportedly imprisoned in Tora prison in Cairo where they were allegedly subjected to beatings and lashing.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that no reply has yet been received from the Government on the cases in question and hopes for an early response.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Egypt"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "On 2 July 1997, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government in a joint initiative with the Special Representative on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and the Special Rapporteur on the independence of the judiciary. Concern was expressed with regard to the fate of Faraj Sarkouhi, writer and editor-in-chief of the monthly Adineh and signatory to the 1994 Declaration of 134 Writers, an appeal for an end to censorship in Iran. Allegedly, Mr. Sarkouhi had been arrested on 27 January 1997 after having been held incommunicado for several weeks in November 1996, and was at the time tried in a closed trial on a variety of charges, allegedly including espionage, which reportedly carries a mandatory death penalty. It had been alleged that he had not been permitted to appoint a lawyer and that the trial would remain closed to the public and international observers. According to some sources, a death penalty had been pronounced.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Islamic Republic of Iran"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "By letter of 16 July 1997, the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran replied that, as regards the period in November 1996, Mr. Sarkouhi had left Teheran for Germany, as he himself had stated in an interview. It was further noted that Mr. Sarkouhi was arrested on 2 February 1997 on charges of espionage and attempting to leave the country illegally. Furthermore, it was emphasized that he had neither been tried nor convicted and that he enjoys and will enjoy all legal rights in conformity with due process of law, including the right to a fair trial and the right to a defence lawyer.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Islamic Republic of Iran"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Iran for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. The Special Rapporteur notes the further developments in this case and in particular reports received that Mr. Sarkouhi had been tried and convicted in camera of carrying out propaganda against the Islamic Republic of Iran, which was apparently the widely published letter dated 3 January 1997 in which he described his initial arrest and his mistreatment while in detention. He was sentenced to one year in prison, less time already spent in detention. The Special Rapporteur refers to the report submitted by the Special Representative of the Commission on Human Rights on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran to the General Assembly (A/52/472, annex), in which he took particular note of the fate of Faraj Sarkouhi (paragraph 14), and in which he lists a number of reports illustrating constraints against freedom of expression (appendix II).", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Islamic Republic of Iran"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "By letter dated 30 October 1997, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government concerning the fate of René Solorio, Ernesto Madrid and Gerardo Segura, all three journalists for TV Azteca; Daniel Lizarraga and David Vicenteno, journalists with the daily Reforma; as well as Abdel Jesús Bueno León, journalist and director of the weekly magazine Siete Dias, Benjamin Flores González, publisher and editor of the daily newspaper La Prensa, and Victor Hernández Martínez, a journalist with the magazine Como. With regard to René Solorio, Ernesto Madrid and Gerardo Segura, the Special Rapporteur had been informed of their alleged abduction on 13 September and torture for several hours, which according to the source, was thought to have been linked to their reporting on police involvement in corruption and human rights violations. The Special Rapporteur further communicated information with regard to Daniel Lizarraga, who had allegedly been kidnapped on 5 September 1997 and held for several hours, allegedly being interrogated about his reporting on alleged involvement of employees of the Office of the Public Prosecutor in drug trafficking. It had further been alleged that David Vicenteno was abducted, assaulted and threatened for several hours on 25 August 1997, as well as being interrogated on his investigations concerning the disappearance of a member of the judicial police. In addition, he transmitted information on the reported killings of three media professionals. Allegedly, Abdel Jesús Bueno León, who was reportedly facing a defamation lawsuit and who had allegedly previously written a letter indicating his possible kidnapping or killing as well as possible suspects, including State officials, was murdered on 20 May 1997, with his body found two days later. Benjamin Flores González, who allegedly faced several lawsuits for criminal libel, was killed on 15 July 1997 outside his newspaper’s office. It is alleged that his killing is linked to his coverage of drug trafficking and alleged involvement of the local administration. Finally, Victor Hernández Martínez reportedly died on 26 July 1997 from head injuries after having been beaten severely the day before, allegedly as he was leaving the offices of the Federal Judicial Police in Mexico City. Reportedly, he also had published articles on alleged links between police and drug-traffickers.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Mexico"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "By letter dated 26 November 1997, the Government requested the Special Rapporteur to provide more details about the location where these events had occurred and the authorities to which they are attributed. The Special Rapporteur will follow up this request.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Mexico"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "In a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government of Nigeria on 21 November 1997, expressing concern regarding the fate of several journalists who were reported to be in detention without charge or trial.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0086", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "According to the information received, Mohammed Adamu, bureau chief of African Concord news magazine and Soji Omotunde, editor of African Concord, had been held in incommunicado detention since 27 July and 25 October, respectively. The other journalists had allegedly been arrested in a wave of arrests. Reportedly, on 4 November 1997, Adetokunbo Fakeye, defence correspondent for PM newspaper, was arrested and detained at Defence Headquarters in Lagos. Jenkins Alumona, editor of The News magazine, was reportedly arrested on 8 November 1997 at the Lagos studios of the State-owned television. On 9 November 1997, Onomoe Osifo-Whiskey, managing editor of Tell magazine, was allegedly arrested by armed security officers in Lagos. Babafemi Ojudu, managing editor of The News newspaper group, is said to have been arrested on 17 November on his return from a seminar in Kenya.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0087", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "In a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on torture, the Special Rapporteur sent an urgent appeal to the Government of Nigeria on 1 December 1997, containing additional information concerning the alleged arrest of a group of journalists reported to remain in detention without charge or trial. In addition to the above names, information was communicated to the Government regarding the alleged arrest of Ben Adaji, the Taraba State correspondent of The News magazine, Rafiu Salau, administrative manager of The News group, and Akinwumi Adesokan, writer and journalist. The Special Rapporteurs had received information alleging that Akinwumi Adesokan had been arrested on 12 November 1997 at Nigeria’s border with Benin when returning from a writing fellowship abroad; Ben Adaji had reportedly been arrested on 17 November 1997 in Jalingo, north-east Nigeria, possibly in connection with a publication on intercommunal killings in October 1997 in Taraba State; and Rafiu Salau had allegedly been arrested on 18 November 1997 after having inquired at the offices of the Directorate of Military Intelligence in Lagos about the whereabouts of journalist Adetokunbo Fakeye, reportedly arrested on 4 November 1997.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0088", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes that no reply has yet been received by the Government concerning the above allegations. He nevertheless expresses his concern at the pattern of arrests and urges the Government to ensure that such incidents do not occur and to give due respect to the rights of journalists in accordance with international standards.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0089", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "By letter of 28 July 1997, the Special Rapporteur communicated information to the Government of Peru with regard to the case of Mr. Baruch Ivcher, majority owner of the Frecuencia Latina/Channel 2 television network. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Ivcher’s Peruvian citizenship, which he had reportedly acquired in December 1984, had been revoked on 13 July, allegedly due to administrative irregularities regarding his application. As according to Peruvian law foreigners are prohibited from being majority shareholders of enterprises in the communication industry, the fact that Mr. Ivcher has been stripped of his Peruvian citizenship threatened to deprive him of his property. The information received further emphasized that broadcasts of Frecuencia Latina/Channel 2 had cited corruption and mismanagement on the part of the State and had reported on human rights violations, implicating public officials, members of the army and army intelligence.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0090", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "By letter of 8 September 1997, the Government of Peru informed the Special Rapporteur of the invalidation of Mr. Ivcher’s entitlement of nationality due to a failure to meet all legal requirements. Consequently, Mr. Ivcher applied for a remedy of amparo which was denied by the competent court. Mr. Mendel Winter and Mr. Samuel Winter, minority shareholders of Frecuencia Latina/Channel 2, also applied for a remedy of amparo requesting the management of the company to be transferred to them; this was granted by the court temporarily, pending a final ruling on the substance of the case, that is the validity of Mr. Ivcher’s nationality. It was noted that the ownership of Mr. Ivcher’s shares is guaranteed by the courts and cannot be transferred in any form. The Government further expressed its view that this is an administrative matter being dealt with by the competent courts with a final ruling yet to be handed down. In addition, Mr. Ivcher’s property is fully guaranteed and the licence of the Frecuencia Latina/Channel 2 will not be affected, with its usual programmes continuing to be broadcast. The Government thus holds that it cannot in any way be inferred that there has been a violation of freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0091", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Peru for the reply provided and the willingness to cooperate with the mandate. In this context, the Special Rapporteur reiterates his interest in visiting the country.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0092", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "The Special Rapporteur received, on 2 December 1997, a memorandum prepared by the National Council for Human Rights, which contains information concerning the exercise of the right to freedom of expression in Peru and the remedy of habeas data, which is available for consultation at the Secretariat.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Nigeria"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0093", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "From 24 to 28 May 1997, the Special Rapporteur undertook a visit to Poland, on which he has reported separately to the Commission at its present session (E/CN.4/1998/40/Add.2).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Poland"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0094", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "By letter dated 5 December 1997, the Special Rapporteur, in a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Sudan, the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, and the Special Rapporteur on torture, transmitted information to the Government concerning an incident which occurred on 1 December 1997 in front of the UNDP offices in Khartoum. According to the information received from UNDP in the Sudan, a group of approximately 50 women had arrived outside the gate of the UNDP compound to present a statement to the United Nations Secretary-General through the United Nations Resident Coordinator in Sudan against compulsory military conscription of their sons and brothers to fight the civil war in southern Sudan. The women were peacefully demonstrating, carrying banners denouncing the deployment of their sons and brothers. Reportedly, the women were brutally assaulted and beaten with sticks and rubber hoses and slapped on their faces by police and security officers. They were arrested and dragged into police vehicles. It was further reported that approximately 34 of these women were tried the same day and convicted of public order offences. They were each fined 10,000 Sudanese pounds, flogged with ten strokes each and then released. Further, it has been reported that some of the women have been hospitalized as a result of the injuries suffered.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0095", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "By letter of 9 January 1998, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that the demonstration was carried out in violation of the law which requires a licence from local authorities of Khartoum State, which is routinely issued within 48 hours upon request, and protection is subsequently provided by police. Reference was made to a similar demonstration carried out the same month by a group of lawyers who delivered a memorandum of protest to the Chief Justice and Minister of Justice peacefully and under the protection of the police. The Government held further that as the gathering was illegal, the authorities were, in accordance with the law, bound to prevent any act that intended or was likely to cause a breach of public peace or tranquillity in a public place (article 69 of the Sudan Criminal Act, 1991). The law also considers an offence of public nuisance any act which is likely to cause public injury or danger or annoyance to the public or to those persons who occupy or reside in a neighbouring place or to the persons exercising any of the public rights (article 77 (1) of the Criminal Act of 1991). Furthermore, the Government noted its obligation to protect the United Nations office in Khartoum in accordance with its commitments as party to the Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations and other relevant instruments, and that it had the added duty of preventing the development of any situation that might undermine its responsibilities in that regard. The Government thus considered the response to the committed offence to be within the requirements of article 21 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights which stipulates that no restrictions may be placed on the exercise of the right of peaceful assembly “other than those imposed in conformity with the law and which are necessary in a democratic society in the interest of national security or public safety, public order ...”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "69", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "77", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "21", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0096", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of the Sudan for the reply provided and the willingness to cooperate with the mandate. The Special Rapporteur intends to seek further clarification with regard to this case, particularly as regards the use of force by law enforcement officials, and a clarification regarding the necessity for the above-described actions.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0097", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "In May 1997, the Government provided the Special Rapporteur with a copy of the Press and Publications Act of 1996, passed by the National Assembly earlier that month. He also received the Sudan Peace Agreement, signed on 21 April 1997 between the Government of the Sudan on the one hand and the South Sudan United Democratic Salvation Front (UDSF), the Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM), the South Sudan Independence Group (SSIG) and the Equatoria Defence Force (EDF) on the other. The documents are available for consultation at the Secretariat.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Sudan"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0098", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "By letter of 16 October 1997, the Special Rapporteur transmitted information to the Government regarding the fate of Mr. Khémais Ksila, Vice-President of the Ligue tunisienne pour la défense des droits de l’homme. According to the information received by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Ksila had been arrested in the afternoon of 29 September 1997 at his home in Tunis by members of the security forces after having begun a hunger strike, which he had announced publicly the same day in order to protest against the restrictions imposed on him by the Tunisian authorities and the human rights situation in the country. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur had received information that on 1 October 1997, Mr. Ksila had been charged with undermining public order, spreading false information aiming to disturb public order, and inciting people to break the law. According to the information received, he is being detained in 9 avril prison in Tunis.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0099", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "By letter dated 26 November 1997, the Government informed the Special Rapporteur that, involved in a case at ordinary law, Mr. Ksila was arrested on 29 September 1997 by order of the Government Procurator of the Court of First Instance in Tunis and heard forthwith by one of the deputies of the Procurator attached to the same court. On the basis of the accused’s statements, the Government Procurator called for judicial proceedings to be instituted against Mr. Ksila for commission of the offence of defamation against the public order, publication in bad faith of false news capable of disturbing the public order and incitement of the population to infringe the law of the country, pursuant to the relevant provisions of the Press Code and the Penal Code. The Government further noted that Mr. Ksila was brought the same day before the Senior Examining Magistrate of the Court of First Instance in Tunis. The latter informed him of his right to answer questions only in the presence of his lawyer. At Mr. Ksila’s request, the questioning was deferred until 1 October 1997. A summons was served on him. On the appointed date, and in the presence of Mr. Ksila’s lawyers, the Senior Examining Magistrate proceeded with the questioning. It was further noted that Mr. Ksila was being detained in civil imprisonment in Tunis, his situation was normal and he was being treated in accordance with the prison regulations. The Government emphasized that it was therefore clear that, contrary to the allegations received by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. Ksila’s arrest was consequent upon offences under the Tunisian legislation in force and bore no relation to his membership of the Tunisian Human Rights League, or to the views he holds or the exercise of his right to freedom of opinion and expression. In the view of the Government, he is the subject of judicial proceedings that may be brought against anyone thought to be guilty of acts punishable by law.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0100", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Tunisia for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. The Special Rapporteur wishes to stress that interference with the right to freedom of expression must be rigorously scrutinized as to the necessity and proportionality of the measures taken. The Special Rapporteur intends to seek further clarification on this case.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0101", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "By letter dated 4 December 1997, the Special Rapporteur requested, in a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, an invitation to carry out a joint visit to the country.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Tunisia"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0102", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "By letter dated 7 October 1997, the Special Rapporteur, in a joint initiative with the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, conveyed his concern to the Government of Turkey concerning the fate of lawyer, writer and doctor of philosophy Esber Yagmurdereli. He was first arrested in 1978 and convicted for “trying to change the constitutional order by force” under article 146 of the Turkish Penal Code. The conviction was based on statements allegedly extracted under torture. He was sentenced to death, but this was commuted to life imprisonment on account of a physical disability. It has been reported that the Minister of Justice offered him a pardon on grounds of ill health, which he rejected. In 1991, Mr. Yagmurdereli benefited from a conditional amnesty which suspended prison sentences for offences such as the one contained in article 146 of the Turkish Penal Code. According to the source, prisoners who recommit the offence may be required to serve the whole of the remainder of their sentence. Some time after his liberation, he allegedly made a speech at a meeting organized by the Istanbul Human Rights Association to commemorate Human Rights Day. According to the information received, the Istanbul State Security Court handed down a sentence of 10 months' imprisonment for “separatism” under article 8 of the Anti-Terror Law in late 1995. The Court of Appeal upheld this decision on 26 June 1997. Consequently, the Smasun Heavy Penal Court decided, reportedly at the end of August, that Esber Yagmurdereli would be obliged to serve the remainder of his previous sentence. An appeal was reportedly turned down in mid-September.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "146", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "8", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0103", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "On 27 November 1997, the Government replied that Mr. Esber Yagmurdereli, a writer and lawyer, and also member of the THKPC (Revolutionary Pioneers of the People) illegal terrorist organization, was sentenced to life imprisonment for having violated several articles of the Turkish Penal Code, including incitement to robbery by use of force and incitement to pillage. He was released under a conditional amnesty on 1 August 1991. It pointed out that the Turkish Penal Code indeed stipulates that in case of reoffence after a conditional amnesty had been granted, the offender would be required to serve the whole of the remainder in addition to the new sentence. The Government further noted that Mr. Yagmurdereli did in fact recommit a crime, in the incident contravening article 8 of the Anti-Terror Law (incitement to violence against the State through propaganda, a month after his release, on 8 September 1991. Following the hearings in the State Security Court, he was sentenced to 10 months' imprisonment on 28 May 1997. It was further noted that, in accordance with the law, he is required to serve also the remainder of the previous sentence, and was thus sentenced to a total of 23 years' imprisonment. His appeal was rejected on 20 October 1997 and he was imprisoned. The Government further informed the Special Rapporteur that on 9 November 1997, Mr. Yagmurdereli was released on health grounds, in compliance with article 399/2 of the Turkish Code of Criminal Procedure. It is emphasized that this decision is not an amnesty but that the release was based on health grounds and his sentence has been suspended for one year. The duration of this suspension is subject to the discretion of the Chief Public Prosecutor.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "8", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "399", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0104", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Government of Turkey for the reply provided and the willingness shown to cooperate with the mandate. However, the Special Rapporteur remains concerned about the sentence to 10 months’ imprisonment under article 8 of the Anti-Terror Act of Mr. Yagmurdereli, for a speech he gave on Human Rights Day.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "8", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0105", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "The Special Rapporteur welcomes the Parliament’s passing, in August 1997, of an amnesty law suspending the sentences of editors who had been held legally responsible and convicted for published materials and articles that appeared in their newspapers. This resulted in the release of editor Ocak Isik Yurtcu, former editor of the pro-Kurdish daily Ozgur Gundem, and other editors. He encourages the Government of Turkey to continue along this path and to accelerate further steps necessary to bring both practice and implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression into conformity with international standards. In this context, he would like to recall the observations and recommendations he offered the Government following his visit to Turkey (E/CN.4/1997/31/Add.1, paras. 48-63).", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0106", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "The Special Rapporteur was further informed by the Government that a study had been initiated by the Human Rights Coordinating High Committee to amend articles 26, 27 and 28 of the Constitution, articles 159, 311 and 312 of the Turkish Penal Code and article 8 of the Anti-Terror Law, with a view to broadening the freedom of thought and expression. The Special Rapporteur would appreciate being kept informed about concrete measures in this regard.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. COUNTRY SITUATIONS", "Turkey"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "26", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "27", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "28", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "159", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "311", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "312", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "8", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0107", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "Since his last report to the Commission on Human Rights, the Special Rapporteur has noted no significant changes in the evolution of overall respect for the right to freedom of opinion and expression. However, as a positive note, he would like to emphasize that in several countries, democratic transformations and consolidations have brought about new liberties and freedoms. Freedom of expression has proved to be one of the most important elements in initiating change, contributing to peaceful transformations, as well as consolidating democratic regimes by providing the citizen with the means to participate in public affairs.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0108", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "Unfortunately, long-standing patterns of harassment and oppression of persons whose views and opinions differ from those of persons holding power persist in a number of countries. In many instances, restrictions on the freedom of opinion and expression limit to a significant extent the possibility of violations becoming known and investigated. In the view of the Special Rapporteur, such trends perpetuate patterns such as government corruption and impunity.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0109", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "The Special Rapporteur further observes that in a number of countries, the authorities continue to maintain firm control over the media and individuals' free speech. This often goes hand-in-hand with undue restrictions on public protests and demonstrations, which call into question the right itself, as well as restrictions on the activities of independent trade unions or organizations of civil society. Furthermore, action taken by States and their agents against individuals - such as arbitrary detention, threat and intimidation, and extrajudicial executions - and actions against groups and organizations - such as the banning of opposition or ideologically diverse parties and professional associations - seriously erode the public’s right to know and to receive and impart information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0110", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "In this context, the Special Rapporteur also wishes to note that while an ever-increasing number of States enter upon the path of formal transition to democracy, the conduct of elections often falls short of the minimum conditions for the conduct of free and fair elections. The right of citizens to elect their government is compromised in many cases by the lack of access to information about candidates and their policies and about the crucial issues at stake. He wishes to encourage Governments to seriously consider putting in place the necessary safeguards for ensuring free and fair elections.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0111", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "The Special Rapporteur further considers that the ever-increasing number of cases brought to his attention during the past four years is a reflection of two trends. On the one hand, the caseload provides a strong indication that Governments continue to place undue emphasis on restrictions relating to the right to freedom of opinion and expression. On the other hand, however, it is also a reflection of the increased efficiency of information technology which not only provides greater possibilities to a steadily increasing number of persons around the globe to receive information, but also greatly facilitates the publicizing of human rights violations and their communication to international mechanisms such as this Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0112", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "In this context, the Special Rapporteur notes the increasing discussions with regard to the dangers presented by the Internet. The Special Rapporteur wishes to repeat that while some of the concerns raised by a number of Governments in various forums indeed warrant urgent attention, he takes the view that in order to properly protect the right to freedom of expression, utmost care must be taken to consider all possible consequences of governmental measures. As a rule, the Special Rapporteur believes that the best way to fight speech is through more speech. The Internet seems to be the ideal medium to apply this principle as it offers the immediate possibility of reply on an equal footing.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0113", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "On the basis of his preliminary consideration of the link that can and must be established between freedom of expression and violence against women, the Special Rapporteur concludes that to the extent that all Governments - irrespective of region, history and tradition - continue to fail to address needs such as witness protection programmes, women’s right to access to information, the right of effective remedy for violence done against them, and their right to speak freely, publicly and without fear about those issues and difficulties of greatest importance to them, the human rights of women will exist in name only.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0114", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "The Special Rapporteur encourages all States that have not ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to do so. Furthermore, he again urges all Governments to scrutinize their domestic legal systems with a view to bringing them into line with international standards governing the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Particularly with regard to the issue of national security, the Special Rapporteur urges all Governments to review not only laws specifically intended to protect national security but also ordinary criminal laws which may be used to infringe the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0115", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "As regards information, particularly information held by Governments, the Special Rapporteur strongly encourages States to take all necessary steps to assure the full realization of the right to access to information. The Special Rapporteur proposes to undertake a comparative study of the different approaches taken in the various regions and countries in this regard.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0116", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "As regards the impact of new information technology on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the Special Rapporteur considers it of pre-eminent importance that they be considered in light of the same international standards as other means of communication and that no measures be taken which would unduly restrict freedom of expression and information; in case of doubt, the decision should be in favour of free expression and flow of information. With regard to the Internet, the Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate that on-line expression should be guided by international standards and be guaranteed the same protection as is awarded to other forms of expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0117", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "In this context, he also recommends that all reasonable steps be taken to promote access to the Internet. For instance, Government should promote an economic and regulatory environment which encourages the extension of telecommunication lines to rural and other previously underserviced areas. Wherever possible, government information should be made available through the Internet.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-1998-40-0118", "docId": "e-cn-4-1998-40", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 1998, "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "Concerning the link between the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the rights of women, the Special Rapporteur expresses his great concern at the continuing silencing of women by various devices. He urges Governments to take all necessary steps to remove formal and cultural obstacles to the exercise by women of their right to freedom of expression, including to receive information, and ultimately to give effect to all their rights. In light of the importance of freedom of expression and how it relates to violence against women, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that a special effort should be made both to gather and analyse more information 1/ Public Information Disclosure Policy, UNDP, July 1997, para. 1.\n2/ ARTICLE 19, “Guidelines for Election Broadcasting in Transitional Democracies”, London, 1994, p. 68.\n3/ Ibid.\n4/ Among the States making declarations and entering reservations along this line are Antigua and Barbuda, Australia, Austria, Bahamas, Barbados, Belgium, Fiji, France, Italy, Japan, Malta, Monaco, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, Switzerland, Tonga, the United Kingdom and the United States.\n5/ ARTICLE 19, “The Egyptian Predicament: Islamists, the States and Censorship”, London, August 1997, p. 30.\n6/ Canadian Panel on Violence against Women, “Changing the Landscape: Ending Violence - Achieving Equality”, Executive Summary and National Action Plan, Ottawa, Government of Canada, Minister of Supply and Services, 1993, p. vii, as cited in Jan Bauer, “Only Silence will Protect you. Women, Freedom of Expression and the Language of Human Rights”, Essays on Human Rights and Democratic Development paper No. 6, Montreal, International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development, 1996, p. 16.\n7/ Ibid., p. 10, citing Sub-Committee on the Status of Women, “The War Against Women: Report of the Standing Committee on Health and Welfare, Social Affairs, Seniors and the Status of Women”, Ottawa, House of Commons, June 1991, as cited in Jan Bauer, ibid., pp. 84-85.\n8/ Amnesty International, “Women in the Front Line. Human Rights Violations against Women”, New York, 1991, p. 12.\n9/ “A Bartered Bride's 'No' Stuns Papua New Guinea”, International Herald Tribune, 7 May 1997, pp. 1 and 10.\n----- along the lines described in the present report. It is the hope of the Special Rapporteur to be able to prepare a report jointly with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, to be submitted to the Commission on Human Rights next year. In this regard, he invites submissions by Government, intergovernmental organizations and specialized agencies, as well as non-governmental bodies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. States increasingly rely on the digital access industry to control, restrict or monitor expression online. When authorities seek to disconnect users from websites, social media, or the Internet entirely, they frequently require the assistance of Internet service providers (ISPs). They interfere with the Internet exchange points (IXPs) that facilitate traffic into or within a country. They access private communications and other personal data held by telecommunications providers. Today, many of these actors are privately owned or operated. Under protest, in silent acquiescence or as willing participants, they are often essential to State censorship and surveillance. What governments demand of private actors, and how those actors respond, can cripple the exchange of information; limit journalists’ capacity to investigate securely; deter whistle-blowers and human rights defenders. Private actors may also restrict freedom of expression on their own initiative. They may assign priority to Internet content or applications in exchange for payment or other commercial benefits, altering how users engage with information online. Companies that offer filtering services may influence the scope of content accessible to their subscribers.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. States and private actors both implicate the freedom of expression. State obligations to protect freedom of expression are clear, but what do private actors owe their users? How should they respect freedom of expression? What steps are they taking to assess and address the risks that their responses to government actions and policies might pose to freedom of expression and privacy? How much information should they share with their customers about State demands and requests? When they are directly involved or linked to abuse, what remedies should be available to individuals or the broader public whose interests are at risk?", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. The private actors that make digital access possible mediate and enable the exercise of freedom of expression. To be sure, States drive most censorship and surveillance. But just as States often, but not always, rely upon providers to take the actions that make censorship possible, we as users — beneficiaries of the remarkable advances of the digital age — deserve to understand how those actors interact with one another, how these interactions and their independent actions affect us and what responsibilities providers have to respect fundamental rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The present report is the result of over one year’s worth of study and consultation that began with the mapping in 2016 of the information and communications technology (ICT) sector (see A/HRC/32/38).[[fn:1]] In response to a call for submissions,[[fn:2]] the Special Rapporteur received 25 submissions from States; 3 from companies; 22 from civil society, academics and others; and 1 confidential submission. In addition, the Special Rapporteur convened a brainstorming session hosted by ARTICLE 19, in London in July 2016, a meeting of experts at the Human Rights Institute, University of Connecticut, United States of America, in October 2016, a regional consultation with the Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, in Guadalajara, Mexico, in December 2016, and a regional consultation in Beirut in February 2017.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "I want to thank Amos Toh, legal adviser to the mandate and Ford Foundation Fellow at University of California, Irvine, School of Law, for his expert research and analysis as well as coordination of substantial and essential research conducted by law students in University of California, Irvine, International Justice Clinic."}, {"n": 2, "text": "See https://freedex.org/new-call-for-submissions-freedom-of-expression-and-the-telecommunications-and-internet-access-sector/."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Submissions may be found on the website of the mandate. An overview of the consultations held and input received in the preparation of the present report may be found in a supplementary annex also available from the website of the mandate."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. International human rights law establishes the right of everyone to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, and through any media of his or her choice (see Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 19; and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 19). The Human Rights Council and General Assembly have reiterated that the freedom of expression and other rights apply online (see Council resolutions 26/13 and 32/13; General Assembly resolution 68/167; and A/HRC/32/38). The Human Rights Committee, previous mandate holders and the Special Rapporteur have examined States’ obligations under article 19 of the Covenant. In short, States may not interfere with, or in any way restrict, the holding of opinions (see art. 19 (1) of the Covenant; and A/HRC/29/32, para. 19). Article 19 (3) of the Covenant provides that States may limit freedom of expression only where provided by law and necessary for the respect of the rights or reputations of others, or for the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals (see Human Rights Committee general comment No. 34 (2011); A/71/373; and A/HRC/29/32).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "First art.19: 'Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 19' — UDHR, not a UN core treaty."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second art.19: 'International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 19' — explicit ICCPR."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 19 of the Covenant' in a paragraph that anchors discussion in HRC GC 34, which is on ICCPR art.19."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'art. 19 (1) of the Covenant' — ICCPR art.19(1) protects opinions absolutely."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'Article 19 (3) of the Covenant' — ICCPR art.19(3) permissible limitations clause."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. States also have obligations to take steps to protect individuals from undue interference with human rights when committed by private actors (see art. 2 (2) of the Covenant; and Human Rights Committee general comment No. 31 (2004)). Human rights law protects individuals against violations by the State as well as abuses committed by private persons or entities (see general comment No. 31, para. 8).[[fn:4]] The Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework, endorsed by the Human Rights Council in 2011, explains that States are required to take appropriate steps to prevent, investigate, punish and redress private actors’ abuse (see A/HRC/17/31, annex, principle 1). Such steps include the adoption and implementation of legislative, judicial, administrative, educative and other appropriate measures that require or enable business respect for freedom of expression, and, where private sector abuses occur, access to an effective remedy (see general comment No. 31, para. 7; and A/HRC/17/31, annex, principles 3 and 25).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See also African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, general comment No. 3 (2015) on the right to life, para. 38; Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Velásquez Rodríguez Case, judgment of 29 July 1988, para. 172; and European Court of Human Rights, Özel and others v. Turkey, judgment of 17 November 2015, para. 170."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. The government actions described below often fail to meet the standards of human rights law. Moreover, a lack of transparency pervades government interferences with the digital access industry. Failures of transparency include vague laws providing excessive discretion to authorities, legal restrictions on third party disclosures concerning government access to user data and specific gag orders. The lack of transparency undermines the rule of law as well as public understanding across this sector.[[fn:5]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Freedom Online Coalition, Report of Working Group 3: Privacy and Transparency Online, November 2015."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns involve measures to intentionally prevent or disrupt access to or dissemination of information online in violation of human rights law (see A/HRC/32/13, para. 10).[[fn:6]] Governments typically conduct or order shutdowns, often with the assistance of private actors that operate networks or facilitate network traffic. Large-scale attacks on network infrastructure committed by private parties, such as distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks, may also have shutdown effects. While shutdowns are frequently associated with total network outages, they may also arise when access to mobile communications, websites or social media and messaging applications is blocked, throttled or rendered “effectively unusable”.[[fn:7]] Shutdowns may affect towns or regions within a country, an entire country or even multiple countries and may last for periods ranging from hours to months.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "A. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Access Now recorded 15 shutdowns in 2015 and 56 shutdowns in 2016. The first recorded shutdown reportedly occurred in Nepal in February 2005."}, {"n": 7, "text": "Access Now submission, part I, p. 1."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Shutdowns ordered covertly or without an obvious legal basis violate the requirement of article 19 (3) of the Covenant that restrictions be “provided by law”. In Chad, the failure of authorities to provide a meaningful public explanation for a series of Internet and social media shutdowns between February and October 2016 created the presumption that they were unlawful.[[fn:8]] In Gabon, total network outages were allegedly recorded every evening for almost two weeks during the 2016 election period, contrary to government assurances that such services would not be disrupted.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "A. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Internet Sans Frontières submission, p. 2, TCD 3/2016."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Ibid., GAB 1/2016."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. Shutdowns ordered pursuant to vaguely formulated laws and regulations also fail to satisfy the legality requirement. In Tajikistan, the amended Law on the State of Emergency authorizes the Government to block mobile services and Internet access without a court order following the declaration of a state of emergency.[[fn:10]] The law fails to define when and for what purposes a state of emergency may be declared. Such ambiguity enables authorities’ unfettered discretion to implement shutdowns. In some countries, authorities rely on antiquated laws to justify shutdowns.[[fn:11]] Laws and regulations adopted and implemented in secret also violate the legality requirement. In the United States of America, the National Coordinating Center for Telecommunications has largely redacted public release of standard operating procedure 303, an executive regulation that establishes “detailed procedures” on the “disruption of cellular service.”[[fn:12]] While these procedures have not been publicly invoked, the potential for authorities to evade legal scrutiny and public accountability runs contrary to article 19 of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "A. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "OHCHR, “Preliminary observations by the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Mr. David Kaye, at the end of his visit to Tajikistan, press release (9 March 2015)."}, {"n": 11, "text": "India, Code of Criminal Procedure, sect. 144; also Apar Gupta and Raman Jit Singh Chima, “The cost of internet shutdowns”, The Indian Express (26 October 2016)."}, {"n": 12, "text": "United States of America, NCC Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) 303."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Restrictions on expression must be necessary to achieve aims specified by article 19 (3) of the Covenant and may never be invoked to justify the suppression of advocacy for democratic rights (see Human Rights Committee general comment No. 34, para. 23; and A/71/373, para. 26). However, governments frequently impose shutdowns during demonstrations, elections and other events of extraordinary public interest, with little or no explanation.[[fn:13]] In Bahrain, disruptions to mobile and Internet access in Duraz allegedly coincided with sit-ins outside the home of a prominent religious leader whose citizenship the Government had revoked.[[fn:14]] Internet users in the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela were reportedly denied Internet access during widespread protests against the Government in 2014.[[fn:15]] Network disruptions have been recorded during or around elections or protests in Cameroon,[[fn:16]] the Gambia,[[fn:17]] India,[[fn:18]] Myanmar,[[fn:19]] the Islamic Republic of Iran,[[fn:20]] Uganda[[fn:21]] and Montenegro.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "A. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Access Now submission, part I, pp. 5-7."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Bahrain Center for Human Rights, Digital Rights Derailed in Bahrain (2016), pp. 13-14."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Danny O’Brien, “Venezuela’s Internet crackdown escalates into regional blackout”, Electronic Frontier Foundation (20 February 2014)."}, {"n": 16, "text": "OHCHR, “UN expert urges Cameroon to restore Internet services cut off in rights violation”, press release (10 February 2017)."}, {"n": 17, "text": "Deji Olukotun, “Gambia shuts down Internet on eve of elections”, Access Now (30 November 2016)."}, {"n": 18, "text": "Software Freedom Law Center, “Internet shutdowns in India, 2013-2016”."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Freedom House, “Freedom on the Net: Myanmar” (2011)."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Center for Democracy and Technology, “Iran’s Internet throttling: unacceptable now, unacceptable then” (3 July 2013)."}, {"n": 21, "text": "Article 19, “Uganda: Blanket ban on social media on election day is disproportionate” press release (18 February 2016)."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Global Voices, “WhatsApp and Viber blocked on election day in Montenegro” (17 October 2016)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. The failure to explain or acknowledge shutdowns creates the perception that they are designed to suppress reporting, criticism or dissent. Reports of repression and State-sanctioned violence in the wake of network disruptions have led to allegations that some States exploit the darkness to commit and cover up abuses. In Sudan, for example, Internet access was shut down for several hours during a deadly crackdown on demonstrators protesting fuel price hikes in September 2013.[[fn:23]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "A. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Human Rights Watch, “Sudan: Dozens killed during protests” (27 September 2013)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Observers have also noted the growing use of shutdowns to prevent cheating by students during national exams. Uzbekistan may have been the first to invoke this justification during university entrance exams in 2014.[[fn:24]] In 2016, authorities allegedly ordered shutdowns during exams in India, Algeria, Ethiopia and Iraq.[[fn:25]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "A. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Access Now submission, part I; also Freedom House, “Freedom on the Net: Uzbekistan” (2016)."}, {"n": 25, "text": "Access Now submission, part I."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. Network shutdowns invariably fail to meet the standard of necessity. Necessity requires a showing that shutdowns would achieve their stated purpose, which in fact they often jeopardize. Some governments argue that it is important to ban the spread of news about terrorist attacks, even accurate reporting, in order to prevent panic and copycat actions.[[fn:26]] Yet it has been found that maintaining network connectivity may mitigate public safety concerns and help restore public order. During public disturbances in London in 2011, for example, authorities used social media networks to identify perpetrators, disseminate accurate information and conduct clean-up operations. In Kashmir, police have reported on the positive role of mobile phones in locating people trapped during terrorist attacks.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "A. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See for example, OHCHR, “Preliminary conclusions and observations by the UN Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression to his visit to Turkey, 14-18 November 2016”, press release (18 November 2016)."}, {"n": 27, "text": "Institute for Human Rights and Business (IHRB), “Security v. Access: The impact of mobile network shutdowns”, case study: Telenor Pakistan (September 2015), pp. 31-32."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. Duration and geographical scope may vary, but shutdowns are generally disproportionate. Affected users are cut off from emergency services and health information, mobile banking and e-commerce, transportation, school classes, voting and election monitoring, reporting on major crises and events, and human rights investigations.[[fn:28]] Given the number of essential activities and services they affect, shutdowns restrict expression and interfere with other fundamental rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "A. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Access Now submission, part I, pp. 11-14; also Global Network Initiative submission."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Shutdowns also affect areas beyond those of specific concern.[[fn:29]] In the lead up to the 2015 National Day Parade in Pakistan, mobile communications networks were allegedly cut off at the parade site as well as in surrounding areas that were not expected to experience any potential security threat.[[fn:30]] During the Pope’s visit to the Philippines in 2015, the shutdown of mobile networks for safety reasons affected areas well beyond the travel route.[[fn:31]] When specific services or platforms are disrupted, governments typically target those that are the most efficient, secure or widely used.[[fn:32]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "A. Internet and telecommunications shutdowns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "IHRB, “Security v. Access: The impact of mobile network shutdowns”, case study: Telenor Pakistan (September 2015), p. 20."}, {"n": 30, "text": "Ibid., pp. 27-28."}, {"n": 31, "text": "Deniz Duru Aydin, “Five excuses governments (ab)use to justify Internet shutdowns” Access Now (6 October 2016)."}, {"n": 32, "text": "Article 19 submission, p. 2."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Government surveillance today relies on access to communications and associated data belonging to users of privately owned networks. While such access frequently requires the assistance of private actors, it may also be obtained without their knowledge or involvement. As with other forms of surveillance, government access to user data may interfere with privacy in a manner that can both directly and indirectly limit the free development and exchange of ideas (see A/HRC/23/40, para. 24). Undue access to personal data implicitly warns users to think twice and possibly avoid controversial viewpoints, the exchange of sensitive information and other exercises of freedom of expression that may be under government scrutiny (see A/HRC/27/37, para. 20).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "B. Government access to user data"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Vague laws and regulations violate the legality requirement (see A/HRC/23/40, para. 50). The Communications and Multimedia Act of Malaysia, for example, permits authorities to order the disclosure of “any communication or class of communications” on “the occurrence of any public emergency or in the interest of public safety”. The Act does not define the conditions that trigger a public emergency and certification by the King is deemed “conclusive proof on the point”.[[fn:33]] In Qatar, law enforcement enjoys a broad right to seek access to providers’ customer communications in cases of national security or emergency.[[fn:34]] These provisions empower authorities to request user data based on a mere assertion of national security. Users are thus unable to predict with reasonable certainty the circumstances under which their communications and associated data may be disclosed to authorities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "B. Government access to user data", "Requests for user data"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "Malaysia, Communications and Multimedia Act (1998), sect. 266."}, {"n": 34, "text": "Qatar, Decree Law No. (34) of 2006."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. Providers should only be compelled to release user data when ordered by judicial authorities certifying necessity and proportionality to achieve a legitimate objective. The Criminal Code of Canada requires law enforcement to submit requests for the disclosure of telephone records in criminal investigations to a judge for approval.[[fn:35]] In Portugal, the authorities must obtain a judicial order to compel the disclosure of communications data.[[fn:36]] However, national law often exempts user data requests from judicial authorization. In Bangladesh, the authorities require only executive branch approval to access communications data belonging to telecommunications subscribers on the grounds of national security and public order.[[fn:37]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "B. Government access to user data", "Requests for user data"], "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See submission from Canada, p. 6."}, {"n": 36, "text": "Portugal, Criminal Proceedings Code, arts. 187-190."}, {"n": 37, "text": "Bangladesh, Telecommunication Regulatory Act (2001), sect. 97 (Ka)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Laws that require private actors to create large databases of user data accessible to the government raise necessity and proportionality concerns. In Kazakhstan, telephone numbers, e-mail and Internet Protocol (IP) addresses and billing information must be stored by the provider for two years.[[fn:38]] The Russian Federation requires private actors to store the content of all their customers’ calls and text messages for six months, and related communications metadata for three years.[[fn:39]] Both countries also require such data to be stored locally.[[fn:40]] In countries where mobile phones are a dominant means of communication, mandatory SIM card registration laws effectively require the majority of the population to divulge personally identifiable information (see A/HRC/29/32, para. 51). The mandatory retention of large amounts of user data runs contrary to established due process standards, such as the need for individualized suspicion of wrongdoing.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "B. Government access to user data", "Requests for user data"], "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Kazakhstan, Government resolution No. 1593 (23 December 2011)."}, {"n": 39, "text": "OHCHR, letter to the Government of the Russian Federation, 28 July 2016 (OL RUS 7/2016)."}, {"n": 40, "text": "Article 19 submission, p. 5."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. Since the Special Rapporteur’s report on encryption and anonymity (A/HRC/29/32), unnecessary and disproportionate measures to undermine encryption have increased globally and threaten to undermine both the freedom of expression and digital security of users. In the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, for example, the 2016 Investigatory Powers Act permits the Secretary of State to issue “technical capability notices” that require providers to remove “electronic protection” from communications — a measure that could compel backdoors or otherwise limit or weaken encryption.[[fn:41]] States have not provided sufficient evidence that such vulnerabilities are the least intrusive means of protecting national security and public order, particularly given the breadth and depth of other investigative tools at their disposal (Ibid., para. 39).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "B. Government access to user data", "Undermining encryption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Investigatory Powers Act (2016), art. 253; also OHCHR, letter to the Government of the United Kingdom, 22 December 2015 (AL GBR 4/2015)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. Direct access to Internet and telecommunications networks enables authorities to intercept and monitor communications with limited legal scrutiny or accountability. Technological advances have enhanced the ability of law enforcement and intelligence agencies to obtain a direct connection to networks without the involvement or knowledge of the network operator.[[fn:42]] During the 2014 general election in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, intelligence authorities allegedly obtained direct access to the country’s major telecommunications networks to intercept the communications of over 20,000 people, including politicians, activists, government officials and journalists. Many targets were also sent a transcript of their phone calls.[[fn:43]] In India, it appears that authorities are developing a Central Monitoring System programme that would enable “electronic provisioning of target numbers by government agency without any manual intervention from telecommunications service providers on a secure network.”[[fn:44]] These activities do not appear to be provided by law, lacking both judicial authorization and external oversight. Furthermore, the risks they pose to the security and integrity of network infrastructure raise proportionality concerns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "B. Government access to user data", "Direct access"], "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "Privacy International submission; and Telecommunications Industry Dialogue submission, p. 3."}, {"n": 43, "text": "Privacy International, “Macedonia: Society On Tap” (23 March 2016)."}, {"n": 44, "text": "Access Now submission, part II, p. 4."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Network neutrality — the principle that all Internet data should be treated equally without undue interference — promotes the widest possible access to information.[[fn:45]] In the digital age, the freedom to choose among information sources is meaningful only when Internet content and applications of all kinds are transmitted without undue discrimination or interference by non-State actors, including providers. The State’s positive duty to promote freedom of expression argues strongly for network neutrality in order to promote the widest possible non-discriminatory access to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "C. Net neutrality"], "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "Luca Belli submission; and Article 19 submission, pp. 7-8."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. Under paid prioritization schemes, providers give preferential treatment to certain types of Internet traffic over others for payment or other commercial benefits. These schemes effectively create Internet fast lanes for content providers that can afford to pay extra and slow lanes for all others.[[fn:46]] This hierarchy of data undermines user choice. Users experience higher costs or lower quality of service when they attempt to access Internet content and applications in the slow lanes. At the same time, they may be compelled to engage with content that has been prioritized without their knowledge or input.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "C. Net neutrality", "Paid prioritization"], "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "Dawn C. Nunziato and Arturo J. Carrillo, “The price of paid prioritization: The international and domestic consequences of the failure to protect Net neutrality in the United States”, Georgetown Journal of International Affairs: International Engagement on Cyber V: Securing Critical Infrastructure (2 October 2015), p. 103."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Several States prohibit paid prioritization. For example, the Netherlands, an early adopter of net neutrality, forbids providers from making “the price of the rates for Internet access services dependent on the services and applications which are offered or used via these services”.[[fn:47]] The United States Federal Communications Commission 2015 Open Internet Order bans the “management of a broadband provider’s network to directly or indirectly favour some traffic over other traffic ... in exchange for consideration (monetary or otherwise) from a third party, or to benefit an affiliated entity”.[[fn:48]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "C. Net neutrality", "Paid prioritization"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "Netherlands, Telecommunications Act, art. 7.4a (3). Telecommunications Act. ders on ber Vlo, ernet Intermediaries, or Assessing Benefits and Harms e 19. lecom service providers on"}, {"n": 48, "text": "United States of America, Federal Communications Commission, Protecting and Promoting the Open Internet, FCC 15-24 (12 March 2015), para. 18. This Order, possibly under threat at the time of writing the present report, remains a useful template for net neutrality regulation."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Zero rating is the practice of not charging for the use of Internet data associated with a particular application or service; other services or applications, meanwhile, are subject to metered costs. Zero rating arrangements vary from data plans that exempt certain Internet services from a subscriber’s usage count to the provision of unmetered access to certain services without the purchase of a plan.[[fn:49]] Variations notwithstanding, zero rating arrangements privilege access to content and may increase the cost of metered data. For users who struggle to afford metered data, they might end up relying exclusively on zero-rated services, resulting in limited access to information for communities that may already be marginalized in their access to information and public participation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "C. Net neutrality", "Zero rating"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "Erik Stallman and R. Stanley Adams, IV, “Zero Rating: A framework for assessing benefits and harms”, Center for Democracy and Technology (January 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Zero rating arrangements may provide users with limited Internet access in areas that would otherwise completely lack access.[[fn:50]] However, broader Internet access may still remain out of reach for users, trapping them in permanently walled online gardens.[[fn:51]] The assumption that limited access will eventually ripen into full connectivity requires further study. It may be dependent upon factors such as user behaviour, market conditions, the human rights landscape and the regulatory environment.[[fn:52]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "C. Net neutrality", "Zero rating"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Ibid., pp. 4 and 11."}, {"n": 51, "text": "Barbara van Schewick, “Network neutrality and zero-rating”, submission to the United States Federal Communications Commission (19 February 2014), p. 7."}, {"n": 52, "text": "Erik Stallman and R. Stanley Adams, IV, “Zero Rating: A framework for assessing benefits and harms” (January 2016), p. 15."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. These competing considerations have led to variations in regulatory approaches. In India, public concern over Facebook’s Free Basics culminated in a ban on any arrangement that “has the effect of discriminatory tariffs for data services being offered or charged to the consumer on the basis of content”.[[fn:53]] Restrictions on zero rating are in effect in Chile, Norway, the Netherlands, Finland, Iceland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta and Japan.[[fn:54]] In contrast, the United States, followed later by the Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications (BEREC), adopted guidelines involving a case-by-case approach.[[fn:55]] States that adopt a case-by-case approach should carefully scrutinize and, if necessary, reject arrangements that, among other things, zero-rate affiliated content, condition zero rating on payment or favour access to certain applications within a class of similar applications (for example, zero rating certain music streaming services rather than all music streaming). Additionally, States should require meaningful corporate disclosures about network traffic management practices. For example, Chile requires ISPs to disclose Internet access speeds, price or speed differentials between national and international connections, and related service guarantees.[[fn:56]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. State obligation to protect and promote freedom of expression online", "C. Net neutrality", "Zero rating"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "India, Telecom Regulatory Authority, “TRAI releases the Prohibition of Discriminatory Tariffs for Data Services Regulations, 2016”, press release (8 February 2016)."}, {"n": 54, "text": "Emily Hong, “A zero sum game? What you should know about zero-rating”, New America Weekly, Edition 109 (4 February 2016)."}, {"n": 55, "text": "United States, Federal Communications Commission, Protecting and Promoting the Open Internet, FCC 15-24 (12 March 2015), para. 21; and BEREC, Guidelines on the Implementation by National Regulators of European Net Neutrality Rules (August 2016) (BoR (16) 127)."}, {"n": 56, "text": "Chile, Ley No. 20.453, art. 24 H (D)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. While the duty of States to respect and protect freedom of expression is well-established, the private actors that establish, operate and maintain digital access also play a critical role.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. Telecommunications providers (Telcos) and ISPs (collectively referred to in the present report as “providers”) offer a diverse range of services. While they principally operate and sell access to the series of networks that comprise the Internet, they also enable users to communicate and share information through mobile services and traditional landlines (see A/HRC/32/38, para. 16). While providers remain State-owned in many regions, a growing number are now privately established and managed. The industry is also increasingly multinational: some of the world’s biggest providers operate networks in multiple countries and regions, often through partnerships with domestic companies or their own subsidiaries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "A. Telecommunications and Internet service providers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. As gatekeepers of vast information networks, providers face significant government pressure to comply with censorship and surveillance activities. To operate a network in a country, they are required to invest substantial physical and business infrastructure, including network equipment and personnel. They are typically subject to local law and other licensing requirements set out in agreements with the State. In addition to legal pressure, providers have also faced extralegal intimidation, such as threats to the safety of their employees and infrastructure in the event of non-compliance.[[fn:57]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "A. Telecommunications and Internet service providers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "Telecommunications Industry Dialogue submission, p. 10."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. While several providers attempt to resist censorship and surveillance requests, many assist in government efforts without meaningful challenge. In the United States, one of the country’s largest providers is alleged to have created a “super search engine” to facilitate law enforcement access to customer phone calls, even though not legally required to do so.[[fn:58]] In the United Kingdom, a complaint filed with the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development alleged that major providers granted the country’s intelligence agency access to their networks and customer data well beyond what was required by the law at the time.[[fn:59]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "A. Telecommunications and Internet service providers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 58, "text": "Dave Maass and Aaron Mackey, “Law enforcement’s secret ‘super search engine’ amasses trillions of phone records for decades”, Electronic Frontier Foundation (29 November 2016)."}, {"n": 59, "text": "Privacy International, “OECD complaint against BT, Verizon Enterprise, Vodafone Cable, Viatel, Level 3, and Interoute”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. A growing number of providers are establishing arrangements with media and other content-producing companies that threaten net neutrality and are lobbying intensely for concessions on net neutrality standards. For example, as European regulators were developing net neutrality guidelines, 17 major providers in the region issued the “5G Manifesto”, warning that “excessively prescriptive” guidelines would delay their investment in 5G, the next generation of mobile Internet connection.[[fn:60]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "A. Telecommunications and Internet service providers"], "footnotes": [{"n": 60, "text": "Article 19 submission, p. 9."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. IXPs enable the exchange of Internet traffic between and among networks managed by different providers within a country or region.[[fn:61]] This form of interconnection prevents local or regional Internet traffic from taking long and circuitous international routes, thus enhancing the speed and efficiency of Internet connectivity. IXPs may be established by Internet infrastructure companies as part of a broader suite of services sold to providers or operated as non-profit or volunteer organizations.[[fn:62]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "B. Internet exchange points"], "footnotes": [{"n": 61, "text": "See www.bgp4.as/internet-exchanges/."}, {"n": 62, "text": "Jason Gerson and Patrick Ryan, “A primer on Internet exchange points for policymakers and non-engineers” Social Science Research Network (12 August 2012), p. 10."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. IXPs handle an enormous volume of Internet traffic that may be filtered or intercepted at government request. The growing number of censorship and surveillance incidents involving IXPs indicates that they are major access choke points, even if their precise role is unclear. For example, in 2013, the manner in which access to YouTube was blocked in Pakistan indicated that the platform was filtered by IXPs, rather than ISPs, through a method known as “packet injection”.[[fn:63]] According to a leaked internal memo of a multinational ISP operating in Ecuador, users were unable to access Google and YouTube in March 2014 because the private Association of Internet Providers of Ecuador — which runs two of the major IXPs in the country — was “blocking access to certain Internet websites by request of the national Government”.[[fn:64]] The revelations of mass surveillance conducted by the United States National Security Agency have raised concern among technologists that the agency is intercepting a significant proportion of domestic and foreign Internet traffic by targeting United States IXPs.[[fn:65]] In September 2016, the world’s largest Internet exchange point, which is based in Germany, challenged legal orders issued by the country’s intelligence agency to monitor international communications transiting through its hub.[[fn:66]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "B. Internet exchange points"], "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "Zubair Nabi, “The anatomy of web censorship in Pakistan” (2013), p. 4."}, {"n": 64, "text": "Katitza Rodriguez, “Leaked documents confirm Ecuador’s Internet censorship machine”, Electronic Frontier Foundation (14 April 2016)."}, {"n": 65, "text": "Andrew Clement and Jonathan Obar, “Canadian Internet ‘boomerang’ traffic and mass NSA surveillance: Responding to privacy and network sovereignty challenges”, in Law, Privacy and Surveillance in Canada in the Post-Snowden Era, Michael Geist, ed. (University of Ottawa Press, 2015)."}, {"n": 66, "text": "De Cix, “Information on the lawsuit against the Federal Republic of Germany” (16 September 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. A content delivery network (CDN) is a network of servers strategically distributed around the world to enable the efficient delivery of web pages and other Internet content. Large content producers rely on content delivery networks to reach as many users as quickly as possible.[[fn:67]] A content delivery network stores copies of content hosted on these platforms and redirects a user’s request for such content from the platform’s servers to the servers within its network that are located closest to the user.[[fn:68]] This process enhances the speed of content delivery, particularly to users located far away from the platform’s servers. Content delivery networks are regarded as an effective safeguard against website blocking; censorship measures targeting servers that host a particular website or platform do not affect the content delivery network’s delivery of copies of the same content to users.[[fn:69]] Content delivery networks have also become a critical bulwark against network disruptions. The demands of rapid access have incentivized them to invest significant resources in infrastructure and services that can withstand distributed denial-of-service and other malicious attacks.[[fn:70]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "C. Content delivery networks"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "Geoff Huston, “The death of transit?”, Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (27 October 2016)."}, {"n": 68, "text": "Vangie Beal, “CDN – Content Delivery Network”, Webopedia."}, {"n": 69, "text": "John Holowczak and Amir Houmansadr, “CacheBrowser: bypassing Chinese censorship without proxies using cached content” (2015)."}, {"n": 70, "text": "Geoff Huston, “The death of transit?”, Asia Pacific Network Information Centre (27 October 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The censorship resilience of content delivery networks has also made them targets of disproportionate restrictions on freedom of expression. In Egypt, the blocking of The New Arab website in August 2016 also disrupted access to content on other sites that, although unaffiliated, shared the same content delivery network, which led researchers to believe authorities had targeted that particular network.[[fn:71]] In China, a national filter has reportedly blocked EdgeCast content delivery network, which handles content for a number of large websites in the country.[[fn:72]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "C. Content delivery networks"], "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "Leonid Evdokimov and Vasilis Ververis, “Egypt: Media censorship, Tor interference, HTTPS throttling and ads injections?”, Open Observatory of Network Interference (27 October 2016)."}, {"n": 72, "text": "Joss Wright, “A quick investigation of EdgeCast CDN blocking in China”, blog, Oxford Internet Institute (18 November 2014)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Since content delivery networks process large volumes of user requests for Internet content from multiple websites and platforms, they are also vulnerable to government surveillance. In 2016, for example, Amazon Web Services, which houses one of the world’s biggest content delivery networks,[[fn:73]] reported that government requests to access data more than doubled from the previous year.[[fn:74]] Researchers also believe that mass surveillance activities strategically target content delivery networks to maximize information collection, but specifically how this is conducted and the extent of content delivery network involvement, if any, is unclear.[[fn:75]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "C. Content delivery networks"], "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "At the time of writing the present report, Amazon Cloudfront served the largest number of website domains in the world."}, {"n": 74, "text": "Amazon Information Request Report (June 2016)."}, {"n": 75, "text": "See, for example, Harrison Weber, “How the NSA & FBI made Facebook the perfect mass surveillance tool”, Venture Beat (15 May 2014)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Vendors supply the hardware and software that form the basis of Internet and telecommunications networks. Network equipment typically includes routers, switches and access points, which enable multiple devices and networks to connect with each other (see A/HRC/32/38, para. 18). Vendors have also diversified their business to provide Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) equipment, which enables wireless calls and Internet of Things (IoT) technology, which enables networking among smart devices.[[fn:76]] Vendors are rarely consumer-facing: their main customers are network operators, such as governments, ISPs, or content delivery networks. As a result, they are required to configure networks to the technical standards specified by these operators, including standards dictated by local law (such as law enforcement and national security requirements). However, vendors may also design or modify equipment and technology to ensure consistency with private or government specifications.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "D. Network equipment vendors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "Michael E. Raynor and Phil Wilson, “Beyond the dumb pipe: The IoT and the new role for network service providers”, Deloitte University Press (2 September 2015)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Given their business model, vendors are required to navigate the human rights challenges that their customers face or create. In the area of surveillance, vendors are often bound by “lawful interception” measures, which require the configuration of networks to enable government access to user data.[[fn:77]] Additionally, vendors may be contracted to establish “administration and mediation systems” that facilitate the sharing of intercepted data between the network operator and the government authority as well as the government systems that process the intercepted data.[[fn:78]] In arrangements where vendors also manage the networks that they have built, they may also be responsible for handling government requests for user data on the operator’s behalf.[[fn:79]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "D. Network equipment vendors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 77, "text": "See, for example, Council of the European Union resolution of 17 January 1995 on the lawful interception of telecommunications, Official Journal C 329; and Privacy International submission, pp. 2-3."}, {"n": 78, "text": "IHRB, “Human rights challenges of telecommunications vendors: addressing the possible misuse of telecommunications systems: case study: Ericsson” (November 2014), p. 16."}, {"n": 79, "text": "Ibid., p. 17."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. The design of network equipment and technology with multiple uses raises freedom of expression and privacy concerns. Deep packet inspection devices, for example, are used for innocuous technical purposes such as the management of network congestion, but have also been employed to filter Internet content, intercept communications and throttle data flows. Mobile networks are configured to monitor the real-time location of cell phones to ensure that cellular services may be accessed from any location, but such monitoring may also be used to target users.[[fn:80]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "D. Network equipment vendors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "Ibid., p. 13."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Some evidence suggests that vendors may provide support for government censorship and surveillance. In a case pending before United States courts, Cisco has been accused of designing, implementing and helping to maintain a Chinese surveillance and internal security network known as the Golden Shield.[[fn:81]] (Cisco denies those allegations.)[[fn:82]] In Ethiopia, human rights groups found that ZTE Corporation had designed and installed a customer management database for Ethio Telecom that enabled intrusive surveillance.[[fn:83]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "D. Network equipment vendors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "United States District Court for the Northern District of California, San Jose Division, Doe et al. v. Cisco Systems, Inc. et al., Case No. 5:11-cv-02449-EJD-PSGx (18 September 2013)."}, {"n": 82, "text": "John Earnhardt, “Cisco Q&A on China and censorship” Cisco blogs (2 March 2006)."}, {"n": 83, "text": "Human Rights Watch, “They know everything we do: telecom and Internet surveillance in Ethiopia” (25 March 2014)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. The findings and recommendations in the present report apply to any entity that engages in the provision of digital access as described above. A growing number of Internet companies are adding critical digital access and infrastructure services to their portfolio. For example, Alibaba and Tencent, two of the biggest Chinese Internet companies, now also offer content delivery network services.[[fn:84]] Google has been experimenting with methods to provide wireless access that bypass traditional providers; in 2010, it launched a high-speed Internet connection service to homes and businesses in select cities in the United States.[[fn:85]] It is also working with Facebook and Microsoft to build undersea cable networks that would enable them to connect users without relying on third-party equipment or systems.[[fn:86]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "E. Other private actors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 84, "text": "Tencent Cloud CDN and Alibaba Cloud CDN."}, {"n": 85, "text": "Klint Finley, “Google eyes blazing-fast wireless as a way into your home”, Wired (12 August 2016)."}, {"n": 86, "text": "Joon Ian Wong, “Google and Facebook are doubling down on Internet infrastructure with a new Pacific cable”, Quartz (17 October 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. Standards developing organizations (SDOs), although not strictly “industry actors”, establish technical protocols and standards that enable inter-operability in the telecommunications and Internet infrastructure. Standards development that neglects human rights considerations may adversely impact freedom of expression. For example, the failure to mandate Transport Layer Security (TLS) as a feature of the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) left web traffic vulnerable to censorship and surveillance. The technical community’s efforts to incorporate human rights due diligence into standards development is therefore a step in the right direction.[[fn:87]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Digital access providers and freedom of expression", "E. Other private actors"], "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "Internet Research Task Force, “Research into human rights protocol considerations” (25 February 2017). Available at https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-irtf-hrpc-research/?include_text=1. The supplementary annex analyzes the roles and responsibilities of standards developing organizations in more detail."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. The Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights recognize the responsibility of business enterprises to respect human rights, independent of State obligations or the implementation of those obligations (see A/HRC/17/31, annex; and A/HRC/32/38, paras. 9-10). They provide a minimum baseline for corporate human rights accountability, urging companies to adopt public statements of commitment to respect human rights endorsed by senior or executive-level management; conduct due diligence processes that meaningfully “identify, prevent, mitigate and account for” actual and potential human rights impacts throughout the company’s operations; and provide for or cooperate in the remediation of adverse human rights impacts (see A/HRC/17/31, annex, principles 16-24).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The Guiding Principles emphasize the need for companies to take into account the particularities of their operating context when executing their human rights responsibilities (Ibid.). In the digital access industry, several contexts must be considered.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "A. Context considerations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. The digital access industry is in the business of digital expression; its commercial viability depends on users who seek, receive and impart information and ideas on the networks it builds and operates. Since privately owned networks are indispensable to the contemporary exercise of freedom of expression, their operators also assume critical social and public functions. The industry’s decisions, whether in response to government demands or rooted in commercial interests, can directly impact freedom of expression and related human rights in both beneficial and detrimental ways.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "A. Context considerations", "Access providers supply a public good"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. The industry’s human rights impacts are frequently global, affecting users even in markets beyond those served by the company concerned. For example, surveillance of a single Internet exchange point in the United States may capture large streams of communications among Americans and foreigners, and even those entirely among foreigners. Similarly, security vulnerabilities in network design affect all users who rely on the compromised network for digital access, including users located far away from the network. Accordingly, companies should identify and address the broader implications of their activities for freedom of expression generally, in addition to their impacts on customers or rights holders in the markets they operate. To be sure, the manner in which they account for their impacts may vary according to their size, resources, ownership, structure and operating context (Ibid., principle 14). For example, all providers should vet user data requests for compliance with a minimum set of formalities, regardless of the origin of the request or the user affected. But while a multinational provider may have dedicated teams vetting requests, a small or medium-size provider may task its legal or public policy teams to perform the same function.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "A. Context considerations", "Restrictions on Internet access affect freedom of expression globally"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. The Guiding Principles seek to address the gaps in corporate accountability left because of a lack of national legislation or implementation.[[fn:88]] However, zealous enforcement of domestic law also poses human rights challenges in the digital access industry. For example, States may hold providers liable for, or otherwise pressure them to restrict, Internet content posted by users on their networks, under laws as varied as hate speech, defamation, cybercrime and lese-majesty. Yet such intermediary liability creates a strong incentive to censor: providers may find it safest not to challenge such regulation but to over-regulate content such that legitimate and lawful expression also ends up restricted. The pressure to assist in State censorship and surveillance also escalates when authorities harass, threaten or arrest employees, or attempt to tamper with the company’s networks or equipment.[[fn:89]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "A. Context considerations", "The industry is vulnerable to State pressure against freedom of expression…"], "footnotes": [{"n": 88, "text": "Yael Ronen, “Big Brother’s little helpers: the right to privacy and the responsibility of Internet service providers”, Utrecht Journal of International and European Law, vol. 31, No. 80 (February 2015), p. 76."}, {"n": 89, "text": "In 2014, a network shutdown request that the multinational telecommunications provider, Orange, received from the authorities in the Central African Republic was reportedly “accompanied by the threat of personal sanctions in case of non-compliance”. See Telecommunications Industry Dialogue submission, p. 11."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. The industry’s dual role as an enabler of digital access and a natural point for State-imposed restriction heightens its importance as a bulwark against government and private overreach. For example, providers are usually best placed to push back on a shutdown or user data request. Content delivery networks are strategically positioned on the Internet infrastructure to counter malicious attacks that disrupt access. Vendors are uniquely qualified to assess whether their products will be or are being used to facilitate human rights abuses, particularly when they conduct sales due diligence or perform ongoing services.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "A. Context considerations", "...but also uniquely situated to ensure respect for users’ rights"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. To operationalize its human rights commitments, the digital access industry should allocate appropriate resources to at least the practices described below. Although these principles are evaluated in the context of digital access, they also bear relevance to other sectors of the digital economy, such as social media, commerce, surveillance and search.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Due diligence processes enable a digital access provider to identify, prevent and mitigate the human rights impacts of its activities (see A/HRC/17/31, annex, principle 19). While one-size-fits-all due diligence approaches are neither possible nor advisable, human rights impact assessments provide a means of assessing and addressing risks to freedom of expression and privacy.[[fn:90]] Due diligence involves at least the following.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "1. Due diligence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 90, "text": "Major telecommunications providers that have developed human rights impact assessments include Telia Company and Telefonica. Ibid., pp. 7-8."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Companies should develop clear and specific criteria for identifying activities that implicate freedom of expression and trigger due diligence processes.[[fn:91]] The company’s past and ongoing human rights effects, as well as industry practice, provide useful indicators. In the digital access industry, such activities might include mergers and acquisitions; market entry or exit; government or non-government requests for content restriction or user data; the development of or changes to content restriction and privacy policies; product changes regarding content moderation or encrypted communications; arrangements that facilitate prioritized access to Internet content and applications; the design, sale and purchase of network interception and filtering equipment and technologies as well as associated training and consultation services.[[fn:92]] This list, which is far from exhaustive, “requires constant vigilance and updating”, taking into account new areas of business, developments in technology, and other changes in operating context.[[fn:93]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "1. Due diligence", "Policies governing the conduct of due diligence"], "footnotes": [{"n": 91, "text": "Nokia has embedded an automated feature that flags potential sales for human rights risks in its sales tool. Ibid., p. 7."}, {"n": 92, "text": "European Commission, ICT Sector Guide on Implementing the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (2013), pp. 32-36."}, {"n": 93, "text": "Michael A. Samway, “Business, human rights and the Internet: a framework for implementation”, in Human Dignity and the Future of Global Institutions, Mark P. Lagon and Anthony Clark Arend, eds. (Washington, D.C., Georgetown University Press, 2014), p. 308."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Due diligence processes should critically examine at least applicable local and international laws and standards, including potential conflicts between local laws and human rights; freedom of expression and privacy risks embedded in the company’s products and services; strategies to mitigate and prevent these risks; limits on the effectiveness of these strategies given the company’s legal, regulatory or operating environment; and the potential to promote human rights throughout the company’s operations.[[fn:94]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "1. Due diligence", "Issues to examine"], "footnotes": [{"n": 94, "text": "Ibid., pp. 310-312, for a more comprehensive overview of relevant topic areas that due diligence processes should cover."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. While dedicated business and human rights professionals within a company are important, due diligence should not be solely their responsibility, but must involve other relevant functional groups within the business. This requires dialogue and collaboration among various business units (such as privacy, law enforcement, government relations, compliance, risk management, product development and operations) and professionals (such as engineers, user-experience researchers, sales teams and business executives).[[fn:95]] In the privacy context, researchers have found that measures such as “involving and assigning responsibility to senior business unit executives” for privacy management and “embedding staff with privacy protection expertise and personal responsibility for privacy … into the business units”, create an environment conducive to privacy protection.[[fn:96]] Similar management practices could also ensure business respect for freedom of expression. For small and medium-size enterprises, these considerations might require the entire operation to engage in due diligence activities.[[fn:97]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "1. Due diligence", "Internal process and training"], "footnotes": [{"n": 95, "text": "European Commission, ICT Sector Guide on Implementing the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (2013), p. 36."}, {"n": 96, "text": "Kenneth A. Bamberger and Deirdre K. Mulligan, Privacy on the Ground: Driving Corporate Behavior in the United States and Europe (Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press, 2015), p. 177."}, {"n": 97, "text": "European Commission, ICT Sector Guide on Implementing the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (2013), p. 37."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Given the wide knowledge base required, due diligence processes should draw on external, non-governmental expertise, including local civil society, international human rights organizations, the human rights mechanisms of international and regional organizations, academia and the technical community. Multi-stakeholder fora also provide opportunities for shared learning and mutual accountability. For example, researchers have found that membership in sector- or industry-specific human rights initiatives, such as the Global Network Initiative and the Telecommunications Industry Dialogue, coincides with companies’ human rights performance.[[fn:98]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "1. Due diligence", "External expertise"], "footnotes": [{"n": 98, "text": "Ranking Digital Rights submission, p. 5."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. All digital access providers implicate the freedom of expression of end users in one way or another. Accordingly, even companies that are not consumer facing should consult end users as part of their risk assessment process. Such consultation is distinguishable from the broader multi-stakeholder engagement efforts outlined above and contemplates a “two-way dialogue” to “gather specific views or advice from affected stakeholders (or their representatives) that are then taken into account in the company’s internal decision-making and implementation processes”.[[fn:99]] For example, vulnerable or marginalized individuals and groups might be consulted while licensing negotiations in high-risk operating environments are ongoing or during the design, testing and rollout of zero rating policies. Meaningful consultation should also involve regular outreach to civil society organizations, which may provide a useful proxy for the needs and interests of end users in particular communities, and might themselves be at greater risk of pressure for their advocacy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "1. Due diligence", "Consultation with users and affected rights holders"], "footnotes": [{"n": 99, "text": "European Commission, ICT Sector Guide on Implementing the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (2013), pp. 37-38."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Companies should be quick to adapt due diligence processes to changes in circumstances or operating context. For example, risk assessment should continue after the design phase and at regular intervals throughout the life cycle of the product or service, taking into account factors such as technology and infrastructure changes and associated security vulnerabilities, alterations in consumer behaviour, and modifications of the legal, political and social environment where companies operate.[[fn:100]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "1. Due diligence", "Ongoing dynamic assessments"], "footnotes": [{"n": 100, "text": "Business and Social Responsibility, “Applying the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights to the ICT industry”, Version 2.0: Ten lessons learned, A briefing paper (September 2012), p. 9."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. As with every major technology development, design and engineering choices reflect public policy considerations, and should be guided by respect for human rights. For example, network slicing, a key 5G technology, could enable mobile providers to manage network traffic more efficiently and cater to the ever-expanding range of consumer needs in the Internet of Things (IoT) era. At the same time, networks could also be “sliced” into fast and slow lanes that prioritize access to some Internet applications over others, potentially interfering with net neutrality. Accordingly, companies should ensure that innovations in network equipment and technology — particularly those with multiple uses — are designed and deployed so as to be consistent with freedom of expression and privacy standards.[[fn:101]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "2. Incorporating human rights safeguards by design"], "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "ARTICLE 19, “Our 5G future: Light at the end of the tunnel or Internet fast-lane for the elite?” (15 September 2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Companies should assume an active and engaged role in developing expression and privacy enhancing measures. For example, digital security measures that detect and prevent distributed denial-of-service attacks and hacking should be implemented in a manner that targets malicious traffic without compromising legitimate interactions among individuals, organizations and communities. Configuring network equipment to minimize unnecessary information collection about users — given local legal and routing requirements — effectively pre-empts overbroad data requests, since companies cannot turn over information they do not have.[[fn:102]] Even if user information is logged, meaningful limits on whether and for how long they are retained also restrict the scope of personal and sensitive data available for third party access.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "2. Incorporating human rights safeguards by design"], "footnotes": [{"n": 102, "text": "Electronic Frontier Foundation, “User privacy for ISPs and accidental ISPs”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. Human rights engagement with governments, corporate partners and other stakeholders may prevent or mitigate human rights violations down the line. Companies that deal directly with governments should push for human rights safeguards in operating licences and sales contracts, such as assurances that network equipment will not be accessed or modified without the company’s knowledge (which can be for the purpose of facilitating human rights abuses). Timely intervention during litigation (such as amicus filings in cases brought by civil society groups or peer companies against censorship or surveillance laws) and human rights-oriented lobbying in legislative and policymaking processes may also advance legal protections for freedom of expression and privacy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "3. Stakeholder engagement"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Arrangements with corporate partners should enable all parties to uphold their human rights responsibilities. In particular, such arrangements should be designed to ensure that subsidiaries, joint venture partners, suppliers and distributors will abide by whatever freedom of expression and privacy policies the company has in place. For example, when local operations receive unconventional censorship or surveillance requests, company policy should ensure that these requests are escalated to global management for review.[[fn:103]] Whistle-blowing mechanisms should be made available to both employees and contractors. To the extent that companies are already in business relationships that raise human rights concerns, they should seek to build leverage over time to prevent or mitigate harm.[[fn:104]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "3. Stakeholder engagement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 103, "text": "Telecommunications Industry Dialogue submission, pp. 13 and 16."}, {"n": 104, "text": "SHIFT, “Using leverage in business relationships to reduce human rights risks” (New York, November 2013)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. Companies may also enhance respect for human rights through collaborative action. Such collaboration includes joint outreach and advocacy with peer companies; engagement with regional or international bodies, including human rights mechanisms and economic institutions; and membership in industry associations and multi-stakeholder initiatives.[[fn:105]] Regular consultations with users, civil society and affected rights holders can also mobilize public support for company efforts to resist government overreach. Cross-sector collaboration strengthens the normative force of agreed upon human rights best practices and standards, intensifying pressure on both governments and peer companies to comply.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "3. Stakeholder engagement"], "footnotes": [{"n": 105, "text": "Telecommunications Industry Dialogue submission, p. 12; and Global Network Initiative submission, p. 7."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. To the extent that companies handle content regulation and user data requests, specific policies and practices to mitigate the harms of government restrictions may be adopted.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "4. Mitigation strategies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. Companies should ensure that all requests for content restriction and customer data comply not only with procedural and legal requirements specified under local law, but also internationally established due process standards.[[fn:107]] Given the intrusion on human rights, such requests should be authorized by independent and impartial courts or adjudicatory bodies. Furthermore, companies should require that requests be made in writing and present a clear explanation of the legal basis, and the name, title and signature of the authorizing official. Companies should also seek to verify that the relevant official or government entity is authorized to issue this request.[[fn:108]] These formalities should be requested even if they are not required by law. Additionally, companies should preserve a written record of all communications between them and the requester relating to each request and logs of access to user data when executing the request, provided that such a record does not pose undue privacy risks.[[fn:109]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "4. Mitigation strategies", "Ensure that requests for content restrictions and customer data are in strict compliance with the law"], "footnotes": [{"n": 107, "text": "See, for example, the Manila Principles on Intermediary Liability and the International Principles on the Application of Human Rights to Communications Surveillance, co-authored by a number of non-governmental organizations."}, {"n": 108, "text": "Global Network Initiative, “Implementation guidelines“, pp. 5-6; also Telecommunications Industry Dialogue submission, pp. 8-10."}, {"n": 109, "text": "Telecommunications Industry Dialogue submission, pp. 8-9."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Vague and open-ended government requests and legal frameworks make it difficult for companies to determine whether they are in compliance with local law. However, companies can mitigate this uncertainty by adopting company-wide policies that direct all business units, including local subsidiaries, to resolve any legal ambiguity in favour of respect for freedom of expression, privacy and other human rights. Such policies are based not only on the provider’s human rights responsibilities, but also the State’s obligation to comply with applicable human rights laws and relevant protections under local law (such as constitutional, criminal procedure and data protection laws).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "4. Mitigation strategies", "Interpreting the scope of government requests and laws"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. In practice, companies should as far as possible interpret requests in a manner that ensures the least restriction on content and access to customer data. For example, when requests appear overbroad, Global Network Initiative recommends that companies seek clarification on their scope and obtain appropriate modifications.[[fn:110]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "4. Mitigation strategies", "Interpreting the scope of government requests and laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 110, "text": "Ibid."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Companies have an interest in operating in a legal environment that is human rights compliant, consistent due process and rule of law norms. Companies should explore all legal options for challenging requests that are excessively intrusive — such as requests for shutdowns of entire services or platforms, website takedowns that are clearly targeted at criticism or dissent or customer data requests that cover broadly unspecified users.[[fn:111]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "4. Mitigation strategies", "Challenge requests and underlying laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 111, "text": "Yael Ronen, “Big Brother’s little helpers” (February 2015), p. 81."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. Like any decision to bring legal proceedings, companies may take into account a range of considerations, such as the “potential beneficial [human rights] impact, the likelihood of success, the severity of the case, cost, the representativeness of the case and whether the case is part of a larger trend”.[[fn:112]] However, companies should assign substantial overall weight to human rights considerations in their decision-making processes and carefully assess both the potential benefits and risks to human rights. For example, companies should be inclined to challenge overbroad requests where there is a reasonable likelihood of success, even if these challenges might be resource intensive; on the other hand, companies might pursue alternative options if a challenge is likely to create adverse precedent or backlash and undermine expression and privacy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "4. Mitigation strategies", "Challenge requests and underlying laws"], "footnotes": [{"n": 112, "text": "Global Network Initiative, “Implementation guidelines”."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. Transparency is a key feature of the digital access industry’s responsibility to respect. Information about government activities that require corporate assistance or involvement should be disclosed to the maximum extent allowed by law. Companies should be mindful that such information is primarily used by civil society to challenge human rights abuses in court, register grievances before domestic or international mechanisms on behalf of users or seek alternative means of accountability. Accordingly, such disclosures should be regular and ongoing, and in an accessible format that provides appropriate context.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "5. Transparency"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. Even if local law limits full transparency, companies should nonetheless disclose all relevant and publishable information. For example, if companies are prohibited from disclosing the origin or basis of a shutdown request, they should nevertheless seek to provide regular updates about the services affected or restored, the steps they are taking to address the issue and explanations after the fact. Innovative transparency measures, such as the publication of aggregate data and the selective withholding of information,[[fn:113]] also mitigate the impact of gag orders and other non-disclosure laws. Companies should disclose all the local laws with which they comply and, where possible, challenge any law or regulation that prevents or hinders them from being transparent to users and the general public.[[fn:114]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "5. Transparency"], "footnotes": [{"n": 113, "text": "For example, when “Telia Company was required to suspend services, the company did not state that this was the result of technical problems”, Telecommunications Industry Dialogue submission, p. 14."}, {"n": 114, "text": "Telecommunications Industry Dialogue, “Information on country legal frameworks pertaining to freedom of expression and privacy in telecommunications” (2016)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Companies should disclose their policies and actions that implicate freedom of expression. Relevant disclosures include data retention and use policies, network management practices and the sale and purchase of network filtering and interception technologies.[[fn:115]] Companies should also disclose information about the frequency, scope and subject matter of due diligence processes and a summary of high-level findings. In general, companies should consult the growing number of resources that study valuable transparency indicators and other transparency best practices. Users, civil society and peer companies should also be consulted on the design and implementation of transparency measures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "5. Transparency"], "footnotes": [{"n": 115, "text": "Ranking Digital Rights submission."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. While certain aspects of corporate responsibility have advanced in recent years, remedial steps often seem omitted from the private sector’s agenda. Yet remedies are a key pillar of corporate responsibility and should be provided whenever businesses “have caused or contributed to adverse impacts” (see A/HRC/17/31, annex, principle 22). States bear the primary duty to remediate business-related human rights abuses, particularly those they instigate, such as overbroad content restriction, unlawful user data requests and disproportionate surveillance. Yet companies that fail to implement appropriate due diligence measures and other safeguards may also cause or contribute to such abuses. In those situations, companies should “provide for or cooperate in their remediation through legitimate processes” (Ibid.).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "6. Effective remedies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Remedies may include both financial and non-financial means (Ibid., principle 27). When freedom of expression is impaired, appropriate remedies may include access to grievance mechanisms and information about the violation and guarantees of non-repetition.[[fn:116]] Users whose accounts have been wrongly suspended may want the satisfaction of being heard and provided with explanations and assurances of non-repetition.[[fn:117]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "6. Effective remedies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 116, "text": "Telecommunications Industry Dialogue submission, p. 17."}, {"n": 117, "text": "Peter Micek and Jeff Landale, “Forgotten pillar: the Telco remedy plan”, Access Now (May 2013), p. 6."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. Pre-existing policies and mechanisms could also be reformed or strengthened to address violations of freedom of expression. For example, a provider could make improvements to its content restriction policy and the training of its content moderation teams to reduce the likelihood of unfair website takedowns or overbroad content restrictions such as filtering. Customer complaint mechanisms could also be updated to allow users to flag network traffic management practices, commercial filtering classifications and other content restrictions they deem to be unduly restrictive or unfair.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["IV. Human rights responsibilities of digital access providers", "B. Responsibility to respect users’ freedom of expression", "6. Effective remedies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. Individuals depend on digital access to exercise fundamental rights, including freedom of opinion and expression, the right to life and a range of economic, social and cultural rights. They also regularly face obstacles to access: from shutdowns to surveillance. The present report is largely concerned with the obstacles that deny, deter or exclude expression through blunt reliance on digital censorship. The present report has not addressed other serious obstacles — such as the lack of adequate connectivity infrastructure, high costs of access imposed by government, gender inequality, and language barriers — that also may constitute forms of censorship.[[fn:118]] Much of it therefore focuses on the roles and obligations of States. But States increasingly exercise censorship through the private sector. The report has aimed not only to address the constraints on State action under human rights law but also the principles that private actors should observe in respecting human rights. Key recommendations, already highlighted in the analysis above, are set out below.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 118, "text": "Global Commission on Internet Governance submission; Arco Iris Libre de Cuba, Centro de Información Hablemos Press, Centro de Información Legal CubaLex, Mesa de Diálogo de la Juventud Cubana Plataforma Femenina Nuevo País, “Situación del derecho a la libertad de opinion y expression en Cuba” (Situation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in Cuba) (July 2016), p. 20."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. The Human Rights Council, in its resolution 32/13, condemned unequivocally measures to intentionally prevent or disrupt access to or dissemination of information online in violation of international human rights law, and called upon all States to refrain from and cease such measures. This condemnation, which is critical to the Council’s promotion of human rights online, should be supplemented and specified. Intentional prevention or disruption of access includes any action that shuts down or renders ineffective access to telecommunications networks, mobile services, social media platforms and so forth. Future work of the Council that clarifies the rules that apply to digital access, as outlined in this report, would advance the right to freedom of opinion and expression online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "States and the Human Rights Council"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. It is also critical for the Council and States to draw the connections between privacy interference and freedom of expression. To be sure, interferences with privacy must be assessed on their own merits under article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and other norms of human rights law. But certain interferences — such as overbroad requests for user data and third party retention of such data — can have both near- and long-term deterrent effects on expression, and should be avoided as a matter of law and policy. At a minimum, States should ensure that surveillance is authorized by an independent, impartial and competent judicial authority certifying that the request is necessary and proportionate to protect a legitimate aim.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "States and the Human Rights Council"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. The Special Rapporteur is particularly concerned about reports of threats and intimidation of companies, their employees and their equipment and infrastructure. Also, the Council’s emphasis on the important role — and need for protection — of the private sector deserves consideration. States should review all activities to obtain network access to ensure that they are lawful, necessary and proportionate, paying particular attention to whether these activities are the least intrusive means for protecting a legitimate aim.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "States and the Human Rights Council"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The protective role that States may exercise over the private sector can only go so far. They should not be promoting the economic gain of private entities over users’ rights to freedom of opinion and expression. Thus, States should prohibit attempts to assign priority to certain types of Internet content or applications over others for payment or other commercial benefits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "States and the Human Rights Council"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The intersection of State behaviour and corporate roles in the digital age remains somewhat new for many States. One profitable way forward, at both the international and domestic levels, would involve the development of national action plans on business and human rights in order to establish meaningful avenues for all categories of the digital access industry to identify and address their respective human rights impacts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "States and the Human Rights Council"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. For years now, individuals and companies within the digital access sector have understood that they play an essential role in the vast expansion of access to information and communications services. They are in a business in which the model for success should involve expanding access, efficiencies, diversity and transparency. They should take the principles identified in the present report as tools to strengthen their own roles in advancing users’ rights to freedom of expression. In this spirit, in addition to high-level policy commitments to human rights, the industry should allocate appropriate resources towards the fulfilment of these commitments, including due diligence, rights-oriented design and engineering choices, stakeholder engagement, strategies to prevent or mitigate human rights risks, transparency and effective remedies. In doing so, the design and implementation of corporate human rights accountability measures should draw on both internal and external expertise, and ensure meaningful input from customers and other affected rights holders, civil society and the human rights community.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Private actors"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-22-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-35-22", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. This is not to say that private companies do not face pressures. They do. But when States request corporate involvement in censorship or surveillance, companies should seek to prevent or mitigate the adverse human rights impacts of their involvement to the maximum extent allowed by law. In any event, companies should take all necessary and lawful measures to ensure that they do not cause, contribute or become complicit in human rights abuses. Arrangements with corporate partners should be structured to ensure that all parties uphold their human rights responsibilities. Companies should also seek to build leverage in pre-existing business relationships to prevent or mitigate adverse human rights impacts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2017, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Private actors"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. Contemporary digital technologies offer Governments, corporations, criminals and pranksters unprecedented capacity to interfere with the rights to freedom of opinion and expression. Online censorship, mass and targeted surveillance and data collection, digital attacks on civil society and repression resulting from online expression force individuals around the world to seek security to hold opinions without interference and seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds. Many seek to protect their security through encryption, the scrambling of data so only intended recipients may access it, which may be applied to data in transit (e.g., e-mail, messaging, Internet telephony) and at rest (e.g., hard drives, cloud services). Others seek additional protection in anonymity, using sophisticated technologies to disguise their identity and digital footprint. Encryption and anonymity, today’s leading vehicles for online security, provide individuals with a means to protect their privacy, empowering them to browse, read, develop and share opinions and information without interference and enabling journalists, civil society organizations, members of ethnic or religious groups, those persecuted because of their sexual orientation or gender identity, activists, scholars, artists and others to exercise the rights to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Yet, just as the telephone may be used both to report a crime to the police and to conspire to commit one, so too may the Internet be abused to interfere with the rights of others, national security or public order. Law enforcement and intelligence services often assert that anonymous or encrypted communications make it difficult to investigate financial crimes, illicit drugs, child pornography and terrorism. Individuals express legitimate concerns about how bullies and criminals use new technologies to facilitate harassment. Some States restrict or prohibit encryption and anonymity on these and other grounds, while others are proposing or implementing means for law enforcement to circumvent these protections and access individual communications.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. In the light of these challenges, the present report examines two linked questions. First, do the rights to privacy and freedom of opinion and expression protect secure online communication, specifically by encryption or anonymity? And, second, assuming an affirmative answer, to what extent may Governments, in accordance with human rights law, impose restrictions on encryption and anonymity? The present report seeks to answer these questions, review examples of State practice and propose recommendations. It does not purport to address every technical or legal question raised by digital technologies, but it identifies important ones for future reporting.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. In preparing the report, the Special Rapporteur circulated a questionnaire to States, seeking relevant information on their domestic laws, regulations, policies and practices. As of 1 April 2015, 16 States had responded to this request.[[fn:1]] The Special Rapporteur also issued a call for submissions from non-governmental stakeholders and convened a meeting of experts in Geneva in March 2015. The responses from Governments and the over 30 submissions by civil society organizations and individuals, which are available from the mandate holder’s web page, contributed significantly to the preparation of the report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Responses were received from Austria, Bulgaria, Cuba, Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Ireland, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Qatar, Republic of Moldova, Norway, Slovakia, Sweden, Turkey and the United States of America."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. A full review of the Special Rapporteur’s activities since the beginning of his term in August 2014 may be found on the mandate holder’s web page. This report, the current mandate holder’s first, aims at furthering the work on the challenges to freedom of expression in the digital age.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. Modern approaches to private and secure communication draw on ideas that have been with humankind for millenniums. The rise of electronic data storage, the Internet and mass data collection and retention made clear that sophisticated means would be needed to protect individual, corporate and government data. As e-mail, instant-messaging, Voice-over-Internet Protocols, videoconferencing and social media moved from niche services to predominant and easily monitored modes of communication, individuals developed a need for security online, so that they could seek, receive and impart information without the risk of repercussions, disclosure, surveillance or other improper use of their opinions and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Secure and private communication in the digital age", "A. Contemporary encryption and anonymity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. Encryption — a mathematical “process of converting messages, information, or data into a form unreadable by anyone except the intended recipient”[[fn:2]] — protects the confidentiality and integrity of content against third-party access or manipulation. Strong encryption, once the sole province of militaries and intelligence services, is now publicly accessible and often freely available to secure e-mail, voice communication, images, hard drives and website browsers. With “public key encryption”, the dominant form of end-to-end security for data in transit, the sender uses the recipient’s public key to encrypt the message and its attachments, and the recipient uses her or his own private key to decrypt them. Encryption may also be used to create digital signatures to ensure that a document and its sender are authentic, to authenticate and verify the identity of a server and to protect the integrity of communications between clients against tampering or manipulation of traffic by third parties (e.g., “man-in-the-middle” attacks). Since the encryption of data in transit does not ensure against attacks on unencrypted data when it is sitting at rest at either endpoint (nor protect the security of one’s private key), one may also encrypt data at rest stored on laptops, hard drives, servers, tablets, mobile phones and other devices. Online practices may also be moving away from the system described here and towards “forward secrecy” or “off-the-record” technology in which keys are held ephemerally, particularly for uses such as instant messaging.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Secure and private communication in the digital age", "A. Contemporary encryption and anonymity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See SANS Institute, “History of encryption” (2001)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. Some call for efforts to weaken or compromise encryption standards such that only Governments may enjoy access to encrypted communications. However, compromised encryption cannot be kept secret from those with the skill to find and exploit the weak points, whether State or non-State, legitimate or criminal. It is a seemingly universal position among technologists that there is no special access that can be made available only to government authorities, even ones that, in principle, have the public interest in mind. In the contemporary technological environment, intentionally compromising encryption, even for arguably legitimate purposes, weakens everyone’s security online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Secure and private communication in the digital age", "A. Contemporary encryption and anonymity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. Notably, encryption protects the content of communications but not identifying factors such as the Internet Protocol (IP) address, known as metadata. Third parties may gather significant information concerning an individual’s identity through metadata analysis if the user does not employ anonymity tools. Anonymity is the condition of avoiding identification. A common human desire to protect one’s identity from the crowd, anonymity may liberate a user to explore and impart ideas and opinions more than she would using her actual identity. Individuals online may adopt pseudonyms (or, for instance, fake e-mail or social media accounts) to hide their identities, image, voice, location and so forth, but the privacy afforded through such pseudonyms is superficial and easily disturbed by Governments or others with the necessary expertise; in the absence of combinations of encryption and anonymizing tools, the digital traces that users leave behind render their identities easily discoverable. Users seeking to ensure full anonymity or mask their identity (such as hiding the original IP address) against State or criminal intrusion may use tools such as virtual private networks (VPNs), proxy services, anonymizing networks and software, and peer-to-peer networks.[[fn:3]] One well-known anonymity tool, the Tor network, deploys more than 6,000 decentralized computer servers around the world to receive and relay data multiple times so as to hide identifying information about the end points, creating strong anonymity for its users.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Secure and private communication in the digital age", "A. Contemporary encryption and anonymity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Proxy services send data through an intermediary, or “proxy server”, that sends that data on behalf of the user, effectively masking the user’s IP address with its own to the end recipient. Peer-to-peer networks partition and store data among interconnected servers and then encrypt that stored data so that no centralized server has access to identifying information. See, for example, Freenet."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. A key feature of the digital age is that technology changes incessantly to sate user demands. Although the present report refers to contemporary technologies that facilitate encryption and anonymity, its analysis and conclusions apply generally to the concepts behind the current technologies and should be applicable as new technologies replace the old.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Secure and private communication in the digital age", "A. Contemporary encryption and anonymity"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. The Internet has profound value for freedom of opinion and expression, as it magnifies the voice and multiplies the information within reach of everyone who has access to it. Within a brief period, it has become the central global public forum. As such, an open and secure Internet should be counted among the leading prerequisites for the enjoyment of the freedom of expression today. But it is constantly under threat, a space — not unlike the physical world — in which criminal enterprise, targeted repression and mass data collection also exist. It is thus critical that individuals find ways to secure themselves online, that Governments provide such safety in law and policy and that corporate actors design, develop and market secure-by-default products and services. None of these imperatives is new. Early in the digital age, Governments recognized the essential role played by encryption in securing the global economy, using or encouraging its use to secure Government-issued identity numbers, credit card and banking information, business proprietary documents and investigations into online crime itself.[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Secure and private communication in the digital age", "B. Uses of the technologies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See OECD, Guidelines for Cryptography Policy (1997).."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. Encryption and anonymity, separately or together, create a zone of privacy to protect opinion and belief. For instance, they enable private communications and can shield an opinion from outside scrutiny, particularly important in hostile political, social, religious and legal environments. Where States impose unlawful censorship through filtering and other technologies, the use of encryption and anonymity may empower individuals to circumvent barriers and access information and ideas without the intrusion of authorities. Journalists, researchers, lawyers and civil society rely on encryption and anonymity to shield themselves (and their sources, clients and partners) from surveillance and harassment. The ability to search the web, develop ideas and communicate securely may be the only way in which many can explore basic aspects of identity, such as one’s gender, religion, ethnicity, national origin or sexuality. Artists rely on encryption and anonymity to safeguard and protect their right to expression, especially in situations where it is not only the State creating limitations but also society that does not tolerate unconventional opinions or expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Secure and private communication in the digital age", "B. Uses of the technologies"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. The “dark” side of encryption and anonymity is a reflection of the fact that wrongdoing offline takes place online as well. Law enforcement and counter-terrorism officials express concern that terrorists and ordinary criminals use encryption and anonymity to hide their activities, making it difficult for Governments to prevent and conduct investigations into terrorism, the illegal drug trade, organized crime and child pornography, among other government objectives. Harassment and cyberbullying may rely on anonymity as a cowardly mask for discrimination, particularly against members of vulnerable groups. At the same time, however, law enforcement often uses the same tools to ensure their own operational security in undercover operations, while members of vulnerable groups may use the tools to ensure their privacy in the face of harassment. Moreover, Governments have at their disposal a broad set of alternative tools, such as wiretapping, geo-location and tracking, data-mining, traditional physical surveillance and many others, which strengthen contemporary law enforcement and counter-terrorism.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["II. Secure and private communication in the digital age", "B. Uses of the technologies"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See Center for Democracy and Technology, “‘Going Dark’ versus a ‘Golden Age for Surveillance’” (2011)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. The human rights legal framework for encryption and anonymity requires, first, evaluating the scope of the rights at issue and their application to encryption and anonymity; and, second, assessing whether, and if so to what extent, restrictions may lawfully be placed on the use of technologies that promote and protect the rights to privacy and freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. The rights to privacy[[fn:6]] and freedom of opinion and expression[[fn:7]] have been codified in universal and regional human rights instruments, interpreted by treaty bodies and regional courts, and evaluated by special procedures of the Human Rights Council and during universal periodic review. The universal standards for privacy, opinion and expression are found in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, to which 168 States are party. Even for those remaining States that are not bound by it, the Covenant presents at the very least a standard for achievement and often reflects a customary legal norm; those that have signed but not ratified the Covenant are bound to respect its object and purpose under article 18 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties. National legal systems also protect privacy, opinion and expression, sometimes with constitutional or basic law or interpretations thereof. Several global civil society projects have also provided compelling demonstrations of the law that should apply in the context of the digital age, such as the International Principles on the Application of Human Rights to Communications Surveillance and the Global Principles on National Security and the Right to Information. Although specific standards may vary from right to right, or instrument to instrument, a common thread in the law is that, because the rights to privacy and to freedom of expression are so foundational to human dignity and democratic governance, limitations must be narrowly drawn, established by law and applied strictly and only in exceptional circumstances. In a digital age, protecting such rights demands exceptional vigilance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "18", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, article 16 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child, article 22 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, article 14 of the Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights and article 11 of the American Convention on Human Rights protect the right to privacy."}, {"n": 7, "text": "Article 19 of the Universal Declaration and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, article 9 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights and article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights protect freedom of expression."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. Encryption and anonymity provide individuals and groups with a zone of privacy online to hold opinions and exercise freedom of expression without arbitrary and unlawful interference or attacks. The previous mandate holder noted that the rights to “privacy and freedom of expression are interlinked” and found that encryption and anonymity are protected because of the critical role they can play in securing those rights (A/HRC/23/40 and Corr.1). Echoing article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights specifically protects the individual against “arbitrary or unlawful interference with his or her privacy, family, home or correspondence” and “unlawful attacks on his or her honour and reputation”, and provides that “everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks”. The General Assembly, the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and special procedure mandate holders have recognized that privacy is a gateway to the enjoyment of other rights, particularly the freedom of opinion and expression (see General Assembly resolution 68/167, A/HRC/13/37 and Human Rights Council resolution 20/8).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "A. Privacy as a gateway for freedom of opinion and expression"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "12", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — UDHR, not a UN core treaty."}, {"article": "17", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR art.17 (privacy)."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. Encryption and anonymity are especially useful for the development and sharing of opinions, which often occur through online correspondence such as e-mail, text messaging, and other online interactions. Encryption provides security so that individuals are able “to verify that their communications are received only by their intended recipients, without interference or alteration, and that the communications they receive are equally free from intrusion” (see A/HRC/23/40 and Corr.1, para. 23). Given the power of metadata analysis to specify “an individual’s behaviour, social relationships, private preferences and identity” (see A/HRC/27/37, para. 19), anonymity may play a critical role in securing correspondence. Besides correspondence, international and regional mechanisms have interpreted privacy to involve a range of other circumstances as well.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "A. Privacy as a gateway for freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 16 (1988) on the right to respect of privacy, family, home and correspondence, and protection of honour and reputation. See also European Court of Human Rights, factsheets on data protection (www.echr.coe.int/Documents/FS_Data_ENG.pdf) and right to protection of one’s image (www.echr.coe.int/Documents/FS_Own_image_ENG.pdf)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. Individuals and civil society are subjected to interference and attack by State and non-State actors, against which encryption and anonymity may provide protection. In article 17 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, States are obliged to protect privacy against unlawful and arbitrary interference and attacks. Under such an affirmative obligation, States should ensure the existence of domestic legislation that prohibits unlawful and arbitrary interference and attacks on privacy, whether committed by government or non-governmental actors. Such protection must include the right to a remedy for a violation.[[fn:9]] In order for the right to a remedy to be meaningful, individuals must be given notice of any compromise of their privacy through, for instance, weakened encryption or compelled disclosure of user data.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "A. Privacy as a gateway for freedom of opinion and expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See Human Rights Committee general comment No.16 and general comment No. 31on the nature of the general legal obligation imposed on States parties to the Covenant; and CCPR/C/106/D/1803/2008."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "17", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. The first article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights recognizes that everyone is “endowed with reason and conscience”, a principle developed further in human rights law to include, among other things, the protection of opinion, expression, belief, and thought. Article 19 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, also echoing the Universal Declaration, provides that “everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference”. Opinion and expression are closely related to one another, as restrictions on the right to receive information and ideas may interfere with the ability to hold opinions, and interference with the holding of opinions necessarily restricts the expression of them. However, human rights law has drawn a conceptual distinction between the two. During the negotiations on the drafting of the Covenant, “the freedom to form an opinion and to develop this by way of reasoning was held to be absolute and, in contrast to freedom of expression, not allowed to be restricted by law or other power”.[[fn:10]] The ability to hold an opinion freely was seen to be a fundamental element of human dignity and democratic self-governance, a guarantee so critical that the Covenant would allow no interference, limitation or restriction. Consequently, the permissible limitations in article 19 (3) expressly apply only to the right to freedom of expression in article 19 (2). Interference with the right to hold opinions is, by contrast, per se in violation of article 19 (1).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "B. Right to hold opinions without interference"], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Manfred Nowak, UN Covenant on Civil and Political Rights: CCPR Commentary (1993), p. 441."}], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text: 'Article 19 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, also echoing the Universal Declaration, provides that everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference'. Explicitly ICCPR."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text: 'the permissible limitations in article 19 (3) expressly apply only to the right to freedom of expression in article 19 (2)' — contextually ICCPR throughout this paragraph."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text: 'the right to freedom of expression in article 19 (2)' — ICCPR, confirmed by consistent Covenant references throughout the paragraph."}, {"article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text: 'Interference with the right to hold opinions is, by contrast, per se in violation of article 19 (1)' — ICCPR art.19(1), consistent with entire paragraph's Covenant framing."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. Commentators and courts have devoted much less attention to the right to hold opinions than to expression. Greater attention is warranted, however, as the mechanics of holding opinions have evolved in the digital age and exposed individuals to significant vulnerabilities. Individuals regularly hold opinions digitally, saving their views and their search and browse histories, for instance, on hard drives, in the cloud, and in e-mail archives, which private and public authorities often retain for lengthy if not indefinite periods. Civil society organizations likewise prepare and store digitally memoranda, papers and publications, all of which involve the creation and holding of opinions. In other words, holding opinions in the digital age is not an abstract concept limited to what may be in one’s mind. And yet, today, holding opinions in digital space is under attack. Offline, interference with the right to hold an opinion may involve physical harassment, detention or subtler efforts to punish individuals for their opinion (see CCPR/C/78/D/878/1999, annex, paras. 2.5, 7.2 and 7.3). Interference may also include such efforts as targeted surveillance, distributed denial of service attacks, and online and offline intimidation, criminalization and harassment. Targeted digital interference harasses individuals and civil society organizations for the opinions they hold in many formats. Encryption and anonymity enable individuals to avoid or mitigate such harassment.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "B. Right to hold opinions without interference"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The right to hold opinions without interference also includes the right to form opinions. Surveillance systems, both targeted and mass, may undermine the right to form an opinion, as the fear of unwilling disclosure of online activity, such as search and browsing, likely deters individuals from accessing information, particularly where such surveillance leads to repressive outcomes. For all these reasons, restrictions on encryption and anonymity must be assessed to determine whether they would amount to an impermissible interference with the right to hold opinions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "B. Right to hold opinions without interference"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. The right to freedom of expression under article 19 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights expands upon the Universal Declaration’s already broad guarantee, protecting the “freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice”. A significant accumulation of jurisprudence, special procedure reporting, and resolutions within the United Nations and regional human rights systems underscores that the freedom of expression “is essential for the enjoyment of other human rights and freedoms and constitutes a fundamental pillar for building a democratic society and strengthening democracy” (Human Rights Council resolution 25/2). The Human Rights Council, the General Assembly and individual States regularly assert that individuals enjoy the same rights online that they enjoy offline.[[fn:11]] The present report will not repeat all the elements of this consensus. In the context of encryption and anonymity, three aspects of the text deserve particular emphasis (see paras. 23–26 below).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See, e.g., General Assembly resolution 68/167, Human Rights Council resolution 26/13 and Council of Europe recommendation CM/Rec (2014) 6 of the Committee of Ministers to member States on a guide to human rights for Internet users."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. Freedom to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas: In environments of prevalent censorship, individuals may be forced to rely on encryption and anonymity in order to circumvent restrictions and exercise the right to seek, receive and impart information. Some States have curtailed access with a variety of tools. State censorship, for instance, poses sometimes insurmountable barriers to the right to access information. Some States impose content-based, often discriminatory restrictions or criminalize online expression, intimidating political opposition and dissenters and applying defamation and lese-majesty laws to silence journalists, defenders and activists. A VPN connection, or use of Tor or a proxy server, combined with encryption, may be the only way in which an individual is able to access or share information in such environments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. It bears emphasizing that human rights law also protects the right to seek, receive and impart scientific information and ideas. The Universal Declaration and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights protect rights to education and “to share in scientific advancement and its benefits”. Encryption and anonymity technologies enable individuals to share in such information in situations where they are otherwise denied, and they are themselves examples of scientific advancement. Their use empowers individuals to gain access to the benefits of scientific progress that might be curtailed by Government. The Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights noted that “the rights to science and to culture should both be understood as including a right to have access to and use information and communication and other technologies in self-determined and empowering ways” (see A/HRC/20/26, para. 19).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. Regardless of frontiers: The major instruments guaranteeing freedom of expression explicitly acknowledge the transboundary scope of the right. Individuals enjoy the right to receive information from, and transmit information and ideas of all kinds to, places beyond their borders.[[fn:12]] However, some States filter or block data on the basis of keywords, denying access by deploying technologies that rely on access to text. Encryption enables an individual to avoid such filtering, allowing information to flow across borders. Moreover, individuals do not control — and are usually unaware of — how or if their communications cross borders. Encryption and anonymity may protect information of all individuals as it transits through servers located in third countries that filter content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "The European Court of Human Rights has recognized this point. See Ahmet Yildirim v. Turkey,(2012); Cox v. Turkey, (2010); Case of Groppera Radio AG and Others v. Switzerland (1990)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. Through any media: Articles 19 of the Universal Declaration and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights were drafted with the foresight to accommodate future technological advances (A/HRC/17/27). The States parties to the Covenant chose to adopt the general phrase “through any other media” as opposed to an enumeration of then-existing media. Partly on this basis, international mechanisms have repeatedly acknowledged that the protections of freedom of expression apply to activities on the Internet. Regional courts have likewise recognized that protections apply online.[[fn:13]] The European Court of Human Rights, in discussing the similar protection of expression in the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, has indicated that the forms and means through which information is transmitted and received are themselves protected, since any restriction imposed on the means necessarily interferes with the right to receive and impart information.[[fn:14]] In this sense, encryption and anonymity technologies are specific media through which individuals exercise their freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "C. Right to freedom of expression"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "European Commission of Human Rights, Neij and Sunde Kolmisoppi v. Sweden, (2013); European Court of Human Rights, Perrin v. United Kingdom, (2005); African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Zimbabwe Lawyers for Human Rights and Institute for Human Rights and Development (on behalf of Meldrum) v. Zimbabwe (2009); Case of Herrera Ulloa v. Costa Rica, Herrera Ulloa v. Costa Rica, Preliminary Objections, Merits, Reparations and Costs, Series C No. 107, IHRL 1490 (IACHR 2004)."}, {"n": 14, "text": "See Autronic AG v. Switzerland (1990); De Haes and Gijsels v. Belgium (1997), para. 48; News Verlags GmbH and Co.KG v. Austria (2000)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. Corporations in a variety of sectors play roles in advancing or interfering with privacy, opinion and expression, including encryption and anonymity. Much online communication (and virtually all of it in some countries) is carried on networks owned and operated by private corporations, while other corporations own and manage websites with substantial user-generated content. Others are active players in the surveillance and spyware markets, providing hardware and software to Governments to compromise the security of individuals online. Others develop and provide services for secure and private online storage. Telecommunications entities, Internet service providers, search engines, cloud services and many other corporate actors, often described as intermediaries, promote, regulate or compromise privacy and expression online. Intermediaries may store massive volumes of user data, to which Governments often demand access. Encryption and anonymity may be promoted or compromised by each of these corporate actors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "D. Roles of corporations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. A full exploration of the role of corporations to protect their users’ security online is beyond the scope of the present report, which is focused on State obligations. However, it remains important to emphasize that “the responsibility to respect human rights applies throughout a company’s global operations regardless of where its users are located, and exists independently of whether the State meets its own human rights obligations” (see A/HRC/27/37, para. 43). At a minimum, corporations should apply principles such as those laid out in the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, the Global Network Initiative’s Principles on Freedom of Expression and Privacy, the European Commission’s ICT Sector Guide on Implementing the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights and the Telecommunications Industry Dialogue Guiding Principles, which encourage corporations to commit to protect human rights, undertake due diligence to ensure the positive human rights impact of their work and remediate adverse impacts of their work on human rights. In the future, the Special Rapporteur will focus on the roles corporations should play in preserving individual security to exercise freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Encryption, anonymity and the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and privacy", "D. Roles of corporations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. The permissible limitations on the right to privacy should be read strictly, particularly in an age of pervasive online surveillance — whether passive or active, mass or targeted — regardless of whether the applicable standards are “unlawful and arbitrary” under article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, “arbitrary” under article 12 of the Universal Declaration, “arbitrary or abusive” under article 11 of the American Convention on Human Rights, or “necessary in a democratic society” under article 8 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (see A/HRC/13/37, paras. 14–19). Privacy interferences that limit the exercise of the freedoms of opinion and expression, such as those described in this report, must not in any event interfere with the right to hold opinions, and those that limit the freedom of expression must be provided by law and necessary and proportionate to achieve one of a handful of legitimate objectives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "A. Legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "17", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights' — explicit ICCPR."}, {"article": "12", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 12 of the Universal Declaration' — UDHR, not a UN core treaty."}, {"article": "11", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 11 of the American Convention on Human Rights' — ACHR is a regional instrument, not a UN core treaty."}, {"article": "8", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 8 of the European Convention' — ECHR is a regional instrument, not a UN core treaty."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. No restrictions may be imposed on the right to hold opinions without interference; restrictions under article 19 (3) of the Covenant only apply to expression under article 19 (2). In environments where one’s opinions, however held online, result in surveillance or harassment, encryption and anonymity may provide necessary privacy. Restrictions on such security tools may interfere with the ability of individuals to hold opinions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "A. Legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "2", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. Restrictions on encryption and anonymity, as enablers of the right to freedom of expression, must meet the well-known three-part test: any limitation on expression must be provided for by law; may only be imposed for legitimate grounds (as set out in article 19 (3) of the Covenant); and must conform to the strict tests of necessity and proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "A. Legal framework"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. First, for a restriction on encryption or anonymity to be “provided for by law”, it must be precise, public and transparent, and avoid providing State authorities with unbounded discretion to apply the limitation (see Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011)). Proposals to impose restrictions on encryption or anonymity should be subject to public comment and only be adopted, if at all, according to regular legislative process. Strong procedural and judicial safeguards should also be applied to guarantee the due process rights of any individual whose use of encryption or anonymity is subject to restriction. In particular, a court, tribunal or other independent adjudicatory body must supervise the application of the restriction.[[fn:15]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "A. Legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, article 2 (3)(b); CCPR/C/79/Add.110, para. 22; the Johannesburg Principles on National Security, Freedom of Expression and Access to Information."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Second, limitations may only be justified to protect specified interests: rights or reputations of others; national security; public order; public health or morals. Even where a State prohibits by law “advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, as provided by Article 20 of the Covenant, any restrictions on expression must be consistent with Article 19(3) (A/67/357). No other grounds may justify restrictions on the freedom of expression. Moreover, because legitimate objectives are often cited as a pretext for illegitimate purposes, the restrictions themselves must be applied narrowly.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "A. Legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 on freedom of opinion and expression, para. 30, and general comment No. 31."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "20", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Third, the State must show that any restriction on encryption or anonymity is “necessary” to achieve the legitimate objective.[[fn:17]] The European Court of Human Rights has concluded appropriately that the word “necessary” in article 10 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms means that the restriction must be something more than “useful,” “reasonable” or “desirable”.[[fn:18]] Once the legitimate objective has been achieved, the restriction may no longer be applied. Given the fundamental rights at issue, limitations should be subject to independent and impartial judicial authority, in particular to preserve the due process rights of individuals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "A. Legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34, para. 2, and communication No. 2156/2012, Views adopted on 10 October 2014."}, {"n": 18, "text": "See Case of The Sunday Times v. United Kingdom, judgement of 26 April 1979, para. 59."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "10", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. Necessity also implies an assessment of the proportionality of the measures limiting the use of and access to security online.[[fn:19]] A proportionality assessment should ensure that the restriction is “the least intrusive instrument amongst those which might achieve the desired result”.[[fn:20]] The limitation must target a specific objective and not unduly intrude upon other rights of targeted persons, and the interference with third parties’ rights must be limited and justified in the light of the interest supported by the intrusion. The restriction must also be “proportionate to the interest to be protected”.[[fn:21]] A high risk of damage to a critical, legitimate State interest may justify limited intrusions on the freedom of expression. Conversely, where a restriction has a broad impact on individuals who pose no threat to a legitimate government interest, the State’s burden to justify the restriction will be very high.[[fn:22]] Moreover, a proportionality analysis must take into account the strong possibility that encroachments on encryption and anonymity will be exploited by the same criminal and terrorist networks that the limitations aim to deter. In any case, “a detailed and evidence-based public justification” is critical to enable transparent public debate over restrictions that implicate and possibly undermine freedom of expression (see A/69/397, para. 12).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "A. Legal framework"], "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See African Court Human and Peoples’ Rights, Lohe Issa Konate v. Burkina Faso, application No. 004/2013, paras. 148 and 149 (2014); European Court of Human Rights, Case of The Sunday Times, para. 62."}, {"n": 20, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 27 (1999) on freedom of movement, para. 14."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See ibid., para. 14."}, {"n": 22, "text": "See Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, OEA /Serv.L/V/II.149, para. 134."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. The trend lines regarding security and privacy online are deeply worrying. States often fail to provide public justification to support restrictions. Encrypted and anonymous communications may frustrate law enforcement and counter-terrorism officials, and they complicate surveillance, but State authorities have not generally identified situations — even in general terms, given the potential need for confidentiality — where a restriction has been necessary to achieve a legitimate goal. States downplay the value of traditional non-digital tools in law enforcement and counter-terrorism efforts, including transnational cooperation.[[fn:23]] As a consequence, the public lacks an opportunity to measure whether restrictions on their online security would be justified by any real gains in national security and crime prevention. Efforts to restrict encryption and anonymity also tend to be quick reactions to terrorism, even when the attackers themselves are not alleged to have used encryption or anonymity to plan or carry out an attack. Moreover, even where the restriction is arguably in pursuit of a legitimate interest, many laws and policies regularly do not meet the standards of necessity and proportionality and have broad, deleterious effects on the ability of all individuals to exercise freely their rights to privacy and freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "But see Centre for International Governance Innovation and Chatham House, Toward a Social Compact for Digital Privacy and Security: Statement by the Global Commission on Internet Governance (2015)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. It also bears noting that the United Nations itself has not provided strong communication security tools to its staff or to those who would visit United Nations websites, making it difficult for those under threat to securely reach the United Nations, human rights mechanisms online.[[fn:24]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns"], "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "For instance, staff of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) in Geneva do not have access to end-to-end e-mail encryption, and the OHCHR website is not encrypted."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. Some Governments seek to protect or promote encryption to ensure the privacy of communications. For instance,[[fn:25]] the Marco Civil da Internet Law of Brazil, adopted in 2014, guarantees the inviolability and secrecy of user communications online, permitting exceptions only by court order. The E-Commerce Act and Telecommunication Act of Austria do not restrict encryption, and the Government has undertaken public awareness campaigns to educate the public about digital security. Greek law and regulations promote the effective use of both encryption and anonymity tools. Germany, Ireland and Norway permit and promote the use of encryption technologies and oppose any efforts to weaken encryption protocols. Similarly, Swedish and Slovak laws do not restrict the use of encryption online. The United States of America encourages the use of encryption, and the United States Congress should further consider a secure data act introduced in the Congress that would prohibit the Government from requiring companies to weaken product security or insert back-door access measures. Several Governments fund efforts to share or train in the use of encryption and anonymity technologies to help individuals evade censorship and protect their security online, including Canada, the Netherlands, Sweden, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States. In addition, export regulations should facilitate the transfer of encryption technologies wherever possible. Although the present report does not provide an overall legal assessment of all national approaches to encryption, these noted elements — non-restriction or comprehensive protection, the requirement of court orders for any specific limitation, and public education — deserve wider application as means to protect and promote the rights to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "1. Encryption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "Many examples in this paragraph are taken from the relevant government submissions."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Nonetheless, the regulation of encryption often fails to meet freedom of expression standards in two leading respects. First, restrictions have generally not been shown to be necessary to meet a particular legitimate interest. This is especially the case given the breadth and depth of other tools, such as traditional policing and intelligence and transnational cooperation, that may already provide substantial information for specific law enforcement or other legitimate purposes. Second, they disproportionately impact the rights to freedom of opinion and expression enjoyed by targeted persons or the general population.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "1. Encryption"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Outright prohibitions on the individual use of encryption technology disproportionately restrict the freedom of expression, because they deprive all online users in a particular jurisdiction of the right to carve out private space for opinion and expression, without any particular claim of the use of encryption for unlawful ends.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "1. Encryption", "Bans on encryption for individual use"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. State regulation of encryption may be tantamount to a ban, such as rules (a) requiring licences for encryption use; (b) setting weak technical standards for encryption; and (c) controlling the import and export of encryption tools. By limiting encryption tools to government-approved standards and controlling the import or export of encryption technologies, States ensure encryption software maintains weaknesses that allow Governments to access the content of communications. For example, while the law may be in flux, India has provided that service providers may not deploy “bulk encryption” on their networks, while the law has also restricted individuals from using encryption greater than an easily breakable 40-bit key length without prior permission and required anyone using stronger encryption to provide the Government with a copy of the encryption keys.[[fn:26]] Reports indicate that encryption products in China may be required to adhere to government-approved encryption algorithms that have not been peer-reviewed for security.[[fn:27]] The Pakistan Telecommunication Authority requires prior approval for the use of VPNs and encryption.[[fn:28]] Cuba requires regulatory authorization for those using encryption.[[fn:29]] In Ethiopia, the Government has the power to set the technical standards of encryption and recently enacted regulation that criminalizes the manufacture, assembly or import of any telecommunications equipment without a permit.[[fn:30]] Such regulations impermissibly interfere with the individual use of encryption in communications.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "1. Encryption", "Bans on encryption for individual use"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Government of India, Ministry of Communications and IT, Licence Agreement for Provision of Internet Services, (2007). Available from http://dot.gov.in/sites/default/files/internet-licence-dated%2016-10-2007_0.pdf. See especially sect. 2.2 (vii)."}, {"n": 27, "text": "See, e.g., Counter-terrorism Law, art. 15 (initial draft of 8 November 2014). Available from http://chinalawtranslate.com/en/ctldraft/."}, {"n": 28, "text": "See www.ispak.pk/Downloads/PTA_VPN_Policy.pdf."}, {"n": 29, "text": "Submission of Cuba."}, {"n": 30, "text": "See Ethiopia Telecom Fraud Offence Proclamation 761/2012, sects. 3–10."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Some States have implemented or proposed implementing so-called back-door access in commercially available products, forcing developers to install weaknesses that allow government authorities access to encrypted communications. Some Governments have developed or purchased tools to allow such access for domestic surveillance purposes.[[fn:31]] Senior officials in the United Kingdom and the United States appear to advocate requiring back-door access.[[fn:32]] States supporting such measures often claim that a legal framework for back-door access is necessary to intercept the content of encrypted communications. Governments proposing back-door access, however, have not demonstrated that criminal or terrorist use of encryption serves as an insuperable barrier to law enforcement objectives. Moreover, based on existing technology, intentional flaws invariably undermine the security of all users online, since a backdoor, even if intended solely for government access, can be accessed by unauthorized entities, including other States or non-State actors. Given its widespread and indiscriminate impact, back-door access would affect, disproportionately, all online users.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "1. Encryption", "Intentional weakening of encryption"], "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "See Morgan Maquis-Boire and others, For Your Eyes Only (2013, Citizen Lab)."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See the speech given by Prime Minister David Cameron on 12 January 2015 at the Conservative Party pledges conference for the 2015 general election and the speech given by James Comey, Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, on 16 October 2014, entitled “Going dark: are technology, privacy and public safety on a collision course?”, at the Brookings Institution, Washington, D.C."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. The debate on this issue highlights a critical point: requiring encryption back-door access, even if for legitimate purposes, threatens the privacy necessary to the unencumbered exercise of the right to freedom of expression. Back-door access has practical limitations; the exploitation of intentional weaknesses could render encrypted content susceptible to attack, even if access is provided with the sole intention of allowing government or judicial control. Governments certainly face a dilemma when their obligation to protect freedom of expression is in conflict with their obligations to prevent violations of the right to life or bodily integrity, which are put at risk by terrorism and other criminal behaviour. But other recourses are available to States to request the disclosure of encrypted information, such as through judicial warrants. In such situations, States must demonstrate that general limitations on the security provided by encryption would be necessary and proportionate. States must show, publicly and transparently, that other less intrusive means are unavailable or have failed and that only broadly intrusive measures, such as backdoors, would achieve the legitimate aim. Regardless, measures that impose generally applicable restrictions on massive numbers of persons, without a case-by-case assessment, would almost certainly fail to satisfy proportionality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "1. Encryption", "Intentional weakening of encryption"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. A key escrow system permits individual access to encryption but requires users to store their private keys with the Government or a “trusted third party”. Key escrows, however, have substantial vulnerabilities. For instance, the key escrow system depends on the integrity of the person, department or system charged with safeguarding the private keys, and the key database itself could be vulnerable to attack, undermining any user’s communication security and privacy. Key escrow systems, rejected (along with back-door access) after significant debate in the United States in the so-called Crypto Wars of the 1990s, are currently in place in several countries and have been proposed in others. In 2011, Turkey passed regulations requiring encryption suppliers to provide copies of encryption keys to government regulators before offering their encryption tools to users.[[fn:33]] The vulnerabilities inherent in key escrows render them a serious threat to the security to exercise the freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "1. Encryption", "Key escrows"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "Law No. 5651 on Regulating Broadcasting in the Internet and Fighting against Crimes Committed through Internet Broadcasting."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. In a situation where law enforcement or national security arguments may justify requests for access to communications, authorities may see two options: order either decryption of particular communications or, because of a lack of confidence that a targeted party would comply with a decryption order, disclosure of the key necessary for decryption. Targeted decryption orders may be seen as more limited and less likely to raise proportionality concerns than key disclosure, focusing on specific communications rather than an individual’s entire set of communications encrypted by a particular key. Key disclosure, by contrast, could expose private data well beyond what is required by the exigencies of a situation.[[fn:34]] Moreover, key disclosure or decryption orders often force corporations to cooperate with Governments, creating serious challenges that implicate individual users online. Key disclosure exists by law in a number of European countries.[[fn:35]] In both cases, however, such orders should be based on publicly accessible law, clearly limited in scope focused on a specific target, implemented under independent and impartial judicial authority, in particular to preserve the due process rights of targets, and only adopted when necessary and when less intrusive means of investigation are not available. Such measures may only be justified if used in targeting a specific user or users, subject to judicial oversight.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "1. Encryption", "Mandatory key disclosure versus targeted decryption orders"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "The European Commission Counter-Terrorism Coordinator has urged consideration of mandatory key disclosure. See Council of the European Union, General Secretariat, meeting document D1035/15 (2015)."}, {"n": 35, "text": "See, e.g., United Kingdom, Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act (mandatory key disclosure); France, Law No. 2001-1062 (disclosure of encryption keys on authorization by a judge); Spain, Law on Telecommunications 25/2007 (key disclosure)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Some States may identify the mere use of encryption technologies as illicit behaviour. For instance, charges against the Zone 9 blogger collective in Ethiopia included suggestions that the mere training in communication security was evidence of criminal behaviour.[[fn:36]] Such presumptions fail to meet the standards for permissible restrictions. Similarly, States undermine the rights to privacy and freedom of expression when they penalize those who produce and distribute tools to facilitate online access for activists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "1. Encryption", "Legal presumptions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "See http://trialtrackerblog.org/2014/07/19/contextual-translation-of-the-charges-of-the-zone9-bloggers/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. Anonymity has been recognized for the important role it plays in safeguarding and advancing privacy, free expression, political accountability, public participation and debate.[[fn:37]] The Universal Declaration and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights do not address anonymity. During negotiation of the Covenant, it was proposed to include in article 19 (1) the phrase, “anonymity is not permitted”. However, this was rejected “on the grounds, among others, that anonymity might at times be necessary to protect the author” and “that such a clause might prevent the use of pen names”.[[fn:38]] The Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights found that “the right to freedom of thought and expression and the right to private life protect anonymous speech from government restrictions”.[[fn:39]] Several States enjoy long traditions of celebrating anonymity in their political cultures, but very few provide general protection in law for anonymous expression. Some States exert significant pressure against anonymity, offline and online. Yet because anonymity facilitates opinion and expression in significant ways online, States should protect it and generally not restrict the technologies that provide it. Several States’ judiciaries have protected anonymity, at least in limited instances. For instance, the Supreme Court of Canada recently struck down the warrantless acquisition of anonymous user identity online.[[fn:40]] The Constitutional Court of the Republic of Korea struck down anti-anonymity laws as unconstitutional.[[fn:41]] The Supreme Court of the United States has consistently protected the right to anonymous expression.[[fn:42]] The European Court of Human Rights has recognized anonymity as important to the freedom of expression but permits limitations in cases where necessary to achieve legitimate objectives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "2. Anonymity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See, e.g., Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, OEA /Serv.L/V/II.149, para. 134; United States, McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission (1995); Lord Neuberger, speech to RB Conference on the Internet, entitled, “What’s a name? Privacy and Anonymous Speech on the Internet” (2014)."}, {"n": 38, "text": "Marc J. Bossuyt, Guide to the “Travaux Préparatoires” of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1987), pp. 379-80."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See Organization of American States, press release 17/15."}, {"n": 40, "text": "R. v. Spencer (2014)."}, {"n": 41, "text": "Decision 2010 Hun-Ma 47, 252 (consolidated) announced 28 August 2012."}, {"n": 42, "text": "McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission (1995), pp. 342 and 343."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. Many States recognize the lawfulness of maintaining the anonymity of journalists’ sources. The Mexican Supreme Court and Mexican Code of Criminal Procedures recognize the right of journalists to maintain the anonymity of their sources; yet pressures on journalists are in fact severe.[[fn:43]] The Constitutions of Argentina, Brazil, Ecuador and Paraguay explicitly protect sources; Chile, El Salvador, Panama, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) protect sources in law.[[fn:44]] The Mozambique Constitution protects sources, while Angola purports to do so by statute.[[fn:45]] Australia, Canada, Japan and New Zealand have established case-specific judicial balancing tests to analyse source protection, although pressure on journalists may undermine such protections over time.[[fn:46]] States often breach source anonymity in practice, even where it is provided for in law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "2. Anonymity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "See new Federal Code of Criminal Procedures, art. 244."}, {"n": 44, "text": "See Argentina, Constitution, art. 43; Brazil, Constitution, title II, chap. I, art. 5, XIV; Ecuador, Constitution, art. 20; Paraguay, Constitution, art. 29 (1). See also Chile, Law 19,733; El Salvador, Criminal Procedure Code; Panama, Law 67, art. 21; Peru, Criminal Procedure Code; Uruguay, Law 16.099; Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, Law for Journalism 4.819, art. 8."}, {"n": 45, "text": "See Mozambique, Constitution, art. 48(3); Angola, Press Law 7/06, art. 20(1)."}, {"n": 46, "text": "Australia Evidence Amendment (Journalists’ Privilege) Act 2007; Canada, Court of Queen’s Bench of Alberta, Wasylyshen v. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (2005); Japan, Case 2006 (Kyo) No. 19 (2006); New Zealand Evidence Act, sect. 68 (2006)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Prohibition of anonymity online interferes with the right to freedom of expression. Many States ban it regardless of any specific government interest. The Constitution of Brazil (art. 5) prohibits anonymous speech. The Constitution of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (art. 57) similarly prohibits anonymity. In 2013, Viet Nam outlawed the use of pseudonyms, which forced individuals with personal blogs to publicly list their real name and address.[[fn:47]] In 2012, the Islamic Republic of Iran required the registration of all IP addresses in use inside the country and cybercafe users to register their real names before using a computer.[[fn:48]] Ecuadoran law requires commenters on websites and mobile phone owners to register under a real name.[[fn:49]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "2. Anonymity", "Prohibition of anonymity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "Human Rights Watch, “Vietnam: new decree punishes press”, 23 February, 2011; Freedom House, “Vietnam: freedom of the press”, 2012; Article 19, Comment on Decree No. 02 of 2011 on Administrative Responsibility for Press and Publication Activities of the Prime Minister of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (June 2011)."}, {"n": 48, "text": "Islamic Republic of Iran, Bill 106, Communication Regulation Authority."}, {"n": 49, "text": "See Ecuador, Organic Law on Communications (2013)."}], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "5", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "?", "article": "57", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Certain States have passed laws that require real-name registration for online activity, a kind of ban on anonymity. In the Russian Federation, bloggers with 3,000 or more daily readers must register with the media regulator and identify themselves publicly, and cybercafe users reportedly must provide identification to connect to public wireless facilities.[[fn:50]] China reportedly announced regulations requiring Internet users to register real names for certain websites and avoid spreading content that challenges national interests.[[fn:51]] South Africa also requires real name registration for online and mobile telephone users.[[fn:52]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "2. Anonymity", "Prohibition of anonymity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Bill No. 428884-6 amending the Federal Law on Information, Information Technologies and Protection of Information and a number of legislative acts of the Russian Federation on streamlining the exchange of information with the use of information and telecommunication networks; Reuters, “Russia Demands Internet Users Show ID to Access Public Wifi,” 8 August 2014."}, {"n": 51, "text": "China Copyright and Media, Internet User Account Name Management Regulations, article 5 ( 2015)."}, {"n": 52, "text": "South Africa, Regulation of Interception of Communications and Provision of Communication-Related Information Act 70 of 2003; see also Electronic Communications and Transactions Act of 2002 (requiring real name registration for service providers)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Likewise, Governments often require SIM card registration; for instance, nearly 50 countries in Africa require or are in the process of requiring the registration of personally identifiable data when activating a SIM card.[[fn:53]] Colombia has had a mandatory mobile registration policy since 2011, and Peru has associated all SIM cards with a national identification number since 2010.[[fn:54]] Other countries are considering such policies. Such policies directly undermine anonymity, particularly for those who access the Internet only through mobile technology. Compulsory SIM card registration may provide Governments with the capacity to monitor individuals and journalists well beyond any legitimate government interest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "2. Anonymity", "Prohibition of anonymity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "Kevin P. Donovan and Aaron K. Martin, “The Rise of African SIM Registration”, 3 February 2014."}, {"n": 54, "text": "See Colombia, Decree 1630 of 2011; Perú 21, Los celulares de prepago en la mira, 27 May 2010."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. States have also attempted to combat anonymity tools, such as Tor, proxies and VPNs, by denying access to them. China has long blocked access to Tor,[[fn:55]] and Russian government officials reportedly offered more than $100,000 for techniques to identify anonymous users of Tor.[[fn:56]] In addition, Ethiopia,[[fn:57]] Iran (Islamic Republic of)[[fn:58]] and Kazakhstan[[fn:59]] have reportedly sought to block Tor traffic. Because such tools may be the only mechanisms for individuals to exercise freedom of opinion and expression securely, access to them should be protected and promoted.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "2. Anonymity", "Prohibition of anonymity"], "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "MIT Technology Review, How China Blocks the Tor Anonymity Network, 4 April 2012."}, {"n": 56, "text": "The original offer is available from http://zakupki.gov.ru/epz/order/notice/zkk44/view/common-info.html?regNumber=0373100088714000008."}, {"n": 57, "text": "Runa Sandvik, Ethiopia Introduces Deep Packet Inspection, The Tor Blog (31 May 2012); see also Article 19, 12 January 2015."}, {"n": 58, "text": "“Phobos”, “Iran partially blocks encrypted network traffic”, The Tor Blog (10 February 2012)."}, {"n": 59, "text": "“Phobos”, “Kazakhstan upgrades censorship to deep packet inspection”, The Tor Blog (16 February 2012)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Anonymous speech has been necessary for activists and protestors, but States have regularly attempted to ban or intercept anonymous communications in times of protest. Such attempts to interfere with the freedom of expression unlawfully pursue an illegitimate objective of undermining the right to peaceful protest under the Universal Declaration and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "2. Anonymity", "Restrictions during public unrest"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Some States and regional courts have moved towards imposing responsibilities on Internet service providers and media platforms to regulate online comments by anonymous users. Ecuador, for instance, in its Organic Communications Law, requires intermediaries to generate mechanisms to record personal data to allow the identification of those posting comments. In Delfi v. Estonia (application No. 64569/09), the European Court of Human Rights upheld an Estonian law that imposes liability on a media platform for anonymous defamatory statements posted on its site. Such intermediary liability is likely to result either in real-name registration policies, thereby undermining anonymity, or the elimination of posting altogether by those websites that cannot afford to implement screening procedures, thus harming smaller, independent media. The recently adopted Manila Principles on Intermediary Liability, drafted by a coalition of civil society organizations, provide a sound set of guidelines for States and international and regional mechanisms to protect expression online.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "2. Anonymity", "Intermediary liability"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. Broad mandatory data retention policies limit an individual’s ability to remain anonymous. A State’s ability to require Internet service and telecommunications providers to collect and store records documenting the online activities of all users has inevitably resulted in the State having everyone’s digital footprint. A State’s ability to collect and retain personal records expands its capacity to conduct surveillance and increases the potential for theft and disclosure of individual information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["IV. Evaluating restrictions on encryption and anonymity", "B. State practice: examples and concerns", "2. Anonymity", "Data retention"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. Encryption and anonymity, and the security concepts behind them, provide the privacy and security necessary for the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in the digital age. Such security may be essential for the exercise of other rights, including economic rights, privacy, due process, freedom of peaceful assembly and association, and the right to life and bodily integrity. Because of their importance to the rights to freedom of opinion and expression, restrictions on encryption and anonymity must be strictly limited according to principles of legality, necessity, proportionality and legitimacy in objective. The Special Rapporteur therefore recommends the following.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. States should revise or establish, as appropriate, national laws and regulations to promote and protect the rights to privacy and freedom of opinion and expression. With respect to encryption and anonymity, States should adopt policies of non-restriction or comprehensive protection, only adopt restrictions on a case-specific basis and that meet the requirements of legality, necessity, proportionality and legitimacy in objective, require court orders for any specific limitation, and promote security and privacy online through public education.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Discussions of encryption and anonymity have all too often focused only on their potential use for criminal purposes in times of terrorism. But emergency situations do not relieve States of the obligation to ensure respect for international human rights law. Legislative proposals for the revision or adoption of restrictions on individual security online should be subject to public debate and adopted according to regular, public, informed and transparent legislative process. States must promote effective participation of a wide variety of civil society actors and minority groups in such debate and processes and avoid adopting such legislation under accelerated legislative procedures. General debate should highlight the protection that encryption and anonymity provide, especially to the groups most at risk of unlawful interferences. Any such debate must also take into account that restrictions are subject to strict tests: if they interfere with the right to hold opinions, restrictions must not be adopted. Restrictions on privacy that limit freedom of expression — for purposes of the present report, restrictions on encryption and anonymity — must be provided by law and be necessary and proportionate to achieve one of a small number of legitimate objectives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. States should promote strong encryption and anonymity. National laws should recognize that individuals are free to protect the privacy of their digital communications by using encryption technology and tools that allow anonymity online. Legislation and regulations protecting human rights defenders and journalists should also include provisions enabling access and providing support to use the technologies to secure their communications.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. States should not restrict encryption and anonymity, which facilitate and often enable the rights to freedom of opinion and expression. Blanket prohibitions fail to be necessary and proportionate. States should avoid all measures that weaken the security that individuals may enjoy online, such as backdoors, weak encryption standards and key escrows. In addition, States should refrain from making the identification of users a condition for access to digital communications and online services and requiring SIM card registration for mobile users. Corporate actors should likewise consider their own policies that restrict encryption and anonymity (including through the use of pseudonyms). Court-ordered decryption, subject to domestic and international law, may only be permissible when it results from transparent and publicly accessible laws applied solely on a targeted, case-by-case basis to individuals (i.e., not to a mass of people) and subject to judicial warrant and the protection of due process rights of individuals.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. States"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. States, international organizations, corporations and civil society groups should promote online security. Given the relevance of new communication technologies in the promotion of human rights and development, all those involved should systematically promote access to encryption and anonymity without discrimination. The Special Rapporteur urgently calls upon entities of the United Nations system, especially those involved in human rights and humanitarian protection, to support the use of communication security tools in order to ensure that those who interact with them may do so securely. United Nations entities must revise their communication practices and tools and invest resources in enhancing security and confidentiality for the multiple stakeholders interacting with the Organization through digital communications. Particular attention must be paid by human rights protection mechanisms when requesting and managing information received from civil society and witnesses and victims of human rights violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. International organizations, private sector and civil society"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. While the present report does not draw conclusions about corporate responsibilities for communication security, it is nonetheless clear that, given the threats to freedom of expression online, corporate actors should review the adequacy of their practices with regard to human right norms. At a minimum, companies should adhere to principles such as those laid out in the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, the Global Network Initiative’s Principles on Freedom of Expression and Privacy, the European Commission’s ICT Sector Guide on Implementing the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, and the Telecommunications Industry Dialogue Guiding Principles. Companies, like States, should refrain from blocking or limiting the transmission of encrypted communications and permit anonymous communication. Attention should be given to efforts to expand the availability of encrypted data-centre links, support secure technologies for websites and develop widespread default end-to-end encryption. Corporate actors that supply technology to undermine encryption and anonymity should be especially transparent as to their products and customers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. International organizations, private sector and civil society"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-32-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-29-32", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. The use of encryption and anonymity tools and better digital literacy should be encouraged. The Special Rapporteur, recognizing that the value of encryption and anonymity tools depends on their widespread adoption, encourages States, civil society organizations and corporations to engage in a campaign to bring encryption by design and default to users around the world and, where necessary, to ensure that users at risk be provided the tools to exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression securely.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2015, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. International organizations, private sector and civil society"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report, submitted pursuant to Commission on Human Rights resolution 2005/38 and Human Rights Council decision 1/102, is the fifth annual general report by Ambeyi Ligabo, appointed Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression on 26 August 2002. As in previous years, a summary of communications sent to and received from Governments is contained in addendum 1 to the present report (A/HRC/4/27/Add.1).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. Issues addressed in this report include, inter alia, an update of matters analysed in the Special Rapporteur’s previous reports to the Commission on Human Rights, in particular Internet Governance, legislation concerning defamation offences, security of journalists, and a large part devoted to the analysis of the phenomenon of defamation of religion and freedom of expression (see E/CN.4/2006/55 and E/CN.4/2005/64).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. Owing to the limit of the length of the report, a number of issues, which are nowadays essential for the understanding of freedom of expression and of information, are not treated in this year’s report. However, subjects like hate speech, access to information, restrictions imposed by anti-terrorist legislation, the role of women, minorities and vulnerable groups in the implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, the decline of print media, will continue to be examined in future reports.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. For the time being, the Special Rapporteur would like to briefly recall that print media is a fundamental instrument for the dissemination of ideas and opinions and, at the same time, it educates the reader to develop a critical approach and to analyse the information provided. Efforts should be done to contrast the decline of the print media in favour of the development of the television sector and of Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. The right to access to information is not limited to the sphere of media, but also includes the possibility for all citizens to have access to information regarding public life and interests. Governments should review their national legislation and encourage a culture of transparency and openness in public affairs. Confidentiality and secrecy may temporarily be justified to protect States interests and their populations in case of grave attempts to overturn the democratic rule and should be authorized by a judicial body. The termination of judicial procedures, including those related to State secrets, should engage the removal of the clauses of confidentiality and secrecy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. One of the most significant features of the Special Rapporteur’s mandate is the analysis of new policies, practices and measures having had an impact on the implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, through information received from Governments,\ninternational, regional, national organizations and non-governmental organizations; media professionals and writers’ associations, students groups, trade unions, political parties, from all regions of the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. This analysis aims at identifying new trends and adding new elements to issues already examined in previous reports, in order to draft conclusions and make recommendations to the Human Rights Council and other relevant stakeholders for the implementation of legislative measures to increase the level of protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and its continuing promotion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. A second significant feature of the Special Rapporteur’s mandate is the examination of communications on alleged violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The assessment of the credibility of this kind of information is a preliminary step, which may ultimately lead to the preparation of communications for Governments’ attention and comments. Communications on alleged violations received are not confined to countries where the political, social and economic situation is particularly difficult, but also concern violations occurring in transitional or long-established democracies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate that, first and foremost, urgent appeals and allegation letters represent a request for information on a precise case and on relevant national legislation. By no means do urgent appeals and allegation letters constitute a judgement on the human rights situation of a country. Conversely, Governments have the opportunity of exercising, if they wish so, their right to freedom of expression through the presentation of their views on individual cases as well as any other information they may consider of relevance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The third noteworthy feature of the Special Rapporteur’s mandate is the identification of new trends concerning the implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Owing to the advent of new technologies and the resulting increase of the request for information, the notion of freedom of opinion and expression has quickly taken new directions, while legislation on new technologies appears to be linked to obsolete concepts that prevent the full enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression, even in traditionally favourable environments. Internet governance and its boundaries have also revived the debate between the extent of the right to access to information and the right to privacy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Regrettably, repressive machineries are speedily adapting to new technologies, which are often used as tools for political propaganda and a conduit for racial discrimination and hate speech. Together with a constant trend towards the polarization of ideas and ethnic tension, the systematic oppression of the most active supporters of the free circulation of information and opinions - journalists, trade unionists, social workers, students and teachers, writers and artists - continues to remain an issue of concern throughout the entire world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. The form and the extent of repression can considerably differ, depending, inter alia, on the existence of the rule of law and its implementation in a given society. Unfortunately, the range of violations still includes killings, enforced disappearances, arbitrary arrest and detention, mistreatments, threats and harassment, unfair trial, and various types of judicial and administrative measures. More than ever, the safety and security of media professionals remain essential for the progress of freedom of expression. Finally, a positive trend is the adoption, by an increasing number of countries, of legislation concerning the decriminalization of charges related to defamation, libel and slander. Nonetheless, the slowness of this trend cruelly displays the difficulty of abandoning deleterious habits related to the preservation of political and economic influence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Analysis of information, communications and trends"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. On 8 February 2006, the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, Doudou Diène, the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, Asma Jahangir, and the Special Rapporteur for the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression made a special call for tolerance and dialogue regarding the publication of representations of the Prophet Muhammad by the media in some countries and the reactions it prompted in various parts of the world. The Special Rapporteurs noted that article 18 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights protects religion or belief as one of the essential rights. They also recalled that respect for the right to freedom of expression as articulated in article 19 of the same instrument constitutes a pillar of democracy and reflects a country’s standard of justice and fairness. While both rights should equally be respected, the exercise of the right to freedom of expression carries with it special duties and responsibilities: it requires good judgement, tolerance and a sense of responsibility.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "18", "source": "regex"}, {"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. On 24 March 2006, the Special Rapporteur issued a statement welcoming the release of journalist and writer Akbar Ganji, whom he met in November 2003 at the Evin Prison while visiting the Islamic Republic of Iran. The Rapporteur paid tribute to Mr. Ganji’s strength and determination, stating that he can be an example and an encouragement for the numerous intellectuals, students, journalists and writers imprisoned because of their opinions.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. On the occasion of World Press Freedom Day, 3 May 2006, the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression; the Special Rapporteur for freedom of expression of the Organization of American States, Ignacio Álvarez; the Representative on Freedom of the Media of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Miklos Haraszti; and the Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Expression of the African Commission on Human and People’s Rights, Faith Pansy Tlakula, commended the central role the press has been playing for the progression of democracy and human rights throughout the world. In 2006, the World Press Freedom Day also shed light on the link between freedom of the press and poverty eradication. The four Special Rapporteurs noted that a free and independent media is a key to combat poverty, as journalists serve as a medium to ensure unhindered circulation of ideas and promotion of education and awareness, thus providing more opportunities for a better future.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. On 21 July 2006, the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, together with five other mandate-holders issued a statement on the armed conflict in Israel, Lebanon and Gaza. Noting that the conflict was posing serious human rights and humanitarian threats to the civilian population, they urged parties to the conflict to comply with the international legal obligation to distinguish between civilian and military objectives, and ultimately called for an immediate cessation of hostilities.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. On 3 May 2006, the Special Rapporteur was invited to the celebrations of the World Press Freedom Day, organized by the Department of Public Information of the United Nations Office at Geneva, where the participants discussed the role of the press and the media in general for the enhancement of democracy and advancement of human rights. In his speech, the Special Rapporteur called upon all Governments to combat impunity with regard to violence against journalists and media personnel by bringing to justice those responsible and by taking effective measures enabling journalists and media personnel to continue their work freely and independently.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Participation in workshops and meetings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. On 24 June 2006, the Special Rapporteur participated in the Eighth Annual NGO Forum on Human Rights organized by the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Ireland. The theme of the Forum, chosen to coincide with the inaugural session of the Human Rights Council, was “Global Human Rights Protection - the way forward”. In his address, the Special Rapporteur made a number of remarks about the consequences that the dissolution of the Commission on Human Rights and the establishment of the Human Rights Council could have on the protection of human rights worldwide. He also expressed his concerns for the safety of journalists and their independence, and made some observations on defamation of religions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Participation in workshops and meetings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. In June 2006, the Special Rapporteur also attended the thirteenth meeting of the special rapporteurs/representatives, independent experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures of the Commission on Human Rights and advisory services programme held in Geneva.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Participation in workshops and meetings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. On 1 December 2006, at the invitation of the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs of Switzerland, the Special Rapporteur participated in a workshop of the “Berne Process”, in Brussels, which is an informal exchange of information and experiences between like-minded States and institutions that are engaged in dialogues, consultations or technical cooperation with China to promote and protect human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Participation in workshops and meetings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his appreciation to the Governments of Algeria, Azerbaijan, Guatemala, Honduras, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, the Maldives, Sri Lanka, the Sudan and Ukraine for inviting him to visit their countries. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur recalls that the timely identification of dates and agreement on visit programmes are essential for the satisfactory implementation of his country missions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. At the invitation of the Danish Human Rights Institute, the Special Rapporteur went to Denmark in April 2006 to participate in a number of meetings, including with Government officials, in which he gathered significant information regarding the “Danish Cartoons Affaire”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. On September 2005, the publication in the newspaper Jylland Posten, of a series of cartoons depicting Prophet Muhammad as, inter alia, a terrorist, provoked anger within the Muslim community in Denmark. This event followed the broadcasting in August 2005 by the Danish Radio Holger of a controversial programme in which the radio-speaker delivered a hate speech calling for the deportation of all Muslims back to their countries of origin, or alternatively, for their physical elimination from European soil. Shortly after the broadcasting of that programme, the Danish National Radio and TV Commission withdrew Radio Holger’s licence for three months.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. In spite of significant efforts to defuse the tension caused by the publication of the drawings, the quarrel spread beyond Danish borders. The Arab League’s Ministers Council, at a Conference held in Cairo in December 2005, issued a statement expressing surprise and discontent at the failure of the Danish Government to act against the newspaper. The Prime Minister of Denmark, in his 2006 New Year’s address, condemned attempts to demonize groups of people based on their religion without explicitly referring to the Jyllands Posten case. The Prime Minister had earlier reiterated that, in Denmark, the press and media are completely independent from the political power and that his Government has no intention of breaking this long-established tradition.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. On 30 January 2006, Jyllands Posten issued a press statement apologizing to the Muslim world stressing that it had not been their intention to be offensive. The newspaper’s statement was followed by a press statement of the Danish Prime Minister on 31 January in which, while emphasizing that Denmark attaches fundamental importance to the freedom of expression, he stressed that the Danish Government condemns any expression that attempts to discriminate against people on the basis of their religion or ethnic background.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. In early February, Ministers from several Arab countries urged the Government of Denmark to act against Jyllands Posten for offences to Islam. In the following wave of protests that spread throughout the Muslim world, around 200 people lost their lives. In addition, Danish embassies and other Western offices were attacked by the mob, Danish goods and products banned in Muslim countries’ markets, and some Westerners briefly kidnapped by extremist organizations. Reportedly, several death threats were issued against the cartoon illustrators and the newspaper.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. In Denmark, article 77 of the Constitution prohibits censorship and preventive measures. The Danish Media Liability Act (6 June 1991) established the Danish Press Council (Pressenævnet) in 1992, an independent public body entrusted with the verification of the existence of two core conditions: (a) whether a publication is made contrary to media ethics; and (b) whether a mass medium is obliged to publish a reply (rectification) including the contents, form and placement of such reply. The Council receives and examines written complaints submitted - by individuals or groups with a direct or indirect link with the matter - within four weeks from its publication. Each year the Council examines approximately 145 complaints. The Council may also act ex officio, a move that it took only once, in 1997. With regard to the “cartoons”, the Council rejected the two complaints it received on the basis that they were submitted after the four-week deadline.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "77", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "28. The Danish Newspaper Publishers’ Association has adopted guidelines on media ethics, which are also used by the Press Council together with its own jurisprudence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. The Danish Broadcasting Corporation endorses total editorial freedom within the respect of other fundamental rights. Its philosophy is that a journalist should have a strong case to infringe other rights, acting for investigative purposes and on subjects of public interest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. As reported by the Union of Journalists, the press is satisfied with the present level of freedom of expression and it is not favourable to the introduction of new rules and laws, especially international mechanisms that could jeopardize their freedom. Nonetheless, the “Cartoons Affair” has provoked a very animated debate within the media: while everybody defends the present status of freedom of expression, it was felt that the press should be more responsible and conscious that in the global information society, opinions and views are recorded and noted all around the world. The concepts of self-censorship and self-criticism have been re-examined through the developments brought by the “Cartoons Affair” and the supremacy of the right to freedom of expression is now seen in a new light.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. It was emphasized that drawings and caricatures are significant part of the iconic culture used in Denmark to criticize personalities and lobbies, with the aim at highlighting a case that can be of general interest and preoccupation for the citizens.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. It was also acknowledged that, within the exercise of freedom of expression, part of the press does not hesitate to support discriminatory views and drastic measures that could limit the phenomenon of migration. In addition, migrants and minorities are frequently targeted through labelling in the media.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Freedom of religion is thoroughly respected in Denmark, but it was evident that expressions of religion and belief were generally not popular with a large part of the media and other sections of society. Another element has to be taken into consideration: migration policies are, like in several other countries, at the core of the political debate and certain political parties have vigorously campaigned to convince a large part of the population that migrants are one of the greatest emergencies nowadays in Denmark. As a result, laws on migration are presently very strict. Nonetheless, Denmark has maintained its traditionally active approach to human rights and humanitarian cooperation, and a significant part of the population appreciates and promotes values like tolerance and solidarity.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. Within this framework, media representatives felt that, from their side, there was no conspiracy, no plot behind the publication of the drawings, which was generally seen as an effort, though indeed questionable, to address in a frank, direct manner, the problem of self-censorship while dealing with the Muslim community and with the relations between native Danes and migrants.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. According to Muslim sources, with whom the Special Rapporteur met while in Denmark, the drawings were part of incessant provocations against them and their religion. This strategy could have been seen as a systematic denigration of Muslims with the view of reaffirming the supremacy of Danish values and of contrasting integration efforts. As a result, Muslims in Denmark reportedly decided to adopt a very low profile in public life, an attitude that was defined as self-censorship, as they thought that they could easily have become target of harsh criticism even without any specific reason.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. Taking into account the general orientation of the opinions gathered, the Special Rapporteur felt that the unmitigated reaction, in many Muslim countries, to the contents of the drawings apparently took Denmark, the Danish people, the editors and the artists involved, by total surprise: in their opinion, the reaction was overwhelmingly disproportionate to the damage inflicted. A renewed, intense debate on the issue of the “Danish Cartoons” commenced between the media and religious groups as well as among ordinary citizens. This debate, in a country with a very long democratic tradition and in which freedom of speech is almost a dogma, was very articulate and polarized but - the Special Rapporteur wishes to underline this point - did not lead to physical violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. The outcomes of this heated debate were of various nature and significance: Danes felt an increased sense of unity around the constituent values of the nation and, in the first place, freedom of expression. Nevertheless, they also felt that the country has so far been living in a sort of isolation, which guarantees reasonable wealth and freedom to all its citizens, but does not promote understanding of the increasing interdependence among peoples and cultures. Time will tell if the “Danish Cartoons Affair” has brought some benefit to the Danish society in reinforcing the concepts of respect and tolerance through a non-violent confrontation of ideas and opinions.[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. The Special Rapporteur’s visit to Denmark", "Special Rapporteur’s findings"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "A number of mandate-holders have addressed the phenomenon of defamation of religion and incitement to religious hatred in the context of their regular activities. Since 2002, the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance is mandated to examine the situation of Muslims and Arab peoples in various parts of the world in the aftermath of the events of 11 September 2001, which includes the question of defamation of religion (see E/CN.4/2006/17). Moreover, cases or situations that relate to defamation of religion have also made the object of communications sent to Governments by some mandate-holders (see, inter alia, E/CN.4/2006/5/Add.1)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. The creation of an international organization, which would govern Internet with a firm human rights approach, is a priority for the United Nations and the international community at large. Global rules to ensure that Internet can be developed, in a sustainable manner, as a democratic medium of expression are essential for the international community to include the promotion and the protection of human rights in the emerging era. Such an organization will develop and apply, through the joint work of relevant national agencies, the private sector and the civil society, shared principles, norms, rules, which will shape the evolution and the use of the Internet. The enlargement of broadband communications systems in developing countries will, to a great extent, help the diffusion of information and communication technologies related economy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Internet governance and digital democracy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. Several Governments, with the active support of some transnational corporations working in this field, have closely been monitoring the web in order to identify and stop various forms of opposition and criticism. Ordinary citizens have been arrested or harassed by authorities only because they dared express their opinion through an e-mail or through the reading of a website.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Internet governance and digital democracy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. Political repression from Governments is only a component of the limitations to freedom of expression on the Internet; other restrictions would have more subtle yet still insidious forms and contents. The making of a worldwide digital media system cannot exclusively be put in the hands of powerful media groups and other commercial forces, which by their own nature, are money-makers. The prevalence of a business-oriented digital world could substantially threaten, for instance through the invasion of advertisement, the existence of all the remaining activities that can be performed through the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Internet governance and digital democracy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. In the spirit of freedom of expression, which should permeate all human activities, Internet governance should guarantee a digital world where commercial initiatives coexist with social and cultural projects and avoid that a fee has to be paid by consumers for any available service. Unfortunately, advertisers have so far proved to be very aggressive on the digital market and are developing technologies that target Internet consumers, with a special focus on youth, throughout their exploration of the cyberspace. Furthermore, intrusive collection of data and detection of tracking behaviour are restricting the right to privacy and consequently the freedom of expression of regular Internet users.", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Internet governance and digital democracy"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. Internet consumers’ associations are obviously reacting to these menaces: there is a definitive trend among online users, bloggers and Internet freedom campaigners to work on network safeguards, which should ensure that Internet serves not only commercial interests, but also promotes free debate and dialogue on issues that are critical for the development of a better world, at local as well as at global level.[[fn:3]] While a part of the digital world should be preserved from commercial considerations, cooperation between private enterprises and institutions will be at the core of the development of Internet contents.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Internet governance and digital democracy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See a decision of the United States of America Supreme Court on Internet and free speech (26 June 1997): http://www.cdt.org/speech/cda/; see also Declaration on Digital Democracy: http://www.democraticmedia.org/issues/decDigitalDemocracy.html."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. The intervention of a global organization will be crucial to ensure the financial support necessary to developing countries for the enlargement of the broadband, especially in areas where geopolitical obstacles, or merely the absence of wide masses of customers, would prevent the intervention of private providers. As often reiterated, the international community cannot miss this occasion to reduce the digital divide and should devote every effort to it. This opportunity to enhance freedom of expression will automatically boost many other human rights, including economic rights, by creating new business opportunities in communication-related industries.[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Internet governance and digital democracy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "On this matter see: The Information Economy Report 2006: The Development Perspective, UNCTAD/SDTE/ECB/2006/1 (16/11/2006)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. The right to question ideologies, political figures, social and economic actors, especially for investigative aims, is thoroughly legitimate and represents a significant part of the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Attacks on the private life of the individual and on his/her inner beliefs and values - such as religion, family, etc. - are by far more controversial. Similarly, mockery of disabilities and other forms of discrimination like racism would hardly be tolerated in several models of civil society.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. The exercise of freedom of expression by media professionals demands good judgement, rationality and a sense of responsibility. The use of stereotypes, labelling and insulting deep-rooted religious feelings are not conducive to creating an enabling environment for constructive dialogue among different communities. The polarization of opinions can spread ethnic and religious hatred, thus endangering delicate social and cultural balances and a harmonious multicultural society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. Under international law, restrictions to the exercise of the right to freedom of expression are required to respect three conditions, which should be enforced simultaneously: (a) restrictions must be provided by law, (b) they should pursue an aim recognized as lawful, and (c) be proportionate - especially the time-span of any restrictive measure - to the accomplishment of that aim. While the protection of the rights and reputation of others and the protection of national security are certainly legitimate aims, the real challenge is, to a greater extent, to protect and to promote freedom of expression without creating additional barriers. Too often defamation cases mask political and economic powers’ determination to retaliate against allegations of mismanagement or corruption, and to exert undue pressure on media independence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. A statement can be considered as defamatory under certain specific conditions: it must be published, in a spoken, written, pictured or gestured form. Written and pictured statements, which include drawings, video clips, and movies and so on, are considered more serious offences as they last longer than mere verbal statements, which are generally defined as slander. The\nstatement must be false, in the sense that its contents should be totally untrue; it has to be injurious - there is no defamation without injury - and finally, unprivileged, in the sense that certain categories of individuals cannot be sued while making statements, especially in their professional capacity. Last but not least, a statement can be considered as defamatory if done with actual malice, which means that there was a real willingness to harm the defamed person. National legislation should aim at the respect of these common rules, which would also be applied to cases involving media professionals as well as ordinary citizens.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. In this perspective, the concept that States should intervene in cases of such violations should progressively be abandoned in favour of mechanisms regulated by independent authorities (press councils, press ombudsperson), whose members possess expertise in related fields. These authorities will impartially evaluate the seriousness of violations and take decisions that would not put at risk the core values of freedom of expression. Recourse to the judiciary system would also be possible but jail sentences and disproportionate fines should totally be excluded for offences such as defamation.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. Governments’ attitude on defamation legislation is often ambiguous and seems to indicate that, despite a trend toward decriminalizing defamation and libel, Governments intend to maintain a grasp on media freedom of criticism. As a matter of fact, a number of countries, while reforming or abolishing legislation on defamation, have introduced norms on “disinformation”, which would often be applied to cases formerly treated as defamation cases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Moreover, State institutions often appear to have different perceptions toward defamation, and consequently do not act in a consistent manner. Typically, in a number of countries the judiciary, including the supreme court, continue to condemn media professionals to prison sentences while the legislative and executive powers have been debating and ultimately approving new norms on reduction of the gravity of sentences, often excluding prison sentences. In other countries, especially those in which the judiciary is, to a great extent, independent from the Government, the judiciary tends to a have a lenient approach while judging defamation cases.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. Unfortunately, imprisonment for journalists on defamation charges or following a conviction for defamation, heavy fines and/or the suspension of the licence of the media involved are still common and gravely hinder media freedom, especially for medium or small media enterprises, or even single professionals, who cannot afford expensive judicial procedure. In many countries, imprisoned journalists are treated like ordinary criminals and preventive detention is widely used to deter criticism of political figures, or of people closely linked to the power.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Political personalities and public figures, including media owners, continue to sue journalists although they should, because of their institutional role, be ready to accept criticism and public screening in a greater measure than the ordinary citizen should. An increased level of transparency from political elites would also help in the promotion of frank and well-grounded debate, without excessive confrontation, on significant issues.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. Intrusion in the private life of the individual, regardless to his/her social status, is not compatible with the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The right to privacy plays a fundamental role in guaranteeing the full enjoyment of freedom of expression because through the protection of the most intimate sphere of the individual, it ensures that everybody can exercise his/her rights without fear of being ridiculed or, at worst, blackmailed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. Another preoccupying trend is the attempt to replace defamation of individuals with the concept of defamation of common values, to be treated within the sphere of criminal law. These values would include a sense of national identity, State symbols like the flag or the national anthem, and State institutions, figures or representatives like the Supreme Court, the country’s father(s) or the Prime Minister, usually defined as “defamation of the State”.[[fn:5]] In this connection, the Special Rapporteur stresses that the exercise of freedom of speech should always be guaranteed for the examination of historical events. The introduction of new legislation, in which defamation is defined under another terminology, is also unacceptable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Concluding observations of the Human Rights Committee, Mexico, United Nations document CCPR/C/79/Add.109, paragraph 19. See also the comments by the Government of Mexico on the concluding observations of the Human Rights Committee, CCPR/C/79/Add.123 (2000). The Human Rights Committee also welcomed the amendment of the criminal code eliminating the crime of defamation of the Republic [of Slovakia] and its representatives, concluding observations of the Human Rights Committee, CCPR/CO/78/SVK (2003)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. An encouraging trend can be observed in various parts of the world towards the decriminalization of defamation and related offences. Progress in this field is more evident in Latin American countries, where, despite the existence of various other forms of violation of freedom of expression, defamation as a criminal offence seems to decline.[[fn:6]] While awaiting the adoption and the entry into force of ad hoc legislative instruments, relevant authorities should take emergency measures, like amnesty or pardon, in order to ensure that no media professional or other citizen is incarcerated on charges of defamation, and eventual fines are of reasonable amount.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See Principle 10 of the Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression (also known as the Chapultepec Declaration) approved by the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights at its 108 regular session (1994). See also point XII, resolution on the Adoption of the Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa (2002), African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights/Res. 62 (XXXII) 02."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. At the same time, countries are still insisting on the application of legislative measures, which gravely penalize the freedom of the press, imposing harsh sanctions, including prison terms, to journalists convicted for defamation and similar offences. Such a regime may also be applied to non-journalists who can often be subject to great distress and obliged to spend remarkable amounts of money in order to hire a lawyer.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Writers are at the heart of freedom of expression and human progress. Unsurprisingly, writers are one of the preferred targets of censorship especially when, as it is often the case, they propose perspectives and opinions which are unpopular with the dominant political, economic and religious elites. In many countries, long prison sentences are used to silence writers and to warn others from speaking out. The Special Rapporteur wishes to commend the initiative of the PEN Writers in Prison Committee to declare 15 November the day of the Imprisoned Writer. This kind of peaceful action contributes to draw the attention of the public on issues, which are not sufficiently covered by major media companies.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Decriminalization of defamation offences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. The Special Rapporteur continues to be appalled by the increasing number of killings and other forms of violence against media workers, whose professional risk has now become unacceptably high. Over the past 12 years, more than 1,100 journalists and media staff have been killed in the line of duty.[[fn:7]] This tragic figure is the price for independent and pluralist information, where the multiplicity of perspectives and opinions allow people to make up their own minds about subjects of significant interest. Violence against journalists is also thriving with many instances of mental and physical harassment and threats, often involving journalists’ families.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "D. Security and protection of media professionals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "International Federation of Journalists, see www.ifj.org."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. One hundred and forty-three media professionals, 31 of whom were media staff, were killed from 1 January to 1 December 2006. Thirty-six fell in the American continent, 32 in Asia, 6 in Europe and in Africa, and 63 in the Middle East. This last figure is almost entirely due to the conflict in Iraq, where 59 media professionals lost their lives in the period considered. As of 23 November 2006, 159 journalists and media support staff have been killed since the start of the war in Iraq, by far the most dangerous conflict for the media ever. The majority among them were male Iraqis working in the Baghdad area. Other countries in which the safety of media professionals was a major issue in the same period were Mexico and the Philippines, with eight journalists killed in each. In Mexico, the majority of journalists died following the protests in Oaxaca, while in the Philippines reasons for journalists’ killings include political and religious affiliation, and investigative activities on illicit business. Six media professionals were murdered in Sri Lanka, mainly in the context of the ethnic conflict.[[fn:8]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "D. Security and protection of media professionals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "International News Safety Institute, see www.newssafety.com. In addition, other major organizations like the Committee for the Protection of Journalists (see www.cpj.org) and Reporters Sans Frontières (www.rsf.org) provide reliable statistics concerning media professional casualties. Differences are generally due to the possible inclusion or exclusion of figures concerning media support staff - drivers, interpreters - or media professionals other than journalists and reporters, mainly cameramen, soundmen, photographers. Freelance journalists are more difficult to track than professionals working for a media company."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. The Special Rapporteur wishes to endorse the resolution adopted by the International Press Institute, at its Annual General Assembly on 29 May 2006, and by the International News Safety Institute on the responsibility of Governments concerning appropriate action to bring to justice perpetrators of human rights violations against journalists and media workers. The Special Rapporteur also shares the opinion that media enterprises must reinforce their commitment for the safety of journalists and undertake proper measures to allow them, in the best possible ways, to carry out their work in dangerous situations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "D. Security and protection of media professionals"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. The Special Rapporteur takes note with appreciation of the efforts, by specialized institutes and organizations, regarding the adoption of principles and rules, as well as a press emblem, to increase the safety of media professionals.[[fn:9]] These initiatives underline the magnitude of the problem and can bring an expert contribution to the debate surrounding the action to be taken at international level on this issue. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur ideally believes that the adoption by the General Assembly of guidelines on the safety and security of media professionals working in war zones or conflict areas can provide the international community with an international instrument that could easily be implemented at national level by all actors involved.[[fn:10]] Presently, the first priority would be the preparation of a study in order to furnish the Council with a comprehensive and impartial analysis of the phenomenon, including a number of viable options for an operative approach to eventual solutions.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "D. Security and protection of media professionals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "International News Safety Institute, Protection of Journalists in conflict - Fundamental Rules - Brussels, 7 August 2006, see http://www.newssafety.com/stories/insi/conflictrules.htm. Reporters without Borders, Charter for the safety of journalists working in war zones or dangerous areas, Paris 2002, see http://www.rsf.org/print.php3?id_article=2350. For the Press Emblem initiative and the Media Casualties Ticking Clock, see www.pressemblem.ch."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See First Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts, section III, chapter III, Journalists, article 79. Measures of protection for journalists (1) Journalists engaged in dangerous professional missions in areas of armed conflict shall be considered as civilians within the meaning of article 50, paragraph 1. (2) They shall be protected as such under the Conventions and this Protocol, provided that they take no action adversely affecting their status as civilians, and without prejudice to the right of war correspondents accredited to the armed forces to the status provided for in article 4 A (4) of the Third Convention. (3) They may obtain an identity card similar to the model in annex II of this Protocol. This card, which shall be issued by the Government of the State of which the journalist is a national or in whose territory he resides or in which the news medium employing him is located, shall attest to his status as a journalist."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. Such a study could include the following issues: international protection enjoyed by media professionals and their legal status, especially while on mission in dangerous zones; root causes of violence against them; State responsibility and individual accountability, ways and means to improve their safety and security through initiatives taken by, inter alia, media enterprises, national and international authorities and professional organizations; establishment of a voluntary fund to compensate the families of media professionals killed in the line of duty.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "D. Security and protection of media professionals"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "79", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 79' of 'First Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949' — IHL instrument, not a UN core treaty."}, {"article": "50", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 50, paragraph 1' refers to same Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions — IHL, not a UN core treaty."}, {"article": "4", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 4 A (4) of the Third Convention' — Geneva Convention III on POWs; IHL, not a UN core treaty."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. With regard to this last proposal, the Special Rapporteur believes that the establishment of a relief fund to the benefit of relatives of those media professionals killed while on duty and because of their professional activities, beyond its inner value of international solidarity, would also help in making safety of journalists a central human rights issue under the United Nations patronage.[[fn:11]] Governments, intergovernmental and regional organizations and institutions, as well as non-governmental organizations and individuals, may cooperate for the establishment of a relief fund to the benefit of relatives of those media professionals killed on duty and because of their professional activities. As a gesture of solidarity, this kind of support would mainly go to families without significant financial resources living in developing countries, in order to alleviate the lack of income due to the death of the relative. Rules and methods of work of such a fund could be drawn up by similar bodies already established within the United Nations system, making sure that the board of trustees will include personalities of high morality, impartiality and expertise of the phenomenon.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["II. ISSUES", "D. Security and protection of media professionals"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "A number of media organizations run safety programmes and funds. In addition to those already mentioned, see also International Federation of Journalists Safety Fund, which also help with medical and legal assistance, and travel. International Pen runs a PEN Emergency Fund, which raises funds for imprisoned, or otherwise threatened, writers and journalists (www.internationalpen.org.uk)."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. The oppression of the most active sources of expression and opinion - journalists, trade unionists, social workers, students and teachers, writers and artists - often follows an identical approach in different countries around the world. The range of violations includes killings, enforced disappearances, arbitrary arrest and detention, mistreatments, threats and harassment, unfair trial, and various types of judicial and administrative measures. Women and minority groups exercising their right to freedom of expression may undergo additional pressure from authorities. Patterns of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression seem to remain essentially unchanged, though the Special Rapporteur has noted a significant increase of violations against Internet users. The media community appears to be increasingly preoccupied about media professionals’ safety and protection, worsened, in terms of casualties, due to the Iraqi conflict.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. The Special Rapporteur is dismayed at the never-ending spiral of violence, including murderous attacks, against media professionals. More than ever, journalists and media workers are targeted by a multiplicity of aggressors who react to the exercise of the right to information in name of diverse, lawful and unlawful, interests. The attacks brought by armed groups, including national armies and law enforcement agencies, and economic corporations remain the most lethal for media professionals, who pay a high price for their efforts to offer exhaustive and multifaceted information to the public.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. Governments and State institutions have the primary responsibility of ensuring the safety and security of citizens, including media professionals. The quest for international legal norms covering safety and protection of media professionals is a subject of great urgency which needs speedy replies from the international human rights community. Impunity of perpetrators, who often escape from any kind of legal procedure, has increasingly become a deterrent to the growing of independent and pluralist information. Lack of action, negligence or collusion with criminal entities is to be, at various extents, considered as a pattern of human rights violation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. As already noted in previous years, the current international situation has had a negative effect on freedom of expression and freedom of movement: several Governments have enforced preventive anti-terrorism legislation some of which may result in the reintroduction of practices that are prohibited under international human rights law.[[fn:12]] The Special Rapporteur observes that such legislation, especially when enforcing closing of media enterprises, censorship on publications and programmes, arrest and detention measures concerning media professionals, is naturally having a negative effect on freedom of expression. The same can be said for freedom of association: trade unions, student groups, social and cultural societies, intellectuals have been suffering from the implementation of laws that inevitably restrict the realm of freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "See the Annex of the present report."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. Media play a vital role in a society by providing an arena for debate, exchange of opinions and ideas. In numerous countries, media activities are guaranteed by a body of norms and regulations defending freedom of expression, especially in debating controversial subjects of public interest. The existence of a code of ethics encourages media professionals to work efficiently through an array of voices and perspectives that help audiences to grasp the quintessence of events and situations.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "The Five Fault Lines by the late Robert C. Maynard are an excellent example of rationalization of this problem, see http://www.maynardije.org/programs/faultlines/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. The exercise of freedom of expression by media professionals demands good judgement, rationality and a sense of responsibility. Insulting religions, deep-rooted beliefs and ethnic identities through the use of stereotypes and labelling is not conducive to creating an enabling environment for a constructive and peaceful dialogue among different communities. Polarization based on distorted arguments can spread ethnic and religious hatred thus endangering delicate social and cultural balances, which are the results of relentless efforts to consolidate a harmonious multicultural society. Journalist associations should ensure that the debate among professionals on contentious issues, such as religious matters, can provide the category with insights and in-depth analyses.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. There is no contradiction between the principles of freedom of religion and freedom of expression. They are mutually reinforcing and enhance the human and spiritual basis of societies and populations. The respect for religious feelings and the warrant for editorial freedom must find their own balance within a given social and cultural context.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. Nonetheless, the free flow of information and opinions should be encouraged and particularly in a time of increasing global access to information, as it represents a remarkable source of inspiration and contact among different peoples and cultures. Non-violent expression of opinions, either orally, through the press or other media allowed should also be encouraged. The exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression carries with it special duties and responsibilities and it may therefore be subject to few restrictions necessary to guarantee, inter alia, the respect of the rights of others. According to paragraph 3 of article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, such restrictions should only be provided by law in order to define clearly the nature of the limitations to freedom of expression. Moreover, paragraph 3 precisely indicates to which cases these restrictions could apply: (a) for the respect of the rights or reputations of others; (b) for the protection of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals. Such restrictions should be applied only in cases of extreme danger for the democratic order and should have a well-defined time limit. With regard to the restriction mentioned in paragraph 3 (a), the respect of the rights and the reputation of others, including the right to privacy, should be exercised without silencing debates on valuable subjects and without insulting a person’s feelings.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. Legislation on new technologies appears to be a major preoccupation even in environments traditionally favourable to freedom of expression. Regrettably, new and old technologies are increasingly used as more or less sophisticated tools for political propaganda, which may include racial discrimination and hate speech, thus contributing to spreading the polarization of ideas and ethnic tension. Nonetheless, the universal availability of new tools for communication and information may give a great impetus to social advancement and to the dissemination of education and knowledge, thus widening the scope of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. New communication technologies have also opened a large debate on the limit between the right to access to information and the right to privacy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. Internet governance and human rights is one of the themes that would animate the debate of the international community in the near future. Internet governance should solidly be anchored to a human rights vision: guaranteeing freedom of opinion and expression on the Internet and other new communication tools is a strategic component of the struggle against poverty worldwide. Making new technologies available globally will contribute to reduce the social and economic gap between developed and developing countries.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. Freedom of expression through the Internet cannot exclusively depend on mere commercial interests. Economic forces should be reliable partners of the civil society calling for human rights, fair justice, health care, environmental protection, which will increasingly be indispensable elements for the building of future societies. On the other hand, the systematic tracking of users’ action - a clear pattern of violation of the right to privacy - can bias their own ability in making choices independently, thus ultimately restricting their freedom of opinion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. There is a constant trend, which has the support of the Special Rapporteur, towards the decriminalization of defamation offences. The number of countries that have adopted new legislation moving this category of offence under civil law is on the increase. Unfortunately, criminal charges, sentencing to prison terms and the imposition of heavy fines for defamation, libel and slander are still common in many other countries.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. The Special Rapporteur urges Governments to assess existing national legislation and judicial practices related to all forms of freedom of opinion and expression and commence, whenever necessary, reform processes in order to guarantee conformity to international human rights norms and regulations. The Special Rapporteur also recommends Governments to consider, inter alia, the protection and the promotion of media independence as a priority, in order to ensure a constant advancement in the field of freedom of expression and information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. The Special Rapporteur invites the Human Rights Council to address, in an open debate, the recommendations included in the joint report submitted at its second session by the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief and the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance on the question of defamation of religion and incitement to religious hatred (A/HRC/2/3). This report contains a comprehensive set of recommendations and conclusions for further action from the Council, with a view to promoting a balanced approach to the search for peaceful coexistence among peoples of different religions and cultures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. The Special Rapporteur urges existing independent media authorities and media associations to be vigilant about the use of forms of expression characterized by defamation of religions and discriminatory connotations of ethnic and other vulnerable groups. The indiscriminate use of labelling of women, minorities and other groups, especially migrants and asylum-seekers, endangers the public debate and fuels self-censorship and a sense of fear. These forms of expression also have a negative impact on the quality and the dignity of journalism, and ultimately jeopardize media integrity. In this connection, media associations should systematically organize human rights training, if necessary with the assistance of relevant United Nations bodies and other expert organizations, for their members in order to enhance professional ethics and human rights awareness. Media associations should also ensure that most sensitive societal issues are constantly debated in professional forums.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. The Special Rapporteur vigorously emphasizes that any new intergovernmental body administrating, partially or totally, Internet governance must be anchored in a human rights vision. The universality of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, as defined in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and reiterated in\nother human rights instruments like the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, the American Convention on Human Rights and the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms should guide Governments and the international community at large in this endeavour.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "medium", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Text: 'as defined in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and reiterated in other human rights instruments like the International Covenant...' — the explicit defining instrument for art.19 here is UDHR; ICCPR is named as merely reiterating. Resolves to '?' (UDHR), though some indeterminacy remains since the sentence also names ICCPR generally."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. In the meantime, the Special Rapporteur recommends that all States guarantee freedom of opinion and expression on the Internet, inter alia, by extending to websites contributors and bloggers the same legal protection as media professionals. Transparency, openness and accountability should be promoted in order to enrich debates and dialogues. Internet providers and websites registration with national authorities should not be subject to any specific requirement other than necessary legislative provisions protecting against child pornography. Moreover, States should make sure that Internet governance will promote the universal availability of new technologies and not be limited by economic and commercial considerations only, with the aim of spreading education and awareness especially in less developed areas.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The Special Rapporteur strongly recommends to Governments to decriminalize defamation and similar offences. These should be dealt with under civil law. The amount of fines to be paid as compensation should be reasonable and allow the continuation of professional activities. The Special Rapporteur also urges Governments to release immediately and unconditionally all journalists detained because of their media-related activities. Prison sentences should be excluded for offences concerning the reputation of others such as defamation and libel.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Governments should also refrain from introducing new norms which will pursue the same goals as defamation laws under a different legal terminology such as disinformation and dissemination of false information. Under no circumstances, criticism of the nation, its symbols, the Government, its members and their action should be seen as an offence. Elected officials and authorities’ officials should be conscious that, because of their role, they might attract the attention of the press in the implementation of their functions. On the other hand, Governments should make sure that the right to privacy, especially in relation to family life and minors, is sufficiently protected without curtailing the right to access to information, which contributes to transparency and democratic control of public affairs.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. In this context, the Special Rapporteur encourages Governments to consider the opportunity of establishing an independent authority on communications, whose members possess relevant expertise in related fields, and a media ombudsperson, which could respectively be entrusted with the implementation of relevant laws and regulations and with mediator’s functions with regard to media offences without recurring to criminal law. These authorities will impartially evaluate the seriousness of violations and issue sentences that would not put at risk the core values of freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. The joint action of an authority on communications and a media ombudsperson could ultimately ensure that, in addition to economic and political groups, various actors of civil society, local communities and minorities, and vulnerable groups can exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression through unimpeded access to media. Such an authority should also be mandated to control the regularity of the competition of the economic stakeholders’ action in the market of information. Consumers should be able to make choices without being subject to private or public monopoly, a phenomenon that gravely jeopardizes the pluralism of information, affects the independence of media and increases the cost of the access. In addition, monopolistic regimes make it easier to exercise control and censorship of citizens’ opinions and, at the same time, can direct, often in a veiled manner, citizens’ choice in various fields.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. Media security remains one of the core elements to guarantee pluralist information in a period marked by polarization of opinion and widespread violence. Governments and State institutions should, as appropriate, envisage the creation of ad hoc protection schemes, which would allow journalists to continue their activities with an acceptable level of security, while maintaining their independence. Media enterprises may also decide to cover the expenses for a flexible protection for endangered journalists. The identification and adequate punishment of the perpetrators of attacks against journalists will contribute to strengthening the rule of law and buttress the confidence of the ordinary citizen in State institutions. Media professionals should, under no circumstances, be obliged to bear the economic burden of their physical protection, in addition to the mental stress of being at risk. Governments should also ensure the protection of other categories at risk, such as trade unionists, social workers, students and teachers, and artists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "a-hrc-4-27-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-4-27", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. The Special Rapporteur reiterates his call to the Human Rights Council to pay increased attention to the issue of the security and protection of journalists, in particular in situations of armed conflicts. The Council may wish to consider the opportunity, as previously discussed, of entrusting the Rapporteur with the preparation of a study on the causes of violence against media professionals, based, inter alia, on information from and the experiences of Governments, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, and including a comprehensive set of conclusions and recommendations. This study could represent the first step towards a debate, within the Human Rights Council, on this crucial issue.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2007, "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "1. The present report is the ninth report submitted by Mr. Abid Hussain (India), Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The mandate was established by the Commission on Human Rights in its resolution 1993/45 of 5 March 1993. This report is submitted pursuant to Commission resolution 2001/47. Section I of the report contains the terms of reference for the discharge of his mandate. Section II presents an account of the activities undertaken within the framework of his mandate in the past year. Section III provides a brief discussion on trends. Section IV deals with a number of issues which the Special Rapporteur considers to be important for the development of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Lastly, section V contains the conclusions and recommendations of the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "2. The Special Rapporteur refers to his previous reports as regards the mandate and methods of work adopted by him. The structure of the present report is along the same lines as the previous report, except that the summaries of communications with Governments, because of their length, have been put in a separate document (E/CN.4/2002/75/Add.2). They have been presented by geographic region rather than in alphabetical order by country, as in the previous reports. The Special Rapporteur has found that this new methodology has enabled him to provide more detailed information on urgent appeals and communications sent and received. It is significant to note that the Special Rapporteur has, for the first time since his appointment, prepared and included detailed statistics on communications sent and received.[[fn:1]] This has enabled him to analyse the cases more deeply and highlight the trends.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["Introduction", "I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Notes ? See annexes 1, 2 and 6."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "3. In addition, in the main body of the report, the Special Rapporteur has looked at some issues that he considers to have been particularly relevant during the period under review such as the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, the events of 11 September and their impacts on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, broadcasting and the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["Introduction", "I. TERMS OF REFERENCE"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "4. The Special Rapporteur has noted that the number of communications received annually still continue to increase. During the period under review he received some 1,900 communications (1,700 communications were received in 2000). As was the case last year, the communications brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur were from a variety of sources: international, regional, national and local non-governmental organizations; associations of media professionals; trade unions; members of political parties. The Special Rapporteur would like to thank all of them for the information and documentation provided which are essential to the discharge of his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Information received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "5. During the period under review, the Special Rapporteur sent 37 allegations and 124 urgent actions (see annex I). In 2000, the Special Rapporteur sent 16 letters of allegations and 101 urgent appeals. During the period under review (15 December 2000-\n14 December 2001), the Special Rapporteur sent 124 urgent actions and 37 letters of allegation to 69 countries (27 to African countries, 22 to Asian countries, 5 to Eastern European countries, 2 to Western European and other countries and 13 to Latin American and Caribbean countries) on behalf of 1,333 individuals, including 34 women and 20 minors. Further to his communications he received 45 replies (from 13 African, 17 Asian, 3 Eastern European, 5 Western European and other and 7 Latin American and Caribbean Governments). Seeking to avoid unnecessary duplication of the activities of the other thematic and country Rapporteurs, the Special Rapporteur has increased the number of joint communications during the past year (see annex II). Detailed statistics concerning all communications are found in annex III.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Communications sent to and received from Governments"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "6. The Special Rapporteur transmitted 124 urgent actions to a total of 61 Governments. Out of this number, 77 were sent jointly with other thematic mandates (14 with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions; 3 with the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers; 33 with the Special Rapporteur on torture; 15 with the Special Representative for human rights defenders; 1 with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women; 23 with the Chairman-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Communications sent to and received from Governments", "(a) Urgent actions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "7. The Special Rapporteur also sent urgent appeals with the following geographic mandates: the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (4); the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Equatorial Guinea (1); the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran (2); the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Sudan (6). He received 38 replies (10 from Africa, 16 from Asia, 2 from Eastern Europe, 5 from Western European and other countries, 5 from Latin America and the Caribbean).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Communications sent to and received from Governments", "(a) Urgent actions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "8. In addition to the urgent appeals, the Special Rapporteur sent 37 letters of allegations to a total of 30 Governments. Out of this number, 15 were sent with other thematic mandates (2 with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions; 1 with the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers; 12 with the Special Rapporteur on torture; 2 with the Special Representative on human rights defenders; 3 with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women).[[fn:2]] The Special Rapporteur received 7 replies (3 from Africa, 1 from Asia, 1 from Eastern Europe, 2 from Latin America and the Caribbean).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Communications sent to and received from Governments", "(b) Letters of allegations"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Some letters by the Special Rapporteur were sent with more than one other special mechanism"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "9. The Special Rapporteur in addition to the press release issued on the occasion of his visit to Argentina, issued two press releases during the period under review, including one with the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Communications sent to and received from Governments", "(c) Press Releases"], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "This press release may be consulted on the OHCHR website: www.unhchr.ch."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "10. The Special Rapporteur has also joined with 16 other independent experts of the Commission on Human Rights in a statement on the occasion of United Nations Human Rights Day (10 December 2001). In this statement, the experts “strongly remind States of their obligations under international law to uphold human rights and fundamental freedoms in the context of the aftermath of the tragic events of 11 September 2001” (annex IV).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Communications sent to and received from Governments", "(c) Press Releases"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "11. Finally, he made two joint declarations with the Representative on freedom of the media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression of the Organization of American States (OAS) respectively on racism and the media (27 February 2001) and on challenges to freedom of expression in the new century (21 November 2001).[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Communications sent to and received from Governments", "(c) Press Releases"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See annexes IV and V."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "12. As was the case in previous years, the Special Rapporteur was only able to deal with a limited number of requests for information from Governments, owing to the insufficient financial and human resources available. The matters raised in previous reports to the Commission on Human Rights regarding the circumstances of work (E/CN.4/1995/32, paras. 92-95; E/CN.4/1996/39, para. 6; E/CN.4/1997/31, para. 7; E/CN.4/1998/40, para. 3; E/CN.4/1999/64, para. 3; E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 4; E/CN.4/2001/64, para. 5) unfortunately remain of great concern. The mandate continues to require a substantially increased pool of resources. Within the current constraints, the Special Rapporteur has engaged in an exchange of views with Governments only with regard to a limited number of cases, which are discussed in addendum 2.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Communications sent to and received from Governments", "(d) Support received from the Secretariat in the discharge of his mandate"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "13. Against this background, the Special Rapporteur would like nevertheless to welcome the establishment within the Thematic Mechanisms Team of a Quick Response Desk in June 2001 pursuant to the recommendations of two independent experts[[fn:5]] assessing the efficiency of the special procedures in order to strengthen the urgent appeals mechanism and to alleviate the considerable workload of the assistants to special rapporteurs who draft communications. The Special Rapporteur considers that the establishment of the Quick Response Desk has considerably improved his capacity to deal with a greater number of cases submitted to him and to act more quickly. This new structure has also permitted strengthened cooperation between thematic and geographic mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that the thematic database which is now operational for several thematic rapporteurs, including for his mandate, is a positive step.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Communications sent to and received from Governments", "(d) Support received from the Secretariat in the discharge of his mandate"], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Ms. Mona Rishmawi and Mr. Thomas Hammarberg."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "14. On 7 June 2001 the Special Rapporteur sent a note verbale to all Member States drawing their attention to paragraph 13 of Commission resolution 2001/47 which invites States “to submit to the Special Rapporteur comments on their programmes and policies with respect to access to information for the purposes of education on and prevention of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection”, and invites “the Special Rapporteur, within the framework of his mandate, to consider these comments with a view to sharing best practices”.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["3. Requests for information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "15. The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the Governments of the following 16 countries which have submitted information: Canada, Cuba, Germany, Guatemala, Guinea, Malaysia, Mauritius, Monaco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Slovenia, Thailand, Togo, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["3. Requests for information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "16. The Special Rapporteur awaits additional responses to undertake an in-depth analysis of this important issue. It should be noted that the Government replies received so far by the Special Rapporteur are available for consultation at the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights in Geneva.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["3. Requests for information"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "17. In addition to communications with Governments, the Special Rapporteur considers that carrying out country visits is another essential element of his mandate. Country visits enable him to examine in situ the realization of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. He therefore calls upon Governments to cooperate with him in that regard.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Country visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "18. From 25 June to 2 July 2001, the Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Argentina (E/CN.4/2002/75/Add.1). This mission is the first undertaken in Latin America by the Special Rapporteur since he assumed his functions. The Special Rapporteur was supposed to travel to Sri Lanka from 27 November to 5 December 2001. However, in light of the elections on 5 December 2001, he decided, after consultations with the Government of Sri Lanka, to postpone his mission. This mission will take place in the course of 2002.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Visits undertaken during the year"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "19. During the period under review, the Special Rapporteur received invitations to visit Sri Lanka, Colombia, Egypt, Indonesia, Equatorial Guinea and Guatemala. He would like to thank those Governments for their cooperation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Invitations received"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "20. This year, the Special Rapporteur has pursued his efforts to obtain invitations to visit the following countries, to which he had sent in the past requests for invitations: China (June 1999), Cuba (September 1998), Angola (November 2000), the Democratic People’s of Korea (March 1996), Viet Nam (March 1996), India and Pakistan (October 2000). The Special Rapporteur regrets that invitations have not so far been received from those countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["3. Pending and new requests"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "21. The Special Rapporteur has sent also requests to visit Ethiopia, Eritrea and Zimbabwe.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["3. Pending and new requests"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "22. In 2002, the Special Rapporteur intends to visit the following countries: Egypt, Sri Lanka, Guatemala, Peru, Colombia (dates to be mutually agreed) and Indonesia (dates to be mutually agreed).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["4. Planned visits"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "23. The Special Rapporteur continued during the period under review to cooperate closely with treaty bodies and OHCHR human rights field operations, the human rights sections of the Department of Political Affairs and the Department of Peacekeeping Operations, as well as other specialized bodies within the United Nations system, and regional intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, particularly at the local level, concerned with the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "24. The Special Rapporteur considers that his collaboration with the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media and the OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression to be vital to ensure a coherent global strategy on freedom of expression. In the context of this cooperation, the Special Rapporteur reiterates that the participation of these two other mechanisms in the annual session of the Commission on Human Rights is of particular importance. The Special Rapporteur would like to pay tribute to the work undertaken by Mr. Cantón as OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression and the cooperation extended by his Office during his tenure. The Special Rapporteur wishes him success in his new functions as Secretary of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and hopes that the cooperation between the two mandates will continue with his successor.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "25. The Special Rapporteur would like to express his great satisfaction that the number of meetings, seminars and conferences he has attended and has been invited to has remained very high. However, owing to his heavy schedule, he regrets that he has not been in a position to accept all the invitations transmitted to him.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Cooperation and participation in seminars and conferences"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "26. The Special Rapporteur participated in the Asian Preparatory Meeting for the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance. (Tehran, 19-21 February 2001).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Seminars and conferences sponsored by the United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "27. The Special Rapporteur visited Geneva from 2 to 7 April 2001 for consultations and to present his report to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-seventh session. During this period the Special Rapporteur met with various delegations (Argentina, Colombia, Egypt, Peru, Sri Lanka and Viet Nam) to discuss his intention to undertake field visits. He also held consultations with NGOs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Seminars and conferences sponsored by the United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The Special Rapporteur gave a keynote speech on the occasion of the celebration on 3 May 2001 in Windhoek of World Press Freedom Day organized by the Programme for Freedom of Expression, Democracy and Peace of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and\nCultural Organization. This celebration, which marked the Tenth anniversary of the Windhoek Declaration, was followed by a round-table discussion on the theme “Ten years on: assessment, challenges and prospects”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Seminars and conferences sponsored by the United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "29. From 28 May to 2 June 2001, the Special Rapporteur attended, in Geneva, the second session of the Preparatory Committee for the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Seminars and conferences sponsored by the United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "30. The Special Rapporteur attended the eighth meeting of the special rapporteurs/ representatives, independent experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures and advisory services programme of the Commission on Human Rights, held in Geneva from 18 to 22 June 2001. On this occasion, he was designated as Rapporteur of the meeting.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Seminars and conferences sponsored by the United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "31. The Special Rapporteur along with the Special Rapporteurs on religious intolerance, on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance and on the human rights of migrants, attended the World Conference in Durban from 28 August to 7 September 2001. On this occasion, he had the opportunity to meet with delegations as well as representatives of NGOs. He participated in a high level panel on the media and racism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Seminars and conferences sponsored by the United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "32. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur, in his capacity as Rapporteur of the annual meeting of special rapporteurs, presented the report of this meeting (E/CN.4/2002/14) on the occasion of the informal one-day meeting of the Commission on Human Rights held in Geneva on 25 September 2001. This visit was also the occasion for the Special Rapporteur to conduct consultations with several delegations with regard to his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Seminars and conferences sponsored by the United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "33. Finally, the Special Rapporteur was invited to attend the International Consultative Conference on School Education in relation with Freedom of Religion and Belief, Tolerance and Non Discrimination (Madrid, 23-25 November 2001). He made a statement to the Conference. The Conference, which was organized by the United Nations and the Government of Spain, was attended by 80 governmental delegations, 6 intergovernmental organizations, 27 NGOs, 20 religious communities, human rights institutes as well as academics and expert obsservers). At the end of the Conference, a declaration was adopted by consensus. The Special Rapporteur would like to praise this very innovative partnership as well as the excellent organization of this conference.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Seminars and conferences sponsored by the United Nations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "34. The Special Rapporteur travelled to Nepal on 1 and 2 February. On this occasion, he held meetings with representatives of national NGOs working in the field of human rights. He also went to Rabat, Morocco, on 25 and 29 April to attend a meeting of the Royal Academy of the Kingdom of Morocco.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "35. From 29 to 31 July 2001, the Special Rapporteur attended in Colombo an international conference on the right to information, focussed on South Asia, organized by Article 19, the Global Campaign for Free Expression, in association with the Center for Policy Alternatives, the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative and the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan. On that occasion he gave a keynote address.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "36. The Special Rapporteur was also invited to several conferences in India. He made a statement at the Universities of Jamia Handard (22 September) and Aligarh (16 and 17 October).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "37. A meeting was organized by Article 19, in London on 19 and 20 November 2001 which brought together for the third time the United Nations Special Rapporteur for freedom of opinion and expression; the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media, Freimut Duve, and the OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression, Santiago Canton. The key themes selected this year for in-depth discussion included the Internet, broadcasting, and the consequences of 11 September 2001. As at the two previous meetings, cooperation between the three mandates was also discussed. The agenda also included an opportunity to discuss regional developments in Africa and South-East Asia. A joint declaration was issued at the end of this meeting (see annex V).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "38. As in previous years, the Special Rapporteur wishes to bring to the attention of the international community a number of policies, practices, incidents and measures with a severe and negative impact on respect for the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to seek, receive and impart information. A review of communications received in the last year demonstrate clearly that the trends noted in the two previous reports (E/CN.4/2000/63 and E/CN.4/2001/64) have continued. The Special Rapporteur has noted a number of characteristics common to the violations reported to him in the framework of his mandate and believes that it would again be helpful to consider what may be called “trends”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars", "III. TRENDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "39. During the period under review over 1,900 communications were transmitted to the Special Rapporteur from a variety of sources (international, regional and national non-governmental organizations, associations of media professionals, members of opposition political parties, human rights activists, concerned individuals, etc.). It must be recalled that resource constraints do not permit the Special Rapporteur to respond to, or act upon, every communication he received. These constraints also make it extremely difficult to verify the facts presented in each and every case in order to determine what, if any, action would be appropriate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars", "III. TRENDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "40. The Special Rapporteur would like to stress that these communications are not confined to alleged violations in countries in which the political and institutional arrangements are implicitly or explicitly undemocratic even though a large number of allegations continues to refer to the following situations: (a) internal armed conflict; (b) civil unrest; (c) legal and institutional protections and guarantees of human rights are circumscribed to a greater or lesser degree; and (d) legal and institutional protections/guarantees exist but are not properly implemented. Nonetheless, it is important to note that allegations refer also to incidents and instances in which the rights to freedom of opinion and expression, information, association and assembly are infringed or violated in both emerging democracies and countries with long-established democratic institutions, practices and traditions. Based on information received, the Special Rapporteur concludes that violations of the rights to seek, receive and impart information as well as the rights to assembly and association are rampant and may occur anywhere in the world.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars", "III. TRENDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "41. A majority of cases received by the Special Rapporteur have continued to relate to violations and actions taken against media professionals. Similar actions and violations of rights also occur, however, in relation to political groups and members of opposition political parties, human rights activists, lawyers, students, academics, trade unionists, persons participating in general strikes, women, peasants, members of religious and indigenous minorities, authors, cartoonists and others.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars", "III. TRENDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "42. As has been the case in the past, in a large number of instances, national security as well as the “argument of necessity” continue to be frequently used by authorities in a number of countries to silence and/or suppress independent media and to take punitive action against journalists, academics, activists, community leaders, religious and indigenous minorities or ordinary citizens who have expressed their legitimate right to freedom of opinion and expression or who have assembled peacefully to express concern or opposition to government decisions and actions.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars", "III. TRENDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "43. From the communications received it appears that the individuals seeking to exercise freedom of opinion and expression have frequently being accused of: “denigrating and defaming government officials, military personnel or judicial authorities”, “propagating immoral, extremist and divisive ideas”, “collecting dissident news”, “publishing lies or false and insulting information”, “disturbing public order”, “criticizing religious and traditional practices” “tarnishing the image of the country “, “putting at risk the unity and best interest of the country”, or “spying for foreign nations”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars", "III. TRENDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "44. The response of the authorities, on the basis of these and other characterizations, have, in the majority of instances, included: bans, closure and seizure of publications; closure of radio and TV stations; severe restrictions on access to the Internet; denial of access to public information or to some parts of the country; seizure of audio equipment used by broadcast media. The communications received in the past year clearly demonstrate that actions and measures taken by the authorities (police, security forces, the judiciary) against persons seeking to exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression have in the majority of the cases included: (a) physical harm, attacks, threats and harassment; (b) detention and arrest, bringing of charges, trial and sentencing; and (c) administrative and legal measures. In addition to these types of actions by governmental officials or groups affiliated to them, communications received also relate to actions committed by guerrilla and rebel groups or organized criminals or unknown persons or groups against the media and pro-democracy groups.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars", "III. TRENDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "45. With these points in mind, the Special Rapporteur directs the attention of Governments to the following general trends in terms of violations of the freedom of opinion and expression and related rights and strongly urges them to take all appropriate action, consistent with the standards set out in the International Bill of Human Rights and associated instruments, to eliminate not only the violations themselves but also their causes and negative consequences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars", "III. TRENDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "46. The Special Rapporteur hopes that the identification of these trends and the inclusion for the first time in the report of detailed statistics on communications sent and received will encourage Governments to review practices and take remedial action where required. He also believes that this work will assist OHCHR in developing programmes of technical assistance for interested Governments which will accelerate the process of eliminating the causes of violations of freedom of opinion and expression, the right to information and associated rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Others conferences and seminars", "III. TRENDS"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "47. The Special Rapporteur notes with great concern the extent to which efforts to exercise peacefully the rights to expression, opinion, information, association and assembly continue to carry the threat of physical harm. The Special Rapporteur is alarmed at the fact that individuals continue to be killed for having sought to express their right to opinion and expression. The excessive use of force by the police and other security services has been consistently addressed by the Special Rapporteurs on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions and on the question of torture. From the communications received during the period under review, it is clear in particular that danger is inherent to the profession of journalism. The Special Rapporteur is particularly alarmed by the fact that deliberate killings of journalists have continued unabated in 2001. He would like in that connection to recall that during the period under review 31 journalists were killed, including 8 in Afghanistan, while exercising their duties.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Killings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "48. The Special Rapporteur is equally deeply concerned by the continuing trend of “censorship by killing”. The murder and assassination of leaders of political parties, trade union leaders and community activists, among others, has continued apace. The “censorship by killing” has continued to be used by State agents, private individuals, or members of armed opposition groups to censor persons who have exercised their right to freedom of opinion and expression and expressed dissident points of views.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Killings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "49. As was often the case in previous years, in most cases the State has failed to undertake an investigation or has allowed the relevant authorities to carry out investigations in name only. In those cases where charges have been brought, very few prosecutions have succeeded.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Killings"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "50. Information received by the Special Rapporteur also consistently referred to threats against, harassment of and attacks against persons working in the media or related fields. He is also extremely concerned that acts of physical harm, threats or attacks against individuals exercising their right to freedom of opinion and expression, whether in a professional manner or not, have appeared to continue to increase. Such cases have included: bombings, shootings and summary executions, death threats, torture of journalists to reveal sources of information, beatings of journalists and photographers covering protest marches organized by opposition parties or labour unions, surveillance of media premises by security forces, summoning journalists for “consultations” with members of the military or the judiciary, search of newspapers and radio station premises and labelling of journalists as criminals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Attacks, threats, harassment"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "51. The Special Rapporteur has noted that such violations seem to have often occurred following the publication of articles criticizing the Government’s policies, accounts of police misconduct, accusations of corruption against government officials, articles critical of the judiciary, reports on human rights situations, articles on the results of public polls against the Government, or broadcasting army repression of demonstrators.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Attacks, threats, harassment"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "52. Despite changes in the legal and policy frameworks based on the rule of law and respect for human rights in a number of countries, there continue to be many cases of arrest and detention without charge or without a legitimate legal basis, or following judicial proceedings of doubtful relevance. The Special Rapporteur is deeply concerned at the fact that thousands of individuals, including over 110 journalists, are detained for having exercised their legitimate right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Detention or arrest, bringing of charges, trial and sentencing"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "53. The Special Rapporteur has observed that, in the past year, individuals have been arrested and/or detained on charges of: threatening the security of the State; insulting the head of State and government officials; caricaturing the head of Government; putting at risk the unity and best interest of the country; incitement to public unrest; possessing information that could jeopardize the country’s stability; publishing anti-patriotic information; reporting on corruption in Government; inciting hatred; collecting dissident news; treason and spying; violating the press law, disclosing and distributing false news, blasphemy; possessing immoral documents; disseminating subversive information over the Internet; publishing immoral and obscene material.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Detention or arrest, bringing of charges, trial and sentencing"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "54. It should be noted that, while a majority of cases of arrest and detention involved journalists and other media professionals, communications received by the Special Rapporteur this year also referred to members of political parties, trade unions, religious and indigenous communities and NGOs. These actions often resulted in the peremptory and unlawful seizure of materials such as books, magazines, pamphlets, research, video and audio equipment, computers and other kinds of equipment used by the broadcasting media.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Detention or arrest, bringing of charges, trial and sentencing"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "55. While less numerous than communications related to arrests, detentions, physical harm and threats and harassment, information on administrative and/or legal sanctions continued to be transmitted to the Special Rapporteur. These sanctions result in violations and infringements of the rights that are the subject of his mandate. The Special Rapporteur has noted that in a number of cases, the sanctions have a direct, immediate and negative impact on the right to seek, receive and impart information. As such, they are of grave concern to the Special Rapporteur, and in that connection he would like to remind Governments of their duty to take immediate remedial measures and actions to eliminate these sanctions from both law and practice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Administrative and legal measures and repressive"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "56. A significant number of cases brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur concerned bans, closure or seizure of publications and/or other media for having, for instance: investigated the killing of an opposition leader; aired a political debate critical to the organization of forthcoming elections; published information deemed false and defamatory; published a cartoon of the Head of State and military officials; promoted anti-patriotic feelings; published immoral publications. Legislation and measures introduced after the events of 11 September which have an impact on the right to freedom of opinion and expression are discussed in section IV of the present report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Administrative and legal measures and repressive"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "57. Additionally, it has been noted that pressure has been exerted on media professionals and others through such administrative measures as the denial of licences to private and foreign stations and the denial of entry permits to, or expulsion of, journalists on the grounds that they are distributing false and tendentious information on the country.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Administrative and legal measures and repressive"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "58. Finally, cases of criminal penalties have also been reported to the Special Rapporteur. These penalties were imposed on a number of grounds including: libel, responsibility for public disorder and social unrest, blasphemy, defamation and insult, immoral reporting.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Administrative and legal measures and repressive"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "59. The Special Rapporteur participated actively in the World Conference. He was invited to attend the Asian Regional Preparatory Conference in Teheran, the Preparatory Committee meeting (he was able only to attend the second session) and the Conference itself in Durban. He issued, jointly with the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media, and the OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression, a statement on 27 February 2001 on Racism and the Media (annex VI).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["Xenophobia and Related Intolerance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "60. Pursuant to Commission on Human Rights resolution 2000/38 (para. 13 (g)), the Special Rapporteur submitted a contribution to the Preparatory Committee and the World Conference (A/CONF.189/PC.2/24). In this report the Special Rapporteur, after recalling the international legal standards which he feels are relevant both to the right to freedom of opinion and expression and the fight against racism and related intolerance, addressed a few key points which he considered of importance in the context of both his mandate and the objectives of the World Conference. He then analysed hate speech as an area of conflict between the right to freedom of expression and the principle of non-discrimination, as well as the issue of Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["Xenophobia and Related Intolerance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "61. The Special Rapporteur is of the view that the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, particularly by the media, and the full respect for the right to freedom of information contribute extensively to the fight against racism, discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance and to the free flow of information, ideas being one of the most powerful ways of combating these phenomena.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["Xenophobia and Related Intolerance"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "62. With regard to hate speech, the Special Rapporteur is of the view that the right to freedom of expression should remain unabridged. However, he acknowledges that in some circumstances, and in particular when freedom of speech leads to the incitement of hatred and/or discrimination, this right conflicts with the rights of others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "63. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur recognizes that “hate speech”, or the advocacy of national, racial, religious or other hatred, constitutes an area which commands due and proper attention. The Special Rapporteur is aware of, and concerned at, the potential harm, whether psychological or physical, which can result from hate speech, in particular incitement to violence, heightened tensions between groups of different cultural, ethnic, racial and religious identities, and the perpetuation of stereotypes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "64. In light of these concerns, the Special Rapporteur recognizes that hate speech calls for reasonable restrictions which are necessary to prevent incitement to acts of imminent violence, hatred or discrimination on grounds, among others, of race, religion, colour, descent, or ethnic or national origin. As such, and in accordance with the relevant international standards, the Special Rapporteur wishes to condemn any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes an incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence; such advocacy should be prohibited by law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "65. At the same time, the Special Rapporteur expresses concern about the possibility of such prohibitions being abused, particularly where respect for human rights and the rule of law is weak and hate speech laws have been used in the past against those they were intended to protect.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "66. The Special Rapporteur wishes to emphasize that great care must be taken to achieve an appropriate balance between the rights to freedom of opinion and expression and to receive and impart information, and the prohibition on speech and/or activities promoting racist views and inciting violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. Hate speech"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "67. The Special Rapporteur considers the Internet to be an increasingly important human rights education tool which contributes to a broader awareness of international human rights standards, provisions and principles. He is of the view that “the new technologies and, in particular, the Internet are inherently democratic, provide the public and individuals with access to information sources and enable all to participate actively in the communication process” (E/CN.4/1998/40, para. 45).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. The Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "68. The Special Rapporteur stresses the significant contribution that the use of new technologies such as the Internet can make in the fight against racism. The global reach and relative ease of use of the Internet make it a unique and highly effective tool for the promotion of human rights, enabling an unprecedented audience previously unfamiliar with human rights education to gain access to valuable information. It can be used to disseminate positive\ninformation and materials, research and facts about immigration and minorities which can in turn support action against racism and discrimination, raise awareness, promote understanding and increase tolerance.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. The Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "69. At the same time, the Special Rapporteur recognizes the legitimacy of concerns about dissemination over the Internet of racist and xenophobic material such as hate speech, which constitutes a contemporary form of racism. He is aware that the features that make the Internet an asset to democracy and the realization of human rights also render it a powerful tool for the spread of hateful messages and propaganda, and that the Internet makes hate speech available to those who would never before have come into contact with it. In other words, he acknowledges that although “racist material represents only a small percentage of the volume of information on the Internet and that racists in cyberspace are comparatively few and far between, the Internet does act as a ‘force multiplier, enhancing power and enabling racists’ to have influence in excess of their true numbers. The Internet allows racists to cross national boundaries and bypass laws banning hate material by moving sites abroad” (A/CONF.189/PC.1/5).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. The Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "70. In light of these considerations, the Special Rapporteur condemns the abuse of the Internet by some groups and/or persons to promote racist and hate speech in violation of international law, or the use of the Internet as a platform for any kind of speech which exceeds the threshold of tolerance. However, the Special Rapporteur believes that the dangers posed by such materials on the Internet can be adequately addressed through the judicious application of existing international standards and national laws consistent with international standards governing freedom of opinion and expression and the right to seek, receive and impart information. He considers that on line expression should be guided by international standards and be guaranteed the same protection as is awarded to other forms of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. The Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "71. The Special Rapporteur condemns unreservedly the attacks of 11 September on the World Trade Centre and the Pentagon and expresses his deepest sympathy for the victims of those attacks. Such an attack is an assault on the most fundamental of all human rights - the right to life - and should be condemned unequivocally.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. The events of 11 September"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "72. He notes that the views of those who launched the attack developed in closed societies and communities, without access to full freedom of expression, in an atmosphere of hatred, anger and conspiracy. Guaranteeing fully the right to freedom of expression and to receive and impart information, as guaranteed by article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, is a powerful antidote to the apocalyptic nihilism demonstrated by those who committed these attacks. The Special Rapporteur believes that peace and justice can only be secured by building open societies that guarantee freedom of expression and the right to dissent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. The events of 11 September"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'as guaranteed by article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — sole attribution to UDHR."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "73. The events of 11 September were an attack upon human rights and, as such, the Special Rapporteur believes it is particularly important that States consider the human rights implications of any measures they adopt in response. This is true both of measures directed at those who planned and perpetrated the attacks, which should focus on bringing them to justice rather than revenge, and of measures designed to prevent further attacks in the future. Human rights should be at the centre of any attempt to deal with the aftermath of these terrible events.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. The events of 11 September"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "74. The Special Rapporteur notes that several States have responded to the events of 11 September by adopting laws which have negative implications for certain rights, including freedom of expression. To respond to terror by rolling back human rights which in some cases have taken centuries to establish is to play into the hands of the terrorists and to let fear overcome rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. The events of 11 September"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "75. The attacks of 11 September 2001 and their aftermath have led to both decisions by the relevant authorities in a number of countries and statements and behaviour by ordinary citizens that have seriously challenged the very principles upon which respect for human rights depends.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. The events of 11 September"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "76. There are several other observations that the Special Rapporteur would like to make in the context of the events of 11 September. First, there has been a disturbing trend, particularly in the coverage by the media in North America, in which the views and opinions of those who dissent or express concerns are aggressively met with contempt. In a number of instances, it has been suggested by both officials and, for example, “talk-radio” commentators, that anyone who questions the measures, laws and policies that are now current is “unpatriotic” and, by their criticisms, are giving aid and comfort to “the enemy”. Similarly, there have been a number of instances in which intolerance has been strongly expressed by some in response to what they see as unwarranted sensitivities based on “political correctness”. The Special Rapporteur cautions against such intolerance of dissent and alternative views.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. The events of 11 September"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "77. In addition, the reports of harassment and violence against followers of Islam are of deep concern. The right freely to adopt and manifest one’s religion is one of the most basic rights and must be fully respected and protected at all times. The Special Rapporteur commends those authorities who have taken prompt and appropriate action in response to incidents of threat, arson and physical assault. The authorities at the local level and community organizations and activists are to be commended for their efforts aimed at public education and their consistent condemnation of those who would act against others for the simple reason that those others do not look, speak or dress like them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. The events of 11 September"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "78. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur is also concerned that some States have sought to restrict the international and national media in the way they report on the conflicts in Afghanistan and elsewhere. It is vital to the legitimacy of the media that they be able to make editorial judgements as to how conflict is reported, whose views are reported and how events are presented. Authorities summoning journalists to “discuss editorial matters” can have a chilling effect on coverage of conflict and even if such pressure is resisted, it can cloud public perceptions about the impartiality of the media. The Special Rapporteur notes with particular concern reports of attempts to inhibit independent coverage of the conflict in Afghanistan by Al Jazeera, a leading independent media outlet in the Middle East, a region otherwise characterized by excessive government control over the media. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes the need for continuing coverage by the media of the situation in Afghanistan and underscores the need to invite more women and youth to participate in their programmes as experts or commentators on all matters, political, economic, social and cultural.", "labels": ["Women/girls", "Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. The events of 11 September"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "79. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur also notes with concern the effects of censorship and control over the media within Afghanistan itself, including the denial of women’s right to freedom of expression and the restrictions upon any public display of music or television imposed by the Taliban. He recommends that the United Nations, in its attempts to secure a lasting political settlement in Afghanistan, prioritize the importance of establishing effective guarantees of freedom of expression and of putting in place a regulatory framework for the media in line with international guarantees. Finally, the Special Rapporteur notes the importance in this endeavour of involving the Afghan media community, including those in exile, as well as the many women who are active in the media and public life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. The events of 11 September"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "80. The Special Rapporteur wishes to draw to the attention of States the importance of respect for freedom of expression in relation to broadcasting, and to elaborate on a number of points raised in previous reports. He would like to stress that for the vast majority of people in the world, broadcasting, and particularly radio, is the primary source of information and news. It is thus of the greatest importance that this medium is able to operate independently and in the public interest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Broadcasting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "81. The Special Rapporteur is of the view that a key way to serve the public interest is by ensuring the availability of the widest possible range of information and ideas through broadcasting. He believes that promoting diversity should be a primary goal of broadcast regulation. He has also noted that in a number of countries, the State still has a monopoly over broadcasting and private broadcasters are either not allowed at all or are restricted to the cable and satellite sectors. The Special Rapporteur considers that such monopolies can no longer be justified and that all States should put in place regulatory frameworks which provide for the licensing of both commercial and community broadcasters, including through terrestrial transmission systems. Indeed, the regulatory framework should seek to promote maximum utilization of the airwaves in the public interest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Broadcasting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "82. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur strongly believes that diversity also implies the equal opportunity for all sectors of society to access the airwaves. The Special Rapporteur has noted that in many countries, broadcasting is dominated by men and women journalists are consigned to lower echelons. Steps should be taken to address this serious problem, particularly with respect to public broadcasters which have an obligation to reflect and serve society as a whole. Similarly, minorities have a right to access the airwaves. Public broadcasters should ensure that their programming serves all members of society and broadcasting authorities should take steps to ensure that minority groups have non-discriminatory access to licences.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Broadcasting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "83. The Special Rapporteur is also of the view that public broadcasters should serve the public, not the Government or the party in power. This implies protection against political and commercial interference, including through the appointment of an independent governing board and respect for editorial independence. It also requires broadcasters to have a clear mandate setting out the various types of programming they should provide, including a comprehensive, balanced news service.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Broadcasting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "84. Similarly, broadcast regulators, and other public bodies which exercise power over broadcasters, should be protected against political and commercial interference. Licensing processes should be transparent and fair, with clear criteria, published in advance, for deciding between competing applications.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Broadcasting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "85. The Special Rapporteur believes that broadcasting needs an appropriate economic environment if it is to flourish and provide a diversity of information to the public. This means that licence fees should not be excessive and that other licensing conditions should not be onerous, taking into account the level of commercial development of the sector. Furthermore, he would invite States to take positive measures to promote the spread of appropriate technology and in the area of training. States should also actively promote universal reception of broadcasting. At the same time, effective rules on undue concentration of ownership are needed to prevent domination of this key medium by a small number of players.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Broadcasting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0086", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "86. The Special Rapporteur has noted that although historically States posed the greatest threat to independent and diverse broadcasting, a new threat has emerged in the form of excessive commercialization of this sector. In some cases, owners treat broadcasting enterprises as businesses rather than as communication media, interfering with editorial independence for commercial or political reasons. The Special Rapporteur encourages owners and their professional staff to conclude agreements that guarantee editorial independence and to ensure that commercial considerations do not unduly influence media content. At the same time, elected officials and members of Government who are media owners should refrain from influencing the content of their media outlets. One way of doing this would be for officials to put their media interests under the control of trustees for the duration of their time in office.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Broadcasting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0087", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "87. Finally, the Special Rapporteur considers that another problem of excessive commercialization is the airing of the cheapest programmes to the detriment of quality and diversity. One solution to this problem is to require broadcasters to carry minimum quotas of locally produced material so as to protect local voices from being overwhelmed by programming imported cheaply from abroad. Another solution is to set broadcasters a range of percentages of different types of programmes, such as documentaries, films, news, educational and children’s material, and so on. The Special Rapporteur stresses, however, that there is a risk of political interference where these approaches are applied unless the broadcast regulator operates free of political or commercial interference.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["C. Broadcasting"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0088", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "88. The Special Rapporteur wishes to draw the attention of States to the importance of the Internet to the exercise of the right to freedom of expression. The Internet is a key instrument both in terms of receiving information and for the right to disseminate information and ideas, and should be put to use in the pursuit of respect for rights and social justice. The Internet has enormous potential but, unfortunately, that potential is still largely available only to those in more-developed countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["D. The Internet"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0089", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "89. The Special Rapporteur notes that the overwhelming majority of Internet users continue to be found in the more-developed societies and that, even within richer societies, there is a considerable “digital divide” between low-income families and the better off. This means that the majority of the world’s population cannot harness the power of the Internet as a vehicle for free expression, democratic empowerment, the advancement of human rights and development. This is exacerbated by the increasing reliance of many actors on the Internet, to the detriment of more traditional forms of communication.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. The digital divide"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0090", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "90. The Special Rapporteur would stress that there is no single barrier to Internet access. Economic wealth, both of countries and of individuals, is clearly an important factor; poor infrastructure, the high cost of telecommunications and, in some countries, the lack of cheap, reliable electricity hamper Internet access. In addition, there is a need for sufficient training, technical expertise and basic education.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. The digital divide"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0091", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "91. Wealth is not the only barrier. The Special Rapporteur has received information that some countries still impose legal and regulatory barriers to access, exacerbating existing barriers. He would like in that connection to recall that in his report to the Commission on Human Rights at its fifty-seventh session (E/CN.4/2001/64), he paid considerable attention to the question of the Internet and expressed his concern about excessive control of access. During the last year, access restrictions in many States have remained in force. In some States, access to the Internet is restricted to the elite while in others, access is controlled through licensing regimes for Internet service providers or even individual users. In some States, access is possible only through Government-controlled “filtered” gateways.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. The digital divide"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0092", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "92. The Special Rapporteur would like to express his support for national and international initiatives to extend Internet access, including the Sustainable Network Development programme administered by the United Nations Development Programme. At the same time, there is a need for an internationally coordinated strategy if global access is to be achieved. In this regard, the Special Rapporteur commends recent progress made through the Group of Eight Digital Opportunity Task Force, as well as the newly inaugurated ICT Task Force of the United Nations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["1. The digital divide"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0093", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "93. The Special Rapporteur is also concerned at continuing reports of excessive Internet content regulation and of on-line surveillance. Whilst there are legitimate concerns about the availability of illegal material on the Internet, including child pornography, neo-Nazi propaganda and hate speech, any restrictions on the Internet must remain within the strict parameters set by article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Some States seek to justify stringent regulation on the grounds that it is necessary to preserve the moral fabric and cultural identity of the society. The Special Rapporteur warns that excessively stringent regulation on these grounds betrays a paternalistic attitude and frustrates the Internet’s potential to ensure respect in practice for the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Internet regulation"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0094", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "94. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur has noted that since the events of 11 September, many States have adopted measures allowing for increased surveillance of the Internet. The Special Rapporteur is concerned about the negative impact of such measures on the right to freedom of expression and urges States to seek a fair balance in such regulation. The Special Rapporteur notes that encryption and anonymity software has been developed which can provide protection against unwarranted on-line surveillance, and encourages the use and continued development of these tools.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Internet regulation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0095", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "95. Finally, the Special Rapporteur, maintaining once again that the new technologies, in particular the Internet, are inherently democratic, provide the public and individuals with access to information sources and enable all to participate actively in the communication process, once again urges States to avoid adopting separate rules limiting Internet content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["2. Internet regulation"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0096", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "96. The Special Rapporteur strongly believes that the right to freedom of expression can be described as an essential test right, the enjoyment of which illustrates the degree of enjoyment of all human rights enshrined in the International Bill of Human Rights, and that respect for this right reflects a country’s standards of fair play, justice and integrity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0097", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "97. While the Special Rapporteur notes with satisfaction a growing tide in favour of human rights, and that almost all Governments seem to be upholding the sanctity of the principle of freedom of opinion and expression, at the same time he is still encountering innumerable cases of grave violations of human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0098", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "98. Long-standing patterns of harassment and oppression of persons whose views and opinions differ from those of persons holding power persist in a number of countries. In many instances, restrictions on the freedom of opinion and expression limit to a significant extent the possibility of violations becoming known and investigated. In the view of the Special Rapporteur, such trends perpetuate patterns of government corruption and impunity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0099", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "99. From the communications received during the period under review, the Special Rapporteur is compelled to conclude that, as in previous years, violations of the right to freedom of expression occur in all parts of the world. In a number of instances, these violations and violations of other human rights concur, including those related to extrajudicial, arbitrary or summary executions, enforced or involuntary disappearances, torture, religious intolerance and arbitrary detention. The rights to freedom of opinion, expression and information are violated in States with widely different political systems and institutional frameworks for governance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0100", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "100. The Special Rapporteur condemns the attacks of 11 September in the strongest terms as crimes against humanity. He would like, however, to express his deep concern that measures taken by some States have targeted certain groups, in particular religious and ethnic minorities, political activists and the media. The Special Rapporteur is also concerned that some States have sought to restrict the international and national media in the way they report on the conflict in Afghanistan and elsewhere. He considers that it is vital to the legitimacy of the media that they be able to make editorial judgements as to how the conflict is reported, whose views are reported and how events are presented. Authorities summoning journalists to “discuss editorial matters” can have a chilling effect on coverage of the conflict and even if such pressure is resisted, it can cloud public perceptions about the impartiality of the media.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0101", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "101. A matter of particular concern to the Special Rapporteur is the threat that human rights concerns, including freedom of expression, have declined in importance on the international agenda. Close international scrutiny of certain States for human rights reasons now seems to have faded and some NGOs have reported that States and intergovernmental organizations are less responsive to their appeals than formerly. While it is of the greatest importance that a strong coalition against terror be maintained, this cannot, in itself, be a reason to sideline human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0102", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "102. The Special Rapporteur is also concerned at continuing reports of excessive Internet content regulation and of on-line surveillance. He is concerned that in some States, access to the Internet is restricted to the elite while in others, access is controlled through licensing regimes for Internet service providers or even individual users. In some States, access is possible only through Government-controlled “filtered gateways”. Any restrictions on the Internet must remain within the strict parameters set by article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. The Special Rapporteur notes that encryption and anonymity software has been developed which can provide protection against unwarranted on-line surveillance, and encourages the use and continued development of these tools.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Conclusions"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "ICCPR", "article": "19", "paragraph": "3", "source": "regex"}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0103", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "103. With regard to the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, the Special Rapporteur considers that the free flow of information and ideas is one of the most powerful ways of combating these evils. There should be free access to information which exposes or otherwise helps to combat racism, whether that information is held by public or private bodies, unless denial of access can be justified as necessary to protect an overriding public interest. In addition, States should ensure that the public has adequate access to reliable information relating to racism, discrimination, xenophobia and intolerance including, where necessary, through the collection and dissemination of such information by public authorities. The Special Rapporteur considers that media organizations, media enterprises and media workers - particularly public service broadcasters - have a moral and social obligation to make a positive contribution to the fight against racism, discrimination, xenophobia and intolerance.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0104", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "104. Finally, the Special Rapporteur is still very concerned at the continuing silencing of women in many areas.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["A. Conclusions"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0105", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "105. While noting that the cooperation of Governments in the discharge of his mandate continued to be satisfactory (e.g. the number of invitations to conduct field visits received this year), the Special Rapporteur would like to encourage all Governments to cooperate with his mandate as set out in Commission resolution 2000/86, in particular with regard to communications addressed to them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0106", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "106. Further to the events of 11 September, the Special Rapporteur would like to urge all Governments not to respond to terror by adopting laws which have a negative impact on the realization of human rights, in particular the right to freedom of opinion and expression as stated in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The Special Rapporteur strongly believes that it is of the utmost importance, after the events of 11 September, that States consider the human rights implications of any measures they adopt in response. He urges that efforts aimed at mutual respect and tolerance be strengthened and that they not be limited in time but continue beyond the exigencies of the moment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'as stated in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — sole attribution to UDHR."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0107", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "107. He would like to stress that human rights should be at the centre of any attempt to deal with the aftermath of these terrible events. Therefore, he would like to invite all Governments to review laws specifically intended to protect national security and to scrutinize their domestic legal systems with a view to bringing them into line with international standards governing the right to freedom of opinion and expression. He also encourages all States that have not ratified the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to do so.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0108", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "108. The Special Rapporteur is also concerned at continuing reports of excessive Internet content regulation and of on-line surveillance. Whilst there are legitimate concerns about the availability of illegal material on the Internet, including child pornography, neo-Nazi propaganda and hate speech, any restrictions on the Internet must remain within the strict parameters set by article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Some States seek to justify stringent regulation on the grounds that it is necessary to preserve the moral fabric and cultural identity of the society. The Special Rapporteur warns that excessively stringent regulation on these grounds betrays a paternalistic attitude and frustrates the Internet’s potential to ensure respect in practice for the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0109", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "109. With regard to the World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance, at the time the Special Rapporteur was finalizing the present report the Declaration and Programme of Action of the World Conference were not available. However, the Special Rapporteur would like to offer the following suggestions. It will be useful to define the relationship that will exist between the OHCHR Anti-Discrimination Unit and the special procedures. Particular attention should be paid to the methodology in order to avoid overlap and duplication, in particular with regard to relationships with NGOs in areas such as the presentation of situations and cases of racism. The coordination that could be implemented between the Unit, the special procedures and the Quick Response Desk should be on the agenda of the next annual meeting of the special rapporteurs. Also, the special procedures should be able to make recommendations to the Anti-Discrimination Unit on issues that may deserve specific thought, research and analysis, and eventually recommend technical cooperation programmes on issues which they have identified as being critical. As soon as the Durban Programme of Action is adopted by the General Assembly, the Special Rapporteur intends to compile in a synoptic table the issues raised in Durban which are relevant to his mandate and to include it in his next report to the Commission.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0110", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "110. The Special Rapporteur would like to recall that new technologies, in particular the Internet, are inherently democratic, provide the public and individuals with access to information sources and enable all to participate actively in the communication process. He remains concerned at information received regarding the efforts of some Governments either to control or shut down access to the Internet. In that connection, he would like to refer to his report to the Commission at its fifty-seventh session (E/CN.4/2001/64). He urges States actively to promote universal access to the Internet and not to adopt separate rules limiting Internet content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0111", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "111. Noting that broadcasting, particularly radio, is, for the vast majority of people, the primary source of information and news, the Special Rapporteur considers of the greatest importance that this medium be able to operate independently and in the public interest. Public broadcasters should serve the public, not the Government or the party in power, and should be protected against political and commercial interference, including through the appointment of an independent governing board and respect for editorial independence. Additionally, he would like to recommend that licensing processes should be transparent and fair, with clear criteria, published in advance, for deciding between competing applications. He also recommends that effective measures be adopted to prevent undue concentration of media ownership.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0112", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "112. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur would like to recommend that States take positive measures to promote the spread of appropriate technology and in the area of training. States should also actively promote universal reception of broadcasting. At the same time, effective rules on undue concentration of ownership are required to prevent domination of this key medium by a small number of players. He also recommends that owners and their professional staff conclude agreements to guarantee editorial independence and ensure that commercial considerations do not unduly influence media content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0113", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "113. As allegations transmitted to the Special Rapporteur relating to the abuse of libel and defamation laws continue to be numerous, he would like to recall the recommendation made in an earlier report (E/CN.4/2000/63, para. 205) that Governments should ensure that press offences are no longer punishable by terms of imprisonment, except in cases involving racist or discriminatory comments or calls to violence. Along the same lines, the Special Rapporteur would urge all Governments to ensure that the fines which the media or any organization/individual is sentenced to pay for offences such as “defamation”, “libel”, “insults” and publication of “false” or “alarmist” information are not out of proportion to the harm suffered by the victims. He would like to reiterate strongly that such fines cannot be used by Governments to limit the right to receive and impart information and ideas.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0114", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "114. Additionally, the Special Rapporteur is extremely concerned at the high number of cases of violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression committed by non-State actors, and therefore he would like to reiterate his suggestion that the Commission on Human Rights consider how and by what means the international community can pay particular and coherent attention to the question of non-State actors and action by them that infringes upon or restricts the rights to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0115", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "115. Furthermore the Special Rapporteur urges Governments to take all necessary steps to remove formal and cultural obstacles to the exercise by women of their right to freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to receive information. The Special Rapporteur is of the view that special efforts to gather and analyse information on that specific issue should be made. In this regard, he invites submissions by Governments, international organizations, specialized agencies, NGOs and individuals.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0116", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "116. The Special Rapporteur would like also, in accordance with Commission resolution 2001/47, to call on Governments to provide him with comments on their programmes and policies with respect to access to information for the purposes of education on and prevention of HIV, in order for him to be able to present his recommendations to the Commission at its next session, with a view to undertaking a comparative study of the different approaches taken in the various regions and countries in this regard.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2002-75-0117", "docId": "e-cn-4-2002-75", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "117. Finally, the Special Rapporteur, regrettably, deems it necessary to repeat his deep concern as regards the imbalance between the requirements set out by the mandate and the inadequate financial and human resources put at his disposal, despite the recent establishment of the Quick Response Desk and a thematic database within the Thematic Mechanisms Team.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Migrants", "Women/girls", "Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2002, "section": ["B. Recommendations"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "2", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "low", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Visible text is a statistical table of communications with no explicit article 2 attribution to any treaty. No secure resolution possible from visible text."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "low", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Visible text is statistical material with no clear art.19 attribution. Context_after mentions ICCPR/ICESCR generally but does not attribute the specific article. No secure resolution possible."}], "footnotes": []}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The Commission on Human Rights established the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in its resolution 1993/45. The present report, submitted pursuant to Commission resolution 2004/42, is the third general report by Ambeyi Ligabo (Kenya), appointed Special Rapporteur on 26 August 2002.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "Since the inception of the mandate, the concept of freedom of opinion and expression has faced new challenges from technological evolution. New information and communication tools may represent effective instruments for the promotion of freedom of opinion and expression around the world. Yet, a genuine development in this field would be to make these new tools universally available. The information community will also have to face new forms of repression that will also use these tools to influence the enjoyment of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "Issues addressed in this report include an update of matters analysed in the Special Rapporteur’s previous report (E/CN.4/2004/62 and Add.1-4), in particular the right of access to information in the framework of the implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. In light of the forthcoming final session of the World Summit on the Information Society, the Special Rapporteur also decided to include in the present report a comprehensive review of United Nations action in the field of freedom of opinion and expression so as to make fresh proposals for a new direction in the future.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "The Special Rapporteur reiterates the contents of the terms of reference and methods of work of his mandate, as elaborated in his previous general annual reports E/CN.4/2003/67 and E/CN.4/2004/62.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "One of the most significant features of the Special Rapporteur’s mandate is the analysis of the communications received in order to identify trends, reiterate issues already discussed in previous reports and bring to the attention of the international community a number of policies, practices and measures having an impact on the respect for freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "Customarily, the Special Rapporteur considers communications brought to his attention from a variety of sources - Governments, international, regional, national and local non-governmental organizations (NGOs); associations of media professionals, writers’ associations, trade unions and members of political parties - and from all regions of the world. The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that a plurality of sources of information, in addition to being essential to the discharge of his mandate, is a significant indicator of the degree of implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes that a large number of allegations continue to refer to the following situations: civil unrest due to social troubles; states of emergency in general; internal armed conflict; racial conflicts; electoral processes; defamation cases; repressive action against the use of new information technologies. The Special Rapporteur obverses that the communications received are not confined to alleged violations in countries where the political, social and economic situation is particularly difficult, but also refer to violations occurring in emerging or long-established democracies.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Most of the cases received by the Special Rapporteur relate to violations against media professionals. Violations also occur, however, in relation to political groups and their members, opposition and pro-democracy activists, lawyers, students, academics, trade unionists, persons participating in public demonstrations, women, peasants, members of religious minorities and other minorities, authors, cartoonists, newspaper vendors, distributors and printers, medical personnel and others.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Analysing the increasing amount of information sent to the Special Rapporteur, it was clear that violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression are still a widespread phenomenon in all regions of the world. Continuing violations to freedom of opinion and expression seem to be a common feature of certain political systems that methodically repress the traditional sources of freedom of expression and opinion making: journalists, trade unionists, social workers, students and teachers, writers and artists.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "The nature of the alleged violations can vary enormously, depending on the level of respect for the rule of law and good governance in a society. The range of violations goes from killings, enforced disappearances, arbitrary arrests and detentions, mistreatment, threats and harassment, unfair trials, and various types of judicial and administrative measures. Criminal charges, sentencing to prison terms and the imposition of heavy fines for defamation, libel and slander are still common even though a few countries have adopted new legislation moving this kind of offence under civil law.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "From 1 January to 17 November 2004, the Special Rapporteur sent 610 communications: 449 urgent appeals, 325 of which were signed jointly with other rapporteurs, and 161 allegation letters, 85 of which were signed jointly with other rapporteurs. Communications covered 1,782 individuals: 11 per cent of them were women and 68 per cent men, while the remaining were institutions or enterprises. The following table reflects the geographical breakdown:\nRegion Number of communications Percentage of total\nAfrican region 126 21\nArab region 92 15\nAsian-Pacific region 168 28\nEuropean and North American region 100 16\nLatin American and Caribbean region 114 19", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "While the nature and the seriousness of the violations may vary significantly, even well-established protection systems can be at risk in the face of sudden crises. New technologies, today available almost everywhere, have definitely challenged repressive strategies and systems as well as environments traditionally favourable to freedom of expression. At the same time, they have opened a large debate on the limits and shortcomings of information\nprovided without any ethical and professional backgrounds, and which is often used as blatant political propaganda. Such use of these technologies, which have reached remarkable peaks of sophistication, contribute to the persistent and eventual proliferation of extreme ideas and positions, racial conflicts and ethnic tensions.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is grateful to those Governments that, in a spirit of collaboration and mutual understanding, answered his appeals and letters, thereby exercising their right of reply. The correspondence is contained in document E/CN.4/2004/62/Add.1.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "In a joint statement adopted on 18 December 2003, the Special Rapporteur, the Representative on freedom of the media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression of the Organization of American States (OAS) condemned limitations on freedom of expression and attempts to control the media through regulatory mechanisms which lack independence or otherwise pose a threat to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "In a press release dated 22 January 2004, the Special Rapporteur and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions, expressed their strong concern about the situation of human rights in Haiti, especially since the start of violent confrontations between militias supporting and opposing the Government, as well as those involving members of the police. They deplored the fact that the political violence continued to cause great distress among the civilian population and noted that the previous months had also seen numerous attacks against political activists, journalists and radio stations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "In a press release dated 9 March 2004, the Special Rapporteur, the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture and the Chairperson-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention reiterated their profound concern over the deteriorating human rights situation in Nepal in light of the intensification of the conflict between the Government and the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist). The experts also stated that they had received disturbing reports of impunity for the security forces responsible for human rights violations and about increasing indiscriminate attacks against civilians by both sides.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "On 15 April 2004, the Special Rapporteur, the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, and the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on human rights defenders issued a statement in which they expressed their deep concern over the situation of Tenzin Deleg Rinpoche, a prominent lama who promoted the re-establishment of Tibetan Buddhism in the region and was involved in social work on behalf of the Tibetan community in the Kardze Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Sichuan Province.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "On 21 May 2004, the Special Rapporteur, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on human rights defenders and the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions issued a statement in which they echoed the profound concerns expressed by the Security Council in its resolution 1544 (2004) and by the Acting High Commissioner for Human Rights about violence and loss of life during a peaceful demonstration in the Rafah refugee camp in the Gaza Strip on 19 May 2004.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "On 14 July 2004, the Special Rapporteur, the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture, the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, the Special Rapporteur on extrajudicial, summary and arbitrary executions, the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on human rights defenders, the Chair of the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances, and the Chairperson-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention, issued a statement in which they reiterated their serious concern regarding the extremely grave human rights situation in Nepal. The experts regretted that the Government had failed to respond to many of their appeals, and that it provided virtually no information on the fate of people detained in unknown locations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "On 27 July 2004, the Special Rapporteur, the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers, and the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture, issued a statement in which they expressed their profound concern regarding the unanswered questions which had resulted from the acquittal of an Iranian intelligence officer on 24 July, after a two-day trial, for the killing of journalist Zahra Kazemi.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "In a press release dated 18 August 2004, the Special Rapporteur, the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, the independent expert on the situation of human rights in Burundi, the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, and the Special Adviser to the Secretary-General on the Prevention of Genocide strongly condemned the massacre, and its ethnic dimension, which took place during the night of 13 August in Gatumba refugee camp in Burundi close to the border with the Democratic Republic of the Congo.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Since his appointment, the Special Rapporteur has visited Colombia, Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Italy, and Serbia and Montenegro. He would like to thank those Governments for their cooperation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Country visits"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The Special Rapporteur requested invitations to visit the following countries: Algeria, Angola, Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Belarus, China, Cuba, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Indonesia, Liberia, Nepal, Russian Federation, Spain, Sudan, Swaziland, Turkmenistan, Venezuela, Viet Nam and Zimbabwe. In addition, on 29 June 2004, the Special Rapporteur sent a letter asking to be invited to the following countries: Ecuador, Georgia, Guatemala, Honduras, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Peru, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Serbia and Montenegro, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Ukraine. So far, he has received positive replies from Guatemala, Honduras, Serbia and Montenegro - the Rapporteur visited the country at the end of October 2004 - Sri Lanka, the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Ukraine. He also received an invitation from the Government of Azerbaijan to visit the country. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his appreciation to these countries for their cooperation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Country visits"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "In 2004, the Special Rapporteur visited Côte d’Ivoire, Colombia, Serbia and Montenegro and Italy. Mission reports are contained in documents E/CN.4/2005/Add.2, E/CN.4/2005/Add.3, E/CN.4/2005/Add.4 and E/CN.4/2005/Add.5, respectively.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Country visits"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "On 1 April 2004, the Special Rapporteur presented his report to the sixtieth session of the Commission on Human Rights. He stated, among other things, that the exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression was a significant indicator of the level of protection and respect of all other human rights in a given society. Yet, violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, attacks against journalists, media workers, trade unionists and, in general, against all those who dare express their different opinion, continued to occur in all regions and countries, whatever their system, and took various forms and shape. Most of the time, he underlined, perpetrators of those crimes were not punished; the conduct of serious investigations was essential to ensure greater protection for journalists.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also mentioned a number of issues that, in his view, were of special interest for his mandate: the role of media in armed conflicts, the consequences of anti-terrorism legislation on freedom of opinion and expression, media concentration, and the implementation of the right to information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "During the sixtieth session of the Commission, the Special Rapporteur had the opportunity to consult with representatives of the following countries: Algeria, Bangladesh, Canada, Côte d’Ivoire, Indonesia, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Pakistan, Poland and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. He also had a briefing with the press and met representatives of the Group of African States and several non-governmental organizations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "In those meetings the Special Rapporteur reiterated that Governments should not feel targeted by the thematic mechanisms of the Commission on Human Rights, since they were global mandates relating to all countries. He emphasized that the full cooperation of Governments was an essential factor for a successful outcome of country missions. He pointed out that during country visits, Governments should guarantee free access to all people and places that special rapporteurs asked to visit. Likewise, Governments should be open to dialogue with the rapporteurs on issues that might come up during the visit. With regard to his working methods, the Special Rapporteur stated that Governments and relevant authorities should carefully consider the issues arising from urgent appeals and allegations and provide exhaustive replies, with a view to establishing a constructive dialogue.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "The African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, in collaboration with the Media Institute for Southern Africa, the NGO Article 19 and the Media Foundation for West Africa, invited the Special Rapporteur to the Africa Conference on Freedom of Expression, held in Pretoria on 19 and 20 February 2004. The aims of the conference were to raise awareness about the African Commission’s Declaration of Principles on Freedom of Expression in Africa, to discuss the establishment of a special mandate to monitor freedom of expression in Africa and to explore ways of implementing the Declaration.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "The Special Rapporteur participated in the celebration of World Press Freedom Day on 3 May 2004 in Belgrade. The event was organized jointly by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and the UNESCO National Commission of Serbia and Montenegro. In parallel, UNESCO organized, on 2 and 3 May, a conference to discuss the theme “Support to media in violent conflicts and in countries in transition”. Media professionals from all over the world debated topics such as “Informing the local population in crises and emergencies”, “Capacity-building and the culture of journalism”, and “Infrastructure, market and legal reform”. The conference was followed, on 4 May, by a regional seminar, organized jointly by UNESCO and OSCE in consultation with professional partners, focusing on the media in South-East Europe.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Special Rapporteur was also invited to participate as a panellist in the dialogue “The value of the word”, held from 16 to 21 May 2004 in Barcelona, Spain, and organized within the Universal Forum of Cultures. On the same occasion, International PEN and Forum Barcelona 2004 invited the Special Rapporteur to participate in the Fifth International Conference of the Writers in Prison Committee of International PEN.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The Special Rapporteur attended the eleventh meeting of the special rapporteurs/representatives, independent experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures and advisory services programme of the Commission on Human Rights, held in Geneva from 21 to 25 June 2004. The report of the meeting is contained in document E/CN.4/2005/5.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also attended the first preparatory meeting for the Tunis phase of the World Summit on the Information Society, which took place in Hammamet, Tunisia, from 24 to 26 June 2004. The meeting agreed on the structure of the preparatory process for the second phase of the World Summit, in particular on two major issues: the follow-up and implementation of the Geneva Declaration of Principles and Plan of Action by stakeholders at national, regional and international levels, with particular attention to the challenges facing the least developed countries; and Internet governance, with the consideration of the report of the Working Group on Internet Governance and appropriate action.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The Justice Initiative of the Open Society Institute - an NGO - invited the Special Rapporteur to an international meeting on freedom of information litigation and advocacy strategies, entitled “Access to information: from soft law to hard law”, held in London, on 22 and 23 November 2004. Unfortunately, owing to his tight schedule, the Special Rapporteur was unable to participate in that meeting.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The Special Rapporteur appreciates the work done by the participants in the second Amsterdam Internet Conference (27-28 August 2004), who adopted a collection of recommendations and examples of best practices on guaranteeing media freedom online. The first Internet conference in 2003 produced the “Amsterdam Recommendations”, which constitute an excellent basis for further thinking and action in this field.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "In this section of the report, the Special Rapporteur wishes to cite some noteworthy activities, especially those carried out within the United Nations system, leading to the creation of the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom\nof opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur is convinced that, in the year of the second and final phase of the World Summit on the Information Society, such an exercise could make a contribution to a global assessment of recent, and less recent, achievements in the field of freedom of opinion and expression and could show new paths for action.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "First, the Special Rapporteur wishes to note that the concept of freedom of opinion and expression, together with its ancillary rights, the right to freedom of information and the right of access to information, as well as the right to association, are well rooted in the most common international human rights instruments. Beyond the fundamental vision of article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, substantive legal provisions support the concept of freedom of opinion and expression in most of the core human rights instruments. Articles 19, 21 and 22 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights; articles 8 and 15 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; article 5 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination and article 13 of the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families deal with various aspects of freedom of opinion and expression relevant to the mandate.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — non-treaty."}, {"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'Articles 19, 21 and 22 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'."}, {"article": "21", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same ICCPR list; art. 21 (assembly)."}, {"article": "22", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same ICCPR list; art. 22 (association)."}, {"article": "8", "treaty": "ICESCR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'articles 8 and 15 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights'."}, {"article": "15", "treaty": "ICESCR", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Same ICESCR list; art. 15 (cultural rights)."}, {"article": "5", "treaty": "CERD", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'article 5 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination'."}, {"article": "13", "treaty": "CMW", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Explicitly 'article 13 of the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families'."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "It is worth recalling some of the very first resolutions of the General Assembly on freedom of opinion and expression. Resolution 59 (I), adopted in 1946, declared: “Freedom of information is a fundamental human right and is the touchstone of all the freedoms to which the United Nations is consecrated”; and “Freedom of information requires as an indispensable element the willingness and capacity to employ its privileges without abuse. It requires as a basic discipline the moral obligation to seek the facts without prejudice and to spread knowledge without malicious intent.” Resolution 110 (II), adopted in 1947, condemned “all forms of propaganda … which is either designed or likely to provoke or encourage any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression”. Resolution 127 (II), also of 1947, invited Member States to “study such measures … as might be taken … to combat, within the limits of constitutional procedures, the diffusion of false or distorted reports likely to injure friendly relations between States”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "A first element that can be gathered from those resolutions, as well as other documents, is that the concept of freedom of information, perceived as freedom of the media, prevailed over the more comprehensive concept of freedom of opinion and expression. The term “freedom of opinion and expression” appeared with force in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Secondly, the wording used in the context of freedom of opinion and expression was heavily influenced by the outcome of the Second World War and by the beginning of the cold war. Not surprisingly, one of the recurring issues within the United Nations at that time was the maintenance of peace and the building of friendly relations among States. The use of false and distorted reports - a basic instrument of political propaganda - was considered a major threat to peace and a deterrent to the institution of a productive dialogue among countries.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights' — sole attribution to UDHR."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "The UNESCO Constitution, which entered into force in 1946, states that “States Parties to this Constitution, believing in full and equal opportunities for education for all, in the unrestricted pursuit of objective truth, and in the free exchange of ideas and knowledge, are agreed and determined to develop and to increase the means of communication between their\npeoples and to employ these means for the purposes of mutual understanding and a truer and more perfect knowledge of each other’s lives”. Article 2 (a) of the Constitution states that the organization will “collaborate in the work of advancing the mutual knowledge and understanding of peoples, through all means of mass communication and to that end recommend such international agreements as may be necessary to promote the free flow of ideas by word and image”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "2", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "The first United Nations Conference on Freedom of Information was held in Geneva in March/April 1948 with the purpose of formulating views concerning the rights, obligations and practices that could be included in the concept of freedom of information. The Conference endorsed the concepts set out in Assembly resolutions 59 (I), 110 (II) and 127 (II) and endeavoured to reconcile them. Three draft conventions were annexed to the Final Act of the Conference[[fn:1]] namely, the first one on gathering and international transmission of news; the second one concerning the institution of an international right of correction; and the third one on freedom of information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "United Nations Conference on Freedom of Information, held at Geneva, Switzerland, from 23 March to 21 April 1948, Final Act (E/CONF.6/79), United Nations publication, Sales No. 1948.XIV.2."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "The general aim of the draft convention on gathering and international transmission of news was to implement the right of peoples to be fully informed and to improve the understanding between peoples through the free flow of information and opinion. The draft convention contained 14 articles and dealt primarily with the duties of States with respect to “foreign correspondents”. The convention imposed on contracting States a number of duties with the aim of encouraging the freest possible movement of foreign correspondents in the exercise of their functions.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The draft convention on freedom of information was premised on the belief that free interchange of information and opinions in the national and the international sphere is a fundamental human right, as well as being essential in the cause of peace and for political/economic progress.[[fn:2]] The main duty on contracting States was the obligation, set in article 1, that each State secure to all its nationals and to the nationals of every other contracting State lawfully within its territory, freedom to impart and receive information and opinions, orally, by written or printed matter, in the form of art, or by legally operated visual or auditory devices without governmental interference.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Memorandum by the Secretary-General: Committee on the Draft Convention on Freedom of Information: drafting of a convention on freedom of information in the light of developments in the field of human rights (A/AC.42/4) 15 January 1951."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "1", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "Since the Conference, United Nations bodies have had trouble in expounding and elaborating the concept of freedom of opinion and expression, agreeing upon its legitimate limitations and recommending effective measures for its realization. In spite of many efforts, the draft convention on freedom of information was never finalized nor opened for signature; this item appeared on the agenda of each regular session of the General Assembly from 1962 to 1980 before being abandoned. A similar, unfortunate fate surrounded the draft declaration on freedom of information, adopted by the Economic and Social Council, transmitted to the General Assembly in 1960 (resolution 756 (XXIX), annex) and finally dropped in 1980.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "However, it is worth noting that the Conference, in its resolution No. 39, recommended that the Council extend the mandate of the Sub-Commission on Freedom of Information and of the Press, a body established in 1947 by the Commission on Human Rights, for a further three years. The Conference also recommended that the Sub-Commission initiate studies and make recommendations to the Council regarding, inter alia, the promotion of a wider degree of freedom of information and the minimization of restrictions thereto; the promotion of dissemination of true information to counteract Nazi, fascist or any propaganda of aggression or of racial, national and religious discrimination; the improvement of intergovernmental agreements and measures to facilitate the work of foreign news personnel.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "In 1950, the Department of Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat prepared a two-volume compilation of materials on freedom of information.[[fn:3]] Volume I contains the replies received from 33 Governments in response to a request from the Secretary-General to supply information on the status of freedom of information in their respective countries, including on measures to combat the diffusion of false or distorted reports likely to injure friendly relations between States. Volume II includes relevant articles of constitutions, legislative enactments and regulations, judicial decisions, codes of honour, and other related materials received as annexes to the replies published in volume I.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "United Nations publication, Sales No. 1950.XIV.1, vols. I and II."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "Another legal standard pertaining to the field of freedom of information was the Convention concerning the International Right of Correction.[[fn:4]] It was opened for signature on 16 December 1952 and entered into force in August 1962. The Convention developed the concept of correction in the context of peaceful international relations with the aim of sharpening the sense of responsibility of various media of information. It was felt that the publication of inaccurate reports would endanger the maintenance of friendly relations between peoples and the preservation of peace. The Convention characterized inaccurate reports as “false” or “distorted” reports without criminalizing their publication. It acknowledged the impossibility - and undesirability - of envisaging the institution on the international level of a procedure for verifying the accuracy of reports that might lead to the penalizing of such publication. Thus, the approach promoted by the Convention was to offer to those directly affected by reports which they considered false or distorted the “possibility of ensuring commensurate publicity for their corrections”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "General Assembly resolution 630 (VII) of 16 December 1952, annex."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "In resolution 442 C (XIV) of 13 June 1952 the Economic and Social Council appointed, for an experimental period of one year, and in a personal capacity, a rapporteur on matters relating to freedom of information. The Rapporteur - Salvador López - was charged with preparing a report covering major contemporary problems and developments in the field of freedom of information, together with recommendations regarding practical action which might be taken by the Council in order to surmount those obstacles to the fuller enjoyment of freedom of information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "In section 1 of his report, “Freedom of Information, 1953”[[fn:5]] Mr. López presented an overview of the historical development of the concept of freedom of information, which he calls the most vulnerable freedom, prior to the United Nations; an overview of the work of the United Nations and specialized agencies; and an analysis of the reasons for the success or failure of these efforts. Section 2 dealt with a number of related issues: rights and responsibilities of the media of information; propaganda for war and false/distorted information; internal censorship and the suppression and coercion of media of information; censorship of outgoing news dispatches; status and movement of foreign correspondents; laws affecting the press (constitutional trends, legislation aimed at preventing misuse of information, measures to protect freedom of information, and radio and newsreels); monopolies; professional standards; independence of information personnel; protection of sources; development of radio, film radio\nand television; professional training; the production and distribution of newsprint; press rates and priorities; international broadcasting; postal services; tariff and trade practices, and copyright. He concluded his report with a number of recommendations for immediate action by the Council, and on machinery and future tasks. Finally, Mr. López also prepared an update published as a supplementary report.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Official Records of the Economic and Social Council, Sixteenth Session, Supplement No. 12 (E/2426)."}, {"n": 6, "text": "Ibid., Supplement No. 12A."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "In 1961, a consultant of the United Nations, Mr. Hilding Eek, prepared a report on developments in the field of freedom of information since 1954[[fn:7]] which summarized the debates and the discussion on several issues surrounding freedom of information and related issues: freedom of information and the United Nations; the concept of freedom of information, legal approach and pragmatic approach. The report also included a section on facilities and obstacles to the free flow of information; a section on content and quality of information. Finally, the last part of the report was devoted to the availability of United Nations news.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Document E/3443."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Following a seminar held in New Delhi in 1962,[[fn:8]] the Secretary-General organized a seminar on freedom of information, at the invitation of the Government of Italy, in April 1964 in Rome. The agenda of the seminar included: the role of Government; press laws; the role of publisher and proprietor; the role of the professional journalist; standards of journalism and the role of the reader. The general conclusions of the debates stated, inter alia, that in all countries, regardless of their social and political systems, the same basic problem existed: how to ensure that the great powers of the information media were used for the good of humankind and not as an instrument of tyranny. All countries delegations recognized certain common standards and aspirations, albeit that the ways of reaching the goals would differ, such as: information media should strive to enhance human dignity, broaden intellectual and moral outlook of peoples, bring about a better understanding between individuals and enable readers to play a responsible role in the affairs of the community and the world.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "For the report of the seminar, see ST/TAO/HR/13."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "In the 1970s, the General Assembly remained seized of the issue of freedom of information and new resolutions adopted during that period were influenced by the debate on a new world economic order. In effect, in its resolution 33/115 B of 18 December 1978, the Assembly affirmed the need to establish a new, more just and more effective world information and communication order, intended to strengthen peace and international understanding and based on the free circulation and wider and better-balanced dissemination of information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "The issue of the right to freedom of opinion and expression surfaced at the level of the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities (now the Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights) during the late 1980s. In 1987, Louis Joinet produced a working paper concerning the detention of persons exercising the right to freedom of opinion or expression (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1987/15, annex I), followed by a working paper by Danilo Türk (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1989/26). By decision 1990/117, the Sub-Commission took note of those authors’ preliminary report (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1990/11), as Special Rapporteurs, entitled “The right to freedom of opinion and expression: current problems of its realization and measures necessary for its strengthening and promotion”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "Mr. Joinet and Mr. Türk produced a final report in 1992 (E/CN.4/Sub.2/1992/9 and Add.1). The addendum contained the conclusions and recommendations of the two special rapporteurs. They stated that the report “endeavours above all to be an instrument for analysis, whose purpose is to help assess the extent to which the standards concerning freedom of opinion and expression are respected when decisions are taken in this area” (para. 3). In particular, the report showed that in most instances, criminal convictions of journalists are based on provisions of internal law, which, upon verification, invariably turn out to be restrictions that are inadmissible in a democratic society. Thus, journalists and other professionals in the field of information could have used the report as an instrument for the defence of their rights.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Moreover, the special rapporteurs stated that in cases where Governments take measures to restrict and/or prohibit xenophobic, racist, revisionist and/or neo-Nazi ideas, it is important to ensure that the admissible restrictions are not worse than the evil they are designed to remedy. They added that “restrictions must be interpreted and applied restrictively. In particular they must be in conformity with the principles of legitimacy, legality, proportionality and democratic necessity” (para. 5).", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "As to recommendations, the special rapporteurs proposed a discussion, in consultation with the professional information media and the specialized NGOs, of the “conditions under which the Sub-Commission could take the initiative of drawing up specific safeguard standards, especially with a view to lessening the possible risks to democracy of the theory of the so-called ‘admissible’ restrictions”. Simultaneously, the Sub-Commission should study the “desirability of identifying those elements that constitute the ‘hard core’ of the freedom of opinion, expression and information which in no circumstances might give rise to restrictions or derogations”.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "It is worth emphasizing that the special rapporteurs proposed the introduction of a special procedure to assure the protection of professionals in the field of information, against the background of journalists too frequently subjected to many irregular sanctions or serious persecution. They proposed a number of options: a special rapporteur, the solution that they favoured; a working group of the Commission on Human Rights; or a request to the Secretary-General to produce periodic reports.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "It is impossible here to do justice to all UNESCO initiatives in the field of freedom of expression. The Special Rapporteur nevertheless wishes to mention a few examples:\n(a) In 1978, the Executive Board of UNESCO laid down a confidential procedure for the examination of complaints (called communications) received by the organization concerning alleged violations of human rights in its fields of competence, namely education, science, culture and communication.[[fn:9]] A subsidiary organ of the Executive Board, the Committee on Conventions and Recommendations, implements it. From 1978 to 2003, the Committee on Conventions and Recommendations considered 508 communications;\n(b) The UNESCO General Conference at its twentieth session in 1978 proclaimed the Declaration on Fundamental Principles concerning the Contribution of the Mass Media to Strengthening Peace and International Understanding, to the Promotion of Human Rights and to Countering Racialism, Apartheid and Incitement to War;\n(c) The best known UNESCO effort in this field is the proclamation in 1993 by the General Assembly, in its decision 48/432 of World Press Freedom Day to be celebrated on 3 May. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur wishes to commend the work of the advisory group on press freedom, which includes media professionals from all parts of the world, and the establishment in 1997 of the UNESCO/Guillermo Cano World Press Freedom Prize.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "The procedure is set out in 104 EX/Decision 3.3 of the Executive Board."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Historical overview of the mandate"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "The Commission on Human Rights, in its resolution 2004/42 (para. 7), invited the Special Rapporteur, within the framework of its mandate, to continue to carry out his activities in accordance with paragraph 17 (a) to (d) and (f) of resolution 2003/42. Accordingly, the Special Rapporteur decided to continue the examination of the question of the existence and extent of the right to access to information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Implementing the right of access to information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "An increasing number of countries have recently been adopting information laws. New legislation often includes access to information provisions that should reinforce transparency efforts of public institutions. The effective implementation of the laws, however, remains a major challenge as some common obstacles have emerged: lack of political will at senior levels, inadequate information management, insufficient training of public officials and an excess of bureaucratic obstacles to timely information release. Moreover, in some countries it has proven to be nearly impossible to submit requests for information orally or without filling out an official form. Persons belonging to vulnerable or excluded groups, such as disabled individuals or ethnic minorities, are less likely to receive positive reactions than journalists or NGOs submitting the same requests.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Implementing the right of access to information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to commend the work done by the Open Society Justice Initiative, which in 2003 carried out a pilot study to develop a tool for monitoring access to information. The study had the objective of assessing whether national laws are effectively implemented in conformity with international standards and to aid civil society groups in promoting transparency and good governance. Indeed, the right of access to information held by public bodies has become a benchmark of democratic development and approximately 60 countries around the world now have laws establishing mechanisms for the public to request and receive Government-held information. A variety of factors, ranging from civil society campaigns to pressure from intergovernmental organizations and multilateral donors, pushes Governments and legislatures to adopt freedom of information laws.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Implementing the right of access to information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "Although international standards establish only a general right to freedom of information, the right of access to information, especially information held by public bodies, is easily deduced from the expression “to seek [and] receive … information” as contained in articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. At the regional level, legal provisions and recommendations on the right to access official documents, a right that can be subject to only a few restrictions, are on the increase. Restrictions should be provided for by law and concern issues such as the protection of the rights of others, national security, and the prevention of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred or any form of discrimination. Consequently, all information held by public bodies shall be publicly available unless it is subject to a legitimate exemption, and all bodies performing public functions, including governmental, legislative and judicial bodies, should be obliged to respond to requests for information. The expression “bodies performing public functions” also pertains to enterprises, societies and associations performing a unique role and/or receiving public funds.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Implementing the right of access to information"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "19", "treaty": "ICCPR", "confidence": "high", "source": "sonnet", "rationale": "Text: 'articles 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights'. Regex=ICCPR, explicit_treaty=ICCPR. ICCPR mandate document; the ICCPR citation is clear and primary in the SR's analysis."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "Under laws on the right to access information, these bodies should designate an office or officer to handle requests for information. In smaller institutions, an officer can be sufficient who might have other duties, while in larger bodies, a department might be dedicated to\npromoting transparency and providing information. In addition, all bodies performing public functions should publish an annual report and a financial account of their activities, and make them easily available to the public even in the absence of any information requests.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Implementing the right of access to information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "Anyone should be able to file information requests and should not have to provide grounds or reasons for their request: the right of access to information is a fundamental human right which can be exercised by all. Information requests should be treated equally without discrimination with regard to the requestor, regardless of his/her social, racial and political affiliation.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Implementing the right of access to information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "There are other important factors contributing to the correct implementation of the right of access to information and to the availability of information. For instance, replies should be provided in a timely fashion. Formalities for requests should be kept to a minimum and it should be possible, especially in countries with a low literacy rate, to make requests orally. For similar reasons, access should be to information rather than to documents, and its cost to the requestor should be limited to the supply costs and should not be so high as to prove an obstacle to access.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Implementing the right of access to information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "Refusals to provide information should always be grounded in law and be made within the time frames specified by law. The refusal should be made in writing and detail the grounds for not disclosing the information, as established by law. Legislation should guarantee the right to appeal refusals to provide information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Implementing the right of access to information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "On 6 December 2004, the Special Rapporteur, together with the Representative on freedom of the media of the OSCE, Mr. Miklos Haraszti, and the Special Rapporteur for freedom of expression of the OAS, Mr. Eduardo Bertoni, issued a joint statement within the framework of the programme Global Campaign for Free Expression of the non-governmental organization Article 19. The statement highlighted the fundamental importance of access to information and commended the decision taken by an increasing number of countries to adopt laws recognizing a right to access information. It underlined that access to information is a citizen’s right and that the procedures for accessing information should be simple, rapid and free or low cost. It condemned the attempts by some Governments to limit access to information, either by refusing to adopt access to information laws or by adopting laws that fail to conform to international standards. It affirmed that public authorities and their staff bear sole responsibility for protecting the confidentiality of legitimately secret information under their control. Other individuals, including journalists and civil society representatives, should never be subject to liability for publishing or further disseminating this information, regardless of whether or not it has been leaked to them, unless they committed fraud or another crime to obtain the information.[[fn:10]]", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "The full text of the statement is available at www.ohchr.org. - - - - -"}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Implementing the right of access to information"], "citedArticles": [{"treaty": "?", "article": "19", "source": "regex"}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "The protection and security of journalists have become central factors of their professional, and very often private, lives. Some NGOs provide consistent and comprehensive figures on journalists killed on duty or because of their professional activity. According to their data, 2004 has been one of the deadliest years for media professionals in the last decade. On 1 November 2004, the World Association of Newspapers reported that 56 journalists had been killed since the beginning of the year; according to the International Press Institute, that number was 61. Other organizations also include in their figures media workers like camera operators and other kinds of assistants. Reporters Without Borders stated that, in the same period, 45 journalists and 14 media assistants had been killed, while the Committee to Protect Journalists said that 44 journalists and 17 media workers had lost their lives. Many of these NGOs have taken a variety of initiatives on this subject, including scientific analyses of the phenomenon and practical advice for journalists working in conflict areas.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Protection and security of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "A geographical breakdown of the data mentioned above shows that Iraq was by far the most dangerous country for the press: approximately 23 journalists were killed in the first 10 months of 2004. The majority were Iraqi nationals killed during military operations, by either one side or the other, or specifically targeted because of their work. Latin American countries, such as Mexico, Brazil and Peru, and the Philippines have been dangerous places as well. Almost all the journalists killed in those countries were investigating corruption and alleged mismanagement. In Asia, the security of journalists is especially at risk in Bangladesh, Nepal and Sri Lanka. The trend known as “censorship by killing” noted by the former Special Rapporteur (E/CN.4/2002/75, para. 48) is still thriving.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Protection and security of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "Article 79 of the Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 is the most relevant international legal provision regarding the protection of journalists in areas of armed conflicts. Article 79 states that journalists engaged on dangerous professional missions shall be considered as civilians and protected, provided they take no action adversely affecting their status as civilian. The Protocol provides a model of an identity card to be issued by the Government of the State of which the journalist is a national.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Protection and security of media professionals"], "citedArticles": [{"article": "79", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "'Article 79 of the Additional Protocol I to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949' — IHL instrument, not a UN core treaty."}, {"article": "79", "treaty": "?", "confidence": "high", "source": "opus", "rationale": "Second reference to same 'Article 79' of Additional Protocol I — IHL, not a UN core treaty."}]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "In 1990, the Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities discussed the feasibility of a study on the ways and means of extending additional protection and assistance to journalists and mass media personnel while they carry out their duties to expose human rights violations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Protection and security of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "The idea of an international instrument protecting the life and the professional activity of media professionals was often discussed in the past, to no avail. The existence of many controversial issues and an unveiled reluctance of professionals to be bound to a juridical instrument made the proposal difficult to realize. It was also observed that the number of journalists killed on duty was closely linked to the existence and evolution of national and international armed conflicts. Nevertheless, there is an urgent need for strong, common action in this regard because such a situation is unacceptable: national and international institutions, together with professional associations, should take the lead and prepare a set of draft measures for increasing the security and protection of journalists and media workers.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Protection and security of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "The Special Rapporteur considers that the right to freedom of opinion and expression is a fundamental and inalienable right that contributes to the consolidation and the development of democracy, in addition to creating bridges between different peoples and civilizations. Any obstacle to the free movement of ideas and opinions limits freedom of expression and its beneficial consequences.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "The Special Rapporteur believes that democratic institutions, while not able to prevent all violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, do offer guarantees for its protection, as well as an enabling environment for its exercise. Freedom of opinion and expression not only benefits from a democratic environment, it also contributes, and is indeed instrumental, to the emergence and existence of effective democratic systems. However, violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression may occur in all regions and countries, whatever their system, and may take various forms.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes that, although some positive measures are being taken in a number of countries, several Governments have recently adopted restrictive legislation, in particular against new forms of freedom of opinion and expression and against defamation. Legislation on media ownership and functioning often appears to favour monopolistic or oligopolistic regimes.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "Despite some progress, the situation is still grim: numerous trends and patterns of violations remain substantially active and unchanged. The Special Rapporteur gathered information and examined a number of specific issues in depth: media security and media concentration, national legislation on defamation, the Internet as a tool for the promotion of freedom of expression, and access to information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "Media security remains a grave problem: in 2004, numerous journalists and media workers have been killed while performing their duties. The majority of them were killed in conflict areas, either because they were considered as being part of the enemy troops, or because they were identified as journalists and deliberately eliminated. Several other journalists were murdered because of their investigative activities regarding social and economic issues. The identity of the killers may vary: paramilitary groups, undercover law enforcement officials, rebel groups, terrorists. Most of the time these crimes are not adequately punished; on the contrary, in many cases there were strong suspicions of an involvement by legal authorities.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "The number of journalists and reporters killed in war zones has also increased because media, especially television, reporting is now considered as an essential element of war propaganda. Media reports may substantially create, and eventually change, the public’s views on a conflict depending on the perspective they offer. On the other hand, in many instances, journalists have offered a multifaceted view of conflict and have contributed to the ordinary citizen’s independent assessment of it.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is especially concerned about the growing phenomenon of media concentration, which is very active and visible in developing as well as developed countries. The Special Rapporteur notes that media directly run by private business corporations tend to be less impartial and professional than media run by an independent body such as a media authority or a blind trust. Moreover, professional associations and trade unions are incessantly challenged by the profit-oriented attitude of media owners.\nReversing this phenomenon will contribute to the emergence of a more pluralistic approach to information and will contribute to a more efficient, and often less expensive, service to customers.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur notes that the increasing development of television, radio and the Internet has created a deep crisis for the print media which has brought about the merging of national and international print groups and the dismissal of many professionals. This situation might greatly endanger the independence of professional journalism, especially in one of its most challenging sectors: investigative journalism. The print media are an irreplaceable instrument for the dissemination of ideas and opinions and its disappearance will encourage the dominance of information-as-entertainment, and even fiction, in the media world.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "The Special Rapporteur believes that guaranteeing freedom of opinion and expression on the Internet and other new communication tools is the central challenge for the future. The achievement of a global information society, in which the poor can also have access to modern technologies, may represent a leap forward for mankind, opening new paths for human and economic development. Should the information society miss the opportunity of making technologies available globally, the social and economic cleavage between developed and developing countries will deepen.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is particularly alarmed by the increasing use of forms of expression having discriminatory connotations for ethnic and other vulnerable groups. Hate speech and similar forms of expression can contribute substantially to the deterioration of a precarious stability and drive a country to armed confrontation. In post-conflict societies, biased reporting could rekindle violence and destroy laborious efforts for peace and reconciliation. Respect for human rights, professionalism and a sense of personal responsibility are indispensable elements for independent journalism, and they should be carefully preserved and developed.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "Libel and defamation remains a disturbing feature of communication today. It is sometimes used as a political tool to strike at individuals in the sphere of their private life. On the other hand, elected officials and authorities’ officials should be aware that, because of their role, they might attract the attention of the press in the carrying out of their functions (see, for example, the report of the former Special Rapporteur (E/CN.4/2000/63, paras. 45-52)). Bearing in mind the vital role played by the media in creating broad awareness of political, economic and social issues, the fact that many journalists were tried for libel is, in the Special Rapporteur’s opinion, totally unacceptable.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "The Special Rapporteur reiterates his concern over the poor implementation of the right to information, especially the right of access to information. Several countries have indeed adopted legislation on the right of access to information, but concern remains about their capacity to implement those laws in an effective way. In many countries, public bodies and bodies performing public functions continue to retain information and treat it in a confidential manner, even though there is no legal or other reason for this. Courts,\nparliaments, including their committees and subcommittees, and other institutions of public interest should be open to the citizen’s request for information. Moreover, all national authorities and other institutions with a direct connection to the interest and welfare of the citizen should prepare an annual report that includes a financial section. Generally speaking, only documents directly linked to the security of the State and its population should be covered, if necessary, by confidentiality provisions. Even in those cases, for the sake of transparency and for the development of the democratic process, after the conclusion of all judicial proceedings, followed by a time of reflection, confidentiality should be removed.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "The Special Rapporteur again notes that many Governments use anti-terrorism and national security legislation to restrict, partially or totally, freedom of opinion and expression and the right of access to information. Abuse of powers and prerogatives granted under such laws often leads to both prolonged and short-term arbitrary detention; torture; extrajudicial, summary or arbitrary executions; disappearances; threats and intimidation; the closure of various media enterprises; the banning of publications; bans on public gatherings; bans and prohibitions on organizations and groups that are not associated with terrorism; censorship on forms of communication; and judicial lenience for the abuses and crimes committed by police, armed forces and paramilitary groups.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0086", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "The Special Rapporteur urges Governments to implement the necessary measures to review existing practices and take remedial actions in all fields related to the promotion and protection of freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur especially encourages Governments of emerging democracies to promote and protect the freedom of opinion and expression of the press, political parties, trade unions, students, teachers, social workers, writers and artists. As appropriate, Governments may also consider the possibility of seeking technical assistance from OHCHR to eliminate the causes of human rights violations.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0087", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "The Special Rapporteur encourages members and organizations of civil society to continue to provide him with information on the realization and violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression around the world.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0088", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to recall that Governments have the responsibility of protecting the security of citizens, regardless of their political or social affiliations. Armed conflicts and widespread violence do not provide fertile ground for freedom of opinion and expression. Governments should take all necessary measures to protect journalists, as well as other professional categories at risk, from attacks, be they from officials, law enforcement officers, armed groups or terrorists.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0089", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "In this context, the Special Rapporteur urges national authorities, both civilian and military, and, where applicable, international authorities to conduct inquiries into killings and attacks against media professionals, trade unionists, social workers, students and\nteachers and artists, wherever they occur, including in war and conflict zones. An end to impunity for the perpetrators of such acts would reinforce the crucial role that the rule of law must play in all societies.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0090", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to reiterate his proposal to the Commission on Human Rights concerning the need for an in-depth, impartial study on the issue of the security of journalists, in particular in situations of armed conflict, based on information from and the experiences of Governments and intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0091", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "The Special Rapporteur encourages Governments to ensure that the exercise of the freedom of opinion and expression through the media is open and accessible to various actors of the civil society, including local communities and minorities and vulnerable groups, in addition to economic and political groups.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0092", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "The Special Rapporteur invites Governments to adopt laws and regulations allowing people to communicate freely over the Internet and to remove all present obstacles to the free flow of information. In this connection, the Special Rapporteur underlines that licensing procedures should be transparent, non-discriminatory and impartial and that limitations should be directed only at thwarting cybercrime, with special attention to the most heinous crimes such as paedophilia and trafficking in persons.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0093", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "To conform to international standards, national legislation should provide for libel and defamation cases to be dealt with under civil law. Any fines that are levied should not prevent the continuation of press activities and investigations and should be appropriate to the financial resources of journalists. The Special Rapporteur also notes that libel/ defamation cases could equally be solved without recourse to the judiciary, but through the good offices of a mediator. National press associations and relevant independent authorities should be enabled to resolve such cases.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0094", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "The Special Rapporteur encourages and supports the development of national and international initiatives aimed at monitoring the implementation of the right to information, including the right of access to information. He encourages all relevant national and international bodies to examine carefully proposals to develop these rights by the adoption of global and regional instruments or regulations on this matter.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2005-64-0095", "docId": "e-cn-4-2005-64", "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2004, "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "The Special Rapporteur urges the United Nations and other intergovernmental organizations to contribute to such initiatives in order to enhance their transparency and credibility. In this context, the Special Rapporteur wishes to support the work done in relation to financial transparency and accountability, and its link with sustainable development, with special reference to the activities of multilateral development institutions. The Special Rapporteur would also give further consideration to the drafting of a set of recommendations supporting a comparative study of measures to better implement the right of access to information.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0001", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "During armed conflict, people are at their most vulnerable and in the greatest need of accurate, trustworthy information to ensure their own safety and well-being. Yet, it is precisely in those situations that their freedom of opinion and expression, which includes “the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds”,[[fn:1]] is most constrained by the circumstances of war and the actions of the parties to the conflict and other actors to manipulate and restrict information for political, military and strategic objectives.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Article 19 (2), International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0002", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "Manipulation of information and the information environment by State and armed groups has long been a feature of war. It has taken many forms, from “ruses of war” that seek to deceive and demoralize enemy troops to “information operations” aimed at influencing the public and “hate speech” aimed at fomenting violence against minorities. What is new and of serious concern is the ease, scale and speed with which false or misleading harmful information is being created, distributed and amplified by digital technology.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0003", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "Social media platforms play a dual role in modern conflicts. On the one hand, they enable people to remain connected to family, friends and the outside world and to access a wide range of critical life-saving information. On the other hand, they serve as vectors of disinformation, propaganda and hate speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0004", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "Either in response to disinformation or as part of their own efforts to manipulate information, many States have sought to restrict access to information through laws on national security, counter-terrorism or “false news”, attacks on independent journalists and human rights defenders, closure of independent media outlets, Internet shutdowns, and regulation of digital platforms in ways that undermine human rights and aggravate the very problems they wish to address.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0005", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Freedom of opinion and expression is not part of the problem. It is the means by which to combat disinformation and a value in itself. Access to diverse, verifiable sources of information is a fundamental human right. It is an essential necessity for people in conflict-affected societies. In effect, it is a “survival right”. It is also vital for resolving conflicts, exposing human rights abuses and seeking justice and accountability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0006", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The heightened risks that disinformation and other forms of information manipulation pose to civilian populations, especially marginalized and vulnerable groups, and to human rights, humanitarian operations and peace processes underscore the urgency to reaffirm the obligations of States and companies to uphold freedom of opinion and expression. It is through respect for human rights and humanitarian principles that the integrity of information as well as the safety of people can be maintained during armed conflict.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0007", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Building on her report on countering disinformation while promoting and protecting freedom of opinion and expression,[[fn:2]] in the present report, the Special Rapporteur focuses on disinformation, propaganda and advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence (“hate speech”) in the context of armed conflicts, as defined under international humanitarian law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "A/HRC/47/25."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0008", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "In the report, the Special Rapporteur examines the nature and impact of information manipulation; the legal framework; and the roles of States and social media companies. She identifies challenges and threats, including areas of weak compliance or legal uncertainties, as well as good practices, and makes recommendations, mainly to States and social media companies. The report is not a comprehensive study and does not examine the role of armed groups or companies other than social media, or cyberoperations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0009", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "The Special Rapporteur acknowledges the complex and sensitive nature of the subject and the need for further research, analysis and consultations and considers the report a preliminary step in engaging with interested stakeholders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0010", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "The report has benefited from consultations and written submissions from States, journalists, human rights defenders, scholars and civil society organizations.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "The submissions are available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-freedom-of-opinion-and-expression."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0011", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Despite growing interest in information manipulation and the adoption of United Nations resolutions on disinformation,[[fn:4]] there remains considerable confusion about the various concepts and how they relate to each other. The lack of international agreement on definitions underscores the complexity of the notions and the polemics surrounding them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "General Assembly resolution 76/227 and Human Rights Council draft resolution A/HRC/49/L.31/Rev.1; see also A/HRC/47/25."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "A. Conceptual challenges"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0012", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Disinformation, propaganda and advocacy to incite discrimination, violence and hostility share some common features: lack of clear, agreed definitions; high prevalence in disturbances and conflict settings; amplification by digital technology; increasing focus on civilian populations rather than military personnel; and detrimental impact on human rights, democracy and peace processes. The concepts overlap at times. For instance, some forms of disinformation and propaganda can amount to advocacy of incitement to violence, hostility, discrimination and war crimes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "A. Conceptual challenges"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0013", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "All three concepts contain some degree of manipulation, deception and distortion of information that is meant to create confusion, including about their own meaning. Factual information is delegitimized as “fake news” or disinformation. Opinions, beliefs and uncertain knowledge are distorted to discredit the source. False information is instrumentalized to cause harm. Verifiable data from international bodies, including reports of the United Nations independent experts, are dismissed as disinformation, while propaganda is promoted as facts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "A. Conceptual challenges"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0014", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Disinformation has been present for millenniums but has gained new currency in the digital age. While there is no single agreed definition of disinformation, the term is used increasingly to signify the manipulation of false or misleading information to intentionally deceive and cause public harm.[[fn:5]] It should be distinguished from misinformation, which is falsehood disseminated with no intent to cause harm.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See European Commission, Strengthened Code of Practice on Disinformation, available at https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/2022-strengthened-code-practice-disinformation."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "A. Conceptual challenges"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0015", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Propaganda is mentioned but not defined in international law.[[fn:6]] While disinformation seeks to confuse and disrupt, the objective of propaganda is to advance a particular agenda or party. Derived from the notion of “propagating” or spreading information and views, it has a pejorative sense of disseminating information that may be true or false but is biased, partial, misleading and emotive.[[fn:7]] Propaganda and disinformation may overlap as part of “information operations”, which are commonly understood as campaigns by States or political actors to influence the views, attitudes and behaviour of adversaries or the public in order to achieve political and military objectives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Article 20 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}, {"n": 7, "text": "See Manfred Nowak, U.N. Covenant on Civil and Political Rights CCPR Commentary (Kehl am Rhein, Germany, N.P. Engel, 1993)."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "A. Conceptual challenges"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0016", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Incitement, or the act of directly or indirectly urging or instigating the commission of a crime, is prohibited in international law. The term “incitement” is used in the present report to denote advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility, violence (commonly referred to as “hate speech”), war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "A. Conceptual challenges"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0017", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "There is growing evidence that information is being manipulated to trigger, aggravate and sustain violence over prolonged periods, increasing the fog of war with contradictory and false news and fostering a climate of distrust. The dynamics of armed conflict and disinformation work in a complex interplay with other grievances to exacerbate human suffering, feed hatred and target vulnerable groups.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0018", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "Minorities and marginalized groups. From Rwanda[[fn:8]] three decades ago to Myanmar[[fn:9]] and Ethiopia[[fn:10]] in more recent times, parties to a conflict have used mass communications platforms to whip up hatred among the population, dehumanize the other side and incite gross violations of human rights, war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide.[[fn:11]] In some situations, political leaders have used intolerant, divisive and dangerous rhetoric to deny established facts, raise tensions and scapegoat national, ethnic and religious groups.[[fn:12]] Refugees, internally displaced persons and migrants have been portrayed often as threats to national security or social cohesion to drum up animosity against them.[[fn:13]]", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "See Montreal Institute for Genocide and Human Rights Studies, “Rwanda radio transcripts”, available at https://www.concordia.ca/research/migs/resources/rwanda-radio-transcripts.html."}, {"n": 9, "text": "A/HRC/39/CRP.2; see also submission of Free Expression Myanmar."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See Jasper Jackson and others, “Facebook accused by survivors of letting activists incite ethnic massacres and misinformation in Ethiopia”, Bureau of Investigative Journalism, 20 February 2022, available at https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/stories/2022-02-20/facebook-accused-of-letting-activists-incite-ethnic-massacres-with-hate-and-misinformation-by-survivors-in-ethiopia."}, {"n": 11, "text": "See SC/14939."}, {"n": 12, "text": "See Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and others, “Joint Declaration on Politicians and Public Officials on Freedom of Expression”, available at https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2022-04/Joint-Declaration-2021-Politicians_EN.pdf."}, {"n": 13, "text": "See https://www.un.org/en/hate-speech/impact-and-prevention/targets-of-hate."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0019", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Online hate speech and incitement in the Central African Republic have helped to fuel cycles of atrocities between Christians and Muslims in recent years.[[fn:14]] 14 In Ethiopia, online “activists” have used their Facebook accounts to spread hate and incite attacks, killings and displacement of other tribes.[[fn:15]] 15 In Iraq, militant groups use 8 See Montreal Institute for Genocide and Human Rights Studies, “Rwanda radio transcripts”, available at https://www.concordia.ca/research/migs/resources/rwanda-radio-transcripts.html. 9 A/HRC/39/CRP.2; see also submission of Free Expression Myanmar. 10 See Jasper Jackson and others, “Facebook accused by survivors of letting activists incite ethnic massacres and misinformation in Ethiopia”, Bureau of Investigative Journalism, 20 February 2022, available at https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/stories/2022-02-20/facebook-accused-ofletting-activists-incite-ethnic-massacres-with-hate-and-misinformation-by-survivors-in-ethiopia. 11 See SC/14939. 12 See Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression and others, “Joint Declaration on Politicians and Public Officials on Freedom of Expression”, available at https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2022-04/Joint-Declaration2021-Politicians_EN.pdf. 13 See https://www.un.org/en/hate-speech/impact-and-prevention/targets-of-hate. 14 See Nicola Barrach-Yousefi and others, A Lexicon of Hateful and Inflammatory Speech in the Central African Republic (PeaceTech Lab, Washington, D.C.), available at https://static1.squarespace.com/static/54257189e4b0ac0d5fca1566/t/60edb60d3680ef421b572ff7/ 1626191378524/CARLexicon_English_web.pdf; see also https://www.ungeneva.org/fr/newsmedia/news/2022/07/rca-un-expert-de-lonu-alarme-par-la-proliferation-des-fausses-informations. 15 See Global Witness, “Now is the time to kill: Facebook continues to approve hate speech inciting violence and genocide during civil war in Ethiopia”, 9 June 2022, available at https://www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/digital-threats/ethiopia-hate-speech/; see also Tessa Knight and Beth Alexion, “Influential Ethiopian social media accounts stoke violence along ethnic lines”, DFRLab, 17 December 2021, available at https://medium.com/dfrlab/influentialethiopian-social-media-accounts-stoke-violence-along-ethnic-lines-6713a1920b02. Telegram, Facebook and YouTube to propagate hate and division along sectarian lines, forcing many of the targets, especially women, to hide or flee their homes.[[fn:16]] 16", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See Nicola Barrach-Yousefi and others, A Lexicon of Hateful and Inflammatory Speech in the Central African Republic (PeaceTech Lab, Washington, D.C.), available at https://static1.squarespace.com/static/54257189e4b0ac0d5fca1566/t/60edb60d3680ef421b572ff7/1626191378524/CARLexicon_English_web.pdf; see also https://www.ungeneva.org/fr/news-media/news/2022/07/rca-un-expert-de-lonu-alarme-par-la-proliferation-des-fausses-informations."}, {"n": 15, "text": "See Global Witness, “Now is the time to kill: Facebook continues to approve hate speech inciting violence and genocide during civil war in Ethiopia”, 9 June 2022, available at https://www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/digital-threats/ethiopia-hate-speech/; see also Tessa Knight and Beth Alexion, “Influential Ethiopian social media accounts stoke violence along ethnic lines”, DFRLab, 17 December 2021, available at https://medium.com/dfrlab/influential-ethiopian-social-media-accounts-stoke-violence-along-ethnic-lines-6713a1920b02."}, {"n": 16, "text": "See Joey Shea and Ruba al-Hassani, “Hate speech, social media and political violence in Iraq: Virtual civil society and upheaval”, The Tahrir Institute for Middle East Policy, 11 February 2021, available at https://timep.org/commentary/analysis/hate-speech-social-media-and-political-violence-in-iraq-virtual-civil-society-and-upheaval/; see also Pshtiwan Faraj and Emilie Wilson, “Deeply ingrained prejudice fuels hate speech in Iraq”, Institute of Development Studies, 9 January 2021, available at https://www.ids.ac.uk/opinions/deeply-ingrained-prejudice-fuels-hate-speech-in-iraq/."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0020", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "The wave of violence and killings that followed the shooting of singer Hachalu Hundessa is just one illustration of how online hate translates into offline atrocities.[[fn:17]] In South Sudan, derogatory language was used online to stigmatize pastoralist Dinka tribes as threats to territorial and ethnic integrity and incite fighters and armed groups to identify, attack and kill them.[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See United Nations press release, “UN experts call on Ethiopia to allow peaceful protests, welcome partial restoration of Internet”, 21 July 2020, available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2020/07/un-experts-call-ethiopia-allow-peaceful-protests-welcome-partial-restoration?LangID=E&NewsID=26115."}, {"n": 18, "text": "See Dangerous Speech Project, “Dinka called ‘MTN’ in South Sudan”, 2 January 2022, available at https://dangerousspeech.org/dinka-called-mtn-in-south-sudan/; see also Community Power for Progress Organization, “Social networks ignite the war that puts the country on the brink of genocide”, 15 May 2017, available at http://cepo-southsudan.org/news/social-networks-ignite-war-puts-country-brink-genocide."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0021", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Civilian populations. Disinformation about the location and nature of hostilities, the displacement of troops or population, or the existence and accessibility of safe areas can lead people to make wrong and dangerous decisions. In many situations, civilians find themselves affected not only by disinformation but also by information blackouts and Internet shutdowns imposed by the authorities.[[fn:19]] When families cannot communicate with one another, when people cannot access reliable information about the security situation or the availability of essential services or humanitarian assistance, they are unable to assess the risks to their security and safety and make decisions accordingly. Civilians in Ethiopia have described the lack of access to reliable information as turning their lives “upside down”.[[fn:20]] The importance of reliable information about humanitarian corridors was highlighted in the case of civilians trying to escape the fighting in Mariupol, Ukraine.[[fn:21]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Joint submission of Mass Media Defence Centre, Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info."}, {"n": 20, "text": "See Report of the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission/Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) Joint Investigation into Alleged Violations of International Human Rights, Humanitarian and Refugee Law Committed by all Parties to the Conflict in the Tigray Region of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, available at https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3947207?ln=en."}, {"n": 21, "text": "Deutsche Welle, “Ukraine says planned Mariupol evacuations fell short – as it happened”, April 2022."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0022", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Studies have shown the disproportionate impact of disinformation on women,[[fn:22]] children[[fn:23]] and LGBTIQ+ persons.[[fn:24]] Their situation is only worsened in conflict settings, where support is often lacking.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "EU DisinfoLab, “Gender-based disinformation: Advancing our understanding and response”, 20 October 2021, available at https://www.disinfo.eu/publications/gender-based-disinformation-advancing-our-understanding-and-response/; see also Lucina Di Meco and Kristina Wilfore, “Gendered disinformation is a national security problem”, Brookings Institution, 8 March 2021, available at https://www.brookings.edu/techstream/gendered-disinformation-is-a-national-security-problem/."}, {"n": 23, "text": "See United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Office of Global Insight and Policy, “Digital misinformation/disinformation and children”, August 2021, available at https://www.unicef.org/ globalinsight/media/2096/file/UNICEF-Global-Insight-Digital-Mis-Disinformation-and-Children-2021.pdf."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies, Policy Department, “Disinformation campaigns about LGBTI+ people in the EU and foreign influence”, July 2021, available at https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2021/653644/EXPO_BRI(2021) 653644_EN.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0023", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Distorted situational awareness can significantly increase anxiety, fear and stress and, combined with trauma resulting from exposure to violence and atrocities, can have prolonged consequences for mental health.[[fn:25]] By constantly stimulating feelings of anger and outrage, disinformation can also instigate radical forms of resentment, extreme opinions and resort to violence.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See Eian Katz, “Liar’s war: Protecting civilians from disinformation during armed conflict” in International Review of the Red Cross, No. 914, December 2021, available at https://international-review.icrc.org/articles/protecting-civilians-from-disinformation-during-armed-conflict-914."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0024", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Human rights and humanitarian actors. Parties to the conflict or their allies have used disinformation and propaganda to discredit human rights defenders and humanitarian actors and disrupt humanitarian access and assistance. For example, in Ukraine,[[fn:26]] the Syrian Arab Republic[[fn:27]] and the State of Palestine,[[fn:28]] orchestrated disinformation campaigns have spread unfounded accusations against the organizations of partiality, criminal activities or links with armed groups.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), “Ukraine: Addressing misinformation about ICRC’s activities”, 26 March 2022, available at https://www.icrc.org/en/document/ukraine-addressing-misinformation-about-icrcs-activities."}, {"n": 27, "text": "See Mel Bunce, “Humanitarian communication in a post-truth world” in Journal of Humanitarian Affairs, Manchester openhive, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1 January 2019, available at https://www.manchesteropenhive.com/ view/journals/jha/1/1/article-p49.xml; see also Louisa Loveluck, “Russian disinformation campaign targets Syria’s beleaguered rescue workers” in The Washington Post, 18 December 2018, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/russian-disinformation-campaign-targets-syrias-beleaguered-rescue-workers/2018/12/18/113b03c4-02a9-11e9-8186-4ec26a485713_story.html."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Submission of Charity and Security Network (2021 call for submissions)."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0025", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Such disinformation can affect people’s perception of these organizations and induce them to refuse to engage with them or accept their services. Smear campaigns can affect donor funding and create security risks, including the risk of gender-based violence against female workers, affecting the presence, access and ability of humanitarian workers to provide assistance to vulnerable populations.[[fn:29]] 29 In some situations, such as in Ethiopia, the authorities have restricted or blocked the work of humanitarian organizations, accusing them of spreading disinformation when their activities or communications did not align fully with the interests of the governments.30 22 EU DisinfoLab, “Gender-based disinformation: Advancing our understanding and response”, 20 October 2021, available at https://www.disinfo.eu/publications/gender-based-disinformationadvancing-our-understanding-and-response/; see also Lucina Di Meco and Kristina Wilfore, “Gendered disinformation is a national security problem”, Brookings Institution, 8 March 2021, available at https://www.brookings.edu/techstream/gendered-disinformation-is-a-nationalsecurity-problem/. 23 See United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Office of Global Insight and Policy, “Digital misinformation/disinformation and children”, August 2021, available at https://www.unicef.org/ globalinsight/media/2096/file/UNICEF-Global-Insight-Digital-Mis-Disinformation-andChildren-2021.pdf. 24 See European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies, Policy Department, “Disinformation campaigns about LGBTI+ people in the EU and foreign influence”, July 2021, available at https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2021/653644/EXPO_BRI(2021) 653644_EN.pdf. 25 See Eian Katz, “Liar’s war: Protecting civilians from disinformation during armed conflict” in International Review of the Red Cross, No. 914, December 2021, available at https://internationalreview.icrc.org/articles/protecting-civilians-from-disinformation-during-armed-conflict-914. 26 See International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), “Ukraine: Addressing misinformation about ICRC’s activities”, 26 March 2022, available at https://www.icrc.org/en/document/ukraineaddressing-misinformation-about-icrcs-activities. 27 See Mel Bunce, “Humanitarian communication in a post-truth world” in Journal of Humanitarian Affairs, Manchester openhive, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1 January 2019, available at https://www.manchesteropenhive.com/ view/journals/jha/1/1/article-p49.xml; see also Louisa Loveluck, “Russian disinformation campaign targets Syria’s beleaguered rescue workers” in The Washington Post, 18 December 2018, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/russian-disinformation-campaign-targets-syrias-beleagueredrescue-workers/2018/12/18/113b03c4-02a9-11e9-8186-4ec26a485713_story.html. 28 Submission of Charity and Security Network (2021 call for submissions). 29 See Rachel Xu, “You can’t handle the truth: misinformation and humanitarian action”, ICRC Humanitarian Law and Policy Blog, 15 January 2021, available at https://blogs.icrc.org/law-andpolicy/2021/01/15/misinformation-humanitarian/. 30 See Kaamil Ahmed, “Ethiopia suspends aid groups for ‘spreading misinformation’” in The Guardian, 6 August 2021, available at https://www.theguardian.com/globaldevelopment/2021/aug/06/ethiopia-suspends-aid-groups-for-spreading-misinformation.", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See Rachel Xu, “You can’t handle the truth: misinformation and humanitarian action”, ICRC Humanitarian Law and Policy Blog, 15 January 2021, available at https://blogs.icrc.org/law-and-policy/2021/01/15/misinformation-humanitarian/."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0026", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "Public trust. Disinformation creates public distrust in the integrity of information, which in turn has broad social and political implications, hindering peace, democracy, reconciliation and reconstruction.[[fn:31]] When people cannot trust the sources of information, it is impossible for communities to build a shared understanding of facts and without that understanding, there can be no common basis for constructive exchanges to enable mediation and reconciliation. In protracted and frozen conflict situations such as Nagorno-Karabakh[[fn:32]] or the State of Palestine,[[fn:33]] disinformation, propaganda and distorted narratives from various parties in the conflict area and outside have hindered conflict resolution and peace processes for decades.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "See Mercy Corps, “Strengthening social cohesion for violence prevention: Ten lessons for policymakers and practitioners”, March 2022, available at https://www.mercycorps.org/sites/ default/files/2022-06/10-Lessons-SC-Brief_V6_EU.pdf; see also T.M. Sagherian-Dickey, “The importance of trust in achieving positive peace” in The Palgrave Handbook of Positive Peace, 31 July 2021, available at https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-981-15-3877-3_52-1#citeas."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See European Resources for Mediation Support, “Media and disinformation in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and their role in conflict resolution and peacebuilding”, January 2021, available at https://www2.coleurope.eu/system/tdf/uploads/news/event_report_-_media_and_ disinformation_in_the_nagorno-karabakh_conflict.pdf?&file=1&type=node&id=draft&force=."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Submission of 7amleh - Arab Center for Advancement of Social Media; see also Sheera Frankel, “Lies on social media inflame Israeli-Palestinian conflict” in The New York Times, 14 May 2021, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/14/technology/israel-palestine-misinformation-lies-social-media.html."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "B. People and issues at risk"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0027", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "Disinformation, propaganda and hate speech are not peculiar to armed conflicts. They are used also at other times and spread in an amorphous way across the various phases and cycles of tensions and unrest that precede or follow armed conflicts. The underlying causes of conflict, namely, historic grievances, systemic inequalities, discrimination, intercommunal and ethnic rivalry, political tensions and poor governance, provide a perfect breeding ground for them. The dynamics of division, polarization and dehumanization that characterize violence and conflicts sustain and are sustained by such manipulation of information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "C. Vectors of manipulated information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0028", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The gamechanger for disinformation in war, as well as peace, has been digital technology. In Ethiopia, an estimated 70 per cent of disinformation has been spread by social media.[[fn:34]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "See European Institute of Peace, “Fake news misinformation and hate speech in Ethiopia: A vulnerability assessment”, 12 April 2021, available at https://www.eip.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/Fake-News-Misinformation-and-Hate-Speech-in-Ethiopia.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "C. Vectors of manipulated information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0029", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Technological innovation makes it possible to create “deep fake” images, videos and text that convincingly distort reality, while the business models and techniques of digital and social media platforms facilitate their rapid spread at scale and speed.[[fn:35]] Microtargeting techniques, algorithmic recommendations and network effects fuel information formats and content that stimulate cognitive and emotional biases ,such as surprise, anger, disgust or outrage, to gain and sustain users’ attention.[[fn:36]] 36 They also accentuate echo chambers and polarize audiences along political and sectarian lines. 31 See Mercy Corps, “Strengthening social cohesion for violence prevention: Ten lessons for policymakers and practitioners”, March 2022, available at https://www.mercycorps.org/sites/ default/files/2022-06/10-Lessons-SC-Brief_V6_EU.pdf; see also T.M. Sagherian-Dickey, “The importance of trust in achieving positive peace” in The Palgrave Handbook of Positive Peace, 31 July 2021, available at https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-981-153877-3_52-1#citeas. 32 See European Resources for Mediation Support, “Media and disinformation in the NagornoKarabakh conflict and their role in conflict resolution and peacebuilding”, January 2021, available at https://www2.coleurope.eu/system/tdf/uploads/news/event_report_-_media_and_ disinformation_in_the_nagorno-karabakh_conflict.pdf?&file=1&type=node&id=draft&force=. 33 Submission of 7amleh - Arab Center for Advancement of Social Media; see also Sheera Frankel, “Lies on social media inflame Israeli-Palestinian conflict” in The New York Times, 14 May 2021, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2021/05/14/technology/israel-palestine-misinformationlies-social-media.html. 34 See European Institute of Peace, “Fake news misinformation and hate speech in Ethiopia: A vulnerability assessment”, 12 April 2021, available at https://www.eip.org/wpcontent/uploads/2021/04/Fake-News-Misinformation-and-Hate-Speech-in-Ethiopia.pdf. 35 See Dan Boneh and others, “Preparing for the age of deepfakes and disinformation”, Stanford University Human-Centred Artificial Intelligence, November 2020, available at https://hai.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/2020-11/HAI_Deepfakes_PolicyBrief_Nov20.pdf; see also Ben Buchanan and others, “Truth, lies and automation: How language models could change disinformation”, Center for Security and Emerging Technology, May 2021, available at https://cset.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/CSET-Truth-Lies-and-Automation.pdf. 36 See Matthew Shaer, “What emotion goes viral the fastest?” in Smithsonian Magazine, April 2014, available at https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/what-emotion-goes-viralfastest-180950182/. 10/28", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See Dan Boneh and others, “Preparing for the age of deepfakes and disinformation”, Stanford University Human-Centred Artificial Intelligence, November 2020, available at https://hai.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/2020-11/HAI_Deepfakes_PolicyBrief_Nov20.pdf; see also Ben Buchanan and others, “Truth, lies and automation: How language models could change disinformation”, Center for Security and Emerging Technology, May 2021, available at https://cset.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/CSET-Truth-Lies-and-Automation.pdf."}, {"n": 36, "text": "See Matthew Shaer, “What emotion goes viral the fastest?” in Smithsonian Magazine, April 2014, available at https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/what-emotion-goes-viral-fastest-180950182/."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "C. Vectors of manipulated information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0030", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "Despite the increased use of social media, legacy media remain the most common source of news for most people in conflict areas. While public interest journalism is a key tool for countering manipulated information, some media outlets, especially State-controlled media, are a vector for disinformation, propaganda and hate speech.[[fn:37]] There is a risk also for independent media to proliferate manipulated information if they rely on government officials as their sole source or are reluctant to question official statements.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "Submission of Article 19."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "C. Vectors of manipulated information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0031", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "It is interesting to note the interplay between online and offline settings. In Yemen, for instance, as traditional media outlets have taken sides in the conflict, young Yemenis have increasingly resorted to social media to get their news but have found themselves exposed to false news.[[fn:38]] In Myanmar, increased scrutiny and content moderation by platforms have led the authorities to augment online campaigns with offline propaganda, using pamphlets, fliers, letters and local newspapers.[[fn:39]] In both cases, the consequences of online hate have manifested in offline violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "See Ark, “Fake news and disinformation in Yemen’s conflict”, 5 June 2021, available at https://www.ark.international/ark-blog/fake-news-and-disinformation-in-yemens-conflict."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See Andrew Nachemson and Frontier Myanmar, “Military disinformation moves offline amid Internet restrictions”, 28 January 2021, available at https://www.frontiermyanmar.net/en/military-disinformation-moves-offline-amid-internet-restrictions/; see also submission of Free Expression Myanmar."}], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "C. Vectors of manipulated information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0032", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The growth of disinformation cannot be attributed solely to digital technology or the underlying causes of conflicts. The vectors are multiple, including State and non-State actors, political parties, armed groups and businesses supported by paid troll armies and public relations companies. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur focuses mainly on the roles and responsibilities of States and social media companies.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Concepts, victims and vectors", "C. Vectors of manipulated information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0033", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "It is now well recognized that international human rights law and international humanitarian law apply concurrently in armed conflicts.[[fn:40]] While the International Court of Justice has noted that “some rights may be exclusively matters of international humanitarian law; yet others may be exclusively matters of human rights law; yet others may be matters of both these branches of international law”,[[fn:41]] according to the Human Rights Committee, the two regimes are “complementary, not exclusive”.[[fn:42]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "See International Court of Justice, Advisory opinion on the legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons, 8 July 1996."}, {"n": 41, "text": "See International Court of Justice, Advisory opinion on the legal consequences of the construction of a wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, 9 July 2004."}, {"n": 42, "text": "CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13, para. 11."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "A. Concurrent application of international human rights and humanitarian law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0034", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The application of international human rights law alongside international humanitarian law is vital for the effective protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression during conflicts. International humanitarian law is triggered only at the onset of armed conflict and is concerned primarily with the conduct of military operations and the protection of certain classes of persons in international and non-international conflicts. As such, it covers freedom of expression and access to information issues “only tenuously and non-systematically”.[[fn:43]] 43 Human rights principles and standards can provide clarity and protection where international humanitarian law is silent, absent or unclear. 37 Submission of Article 19. 38 See Ark, “Fake news and disinformation in Yemen’s conflict”, 5 June 2021, available at https://www.ark.international/ark-blog/fake-news-and-disinformation-in-yemens-conflict. 39 See Andrew Nachemson and Frontier Myanmar, “Military disinformation moves offline amid Internet restrictions”, 28 January 2021, available at https://www.frontiermyanmar.net/en/militarydisinformation-moves-offline-amid-internet-restrictions/; see also submission of Free Expression Myanmar. 40 See International Court of Justice, Advisory opinion on the legality of the threat or use of nuclear weapons, 8 July 1996. 41 See International Court of Justice, Advisory opinion on the legal consequences of the construction of a wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, 9 July 2004. 42 CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.13, para. 11. 43 See https://www.geneva-academy.ch/joomlatools-files/docman-files/working-papers/Protecting%20 the%20Global%20inupholdiformation%20space%20in%20times%20of%20armed%20conflict.pdf.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "See https://www.geneva-academy.ch/joomlatools-files/docman-files/working-papers/Protecting%20 the%20Global%20inupholdiformation%20space%20in%20times%20of%20armed%20conflict.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "A. Concurrent application of international human rights and humanitarian law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0035", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The mutually reinforcing nature of the two legal regimes offers important possibilities for upholding freedom of opinion and expression in the face of emerging and complex challenges in the digital age. For instance, international humanitarian law applies only to parties engaged in an armed conflict, whereas human rights obligations are applicable to a broader range of actors involved in the manipulation of information. Furthermore, certain types of manipulation that are permissible under international humanitarian law can be restricted under the human rights regime. The concurrent application of both regimes thus provides the scope for a calibrated approach.[[fn:44]] On the other hand, international humanitarian law gives greater protection than international human rights law against certain specific threats in times of war.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "See Eian Katz, “Liar’s war”."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "A. Concurrent application of international human rights and humanitarian law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0036", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "The right to freedom of opinion and expression is enshrined in article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Freedom of opinion is an absolute right, not subject to limitation, restriction or derogation, even during armed conflict.[[fn:45]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "CCPR/C/GC/34."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "B. Information manipulation under international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0037", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "Freedom of expression includes the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, true or false, offensive or enlightened, regardless of frontiers and in any media of one’s choice. It may be restricted only through measures that are lawful and strictly necessary to protect the rights and reputations of others, national security, public order, public health or public morals.[[fn:46]] The principle of legality requires that restrictions be made by laws that are clear, precise and public and do not confer undue discretion on officials. The principle of necessity requires the restriction to be proportionate and narrowly construed to achieve the legitimate aims set out in article 19 (3) of the Covenant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "Article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "B. Information manipulation under international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0038", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "Disinformation cannot be prohibited under international human rights law unless it amounts to advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement to hostility, violence and discrimination. It may be restricted only if it meets the requirements of legality, necessity and legitimate objectives as set out in the Covenant. Falsity or manipulation of information is not in itself a sufficient ground for restricting freedom of expression. In most cases, the best antidote to disinformation is not legal restriction but the free flow of diverse and verifiable sources of information, including through independent, free and pluralistic media, trustworthy public information, and media and digital literacy.[[fn:47]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "A/HRC/47/25 and A/HRC/49/L.31/Rev.1."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "B. Information manipulation under international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0039", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "Freedom of expression protects propaganda like any other speech. It may be restricted under the same conditions as disinformation described above. Propaganda for war, however, must be prohibited.[[fn:48]] The prohibition is understood to be applicable only in relation to aggression or breach of peace contrary to the Charter of the United Nations and limited to incitement of war and not to propaganda during war.[[fn:49]] Interpreting ”war” as aggression precludes the misuse of this provision to crush internal disturbances, while limiting it to incitement of aggression allows States that have been attacked to rally support in self-defence. There is, however, confusion among some States and companies about its scope, which underlines the need for further clarification.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Article 20 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}, {"n": 49, "text": "See Andrei Richter, “The Relationship between Freedom of Expression and the Ban on Propaganda for War in European Yearbook on Human Rights 2015; see also submission of Article 19."}, {"n": 50, "text": "Submissions of Centre for Law and Democracy and Meta."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "B. Information manipulation under international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0040", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "Advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement to hostility, violence and discrimination is prohibited under international law, but States are not required to criminalize it. The Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, endorsed by the Human Rights Council, provides guidance on assessing the appropriateness of criminalization in the light of six factors, including the social context, the speaker’s status and intent, the content and form of the speech, the nature of the audience, the reach of the communication and the imminence of harm.[[fn:51]] The guidelines are equally applicable to conflicts as to other settings.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, appendix."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "B. Information manipulation under international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0041", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Incitement to discrimination, hostility and violence is also prohibited by the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, with criminalization required only in “serious cases”.[[fn:52]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Article 4."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "B. Information manipulation under international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0042", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "International law allows States to derogate from certain rights, including freedom of expression, during an emergency “which threatens the life of the nation”.[[fn:53]] While derogation gives a State greater licence to restrict expression, it does not mean that the right can be suspended without limits. Measures under derogation must be time-limited, proportionate and only “to the extent strictly required by the exigencies of the situation”. They should not be discriminatory or inconsistent with the State’s other international obligations or violate the peremptory norms of international law. Furthermore, derogation does not allow any action to be taken that is “aimed at the destruction” of the right itself.[[fn:54]] Thus, even under derogation, the right to freedom of expression enjoys a degree of protection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "Article 4 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}, {"n": 54, "text": "Article 5 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "B. Information manipulation under international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0043", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "Manipulation of freedom of opinion deserves more attention from States and social media companies in the light of its gravity. Freedom of opinion enjoys absolute protection under international human rights law, whether in war or peace. Coercive, involuntary or non-consensual manipulation of the thinking process, such as indoctrination or “brainwashing” by State or non-State actors, violates freedom of opinion. Content curation through powerful platform recommendations or microtargeting, which plays a key element in amplifying disinformation and aggravating political tensions, is non-consensual manipulation of users’ innermost thinking processes in digitized form. As such, it amounts to a violation of the right to freedom of opinion.[[fn:55]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "See Evelyn Aswad, “Losing the freedom to be human” in Columbia Human Rights Law Review, 29 February 2020). See also A/HRC/47/25, paras. 33–36."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "B. Information manipulation under international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0044", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "International humanitarian law has been described as taking “a remarkably lenient approach” to information manipulation during armed conflict.[[fn:56]] 56 Disinformation campaigns including ruses or the manipulation of information in order to undermine the adversary’s will to resist, subterfuge and other forms of deception and propaganda are widely used by belligerents and are not unlawful under international humanitarian law. 50 Submissions of Centre for Law and Democracy and Meta. 51 A/HRC/22/17/Add.4, appendix. 52 Article 4. 53 Article 4 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. 54 Article 5 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. 55 See Evelyn Aswad, “Losing the freedom to be human” in Columbia Human Rights Law Review, 29 February 2020). See also A/HRC/47/25, paras. 33–36. 56 See Eian Katz, “Liar’s war”.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "See Eian Katz, “Liar’s war”."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "C. Information manipulation under international humanitarian law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0045", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "There are some limitations to manipulation of information under international humanitarian law.[[fn:57]] Perfidy (misleading acts designed to induce one side to extend protections of international humanitarian law to the adversary so that it can kill, injure or capture) is prohibited. Certain harmful consequences arising from information operations are also prohibited, such as threats of violence or attacks to spread terror among civilian populations, encouragement of violations of international humanitarian law or incitement to commit war crimes, and threats or orders that no quarter be given or that civilians be attacked. All forms of inhumane treatment, outrages against personal dignity or humiliating or degrading treatment are prohibited against persons who are not participating in hostilities.[[fn:58]] These rules apply to actions taken through any means, including as part of incitement, disinformation and propaganda campaigns on media or social media.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "See Robin Geiss and Henning Lahmann, “Protecting the global information space in times of armed conflict, Geneva Academy, February 2021, available at https://www.geneva-academy.ch/joomlatools-files/docman-files/working-papers/Protecting%20the%20Global%20information%20space%20 in%20times%20of%20armed%20conflict.pdf. See also Dapo Akande, “Oxford statement on international law protections in cyberspace: The regulation of information operations and activities”, Just Security, 2 June 2021, available at https://www.justsecurity.org/76742/oxford-statement-on-international-law-protections-in-the-regulation-of-information-operations-and-activities/."}, {"n": 58, "text": "Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, common article 3."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "C. Information manipulation under international humanitarian law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0046", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Some experts have questioned whether these limitations are adequate in the light of the nature and impact of disinformation campaigns using digital technology and social media that are directed at civilians rather than the military.[[fn:59]] This is a valid concern that deserves serious consideration from United Nations treaty bodies, States and international organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 59, "text": "See Geiss and Lahmann, “Protecting the global information space” and Eian Katz, “Liar’s war”."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "C. Information manipulation under international humanitarian law"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0047", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "Uncensored and unhindered news media and the right of journalists[[fn:60]] to work safely and without fear are not only integral to the right to freedom of opinion and expression, but also key to countering disinformation, including in conflict settings. International human rights law protects the practice of free, independent and pluralistic journalism and the right of journalists to free expression,[[fn:61]] while international humanitarian law is silent on the issue.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 60, "text": "The term “journalist” includes professional journalists, analysts, media workers, bloggers and others engaged in journalism: see A/HRC/50/29, paras. 15–16."}, {"n": 61, "text": "A/HRC/50/29."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "D. Protection of journalists"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0048", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "International humanitarian law protects journalists as civilians. The deliberate killing of a journalist is a war crime.[[fn:62]] 62 The dissemination of propaganda by journalists, even though such activity supports a war effort, does not legitimize the targeting of journalists or media facilities.[[fn:63]] Journalists or media outlets may become a legitimate military objective if they participate directly in hostilities or incite war crimes or other international crimes.64 57 See Robin Geiss and Henning Lahmann, “Protecting the global information space in times of armed conflict, Geneva Academy, February 2021, available at https://www.geneva-academy.ch/joomlatoolsfiles/docman-files/working-papers/Protecting%20the%20Global%20information%20space%20 in%20times%20of%20armed%20conflict.pdf. See also Dapo Akande, “Oxford statement on international law protections in cyberspace: The regulation of information operations and activities”, Just Security, 2 June 2021, available at https://www.justsecurity.org/76742/oxford-statement-oninternational-law-protections-in-the-regulation-of-information-operations-and-activities/. 58 Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, common article 3. 59 See Geiss and Lahmann, “Protecting the global information space” and Eian Katz, “Liar’s war”. 60 The term “journalist” includes professional journalists, analysts, media workers, bloggers and others engaged in journalism: see A/HRC/50/29, paras. 15–16. 61 A/HRC/50/29. 62 Article 8 (2) (a), Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. 63 See Nils Melzer, Interpretative guidance on the notion of direct participation in hostilities under international humanitarian law (ICRC, Geneva, May 2009), available at https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/ assets/files/other/icrc-002-0990.pdf, See also submission of The Centre for Law and Democracy. 64 See International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Final Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO Bombing Campaign against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, available at https://www.icty.org/en/press/final-report-prosecutorcommittee-established-review-nato-bombing-campaign-against-federal. 14/28", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "Article 8 (2) (a), Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court."}, {"n": 63, "text": "See Nils Melzer, Interpretative guidance on the notion of direct participation in hostilities under international humanitarian law (ICRC, Geneva, May 2009), available at https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/ assets/files/other/icrc-002-0990.pdf, See also submission of The Centre for Law and Democracy."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "D. Protection of journalists"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0049", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The challenge for the protection and safety of journalists in conflict settings is not one of legal gaps but the lack of political will and the failure of States and other parties to the conflict to comply with international law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "D. Protection of journalists"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0050", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "Digital technology has made it possible for information to be manipulated remotely and to impact human rights from across borders. However, extraterritorial application of international human rights law is a complex and controversial issue, raising concerns of sovereignty and security as well as human rights. Neither international human rights law nor international humanitarian law appear to have a clear answer to the thorny question of what are the responsibilities of States that inject, spread or sponsor propaganda, disinformation or incitement from across borders in conflicts to which they are not a party.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "E. Extraterritorial responsibility for human rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0051", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Under article 2 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, States parties are required to respect and ensure the rights in the Covenant to all individuals within their territory and subject to their jurisdiction. That provision has been interpreted by the Human Rights Committee to include both those who are in the territory and those who are outside the territory but within the effective control of the State concerned.[[fn:65]] On the other hand, the Human Rights Committee has also taken the position, in a case relating to transfer of physical custody, that a State may be responsible for extraterritorial violation of human rights if it is a link in the causal chain that made the violation possible.[[fn:66]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "CCPR/C//21/Rev.1/Add.13, para. 10."}, {"n": 66, "text": "CCPR/96/D/1539/2006."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "E. Extraterritorial responsibility for human rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0052", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "This decision suggests that the power of effective control should be considered not only over the person or the territory where they are located but over their human rights. Such an approach offers a possible route to accountability in situations where human rights violations are committed remotely using digital technology.[[fn:67]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "See Ido Kilovaty, “An Extraterritorial Human Right to Cybersecurity” in Notre Dame Journal of International and Comparative Law, vol. 10, No. 1."}], "section": ["III. Mapping the legal landscape", "E. Extraterritorial responsibility for human rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0053", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "The General Assembly and the Human Rights Council have affirmed that responses to disinformation must be grounded in human rights.[[fn:68]] State responses range from policies and practices that promote the free flow of information in line with international human rights law to actions that seek to fight disinformation using measures that undermine human rights and to some situations in which the State itself is implicated in making, sponsoring and spreading disinformation, propaganda and hate speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 68, "text": "General Assembly resolution 76/227 and A/HRC/49/L.31/Rev.1."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0054", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "There are many examples of good practice by States to counter disinformation through measures that improve access to diverse and verifiable sources of information. These include robust laws and policies on access to information, transparency of governance, factual trustworthy public information and the promotion of independent, free, plural and diverse media.69 65 CCPR/C//21/Rev.1/Add.13, para. 10. 66 CCPR/96/D/1539/2006. 67 See Ido Kilovaty, “An Extraterritorial Human Right to Cybersecurity” in Notre Dame Journal of International and Comparative Law, vol. 10, No. 1. 68 General Assembly resolution 76/227 and A/HRC/49/L.31/Rev.1. 69 A/HRC/50/29.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "A. Promoting access to information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0055", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "A number of Governments, in particular those of Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden, have invested significantly in digital, media and information literacy to build social resilience against disinformation.[[fn:70]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 70, "text": "See Michael Forsman, “Media literacy and the emerging media citizen in the Nordic media welfare State” in Nordic Journal of Media Studies, 6 June 2020, available at https://www.sciendo.com/article/10.2478/njms-2020-0006."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "A. Promoting access to information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0056", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "At the level of the European Union, various legislative and policy measures have been launched to support member States in addressing the threats of disinformation, including the European Democracy Action Plan, the strengthened Code of Practice on Disinformation and a co-regulatory framework under the Digital Services Act. The European Union is also funding programmes to support civil society initiatives against disinformation, such as media and fact-checking projects.[[fn:71]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "Submission of the European Union."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "A. Promoting access to information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0057", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "There are various initiatives to support crisis response. One example is visa arrangements for the evacuation of independent journalists and human rights defenders from conflict-affected or repressive situations so that they can continue reporting, monitoring and fact-checking from abroad.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "A. Promoting access to information"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0058", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "To some extent, all States, regardless of their political or ideological hue, produce and distribute propaganda. As noted above, State propaganda is not per se unlawful under international law. Concerns arise with propaganda for war or when the State uses false information in a way that people cannot distinguish facts from falsehood and that is likely to cause social harm or violate human rights. Under certain circumstances, State-sponsored propaganda or disinformation can amount to incitement of war crimes, as happened in Myanmar.[[fn:72]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 72, "text": "A/HRC/39/CRP.2; see also submission of Free Expression Myanmar."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "B. State-sponsored disinformation and propaganda"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0059", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "State-led or sponsored disinformation has a potent impact on human rights, the rule of law, democratic processes, national sovereignty and geopolitical stability because of the resources and reach of States and because of their ability to simultaneously suppress independent and critical voices in the country so that there can be no challenge to the official narratives.[[fn:73]] In a joint statement, the Special Rapporteur and equivalent mandate holders of regional organizations expressed their serious concern at the disinformation regarding the conflict in Ukraine in Russian State-owned media as well as the erosion of freedom of expression in the Russian Federation and the further tightening of media censorship, blocking of pluralist sources of information and suppression of critical voices in the wake of the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[[fn:74]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea is an extreme example of “ubiquitous” propaganda, tightly controlled State media and no independent or external media. See A/HRC/25/CRP.1, paras. 187 and 197–221."}, {"n": 74, "text": "See African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Inter-American Commission for Human Rights and Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Joint statement on the situation in Ukraine, 3 May 2022, available at https://srfreedex.org/joint-statement-on-the-situation-in-ukraine/; see also joint submission of Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Mass Media Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "B. State-sponsored disinformation and propaganda"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0060", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Digital technology has made it easier for some States and their agents, as well as non-State actors, to interfere in conflicts from across borders and spread disinformation in ways that make attribution and accountability problematic. 70 See Michael Forsman, “Media literacy and the emerging media citizen in the Nordic media welfare State” in Nordic Journal of Media Studies, 6 June 2020, available at https://www.sciendo.com/article/10.2478/njms-2020-0006. 71 Submission of the European Union. 72 A/HRC/39/CRP.2; see also submission of Free Expression Myanmar. 73 The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea is an extreme example of “ubiquitous” propaganda, tightly controlled State media and no independent or external media. See A/HRC/25/CRP.1, paras. 187 and 197–221. 74 See African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Inter-American Commission for Human Rights and Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, Joint statement on the situation in Ukraine, 3 May 2022, available at https://srfreedex.org/joint-statement-on-the-situation-inukraine/; see also joint submission of Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Mass Media Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info. 16/28 Allegations of such “information operations” have been reported and hotly contested in conflicts in, for example, Libya, Mali, the Syrian Arab Republic and Yemen.[[fn:75]] 75", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 75, "text": "See Léa Ronzaud, Ira Hubert and Ben Nimmo “Capture the flag: Iranian operators impersonate anti-Netanyahu ‘black flag’ protestors, amplify Iranian narratives”, Graphika, 6 November 2020, available at https://graphika.com/reports/capture-the-flag; Africa Center for Strategic Studies, “A light in Libya’s fog of disinformation”, 9 October 2020, available at https://africacenter.org/spotlight/light-libya-fog-disinformation/; Graphika and The Stanford Internet Observatory, “More Troll-Kombat: French and Russian influence operations go head to head targeting audiences in Africa”, 2020, available at https://graphika.com/reports/more-troll-kombat; and Institute for Strategic Dialogue, “Digital investigation on Syria’s disinformation” in Deadly Disinformation: How Online Conspiracies about Syria Cause Real-World Harm (13 July 2022), available at https://www.isdglobal.org/digital_dispatches/isds-digital-investigation-on-syria-disinformation/."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "B. State-sponsored disinformation and propaganda"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0061", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "By fact-checking and providing diverse, verifiable information, independent, free and pluralistic media play a key role in countering disinformation and State propaganda. That is why it is worrying that the media have come under severe pressure in many conflict-affected or neighbouring countries. Measures include the expulsion of foreign media, the closure of local news outlets, prosecution under “false news” or national security laws that contravene international legal standards, and attacks against journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "C. Attacks on media and human rights defenders"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0062", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "Mali banned French media channels for spreading “false allegations” of human rights abuses by the army.[[fn:76]] Kyrgyzstan prosecuted a national independent media outlet for war propaganda because it disseminated an article on the border conflict with Tajikistan that did not match the official version.[[fn:77]] Digital activism was key to exposing abuses in the Syrian war. Earlier in 2022, the Syrian Arab Republic criminalized “fake news … that undermines the prestige of the State or prejudices national unity” and arrested people for communicating with social media sites outside the country.[[fn:78]] The Russian Federation adopted a law making it a serious criminal offence to publish any news about the war in Ukraine that differed from the official version. The total information blackout forced independent Russian outlets to suspend their activities or close down and Western media to leave or be blocked from reporting by the Russian authorities.[[fn:79]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "OHCHR, statement on “Concerns for independent media in Mali after shutdowns”, 29 April 2022, available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-briefing-notes/2022/04/concerns-independent-media-mali-after-shutdowns."}, {"n": 77, "text": "Submission of IFEX."}, {"n": 78, "text": "See Mark Frary, “Syria passes draconian cybercrime laws” in Index on Censorship, 6 May 2022, available at https://www.indexoncensorship.org/2022/05/syria-passes-draconian-cybercrime-laws/."}, {"n": 79, "text": "OHCHR press briefing on “Russia: UN experts alarmed by ‘choking’ information clampdown”, 12 March 2022, available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/03/russia-un-experts-alarmed-choking-information-clampdown."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "C. Attacks on media and human rights defenders"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0063", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "National security and counter-terrorism laws are often used to silence critical voices, including journalists, human rights defenders and political opponents. Many of those laws fail to meet the three-pronged test of legality, necessity and legitimate aims set out in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. For instance, Myanmar’s military Government has expanded its criminal law to include not only “false news” but new national security provisions that criminalize causing “hatred, disobedience or disloyalty towards the military and Government”.[[fn:80]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "See Shawn W. Crispin, “Bitter reversal: Myanmar military coup wipes out press freedom gains”, Committee to Protect Journalists, 28 July 2021, available at https://cpj.org/reports/2021/07/bitter-reversal-myanmar-journalists-jailed-imprisoned-military-crackdown/."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "C. Attacks on media and human rights defenders"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0064", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "The banning of a media outlet is a severe restriction of freedom of expression and rarely justified. The European Commission banned several Russian State-owned media outlets on the ground that they constituted a threat to public order and security by spreading disinformation and propaganda. The necessity and proportionality of the 75 See Léa Ronzaud, Ira Hubert and Ben Nimmo “Capture the flag: Iranian operators impersonate anti-Netanyahu ‘black flag’ protestors, amplify Iranian narratives”, Graphika, 6 November 2020, available at https://graphika.com/reports/capture-the-flag; Africa Center for Strategic Studies, “A light in Libya’s fog of disinformation”, 9 October 2020, available at https://africacenter.org/ spotlight/light-libya-fog-disinformation/; Graphika and The Stanford Internet Observatory, “More Troll-Kombat: French and Russian influence operations go head to head targeting audiences in Africa”, 2020, available at https://graphika.com/reports/more-troll-kombat; and Institute for Strategic Dialogue, “Digital investigation on Syria’s disinformation” in Deadly Disinformation: How Online Conspiracies about Syria Cause Real-World Harm (13 July 2022), available at https://www.isdglobal.org/digital_dispatches/isds-digital-investigation-on-syria-disinformation/. 76 OHCHR, statement on “Concerns for independent media in Mali after shutdowns”, 29 April 2022, available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-briefing-notes/2022/04/concerns-independentmedia-mali-after-shutdowns. 77 Submission of IFEX. 78 See Mark Frary, “Syria passes draconian cybercrime laws” in Index on Censorship, 6 May 2022, available at https://www.indexoncensorship.org/2022/05/syria-passes-draconian-cybercrime-laws/. 79 OHCHR press briefing on “Russia: UN experts alarmed by ‘choking’ information clampdown”, 12 March 2022, available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2022/03/russia-un-expertsalarmed-choking-information-clampdown. 80 See Shawn W. Crispin, “Bitter reversal: Myanmar military coup wipes out press freedom gains”, Committee to Protect Journalists, 28 July 2021, available at https://cpj.org/reports/2021/07/ bitter-reversal-myanmar-journalists-jailed-imprisoned-military-crackdown/. ban has been questioned in a region where independent media and fact-checkers are able to challenge disinformation and where other less drastic measures could have been considered.[[fn:81]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "A/HRC/50/29, para 62. However, the European Court of Justice upheld the broadcast ban: See RT France v. Council, available at https://curia.europa.eu/juris/documents.jsf?num=T-125/22."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "C. Attacks on media and human rights defenders"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0065", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "Journalists reporting from the frontlines play a critical role in debunking false information but are themselves at high risk of intimidation, harassment, abduction, violence and being killed for doing their job. The Security Council has condemned attacks against journalists and media workers and has called upon all parties to end such practices.[[fn:82]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 82, "text": "Security Council resolution 2222 (2015)."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "C. Attacks on media and human rights defenders"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0066", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "Targeted killing of a journalist is a war crime under international law, and yet, in 9 out of 10 cases, impunity prevails because of the lack of political will of States to investigate and prosecute.[[fn:83]] A recent case in point is that of Shireen Abu Akleh, a veteran Palestinian-American journalist who was shot dead on 11 May 2022 while covering an operation by the Israeli security forces in the occupied Palestinian Territory. Despite numerous calls, including from the special procedures, the High Commissioner for Human Rights and the Secretary-General, Israel has failed to open a criminal investigation or support an independent inquiry.[[fn:84]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 83, "text": "United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization concept on “Countering threats of violence and crimes against journalists to protect freedom of expression for all”, 2 November 2021, available at https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/concept_note_-_idei_2021_en.pdf."}, {"n": 84, "text": "Communication AL ISR14/2022."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "C. Attacks on media and human rights defenders"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0067", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "A number of States have enacted laws regarding intermediary liability and online content regulation that impose overly broad obligations on social media companies to monitor and remove user-generated content, including disinformation.[[fn:85]] For instance, China exerts comprehensive content control over social media, banning many foreign platforms, criticism of the Government, the Communist Party and religious or social issues deemed undesirable, licensing online bloggers and influencers, and most recently, proposing that platforms must review all comments on content before publishing them.[[fn:86]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 85, "text": "A/HRC/38/35, sect. III.A, and A/HRC/47/25, paras. 56–58."}, {"n": 86, "text": "See https://freedomhouse.org/country/china/freedom-net/2021; see also Zeyi Yang, “Now China wants to censor online comments” in MIT Technology Review, 18 June 2022, available at https://www.technologyreview.com/2022/06/18/1054452/china-censors-social-media-comments/."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "D. Social media regulation"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0068", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "Severe regulation of social media has been used to restrict expression relating to armed conflicts.[[fn:87]] In the Russian Federation, State authorities utilized existing as well as newly enacted regulatory measures to rapidly control information on the war in Ukraine.[[fn:88]] Meta reported that the authorities had issued takedown requests for warrelated content posted to Facebook, with which Meta did not comply.[[fn:89]] Authorities ultimately blocked Facebook and Instagram, as well as Twitter, in March[[fn:90]] 2022. 90 In addition, Google’s subsidiary in the Russian Federation filed for bankruptcy after its Russian bank account was frozen, reportedly in connection with banned content on 81 A/HRC/50/29, para 62. However, the European Court of Justice upheld the broadcast ban: See RT France v. Council, available at https://curia.europa.eu/juris/documents.jsf?num=T-125/22. 82 Security Council resolution 2222 (2015). 83 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization concept on “Countering threats of violence and crimes against journalists to protect freedom of expression for all”, 2 November 2021, available at https://en.unesco.org/sites/default/files/concept_note_-_idei_2021_en.pdf. 84 Communication AL ISR14/2022. 85 A/HRC/38/35, sect. III.A, and A/HRC/47/25, paras. 56–58. 86 See https://freedomhouse.org/country/china/freedom-net/2021; see also Zeyi Yang, “Now China wants to censor online comments” in MIT Technology Review, 18 June 2022, available at https://www.technologyreview.com/2022/06/18/1054452/china-censors-social-media-comments/. 87 Communication OL RUS 4/2019. 88 Joint submission of Mass Media Defence Centre, Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info and submission of Access Now. 89 Submission of Meta. 90 Joint submission of Mass Media Defence Centre, Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info. 18/28 its services, data localization requirements, and the restrictions that Google applied to Russian media outlets’ YouTube channels.[[fn:91]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "Communication OL RUS 4/2019."}, {"n": 88, "text": "Joint submission of Mass Media Defence Centre, Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info and submission of Access Now."}, {"n": 89, "text": "Submission of Meta."}, {"n": 90, "text": "Joint submission of Mass Media Defence Centre, Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info."}, {"n": 91, "text": "See Interfax, “Russian subsidiary of Google files for bankruptcy”, 17 June 2022, available at https://interfax.com/newsroom/top-stories/80331/."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "D. Social media regulation"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0069", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "States should not require platforms to enforce regulations that do not conform with international human rights law. Whether during conflicts or in other settings, the Special Rapporteur has recommended “smart regulation” of Internet intermediaries to ensure their compliance with human rights due diligence, meaningful transparency and due process requirements, rather than viewpoint- or content-based regulation.[[fn:92]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 92, "text": "A/HRC/47/25, para. 91."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "D. Social media regulation"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0070", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "The Human Rights Council has condemned Internet shutdowns unequivocally and urged States to refrain from them.[[fn:93]] Shutting or slowing down this vital means of communications aggravates rather than combats disinformation, propaganda or incitement.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 93, "text": "A/HRC/47/L.22, para. 11."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "E. Disruptions to the Internet and telecommunications"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0071", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "Access to the Internet is vital, especially in conflict-affected contexts where it may be the only avenue of communication with the external world. Internet shutdowns have been frequent in countries suffering from conflict, including Ethiopia, Myanmar, the Sudan and the Syrian Arab Republic, as a means for Governments to control the flow of information.[[fn:94]] The impact of the shutdowns and “throttling” or slowdowns can be devastating on people’s everyday lives. The disruptions also inhibit monitoring and reporting by human rights defenders and journalists. Correlations between shutdowns and abuses associated with military movements, demonstrations and coups are troubling.[[fn:95]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 94, "text": "See #KeepItOn, “The return of digital authoritarianism: Internet shutdowns in 2021”, April 2022, available at https://www.accessnow.org/cms/assets/uploads/2022/05/2021-KIO-Report-May-24-2022.pdf."}, {"n": 95, "text": "A/HRC/50/55, para. 27; see also submission of Access Now."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "E. Disruptions to the Internet and telecommunications"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0072", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "Under international humanitarian law, media facilities are civilian objects, even if they are disseminating propaganda in support of the war. They must not be targeted unless they are being used directly in hostilities. Nevertheless, telecommunications infrastructure or premises of media outlets have been bombed or shelled during conflict, including in Ukraine, Yemen and the Gaza Strip.[[fn:96]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 96, "text": "Submission of Access Now."}], "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "E. Disruptions to the Internet and telecommunications"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0073", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "Overly broad sanctions by States and overzealous compliance by companies can interfere with online access and flow of information in sanctioned and sanctioning countries. The sanctions can be counterproductive by making it more difficult for the public, civil society and human rights defenders in these countries to access diverse sources of information, as has happened in the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Russian Federation, the Sudan and the Syrian Arab Republic, or for those elsewhere to know what is happening in the countries.97 91 See Interfax, “Russian subsidiary of Google files for bankruptcy”, 17 June 2022, available at https://interfax.com/newsroom/top-stories/80331/. 92 A/HRC/47/25, para. 91. 93 A/HRC/47/L.22, para. 11. 94 See #KeepItOn, “The return of digital authoritarianism: Internet shutdowns in 2021”, April 2022, available at https://www.accessnow.org/cms/assets/uploads/2022/05/2021-KIO-Report-May-242022.pdf. 95 A/HRC/50/55, para. 27; see also submission of Access Now. 96 Submission of Access Now. 97 Ibid. V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. State responses: concerns, challenges and good practices", "E. Disruptions to the Internet and telecommunications"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0074", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "Social media platforms are highly susceptible to the spread of disinformation, propaganda and incitement given their reliance on algorithms to target users with particular content and recommendations, based in part on data collected about those users. Numerous reports from civil society, the media, researchers and international organizations have pointed to the role of social media in spreading State propaganda, extremist content and disinformation in Ethiopia,[[fn:98]] Myanmar,[[fn:99]] Ukraine[[fn:100]] and Yemen.[[fn:101]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 98, "text": "Submission of the Oversight Board (Raya Kobo case); see also Global Witness, “Now is the time to kill”."}, {"n": 99, "text": "Submission of Free Expression Myanmar."}, {"n": 100, "text": "Joint submission of Mass Media Defence Centre, Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info; see also Carl Miller “Who’s behind #IStandWithPutin?” in The Atlantic, 5 April 2022, available at https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/04/russian-propaganda-zelensky-information-war/629475/."}, {"n": 101, "text": "See Hannah Porter, “A conversation on fighting disinformation in Yemen”, Yemen Policy Center, March 2022, available at https://www.yemenpolicy.org/a-conversation-on-fighting-disinformation-in-yemen/."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "A. Social media in conflict settings"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0075", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "Among social media companies, Meta has drawn the most attention as a result of Facebook’s role in amplifying hatred and violence in countries such as Myanmar, where the independent international fact-finding mission appointed by the Human Rights Council declared Facebook to be “the leading platform for hate speech”.[[fn:102]] In the war in Ukraine, Meta set up a special operations centre with Russian and Ukrainian speakers and is working with local and international partners and fact-checkers to address information manipulation, but it has also deployed a singular “expression of self-defence” exception to its hate speech policies, which permits Ukrainian users to express resistance and fury against the Russian military.[[fn:103]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 102, "text": "A/HRC/42/50, para. 72."}, {"n": 103, "text": "See Meta, “Meta’s ongoing efforts regarding Russia’s invasion of Ukraine”, 26 February 2022, available at https://about.fb.com/news/2022/02/metas-ongoing-efforts-regarding-russias-invasion-of-ukraine/."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "A. Social media in conflict settings"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0076", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "Information manipulation is also prevalent on other platforms. One study found that YouTube had served as a heavily monetized, foundational source for crossplatform spread of disinformation and extremist content.[[fn:104]] 104 Twitter has faced criticism with respect to its role in a number of conflicts.[[fn:105]] 105 Content concerning the war in Ukraine, including disinformation, has increased significantly on TikTok.[[fn:106]] 106 Weibo similarly noted a rise in content inaccurately represented as originating from Ukraine and announced that it would enforce the automatic addition of geolocation to posts concerning the conflict.[[fn:107]] 107 Telegram, which has a hands-off approach to restrictions on expression, is used extensively in the Russian Federation and Ukraine 98 Submission of the Oversight Board (Raya Kobo case); see also Global Witness, “Now is the time to kill”. 99 Submission of Free Expression Myanmar. 100 Joint submission of Mass Media Defence Centre, Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info; see also Carl Miller “Who’s behind #IStandWithPutin?” in The Atlantic, 5 April 2022, available at https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/04/russianpropaganda-zelensky-information-war/629475/. 101 See Hannah Porter, “A conversation on fighting disinformation in Yemen”, Yemen Policy Center, March 2022, available at https://www.yemenpolicy.org/a-conversation-on-fightingdisinformation-in-yemen/. 102 A/HRC/42/50, para. 72. 103 See Meta, “Meta’s ongoing efforts regarding Russia’s invasion of Ukraine”, 26 February 2022, available at https://about.fb.com/news/2022/02/metas-ongoing-efforts-regarding-russiasinvasion-of-ukraine/. 104 See Paul M. Barrett and Justin Hendrix, “A platform ‘weaponized’: How YouTube spreads harmful content – and what can be done about it”, Stern Center for Business and Human Rights, June 2022, available at https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5b6df958f8370af3217d4178/t/ 62a38fc022745a7274601da0/1654886337000/NYU+CBHR+YouTube_Final_June10.pdf. 105 See Torinmo Salau, “How Twitter failed Africa”, Foreign Policy, 19 January 2022, available at https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/01/19/twitter-africa-ghana-dorsey-disinformation/. 106 See Sara Brown, “In Russia-Ukraine war, social media stokes ingenuity, disinformation”, MIT Sloan School of Management, 6 April 2022, available at https://mitsloan.mit.edu/ideas-made-tomatter/russia-ukraine-war-social-media-stokes-ingenuity-disinformation. 107 See Weilun Soon, “How China’s tech giants, from TikTok to Tencent, are reacting to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine”, Insider, 13 April 2022, available at https://www.businessinsider.com/howchinas-tech-giants-reacting-to-ukraine-crisis-tiktok-tencent-2022-3?r=US&IR=T. 20/28 by both the authorities and the public to circulate information regarding the conflict, including disinformation and propaganda.[[fn:108]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 104, "text": "See Paul M. Barrett and Justin Hendrix, “A platform ‘weaponized’: How YouTube spreads harmful content – and what can be done about it”, Stern Center for Business and Human Rights, June 2022, available at https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5b6df958f8370af3217d4178/t/62a38fc022745a7274601da0/1654886337000/NYU+CBHR+YouTube_Final_June10.pdf."}, {"n": 105, "text": "See Torinmo Salau, “How Twitter failed Africa”, Foreign Policy, 19 January 2022, available at https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/01/19/twitter-africa-ghana-dorsey-disinformation/."}, {"n": 106, "text": "See Sara Brown, “In Russia-Ukraine war, social media stokes ingenuity, disinformation”, MIT Sloan School of Management, 6 April 2022, available at https://mitsloan.mit.edu/ideas-made-to-matter/russia-ukraine-war-social-media-stokes-ingenuity-disinformation."}, {"n": 107, "text": "See Weilun Soon, “How China’s tech giants, from TikTok to Tencent, are reacting to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine”, Insider, 13 April 2022, available at https://www.businessinsider.com/how-chinas-tech-giants-reacting-to-ukraine-crisis-tiktok-tencent-2022-3?r=US&IR=T."}, {"n": 108, "text": "See Sara Brown, “In Russia-Ukraine war”."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "A. Social media in conflict settings"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0077", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "As the above-mentioned examples illustrate, the use of social media to amplify manipulated information in conflicts is widespread and growing. Companies need to ramp up action to prevent incitement to violence and other serious human rights violations while ensuring respect for freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "A. Social media in conflict settings"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0078", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "International human rights law and international humanitarian law are both applicable to companies in situations of armed conflicts. As stated in the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights,[[fn:109]] companies have a responsibility to respect internationally recognized human rights and to conduct their operations in ways that avoid causing or contributing to “adverse human rights impacts” and to prevent or mitigate such impact; adopt policies reflecting their commitment to respect human rights; carry out human rights due diligence; and provide processes for remediation of adverse human rights impacts they cause or to which they contribute.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 109, "text": "A/HRC/17/31, annex."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "B. Corporate legal standards during conflicts"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0079", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "Social media or telecommunications companies that provide the means to distribute information in a conflict setting may be sufficiently linked to armed conflict to trigger the application of international humanitarian law to their operations. Company personnel may be held liable for serious violations of international humanitarian law amounting to war crimes,[[fn:110]] either on the basis of direct action or corporate complicity.[[fn:111]] Moreover, they may lose their protection as civilians under international humanitarian law if they engage in activity that could be construed as direct participation in hostilities.[[fn:112]] In such situations, companies have a dual responsibility: first, to continue to respect freedom of opinion and expression, including the right to information, and second, to comply with international humanitarian law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 110, "text": "See Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, commentary on principle 23; OHCHR, The Corporate Responsibility to Respect Human Rights: An Interpretive Guide, 2012, available at https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Publications/HR.PUB.12.2_En.pdf; and ICRC, IHL database, available at https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule156."}, {"n": 111, "text": "A/HRC/50/40/Add.4, para. 34."}, {"n": 112, "text": "See Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977, article 51 (3) and OHCHR, The Corporate Responsibility to Respect Human Rights."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "B. Corporate legal standards during conflicts"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0080", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "The Working Group on business and human rights has called on companies operating in conflict situations (including pre- and post-conflict) to exercise heightened due diligence in line with the heightened risks.[[fn:113]] The United Nations has identified “increased inflammatory rhetoric or hate speech targeting specific groups or individuals” as a “red flag” that should prompt companies to initiate heightened due diligence.[[fn:114]] It has advised companies to identify and assess their actual or potential adverse impacts not only on human rights, but also on the conflict itself.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 113, "text": "A/75/212, paras. 13, 19–21 and 72; see also Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, principles 7 and 17."}, {"n": 114, "text": "See Gerald Pachoud and Siniša Milatović, “Heightened Human Rights Due Diligence for Business in Conflict-affected Contexts: A Guide”, United Nations Development Programme, 2022, available at https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/2022-06/UNDP_Heightened_Human_Rights_Due_Diligence_for_Business_in_Conflict-Affected_Context.pdf."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "B. Corporate legal standards during conflicts"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0081", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "Civil society organizations have emphasized the importance of synthesizing human rights, conflict sensitivity, technology ethics and human security frameworks in order to develop effective approaches for digital company operations in conflict 108 See Sara Brown, “In Russia-Ukraine war”. 109 A/HRC/17/31, annex. 110 See Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, commentary on principle 23; OHCHR, The Corporate Responsibility to Respect Human Rights: An Interpretive Guide, 2012, available at https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Publications/HR.PUB.12.2_En.pdf; and ICRC, IHL database, available at https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/customary-ihl/eng/docs/v1_rul_rule156. 111 A/HRC/50/40/Add.4, para. 34. 112 See Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), 8 June 1977, article 51 (3) and OHCHR, The Corporate Responsibility to Respect Human Rights. 113 A/75/212, paras. 13, 19–21 and 72; see also Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, principles 7 and 17. 114 See Gerald Pachoud and Siniša Milatović, “Heightened Human Rights Due Diligence for Business in Conflict-affected Contexts: A Guide”, United Nations Development Programme, 2022, available at https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/2022-06/UNDP_ Heightened_Human_Rights_Due_Diligence_for_Business_in_Conflict-Affected_Context.pdf. settings. They have also proposed that a model framework based on this approach be developed through a multi-stakeholder process.[[fn:115]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 115, "text": "See Jennifer Easterday, Hana Ivanhoe and Lisa Schirch, “Comparing guidance for tech companies in fragile and conflict-affected situations”, Policy Brief No. 125, Toda Peace Institute, March 2022, available at https://toda.org/policy-briefs-and-resources/policy-briefs/comparing-guidance-for-tech-companies-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-situations.html."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "B. Corporate legal standards during conflicts"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0082", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "The war between Ukraine and the Russian Federation and the actions by the Russian Federation to criminalize independent war reporting and ban media outlets jolted social media companies into an unprecedented level of action.[[fn:116]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 116, "text": "Telecom companies have also taken remarkable steps to maintain infrastructure in conflict-affected areas in Ukraine and provide refugees with free communication tools, and cloud services have kept access available to users."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "C. Company policies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0083", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "Almost all Western companies have left the Russian Federation or have been blocked. Some companies based in the United States of America have made widely reported announcements regarding their efforts to maintain Internet access in Ukraine and resist censorship and propaganda in the Russian Federation. Much less is known about their responses in conflicts in other parts of the world or about the policies and practices of companies headquartered outside Western Europe and North America. Not surprisingly, there are concerns about the consistency of companies’ policies globally and the depth of their commitment to human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "C. Company policies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0084", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "The published policies of companies on conflict and manipulation of information vary widely, with some continuing to evolve in response to developments on the ground. For example, Twitter has issued an official “crisis misinformation policy”, in which it is stated that the company “will take action on accounts that use Twitter’s services to share false or misleading information that could bring harm to crisis-affected populations”.[[fn:117]] Meta has developed procedures for handling “countries at risk”, which it has detailed in public posts,[[fn:118]] and is reported to be working on a conflict policy after disinviting its Oversight Board from advising on content moderation in conflict, citing safety issues.[[fn:119]] Other platforms, including Reddit, Snapchat and TikTok, have so far only opted to issue statements addressing concerns specific to particular conflict situations.[[fn:120]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 117, "text": "Crisis information policy, Help Center, May 2022, available at https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/crisis-misinformation."}, {"n": 118, "text": "Submission of Meta."}, {"n": 119, "text": "See Meta, “Meta withdraws a policy advisory opinion request related to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine”, 13 July 2022, available at https://transparency.fb.com/oversight/oversight-board-cases/ukraine-russia-pao; see also Oversight Board, “Protecting freedom of expression and human rights in Ukraine and Russia”, May 2022, available at https://oversightboard.com/news/382264103827624-protecting-freedom-of-expression-and-human-rights-in-ukraine-and-russia/."}, {"n": 120, "text": "See Upvoted, “Supporting Ukraine and our community”, 2 March 2022, available at https://www.redditinc.com/blog/supporting-ukraine-and-our-community; Team Snap, “We Support Ukraine”, 1 March 2022, available at https://newsroom.snap.com/we-support-ukraine/; and TikTok, “Bringing more context to content on TikTok”, 4 March 2022, available at https://newsroom.tiktok.com/en-us/bringing-more-context-to-content-on-tiktok."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "C. Company policies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0085", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "As noted by the previous mandate holder and reiterated by the present Special Rapporteur, companies should incorporate human rights standards as a default into their terms of service, content moderation policies, rule-making and enforcement.121 115 See Jennifer Easterday, Hana Ivanhoe and Lisa Schirch, “Comparing guidance for tech companies in fragile and conflict-affected situations”, Policy Brief No. 125, Toda Peace Institute, March 2022, available at https://toda.org/policy-briefs-and-resources/policy-briefs/comparingguidance-for-tech-companies-in-fragile-and-conflict-affected-situations.html. 116 Telecom companies have also taken remarkable steps to maintain infrastructure in conflictaffected areas in Ukraine and provide refugees with free communication tools, and cloud services have kept access available to users. 117 Crisis information policy, Help Center, May 2022, available at https://help.twitter.com/en/rulesand-policies/crisis-misinformation. 118 Submission of Meta. 119 See Meta, “Meta withdraws a policy advisory opinion request related to Russia’s invasion of Ukraine”, 13 July 2022, available at https://transparency.fb.com/oversight/oversight-boardcases/ukraine-russia-pao; see also Oversight Board, “Protecting freedom of expression and human rights in Ukraine and Russia”, May 2022, available at https://oversightboard.com/news/ 382264103827624-protecting-freedom-of-expression-and-human-rights-in-ukraine-and-russia/. 120 See Upvoted, “Supporting Ukraine and our community”, 2 March 2022, available at https://www.redditinc.com/blog/supporting-ukraine-and-our-community; Team Snap, “We Support Ukraine”, 1 March 2022, available at https://newsroom.snap.com/we-support-ukraine/; and TikTok, “Bringing more context to content on TikTok”, 4 March 2022, available at https://newsroom.tiktok.com/en-us/bringing-more-context-to-content-on-tiktok. 121 A/HRC/38/35; A/HRC/47/25, sect. V. 22/28 However, with a few exceptions,[[fn:122]] companies seldom reference international human rights standards as a basis for their policies. Instead, they draw on their own numerous separate policies to craft responses to conflict-based challenges.[[fn:123]] This fragmented approach fails to provide much-needed coherence and predictability to platform practice and has the potential to undermine company compliance with international human rights law and international humanitarian law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 122, "text": "Meta has noted the applicability of the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, international human rights law and international humanitarian law. See submission of Meta. See also Meta, “Facebook Community Standards”, available at https://transparency.fb.com/policies/community-standards/, and Meta, “Corporate Human Rights Policy”, available at https://about.fb.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Facebooks-Corporate-Human-Rights-Policy.pdf. Twitter has noted the applicability of international humanitarian law. See Sinéad McSweeney, “Our ongoing approach to the war in Ukraine”, 16 March 2022, available at https://blog.twitter.com/en_us/topics/company/2022/our-ongoing-approach-to-the-war-in-ukraine."}, {"n": 123, "text": "See submission of Meta."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "C. Company policies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0086", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "Many of the problems identified below have been raised by the previous and current Special Rapporteurs and other stakeholders in relation to non-conflict situations. They are of added significance in conflict settings because of the higher risks to companies and greater vulnerability of users. While there have been efforts to improve crisis response and content moderation, major concerns, including about the business model itself, remain largely unaddressed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0087", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "Human rights due diligence. While details on the conflict-related due diligence carried out by companies are limited, there seems to be a mismatch between the allocation of resources and the seriousness of the problems,[[fn:124]] and a lack of timeliness in carrying out heightened due diligence. There is concern among civil society as to whether companies have put in place adequate processes to identify a particular operational context as presenting a potential risk of conflict.[[fn:125]] Since the outbreak of the war in Ukraine in February, several companies have created or reinforced conflict teams and are working on conflict-related policies and procedures, but concrete information on how they operate and what resources are being applied are sparse. Nor is it clear whether similar structures are being created for global application.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 124, "text": "A/HRC/47/25, paras. 74–76."}, {"n": 125, "text": "Submissions of JustPeace Labs and Article 19."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0088", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "Content moderation. In conflict situations, inadequate content moderation can fuel disinformation, propaganda and incitement and aggravate the violence. Platform users, civil society organizations and researchers report inconsistencies as well as serious failures in content moderation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0089", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "Reports indicate that companies have difficulty calibrating content removal in conflict settings, over-censoring in some situations while providing insufficient attention or displaying bias in some others.[[fn:126]] Civil society organizations have also complained that companies are susceptible to pressure from States asking for removal of content representing dissenting viewpoints in conflict situations.[[fn:127]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 126, "text": "Submissions of Access Now, Article 19 and the Oversight Board."}, {"n": 127, "text": "Submissions of 7amleh Arab Center for Advancement of Social Media and the Oversight Board; see also Access Now, “Sheikh Jarrah: Facebook and Twitter systematically silencing protests, deleting evidence”, 7 May 2021, available at https://www.accessnow.org/sheikh-jarrah-facebook-and-twitter-systematically-silencing-protests-deleting-evidence/."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0090", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "There is concern that companies have not allocated sufficient resources and expertise to review content in all relevant languages and with an understanding of local 122 Meta has noted the applicability of the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, international human rights law and international humanitarian law. See submission of Meta. See also Meta, “Facebook Community Standards”, available at https://transparency.fb.com/policies/ community-standards/, and Meta, “Corporate Human Rights Policy”, available at https://about.fb.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/Facebooks-Corporate-Human-RightsPolicy.pdf. Twitter has noted the applicability of international humanitarian law. See Sinéad McSweeney, “Our ongoing approach to the war in Ukraine”, 16 March 2022, available at https://blog.twitter.com/en_us/topics/company/2022/our-ongoing-approach-to-the-war-in-ukraine. 123 See submission of Meta. 124 A/HRC/47/25, paras. 74–76. 125 Submissions of JustPeace Labs and Article 19. 126 Submissions of Access Now, Article 19 and the Oversight Board. 127 Submissions of 7amleh Arab Center for Advancement of Social Media and the Oversight Board; see also Access Now, “Sheikh Jarrah: Facebook and Twitter systematically silencing protests, deleting evidence”, 7 May 2021, available at https://www.accessnow.org/sheikh-jarrah-facebookand-twitter-systematically-silencing-protests-deleting-evidence/. circumstances in conflict settings.[[fn:128]] 128 Moreover, while companies incorporate both automated and human processes for content moderation, it is unclear how those processes are balanced, how well and according to what parameters automated processes have functioned or what level of local expertise is available for human moderation.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 128, "text": "Submission of Article 19."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0091", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "In addition to removing or blocking content, social media companies have also deployed tactics aimed at mediation of conflict-related content available to their users, for example, warnings, labels, fact-checking, suggestion of other sources, or reducing distribution of content.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0092", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "Monetization. Reports have documented the extensive use of disinformation, propaganda and hate speech to generate revenue on social media platforms, thereby incentivizing the continued manipulation of information.[[fn:129]] Such monetization has taken place in spite of company policies that purport to limit the types of content deemed suitable for advertising.[[fn:130]] Recognizing that problem, the European Commission’s 2022 strengthened Code of Practice on Disinformation, which Google, Meta, Microsoft, TikTok and Twitter have signed, includes commitments dedicated to demonetization efforts.[[fn:131]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 129, "text": "See Karen Hao, “How Facebook and Google fund global misinformation” in MIT Technology Review, 20 November 2021, available at https://www.technologyreview.com/2021/11/20/1039076/facebook-google-disinformation-clickbait/."}, {"n": 130, "text": "See https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/6162278?hl=en#zippy=%2Cguide-to-self-certification; Help Center, “Content monetization standards”, available at https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/content-monetization-standards; Meta business advertising policies, available at https://www.facebook.com/policies_center/ads; TikTok advertising policies, available at https://ads.tiktok.com/help/article?aid=9552; and Snap advertising policies, available at https://www.snap.com/en-US/ad-policies."}, {"n": 131, "text": "European Commission, Strengthened Code of Practice on Disinformation, sect. II."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0093", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "Some social media companies have moved to restrict the monetization of certain conflict-related content, particularly in relation to the war in Ukraine (which has been affected by the application of sanctions).[[fn:132]] Research suggests, however, that companies’ advertising policies are not sufficiently comprehensive or adequately enforced and are not regularly updated to reflect global conflict developments.[[fn:133]] Indeed, the predominant focus of the companies on the conflict in Ukraine raises questions as to whether monetization in other conflict settings is being addressed proactively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 132, "text": "See YouTube channel monetization policies, available at https://support.google.com/ youtube/answer/1311392?hl=en; Meta, “Meta’s ongoing efforts regarding Russia’s invasion of Ukraine”, 26 February 2022, available at https://about.fb.com/news/2022/02/metas-ongoing-efforts-regarding-russias-invasion-of-ukraine/#latest; Sinéad McSweeney, “Our ongoing approach to the war in Ukraine”, 16 March 2022, available at https://blog.twitter.com/en_us/ topics/company/2022/our-ongoing-approach-to-the-war-in-ukraine; Twitter policy “State media”, available at https://business.twitter.com/en/help/ads-policies/ads-content-policies/state-media.html; Snap advertising policies, sect. 3.9, available at https://www.snap.com/en-US/ad-policies; Upvoted, “Supporting Ukraine and our community”, 2 March 2022, available at https://www.redditinc.com/blog/supporting-ukraine-and-our-community; and Rafael Frankel, “An update on the situation in Myanmar”, Meta, 7 December 2021, available at https://about.fb.com/news/2021/02/an-update-on-myanmar/. See also submission of Meta."}, {"n": 133, "text": "Submission of The Global Disinformation Index."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0094", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "Transparency and remedy. Digital platforms have struggled to provide meaningful transparency whether in peaceful or conflict contexts. In 2022, Ranking Digital Rights assessed that transparency reporting of 14 of the most widely used digital platforms had fallen short in providing essential context and granular data, as well as information on human rights due diligence and the development and deployment of algorithmic and targeted-advertising systems, including those used to 128 Submission of Article 19. 129 See Karen Hao, “How Facebook and Google fund global misinformation” in MIT Technology Review, 20 November 2021, available at https://www.technologyreview.com/2021/11/20/ 1039076/facebook-google-disinformation-clickbait/. 130 See https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/6162278?hl=en#zippy=%2Cguide-to-selfcertification; Help Center, “Content monetization standards”, available at https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/content-monetization-standards; Meta business advertising policies, available at https://www.facebook.com/policies_center/ads; TikTok advertising policies, available at https://ads.tiktok.com/help/article?aid=9552; and Snap advertising policies, available at https://www.snap.com/en-US/ad-policies. 131 European Commission, Strengthened Code of Practice on Disinformation, sect. II. 132 See YouTube channel monetization policies, available at https://support.google.com/ youtube/answer/1311392?hl=en; Meta, “Meta’s ongoing efforts regarding Russia’s invasion of Ukraine”, 26 February 2022, available at https://about.fb.com/news/2022/02/metas-ongoingefforts-regarding-russias-invasion-of-ukraine/#latest; Sinéad McSweeney, “Our ongoing approach to the war in Ukraine”, 16 March 2022, available at https://blog.twitter.com/en_us/ topics/company/2022/our-ongoing-approach-to-the-war-in-ukraine; Twitter policy “State media”, available at https://business.twitter.com/en/help/ads-policies/ads-content-policies/statemedia.html; Snap advertising policies, sect. 3.9, available at https://www.snap.com/en-US/adpolicies; Upvoted, “Supporting Ukraine and our community”, 2 March 2022, available at https://www.redditinc.com/blog/supporting-ukraine-and-our-community; and Rafael Frankel, “An update on the situation in Myanmar”, Meta, 7 December 2021, available at https://about.fb.com/news/2021/02/an-update-on-myanmar/. See also submission of Meta. 133 Submission of The Global Disinformation Index. 24/28 curate, rank or recommend content.[[fn:134]] 134 Transparency around government takedown requests, including their number, origin, target and whether the company cooperated, is also limited.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 134, "text": "See Afef Abrougui and others, “Key findings from the 2022 RDR big tech scorecard”, Ranking Digital Rights programme at New America, available at https://rankingdigitalrights.org/mini-report/key-findings-2022/; and Svea Windwehr and Jillian C. York, “Thank you for your transparency report, here’s everything that’s missing”, Electronic Frontier Foundation, 13 October 2020, available at https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2020/10/thank-you-your-transparency-report-heres-everything-thats-missing."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0095", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "The Oversight Board has noted the need for greater transparency on Meta’s enforcement of its content policies, broken down by country and language, as well as on government requests for content removal.[[fn:135]] These issues have emerged in relation to Meta because of the company’s decision to create the Oversight Board. Many other companies provide little or no information on their operations, much less a public channel of appeal and review.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 135, "text": "Submission of the Oversight Board."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0096", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "The 2022 strengthened Code of Practice on Disinformation of the European Commission, which complements and aligns with the regulatory requirements of the Digital Services Act, includes commitments to enhance transparency, improve access by the researcher community to platform data and release more information to users on the design of recommender systems.[[fn:136]] While such measures represent important progress, regularly updated transparency reporting specific to developments in at-risk or conflict-affected countries is also needed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 136, "text": "European Commission, Strengthened Practice Code on Disinformation, sect. VI, commitments 18–19."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0097", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "In addition, secure, straightforward access to appeals mechanisms and other lines of communication, followed by timely responses, is essential for users to contest or raise concerns regarding restrictions on expression in times of conflict, including with respect to the preservation of evidence. The strengthened Code of Practice includes a commitment to provide a transparent appeal mechanism that is timely, diligent and objective.[[fn:137]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 137, "text": "Ibid., commitment 24."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0098", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "Encryption, anonymity and account security. The use of encryption, anonymity and other privacy protocols can enhance user agency and security by preventing the collection of user data, censorship and non-consensual targeting of users with customized content.[[fn:138]] At the same time, platforms utilizing encryption are being used to spread hate speech and other inflammatory content. For instance, reports suggest that in Myanmar, as content moderation on Facebook increased, disinformation, propaganda and incitement became more pronounced on Telegram, with publicly accessible pro-military channels on the platform engaging in doxing.[[fn:139]] It is important for stakeholders to continue to assess methods for community moderation and reporting mechanisms on platforms that incorporate encryption that both emphasize user agency and comply with international human rights law and international humanitarian law.[[fn:140]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 138, "text": "See joint submission of Mass Media Defence Centre, Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info and submission of Center for Media Engagement, University of Texas at Austin."}, {"n": 139, "text": "Submissions of Free Expression Myanmar and Access Now."}, {"n": 140, "text": "Submission of Center for Media Engagement, University of Texas at Austin."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0099", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "Preservation of evidence. Preservation of evidence of violations during conflict deserves special attention by social media platforms given the importance of 134 See Afef Abrougui and others, “Key findings from the 2022 RDR big tech scorecard”, Ranking Digital Rights programme at New America, available at https://rankingdigitalrights.org/minireport/key-findings-2022/; and Svea Windwehr and Jillian C. York, “Thank you for your transparency report, here’s everything that’s missing”, Electronic Frontier Foundation, 13 October 2020, available at https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2020/10/thank-you-yourtransparency-report-heres-everything-thats-missing. 135 Submission of the Oversight Board. 136 European Commission, Strengthened Practice Code on Disinformation, sect. VI, commitments 18–19. 137 Ibid., commitment 24. 138 See joint submission of Mass Media Defence Centre, Memorial Human Rights Defence Centre, Net Freedoms Project and OVD-Info and submission of Center for Media Engagement, University of Texas at Austin. 139 Submissions of Free Expression Myanmar and Access Now. 140 Submission of Center for Media Engagement, University of Texas at Austin. such data for accountability and justice processes.[[fn:141]] 141 Reports have emerged of social media companies opting to take down conflict-related content, including evidence of war crimes, because it contravenes their policies on graphic or violent images, and erring on the side of employing the fastest route to removal, without efforts to archive the material.[[fn:142]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 141, "text": "See Human Rights Center, University of California at Berkeley School of Law, and OHCHR, Berkeley Protocol on Digital Open Source Investigations: A Practical Guide on the Effective Use of Digital Open Source Information in Investigating Violations of International Criminal, Human Rights and Humanitarian Law (United Nations publication, 2022), available at https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/2022-04/OHCHR_BerkeleyProtocol.pdf."}, {"n": 142, "text": "See submission of the Oversight Board."}], "section": ["V. Social media companies: roles and responsibilities", "D. Company practices"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0100", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "The information environment has become a dangerous, expanding theatre of conflict in the digital age. State and non-State actors, enabled by new technologies and social media platforms, have weaponized information to sow confusion, feed hate, incite violence, instigate public distrust and poison the information environment. The human suffering and damage to societal structures have gone far beyond the exigencies of war.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0101", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "Against this background, the Special Rapporteur draws six broad conclusions, which guide the specific recommendations for stakeholders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0102", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "First, the right to information should not be considered a legitimate target of war. It is a “survival right” on which people’s lives, health, well-being, safety and security depend in times of crisis and conflict. It is a human right and a public good to be nurtured and promoted for the safety, security, dignity and freedom of people. Democratic societies cannot flourish without access to diverse sources of information. Freedom of expression, which encompasses the right to information, is the basis for public trust that helps to prevent and resolve conflicts and facilitates peace, reconciliation and development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0103", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "Second, countering disinformation is vital for safeguarding human rights and restoring public trust, but it must be done in ways that are effective, not counterproductive. Censorship of critical voices, attacks on independent media and Internet disruptions do nothing to reduce disinformation and much to erode freedom of opinion and expression and degrade the information environment. All States must be unequivocal in their commitment to uphold the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and any action they take to counter disinformation should be grounded in international human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0104", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "Third, digital technology and social media have created a new paradigm that has exposed ambiguities, uncertainties and potential gaps in international legal standards that some States and non-State actors are exploiting with audacity and impunity to the detriment of human rights and humanitarian protection. The application of human rights principles alongside international humanitarian law should be reinforced so that the permissible limits of “ruses of war” are reinterpreted in a way that protects both civilians as well as the right to information that they need for their dignity and survival.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0105", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "The prohibition of propaganda for war should be interpreted narrowly to ensure that it does not infringe on the right to protest and criticize. Guidelines should be produced by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights for the use of States and companies.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0106", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "The issue of extraterritorial application of human rights should be revisited to take account of the digital threats to the right to freedom of expression and information from across borders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0107", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "Fourth, while the response of social media companies to the war in Ukraine has been commendable in many ways, they must do much more to ensure that policies and operational practices are applied consistently across the world and that enhanced human rights due diligence and impact assessment are timely and attuned to local contexts for all conflict settings in which the companies operate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0108", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "Fifth, it is essential to build social resilience against information manipulation by empowering rights holders and civil society. More attention should be given in fragile situations to media information and digital literacy, particularly for young people, women, the elderly and other marginalized groups, healthy community relations, community-based fact-checking, and education programmes to counter hatred, violence and extremism.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0109", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "Lastly, the challenges of the digital ecosystem must be tackled in an integrated way, with the collaboration of all stakeholders. It is essential to pursue a multidimensional, multi-stakeholder approach in which civil society and legacy media are fully engaged alongside States, international organizations and digital companies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0110", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "The obligation to respect, protect and fulfil the right to freedom of opinion and expression places upon States the duty to ensure a healthy information environment. In line with that duty, States must refrain from making, sponsoring, encouraging or disseminating false information to degrade the information environment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0111", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "During armed conflict, States must not use, disseminate or encourage third parties to disseminate information within or across borders in ways that could result, directly or indirectly, in inflicting harm on civilians, including war crimes, crimes against humanity or other violations of international humanitarian law, or incitement of hostility, violence or discrimination under international human rights law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0112", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "States must not disrupt the Internet or telecommunications, as that is an inherently disproportionate restriction of access to information. General sanctions should avoid the effect of limiting people’s access to the Internet or secure means of communication. Where necessary, States should provide exemptions to enable access to the Internet and the free flow of information to populations living under sanctions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0113", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "States should not prohibit or restrict disinformation, propaganda and “false news” or “fake news” unless they meet the requirements of legality, necessity and legitimate aim as set out in article 19 (3) or amount to incitement in line with article 20 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. They must prohibit advocacy of hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, or other international crimes. Criminalization of expression should be avoided except in line with the guidance provided in the Rabat Plan of Action.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0114", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 114, "n": 114, "text": "States must ensure that all derogation measures are strictly necessary and proportionate to meet exceptional situations, non-discriminatory, time-limited and tailored in scope to the exigencies of the crisis. Furthermore, the measures to restrict expression during emergencies should be declared as derogation under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights procedure to allow scrutiny by the Human Rights Committee.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0115", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 115, "n": 115, "text": "States should prioritize non-legal measures of countering disinformation and propaganda, starting with their own obligation to proactively disclose official data, encourage trustworthy fact-checking, promote access to diverse, reliable sources of information, ensure media, digital and information literacy and foster an enabling and inclusive environment for civil society to take initiatives to counter information manipulation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0116", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 116, "n": 116, "text": "States should fulfil their duty to ensure the right to information by increasing their own transparency and by proactively disclosing official data online and offline. All States must adopt and implement comprehensive laws on access to information or bring existing law, policies and practices into line with international and regional standards. Such laws should avoid unduly broad exceptions to the right to information on grounds of national security.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0117", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 117, "n": 117, "text": "The right to information includes access to information of all kinds, regardless of borders and through any medium of the person’s choice. States should respect and protect the right of individuals to receive foreign news and propaganda, unless such information has been restricted in line with the international human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0118", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 118, "n": 118, "text": "States should respect, protect and promote the independence, freedom, pluralism and diversity, including gender diversity, of the media at all times. They should comply fully with their obligations under international humanitarian law to protect all foreign and national journalists (defined according to international human rights law) as civilians in armed conflict. The media’s freedom of movement and freedom to report independently should be respected scrupulously.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0119", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 119, "n": 119, "text": "It is not lawful for States to compel media outlets, social media platforms or civil society organizations to disseminate only information produced or approved by the authorities during armed conflicts. Total information blackouts enforced with severe criminal punishment are not justified under international law even during states of emergency.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0120", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 120, "n": 120, "text": "States should investigate all attacks on journalists promptly, effectively, independently and impartially in line with the Minnesota Protocol on the Investigation of Potentially Unlawful Death. The United Nations should establish an independent international task force to support international and national efforts to prevent, investigate and prosecute attacks against journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0121", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 121, "n": 121, "text": "The International Criminal Court should review the persistent killings of journalists in conflict situations with a view to prosecution of war crimes where the national authorities are unwilling or unable to do so.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0122", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 122, "n": 122, "text": "States should not ask platforms to enforce measures in relation to content that do not conform with international human rights standards. State regulation of social media should encourage companies to ensure meaningful transparency, human rights due diligence and due process rights for users.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0123", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 123, "n": 123, "text": "Companies should develop specific comprehensive policies, processes and structures for operating in conflict settings, based on international human rights law and, where applicable, international humanitarian law standards that provide predictable, consistent and effective frameworks to address manipulation of information, ensure user security and establish mechanisms for remedy. The policies should be made available to all users in the language in which they engage with the platform.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0124", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 124, "n": 124, "text": "Companies should carry out heightened human rights due diligence and trigger enhanced risk management strategies in a timely way for pre-, post- or ongoing conflicts with adequate resources, language and contextual expertise, and engagement of civil society. Due diligence processes should incorporate robust analysis of the impact of the companies’ operations, products and services, including the business model itself, on conflict dynamics as well as human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0125", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 125, "n": 125, "text": "Companies should align content moderation to international human rights law and international humanitarian law standards, making every effort to uphold freedom of expression and access to information while preventing the dissemination of content likely to incite violence or violate other principles of international human rights law and international humanitarian law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0126", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 126, "n": 126, "text": "Companies should ensure that content moderation in conflict settings includes robust human review, incorporating expertise in relevant languages and local and regional contexts. Internal expertise should be complemented by partnerships with reliable fact-checking organizations and civil society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0127", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 127, "n": 127, "text": "End-to-end encryption must be protected as an essential facet of the enjoyment of freedom of opinion and expression. Companies should also carefully assess account security risks that are likely to affect users in conflict settings and provide enhanced security options.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0128", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 128, "n": 128, "text": "Companies should not only develop but also effectively implement policies to limit and track the monetization of harmful content linked to armed conflict.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0129", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 129, "n": 129, "text": "Companies should enhance transparency in conflict situations, including through regular publicly available transparency reports dedicated to specific situations. Such reports should include the granular details and context required to effectively assess the human rights impacts of company policies. Companies should facilitate the access of researchers to company data on the use of digital platforms during conflict.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0130", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 130, "n": 130, "text": "Companies should securely preserve all potential evidence of war crimes or other human rights violations perpetrated during armed conflict in accordance with international evidentiary standards and develop processes to share the evidence with appropriate national or international justice bodies.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"]}, {"id": "a-77-288-0131", "docId": "a-77-288", "idx": 131, "n": 131, "text": "In conclusion, the Special Rapporteur reiterates the need for more research, analysis and multi-stakeholder dialogue to build consensus on concepts, policies, strategies and guidelines to address disinformation and other forms of information manipulation. As various initiatives are launched to examine these issues, the Special Rapporteur reiterates her call for a robust human rights approach and welcomes proposals from Member States, international organizations, companies and civil society on how her mandate can contribute to their efforts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0001", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The Commission on Human Rights established the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in its resolution 1993/45. The present report, submitted pursuant to Commission resolution 2002/48, is the fourth general report by Ambeyi Ligabo, who was appointed Special Rapporteur on 26 August 2002.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0002", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "Since the inception of the mandate in 1993, the notion of freedom of opinion and expression has constantly been evolving because of the advent of new technologies and the consequent increase of the demand for information. The universal availability of new tools for communication and information may give a great impetus to social advancement and to the dissemination of education and knowledge, thus widening the scope of the right to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0003", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "Legislation on new technologies appears to be a major preoccupation, even in environments traditionally favourable to freedom of expression. It has also opened a large debate on the limit between the right to access to information and the right to privacy. Unfortunately, new and old technologies are increasingly used as more or less sophisticated tools for political propaganda, including racial discrimination and hate speech, thus contributing to the proliferation of polarization of ideas and ethnic tension.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0004", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "Issues addressed in this report include, inter alia, an update of matters analysed in the Special Rapporteur’s previous reports, in particular defamation, the security of journalists and an analysis of the outcome of the World Summit on the Information Society, held in Tunis from 16 to 18 November 2005.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Introduction"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0005", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "One of the most significant features of the Special Rapporteur’s mandate is the analysis of the communications received in order to identify new trends, to add new elements on issues already examined in previous reports and to focus the attention of the international community on policies, practices and measures having an impact on the respect for freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0006", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "As a rule, the Special Rapporteur studies and assesses information and communications coming from a plurality of sources - Governments, international, regional, national and local non-governmental organizations; associations of media professionals, writers’ associations, trade unions, members of political parties - and from all regions of the world. The quality and the quantity of information received are essential to the discharge of the mandate and are a significant indicator of the degree of implementation of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. The Special Rapporteur may also decide to take initiative motu proprio on issues of general concern that he considers relevant to his mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0007", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Most of the cases received by the Special Rapporteur relate to violations against media professionals, human rights activists, political groups and their members. Lawyers, students,\nacademics and trade unionists are other categories subject to violations in addition to the ordinary citizen, especially as a member of a vulnerable group, such as women, peasants, members of ethnic minorities, and persons supporting and/or working with the above-mentioned categories.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0008", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The systematic repression of the most active sources of freedom of expression and opinion-making - journalists, trade unionists, social workers, students and teachers, writers and artists - often follows an identical approach in different countries around the world. While the extent of the repression, its duress and length may substantially vary, allegations received are not confined to countries where the political, social and economic situation is particularly difficult, but also concern violations occurring in transitional or long-established democracies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0009", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Repression in the form of blatant human rights violations can significantly differ, depending, inter alia, on the existence of the rule of law and its relevance in a given society. Therefore, the range of violations includes killings, enforced disappearances, arbitrary arrest and detention, mistreatments, threats and harassment, unfair trials and various types of judicial and administrative measures. Criminal charges, sentencing to prison terms and the imposition of heavy fines for defamation, libel and slander are still common, even though a few countries have adopted new legislation moving this category of offence under civil law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0010", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "From 1 December 2004 to 30 November 2005, the Special Rapporteur sent 497 communications: 312 urgent appeals, 242 of which were signed jointly with other Special Rapporteurs, and 185 allegation letters, 69 of which were signed jointly with other rapporteurs. Communications covered 1,291 individuals: 12 per cent of whom were women, 82 per cent men, while the remaining were institutions or enterprises. The table below reflects the geographical breakdown. Table 1 Region Number of communications Percentage Africa Arab Region Asia-Pacific Europe and North America Latin America and Caribbean", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "A. Communications and requests for information"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0011", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is appreciative of all those Governments that, in a spirit of cooperation and understanding, answered his appeals and letters, thus exercising their right to reply (see E/CN.4/2006/55/Add.1).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "Table 1"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0012", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "In a joint statement dated 8 February 2005, the Special Rapporteur and eight other mandate holders expressed serious concern about the situation in Nepal in the aftermath of the dissolution of the legal Government, the proclamation of nationwide state of emergency, the suspension of constitutional guarantees and civil and political liberties.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0013", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "On the occasion of World Press Freedom Day - 3 May 2005 - the Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression, the Special Rapporteur for freedom of expression of the Organization of American States, the Representative on freedom of the media of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, and the Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights issued a statement in which they paid tribute to the courage and professionalism of the numerous journalists and other media professionals either killed or wounded on account of their professional activities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0014", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, together with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, the independent expert on the situation of human rights in Liberia, the Special Rapporteur on the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, the Special Rapporteur on the right to education, the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture, the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights and fundamental freedoms of indigenous people, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on the situation of human rights defenders, the Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living and the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of migrants, issued a statement, on 24 June 2005, in which they expressed their alarm regarding mass forced evictions in Zimbabwe and related human rights violations.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0015", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "On 15 July 2005, the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, together with the Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, the Special Rapporteur on the question of torture, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on the situation of human rights defenders, and the Chairperson-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention issued a statement in which they conveyed their concern at the continued refusal by the authorities of the Islamic Republic of Iran to provide the imprisoned journalist and writer Akbar Ganji with appropriate medical attention.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0016", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "On 16 September 2005, the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression issued a statement regarding again the situation of Akbar Ganji, in which he called on the Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran to grant Ganji an unconditional amnesty on humanitarian grounds and to release him without further delay.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0017", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "In a press release dated 14 October 2005, the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression urged the Government of Tunisia, on the eve of the World Summit on the Information Society, to release unconditionally all press- and opinion-related prisoners and to allow the full exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression in the country.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0018", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "On 16 November 2005, the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, together with the Special Rapporteur on the independence of judges and lawyers and the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on the situation of human rights defenders issued a statement dedicated at the deterioration of the human rights situation in the World Summit on the Information Society host country, Tunisia, with special reference to freedom of expression and association, and the independence of judges and lawyers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0019", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "On 15 December 2005, the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression issued a statement on the World Summit of the Information Society, which included some considerations on the future of Internet governance, notably the establishment of an intergovernmental organization.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "B. Press releases"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0020", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Since his appointment, the Special Rapporteur has visited Colombia, Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Italy, and Serbia and Montenegro. He would like to thank again those Governments for their cooperation and expresses his appreciation to the Government of Serbia and Montenegro for extending, from 11 October 2005, a standing invitation to all thematic special procedures of the Commission on Human Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Country visits"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0021", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "In recent months, the Special Rapporteur has received invitations from the Governments of Guatemala, Honduras, The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Sri Lanka, Ukraine and, more recently, Algeria, Azerbaijan and the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. The Special Rapporteur wishes to express his appreciation to these countries for their invitations and to reiterate the need for early and comprehensive planning in order to carry out visits within reasonable time and with mutual satisfaction. Therefore, he did not seek any further visits in 2005.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Country visits"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0022", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to restate that the full cooperation of Governments is an essential factor for a successful outcome of country missions. Governments should be open to dialogue with the special rapporteurs on issues that may come up before, during and after the visits and should guarantee free access to all people and places that special rapporteurs request to meet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "C. Country visits"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0023", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "On 31 March 2005, the Special Rapporteur introduced his report (E/CN.4/2005/64 and Corr.1 and Add.1-5) at the sixty-first session of the Commission on Human Rights. In his presentation, the Special Rapporteur mentioned a number of issues that were of particular significance for his mandate: security of media professionals, media concentration and the implementation of the right to information, defamation, hate speech and the then-upcoming World Summit on the Information Society. He then updated the Commission on his past activities, including communications, which he implemented and those that he planned to carry out. Finally, he briefly mentioned the findings of his missions to Colombia, Serbia and Montenegro, and Italy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0024", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "During the sixty-first session of the Commission on Human Rights, the Special Rapporteur had the opportunity of consulting with representatives of the following countries: Algeria, Azerbaijan, Canada, Denmark, Guatemala, Honduras, Italy, The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and Sri Lanka. He also held a long briefing with the press and non-governmental organizations immediately after his presentation before the Commission and met several other non-governmental organizations at OHCHR headquarters.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0025", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "The Special Rapporteur participated in the celebration of World Press Freedom Day on 3 May 2005, organized by UNESCO in Dakar. The theme of the Dakar meeting was the role played by the media in promoting democracy and good governance by ensuring transparency and\naccountability, promoting participation and the rule of law, and contributing to the fight against poverty. In his address, the Special Rapporteur stated that the World Press Freedom Day was an opportunity to remind the world of the importance of article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights protecting, inter alia, the freedom of the press at a time when the lack of security of media professionals, the consequences of media concentration and legislation on defamation could considerably endanger media freedom.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0026", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The Special Rapporteur was also invited to the International Press Institute World Congress and 54th General Assembly, held in Nairobi, from 21 to 24 May 2005, where he participated in a panel entitled “Pluralism and democracy, the African experience”. In his speech, the Special Rapporteur stated that the African continent was still marred by long and painful armed conflicts, ethnic divisions and a deficit in democracy. Decades of international and domestic mismanagement of resources have impoverished large parts of African societies. The prevalence of impunity of human rights violations was dictated by the lack of a comprehensive rule of law system and large deficiencies in the administration of justice. Yet, the quest for freedom of opinion and expression by all African peoples was higher than ever and the access to modern communication technologies may open new paths for human and economic development.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0027", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The Special Rapporteur attended the twelfth meeting of the special rapporteurs/ representatives, independent experts and chairpersons of working groups of the special procedures and advisory services programme of the Commission on Human Rights, held in Geneva from 20 to 24 June 2005 (see E/CN.4/2006/4).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0028", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The Open Society Institute/Foundation’s Network Media Program and the United Kingdom’s Department for International Development (DFID) jointly hosted a major international policy forum in London, on 13 and 14 October 2005, for donors who work in the field of freedom of expression, communication and media support. The Special Rapporteur was also invited to the annual European Union/human rights non-governmental organizations forum on freedom of expression, held in London on 8-9 December 2005. Unfortunately, due to his tight schedule, the Special Rapporteur was unable to participate in those forums but he wishes to express his appreciation to the organizers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. ACTIVITIES", "D. Participation in seminars and conferences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0029", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "The final phase of the World Summit on the Information Society, held in Tunis from 16 to 18 November 2005, was the conclusion of a long process that has seen strenuous debates around issues, such as global access and exploitation of Internet resources and enhanced dissemination and availability of information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "General considerations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0030", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "The Internet revolution has definitely opened a new era for freedom of opinion and expression, not only for the creation of innovative information and communication channels, but especially for the numerous opportunities for the dissemination of education and knowledge, elements that are at the core of human progress. Access to all sorts of databanks, including\nlibraries, in addition to media information could represent a decisive factor for the advancement of education and human development. Internet availability may have a terrific impact on the quantity and quality of information at the disposal of the most disadvantaged classes, especially the rural poor. Internet in remote villages and slums could replace or supplement schooling that may be difficult to access because of distance, lack of proper structures or their degradation. The international community at large, including private enterprises, should not miss the opportunity of providing a chance for substantial human and economic development in less favoured countries and populations through the exploitation of Internet resources.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "General considerations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0031", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Special Rapporteur observed that there was much emphasis and focus on purely technical and business matters in the Summit’s work while the link, and its numerous ramifications, between new technologies and human rights, was almost completely neglected. The main organizer, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), did not provide an environment conducive to debating human rights issues. Several non-governmental organizations raised a number of objections regarding the human rights situation of the WSIS host country.[[fn:2]] It should be noted that the decision to hold the second phase of the Summit in Tunisia was autonomously taken by Governments members of the Council of ITU, which in 2001 accepted the offers submitted by Switzerland and Tunisia to host the first and the second phases of the Summit in 2003 and 2005.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "After having examined material submitted by reliable sources, the Special Rapporteur together with other special procedures mandate-holders, intervened on the deterioration of the situation of human rights in Tunisia in connection with the holding of the Summit. Summaries of their action can be found in chapter I of this report under the title “Press releases”, and in document E/C.4/2006/55/Add.1."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "General considerations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0032", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The final phase of the Summit held in Tunis followed the path traced by the Geneva Phase with plenary sessions where chiefs of State and high representatives read formal statements of little substance. Only a few of them mentioned human rights and their link with Internet governance. Among non-State speakers, the Special Rapporteur wishes to commend the statement made by Aidan White, the Secretary-General of the International Federation of Journalists, on media freedom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "General considerations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0033", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The ground for discussion was more fertile in the numerous parallel events. The Special Rapporteur participated as a panellist in a meeting organized by the European Union entitled “Les Parlementaires européens rencontrent la société civile: les droits humains et la société de l’information” on the issue of Internet as a tool for development. In his speech, the Special Rapporteur said, inter alia, that Internet availability may encourage entrepreneurial spirit and promote fair trade; it may quickly provide support for humanitarian crises regardless to their size and extent; it may help research in many strategic fields for the progress and the welfare of human beings. Internet may supply replies and solutions to problems that otherwise could not be dealt with in a reasonable amount of time. Ultimately, it may give a crucial contribution in saving lives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "General considerations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0034", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The Special Rapporteur was impressed by the presentation made at the WSIS of a computer model to be sold for US$ 100, specially conceived for the upgrading of education tools in less developed countries and areas. This kind of equipment, with the increasing availability of software free of charges might really give a terrific boost to the dissemination of information, knowledge and education throughout the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "General considerations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0035", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The “Connect the World” initiative launched by ITU in June 2005, in partnership with the public and private sectors working in the field of communications, targets villages - ITU\nestimates that 30 per cent of villages worldwide are still without any kind of connection. Its main purpose is to bring access to information and communication technologies to approximately one billion people, living in remote and less remote areas, by 2015.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "General considerations"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0036", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "A private, non-profit corporation, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), based in the United States of America, has so far allocated Internet domain names on a purely technical basis. It is thus conceivable that Governments could propose the creation of an intergovernmental organization to govern Internet matters globally. One of the main goals of this new organization would be to promote the use of Internet and other modern technologies for non-profit purposes, such as the dissemination of information, education and knowledge.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "Suitability of an intergovernmental body focused on Internet governance"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0037", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "Internet is a unique opportunity for opening all peoples to an increasing exchange of information, opinions and ideas. Moreover, the worldwide availability of Internet resources might greatly contribute to economic, social and cultural progress, particularly in developing countries. Private corporations, which have been playing a crucial role in the promotion of modern technologies, the United Nations, States and civil society will have to cooperate closely in order to make sure that human rights will be a fundamental and unavoidable component of the future of Internet governance. Should it entail high costs for regular customers, the digital divide will become deeper, and the capacity of Internet and other technologies to provide information and other basic services would ultimately be wasted.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "Suitability of an intergovernmental body focused on Internet governance"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0038", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The establishment of an intergovernmental organization on Internet governance would also make it easier to deal with the proliferation, through worldwide availability of Internet resources, of websites that could increase the phenomena of child pornography and prostitution, the sexual exploitation of women, racial discrimination, xenophobia, hate speech and similar grave human rights violations.", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "Suitability of an intergovernmental body focused on Internet governance"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0039", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "Regional and national authorities, in order to prevent or minimize this risk, can implement all legal means without restricting freedom of opinion and expression in other fields. While international collective action is always advisable, States should be ready to act independently: crimes such as child pornography and hate speech may effectively be thwarted through, among other initiatives, the establishment of special units working on cybercrimes.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "Suitability of an intergovernmental body focused on Internet governance"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0040", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "The Special Rapporteur received numerous reports of harassment, arrest, trial and detention of Internet writers in several countries, especially in the Asian continent where Internet use is widely popular. Law-enforcement agencies closed several websites and arrested ordinary customers and bloggers, who have subsequently been charged of opinion-related offences, such as defamation or slander, and terrorist-like activities such as “acts against State security”. It is highly probable that some Governments would exercise pressure within any intergovernmental body with global jurisdiction on Internet governance and that the present level of freedom of expression could not be maintained. Therefore, such an institution must be solidly anchored to the principles of freedom of opinion and expression as enshrined in international human rights instruments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "Suitability of an intergovernmental body focused on Internet governance"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0041", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to endorse the joint declaration of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) Representative on freedom of the media and the non-governmental organization Reporters Without Borders on guaranteeing media freedom on the Internet, made on 21 June 2005. The six articles of the declaration well define basic principles for open Internet governance, especially with respect to the rights and prerogatives of media to be extended to online journalists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "Suitability of an intergovernmental body focused on Internet governance"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0042", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "In July 2005, the European Parliament took a significant stand on violation of privacy rights and the “rights relating to the personality”: the law of the country to which the publication or broadcasting service is principally directed and the country in which editorial control is exercised will govern rights relating to the personality affirming claims for infringement of these rights. The Parliament’s decision means that, in most cases, journalists could be sued in no more than two countries and that the claimant cannot freely choose a country with a more restrictive approach on press freedom.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "Suitability of an intergovernmental body focused on Internet governance"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0043", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The Special Rapporteur noted that several organizations released statements on Internet governance. The declaration signed by the Committee to Protect Journalists, the Inter American Press Association, the International Association of Broadcasting, the International Press Institute, the World Association of Newspapers and the World Free Press Committee, meeting in Belgrade for World Press Freedom Day on 3 May 2004, reflects the preoccupation of a large portion of media professionals about the future of Internet governance and the increasing pressure of Governments on Internet providers, online journalists, bloggers and ordinary customers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "A. Internet governance and human rights", "Suitability of an intergovernmental body focused on Internet governance"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0044", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "Freedom of opinion and expression is an essential element of all societies.[[fn:3]] It allows the ordinary citizen to participate in public life in a constructive way, through the gathering of information, data and information analysis, which contribute to the citizen’s awareness and ability to form opinions. Having collected information, the citizen can make his/her own assessment on public matters and fully participate in several aspects of the decision-making process, for example the right to vote, thus exercising his/her right to express his/her views. Governments and national authorities should guarantee that the citizen receives a maximum of information on any subject he/she wishes and that, if needed, he/she can challenge any decision that, in his/her opinion, entangle his/her rights to information, thus to the negation of his/her right to personal development and dignity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Freedom of opinion and expression “is applicable not only to ‘information’ or ‘ideas’ that are favourably received or regarded as inoffensive or as a matter of indifference, but also to those that offend, shock or disturb the State or any sector of the population. Such are the demands of pluralism, tolerance and broadmindedness without which there is no ‘democratic society’.” European Court of Human Rights, Handyside v. United Kingdom, 7 December 1976, Application No. 5493/72, 1 EHRR 737, para. 49."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0045", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "Defamation is an intentional false communication that injures another person’s reputation, being the communication without the consent of the allegedly defamed person. Slander and libel are two forms of defamation. Slander is commonly identified as a defamatory statement expressed in oral form, while libel is a written defamation. Generally, radio and television broadcasts that are defamatory are considered to be libel, rather than slander, because the majority of programmes are recorded so that the defamatory statement can be retrieved. Insult laws - known as desacato laws in Spanish-speaking countries - make it a criminal offence to “insult” the honour or dignity of public officials through both oral and written statements.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0046", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "The right to freedom of expression is probably the most striking example of the difficult balance between different freedoms and rights and their interdependence. While imparting and\nseeking information may have different purposes, the right to freedom of expression, especially when exercised by the press, can at times collide with the right to privacy. International instruments and national legislation provide a variety of responses to the conflicts that can arise from the exercise of freedom and rights, and on the way in which these kinds of conflicts should be dealt with.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0047", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "Important aspects to take into consideration when discussing defamation issues are the right to criticize and the right to privacy. The right to criticize is a fundamental part of freedom of expression and of the correct functioning of a democratic society, especially on matters of public interest. Of course, this exercise can also involve criticism of individuals, particularly States’ high-ranking officials and political personalities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0048", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "There are a few legitimate limitations on the exercise of the freedom of expression, which, as set out in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, “carries with it special duties and responsibilities” (art. 19). Accordingly, it may be subject to certain restrictions, provided by law and necessary for respect of the rights or reputations of others and for the protection of national security or of public order, or of public health or morals. Yet, the restrictions should not put the right in jeopardy. Defamation laws should strike a balance between the right to privacy, and more specifically the right to protect one’s reputation, with the rights to freedom of speech and access to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0049", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The right to reply balances the exercise of the right to criticize. The Convention on the International Right of Correction[[fn:4]] was the product of an historical period, the so-called “cold war” era, and while the convention seems applicable to countries parties to it and their representatives, its application to disputes involving ordinary citizens, in their private capacity, seems questionable. By all means, defamation laws cannot be justified on the grounds that they help maintain public order, national security or friendly relations with foreign States or Governments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "The Convention was opened for signature on 16 December 1952, entered into force on 24 August 1962. The approach promoted by the Convention was to offer to those, notably States, directly affected by reports, which they considered false or distorted the “possibility of ensuring commensurate publicity” for their corrections."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0050", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "International norms, and in several countries domestic legislation also, prevent Governments, political and economic lobbies from restricting freedom of speech, as part of the right to freedom of expression. Yet they may find it convenient to use defamation laws to sanction the allegedly harmful effects of criticism. It should be noted that the right to reply and the right to protect one’s own reputation, including the possibility of seeking remedial action, are generally well covered by regional instruments, such as the American Convention on Human Rights in its articles 13 and 14.[[fn:5]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Article 13: … 2. The exercise of the right provided for in the foregoing paragraph [freedom of opinion and expression] shall not be subject to prior censorship but shall be subject to subsequent imposition of liability, which shall be expressly established by law to the extent necessary to ensure: a. respect for the rights or reputations of others; Article 14: 1. Anyone injured by inaccurate or offensive statements or ideas disseminated to the public in general by a legally regulated medium of communication has the right to reply or to make a correction using the same communications outlet, under such conditions as the law may establish. 2. The correction or reply shall not in any case remit other legal liabilities that may have been incurred. 3. For the effective protection of honor and reputation, every publisher, and every newspaper, motion picture, radio, and television company, shall have a person responsible who is not protected by immunities or special privileges."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0051", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "The issue of the decriminalization of defamation and similar offences has been comprehensively discussed at international meetings at which experts drafted principles and guidelines for action. In recent years, several countries replaced criminal defamation laws with appropriate civil defamation laws, a measure that also allows reducing the workload and costs of overburdened judiciary systems. Unfortunately, some of these countries did not abolish offences such as those that “insult to national institutions and or national symbols” which can easily be used in relation to allegedly defamatory statements.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation", "Decriminalization of defamation and similar offences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0052", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "The threat of criminal sanctions, in particular imprisonment, exerts a chilling effect on freedom of expression. Prison sentences, suspended prison sentences, suspension of the right to express oneself through any particular form of media or to practise journalism or any other profession, excessive fines and other harsh criminal penalties should never be available as a sanction for breach of defamation laws.[[fn:6]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See for instance the views of the Human Rights Committee under the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Victor Ivan Majuwana Kankanamge v. Sri Lanka, Human Rights Committee, eightyfirst session, 530 July 2004, communication No. 909/2000: Sri Lanka. 26/08/2004. CCPR/C/81/D/909/2000."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation", "Decriminalization of defamation and similar offences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0053", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "In December 2000, Abid Hussain, then Special Rapporteur on the right of freedom of opinion and expression, the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media, and the OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression recommended that member States review their defamation laws in order to ensure that they did not restrict the right to freedom of opinion and expression and to bring them into line with their international obligations. In particular, they insisted on the repeal of criminal defamation laws in favour of civil laws and the repeal of laws, such as desacato laws, which provide special protection for public figures.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See E/CN.4/2001/64, para. 48. Available at www.ohchr.org."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation", "Decriminalization of defamation and similar offences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0054", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "The participants at the conference on libel and insult laws, organized by the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) representative on freedom of the media and Reporters Without Borders, held in Paris in November 2003, recommended, inter alia, that Governments should support the decriminalization of libel and the repeal of the so-called insult laws, particularly to the extent that they provide special protection for the honour and dignity of public officials. They recommended to legislatures that criminal libel and defamation laws should be repealed, where necessary, with appropriate civil laws. They also recommended judicial bodies to interpret narrowly what is considered to be defamatory and, to the extent possible, this consideration should be limited to statements of facts and not opinions.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Reporters Without Borders, “Libel and insult laws: What more can be done to decriminalize libel and repeal insult laws?”, Recommendations, 25 November 2003."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation", "Decriminalization of defamation and similar offences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0055", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to endorse efforts toward the decriminalization of defamation and similar offences. Any criminal defamation laws still in force should include the principle that no one should be convicted for criminal defamation unless the party claiming to be defamed proves that the impugned statements are false and that they were made with actual knowledge of their falsity. As pointed out above, defamation laws should guarantee the protection of the right to privacy, especially the protection of reputations. However, in many countries defamation laws are frequently used to stifle public debate about matters of general concern, and to limit criticism of officials. Public officials and authorities should not take part in the initiation or prosecution of criminal defamation cases and should not be granted greater protection than the ordinary citizen; they should instead tolerate more criticism because of the nature of their mandate.[[fn:9]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Article 19, Defining defamation: Principles on Freedom of Expression and Protection of Reputation, International Standard Series, July 2000, London."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "B. Freedom of expression and defamation", "Decriminalization of defamation and similar offences"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0056", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "Press freedom is one of the pillars of a democratic society. Consequently, States have the primary responsibility to ensure protection and security of journalists and are also responsible for ensuring that crimes against media professionals are brought to justice. Comprehensive and pluralist information can only be guaranteed if media professionals are allowed to work with sufficient protection and security.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Security and protection of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0057", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "According to a reliable source, the International News Safety Institute (INSI),[[fn:10]] as of 1 December 2005, 86 journalists and 5 media staff had been killed since the beginning of the year, making 2005 one of the most dangerous years for media professionals in the last decade.\nWhile final data for 2005 will be available only at the beginning of 2006, other press institutions and associations offer figures that nonetheless confirm the trend suggested by INSI. Other discrepancies between figures could be justified by a different evaluation of press professionals’ status, such as belonging to a press association and/or to organizations defending human rights. Unfortunately, as in 2004, Iraq and the Philippines proved to be the deadliest countries for media workers in 2005, with almost half of the killings perpetrated. According to another reliable source, the Committee to Protect Journalists,[[fn:11]] China, Cuba, Eritrea and Ethiopia detained a large majority of the 125 media professionals behind bars worldwide as of 1 December 2005.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See www.newssafety.com."}, {"n": 11, "text": "See www.cpj.org."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Security and protection of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0058", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "Media professionals killed during military operations can either fall in the crossfire or be specifically targeted because of their work. The Special Rapporteur also received allegations concerning military operations that would principally have targeted media professionals. Many other journalists are killed while investigating corruption cases and alleged mismanagement by States’ officials, or by criminal organizations acting with or without the support of States’ apparatus.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Security and protection of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0059", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has been following with appreciation and interest efforts concerning the creation of a press emblem, as well as the drafting of an international instrument on the protection of journalists promoted by the Press Emblem Campaign.[[fn:12]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "See www.pressemblem.ch."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Security and protection of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0060", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Likewise, the Special Rapporteur believes that the proposal made by the International Federation of Journalists and the International News Safety Institute for a resolution of the Security Council on the protection of journalists is worth careful consideration.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "A draft text of this resolution was adopted by the World Electronic Media Forum, held on 16 November 2005 within the World Summit on the Information Society, and subsequently presented to the SecretaryGeneral."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Security and protection of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0061", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "In the Special Rapporteur’s opinion, there is a need for international guidelines and rules, which could be drafted with the Commission on Human Rights (or any body succeeding the Commission) and subsequently adopted by the General Assembly, concerning the protection and the security of journalists and media staff. Before that, the Commission should convene a group of experts to prepare a wide-ranging study on the causes and consequences of violence against journalists and legal remedies available.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "Article 79 of the First Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, as adopted by the Diplomatic Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law applicable in Armed Conflicts in June 1977, is the most relevant international legal provision regarding the protection of journalists in areas of armed conflicts."}], "section": ["II. ISSUES", "C. Security and protection of media professionals"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0062", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "The Special Rapporteur reiterates that the right to freedom of opinion and expression, and the ancillary rights to freedom of association and assembly, are fundamental and inalienable rights that contribute to the consolidation of democracy and to socio-economic development. Any obstacle to the free circulation of ideas and individuals limits freedom of expression and its positive consequences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0063", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "Violations of the right to freedom of opinion and expression may occur in all regions and countries, whatever their system, and may have diverse forms and shape. Democracy and freedom of opinion and expression mutually reinforce each other and their joint actions facilitate the promotion of the indivisibility and interdependence of all human rights. Only true democratic regimes can guarantee a fertile ground for a thriving information society and effective remedial action for its protection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0064", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "In spite of some progress, numerous trends and violations patterns remain substantially active and unchanged. The Special Rapporteur gathered information and examined a number of specific issues in depth: media security and protection, national legislation on defamation, Internet governance and its relation with the right to freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0065", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes that, generally speaking, the current international situation has had a negative effect on freedom of opinion and expression, and on freedom of movement especially. While reiterating his total and unconditional condemnation of terrorism, the Special Rapporteur observes that several Governments have enforced preventive anti-terrorism legislation, thus de facto allowing the reintroduction of practices that are prohibited under international human rights law. With regard to information, the arrest and detention of media professionals have increased, together with the closing of media enterprises and censorship of publications and programmes. Also, the right to association, especially trade unionism, has negatively been affected by anti-terrorism measures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0066", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to pay tribute to the numerous dedicated media professionals who, regardless of poor security conditions, through their work have contributed to offer exhaustive and multifaceted information to the public. They are the best examples of professionalism and ethical conduct, which prevent media to become involved in political speculations and to be instruments of warfare.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0067", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "In the last decade, the rate of killings and other forms of violence against media professionals has been tragically high. In parallel, the request for international legal norms, which would cover security and protection for media professionals, has come back on the agenda after a long period of obliviousness. Such norms would also help in the identification and adequate punishment of perpetrators of crimes against journalists, who often escape from any kind of legal procedure. In addition, States would be compelled to act in accordance with international norms, particularly with regard to crimes committed by law enforcement officials and paramilitary groups.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0068", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "The Special Rapporteur believes that the information society should totally uphold basic human rights principles and not be the mere reflection of the world nowadays. In this connection, respect and promotion are key words. On the one hand, respect for human rights in general, for the human being, respect for women and children, respect for minorities, the elderly, the disabled and other vulnerable groups. On the other hand, the concept of promotion concerns the upgrading of the rights of the above-mentioned categories and any effort towards increasing tolerance and understanding, the end of all forms of discrimination, the struggle against racism and its subsidiaries like ethnic conflicts, mass executions and genocide.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0069", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "The Special Rapporteur believes that guaranteeing freedom of opinion and expression on the Internet, and other new communication tools, is the central challenge for the future. The realization of a global information society, in which the poor can also have access to modern technologies, may represent a leap forward for mankind, opening new paths for human and economic development. Should the information society miss the opportunity to make technologies available globally, the social and economic cleavage between developed and developing countries will become deeper than in the past.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0070", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "In the Special Rapporteur’s opinion, bearing in mind the vital role played by the media in creating broad awareness of political, economic and social issues, the fact that many journalists went on trial on defamation charges remains totally unacceptable. Elected officials and authorities officials should be conscious that, because of their role, they attract the attention of the press in the implementation of their functions.[[fn:15]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "E/CN.4/2000/63, paras. 4552."}], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0071", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes, on the one hand, that several media outlets use information received from governmental sources on terrorism and anti-terrorist activities, without sufficient control and verification. This behaviour often creates alarm and distress in the population and may ultimately bias judicial proceedings against presumed terrorists. On the other hand, Governments increasingly adopt national security legislation to restrict, partially or totally, freedom of opinion and expression and the right to access to information on the ground that the work of the media will support, either directly or indirectly, terrorist activities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Iii. CONCLUSIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0072", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "The Special Rapporteur encourages Governments to review existing practices related to all fields of freedom of opinion and expression and to take, whenever necessary, remedial actions in order to ensure conformity to international human rights instruments. In a period of international tension and distress, the Special Rapporteur recommends that Governments consider the protection of freedom of opinion and expression, freedom of the press, political parties, trade unions, students, teachers, social workers, writers and artists as one of the best ways to fight against the spreading violence and to guarantee lasting stability. As appropriate, Governments may also consider the possibility of seeking technical assistance from OHCHR in order to examine the causes of human rights violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0073", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "The Special Rapporteur invites Governments to consider the opportunity of establishing an independent authority on communications and a media ombudsperson, which could respectively be entrusted with the implementation of relevant laws and regulations and with a mediator’s functions with regard to media offences, without having recourse to criminal law. Such an authority could also be entrusted with the task of preventing the phenomenon of media concentration, in particular the creation of a monopoly that could gravely endanger the pluralism of information, affect the independence of media and increase the cost of information. The joint action of the authority on communications and the media ombudsperson could ultimately ensure that the exercise of freedom of opinion and expression through the media is open and accessible to various actors from civil society, local communities and minorities, vulnerable groups, in addition to economic and political groups.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0074", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "The Special Rapporteur urges States to take initiatives to counter the decline of the print media in favour of the development of the television-radio sector and of Internet. Print media are a fundamental instrument for the dissemination of ideas and opinions and, at the same time, they educate the reader to develop a critical approach and to analyse the information provided.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0075", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "The Special Rapporteur urges independent media authorities and media associations to take initiatives to stop the use of forms of expression characterized by discriminatory connotations of ethnic and other vulnerable groups. Hate speech and similar forms of expression are a poison for democracy and its institutions, and they also endanger media credibility. Likewise, action should be taken against indiscriminate use of stereotyping against women, minorities and other vulnerable groups, especially asylum-seekers. Human rights awareness, a sense of personal responsibility and professionalism can help in preventing professional attitudes that do not match with the job’s ethic.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0076", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that Governments take the necessary measures to increase protection of journalists and other media workers, regardless of their professional and political affiliation, from attacks, be they attacks by officials, law-enforcement officers, armed groups or terrorists. Media security remains one of the core elements to guarantee pluralist information in a period marked by polarization of opinion and widespread violence. Governments should also ensure the protection of other categories at risk, such as trade unionists, social workers, students and teachers, and artists. The identification and adequate punishment of the perpetrators of such crimes will contribute to the strengthening of the rule of law and will buttress the confidence of the ordinary citizen in State institutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0077", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that the Commission on Human Rights consider the opportunity of a comprehensive, impartial study on the issue of the security of journalists, in particular in situations of armed conflicts, based on information from and the experiences of Governments, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations. Such a document, which would include conclusions and recommendations, could provide a basis to discuss draft guidelines for the protection of journalists and other media professionals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0078", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "The Special Rapporteur vigorously emphasizes that any new intergovernmental body administering, partially or totally, Internet governance must ensure freedom of opinion and expression and promote it throughout the world, in the light of article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. It may be appropriate to recall that other international human rights standards, such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, the American Convention on Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights, contain similar provisions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0079", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that all States take measures to guarantee freedom of opinion and expression on the Internet, inter alia, extending to website contributors and bloggers the same protection as other media. Transparency, openness and accountability should be promoted in order to enrich debates and dialogues. Internet providers and website registration with national authorities should not be subject to any specific requirement. Any legal dispute arising from the use of the Web should be dealt with in the country where the website has its origin.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0080", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "The Special Rapporteur encourages Governments to decriminalize defamation and similar offences, a measure that could also alleviate the workload of the judiciary that in certain countries has taken abnormal proportions. Defamation cases could be solved without recurring to the judiciary, but through the good offices of an independent authority. Under civil law, the amount of fines to be paid should allow the continuation of one’s professional activities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0081", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "The Special Rapporteur encourages Governments to ensure that national legislation on the right to freedom of opinion and expression includes the right to access to information, whose implementation appears difficult because of a culture of confidentiality and secrecy that has little to do with the exercise of democracy. In general terms, for the sake of transparency, the termination of judicial procedures should engage the removal of the clauses of confidentiality and secrecy. The use of confidentiality is justified only to protect the right to privacy of individuals, especially of minors. Confidentiality and secrecy may temporarily be justified to protect States’ interests and their populations in case of grave attempts to overturn democratic rule, and should subsequently be authorized by a judicial body. Notes a The full text of the statements is available on www.ohchr.org (section News Releases). b After having examined material submitted by reliable sources, the Special Rapporteur together with other special procedures mandate-holders, intervened on the deterioration of the situation of human rights in Tunisia in connection with the holding of the Summit. Summaries of their action can be found in chapter I of this report under the title “Press releases”, and in document E/C.4/2006/55/Add.1. c Freedom of opinion and expression “is applicable not only to ‘information’ or ‘ideas’ that are favourably received or regarded as inoffensive or as a matter of indifference, but also to those that offend, shock or disturb the State or any sector of the population. Such are the demands of pluralism, tolerance and broadmindedness without which there is no ‘democratic society’.” European Court of Human Rights, Handyside v. United Kingdom, 7 December 1976, Application No. 5493/72, 1 EHRR 737, para. 49. d The Convention was opened for signature on 16 December 1952, entered into force on 24 August 1962. The approach promoted by the Convention was to offer to those, notably States, directly affected by reports, which they considered false or distorted the “possibility of ensuring commensurate publicity” for their corrections. e Article 13: …", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0082", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 82, "n": 2, "text": "The exercise of the right provided for in the foregoing paragraph [freedom of opinion and expression] shall not be subject to prior censorship but shall be subject to subsequent imposition of liability, which shall be expressly established by law to the extent necessary to ensure: a. respect for the rights or reputations of others; E/CN.4/2006/55 Article 14:", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0083", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 83, "n": 1, "text": "Anyone injured by inaccurate or offensive statements or ideas disseminated to the public in general by a legally regulated medium of communication has the right to reply or to make a correction using the same communications outlet, under such conditions as the law may establish.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0084", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 84, "n": 2, "text": "The correction or reply shall not in any case remit other legal liabilities that may have been incurred.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "e-cn-4-2006-55-0085", "docId": "e-cn-4-2006-55", "idx": 85, "n": 3, "text": "For the effective protection of honor and reputation, every publisher, and every newspaper, motion picture, radio, and television company, shall have a person responsible who is not protected by immunities or special privileges. f See for instance the views of the Human Rights Committee under the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Victor Ivan Majuwana Kankanamge v. Sri Lanka, Human Rights Committee, eighty-first session, 5-30 July 2004, communication No. 909/2000: Sri Lanka. 26/08/2004. CCPR/C/81/D/909/2000. g See E/CN.4/2001/64, para. 48. Available at www.ohchr.org. h Reporters Without Borders, “Libel and insult laws: What more can be done to decriminalize libel and repeal insult laws?”, Recommendations, 25 November 2003. i Article 19, Defining defamation: Principles on Freedom of Expression and Protection of Reputation, International Standard Series, July 2000, London. j See www.newssafety.com. k See www.cpj.org. l See www.pressemblem.ch. m A draft text of this resolution was adopted by the World Electronic Media Forum, held on 16 November 2005 within the World Summit on the Information Society, and subsequently presented to the Secretary-General. n Article 79 of the First Additional Protocol to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, as adopted by the Diplomatic Conference on the Reaffirmation and Development of International Humanitarian Law applicable in Armed Conflicts in June 1977, is the most relevant international legal provision regarding the protection of journalists in areas of armed conflicts. o E/CN.4/2000/63, paras. 45-52. E/CN.4/2006/55 ANNEXES Annex I JOINT DECLARATION Adopted on 6 December 2004 by Ambeyi Ligabo, Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Miklos Haraszti, the OSCE Representative on freedom of the media, and Eduardo Bertoni, the OAS Special Rapporteur on freedom of expression On access to information The right to access information held by public authorities is a fundamental human right which should be given effect at the national level through comprehensive legislation (for example, freedom of information acts) based on the principle of maximum disclosure, establishing a presumption that all information is accessible subject only to a narrow system of exceptions: − Public authorities should be required to publish proactively, even in the absence of a request, a range of information of public interest. Systems should be put in place to increase, over time, the amount of information subject to such routine disclosure; − Access to information is a citizens’ right. As a result, the procedures for accessing information should be simple, rapid and free or low-cost; − The right of access should be subject to a narrow, carefully tailored system of exceptions to protect overriding public and private interests, including privacy. Exceptions should apply only where there is a risk of substantial harm to the protected interest and where that harm is greater than the overall public interest in having access to the information. The burden should be on the public authority seeking to deny access to show that the information falls within the scope of the system of exceptions; − Public authorities should be required to meet minimum record management standards. Systems should be put in place to promote higher standards over time; − The access to information law should, to the extent of any inconsistency, prevail over other legislation; − Those requesting information should have the possibility to appeal any refusals to disclose to an independent body with full powers to investigate and resolve such complaints; − National authorities should take active steps to address the culture of secrecy that still prevails in many countries within the public sector. This should include provision for sanctions for those who wilfully obstruct access to information. Steps should also be taken to promote broad public awareness of the access to information law; E/CN.4/2006/55 − Steps should be taken, including through the allocation of necessary resources and attention, to ensure effective implementation of access to information legislation. On secrecy legislation Urgent steps should be taken to review and, as necessary, repeal or amend, legislation restricting access to information to bring it into line with international standards in this area, including as reflected in this Joint Declaration: − Public authorities and their staff bear sole responsibility for protecting the confidentiality of legitimately secret information under their control. Other individuals, including journalists and civil society representatives, should never be subject to liability for publishing or further disseminating this information, regardless of whether or not it has been leaked to them, unless they committed fraud or another crime to obtain the information. Criminal law provisions that do not restrict liability for the dissemination of State secrets to those who are officially entitled to handle those secrets should be repealed or amended; − Certain information may legitimately be secret on grounds of national security or protection of other overriding interests. However, secrecy laws should define national security precisely and indicate clearly the criteria which should be used in determining whether or not information can be declared secret, so as to prevent abuse of the label “secret” for purposes of preventing disclosure of information which is in the public interest. Secrecy laws should set out clearly which officials are entitled to classify documents as secret and should also set overall limits on the length of time documents may remain secret. Such laws should be subject to public debate; − “Whistleblowers” are individuals releasing confidential or secret information although they are under an official or other obligation to maintain confidentiality or secrecy. “Whistleblowers” releasing information on violations of the law, on wrongdoing by public bodies, on a serious threat to health, safety or the environment, or on a breach of human rights or humanitarian law should be protected against legal, administrative or employment-related sanctions if they act in “good faith”. E/CN.4/2006/55 Annex II FOLLOW-UP TO THE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS CONTAINED IN THE REPORTS ON THE VISITS OF THE SPECIAL RAPPORTEUR TO SERBIA AND MONTENEGRO (E/CN.4/2005/62/Add.[[fn:4]]) AND TO ITALY (E/CN.4/2005/62/Add.[[fn:5]])a Serbia and Montenegro Recommendation 3 (E/CN.4/2005/64/Add.4, para. 74) A draft loi sur le protecteur des citoyens (law on the ombudsman) has been submitted by the Government for study and adoption. It is the result of cooperation with international experts, the Council of Europe and the OSCE, as well as of a public discussion in which the ombudsman of the Province of Voivodina and several human rights NGOs, as well as other experts, took part. According to the draft law: − The ombudsman is elected by the National Assembly on the recommendation of a committee responsible for constitutional matters; − The ombudsman has four deputies, also elected by the Assembly on the proposal of the ombudsman, for a period of five years; − The ombudsman addresses human rights violations resulting from an act or omission by the administrative authorities, and monitors the legality of the procedures and work of the administrative authority; he does not monitor the work of the Government in its entirety; − The ombudsman does not have a mandate to address the work of the courts, unless the complaint concerns an act or omission by the court that manifestly affects the right to legal protection of one of the parties; − The ombudsman acts at the request of citizens or ex officio, but may not act on anonymous complaints; − The administrative authority must respond to the requests of the ombudsman and transmit all requested information within 15 to 60 days; − The ombudsman submits an annual report on his work to the National Assembly, which is published in the Official Journal, posted on the ombudsman’s website and communicated to the press; − The ombudsman cooperates with the ombudsman of the Autonomous Province of Voivodina and the counsel to the civil party seeking damages in the relevant local autonomous units in order to exchange information on problems encountered with the administrative authorities. E/CN.4/2006/55 Recommendation 4 (ibid., para. 75) The Law on Free Access to Information of general interest (Official Journal No. 120/04) was adopted on 2 November 2004 in accordance with a recommendation of the Council of Europe. This law governs access to information of general interest to the public in the hands of public authorities. The Law on the modification of the Law on Public Information (Official Journal No. 61/05), adopted by the National Assembly on 15 July 2005, deals with press media, coming under the Law on Public Information, which have not begun the process of changing ownership. This fact demonstrates the necessity of moving back time limits by one year so that the closing down of these information outlets will coincide with the time limit for the electronic media and allow privatization to go forward under the best possible conditions (article 1 of the Law on the modifications to the Law on Public Information). The Law on the modifications and additions to the Law Governing Radio Broadcasting (Official Journal No. 97/04) was adopted by the National Assembly on 24 August 2004. These modifications affect the length of the initial mandates of the respective members of the Council of the Agency for Radio Broadcasting, whose creation as an autonomous and independent organization with public responsibilities is governed by the Law Governing Radio Broadcasting (Official Journal No. 42/02). Recommendation 8 (ibid., para. 79) After the economic changes in Serbia and Montenegro, a series of measures were taken aimed at the implementation of the new minorities policy, whose basis is the complete integration of minorities in society while safeguarding and developing their particular national characteristics and culture. This will come about through permanent communication between the national authorities and the representatives of all the minority communities and by a partnership with the relevant key organizations and institutions (in particular the OSCE and the Council of Europe). The basis of the new minorities policy is: − The development of democratic institutions and respect for the primacy of the law; − The establishment of a complete set of legal rules concerning the key rights of minorities; − The creation of a societal atmosphere where the spirit of tolerance and respect for differences will be cultivated; − A faster pace of development and progress of the country. In accordance with the Law on the Protection of the Rights and Freedoms of Minorities (Official Journal No. 11/2002), national councils of minorities have been formed, the members elected by the minorities themselves. These councils represent the minorities on matters concerning the use of the language of the minorities in education, culture and information. E/CN.4/2006/55 Article 19.7 of the Law has created a legal basis for the councils to legislate on certain questions in this domain, and requires the State to adopt laws to enable the national councils to exercise competency in areas concerning the safeguard of the identity of the minorities. Italy With specific regard to the provision concerning the resolution of conflict of interest, Law No. 215/2004 (the Legge Frattini) does not deal solely with the mass media and information sector, but covers all possible conflicts of interest between government responsibilities and professional and business activities in general. Because of its particular nature, the mass media and information sector is the subject matter of a number of specific provisions in that law (see in particular article 7). These particular provisions do not replace the general rules governing any type of company, but are additional to them. The combined provisions of articles 1, 2 and 3 of the law set out its general scope. The regulation of conflict-of-interest is completed by setting out the powers, functions and procedures of the independent administrative authorities responsible for control and prevention of such situations, even imposing penalties. As for companies in general, this responsibility lies with the Competition Authority, which was instituted by Law No. 287/1990 (art. 6); as for companies operating in the print press and media sector, the responsibility lies not only with the Competition Authority but also with the Communications Regulatory Authority instituted by Law No. 249/1997. These authorities have wide-ranging powers to conduct investigations and impose penalties in accordance with current legislation. They can also act at their own initiative, guaranteeing the principle of audi alteram partem and the rules of administrative transparency. Their powers do not exclude the competence of the judicial authority or of any other authorities with regard to criminal, civil, administrative or disciplinary offences, and indeed, they are required to report any cases of criminal offences to the judicial authorities. In particular, under article 7, the Communications Regulatory Authority performs the monitoring activity specifically in the mass media sector, imposing fines on companies, should they provide privileged support to the holder of government office. As for the effectiveness of Law No. 215/2004, it provides that, in the cases of top-down conflict and in the cases of bottom-up conflict, fines can be imposed (art. 6, c.[[fn:8]], art. 7, c.3) on companies and administrative penalties both to the holder of government office (art. 6, c.1) and to the companies (art. 7, c.1 and 3).b In addition to these penalties, the holder of government office can also be subject to political sanctions, resulting from the obligation on the part of the independent authorities to submit their report to the Speakers of both Houses of Parliament. As a result, if government post-holders have acted in pursuit of their personal interests rather than the national interest, this is bound to be public knowledge. This sanction is extremely important, because transparency in the performance of official government duties and the publicizing of such offences are the best possible way to prevent and combat the pursuit of private interests in the course of performing public duties. E/CN.4/2006/55 Italy wishes also to update the Special Rapporteur about the implementation of the new procedures for the election of the Board of Directors of the State Broadcasting Company, RAI. The new board has been elected following the provisions of Law No. 112/2004 (the Gasparri Law) in such a way to guarantee the full balance between the majority and opposition. This implies a more transparent, fair and correct management of the State Broadcasting Company. At last, as regards paragraph 91 of the report, where the Special Rapporteur encourages the authorities to reinforce the politics concerning the access to more comprehensible information for migrant populations, Italy wishes to specify that the Territorial Immigration Councils, as established by article 3 of the Law 286/98, in which Representatives of the foreigners’ representative organizations sit have been carrying out for a long time useful services within the Territorial Governmental Prefectures-Offices. Furthermore, the project financed by the European Structural Funds 2000-2006, called “Civis towards a multiracial society”, has been implemented for approximately three years. The main purpose of the project, realized through the public services offered by radio and television networks, is the diffusion of information finalized to facilitate the integration of migrant people into the Italian society and, at the same time, to offer them the opportunity to take advantage of places where they can show their experiences and needs. As regards paragraph 92, concerning respect for human rights, the Special Committee against racism and xenophobia, created within the Interior Ministry has the task to protect the correct manifestation of religious and philosophical opinions, supporting the Government and undertaking the most suitable actions for the integration of migrant people into Italian society and, at the same time, offering them the opportunity to take advantage of places where they can show their experiences and needs. Notes a The full text of the notes verbales sent by the Governments of Serbia and Montenegro, and Italy are available with the files of the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. b The fine and administrative penalties imposed on media companies are given in Law No. 223 of 1990 (governing the public and private radio and television broadcasting services), Law No. 249 of 1997 (instituting the authority and the telecommunications and radio and television broadcasting systems) and Law No. 28 of 2000 (the so-called “par condicio” law).", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2006, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "The Convention was opened for signature on 16 December 1952, entered into force on 24 August 1962. The approach promoted by the Convention was to offer to those, notably States, directly affected by reports, which they considered false or distorted the “possibility of ensuring commensurate publicity” for their corrections."}, {"n": 5, "text": "Article 13: … 2. The exercise of the right provided for in the foregoing paragraph [freedom of opinion and expression] shall not be subject to prior censorship but shall be subject to subsequent imposition of liability, which shall be expressly established by law to the extent necessary to ensure: a. respect for the rights or reputations of others; Article 14: 1. Anyone injured by inaccurate or offensive statements or ideas disseminated to the public in general by a legally regulated medium of communication has the right to reply or to make a correction using the same communications outlet, under such conditions as the law may establish. 2. The correction or reply shall not in any case remit other legal liabilities that may have been incurred. 3. For the effective protection of honor and reputation, every publisher, and every newspaper, motion picture, radio, and television company, shall have a person responsible who is not protected by immunities or special privileges."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Reporters Without Borders, “Libel and insult laws: What more can be done to decriminalize libel and repeal insult laws?”, Recommendations, 25 November 2003."}], "section": ["IV. RECOMMENDATIONS"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0001", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "Billions of people rely on digital platforms to gain access to information, share views, communicate with family and friends and organize and participate in social, civic and political activities. At the same time, billions of people are endangered on those platforms by hate speech, bullying and harassment, incitement to violence, disinformation,[[fn:1]] sexual abuse, exploitation and more. Many critical voices are chilled into silence or driven from online spaces, while many others are wrongly removed as a result of biased or overzealous content moderation of the platforms. Those harms are not confined to the online world, but are amplified by social media and spread offline, undermining diversity and social inclusion, polarizing politics, aggravating conflicts, disrupting and delegitimizing elections and destroying public trust in the integrity of information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "For the purposes of the present report, “disinformation” is used to denote both disinformation and misinformation. Disinformation is understood as the dissemination of false or manipulated information intended to cause social harm and misinformation as the dissemination of false information unknowingly."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0002", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "Rapid advances in artificial intelligence (AI), while expanding opportunities for free expression and access to information, have added new risks and a new layer of complexity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0003", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "Freedom of expression online is a contested and vulnerable space. The platforms are controlled by private digital companies, based largely in the United States of America but with global operations. The intersection of public policy and private power has been an enormously consequential factor driving the digital revolution in information and expression. The harms, as well as the benefits, are as much the outcome of the policies and products of digital companies as they are of States’ action or inaction. The profit maximization motive and other business considerations make companies susceptible to State pressure, enabling Governments to manipulate or coerce companies for their own political objectives. Civil society has been highly critical about the private governance of freedom of expression, while acknowledging its potential as a bulwark against authoritarian States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0004", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "Against that background, a paradigm shift has occurred in the private governance of freedom of opinion and expression online. Fuelled by transformative advances in AI, the global agenda for freedom on the Internet is being reset to advance geopolitical and corporate interests in ways that could seriously jeopardize human rights, in particular freedom of opinion and expression. At stake is the equal enjoyment of fundamental human rights and the safety of the people who are the most vulnerable, the most marginalized and most subject to discrimination in society, as well as the health and survival of democracies and public trust in the integrity of information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0005", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "In the present report the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression focuses on that shift, identifying the key legal, political and technological trends that characterize the new paradigm and the groups, issues and situations that are being affected. She analyses the changes in the policies and practices of large digital companies, looking particularly at the engagement-based business model and content moderation, and examines the role, responsibilities and responses of States in addressing corporate compliance and accountability, noting both good practices and failures. In the final chapter of the report, the Special Rapporteur draws conclusions and makes recommendations to States, companies, international organizations, civil society and investors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0006", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "In the report, the Special Rapporteur focuses mostly on large social media platforms, such as Facebook and Instagram (which are owned by Meta), X (formerly Twitter), YouTube and TikTok. She does not survey corporate practice in depth, but analyses some key concerns. The report is based on desk research, online consultations and written submissions by stakeholders for both the present report and previous reports.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0007", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Although the present report is focused on the online world, the Special Rapporteur acknowledges that one third of the world’s population has no access to the Internet and that closing the digital divide should be a high priority of Governments and the private sector.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0008", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Rising authoritarianism, backsliding democracy, rapid advances in AI, ruthless competition to dominate new technologies and a growing disdain for the rule of international law and multilateral cooperation are marked features of the context in which giant digital companies (commonly known as “big tech”) and powerful States are seeking today to redesign the governance and exercise of the right to freedom of opinion and expression. Four key trends stand out as hallmarks of the paradigm shift.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0009", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "First, freedom of expression is being reframed as an unfettered right and content moderation denounced as censorship, in blatant contradiction of international human rights law. Such reframing comes at a time when political rhetoric stigmatizing and vilifying migrants, ethnic and religious minorities and other marginalized groups is on the rise around the world and increasingly being justified, even in some liberal democracies, as “free speech”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0010", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "The position of the United States Government, led by its President, Donald Trump, is particularly concerning, given its dominant role in the digital sector and the world stage. Those at the highest levels of the current Government have turned the concept of freedom of expression on its head, criticizing the prohibition of incitement to violence as “censorship”.[[fn:2]] The Government’s absolutist notion of freedom of expression has stirred up the “alt-tech” platforms, such as Parler, Truth Social, Gab, Rumble and others, which espouse a deeply libertarian concept of unfettered expression and eschew content moderation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/remarks-the-vice-president-the-munich-security-conference-0."}], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0011", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The perversion of the right to freedom of expression by the United States Government is consistent with its disdain for international norms and its retreat on engagement with international institutions.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Communications USA 3/2025; USA 4/2025; USA 5/2025; USA 9/2025; USA 10/2025; USA 11/2025; and USA 17/2025. Communications are available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0012", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Censoring political expression or pressuring platforms to remove legitimate online content is a common practice among authoritarian States and, increasingly, among backsliding democracies, which now feel vindicated and emboldened by the rejection of international standards by the United States.[[fn:4]] Meanwhile, high levels of disinformation from State and non-State sources are allowed to flourish online, enabled and amplified by digital platforms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Communications CHN 5/2024; DZA 4/2025; EGY 3/2025; GEO 3/2025; IND 8/2021; JOR 1/2025; KGZ 2/2024; RUS 9/2022; RUS 30/2023; SAU 3/2024; SLV 5/2025; SRB 6/2025; THA 6/2024; TZA 4/2025; VEN 7/2024; and ZWE 1/2025."}], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0013", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "From the perspective of international law, it is as wrong for the United States to promote an absolutist definition of freedom of expression that encourages harmful speech to flourish as it is for some other States to criminalize dissenting voices as “fake news” or dress them up as national security threats.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0014", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The right to freedom of expression under international law is broad and inclusive, but it is not absolute.[[fn:5]] It may be restricted in accordance with article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which requires such restrictions to be provided by law, meaning that they must be clearly, precisely and publicly stated, and necessary, which includes the notion of proportionality, for the legitimate aim of respecting the rights and reputation of others or protecting national security, public order, public health and public morals.[[fn:6]] Furthermore, international law requires all States to prohibit the advocacy of hatred that incites violence, hostility or discrimination.[[fn:7]] The purpose of the restrictions and the prohibition, which must be interpreted narrowly to avoid abuse, is to ensure a safe environment in which everyone, including those who are vulnerable, marginalized or discriminated against in society, and often vilified, has an equal right to exercise their freedom of expression without fear or self-censorship.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "The right to freedom of expression includes “the freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally or in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice”, see International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 19 (2)."}, {"n": 6, "text": "See also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression, and A/HRC/59/50, para 40."}, {"n": 7, "text": "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 20 (2)."}], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0015", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Second, most “big tech” companies based in the United States have aligned their policies and positions with that of its Government, rolling back their promises of safety online. Labelling the companies’ removal of hate speech from online spaces as censorship of conservative voices, the United States Government pressured the large digital companies to limit content moderation efforts to egregious criminal content, such as child sexual abuse and terrorism.[[fn:8]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Roxana Muenster, “Project 2025: what a second Trump term could mean for media and technology policies”, Brookings Institution, 22 July 2024."}], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0016", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "The speed, timing and manner of the platforms’ capitulation to the Government have raised alarm bells, with one civil society organization describing it as “the most compelling evidence of editorial self-censorship” in the face of unbridled State power.[[fn:9]] The adoption of the policy changes, with no apparent due diligence, raises serious concerns about the companies’ commitment to protect disadvantaged individuals and communities and tackle harmful speech.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Submission of the Centro de Estudios en Libertad de Expresión y Acceso a la Información of Palermo University."}], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0017", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "The companies’ decisions appear to have been influenced by political and ideological considerations, as well as by business interests. By aligning themselves with the United States Government, they have benefited from the latter’s support for the deregulation of AI and its opposition to the regulatory measures of the European Union, as well as from other business advantages.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0018", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "There is fear that the alignment of State and corporate powers in the United States reflects a larger global trend, in which the digital giants, driven by their quest for new lucrative markets, are moving closer to authoritarian Governments or backsliding democracies, to the detriment of human rights. The alignment of “big tech” companies with the policies and positions of Governments endangers the image of platforms as neutral intermediaries of freedom of expression online and increases the pressure for more regulation of social media. Large digital platforms are the gateway to information and the intermediary for the expression of billions of people, not just those in the United States. When they reject international human rights norms as an authoritative basis for their policies or lower their commitment to human rights, they undermine their effectiveness, legitimacy and credibility as global actors committed to global values.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0019", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Third, conflicting visions of freedom of expression and social media regulation are creating a rift among States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0020", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "A divergence in views is increasingly evident between the current United States administration, which opposes platform regulation and champions an absolutist interpretation of freedom of expression, and other western Governments, such as those of Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the European Union, where legislation and the actions of regulatory bodies and the judiciary are aimed at seeking a balance between the exercise and the restriction of freedom of expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0021", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The position of the United States has become particularly hostile towards Europe. A directive from Mr. Trump warned that “regulations that dictate how American companies interact with consumers in the European Union” would be scrutinized by the United States Government.[[fn:10]] A committee of the United States Congress has issued subpoenas to eight platforms based in the country, seeking information on their communications with the European Union and its member States so that it can mitigate “European threats to American free speech”.[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "White House, “Fact sheet: President Donald J. Trump issues directive to prevent the unfair exploitation of American innovation”, 21 February 2025."}, {"n": 11, "text": "United States of America, Committee of the Judiciary of the United States House of Representatives, The Foreign Censorship Threat: How the European Union’s Digital Services Act Compels Global Censorship and Infringes on American Free Speech (Washington, D.C., 2025)."}], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0022", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "The conflicting visions for regulating social media in an increasingly fraught global political climate, the growing alignment of digital companies based in the United States with the United States Administration and the latter’s threat to retaliate against countries that seek to regulate the former in their jurisdictions risk creating a polarizing discourse at a time when international cooperation is badly needed to tackle the intractable challenges of preserving freedom and safety on the Internet.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0023", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The private ownership of large platforms risks turning into a “privatization” of freedom of expression in the current political climate. In threatening visa restrictions, sanctions or reciprocal tariffs against countries seeking to regulate social media, the United States appears to be treating regulation as a “trade barrier” to be resisted, rather than an effort to seek corporate accountability for human rights. In their fight against regulation and their readiness to dilute human rights commitments, companies, too, seem to be treating freedom of expression only as a commodity for profit-making.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0024", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Fourth, the paradigm shifts in State and corporate policies are occurring in the context of the rapid, transformative development of AI, but without the necessary due diligence and impact assessment needed to maximize benefits and prevent or mitigate potential harm to freedom of opinion and expression.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0025", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "AI offers many tools that can enhance access to information and expression, such as automated content translation, text-to-speech applications and recommender systems that connect people with content aligned with their interests and identities. It has also become crucial in moderating large-scale harmful content, which would be impossible to manage by human moderators alone. However, AI is not all for good. The technologies carry serious risks to freedom of expression, particularly when poorly designed or implemented without adequate safeguards and due diligence, or when there is a failure to acknowledge the diversity, needs and rights of people in developing countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0026", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "Despite the significant risks of unbound AI and the need for accountability alongside innovation, efforts to set some minimum policy and legal guardrails are vigorously resisted by “big tech” companies in the name of freedom to innovate. The United States Government under Mr. Trump has waded in on their side and politicized the debate, scrutinizing “woke” bias in AI, attacking systems for not sufficiently “celebrating the achievements of white people” and investigating the largest AI developers, such as Nvidia, for addressing algorithmic bias in the content moderation models they produce.[[fn:12]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "United States, Removing Barriers to American Leadership in Artificial Intelligence, Executive Order 14179 of 23 January 2025, Federal Register, vol. 90, No. 20 (2025); and https://judiciary.house.gov/sites/evo-subsites/republicans-judiciary.house.gov/files/evo-media-document/2025-03-13-jdj-to-nvidia-huang-re-ai-censorship.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0027", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "At the international and regional levels, a different vision for AI regulation is emerging. In its landmark resolution 78/265, adopted in 2024, the General Assembly called for human rights and fundamental freedoms to be respected, protected and promoted throughout the life cycle of AI systems. Although the European Union Artificial Intelligence Act has been criticized by civil society for “(placing) industry interests over people’s fundamental rights”,[[fn:13]] the Council of Europe Framework Convention on Artificial Intelligence and Human Rights, Democracy and the Rule of Law requires AI systems to be designed with a human rights-centred approach. Drawing attention to new inequalities created by new technologies, in its Continental Artificial Intelligence Strategy, the African Union seeks to ensure that AI design, development and regulation reflects appreciation for the African context, centred on “ethics, inclusion and diversity, human rights and human dignity, people’s well-being, peace and prosperity”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Access Now, “Human rights protections…with exceptions: what’s (not) in the EU’s AI Act deal”, 14 December 2023."}], "section": ["II. Paradigm shift, normative collapse"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0028", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "In this chapter, the Special Rapporteur looks at the human and social costs of the failures and weaknesses of platform policies and practices. The problems are likely to persist or even worsen in the new paradigm if they are not addressed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Mapping harms and targets"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0029", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Social media platforms enable and amplify disinformation and other harmful speech created by State and non-State actors. Company policies and systems also sometimes lead to the silencing of critical voices, through overenforcement or through restrictions on visibility or of users’ ability to engage with content because of biased policies or an overzealous interpretation of national laws or community rules.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Mapping harms and targets"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0030", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "Racial, religious and linguistic minorities, migrants, refugees, LGBTQ+ communities, journalists, human rights defenders and women are among those particularly affected by online harassment, disinformation, stigmatization, hate speech and incitement to violence by State and non-State actors. Inflammatory speech not only endangers individuals and encourages self-censorship, but also divides communities by fuelling fear, suspicion and hostility, breaking down social trust and weakening democratic dialogue and civic participation.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See www.un.org/en/hate-speech/impact-and-prevention/targets-of-hate."}], "section": ["III. Mapping harms and targets", "A. Individuals at risk"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0031", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "In the Philippines, for instance, vilification online through the practice of “red-tagging” has frequently destroyed people professionally and led to surveillance, prolonged detention and criminal prosecution. Over 450 cases were recorded in the first part of 2024 alone.[[fn:15]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See A/HRC/59/50/Add.1."}], "section": ["III. Mapping harms and targets", "A. Individuals at risk"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0032", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "Social media has enabled the participation of women and gender-nonconforming persons in public life, but has also facilitated vitriol, misogyny, orchestrated and coordinated smear campaigns and online gender-based violence.[[fn:16]] Frequently, online threats translate into offline violence.[[fn:17]] The aim of such harmful speech is to silence the persons targeted and force them off the platforms and eventually out of public life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See A/78/288."}, {"n": 17, "text": "Ibid., para. 51."}], "section": ["III. Mapping harms and targets", "A. Individuals at risk"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0033", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The exposure of children to social media has long raised significant concerns, not only about content, but also about the business models of platforms. As children increasingly exercise their freedom of expression and access to information online, they are uniquely targeted by cybergrooming, cyberbullying or abusive materials online. There is mounting evidence that the integration of AI and digital technologies affects youth social interactions, learning environments and overall development.[[fn:18]] Certain company designs, features and policies can disproportionately push content harmful to young people, including those that contribute to eating disorders, body dissatisfaction and self-harm.[[fn:19]]", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "See www.ojcmt.net/article/a-bibliometric-analysis-of-the-impact-of-media-manipulation-on-adolescent-mental-health-policy-15143."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Samantha Bradshaw and Tracy Vaillancourt, “Freedom of thought, social media and the teen brain”, Policy Brief No. 9, Centre for International Governance Innovation, 12 February 2024."}], "section": ["III. Mapping harms and targets", "A. Individuals at risk"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0034", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "Journalism in exile is a powerful force of democratic struggle. Digital technology enables independent media in exile but also presents challenges that platforms are failing to address adequately.[[fn:20]] For instance, following the invasion of Ukraine by the Russian Federation in February 2022, overzealous compliance by some companies with the sanctions restricted the ability of exiled media to report to users in those countries and to monetize content. Exiled news sites claim they have limited audience reach on popular social media platforms, as potentially divisive or political content is downranked by social media algorithms. Furthermore, some Governments manipulate social media platforms’ policies to get them to block or take down journalistic material.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "A/HRC/56/53, paras. 77–82."}], "section": ["III. Mapping harms and targets", "A. Individuals at risk"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0035", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "Journalists complain that their appeals against unjustified content removal or blockage are often ignored by companies and that safety tools developed by some social media platforms are insufficient and too onerous. According to one report, “by placing the responsibility on targeted journalists to track online abuse and follow a complicated set of protocols to mitigate it, companies reinforce the power imbalance between the perpetrator Governments and their targets”.21 14 See www.un.org/en/hate-speech/impact-and-prevention/targets-of-hate. 15 See A/HRC/59/50/Add.1. 16 See A/78/288. 17 Ibid., para. 51. 18 See www.ojcmt.net/article/a-bibliometric-analysis-of-the-impact-of-media-manipulation-onadolescent-mental-health-policy-15143. 19 Samantha Bradshaw and Tracy Vaillancourt, “Freedom of thought, social media and the teen brain”, Policy Brief No. 9, Centre for International Governance Innovation, 12 February 2024. 20 A/HRC/56/53, paras. 77–82. 21 Jessica White, Grady Vaughan and Yana Gorokhovskaia, “A light that cannot be extinguished: exiled journalism and transnational repression”, Freedom House, 2023.", "labels": ["Adolescents"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Mapping harms and targets", "A. Individuals at risk"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0036", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Certain information environments, such as armed conflicts, elections and political transitions, are highly vulnerable to online manipulation, censorship and distortion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Mapping harms and targets", "B. Information crisis points"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0037", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "In situations of conflict, social media can be a lifeline for affected communities.[[fn:22]] As one organization reported in the context of the genocide in Gaza, online spaces are “laden with the desire of survival: those who succeed in telling their stories receive aid, and those who remain silent disappear”.[[fn:23]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See www.signpost.ngo/."}, {"n": 23, "text": "7amleh, “The war on Gaza: how social media constructed narratives and solidarity among Gazans”, July 2025."}], "section": ["III. Mapping harms and targets", "B. Information crisis points"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0038", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "Social media can also amplify disinformation, hate speech and incitement, feeding polarization and violence. Platforms have difficulty calibrating content removal in conflict settings, overcensoring in some situations, while paying insufficient attention to or displaying bias in others.[[fn:24]] Inadequate content removal can fuel disinformation, propaganda and incitement, endangering civilians, journalists and humanitarian workers or compromising access to humanitarian assistance, as seen in the Sudan and in Gaza.[[fn:25]] One study found that, of the 6,300 messages in pro-Russian Telegram channels, a staggering 5,400 contained evacuation-related disinformation targeting Ukrainian civilians.[[fn:26]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "A/77/288, paras. 88–91."}, {"n": 25, "text": "See A/79/319; and https://timep.org/2025/01/14/beyond-the-battlefield-sudans-virtual-propaganda-warzone/."}, {"n": 26, "text": "See https://civiliansinconflict.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/CIVIC_Disinformation_Report.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Mapping harms and targets", "B. Information crisis points"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0039", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "Public discourse surrounding conflict can be distorted or undermined by overly restrictive, unbalanced and biased content moderation and censorship, as occurred to pro-Palestinian expression across platforms, including X, Meta, Google and Telegram after 7 October 2023.[[fn:27]] At times, platforms have profited from harmful political advertisements from State actors. YouTube reportedly accepted $7.1 million in advertisements from the Government of Israel, some of which could constitute incitement to violence.[[fn:28]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "Communications USA 8/2024; OTH 19/2024; OTH 20/2024; OTH 21/2024; and OTH 22/2024."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Communication OTH 19/2024."}], "section": ["III. Mapping harms and targets", "B. Information crisis points"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0040", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "In the context of elections, online spaces are critical for candidates and voters to engage, access information and express themselves, but they are also often sources for disinformation, hate speech and incitement, disrupting electoral processes, delegitimizing electoral results and fuelling violence.[[fn:29]] Furthermore, political content is often censored or removed in electoral contexts, because automated content systems struggle with the nuances of and context of political expression and because of high takedown demands from Governments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See A/HRC/59/50."}], "section": ["III. Mapping harms and targets", "B. Information crisis points"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0041", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "In 2024, in at least 21 countries, government agents or supporters spread false or misleading narratives to undermine people’s trust in the electoral system, manipulate online discussions or drown out reliable information.[[fn:30]] 30 In 2024, some major platforms devoted resources to addressing electoral information challenges and took specific steps to do so.31 22 See www.signpost.ngo/. 23 7amleh, “The war on Gaza: how social media constructed narratives and solidarity among Gazans”, July 2025. 24 A/77/288, paras. 88–91. 25 See A/79/319; and https://timep.org/2025/01/14/beyond-the-battlefield-sudans-virtualpropaganda-warzone/. 26 See https://civiliansinconflict.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/11/CIVIC_Disinformation_Report.pdf. 27 Communications USA 8/2024; OTH 19/2024; OTH 20/2024; OTH 21/2024; and OTH 22/2024. 28 Communication OTH 19/2024. 29 See A/HRC/59/50. 30 Ibid.; and submission of Freedom House. 31 See https://transparency.meta.com/metasecurity/threat-reporting; www.tiktok.com/transparency/en-us/countering-influence-operations; and A/HRC/59/50, paras. 68–70. 10/22", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Mapping harms and targets", "B. Information crisis points"], "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "Ibid.; and submission of Freedom House."}]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0042", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "Under the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, companies have the responsibility to avoid causing or contributing to adverse human rights impacts and to prevent or mitigate impacts directly linked to their operations, products or services from their business relationships. They are expected to conduct due diligence through regular human rights risk and impact assessments, mitigate harmful impacts and provide a remedy to those affected. The Guiding Principles are based on widely accepted international instruments, many of which are binding upon States and have been incorporated into national legislation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0043", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "Both international humanitarian law and human rights law are applicable to companies in situations of armed conflict. If social media companies that provide the means for distributing information in a conflict setting are deemed to be sufficiently linked to the conflict, for instance by permitting the dissemination of information that contributes to atrocities, it could trigger the application of international humanitarian law to their operations. Company personnel can be held liable for international crimes, on the basis of either direct action or corporate complicity.[[fn:32]] The Working Group on business and human rights has recommended that companies operating in areas of conflict should conduct heightened human rights due diligence in line with the heightened risks,[[fn:33]] as have investors.[[fn:34]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "A/77/288, paras. 78–80."}, {"n": 33, "text": "A/75/212, paras. 13, 19–21 and 72. See also Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, principles 7 and 17."}, {"n": 34, "text": "See https://investorsforhumanrights.org/sites/default/files/attachments/2025-04/Navigating%20 Portfolio%20Exposure%20to%20Conflict-Affected%20and%20High-Risk%20Areas-v5.pdf."}], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0044", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "Since 2022, the large platforms have been scaling down staff and resources devoted to trust and safety issues, while simultaneously expanding their investment in AI. The most profound policy changes affecting content policies and moderation practices have emerged more recently.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "A. Reorienting content policies"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0045", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "In January 2025, Meta, the world’s largest social media company, announced major changes to its content policies and its approach to content moderation. The changes included revisions to its hate speech policy (renamed as a hateful conduct policy), the removal of “restrictions on topics like immigration, gender identity and gender that are the subject of frequent political discourse and debate” and the end of its third-party fact-checking programme in the United States, its political advertisement policy and its proactive enforcement of content, except for “illegal and high-severity violations, like terrorism, child sexual exploitation, drugs, fraud and scams”.[[fn:35]]", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See https://about.fb.com/news/2025/01/meta-more-speech-fewer-mistakes/."}], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "A. Reorienting content policies"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0046", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "The move has led to widespread criticism, including by Meta’s Oversight Board, which expressed concerns that the company’s policy and enforcement changes of 7 January 2025 had been “announced hastily, in a departure from regular procedure, with no public information shared as to what, if any, prior human rights due diligence” it had performed.[[fn:36]] The Board called on Meta to undertake an impact assessment of the policy changes and to introduce mitigation measures. The Special Rapporteur supported that call.[[fn:37]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "See www.oversightboard.com/news/wide-ranging-decisions-protect-speech-and-address-harms/."}, {"n": 37, "text": "Communication OTH 105/2025."}], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "A. Reorienting content policies"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0047", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "The only data on the impact of the revisions to date comes from Meta’s integrity reports for the first quarter of 2025.[[fn:38]] The reports indicate a reduction of around 50 per cent in enforcement mistakes on platforms in the United States as compared with the previous quarter, and a low prevalence of violating content as being “largely unchanged for most problem areas”. The reports also showed a significant decline in the taking down of hate speech in the first quarter of 2025, compared with the previous quarter.[[fn:39]] It is not clear whether that result was due to reduced earlier overenforcement, namely that fewer pieces of content were being defined erroneously as “hateful conduct”, or to Meta allowing more problematic content to remain on the platform in line with its new policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Meta, “Integrity reports, first quarter 2025”, 29 May 2025."}, {"n": 39, "text": "Meta, “Hateful conduct”, available at https://transparency.meta.com/reports/community-standards-enforcement/hateful-conduct/facebook/."}], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "A. Reorienting content policies"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0048", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "A civil society survey shows that nearly three quarters of individuals belonging to protected groups across 86 countries perceived an increase in hateful content on Meta’s sites since the content moderation policy changes.[[fn:40]] In the United Kingdom, nearly half of Generation Z social media users blame statements and actions by the technology sector leaders for worsening the problem of misogyny online.[[fn:41]] Clearly, more work is needed to assess the impact of the changes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "Jenna Sherman, Ana Clara Toledo and Leanna Garfield, “More hate, fewer protections. Harmful content on Meta’s platforms in the wake of rollbacks, according to users”, Ultraviolet, June 2025."}, {"n": 41, "text": "See www.amnesty.org.uk/press-releases/toxic-tech-new-polling-exposes-widespread-online-misogyny-driving-gen-z-away-social."}], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "A. Reorienting content policies"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0049", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "YouTube is reported to be making similar policy changes, favouring “freedom of expression” over the risk of harm in deciding what to take down.[[fn:42]] As for X, after Elon Musk’s takeover of Twitter in 2022, the platform retreated so sharply from content moderation, user safety and human rights commitments that the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights published an open letter in which he set out the key principles and policies that X was expected to uphold in line with its human rights responsibilities.[[fn:43]] The letter remains deeply relevant in the context of the paradigm shift described in the present report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "Nico Grant and Tripp Mickle, “YouTube loosens rules guiding the moderation of videos”, The New York Times, 9 June 2025."}, {"n": 43, "text": "Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, “UN Human Rights Chief Türk issues open letter to Twitter’s Elon Musk”, 5 November 2022."}], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "A. Reorienting content policies"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0050", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "The failure of companies to conduct due diligence to assess the risks of radical policy shifts and impact assessments in order to mitigate adverse human rights consequences shows a reckless disregard, not only of sound business practices but, even more importantly, of the safety and fundamental rights of platform users. Such corporate behaviour undermines the social trust on which the self-regulation of platforms and their immunity from intermediary liability rests. If basic voluntary safeguards are flouted by companies, the demand for social media regulation from Governments and the public will increase, which may lead to more restrictions of freedom of expression, especially in countries where human rights are in decline. It is vital that companies adhere to the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights and to international human rights norms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "A. Reorienting content policies"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0051", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Article 19 (1) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights enshrines the right to freedom of opinion, which includes the right to form one’s own opinion. This is an absolute right. Any involuntary or non-consensual manipulation of the thinking process to develop an opinion violates the right. The digital equivalent 38 Meta, “Integrity reports, first quarter 2025”, 29 May 2025. 39 Meta, “Hateful conduct”, available at https://transparency.meta.com/reports/communitystandards-enforcement/hateful-conduct/facebook/. 40 Jenna Sherman, Ana Clara Toledo and Leanna Garfield, “More hate, fewer protections. Harmful content on Meta’s platforms in the wake of rollbacks, according to users”, Ultraviolet, June 2025. 41 See www.amnesty.org.uk/press-releases/toxic-tech-new-polling-exposes-widespread-onlinemisogyny-driving-gen-z-away-social. 42 Nico Grant and Tripp Mickle, “YouTube loosens rules guiding the moderation of videos”, The New York Times, 9 June 2025. 43 Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, “UN Human Rights Chief Türk issues open letter to Twitter’s Elon Musk”, 5 November 2022. 12/22 of such a violation could be techniques that allow platforms to gain access to and influence the thoughts and opinions of individuals without their knowledge or consent, significantly undermining their agency and choice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "B. Engagement-based business models"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0052", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "AI-based recommender systems, which have reached a very high level of sophistication, are central to how information is consumed online. Recommender algorithms determine what users see on their feeds, tailoring content to maximize user engagement and thus generate revenue. While recommender systems can help people to discover relevant perspectives, they play a powerful gatekeeping role and can be exploited to “flood” the informational landscape with manipulated narratives. Content can be “microtargeted” to the individual based on AI-driven, holistic analysis of user activity.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "B. Engagement-based business models"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0053", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "When optimized solely for clicks and watch time, such systems often amplify sensationalist, polarizing or emotionally charged content, narrowing users’ exposure to diverse ideas and making them more susceptible to manipulation and disinformation. It can lead to inflammatory content being shared widely if it elicits a strong response from users. A study on YouTube’s recommendation engine revealed that it frequently directed users towards extremist content or conspiracy theories.[[fn:44]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "Muhammad Haroon and others, “Auditing YouTube’s recommendation system for ideologically congenial, extreme, and problematic recommendations”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 120, No. 50 (December 2023)."}], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "B. Engagement-based business models"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0054", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "Microtargeted platform recommender algorithms play increasingly manipulative, non-transparent and even non-consensual roles in shaping political opinion. There is growing research that shows that AI-driven personalization has now reached a point where it has dramatic consequences for cognitive processes, including attention, critical thinking, preferences and emotions.[[fn:45]] Acknowledging the potential harms of political microtargeting, the European Union has introduced a regulation that will impose greater transparency on platforms and prohibition where targeting is based on religion or other personal data.[[fn:46]] In response, some major platforms, including Meta, announced that they would eliminate political advertising in Europe, rather than comply.[[fn:47]] In 2024, Google ended all political advertising in Brazil after the Government instituted transparency requirements.[[fn:48]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "Cornelia C. Walther, “The psychology of AI’s impact on human cognition”, Psychology Today, 3 June 2025."}, {"n": 46, "text": "See https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/PE-90-2023-INIT/en/pdf."}, {"n": 47, "text": "See https://about.fb.com/news/2025/07/ending-political-electoral-and-social-issue-advertising-in-the-eu/; and https://blog.google/around-the-globe/google-europe/political-advertising-in-eu/."}, {"n": 48, "text": "See https://netlab.eco.ufrj.br/en/post/technical-note-google-reduces-transparency-of-political-ads-in-brazil-and-disobeys-tse-resolution."}], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "B. Engagement-based business models"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0055", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "In authoritarian settings, platforms have been accused of tailoring recommender algorithms to favour government narratives, subtly suppressing dissenting views and undermining pluralism.[[fn:49]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "Danit Finkelstein and others, “Information manipulation on TikTok and its relation to American users’ beliefs about China”, Frontiers in Social Psychology, vol. 2 (2024)."}], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "B. Engagement-based business models"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0056", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "The monetization structures of platforms are part of their business model. The structures facilitate and amplify harmful content and disinformation in recommender systems, including through political advertisements, and can be a factor in fuelling violence and instability offline, for instance in electoral contexts.50 44 Muhammad Haroon and others, “Auditing YouTube’s recommendation system for ideologically congenial, extreme, and problematic recommendations”, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 120, No. 50 (December 2023). 45 Cornelia C. Walther, “The psychology of AI’s impact on human cognition”, Psychology Today, 3 June 2025. 46 See https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/PE-90-2023-INIT/en/pdf. 47 See https://about.fb.com/news/2025/07/ending-political-electoral-and-social-issue-advertisingin-the-eu/; and https://blog.google/around-the-globe/google-europe/political-advertising-in-eu/. 48 See https://netlab.eco.ufrj.br/en/post/technical-note-google-reduces-transparency-of-politicalads-in-brazil-and-disobeys-tse-resolution. 49 Danit Finkelstein and others, “Information manipulation on TikTok and its relation to American users’ beliefs about China”, Frontiers in Social Psychology, vol. 2 (2024). 50 See A/HRC/59/50.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "B. Engagement-based business models"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0057", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "There is also convincing evidence that the design features of social media platforms have negative effects on conflicts by enabling actors who deliberately instigate and escalate conflicts and pushing moderate actors towards divisiveness.[[fn:51]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "See A/77/288; and Jonathan Stray, Ravi Iyer and Helena Puig Larrauri, “The algorithmic management of polarization and violence on social media”, Knight First Amendment Institute, 22 August 2023."}], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "B. Engagement-based business models"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0058", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "Given the role that engagement-based business models of social media platforms play in enabling and amplifying disinformation, the polarization of views and the fuelling of conflict, the prevention and mitigation of these risks cannot be addressed solely through content moderation, but must also be done through changes in platform design and monetization structures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "B. Engagement-based business models"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0059", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "The consistent shortcomings of profit-driven companies, alongside their market dominance, have inspired a different model of decentralized platform governance, the “fediverse”. These platforms, such as Mastodon, PeerTube or Diaspora, feature a network of independent and federated platforms with their own community-driven moderation policies and rules, but which allow communication across services. The structure takes user experiences out of the control of a central company and enhances user agency, avoiding the opportunities of State or company influence and censorship. Despite learning curves and a small, albeit growing, reach, they are an opportunity to “reclaim the Internet as a commons, not a marketplace” and have already seen a global uptick, for instance in Latin America.[[fn:52]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "See www.apc.org/en/news/stepping-outside-algorithm."}], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "B. Engagement-based business models"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0060", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "AI has become an essential tool for content moderation across social media platforms. Companies have made significant investments to expand AI-driven moderation, because it can handle massive volumes of user-generated content and rapidly detect and remove problematic content such as hate speech, terrorist propaganda and graphic violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "C. Automated content moderation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0061", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "Notwithstanding the advantages, automated content moderation has some serious limitations that need to be mitigated. Automated moderation tools still struggle to distinguish between harmful content and legitimate expression, as well as with nuance and context, for example with regard to political expression in sensitive situations, which can then lead to either overmoderation or failure to remove harmful content. Satire, political dissent or artistic expression can be mistakenly flagged as violations of platform rules. Algorithms have proved to be limited and inconsistent in their ability to apply case-by-case “newsworthiness allowances” to public interest content where stories develop rapidly.[[fn:53]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "See www.oversightboard.com/news/new-decision-reveals-metas-uneven-treatment-of-news-reporting-on-the-assassination-of-mexican-mayoral-candidate."}], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "C. Automated content moderation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0062", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "That companies do not invest sufficiently in markets that are not commercially lucrative for them remains a long-standing concern. Those markets, however, are the very places where rights and lives are most at risk. The drive to enhance AI uses could aggravate staffing resource gaps in locally relevant languages and contexts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "C. Automated content moderation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0063", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "Civil society investigations have shown that automated platform systems consistently fail to catch false, high-stakes and inflammatory political content in multilingual, underresourced contexts where training data are sparse and moderation infrastructure is underdeveloped. For instance, automated platform systems trained primarily on high-quality media in developed countries suffered from a “detection 51 See A/77/288; and Jonathan Stray, Ravi Iyer and Helena Puig Larrauri, “The algorithmic management of polarization and violence on social media”, Knight First Amendment Institute, 22 August 2023. 52 See www.apc.org/en/news/stepping-outside-algorithm. 53 See www.oversightboard.com/news/new-decision-reveals-metas-uneven-treatment-of-newsreporting-on-the-assassination-of-mexican-mayoral-candidate. 14/22 equity gap” when applied in countries like Cambodia, Ghana, Mexico, the Sudan and Ukraine.[[fn:54]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "C. Automated content moderation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "Shirin Anlen, “Five real-world failures expose need for effective detection of AI-generated media”, Tech Policy Press, 26 June 2025."}]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0064", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "Platforms continue to struggle to reduce online gender-based violence and disinformation because of their chronic underinvestment in knowledge of contexts, local languages and gender awareness. The retrenchment of trust and safety teams and recent content policy changes is likely to aggravate the problem.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "C. Automated content moderation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0065", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "Systems may also “censor” speech through excessive removal, suspension or disabling of accounts, thus restricting the ability to engage with content (e.g. “liking”, commenting or sharing) or to follow or tag accounts, or decreasing the visibility of content without notification (“shadow-banning”). It can lead to disproportionate and biased outcomes against some groups with serious consequences, for example, in politically charged or conflict-affected contexts. The inability to appeal decisions meaningfully may leave users without a remedy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "C. Automated content moderation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0066", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "There are good practices where platforms successfully combined automated, human and expert-driven processes. For instance, to address concerns during elections in 2024, Meta set up multiple election operations around the world to react swiftly in specific countries, large platforms collaborated with national authorities in Europe to conduct simulated pre-election “stress tests” as due diligence and an industry-led accord to address the use of deceptive AI was signed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "C. Automated content moderation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0067", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "Authoritative third-party fact-checking has long been regarded as an important tool for countering disinformation, including by Meta.[[fn:55]] However, when the Code of Conduct on Disinformation[[fn:56]] was formalized in July 2025 by the European Commission under the European Union Digital Services Act[[fn:57]] to include several commitments on fact-checking, multiple companies, including Meta, Microsoft and Google, withdrew their prior voluntary commitments to support fact-checkers.[[fn:58]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "See https://disa.org/facebooks-pre-fact-checking-era-a-look-at-the-platform-before-independent-verification/."}, {"n": 56, "text": "See https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/dsa-codes-conduct."}, {"n": 57, "text": "European Union, Regulation (EU) 2022/2065 of 19 October 2022."}, {"n": 58, "text": "See, for example, https://disinfocode.eu/reports/google-search/5?commitmentId=214& chapterId=43&signatorie=54&report=5."}], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "D. Retooling against disinformation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0068", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "The January 2025 announcement by Meta that it would end its third-party factchecking programme, “starting in” the United States,[[fn:59]] and institute a communitydriven fact-checking service to be known as “community notes” has raised concerns about human rights implications and about opportunities for community-driven factchecking.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "D. Retooling against disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 59, "text": "See https://about.fb.com/news/2025/01/meta-more-speech-fewer-mistakes/."}]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0069", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "According to some researchers, community-driven review is beneficial where it is “effectively scaled and governed” but it has “critical limitations” in addressing the complexity of disinformation.[[fn:60]] The attractive features of community-driven moderation are its perceived scalability (the community grows with the platform), cost (not needing to allocate resources to fact-checkers) and democratic nature (allowing the “marketplace of ideas” to decide). Crowdsourced curation of information has appeared in various manners, historically, across platforms such as Wikipedia or Reddit. 54 Shirin Anlen, “Five real-world failures expose need for effective detection of AI-generated media”, Tech Policy Press, 26 June 2025. 55 See https://disa.org/facebooks-pre-fact-checking-era-a-look-at-the-platform-before-independentverification/. 56 See https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/dsa-codes-conduct. 57 European Union, Regulation (EU) 2022/2065 of 19 October 2022. 58 See, for example, https://disinfocode.eu/reports/google-search/5?commitmentId=214& chapterId=43&signatorie=54&report=5. 59 See https://about.fb.com/news/2025/01/meta-more-speech-fewer-mistakes/. 60 Isabelle Augenstein and others, “Community moderation and the new epistemology of fact checking on social media”, Arxiv, 26 May 2025.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "D. Retooling against disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 60, "text": "Isabelle Augenstein and others, “Community moderation and the new epistemology of fact checking on social media”, Arxiv, 26 May 2025."}]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0070", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "The weaknesses of community-driven moderation include its susceptibility to capture (whereby enough users can tip the scales of moderation to spread agendas or disinformation), inconsistent application of standards, lack of consistent expertise and requirements of community consensus, which can lead to gridlock. Empirical research has found that crowdsourced review does not perform to the level of professional fact-checkers.[[fn:61]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 61, "text": "William Godel and others, “Moderating with the mob: evaluating the efficacy of real-time crowdsourced fact-checking”, Journal of Online Trust and Safety, vol. 1, No. 1 (2021)."}], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "D. Retooling against disinformation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0071", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "Strong concerns about community-driven fact-checking have been voiced regarding situations of crisis, conflict and repression, where the online community itself is polarized, deeply implicated in the manipulation of information or unable to distinguish facts from views, and where disinformation is likely to lead to real-world harm.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "D. Retooling against disinformation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0072", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "Growing evidence that fact-checking organizations are among the most-cited sources in community-type moderation indicates that community notes and factchecking should not be seen as mutually exclusive tools.[[fn:62]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "D. Retooling against disinformation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "Nadav Borenstein and others, “Can community notes replace professional fact-checkers?”, Arxiv, May 2025."}]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0073", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "Company transparency to rights holders and stakeholders on how they are addressing human rights risks is of critical importance to ensuring accountability and building public trust. The private governance of freedom of expression and the enormous influence and power of giant digital companies make due diligence and impact assessments, as well as the full disclosure of results by companies, vital. Transparency should not be left to corporate voluntary choice, but must be made obligatory.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "E. Building trust through transparency"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0074", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "Equally important is algorithmic transparency. Granting researchers access to platform data not only helps to build trust but also informs policymaking and public debate. Such access, however, continues to be curtailed, made too expensive or offered in formats that are not useful for research.[[fn:63]] The European Commission has just put into effect a mechanism, under the Digital Services Act, for vetted researchers to gain unprecedented access to internal data from large platforms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "A/HRC/59/50, para. 90."}], "section": ["IV. Major changes in corporate policies and practices", "E. Building trust through transparency"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0075", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "Under international law, States have the obligation, not only to respect freedom of opinion and expression, but also to protect it from abuse by other actors, including companies. They also have an obligation to create an enabling environment for the enjoyment of that right through appropriate laws, policies and practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. State responses"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0076", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "The growing power of digital platforms and recent policy shifts make it all the more crucial for States to ensure effective corporate compliance and accountability. A review of State practice shows that, while some good practices are emerging, many States seem keen to exert their power, not to hold companies to account, but to restrict online expression with which they do not agree. This tendency among States to silence critical voices is not new, but has gained a new impetus in the current global political climate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. State responses"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0077", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "The private governance model of online platforms is based largely on self-regulation, backed by the legal exemption of intermediaries from liability for content produced by third parties, such as under section 230 of the United States Communications Decency Act. The immunity has been recognized as “a powerful guarantee of freedom of expression in the digital age” against undue pressure from States.[[fn:64]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 64, "text": "Submission of Centro de Estudios en Libertad de Expresión y Acceso a la Información."}], "section": ["V. State responses", "A. Social media regulation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0078", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "Increasingly, the failure of companies to address problems such as threats to the safety of children, disinformation and foreign interference effectively has led to calls for imposing some responsibility on companies for user-generated online content.[[fn:65]] Even in the United States, intermediary protection did not shield four major platforms from litigation by hundreds of families and school districts alleging the services were inherently addictive and harmful to children.[[fn:66]] In 2024, the founder of Telegram, which takes a very light approach to content moderation, was arrested and charged by the French authorities with complicity and negligence related to illegal content on the platform. In July 2025, the French authorities announced they were opening an investigation into X for algorithmic interference.[[fn:67]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "Internet Society, A Policy Framework for Internet Intermediaries and Content (2025)."}, {"n": 66, "text": "See www.bbc.com/news/technology-67443705."}, {"n": 67, "text": "See www.bbc.com/news/articles/cg703lz02l0o; and www.rfi.fr/en/france/20250726-us-condemns-french-inquiry-into-elon-musk-s-social-media-platform-x."}], "section": ["V. State responses", "A. Social media regulation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0079", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "Such actions indicate a greater readiness on the part of the Governments to seek corporate accountability. Whether that will strengthen corporate respect for human rights depends on the extent to which Governments, as the primary duty bearers, are committed to upholding human rights in their own laws, policies and practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. State responses", "A. Social media regulation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0080", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "Social media regulation has largely taken two forms: laws that focus on content and those that address governance risks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. State responses", "A. Social media regulation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0081", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "Under international human rights law, whether offline or online, the restriction of expression must meet the three-pronged test of legality, necessity and legitimate aim, as set out in article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. State responses", "A. Social media regulation", "1. Content-focused regulation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0082", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "States have sought to restrict expression online by using a wide range of criminal laws, which are often vaguely and broadly framed with terms such as “falsity”, “false news”, “cybersecurity” “cybercrimes”, “offensive”, “insults”, “distortion” or “extremism”, as in Ethiopia,[[fn:68]] India,69 Singapore,70 Sri Lanka,[[fn:71]] the United Republic of Tanzania[[fn:72]] 72 and Viet Nam. 73 Such laws fail to meet the requirements of international human rights law and are often used to stifle online expression that is critical of the Government. A journalist was prosecuted for “offensive electronic communication” in Botswana, and another for defamation on 64 Submission of Centro de Estudios en Libertad de Expresión y Acceso a la Información. 65 Internet Society, A Policy Framework for Internet Intermediaries and Content (2025). 66 See www.bbc.com/news/technology-67443705. 67 See www.bbc.com/news/articles/cg703lz02l0o; and www.rfi.fr/en/france/20250726-uscondemns-french-inquiry-into-elon-musk-s-social-media-platform-x. 68 Communication ETH 1/2020. 69 Communication IND 3/2019; and www.accessnow.org/indian-government-big-tech/. 70 Communications SGP 3/2019 and SGP 1/2021. 71 Communication LKA 9/2023. 72 Communication TZA 3/2024. 73 Communication VNM 6/2023; and https://the88project.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Newrestrictions-on-freedom-of-expression-in-Vietnam-Project88.pdf. social media in Togo.74 In Saudi Arabia, two women human rights defenders were prosecuted under the Anti-Cybercrime Law for their social media posts.[[fn:75]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. State responses", "A. Social media regulation", "1. Content-focused regulation"], "footnotes": [{"n": 68, "text": "Communication ETH 1/2020."}, {"n": 71, "text": "Communication LKA 9/2023."}, {"n": 72, "text": "Communication TZA 3/2024."}, {"n": 75, "text": "Communication SAU 1/2024."}]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0083", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "Increasingly, States are imposing legal obligations on companies to proactively monitor and take down user-generated content that violate national laws. States also leverage the policies and terms of use of the platforms to demand that content be taken down. Penalties for failing to do so can be severe and time frames for action are often very short. The overall effect of the punitive regulatory regimes is to incentivize overremoval and the takedown of newsworthy or other legitimate content by the platforms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. State responses", "A. Social media regulation", "1. Content-focused regulation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0084", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "Platforms often accede to States’ demands because refusal can lead to serious legal and other consequences. For instance, the Government of Türkiye fined Meta for refusing to take down posts critical of the Government, but lawful under international law, after the arrest of the mayor of Istanbul.[[fn:76]] In such cases, whether coerced or not into censorship, platforms should assess the human rights impact of their action and seek to mitigate to the extent possible. At a minimum, they should adopt globally consistent policies on takedowns and make the demands and responses public, as was done by Meta and X when they responded to government demands ahead of the 2023 and 2024 elections in Türkiye and Indonesia, respectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "See https://apnews.com/article/meta-facebook-instagram-turkey-erdogan-59f16571e884fd6f0f95 97a72771131f."}], "section": ["V. State responses", "A. Social media regulation", "1. Content-focused regulation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0085", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "Another example of content-focused regulation are laws regarding the online safety of children. The challenge for States and companies is to protect children from harmful information, while ensuring that they can access age-appropriate information and express themselves online, in line with the Convention on the Rights of the Child, and that the rights of others, including with regard to privacy and expression, are not restricted beyond what is strictly necessary and proportionate to achieve child safety. The Online Safety Act 2023 of the United Kingdom, which comes fully into effect in 2025, has been criticized for its onerous age verification requirements, which could endanger data protection and have a chilling effect on freedom of expression.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. State responses", "A. Social media regulation", "1. Content-focused regulation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0086", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "Not all content-based regulations are aimed at restricting content. The newly enacted European Media Freedom Act provides protection for media content on social media by requiring platforms to conduct additional diligence and transparency before acceding to a takedown.[[fn:77]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 77, "text": "See https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1083/oj/eng."}], "section": ["V. State responses", "A. Social media regulation", "1. Content-focused regulation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0087", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "The Digital Services Act of the European Union is an example of risk-based “smart” regulation. Intended to address systemic risks, it has created a comprehensive transparency and reporting framework for very large online platforms and search engines. The Act is procedural in nature, requiring a number of due diligence measures, including periodic assessments of systemic risks over enumerated categories, accompanying transparency reporting and mechanisms for researcher access. The Appeals Centre Europe, established under article 21 of the Act, allows those in the European Union to challenge decisions made by social media platforms. The Act provides for voluntary codes of conduct to be incorporated into its framework. In July 2025, the European Commission formalized its Code of Conduct on Disinformation under the Act.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. State responses", "A. Social media regulation", "2. Risk-based regulation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0088", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "As implementation of the Digital Services Act ramps up, the European Commission has initiated investigations into several platforms, including X and TikTok. The Commission is also investigating whether platforms’ policies and practices have undermined democracy in the European Union.[[fn:78]] Although the results of the investigations are still awaited, they have already stirred some remedial action from companies. For instance, TikTok, which was implicated in alleged foreign interference in elections in Romania in December 2024, adopted several safety measures ahead of the repeat elections in May 2025.[[fn:79]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 78, "text": "See https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_6709; https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_24_6487; and https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/news/commission-preliminarily-finds-tiktoks-ad-repository-breach-digital-services-act."}, {"n": 79, "text": "See A/HRC/59/50."}], "section": ["V. State responses", "A. Social media regulation", "2. Risk-based regulation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0089", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "The Digital Services Act has come under severe attack by the Government of the United States,[[fn:80]] emboldening companies based in that country to reduce their compliance to a minimum, but in some parts of Latin America it is being seen as a model. Proposals in Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Costa Rica mirror several aspects of the Act, although there is concern that not all proposals are tracking its rights-based approach; moreover, those countries do not enjoy the analogous human rights safeguards present in Europe.[[fn:81]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "See www.reuters.com/sustainability/society-equity/rubio-orders-us-diplomats-launch-lobbying-blitz-against-europes-tech-law-2025-08-07/."}, {"n": 81, "text": "Submission of Centro de Estudios en Libertad de Expresión y Acceso a la Información. See also www.palermo.edu/Archivos_content/2025/cele/abril/2025_04_24_Regulatory_Modeling.pdf."}], "section": ["V. State responses", "A. Social media regulation", "2. Risk-based regulation"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0090", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "The blocking of websites and platforms is a blunt instrument and raises concerns about the necessity and proportionality of such action.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. State responses", "B. Blocking of platforms"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0091", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "Governments are increasingly placing targeted restrictions on specific social media platforms, often in the context of elections, protests or crises. Blocking of platforms surged in 2024, with a record 71 blocks in 35 countries.[[fn:82]] While X, Meta platforms and YouTube were among the platforms most blocked, Signal, the encrypted communication application used widely by journalists and human rights defenders, was also blocked in nine countries.[[fn:83]] Some apps, including Signal and WhatsApp, have responded by implementing technical measures to circumvent blocks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 82, "text": "Access Now and #KeepItOn, “Emboldened offenders, endangered communities: Internet shutdowns in 2024”, February 2025."}, {"n": 83, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["V. State responses", "B. Blocking of platforms"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0092", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "In August 2024, the Federal Supreme Court of Brazil decided to shut down X for its refusal to take down accounts related to serious political violence the previous year. The Court also prohibited the use of virtual private networks to gain access to X and imposed a hefty fine on those who did so. Although X had contributed to the situation through its total lack of human rights due diligence, ineffective content moderation and failure to engage with Brazilian legal processes, there is some concern on whether the ban met the requirements of necessity and proportionality under article 19 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. State responses", "B. Blocking of platforms"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0093", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "Some States have introduced registration or “licensing” requirements for platforms to operate. In effect, these are additional means for States to control the activities of companies and have raised concerns in Bahrain,[[fn:84]] 84 Malaysia 85 and Nepal.86 78 See https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_23_6709; https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_24_6487; and https://digitalstrategy.ec.europa.eu/en/news/commission-preliminarily-finds-tiktoks-ad-repository-breachdigital-services-act. 79 See A/HRC/59/50. 80 See www.reuters.com/sustainability/society-equity/rubio-orders-us-diplomats-launch-lobbyingblitz-against-europes-tech-law-2025-08-07/. 81 Submission of Centro de Estudios en Libertad de Expresión y Acceso a la Información. See also www.palermo.edu/Archivos_content/2025/cele/abril/2025_04_24_Regulatory_Modeling.pdf. 82 Access Now and #KeepItOn, “Emboldened offenders, endangered communities: Internet shutdowns in 2024”, February 2025. 83 Ibid. 84 Access Now, “Bahrain: halt repressive amendments to the press law”, 25 June 2025. 85 Article 19, “Social media licensing in Malaysia: what do you need to know?”, October 2024. 86 See https://kathmandupost.com/national/2024/12/15/government-approves-bill-to-regulatesocial-media-platforms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. State responses", "B. Blocking of platforms"], "footnotes": [{"n": 84, "text": "Access Now, “Bahrain: halt repressive amendments to the press law”, 25 June 2025."}]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0094", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "The paradigm shift in the exercise and governance of freedom of opinion and expression online has alarming consequences for human rights that should be addressed urgently. As stated by one scholar: “Pity us and those who come next if we forfeit a human future to powerful companies and a rogue capitalism that fail to honour our needs or serve our genuine interests.”[[fn:87]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "Shoshana Zuboff, The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: The Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power (New York, Public Affairs, 2019)."}], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0095", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "The rules of the game of social media platforms on which billions of people rely for their communications and information are being reset by powerful political and business interests and shaped by transformative advances in AI. From child safety to democracy, the human and social costs of the lack of due diligence are high.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0096", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "Against a rising tide of hate and lies, companies have rolled back their policies and tools for protecting those who are most discriminated against, vilified and vulnerable in society. With the full power of their Government behind them, companies based in the United States are resisting regulation and safeguards and have watered down their human rights commitments. They have enthusiastically invested in AI while ignoring the limitations of automated content moderation and the dangers of engagement-based business models.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0097", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "The paradigm shift in social media has been paralleled by an equally game-changing shift on States’ commitment to human rights. To rising authoritarianism and backsliding democracies, the outright defiance of the United States with regard to international norms and institutions has been added. Long-standing human rights alliances have been disrupted. Human rights organizations have been defunded. International negotiations on social media regulation and AI have been turned into ideological battles.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0098", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to underline seven key conclusions, as set out below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0099", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "First, the “privatization” of freedom of expression, in which business interests trump international human rights, is unacceptable. The digital platforms are owned and managed by private actors, but they are global public spaces with a public purpose to promote the right to freedom of expression. As global actors working on an issue of societal importance, social media companies have a legal obligation, as well as a social duty, to align platform policies and practices with international human rights standards, rather than national law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0100", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "Adherence to universal standards is not only “right” but also “wise”, as it gives legitimacy, public acceptability and coherence to companies in their global business across borders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0101", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 101, "n": 101, "text": "Second, distorting freedom of expression to promote a political ideology is a highly dangerous and divisive practice, from which both States and companies must desist.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0102", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 102, "n": 102, "text": "Using human rights law as the authoritative standard for defining freedom of expression could protect social media companies from capricious political manipulation at the national level. The struggle to find an even keel between too much moderation, which stifles free speech, and too little moderation, which facilitates disinformation and hate speech, can be resolved by following the international standards set out in articles 19 and 20 (2) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and related United Nations guidance in the Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0103", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 103, "n": 103, "text": "Third, the failure of companies to conduct due diligence and mitigate risks has undermined public trust and increased the pressure on States to regulate platforms. The normative model, which is based on self-regulation and legal protection from intermediary liability, is under serious threat in many parts of the world. The ability to self-govern is important both for freedom of expression and for business. Due diligence is the social licence to operate that companies ignore at their peril.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0104", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 104, "n": 104, "text": "Fourth, the drive to innovate with regard to the use of AI, at full speed, but with no guardrails, is a high-risk strategy. Like all technology, AI comes with both risks and benefits. It suffers from a deficit of public trust because of serious concerns about safety, bias and discrimination. Human rights due diligence and safeguards can help to overcome that deficit. Just as a human rights approach to development has improved outcomes by insisting that no one should be left behind, a people-centred approach to innovation, based on human rights throughout the life cycle of AI, can take innovation in a more meaningful direction in the support of humanity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0105", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 105, "n": 105, "text": "Human rights in the design of algorithms, by integrating safeguards into product and algorithm development from the outset, is critical. When successful, such design prioritizes safety, agency and inclusivity in the user experience.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0106", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 106, "n": 106, "text": "Fifth, the excessive market power of big social media platforms is a matter of growing concern. Measures that reduce the power of large platforms, diversify the information landscape and enhance the agency of users should be encouraged by States and international organizations. States should support investment in community networks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0107", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 107, "n": 107, "text": "Sixth, effective digital cooperation is a multi-stakeholder enterprise engaging States, companies and civil society. International human rights norms and standards provide a framework, in our age of fractured relationships, for finding common ground, consensus and clarity. That is yet another good reason for Governments and companies to recommit to human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0108", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 108, "n": 108, "text": "Lastly, the problem is not a lack of knowledge or understanding. It is the lack of political will and commitment. It is of the utmost importance that States and companies recommit to upholding freedom of opinion and expression in accordance with international human rights standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0109", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 109, "n": 109, "text": "States should:\n(a) Ensure that companies operating in their jurisdiction respect human rights. Social media regulation should ensure that companies carry out human rights due diligence and impact assessment, align their curation and moderation policies with human rights standards and adhere to high standards of transparency and accountability;\n(b) Refrain from restricting freedom of expression or from making takedown requests, except in accordance with the requirements of legality, necessity, proportionality and legitimate objectives as set out in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the relevant jurisprudence;\n(c) Refrain from blocking platforms or websites, as such disruptions are inherently disproportionate;\n(d) Provide adequate resources to support the digital advisory service proposed under the Global Digital Compact.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Recommendations for States"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0110", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 110, "n": 110, "text": "Companies should:\n(a) Ensure that their policies, including content curation and content moderation policies, are fully aligned with international human rights standards, including in particular freedom of opinion and expression;\n(b) Ensure that they are compliant with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, including the requirements of human rights due diligence, impact assessment and the mitigation of adverse effects;\n(c) Conduct human rights due diligence on their engagement-based business models, as well as content curation and moderation, and ensure that human rights considerations are integrated in the design and development processes and that their business operations are compliant with international standards;\n(d) Review their advertising models to ensure that they do not adversely affect the diversity of opinions and ideas and are clear on the criteria used for targeted advertising;\n(e) Provide clear and meaningful information about the parameters of their algorithms or recommender systems and ensure that these systems enable users to receive a diversity of viewpoints by default, while also enabling them to choose the variables that shape their online experiences;\n(f) Tailor their approaches to respond more effectively to the causes, needs and contexts that make communities susceptible to harm. AI applications should be complemented with sufficient resources to appreciate local context and cultural and linguistic nuance, including human-in-the-loop oversight;\n(g) Ensure that human rights due diligence is conducted on emerging fact-checking strategies, whether by third-party fact-checkers, community-driven models or a hybrid method;\n(h) Carry out heightened human rights due diligence in conflicts, elections or other high-risk situations;\n(i) Monitor the effectiveness of actions to mitigate and respond to gender-based impacts, using qualitative and quantitative indicators, and consult with affected groups regularly;\n(j) Commit to the Code of Conduct on Disinformation under the European Union Digital Services Act, particularly with respect to support for fact-checking initiatives;\n(k) Provide users with effective internal appeal mechanisms and consider the creation of external oversight mechanisms;\n(l) Demonstrate greater transparency, including by disclosing the results of human rights due diligence and impact assessment reports and mitigation efforts;\n(m) Cooperate with the European Union mechanism to provide researchers with access to data;\n(n) Carry out regular, proactive and meaningful stakeholder consultations with affected groups, civil society and international organizations to obtain information about the human rights impact of their products and services, including new AI technologies;\n(o) Have in-house expertise on human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations for companies"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0111", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 111, "n": 111, "text": "The Human Rights Council should convene regular multi-stakeholder consultations with States, companies, civil society organizations and relevant international and regional organizations to debate and develop guidance on the online protection and promotion of freedom of opinion and expression and other human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Recommendations for the Human Rights Council"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0112", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 112, "n": 112, "text": "Investors, as a valuable pressure point for companies, should:\n(a) Use their financial leverage to ensure that social media and digital companies respect international human rights standards;\n(b) Prioritize investments in companies that conduct robust human rights due diligence and disclose their findings, particularly on risks to freedom of expression, privacy and non-discrimination;\n(c) Ensure that investments are made in AI technologies with sufficient human rights safeguards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Recommendations for investors"]}, {"id": "a-80-341-0113", "docId": "a-80-341", "idx": 113, "n": 113, "text": "Civil society should:\n(a) Continue to monitor, document and report on freedom of expression violations and protection gaps;\n(b) Provide evidence to inform and engage with national and international bodies, including the Human Rights Council and its special procedure mandate holders;\n(c) Continue to engage with States and companies, including their trust and safety and human rights teams, to strengthen their ability to promote rights-respecting changes within their companies;\n(d) Continue to amplify the voices of the most at-risk and marginalized communities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Freedom of Expression", "committees": ["SR Freedom of Expression"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "E. Recommendations for civil society"]}] \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/sp/shards/sp_SR_Leprosy.json b/docs/sp/shards/sp_SR_Leprosy.json index 82367841..725a022a 100644 --- a/docs/sp/shards/sp_SR_Leprosy.json +++ b/docs/sp/shards/sp_SR_Leprosy.json @@ -1 +1 @@ -[{"id": "a-76-148-0001", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "In 2010, the General Assembly adopted resolution 65/215 on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, reaffirming that persons affected by leprosy and their family members should be treated as individuals with dignity and are entitled to all human rights and fundamental freedoms under customary international law, relevant conventions and national constitutions and laws. In the resolution, the Assembly also took note of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0002", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The principles and guidelines are a non-treaty standard that reinforces international human rights instruments, interpreting and translating legally binding norms in close connection with the conditions and needs of the particular group of persons affected by leprosy and their family members (see A/HRC/41/47). They provide States with a road map for monitoring the situation of persons affected by leprosy and their family members and for implementing measures that, by enforcing international human rights law, can guarantee formal and substantive equality for them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0003", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "In its resolution 35/9, the Human Rights Council established the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members to follow up and report on progress made and measures taken by States for the effective implementation of the principles and guidelines. In its resolution 44/6, the Council extended the mandate of the Special Rapporteur to continue to report to it annually, and to report also to the General Assembly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0004", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "The Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, Alice Cruz, has implemented a people-centred approach to the mandate entrusted to her by the Human Rights Council. The historical and systemic dehumanization of persons affected by leprosy and their family members makes empowerment key for fighting back against their structural and widespread subordination. By promoting active participation, critical reflection, awareness-raising, understanding and access to and control over important decisions and resources, empowerment allows for people in disadvantaged situations to achieve greater control over their lives, furthering their democratic engagement, with enhanced critical understanding of their own settings and their relationship to power relations and hegemonic social structures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0005", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "With such an approach, the Special Rapporteur seeks to provide a bridge for a group of people living in an extreme vulnerable situation who have been systematically pushed furthest behind within the overall human rights system, and thus ensure the sustainability of efforts undertaken for eliminating both the disease and the stigmatization attached to it, since the empowerment of individuals and groups can contribute to transforming laws, policies, practices, norms and power relations. Such an approach also reflects the spirit of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, in which it was affirmed that development must go beyond transforming the material conditions of people in disadvantaged circumstances to actually enabling them to have a voice and a choice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0006", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "Building also on a cooperative approach, the Special Rapporteur has continuously engaged with United Nations bodies and intergovernmental agencies – especially the World Health Organization (WHO) – Member States, political and religious world leaders, academia and the main stakeholders in the field, such as the WHO Goodwill Ambassador for the Elimination of Leprosy, the Global Partnership for Zero Leprosy, civil society organizations working with leprosy and national and grass-roots organizations of persons affected by leprosy, to promote synergies and catalyse systemic change.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0007", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has contributed to the WHO road map for neglected tropical diseases 2021–2030[[fn:1]] and to the WHO global leprosy strategy 2021–2030[[fn:2]] and has proactively promoted the mainstreaming of leprosy within the treaty bodies, especially the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, and the universal periodic review. She has also dedicated efforts to make human rights standards accessible to persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations. She has continuously made herself available to provide technical guidance to key stakeholders for tackling stigmatization and discrimination on the grounds of leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Leprosy/AliceCruz-April2019.pdf."}, {"n": 2, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Leprosy/STM_WHO_consultation.pdf."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0008", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The work of the mandate of the Special Rapporteur has enabled the production of a body of new evidence about discrimination on the grounds of leprosy and increased wider attentiveness to, and engagement with, a gender approach to leprosy-related issues, as well as the participation of persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations. The Special Rapporteur has presented a policy framework for rights-based action plans and has provided guidance to States and civil society organizations on the context of the disproportionate impact of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic on persons affected by leprosy and their family members.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Leprosy/SR_leprosy_Open_letter_22May2020.pdf and A/HRC/47/29."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0009", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "In the present report, which is her first report to the General Assembly, the Special Rapporteur examines discrimination against persons affected by leprosy in national legal frameworks. The imperative of legal harmonization as part of global and national efforts to eliminate discrimination on the grounds of leprosy is included in: guideline No. 1 of the principles and guidelines, which affirms that States should take all appropriate legislative, administrative and other measures to modify, repeal or abolish existing laws, regulations, policies, customs and practices that discriminate directly or indirectly against persons affected by leprosy and their family members; several provisions of international human rights law; and strategic pillar 4 of the WHO global leprosy strategy. According to WHO, 21 countries reported that they still had 39 laws in place in 2018 that permit discrimination on the basis of leprosy,[[fn:4]] which evinces the importance of enforcing formal equality for persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "WHO, “Weekly epidemiological record”, vol. 94, No. 35/36 (30 August 2019), pp. 389–412."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0010", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "The importance and impact of discrimination in law includes: classification of groups of people and framing of identities; access to resources, services and rights; and opportunities for freely and autonomously acting in society. The increasing power of the law to frame public and private dimensions of social life is undeniable. It has been noted by the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls that laws are an essential mechanism for the enjoyment of human rights. Laws determine the operating values and principles through which actions and behaviours are considered acceptable or criminalized and stigmatized (see A/HRC/35/29). Undeniably, laws play a structuring role in the dynamics of formal, as well as substantive, discrimination in the sense that they codify, regulate and influence social behaviour.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0011", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "If it is true that, in practice, discrimination refers to any unfair or prejudicial treatment of people that leads to loss of opportunities, material deprivation, structural disadvantage, stigmatization and poor access to the State’s goods and services, the fact is that an ideological bias always lies at the root of discrimination.[[fn:5]] Such ideological biases are simultaneously sustained by and sustain unequal power relations. That is why groups discriminated against are usually deprived of the means to fight back against discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Nancy Krieger, “Discrimination and health inequities”, International Journal of Health Services, vol. 44, No. 4 (2014), pp. 643–710."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0012", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The key point in this regard is that institutionalized discrimination against persons affected by leprosy reflects an ideological bias socially produced throughout time by different cultural systems and explanatory models of leprosy, which has historically subordinated persons affected by leprosy to social structures that deny not only their belonging to local and national communities, but also their humanity. Institutionalized discrimination against persons affected by leprosy has also simultaneously been sustained by and sustained such ideological biases, authorizing and perpetuating their dehumanization by framing what society sees as normal, acceptable and desirable, as well as the opposite, which leprosy came to embody against different cultural backdrops. Undeniably, the institutionalization of discrimination on the grounds of leprosy has prompted and normalized the stigmatization and dehumanization of affected individuals. That is why legal harmonization and formal recognition of persons affected by leprosy as right holders is not only the State’s obligation, but also a moral imperative.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0013", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Discrimination against persons affected by leprosy in law persists in the realm of States that have ratified international human rights instruments and whose national constitutions affirm the rights to equality and non-discrimination. Their mere existence hinders recognition of the human rights of persons affected by leprosy, starting with the most basic one of all: the right to equality. If a State asserts the equality of all persons before the law and at the same time keeps in place laws that discriminate against a certain group of people, then the State is actively denying fundamental rights and freedoms to that group of people and hence violating international and national obligations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0014", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "In order to map and report on existing discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy and to provide technical guidance to States in this regard, the Special Rapporteur consulted Member States and civil society organizations on national laws, regulations, ordinances, resolutions and policies that have discriminatory impacts on persons affected by leprosy and/or their family members, as well as existing customary regulations, including traditional non-written norms, that have discriminatory impacts on them. The Special Rapporteur acknowledges that different legal systems coexist in some societies, and has therefore called for the support of States and civil society organizations to map traditional non-written norms that are part of non-State legal systems. She has also requested information on measures taken to abolish or amend discriminatory laws and norms. A total of 10 States and 22 civil society organizations[[fn:6]] have responded to her call for cooperation in assessing discrimination in law. The Special Rapporteur has also held in-depth conversations with several persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations in order to better understand their lived experience with regard to discrimination in law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "The submissions from States and civil society organizations that were authorized by them to be made public will be available on the web page of the mandate of the Special Rapporteur: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/LeprosyIndex.aspx."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0015", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Information submitted by civil society organizations, which includes the most thorough database of discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy that currently exists, put together by the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations,[[fn:7]] as well as data reported by other civil society organizations, was thoroughly reviewed, with the full texts of the reported laws properly identified and examined. A list with examples of discriminatory laws from different countries will be made available on web page for the present report.[[fn:8]] The Federation’s database alone identifies 130 laws in different countries that directly discriminate against persons affected by leprosy. For the assessment of discrimination in law against persons affected by leprosy, the Special Rapporteur took into consideration laws in both a strict and a broad sense. Laws in a strict sense are normative acts elaborated and approved in parliaments at the central and local levels. Laws in a broad sense are normative acts, such as regulations, decrees and guidelines, established by other regulatory bodies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See https://ilepfederation.org/discriminatory-laws."}, {"n": 8, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0016", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "The Special Rapporteur acknowledges the difficulty of mapping such laws, regulations and norms and of keeping updated information on their status. While she draws on the work of different stakeholders to map discriminatory laws, she welcomes further discussion with Members States on this particular issue and makes herself available for engaging in technical cooperation for their amendment or abolishment. With the present report, she wishes to call attention to a matter of unfinished business: legal harmonization and enforcement of formal equality for persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0017", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Available data on discrimination in law against persons affected by leprosy show that laws that discriminate against this group of people have been elaborated and put into force since the beginning of the twentieth century. The widespread institutionalization of prohibitions and discrimination on the grounds of leprosy started to be enacted during the first stage in the modern history of leprosy, between 1873 and 1948 (see A/HRC/38/42), and did not stop there, as will be further demonstrated.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Looking back to understand current institutionalized discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0018", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recalls that the discovery of the causative agent of leprosy, Mycobacterium leprae, in the late nineteenth century led to a unified response by European experts and Governments in 1879 based upon the idea of contagion, which gave rise to the establishment of thousands of places for the segregation and confinement of persons affected by leprosy in what were then the imperial nations, as well as in countries and territories under colonial rule. Leprosy was described by European powers as an imperial danger (ibid.).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Looking back to understand current institutionalized discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0019", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Under these State policies, persons affected by leprosy were separated from their families and communities, and prohibitions on their reproduction were enacted in many countries, while others went as far as to practise their forced sterilization. The same policies were applied in 1923 to children of persons affected by leprosy. Healthy newborns were forcibly separated from their parents and many were also secluded from their communities.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Looking back to understand current institutionalized discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0020", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "There was never any scientific evidence to support the prophylactic segregation of persons affected by leprosy, and yet such segregation was widespread from the late nineteenth century until the late twentieth century – almost half a century after the discovery of a cure for leprosy. The year 1948 signalled the point at which leprosy experts abandoned the policy of compulsory segregation. However, segregation as an official policy persisted in some countries until the late twentieth century. However hard it may be to estimate the number of leprosy colonies in the world that are still active, it is probably well over 1,000.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Looking back to understand current institutionalized discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0021", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The COVID-19 pandemic has taught the world what persons affected by leprosy have known for decades and centuries, namely that health and illness are not just biological phenomena. Accumulated knowledge in the field of medical anthropology has proved the difference between illness, meaning the bodily process itself, and disease, meaning the nosology produced by a given medical system, which is always culturally grounded. Diseases are biosocial constructs and, as the history of epidemics shows, explanatory models of disease can produce labelling and even give rise to institutionalized and structural stigmatization. For modern nations, biomedicine became central to the definition of the boundaries between the normal and the pathological, as well as to the classification of groups of people under those categories. The very notion of the modern citizen is embedded with biopolitical conceptions about what is normal and desirable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Looking back to understand current institutionalized discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0022", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "During the early shaping of modern nations, leprosy came to embody all that was considered to be antithetical to the modern project, namely the structural backwardness that was to be purged from modern nations. It is not an exaggeration to say that stigma was the dolus behind the State’s policy of forced segregation, since it resulted more from an ideological bias than from scientific evidence, while it aimed at nothing less than banishing leprosy by banishing the people who were infected by it. But if this ideological bias was harboured in central nations, it was also transplanted into the countries and territories under colonial rule and domination, turning institutionalized discrimination against persons affected by leprosy into a global reality. Moreover, the policy continues to have an impact on the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their family members who were subjected to it, therefore comprising a continuous violation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Looking back to understand current institutionalized discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0023", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "This ideological bias and its power to shape institutionalized discrimination endured over time, even after the discovery of a cure for leprosy in the mid-twentieth century. Even after being debunked, the biomedical concept that affirmed the need for prophylactic segregation continued to influence national legal and regulatory frameworks in fields as varied as those concerning freedom of movement, participation in political and social life, family life, work regulations and immigration and visa regulations. These legal and regulatory frameworks give legal legitimacy to, and reinforce, structural and interpersonal discrimination on the grounds of leprosy, endorsing and normalizing the dehumanization of persons affected by leprosy and denying them any possibility of enjoying a life with dignity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Looking back to understand current institutionalized discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0024", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Laws that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy were identified in both endemic and non-endemic countries. According to the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, discriminatory laws persist in the Bahamas, Barbados, Dominica, Egypt, India, Jamaica, Malaysia, Mali, Malta, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, the Niger, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Senegal, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan Province of China, Thailand, the United Arab Emirates and the United States of America.[[fn:9]] According to both the Federation’s database and the information submitted by other civil society organizations, Asia is the continent where discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy are most prevalent. The existence of discriminatory laws has been reported by civil society organizations, including the Federation, in Ethiopia, India, Myanmar,[[fn:10]] Nepal, Papua New Guinea and Sri Lanka.[[fn:11]] India alone counts for approximately 77 per cent of the discriminatory laws mapped worldwide, with more than 100 such laws having been identified, according to the Federation’s database.[[fn:12]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See table 1 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}, {"n": 10, "text": "Civil society organizations of Myanmar emphasized that they had doubts as to whether or not the laws were still in force."}, {"n": 11, "text": "See table 2 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}, {"n": 12, "text": "The number of laws that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy in India varies in the different submissions for the present report, which also demonstrates the complexity of discrimination in law against persons affected by leprosy in the country and contributes to calls for robust action to identify formal and institutionalized discrimination in the country that has the highest absolute number of cases of leprosy in the world."}], "section": ["III. Discriminatory laws throughout the world"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0025", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "In the countries where at least one discriminatory law was mapped, they encompass: (a) public health-related laws that establish forced isolation, hospitalization and segregation of persons affected by leprosy; and (b) immigration-related laws that deny admission, visas and residence and work permits for persons affected by leprosy. In the countries where more than one discriminatory law was mapped, it is possible to identify a multifaceted system that separates persons affected by leprosy from the rest of society through the application of laws in different fields of social life. Such multifaceted systems are formed by different laws and norms that regulate the relation between society and persons affected by leprosy under the ideological bias (totally debunked by current science) that classifies persons affected by leprosy as a health risk to the rest of society. Hence, laws are employed to separate persons affected by leprosy from situations of public, professional and family conviviality, radically excluding them from work settings, political representation and active participation in different sectors of society. In some cases, the laws go as far as to include sanctions for public authorities when they fail to remove persons affected by leprosy from public spaces and transportation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Discriminatory laws throughout the world"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0026", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "In the specific case of India, the large number of laws that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy in the country suggests the existence of a highly complex system in which discrimination spreads over several dimensions of life, encompassing both public and private spaces and ranging from public health regulations, the organization of cities and places of detention, access to management and decision-making positions in public and private settings and work regulations to the criminalization of begging. It is worth highlighting that the proliferation of such laws in India is also a result of the country’s complex administrative and territorial organization, under which both the central and the local governments have legislative powers. Discriminatory mechanisms have thus been multiplied at the different levels of government and administration, with the abundant production of similar laws and regulations by different government bodies and administrations.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Discriminatory laws throughout the world"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0027", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "Notably, many of the discriminatory laws that have been mapped throughout the world present compelling examples of how legal and regulatory frameworks that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy are shaped by ideological biases that simultaneously reproduce and maintain stigmatizing labels. Not only is the content of such laws discriminatory, but also the language adopted, which reproduces, gives legitimacy to and keeps in force harmful stereotypes. Indeed, many of the mapped discriminatory laws adopt derogatory language – identifying persons affected by leprosy as “lepers”, which is prohibited by guideline No. 9 of the principles and guidelines, which explicitly affirms that States should remove discriminatory language, including the derogatory use of the term “leper” or its equivalent in any language or dialect, from governmental publications and should revise expeditiously, where possible, existing publications containing such language – even though many of the States that use such language in their legal texts have endorsed the principles and guidelines. Moreover, in some of the legal texts that frame these laws, leprosy is wrongfully described as virulent, contributing to the persistence of misconceptions about its transmission. Lastly, rules that establish the ineligibility of persons affected by leprosy to take positions as civil servants make stigmatizing associations between different groups of people, including persons affected by leprosy, who are described as inferior and inept.[[fn:13]] Such examples clearly show the power of the law to frame identities and generate stigmatizing labels.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "See table 3 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["III. Discriminatory laws throughout the world"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0028", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "In 1943, Dr. Guy Faget of the United States discovered a drug with a reasonable degree of efficacy in curing leprosy, despite its long-term use and severe iatrogenic effects. The efficacy of dapsone in curing leprosy led to a transition from a policy of compulsory segregation to a policy of decentralization to general health-care services. It was in this period that WHO took up leadership in what was then called the eradication of leprosy, with funds from the United Nations Children’s Fund. This new policy also called upon States to amend discriminatory legislation, arguing that such legislation was a barrier to the eradication of leprosy. It was also in this period that the first calls emerged from leprosy colonies demanding recognition of the dignity and rights of persons affected by leprosy. In the spirit of the International Conference on Primary Health Care, held in Alma-Ata (now Almaty, Kazakhstan) in 1978, leprosy was progressively reframed under the right to health (see A/HRC/38/42).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Timeline of discriminatory laws"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0029", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Nevertheless, the analysis of existing discriminatory laws in the present report shows that from a legal perspective the biomedical concept of prophylactic segregation of persons affected by leprosy as a means to protect society from leprosy continues to be fully in effect in some countries. Appallingly, laws establishing the mandatory isolation of persons affected by leprosy have not yet been repealed or abolished from some national legal frameworks, while laws that restrict the rights of persons affected by leprosy and actively promote discrimination against them are still being elaborated and promulgated.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See table 4 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["IV. Timeline of discriminatory laws"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0030", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "Public health-related laws establishing the compulsory isolation of persons affected by leprosy that were promulgated during the period prior to the 1950s prevailed over time in some countries without being amended or abolished. It is also possible to identify laws that regulate both public and private dimensions of life and that impose the same biomedical concept of prophylactic segregation on distinct dimensions of social life. Hence, before the 1950s, city laws, regulations for the management of places of detention and universities, anti-begging laws, public transportation regulations and family laws that reproduced the misconception about the need for prophylactic segregation of persons affected by leprosy had already been enacted.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Timeline of discriminatory laws"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0031", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "From the 1950s to the present day, mechanisms establishing segregation, prohibitions on the grounds of leprosy and restrictions on the rights of persons affected by leprosy have been reiterated in the proliferation of laws that regulate the operation of various public and private dimensions of social life, as well as institutional bodies.[[fn:15]] The incidence of such phenomena has been particularly high in India, where this type of legislation started to be elaborated and established by different local governments after the 1950s.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See table 5 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["IV. Timeline of discriminatory laws"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0032", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "According to the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations database, some examples of laws approved after 1950 include: laws restricting political rights, such as the prohibition of participating in elections, holding office or occupying certain positions of authority and decision-making positions; laws restricting freedom of movement, with prohibitions regarding the use of public transportation; laws establishing leprosy as grounds for divorce; restrictions on migrants’ admission, visas and residence and work permits; and restrictions on the right to work, with prohibitions on the practice of certain professions. The production of laws after 1950 occurred in at least the following countries: Barbados, Dominica, India, Mali, Namibia, Nepal, Niger, Pakistan, Philippines, Senegal, Singapore, Taiwan Province of China, Thailand and United Arab Emirates. Submissions from other civil society organizations also point to the production of discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy after 1950, up to the present day.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See table 6 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["IV. Timeline of discriminatory laws"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0033", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The analysis of the types of laws that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy allows for the identification of spheres of life in which such laws radically exclude persons affected by leprosy, as well as the rights that the laws violate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0034", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "These are laws and normative acts that regulate the operation of city bodies, as well as private and religious institutions. In these cases, leprosy is considered grounds for the prohibition of participation in elections for some positions, as well as for removing persons affected by leprosy from positions that they already occupy.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See table 7 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Discriminatory laws violating political rights through the prohibition of participation in elections or of holding public office"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0035", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "These laws regulate the use of public transportation and, as a rule, prohibit use by persons affected by leprosy or condition it upon the presentation of a medical certificate that attests that the individual is non-infectious.[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "See table 8 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Discriminatory laws restricting freedom of movement by prohibiting or restricting the use of public transportation"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0036", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "These are civil laws, as well as laws regulating marriage in different religions. According to these laws, the dissolution, annulment, separation and non-conclusion of marriage are allowed in cases in which one of the individuals entering the union is affected by leprosy.[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See table 9 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Laws allowing for the dissolution of marriage on the grounds of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0037", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "These are laws or regulations by State bodies responsible for migration and national security affairs. According to these laws, leprosy can underpin decisions against the granting of visas, work permits, residence and citizenship.[[fn:20]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See table 10 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Discriminatory laws denying rights to migrants"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0038", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "Laws hindering the practice of certain occupations by persons affected by leprosy extend to a large number of jobs, including: handling food and drinks; providing services in courts and universities; driving public transportation vehicles; working as magistrates; occupying positions of authority in cooperatives, universities and assistance and religious entities; and providing bookkeeping, typing, legal, medical, nursing and domestic services. The laws also prohibit persons affected by leprosy from obtaining certain professional licences and having access to certain positions and careers.[[fn:21]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "See table 11 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Discriminatory laws restricting access to certain jobs"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0039", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "These are laws that regulate the operation of institutions, especially universities. They abound in India and have been multiplied by several bodies at the State administration. Under these laws, leprosy is considered grounds for excluding applications for higher-level work positions and for removing people from such positions as well as on councils, committees and other collegiate decision-making bodies. In some cases, leprosy is also considered grounds for removing people who work as providers of non-teaching service in universities.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See table 12 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Discriminatory laws combining restrictions on the right to work with restrictions on the right to significant political participation, and prohibiting persons affected by leprosy from occupying positions of authority in public or private entities"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0040", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "These are laws adopted to fight mendicancy, with the definition of offences and application of sanctions by courts. Such laws determine the isolation of mendicants affected by leprosy and authorize their imprisonment or segregation in asylums or special centres or shelters. The detention of mothers and fathers may also apply to their children. In other cases, detention leads to the separation of parents and children.[[fn:23]],[[fn:24]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Anubhuti Jain, “Discrimination against persons afflicted with leprosy as a violation of their international human rights”, PEOPLE: International Journal of Social Sciences, vol. 5, No. 2 (2019), pp. 454–470."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See table 13 on the report web page at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Discriminatory laws determining the compulsory segregation and hospitalization of persons affected by leprosy as part of anti-begging measures"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0041", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "These are laws that regulate the operation of city bodies and public spaces. Such laws include prohibitions on persons affected by leprosy taking up positions or participating in city-level elections. A common mechanism in these laws is the establishment of the city authority’s duty to remove persons affected by leprosy from public markets.[[fn:25]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See table 14 on the report web page at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "City organization laws restricting political and work rights and limiting the freedom of movement of persons affected by leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0042", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "These laws regulate the operation of the penitentiary system and establish the duty of its managers to remove persons affected by leprosy to separate places for hospitalization.[[fn:26]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See table 15 on the report web page at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Discriminatory laws promoting the compulsory segregation of persons affected by leprosy as part of penitentiary system regulations"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0043", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "These laws maintain segregation as the State’s official applicable policy for the control of leprosy. Some of the measures covered by such laws are isolation, compulsory hospitalization, detention and prohibition on attending school and entering other public spaces for persons affected by leprosy. 27 22 See table 12 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx. 23 Anubhuti Jain, “Discrimination against persons afflicted with leprosy as a violation of their international human rights”, PEOPLE: International Journal of Social Sciences, vol. 5, No. 2 (2019), pp. 454–470. 24 See table 13 on the report web page at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx. 25 See table 14 on the report web page at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx. 26 See table 15 on the report web page at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx. 27 See table 16 on the report web page at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx. Indirect discrimination of persons affected by leprosy through the discriminatory application of laws that appear neutral at face value", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Public health discriminatory laws establishing policies for compulsory segregation and isolation of persons affected by leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0044", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "Reports about indirect discrimination by means of the application of national laws, regulations and policies that appear neutral at face value in a manner that discriminates against persons affected by leprosy point to another dimension of institutionalized discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Indirect discrimination of persons affected by leprosy through the discriminatory application of laws that appear neutral at face value"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0045", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "In India, persons affected by leprosy who need to undergo amputation surgery may face barriers in their access to benefits owed by health insurance plans and may need to cover all the costs of the surgery, depending on the place in which they undergo surgery, and specifically on whether or not the hospital has an orthopaedic specialist centre. Likewise, the Special Rapporteur’s attention was called to the fact that the Rehabilitation Council of India Act of 1992 and the Persons with Disabilities Act of 1995 may not be inclusive of all persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Indirect discrimination of persons affected by leprosy through the discriminatory application of laws that appear neutral at face value"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0046", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "In Ethiopia, leprosy may be used for the dissolution of marriage, since family law considers becoming ill with an incurable disease to be a fundamental error that justifies the dissolution of marriage.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Indirect discrimination of persons affected by leprosy through the discriminatory application of laws that appear neutral at face value"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0047", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "In Papua New Guinea, discrimination against persons with disabilities affected by leprosy is not acknowledged in the Discriminatory Practices Act of 1963. Although national plans recognize the importance of protecting and promoting the human rights of persons with disabilities, the law does not recognize disability or leprosy as prohibited grounds for discrimination.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Indirect discrimination of persons affected by leprosy through the discriminatory application of laws that appear neutral at face value"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0048", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "From Brazil the Special Rapporteur received information about the discriminatory effects of the application of two norms. Resolution No. 130/2001 of 8 October 2001 of the state of São Paulo establishes guidelines for the control of Hansen’s disease in the state and, based on this norm, the state has required the eviction of persons affected by leprosy or their family members living in its former leprosy colonies that do not fulfil the requirements of the resolution. Law No. 23.137/2018 of the state of Minas Gerais, which establishes reparations for persons who, as children, were forcibly segregated and confined on the grounds that a parent was affected by leprosy, is being enforced through monetary compensation, the amount of which is strikingly low and far from proportional to the gravity of the violations suffered by the victims, which goes against the core principles of the right to remedy and reparation provided for in international human rights law (see A/HRC/44/46) and explicitly encoded in the Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, as well as under the current practice for Brazilian national remedies.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Indirect discrimination of persons affected by leprosy through the discriminatory application of laws that appear neutral at face value"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0049", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The information available to the Special Rapporteur in the contributions from States and civil society organizations is insufficient to affirm the existence of norms that are part of non-State legal systems and that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy. By the same token, a review of the relevant literature does not put forward any data that indicate discrimination related to the exercise of justice by non-State systems and their corresponding justice operators. Hypothetically, this may be the result not so much of the non-existence of such norms but rather of the scarcity of systematized knowledge about the social and cultural dynamics that frame leprosy in countries and regions where different legal systems coexist and operate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Traditional discriminatory customs and practices"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0050", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "One thing that is clear from the information submitted for the present and previous reports (see, for example, A/HRC/41/47) is the persistence of traditional non-written customs and practices that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy and are sustained by deep-rooted harmful stereotypes that are, in turn, interconnected with structured systems of traditional beliefs about leprosy, many of which come from world or local religions. This connection between customs and practices that systematically discriminate against persons affected by leprosy and religious beliefs indicates that there is a strong need for States to enable knowledge of the relation between discrimination on the grounds of leprosy and local traditions, through effective monitoring systems that involve local communities, which should be properly recognized as experts on legal pluralism and/or local norms framing collective behaviour. Notably, such discriminatory customs and practices are still the standardized manner in which local communities respond to leprosy, leading to the segregation of persons affected by leprosy from private and community spaces, as previously mapped by the Special Rapporteur (ibid.). Some examples are provided below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Traditional discriminatory customs and practices"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0051", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "In the Plurinational State of Bolivia, women continue to be dependent on third-party authorization, especially from their husbands, to obtain medical care, owing to the country’s strong patriarchal social structure. Stigmatization and a lack of correct knowledge about the disease are reportedly interrelated in the country as well. In Burundi, traditional and wrongful beliefs about leprosy have an impact on the children of those affected in several life dimensions, such as marriage. There, as in other countries such as Cameroon, leprosy is considered to be a curse. This belief gives way to several prohibitions and discriminatory regulations that segregate persons affected by leprosy from social interaction and community life. In Nigeria, leprosy is also considered to be a curse and the result of an abhorrent offence that justifies treating persons affected by leprosy as outcasts, who are discriminated against in settings as varied as health care, schools, public transportation, restaurants and even within the family. Most persons affected by leprosy in the country are living in separate communities, known as leprosy colonies. Derogatory terms are also used to label persons affected by leprosy in the country. In Nepal, discriminatory practices against persons affected by leprosy include exclusion from festivities, community life and schools and people not buying goods or products from persons affected by leprosy. The Special Rapporteur heard striking reports of people being forced to live in caves and other isolated places in Nepal with no conditions whatsoever to ensure their living and survival after being diagnosed with leprosy. There, as in Papua New Guinea, leprosy is considered to be a curse that passes from one generation to another.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Traditional discriminatory customs and practices"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0052", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "With regard to a more direct linkage between discriminatory customs and practices and religious systems, in Ethiopia the Orthodox Church reportedly restricts access by clergy who are affected by leprosy to church activities and services. In India, it has been noted that a major obstacle to the upliftment of the status of persons affected by leprosy is the stigma associated with it. These stigmatizing beliefs about leprosy are reportedly associated with ancient Hindu scriptures, such as the Atharva Veda, the Manusmriti and the Sushruta Samhita. Reports point to wrongful stereotyping, with the employment of derogatory language, as practices are attached to a deep-rooted system of beliefs. In Myanmar, the persistence of beliefs that classify leprosy as the result of bad deeds in past life and justify the marginalization of affected persons is reportedly associated with Buddhism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Traditional discriminatory customs and practices"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0053", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Importantly, deep-rooted systems of beliefs can motivate not only discriminatory practices but also violence on the grounds of leprosy, as previously noted by the Special Rapporteur (ibid.). Deep-rooted systems of beliefs play an important role in the dehumanization of persons affected by leprosy. Dehumanization becomes possible when the target group can readily be identified as a separate category of persons, who are stereotyped and stigmatized as inferior, dangerous or uncivilized. Through dehumanization, moral restraints that prevent the exercise of abuse and violence against certain groups of people lose strength. Dehumanized groups are regarded as disposable and their annihilation (civil or material) is established as morally acceptable. Extreme cases of violence being perpetrated against persons affected by leprosy and leading to their summary execution have come to the knowledge of the Special Rapporteur. Recently, in a country in Western Africa,[[fn:28]] a person affected by leprosy was accused of witchcraft due to having leprosy and was brutally murdered. All the persons who witnessed the crime were also murdered.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "In order to protect her sources, the Special Rapporteur wishes to keep the name of the country and the individuals confidential."}], "section": ["VI. Traditional discriminatory customs and practices"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0054", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "Some States, such as Colombia and Japan, reported efforts that led to the abolishment of public health-related discriminatory laws that determined the forced segregation of persons affected by leprosy. Others, such as Sri Lanka, mentioned ongoing efforts to amend laws that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy. India referred to recent and ongoing efforts towards the elimination of a multifaceted system of laws that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy in different areas of life. India specifically alluded to the abolishment of the Lepers Act by the central State in 2016 and to how the central State had led the process that finally modified provisions of personal laws that affirmed leprosy as grounds for divorce. India also mentioned the efforts undertaken by the Law Commission of India in identifying all existing discriminatory laws in the country and putting together recommendations for their abolishment.[[fn:29]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Government of India, Law Commission of India, Eliminating Discrimination against Persons Affected by Leprosy, Report No. 256 (April 2015)."}], "section": ["VII. Efforts towards eliminating discrimination in law"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0055", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Some States reported the adoption of laws and programmes that protect the rights of persons affected by leprosy. In Brunei Darussalam, the Old Age and Disability Pensions Act provides a pension to older persons affected by leprosy that extends to their dependents and also covers a period of six months for the rehabilitation of individuals affected by leprosy. Colombia provides an economic allowance to persons affected by leprosy-related disabilities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Efforts towards eliminating discrimination in law"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0056", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "Other countries referred to anti-discriminatory laws that simultaneously protect the rights of persons affected by leprosy and prohibit discrimination on the grounds of leprosy. In Japan, several acts were enacted with such a purpose, including the Act on Payment of Compensation to Inmates of Hansen’s Disease Sanatorium of 2001, the Act on Promotion of Resolution of Issues Related to Hansen’s Disease of 2008 and the Act on Payment of Compensation to Family of Former Hansen’s Disease Patients of 2019. Under these acts, a complex reparation programme that includes compensation for persons affected by leprosy and their family members has been put in place (see A/HRC/44/46/Add.1). The 2008 act specifically prohibits discrimination on the grounds of leprosy and, as a whole, the acts include measures for consulting with persons affected by leprosy and guaranteeing their rights, as well as measures for investigating allegations of human rights abuses and providing remedies accordingly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Efforts towards eliminating discrimination in law"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0057", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "In India, the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act is applicable to persons who have been cured of leprosy and have valid disability certificates. It mandates the appropriate administrative and government bodies to develop schemes and programmes in the areas of social security, health, rehabilitation and skills development. It prohibits discrimination on the grounds of disability and recognizes “leprosy-cured persons” as persons with disabilities who are entitled to social benefits and access to positions in government and higher education institutions. The Special Rapporteur calls attention to the fact that the terminology employed in the Act (“leprosy-cured persons”) may exclude, in practice, people undergoing treatment and who already live with leprosy-related physical impairments and disabilities, as well as to the problems that have been systematically raised by persons affected by leprosy with regard to the narrow classification and assessment of a 40 per cent disability grade as the basis for entitlement to the rights provided for in the act.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Efforts towards eliminating discrimination in law"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0058", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "Civil society organizations reported on strategies mainly directed at tackling discriminatory customs and practices. In Brazil, NHR Brasil has been implementing activities in line with WHO health policies for leprosy in the fields of access to health care, promotion of mental health and socioeconomic empowerment. In Burundi, the Damien Foundation has been working closely with the Government on awareness-raising activities, reaching out to religious and community leaders to increase their awareness of leprosy-related issues, training health-care workers and promoting joint awareness committees to support grass-roots organizations. In Papua New Guinea and South Africa, The Leprosy Mission undertakes efforts in the field of awareness-raising, as does the Ethiopian National Association of Persons Affected by Leprosy in Ethiopia.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Efforts towards eliminating discrimination in law"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0059", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "Actions taken by civil society organizations regarding discrimination in law encompass both advocacy and strategic litigation. In Nepal, The Leprosy Mission, together with groups and organizations of persons affected by leprosy, has been calling on the Government to abolish a remaining law that discriminates against persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Efforts towards eliminating discrimination in law"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0060", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Strategic litigation has been employed mostly in India, with important achievements in the courts. In 2014, the Supreme Court asked the central and local governments to take steps towards the inclusion of persons affected by leprosy. In 2015, the Law Commission of India submitted its report No. 256 entitled Eliminating Discrimination against Persons Affected by Leprosy to the Union Minister of Law and Justice and proposed a comprehensive new anti-discrimination law, referred to as the Elimination of Discrimination against Persons Affected by Leprosy Bill. Noting ongoing discriminatory practices, the Supreme Court in 2018 gave directions in its judgment in the case of Pankaj Sinha versus Union of India and others (writ petition (civil) No. 767/2014) to address the various forms of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy. In the same judgment, the Supreme Court took note of writ petition (civil) No. 1151/2017, filed by the Vidhi Centre for Legal Policy in its case against the Union of India, which listed 119 central and local laws that violate the fundamental rights of persons affected by leprosy under articles 14, 19 and 21 of the Constitution. It also took note of the report of the Law Commission of India, in which concern was expressed over the number of Indian laws that continue to discriminate, directly and indirectly, against persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Efforts towards eliminating discrimination in law"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0061", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "Notably, the case of India shows not only the importance of access to justice and strategic litigation as a key means of fighting formal discrimination, but also the difficulties in moving forward with formal equality when there is no agreement between, or firm decision by, central and local governments to finish the business of legal harmonization.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Efforts towards eliminating discrimination in law"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0062", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "In the words of one of the representatives of the global community of persons affected by leprosy, Amar Timalsina,[[fn:30]] the global network coordinator for IDEA International, who was forced to sign divorce papers owing to the discriminatory law kept in force in his home country, persons affected by leprosy feel “anxious to breathe the air of dignity”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "The individual is identified in the present report with his full authorization."}], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0063", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "Dignity robbed from persons affected by leprosy through formal discrimination has also fuelled their dehumanization. The analysis of formal and institutionalized discrimination against persons affected by leprosy enabled the uncovering of ongoing direct discrimination against this group of people. It also identified indirect discrimination against persons affected by leprosy resulting from the discriminatory enforcement of laws, regulations and policies that appear neutral at face value. Furthermore, many States that keep discriminatory laws in place did not report on them, which suggests a lack of knowledge and updated data on discrimination in law in relevant countries, and thus contributes to calls for action to both monitor discrimination in law and move forward with harmonizing national legislation and practices. Lastly, and equally importantly, the derogatory language employed in many of the texts of the laws that were mapped and that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy can be a driving cause of hate speech against such persons.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0064", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "Traditional customs and practices that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy also abound and, if not directly connected to legal pluralism and the exercise of non-State systems of justice, nevertheless seem to be grounded in deep-rooted systems of beliefs that reinforce discrimination and dehumanization as the standardized responses to leprosy. The limited knowledge available on how such systems (encompassing both local cultures and world and local religions) structure discriminatory customs and practices leads to calls for in-depth studies that take local communities as experts and make use of dialogue and mutual learning as a key method for eliminating harmful stereotypes on the ground.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0065", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "If during the consultations undertaken by the Special Rapporteur with persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations for the present report no evidence of the recent application of discriminatory laws that determine isolation and segregation on the grounds of leprosy was mentioned, the application of discriminatory laws that regulate social relations, such as family relations, was indeed reported. Furthermore, institutionalized discrimination, encompassing both State administration and the discriminatory application of laws, was frequently alluded to. Lastly, from the consultations with persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations, it is possible to affirm that the impact of discrimination in law on the enjoyment of rights and access to justice, legal remedies and reparation is enormous. By the same token, formal discrimination has been at the root of widespread substantive discrimination, which continues to keep persons affected by leprosy excluded from access to opportunities on an equal basis with others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0066", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "Before describing the impact of formal discrimination, a word on the gender imbalance of both the application and adverse effects of discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy is required. As described several times to the Special Rapporteur, given the limited economic independence and autonomy of women affected by leprosy (see A/HRC/41/47), laws such as those allowing for divorce on the grounds of leprosy have a greater impact on them, heightening their already subordinated status. Likewise, the mere existence of such laws hinders women’s access to justice in demanding enforcement of the rights that are entitled to them after divorce.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0067", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "This was in fact one of the main adverse impacts of remaining discriminatory laws pointed out to the Special Rapporteur by persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations: the barriers that such laws create to access to rights and the enjoyment of opportunities on an equal basis with others, as well as access to justice and the right to an adequate remedy in the face of discrimination and human rights violations. As pointed out systematically to the Special Rapporteur, in the face of discrimination and/or violence against them, persons affected by leprosy cannot take legal action. Another major impact of such laws is that by not being abolished they authorize discrimination and violence. While the State may not enforce such laws, other social players may do so freely, and often do.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0068", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "Lastly, formal discrimination motivates, authorizes and normalizes substantive discrimination against persons affected by leprosy by, inter alia: (a) significantly compromising the livelihoods of persons affected by leprosy; (b) formalizing harmful stereotypes as lawful labels and normalizing humiliation and violence against persons affected by leprosy as authorized practices; (c) excluding persons affected by leprosy from political and civic participation and therefore hindering changes with regard to democratic engagement and involvement with decision-making; and (d) augmenting the State’s negligence towards this marginalized group of people and its lack of commitment to systemic change and accommodation of differences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0069", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "International provisions violated by these laws are abundant but the foundational principles of equality, dignity and non-discrimination that sustain international human rights law and are affirmed in articles 1 and 2 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as well as in article 8 that upholds the right to an effective remedy by the competent national courts in the face of acts violating recognized fundamental rights, stand out. Importantly, many of the rights provided for by the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights are directly violated by discriminatory laws and practices. The same is true for many of the rights provided for by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0070", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "Article 4 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities establishes the obligation of States to take all appropriate measures, including legislation, to modify or abolish existing laws, regulations, customs and practices that constitute discrimination against persons with disabilities, while the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, in its general comment No. 6, affirms that promoting equality and tackling discrimination are cross-cutting obligations of immediate realization and are not subject to progressive realization. Importantly, persons affected by leprosy should widely be recognized as persons with disabilities, in accordance with articles 1 and 2 of the Convention, on the grounds not only of physical impairment and the multiple barriers imposed by society to their full participation, but also of discrimination based on harmful stereotypes of leprosy itself, and are entitled to the rights provided for by the Convention. Likewise, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, in its general comment No. 20, while explicitly stating that States should adopt measures to address widespread stigmatization of persons on the basis of their health status, including diseases such as leprosy, also affirms that discrimination must be eliminated both formally and substantively and that non-discrimination is an immediate and cross-cutting obligation in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0071", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "To conclude, it is vital to note that laws can also be a means of preventing and remedying stigmatization, harm and violence.[[fn:31]] They can endow individuals with instruments to fight back against discrimination. Equal and effective legal protection against discrimination means that States have positive obligations to protect persons affected by leprosy from discrimination. Affirmative measures and comprehensive anti-discriminatory laws and acts are some of the means through which States have been fulfilling their obligation to protect other groups from discrimination and should be applied for eliminating discrimination on the grounds of leprosy, especially in countries with a leprosy endemic. States are faced with a key choice: whether to keep formal discrimination against persons affected by leprosy in place and thus continue to violate international human rights law and contribute to persistent dehumanization and substantive discrimination against them, or to take an active approach to eliminating systemic discrimination against this group of people. Eliminating interrelated de jure and de facto discrimination on the grounds of leprosy is without doubt an unfinished business that States must actively and urgently address.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "Scott Burris, “Stigma and the law”, The Lancet, vol. 367, No. 9509 (2006), pp. 529–531."}], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0072", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that States, at both the national and the subnational levels of government and administration, adopt and implement the measures set out below in order to enforce formal equality for persons affected by leprosy, as well as to fight against the consequences of extended discrimination in law with regard to the enjoyment of rights by persons affected by leprosy and their family members on an equal basis with others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IX. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0073", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "In general, States should:\n(a) Review, amend, repeal or abolish all laws, regulations, ordinances, resolutions and policies that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy and deny them the enjoyment of rights on an equal basis with others at both the national and subnational levels of government;\n(b) Prohibit discrimination on the grounds of leprosy and extend such prohibition to the private and public spheres;\n(c) Develop and enact comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and/or statutes, in close consultation with organizations of persons affected by leprosy, especially in endemic countries, that criminalize and punish by effective, proportionate and dissuasive criminal penalties violence and discrimination on the grounds of leprosy, provide for victims to be offered an assessment of their potentially specific protection needs and protect the right of persons affected by leprosy to equal opportunities and treatment in both the public and private spheres, spanning health care, education, work and employment, justice and social protection;\n(d) Ensure the recognition and inclusion of persons affected by leprosy as being entitled on an equal basis with other groups to the protection granted by mainstream equality policies and strategies in both endemic and non-endemic countries;\n(e) Include leprosy as prohibited grounds for discrimination in existing monitoring mechanisms, while involving organizations of persons affected by leprosy, and systematically collect data disaggregated by demographic, environmental, socioeconomic and cultural variables, as well as by the various grounds for discrimination recognized in international human rights law, with full respect for the principles of participation and privacy;\n(f) Provide accessible mechanisms for filing complaints about the violation of rights on the grounds of leprosy, as well as accessible and effective redress mechanisms, and ensure access to justice, on an equal basis with others, for persons affected by leprosy and their family members;\n(g) Reformulate policies and bodies for the protection of vulnerable groups, in a manner that recognizes and addresses the specific reality and needs of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, with proper budget allocation at the national and subnational levels, with targets, indicators and benchmarks, especially in endemic countries;\n(h) Increase knowledge in all parts of society, including among State officials and public servants working in different areas of the State administration, particularly in health care, education, work and justice, as well as in the private sector, about updated scientific evidence on leprosy, as well as on the rights to non-discrimination and equality of persons affected by leprosy, especially in endemic countries;\n(i) Eliminate institutionalized discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members by monitoring and preventing the discriminatory application of laws that appear neutral at face value;\n(j) Eliminate derogatory language from official documents, laws, regulations, ordinances, resolutions and policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IX. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0074", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "With regard to eliminating traditional discriminatory customs and practices, States should:\n(a) Carry out participatory research that can enable knowledge of the relation between discriminatory traditional customs and practices and non-State legal systems, while involving local communities, which should be properly recognized as experts;\n(b) Implement effective monitoring systems on traditional customs and practices that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy and their family members at the local level;\n(c) Make use of intercultural dialogue and mutual learning as effective methods for generating greater awareness of the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members and eliminating harmful traditional customs and practices based on leprosy at the local level, with the full participation of organizations of persons affected by leprosy;\n(d) Implement awareness-raising programmes that are sensitive to culture, language, gender, age and disability and that are developed in close collaboration with local communities in order to ensure both accessibility and efficacy;\n(e) Engage with public authorities, the media, State officials from all branches of the government, State and non-State justice operators and traditional and religious leaders in the prevention and elimination of leprosy-related violations.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IX. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0075", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "With regard to connecting restorative justice to prevention, States should:\n(a) Prohibit all laws, norms and official and traditional practices that lead to the segregation of persons affected by leprosy and duly recognize the damage perpetrated by both official and non-official historical segregation through the enactment of reparation measures that can simultaneously redress harm at the individual level and eliminate leprosy-related segregation and violations;\n(b) Implement reparation programmes that encompass both material reparations, aimed at redressing structural disadvantages, and symbolic reparations, aimed at enabling systemic change, with effective remedies, including compensation, reparation, restitution and rehabilitation;\n(c) Put in place comprehensive prevention structures that make use of education, arts and culture, archives and documentation, linking reparation programmes with memorialization processes that should also educate communities near former leprosy colonies;\n(d) Recognize and enforce housing and property rights for persons affected by leprosy who were forcibly segregated into leprosy colonies and ensure the same rights to second- and third-generation family members;\n(e) Implement participatory planning and management of former leprosy colonies and ensure that health care and rehabilitation, including psychosocial support, are available to current residents.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IX. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0076", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "With regard to enabling systemic change, States should:\n(a) Support and protect the engagement of persons affected by leprosy and their family members in leadership positions in public and political life by eliminating all laws, regulations, ordinances, resolutions and policies that hinder access for persons affected by leprosy to positions of power and/or holding office, and/or elaborate affirmative measures that can correct the historical and structural disadvantage that has curtailed their rights and those of their family members to participate in public and political life;\n(b) Encourage and promote the participation of persons affected by leprosy and their family members at the community level and in all public affairs that directly concern their life;\n(c) Take steps to ensure that children affected by leprosy are guaranteed the right to education and to stay in school, raising community awareness of leprosy and of the rights of persons affected by leprosy at school and providing families with incentives to allow their children to complete their education;\n(d) Ensure that children with leprosy-related disabilities participate on an equal basis with others in education services and recreational, leisure and sporting activities. Education services should ensure both accessibility and reasonable accommodation;\n(e) Enact affirmative measures to guarantee that children affected by leprosy and children of persons affected by leprosy have access to higher education on an equal basis with others, including the provision of financial incentives to allow them to finish their studies.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IX. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0077", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "With regard to protecting women affected by leprosy from violence, States should:\n(a) Eliminate discriminatory laws and/or practices that restrict or deny the rights of women affected by leprosy, including those regarding physical and mental health, sexuality and reproduction, as well as those concerning family issues, such as marriage and divorce, and provide for adequate solutions, remedies and reparation measures;\n(b) Eliminate all laws and/or practices that restrict rights and access to opportunities on an equal basis with others for women who experienced divorce or separation owing to leprosy and guarantee them their share of marital property and custody of their children, as well as housing, property and land rights;\n(c) Prohibit and punish domestic violence against women affected by leprosy, as well as all kinds of violence against them, including institutionalized violence in relation to State services, such as health care, education, social protection and employment, as well as any forms of interpersonal violence;\n(d) Ensure that the State’s formal legal system is accessible to women affected by leprosy and ensure gender awareness training for government officials who are responsible for enforcing laws that may be harmfully applied against women affected by leprosy;\n(e) Empower women affected by leprosy to know their rights and how to claim them, including through income-generation programmes, the creation of cooperatives and vocational continuing education, in order to secure for them economic independence and access to decent work and equal remuneration, as well as guarantee rights at work, including accessibility and reasonable accommodation for them, and recognize unpaid care work in social protection schemes;\n(f) Establish affirmative measures for ensuring equality of participation of women affected by leprosy in any decision-making that affects their lives, as well as in the mechanisms of representative and participatory democracy, non-governmental organizations, epistemic communities and health-care services.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IX. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0001", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "In the present report, submitted pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 44/6, the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, Alice Cruz, focuses on national legal protections available for persons affected by leprosy (also known as Hansen’s disease) and their family members, along with remaining challenges. More specifically, she discusses how the recognition of persons affected by leprosy and their family members as persons who are entitled to the rights provided for in the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is an important step in protecting this group of people, eliminating systemic discrimination against them and fulfilling their human rights. The Special Rapporteur also examines measures taken by States to recognize persons affected by leprosy and their family members as persons who are entitled to disability rights, as well as the barriers that hinder them from gaining access to and enjoying those rights, and offers constructive recommendations in that regard.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0002", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "Since the beginning of her mandate, the Special Rapporteur has endeavoured to mainstream leprosy awareness within the entire human rights system and has focused in particular on raising awareness of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy within the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. She has made several submissions to the Committee on the occasion of its reviews of leprosy-endemic countries. She has also contributed to the drafting of the Committee’s general comment on article 27 of the Convention, which is in progress.[[fn:1]] The Special Rapporteur appreciates the increasing inclusion of leprosy-related matters within the system and in the work of the Committee.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The Special Rapporteur’s oral statement to the Committee in this regard is available at www.ohchr.org/en/events/days-general-discussion-dgd/2021/day-general-discussion-right-persons-disabilities-work-and."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0003", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "Only four States actively contributed to the present report, which reflects the extent to which persons affected by leprosy and their family members are neglected by their own Governments, given the fact that, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), at least 23 countries are significantly affected by leprosy. Twenty civil society organizations working in 11 countries, 10 of which are leprosy-endemic countries, submitted key information for the present report. In total, 195 people from 23 countries, the majority being endemic, responded to the Special Rapporteur’s online questionnaire. In her work, the Special Rapporteur also relies on two decades of engagement with persons affected by leprosy and their family members and always keeps in mind the words of a woman affected by leprosy, which express the paradox of living with an invisible and unrecognized impairment but still being disabled by discrimination and society’s multiple barriers to a dignified life: “I cannot work as a domestic worker, which is what I did before, due to the constant pain I feel, and I cannot hold my baby, because I have no strength in my arms, and yet I am denied social protection because medical doctors say I have no disability.” As provided for in the preamble to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, it is the States parties’ obligation to recognize further the diversity of persons with disabilities. The present report is intended to contribute precisely to that end.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0004", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "The Special Rapporteur adopts the distinction established by the social model of disability between “impairment” (referring to any loss or difference of physical, mental, intellectual or sensory functioning) and “disability” (referring to the avoidable and imposed restrictions and losses caused by societies’ multiple barriers hindering people with impairments and their enjoyment of opportunities on an equal basis with others).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Disabling societies"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0005", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "It is not impairments, but rather disability, that actively marginalizes, excludes and dehumanizes people who experience any physical, mental, intellectual or sensory loss or difference. Ableism (meaning a system of oppression in which beliefs about disability are in great measure defined by persons without disabilities, reinforcing notions of “normal”, “ideal” or “able” bodies, while at the same time objectifying the lived experiences of persons with disabilities as a deviance from the “normal” and “desirable”),[[fn:2]] and its relationship with a capitalist model of social organization and production, is at the root of many of the attitudinal, environmental, legal, institutionalized and systemic barriers that disable people living with impairments. The Special Rapporteur also agrees with feminist scholars and activists who draw attention to the need not to overlook the phenomenological experience of living with impairments, and the present report also reflects that.[[fn:3]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See A/HRC/43/41."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Ana Bê, “Feminism and disability: a cartography of multiplicity”, in Routledge Handbook of Disability Studies, Nick Watson, Alan Roulstone and Carol Thomas, eds. (London, Routledge, 2012)."}], "section": ["II. Disabling societies"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0006", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "Likewise, the Special Rapporteur concurs with scholars and activists from the global South who argue in favour of examining global disabling forces,[[fn:4]] such as the enduring effects of colonialism, the devastating consequences of capitalism and the oppression of patriarchy, which have a disproportionate impact on people with impairments living in the global South, including persons affected by leprosy. One of the more important outputs of such a perspective would be to integrate the experiences and views of underrepresented people, such as persons affected by leprosy, into global discussions around disability.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Dan Goodley and Leslie Swartz, “The place of disability”, in Disability in the Global South: The Critical Handbook, Shaun Grech and Karen Soldatic, eds. (Springer, 2016)."}], "section": ["II. Disabling societies"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0007", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy and their family members have been largely excluded from the global conversation about disability, and society’s disabling forces affecting them have been left unexamined. An example of this are the scarce references to leprosy in the profuse set of international policies, guidance documents and papers focusing on disability. In the examination of 115 documents issued by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the International Civil Aviation Organization, the International Labour Organization, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, WHO, the World Bank, the United Nations Development Programme, the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/ AIDS, the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women, and the United Nations Children’s Fund, only 3 were found that mentioned leprosy.[[fn:5]] There are several reasons explaining such limited recognition, including the following:\n(a) Since its medicalization in the late nineteenth century, leprosy has been under the jurisdiction of the medical professions. According to the reductionist approach of biomedicine, leprosy is a purely biological phenomenon that is immune to culture and politics. Such classification relegated to a secondary role the discrimination associated with the disease in policymaking and also contributed to curtailing the autonomy and self-determination of persons affected by leprosy. The Special Rapporteur also recalls that the discovery of the causative agent of leprosy (Mycobacterium leprae) in the late nineteenth century led to a unified response by European experts and Governments in 1879 based upon the idea of contagion, which gave rise to the establishment of thousands of leprosariums throughout the world, many of which implemented an official State policy of compulsory internment of persons affected by leprosy. The same policy was applied in 1923 to children of persons affected by leprosy. Many countries continued to implement this policy until quite recently. Subsequent developments in global guidance on addressing leprosy as a health problem continued to deny persons affected by leprosy the right to participate in decision-making processes. In addition, notwithstanding the growing recognition of people’s right to participation, the participation of persons affected by leprosy is usually tokenistic in nature;\n(b) Historically, services for persons affected by leprosy have been provided by charitable organizations and institutions. Such private organizations and institutions have been filling the substantial and formidable gaps in States’ actions regarding the needs of persons affected by leprosy. However, until quite recently, those same organizations and institutions did not engage with a rights-based approach to leprosy, often reproducing paternalistic approaches to persons affected by leprosy. Progress made by some of the private players working in the field is well known, but, at the organization level, the majority of these organizations are still for persons affected by leprosy and not of persons affected by leprosy;\n(c) Leprosy is mostly present in countries of the global South, and the global narrative on disability and disability rights is still largely framed by the perspectives coming from the global North. An example of this is the drafting process of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which resulted from an initiative taken mainly by States from the global South. Resource limitations meant, however, that more organizations from the global North than from the global South were able to engage in the prioritization and framing of the provisions of the Convention.[[fn:6]] Notwithstanding the richness of the work done by disability activists and scholars from the global South, the global approach to disability is still dominated by the agenda of the organizations from the global North.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "WHO, “Improving the health and wellbeing of people living with neglected tropical diseases through rehabilitation and assistive technology”; World Bank, “Disability inclusion in Nigeria: a rapid assessment”; and World Bank, “Poverty reduction strategies: their importance for disability”."}, {"n": 6, "text": "Paul Harpur and Michael Ashley Stein, “The U.N. Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and the Global South”, Yale Journal of International Law, vol. 47, No. 1 (2022)."}], "section": ["II. Disabling societies"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0008", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy should be fully recognized as persons with disabilities in accordance with articles 1 and 2 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, not only on the grounds of physical impairments caused by leprosy and the multiple barriers to their full participation imposed by society, but also on the ground of discrimination based on harmful stereotypes about leprosy itself. Furthermore, and as will be shown in the present report, many family members experience psychosocial impairments and disabilities owing to systemic discrimination on the ground of leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Disabling societies"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0009", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy have been systematically subjected to direct and indirect discrimination. Human rights abuses and violations have been perpetrated both in law and in practice. While discrimination in law endures, substantive discrimination, as a result of entrenched and systemic ostracization and marginalization, stands out as a leading cause of the persistent denial of the enjoyment of rights by persons affected by leprosy and their family members on an equal basis with others.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 20 (2009)."}], "section": ["II. Disabling societies"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0010", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has identified a generalized lack of acknowledgement among policymakers of the broad structural causes of ongoing discrimination, as well as gaps in human rights policymaking, with States’ actions being limited to the health field. Furthermore, she also identified States’ failures to fulfil their obligations to enforce the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, which are at the root of the extensive number of persons living with leprosy-related physical impairments.[[fn:8]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "A/HRC/50/35."}], "section": ["II. Disabling societies"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0011", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "It is labelling based upon harmful stereotypes, and not leprosy itself, that disrupts the social location of a person diagnosed with the disease. However, biomedicine has also played a determining role in framing leprosy as a condition that is antithetical to the modern project, matching it with the structural backwardness that was to be purged from modern nations. Even after being discredited, the biomedical concept that affirmed the need to segregate persons affected by leprosy continued to influence national legal and regulatory frameworks in fields as varied as those concerning freedom of movement, participation in political and social life, family life, work regulations, and immigration and visa regulations. The Special Rapporteur has identified more than 100 laws in place that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "A/76/148."}], "section": ["II. Disabling societies"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0012", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Despite being curable, if not detected early and treated leprosy can cause irreversible damage to the skin, nerves, limbs and eyes, leading to disfigurement, blindness, loss of sensation, chronic wounds and neuropathic pain. The main cause of the impairments associated with leprosy is nerve damage, which can occur before and during treatment, as well as after bacteriological cure. A unique feature of the impairments caused by leprosy is their preventable nature, for which access to early diagnosis and treatment are determining factors.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Medical model"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0013", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The WHO global leprosy strategy[[fn:10]] contains a grading system for assessing and measuring leprosy-related impairments. Even though such a system uses the term “disability”, it only measures physical impairments, which contributes to misinterpretations of disability associated with leprosy and to misguided policies and practices. The grading system used by WHO consists of grade 0, meaning no impairment, grade 1, meaning loss of sensation in the hand, eye or foot, and grade 2, meaning visible impairment. It is, in essence, a medical and narrow approach that misuses the term “disability”.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "WHO, “Towards zero leprosy: global leprosy (Hansen’s disease) strategy 2021–2030”."}], "section": ["III. Medical model"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0014", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The long-term vision of the global leprosy strategy includes zero infection and disease, zero disability, and zero stigma and discrimination. One of the global targets for 2030 is a 90 per cent reduction in the rate per million people of new cases with grade 2 disability. Again, such a target is supposed to be met with a strategy that is purely based on a medical approach that fails to acknowledge disability as the result of the interaction between impairments and attitudinal and environmental barriers.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Medical model"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0015", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "The limitations to the medical approach are clear. For example, owing to systemic discrimination, the majority of persons affected by leprosy work in the informal economy and depend on unreliable casual labour with low income and unsafe working conditions. Physically demanding labour, which for many persons affected by leprosy is the daily reality of sustaining a livelihood, can aggravate physical impairments related to nerve damage. The interrelation between physical impairments, discrimination and unequal opportunities for decent work illustrates how the medical approach, by focusing solely on physical impairments, overlooks important socioeconomic factors and generates misinterpretations that negatively influence policymaking, and in so doing, contributes to disabling persons affected by leprosy. 8 A/HRC/50/35. 9 A/76/148. 10 WHO, “Towards zero leprosy: global leprosy (Hansen’s disease) strategy 2021–2030”. 8/21", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Medical model"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0016", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "As the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic had a huge impact on leprosy case detection,[[fn:11]] data gathered before its outbreak are more reliable. In 2019, a total of 202,256 new cases were detected in 118 countries. In total, 10,816 new cases in 94 countries, including 370 among children, presented irreversible physical impairments at the time of diagnosis – an indication of late diagnosis. The number of affected children is likely to be significantly higher, as some countries did not report data on irreversible physical impairments at the time of diagnosis among children. Also, according to WHO, in the absence of verifiable data it is estimated that between 3 million and 4 million people are living with visible impairments owing to leprosy.[[fn:12]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "A/HRC/47/29."}, {"n": 12, "text": "WHO, “Towards zero leprosy”."}], "section": ["III. Medical model"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0017", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "WHO global priority countries for action are derived from a composite index using parameters such as prevalence, new case detection, proportions of female children and irreversible physical impairments at the time of diagnosis. The 23 WHO global priority countries are Angola, Bangladesh, Brazil, the Comoros, Côte d’Ivoire, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Micronesia (Federated States of), India, Indonesia, Kiribati, Madagascar, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Nigeria, the Philippines, Somalia, South Sudan, Sri Lanka, the Sudan and the United Republic of Tanzania. It is important to note that leprosy also affects countries not among the 23 WHO global priority countries, especially in South America, Africa and Asia.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Medical model"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0018", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "An analysis of the evolution of the number of people diagnosed with already irreversible physical impairments in the 23 WHO global priority countries over the past five years shows that the decrease is manifestly slow. Many people continue to be diagnosed with already irreversible impairments, and efforts to monitor the evolution of impairments after discharge from the health-care services once the bacteriological treatment for the leprosy infection has been completed, together with the provision of rehabilitation, are clearly lacking, as previously documented by the Special Rapporteur.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "A/HRC/50/35."}], "section": ["III. Medical model"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0019", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Apart from South Sudan, the remaining 22 WHO global priority countries for action against leprosy have either ratified or acceded to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. However, a significant number of those States parties have not signed, ratified or acceded to the Optional Protocol, including the Comoros, Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Kiribati, Madagascar, Micronesia (Federated States of), Myanmar, the Philippines, Somalia and Sri Lanka.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0020", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "This situation hinders persons with disabilities from gaining access to their right to an effective remedy and reparation, as provided for in article 2 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and subsequently clarified by the Human Rights Committee in its general comment No. 31 (2004) on the nature of the general legal obligation imposed on States parties to the Covenant, since the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities establishes the competence of the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities to receive individual and collective complaints regarding human rights violations in the countries that are party to the Convention and to undertake relevant investigations.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0021", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Whether through constitutional norms, national laws or policies, the majority of the WHO global priority countries for action against leprosy that have either ratified or acceded to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities recognize the right to equality for persons with disabilities. Nevertheless, while some of these 11 A/HRC/47/29. 12 WHO, “Towards zero leprosy”. 13 A/HRC/50/35. countries have developed legal and regulatory frameworks that are in accordance with the social model of disability and the provisions of the Convention, others continue to draw from a medicalized approach to disability when establishing their provisions. A very small number of countries explicitly mention leprosy as a formally recognized category related to disability in their national legal and regulatory frameworks. The Special Rapporteur urges relevant States that are drafting or enacting new legislation on protecting the rights of persons with disabilities to explicitly refer to persons affected by leprosy as being entitled to those rights. An example is Bangladesh, a country with a significant number of people living with leprosy and leprosy-related disabilities, where efforts to enact an anti-discrimination bill are under way.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0022", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "More detailed information submitted for the purposes of the present report by States and civil society organizations from 15 countries where leprosy is an issue of concern confirms the limited references to leprosy in national legal and regulatory frameworks designed to protect, promote and fulfil the rights of persons with disabilities. Below are a few examples of States where leprosy is an issue of concern and where it is formally recognized as a disability-related category.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0023", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Brazil, the country with the highest relative incidence of leprosy, has ratified both the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and its Optional Protocol. What is notable about Brazil, however, is that it has attributed the value of a constitutional norm to the Convention and its Optional Protocol through Decree No. 6.949. Furthermore, Law No. 13.146/2015, known as the Brazilian Law of Inclusion, integrates the social model of disability that lies at the heart of the Convention. Issues such as accessibility, universal design, assistive technology, communication, reasonable accommodation, independent living and support are fully addressed in the law. Rehabilitation and inclusive labour rights for persons with disabilities are also provided for by Laws No. 8213/1991 and No. 13146/2015. While leprosy is not explicitly referred to in these laws, Brazil has put in place key anti-discriminatory legislation with Law No. 9010/1995, which replaces the term “leprosy” with “Hansen’s disease” (acknowledging the relationship between stereotyping and discrimination, referred to in article 8 of the Convention) and has recognized the damage caused by the State policy of forced isolation of persons affected by leprosy (which had been in place from the 1920s to the 1980s), establishing an administrative programme to provide for material reparation under Law No. 11520/2007.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0024", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "In Colombia, article 47 of the Constitution provides that the State is responsible for implementing a policy of rehabilitation and social integration for persons with physical, sensory and psychological impairments. Several laws have been enacted to protect persons with disabilities, and, in 2013, a national public policy for disability and social inclusion was put in place. Important jurisprudence established a prohibition on using derogatory terms to refer to person with disabilities. Several laws, and more particularly Law No. 380/1997, were also enacted specifically to provide social protection benefits to persons affected by leprosy living in poverty and with physical impairments caused by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0025", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "India, the country with the highest absolute incidence of leprosy, has significant legal and regulatory frameworks in place to protect the rights of persons with disabilities, including: the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act of 2016; the Mental Healthcare Act of 2017; the National Trust for the Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities Act of 2000; the Rehabilitation Council of India Act of 1992; the National Policy for Persons with Disabilities of 2006; and the National Mental Health Policy of India of 2014. Of these, the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act guarantees: the right to equality and non-discrimination; the right to community life; protection from cruelty and inhuman treatment; protection from abuse, violence and exploitation; equal protection and safety in situations of risk, armed conflict, humanitarian emergencies and natural disasters; rights related to the home and family; reproductive rights; accessibility in voting; and access to justice. Various types of conditions are also recognized as disabilities in the Act. Persons affected by leprosy are included in the “persons cured of leprosy” category. According to the stipulated definition, persons cured of leprosy are subdivided into persons with three categories of impairments. However, and as the name suggests, only those individuals who have finished bacteriological treatment are recognized. This distinction between the cured and uncured leaves those yet to be diagnosed and those undergoing treatment, who may be equally or more vulnerable to stigmatization and discrimination, completely unprotected under the Act. Another issue of concern is that the Act draws heavily from the medical model when creating a category of persons with benchmark disabilities (whose degree of physical impairment must be 40 per cent or higher), which is decided by designated medical boards in government hospitals. A person who meets this benchmark is entitled to receive a disability certificate, a pension, financial support, a reserved place in educational institutions and workplaces, and other benefits. Others, who do not meet the 40 per cent criteria, are excluded from social protection.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0026", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "Indonesia, which together with India and Brazil accounts for 79 per cent of global leprosy cases, enacted Law No. 8 on persons with disabilities in 2016. This law guarantees a broad range of political, civil, economic, social and cultural rights to persons with disabilities, provides for better access to benefits and other relevant services for persons with disabilities, and promotes government engagement with organizations of persons with disabilities on matters such as policymaking, budgeting, planning and the provision of reasonable accommodation. Leprosy is explicitly mentioned in the law when defining persons with physical disabilities, although the definition contained therein relies heavily on the medical model.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0027", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "Article 18 of the Constitution of Nepal establishes the right to equality as a fundamental right and prohibits any kind of discrimination on the basis of physical condition or disability. The Penal Code also prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities. The Act relating to Rights of Persons with Disabilities of 2017 provides that persons with disabilities are entitled to fully enjoy the right to non-discrimination, the right to protection, the right to political participation, the right to participation in policymaking, the right to establish representative organizations, the right to access services, the right to justice, and the right to social security, among others. The Act classifies disabilities into 10 categories and expressly recognizes disability that arises as an effect of leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0028", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Constitutional norms, legislation, programmes and strategies in force in some countries where leprosy is relevant create favourable conditions for protecting the rights of persons with leprosy-related impairments and disabilities. This situation notwithstanding, information submitted for the purpose of the present report both by organizations of persons affected by leprosy and by organizations for persons affected by leprosy indicate the existence of important challenges regarding the execution and implementation of such frameworks, as well as significant problems with the content of the aforementioned norms, legislation, programmes and strategies.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0029", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "In order to illustrate such difficulties and problems, the Special Rapporteur describes the challenges faced by persons affected by leprosy in gaining access to disability rights specifically in the countries already referred to as having legal and regulatory frameworks that recognize persons affected by leprosy as being entitled to such rights.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0030", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "In Bangladesh, the definition itself of disability constitutes an important barrier hindering persons affected by leprosy from having access to State services and benefits. Invisible physical impairments, as well as psychosocial impairments caused by discrimination on the ground of leprosy, are not recognized as disabilities, thereby excluding an important number of individuals from enjoying social protection and benefits. Civil society organizations also report significant geographical and information barriers, mentioning the limited reach of tertiary health-care facilities and of the provision of rehabilitation and assistive devices, as well as a lack of awareness among public servants and service providers about leprosy-related impairments and disabilities. The same organizations mention enhanced risks to mental health experienced by women affected by leprosy. Many cases of divorce or separation owing to leprosy take place, and these particularly affect women. Stigmatization on the ground of leprosy also hinders people from having access to employment and vocational training opportunities. Responses to the crisis generated by the COVID-19 pandemic, while inclusive of persons with disabilities, left out persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0031", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "In Brazil, access to disability rights and benefits is dependent on a medical evaluation of physical impairments. Most doctors working in the public health system are not prepared to diagnose leprosy-related impairments. This can result in people being denied social protection benefits, while their impairments, whether visible or invisible, may severely limit their activities and ability to work. Difficulties with bureaucratic procedures, which do not provide timely responses to the people who need them, were also reported as barriers to access to disability rights. Reports of stigmatization against persons affected by leprosy perpetrated by the health-care workforce are also common, and such stigmatization acts as a barrier to the recognition that persons affected by leprosy are entitled to disability rights, especially to social protection and benefits, since access is dependent on a medical certificate. Article 4 of Law No. 11520 provides for full rehabilitation and ensures free access to orthotic devices, prostheses and other assistive devices and technologies for the beneficiaries of the special pension provided for in the law. Nevertheless, the relevant article has not yet been regulated, and the aforementioned services, as well as key materials such as assistive devices, lubricating eye drops, thermal gloves, orthotics, prostheses and special shoes, are manifestly lacking for persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0032", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "In Colombia, issues around the intersection of leprosy with deep-rooted harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping, with poverty and with geographical barriers for people living in remote and rural areas stand as the main barriers hindering persons affected by leprosy from enjoying disability-related social protection. The Special Rapporteur has also received worrying reports about bad practices on the part of public servants and service providers with regard to the attribution of disability benefits to persons affected by leprosy that may indicate an abuse of power over people living in vulnerable situations, as well as institutionalized corruption.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0033", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The same issues around the intersection of leprosy with deep-rooted harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping, with poverty and with geographical barriers for people living in remote and rural areas were raised by civil society organizations working in India. Those organizations also referred to information barriers, especially those faced by people living in rural areas who were deprived of access to their rights and enjoying their entitlements, aggravated by the lack of a viable mechanism to disseminate information within the system of national and subnational governmental bodies. Significant problems with institutional service delivery were also observed, including a lack of knowledge and capacity among public servants and service providers. Bureaucratic and administrative barriers were also reported, especially with regard to access to disability certificates. Concerning the quota system for access to public employment, limited resources are woefully insufficient, resulting in those more vulnerable being left out. Barriers to access to livelihood loans from government financial institutions, housing schemes and marriage grants were also reported. Another important barrier lies in the definition of disability in national laws. While the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act of 2016 includes persons affected by leprosy within its purview, there are two major issues with the provisions concerned that hinder the effective guarantee of such rights under the Act for persons affected by leprosy. First, the restriction of a specified disability only to persons who have been cured of leprosy excludes a large proportion of persons who may live with leprosy-related impairments but who have not yet been cured of leprosy. Second, the manner in which disability percentages are calculated (only disabilities of 40 per cent or more give access to disability-related benefits) does not give sufficient weight to the loss of sensation and other important invisible impairments, which often leads to the denial of disability certificates to persons affected by leprosy. The scoring grade misses out on the important aspect of nerve damage, which causes partial or complete loss of sensation and has the potential to cause dynamic changes resulting in further, visible impairments. There are more than 100 discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy in the country – an issue that has already been addressed by the Special Rapporteur.[[fn:14]] Lastly, there is a significant problem with the non-discrimination clause set out in section 3 (3) of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, which reads as follows: “No person with disability shall be discriminated on the ground of disability, unless it is shown that the impugned act or omission is a proportionate means of achieving a legitimate aim.” Neither the law nor its implementing regulations define what constitutes a “legitimate aim” or “proportionate means”, and the reality of the negative attitudes towards and perceptions of leprosy disability, coupled with a lack of awareness, will form the basis of the decisions that people make regarding what constitutes a legitimate purpose. This subsection nullifies the objective of protection from discrimination under the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act in its entirety, rather than providing for the same in unambiguous terms. It is therefore essential to repeal section 3 (3) of the Act and insert a non-discrimination subsection that is in line with the dispositions on special and affirmative measures as detailed by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in its general recommendations No. 32 (2014) on the gender-related dimensions of refugee status, asylum, nationality and statelessness of women and No. 25 (2004) on temporary special measures and by the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in its general comment No. 20 (2009) on non-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights.", "labels": ["Non-citizens and stateless", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "A/76/148."}], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0034", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "Issues around the intersection of leprosy with deep-rooted harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping, with poverty and with geographical barriers for people living in remote and rural areas are also referred to by civil society organizations as outstanding barriers hindering persons affected by leprosy from having access to disability rights in Indonesia. According to these organizations, the enjoyment of disability-related protection and benefits by persons affected by leprosy remains very limited, and stigmatization against persons affected by leprosy is a major barrier that calls for leprosy-specific affirmative measures. Examples provided by the organizations include access to employment, especially in the area of food production and services, which is restricted for persons affected by leprosy but open to persons with disabilities as a very common income generation opportunity in Indonesia. Persons affected by leprosy are regarded as leprosy patients in the health-care services and are treated in a separate leprosy room, often located at the back of the health-care centre, even if their current illness is not leprosy-related. Reasonable accommodation is provided to people with visual impairments, hearing impairments and mobility impairments, but not for the special needs of persons affected by leprosy. These special needs are often caused by stigmatization. For example, persons affected by leprosy are reluctant to go to a district general hospital owing to previous experiences of discrimination on the part of health-care workers. They felt accepted and well treated in the former leprosy hospitals but not in the general hospitals. Therefore, since currently they only have the option of being treated in general district hospitals, they need support in admission, and it must be ensured that the hospitals accept them and have the right capacities to treat them. Statutory health insurance companies should also offer special help addressing the needs of persons affected by leprosy. The health insurance companies argue that the wounds of persons affected by leprosy are no different from diabetic wounds, but, unlike people with diabetic wounds, persons affected by leprosy cannot go to local wound services because they are not accepted there. When they are told to treat their wounds at home, they often cannot do so because they live in poverty and have to work. Civil society organizations also call attention to the preventable nature of physical impairments caused by leprosy and demand the right to an effective remedy for those people whose right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, including early diagnosis and prompt treatment of leprosy, has not been guaranteed, leading to irreversible physical impairments.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0035", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "In Nepal, the definition of persons with disabilities set out in the Disability Act of 2017 is comprehensive in nature, but in practice persons with sensory impairments face many difficulties in gaining access to disability cards. Furthermore, psychosocial impairments and disabilities resulting from stigmatization on the ground of leprosy are not recognized de facto. Information barriers, with a lack of awareness among persons affected by leprosy about their rights and how to claim them, was also reported. An important gap in the country concerns the collection of data on leprosy-related disabilities. According to the civil society organizations that submitted information for the purpose of the present report, during the preparation of a population census conducted in 2021, several disability groups were included in the discussion, and their inputs were sought before and after the census. However, representatives of organizations of persons affected by leprosy were not invited to participate, and their specific situation was thus not duly taken into account. Overall, the participation of persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations in policymaking remains low when compared with that of other organizations of persons with disabilities. Lastly, Nepal has not yet abolished discriminatory norms against persons affected by leprosy under its Civil Code.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0036", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Importantly, the difficulties and problems described herein are not particular to these countries, but rather reflect a common pattern of non-recognition and exclusion that is shared by people living in other countries and that calls for reviewing legal and regulatory frameworks, as well as administrative procedures for their implementation. While the majority of countries in which leprosy is relevant have legal and regulatory frameworks in place that, in principle, recognize visible impairments caused by leprosy, issues around the assessment and recognition of invisible impairments and psychosocial impairments, disability as the interaction between impairments and society’s restrictions, effective access to disability-related benefits, the right to an effective remedy and reparation, the elimination of discriminatory legal and regulatory frameworks, the elimination of harmful stereotypes, and measures to protect the rights of people living in former leprosy colonies, among others, remain unaddressed. In essence, disability rights seem to be restricted to social protection, and decisions on who is or is not entitled to such protection remain largely in the hands of the medical professions.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0037", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "The situations described above, taken together, echo the paternalistic approach to persons with disabilities and to persons affected by leprosy that international human rights law was set to transform through provisions aimed at promoting an active citizenship and creating enabling environments that embrace diversity. Importantly, it is clarified in the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities that States’ obligations include not only non-discrimination but also taking all the steps necessary to eliminate barriers and promote enabling environments that guarantee the right of persons with disabilities to enjoy opportunities on an equal basis with others. Undoubtedly, systemic change requires more than what is provided for in existing national legal and regulatory frameworks.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0038", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "Another issue of concern is that few countries have established mechanisms for monitoring the implementation of the Convention and of disability-related national legal and regulatory frameworks. Monitoring mechanisms, together with proper budget allocation and transparent accountability procedures, are essential to the enforcement of international and national human rights law. The same is true of the enforcement of participation rights, especially for historically marginalized groups who have been structurally denied the opportunity to engage in public affairs and to defend their own interests in the democratic construction of free societies.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0039", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "At the heart of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities lies the right to participation. This right is implicit in the preamble to the Convention, which contains recognition of the valued existing and potential contributions made by persons with disabilities to the overall well-being and diversity of their communities and of the importance for persons with disabilities of their individual autonomy and independence, including their freedom to make their own choices. By the same token, it is stated in the preamble that the Convention will make a significant contribution to redressing the profound social disadvantage of persons with disabilities and promote their participation in the civil, political, economic, social and cultural spheres with equal opportunities, in both developing and developed countries. The right to participation is mentioned in article 3 (c), which provides for the full and effective participation and inclusion of persons with disabilities in society; in article 4 (3), which provides that persons with disabilities and their representative organizations shall be involved in the development and implementation of legislation and policies to implement the Convention and in other decision-making processes concerning issues relating to them; and in articles 29 and 30, where it is further elaborated.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0040", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "In the Convention, it is acknowledged that persons with disabilities are not homogenous, and their diversity is recognized, which is essential to guiding States towards ensuring the participation of all groups of persons with disabilities in the development and implementation of legislation and policies and in decision-making processes that concern them. Only those with the experience of specific impairments and disabilities are best positioned to identify the exact barriers and risks affecting them, vocalize their needs and contribute to solutions. Communities have an accumulated and action-oriented knowledge about their territory and people, which can only enhance the efficiency of States’ responses to their problems. This notwithstanding, participation is often used in discourse and seldom put into practice. In order for participation to be meaningful and not merely tokenistic, issues around recognition and access, as well as the barriers that hinder both, need to be prioritized in States’ frameworks for implementing the Convention.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0041", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Several civil society organizations report that limited participation is enjoyed by persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations in institutional matters relating to them, as well as in umbrella organizations for persons with disabilities. Unarguably, there are numerous systemic barriers to the full and meaningful participation of persons affected by leprosy and their family members. Such barriers include: institutionalized discrimination; illiteracy and low educational qualifications; legal impediments; inaccessibility of administrative procedures and requirements; inaccessibility and unintelligibility of the information being provided; physical and environmental barriers; and a lack of support mechanisms for overcoming structural disadvantages reflected in unequal and unfair socioeconomic and education status.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0042", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "Under the Convention, States are obliged to actively promote enabling environments, ensuring equality, guarantees to free expression, accessibility, accommodation in procedures and support. Accessibility as an indispensable condition for the fulfilment of the right to participation relates to information, communication, infrastructure and transport. In order to promote the participation of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, States are required to identify and remove any legal barrier and any institutionalized discriminatory practice. Adopting temporary special measures to guarantee de facto equality in participation in public affairs, as endorsed by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in its general recommendation No. 23 (1997) on women in political and public life, may also be needed.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0043", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The Special Rapporteur, in line with her working methods, has consulted persons affected by leprosy and their family members on issues such as self-identification and disability when preparing the present report. Their experience and needs show the limitations of existing legal and regulatory frameworks for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities and, accordingly, the value of ensuring their right to participation in the development and implementation of legislation and policies and in decision-making processes that concern them.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0044", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "A total of 195 people from 23 countries (Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Brazil, Colombia, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Kenya, Morocco, Myanmar, Nepal, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines, Portugal, Senegal, Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the United States of America and Zambia), the majority being leprosy-endemic countries, responded to the online questionnaire designed for the present report. A total of 43 per cent of the respondents were women affected by leprosy, 27 per cent were men affected by leprosy, 10 per cent were female family members of persons affected by leprosy, 6 per cent were male family members of persons affected by leprosy and 14 per cent were categorized as “other” (of which 60 per cent were members of organizations of persons affected by leprosy or organization of persons with disabilities and 40 per cent were health-care professionals). Of the 195 respondents, 58 per cent were members of organizations of persons affected by leprosy or organizations of persons with disabilities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0045", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "When asked whether they self-identified as a person with disabilities, 74 per cent of the specific group of persons affected by leprosy responding to the questionnaire answered in the affirmative, as did 30 per cent of the family members of persons affected by leprosy. A total of 23 per cent of the persons affected by leprosy who self-identified as persons with disabilities mentioned living with impairments on their feet, 23 per cent mentioned living with impairments on their hands, 19 per cent described numbness of their limbs and skin, 11 per cent described visible impairments, 8 per cent referred to mobility impairments, 7 per cent referred to visual impairments, 6 per cent referred to loss of sensation and 3 per cent referred to the amputation of limbs. Importantly, 43 per cent of the family members of the persons affected by leprosy mentioned living with mental illnesses.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0046", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "It is worthwhile to note that, while the majority of persons affected by leprosy identify as persons with disabilities (74 per cent), others do not. Discussion about the recognition of persons affected by leprosy and their family members as persons with disabilities challenges any fixed definition of disability, as well as dichotomic frontiers between “disabled” and “non-disabled”. Acknowledgement of fluid, complex and evolving identities is key not only to avoiding any exclusion but also to preventing any labelling that goes against people’s right to self-identification.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0047", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "As recognized in the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, persons with disabilities are not a homogeneous group, but rather a very internally diverse one, as is the case with persons affected by leprosy and their family members. Fluidity is at the heart of the preamble to the Convention, in which it is affirmed that disability is an evolving concept. However, binary definitions of “disabled” and “non-disabled” that do not recognize disability as a dynamic and evolving experience in people’s lives are largely dominant.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0048", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "It is affirmed in article 1 of the Convention that persons with disabilities include those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others, thereby not restricting coverage to any person. Such definition accommodates family members of persons affected by leprosy who self-identify as persons with psychosocial disabilities owing to stigmatization and discrimination on the ground of leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0049", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "When asked what daily activities were more challenging in people’s lives, 26 per cent of the specific group of persons affected by leprosy who responded to the questionnaire referred to mobility issues; 19 per cent referred to personal daily activities such as bathing and changing clothes; 18 per cent referred to kitchen work; 14 per cent referred to difficulties in getting to work, performing heavy work and working; 11 per cent referred to holding and picking up objects; and 12 per cent referred to housekeeping activities. Nevertheless, 54 per cent did not receive any support or State benefits, nor did 73 per cent of family members of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0050", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "A total of 36 per cent of persons affected by leprosy mentioned not being recognized as a person with disabilities by doctors as a barrier to disability-related protection, while 32 per cent said that they did not know about any possible benefits and another 32 per cent complained about the absence of any benefit. Medical jurisdiction over the assessment of disability and a lack of information seem to be the major barriers at work with regard to access to disability-related social protection.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0051", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "In total, 61 per cent of persons affected by leprosy reported having been discriminated against on the ground of their impairments, as did 57 per cent of family members of persons affected by leprosy. The Special Rapporteur has extensively documented discrimination on the ground of leprosy, which ranges from interpersonal to structural and institutionalized violence, and has also detailed the specific patterns of discrimination perpetrated against women and children affected by leprosy.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "A/HRC/41/47."}], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0052", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "The Special Rapporteur believes that it is important to signal in the present report that not only are persons with disabilities a diverse group of people, but that their problems and needs may also differ from those of other persons with disabilities, which emphasizes the importance of recognizing diversity and consulting all groups of persons with disabilities. Specific examples involving issues such as reasonable accommodation, deinstitutionalization and the disabling effects of institutionalized and structural discrimination and violence in family members follow:\n(a) As previously mentioned, the majority of persons affected by leprosy have been pushed out of the formal economy and into poverty and extreme poverty. The majority work in the informal economy and have been systematically denied the rights to decent work and social protection, and they have also been voiceless in social dialogue and other decision-making processes. Their sector of activity is mostly petty trade, agriculture, fishing and other manual activities. While reasonable accommodation, as described in article 2 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, and as provided for in article 27 of the Convention regarding the workplace, may not be an obligation of the State unless it relates to public employment, but rather of the employer, it is still the responsibility of the State to create the conditions for reasonable accommodation to be provided in all productive sectors and work arrangements. In this sense, States should be obliged to create mechanisms that can ensure reasonable accommodation to own-account workers and to people working in agriculture, husbandry, fishing and other physical labour, as is the case for many persons who have experienced leprosy. The latter face several barriers to their enjoyment of the right to education, and this pushes them into performing manual labour, which, owing to nerve damage caused by leprosy, can aggravate physical impairments and chronic pain. Importantly, women, who bear the brunt of unpaid care and household work, often lack rest periods, self-care and assistive devices that are essential to their well-being. The right to reasonable accommodation should, as such, be mainstreamed into relevant government programmes, such as those related to gender, agriculture and the rural population. Furthermore, the provision of reasonable accommodation should take into consideration not only visible physical impairments related to leprosy, but also invisible ones, such as pain or loss of sensation, as well as psychosocial disabilities related to stigmatization;\n(b) The majority of people who were forcibly segregated into what have become globally known as leprosy colonies (there are nearly 2,000 such colonies active in the world) and their descendants do not enjoy property rights over the land where they were once confined, and this situation aggravates poverty. Notably, these places have become, for many people, their home and their descendants’ home. As such, article 19 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities should be interpreted in the light of guideline 5 of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. It is affirmed in the guideline that States should promote the enjoyment of the same rights for persons affected by leprosy and their family members as for everyone else, allowing their full inclusion and participation in the community, but also that States should allow any persons affected by leprosy and their family members who were once forcibly isolated by State policies to continue to live in the places that have become their homes, if they so desire. States should also improve living conditions in those places. The Special Rapporteur has received worrying reports of cases of forced eviction from former leprosy colonies. Such colonies should come under the protection of housing rights, as provided for in article 11 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and land and property should be regulated in order to guarantee ownership of property and land to persons affected by leprosy and their descendants, if they so desire;\n(c) For many family members of persons affected by leprosy, discrimination on the ground of leprosy has a severe impact on their enjoyment of opportunities on an equal basis with others, and stigmatization also affects their mental health and well-being. In the case of some family members, moreover, human rights violations have been equally perpetrated against them on the ground of leprosy. This is the case for the children and family members who experienced separation from their parents and segregation from society. In Brazil, it is reported that approximately 16,000 children were separated from their parents as a result of the segregation policy; they were sent to institutions known as preventoriums between the 1920s and the 1980s. There are also reports of illegal adoptions and even executions.[[fn:16]] As a result of these violations, many of these people currently do not have access to an adequate standard of living and economic autonomy, and many suffer from psychosocial disorders and disabilities that impair their rehabilitation and inclusion in society. In accordance, they should be guaranteed remedies and reparation for the damages they have suffered owing to the compulsory isolation of their biological parents and the abuse and violence that they suffered within State facilities.", "labels": ["Children", "Internally displaced persons", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons living in rural/remote areas", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Pedro Pulzatto Peruzzo and others, “Contribuição para o relatório temático da relatora especial das Nações Unidas para a eliminação da discriminação contra as pessoas atingidas pela hanseníase e seus familiares ao Conselho de Direitos Humanos da ONU”, Revista de Direitos Humanos e Desenvolvimento Social, vol. 2 (2021)."}], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0053", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "An important element of enjoying dignity, which is a core human rights principle, relates to people’s power to choose how they are identified and referred to. As part of their struggle against dehumanization, people who were stigmatized on the basis of leprosy rejected both discriminatory and medical terminology, preferring the expression “persons affected by leprosy” (which came to be employed by the Human Rights Council in its resolution 35/9) to refer to individuals currently under treatment for leprosy and individuals who had been cured of leprosy. That expression was adopted by representatives of the people’s organizations as an important step towards self-identification. Nevertheless, recent developments are leading to an increasing use of the alternative terminology “persons who have experienced leprosy” by the people’s organizations and to a rejection of the term “leprosy” altogether in favour of the term “Hansen’s disease”. The Special Rapporteur included in her questionnaire two questions on issues of terminology, to be answered only by persons affected by leprosy. In total, 82 per cent of the respondents preferred terms such as “Hansen’s disease”, while 66 per cent would rather use the expression “persons affected by Hansen’s disease”, compared with 34 per cent who preferred to use “persons who have experienced Hansen’s disease”. While no definite conclusions can be drawn from these results, they certainly point to a large majority of people preferring “Hansen’s disease” over “leprosy”, and to the need for a wider discussion at the national level, but also within WHO, on terminology.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Terminology"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0054", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "While progress made in the elaboration of norms at the national level that recognize equality for persons with disabilities is well known, States must do more to effectively implement the provisions of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, given the fact that, in practice, the implementation of such norms reproduces paternalistic approaches that largely fail to promote systemic change. By the same token, recognition of the diversity of persons with disabilities is limited, and more marginalized groups of persons with disabilities, such as persons affected by leprosy and their family members, are overlooked in national policymaking. Issues that demand much more attention from policymakers include those surrounding the definition and assessment of disability, the removal of institutionalized and extra-institutional barriers hindering access to rights, the relationship between poverty and disability, the provision of remedies and reparation, and the establishment of specific measures with proper budget allocations that can promote active and participatory citizenship.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0055", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "In order for States to develop and implement leprosy-inclusive disability laws and policies, the Special Rapporteur recommends that they adopt and implement the measures set out below.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0056", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "In general, States should:\n(a) Ratify both the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and its Optional Protocol, if they have not already done so;\n(b) Establish a framework to promote and monitor the implementation of the Convention that recognizes persons affected by leprosy and their family members as persons with multiple disabilities and that duly takes guidance from the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members as a road map that clarifies the normative content of legally binding international human rights instruments in the specific context of the systemic and structural violation of the human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members;\n(c) Make use of a concept of disability that is in line with the Convention and guarantee that recognition of rights holders is not dependent on medical criteria and assessment, but rather is based on encompassing standards that acknowledge the disabling effect of discrimination, integrate self-identification and accommodate the complexity and fluidity of people’s experiences and identities; review administrative procedures for gaining access to disability rights and benefits and guarantee their accessibility; and ensure that persons affected by leprosy, their family members and representative organizations are fully involved in such a reform.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0057", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "With regard to equality and non-discrimination, States should:\n(a) Review, amend, repeal or abolish all laws, regulations, ordinances, resolutions and policies that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy and deny them the enjoyment of rights on an equal basis with others at both the national and subnational levels of government;\n(b) Duly ensure civil and political rights for persons affected by leprosy and their family members, including owning national identity cards, voting and standing in elections and holding public office; develop and enact comprehensive affirmative measures as a means of correcting historical and structural disadvantage, in line with general recommendation No. 25 (2004) of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, in which the Committee affirms that the duration of a temporary special measure should be determined by its functional result in response to a concrete problem and not by a predetermined passage of time; ensure that affirmative measures are defined in consultation with persons affected by leprosy, their family members and representative organizations; and ensure that affirmative measures come with targets and key performance indicators, as well as effective enforcement mechanisms and remedies;\n(c) Strengthen the protection of persons affected by leprosy and their family members against violence and abuse by prohibiting discrimination on the ground of leprosy and extending that prohibition to the private and public spheres, as well as by establishing inclusive and accessible victim support services;\n(d) Recognize and enforce housing and property rights for persons affected by leprosy who were forcibly segregated into leprosy colonies, and ensure the same rights for second-generation and third-generation family members.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0058", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "With regard to awareness-raising and access to information, States should:\n(a) Increase knowledge in all parts of society, including among State officials and public servants working in different areas of the State Administration, particularly in health care, education, labour and justice, as well as in the private sector, about updated scientific evidence on leprosy and on the rights to non-discrimination and equality for persons affected by leprosy and their family members;\n(b) Implement awareness-raising programmes that are sensitive to culture, language, gender, age and disability and that are developed in close collaboration with organizations of persons affected by leprosy, in order to ensure both accessibility and efficacy; address barriers created by the digital divide and invest in community media in order to reach as many people as possible; raise awareness among community leaders, traditional leaders and healers, religious leaders, local pharmacists, and schoolteachers with regard to leprosy and engage them in further awareness-raising; and reinforce the positive image of persons affected by leprosy and their family members as rights holders;\n(c) Translate the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, as well as the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and its Optional Protocol, together with national legal and regulatory frameworks designed to implement those instruments, into the local languages, and disseminate them widely in accessible formats.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0059", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "With regard to health and rehabilitation, States should:\n(a) Strengthen universal health coverage, ensuring the universality of access in both rural and urban areas, through public services, which should be culturally appropriate, gender-sensitive, age-friendly and disability-friendly; and build the capacity of the health-care workforce on the human rights model of disability, as well as on the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members;\n(b) Guarantee habilitation and rehabilitation programmes for persons affected by leprosy and their family members; guarantee to persons affected by leprosy and their family members access to mental health-care services on the basis of a recovery-based paradigm and through services that are ethical, respectful, culturally appropriate, gender-sensitive and empowering to individuals; provide, free of charge, assistive devices for protection and assistive devices for the facilitation of activities of daily life; partner with organizations of persons affected by leprosy to strengthen peer-to-peer counselling and family-based counselling; and extend counselling and support to family members of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0060", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "With regard to decent work and employment, States should: prevent and address discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members at the workplace; implement a gender approach to article 27 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities that fights the intersection of gender with disability and affirms the rights of women with disabilities to an inclusive education, vocational training, decent work and equal remuneration; guarantee the transition of persons affected by leprosy and their family members from the informal economy to the formal economy, and open social dialogue to organized groups of persons with disabilities, including persons affected by leprosy, working in the informal economy; fulfil accessibility and reasonable accommodation rights in all productive sectors and work arrangements, including agriculture, husbandry and fishing; and recognize visible physical impairments related to leprosy for the provision of reasonable accommodation, as well as invisible ones such as pain or loss of sensation, and psychosocial disabilities related to stigmatization.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0061", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "With regard to social protection, States should: review the qualification requirements for social protection to ensure access for persons with invisible and psychosocial impairments, as well as for persons with disabilities living in poverty, recognizing the additional costs of disability; and ensure a universal basic income for persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0062", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "With regard to guaranteeing the right to access to justice and the right to an effective remedy, States should: ensure that accessible mechanisms are in place for filing complaints of rights violations and that legal procedures include gender-sensitive and age-appropriate accommodations for persons with disabilities, including persons with invisible and psychosocial impairments; provide training and awareness-raising for public officers and the judiciary on leprosy-related discrimination and to organizations of persons affected by leprosy on how to bring complaints and access justice; put in place an independent mechanism in line with the principles relating to the status of national institutions for the promotion and protection of human rights (the Paris Principles) to monitor the implementation of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, together with a consultative mechanism for systematic consultations with persons with disabilities that is inclusive of persons affected by leprosy, their family members and their representative organizations.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0063", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "With regard to data collection, States should: ensure the full recognition of persons affected by leprosy and their family members in disability-related data collection, which should also include disaggregation not only by demographic, environmental, socioeconomic and cultural variables, but also by the various grounds of discrimination recognized in international human rights law, and respect for the principles of participation and privacy; and guarantee analysis and dissemination of disaggregated data across all sectors, in close cooperation with organizations of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0064", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also recommends that intergovernmental agencies use leprosy as a case study to fill the evidence gap on the relationship between disability and poverty; review the definition of leprosy-related disabilities in line with the human rights model; recognize the diversity of persons with disabilities; and ensure leprosy inclusiveness in intergovernmental agencies and human rights monitoring mechanisms when addressing disability-related issues.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0001", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "In the present report, the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, Alice Cruz, focuses on States’ obligations to protect persons affected by leprosy (also known as Hansen’s disease) and their family members from discrimination. At her discretion as an expert on the matter, she henceforth refers to Hansen’s disease instead of leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0002", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "More precisely, the Special Rapporteur discusses how the provisions of international human rights law and jurisprudence from international human rights monitoring mechanisms bind States to develop and enact both general and specific anti-discrimination legal frameworks in order to fulfil their positive obligations to protect all persons, and especially those in more disadvantaged situations, from discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0003", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "With this report, which is also her final report to the General Assembly, the Special Rapporteur closes a discussion on legal frameworks that started with her report about discrimination in law against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members (A/76/148) and was followed by her report on legal frameworks for guaranteeing disability rights to persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members (A/77/139).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0004", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "In her final report to the Human Rights Council, the Special Rapporteur identifies the development of guidance on anti-discrimination legislation, policies and programmes as important tasks to be included in the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. The present report partially undertakes such a task by focusing on providing guidance on the anti-discrimination legal framework. The Special Rapporteur would like to remind States that she already presented a report that contains a policy framework for rights-based action plans to the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/44/46).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0005", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "With nearly six years’ experience as a special procedure mandate holder, the Special Rapporteur is convinced that the mere fulfilment of States’ negative obligations not to discriminate against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members is insufficient to properly address human rights violations, discrimination and unequal access to opportunities and results for this extremely marginalized and historically ostracized group of people. In order to truly eliminate discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease, States must take positive steps to both protect those who are discriminated against on such grounds and fulfil their rights. To that end, the Special Rapporteur strongly recommends that the relevant States elaborate and enact anti-discrimination legal frameworks, together with affirmative measures that can correct the historical and persistent disadvantage endured by this group of people and which results from systemic discrimination against them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0006", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "In the present report, the Special Rapporteur only addresses anti-discrimination legal frameworks. Given that the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, of which the General Assembly took note in its resolution 65/215, already provided guidance on the material scope of protection from discrimination, that is to say, the areas of life in which persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members should be duly protected from discrimination, which are also the areas more relevant for the implementation of affirmative measures, the Special Rapporteur will not address the material scope of anti-discrimination legal frameworks in the present report. She urges States to use the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members as a road map for monitoring the situation of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members, as well as for implementing measures that, by enforcing international human rights law, can guarantee formal and substantive equality for them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0007", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur discusses the importance of guaranteeing the right to participation to persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in amending existing laws, as well as in designing, implementing and evaluating new laws. As outlined in her final report to the Human Rights Council, there is more knowledge today about discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease (A/HRC/53/30). Systematic empirical data collected by the Special Rapporteur over the years confirms the vision she outlined in her first report to the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/38/42), in which she affirmed that discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease should be approached and tackled using an intersectional lens. Accordingly, she offers basic guidance in the present report on how to design an anti-discrimination law with an intersectional perspective. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur also analyses the legal frameworks of the 23 global priority countries identified by the World Health Organization (WHO) as priority countries for action on Hansen’s disease, identifying a considerable gap in both general anti-discrimination legislation and that which is specific to Hansen’s disease.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0008", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "While the principle of non-discrimination is recognized in many constitutions, it is less often translated into policymaking and subsequent programmes and strategies. In addition, budget allocation for anti-discrimination policies is rarely sufficient to meet their goals. That is why the Special Rapporteur starts by examining the provisions and jurisprudence with which States parties should comply. After which, she provides basic guidance on the protected grounds that should be present in any anti-discrimination law specific to Hansen’s disease. The guidance provided by the Special Rapporteur is essentially generic, mainly because both the personal and the material scope of protection should be duly detailed in full accordance with the reality of national and subnational local contexts. To that end, persons affected by Hansen’s disease, their family members and their representative organizations must be recognized as experts by experience and their right to participate in all matters that concern their lives duly guaranteed. The fact that, in most countries, oversight institutions fail to monitor discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease and that States are usually highly inefficient in collecting data that can inform anti-discrimination evidence-based policies related to Hansen’s disease, illustrates why the participation of concerned groups is essential to the design, implementation and evaluation of any anti-discrimination law specific to Hansen’s disease.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0009", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "In the present report, anti-discrimination laws refer to a set of norms and rules, which may include national laws, but also other subnational, regional and international normative instruments. They put forward a set of norms and rules aimed at fighting back and eliminating discrimination. The set of rules may comprise: (a) constitutional provisions, as constitutions can contain fundamental rights provisions that affirm equality and prohibit discrimination, in line with international treaties and conventions; (b) international human rights law, as many States are legally bound by regional human rights frameworks, as well as by treaties, conventions and the supervisory bodies of the United Nations system; (c) guidelines from intergovernmental organizations, in the case of the European Union, for example, protection against discrimination is expressed in both European Union law and the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union; (d) specific anti-discrimination laws that provide for the prohibition of discrimination with regard to specific groups, specific grounds, specific areas or themes and specific structural barriers; and (e) comprehensive anti-discrimination laws that aim at eliminating all forms of discrimination and promote equality for all.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0010", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Anti-discrimination laws, in general, refer to perceived or actual characteristics of individuals and/or groups of people that should be considered protected grounds in order to address patterns of exclusion and social injustice against these same individuals and groups. Examples of protected grounds that may fall under the scope of anti-discrimination laws include, inter alia: age; birth; nationality; Indigenous origin; descent, including caste; language; colour; race; disability; economic status; ethnicity; genetic or other predisposition towards some illness; health status; marital status; maternity or paternity status; migrant status; minority status; political or other form of opinion and expression, including human rights defender status, trade union membership, or political affiliation; refugee status; religion or belief; sex and gender; and sexual orientation.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Migrants", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0011", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "An anti-discrimination law should take into consideration the different attitudes, behaviours and practices that must be prohibited in strict accordance with international human rights standards. Such attitudes, behaviours and practices may include, but are not limited to:[[fn:1]]\n(a) Direct discrimination, which occurs when in a similar situation, persons or groups are treated, through detrimental acts or omissions, differently owing to their perceived or actual characteristics and in such a way that creates unfavourable or disadvantageous situations for them;\n(b) Indirect discrimination, which occurs when seemingly neutral norms or practices are applied in an such a way that denies, in practice, access to what seemed to be equal opportunities and/or causes a disproportionate and unfavourable impact on certain persons or groups;\n(c) Harassment, which occurs when a hostile, offensive, degrading or humiliating environment is actively generated in order to target certain persons or groups;\n(d) Denial of reasonable accommodation, meaning that a disproportionate and undue burden is imposed on certain persons and groups as a result of the denial and/or absence of modifications, adjustments or support that would have been necessary for these same persons and groups to enjoy the same rights on an equal basis with others;\n(e) Segregation, which occurs when persons and groups are subjected to separation from mainstream society and denied equal and fair access to environments, institutions, goods and services owing to their perceived or actual characteristics;\n(f) Victimization, which occurs when persons or groups who filed complaints about discriminatory practices or claimed for the rightful application of provisions on equality and non-discrimination are treated in an adverse and undignified manner with significant psychosocial consequences.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Protecting Minority Rights: A Practical Guide to Developing Comprehensive Anti-Discrimination Legislation (United Nations publication, 2023). See also Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 6 (2018) on equality and non-discrimination, para. 20."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0012", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "As can be found in both the thematic and country reports of the Special Rapporteur, persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members continue to suffer from direct and indirect discrimination, harassment, denial of reasonable accommodation, and victimization, as well as interpersonal and structural violence. It is the view of the Special Rapporteur that violence should be added to the list of forms of discrimination, since it is too often the consequence of discrimination, in the case of interpersonal violence, but also the root cause of discrimination, as in the case of structural violence. The Special Rapporteur has simultaneously detailed and elaborated on all these forms of discrimination and violence, as they are still experienced by persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their families, in her reports, and for that reason will neither detail nor elaborate on the same issues in the present report. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur has identified a major gap in the provision of remedies and reparations for present and past human rights violations against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members, while oversight institutions do not monitor discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease. The foregoing considerations duly justify the need to enact anti-discrimination legal frameworks specific to Hansen’s disease, especially in endemic countries.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0013", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Any anti-discrimination law should also recognize that discrimination can result either from perception or association. In other words, people can be excluded by reason of being either identified as having certain characteristics or associated with persons or groups that are perceived as having those same characteristics. This is particularly important for the specific case of family members of persons affected by Hansen’s disease, who many times suffer the same patterns of exclusion as the latter. Furthermore, such a law should consider multiple forms of discrimination, that is, discrimination based on more than one ground or resulting from the interaction of different grounds of discrimination which give rise to specific situations of disadvantage, exclusion, discrimination and violence. The law should include provisions for the enactment of specific affirmative measures aimed at guaranteeing de facto equality for the persons and groups protected under the same legal framework. Lastly, the protection provided by anti-discrimination laws should take into consideration a personal scope (the protected grounds) and a material scope (the areas of life to be protected).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0014", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The Human Rights Committee expressly affirms that: “Non-discrimination, together with equality before the law and equal protection of the law without any discrimination, constitute a basic and general principle relating to the protection of human rights.”[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 18 (1989) on non-discrimination, para. 1."}], "section": ["II. The principle of non-discrimination in the framework of international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0015", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Equality and non-discrimination, besides being fundamental principles of international human rights law, are essential to the enforcement of the rights provided for in international treaties and conventions. In article 2 (2) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, it is stipulated that each State party must “undertake to guarantee that the rights enunciated in the present Covenant will be exercised without discrimination of any kind as to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status”. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights clarifies that non-discrimination is an immediate and cross-cutting obligation in the Covenant. Under article 2 (2) States parties must ensure “non-discrimination in the exercise of each of the economic, social and cultural rights” and must also ensure the application of these rights in combination with non-discrimination. According to the Committee, “discrimination constitutes any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference or other differential treatment that is directly or indirectly based on the prohibited grounds of discrimination and which has the intention or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of Covenant rights. Discrimination also includes incitement to discriminate and harassment”.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 20 (2009) on non-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights (art. 2, para. 2 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), para. 7."}], "section": ["II. The principle of non-discrimination in the framework of international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0016", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "In article 26 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights it is stated that “all persons are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to the equal protection of the law. In this respect, the law shall prohibit any discrimination and guarantee to all persons equal and effective protection against discrimination”. The Human Rights Committee reinforces that the right to non-discrimination provided for in article 26 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights constitutes an autonomous right. In article 26, “obligations imposed on States parties in regard to their legislation and the application thereof” are established and that it is up to those States to ensure that the content of their legislation is non-discriminatory. Furthermore, the application of the principle of non-discrimination contained in article 26 is not limited to those rights which are provided for in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.[[fn:4]] The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights further establish the equal treatment of men and women in their article 3: “the States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to ensure the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment” of the rights set forth in the respective Covenants.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 18 (1989), para. 12."}], "section": ["II. The principle of non-discrimination in the framework of international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0017", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Considering the need for the elimination of discrimination on specific grounds, specific instruments have been created, which include, for example, the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. According to article 5 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the duty to prohibit and eliminate racial discrimination in all its forms and to guarantee the right of everyone to equality before the law should be ensured through a minimum set of specific rights, which span from civil and political to economic, social and cultural rights. Similar provisions can be found in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. The principle of non-discrimination in the framework of international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0018", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "According to article 5 (2) of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, “States Parties shall prohibit all discrimination on the basis of disability and guarantee to persons with disabilities equal and effective legal protection against discrimination on all grounds.” According to the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, article 5 brings with it a set of obligations, namely “obligations to prohibit all discrimination on the basis of disability [including] persons with disabilities and their associates … [and] the obligation to guarantee to persons with disabilities equal and effective legal protection”. The Committee further notes that “persons with disabilities will not be granted more or fewer rights or benefits than the general population” and “States parties should take concrete specific measures to achieve de facto equality for persons with disabilities to ensure that they can in fact enjoy all human rights and fundamental freedoms”.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 6 (2018), para. 17."}], "section": ["II. The principle of non-discrimination in the framework of international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0019", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "More examples of this commitment to assert the obligation of States to equality and non-discrimination can be found in other international human rights instruments. A few examples are: the Convention on the Rights of the Child (art. 2 (1)) and the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (art. 1 (1)).", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. The principle of non-discrimination in the framework of international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0020", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "As a result of their obligations under international treaties and conventions, States are responsible for adopting all the necessary administrative, legislative and judicial measures to implement and enforce the rights set forth in those instruments and to respect, protect and fulfil human rights, as well as to provide remedies for their violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0021", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The obligation to respect is a negative obligation. It refers to the duty of States to refrain from discriminating, whether through laws, policies, practices or the attitudes of its officials. On the one hand, there is the State’s commitment to refrain from any kind of discriminatory act or the promotion of any kind of discriminatory legislation, policy, programme or initiative, whether in its objective or in its result. On the other hand, this obligation refers to the State’s commitment to amend, repeal or abolish any rules that have either the objective or lead to a result that produces and/or maintains discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0022", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "As a negative obligation, the obligation to respect relates to preventing persons affected by Hansen’s disease from suffering abuses by the State itself and by its public authorities. In this sense, international human rights treaties establish States’ primary obligation not to discriminate against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members. They also hold States responsible in cases where public authorities are the ones perpetrating acts of discrimination. This obligation concerns laws, as well as the activities that States undertake to implement or enforce them. As thoroughly documented by the Special Rapporteur, States continue to formally discriminate against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members, while institutionalized discrimination against this group of people also endures, especially on the part of public servants with insufficient knowledge in relation to Hansen’s disease in several State services, such as education, employment, social protection and justice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0023", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The obligation to respect the rights of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members binds States to refrain from interfering directly or indirectly with these individuals’ enjoyment and exercise of their civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. States must ensure that their actions do not impair the enjoyment and exercise of any rights, either through direct or indirect discrimination. This duty includes the obligation to abolish or repeal discriminatory laws against persons affected by Hansen’s disease that are still in force. By the same token, States must ensure that all public authorities and institutions eliminate discriminatory policies, measures and practices on the grounds of Hansen’s disease.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0024", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "The obligation to respect also concerns States’ obligation not to discriminate against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in functions and activities where there are responsibilities to be assumed by public authorities and institutions, such as: celebrations and rules related to marriage and divorce; decisions on parental authority; the production of identification documents; the granting of citizenship; access to public schools and training programmes; and the language used by State bodies and in official documents.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0025", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "The obligation to protect persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members from discrimination should be understood as requiring States to take measures to prevent third parties from interfering with these individuals’ ability to exercise their rights. Hence, it will not be enough for the State to limit itself to merely not discriminating against this group of people. States must take all the necessary measures to ensure that the principle of non-discrimination is implemented and guaranteed by all, including private actors. Therefore, States have a positive obligation to fight discrimination in the various areas of life, extending to customary practices based on local and world religions, which, as previously mapped by the Special Rapporteur, continue to be the source of discriminatory attitudes towards persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members.[[fn:6]] This positive obligation requires the adoption of specific legal and policy measures, including legislation. The duty of the relevant States to adopt anti-discrimination legislation specific to Hansen’s disease is therefore implicit in this positive obligation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See A/76/148."}], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0026", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "States must ensure that private organizations, companies, establishments and services eliminate discriminatory measures and practices towards persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members. This obligation includes the responsibility to enact and enforce legislation that prohibits discriminatory acts, which includes interpersonal discrimination, institutionalized discrimination and systemic discrimination, as well as any discriminatory acts perpetrated by third parties that may restrict the equal access of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members to services, facilities, transportation and educational and employment opportunities. States are also responsible for ensuring that acts of violence committed against this group of people are duly investigated and punished.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0027", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "In addition, it is also the responsibility of States to fulfil de facto the rights to equality and non-discrimination. Guaranteeing these rights in practice requires that deliberate and purposeful concrete steps are taken to ensure that the structural disadvantage and violence experienced by persons who are structurally discriminated against, like individuals affected by Hansen’s disease, are duly addressed. This positive obligation includes developing and implementing evidence-based public policies, plans, programmes and strategies, for which systematic data collection is essential and must include disaggregation, not only by demographic, environmental, socioeconomic and cultural variables, but also by the various grounds of discrimination recognized in international human rights law, and must respect the principles of participation and privacy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0028", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Likewise, the provision of remedies for ongoing human rights violations, as well as reparation measures provided within the framework of transitional justice for past violations perpetrated by States in the name of public health, are fundamental to ensuring that society as a whole commits to the principles of fairness, equality and non-discrimination, and also to promoting free and fair societies.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See A/HRC/44/46."}], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0029", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "With respect to positive obligations to develop and implement policies, programmes and strategies for eliminating discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease, the Special Rapporteur recommends that States adopt her policy framework for rights-based action plans[[fn:8]] as guidance, which focuses on four main areas: adequate standard of living and economic autonomy; non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community; elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory; and empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0030", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "Within the scope of their competence, the treaty bodies have reinforced the duty of States to take concrete measures to ensure the right to non-discrimination. The Human Rights Committee, in its general comment No. 18 (1989) on non-discrimination, states that “It is for the States parties to determine appropriate measures to implement 6 See A/76/148. 7 See A/HRC/44/46. 8 Ibid. the relevant provisions. However, the Committee is to be informed about the nature of such measures and their conformity with the principles of non-discrimination and equality before the law, and equal protection of the law.” The Human Rights Committee called the attention of States parties to the fact that the Covenant sometimes expressly requires them to take measures to guarantee the equality of rights of the persons concerned. Such steps may take the form of legislative, administrative or other measures.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 18 (1989), paras. 4 and 5."}], "section": ["IV. The duty of enacting anti-discrimination legal frameworks, as provided for in the jurisprudence of the treaty bodies"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0031", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "In its general comment No. 20 (2009) on non-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights establishes that, in addition to refraining from discriminatory actions, States parties should take concrete, deliberate and targeted measures to ensure that discrimination in the exercise of Covenant rights is eliminated. The adoption of legislation to address discrimination is indispensable. States parties are therefore encouraged to adopt specific legislation that prohibits discrimination in the field of economic, social and cultural rights. Such laws should aim at eliminating formal and substantive discrimination, attribute obligations to public and private actors and cover the prohibited grounds.[[fn:10]] The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights further reinforces the importance of involving groups targeted by discrimination in decision-making processes regarding anti-discrimination measures to be taken by States parties, as well as the obligation to monitor the effectiveness of such measures: “Individuals and groups of individuals, who may be distinguished by one or more of the prohibited grounds, should be ensured the right to participate in decision-making processes over the selection of such measures. States parties should regularly assess whether the measures chosen are effective in practice.”[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 20 (2009), paras. 36 and 37."}, {"n": 11, "text": "Ibid., para. 36."}], "section": ["IV. The duty of enacting anti-discrimination legal frameworks, as provided for in the jurisprudence of the treaty bodies"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0032", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "In its general comment No. 6 (2018) on equality and non-discrimination, the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities provides guidance on the adoption of anti-discrimination laws that are based on the human rights of persons with disabilities. The Committee establishes the positive obligation of States to protect persons with disabilities from discrimination, which implies enacting comprehensive and specific anti-discrimination laws. The Committee further stresses the importance of creating effective responses to make anti-discrimination legislation effective. According to the Committee:\n“Equal and effective legal protection against discrimination” means that States parties have positive obligations to protect persons with disabilities from discrimination, with an obligation to enact specific and comprehensive anti-discrimination legislation. The explicit legal prohibition of disability-based and other discrimination against persons with disabilities in legislation should be accompanied by the provision of appropriate and effective legal remedies and sanctions in relation to intersectional discrimination in civil, administrative and criminal proceedings. Where the discrimination is of a systemic nature, the mere granting of compensation to an individual may not have any real effect in terms of changing the approach. In those cases, States parties should also implement “forward-looking, non-pecuniary remedies” in their legislation, meaning that further effective protection against discrimination carried out by private parties and organizations is provided by the State party.[[fn:12]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 6 (2018), para. 22."}], "section": ["IV. The duty of enacting anti-discrimination legal frameworks, as provided for in the jurisprudence of the treaty bodies"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0033", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "In discussing the implementation of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities at the national level, the Committee on the Rights of Persons with 9 See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 18 (1989), paras. 4 and 5. 10 Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 20 (2009), paras. 36 and 37. 11 Ibid., para. 36. 12 Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 6 (2018), para. 22. 12/22 Disabilities explicitly highlights the State’s obligations to enact anti-discrimination legislation. The Committee reinforces the importance of ensuring that the legislation has a broad personal and material scope, provides for legal remedies and has a broad definition of impairment-related disability, indicating that States parties should: Develop anti-discrimination laws where they do not exist and enact disabilityinclusive anti-discrimination laws that have a broad personal and material scope and provide effective legal remedies.… Ensure that non-discrimination legislation extends to the private and public spheres, covers areas including education, employment, goods and services, and tackles disability-specific discrimination, such as segregated education, institutionalization, denial or restriction of legal capacity, forced mental health treatment, denial of the provision of sign language instructions and professional sign language interpretation, and denial of Braille or other alternative and augmentative modes, means and formats of communication.[[fn:13]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Ibid., para. 73 (b) and (c)."}], "section": ["IV. The duty of enacting anti-discrimination legal frameworks, as provided for in the jurisprudence of the treaty bodies"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0034", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "Women’s right to non-discrimination is the pillar of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women stresses the comprehensive nature of State obligations to ensure non-discrimination against women in its general recommendation No. 28 (2010) on the core obligations of States parties under article 2 of the Convention:\nStates parties must address all aspects of their legal obligations under the Convention to respect, protect and fulfil women’s right to non-discrimination and to the enjoyment of equality. The obligation to respect requires that States parties refrain from making laws, policies, regulations, programmes, administrative procedures and institutional structures that directly or indirectly result in the denial of the equal enjoyment by women of their civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. The obligation to protect requires that States parties protect women from discrimination by private actors and take steps directly aimed at eliminating customary and all other practices that prejudice and perpetuate the notion of inferiority or superiority of either of the sexes, and of stereotyped roles for men and women. The obligation to fulfil requires that States parties take a wide variety of steps to ensure that women and men enjoy equal rights de jure and de facto, including, where appropriate, the adoption of temporary special measures … This entails obligations of means or conduct and obligations of results. States parties should consider that they have to fulfil their legal obligations to all women through designing public policies, programmes and institutional frameworks that are aimed at fulfilling the specific needs of women leading to the full development of their potential on an equal basis with men.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 28 (2010) on the core obligations of States parties under article 2 of the Convention, para. 9."}], "section": ["IV. The duty of enacting anti-discrimination legal frameworks, as provided for in the jurisprudence of the treaty bodies"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0035", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "It is clear that the jurisprudence of the treaty bodies clearly affirms the positive obligation of States to develop and enact anti-discrimination legal frameworks as part of the measures they must take to enforce the core human rights principle of non-discrimination and guarantee the universality of human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The duty of enacting anti-discrimination legal frameworks, as provided for in the jurisprudence of the treaty bodies"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0036", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Anti-discrimination legal frameworks in the 23 WHO global priority countries for action on Hansen’s disease were examined in order to understand whether or not Hansen’s disease is included in comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and if there are any anti-discrimination laws in place with provisions specific to Hansen’s disease. This exercise aims at supporting the relevant States in assessing the state of their positive obligations towards the protection of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members. It does not pretend to be an exhaustive exercise and the Special Rapporteur is always open to dialogue, in case some information was missed. The fact is that, over the years, the requests by the Special Rapporteur for Member States to provide input were quite often dismissed by the majority of States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0037", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "WHO global priority countries for action on Hansen’s disease are derived from a composite index using parameters such as prevalence, new case detection, the proportion of females and children affected, and irreversible physical impairments at the time of diagnosis. The 23 priority countries are: Angola, Bangladesh, Brazil, Comoros, Côte d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Micronesia (Federated States of), India, Indonesia, Kiribati, Madagascar, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Nigeria, Philippines, Somalia, South Sudan, Sri Lanka, Sudan and United Republic of Tanzania.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0038", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "It is important to note that Hansen’s disease also affects countries that are not among the 23 priority countries, especially in South America, Africa and Asia. One of the four pillars of the WHO global leprosy strategy 2021–2030 concerns combating stigma and ensuring that human rights are respected. In that regard, States should report to WHO annually on their efforts to combat stigma and ensure that the human rights of persons affected by Hansen’s disease are respected. The Special Rapporteur recommends that States make use of the standards she has developed over the years to: (a) define the criteria for assessing stigmatization and discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease; and (b) document good practices for combating both stigmatization and discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease with a view to sharing best practices among States.[[fn:15]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to thank the Global Leprosy Programme of WHO for the discussions on pillar IV of the global leprosy strategy 2021–2030 for the present report."}], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0039", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "All 23 countries have some constitutional provisions regarding the right to equality and non-discrimination, but very few translate such provisions into domestic law. According to the sources that were consulted,[[fn:16]] only Bangladesh has a comprehensive anti-discrimination law, which is still under discussion in the Parliament.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "United States, Department of State, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2022 and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, SIGI 2023 Global Report: Gender equality in times of crisis – Social and Institutions Gender Index (Paris, 2023)."}], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0040", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "The Special Rapporteur discussed the anti-discrimination bill of 2022, elaborated by the Law Commission of Bangladesh, in her country visit report and has specifically called upon the Government to include Hansen’s disease as a prohibited ground of discrimination in that bill.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See A/HRC/53/30/Add.2."}], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0041", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Other than the bill in Bangladesh, there is no information available about any comprehensive anti-discrimination law in any of the 22 remaining countries. Nevertheless, there are several examples of legal frameworks that address discrimination, although not in a comprehensive manner, but merely focusing on a few specific grounds of discrimination. Only one country, Brazil, enacted what might be considered an anti-discrimination law specific to Hansen’s disease, although its scope is extremely narrow, only prohibiting what the same law considers to be discriminatory language. The text in question is Law No. 9010/1995, which protects persons affected by Hansen’s disease from discriminatory language, by officially replacing the term leprosy with “hanseníase”.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0042", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "The research raised important concerns about the fact that, in many of these countries, there are provisions in force that either discriminate on certain grounds (the most frequent one being sexual orientation) or fail to fully protect some groups of people (such as women or persons with disabilities), which include persons affected by Hansen’s disease.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0043", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The obligation to not discriminate extends to all groups of people, without exception. Reservations to the provisions of international human rights instruments continue to act as a major barrier to enforcing human rights in accordance with the provisions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the principles endorsed by the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, which affirms that all human rights are universal, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0044", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "The presents analysis shows that non-discrimination, while being a core human rights principle, together with equality as one of the more fundamental pillars of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, is still far from being duly enforced.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0045", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "Existing laws and norms with non-discriminatory provisions should be reviewed and amended to include all grounds of discrimination, including Hansen’s disease. States must do more to comply with paragraph 32 of the Vienna Declaration, which reaffirms the importance of ensuring the universality, objectivity and non-selectivity of the consideration of human rights issues. Human rights are universal and must be enjoyed on a non-discriminatory basis by all people, including persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0046", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has continuously drawn attention to the centrality of the right of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members to participate in decision-making processes that affect them. This right is even more essential considering the multiple barriers faced by persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members to enjoying effective civic and political participation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0047", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "The principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members reiterate the need for full participation of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members, with autonomy, in all aspects of life. The same instrument emphasizes their right to defend their own interests in decisions about policies, programmes and other measures that directly involve them and have an impact on their lives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0048", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "The difficulties faced by excluded or underrepresented groups in exercising the right to participation include the following: outdated paternalistic approaches; harmful stereotypes; stigmatization; inaccessibility (physical, cultural, linguistic, infrastructural and informational); legal and administrative barriers (restrictions on their legal and political capacity); formal and informal segregation (in schools, workplaces and public institutions); and a lack of support.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0049", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The participation of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members should be fully ensured in any legislative process aimed at discussing anti-discrimination law or provisions, both general and specific to Hansen’s disease, for several reasons. First, their participation adds political legitimacy to such a law, while also increasing the chances of it being successfully implemented. Second, guaranteeing their involvement and participation ensures that the law will be passed by a parliament that has strived to be more inclusive in the decision-making process and that can therefore gain greater trust from society and also share responsibility with society for the implementation of the law. Third, in addition to the more obvious advantage of ensuring greater accountability and transparency in the law-making process, the effective participation of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members ensures that the text of the law truly speaks to their legitimate interests.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0050", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "Sherry Arnstein[[fn:18]] presented a sort of ladder for citizen participation, ranging from more elementary forms to more complex ones. Among the types of involvement and participation described by Arnstein, the following are emphasized:\n(a) Informing. This is a basic first step in ensuring participation, by informing citizens about their rights and responsibilities. The limitations of this step for participation are made evident in the fact that information is often given in one direction, without room for individual involvement in the issue or the power to intervene in it. On the other hand, it is common for lay people to feel intimidated by the technical nature of terms and procedures;\n(b) Consultation. Providing a space for citizens to give their opinion is a second important step for ensuring participation. It also has limitations, however, when there is no guarantee that these opinions will actually be taken into account. In practice, consultation often provides an abstract statistical number of meetings that have been held and the number of people involved, without being accompanied by effective mechanisms that can ensure that opinions and viewpoints are actually taken into consideration;\n(c) Placation. This occurs when some citizens are guaranteed a limited degree of influence in a process. An example of this might be when power-holders choose certain citizens, who are already aligned with them, to make up committees or working groups, merely to show that citizens have been involved in the process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Sherry R. Arnstein, “A ladder of citizen participation”, Journal of the American Institute of Planners, vol. 35, No. 4 (1969), pp. 216–224."}], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0051", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Informing, consultation and placation may very well be merely tokenistic strategies and, in the cases observed by the Special Rapporteur over the years regarding the participation of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members, in Governments, intergovernmental bodies and civil society organizations, they usually are.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0052", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "Increased degrees of actual influence on policymaking include the following:\n(a) Delegated power. Whereby public institutions, officials or administrators give up some degree of control, administration, decision-making authority or funding to be managed and administered by the citizens themselves, such as the administration of some community programmes;\n(b) Citizen control. Such that citizens effectively manage or have power over certain programmes or institutions. To have power means to make decisions about political and managerial aspects, and to have control over the conditions under which there can be a change in programmes or in the ways the institutions operate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0053", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "These categories are important for identifying the possible stages of citizen involvement in a legislative process responsible for drafting an anti-discrimination law. The passing of new laws and the monitoring of existing laws and programmes, that may have a discriminatory impact on persons affected by Hansen’s disease, are examples of opportunities for participation that should afford those persons meaningful capacity to influence decision-making, by making use of delegated power and citizen control.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0054", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "Another critical aspect in the promotion of participation by persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members is mentioned in the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Inarguably, there are several systemic barriers to the full and meaningful participation of marginalized groups, which persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their families often face. Such barriers include: illiteracy and low levels of educational qualifications; legal impediments; inaccessibility of administrative procedures and requirements; inaccessibility and unintelligibility of the information being provided; physical and environmental barriers; and the lack of support mechanisms for overcoming structural disadvantages that are reflected in unequal and unfair socioeconomic and education status.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0055", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "In article 29 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, with the acknowledgement of those multiple barriers, the obligation of States to actively promote enabling environments, ensuring equality and guarantees of the freedom of expression, accessibility, accommodation of procedures and support is affirmed. Accessibility is an indispensable condition for the fulfilment of the right to participation related to information, communication, infrastructure and transport.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0056", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "In order to strengthen the conditions under which participation can become effective, legislative bodies and other public agencies should make all efforts necessary to educate citizens and raise awareness about opportunities for their engagement in legislative activities, as well as provide incentives to encourage citizens to participate in the same legislative processes. According to ParlAmericas, examples of measures that can be adopted to encourage citizen participation in legislative processes are:[[fn:19]]\n(a) Awareness-raising programmes and campaigns. Parliaments can conduct awareness-raising campaigns to educate citizens as to the function of the parliament and expose them to existing participation mechanisms and/or promote participation in a specific process. Campaigns can also be launched in collaboration with civil society organizations;\n(b) Citizen participation offices and communications departments. A citizen participation office or communications department can have various mandates, from educating citizens regarding the role of the parliament to disseminating information on the work of the parliament and collecting direct input from citizens into the legislative process;\n(c) Parliamentary websites. As a hub of information, parliaments’ websites can include a section to educate citizens about their role, work and impact, as well as other explanations of the mechanisms through which citizens can participate in the legislative process;\n(d) Educational programmes for children and youth. Learning about the role and value of parliament at an early age can prepare children and youth to become politically active citizens. Such programmes can be virtual or in-person and include interactions with parliamentarians, games, simulations of parliamentary processes, prizes and interactive materials tailored to children and youth;\n(e) Meetings, public hearings and public forums. Meetings can be held to invite citizens to participate in a particular legislative process, and they can also be useful mechanisms to educate citizens regarding the role and functions of the parliament, explain the day-to-day impact of legislative issues on citizens’ lives and share how citizens can get involved;\n(f) Supporting the work of independent civil society organizations. Parliamentarians can contribute to building a strong and independent civil society by promoting and supporting the work of civil society organizations, including parliamentary monitoring organizations, by participating in their activities, contributing to their projects and encouraging citizens to work with them;\n(g) Incentives for participation. Parliaments can provide incentives to citizens to encourage their participation. These can include awards, prizes, public records of input or even providing online users with special benefits based on the frequency of their use of a particular participatory mechanism;\n(h) Media. Through its own parliamentary television and radio channels, collaboration with State-owned or private channels, online or printed newspapers, and new digital platforms such as video-sharing platforms and podcasts, the parliament can develop content to inform citizens of its role and functions and mechanisms that are available for citizens to participate in its work, as well as livestream its proceedings.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See ParlAmericas, Citizen Participation in the Legislative Process (Ottawa, 2018)."}], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0057", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "The steps set out in paragraph 56 above are some of the fundamental steps States should take to fully guarantee the right to participation on a non-discriminatory basis to citizens in general, but also to individuals entitled to the provisions of any anti-discrimination law to be drafted and enacted. Governments and parliamentarians have a duty to seek to be informed about discrimination and its impact on the people affected, to raise awareness among other public servants, members of the judiciary and law enforcement officers, to facilitate committees of parliamentarians aiming to promote good laws that advance the well-being and fundamental dignity of all and to call for a review of the legislation when needed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0058", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "Actions that could be taken by civil society organizations with a view to changing laws and enacting new ones include, but are not limited to: (a) building evidence with which to raise awareness among legislators and working with parliamentarians with a view to undertaking the necessary reforms; (b) strategic litigation undertaken by either individuals and organizations; and (c) advocating the holding of public consultations and referendums.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0059", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "As a rule, anti-discrimination law and jurisprudence focus on a single ground of discrimination. Human rights bodies, mechanisms and courts either concentrate on a sequential analysis of multiple grounds of discrimination, trying to separate the discrimination suffered on each ground, or strategically choose a ground of discrimination, taking into account the strongest evidence available about the concerned act of discrimination. In other situations, the grounds of discrimination are added up, and one ground is seen as aggravating the discrimination already enacted on another ground.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. An intersectional approach to anti-discrimination legal frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0060", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Sandra Fredman[[fn:20]] conceptualizes three categories of discriminations that occur on the basis of more than one ground: (a) sequential multiple discrimination, which occurs when a person suffers discrimination on different grounds on separate occasions; (b) additive multiple discrimination, which occurs when a person is discriminated against on the same occasion but in two different ways; and (c) intersectional discrimination, meaning discrimination that does not simply consist of the addition of two sources of discrimination. A specific and distinct form of discrimination results from the simultaneous combination of two or more discrimination grounds that operate synergistically.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "Sandra Fredman, Intersectional discrimination in EU gender equality and non-discrimination law (Luxembourg, European Union, 2016)."}], "section": ["VII. An intersectional approach to anti-discrimination legal frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0061", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "That was the original concept of intersectionality. It originated from the need to understand the discrimination against black women through an analysis that simultaneously encompassed gender and race. Intersectionality is not an additive approach. Accordingly, different categories do not accumulate, but interrelate in dynamic ways that always have a particular system of domination as a background. This means that intersectionality stands for the numerous effects that result from the intersection of distinct differential axes in specific historical contexts. It also means that different dimensions of social life cannot be artificially separated into pure phenomena.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. An intersectional approach to anti-discrimination legal frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0062", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "In practice, this means that discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease affects individuals in different ways according to their social status and capital, often by intersecting with gender-based discrimination, discrimination against children, discrimination against older people or disability-based discrimination, but also with other grounds, such as race, caste or social class. That concept is fully supported by the evidence collected for both the thematic and country reports of the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. An intersectional approach to anti-discrimination legal frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0063", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "In the case of persons affected by Hansen’s disease, the legal framework for anti-discrimination must adopt an intersectional perspective because the traditional rationale for addressing discrimination based on Hansen’s disease is based on a single-ground approach. That is one of the areas where the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members might be expanded. As affirmed by the Special Rapporteur in another report,[[fn:21]] while the aforementioned instrument has many strong points, discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease, especially as it is experienced by younger generations, calls for detailing the rights of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members under an expanding framework that aligns more closely with the comprehensive nature of core human rights instruments on civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, as well as with rights elaborated for groups historically discriminated against or in need of special protection, and with the jurisprudence elaborated by the human rights treaty bodies. This should be done through an intersectional approach to discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "A/HRC/53/30."}], "section": ["VII. An intersectional approach to anti-discrimination legal frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0064", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "Traditionally, persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members have been approached as victims of discrimination with what can be called an essentialist approach, meaning they have largely been seen as a homogeneous group that suffers from the same patterns of discrimination. The reality is much more complex than that. There are different levels of vulnerability to discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease among different individuals, requiring consideration of overlapping layers of protection. Often occupying the bottom of the social pyramid, persons affected by Hansen’s disease tend to be the victims of intersecting and aggravated forms of discrimination and are often affected by the larger structural inequalities of society, especially those manifested by gender, age, disability and oppressive poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. An intersectional approach to anti-discrimination legal frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0065", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "Based on the guidance note on intersectionality prepared by the United Nations network on racial discrimination and protection of minorities,[[fn:22]] taking intersectionality seriously in anti-discrimination laws and provisions aimed at protecting persons affected by Hansen’s disease involves measures, such as:\n(a) Paying specific attention to individuals who are insufficiently protected from human rights violations, including but not limited to women, children, older persons, persons with disabilities, people of African descent, Indigenous people and people from marginalized castes and communities;\n(b) Recognizing that persons affected by Hansen’s disease are not a homogenous group of people and making every effort to increase the visibility and active participation of those who, within the same community, are more marginalized and face more barriers to making their voices heard and taken into account;\n(c) Stressing that addressing discrimination is interconnected with the empowerment of concerned groups, which should always include their critical understanding of the forces that disable them, and also their greater control over decisions and resources, including matters that concern the development, implementation and monitoring of policies and programmes that have an impact on their lives; in this regard, it is important to ensure that decision-making processes are gender-, child- and disability-sensitive, and also inclusive of local languages;\n(d) Developing policies and programmes that recognize intragroup diversity and avoiding homogenizing approaches while respecting, protecting and ensuring the exercise of human rights for all and responding to the unaddressed needs of all;\n(e) Enhancing the availability and analysis of disaggregated data as the basis for effective policy development and programming;\n(f) Advancing systemic change by addressing the structural causes of the inequality and disadvantages that are associated with intersecting forms of discrimination, including sociocultural and religious norms and harmful stereotypes that perpetuate and/or aggravate the exclusion of certain individuals, groups and communities, as well as the substantive discrimination that keeps those discriminated against in poverty and extreme poverty, as is the case of the majority of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members.", "labels": ["Children", "Indigenous peoples", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "United Nations network on racial discrimination and protection of minorities, Guidance Note on Intersectionality, Racial Discrimination and Protection of Minorities (Geneva, 2022)."}], "section": ["VII. An intersectional approach to anti-discrimination legal frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0066", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "In order to fulfil their obligations of non-discrimination under international human rights law, States should enact comprehensive anti-discrimination legal frameworks that are inclusive of all individuals and groups in order to guarantee the universal enjoyment of human rights. There cannot be double standards in the enforcement and enjoyment of the right to non-discrimination. Already three decades since the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action was adopted, human rights for all has yet to be achieved and selectivity, which is contrary to article 32 of the Declaration, is still occurring both in law and in practice. Greater commitment to the core principle of non-discrimination is required.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0067", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "In order to combat systemic discrimination against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members (which is persistent and encompasses direct and indirect discrimination, harassment, denial of reasonable accommodation, victimization, as well as interpersonal and structural violence) States should take all the necessary steps to fulfil their positive obligations to protect this group of people and guarantee them both formal and substantive equality.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0068", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "States should begin by reviewing, amending, repealing or abolishing all laws, regulations, ordinances, resolutions and policies that discriminate against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and that deny them the enjoyment of rights on an equal basis with others at both the national and subnational levels of government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0069", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "States in which there is still a high incidence of Hansen’s disease should make every effort to ensure that individuals affected by the disease, and their family members, enjoy human rights on an equal basis with others, and to that end they should develop and enact anti-discrimination laws and/or statutes specific to Hansen’s disease, involving organizations of persons affected by Hansen’s disease in the overall process, as detailed by the Special Rapporteur in the present report. Such laws or statutes should be guided by the principles set out below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0070", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "The personal scope of these legal frameworks should refer to Hansen’s disease, prohibiting discrimination on that ground and extending such prohibition to all areas of the private and public spheres. Prohibition of discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease should always reflect the fact that the majority of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members are the victims of structural violence and that their experience results from the intersection of Hansen’s disease with other prohibited grounds of discrimination, thereby expressly recognizing the aggravated discrimination suffered by women, children, older persons, persons with disabilities, people of African descent, Indigenous people and people from marginalized castes and communities, and including special measures to respond to intersectional discrimination.", "labels": ["Children", "Indigenous peoples", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0071", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "Discrimination should be prohibited both on the basis of perception and association. Consistent definitions of all forms of discrimination faced by persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members should be provided and in line with what is recognized in international human rights law. Direct and indirect discrimination, harassment, segregation, denial of reasonable accommodation, victimization and interpersonal violence, among other prohibited behaviours identified by persons affected by Hansen’s disease, their family members and representative organizations, should be properly prohibited.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0072", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "Discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease by public authorities, public servants and the entire administration of the State, at both the national and subnational levels, should be expressly prohibited, investigated and punished. Discriminatory language should be monitored and removed from any material published by the government. Public servants in key sectors, such as education, public employment, social protection and justice, should receive training on the rights of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0073", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "Third parties should be prohibited from interfering with the rights of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members and measures for monitoring discrimination in the private sector should be enacted.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0074", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "Effective monitoring systems on traditional customs and practices that discriminate against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members at the local level should be implemented; and communities, community and traditional leaders, as well as women, should be mobilized for the elimination of harmful traditional customs and practices based on Hansen’s disease at the local level, with the full participation of organizations of persons affected by Hansen’s disease, including women and children affected by Hansen’s disease; traditional customs and practices that discriminate against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members should be criminalized when needed.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0075", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "Awareness-raising programmes that are sensitive to culture, language, gender, age and disability and that are developed in close collaboration with local communities in order to ensure both accessibility and efficacy should be implemented.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0076", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "Discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease should be criminalized, prevented, investigated and punished by effective, proportionate and dissuasive criminal penalties. Redress should be guaranteed and the specific protection needs of victims should be assessed as part of redress measures. Victims should never be victimized in the process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0077", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "Domestic violence against persons affected by Hansen’s disease, especially women, children and older people, should be prohibited, investigated and punished.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0078", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "Hansen’s disease should be included as prohibited grounds for discrimination in existing monitoring mechanisms and oversight institutions, with the participation of organizations of persons affected by Hansen’s disease, and data should be systematically collected and disaggregated by demographic, environmental, socioeconomic and cultural variables, with full respect for the principles of participation and privacy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0079", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "Accessible mechanisms for filing complaints about the violation of rights on the grounds of Hansen’s disease should be provided, while guaranteeing that those filing complaints would never experience any form of victimization or retaliation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0080", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "Remedies and redress should be duly provided to victims and access to justice should be enabled by removing all the barriers that persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members face in accessing justice. It should be fully recognized that access to justice is one of the main instruments for protecting civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. It is through the equal and effective guarantee of access to justice that people may stand up in defence of their rights, objecting to situations of discrimination and violation and holding policymakers accountable. Equal access to justice for all and capacity-building with respect to legal rights and legal aid should be fully guaranteed and made available to persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members. States should implement the necessary measures for: removing economic barriers, with the provision of legal aid; removing linguistic and cultural barriers, with the provision of translation and interpretation services; providing assistance to illiterate individuals and intercultural interpretation; developing partnerships with traditional justice systems to ensure that a rights-based approach to Hansen’s disease is taken in contexts of juridical pluralism; systematically recording discrimination for supporting research and analysis of risk factors; training judicial staff on issues related to Hansen’s disease; and providing quick, adequate, holistic, efficient and proportional remedies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0081", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "Restorative justice should be connected to prevention, through the prohibition of all forms of segregation of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and the recognition of the damage perpetrated by both official and non-official historical segregation through the enactment of reparation measures that can simultaneously redress harm at the individual level and eliminate segregation and violations related to Hansen’s disease. Reparation programmes that encompass both material reparations, aimed at redressing structural disadvantages, and symbolic reparations, aimed at enabling systemic change, with effective remedies, including compensation, reparation, restitution and rehabilitation, should be implemented.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0082", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "The engagement of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in leadership positions in public and political life should be protected and promoted through affirmative measures that can correct the historical and structural disadvantage that has curtailed their rights and those of their family members to participate in public and political life.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0083", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "The material scope of anti-discrimination laws or statutes should encompass all the areas of life regulated by law and the behaviour of both public and private actors. The material scope of anti-discrimination laws should also emphasize the areas of life identified by the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, in which measures for ensuring substantive equality for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members, as well as access to fundamental rights on an equal basis with others, should be implemented.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0084", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "In order to accelerate de facto equality, affirmative or special measures should be expressly permitted and their development and enactment required, and in all cases, guaranteeing the meaningful participation of organizations of persons affected by Hansen’s disease. They should be temporary in principle, but in some cases, they may need to be permanent in nature and should be implemented by the public sector and their implementation promoted for replication in the private sector.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0085", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "A proper institutional framework will be needed for the implementation of anti-discrimination laws, which may include the creation of an equality body responsible for assessing the enjoyment of equality by persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members, as well as discrimination against them. The same equality body should make every effort to: educate persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members as to their rights; establish mechanisms for receiving complaints on discrimination that should be accessible and sensitive to local languages, disability, age and gender; monitor the degree to which the laws in question are effective in partnership with representative organizations and groups of persons affected by Hansen’s disease; systematically publish data collected, with full transparency and in accessible formats; mainstream the protection and fulfilment of the rights of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members into the different sectors of government, especially in education, public employment, social protection and justice; and make evidence-based proposals for changes to laws and policies. The equality body must guarantee the meaningful participation of persons affected by Hansen’s disease, their family members and representative organizations in all its activities. Governments must ensure proper budget allocation to the work of the equality body.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0001", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "In accordance with Human Rights Council resolution 35/9, the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members reports annually to the Council, and to the General Assembly. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur sets out the urgency of implementing a human rights-based care and support system for persons affected by leprosy, identifying key definitions, challenges and opportunities for persons, families, communities and governments. The report includes some key elements to rethink leprosy care and support from a human rights perspective. It concludes with a brief overview of the activities carried out by the Special Rapporteur, as well as some conclusions and recommendations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0002", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The present report is based on insights gathered from group interviews organized by the Special Rapporteur, engaging persons affected by leprosy from countries including Brazil, Colombia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Liberia, Myanmar, Nepal, Peru, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Timor-Leste. Consultations were also held with United Nations experts, disability advocates, academic scholars specializing in the field, and representatives from international leprosy organizations. A comprehensive questionnaire was distributed to Member States, national human rights institutions, United Nations agencies, civil society groups, and organizations representing persons affected by leprosy. The report synthesizes the findings of a literature review encompassing journal articles and reports on leprosy, disability and related topics, such as gender, children, care and support for older persons, and social protection. It also integrates insights from previous reports of other special procedures mandate holders covering the themes of disability, health, poverty and older persons.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0003", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "The present thematic report addresses the needs of persons affected by leprosy regarding access to care and support. Untreated leprosy can cause impairments, and even after eliminating the bacteria, chronic pain, impairments and long-term conditions may persist due to treatment reactions. These issues are worsened by inadequate medical support, poor diet, insufficient rest, emotional conditions and underlying health issues, all of which are exacerbated by poverty and inequality. Care and support are therefore crucial at all stages of the disease: diagnosis, treatment and post-treatment.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0004", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "The centuries-long reduction of leprosy to solely a medical condition has limited discussions about care and support to health-related care and support and provision issues. During dialogues with persons affected by leprosy, the Special Rapporteur identified the need to shift the focus to include leprosy in the broader agenda of care and support that has also been envisioned in the mandates of the Special Rapporteur on the rights of persons with disabilities, the Independent Expert on the enjoyment of all human rights by older persons, the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, and the Special Rapporteur on human rights and extreme poverty, all aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0005", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Discrimination based on false information, myths and lack of awareness on the part of communities, professionals and authorities end up limiting the access of persons affected by leprosy and their families to various sectors and services, including health care, social security, education, work, water and sanitation, electricity, accessible and adequate household arrangements, leisure and independent living, all of which are components of the care and support agenda.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0006", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also considered a life course approach. Given that children, young people, adults and older persons can face leprosy and its effects throughout their lives, a life course approach helps to identify the specific needs of each generational group, as well as commonalities across them. A life course approach also helps to visualize an integral understanding of the impact of the disease, which is often lifelong, even for persons without an impairment, and to address the multifaceted and evolving needs of persons affected by leprosy, through the provision of policies and tailored interventions during the different stages of their lives.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0007", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "In her report, the Special Rapporteur employs a gender transformative approach to discuss the situation of women and girls as both caregivers and receivers of care and support. Cultural practices and social inequalities have often impeded discussions about redistributing care and support responsibilities within families. In many countries, care is historically viewed as a natural skill that women and, in many places, children possess and are obliged to perform within their families and communities.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0008", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Issues about children and older persons with leprosy-related disabilities are not dismissed in the report. It is evident that one of the questions regarding care and support in current times is related to the fact that by 2050, the proportion of the world’s population aged 60 and above will nearly double, with profound consequences for care and support systems.[[fn:1]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "World Health Organization, “Aging and health”, fact sheet, 1 October 2022. Available at www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0009", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "In her report, the Special Rapporteur takes into consideration the current century’s crisis in care and support that societies are experiencing due to issues such as increased poverty, the breakdown of health systems, the impact of climate change, conflicts and wars, and migration, particularly among poor populations. These issues contribute to and, in some cases, are exacerbated by the rising number of people facing mental health conditions, as well as the long-term effects of coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Such challenges are familiar to persons dealing with various health conditions, disabilities and, of course, leprosy. The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the unequal distribution of care and support responsibilities, burdening families and particularly women in the global South. Often, women affected by leprosy also serve as primary caregivers under unjust and unpaid conditions. This aggravates their already difficult situations and negatively impacts overall family conditions.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0010", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Feminist movements and their allies worldwide, such as civil society, together with representatives of organizations of populations that have historically been marginalized, have driven the discussion about policies and social and economic programmes that address integral and inclusive care and support with a human rights perspective. These actions have resonated with other social movements, such as the disability rights movement, and within various United Nations entities and governing bodies, as well as regional mechanisms such as the European Commission.[[fn:2]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "International Labour Organization, United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, United Nations Children’s Fund, World Health Organization, United Nations Development Programme, General Assembly of the United Nations, Economic and Social Council, Human Rights Council and International Labour Conference."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0011", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The Special Rapporteur welcomes the resolution on promoting care and support systems for social development[[fn:3]] approved in February 2024 by the Commission for Social Development of the Economic and Social Council. In it, the Council urges States “to ensure the creation of enabling environments for promoting care and support systems for social development and implement all measures necessary to ensure the well-being and rights of care recipients and caregivers, to recognize and redistribute care work among individuals, as well as families, communities, the private sector and States, and to contribute to the achievement of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls”.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "E/CN.5/2024/L.5."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0012", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Other important highlights are Human Rights Council resolution 54/6 on the centrality of care and support from a human rights perspective, adopted in October 2023, and General Assembly resolution 77/317 establishing the International Day of Care and Support, to be commemorated annually on 29 October. In resolution 77/317, the Assembly emphasizes the critical role of both paid and unpaid care work and stresses the need for substantial investments and policy improvements in the care and support system.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0013", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "In the present report, the Special Rapporteur invites Member States, civil society organizations, international donors and the private sector to implement strategies that ensure the participation of persons affected by leprosy in the consultation, design and implementation of inclusive and integral policies and social programmes addressing care and support. The Special Rapporteur also calls on United Nations agencies, bodies and international organizations to rethink the definition of care and support, taking into consideration the demands, needs and experiences of persons affected by leprosy and their families. The progress they have made in areas such as self-care offers valuable lessons for other fields and human rights movements.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0014", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "To understand the significance of care and support in the field of leprosy and the need to rethink care and support from a human rights perspective, it is necessary to consider the basic aspects of leprosy and review data that can help connect the realities of persons affected by leprosy and their families with current discussions about care and support systems.[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "The data presented in the present report have been taken from World Health Organization, Towards zero leprosy. Global Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) Strategy 2021–2030 (New Delhi, 2017)."}], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0015", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Leprosy, also known as Hansen’s disease, is a chronic infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae. It primarily affects the skin, peripheral nerves, mucosa of the upper respiratory tract and eyes. It is known for causing skin lesions, nerve damage and deformities, which lead to visible and invisible impairments, especially in untreated cases. It is not highly contagious but can be spread through respiratory droplets from an infected person, although prolonged close contact is usually required for transmission. With appropriate diagnosis and treatment using multidrug therapy, it is curable. Diagnosis and treatment is also crucial in preventing and minimizing long-term complications and reducing transmission of the disease.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0016", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "In 2019, leprosy data reported by 161 countries to the World Health Organization (WHO) showed that 202,256 new cases were detected in 118 countries. Of those, 96 per cent were reported by the 23 global priority countries, including 79 per cent in India, Brazil and Indonesia. In total, 10,816 new cases in 94 countries, including 370 children, presented with grade 2 disabilities at the time of diagnosis. Of the new cases, 38.9 per cent were female, and 7.4 per cent were children. The number of children is likely to be significantly higher, as some countries did not report data on grade 2 disabilities in children. Detection of cases in children is considered an indicator of recent transmission of infection in the community. Globally, the new case detection rate for those aged 0 to 14 years was 7.9 per million children.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0017", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy can experience a variety of reactions both during and after treatment. These reactions are important to recognize and manage because they can significantly impact the patient’s health, causing impairment and lifelong illness that will necessarily have an effect on quality of life. According to WHO, in the absence of verifiable data, it is estimated that 3–4 million people are living with visible impairments or deformities due to leprosy. Leprosy-related disabilities can negatively affect a family’s daily income due to job losses and increased family expenses for medical and rehabilitation costs, intensifying other challenges faced by families affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0018", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "Myths, false information, misunderstandings and lack of reliable data not only affect the detection and treatment of persons affected by leprosy, but also hinder the prevention and identification of new cases, as well as the treatment of those who are aware of being infected, especially within families that already have a relative affected by the disease. In 2019, 56 countries (35 per cent) reported the availability of counselling services, which is significant given the mental health consequences of leprosy diagnosis, disability, discrimination and social exclusion. The workload carried by both caregivers and receivers of care due to limited support from States and communities also contributes to critical mental health conditions experienced at individual, family and community levels. The physical, social, mental, emotional, cultural, political and economic aspects of leprosy have historically been viewed as disassociated and unconnected. This has led to a fragmented understanding of care and support, often excluding considerations of gender, class, ethnicity and race, religion, age and geographical background.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0019", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Against this background, the Special Rapporteur proposes rethinking the understanding of care and support that has predominated in the field of leprosy and influenced political, social and economic spaces. Considering care and support from a human rights perspective requires reimagining the conditions of persons affected by leprosy as human rights holders whose lives are affected by issues such as income generation, gender inequality, age, and social class disparities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0020", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "The issue of care raises important questions regarding its definition, the social actors involved, and its implementation. While the answers to these questions may vary based on context and historical circumstances, it is clear that care is fundamental to any proposal addressing human development. In the words of the Executive Director of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), Sima Bahous, “care is the thread that weaves across our societies and underpins all aspects of our daily lives and well-being”.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Closing remarks delivered at the inaugural commemoration of the International Day of Care and Support at the Headquarters of the United Nations on 31 October 2023. Available at www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/speech/2023/10/speech-international-day-of-care-and-support-2023."}], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "A. What is care?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0021", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The notion of care has become central to the analysis and research of social protection policies and programmes aimed at marginalized populations, such as women and children, persons with disabilities, older persons and those with chronic diseases. Issues of citizenship and rights within the private and public spheres where care takes place are crucial when proposing a care and support system in any society, especially when aiming for a consensual concept of care. These discussions began to take shape in the academic and feminist sectors during the 1960s and have been reactivated, particularly in the light of the COVID-19 pandemic and its social and economic effects.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "A. What is care?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0022", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Care could be defined as “an ethical framework that emphasizes responsibility, attentiveness, and responsiveness to the needs of others”.[[fn:6]] This approach prioritizes empathy and the nurturing of relationships over abstract principles and rules. According to Joan Tronto, a political theorist who has contributed to the development of care ethics, there are five interconnected phases of care:\n(a) Caring about: recognizing the need for care;\n(b) Caring for: taking responsibility to meet the need;\n(c) Caregiving: directly meeting the needs, often involving physical labour;\n(d) Care receiving: the response of the person receiving care, which provides feedback on the effectiveness and adequacy of care and support;\n(e) Caring with: this involves collective responsibility, and the recognition that caring for others demands justice, solidarity and mutual and reciprocal care.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "J. C. Tronto, “An ethic of care”, Generations, vol. 22, No. 3 (1998)."}, {"n": 7, "text": "J. Tronto, “Democratic caring and global responsibilities for care”, paper presented at the annual meeting of the Western Political Science Association, Hollywood, United States of America, March 2013."}], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "A. What is care?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0023", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "At a more institutional level, care is seen as “an indispensable social function for the sustainability of life that encompasses the activities that daily and generationally regenerate the physical and emotional well-being of persons, including everyday tasks related to the management and sustenance of life, such as the maintenance of domestic spaces and goods, and the education and development of persons, among other aspects”.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "EU-LAC Foundation and others, Hacia políticas y sistemas integrales de cuidados con las personas en el centro: diálogos entre América Latina, el Caribe y la Unión Europea (2023)."}], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "A. What is care?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0024", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Although in democratic societies, care should generally involve a balanced relationship between families, communities, organizations, the State and the private sector, its practice has been relegated to families, especially to women and girls, in lower and middle-income countries, promoting and deepening inequalities. This effect has highlighted the public nature of care and support and underscored that it cannot be discussed solely as a private issue. It has also brought to the forefront elements that are transversal and often overlooked, such as ableism and discrimination based on gender, race, social class, age and place of residence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "A. What is care?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0025", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "The interplay between the private and public spheres has been a key factor in shaping a paradox, where the division of time, efforts, responsibilities and resources has also implied inequality and discrimination, particularly against women and even children. The paradox of care refers to the distinction between its legal and economic dimensions and its moral and emotional ones. Historically understood as a selfless act between human beings (and, lately, towards other species), care has essentially been exercised between family members, friends and close relatives and been unpaid. However, it has also involved economic compensation when provided by persons external to the families and as a labour action.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "A. What is care?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0026", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "In this sense, current discussions on integral and inclusive care and support systems consider various aspects to be incorporated in their design and implementation. Such aspects include the regulation and supervision of services, working conditions of caregivers, and time policies; the creation and expansion of services; the training of caregivers; information and knowledge management; the participation of receivers of care and support; and communication to promote cultural change.[[fn:9]] Furthermore, the discussions have also highlighted the need to ensure that specific groups in vulnerable conditions, such as older persons, persons with disabilities, children, and persons with chronic diseases, are considered as partners in the design and structuring of care and support systems. Such systems must incorporate the participation of those identified as receivers of care and support, who, in different situations, could also be playing the role of caregivers.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "A. What is care?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0027", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "In the present section, the Special Rapporteur builds on the work of previous Special Rapporteurs on the rights of persons with disabilities, who have also addressed the issue of care and support in alignment with the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, as discussed in her previous report (A/HRC/56/59). The Special Rapporteur also draws on a number of resolutions adopted by the Human Rights Council related to support and care,[[fn:10]] as well as the report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on good practices of support systems enabling community inclusion of persons with disabilities (A/HRC/55/34). In each case, support has been presented from a human rights perspective and as a demand that is integral to persons’ experiences and responsive to cultural and contextual elements.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Human Rights Council resolutions 28/4, 40/14, 43/13, 47/15 and 54/6."}], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "B. What is support?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0028", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Support refers to “the act of providing help or assistance to someone who requires it to carry out daily activities and participate in society. Support is a practice, deeply embedded in all cultures and communities, that is at the basis of all our social networks”.[[fn:11]] Like care, support has been historically undervalued and medicalized, leading to its importance being overlooked when addressing matters of rights. The disability rights movement has made significant progress in discussions, particularly regarding the support needed to ensure the participation of persons with disabilities in society and politics. It has also raised concerns that the required support for persons with long-term conditions, impairments, chronic pain and terminal diseases is often seen as irrelevant, and their support needs frequently neglected. Support encompasses considerations of material, emotional and mental assistance needed in everyday life, which vary across cultures, contexts and different stages of a person’s life. It involves both formal and informal interventions, including live assistance, mobility aids and assistive devices, personal assistance, decision-making support, communication support, mobility support, services for securing housing and household help, and community services. In addition, it includes the necessary support for persons to access and use general services such as health, education and justice.[[fn:12]]", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "A/HRC/34/58."}, {"n": 12, "text": "A/HRC/34/58 and A/HRC/56/59."}], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "B. What is support?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0029", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Considering support systems as a set of resources and strategies aimed at promoting the development, interests, quality of life and autonomy of persons, they are undoubtedly an essential factor for reducing poverty, isolation, and preventable impairments and deaths among socially, economically and geographically at-risk groups. The discussion about access to support and care from a human rights perspective is now more urgent than ever, given the new challenges societies face regarding climate change, displacement, conflict and war, natural disasters, migration, and potential future pandemics.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "B. What is support?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0030", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "Care and support for persons with chronic illnesses and disabilities are explicitly recognized and protected under several international human rights instruments and treaties. Such documents provide a framework for ensuring that persons with chronic illnesses and disabilities receive appropriate care, support and protection to live with dignity and full participation in society. The Special Rapporteur considers it relevant 10 Human Rights Council resolutions 28/4, 40/14, 43/13, 47/15 and 54/6. 11 A/HRC/34/58. 12 A/HRC/34/58 and A/HRC/56/59. 10/22 to examine these key instruments so that governments, international organizations and grassroots organizations can use them to support their work. They also serve as a reference for the movement of persons affected by leprosy to claim their rights.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0031", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Universal Declaration of Human Rights recognizes, in its article 25 (1), the right to an adequate standard of living, including food, clothing, housing, medical care and necessary social services. Article 25 (2) emphasizes the right of mothers and children to special care and assistance.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0032", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights recognizes the right of everyone to social security (article 9), to an adequate standard of living (article 11), and to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health (article 12).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0033", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, in its article 19, on living independently and being included in the community, recognizes the right of persons with disabilities to have access to in-home, residential and other community support services. Article 25 recognizes the right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health without discrimination on the basis of disability. Article 26 mandates that States Parties shall provide comprehensive rehabilitation services and programmes in the areas of health, employment, education and social services. Article 28 recognizes the right of persons with disabilities to an adequate standard of living and to social protection.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0034", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women protects the right to social security, particularly in cases of retirement, unemployment, sickness, invalidity and old age (article 11 (1) (e)), and access to health-care services, including those related to family planning (article 12).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0035", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The Convention on the Rights of the Child recognizes the right of every child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and access to health-care services (article 24), to benefit from social security (article 26), and to a standard of living adequate for the child’s physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development (article 27).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0036", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "The International Labour Organization (ILO) Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment Convention, 1983 (No. 159) promotes the provision of vocational rehabilitation and employment opportunities for persons with disabilities. The ILO Social Protection Floors Recommendation, 2012 (No. 202) encourages the establishment of social protection floors that provide access to essential health care and income security, especially for those unable to earn sufficient income due to chronic illness or disability.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0037", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "There are also regional instruments that must be taken into consideration, such as the European Social Charter, which guarantees the right to social and medical assistance, social security, protection of health, and social welfare services. The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights recognizes the right to health and social security. The American Convention on Human Rights protects economic, social and cultural rights, including the right to health and social security.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0038", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted in 2015 includes goals that refer directly to care and support. Sustainable Development Goal 3, on ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all at all ages, includes targets related to universal health coverage and access to quality health-care services. Goal 10, on reducing inequality within and among countries, emphasizes the social, economic and political inclusion of all, including persons with disabilities. Goal 11, on making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable, promotes access to safe and affordable housing and basic services.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0039", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "The Human Rights Council has adopted several resolutions related to support and care, including resolution 54/6, which highlights the centrality of care and support from a human rights perspective. In it, the Council calls for the recognition of care work, the promotion of care and support systems, and the implementation of measures to ensure the well-being and rights of both caregivers and care recipients. The Council also underscores the importance of creating gender-responsive and inclusive care and support systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0040", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also considers it important to mention the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for strengthening participation of persons affected by leprosy in leprosy services. The guidelines recognize the crucial role that persons affected by leprosy and their families play in transforming health and care and support services with a person-centred approach. Including persons affected by leprosy in decisions about the care and support they need results in their empowerment and fosters community development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0041", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "The United Nations principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members are also relevant and must be considered within the debate about care and support from a human rights approach. They provide a framework to ensure the rights and dignity of persons affected by leprosy. Key aspects related to care include access to services and support without discrimination, comprehensive care, promotion of community-based rehabilitation programmes, health education, training of service providers and legal protection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0042", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "For the following section, the Special Rapporteur collected information from persons affected by leprosy, grass-roots organizations and representatives of donor organizations through online workshops and interviews. In total, 80 persons from different parts of the world participated in these dialogues. The questions focused on the issues of daily care and the support that affected persons and their families receive from communities and governments. Information has also been collected continuously through informal channels, such as WhatsApp groups, which have been established by the Special Rapporteur to facilitate direct dialogue with people.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0043", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "Participants in the dialogues described care as “the opportunity to access a normal life through inclusion in regular systems such as health, education, employment, leisure, social, and community life”. Generally, care and support were seen in relation to strategies implemented by governments and communities to assist persons affected by leprosy in improving their health. These categories were also linked to social and economic advancement. Specifically, support was referred to as access to medication, treatment, rehabilitation and financial assistance, particularly for individuals experiencing permanent impairments or long-term chronic conditions. According to one interviewee, the fact that care and support for affected persons are primarily related to medical and financial aspects reflects the historical approach to “caring for” persons affected by leprosy, which often excluded their involvement in decision-making, presenting care and support as a disease-centred issue instead of a person-centred one.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0044", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "In her previous report,[[fn:13]] the Special Rapporteur highlighted that modern care and support for leprosy has often been institutionalized, neglecting the rights of affected persons. Settlements and hospitals have treated these persons as dependents rather than rights holders. Despite this, many patients appreciated the accurate medical treatment in dedicated leprosy hospitals. Consequently, the concept of care and support has been undervalued and misrepresented in the field of leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "A/HRC/56/59."}], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "A. From an institutional perspective to a human rights approach of care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0045", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes that this issue is common in various health fields, including disability and mental health. Before the nineteenth century, care for leprosy in some cultures could have been seen as segregation rather than abandonment. Recent archaeological studies in England[[fn:14]] reveal that medieval shelters treated leprosy patients communally rather than as segregated persons, although care varied by social class. With the establishment of leprosaria and hospitals, care was often provided by religious orders and sometimes by laypeople.[[fn:15]] The quality of care varied significantly based on location, resources and attitudes towards leprosy.[[fn:16]] It is important to underline the role that patients themselves played as caregivers for others, due to neglect from official caregivers. Testimonies collected from persons affected by leprosy who lived in colonies, leprosaria and, later, hospitals reveal how they played an important role as caregivers and self-carers.[[fn:17]] Shared experiences, community bonds and the need to survive led patients to provide essential care and support to one another in the absence of adequate external support.[[fn:18]] This was also possible as patients often learned caregiving skills through experience and observation. They organized themselves to manage daily life aspects, ensuring that everyone’s needs were met despite being secluded. Unfortunately, patients were also often obliged to ensure that no one left the facility due to societal fears and misconceptions about the contagious nature of the disease.[[fn:19]] Methods included physical barriers, surveillance, strict internal regulations, and self-policing among patients. This could be due to a sense of community responsibility or fear of collective punishment.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "Simon Roffey, “Medieval leper hospitals in England: an archaeological perspective”, Medieval Archaeology, vol. 56, No. 1 (November 2012), pp. 203–233."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Kathleen Vongsathorn, “Gnawing pains, festering ulcers and nightmare suffering: selling leprosy as a humanitarian cause in the British empire, c. 1890–1960”, The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, vol. 40, No. 5 (December 2012), pp. 863–878."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Z. Gussow and G. S. Tracy, “Stigma and the leprosy phenomenon: the social history of a disease in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries”, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 44, No. 5 (1970), pp. 425–449."}, {"n": 17, "text": "James L. Flexner, “An institution that was a village: archaeology and social life in the Hansen’s disease settlement at Kalawao, Moloka‘i, Hawaii”, International Journal of Historical Archaeology, vol. 16, No. 1 (March 2012), pp. 135–163."}, {"n": 18, "text": "Chryssi Bourbou, “The leprosarium of Spinalonga (1903–1957) in eastern Crete (Greece)”, Eres. Arqueología/Bioantropología, vol. 14 (2006), pp. 121–136."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Susan L. Burns, “From ‘Leper Villages’ to Leprosaria: Public Health, Nationalism and the Culture of Exclusion in Japan”, in Isolation, Alison Bashford and Carolyn Strange, eds. (London, Routledge, 2003)."}], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "A. From an institutional perspective to a human rights approach of care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0046", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Many leprosaria, colonies and specialized leprosy hospitals began to close from the mid-twentieth century onwards, with the process accelerating after the introduction of multidrug therapy in the 1980s.[[fn:20]] Maintaining these institutions was expensive, and there was a shift towards community-based health services to provide more comprehensive and less stigmatizing care and support. This transition shifted care for leprosy patients to the community and families.[[fn:21]] Health-care systems were often not equipped to provide specialized care and support for leprosy. Many countries lacked the resources for comprehensive care and support systems, placing the financial and caregiving workload on families and communities.[[fn:22]] Cultural factors need to be considered here too, as in many cultures, there is a strong expectation that families will take care of and support their ill, impaired or older members.[[fn:23]] Women bear a significant workload of care due to gender stereotypes of caregiving as a female characteristic, which in many cultures gives them recognition and a role within the family and community. In addition to household responsibilities, economic hardships, navigating the health-care system, and mental health struggles, women must also balance their roles in both public and private spheres.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "Dorothy McMenamin, “Out of Sight and Out of Mind: The Ongoing Problem of Treating Leprosy”, The Journal of Pacific History, vol. 52, No. 3 (2017), pp. 343–359."}, {"n": 21, "text": "Jing Jing Lim and Yong Long Lim, “The dawn of humane leprosy segregation: transforming leprosarium into home”, International Journal of Built Environment and Sustainability, vol. 4, No. 1 (2017)."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Annisa Ika Putri and others, “Understanding leprosy reactions and the impact on the lives of people affected: An exploration in two leprosy endemic countries”, PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, vol. 16 (No. 6) (June 2022)."}, {"n": 23, "text": "A. Kleinman, L. Eisenberg and B. Good, “Culture, illness, and care: clinical lessons from anthropologic and cross-cultural research”, Annals of Internal Medicine, vol. 88, No. 2 (1978), pp. 251–258."}], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "A. From an institutional perspective to a human rights approach of care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0047", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "The movement advocating for the rights of persons affected by leprosy offers an opportunity to improve care and support systems. A human rights-based approach emphasizes the agency and autonomy of affected persons, contrasting with traditional, disease-based care and support models. However, to build this approach, it is important to listen to the experiences and demands of persons affected by leprosy, their families, and the sectors involved in leprosy care.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "A. From an institutional perspective to a human rights approach of care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0048", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy emphasize the need to understand the disease’s multifactorial nature, its treatments, and complications. As one person stated, “if people do not understand what we go through physically and mentally, they will never understand why we need support”. Historically, persons affected by leprosy have been stereotyped with disfigured faces, hands and feet, perpetuating myths about the disease. However, the physical and mental health challenges they face have multifactorial causes.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0049", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "Interviewees described various physical conditions caused by leprosy: (a) skin lesions and nerve damage, which manifest as nodules and patches, leading to loss of sensation in hands, feet and face, increasing injury risk; (b) muscle weakness and paralysis, especially in hands and feet, causing deformities such as claw hand and foot drop; (c) eye problems, including loss of blinking reflex, dry eyes, corneal ulcers and potential blindness; (d) ulcers and infections from unnoticed injuries, possibly leading to amputations; (e) disfigurement and deformities, such as loss of eyebrows, nasal collapse and other facial changes; and (f) mobility issues due to deformities and muscle weakness, hindering daily activities and independence.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0050", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "People affected by leprosy also experience secondary health issues, such as malnutrition, respiratory problems and general poor health. These issues can arise during treatment and are classified into two types. Type 1 reactions involve acute inflammation of skin lesions, new lesions, neuritis, swelling, redness and pain, caused by the immune system reacting to remaining bacteria. This can happen before, during or after treatment. Corticosteroids are used to reduce inflammation and nerve damage, and timely treatment is essential to prevent permanent disability. Type 2 reactions (erythema nodosum leprosum) are characterized by painful red nodules, fever, joint pain, general malaise, neuritis, and sometimes internal organ involvement. Common in patients with multibacillary leprosy, these immune complex-mediated reactions can recur during treatment. Treatment includes thalidomide (in some countries), corticosteroids, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Proper management is crucial to control symptoms and prevent complications.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0051", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "According to WHO, type 1 reactions occur in about 30 per cent of borderline leprosy cases, while type 2 reactions occur in 10–50 per cent of lepromatous and borderline lepromatous cases. Despite the proclaimed elimination of leprosy, effective treatment for these reactions remains inadequate. Persons affected by leprosy can also experience a relapse, the symptoms of which are the reappearance of new skin lesions and possibly new nerve involvement. Relapse can be caused by inadequate treatment or resistance to multidrug therapy. It can also be due to a dormant bacilli resurgence. In this case, it requires re-evaluation and possibly a new course of multidrug therapy, sometimes with additional drugs if resistance is suspected. There can also be late reactions post-treatment, with symptoms similar to type 1 and type 2 reactions; such reactions can occur years after completing treatment. They are caused by late immune responses to remaining bacterial antigens. The management is the same as for acute reactions, often involving corticosteroids or other immunosuppressive treatments. In 2019, only 47 countries reported treatment completion rates above 85 per cent. Furthermore, 3,897 relapses were reported by 54 countries, 44 per cent of them in Brazil. The increase in relapses may be attributable to better reporting, although there are still weaknesses in diagnosing relapse. The overall relapse rate in leprosy appears low at around 1 per cent over 5–10 years. As there is limited availability of second-line drugs for leprosy, vigilance is needed to avert amplification of drug resistance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0052", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "Leprosy, its complications, and relapses are influenced by multiple factors, with bacterial activity and immune response being just one aspect. The institutional and bureaucratic barriers within medical services are significant challenges for affected persons. Access to specialized health care and trained professionals is increasingly problematic, unlike in the past, when dedicated hospitals provided extensive training for managing leprosy. In addition, since leprosy is often considered an eliminated disease, medical schools only cover it as a rare occurrence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0053", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Persons living in marginalized and rural areas complain about distance and transportation issues, especially in leprosy-endemic countries where major health facilities are centralized in main cities and capitals. This makes it difficult to receive timely and regular treatment. In addition, in countries with few cases of leprosy, there is a shortage of professionals trained to treat the disease, which also presents a significant barrier to accessing care and support. Delayed diagnosis and treatment can result in more severe complications and disabilities. This is linked to the factors mentioned above, but social stigma can also have an impact on seeking care and support behaviour among persons, families, communities, health workers and professionals.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0054", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "Although it is established that leprosy treatment should be completely free, persons in some countries report having to pay for it. Financial constraints also make transportation and rehabilitation services prohibitive for many patients, leading to delays or avoidance of care and support. This situation is aggravated by the fact that, even when the treatment is free, persons must pay for medication, medical appointments and other expenses during reactions and relapses. In addition, misdiagnoses can result in incorrect treatment, further complicating the issue. There were also complaints about shortages of medications used to control reactions and relapses. For example, in certain countries, including Indonesia, the use of thalidomide is restricted, and in most cases, it is not authorized for patients affected by leprosy. Thalidomide is used in cases of severe erythema nodosum leprosum or when patients do not respond adequately to other treatments, such as corticosteroids or NSAIDs, as well as in chronic or refractory erythema nodosum leprosum. Without the appropriate medication, the outcome can be fatal.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0055", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Another issue is lack of awareness and information. There is often insufficient information about the disease, its treatment options, and available services, both among patients and within the health-care and support system. In addition, rehabilitation services, including physiotherapy, occupational therapy and reconstructive surgery, are often inadequate, insufficient or unavailable, affecting the quality of life and recovery of patients.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0056", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "There is an ambiguous sentiment regarding the universal practice of inclusive health services, particularly concerning the conversion of leprosy-specialized hospitals into general hospitals. While the practice of inclusion has pushed communities and authorities to recognize that persons affected by leprosy have the right to access any service, it has also resulted in a reduction in the number of professionals knowledgeable about the disease and a decrease in support from medical staff.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0057", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "High-quality and respectful treatment appears to hinge not solely on the enforcement of laws and regulations, but also on the commitment and dedication of authorities, professionals and health workers. Some participants noted varying levels of support across different regions of their countries; while some areas receive adequate support, particularly from health workers, in others, persons affected by leprosy experience stigma and rejection. The sustainability of effective practices often relies more on individual authority and commitment rather than strict adherence to legal frameworks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0058", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "One of the primary concerns relates to the limited, and sometimes non-existent, mental health support provided by public services. Such support is crucial at every stage of the disease and often remains necessary for years after treatment has ended. Some interviewees reported that mental health issues are stigmatized in their communities. Consequently, they may avoid seeking help, fearing judgment or discrimination. This reluctance to seek help also diminishes accountability for public services that should be provided.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0059", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "Social discrimination poses a significant barrier that hinders the rights of persons affected by leprosy to access support and care. Participants expressed frustration that many governments, particularly in leprosy-endemic countries, lack laws and enforcement against discrimination of leprosy-affected persons. This includes anti-discrimination laws, equal opportunity policies and specific regulations to protect their rights. While disability discrimination laws are more prevalent, not all persons affected by leprosy are classified as persons with disabilities, yet the majority have faced discrimination at some point in their lives.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0060", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Participants noted that some countries offer State-sponsored social welfare programmes providing financial assistance, vocational training and cash transfers to help persons affected by leprosy. Cash benefits, typically $30–$50 a month, support persons with disabilities, older persons and those below the poverty line. However, bureaucratic barriers and lack of information often prevent access. Despite being small amounts, these benefits can cover basic necessities such as food. Economic benefits provided during the COVID-19 pandemic have now been discontinued.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0061", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "In countries where disability benefits have been implemented, persons affected by leprosy often find it difficult to become beneficiaries because their impairments are frequently considered not severe or are invisible. Disability identity cards, where the grade of disability is registered, are required to access such benefits. Many persons affected by leprosy are rejected because they are not considered “legally disabled”. There have also been cases where persons have been rejected because their impairment has been linked to leprosy. Social pensions that are generally offered to employed persons are typically inaccessible for persons affected by leprosy who have impairments, especially women. In many low- and middle-income countries, most persons affected by leprosy are either unemployed or engaged in informal work, which prevents them from making formal contributions to social security schemes.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0062", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "Governments have overlooked the importance of accurate data and proactive identification of persons affected by leprosy to assess their specific support and care needs. Those living in remote areas often remain unregistered for social schemes and lack information about their rights and entitlements. While some measures have improved, interviewees believe that governments need to take more initiative in raising awareness about leprosy, dispelling myths, reducing stigma through education and media campaigns, and informing persons affected by leprosy about their rights as citizens.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0063", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "Regarding the situation of families, interviewees said that, fortunately, things had changed compared with decades ago, when families used to expel persons affected by leprosy from their homes. Nowadays, some families still hesitate to accept a member affected by leprosy due to lack of information, fear of community exclusion, and cultural and religious beliefs, among other reasons. However, as the responsibility for care and support falls primarily on families, especially women, they often find ways to accept and support the affected relative within their close family circle.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0064", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "Burnout resulting from fatigue, economic challenges, illness and other difficulties can inadvertently lead families to harm relatives affected by leprosy. When caregiving responsibilities fall primarily on women and girls, it adds significant stress to both caregivers and receivers of care. Despite the need for respite and self-care, cultural norms often fail to recognize this necessity, perpetuating stereotypes that women are inherently responsible for continuous care and support and protection.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0065", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "Women affected by leprosy in Latin American countries highlighted the overwhelming workload they bear as caregivers without any payment. They not only manage their own illness, but also care for and support other ill relatives or family members with disabilities without receiving financial recognition. One interviewee said, “Being a caregiver is not just about the physical tasks at home; it involves navigating complex processes such as accessing benefits, monitoring medications and managing finances, often with limited or no resources. Being sick is a job itself, but being a sick caregiver is a double full-time job without any payment.”", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0066", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "In many cases, families must provide financial support to persons affected by leprosy. In her previous report,[[fn:24]] the Special Rapporteur underlined the fact that there is limited data on the economic burden borne by the families of persons affected by leprosy. A study implemented in rural India[[fn:25]] demonstrated that the impact of severe leprosy reactions on households predominantly took the form of indirect costs (reduction in household productivity resulting from the interruption of normal or preferred activities of household members), which accounted for 65 per cent of total household costs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "A/HRC/56/59."}, {"n": 25, "text": "David J. Chandler and others, “Household costs of leprosy reactions (ENL) in rural India”, PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, vol. 9, No. 1 (2015)."}], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0067", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "A similar study carried out among migrant and resident patient populations in Guangdong Province, China, concluded that the median yearly total expense after diagnosis amounted to 15 per cent of migrant and 38 per cent of resident patients’ annual income. Among migrant patients, the median cost before diagnosis was $131.60, the median yearly cost of leprosy treatment after diagnosis was $300.60, and the median yearly cost of leprosy complications was $69.50. By comparison, among residents, the median yearly costs were $152.40 pre-diagnosis, $309.70 after diagnosis and $91.90 for leprosy complications.[[fn:26]]", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Mingzhou Xiong and others, “Evaluation of the economic burden of leprosy among migrant and resident patients in Guangdong Province, China”, BMC Infectious Diseases, vol. 17, No. 1 (December 2017)."}], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0068", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "Men also voiced concerns about cultural gender stereotypes that often place them as the primary providers for their families. However, when men develop impairments or chronic conditions, it can significantly reduce their ability to work, placing additional pressure on women to become primary earners. One female interviewee pointed out that “The division of labour between men and women affects women doubly. When men cannot work and support the family, women often have to take on that role. They also face increased domestic violence due to the mental health challenges their husbands, fathers or brothers experience.”", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0069", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "It was emphasized that in countries with families, especially older persons, still living in former leper colonies, governments and communities must address the issue of abandonment, which affects them across multiple dimensions: health, social, economic, legal and psychological. Many individuals in these areas face legal uncertainties regarding land and housing rights. Others live without social protection and rely solely on community members for care and support, often passing away with their generation’s history, overlooked by States and authorities, who may erase their historical memory from national narratives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0070", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "Several persons affected by leprosy emphasized the importance of advocacy and awareness within care and support systems. They highlighted issues of stigma and discrimination exacerbated by insufficient government and community support for awareness campaigns and dissemination of reliable information. They also stressed the need for confidential channels where affected individuals and their relatives can address concerns about leprosy and treatment within their families and communities. In some countries, self-care groups, initially established for medical or rehabilitation purposes, have transformed into platforms for political awareness. Such groups have enabled persons affected by leprosy and their families to unite, understand their rights and participate actively in community decision-making. However, achieving these goals requires sustained efforts to combat social discrimination and alleviate fears of societal judgment, which is a gradual process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "D. Community engagement, advocacy and awareness as part of the care and support system"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0071", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "Fear and ignorance leading to negative reactions within communities often stem from deeply rooted religious beliefs and practices passed down through generations. The importance of dialogue between religious and spiritual leaders, activists and representatives of organizations of persons affected by leprosy was emphasized as a strategy to shift perspectives on care and support. Given their role in pastoral care, religious figures play a crucial role in disseminating accurate information, underscoring the need to elevate their involvement more significantly.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "D. Community engagement, advocacy and awareness as part of the care and support system"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0072", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "Many of the successful practices in care and support are documented by grass-roots organizations in countries including Brazil, Colombia, Ethiopia, Indonesia, India, Nepal and Senegal. Representatives from these organizations attribute their success to innovative projects and programmes that involve persons affected by leprosy in every stage, from inception to evaluation. Financially sustainable community projects and youth-led awareness campaigns are actively promoted. In addition, knowledge exchange and leadership training programmes between Indonesia and Colombia are under way. In Brazil and Nepal, legal support initiatives include training persons affected by leprosy in legal matters, facilitated in collaboration with legal firms and local lawyers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "D. Community engagement, advocacy and awareness as part of the care and support system"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0073", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "In Latin America, countries have made significant advances in care and support policies. For instance, discussions on legislation about inclusive health systems are actively ongoing in Brazil and Colombia. Persons affected by leprosy in Brazil have played a proactive role in advocating for their experiences and demands to be included in such discussions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "D. Community engagement, advocacy and awareness as part of the care and support system"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0074", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "Considering the perspectives of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations, the Special Rapporteur emphasizes that for governments to implement and protect care and support from a human rights perspective, specific key measures must be established. These include creating inclusive, human-rights based support and care systems that are responsive to age, disability and gender. Such systems should be built on contextual and culturally sensitive foundations, respecting local concepts of care and support intertwined with cultural and religious understandings. They should ensure appropriate access to services while upholding the rights of both caregivers and receivers of care.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0075", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "Care and support from a human rights perspective challenges the gender stereotypes regarding caregiving and advocates for the redistribution of responsibilities between families, communities, organizations, the private sector and States. Such an approach includes the recognition of informal support, such as unpaid care and support work, primarily from families and personal networks; and formal support, provided through support services and support workers, such as professional personal assistants, domestic care and support workers, and communication facilitators, or through assistive and technological devices.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on good practices of support systems enabling community inclusion of persons with disabilities (A/HRC/55/34)."}], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0076", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "Reclaiming rights within the care and support agenda – specifically the right to provide care, receive care and engage in self-care – is crucial,[[fn:28]] particularly for persons affected by leprosy. Historically, self-care has played a pivotal role in their lives and families. Defined by WHO as “the ability to promote and maintain health, prevent disease, and cope with illness”,[[fn:29]] self-care should empower persons affected by leprosy to assert control over their health needs while advocating for their rightful place in the care and support system from a human rights perspective.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Laura Pautassi, “The right to care. From recognition to its effective exercise” (Mexico City, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 2023)."}, {"n": 29, "text": "WHO guideline on self-care interventions for health and well-being, 2022 revision (Geneva, 2022)."}], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0077", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "With these insights in mind, the Special Rapporteur revisits the key principles outlined in the report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on good practices of support systems enabling community inclusion of persons with disabilities (A/HRC/55/34), which serve as essential guidelines for Member States aiming to implement inclusive, rights-based care and support systems. The Special Rapporteur has added one more principle that involves ethics and compassion.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0078", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "Good governance involves offering adequate and participatory legal, policy, institutional and administrative frameworks. It includes careful needs and demands assessments for support and care, as well as the meaningful involvement of persons affected by leprosy, their families and their allies in the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of support and care systems. The key principles of good governance should include accountability, transparency, participation, equality and sustainability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "A. Good governance"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0079", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "Good governance implies an inclusive approach, considering the broader context in which persons live, including their living environment, social support networks, and access to community resources. Awareness of evidence-based practices is crucial for implementing and evaluating good governance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "A. Good governance"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0080", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy often struggle to access inclusive services due to inadequate data and professional knowledge about their condition and treatment. Effective assessment of their care and support needs requires improved information management and data collection efforts, as well as a multisectoral and multidisciplinary approach. Therefore, assessments and evaluations should involve professionals from diverse fields and sectors, as well as caregivers and receivers of care.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "B. Accurate assessment of support and care needs"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0081", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "An accurate assessment entails a participatory evaluation involving both caregivers and receivers of care to ensure an individualized approach that addresses each person’s unique needs. This approach must consider their medical condition, psychosocial and economic circumstances, cultural factors influencing care and support needs, and personal preferences. Respect for the person’s autonomy and choices is crucial, while ensuring their safety and well-being.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "B. Accurate assessment of support and care needs"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0082", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "Integral social protection addresses extra costs, including direct expenses, related to impairment, long-term consequences and chronic conditions associated with leprosy. The economic impact of leprosy on the lives of affected individuals and their families is variable and multilayer, and includes, for example, the purchase of assistive technology, paying for accessible transport and housing, and indirect costs arising from reduced earning capacity owing to limited access to education and employment opportunities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "C. Development of comprehensive social protection systems"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0083", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "Integral social protection ensures that care and support services are accessible to all individuals, especially those in vulnerable situations, by reducing financial barriers and promoting social and economic inclusion. It also promotes the delivery of high-quality care and support services that meet standards of effectiveness, safety and patient-centeredness.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "C. Development of comprehensive social protection systems"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0084", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "Integral social protection provides financial assistance and benefits to cover the costs associated with care and support, alleviating economic burdens on individuals and families. To achieve this, it establishes sustainable funding mechanisms and policies to ensure the continuity and effectiveness of care and support systems over time, adapting to demographic changes and evolving societal needs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "C. Development of comprehensive social protection systems"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0085", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "This principle highlights the need for high-quality support services, emphasizing that knowledge and reliable information are essential for those providing care and support, even on an unpaid basis. This ensures that expertise, up-to-date knowledge and good practices are available to individuals affected by leprosy and their families.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "D. Cultivating a skilled and diverse support and care workforce"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0086", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "It also ensures that patients and those seeking support will find reliable references, effectively addressing their doubts and needs, preventing the aggravation of situations, and potentially saving lives. It also guarantees that skilled and ethically trained professionals and front-line workers will recognize and utilize the knowledge that patients and their families possess to enhance their care and support.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "D. Cultivating a skilled and diverse support and care workforce"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0087", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "This principle involves prioritizing funding and resources for support and care services in a manner that respects and upholds human rights principles. It ensures that care and support services are accessible, equitable, and respect the dignity and rights of all individuals, particularly the most vulnerable populations. To do this, States need to allocate sufficient funding to care and support services, which includes investing in infrastructure, training, and support for care providers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "E. Increasing human rights-based investment"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0088", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "Funding mechanisms should be multisectoral, including taxation, public and private insurance schemes, and direct subsidies to service providers and users. In this context, the involvement of the private and public sectors, communities, and international cooperation is vital to sustain development with equality and justice. This principle also takes into account gender inequality issues, recognizing the status of those who are caregivers, especially women and girls, as rights holders. In a similar line, the principle recognizes persons who are receivers of care as rights holders.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "E. Increasing human rights-based investment"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0089", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "Integrating an ethical and compassionate approach into care and support systems is an acknowledgement of the diversity of contexts and cultures in which these services operate. This approach underlines the importance of viewing care and support through a lens of compassion, which entails recognizing every person as an essential and unique agent in the human development process, deserving of freedom from suffering and unjust treatment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "F. Implementing ethical and compassionate policies and programmes"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0090", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has participated in various meetings, particularly with United Nations agencies focusing on care and support issues, such as the United Nations Children’s Fund, UN-Women and WHO. She has also engaged with universities in the United Kingdom and Australia to explore potential collaborations on religious and spiritual aspects related to leprosy. In addition, she has met with representatives of international organizations, including Enablement in the Netherlands. She has also been in constant contact with organizations of persons affected by leprosy, as well as with international donor organizations.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Annual activities report of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0091", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has attended multiple conferences on health, leprosy, disability and family issues. She has been invited to speak about her mandate’s role in the lives of persons affected by leprosy at universities in the United Kingdom, Canada and Mexico. She has conducted interviews with media outlets in countries including Denmark, the United States of America and Turkey to discuss the situation of persons affected by leprosy worldwide. She continues to advocate for the rights of persons affected by leprosy through radio programmes and editorial platforms. She also utilizes digital social media platforms such as X and Facebook to connect with organizations and individuals affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Annual activities report of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0092", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "Communications expressing her interest in visiting certain countries have been sent to missions in Geneva. During her visit to Geneva in June 2024, she held meetings with representatives from Indonesia and Nigeria to discuss potential country visits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Annual activities report of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0093", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "There is an urgent need to create and implement care and support systems from a human rights perspective for persons affected by leprosy and their families. In addition, it is essential to include leprosy in the broader debate about care and support. Introducing this approach and raising awareness at the national and international levels will facilitate a transition from a disease-centred model to a person-centred model rooted in human rights and compassion. Such discussions must be promoted within the leprosy rights movement and supported by different social movements, civil society and academics.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0094", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "States and governments must ensure equitable access and design systems that will uphold the dignity and respect that persons affected by leprosy deserve. This involves combating any kind of discrimination and stigmatization.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0095", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "Robust rights-base care and support systems have robust legal frameworks that guarantee just access to services and social protection. In this connection, ethical monitoring and evaluation mechanisms with a human rights perspective must be incorporated.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0096", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "Sustainability is a crucial aspect of care and support systems. The State must ensure that policies and laws supporting their creation are backed by reliable funding mechanisms. It is important to emphasize the alliance of the public and private sectors, civil society, and international cooperation in this effort.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0097", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "Care and support systems must be comprehensive, extending beyond health care to address daily life conditions, especially for those with severe and chronic effects of leprosy. These systems should also address gender inequality and the disparity between paid and unpaid caregivers. States must implement interdisciplinary research to have more information and data regarding these issues.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0098", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "These systems shall incorporate an approach that considers cultural perspectives on care, acknowledging both positive aspects and those that cause harm. Strategies must be implemented to facilitate dialogue and motivate positive changes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0099", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "The Special Rapporteur argues that without implementing a human rights approach alongside compassionate and ethical care, care and support systems will fail to adequately meet the needs and demands of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0100", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "Overall, the participation and agency of persons affected by leprosy and their families must guide the processes of design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "In its resolution 35/9, the Human Rights Council established the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. In the resolution, the Council recognized that, in various parts of the world, persons affected by leprosy and their family members continue to face multiple forms of discrimination and widespread barriers to their participation as equal members of society, including isolation, discrimination and violations of their human rights. The adoption of the resolution was aimed at intensifying efforts to eliminate all forms of prejudice and discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members and to promote policies that facilitate their inclusion and participation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The resolution mandates the Special Rapporteur to report annually to the Council, starting from its thirty-eighth session. Following the adoption of the resolution, the Council appointed Alice Cruz to lead the mandate. She assumed her duties on 1 November 2017. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur introduces leprosy and details her vision, priorities and working methods for the next three years.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "Leprosy, also known as Hansen’s disease, is a chronic infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae. Leprosy has a long incubation period and symptoms may appear between 2 and 20 years after infection. Leprosy can occur from early infancy to very old age. The disease mainly affects the skin, the peripheral nerves, the mucosal surfaces of the upper respiratory tract and the eyes.[[fn:1]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leprosy."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "A. A curable disease"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "Contrary to the social representation of leprosy as a highly contagious disease, leprosy is not highly infectious, and most persons (around 95 per cent) who are in contact with the disease do not develop it. In fact, most people are naturally immune to leprosy. The mechanism of transmission is not yet clear. However, leprosy is most likely transmitted through droplets, from the nose and mouth, and during close and frequent contact with untreated cases.[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "A. A curable disease"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Leprosy is curable with a combination of drugs known as multidrug therapy. The treatment of leprosy with only one drug can lead to drug resistance. The combination of drugs depends on the classification of the disease. Rifampicin, the most important drug, is included in the treatment for both types of leprosy (paucibacillary and multibacillary). Multidrug therapy has been supplied free of charge by the World Health Organization (WHO) since 1995. Multidrug therapy was donated until 2000 by the Nippon Foundation. Since then, it has been donated by Novartis and will continue to be so until 2020. The elimination of leprosy as a public health problem (defined as a registered prevalence of less than 1 case for every 10,000 persons) was achieved globally in 2000.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "A. A curable disease"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "However, the global elimination of leprosy as a public health problem may hide the fact that there are still highly endemic countries, as well as highly endemic pockets within countries. The drastic decline in the prevalence of leprosy in the last three decades has not meant that leprosy has disappeared. In fact, there is still ongoing transmission.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "A. A curable disease"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Stigmatization and discrimination remain major obstacles to the elimination of leprosy, a fact that has been agreed upon by the main stakeholders. In 2010, the General Assembly adopted resolution 65/215 on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members and took note of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members (A/HRC/15/30, annex). In 2016, WHO adopted the Global Leprosy Strategy 2016–2020, which is based upon three strategic pillars, the third of which is on stopping discrimination and promoting inclusion.[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "WHO Regional Office for South-East Asia, Global Leprosy Strategy 2016−2020. Accelerating Towards a Leprosy-free World (New Delhi, 2016)."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "A. A curable disease"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Despite being curable, if not detected early and treated, leprosy can cause irreversible damage to the skin, nerves, limbs and eyes, leading to disfigurement, blindness, loss of sensation, chronic wounds and neuropathic pain.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leprosy."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "B. Gap between curing and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "A unique feature of the impairments[[fn:6]] caused by leprosy are their preventable nature, which depends on access to early diagnosis, treatment and high-quality care. However, late diagnosis is very frequent. Moreover, the global elimination of leprosy as a public health problem has resulted in a loss of expertise in diagnosis and treatment. Finally, a high-quality treatment to address nerve damage, which is the main cause of leprosy-related impairments, is yet to be achieved.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "In the present report, the Special Rapporteur uses the terms “impairment” to refer to the loss of functioning or the detriment to the health of persons affected by leprosy and “disability” to refer to the social responses of discrimination and exclusion to leprosy-related impairments. This distinction is based upon the social model of disability, which is embraced by the Special Rapporteur in her work."}, {"n": 7, "text": "WHO Regional Office for South-East Asia, Global Leprosy Strategy 2016−2020. Accelerating Towards a Leprosy-free World — Operational Manual (New Delhi, 2016), pp. 5–6."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "B. Gap between curing and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Leprosy is undoubtedly a neglected disease and the lack of funds for basic and clinical research explain why the main available drugs for treating leprosy reactions (which are a major cause of nerve damage and resulting impairment) are steroids and thalidomide, the latter of which carries a high risk of causing severe iatrogenic effects.[[fn:8]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Alice Cruz, “Leprosy as a multilayered biosocial phenomenon: the comparison of institutional responses and illness narratives of an endemic disease in Brazil and an imported disease in Portugal”, Clinics in Dermatology, vol. 34, No. 1 (2016), pp. 16–23."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "B. Gap between curing and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Institutional and extra-institutional barriers to access to an early diagnosis, lack of medical expertise among health services and professionals and drugs with severe iatrogenic effects explain why so many persons affected by leprosy claim that, after completing multidrug therapy, even though they are said to be cured, they do not feel healed.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "B. Gap between curing and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Few other diseases show the gap between a medical cure and the phenomenological experience of healing as much as leprosy. Such a gap is deeply forged by social mediator factors and the social determinants of health and illness, among which stigmatization and discrimination play a critical role.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "B. Gap between curing and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "In 2016, 214,783 new cases were reported to WHO by 145 countries. The highest absolute and relative number of cases of leprosy were reported in India, Brazil and Indonesia. There is still a worrying prevalence in 22 countries that, according to a set of indicators (which includes prevalence, the detection of new cases and the proportion of female, child and grade-2 disability[[fn:10]] cases), are identified as global priority countries for leprosy control. The countries with more than 1,000 new cases in 2016 were: Bangladesh, Brazil, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Nigeria and Philippines. In endemic countries, leprosy mainly affects poorer communities and regions.[[fn:11]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Grade-2 disability refers to visible impairment. The grading system used by the Global Leprosy Programme consists of “grade 0” meaning no impairment, “grade 1” meaning loss of sensation in the hand, eye or foot and “grade 2” meaning visible impairment."}, {"n": 11, "text": "WHO Regional Office for South-East Asia, Global Leprosy Strategy 2016−2020 — Operational Manual, p. 2."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "C. Epidemiology and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Furthermore, as the prevalence of leprosy declines, new challenges arise, such as the increase of foreign-born cases in countries in which it has already been eliminated. In 2016, 328 foreign-born cases were reported in 23 countries.[[fn:12]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "WHO, Weekly Epidemiological Record, No. 35 (92) (2017), pp. 501–520."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "C. Epidemiology and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Finally, the number of cases reported globally is not exact, as many cases go unreported due to institutional and extra-institutional barriers in accessing leprosy-related diagnosis and treatment in many parts of the world. A large number of people continue to receive treatment for leprosy and many live with impairments caused by leprosy and with disabilities caused by their social exclusion. In addition, the figure does not cover family members of the affected individuals, who are equally affected by leprosy-related stigmatization and discrimination.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "C. Epidemiology and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Despite the impressive decrease in the number of cases since the introduction of multidrug therapy three decades ago (from over 5 million cases in the mid-1980s to less than 200,000 cases at the end of 2016), no major change in the trends of newly detected cases has been observed. Most recently, an increase in new cases from 210,758 in 2015 to 214,783 in 2016 has been reported.[[fn:13]] This suggests a number of things:", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "C. Epidemiology and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "First, the prevalence rate may not be reliable in fully assessing the evolution of leprosy, since before the discovery of multidrug therapy, patients had to undergo treatment for years, sometimes for life. Following the introduction of multidrug therapy, treatment time was drastically reduced. Since 2000, such a reduction in treatment has reached 12 months for multibacillary patients and 6 months for paucibacillary patients. Paucibacillary patients may not reach the annual prevalence record, leaving them uncounted. And there are gaps in the reporting of new cases, especially in low-income countries, in which conditions are favourable for higher rates of leprosy and in which well-structured health services are lacking.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "Claudio Guedes Salgado and others, “Are leprosy case numbers reliable?”, Lancet, vol. 18, No. 2 (February 2018), pp. 135–137."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "C. Epidemiology and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "Second, the data suggest that more efforts are required to stop the transmission of leprosy. Besides the aforementioned loss of expertise, it is necessary to reframe leprosy under the current debate on the social determinants of health and inclusive development. Leprosy’s transmission depends not only on biological factors, but also on social determinants, including access to sanitation, clean water and education, among others, that have not yet been responded to by public health programmes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "C. Epidemiology and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Of the 214,783 new cases reported in 2016, 12,437 presented grade-2 disability cases, namely visible impairments. As already mentioned, impairments caused by leprosy are preventable and its incidence means that delays in access to diagnosis and to a high-quality treatment have occurred, in sum to the fundamental rights of every human being to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health. In such cases, States have failed to fulfil their obligations to respect, protect and fulfil such a right.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "C. Epidemiology and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Some 281 of the 12,437 new cases reported in 2016 were children with impairments. The overall rate of new cases of leprosy in children represents 8.9 per cent of all new cases, a shamefully high figure. This reveals social vulnerability as a key factor in the transmission and prevalence of leprosy. Additionally, the overall underreporting on women affected by leprosy remains a cause for great concern.[[fn:15]] This is indicative of the vulnerability of women and their lack of access to health services in many settings, especially in poorer communities. The epidemiology of leprosy is linked to the continuous violation of the human rights of vulnerable groups both within countries and worldwide.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "WHO, Weekly Epidemiological Record."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "C. Epidemiology and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Leprosy has been associated with the abuse and violation of the human rights of countless women, men and children for thousands of years. Yet, its recognition as a human rights violation is a recent development.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Some may argue that such violations resulted from the fact that, for a long time, leprosy was an incurable, disfiguring and disabling disease that spurred an automatic response of fear and rejection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "However, this type of functionalist approach does not acknowledge that many societies did not consider leprosy as a transmissible disease.[[fn:16]] Moreover, in the late nineteenth century, when the theory of contagion became the paradigmatic explanatory model for leprosy’s transmission, it lacked any scientific evidence to back it up. And yet, persons affected by leprosy were systematically labelled as shameful and set apart. Hence, the functionalist approach always ends up by blaming the persons who are stigmatized and discriminated against, while failing to question the persons who stigmatize and discriminate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Silathan Sermrittirong and Wim H. Van Brakel, “Stigma in leprosy: concepts, causes and determinants”, Leprosy Review, vol. 85, No. 1 (2014), pp. 36–47."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Religious and ideological beliefs, cultural practices and misconceptions are the attributing factors that supported the discrimination of persons affected by leprosy in different historical periods and regions. Certain cultural norms have provided favourable conditions for leprosy to be regarded as shameful and harmful to the social order.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Mary Douglas, “Witchcraft and leprosy: two strategies of exclusion”, Man, vol. 26 (1991), pp. 723–736."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Leprosy came to embody what was socially prescribed as shameful and disrupting, and was thus rendered something beyond a mere disease. It became a symbol, a powerful metaphor, for everything that should be kept apart, whether it was attributed to punishment for sinful conduct,[[fn:18]] unregulated behaviour,[[fn:19]] past offences[[fn:20]] and socially constructed ideas of racial inferiority,[[fn:21]] among others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Gilbert Lewis, “A lesson from Leviticus: leprosy”, Man, vol. 22, No. 4 (1987), pp. 593–612."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Emilio M. Férnandez, Fantasmas de la sociedad medieval: enfermedad, peste, muerte (Valladolid, University of Valladolid, 2004)."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Sermrittirong and Van Brakel, “Stigma in leprosy”."}, {"n": 21, "text": "Ron Edmond, Leprosy and Empire: A Medical and Cultural History (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006); Zachary Gussow and George S. Tracy, “The use of archival materials in the analysis and interpretation of field data: a case study in the institutionalization of the myth of leprosy as ‘leper’”, American Anthropologist, vol. 73, No. 3 (1971), pp. 695–709, and “The phenomenon of leprosy stigma in the continental United States”, Leprosy Review, vol. 63 (1972), pp. 85–93."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy have historically been deprived of their civic, political, economic, social and cultural rights. Women, men and children affected by leprosy were, and continue to be in many contexts, denied not only their dignity, but also an acknowledgement of their humanity. It is not a coincidence that it is commonly said that persons affected by leprosy experience a civil death. They have been consistently subjected to: stigmatizing language; segregation; separation from their families and within the household; separation from their children; denial of care; denial of the means of subsistence; denial of a place to live; denial of education; denial of the right to own property; impediments to marry; impediments to have children; restrictions on their freedom of movement; denial of their right to participate in community, public and political life; physical and psychological abuse and violence; compulsory internment; forced sterilization; institutionalized silencing and invisibility; and removal from history.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The use of leprosy as a metaphor bedevils us in public and private spaces. Its stigmatizing effects restrain the social participation of not only those affected by leprosy, 16 Silathan Sermrittirong and Wim H. Van Brakel, “Stigma in leprosy: concepts, causes and determinants”, Leprosy Review, vol. 85, No. 1 (2014), pp. 36–47. 17 Mary Douglas, “Witchcraft and leprosy: two strategies of exclusion”, Man, vol. 26 (1991), pp. 723–", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 28, "n": 736, "text": "18 Gilbert Lewis, “A lesson from Leviticus: leprosy”, Man, vol. 22, No. 4 (1987), pp. 593–612. 19 Emilio M. Férnandez, Fantasmas de la sociedad medieval: enfermedad, peste, muerte (Valladolid, University of Valladolid, 2004). 20 Sermrittirong and Van Brakel, “Stigma in leprosy”. 21 Ron Edmond, Leprosy and Empire: A Medical and Cultural History (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006); Zachary Gussow and George S. Tracy, “The use of archival materials in the analysis and interpretation of field data: a case study in the institutionalization of the myth of leprosy as ‘leper’”, American Anthropologist, vol. 73, No. 3 (1971), pp. 695–709, and “The phenomenon of leprosy stigma in the continental United States”, Leprosy Review, vol. 63 (1972), pp. 85–93. but also their families. Yet, it has been imagined as something that no longer exists, something of the past, something remote, something that is still and always apart.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 29, "n": 28, "text": "It is in this context that persons affected by leprosy and their family members continue to face endless stigmatization and discrimination in their households, communities and societies and in legislative and juridical institutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 30, "n": 29, "text": "The idea that the elimination of leprosy would solve the problem of stigmatization and discrimination is a narrow approach and is indicative of limited understanding, not only of stigmatization and discrimination, but also of the dynamics of history. Eliminated diseases may re-emerge and with them stigmatization and discrimination. This is seen in countries where leprosy re-emerges with foreign-born cases, and where loss of expertise results in a delay in diagnosis. Such delays strengthen the chain of transmission and the accompanying stigmatizing and discriminatory practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 31, "n": 30, "text": "It is true that leprosy is an ancient disease. Not only is its causative agent, Mycobacterium leprae, old, but it has not changed significantly.[[fn:22]] However, this does not mean that leprosy is a disease of the past or a residue from the past.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See https://1drv.ms/b/s!ApNa7GHD7siggvE3a-EjQN5N83XWQg; https://1drv.ms/b/s!ApNa7GHD7sighf4wL5kqb-xONmO2vg; https://1drv.ms/b/s!ApNa7GHD7siggu1iUbSjy45Oq5CoRw."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 32, "n": 31, "text": "Leprosy is a contemporary disease closely linked with socioeconomic, civil and political vulnerability. Despite the dramatic decline of its prevalence in the last three decades, there are still: (a) considerable and concerning rates of incidence and transmission; (b) a high proportion of late diagnosis; (c) underreporting; and (d) emerging new challenges, such as an increase in foreign-born cases in countries that no longer have the expertise to diagnose and treat leprosy, resulting in increasing transmission.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 33, "n": 32, "text": "Moreover, much of the legislation that deals with leprosy was produced in modern times. The contemporary social representation of leprosy results from a complex intersection between traditional myths, religious beliefs and modern ideas on contagion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 34, "n": 33, "text": "Until the late nineteenth century, the cause of leprosy remained unknown. It was in 1873, that the Norwegian Gerard A. Hansen identified the acid-fast, rod-shaped Mycobacterium leprae as its etiological agent. This breakthrough allowed for the medicalization of leprosy, that is, its transformation from a moral condition into a medical one. It also marked the modern history of leprosy, which is made up of turning points that gave rise to different State and public health policies, as well as social experiences and discriminatory practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 35, "n": 34, "text": "The first period of the modern history of leprosy started with Hansen’s discovery, which led to a unified response to leprosy by European experts and Governments in 1879. Such a response was based on a consensus on contagion (understood as the spread of a disease through physical contact, particularly through touch) as leprosy’s transmission mechanism.[[fn:23]] However, there was no evidence to support such a claim, since it was not possible to grow Mycobacterium leprae in vivo or in vitro. Such a consensus, alongside the description of leprosy as an “imperial danger”,[[fn:24]] which demanded establishing sanitary borders[[fn:25]] to prevent a massive invasion of leprosy[[fn:26]] among the central States, opened the way for a general agreement on the need for prophylactic segregation of persons affected by leprosy. This gave rise to the establishment of leprosaria around the globe. 1948 signalled the year in which leprosy experts abandoned the policy of compulsory internment.[[fn:27]] However, such a policy lasted in some countries until the late twentieth century. Moreover, it can still be found in some national legislations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Mittheilungen und Verhandlungen der internationalem wissenschaftlichen. Lepra-Conferenz zu Berlin im October 1897 (Berlin, Verlag von August Hirschwald, 1898)."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Tony Gould, A Disease Apart: Leprosy in the Modern World (New York, St. Martin’s Press, 2005)."}, {"n": 25, "text": "S. Shubada Pandya, “The First International Leprosy Conference, Berlin, 1897: the politics of segregation”, História, Ciências, Saúde – Manguinhos, vol. 10, No. 1 (2003), pp. 161–177."}, {"n": 26, "text": "Zeferino Falcão, A lepra em Portugal (Lisbon, Royal Academy of Science, 1900)."}, {"n": 27, "text": "International Leprosy Congress, Memoria del V Congreso Internacional de la Lepra. Celebrado en la Habana, Cuba del 3 al 11 de Abril de 1948. Organizado por el gobierno de la República de Cuba con la colaboración de la Asociación Internacional de la Lepra (Havana, Editorial Cenit, 1949)."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "First period of the modern history of leprosy (1873–1948)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 36, "n": 35, "text": "Thousands of leprosaria were established throughout the world after the late nineteenth century, many of them implementing an official State policy of compulsory internment of persons affected by leprosy, while others emerged as non-official State policy as a consequence of the social marginalization of persons affected by leprosy.[[fn:28]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "There are still thousands of leprosy colonies throughout the world. Many of those affected still live in these colonies, as well as their children and grandchildren."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "First period of the modern history of leprosy (1873–1948)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 37, "n": 36, "text": "Segregation denied the civil and political rights of persons affected by leprosy, who were separated from their families and communities, often at a very early age. The same policy was applied in 1923 to children of persons affected by leprosy.[[fn:29]] Children were forcibly separated from their parents at birth and many were also secluded from their communities. The dissemination of prophylactic propaganda was also part of this policy, which aimed at alerting the public to the dangers of contact with persons affected by leprosy. In 1924, recommendations were sent to the newly created League of Nations, urging it to take leadership in regulating the circulation of persons affected by leprosy and prohibiting them from entering foreign countries.[[fn:30]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Émile Marchoux, III Conférence Internationale de la Lèpre. Strasbourg, 28 au 31 juillet 1923: communications et débats (Paris, Baillière et fils, 1924)."}, {"n": 30, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "First period of the modern history of leprosy (1873–1948)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 38, "n": 37, "text": "There was never any scientific evidence to support prophylactic segregation of persons affected by leprosy. Nevertheless, such a policy was widespread; it reinvented leprosy in modern times as a “dreadful” disease, disseminating stigma in many parts of the world. Much of the current discriminatory national legislation was produced during this period.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "First period of the modern history of leprosy (1873–1948)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 39, "n": 38, "text": "The second period of the modern history of leprosy began with the discovery, in 1943, by the North American Guy Faget of a drug with some reasonable degree of efficacy in curing leprosy, despite its long-term use and severe iatrogenic effects.[[fn:31]] The efficacy of dapsone in curing leprosy led to a transition from a policy of compulsory segregation to a policy of decentralization to general health services. It was in this period that WHO took leadership in what was then called the eradication of leprosy[[fn:32]] with funds from the United Nations Children's Fund.[[fn:33]] This new policy also called upon States to amend discriminatory legislation, arguing that such legislation was a barrier to the eradication of leprosy.[[fn:34]] It was in this period that the first calls emerged from leprosy colonies demanding recognition of the dignity and rights of persons affected by leprosy. It took over a half century to recognize their efforts. However, and in the spirit of the International Conference on Primary Health Care (Alma-Ata, 1978), leprosy was progressively reframed under the right to health.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "G.H. Faget and others, “La prominoterapia de la lepra: estudios en progreso”, International Journal of Leprosy and other Mycobacterial Diseases, vol. 11, No. 1 (1943), pp. 52–62."}, {"n": 32, "text": "WHO, “Editorial: information and comments on development of international leprosy activities”, WHO Chronicle, vol. 14, No. 1 (1960), pp. 3–39."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Michel F. Lechat, “The saga of dapsone”, in Multidrug Therapy against Leprosy: Development and Implementation over the Past 25 years, H. Sansarricq, ed. (Geneva, WHO, 2004), pp. 1–7."}, {"n": 34, "text": "Frans Hemerijckx , “Social aspects of leprosy problem with reference to countries with high leprosy endemicity: epidemiology and control of leprosy”, in Transactions of the VIIth International Congress of Leprology. Tokyo, November 1958. Held Under the Joint Sponsorship of the International Leprosy Association; Tofu Kyokay (Japanese Leprosy Foundation) (Tokyo, Tofu Kyokai, 1959), pp. 442–447."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "Second period of the modern history of leprosy (1948–1981)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 40, "n": 39, "text": "The third period of the modern history of leprosy began with Sheppard’s findings on a technique that allowed for growing Mycobacterium leprae in vivo.[[fn:35]] This technique proved the primary resistance to dapsone. Since primary resistance to dapsone might jeopardize the entire leprosy programme, in 1981, a group of experts from WHO developed a multidrug regime (dapsone and rifampicin — a powerful drug from the field of tuberculosis — for all patients, with clofazimine added for multibacillary patients).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "Lechat, “The saga of dapsone”, pp. 1–7."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "Third period of the modern history of leprosy (1981–2010)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 41, "n": 40, "text": "From 1986 onwards, great efforts were made to expand the delivery of multidrug therapy. Between 1986 and 1990, the coverage of multidrug therapy saw an increase from 1 to 40 per cent.[[fn:36]] In 1991, the World Health Assembly adopted resolution WHA44.9 for the elimination of leprosy as a public health problem (defined as a registered prevalence of less than 1 case for every 10,000 persons) in the year 2000. By the end of 2000, the global prevalence of leprosy declined to less than 1 case for every 10,000 persons. In May 2001, WHO announced the global elimination of leprosy as a public health problem.[[fn:37]] This was a time of great hope, in which the entire leprosy community believed that large-scale delivery of multidrug therapy would not only eliminate leprosy, but also the accompanying stigmatization and discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "D. Daumerie, “Implementation of MDT: successive steps”, in Multidrug Therapy against Leprosy: Development and Implementation over the Past 25 years, H. Sansarricq, ed. (Geneva, WHO, 2004), pp. 45–67."}, {"n": 37, "text": "H. Sansarricq, “The study group”, Multidrug Therapy against Leprosy: Development and Implementation over the Past 25 years, H. Sansarricq, ed. (Geneva, WHO, 2004), pp. 31–44."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "Third period of the modern history of leprosy (1981–2010)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 42, "n": 41, "text": "However, despite such impressive results on the prevalence of leprosy, trends regarding the transmission and detection of new cases did not follow as expected. It became increasingly obvious that leprosy incidence was linked to the social determinants of health, which required more than just a pharmaceuticalized[[fn:38]] approach. In addition, stigmatization and discrimination hindered people from being diagnosed and treated, as well as from fully enjoying their civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "João Biehl, Will to Live: AIDS Therapies and the Politics of Survival (Princeton and Oxford, Princeton University Press, 2007)."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "Third period of the modern history of leprosy (1981–2010)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 43, "n": 42, "text": "As such, during the first decade of the twenty-first century, awareness of the role played by stigmatization and discrimination as barriers to diagnosis and treatment (which had already been pointed out very clearly by leprosy experts as early as 1984 in New Delhi),[[fn:39]] grew among the key stakeholders. Consequently, this became the decade in which evidence demanded an approach to leprosy as a biosocial phenomenon. The acknowledgement that leprosy remained a medical and social problem in contemporary societies called for an intersectoral approach, which is still to be elaborated and put into practice by leprosy programmes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "D.S. Chaudhury, “Global leprosy control: impact of new ideas and priorities”, in XII International Leprosy Congress. Proceedings (New Delhi, Printaid, 1984), pp. 858–860."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "Third period of the modern history of leprosy (1981–2010)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 44, "n": 43, "text": "The first decade of the twenty-first century ended with two historical breakthroughs. First, in 2010, WHO introduced the guidelines for strengthening participation of persons affected by leprosy in leprosy services, acknowledging persons affected by leprosy as powerful agents of change. Second, the General Assembly adopted resolution 65/215 on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members and noted the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members that had been developed by the Human Rights Council Advisory Committee. This was the founding moment of the global acknowledgement of leprosy as a deep-rooted human rights issue.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "Third period of the modern history of leprosy (1981–2010)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 45, "n": 44, "text": "After the global elimination of leprosy as a public health problem, its status as a neglected and forgotten disease solidified. As such, the beginning of the twenty-first century is characterized by an alarming lack of expertise to diagnose and treat the disease; and reduced funding for basic, clinical and operational research, as well as for tackling both the medical and social dimensions of the disease. 35 Lechat, “The saga of dapsone”, pp. 1–7. 36 D. Daumerie, “Implementation of MDT: successive steps”, in Multidrug Therapy against Leprosy: Development and Implementation over the Past 25 years, H. Sansarricq, ed. (Geneva, WHO, 2004), pp. 45–67. 37 H. Sansarricq, “The study group”, Multidrug Therapy against Leprosy: Development and Implementation over the Past 25 years, H. Sansarricq, ed. (Geneva, WHO, 2004), pp. 31–44. 38 João Biehl, Will to Live: AIDS Therapies and the Politics of Survival (Princeton and Oxford, Princeton University Press, 2007). 39 D.S. Chaudhury, “Global leprosy control: impact of new ideas and priorities”, in XII International Leprosy Congress. Proceedings (New Delhi, Printaid, 1984), pp. 858–860. C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination Resocializing leprosy-related discrimination", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "Third period of the modern history of leprosy (1981–2010)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 46, "n": 45, "text": "The second decade of the twenty-first century was marked by an acknowledgment that the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination (that is to say, the idea that the availability of medical treatment and the dissemination of medical knowledge about the disease would eliminate stigmatization and discrimination) was not enough to eliminate the historically, socially, politically, economically and culturally entrenched discrimination against persons affected by leprosy. Such discrimination had been systematically reproducing unequal opportunities and access to the goods and services of the State and segregation from community, social and family life, and causing tremendous suffering and distress to persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Resocializing leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 47, "n": 46, "text": "Medicalized interventions on what is narrowly described as health-related stigma are mostly based upon “immodest claims of causality”[[fn:40]] and not on evidence. They also compartmentalize the problem in a way that fails to grasp its multidimensionality. While the ground-breaking effect of multidrug therapy on the lives of persons affected by leprosy and on the public’s image of the disease cannot be dismissed, discrimination persists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "A. Castro and P. Farmer, “Understanding and addressing AIDS-related stigma: from anthropological theory to clinical practice in Haiti”, American Journal of Public Health, vol. 95, No. 1 (2005), pp. 53–59."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Resocializing leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 48, "n": 47, "text": "Stigmatization and discrimination on the grounds of leprosy must be resocialized,[[fn:41]] contextualized and approached as interdependent social, economic, political and cultural issues. Stigmatization and discrimination are mutually reinforcing. Enacted stigmatization produces discrimination, which, in return, reinforces stigmatization, trapping persons affected by leprosy in a spiralling chain of disadvantage.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "Richard Parker and Peter Aggleton, “HIV and AIDS-related stigma and discrimination: a conceptual framework and implications for action”, Social Science and Medicine, vol. 57, No. 1 (2003), pp. 13–24."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Resocializing leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 49, "n": 48, "text": "It is necessary to analyse how leprosy intersects with other social vulnerabilities. Leprosy-related stigmatization is only the tip of the iceberg[[fn:42]] of inequalities and inequities that have historically excluded persons affected by leprosy from participating on equal terms in society. Discrimination on the grounds of leprosy is multiple and directly proportional to social vulnerability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "Castro and Farmer, “Understanding and addressing AIDS-related stigma”, pp. 53–59."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Resocializing leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 50, "n": 49, "text": "However, and despite the current acknowledgment of the persistence of institutionalized and structural discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, existing indicators used to assess discrimination are mostly based on the medical model. It is crucial to develop new tools that, in the light of the progress achieved by the social model of disability, may be able to identify how societies erect barriers to the full inclusion of persons affected by leprosy and how those same barriers can be taken down.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Resocializing leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 51, "n": 50, "text": "Discrimination on the grounds of leprosy is institutionalized, public, iatrogenic, affiliated, multilayered and must be understood in its social, economic, political and cultural context. In order to respond to discrimination in an effective way, it is necessary to identify the societal spheres in which it occurs and manifests itself. Discrimination on the grounds of leprosy may be found at the: (a) macrolevel of the State (in laws, jurisprudence and public policies); (b) intermediary level of State goods and services, such as health services, education, work opportunities and regulation; and (c) microlevel of community life and/or the family.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Resocializing leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 52, "n": 51, "text": "Legal dogmatics alone has failed to acknowledge the gap between written law and the practice of law. Discriminatory laws and policies are not the only reason for the exclusion of persons affected by leprosy, but also the lack of effective implementation of 40 A. Castro and P. Farmer, “Understanding and addressing AIDS-related stigma: from anthropological theory to clinical practice in Haiti”, American Journal of Public Health, vol. 95, No. 1 (2005), pp. 53–", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Institutionalized and structural discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 53, "n": 59, "text": "41 Richard Parker and Peter Aggleton, “HIV and AIDS-related stigma and discrimination: a conceptual framework and implications for action”, Social Science and Medicine, vol. 57, No. 1 (2003), pp. 13–", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Resocializing leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 54, "n": 24, "text": "42 Castro and Farmer, “Understanding and addressing AIDS-related stigma”, pp. 53–59. the already recognized rights, such as access to the highest attainable standard of health, education and justice. Access to the enjoyment of rights depends on extra-institutional factors, such as educational level, inclusion or exclusion from the formal labour market, gender inequalities and racial discrimination. Given the generalized vulnerability of persons affected by leprosy, the gap between written law and the practice of law is severely exacerbated.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Institutionalized and structural discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 55, "n": 52, "text": "Laws that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy still exist in many parts of the world. These laws disregard and disrespect international human rights standards, in particular the principle of non-discrimination as stipulated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenants and subsequent human rights instruments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Institutionalized and structural discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 56, "n": 53, "text": "In 2016, nine countries reported to WHO the existence of discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy.[[fn:43]] A survey conducted by the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations identified more than 20 countries with discriminatory laws, covering segregation, immigration, marriage, voting, public transportation, employment and housing, and violating civic, political, economic, social and cultural rights. According to the survey, 50 per cent of those laws identified as discriminatory are still active and/or with an unknown status and only 8 per cent are under review. Some 52 per cent of those laws were found in the Asian region, followed by 8 per cent in Europe and North America, 7 per cent in Africa and 2 per cent in Oceania. Such laws concern: segregation and separation (29 per cent); immigration (16 per cent); marriage and divorce (10 per cent); employment and voting (6 per cent); public transportation (5 per cent); and residence (2 per cent). Many of these laws date back to the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, but some are as recent as the late twentieth century and first decade of the twenty-first century.[[fn:44]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "WHO, Weekly Epidemiological Record."}, {"n": 44, "text": "See https://www.ilepfederation.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Table-discriminatory-laws-2March2017.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Institutionalized and structural discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 57, "n": 54, "text": "The drafting group in its progress report submitted to the Advisory Committee on the implementation of the principles and guidelines on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members[[fn:45]] also made an effort to map discriminatory laws and practices in order to assess the implementation of the principles and guidelines in different countries. The report is, however, built upon a major gap regarding information from endemic countries, since the majority of the responses were from States in which leprosy was not a major issue. The drafting group acknowledges that discriminatory laws and policies still exist in many countries, depriving persons affected by leprosy from fundamental civil and political rights. It also argues in favour of a more thorough review of the aforementioned laws and policies in order to make positive changes. It goes on to say that such problems are probably not restricted to leprosy-endemic countries, but might also be found in countries in which leprosy was considered a disease of the past. The drafting group identifies discriminatory practices that hinder the enjoyment of the economic, social and cultural rights of persons affected by leprosy, such as divorce on the grounds of leprosy with a strong gender bias or denial of access to school and education to children affected by leprosy, among others. Finally, the drafting group determines that national plans to implement the principles and guidelines are still to be developed; the current level of implementation remains unsatisfactory.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "Available from www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/AdvisoryCommittee/Pages/Leprosy.aspx."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Institutionalized and structural discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 58, "n": 55, "text": "In addition to law, jurisprudence and public policies, discrimination is also a reality in the administration of certain States, particularly in health services, education and State benefits, reaching extra-institutional settings, such as the workplace, marriage and community and family life. Discrimination against persons affected by leprosy is so pervasive that it even materializes in exclusionary interpersonal relations that impose the separation of food, spaces and household and work-related objects, and that exclude touching persons affected by leprosy, which is one of the most basic human senses employed in socialization and mutual acknowledgment. This multilayered discrimination often causes severe depression, resulting in a high incidence of self-isolation and self-exclusion, as well as mental illness.[[fn:46]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "See https://www.ilepfederation.org/news-item/why-we-must-talk-about-leprosy-stigma-and-mental-health/."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Institutionalized and structural discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 59, "n": 56, "text": "Not only are persons affected by leprosy stigmatized and discriminated against, their families are equally affected by courtesy stigma. Even though courtesy stigma may also affect caregivers,[[fn:47]] it is the family members of persons affected by leprosy that bear the brunt of the worst of discrimination. In many social and cultural contexts, entire families are discriminated against and stigmatization and discrimination may have an impact for two or even three generations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "M. Dako-Gyeke, “Courtesy stigma: a concealed consternation among caregivers of people affected by leprosy”, Social Science and Medicine (January 2018), pp. 190–196."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Institutionalized and structural discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 60, "n": 57, "text": "In 2010, the General Assembly, in a landmark move, adopted resolution 65/215 and took note of the principles and guidelines on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. In so doing, it established leprosy as a human rights issue and stressed that persons affected by leprosy and their family members should be treated as individuals with dignity and entitled to all human rights and fundamental freedoms under customary international law, the relevant conventions and national constitutions and laws.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "A. Background"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 61, "n": 58, "text": "The resolution and the principles and guidelines were preceded by resolutions 8/13 and 12/7 of the Human Rights Council, from which a report and a draft set of principles and guidelines resulted. In resolution 15/10, the Council took note with appreciation of the set of principles and guidelines and invited the General Assembly to consider, as appropriate, the issue of the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, including possible ways to promote further the principles and guidelines.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "A. Background"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 62, "n": 59, "text": "In June 2015, the Council adopted resolution 29/5, mandating the Advisory Committee to undertake a study to review the implementation of the principles and guidelines and to submit a report containing practical recommendations for the wider dissemination and more effective implementation of the principles and guidelines.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "A. Background"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 63, "n": 60, "text": "While the progress report had failed to properly assess the implementation of the principles and guidelines in endemic States, it recommended, however, the establishment of a follow-up mechanism within the United Nations system to monitor and report on progress, and to encourage States and other relevant actors to bring their conduct into line with what was provided in the principles and guidelines.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "A. Background"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 64, "n": 61, "text": "In June 2017, the Council adopted resolution 35/9, establishing the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. It called on States and all relevant stakeholders to cooperate with the Special Rapporteur in the discharge of the mandate. It also requested the Secretary-General and the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights to provide the means for the effective fulfilment of the mandate. Finally, it encouraged the High Commissioner and the Special Rapporteur, in collaboration with States and the relevant international organizations, as well as non-governmental organizations, to organize seminars on leprosy-related discrimination in order to widely disseminate the principles and guidelines, also ensuring substantial participation of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "A. Background"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 65, "n": 62, "text": "The Council decided to appoint the Special Rapporteur for a period of three years with the following mandate:\n(a) To follow up and report on progress made and measures taken by States for the effective implementation of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members for the realization of the enjoyment of human rights by persons affected by leprosy and their family members in all regions of the world, and to make recommendations to the Council in this regard;\n(b) To engage in dialogue and consult with States and other relevant stakeholders, including United Nations bodies, specialized agencies, funds and programmes, in particular WHO, other intergovernmental, regional human rights mechanisms, national human rights institutions and non-governmental organizations to identify, exchange and promote good practices relating to the realization of the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, and to their participation as equal members of society with a view to achieving a leprosy-free world;\n(c) To raise awareness of the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members and to combat stigmas, prejudices and harmful traditional practices and beliefs that hinder their enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms and their participation in society on an equal basis with others;\n(d) To report annually to the Council, starting from its thirty-eighth session.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "B. Mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 66, "n": 63, "text": "The Special Rapporteur commends the establishment of the mandate as an important milestone in addressing the marginalized and mostly forgotten segment of population that experience multiple discrimination and violation. As a new mandate within the Council, the Special Rapporteur will identify key areas in which she can effectively contribute to the advancement of the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members. For the effective implementation of the duties and responsibilities assigned to the mandate, the Special Rapporteur should rely on the support of the States, partners and other stakeholders, especially civil society and organizations of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "B. Mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 67, "n": 64, "text": "Leprosy-related discrimination is multiple and multilayered and there is sufficient evidence to suggest that leprosy commonly intersects with other identity labels subjected to oppression, marginalization, exclusion and violence. Among the more frequent social conditions and identities that intersect with leprosy are: gender; ethnicity and/or race; age; disability; migration; and poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Intersectionality and affirmative action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 68, "n": 65, "text": "In fact, intersectionality is key to an in-depth understanding of leprosy-related discrimination. Intersectionality as a concept came from feminist theory and politics. Its origin came from the need to understand the discrimination of black women through an analysis that simultaneously encompassed gender and race. Intersectionality is not an additive approach. Accordingly, different categories do not accumulate, but interrelate in dynamic ways that always have a particular system of domination as a background.[[fn:48]] This means that intersectionality stands for the numerous effects that result from the intersection of distinct differential axes in specific historical contexts. It also states that different dimensions of social life cannot be artificially separated into pure phenomena.[[fn:49]] In practice, this means that leprosy-related discrimination affects in different ways a person according to his or her social status and capital.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (Boston, Unwin Hyman, 1990)."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Avtar Brah and Ann Phoenix, “Ain’t I a woman? Revisiting intersectionality”, Journal of International Women’s Studies, vol. 5, No. 3 (2004), pp. 75–86."}], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Intersectionality and affirmative action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 69, "n": 66, "text": "Tackling leprosy-related discrimination based on an approach that acknowledges the intersection of leprosy with other social phenomena of oppression and violence does not mean blurring leprosy into the wider picture of social inequities, inequalities and injustice. On the contrary, that would only increase discrimination and strengthen the structural violence experienced by persons affected by leprosy and their family members by contributing to their invisibility.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Intersectionality and affirmative action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 70, "n": 67, "text": "Tackling leprosy-related discrimination on the basis of an approach that acknowledges the intersection of leprosy with other social phenomena of oppression and violence means producing in-depth analysis and knowledge, contextualizing interpretations on social and cultural milieus and developing more accurate and effective tools. Intersectionality is key for analysis, but responses for action must come from other tools.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Intersectionality and affirmative action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 71, "n": 68, "text": "Given the multiple and multilayered discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, one of the more important tools to be developed and improved is affirmative action, in order to balance the terms that establish not only opportunities, but also outcomes, for persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Intersectionality and affirmative action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 72, "n": 69, "text": "In fact, formal equality in law can result in increasing inequalities, marginalization and invisibility when it fails to recognize the different conditions that specific groups experience and struggle with. From the acknowledgement of such differences, the concept of material equality was born, which aims at a substantive analysis of social realities and practices that goes beyond legal dogmatics or a formal analysis of legal equality.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Roxana Arroyo Vargas, “Igualdad un largo camino para las mujeres”, in Igualdad y no discriminación, el reto de la diversidad, Danilo Caicedo Tapia and Angélica Porras Velasco, eds. (Quito, Ministry of Justice, Human Rights and Religious Affairs, 2010), pp. 421–447."}], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Intersectionality and affirmative action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 73, "n": 70, "text": "One of the several tools able to generate material equality is affirmative action, which means creating mechanisms or policies that allow for protecting and supporting specific social groups that dwell in structural disadvantage, thus enabling equality of opportunities and/or outcomes and eliminating the barriers to the achievement of real and effective equality.[[fn:51]] Measures of affirmative action can take many forms and their use, characteristics and goals for addressing the structural discrimination of persons affected by leprosy and their family members must also be dependent on the context of implementation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "Judith Salgado Álvarez, “Lidiando con la diferencia. Respuestas desde la justicia constitucional ecuatoriana y colombiana”, in Igualdad y no discriminación, el reto de la diversidad, Danilo Caicedo Tapia and Angélica Porras Velasco (Quito, Ministry of Justice, Human Rights and Religious Affairs, 2010), pp. 483–546."}], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Intersectionality and affirmative action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 74, "n": 71, "text": "As detailed in previous chapters, leprosy is not a residue from the past. On the contrary, leprosy is a contemporary disease closely linked with structural vulnerability. The impact of leprosy on the lives of persons affected is still severe and depends on the capacity of States to ensure: (a) functional, and culturally and gender-sensitive access to health services; (b) early diagnosis; (c) high-quality medical care during treatment and after; and (d) social policies that fit the specific needs of persons affected by leprosy (regarding gender, education, housing, work and disability, among others) and access to them. This means that the impact of leprosy on the lives of persons affected is proportional to their vulnerability and resilience.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Vulnerability and intersectorality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 75, "n": 72, "text": "The concept of vulnerability refers to the diminished capacity of an individual or group to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from any hazard. People differ in their exposure to hazard and leprosy-related discrimination is undoubtedly a factor that increases vulnerability. However, vulnerability also increases the impact of leprosy on the lives of persons affected.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Vulnerability and intersectorality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 76, "n": 73, "text": "Vulnerability must be understood as a political, economic, social and cultural condition and not as an ontological feature of a group of persons. That is to say, any analysis of vulnerability must distinguish between the conditions that diminish an individual’s or a group’s capacity to cope with hazard, from the multiple and creative ways that individuals and groups usually develop to resist it, despite their very limited options and resources.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Vulnerability and intersectorality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 77, "n": 74, "text": "Persons may live in conditions of vulnerability, but they themselves should not be considered as lacking agency in facing those same conditions. In fact, policies for tackling vulnerability should take into consideration the ways through which individuals and groups face vulnerability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Vulnerability and intersectorality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 78, "n": 75, "text": "Having said this, and reaffirming that the impact of leprosy and leprosy-related discrimination is proportional to the degree of vulnerability experienced by persons affected, it is mandatory to develop tools to assess vulnerability and the means to tackle it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Vulnerability and intersectorality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 79, "n": 76, "text": "One important tool is the framework provided by the Sustainable Development Goals. Such a framework may be of great help in developing an intersectoral governance that might avoid duplicity of actions, as well as enhance efficiency, effectiveness and efficacy. In fact, many of the areas of action outlined by the Goals are key in tackling leprosy-related vulnerability and discrimination, such as poverty, hunger, good health and well-being, education, gender, clean water and sanitation, decent work and economic growth, reduced inequalities, and sustainable cities and communities.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Vulnerability and intersectorality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 80, "n": 77, "text": "Intersectorality is key in decreasing vulnerability to leprosy and leprosy-related discrimination. Moreover, in order to strengthen the intersectoral approach, the implementation of the principles and guidelines should be allied with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Vulnerability and intersectorality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 81, "n": 78, "text": "Historically, leprosy became a symbol for exclusion. Recognition by the United Nations of leprosy as a human rights issue has, however, closed that dark chapter of history. Such recognition will advocate for inclusiveness and participation. Being a cross-cutting issue, leprosy can be used as a model for the accomplishment of sustainable development and as a symbol of the reinforcement of human rights. Notably, the international community, civil society and other relevant stakeholders have obligations to keep individuals affected by leprosy and their family members high on the 2030 Agenda. If, by 2030, persons affected by leprosy and their family members have not been left behind, the long-standing issues of social exclusion and invisibility that affect a substantive segment of the population will have been addressed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Vulnerability and intersectorality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 82, "n": 79, "text": "Participation is key for the long-term elimination of leprosy-related discrimination and for a sustainable inclusion of the affected persons and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Participation and lay expertise"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 83, "n": 80, "text": "Participation is multidimensional and includes the elements of representative democracy (the right to vote, to be elected and to hold public office), participatory democracy (elaboration, execution, monitoring and accountability in policymaking), non-governmental organizations and communities (decision-making) and epistemic communities (participation in the production of knowledge), among others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Participation and lay expertise"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 84, "n": 81, "text": "Participation is thus not restricted to the macrospace of the State. It is also interrelated with all human rights, since it is not possible to participate in society at large without enjoying the rights to freedom, work, health, education, a dignified life, freedom of expression and information, among others. Without the fulfilment of human rights, participation becomes a mere formality. In turn, without participation, human rights becomes questionable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Participation and lay expertise"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 85, "n": 82, "text": "For the present purposes, participation is understood as: (a) equal opportunities to participate and enjoy civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights and, when applicable, collective rights;[[fn:52]] (b) the right to participate in all decision-making processes that might have an impact on the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their family members (such as scientific research, public health programmes, health services, policymaking and collective organization); and (c) the right to participate in the elaboration, monitoring, evaluation and accountability mechanisms of public policies that might have an impact on the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "For instance, the right to memory is liable to be treated as a collective right of persons affected by leprosy, who were forcibly segregated from their families, communities and society."}], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Participation and lay expertise"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 86, "n": 83, "text": "Participation in decision-making is not only a right, it is also pivotal for the production of more effective responses to problems. Persons affected by leprosy develop situated knowledge that differs from the knowledge produced by science or the State. Unlike science or State management, lay knowledge does not separate life into different spheres. Instead, it is able to create a synthesis between history, society, culture, etiology and disease. As such, it is particularly helpful in producing new and much needed geographies that might map the complex intersection between leprosy and social factors. By being close to communities, leprosy organizations also know first-hand the difficulties and needs of the persons affected, which are often invisible in State surveys. They are, as such, experts on health and equality data. Such situated knowledge generates alternative evidence, as demonstrated by popular epidemiology. Situated knowledge is also key to evaluation and accountability. Finally, the lay knowledge of organizations of persons affected by leprosy should be taken into consideration for the design of scientific research and policymaking.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Participation and lay expertise"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 87, "n": 84, "text": "Participation also means the right to an active voice in public life. Therefore, the strengthening of organizations of persons affected by leprosy is crucial in enabling such persons and their family members to be their own representatives in public spaces. The organizations also promote a positive identity among persons affected by leprosy. With a positive identity, people start making changes to their surroundings and they tend to make them in an effective way. That is a major contribution towards rights and dignity awareness, as well as towards changing public perceptions of the disease. Finally, such participation in public life is key in achieving the structural change in which the automatic social response of rejection gives way to an empathic understanding of similarities, that is to the recognition of equality. That is why affirmative action and intersectoral governance should create conditions in which persons affected by leprosy can be empowered in such a way as to become the leading protagonists in the elimination of leprosy-related stigmatization and discrimination and ensure its sustainability in the long term.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Participation and lay expertise"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 88, "n": 85, "text": "In the discharge of the mandate, the following methodology will be central to the Special Rapporteur’s work.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "D. Methodology"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 89, "n": 86, "text": "Civic engagement: the Special Rapporteur will engage and hold regular dialogue with States, United Nations agencies, funds and programmes, civil society organizations and other relevant partners, including persons affected by leprosy and their family members and their representative organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "D. Methodology", "Principles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 90, "n": 87, "text": "Participation: openness, consultation and participation will remain the driving principles of the Special Rapporteur’s working methods and will actively involve local actors, civil society activists and organizations of persons affected by leprosy in her work.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "D. Methodology", "Principles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 91, "n": 88, "text": "Inclusiveness: the Special Rapporteur will work in an inclusive manner and will pay attention to groups that are more vulnerable to leprosy-related discrimination, in particular women, children and persons affected by leprosy-related disabilities.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "D. Methodology", "Principles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 92, "n": 89, "text": "Annual reports: as mandated by resolution 35/9, the Special Rapporteur will submit annual reports to the Human Rights Council on the activities undertaken in the fulfilment of her mandate and thematic issues.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "D. Methodology", "Methods of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 93, "n": 90, "text": "Country visits: at the invitation of Governments, the Special Rapporteur will make country visits and engage with the country concerned on the implementation of the principles and guidelines, identification of good practices and the provision of technical advice on policymaking and capacity-building.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "D. Methodology", "Methods of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 94, "n": 91, "text": "Communication: the Special Rapporteur will gather, request and exchange information with relevant stakeholders, including States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "D. Methodology", "Methods of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 95, "n": 92, "text": "Identification and dissemination of good practices: the Special Rapporteur will consult States and other stakeholders on the identification and promotion of good practices in the elimination of stigmatization and discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members and on guaranteeing their fundamental rights and inclusion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "D. Methodology", "Methods of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 96, "n": 93, "text": "Building cooperation: the Special Rapporteur acknowledges the crucial role played by the United Nations human rights treaty bodies, the special procedure mandate holders and the universal periodic review in the promotion of human rights globally and will build cooperation to give visibility to leprosy in their work. The Special Rapporteur will work with relevant actors and stakeholders to promote awareness-raising on the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members and combat stigmatization, prejudice and harmful practices and beliefs that hinder their enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "D. Methodology", "Methods of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 97, "n": 94, "text": "In its resolution 35/9, the Human Rights Council mandated the Special Rapporteur to monitor the effective implementation of the principles and guidelines, which recognize the fundamental human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members. The principles and guidelines encourage States to promote, protect and ensure the full realization of all human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "E. Human rights instruments and standards", "Principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 98, "n": 95, "text": "Although the principles and guidelines are not legally binding, they are, however, in line with the human rights standards and reinforce the principle of non-discrimination as a core element stipulated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other human rights instruments. The principles and guidelines provide measures for calling States to account on their duty and responsibility to prohibit discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, as well as to protect, promote and ensure their human rights. Additionally, the content of the principles and guidelines takes its spirit from the provisions of the human rights treaties.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "E. Human rights instruments and standards", "Principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 99, "n": 96, "text": "Given the cross-cutting nature of leprosy, the work of the Special Rapporteur will be guided by the relevant conventions, especially: the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination; the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women; the Convention on the Rights of the Child; the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities; and the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families.", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "E. Human rights instruments and standards", "Principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 100, "n": 97, "text": "Finally, the Special Rapporteur will promote the use of the principles and guidelines among the stakeholders and persons affected by leprosy and their family members as a rights-dissemination instrument, empowerment strategy, and evaluation and research tool.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "E. Human rights instruments and standards", "Principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 101, "n": 98, "text": "The monitoring of the implementation of the principles and guidelines and of States’ efforts to ensure non-discrimination and enforce the human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members will be sensitive to the epidemiological diversity of leprosy worldwide. Priority will be given to endemic countries and will take into consideration the following:\n(a) Regional accountability mechanisms — jurisprudence from existing regional human rights systems of protection,[[fn:53]] the recommendations produced by them and the extent of their implementation;\n(b) National legislative frameworks, public policies and participation mechanisms — to evaluate how States should advance towards the prohibition of discrimination on the grounds of leprosy and towards the protection, promotion and enforcement of the human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, the following will be assessed:\n(i) Measures taken to ensure, at the normative, jurisdictional and policymaking levels, the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members as established by the principles and guidelines, as well as measures taken to ensure access to them;\n(ii) Measures taken for raising awareness about leprosy;\n(iii) Measures taken to ensure the participation of persons affected by leprosy in decision-making processes concerning issues related to them and in following up States’ activities to implement the principles and guidelines.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights."}], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "E. Human rights instruments and standards", "Monitoring implementation of the principles and guidelines at the national level and States’ efforts to ensure non-discrimination and full inclusion"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 102, "n": 99, "text": "Additionally, the following will also be assessed to enable the identification of good practices and formulate pragmatic and realistic recommendations on implementing the principles and guidelines:\n(a) How domestic constitutional law coordinates and integrates States’ commitments under international human rights law;\n(b) The state of national anti-discriminatory laws, public policies related to the realization of economic and social rights and the existence of judicial and administrative remedies available to enforce human rights and monitor public policies, and of public participation mechanisms;\n(c) National justice systems, or how domestic courts have adjudicated in cases related to the rights and freedoms of people affected by leprosy and their family members and also heard cases related to discrimination laws and economic, social and cultural rights implementation, in order to develop a better understanding about the use of courts and national case law as an accountability mechanism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "E. Human rights instruments and standards", "Monitoring implementation of the principles and guidelines at the national level and States’ efforts to ensure non-discrimination and full inclusion"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 103, "n": 100, "text": "Given the limited availability of resources, the Special Rapporteur has identified two priority areas that she deemed key in the promotion of the rights and freedoms of persons affected by leprosy and their family members. These priorities resulted from a consultation undertaken by the Special Rapporteur with some of the main stakeholders in the field of leprosy,[[fn:54]] as well as national NGOs and organizations of persons affected by leprosy,[[fn:55]] which allowed persons affected by leprosy and their family members to be consulted in more than 40 countries. These consultations were aimed at developing a framework that gives primacy to the following priorities:\n(a) Enforcement of equality — harmonize domestic laws and practices with international law, as well as guarantee effective access to rights, in order to tackle the structural disadvantage of persons affected by leprosy and their family members and empower them;\n(b) Acknowledgement of equality — eliminate stigmatization and prejudice through strengthened awareness-raising, and promote change in the social perception of persons affected by leprosy and their family members by encouraging their public participation and by disseminating guidelines for the generic use of images, language and contents.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "Among them: the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, the Nippon Foundation, Sasakawa Memorial Health Foundation, Leprosy Mission International, the International Association for Integration, Dignity and Economic Advancement, the International Leprosy Association, WHO and the Pan American Health Organization."}, {"n": 55, "text": "For example: Movimento de Reintegração de Pessoas Atingidas pela Hanseníase, Perhimpunan Mandiri Kusta, the Coalition of Leprosy Advocates of the Philippines, Handa Rehabilitation and Welfare Association and Felehansen."}], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "F. Priorities for the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 104, "n": 101, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regards the establishment of the mandate as a historical breakthrough that provides a great opportunity to address the widespread, institutionalized and structural discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. The Special Rapporteur considers this breakthrough as evidence of the United Nations human rights system’s commitment to the realization of leaving no one behind — a goal stressed in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 105, "n": 102, "text": "During the discharge of her duties and in accordance with the mandate entrusted to the Special Rapporteur by the Human Rights Council in its resolution 35/9, she will pay particular attention to the groups that live in more vulnerable conditions to leprosy-related discrimination, giving due consideration to the diversified national and local realities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 106, "n": 103, "text": "The Special Rapporteur aims to undertake the mission entrusted to her in a collaborative manner, working closely with States, the United Nations system — in particular, its human rights mechanisms — intergovernmental agencies, academics and the main stakeholders in the field of leprosy, civil society organizations and organizations of persons affected by leprosy. The Special Rapporteur sees consultation and dialogue as a crucial part of her mandate and will offer, as appropriate, technical advice, especially in the area of capacity-building, which is key for the elimination of leprosy-related discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 107, "n": 104, "text": "Given the demanding nature of the mandate and the expectations of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, the Special Rapporteur appeals to States, the United Nations system, regional entities and the main stakeholders to join her in her efforts to bring the needed change to the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their family members and ensure that leprosy becomes a positive symbol of inclusiveness in the 2030 Agenda.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is submitted pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 35/9, in which the Council established the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. In its resolution, the Council recognized that specific attention is needed to address all forms of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, and mandated the Special Rapporteur to report to the Council on progress made and measures taken by States for the effective implementation of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members (A/HRC/15/30, annex).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "Following the first report (A/HRC/38/42), in which the Special Rapporteur outlined the vision, priorities and working methods of the mandate, the present report aims at unveiling the multiple nature of discrimination on the grounds of leprosy, focusing on the particular experience of women and children. In order to present a comprehensive description, foster bottom-up participation and promote future evidenced-based policies, the Special Rapporteur methodically resourced more than 600 contributions. She looks into the pervasive structural disadvantage that allocates women and children affected by leprosy to a context of intersecting vulnerabilities and multilayered discrimination, simultaneously acknowledging the shared subordinated status of both groups and rejecting their representation as a composite concept. The Special Rapporteur identifies specific human rights violations against each group, alongside pragmatic and concrete steps for eliminating ongoing institutionalized, structural and interpersonal discrimination.[[fn:1]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to express her gratitude to the valuable cooperation received from States; national human rights institutions; the World Health Organization (WHO); the Pan-American Health Organization; national leprosy programmes; the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, in particular the Sasakawa Memorial Health Foundation; the International Federation’s panel of persons affected by leprosy; Global Partnership for Zero Leprosy; leprosy and law experts and activists; organizations of persons affected by leprosy and their representatives; and, most of all, to the women and men affected by leprosy, as well as many of their family members, who consistently support the Special Rapporteur’s work."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "As with some historically ascribed identity categories (such as race, gender or sexuality), leprosy, also known as Hansen’s disease, has been infused in such a way with moral, religious, cultural and political meanings throughout history that it became a label that unremittingly produces and reproduces a deeply stigmatized social category. Labelling is at the root of discrimination on the grounds of leprosy. It is labelling, and not leprosy itself, that disrupts the social location[[fn:2]] of a person diagnosed with the disease and that symbolically homogenizes a group of people within deeply ingrained stereotypes framed by negative attributes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "The Special Rapporteur makes use of the concept as presented in the report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences (A/HRC/17/26)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "The overlapping of harmful stereotypes, wrongful stereotyping[[fn:3]] and structural iniquities strengthens exclusion, discrimination and violence on the grounds of leprosy and compromises the enjoyment of fundamental rights, such as dignity, equality and nondiscrimination, by millions of persons affected by leprosy worldwide, as well as by many of their family members. Stigmatization of persons affected by leprosy remains institutionalized in the State’s architecture and functioning: more than 50 countries in the world keep hundreds of discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy in force,[[fn:4]] while discriminatory practices at the State’s administration services endure. 1 The Special Rapporteur wishes to express her gratitude to the valuable cooperation received from States; national human rights institutions; the World Health Organization (WHO); the Pan-American Health Organization; national leprosy programmes; the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, in particular the Sasakawa Memorial Health Foundation; the International Federation’s panel of persons affected by leprosy; Global Partnership for Zero Leprosy; leprosy and law experts and activists; organizations of persons affected by leprosy and their representatives; and, most of all, to the women and men affected by leprosy, as well as many of their family members, who consistently support the Special Rapporteur’s work. 2 The Special Rapporteur makes use of the concept as presented in the report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences (A/HRC/17/26). 3 The Special Rapporteur makes use of the conceptual frame developed in the report commissioned by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights entitled Gender Stereotyping as a Human Rights Violation (2013). 4 See www.ilepfederation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Updated-discriminatory-laws-table-Final1.pdf. II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "The Special Rapporteur makes use of the conceptual frame developed in the report commissioned by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights entitled Gender Stereotyping as a Human Rights Violation (2013)."}, {"n": 4, "text": "See www.ilepfederation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Updated-discriminatory-laws-table-Final-1.pdf."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Harmful stereotypes not only contribute to generating stigmatized categories and identities, but are also drivers for the dehumanization of groups of people. The process through which a group of people comes to be regarded as less human than others has stereotyping at its core. Furthermore, dehumanization and the exercise of abuse and violence are inextricably linked, since they are mutually reinforcing. That is why stereotyping is a paramount mechanism to be addressed in the prevention of violations and the promotion of human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "A. Dehumanization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "Stereotypes are produced through fixity and repetition. Stereotypes fix socially and historically produced patterns of representation on a particular group of people. The repetition of such fixed patterns in different situations allows for its universalization as “natural” truths. Stereotypes also work by excess and default. Labels that deprive people of their identify and of their right to a dignified life are awarded excessive visibility (by social representations from different sources), while insufficient visibility is accorded to the commonalities between the affected individuals and the rest of society. This deprives those individuals of the opportunity to participate in the larger community, and is a violation of their rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "A. Dehumanization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Extreme dehumanization becomes possible when the target group can readily be identified as a separate category of persons who are stereotyped and stigmatized as inferior, dangerous or uncivilized.[[fn:5]] Through dehumanization, moral restraints that prevent the exercise of abuse and violence upon certain groups of people lose strength. Dehumanized groups are regarded as disposable and their annihilation (civil or material) is morally established as acceptable.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Extreme examples of dehumanization are described in article 7 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court."}, {"n": 6, "text": "Herbert C. Kelman, “Violence without moral restraint: reflection on the dehumanization of victims and victimizers”, Journal of Social Issues, vol. 29, No. 4 (1973), pp. 25–61."}], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "A. Dehumanization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy were historically dehumanized under the harmful stereotype of the leper. Such stigmatizing sign (and its different cultural versions) has been employed throughout history as a label that subsumes a group of individuals under the negative attribute of a disease socially perceived as undesirable, pollutant and dangerous.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "A. Dehumanization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Protest against the widespread use of the stigmatizing sign of the “leper” arose in the mid-twentieth century, when persons who were forcibly segregated by State policies claimed that as long as stigmatizing language was in use, discrimination would persist.[[fn:7]] However, the outcome of this struggle was still largely in the control of the medical community, who decided in favour of the expression “persons with leprosy” to replace the ostracizing sign of the “leper”, using it interchangeably with the noun “patient” and conferring, as such, equal meanings to both terms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Perry Burgess, “Shall we change the names leper and leprosy? Eradication of leprosy”, in Memoria del V Congreso Internacional de la Lepra (Havana, Cenit, 1949), pp. 818–819."}], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "A. Dehumanization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "It was only in the late twentieth century that representatives of already established organizations of persons affected by leprosy moved against the hegemony of biomedicine in classifying groups of persons by diseases and rejected the expression “persons with leprosy”. In their view, the expression continued to put leprosy at the forefront of their identities and concealed the fact that many persons had already been cured of the infection caused by Mycobacterium leprae, even though they continued to live with physical impairments, discrimination and disability.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "A. Dehumanization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The currently used expression “persons affected by leprosy” was adopted as the first step towards self-identification to simultaneously refer to individuals currently under 5 Extreme examples of dehumanization are described in article 7 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. 6 Herbert C. Kelman, “Violence without moral restraint: reflection on the dehumanization of victims and victimizers”, Journal of Social Issues, vol. 29, No. 4 (1973), pp. 25–61. 7 Perry Burgess, “Shall we change the names leper and leprosy? Eradication of leprosy”, in Memoria del V Congreso Internacional de la Lepra (Havana, Cenit, 1949), pp. 818–819. treatment for leprosy and individuals who had been cured of leprosy. It has also been suggested that this expression encompasses family members of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "A. Dehumanization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The Special Rapporteur makes use of the expression “persons affected by leprosy” in accordance with Human Rights Council resolution 35/9 and due to the lack of an alternative terminology emerging from a self-identification process. Notwithstanding, she targets the knowledge gaps that persistently represent persons affected by leprosy as a homogeneous group.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "A. Dehumanization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members simultaneously draw inspiration from the provisions of legally binding human rights instruments[[fn:8]] and recognize persons affected by leprosy and their family members as a group of individuals in need of special measures for eliminating the root causes that perpetuate substantive discrimination against them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Universal Declaration of Human Rights; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment; Convention on the Rights of the Child; Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families; and Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities."}], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "B. The principles and guidelines as a road map towards formal and substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The principles and guidelines are thus in agreement with general comment No. 20 (2009) on non-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The principles and guidelines clarify the normative content of legally binding international human rights instruments, providing guidance on how to enforce human rights in the specific context of the systemic and structural violation of the human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "B. The principles and guidelines as a road map towards formal and substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Firstly, the principles and guidelines are an example of non-treaty standards that reinforce customary law. International human rights norms prohibit inhuman and degrading treatment, as well as arbitrary detention. Such is the point of departure of the principles and guidelines, which recognize the massive violation of the human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members through the enactment of discriminatory policies and institutionalized practices. The principles and guidelines condemn the results of the aforementioned policies and practices, which have contributed to systematic and widespread violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "B. The principles and guidelines as a road map towards formal and substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Secondly, the principles and guidelines embody the fundamental values of international human rights norms. Therefore, they reaffirm and seek to reinforce compulsory general principles of human rights as established by several treaties and conventions such as dignity, non-discrimination and equality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "B. The principles and guidelines as a road map towards formal and substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Thirdly, the multilayered discrimination on the grounds of leprosy calls for acknowledging multiple intersections of leprosy with gender, ethnicity and/or race, age, disability, migration and poverty. This also means that in order to eliminate discrimination on the grounds of leprosy, persons affected by leprosy and their family members are entitled to the rights established for these different social groups and they should be enforced accordingly.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "B. The principles and guidelines as a road map towards formal and substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "In sum, the principles and guidelines underpin the normative integration of several international human rights instruments, interpreting and translating legally binding norms in close connection with the conditions and needs of the particular group of persons affected by leprosy and their family members. They provide States with a road map for monitoring the situation of persons affected by leprosy and their family members and for implementing measures that, by enforcing international human rights law, can guarantee formal and substantive equality.", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "B. The principles and guidelines as a road map towards formal and substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Guideline 3 of the principles and guidelines identifies the adverse impact of leprosy on women and children and recommends the adoption of necessary measures to eliminate discrimination against more vulnerable groups to leprosy-related violations.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "C. Subordination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "It is the view of the Special Rapporteur that vulnerability must be approached as a result of disadvantage caused by unequal power relations and not as an ontological feature of a group of persons.[[fn:9]] This is particularly important in the case of women and children, who are often silenced as political subjects by essentialist views that overlook their agency in the face of disadvantage and impair their participation in decision-making processes. For such reasons, the pervasive structural disadvantage that allocates women and children to the context of intersecting vulnerabilities and multilayered discrimination is addressed by the Special Rapporteur as subordination.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "On vulnerability, see A/HRC/38/42."}, {"n": 10, "text": "The Special Rapporteur agrees with general recommendation No. 19 (1992) on violence against women of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, which addresses how the subordinated social location of women contributes to gender-based violence."}], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "C. Subordination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Subordination is understood as the historical devaluation of some groups of people under hierarchical social structures that, by producing and reproducing an unequal distribution of power, severely constrain their autonomy and participation. Subordination is the structural landscape where the vulnerability of women and children is framed, with accompanying corollaries of subdued participation, neglected intentionality and unrecognized agency.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "C. Subordination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "If a shared subordinate status is the uniting bond between these two groups, women and children should nevertheless not be treated as a composite concept. Such an approach mirrors the widespread and pervasive exclusion of both groups from culture, public life and politics and into their opposites, that is, biology, private life and nature. For this reason, the Special Rapporteur unpicks the composite concept and highlights women and children as distinct social groups.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "C. Subordination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Article 1 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women explicitly identifies as its object the elimination of any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex. Anchoring the target group of the Convention thus allows for universalizing protection onto what is a highly diverse group. Not only is gender the product of power relations that, throughout historical dynamics, imprints patterns of difference that are enacted in and by hierarchized social relations; the embodiment of womanhood is also anchored in iniquities and is far from giving rise to a universal experience. Nor is the concept of woman a discrete and unitary category. In fact, a monolithic model of woman can exclude and affirm inequality by rendering invisible other axes of oppression interconnected with structures of power, as shown by intersectionality theory. At the same time, recourse to strategic essentialism[[fn:11]] may be necessary to develop a more positive stance from which common subordination can be interrogated and challenged. The aim should then be that equality becomes compatible with diversity. Therefore, the Special Rapporteur looks at women affected by leprosy as a plural group that, its contingency notwithstanding, experience shared patterns of subordination and structural violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "G.C. Spivak, In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics (New York, Routledge, 1988)."}], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "C. Subordination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Article 1 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child defines a child as a person below the age of 18, unless the laws of a particular country set the legal age for adulthood younger. Making use of age to define who a child is allows for universalizing protection, as in the case of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. However, it seems to be more difficult to acknowledge the historical dynamics that produce different versions of childhood, which is equally traversed by power relations, than it is to recognize gender as a social construct. Childhood is seldom seen as a subject of articulate scrutiny, reinforcing the lens through which children are seen as weak, vulnerable and incapable; as adults-to-be. The Special Rapporteur approaches children affected by leprosy as social beings whose world is constructed within a historical and cultural frame of reference, and childhood is considered as a period in which children function as a category of a social group immersed in unequal power relations that constrain their autonomy, agency and recognition as rights bearers.[[fn:12]] Children are also regarded as contributors to social thinking and policymaking, and the child’s right to protection, as well as to participation, is emphasized.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "J. Qvortrup and others, eds., Childhood Matters: Social Theory, Practice and Politics (Avebury, United Kingdom, Aldershot, 1994)."}], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "C. Subordination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "An overall male-over-female preponderance in the incidence of leprosy has dominated epidemiological reports of the disease. In 2017, out of the 210,671 new cases reported by 150 countries to the World Health Organization (WHO), only 82,922 (39.3 per cent) were women. Moreover, there are no disaggregated data for women with grade 2 disability[[fn:13]] at the time of diagnosis.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Grade 2 disability refers to visible impairment. The grading system used by the Global Leprosy Programme consists of grade 0, meaning no impairment; grade 1, meaning loss of sensation in the hand, eye or foot; and grade 2, meaning visible impairment. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur uses the terms “impairment” to refer to the loss of functioning or detriment to the health of persons affected by leprosy, and “disability” to refer to the social responses of discrimination and exclusion due to leprosy-related impairments. This distinction is based upon the social model of disability, which is embraced by the Special Rapporteur in her work."}, {"n": 14, "text": "WHO, Weekly Epidemiological Record, vol. 93, No. 35 (31 August 2018), pp. 445–456."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "For decades, biomedical readings of such discrepancy placed biology at the centre of the explanation, overlooking the fact that women in different regions of the world generally have less access to health care. Such interpretation of available data may subsidize long-prevailing non-equitable and discriminatory access by women to their rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The recognition of women’s central role in family health care – especially reproductive and children’s health – contributed to gender-sensitive approaches in public health. At present, the WHO Global Leprosy Strategy (2016–2020) recognizes women as a priority group. Notwithstanding, generalized underreporting prevails. Lack of a gender framework and gender-sensitive indicators, as well as critical analysis of available data (namely, how the data are collected, its quality – completeness and accuracy – and what they represent) are contributing factors to knowledge gaps.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Independent studies in demarcated territories reveal that active-case finding of leprosy at the community level balances the sex ratio, which ascertains generalized underdetection. Independent studies also point to delays in diagnosis and possible higher risk of women to developing leprosy-related physical impairments and disability, which calls for official reporting of disaggregated data on physical impairments at the time of diagnosis for women.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "R. Sarkar and P. Swetalina, “Leprosy and women”, International Journal of Women’s Dermatology, vol. 2 (2016), pp. 117–121."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Some of the institutional barriers to diagnosis and prevention of physical impairments in women result from institutional mediating factors, such as discriminatory legal frames; underfinancing of health care and poorly implemented policies for prevention, care and rehabilitation; status of leprosy services integration into primary care; the reach of health services; and the gender of the health-care workforce in primary care services.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "However, non-addressed social barriers are also a leading cause of deficient access by women to the highest attainable standard of health (A/HRC/32/44). Some of the aforementioned barriers are harmful traditional beliefs and practices; the low status assigned to women, which is at the root of women’s widespread self-concealment of the disease; dependency of women’s access to health services on third-party authorization; women’s limited mobility; illiteracy; and poor knowledge of leprosy.[[fn:16]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "U.-B. Engelbrektsson, Challenged Lives: A Medical Anthropological Study of Leprosy in Nepal (Göteborg, Sweden, University of Gothenburg, 2012); and I. Schuller and others, “The way women experience disabilities and especially disabilities related to leprosy in rural areas in South Sulawesi, Indonesia”, Asia Pacific Disability Rehabilitation Journal, vol. 21, No. 1 (2010), pp. 60–70."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Women’s socioeconomic life conditions, such as quality of nutrition (suggested by some studies to impact cell-mediated immunity and influence the progression of the disease)[[fn:17]] or daily household activities (hindering self-care and exposing women to physical trauma that can lead to impairments), influence public health strategy outcomes at the micro social and individual levels.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Sarkar, “Leprosy and women”."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The global health system at the macro level should also be targeted towards improving the well-being of women affected by leprosy. Knowledge gaps are a harsh reality when it comes to the linkage between leprosy and sexual and reproductive health. Such correlation is hypothesized by independent studies on the following topics: (a) pregnancy and lactation may be contributing factors to leprosy reactions and subsequent nerve damage (the main cause of leprosy-related impairments); (b) leprosy may affect women’s fertility; (c) the health of newborns and children may be impacted by their mother’s leprosy status.[[fn:18]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "There is sufficient knowledge on the side effects of available drugs for treating leprosy on women’s sexual and reproductive rights: (a) thalidomide, a drug that treats nerve-damaging reactions, if not properly managed with informed consent can lead to malformation in babies; (b) clofazimine, one of the first-line drugs used in multidrug therapy,[[fn:19]] produces reversible skin pigmentation, which nonetheless may cause adverse consequences on women’s social life; and (c) steroids, commonly used for treating nerve damage, can cause dependence and its chronic use can lead to irreversible changes in bodily appearance, decalcification and diabetes, negatively impacting women’s quality of life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Leprosy is curable with a combination of drugs known as multidrug therapy."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "Lack of gender-sensitive strategies and obsolete drugs reflect the negative synergies between the patriarchal nature of biomedicine as an institution that still fails to take into full consideration sexual and reproductive rights (A/HRC/32/44) and the increasing mercantilization of health, which is responsible for the disinvestment in basic and pharmacological research on diseases with greater incidence among marginalized populations. Unmistakably, one of the cross-cutting effects of the mercantilization of health is the prorogation of obsolete drugs that can be simultaneously inefficient and capable of generating iatrogenic effects that, given general patterns of gender subordination, marginalization and invisibility, have a greater impact on women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "Clearly, leprosy in women is a typical instance of the intersection of the institutional and extra-institutional mediating factors of health, well-being and enjoyment of rights at the different macro, intermediary, micro and individual levels.[[fn:20]] Leprosy in women is also testimony to the need for a human rights approach, based upon the principles of intersectionality/affirmative action, vulnerability/intersectorality and lay knowledge/ participation (A/HRC/38/42).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "A. Cruz, “Leprosy as a multilayered biosocial phenomenon: the comparison of institutional responses and illness narratives of an endemic disease in Brazil and an imported disease in Portugal”, Clinics in Dermatology, vol. 34, No. 1 (2016), pp. 16–23."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Evidence suggests that women affected by leprosy are structurally more discriminated against than men affected by leprosy. Studies point to gender disadvantage in the social, health and/or psychological domain, with a higher percentage of women experiencing stigmatization and lower quality of life.[[fn:21]] However, such studies seldom take into consideration the relation of the intersection of leprosy and gender with other axes of oppression such as ethnicity and/or race, age, disability, migration and poverty, merely highlighting the tip of the iceberg.[[fn:22]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "J. Dijkstra, W.V. Brakel and M.V. Elteren, “Gender and leprosy-related stigma in endemic areas: a systematic review”, Leprosy Review, vol. 88 (2017), pp. 419–440; and R.M. Peters and others, “Narratives around concealment and agency for stigma-reduction: a study of women affected by leprosy in Cirebon District, Indonesia”, Disability, CBR and Inclusive Development, vol. 25, No. 4 (2014), pp. 5–21."}, {"n": 22, "text": "A. Castro and P. Farmer, “Understanding and addressing AIDS-related stigma: from anthropological theory to clinical practice in Haiti”, American Journal of Public Health, vol. 95, No. 1 (2005), pp. 53–59."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "By the same token, if there is a general underrepresentation of women in political and public life, the absence of women affected by leprosy in programmes and policies that directly affect them, as well as in the leadership of civil society organizations and organizations of persons affected by leprosy, is alarming. Giving voice to women affected by leprosy would lead to the recognition of the correlation between leprosy, gender-based violence, civil death and, in some cases, even material death.[[fn:23]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Engelbrektsson, Challenged Lives. See also A/HRC/35/10 for the importance of addressing these intersections and their impact on women and girls."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The age group in which leprosy is most commonly diagnosed in children under 15 years of age is between 10 and 14 years. This is due to the disease’s long incubation period following exposure. The next most affected age group is between 5 and 9 years of age. However, cases among younger children have also been found and, more rarely, cases in infants of less than 1 year have also been reported.[[fn:24]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "M.B.B. Oliveira, “Leprosy among children under 15 years of age: literature review”, Anais Brasileiros de Dermatologia, vol. 91, No. 2 (2016), pp. 196–203."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "Due to the immaturity of their immune system, children appear to be more prone to leprosy than other members of the same household,[[fn:25]] which should raise concerns about their vulnerability to leprosy and prompt special measures to protect them.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "Of the total of 210,671 new cases reported by 150 countries to WHO in 2017, 16,979 (about 8 per cent) were children under 15 years of age, a shamefully high figure. Of the total of 5,591 new cases in children, among priority countries that reported new cases in children under 15 years of age with grade 2 disabilities, 202 presented visible physical impairments, including irreversible damage to the nerves, hands, feet, limbs and eyes, at the time of diagnosis. However, some countries with a high incidence of leprosy, such as India, Nepal, Nigeria and the Philippines, did not provide disaggregated data on grade 2 disabilities at the time of diagnosis for adults and children, meaning that the aforementioned 202 reported cases are a major underestimation.[[fn:26]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "WHO, Weekly Epidemiological Record."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Still, these data only reflect the situation at the time of diagnosis. Independent studies in delimited territories have found a substantial hidden prevalence of leprosy among children in endemic areas, which also indicates a hidden prevalence among adults. Up to 11 per cent of children with visible physical impairments at the time of diagnosis, increasing to 27.3 per cent during follow-up, have also been found.[[fn:27]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "J.G. Barreto and others, “Leprosy in children”, Current Infectious Diseases Reports, vol. 19, Issue 6 (2017), pp. 19–23."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "Data from independent studies suggest two critical concerns: (a) enduring underdetection of new cases of leprosy in children, accompanied by late diagnosis, are both causal factors of physical and psychosocial impairments and disabilities; and (b) physical impairments that can worsen over time without proper care require follow-up studies, the absence of which hinders a clear understanding of the real conditions faced by children affected by leprosy in the medium and long term.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 43, "n": 59, "text": "23 Engelbrektsson, Challenged Lives. See also A/HRC/35/10 for the importance of addressing these intersections and their impact on women and girls. 24 M.B.B. Oliveira, “Leprosy among children under 15 years of age: literature review”, Anais Brasileiros de Dermatologia, vol. 91, No. 2 (2016), pp. 196–203. 25 Ibid. 26 WHO, Weekly Epidemiological Record. 27 J.G. Barreto and others, “Leprosy in children”, Current Infectious Diseases Reports, vol. 19, Issue 6 (2017), pp. 19–23.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 44, "n": 43, "text": "The outbreak of cases in children and adolescents points to recent transmission, as well as to the failure of the health-care system to control the disease. The number of new cases of leprosy among children with visible physical impairments at the time of diagnosis directly reflects late case detection, alongside the incapacity of the health-care system to identify leprosy. However, such evidence should not be taken as a mere indicator of the strength of the epidemic and should also support effective public health strategies capable of ensuring access to the highest attainable standard of health among vulnerable populations and groups.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 45, "n": 44, "text": "Diagnosis and treatment of leprosy in children require medical expertise, since both demand adjustments to immature cognition, perception and bodies. This poses a significant challenge in the global scenario of decline in medical expertise to diagnose and treat leprosy.[[fn:28]] Techniques normally used to diagnose leprosy are not fit for children as they require cooperation from the children, and some may even be experienced as violence.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "N. Mistry and others, “Childhood leprosy revisited”, Pediatric Oncall Journal, vol. 13, No. 4 (October–December 2016), pp. 83–92."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 46, "n": 45, "text": "Such difficulties and barriers are surely a contributing factor for underdetection and late diagnosis, but they are also a result of the diminished public apprehension of leprosy that followed the global elimination of leprosy as a public health problem (defined as a registered prevalence of less than 1 case for every 10,000 persons) in 2000.[[fn:29]] This situation has been generally misunderstood as eradication, when in fact such a scenario is unlikely in the future.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 47, "n": 46, "text": "Treatment dropout rates in children range from 10 to 20 per cent in some programmes, the main cause being the child’s refusal to cooperate in swallowing tablets and the long duration of the treatment, which can be physically challenging and painful. Child-friendly treatment options like flavoured syrups would provide greater quality to the care of children with leprosy and would also help in securing adherence to the treatment. However, no such paediatric formulations are on the horizon, given the overall lack of funds for leprosy.[[fn:30]] Such lack of biomedical technologies that can provide better care is grounded in the mercantilization of health.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 48, "n": 47, "text": "Children are not only more vulnerable to leprosy, but also to the harmful stereotypes that still frame many of the local explanatory models about the disease and that also support stigmatization at the community level, as well as institutionalized, structural and interpersonal discrimination. However, lack of comprehensive data on how harmful stereotypes and traditional practices impact the well-being of affected children is a major void in leprosy research. There is also scarce knowledge on the impact of discrimination on the grounds of leprosy against children of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 49, "n": 48, "text": "Discrimination on any grounds can be fully understood only if the phenomenological dimension enacted in the daily lives of its victims is properly acknowledged. Such phenomenological dimension allows for uncovering epistemological possibilities that cannot be grasped or generated by representations produced by dominant groups.[[fn:31]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "S. Harding, “Rethinking standpoint epistemology: what is ‘strong objectivity’?”, in The Feminist Standpoint Theory Reader: Intellectual and Political Controversies (New York, Routledge, 2002); and D.J. Haraway, “Situated knowledges: the science question in feminism and the privilege of partial perspective”, Feminist Studies, vol. 14, No. 3 (Autumn 1988), pp. 575–599."}], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 50, "n": 49, "text": "In order to assess discrimination from below, the Special Rapporteur strived at giving voice to people living in extreme vulnerable conditions and who are, in consequence, 28 N. Mistry and others, “Childhood leprosy revisited”, Pediatric Oncall Journal, vol. 13, No. 4 (October–December 2016), pp. 83–92. 29 Ibid. 30 Ibid. 31 S. Harding, “Rethinking standpoint epistemology: what is ‘strong objectivity’?”, in The Feminist Standpoint Theory Reader: Intellectual and Political Controversies (New York, Routledge, 2002); and D.J. Haraway, “Situated knowledges: the science question in feminism and the privilege of partial perspective”, Feminist Studies, vol. 14, No. 3 (Autumn 1988), pp. 575–599. persistently silenced by structural disadvantage, low participation in the public sphere and generalized lack of access to information.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 51, "n": 50, "text": "The Special Rapporteur undertook an online and individual consultation with persons affected by leprosy, their family members, health workers and non-governmental organization (NGO) personnel. A total of 575 responses were received from the following eight high-burden countries: Brazil, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Myanmar, Nigeria and the Philippines. Responses were also received from Benin, Cabo Verde, China, Colombia, France, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Paraguay, Switzerland, Timor-Leste, Trinidad and Tobago, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the United States of America and Venezuela. The majority of the responses came from India, Brazil and Myanmar.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 52, "n": 51, "text": "Women affected by leprosy provided 31.9 per cent of the responses, men affected by leprosy 33.6 per cent, female family members of persons affected 9.8 per cent, male family members of persons affected 8 per cent and other categories, such as health and NGO workers, 16.7 per cent; 72 per cent of the respondents live in a rural area and the majority do not take part in any organization. Due to the limitation of available methods and required ethical procedures for consulting with children, it was not possible to consult with children affected by leprosy, as would have been desirable.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in rural/remote areas", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 53, "n": 52, "text": "The data received were not broken down into demographic variables such as ethnicity and/or race, age, disability or socioeconomic conditions, since the consultation merely intended to provide a preliminary assessment able to identify generic areas of concern. Confidentiality was strictly ensured during data collection and processing. Collected data point to ongoing discrimination against women and children affected by leprosy (including female and underage family members) and allow for identifying the main areas where the human rights of both groups are jeopardized, unfulfilled and violated.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 54, "n": 1, "text": "Harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 55, "n": 53, "text": "When asked about the traditional beliefs regarding leprosy, the majority of responses pointed to the persistence of religious beliefs (grounded in different religious traditions) that classify leprosy as the result of sins committed in current or past lives by the affected person or by the affected person’s ancestors; God’s punishment on the individual and/or the family; a curse pronounced by ancestors; sorcery; possession by evil spirits; and punishment for adultery and/or sexual promiscuity. Leprosy is also attributed to a particular race or caste and to women. Finally, erroneous misconceptions produced by late nineteenth century “modern” medicine, which held that leprosy was a hereditary disease or a highly contagious one transmitted by touch and without a cure, still prevail. Regarding discriminatory language, 52.3 per cent of the respondents confirmed that it is commonly employed.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "1. Harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 56, "n": 54, "text": "When asked about the traditional practices regarding leprosy, responses evinced how harmful stereotypes about leprosy can lead to informal segregation and widespread exclusion by treating individuals as untouchable; segregating individuals within the household and also prohibiting them from leaving the house; divorce on the grounds of leprosy and prohibiting marriage with an affected person or any of his/her family members; barring individuals from participating in religious and community activities as well as in economic transactions; dismissing individuals from their jobs; pushing individuals into begging; and banishing individuals from the community. In fact, 42.7 per cent of the respondents confirmed that affected persons face rejection and/or segregation from their families and communities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "1. Harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 57, "n": 55, "text": "When asked if these traditional beliefs have a more adverse impact on women affected by leprosy than on men affected by leprosy, 45.5 per cent of the responses confirmed that this is the case, citing the following practices: driving out from the household without financial resources to ensure survival (which is at the root of a considerable number of affected women begging and/or selling sex); abuse within the household as a result of women experiencing difficulties in performing the role expected of them (due to pain and other physical impairments caused by leprosy); and lack of resources to fight against discrimination (including lack of access to justice).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "1. Harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 58, "n": 56, "text": "When asked if these traditional beliefs have a more adverse impact on children affected by leprosy, respondents identified the following discriminatory practices against this group: expulsion from schools; separation at school from other students; peer rejection; and segregation.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "1. Harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 59, "n": 57, "text": "Harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping produce and reproduce symbolic violence that, by enacting dehumanizing labelling and accompanying harmful practices,[[fn:32]] sustain informal segregation from community life and denial of fundamental human rights. Harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping have a stronger impact on women and children affected by leprosy due to the low social status attributed to both groups in many societies and to the subordinated position ascribed to them by pervasive and unequal power relations.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "The Special Rapporteur grounds her analysis on joint general recommendation No. 31 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women/general comment No. 18 of the Committee on the Rights of the Child (2014) on harmful practices."}], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "1. Harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 60, "n": 2, "text": "Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence[[fn:33]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "For the concepts of interpersonal, institutional and structural violence, see A/HRC/17/26."}], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "1. Harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 61, "n": 58, "text": "When asked if, as a result of discrimination on the grounds of leprosy, women affected by leprosy experience low self-esteem and isolate themselves, 56.3 per cent of the respondents confirmed that they did, 27 per cent said that they did not and the remaining respondents did not know. The same question applied to children received 40.1 per cent positive responses and 33.1 per cent negative responses. When asked if, also as a result of discrimination on the grounds of leprosy, women experience depression and/or suicidal thoughts, 48.7 per cent of respondents answered positively and 37.4 per cent negatively. The same question applied to children received 41 per cent negative responses and 35.3 per cent positive ones. Such data suggest the internalization of stigmatization as a result of extreme psychological violence.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 62, "n": 59, "text": "Regarding violence against women on the grounds of leprosy, responses pointed to an intersection of leprosy and gender that amounts to the already ascribed subordinated position of women. The following practices were described: separation from children and not being allowed to feed them; verbal abuse from family and community members; beatings perpetrated by family members who regard women affected by leprosy as sinners and/or indolent due to the difficulties they face in fulfilling household activities when living with chronic pain and physical impairments; sexual abuse and violence perpetrated by the spouse and family members; abuse from medical workers; and suicide attempts.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 63, "n": 60, "text": "Children affected by leprosy also experience violence on the grounds of leprosy as a result of the intersection of harmful stereotypes about leprosy and the low social status attributed to children. The former reflects, and is strengthened by, the non-recognition of children as autonomous social beings and the bearers of rights. According to the majority of the responses, children affected by leprosy are subjected to bullying; verbal and physical abuse from family members, neighbours and schoolteachers; physical punishments for going into public spaces; sexual abuse; and isolation (mainly driven by their parents and community members). There are many reports of attempted suicide among adults who were diagnosed with leprosy in childhood and who experienced multilayered stigmatization from a very early age, demonstrating how stigmatization impacts the overall life course of children.[[fn:34]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "Children who have been abused or neglected are often hampered in their development, as described in United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), Hidden in Plain Sight: A Statistical Analysis of Violence against Children (New York, 2014). That is one of the main reasons why the Special Rapporteur considers interpersonal discrimination against children as a violent act."}], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 64, "n": 61, "text": "Children of persons affected by leprosy can also experience similar patterns of violations. In fact, some of the children of persons affected by leprosy who were forcibly segregated by State policies were also segregated by State policies that were stricter than those applied to their parents and had a greater impact in the overall life course of these individuals (A/HRC/38/42).[[fn:35]] This particular group suffered from alienation from their families without consent, imprisonment and other inhumane acts such as torture and physical, sexual and psychological violence within the places built for their confinement, and many live today with severe psychosocial disabilities as well as with physical impairments that resulted from the extreme violence to which they were subjected in such institutions. Their experience shows how institutional and interpersonal violence intersect, generating harmful synergies.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See also J. Robertson, “Leprosy’s untainted child”, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 92, No. 2 (2018), pp. 261–286; G. Maricato and A.M.S. Custódio, “Sequestro e negligência como política de Estado: experiências da segunda geração de atingidos pela hanseníase”, Saúde em Redes, vol. 4, No. 1 (2018), pp. 153–168; and F. Othani, The Walls Crumble: The Emancipation of Persons Affected by Hansen’s Disease in Japan (Tokyo, Tofy Kyokai Association, 1998)."}], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 65, "n": 62, "text": "The intersection of leprosy with other social conditions was preliminarily mapped on the basis of a question on which categories enhance women’s vulnerability to discrimination on the grounds of leprosy. The question allowed each respondent to choose more than one option. Poverty was chosen 412 times, religious affiliation 235, ethnic affiliation 230, marital status 209, race 192 and age 159. With respect to children affected by leprosy, poverty was chosen 364 times, religious affiliation 230, ethnic affiliation 210, gender 191 and race 174. Undoubtedly, poverty seems to be the category that most strongly intersects with leprosy in terms of a discrimination outcome for both groups, highlighting the intersection of leprosy and social iniquities.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 66, "n": 63, "text": "Answers to questions on the traditional role attributed to women, women’s work and economic independence varied from region to region, reflecting different cultural patterns and what could be called a “geopolitics of patriarchy”. Since the Special Rapporteur only aimed at providing a preliminary assessment, the information gathered is presented in a generic way. Household activities, caretaking of family members and agricultural work predominate in the responses to the question on the role attributed to women, also signalling that women affected by leprosy mainly undertake unpaid care and household work, which greatly contributes to the feminization of poverty and gender inequality (A/68/293).", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 67, "n": 64, "text": "However, collected data also suggest a tendency towards an increase in the double working day for women affected by leprosy in all regions. By the same token, responses consistently pointed to unreliable casual labour, low wages and unsafe and degrading working conditions. In fact, most responses indicated that work falls mainly outside the formal economy, without an entitlement to social security benefits.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 68, "n": 65, "text": "Notwithstanding, when asked if the work performed by women provides for independent means of subsistence, 47.1 per cent of the respondents answered no, 38.4 per cent answered yes and 14.5 per cent declared that they did not know. In fact, 65.9 per cent of the respondents affirmed that affected women are not economically independent and identify the family as the main source of income, along with begging, government annuities and international NGOs.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 69, "n": 66, "text": "Particularly relevant to the well-being of women affected by leprosy (especially when considering that for the majority of women affected by leprosy daily activities encompass physical labour that can have an adverse impact on the physical impairments caused by leprosy) was the question on access to adequate utensils (for instance, cooking utensils that can prevent women who have lost sensation from being burned and in consequence develop wounds that can ulcerate and lead to permanent trauma), rest periods and self-care practices that allow for preventing physical impairments, as well as worsening them. Most responses pointed to an intersection with class, declaring that very few women have the means to prevent physical impairments and its negative evolution, which considerably hinders their enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and well-being.[[fn:36]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "The Special Rapporteur adopts in her work the concept of the right to health as enshrined in article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and deepened by general comment No. 14 (2000) on the right to the highest attainable standard of health of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights."}], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 70, "n": 67, "text": "By the same token, responses to the question about protection by work legislation during treatment in the case of physical impairments and disability evinced a low awareness of rights, with 31.6 per cent affirmative answers, 30 per cent negative replies, and as many as 38.4 per cent of responders affirming that they did not know. Concomitantly, the same question applied to mothers of children affected by leprosy, asking whether work legislation allows them to care for their children affected by leprosy during treatment, received 29.4 per cent positive replies and 29.4 per cent negative answers, while 41.2 per cent did not know the answer.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 71, "n": 68, "text": "In turn, when asked if women affected by leprosy-related disabilities have access to social security benefits, 56.4 per cent of the respondents replied yes, 25.7 per cent no and 17.9 per cent did not know, which is an encouraging indicator. However, the question on which impairments are recognized by State policies and administrations as disability highlighted a knowledge gap and low awareness of leprosy’s characteristics among State policymakers and workers that fails to acknowledge non-visible physical impairments as falling under the umbrella of disability rights.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 72, "n": 69, "text": "With regard to social protection of children affected by leprosy, the responses to the question whether there are any measures in place for protecting the rights of children affected by leprosy-related disabilities were mainly “don’t know”. Accordingly, the responses to the question on the existence of measures in place to ensure that children affected by leprosy-related disabilities can proceed with their studies with reasonable accommodation evinced low awareness of rights as well as deficient access to enshrined international human rights, with 35.6 per cent of the responses being affirmative, 34.5 per cent negative and 29.9 per cent answering “don’t know”.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 73, "n": 70, "text": "With respect to health care, the majority of responses pointed to the existence of a health system in place that provides medical care for leprosy. The main gaps, according to the responses received, occur due to the inability of the system to address extra-institutional barriers to the right to the highest attainable standard of health and also to provide complementary care, especially after bacteriological cure. Many responses also pointed to practices of medical pluralism and ongoing recourse to traditional healers to treat leprosy with religious healing and exorcising, among other practices. When asked to choose from among several barriers to access to health services, those most frequently chosen were the lack of health facilities near the home and lack of financial resources.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 74, "n": 71, "text": "Finally, participation was also assessed, and collected data point to very low participation of women affected by leprosy, and even less by children affected by leprosy, in health services and settings, outreach activities, organizations of persons affected by leprosy and NGOs, as well as in the design, target-setting, prioritization, delivery or monitoring of local/regional/national planning for leprosy.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 75, "n": 72, "text": "Lack of access by persons affected by leprosy and their family members to substantive equality is a result of the structural violence imposed upon this group that keeps the group enclosed in a spiral of disadvantage. Structural violence reflects the systematic restrictions that impair people who occupy the bottom rungs of society from meeting their basic needs and that may even cause harm in a way that leads to deprivation and denial of fundamental human rights. This is even more the case of women and children affected by leprosy who, due to the intersection of leprosy with gender and age, experience widespread and systemic structural violence.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 76, "n": 73, "text": "With a view to supporting the work undertaken by Governments and civil society organizations to eliminate discrimination on the grounds of leprosy, the Special Rapporteur attempted to map institutional and public responses to leprosy and related violations with respect to women and children by means of a consultation with States and leprosy organizations.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 77, "n": 74, "text": "Thirteen States responded to the call by the Special Rapporteur, providing detailed information on measures in place to tackle leprosy and discrimination on those grounds. Contributions were received from Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Burundi, Côte d’Ivoire, Ecuador, Georgia, Guatemala, Japan, Montenegro, Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines and Tunisia. The majority of the responses came from non-priority countries, with the exception of Brazil, Côte d’Ivoire and the Philippines, which still have a high burden of leprosy. Such a gap calls for sturdier cooperation from priority countries.[[fn:37]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "WHO priority countries for leprosy are: Angola, Bangladesh, Brazil, Comoros, Côte d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Micronesia (Federated States of), India, Indonesia, Kiribati, Madagascar, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Nigeria, Philippines, South Sudan, Sri Lanka, Sudan and United Republic of Tanzania."}], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 78, "n": 75, "text": "Sixteen civil society organizations provided valuable inputs from high-burden countries (Bangladesh, Brazil, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, India, Nepal and Nigeria) and low-burden countries (Cambodia, China, Colombia, Japan, Malaysia, Pakistan and Papua New Guinea).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 79, "n": 76, "text": "Four national human rights institutions, from Azerbaijan, India, Nigeria and Uganda, also responded to the appeal of the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 80, "n": 77, "text": "Approximately half of the responses obtained from Governments and civil society organizations confirmed that there are existing monitoring systems for leprosy in place. The following countries reported statistical data on women and children affected by leprosy: Bangladesh, Bolivia, Brazil, Burundi, Cambodia, Côte d’Ivoire, Colombia, Ecuador, Ethiopia, India, Japan, Nigeria, Pakistan, Paraguay, Peru and the Philippines. The data provided confirm overall male-over-female preponderance in the detection of leprosy.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 81, "n": 78, "text": "Contributions received from Governments, national human rights institutions and civil society organizations confirmed ongoing discrimination against women and children affected by leprosy and referred to practices that align with the results of the individual consultation. The same contributions pointed to the absence of institutional segregation. However, segregation was referred to as a past policy that nevertheless continues to have an impact on the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, including the children and grandchildren of persons affected by leprosy who were forcibly segregated into leprosy colonies. Those violations include generalized informal segregation and lack of property rights in the case of former leprosy colonies.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 82, "n": 1, "text": "Challenges in enforcing formal equality", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 83, "n": 79, "text": "A significant portion of the responses reported the lack of a national plan for the implementation of the principles and guidelines. Nevertheless, responses from countries such as Bangladesh, Brazil, Bolivia, Burundi, Colombia, Ecuador, India, Peru, Paraguay and the Philippines highlighted interventions in the field of care, rehabilitation, assessment of discrimination, awareness-raising and outreach activities that are in line with the WHO Global Leprosy Strategy (2016–2020). Moreover, non-endemic countries, such as Japan, referred to efforts in raising awareness on leprosy as a human rights issue. Lastly, civil society organizations from India and Japan mentioned strategic litigation activities as a means to achieve legal harmonization in the former country and reparation measures for children of persons affected by leprosy who were forcibly separated from their parents in the latter.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "1. Challenges in enforcing formal equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 84, "n": 80, "text": "The majority of the responses reported the absence of discriminatory laws in place, which also reflects the fact that most Government’s responses came from health programmes that are seldom acquainted with such legal frames. Notwithstanding, reference was made to the maintenance in some countries of obsolete laws (with a particular emphasis on the more than 100 discriminatory laws in place in India) that severely constrain the rights of persons affected by leprosy, sustaining stigmatization and impairing their access to justice. Some responses mentioned recent progress in abolishing a number – albeit small – of the overall discriminatory laws in place worldwide, in particular in Bangladesh and India.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "1. Challenges in enforcing formal equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 85, "n": 81, "text": "By the same token, the majority of the responses pointed to the absence of a specific plan of action for amending or abolishing discriminatory laws, norms and practices against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. Some countries, such as Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, Paraguay and the Philippines, were referred to as undertaking efforts to eliminate general discrimination against persons living in vulnerable conditions. Examples go from general actions (such as anti-discriminatory laws, creation of institutional bodies and national plans dedicated to anti-discrimination policies) to leprosy-specific ones (educational materials and campaigns).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "1. Challenges in enforcing formal equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 86, "n": 2, "text": "Challenges in enforcing substantive equality", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "1. Challenges in enforcing formal equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 87, "n": 82, "text": "When asked to describe the steps taken by States to ensure autonomous and comprehensive access to the highest attainable standard of health, the majority of the responses mentioned recognition in the national constitution of the aforementioned right. Specific measures adopted in relation to the treatment of leprosy (such as delivering of multidrug therapy, monitoring systems, strategies for ensuring timely diagnosis, awareness-raising activities and implementation of the WHO technical standards) are reported from Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ecuador, Guatemala, Japan, Montenegro, Paraguay, Peru and the Philippines.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "2. Challenges in enforcing substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 88, "n": 83, "text": "Responses from civil society organizations allow for identifying the following barriers in the access to the highest attainable standard of health: (a) lack of complementary health services after bacteriological cure; (b) lack of personal income among persons affected by leprosy; (c) lack of health workers, including health workers properly trained in leprosy and leprosy-related health complications; (d) lack of a consistent supply of multidrug therapy in peripheral health settings; and (e) lack of health education-awareness strategies addressing how to identify the signs and symptoms of leprosy, which can facilitate early diagnosis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "2. Challenges in enforcing substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 89, "n": 84, "text": "With regard to the fulfilment of the right to education, the majority of the responses from States referred to general provisions on the right to education and on the principles of equality and non-discrimination in national constitutions. General laws for ensuring the right to education to children in general, and to children with disabilities in particular, were also mentioned. There was no mention of specific measures for ensuring access to education to persons and children affected by leprosy, as well as to provide the former with training opportunities, skills development, accessibility and reasonable accommodation.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "2. Challenges in enforcing substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 90, "n": 85, "text": "When asked about the access of persons affected by leprosy to the right to dignified work and economic independence, civil society organization identified the following barriers: unemployment; underemployment; unreliable casual labour; job insecurity; lack of access to job opportunities; unequal pay; and insufficiency of the pensions provided by some States. Some examples of the steps taken by States to overcome the aforementioned barriers were also provided, as follows: training opportunities; disability laws that determine a percentage of jobs reserved for persons with disabilities in India; and lifelong pensions, provided by law 11.520, to persons affected by leprosy who were forcibly segregated in Brazil.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "2. Challenges in enforcing substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 91, "n": 86, "text": "When asked to describe the steps taken by States to ensure civil rights with respect to family life, marriage, community and public life, as well as participation in decision-making processes that impact the lives of persons affected and their family members, a significant part of the responses did not provide information on the topic, except for references to constitutional provisions and general laws that guarantee the principles of equality and non-discrimination.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "2. Challenges in enforcing substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 92, "n": 87, "text": "The responses from Governments, civil society organizations and national human rights institutions allow for establishing a complete lack of specific plans to address the needs of women affected by leprosy, as well as discrimination and violence against them. Some responses provided information on legal frames for promoting gender equality and eliminating gender-based discrimination (constitutional provisions, ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, laws to eliminate gender-based violence and general anti-discrimination laws) in countries such as Bolivia, Cambodia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ecuador, Georgia and India. Others referred to education and empowerment programmes aimed at disadvantaged women in countries such as Côte d’Ivoire, Ethiopia and Bangladesh.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "2. Challenges in enforcing substantive equality", "Challenges in protecting women affected by leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 93, "n": 88, "text": "A substantial part of the responses from Governments, civil society organizations and national human rights institutions did not provide information about measures in place to ensure the rights of children affected by leprosy, or about the overall framework for the protection and care of children. However, some examples of generic laws, programmes and initiatives designed for the protection and care of children (especially with regard to the rights to health, education and information) were referred to as being in place in Bolivia, Cambodia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ecuador and Ethiopia. The responses also provided examples of measures specifically related to leprosy, such as educational materials being distributed and leprosy-related projects being implemented in schools in Paraguay; awareness-raising activities among schoolteachers and students, preventive care focused on zero disability in children affected by leprosy and family counselling in Bangladesh; and priority access to health care among vulnerable children in Colombia. There was no mention of measures adopted for enforcing the rights of the children of persons affected by leprosy, except for the reference to an ongoing lawsuit in Japan aimed at reparation for past State offences.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "2. Challenges in enforcing substantive equality", "Challenges in protecting children affected by leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 94, "n": 3, "text": "Good practices for the elimination of discrimination", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "2. Challenges in enforcing substantive equality", "Challenges in protecting children affected by leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 95, "n": 89, "text": "The majority of good practices developed by States fall within the health sector, namely delivery of care and awareness-raising activities. At the international level, Japan mentioned action undertaken to ensure the inclusion of leprosy in the human rights agenda at both the Human Rights Council and the General Assembly. At the national and subnational levels, responses pointed mainly to awareness-raising activities, campaigns and actions for improving health-care services (separated into new case detection, early diagnosis, quality treatment and rehabilitation), alongside the health worker’s expertise, to provide care for persons affected by leprosy. Such activities are driven by health programmes in countries such as Bolivia, Brazil, Burundi, Côte d’Ivoire, Ecuador and Paraguay. Schools as priority places for awareness-raising were referred to in countries such as Brazil, India and Japan. Also with regard to awareness-raising activities, examples of decentralized actions within States that bring together different stakeholders (traditional and religious leaders, politicians, teachers, care providers, etc.) were mentioned in countries such as Brazil and Burundi. Finally, in respect of the autonomous development of the persons affected by leprosy, responses highlighted the role played by civil society organizations in community-based rehabilitation; formation of associative, self-help and self-care groups of persons affected by leprosy (with positive examples of successful advocacy led by such groups); as well as the participation of family members in health services, income generation and education opportunities (with a focus on women) in countries such as Bangladesh, Cambodia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Nigeria and Pakistan.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "3. Good practices for the elimination of discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 96, "n": 90, "text": "The main underlying causes of ongoing discrimination against women and children affected by leprosy, including family members are: (a) at the macro level of global health, the association between the limited public apprehension of leprosy, on the one hand, and the mercantilization of health and the patriarchal nature of biomedicine on the other; (b) at the intermediate level of State governance, discriminatory laws, widespread absence of reparation and awareness-raising measures to counter the iatrogenic stigma created by past State prophylactic segregation, lack of a multisectoral approach to leprosy and persistence of social iniquities that have not been addressed; (c) at the micro level of social life, pervasive harmful stereotypes, wrongful stereotyping and violence; (d) at the individual level, the internalization of stigma as an extreme form of dehumanization.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 97, "n": 91, "text": "Harmful stereotypes and traditional practices and institutionalized, structural and interpersonal discrimination intersect with the already subordinated social location of women and children in many societies, with severe manifestations of physical, sexual and psychological violence and systemic informal segregation. The low participation of both social groups in civil society organizations, health services, decision-making processes and institutional bodies enhances the weakness of the responses from State monitoring systems and policies to map and address discrimination and violence on the grounds of leprosy, strengthening women’s and children’s structural invisibility, social subordination and institutional neglect. The narrow understanding of leprosy as a biological condition hinders much-needed efforts to tackle the social, economic, cultural and political dimensions of leprosy as a social category that, throughout history as well as in contemporary societies, has been used mainly to exclude. Without the de facto recognition that all human rights are inalienable, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated and that they all must be fulfilled on a non-discriminatory basis, alongside a multisectoral strategy that can disaggregate leprosy-related discrimination into the distinct realities of different groups and cultural backdrops, women and children affected by leprosy will surely continue to be left behind.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 98, "n": 92, "text": "The Special Rapporteur calls upon States to take all necessary measures to:\n(a) Review existing legislation to ensure that it is in line with international human rights standards and abolish and/or amend all discriminatory laws in force as an immediate obligation;[[fn:38]]\n(b) Implement the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members as a road map for enforcing enshrined international human rights and achieving substantive equality;[[fn:39]]\n(c) Systematically approach, consult and involve in decision-making processes that directly affect their lives persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations, with the guarantee of all measures for ensuring the participation of women, children and men affected by leprosy-related impairments and disabilities;[[fn:40]]\n(d) Establish reparation measures for persons affected by leprosy, as well as for their children when appropriate, who were forcibly segregated by State policies, in order to address the continuous nature of the violation;\n(e) Eliminate the iatrogenic stigma generated by prophylactic State segregation, with dissemination of accurate information on leprosy and preservation of its history;\n(f) Develop awareness-raising programmes at both the national and subnational levels, with a focus on providing accurate information about leprosy to the general population as well as on the human rights of persons affected by leprosy. Such programmes should provide for dialogue with all relevant population groups (including those possessing non-scientific knowledge and non-official authorities); involve persons affected by leprosy; and be sensitive to local languages, gender, age and disability;\n(g) Improve monitoring systems for leprosy, comprising disaggregated and equality data that may support anti-discriminatory policies. Leprosy health services should include easy-to-access mechanisms for making complaints of discrimination;\n(h) Implement multisectoral governance, and affirmative measures when necessary, in order to tackle the multiple nature of leprosy-related discrimination and vulnerability. Multisectorality should also be reflected in leprosy health services, guaranteeing accessibility, comprehensive care and peer counselling.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "In line with general comment No. 6 (2018) on equality and non-discrimination of the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities."}, {"n": 39, "text": "In agreement with general comment No. 20 of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights."}, {"n": 40, "text": "In line with general comment No. 7 (2018) on the participation of persons with disabilities, including children with disabilities, through their representative organizations, in the implementation of the Convention of the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities."}], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 99, "n": 2, "text": "Recommendations for enforcing the human rights of women affected by leprosy", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 100, "n": 93, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that States, national human rights institutions and civil society organizations take all necessary measures to:\n(a) Ensure that human rights monitoring of gender-based discrimination and violence includes the particular situation of women affected by leprosy. Leprosy monitoring systems and public health strategies should also make use of a gender framework that ensures autonomous, affordable and effective comprehensive care (A/HRC/32/44). Primary care, especially in high-burden areas, should include female health workers. Leprosy services should provide training on self-care techniques and peer counselling;\n(b) Include women affected by leprosy in national plans for gender equality, gender violence prevention and women’s access to justice and raise awareness on gender equality in leprosy services, high-burden communities and priority groups;\n(c) Empower women affected by leprosy to know their rights and how to claim them, including through income-generation programmes, creation of cooperatives and continued education, in order to secure for them economic independence and access to dignified work, which should guarantee reasonable accommodation;\n(d) Establish affirmative measures for ensuring equality of participation of women affected by leprosy in any decision-making that affects their lives, as well as in the mechanisms of representative and participatory democracy, non-governmental organizations, epistemic communities and health services.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Recommendations for enforcing the human rights of women affected by leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 101, "n": 3, "text": "Recommendations for enforcing the human rights of children affected by leprosy", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Recommendations for enforcing the human rights of women affected by leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 102, "n": 94, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that States, national human rights institutions and civil society organizations take all necessary measures to:\n(a) Recognize that the child is a rights holder and not a beneficiary of benevolent activities of adults, always consulting the child and respecting their agency in the design and implementation of any framework for addressing discrimination on the grounds of leprosy; this should also be done in accordance with the child’s age and evolving capacities;[[fn:41]]\n(b) Undertake further research into the risk factors that may perpetuate violence against children affected by leprosy, alongside the formation of integrated partnerships of experts, parents, teachers and young people that can respond effectively to such violence;\n(c) Guarantee child- and youth-friendly health care and information, as well as comprehensible information guidance for parents. Provide a safe and supportive environment for children that ensures the opportunity to participate in decisions affecting their health, to build life skills, to acquire appropriate information, to receive counselling and to negotiate the health behaviour choices they make. Affirmative measures regarding work and social security should be in place for parents of children affected by leprosy in order to ensure proper care and support;\n(d) Ensure that children with leprosy-related disabilities participate on an equal basis with others in education services and recreational, leisure and sporting activities. Education services should ensure accessibility and reasonable accommodation;\n(e) Recognize that children’s participation is a key element for self-protection. With suitable methods, participation of affected children should be ensured in research and the implementation of public programmes. The same applies to participation in relevant non-governmental organizations, epistemic communities and policy-making affecting them.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "As enshrined in article 19 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child."}], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "3. Recommendations for enforcing the human rights of children affected by leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "Pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 35/9, in which the Council affirmed the need to intensify efforts to eliminate all forms of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, and stressed the importance of implementing the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, the Special Rapporteur, Alice Cruz, has set out a policy framework with the aim of assisting States in the development of rights-based national and regional action plans. The Special Rapporteur hopes to contribute to a much-needed paradigmatic shift, from traditional medical and charity-based approaches to the enforcement of de facto equality for persons affected and their family members. Concomitantly, the Special Rapporteur aims to foster the recognition and inclusion of persons affected and their families, who have systematically been left behind and might continue to be the furthest behind, if no positive action is taken, in the global implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The principles and guidelines underpin the normative integration of several international human rights instruments, interpreting and translating legally binding norms in close connection with the conditions required by and the needs of persons affected by leprosy and their family members. The need for a rights-based policy framework is put forward in the principles and guidelines, when identifying development, implementation and follow-up activities, within a participatory arrangement, as the obligations of States. Having identified substantive discrimination as a leading cause of systemic marginalization, the Special Rapporteur agrees with the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, who has raised the matter of the insufficiency of anti-discrimination policies for bringing people who have been subjected to discrimination and poverty into mainstream society groups (see A/72/502). Guaranteeing equal opportunities to people living in poverty may be nothing more than a well-intentioned discourse. A comprehensive multisectoral policy is therefore key for achieving the goal of eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "The Special Rapporteur considers a policy to be any means through which States define and implement action within a comprehensive framework that puts into practice the principles of the indivisibility, interdependence and universality of rights through coordinated interventions between the different aspects of governmentality. In accordance with standardized practice for developing a policy framework, the present report is set out as a continuation of the previous report (A/HRC/41/47), in which the Special Rapporteur recognized the problematic situation with resource to a comprehensive description of the situation of persons affected and their family members that identified root causes of discrimination through a bottom-up approach firmly anchored in the experience of affected persons, their families and key stakeholders in the field of leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "In the previous report, the Special Rapporteur identified a lack of acknowledgement among policymakers of the broad structural causes of ongoing discrimination and the limited number of interventions outside the health field. Such gaps call for a rights-based policy framework structured on the following four main axes: (a) adequate standard of living and economic autonomy, which includes social protection, work and training opportunities and access to health systems; (b) non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community, which includes anti-discrimination principles, accessibility and independent living; (c) elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory, which includes awareness-raising and capacity-building, reparation and the preservation of history; (d) empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups, which includes education, participation and access to justice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The Special Rapporteur acknowledges the epidemiological, social, cultural and political heterogeneity of the expression of leprosy worldwide and, for that reason, has strived to develop a policy framework that simultaneously safeguards universal basic human rights principles and norms and leaves room for the specificities of national and local contexts. Importantly, the policy framework is suitable for implementation within already existing national human rights policies and programmes. However, such integration cannot jeopardize an efficient response to the needs of the target population, for which it may be necessary, in some contexts, to elaborate specific policies and/or programmes within a multisectoral approach.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "Methodologically, the Special Rapporteur conducted extensive bibliographical research and analysis of international standards (see annex) and of the work of the human rights mechanisms, such as the treaty bodies and the special procedures, and the relevant United Nations agencies and organizations. Good and best practices regarding leprosy and those from adjacent human rights fields were also examined. Governments and civil society organizations[[fn:1]] were consulted in order to learn from their positive experiences. Responses to a call for input were received from Brazil, Cambodia, Chad, Cyprus, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, India, Japan, Lebanon, Mauritius, Mexico, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, the Philippines, Romania, Senegal and Uganda. The Special Rapporteur also made use of her extensive experience in the field of leprosy and, in particular, of her permanent dialogue and interactions with persons affected worldwide and their representative organizations. The goals, outline and content of the present report were thoroughly discussed in focus groups, meetings and interviews with representatives of grass-roots organizations of persons affected, at the Global Forum of People’s Organizations on Hansen’s Disease,[[fn:2]] organized by the Sasakawa Health Foundation, in order to deliver a policy framework that responded to the needs and aspirations of persons affected and their families from various regions, cultural contexts and lived experiences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank Fondation CIOMAL, IDEA, Lepra, the Leprosy Mission, Netherlands Leprosy Relief and the National Alliance Against Leprosy Uganda for their important contributions to the present report."}, {"n": 2, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank Sasakawa Health Foundation for facilitating her in-depth discussions with participants at the Global Forum of People’s Organizations on Hansen’s Disease."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Leprosy is classified as a neglected tropical disease closely linked to poverty by the World Health Organization (WHO).[[fn:3]] According to WHO, infectious diseases contribute to lifelong disadvantages, perpetuating the vicious cycle of poverty and infection. Limited enjoyment of substantive equality among persons affected and their families has an impact on the overall course of leprosy, from transmission, to health care and social rehabilitation and inclusion after persons affected are cured. The socioeconomic and environmental root causes of leprosy are widely acknowledged, although its mechanisms remain unclear. That fact notwithstanding, neither person-to-person transmission nor genetic predisposition are sufficient to explain the incidence or distribution of leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See www.who.int\\\\neglected_diseases\\diseases\\en."}], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Independent research points to the following socioeconomic and environmental risk factors for the incidence of leprosy: poverty and inequality; household crowding; inadequate nutrient intake; poor hygiene; lack of access to clean water (Mycobacterium leprae can survive in some aquatic plants); low education levels; low income; and geographical areas with deficient infrastructure and hindered access to goods and services. Independent research also points to the protective effects of welfare measures on incidence, adherence to treatment and cure.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "However, lack of targeted action on the social determinants of leprosy is a major gap in global and national policies for the control of leprosy. The promotion of material equality through redistributive policies that can guarantee a minimum standard of living to persons affected and their family members, alongside equitable access to public goods and services, is manifestly lacking. Strategies that can guarantee persons affected and their families freedom from want, as well as their right to personal development and economic autonomy, are broadly seen as secondary to public health goals, which continue to be disease-centred, in opposition to being people-centred.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "In accordance with article 11 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Special Rapporteur considers progressive realization thereof to be the standard and acknowledges the need to be sensitive to national specificities. in line with general comment No. 3 (1990) on the nature of States parties’ obligations of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Special Rapporteur recalls that, while being a flexibility device, the concept of progressive realization obligates States to move as expeditiously and effectively as possible towards the realization of the goals of the Covenant. Moreover, and in accordance with the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, an adequate standard of living is only effective to the degree that individuals can live a dignified life and participate on equal terms in society at large. The principles and guidelines state that the fulfilment of the right to an adequate standard of living for persons affected and their families entails access to goods, services and infrastructure, but also poverty reduction measures, as well as education and work opportunities, linking an adequate standard of living to autonomy and personal development.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy and their families continue to bear the impact of systemic and multilayered discrimination and marginalization, which have positioned them as the furthest behind. Such structural disadvantage calls for protective measures to be implemented, irrespective of contributory scheme or employment status. National policies should establish minimum standards of social protection and benchmarks for persons affected and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "A. Social protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "According to the Social Protection Floors Recommendation, 2012 (No. 202), of the International Labour Organization (ILO), States should establish national social protection floors that can ensure income security and universal access to essential health care. In line with article 9 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and general comment No. 19 (2007) on the right to social security of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the principles and guidelines state that financial measures that can guarantee the right to an adequate standard of living, such as benefits for those who cannot work due to age, illness or incapacity, or financial assistance for housing and health care to persons living in poverty, should be made available. According to the Committee, the right to social security may be mandatory for the realization of other social, economic and cultural rights. The Committee therefore recommends that States guarantee access to social security schemes for enabling individuals and families to acquire essential health care, basic shelter and housing, water and sanitation, food and the most basic forms of education. Such access should be non-discriminatory and should take into consideration the special needs of marginalized individuals and groups. An important point made by the Special Rapporteur on the rights of persons with disabilities was that the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities was paving the way towards an inclusive conceptualization of social protection that could promote active citizenship, social inclusion and participation, in opposition to paternalistic approaches that reinforced dependence and segregation (see A/70/297).", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "A. Social protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Given the interlinkage of leprosy and poverty, the right to an adequate standard of living may not be accomplished without the prior granting of social benefits under a rights-based comprehensive social protection policy. Such a policy must be implemented through administrative services and bureaucratic procedures that can guarantee full accessibility to illiterate or poorly educated populations, as well as to populations living in remote or peripheral areas. Furthermore, social benefits, such as unconditional cash transfers, should take into consideration the real needs of the target population, including the additional costs of disability. Such a comprehensive social protection policy should sensitively ponder mainstream and specific programmes and target active citizenship by bridging guarantees to basic income security to policies that promote training opportunities and formal employment", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "A. Social protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Multilayered discrimination has pushed many persons affected by leprosy and their family members out of formal employment opportunities. A significant number of individuals are left to engage in unreliable casual labour, with low wages, in unsafe and degrading working conditions, outside the formal economy and without an entitlement to social security benefits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "B. Work and training opportunities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "According to ILO, the deficit of decent work has a disproportionate impact on already disadvantaged groups. As a consequence, the main policy for increasing productive inclusion of the poorest is providing them with greater human capital. The principles and guidelines recommend measures for the public and private sectors, such as employment inducements in the regular employment market, support for cooperative work, entrepreneurship and vocational education and training, reflecting provisions of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "B. Work and training opportunities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Article 7 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights states that it is both the right of everyone to the enjoyment of just and favourable working conditions and to a decent living. In its general comment No. 23 (2016) on the right to just and favourable conditions of work, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights called for States to raise awareness in the private sector and act affirmatively to mitigate the disadvantaged positioning of some groups. According to the Committee, States should put into place measures enabling education, information and awareness-raising, with a view to ensuring equal work opportunities in both the private and public sectors. The Special Rapporteur notes that such measures should be sensitive to gender, age, disability, illiteracy and low education levels. The Committee also emphasized the responsibility of States to establish non-contributory social security programmes for people working in the informal sector, in order to guarantee them protection from hazards.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "B. Work and training opportunities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Basic guidelines established by the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities to promote job opportunities for persons with disabilities comprise non-discrimination, accessibility, reasonable accommodation and affirmative measures. Article 27 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities guides the public sector, in collaboration with the private sector, to guarantee job opportunities, equal salaries, equality in working conditions, career counselling opportunities and professional education, entrepreneurship opportunities and vocational and professional rehabilitation programmes to assist in returning to work. States are obligated to take measures to guarantee fully accessible workplaces, removing any physical, behavioural, informational, communication or transport barrier. Both the public and private sectors are expected to provide for reasonable accommodation to workers who need it.[[fn:4]] Affirmative measures are to be taken by the public sector and promoted in the private sector in order to increase the employability of persons with disabilities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Whereas accessibility is related to collectivities, reasonable accommodation is called for in relation to individuals in inaccessible environments. Both concepts will be considered further below."}], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "B. Work and training opportunities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The guarantee of equal work opportunities for persons affected by leprosy and their family members should be grounded on the guidelines provided by ILO and the provisions set out in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. States should aim at an inclusive economy that can ensure economic autonomy to persons affected and their family members, encompassing the intersectionality of leprosy with age, gender and disability, through training and formal employment opportunities. Guaranteeing equal work opportunities can be ensured within mainstream and/or disability and programmes, as long as due recognition is given to specific leprosy-related needs and the multiple barriers to inclusion. Affirmative measures may be required in some contexts, in order to avoid this specific population being left furthest behind in mainstream and disability programmes. Affirmative measures should be temporary in principle, but in some cases, they may need to be of a permanent nature. Reasonable accommodation, including workplace access adaptation, adjustment of machines and equipment, but also of work content, time and work organization, as well as availability of assistive devices, must always give due consideration not only to visible physical impairments related to leprosy, but also invisible ones, such as pain or loss of sensation, as well as psychosocial disabilities related to stigmatization. Guarantees of equal opportunities must be context-grounded; they can only be properly enforced with the full participation of affected individuals and their representative organizations.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "B. Work and training opportunities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "The principles and guidelines set forth an approach to the right of persons affected by leprosy and their family members to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health that emphasizes the State’s responsibility in guaranteeing free or affordable medical assistance and treatment, access to free essential drugs and psychological and social counselling. In addition, the Special Rapporteur considers the lack of substantive equality, discrimination, the inaccessibility and inadequacy of health-care services, the lack of clinical and structural competence of the health-care workforce, the inaccessibility of public goods and services, the lack of community services and the lack of participation, accountability and transparency mechanisms as social determinants of leprosy that should be addressed within health-care systems. The Special Rapporteur’s conceptualization of the right to the highest standard of physical and mental health by persons affected and their family members is grounded in the provisions set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and in the work of the treaty bodies. She situates the enforcement of such a right on a continuum of medical and psychosocial care that encompasses the full spectrum of prevention, treatment[[fn:5]] and rehabilitation and that should be fully addressed by effective referral within national health-care systems.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "According to Dr. Claudio Guedes Salgado at Pará Federal University, Brazil, and President of the Brazilian Society of Hansen’s Disease, the treatment of leprosy should be multidisciplinary, with the use of drugs, physiotherapy, occupational therapy, individual therapy and group therapy, surgery, orthotics and prosthetics and wound care. The drugs used are categorized into two groups, namely, antibiotics, which is the most well-known treatment, called multidrug therapy, and other substitute antibiotics, which can be used when a problem with multidrug therapy arises. Unfortunately, there is no drug to treat neurodegeneration, a major problem of leprosy, which continues to progress in many cases, even after the completion of treatment with antibiotics. Physiotherapy is aimed at preventing the progression of muscle loss and the maintenance of functions in the affected limbs and face; through occupational therapy, patients with physical impairments are taught new skills; and psychology addresses the emotional condition involved with leprosy, be it individual or familial. Surgery may be used to prevent the neurodegenerative process. The orthotics and prosthetics can be prepared in home mode, with simple material, to prevent burns, for example, or in orthopedic workshops, to return the loss of skills or movements, with the addition of the production of prostheses for amputees. Wound care should be done carefully and technically, with the use of materials that can prevent the evolution of the wound, and even promote its closure, avoiding major physical impairments."}], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "C. Health systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Article 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights defines the steps that States should take to progressively realize, to the maximum of their available resources, the highest achievable standards of health. Article 26 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities establishes as measures to be adopted by States the provision of quality and standard disability-sensitive health care on a non-discriminatory basis, the guarantee of service delivery at the community level and the full respect of autonomy, dignity, informed consent and the needs of persons with disabilities by the health-care workforce. In its general comment No. 14 (2000) on the right to the highest attainable standard of health, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights interpreted the right to health as interdependent with the realization of other economic, social and cultural rights, emphasizing that its proper implementation goes beyond a medicalized view. The general comment is key to understanding how a healthy life is dependent upon a complex set of socioeconomic conditions, binding the right to health with the right to an adequate standard of living.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "C. Health systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights has established the following obligations of the State: access to health facilities, goods and services on a non-discriminatory basis, especially for vulnerable or marginalized groups; access to the minimum essential food, which is nutritionally adequate and safe, to ensure freedom from hunger; access to basic shelter, housing and sanitation and an adequate supply of safe and potable water; provision of essential drugs; equitable distribution of all health-care facilities, goods and services; adoption of a national public health strategy and plan of action seated on epidemiological evidence that is to be devised and periodically reviewed on the basis of a participatory and transparent process; provision of education and access to information; and appropriate training for health-care personnel, including education on human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "C. Health systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "The Special Rapporteur emphasizes the importance of non-discrimination and preventative interventions on the social determinants of health, health education, rehabilitation and the human rights education of the health-care workforce, as well as the provision of health-care at the community level, which is essential for people living in remote areas or peripheral areas, together with outreach services. Focus on primary care must not lead to the loss of medical expertise in diagnosing and properly treating a highly complex disease, nor to the absence of secondary and tertiary services able to address the multiple medical challenges posed by leprosy. The provision of health care to children affected should ensure, in cooperation with social, child protection, education and other relevant services, a continuum of care for children that effectively uses psychoeducational and psychosocial methods for interventions that enhance emotional health and social development. The Special Rapporteur also emphasizes the importance of health-care systems empowering community engagement and participation, including social support, increased patient-provider communication that should fully acknowledge the experience of affected persons as valid knowledge, psychosocial individual and family counselling, self-care and self-help groups, peer support and peer health promoters and outreach activities within partnerships between health services and persons affected as integral parts of health-care services.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "C. Health systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "A rights-based strategy for leprosy within health-care systems must be people-centred, having as its priority the well-being of persons, communities and populations, and must ensure: availability, as well as physical and economic accessibility of health-care services; quality of health-care facilities, goods and services; active and informed participation of users; gender-sensitive and culturally sensitive strategies, as well as child-friendly services; accountability of the health-care workforce, with indicators that facilitate monitoring; non-discriminatory treatment; and provision of high-quality medical care. The strategy must take a holistic approach that includes a rights-based approach to mental health, which should be ethically respectful, culturally appropriate, gender-sensitive and empowering to individuals, making use of peer support as an integral part of recovery-based services.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "C. Health systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "In Brazil, the conditional cash transfer programme Family Allowance and the benefit of continuous instalments for older persons and persons with disabilities have been guaranteeing financial aid to persons affected who are eligible under the established criteria for both benefits, even though difficulties in access have been reported. Private-public partnerships between the Ministry of Health and the Movement of Reintegration of Persons Affected by Hansen’s Disease (MORHAN), Novartis Brazil, DAHW Brazil, the Sasakawa Health Foundation and the Pan American Health Organization are examples of groundbreaking initiatives in the fields of health care and active case detection, awareness-raising, the training of health-care workers, outreach activities and community engagement. In India, the pension for persons with disabilities has been benefiting persons affected by leprosy that fit into the established criteria of disability, but difficulties in access have been reported, as well as the insufficiency of the pension amount to meet basic needs. Civil society has been taking the lead in the training of affected persons for inclusion in the labour market and the creation of job opportunities, an important example being the vocational training centres in India. Microcredit loans, training through partnerships with non-governmental organizations, including initiatives in areas such agriculture and/or livestock rearing, have been reported in Mozambique, the Niger and Nigeria. The existence in some countries of food security programmes also contributes to the improvement of the standards of living of persons affected, such as the case of the food security system established by the Government of India. In Senegal, existing programmes, such as the national, community-based rehabilitation programme, the programme for equality opportunity card for persons with disabilities and the national programme for family security, may be of benefit to persons affected and their families. In countries such as Brazil, India, Japan, Mozambique, Nepal and Nigeria, the existence of self-help and self-care groups have proved to be an effective strategy for fostering recovery, survival and inclusion. Community partnerships between civil society organizations and traditional leaders and healers, as well as religious leaders, have been reported in Brazil, Ghana and Nigeria, with positive effects on rights enforcement.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "D. In practice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Pervasive structural disadvantage, harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping place persons affected by leprosy and their families in the context of intersecting vulnerabilities, multilayered discrimination and subordination, perpetuating informal segregation from community life and denial of fundamental human rights. Stigmatization remains institutionalized in State architecture and its functioning. According to the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, there are more than 50 countries in the world that keep discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy in force. Discriminatory practices in State administration services is also an enduring reality, in particular in health-care and education services, work opportunities and regulation and access to disability rights. With regard to the former, a substantive number of persons affected by leprosy are excluded, due to the lack of institutional awareness and/or inadequate eligibility criteria. Specific and targeted measures are mandatory for ensuring de facto non-discrimination and equality. The Special Rapporteur makes use of disability as a core concept for achieving a barrier-free society, emphasizing the need for leprosy-sensitive policies that should go hand in hand with capacity-building on the rights of the target population among State workers, persons affected and their families.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The principles and guidelines are based on legally binding provisions of international human rights instruments that prohibit discrimination, i.e., any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on a specific condition or status. Both the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights prohibit all forms of discrimination on any grounds. For cases of multiple discrimination, in which a person affected or a family member is subjected to intersectional exclusion on the basis of gender, age, disability or race, provisions from the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination also apply.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "A. Non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The enforcement of equality and the prohibition of discrimination are provided in article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 2 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Whereas the full enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights is a progressive obligation, the prohibition of discrimination is an immediate obligation. Furthermore, under the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities States are obligated to take all appropriate measures to modify or abolish existing discriminatory laws, regulations, customs and practices and to eliminate discrimination on the grounds of disability by any person, organization or private company.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "A. Non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "States must abstain from any interference in the enjoyment and exercise of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights by persons affected and their family members, whether through direct or indirect discrimination. Such an obligation includes taking immediate measures to abolish or repeal discriminatory laws. Likewise, States must ensure that every public body, institution and service eliminates leprosy-related discriminatory practices. States are accountable for the cases in which any public authority perpetrates discriminatory acts against persons affected or their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "A. Non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "The principles and guidelines reflect the tenets of general comment No. 20 (2009) on non-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights, in which the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights established that a person’s actual or perceived health status could not be a barrier to the realization of rights and that the protection of public health used as grounds for restricting the rights of any individual is a clear violation of the Covenant. The Committee also pointed out the duty of the State to adopt the measures necessary to address stigmatization on the grounds of actual or perceived health status. The principles and guidelines set out concrete situations in which States are obligated to prevent persons affected and their family members from being discriminated against. States also have a positive obligation to fight discrimination in the private sphere. States should undertake research on the root causes of discrimination, with systematic collection of data and thorough analysis of risk factors. Such research should be supported by lay experts. Through effective policies, States should establish positive measures to prevent discrimination and investigate, punish and repair any abuse. Such an obligation includes monitoring the private sector and the fields of education, work and health.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "A. Non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "In the light of systemic discrimination and marginalization, discrimination on the grounds of leprosy must be tackled through an inclusive equality policy, as put forward by the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. According to its general comment No. 6 (2018) on equality and non-discrimination, inclusive equality embraces a substantive model of equality based on redistribution to address inequalities, elimination of stigmatization and promotion of dignity, full and effective participation and accommodation of differences. A comprehensive anti-discrimination policy also entails the need for creating mechanisms to receive and provide quick and effective responses to complaints of discriminatory events, both in the administrative sphere and the judicial sphere. Such mechanisms should be implemented within an accessibility framework and in full respect of the legal capacity of persons affected and their family members.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "A. Non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Persons affected and their families continue to experience informal segregation from community life, as well as multiple barriers to access to fundamental rights. The widespread lack of reparation measures and the limited reach of awareness-raising to redress the iatrogenic stigma created by the prophylactic segregation practiced in the past by States are some of the root causes of persistent informal segregation. Persons affected by leprosy and many of their family members are entitled to the rights provided under the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities on the basis of not only physical and psychosocial impairments, but also of the impairing effects of leprosy-related stigmatization.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "B. Accessibility and independent living"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities elaborates thoroughly on the multiple barriers to equal participation, which can occur in isolation or simultaneously, result from direct or indirect discrimination, be grounded on one actual or perceived characteristic or on the intersection between several ones and take multiple forms, namely, institutional, extra-institutional, physical, socioeconomic, attitudinal, environmental, informational, educational and cultural, among others. Persons affected, and also their families, are faced with many of the aforementioned barriers to participate on an equal basis in society with others.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "B. Accessibility and independent living"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "According to article 5 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, interpreted in relation to articles 1, 3 and 4, and general comment No. 6 of the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, in order to enforce the rights of persons with disabilities, States should guarantee accessibility, reasonable accommodation and individual support. In the light of its general comment No. 2 (2014) on accessibility, the Committee has noted that accessibility is a precondition for independent living and for full participation in community life. Its implementation encompasses physical environments, transportation, information and communication and public and private goods, products and services. States must elaborate accessibility standards to guide service providers and all relevant stakeholders.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "B. Accessibility and independent living"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "According to article 5 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, reasonable accommodation should be provided when any individual is faced with an inaccessible situation or environment. Although accessibility should be included in systems and collective processes, reasonable accommodation should be ensured for individualized situations. Examples of reasonable accommodation include: making existing facilities and information accessible; adapting equipment; reorganizing activities; rearranging tasks; adjusting programmes, learning materials and teaching strategies; adjusting medical procedures; and guaranteeing access to support staff without disproportional or undue costs.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "B. Accessibility and independent living"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The principles and guidelines also link the exercise of the right to actively participate in public affairs with the enjoyment of autonomy. With that in mind, the Special Rapporteur recalls the provisions of article 19 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities that are aimed at overcoming any structural barrier that hinders living an independent life and fully participating in the community, and according to which, the State should, to the maximum of its available resources, create supporting environments that enable independent living, through habilitation and rehabilitation services, community-based support services and arrangements, including personal assistance, assisted living arrangements, mobility aids and assistive devices and technologies. The aforementioned measures must be implemented in full respect of the right to privacy and must be available, accessible, affordable, acceptable, gender-sensitive and culturally sensitive. The same applies to psychosocial disabilities related to leprosy. Access to the highest attainable standard of mental health not only implies the right to community-based services, but also support for the full enjoyment of the rights to live independently and to legal capacity.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "B. Accessibility and independent living"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Autonomy and independent living should also be guaranteed in old age. An approach that can address the psychosocial effects of multiple discrimination and violations throughout life, as well as the physical impairments related both to leprosy and to ageing, should be implemented to guarantee a dignified life. Older people affected by leprosy should never be denied the right to legal capacity because of their age and/or mental health status. Older people affected by leprosy have the right to personal autonomy in making decisions, in particular life decisions. For the enjoyment of that right, support services may be required. By the same token, palliative care provided within ethical and deontological standards should be ensured.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "B. Accessibility and independent living"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "Among constitutional democracies, some nations present sophisticated tools for defending equality and prohibiting discrimination in their constitutional texts. However, there are still more than 50 countries in the world with discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy. In India, the country with the most discriminatory laws in place against person affected, positive steps are currently being taken. The Government has adopted a policy of adopting zero discriminatory laws, which may contribute to the abolishment of remaining discriminatory laws. Public interest litigation cases in the Supreme Court of India have been contributing to progress in that regard, which evinces the key role played by civil society in the defence of the rights of persons affected. It is equally important to highlight the actions of civil society in India, undertaken through campaigns and advocacy, against discriminatory laws and practices. In Nepal, IDEA conducts legal advocacy workshops for raising awareness of the rights of persons affected. In Brazil, the National Observatory on Human Rights and Hansen’s Disease has been created as result of a partnership between the Office of the Public Defender of the State of Maranhão, MORHAN and the Sasakawa Health Foundation. The Observatory receives and monitors report of human rights violations of persons affected, with the mission to fight institutionalized discriminatory practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "C. In practice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy and their family members continue to experience the violating effects of unwritten social norms, values and beliefs. Together with the ripple effect of historical State segregation policies, the remaining discriminatory laws and persistent harmful stereotypes sustain the dehumanization of persons affected and their family members, with a damaging and sweeping impact on their autonomy and self-esteem. The internalization of stigmatization is an extreme form of dehumanization that compromises the right to the highest attainable standard of mental health and the overall enjoyment of fundamental freedoms.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "The persistence of harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping calls for fine-grained strategies aimed at both raising awareness among the general public and building capacity among persons affected and their families on their rights and how to claim them. Remedies, compensation and reparation for violations on the grounds of leprosy suffered both by persons affected and their family members are justice measures able to produce positive spillover effects, through general acknowledgment of the unfairness of violations and of the legal obligation of States to take the violation of rights seriously.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "The relationship between stereotypes about leprosy and the dehumanization of affected individuals has been documented by the Special Rapporteur. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has expounded thoroughly on how gender stereotypes are root causes of human rights violations, also pointing out the limited awareness of stereotypes as mechanisms that breach the principles of equality and non-discrimination and undermine human dignity. Article 2 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women establishes the duty of the State to take all appropriate measures to modify or abolish existing discriminatory laws, regulations, customs and practices. Article 7 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination affirms the obligation of the State to adopt measures for fighting prejudices that spur racial discrimination. In its general recommendation No. 35 (2013) on combating racist hate speech, the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination called for ethical conduct among the media and high-level public authorities, with a view to promoting a culture of tolerance and respect. Article 8 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities directly addresses the problem of harmful stereotypes, referring to the obligation of the State to adopt immediate, effective and appropriate measures to combat stereotypes, prejudices and related harmful practices in all areas of life. The principles and guidelines prohibit any discriminatory language against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, acknowledging the interlinkage between language and stigmatization, which should also include the use of images.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "A. Awareness-raising and capacity-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "In joint general recommendation No. 31 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women/general comment No. 18 of the Committee on the Rights of the Child (2019) on harmful practices, the Committees called for a holistic approach to addressing stereotypes that acknowledged the interconnection between different social norms and the need of a comprehensive framework for addressing any harmful practice. The limitations of an approach targeting individual behaviours were also stressed, and a community-based approach aimed at systemic change through the collective adoption of new social rules was put forward. Participation of the victims is a key component of the strategy, which links protection to empowerment.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "A. Awareness-raising and capacity-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "Strategies aimed at transforming social norms and customs about leprosy should be grounded in a holistic framework, community-based, empower affected individuals and have as primary focus the prevention of discrimination. Capacity-building of persons affected and their families on their human rights will promote active citizenship, accountability and strategic use of access to justice. Strategies should target awareness-raising and capacity-building of non-official authorities, such as community and traditional leaders and healers, as well as relevant professional groups, such as health-care workers, educators and social workers. Training health-care workers to overcome personal and institutional discriminatory attitudes should be implemented as a priority, alongside the monitoring of health-care services and health-care delivery.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "A. Awareness-raising and capacity-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "Collection, analysis and dissemination of data, disaggregated by indicators of equality, should be a priority for delivering evidence-based policies, which should be designed, implemented and monitored in close collaboration with persons affected and their family members. Good practices implemented in the HIV/AIDS field should be followed. That field of action shows the importance of empowering individuals and communities to address and respond to discrimination, having developed an outstanding good practice for collecting data on stigmatization and assessing the levels of human rights enjoyment that involved persons living with HIV as primary stakeholders and executors, called the people living with HIV stigma index. Promotion of rights education for affected individuals, as well as the delivery of legal advice, together with the enactment of protective laws and policies and accountability in courts and tribunals, is strongly recommended.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "A. Awareness-raising and capacity-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "Awareness-raising as a structural pillar of any leprosy-related policy framework should be grounded in evidence and give due consideration to local perspectives. Awareness-raising strategies should also be designed and implemented in close consultation with persons affected and communities in order to prevent any backlash against affected individuals. Strategies cannot rely on medical knowledge and information alone, nor be delivered under an individual-centred framework, but must employ accessible, intercultural and gender-, age- and disability-sensitive language and formats. Personal testimonies on the obstacles to living a full and dignified life, but also on how people survive discrimination, are the most effective instruments for achieving systemic change in mindsets. To that end, sharing positive experiences and the promotion of role models and leadership skills should also be employed as effective strategies. Different dissemination channels should be used, such as community-based and mainstream media, the Internet and social media, as well as artistic expressions and performances.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "A. Awareness-raising and capacity-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "Health and illness are not just biological phenomena. Accumulated knowledge in the field of medical anthropology has proved the difference between illness, meaning the bodily process itself, and disease, meaning the nosology produced by a given medical system, which is always culturally grounded. Diseases are biosocial constructs and, as the history of epidemics show, explanatory models of diseases can produce labelling and even spur institutionalized and structural stigmatization, of which the modern history of leprosy is a paradigmatic example. There was never scientific evidence to support the prophylactic segregation of persons affected by leprosy, and yet such segregation was widespread from the late nineteenth century until the late twentieth century – almost half a century after the discovery of a cure. There are still up to 2,000 leprosy colonies and villages active in the world today.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "B. Reparation and memorialization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Segregation was very often accompanied by public campaigns aimed at educating the public on the dangers of interacting with persons affected by leprosy. The eradication of the disease from the public space was pursued at the expense of the rights of those affected by it. In many countries, marriage between persons affected was prohibited and, in some countries, forced sterilization was a standard practice. Stigma was the dolus behind this State policy, which continues to impact the lives of persons affected and their family members, therefore comprising a continuous violation. Due recognizing of that systemic and massive violation calls for reparation measures that not only redress harm at the individual level and recognize victims as rights holders, but also promote social integration. Such measures may be urgent for many persons affected, but also for their descendants, given their age. Second and third generations living in leprosy settlements should also be beneficiaries of complex reparation programmes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "B. Reparation and memorialization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "The legal basis of the right to reparation is anchored in the provisions of international human rights instruments (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 8; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, article 2; International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, article 6; Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, article 14; Convention on the Rights of the Child, article 39). The General Assembly adopted the Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, in 2005, according to which reparation comprises restitution, compensation, rehabilitation, satisfaction and guarantees of non-repetition. The Human Rights Committee has also affirmed the State’s obligation, under article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, to promote changes in laws, official procedures and practices as part of reparation. The principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members calls for the reunification of families separated as a result of leprosy-related policies and practices, in full accordance with article 23 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "B. Reparation and memorialization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "The Special Rapporteur on the promotion of truth, justice, reparation and guarantees of non-recurrence elaborates thoroughly on reparation measures, putting forward the idea that reparation programmes should ideally be of a complex nature that allows for benefits to fully acknowledge the complexity of the harm (see A/69/518). Reparation programmes should therefore comprise both material and symbolic reparations. Rehabilitation should be a core measure of reparation programmes, given that victims of serious human rights violations usually need specialized health-care services. By aiming at systemic change and non-recurrence, States should implement a comprehensive prevention structure that makes use of education, arts and culture, archives and documentation, linking reparation programmes with memorialization processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "B. Reparation and memorialization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The principles and guidelines call for attention to be paid to the current situation of leprosy settlements and enumerate the rights of those inhabiting them. Such guidance is in accordance with general comment No. 4 (1991) on the right to adequate housing, in which the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights defined seven components of the right to housing: juridical security; availability of services, materials, installations and infrastructure; accessibility of costs; habitability; accessibility of space; localization; and cultural adequacy. The Committee emphasized the universality of the right to housing and its interdependency with other rights.. The principles and guidelines also reflect article 19 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, on the right to make autonomous and free choices about one’s place of living.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "B. Reparation and memorialization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "Reparation programmes for persons affected and their family members who have been forcibly segregated and separated should be of a complex nature, encompassing material measures aimed at redressing structural disadvantages and symbolic measures aimed at systemic change, and including rehabilitation, a memorialization process and the enforcement of housing rights. Housing and property rights should also be given to second and third generation family members living in leprosy settlements. Even in the contexts in which segregation was not implemented as an official government policy, it was nevertheless the result of systemic stigmatization, and people who have been subjected to it should also be eligible for reparation programmes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "B. Reparation and memorialization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Given the deeply ingrained social representation of leprosy as a symbol for everything that should be kept apart, leprosy is particularly fitting to be used as a powerful example in general human rights education. As an historical epitome of dehumanization, leprosy holds a powerful aptitude to illustrate the importance of human rights for the building of a free and just society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "B. Reparation and memorialization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "Reparation measures for forced segregation have been implemented in Brazil and Japan. Japan has also enacted legislation to provide for reparation to family members, and the state of Minas Gerais in Brazil has granted reparations to persons who were separated from their parents due to the official policy, although only applicable in the state of Minas Gerais, and the remaining population remains to receive reparation. In Brazil, the regulation of lands and property has resulted in the handing over of the usufruct and ownership of property of houses to persons affected and their family members in the states of Acre, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais. In Japan, pioneering memorialization initiatives stand out, such as the creation of museums and the preservation and study of the artistic production of persons affected who were forcibly segregated. In Brazil and Japan, there are innovative experiences of participatory health-care management and health-care provision in former leprosy colonies. In Taiwan Province of China, strategies are put into place by civil society to ensure that older people affected who are still living in segregated communities are able to live in a dignified manner. In Ghana and Togo, civil society organizations have reunited families living in segregated facilities by assisting them in their return home, if desirable and possible.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "C. In practice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "As documented by the Special Rapporteur, leprosy-related discrimination is multilayered – it frequently intersects with discrimination against other marginalized groups. Furthermore, the impact of stigmatization on the grounds of leprosy on the lives of persons affected is proportional to their vulnerability and resilience. She recognizes that the call for special attention to be paid to, and for the protection of, groups that are more vulnerable to leprosy-related discrimination, as set out in the principles and guidelines, identifies women and children as priority target groups. In order to prevent paternalistic approaches to vulnerability, the Special Rapporteur underscores three critical safeguards: vulnerability is not an ontological feature of a group of persons; vulnerability is often coupled with subordination, understood by the Special Rapporteur as the historical devaluation of some groups of people under hierarchical social structures that, by producing and reproducing an unequal distribution of power, severely constrain their autonomy and participation; and vulnerability reduction policies must focus on building the autonomy of target populations by promoting their empowerment.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "Although eradicating vulnerability might not be feasible, diminishing it through policymaking and institutional arrangements is viable. Reinforcing the principle of autonomy implies not only recognizing the independence of individual viewpoints, choices, values and beliefs, but also creating conditions that can enable individuals to act autonomously. A human rights-based approach to vulnerability includes making groups in vulnerable situations the preferential beneficiaries of public policies in order to guarantee their full enjoyment of fundamental rights and freedoms. Vulnerability is at the core of the elaboration of norms, when factors such as disability, age, migration status, deprivation of liberty, refugee status or ethnicity are considered in human rights standards. Furthermore, international human rights law has come to recognize the specificity of the economic, social and political conditions of certain groups, responding to their struggles with specific instruments for protecting their rights, including the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the ILO Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169).", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "The obligation of the State to protect, promote and fulfil human rights is, for people living in vulnerable situations, inextricably linked to taking all measures necessary to empower them. Through empowerment, marginalized persons or persons in disadvantaged situations achieve greater control over their lives, furthering their democratic engagement with enhanced critical understanding about their own settings and their relation to power relations and hegemonic social structures. Common elements to the various definitions of empowerment are that it is a process, has a dimension of collective involvement, and involves active participation, critical reflection, awareness-raising, understanding, and access and control over important decisions and resources. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is built upon the recognition that development is not only transforming the material conditions of people in disadvantaged circumstances, but also implies providing them with a voice and choice. The empowerment of individuals and groups can contribute to transforming laws, policies, practices, norms and power relations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "Empowerment is, therefore, a multidimensional concept that highlights the need for States not only to safeguard civil and political rights, but also to duly implement economic, social and cultural rights. Its implementation is twofold: it requires enabling people to claim their rights and actively contribute to shaping decisions, policies and practices; and it entails creating conditions for overcoming any obstacle to personal and collective development. To empower individuals affected and their families, the Special Rapporteur calls upon States to develop research that can identify the groups that are more vulnerable to leprosy-related discrimination and to invest in the education, participation and access to justice for those groups.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "Education is both a human right and a means to fulfil other rights. Education promotes peace, reduces poverty and empowers disadvantaged groups. Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights establishes that one of the goals of the right to education, whether public or private, formal or non-formal, is ensuring both the full development of individuals and generalized respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. Those goals are furthered in article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which reinforces the role of education for the full development of the human personality and for enabling all persons to participate in a free society built upon common understanding among different social groups. Education is key for materializing the rights to dignity and equality in social relations.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "A. Education"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "The principles and guidelines affirm the right to equal access to education opportunities and progress at school by persons affected and their family members, prohibiting the denial of admission or expulsion from school or training programmes on the grounds of having or having had leprosy. It is recommended that States also implement measures that can encourage increasing access for affected persons to educational opportunities. Provisions in the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities are key for its implementation.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "A. Education"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "In its general comment No. 1 (2001) on the aims of education, the Committee on the Rights of the Child, recalled article 29 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and underscored the far-reaching importance of education. Education should be child-centred, child-friendly and empowering. The Convention is clear in stating that the child’s right to education is not only a matter of access, but also of content. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities have called attention to how education systems can produce and reproduce exclusion, outlining guidelines for States to overcome exclusion. In its general recommendation No. 36 (2017) on the right of girls and women to education, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women noted that equality and non-discrimination as part of the right to education involved three aspects: equal access to education; equal rights within the education system; and equal rights by means of education. Importantly, the Committee drew attention to the need to materialize equality in the way in which education was provided and to direct education for the transformation of disadvantaged social positioning and move forward the structurally disadvantaged positioning of women in society. Article 24 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities calls for inclusive education. In its general comment No. 4 (2016) on the right to inclusive education, the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities identified hindering factors to the right to education, at all levels and for all students, and enumerated the main features of inclusive education, some of which were: taking a whole-person approach; establishing a learning-friendly environment; and ensuring reasonable accommodation when necessary.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "A. Education"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Access to education by persons affected and their family members is therefore not independent of the creation of an inclusive and enabling environment in which the system succeeds in diagnosing and correcting shortcomings related to educational progress. Similarly, education is expected to become an instrument for critical discussion, recognition and dissemination of the human rights of affected persons. States should promote cooperation between the health-care, welfare and education systems, in order to prevent discriminatory attitudes within the education system. The involvement of parents or caregivers and the community and the participation of children affected and the children of persons affected, in accordance with their evolving capacities, should also be guaranteed for the creation of an inclusive and enabling environment.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "A. Education"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "The enforcement of the right to education by persons affected and their family members should be grounded in the elimination of discrimination, the availability of education services, the accessibility of all levels of education, the promotion of training and skills development opportunities and reasonable accommodation. To that end, strategies grounded in the specific context and needs must be developed in close consultation with persons affected and their families and should consider: ensuring that children affected by leprosy participate on an equal basis with other children in education services and recreational, leisure and sporting activities; increasing the enrolment and retention rates of affected children in the education system; enhancing the empowering effects of education by equipping students with the capacity to claim and exercise their rights; training teachers to adopt constructivist strategies that stimulate self-worth and confidence among students; eradicating illiteracy among affected persons; providing for continued and life-long learning, as well as technical and vocational education, as part of both the right to education and the right to work; ensuring the availability of counselling services, psychoeducational methods and medical care within education establishments; guaranteeing reasonable accommodation and support to students when needed; using the education system as an opportunity for raising awareness of leprosy and the human rights of persons affected; fostering the rights to freedom of speech and the participation of children affected in any decision-making process involving their lives, in accordance with their evolving capacities and in respect of their own choices of how to express themselves, including in non-written and/or non-verbal forms; targeting schools as a primary locus for education on leprosy and on the human rights of persons affected; using leprosy as a paradigmatic example in human rights education; and, in line with the recommendation of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to ensure equal rights within the system, medical schools should ensure that their curricula properly include leprosy and in such a way that fully respects the voice and choice of persons affected with regard to dignified health care and their right to the highest standard of physical and mental health.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "A. Education"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "Participation is multidimensional, including the elements of representative democracy, participatory democracy, non-governmental organizations and communities and epistemic communities, as well as the family sphere. Participation can simultaneously play a role in empowering persons affected and their family members and enable them to become agents of change. Participation in decision-making is not only a right, it is also pivotal for the production of more effective responses to problems. The Special Rapporteur has previously called attention to persons affected as being lay experts and called for the inclusion of situated knowledge in scientific research related to leprosy and in data collection and policymaking (see A/HRC/38/42). Moreover, the involvement of persons affected and their representative organizations and non-governmental organizations, as well as research and training institutions, should be a fundamental part of the formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of all leprosy-related policies, which should ensure transparency and the democratization of information and create the mechanisms for holding policymakers, but also the private sector, accountable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "B. Participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "International conventions and treaties, especially the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, recognize the right of everyone to political participation and representation in public office. The opportunity of everyone to take part on an equal basis in public affairs and to have access to inclusive representation is key for the exercise of democracy and of the right to self-determination. For underrepresented groups, exercising the right to participation in public office and politics may require additional efforts, such as affirmative measures, as indicated in the Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. Participation in public life is fundamental for eliminating stereotypes, prejudice and exclusion. The exclusion or underrepresentation of certain groups in decision-making processes contributes to segregated societies and limits the possibilities of disadvantaged groups to protect their own interests. The principles and guidelines uphold the right of persons affected and their family members to take part in political and public life through the fulfilment of the general principle of equality and the prohibition of discrimination.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "B. Participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "One critical aspect for the promotion of participation by persons affected and their family members is indicated in the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Unarguably, there are several systemic barriers to the full and meaningful participation of marginalized groups, which persons affected and their families often face. Such barriers include: illiteracy and low educational qualifications; legal impediments; inaccessibility of administrative procedures and requirements; inaccessibility and unintelligibility of the information being provided; physical and environmental barriers; and lack of support mechanisms for overcoming structural disadvantages reflected in unequal and unfair socioeconomic and education status. Article 29 of the Convention, by fully acknowledging those multiple barriers, affirms the obligation of the State to actively promote enabling environments, ensuring equality, guarantees to free expression, accessibility, accommodation of procedures and support. Accessibility as an indispensable condition for the fulfilment of the right to participation relates to information, communication, infrastructure and transport.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "B. Participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "In order to promote the participation of persons affected and their family members, States are required to identify and remove any legal barrier, as well as any institutionalized discriminatory practice. Adopting temporary special measures to guarantee de facto equality in participation in public affairs, as endorsed by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in its general recommendation No. 23 (1997) on women in political and public life, may also be needed. The implementation of all measures aimed at barrier-free participation, as indicated in the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is an indispensable condition. Participation goes hand in hand with the active promotion of empowerment.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "B. Participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "Access to justice is one of the main instruments for protecting civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. It is through the equal and effective guarantee of access to justice that people may stand up in defence of their rights, objecting to situations of discrimination and violation and holding policymakers accountable. In the declaration of the high-level meeting of the General Assembly on the rule of law at the national and international levels, Member States emphasized the importance of equal access to justice for all and of capacity-building concerning legal rights, committing themselves to taking all steps necessary to provide fair, transparent, effective, non-discriminatory and accountable services that promote access to justice, including legal aid. A comprehensive approach to ensuring access to justice must take into consideration the plurality of justice systems and address formal courts, specialized agencies, quasi-judicial mechanisms and traditional justice systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "C. Access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "The Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights identified the main obstacles that people in vulnerable conditions must overcome to fully and equally exercise the right to access justice, which included: social and cultural barriers; legal and normative barriers; institutional and structural obstacles in the justice chain; non-existent or inadequate legal assistance; and structural problems of the judicial processes, encompassing formalism and differences in language and culture (see A/67/278). In its general recommendation No. 33 (2015) on women’s access to justice, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women highlighted a set of obstacles experienced by women and girls regarding access to justice, many of which are shared by persons affected, and especially women affected, by leprosy, such as stereotyping, discriminatory laws, intersecting forms of discrimination, procedural and evidentiary requirements and practices and a failure to systematically ensure that judicial mechanisms were physically, economically, socially and culturally accessible.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "C. Access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "Persons affected and their families are among those left furthest behind with regard to access to justice as a means to fight back against discrimination and defend their rights. On the one hand, systemic segregation, marginalization, violation, discriminatory legal frames and institutionalized practices, together with subordination and vulnerability, have made it almost impossible for persons affected to acquire access to justice. On the other hand, the centralization of courts and quasi-judicial bodies in urban centres, the cost and length of time of transportation to those places, as well as the non-accessibility of procedures, information and documentation, the non-availability of legal aid, the many deficiencies of the judicial system and the lack of knowledge among public defenders and judicial staff, have curtailed their right to justice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "C. Access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "In order to enforce the right to justice and the human rights literacy of a population that struggles with financial, physical and knowledge restrictions, States should take all measures necessary to: remove economic barriers, with the provision of legal aid; remove linguistic and cultural barriers, with the provision of translation and interpretation services, assistance to illiterate individuals and intercultural interpretation; develop partnerships with traditional justice systems for ensuring a rights-based approach to leprosy is taken in contexts of juridical pluralism; systematically record discrimination for supporting research, analysis of risk factors and providing quick, adequate, holistic, efficient and proportional remedies, with easy-to-access mechanisms for making complaints of discrimination; train judicial staff on issues related to leprosy; and build capacity on core human rights of those affected and their families.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "C. Access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "In some countries, like Brazil and Nepal, persons affected have been participating in collegiate bodies, officially instituted working groups and committees. In countries such as Brazil, India and Japan, the existence of and action plans for protecting vulnerable groups, such as inclusion of persons with disabilities, elimination of violence against women and protection of the rights of children and older persons, may benefit persons affected by leprosy and their family members. However, it is necessary to pinpoint affected persons as the main target group of such policies and to monitor their impact and results. The work of some civil society groups deserves to be equally highlighted, including the work of MORHAN in Brazil and the Leprosy Mission and the Leprosy Society in India, in promoting and supporting affected women to take on leadership positions in their organizations and also in forums for institutional participation.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "D. In practice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "Recommendations for implementing the policy framework presented in the present report are already integrated into the four main areas of the aforementioned policy. The Special Rapporteur calls attention to basic operational principles for the implementation of a rights-based policy for eliminating discrimination and promoting inclusion of persons affected by leprosy and their family members comprising the following tenets:\n(a) Due recognition of persons affected by leprosy and their family members as rights holders;\n(b) Substantive equality and inclusive governance as core paradigms of anti-discrimination policies;\n(c) Adjustment or creation of adequate institutional arrangements and schemes;\n(d) Meaningful participation of the target group, recognized as lay experts, in policymaking, monitoring and evaluation;\n(e) Elaboration of special temporary affirmative measures when needed;\n(f) Systematic data collection that includes disaggregation not only by demographic, environmental, socioeconomic and cultural variables, but also by the various grounds of discrimination recognized in international human rights law, and respect for the principles of participation and privacy;\n(g) Monitoring and accountability mechanisms with transparent sharing of information;\n(h) Provision of accessible mechanisms for filing complaints on the violation of rights;\n(i) Proper budget allocation at the national and subnational levels, with targets, indicators and benchmarks;\n(j) International cooperation, which is key to supporting the promotion of human rights policies for persons affected and their families in low-income countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusion and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "Considering the global prevalence of leprosy, necessary resources from Member States would be modest, whereas the return on the investment would be of great value for the promotion of the human rights of extremely vulnerable groups, especially within the context of the realization of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusion and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 73, "n": 1, "text": "On how to elaborate a policy framework see: Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. Public policy with a human rights approach: approved by the InterAmerican Commission on Human Rights on September 15, 2018.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "General issues"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 74, "n": 2, "text": "On the conceptualization of good and best practices see: A/58/427 and A/HRC/35/29.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "General issues"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 75, "n": 3, "text": "On the conceptualization of affirmative measures see: General Recommendation No. 32 of CEDAW, General Recommendation No. 25 of CEDAW. and General Comment No. 20 of CESCR.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "General issues"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 76, "n": 4, "text": "On the importance of disaggregated data for guaranteeing the rights of underprivileged groups see: Leaving no one behind: the imperative of inclusive development Report on the World Social Situation 2016” (New York: United Nations, 2016).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "General issues"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 77, "n": 5, "text": "On a rights-based data collection see: OHCHR, Guidance note to data collection and disaggregation, 2018.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "General issues"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 78, "n": 6, "text": "On the relation between infectious diseases and pervert see: World Health Organization & UNICEF/UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases. (‎2012)‎. Global report for research on infectious diseases of poverty 2012. World Health Organization.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 79, "n": 7, "text": "On the social determinants of leprosy see: Inequality and leprosy in Northeast Brazil: an ecological study Ligia Regina. Sansigolo Kerr-Pontes,Ana Cláudia Dorta Montenegro, Maurício Lima Barreto, Guilherme Loureiro Werneck and Hermann Feldmeier. International Journal of Epidemiology 2004;33:262–269. Oktaria S, Hurif NS, Naim W, Thio HB, Nijsten TEC, RichardusJH (2018) Dietary diversity and poverty as risk factors for leprosy in Indonesia: A case-control study. PLoS Negl TropDis 12(3): e0006317.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. pntd.0006317. Socioeconomic, environmental, and behavioural risk factors for leprosy in North-east Brazil: results of a case-control study. Ligia RS Kerr-Pontes, Maurıcio L Barreto, Clara MN Evangelista, Laura C Rodrigues, Jorg Heukelbach and Hermann Feldmeier. International Journal of Epidemiology 2006; 35:994–1000; Effect of a conditional cash transfer programme on leprosy treatment adherence and cure in patients from the nationwide 100 Million Brazilian Cohort: a quasi-experimental study. Julia M Pescarini, Elizabeth Williamson, Joilda S Nery, Anna Ramond, Maria Yury Ichihara, Rosemeire L Fiaccone, Maria Lucia F Penna, Liam Smeeth, Laura C Rodrigues, Gerson O Penna, Elizabeth B Brickley, Mauricio L Barreto. Lancet Infect Dis 2020 Published Online February 14, 2020 https://doi.org/10.1016/ S1473-3099(19)30624-3.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 80, "n": 8, "text": "On social protection see: ILO, World Social Protection Report 2017–19; ILO. Public employment services: Joined-up services for people facing labour market disadvantage. ILO briefs on Employment Services and ALMPs. Issue No. 1; Azizur Rahman Khan. Issues in Employment and Poverty. Discussion Paper. Employment policies for poverty reduction. ILO Office Geneva, 2001.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 81, "n": 9, "text": "On human rights education of the healthcare workforce see: A/74/174.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 82, "n": 10, "text": "On the concept of health systems see: E/CN.4/2006/48. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "section": ["Reference documents", "Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 83, "n": 11, "text": "On direct and indirect discrimination see: General Comment No. 20 of CESCR.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 84, "n": 12, "text": "On mechanisms to receive and provide quick and effective responses to complaints of discriminatory events see General Recommendation No. 33 of CEDAW.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 85, "n": 13, "text": "On the right highest attainable standard of mental health see: A/HRC/35/21.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 86, "n": 14, "text": "On palliative care as part of the right to health see: CESCR, , General Comment No. 14 and CEDAW, General Recommendation No. 27.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 87, "n": 15, "text": "On dehumanization see: A/HRC/41/47.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 88, "n": 16, "text": "On stereotyping see: OHCHR Commissioned Report, Gender stereotyping as a human rights violation – CEDAW.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 89, "n": 17, "text": "On UNAIDS’s strategies for stigma reduction see: UNAIDS (2017). Confronting discrimination. Overcoming HIV-related stigma and discrimination in healthcare settings and beyond.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 90, "n": 18, "text": "On guidelines on measures of reparation under the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights see: CCPR/C/158.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 91, "n": 19, "text": "On memorialization processes see: A/HRC/25/49.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 92, "n": 20, "text": "On empowerment see: Perkins, D.D. (2010). Empowerment. in R.A. Couto (Ed.), Political and Civic. Leadership: a reference handbook (pp. 207-218). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Empowerment, Inclusion, Equality: Accelerating sustainable development with human rights. United Nations Human Rights. Office of the High Commissioner.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 93, "n": 21, "text": "On promoting empowerment of people in achieving poverty eradication, social integration and full employment and decent work for all see: E/RES/2014/5.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 94, "n": 22, "text": "On inclusive education see: CRPD, General comment No. 4 (2016).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 95, "n": 23, "text": "On access to justice see: CEDAW, General Recommendation No. 33.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 96, "n": 24, "text": "On the barriers to access to justice by vulnerable groups see: A/67/278.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, Alice Cruz, submits the present report pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 44/6. In the report, she explains how the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has had a disproportionate impact on persons affected by leprosy[[fn:1]] and their family members, discussing the underlying causes of such an impact and offering constructive recommendations for an inclusive recovery.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A discussion among persons with a personal experience of leprosy and their representative organizations about terminology regarding the disease and the people who experience it is ongoing, with some segments of the community preferring the terms “Hansen’s disease” and “persons who have experienced Hansen’s disease”. The Special Rapporteur appreciates such a discussion, but given that there is still no consensus, in the present report, she employs the terminology used by the Human Rights Council in its resolution 44/6."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "In November 2020, the Special Rapporteur consulted with grass-roots organizations,[[fn:2]] in order to develop a participatory work plan for the following three years that embodied the views of experts through experience. The Special Rapporteur also consulted with key stakeholders in the field of leprosy, the World Health Organization (WHO) and relevant human rights mechanisms, with the aim of aligning her efforts with those of the wider health and human rights community.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Sasakawa Health Foundation, the Leprosy Mission International and the International Association for Integration, Dignity and Economic Advancement for their support in the consultation process."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "In her second term, the Special Rapporteur plans to build on the work developed during the previous three years and support the implementation of the global health policies for tackling leprosy in the next decade, to which she has contributed in the context of her mandate,[[fn:3]] but she also seeks to integrate into her work responses to the global challenges arising from the COVID-19 pandemic.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Leprosy/AliceCruz-April2019.pdf; and www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Leprosy/STM_WHO_consultation.pdf."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "There is much to learn from the history of leprosy that can be applied to the current global crisis. Since the beginning of 2020, the world has been experiencing the disruption of social ties and livelihoods, discovering the impacts on mental health of separation from family members, friends and social environments, acknowledging long-existing hidden epidemics, such as domestic violence against women and children, and realizing how people are stigmatized on the basis of their health status, as well as the fact that inequalities can kill and institutional neglect can impair lives. All this has been known for centuries by persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "While examining the disproportionate impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, another lesson came to light: there is no building back better if States fail to put those who have been systematically pushed further behind at the centre of recovery efforts. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur, drawing on the lived experiences of members of a marginalized and dehumanized group, calls for a recovery paradigm that begins building back better by enforcing the rights of those who have been systematically pushed into the margins and denied not only fundamental rights and freedoms, but also the right to claim rights. If one thing became clear during the pandemic, it is that “other people’s problems” are everyone’s problems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "In March 2020, the Special Rapporteur began monitoring the impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on persons affected by leprosy and their family members. She joined forces with the Global Partnership for Zero Leprosy, a coalition that includes WHO, the Novartis Foundation, the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, the Sasakawa Health Foundation and the International Association for Integration, Dignity and Economic Advancement, as well as with Federation members and grass-roots organizations, providing guidance and supporting the production of documents and reports. She issued an open letter on COVID-19 and leprosy to States. For the present report, she received information from 13 States (Algeria, Bolivia, Brazil, Costa Rica, Denmark, Guatemala, India, Japan, Kyrgyzstan, Maldives, Mauritius, Morocco and Mozambique) and 32 civil society organizations, including non-governmental organizations and grass-roots organizations.[[fn:4]] The webinar, entitled “Zero leprosy for whom in the post-COVID world?”,[[fn:5]] organized by the Sasakawa Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease) Initiative, which gave voice to grass-roots organizations, was also a relevant source of information. The present report is aimed at providing a clear portrait of the lived experience of historically dehumanized groups under the current global health and socioeconomic crises and at elaborating specific steps for an inclusive recovery.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is extremely grateful for the contributions provided by States and civil society organizations for the present report. The submissions will be available on the webpage of the Special Rapporteur (www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/LeprosyIndex.aspx)."}, {"n": 5, "text": "See www.shf.or.jp/information/10426?lang=en."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Unreliable casual labour with low income, unsafe working conditions and without entitlements to social protection or participation in social dialogue defines the livelihoods of the majority of persons affected by leprosy. The former make up part of the 2 billion people that the International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates work in the informal economy;[[fn:6]] they are denied rights to decent work and, at work, to social protection and income security. ILO estimates that 1.6 billion informal economy workers are experiencing significant effects from the current crisis,[[fn:7]] with women affected more greatly than men, while also facing other COVID-19-related impacts, such as increased unpaid care work and gender-based domestic violence.[[fn:8]] Informal economy workers are also largely excluded from social dialogue, an activity which is key for a sustainable economic recovery.[[fn:9]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "In its recommendation No. 204, the General Conference of the International Labour Organization (ILO) defines the informal economy as encompassing all economic activities undertaken by workers and economic units that are, in law or in practice, not covered or insufficiently covered by formal arrangements, apart from illicit activities. Importantly, ILO distinguishes the informal economy from the shadow economy. The informal economy is also heterogeneous. See also Transition to Formality and Structural Transformation: Challenges and Policy Options, Iyanatul Islam and Frédéric Lapeyre (eds.) (Geneva, ILO, 2020)."}, {"n": 7, "text": "ILO, Global Wage Report 2020/21: Wages and minimum wages in the time of COVID-19 (Geneva, ILO, 2020)."}, {"n": 8, "text": "ILO, “The global deal for decent work and inclusive growth flagship report: social dialogue, skills and COVID-19” (April 2020)."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "A. Exclusion from the formal economy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The majority of persons affected by leprosy work in the informal economy and have been systematically denied the rights to decent work and social protection, and they have also been voiceless in social dialogue and other decision-making processes. Furthermore, as with so many people, the pandemic imposed upon them the immoral dilemma of having to choose between dying from hunger or from the virus. If before the pandemic this marginalized group was already struggling with what one organization’s representative referred to as the “pre-pandemic crisis”, the pandemic became one additional basis for discrimination, aggravating structural violence and rights violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "A. Exclusion from the formal economy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy face formidable, intersecting and multiple barriers to freely choosing their work and to enjoying their rights at work. The testimony of one individual captures all too well how leprosy-related discrimination simultaneously operates at different levels of social life and is at the root of rights violations. While working as a public servant, he was dismissed from his job after being diagnosed with leprosy; he then went back to work as a farmer on community land, but he was also dismissed by the village committee that administered the land. Resorting to growing vegetables in his backyard, he could not sell them at the local market because people were afraid to buy vegetables from him. His testimony represents a shared pattern of denial of equality of opportunity, as well as of denial of equality of treatment, both of which are in violation of the ILO Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 (No. 111).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "B. Barriers to the right to decent work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Some of the barriers that have systematically hindered persons affected by leprosy from working in the formal economy are as follows:\n(a) The State policy that for more than a century forcibly segregated persons with leprosy and that was aimed at the elimination of leprosy through the elimination of those who carried the disease in their bodies;[[fn:10]] such a policy still reverberates in the public mindset, reinforcing structural discrimination, and shapes the more than 100 discriminatory laws that are still in force worldwide;[[fn:11]]\n(b) The fact that the majority of people who were forcibly segregated into what has become globally known as leprosy colonies (there are nearly 2,000 leprosy colonies active in the world) and their descendants do not enjoy property rights over the land where they were once confined, which aggravates poverty;\n(c) The fact that, in some countries, customary law denies land and inheritance rights to persons affected by leprosy, especially to women, which aggravates the feminization of leprosy-related poverty;\n(d) The aforementioned discrimination in law that, in some countries, also applies in the context of employment;\n(e) Institutionalized discrimination in hiring policies for public jobs;\n(f) Discrimination at school, which has pushed too many people out of education;\n(g) Interpersonal discrimination in both public and private employment settings.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See A/HRC/38/42."}, {"n": 11, "text": "See https://ilepfederation.org/discriminatory-laws."}], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "B. Barriers to the right to decent work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Such barriers have systematically pushed people into poverty and extreme poverty, forcing many of them to resort to begging. Their work is characterized as follows: (a) insufficient and irregular income, in many cases dependent on begging and/or assistance from families, religious institutions and non-governmental organizations; (b) employment as small-scale, own-account, casual and domestic workers; (c) sector of activity mostly being petty trade, agriculture, fishing and other manual activities; (d) no written contracts, job cards, payment through bank accounts or grievance or appeal mechanisms, as well as no social security or employment protection. Such a profile is not accidental. It is the result of intentional and systemic exclusion.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "B. Barriers to the right to decent work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The rights protected by articles 6 and 7 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, but also article 27 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, and other closely interrelated articles, such as article 11 of the Covenant and article 19 of the Convention, have been systematically and grossly violated with regard to persons affected by leprosy. As the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights has acknowledged in its general comment No. 18 (2005), the right to work is essential for realizing other human rights and forms an inseparable and inherent part of human dignity. The Committee also connects the right to work with the right to life, speaking of the survival of the individual and that of his or her family, on the one hand, and to the right to development, insofar as work is freely chosen or accepted, on the other. Work is recognized by ILO as being crucial to ensuring dignity, well-being and development. Concomitantly, the ILO Employment Policy Convention, 1964 (No. 122) affirms that productive employment and decent work are prerequisites for raising living standards and alleviating poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "B. Barriers to the right to decent work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Only India reported on the existence of reservations for persons with disabilities in government jobs and in government or government-aided higher education institutions, to which persons affected by leprosy are eligible.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "B. Barriers to the right to decent work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Civil society organizations, including non-governmental organizations and grass-roots organizations, undertake various projects in the areas of socioeconomic and vocational rehabilitation. In their submissions, non-governmental organizations described socioeconomic and vocational rehabilitation projects that were disability-inclusive, many starting with self-care and self-help groups. Skills development is applied in the areas of gastronomy, handicrafts, agriculture, animal husbandry, health-care facilitation and entrepreneurship. Support is also provided to the children of persons affected by leprosy so that they may pursue their education. Microcredit loans and seed funding are provided to support people in starting their own businesses. Capacity-building is provided in the areas of entrepreneurship and leadership, but also in terms of access to government schemes. Social and economic solidarity is also stimulated by cooperatives and savings groups.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "B. Barriers to the right to decent work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "The “pre-pandemic crisis” in which persons affected by leprosy were trapped pushed them to work as daily laborers and left them more vulnerable to economic hazards. In addition, if the global work scenario for persons with disabilities is worrying – with persons with disabilities less likely to be in employment or to enjoy decent employment conditions than persons without disabilities, while also not being adequately covered by social protection rights – persons affected by leprosy are further behind within the heterogeneous population with disabilities and are among the 80 per cent of people with severe disabilities who do not have access to disability-related social protection schemes in low- and middle-income countries.[[fn:12]] Moreover, the fact that leprosy-related physical impairments have nerve damage as a main cause, and that physical labour can severely aggravate it, leads to too many persons affected by leprosy experiencing the deterioration of their health and well-being as a result of the need to perform manual labour in the face of structural exclusion from education opportunities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "ILO, “COVID-19 and the world of work: Ensuring the inclusion of persons with disabilities at all stages of the response”, policy brief, June 2020."}], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "C. Barriers to the right to social security"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "With the COVID-19 outbreak and the lockdown and containment measures, social distancing regulations, mobility restrictions and public transportation restrictions and prohibitions that followed, persons affected by leprosy, who were already outside the formal economy and denied employment protection, faced the loss of jobs, income-generating activities and safety nets. People who, before the pandemic, had depended on begging, their families, charity institutions and non-governmental organizations could no longer rely on that support. Regarding family support, the Special Rapporteur received many reports of persons with leprosy-related disabilities who were experiencing discrimination within their own families due to the economic blow. People working as daily labourers in informal and unreliable activities, such as petty trade, agriculture or fishing, are not bringing in any income, due to the disruption in supply chains, restrictions on movement and limited market access. Importantly, women are the hardest-hit among those engaged in business and agriculture activities. Furthermore, people working in agriculture usually do not own the land on which they work, which adds an additional barrier to ensuring their livelihoods in the context of the pandemic. Children with leprosy or those with affected parents lack access to the technology necessary to move to online learning, and many have dropped out of school.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "D. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Notably, many people had no savings available to help them to endure lockdown measures and their effects, given the lack of income security in pre-pandemic times, which also compromised their ability to recover from the present crisis. The widespread denial of social protection to persons affected by leprosy aggravates those worsening scenarios and prospects. Social protection would have guaranteed a safety net in times of economic crisis,[[fn:13]] and it is acknowledged to be essential for preventing crises, enabling recovery and building resilience.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "ILO, Rules of the Game: An Introduction to the Standards-related Work of the International Labour Organization (Geneva, ILO, 2019)."}, {"n": 14, "text": "ILO, “Employment and decent work for peace and resilience recommendation, 2017 (No. 205)”."}], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "D. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "However, social protection floors are still far from where they should be,[[fn:15]] and persons affected by leprosy are still not recognized in existing social protection schemes, poverty reduction measures and in many disability-related social protection schemes. As the Special Rapporteur has heard repeatedly from grass-roots organizations, widespread barriers to access to disability benefits as a result of eligibility criteria based on a limited medical assessment, alongside the non-recognition of invisible impairments, such as loss of sensitivity and chronic pain, as well as mental health disorders caused by stigmatization on the grounds of leprosy, continue to be in violation of the provisions of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "ILO, “Financing gaps in social protection: global estimates and strategies for developing countries in light of the COVID-19 crisis and beyond”, working paper No. 14, October 2020."}], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "D. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Recommendations made and measures taken by governments to contain COVID-19 disclosed the unequal distribution of fundamental goods worldwide. Containment measures based on isolation, social distancing outside and within the household, frequent hand washing, space cleaning and the use of masks can only be implemented if individuals enjoy decent housing, access to clean water and soap and the income security with which to ensure subsistence during lockdown measures and to purchase masks and other personal protective equipment. Such measures are inaccessible to a large share of the world’s population, in which persons affected by leprosy are included.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "A. Social determinants of health and illness"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "As previously noted by the Special Rapporteur, social determinants play a crucial role in the incidence of leprosy,[[fn:16]] in particular household crowding, inadequate nutrient intake, poor hygiene and lack of access to clean water. The social determinants of leprosy shape the socioeconomic conditions in which affected people live. The same social determinants augment vulnerability to COVID-19 and feed back into the disproportionate impact of the pandemic on such vulnerable populations. Gaps in access to water, sanitation and hygiene and in poverty reduction policies are unmistakably at the root of the incidence of leprosy, but also of vulnerability to COVID-19.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Leprosy is one of the 20 diseases classified by WHO as a neglected tropical disease. Neglected tropical diseases disproportionately affect populations living in poverty and have a devastating social and economic effect on over 1 billion people, in particular in low-income countries and the most disadvantaged communities in middle-income countries. Neglected tropical diseases are formally recognized as targets for global action in target 3.3 of the Sustainable Development Goals."}], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "A. Social determinants of health and illness"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The current global recession – the worst in nearly a century – has pushed an estimated 70 to 100 million more people into extreme poverty.[[fn:17]] Model-based simulations suggest an even greater number of around 90 million to 150 million people.[[fn:18]] Considering the fact that the poorest households spend around 70 per cent of their incomes on food, the pandemic is generating a global food crisis.[[fn:19]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "United Nations, “United Nations comprehensive response to COVID-19: saving lives, protecting societies, recovering better”, September 2020."}, {"n": 18, "text": "David Laborde and others, “COVID-19 risks to global food security”, Science, vol. 369 No. 6503."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "B. Food emergency"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Recognized as a human right in article 11 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the right to food is explicitly referred to by the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in its general comment No. 12 (1999) as being inseparable from social justice. The aforementioned barriers to the enjoyment of the right to decent work have also made persons affected by leprosy food insecure and particularly vulnerable to food crises. Independent studies have shown the relation between leprosy and malnutrition, which lowers immunity and therefore makes people more prone to infection.[[fn:20]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "Sharika Mahato and others, “Inequities towards leprosy-affected people: a challenge during COVID-19 pandemic”, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, vol. 14; K.N. Rao and others, “Undernutrition in lepromatous leprosy, Part I. Is it associated with poverty or with disease?” Leprosy Review, vol. 57 (1986); S.G. Feenstra and others “Recent food shortage is associated with leprosy disease in Bangladesh: a case-control study”. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, vol. 5; and Julia Moreira Pescarini and others, “Socioeconomic risk markers of leprosy in high-burden countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis”, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, vol. 12."}], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "B. Food emergency"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Since March 2020, the Special Rapporteur has been receiving reports from all leprosy-endemic countries about a food emergency among affected persons. A food emergency is defined as an extraordinary situation in which people are unable to meet their basic survival needs or there are serious and immediate threats to human life and well-being.[[fn:21]] As daily workers, the majority of persons affected by leprosy depend on their daily income to buy food. Together with the generalized increase in food prices, this has generated a food emergency. As one contributor to the present report expressed: “It is tough to see members [of the organization] dying from lack of food and other COVID-19 issues.”", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "United Nations, “The impact of COVID-19 on food security and nutrition”, policy brief, June 2020."}], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "B. Food emergency"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "The right to food is closely related to other rights, such as health, water, adequate housing and education. Access to fundamental and life-saving goods other than food, such as energy for cooking, clean water, soap, masks and personal protective equipment, has also been missing for the majority of affected people and their families.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "B. Food emergency"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "According to the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the seven components of the right to an adequate housing are: legal security of tenure, availability of services, materials, facilities and infrastructure, affordability, habitability, accessibility, location and cultural adequacy.[[fn:22]] Forced eviction is considered a prima facie violation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The Committee also acknowledged the close connection between adequate housing and the right to health.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 4 (1991)."}], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "C. Housing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has received reports of a lack of adequate housing, clean water, sanitation and electricity, as well as of housing deprivation due to loss of income, the specific risks faced by refugees affected by leprosy and cases of forced eviction in one former leprosy colony in Brazil.[[fn:23]] Widespread institutional neglect leading to lack of food, clean water and personal protective equipment in the nearly 2,000 leprosy colonies that are still active in the world today has also been reported.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See https://g1.globo.com/sp/mogi-das-cruzes-suzano/noticia/2021/03/13/familias-que-moram-no-1o-leprosario-do-brasil-recebem-notificacoes-de-despejo-durante-a-pandemia.ghtml (in Portuguese)."}], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "C. Housing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "Key information for COVID-19 prevention has, to a large extent, not been accessible to a considerable number of persons affected by leprosy, especially those living in rural areas, those who cannot read and those without access to technology. Lack of information, misinformation and low levels of awareness of how COVID-19 spreads, as well as of protection mechanisms, has been frequently reported.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "D. Access to information"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "In the face of the absence of medical technologies to stop the spread of COVID-19, its containment largely depends on individual and community engagement in preventive behaviour. The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) has recommended a community-centred response to the pandemic, with the prioritization of the most vulnerable.[[fn:24]] Experience has shown that health education, in order to be effective and empowering to people, should be cognizant of the varying levels of comprehension and not be too technical, complex, hasty or delivered in a language, manner or context that people do not understand.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), “Rights in the time of COVID-19: lessons from HIV for an effective, community-led response”, 2020."}], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "D. Access to information"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Low-literacy populations require additional efforts to facilitate comprehension of technical concepts. The same is true for specific groups, such as children. Health education must be gender-sensitive, accessible for persons with disabilities and culturally appropriate. Furthermore, it is critical to address barriers created by the digital divide. Communication should also be reciprocal and channels for receiving the feedback from the community be made available. The right to access to information is provided for under article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Taking into consideration the risks to life associated with the lack of information about COVID-19, the Special Rapporteur considers such information to be fundamental to guaranteeing the right to life in the context of the pandemic and the lack of effective measures taken by governments to make it accessible to all people, especially those who are the most vulnerable, to be a human rights violation.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "D. Access to information"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "According to WHO, early diagnosis and complete antibacterial treatment with multidrug therapy – a combination of rifampicin, clofazimine and dapsone – remain the most effective strategies for tackling leprosy.[[fn:25]] Multidrug therapy is provided free of charge to all detected leprosy patients in accordance with WHO recommendations and through an agreement between the pharmaceutical company Novartis and WHO, which began in 2000 and was recently extended to 2025. The company produces the multidrug therapy components in India, and WHO manages its distribution to national leprosy programmes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "WHO, “Guidelines for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of leprosy”, 2017."}], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "A. Continuum of care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "One of the greatest challenges in the medical care of leprosy is leprosy reactions, which cause great physical and mental suffering. Leprosy reactions frequently occur during and after antibacterial treatment. They are also associated with nerve damage, which is the main cause of physical impairments. Leprosy reactions may require prolonged treatment, sometimes for several years.[[fn:26]] Unlike multidrug therapy, most of the drugs used for treating leprosy reactions are not provided to countries free of charge. They include steroids and thalidomide – the latter being well-known for its teratogenic effects and risks to sexual and reproductive health. Drugs used for treating leprosy reactions are immunosuppressive and are likely to increase susceptibility to COVID-19, which means that a high percentage of persons affected by leprosy are especially vulnerable to COVID-19.[[fn:27]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Diana N.J. Lockwood and others, “Three drugs are unnecessary for treating paucibacillary leprosy: a critique of the WHO guidelines”, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, viewpoints, 31 October 2019."}, {"n": 27, "text": "See www.who.int/docs/default-source/searo/thailand/advice-about-leprosy-and-covid-19.pdf?sfvrsn=6171bfc0_0."}], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "A. Continuum of care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "Despite being curable with multidrug therapy, if not detected early and treated, leprosy can become a chronic disease that demands a continuum of medical and psychosocial care, which includes rehabilitation, reconstructive surgery, the provision of assistive devices and psychosocial support. Such a continuum of medical and psychosocial care should be fully addressed by effective referral within national health-care systems. While assessing the impact of COVID-19 on medical care, the continuum of care must be properly taken into consideration.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "A. Continuum of care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "During the first months of the pandemic, specifically from early March to late July 2020, the Special Rapporteur received many reports pointing to a generalized pattern of multiple barriers to access to health care, such as the following:\n(a) The loss of financial and human resources from national leprosy programmes with the redirection of leprosy funds and staff to the fight against COVID-19, which caused a substantive reduction in leprosy-related initiatives;\n(b) The interruption of key activities for early diagnosis and the concomitant prevention of physical impairments, such as active case detection and post-exposure prophylaxis with single dose rifampicin;\n(c) The non-availability of leprosy care among health-care services, which in some cases even refused to attend to people suspected of having leprosy;\n(d) Sporadic difficulties in the provision of multidrug therapy;\n(e) Generalized difficulties in the treatment and clinical management of leprosy reactions, aggravated by the lack of monitoring necessary for the treatment of a highly complex health problem;\n(f) Lack of drugs for treating leprosy reactions;\n(g) The deferral of complementary care that was essential for the prevention of physical and psychosocial disabilities, such as wound care, protective footwear and other assistive devices or self-care and self-help groups;\n(h) A reduction in and the interruption of disability prevention and rehabilitation;\n(i) A reduction in and the interruption of community-based rehabilitation;\n(j) Self-diagnosed cases not receiving a diagnosis or treatment at health-care facilities;\n(k) The lack of effective national systems in place to monitor COVID-19 infection among immunocompromised persons affected by leprosy;\n(l) Older people living in former leprosy colonies being at greater risk of contracting COVID-19, with some public administrations turning parts of those former colonies into field hospitals for COVID-19;\n(m) The unavailability of health care in former leprosy colonies, due to lockdown and mobility restrictions;\n(n) Specific cases in which persons affected by leprosy could not receive health care, due to recently adopted procedures that excluded persons such as themselves, who do not possess citizenship cards, health insurance or the financial means to buy COVID-19 tests;\n(o) The lack of income to buy means of transportation to gain access to health-care services;\n(p) Political instability, with forced displacement in some countries, with no measures in place to ensure leprosy treatment.\nAs the Special Rapporteur wrote in her open letter to governments,[[fn:28]] the first months of the pandemic pointed to a serious threat to the continuum of care for persons affected by leprosy, as well as to the high probability of setbacks in the interruption of transmission and early diagnosis in the near future. During the second half of 2020, not only have those concerns been proven to be well-founded, but they have also increased.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Leprosy/SR_leprosy_Open_letter_22May2020.pdf."}], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "B. Barriers to the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "Shortages in multidrug therapy have been reported since August 2020. The first reports came from Brazil, with complaints of what was soon revealed to be a serious problem of a national scale, with a high number of people going without treatment. In the second half of 2020, the Special Rapporteur received news from more leprosy-endemic countries facing multidrug therapy shortages.[[fn:29]] According to the sources consulted by the Special Rapporteur, including Novartis, WHO and a number of national leprosy programmes, the problem was the result of distinct issues affecting the overall supply chain at various times, with the pandemic playing an important role, especially in terms of distribution and delivery to patients.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "In order to protect the sources, the Special Rapporteur will only disclose information about Brazil in the present report, given that such information is publicly available. See BRA 10/2020. Available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "C. Barriers to access to essential medicines"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "Reportedly, three issues affected access for leprosy patients to essential medicines: (a) shortages in one of the multidrug therapy drugs, namely, dapsone, at the end of 2019; (b) problems in the shipment of multidrug therapy after the outbreak of the pandemic; and (c) the discovery of impurities in one of the three multidrug therapy drugs, namely, of nitrosamines in rifampicin, in the second half of 2020. Importantly, multidrug therapy is not available to be bought at local pharmacies, and access for leprosy patients to it depends on donations to countries and in-country distribution.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "C. Barriers to access to essential medicines"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "In December 2020, the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations mapped the shortage of multidrug therapy drugs in countries in which its members operate and identified at least five leprosy-endemic countries whose patients were not receiving multidrug therapy and four countries that had run out of stocks for multidrug therapy treatment for children. According to the Federation, many other countries were expected to run out of multidrug therapy stocks in the months that followed. The Special Rapporteur received non-official and official complaints about the shortage of multidrug therapy drugs in more than the five countries mapped by the Federation, bringing to 10 the number of countries identified by the Special Rapporteur with multidrug therapy drug shortages during the period from mid-2020 through the beginning of 2021.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "C. Barriers to access to essential medicines"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "Being the cornerstone of leprosy control, multidrug therapy gaps increase transmission, transmission within households, including to children, neuropathic pain, physical impairments and mental health problems as a result of the extreme physical, mental and social suffering caused by leprosy.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "C. Barriers to access to essential medicines"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "In its general comment No. 14 (2000), the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights explicitly mentioned the provision of essential drugs as part of the right to health. The Committee also noted that, in the face of disaster, the international community bore the duty to contribute to relief and humanitarian assistance by providing medical supplies as a matter of priority. The Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health has elaborated further on those obligations, affirming that the requirement of human rights accountability extended to both the public and the private sectors and that it was not confined to national bodies, but encompassed international actors working on health-related issues.[[fn:30]] Importantly, in the Doha Declaration on the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights and Public Health, the members of the World Trade Organization affirmed that the agreement should be interpreted and implemented in a manner that promoted access to medicines for all.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "See A/63/263."}], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "C. Barriers to access to essential medicines"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "Principle 11.3 of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members provides for the obligation of all States to ensure that persons affected by leprosy have access to free medication for leprosy, as well as appropriate health care, reflecting articles 25 and 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "C. Barriers to access to essential medicines"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "The multidrug therapy crisis revealed double standards at play in terms of the protection of the right to health in the context of the pandemic. The Special Rapporteur has been calling attention to those double standards since mid-2020 at several stakeholders’ meetings and through the mandate holder’s regular working methods.[[fn:31]] The Special Rapporteur notes that global action to ensure supply channels for delivering essential medicines and goods did not reach persons affected by leprosy, nor did the definition of priority groups for COVID-19 vaccinations include them, despite the fact that many such persons are immunocompromised.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26697&LangID=E."}], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "D. Double standards"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "No official information has been released about the causes of the multidrug therapy crisis, nor about problem-solving activities or estimates of the resumption of delivery. The Special Rapporteur appreciates the difficulties of communicating information in uncertain scenarios, in addition to that fact that multidrug therapy delivery is conveyed through a complex chain of shared responsibilities, but she calls attention to the negative consequences of the failure to proactively communicate gaps and what is being done to fill them. Such a failure leads to the loss of trust and hinders people from being empowered with key information about matters that have a direct impact on their lives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "D. Double standards"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "The multidrug therapy crisis revealed the following gaps in need of an immediate response: (a) lack of international and national contingency plans for emergency situations, such as the one created by the COVID-19 crisis; (b) lack of multidrug therapy buffer stocks; (c) lack of guarantees of the right of the concerned people to access to information; and (d) lack of accountability mechanisms and remedies for failures in the overall multidrug therapy supply chain.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "D. Double standards"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The year 2021 began with the confirmation of the worst estimates regarding leprosy control and the fear that leprosy would continue to be kept furthest behind, as health resources and health-care personnel continued to be directed towards the fight against COVID-19 and were now also being directed towards COVID-19 vaccination campaigns. According to the WHO global leprosy programme,[[fn:32]] the impact of the pandemic on leprosy control is currently characterized as follows:\n(a) Delays in multidrug therapy provision and stock-outs;\n(b) Significant reductions in case detection in many countries;\n(c) Delays in case detection;\n(d) Increases in the number of hidden cases;\n(e) Increases in the development of irreversible physical impairments;\n(f) Slowdowns in the reduction in the incidence of leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "Personal communication."}], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "D. Double standards"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "The Special Rapporteur received reports from civil society organizations working in various countries that pointed in that direction, more specifically to a 50 per cent decrease in the diagnosis of new cases, with concerns over an increase in transmission rates and new cases among children, who may also be more likely to be diagnosed with already irreversible physical impairments. Official data from Brazil, the country with the highest relative incidence of leprosy worldwide, indicates that the number of new cases diagnosed in 2020 was less than half that of the new cases diagnosed in the same period in the year before the pandemic, which denotes a dangerous increase in transmission and disability in the near future.[[fn:33]] No strategies have been reported for tackling the situation, nor for ensuring the priority vaccination of immunocompromised leprosy patients. Again, double standards seem to be at play.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See www.aids.gov.br/pt-br/pub/2021/boletim-epidemiologico-hanseniase-2021 (in Portuguese)."}], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "D. Double standards"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "Women and children are more vulnerable to discrimination on the grounds of leprosy.[[fn:34]] While monitoring the adverse effects of the pandemic, the Special Rapporteur, realizing how women and children faced multiple barriers which amplified the challenges 31 See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26697&LangID=E. 32 Personal communication. 33 See www.aids.gov.br/pt-br/pub/2021/boletim-epidemiologico-hanseniase-2021 (in Portuguese). 34 See A/HRC/41/47. they faced, made special efforts to listen to them. Such an endeavour was more successful in amplifying the voices of women than of children. In fact, it was with great concern that the Special Rapporteur learned, especially from female representatives of grass-roots organizations, that the counselling strategies in place to respond to leprosy-related discrimination were not age-sensitive and failed to effectively provide support to children and teenagers, whose needs went mostly unmet.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "See A/HRC/41/47."}], "section": ["V. Women and children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "The following testimony of a woman affected by leprosy shows how the denial of inclusive education, furthered by the denial of opportunities that can ensure economic security, makes women who have experienced leprosy more vulnerable to poverty, denial of autonomy and physical, psychological and sexual violence within the household: “As a woman with [a] disability, I am more disadvantaged. The society outcasts me; even if I am allowed to live within the household, I am like dead, not getting involved and no opinions are asked [of] me. I got the disease in childhood. I was denied education; it was like a predestination, because of the disease. I became dependent [on] my family, providing support within the household. But the household activities can be quite challenging; things like fetching water can be very difficult, because of my disability. I have been hiding inside the house, but men within the household take advantage of me, they intimidate me and they also sexually abuse me. They think that people like me must accept that. Other members of our organization say that, once they got the disease, their husbands blamed them and started beating them.”", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Women and children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "The general pattern of institutionalized, structural and interpersonal violence against women affected by leprosy has worsened with the pandemic and lockdown measures, while no institutional attempt to map the disproportionate impact of the pandemic on women and children has been reported. If the COVID-19-related health and socioeconomic crises hit women harder than men, for women affected by leprosy, the following root causes have aggravated their vulnerability to the adverse effects of the pandemic:\n(a) In some countries, customary law denies, on the grounds of leprosy, land and inheritance rights, which affects women more than men;\n(b) Discrimination in law on the grounds of leprosy disproportionately affects women;\n(c) Women bear the brunt of unpaid care and household work, which, together with the denial of the continuum of care in the context of the pandemic, causes the severe deterioration of their mental and physical health;\n(d) Women have been the hardest hit among those engaged in business and agriculture activities, and initiatives for economic empowerment, such as cooperatives and other social and solidarity economy endeavours, have been put on hold due to the pandemic;\n(e) Household isolation during lockdown measures, which further restricted the already limited autonomy of women affected by leprosy, including with regard to health, sexual and reproductive rights, has left them more vulnerable to domestic violence; the multidrug therapy crisis has aggravated that situation.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Women and children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "The pandemic disclosed serious gaps in social protection coverage. According to ILO, at the time of the COVID-19 outbreak, only 45 per cent of the world’s population had access to at least one social protection benefit and less than one third was fully covered, while half of the global population lacked access to health-care services.[[fn:35]] As the crisis unfolded, many countries responded with mitigation measures and, by the end of 2020, around 1,600 social protection measures had either been announced or implemented.[[fn:36]] Despite such a remarkable number, the majority of those measures have been defined as short-term, reactive and inaccessible for many, especially for those most in need.[[fn:37]] The resources employed were only a fraction of what was needed to fill the social protection gaps in developing countries.[[fn:38]] Once again, the lived experience of persons affected by leprosy, as reported to the Special Rapporteur, confirm the existence of such gaps.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "ILO, “Financing gaps in social protection”."}, {"n": 36, "text": "ILO, “Towards solid social protection floors? The role of non-contributory provision during the COVID-19 crisis and beyond”, January 2021."}, {"n": 37, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Poverty/Pages/Covid19.aspx."}, {"n": 38, "text": "ILO, “Financing gaps in social protection”."}], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "A. Social protection and COVID-19-related mitigation measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "In mid-2020, a survey about the global public and private responses to the adverse effects of the crisis on persons affected by leprosy showed that, out of 24 countries[[fn:39]] (10 of which were among the 23 leprosy-affected countries identified by WHO as a priority), 18 had put into place protection measures from which persons affected by leprosy could benefit. Only one of the countries on that list, Myanmar, had implemented a specific measure to protect persons affected by leprosy. Most of the measures comprised short-term food aid and were discontinued after the first months of the outbreak.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "Brazil, Cambodia, Chad, Colombia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ecuador, Gabon, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, Togo, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) and Yemen."}, {"n": 40, "text": "See https://zeroleprosy.org/covid-data/?fbclid=IwAR0xCWKzEBAHyClZYc0ojWdcKnoZGFvbrPnaK1jaAiJg0IkPUNneeuQqZvc."}], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "A. Social protection and COVID-19-related mitigation measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "By the end of 2020, 14 Governments (of which only 3 were leprosy-affected countries identified by WHO as a priority), had provided information on the general and specific social protection measures from which persons affected by leprosy could benefit in the context of the pandemic. Regarding pre-existing and regular social protection schemes, persons affected by leprosy are eligible to enjoy either disability, old age-related or poverty-related benefits in some of those 14 countries.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "A. Social protection and COVID-19-related mitigation measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "In India, the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act is applicable to persons cured of leprosy[[fn:41]] who have valid disability certificates. The Act mandates the appropriate administrative and government bodies to develop schemes and programmes in the areas of social security, health, rehabilitation and skills development. In order to apply online for the aforementioned certificate and receive it in digital form, the government implemented the Unique Disability Identity Card, from which 17,973 persons cured of leprosy have registered to date. Under the Department of Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities, several initiatives to support persons with disabilities have been put into motion, among which is the project for the rehabilitation of persons cured of leprosy, with a grant being provided to non-governmental organizations working in the field. In Brazil, persons affected by leprosy are eligible for a continuing instalment benefit, under Law No. 13.982/2020, that provides a monthly minimum wage to people with disabilities or to people over 65 years of age. Also in Brazil, Law No. 11.520/2007 provides for special lifelong, monthly, non-transferable pensions to persons affected by leprosy who were subjected to compulsory isolation up to 31 December 1986. In Maldives, persons affected by leprosy are eligible for the Senior Citizen Allowance. In Mauritius, the Ministry of Social Integration and Economic Empowerment targets its efforts at the inclusion of vulnerable groups, providing free gender-sensitive and culturally sensitive education and benefits to vulnerable families and support to persons living in extreme poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "It has been brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur that such terminology could exclude people under medical treatment."}], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "A. Social protection and COVID-19-related mitigation measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "With regard to COVID-19-related mitigation measures, only the delivery of multidrug therapy, where available, seems to have been the object of specific leprosy-related measures, as part of countries’ responses aimed at enhancing effective access to health care in the context of the pandemic. The majority of the measures reported are of a general type. General health-care protection measures range from increasing the capacity of the health-care system, such as was done in Costa Rica, to the simplification of occupational medicine procedures, as well as benefits, for persons with chronic diseases and disabilities, as was done in Algeria. Measures aimed at ensuring the proper delivery of multidrug therapy were implemented in Bolivia, Guatemala, Maldives and Morocco. In India, guidelines to ensure the supply of multidrug therapy, the sustenance of disability prevention activities and new case detection were issued by the central Government. In Mozambique, COVID-19-related health awareness-raising materials, hygiene items and masks were distributed among leprosy-affected communities. Socioeconomic measures were enacted in Brazil, where a cash transfer benefit has been provided to informal and self-employed workers, as well as to unemployed persons. Similar measures were implemented in Maldives. In Japan, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare held a consultation in October 2020, in order to assess the needs of persons affected by leprosy and their families due to COVID-19, and implemented special prevention measures against COVID-19 at leprosy sanatoriums, with accompanying budgetary measures.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "A. Social protection and COVID-19-related mitigation measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Social protection systems have not only proved to be essential in responding to the crisis, but are also economic and social stabilizers that can play an important role in recovery.[[fn:42]] Social protection systems should, in principle, extend security to all, throughout the life cycle, underpinning universality and linking basic income security to dignity.[[fn:43]] The Special Rapporteur received a considerable number of reports that pointed to multiple and intersecting barriers to access for persons affected by leprosy to social protection benefits before and during the pandemic. As regards disability-related benefits, eligibility criteria based on a limited medical assessment, together with administrative services and bureaucratic procedures that are not accessible to illiterate or poorly educated populations or to populations living in remote or peripheral areas, are widespread and exclude, in practice, a large number of persons affected by leprosy. Moreover, the shutdown of public administration, in addition to transportation restrictions, acted as barriers to social protection measures during lockdown measures. A considerable number of people also reported being discriminated against on the grounds of leprosy when seeking access to social protection services. Notably, ILO identified geographical and financial accessibility to essential services, such as water, sanitation, health and education, as an integral part of comprehensive social protection systems,[[fn:44]] and the ILO Social Protection Floors Recommendation, 2012 (No. 202) explicitly indicates that States should identify barriers to protection.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "ILO, “Financing gaps in social protection”."}, {"n": 43, "text": "ILO Social Protection Floors Recommendation, 2012 (No. 202)."}, {"n": 44, "text": "ILO, “Towards the right to work: innovations in public employment programmes”, employment working paper No. 69, 23 June 2010."}], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "B. Issues of access and gaps"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "With regard to COVID-19-related mitigation measures, barriers, such as eligibility criteria, lack of recognition of the additional costs of disability, inaccessible administrative services or bureaucratic procedures, lack of access to the Internet and digital illiteracy, in addition to civil and political rights violations on the grounds of leprosy, which have resulted in the denial of the right to own identity cards and to be integrated into cities and municipalities’ databases in some countries, amount to a widespread denial of protection. Furthermore, emergency measures were mostly one-off and indisputably insufficient. Concomitantly, persons affected by leprosy are reportedly not being taken into consideration in national recovery plans.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "B. Issues of access and gaps"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Temporary measures enacted during the pandemic should act as building blocks for founding national social protection floors.[[fn:45]] With such an aim in view, the Special Rapporteur considers that significant improvement is indispensable and recommends the fulfilment of one gap in particular. Apart from Japan, no other country provided information on attempts to guarantee the participation of persons affected by leprosy and of their representative organizations in the formulation and implementation of social protection measures in response to the crisis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "ILO, “Towards solid social protection floors?”."}], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "B. Issues of access and gaps"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "Participation is a fundamental principle of human rights and community engagement a well-documented key strategy for simultaneously preventing and responding to outbreaks in an equitable, appropriate and efficient manner.[[fn:46]] A very limited number of WHO member States report having included community engagement in COVID-19-related plans.[[fn:47]] Policymakers must guarantee that citizens’ voices are being heard[[fn:48]] on a non-discriminatory basis that enables marginalized groups to have a voice and a choice in problem-solving endeavours, even more so because they possess key knowledge, which is many times absent from official monitoring systems, and can easily identify both additional needs and solutions. As the world starts rolling out COVID-19 vaccines, and while the socioeconomic crisis expands, ensuring the participation of those who have been systematically pushed furthest behind is a sine qua non for ensuring equity in recovery.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "Brynne Gilmore and others, “Community engagement for COVID-19 prevention and control: a rapid evidence synthesis”, BMJ Global Health, vol. 5, No. 10."}, {"n": 47, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 48, "text": "Cicely Marston and others, “Community participation is crucial in a pandemic”, The Lancet, vol. 395, No. 10238."}], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "B. Issues of access and gaps"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "Once the health crisis and food emergency became evident, many non-governmental organizations working in the field of leprosy transferred resources from field activities to humanitarian aid. In October 2020, non-governmental organizations were providing emergency relief to persons affected by leprosy in at least 16 countries.[[fn:49]] In the beginning of 2021, 23 leprosy-related non-governmental organizations informed the Special Rapporteur that they were engaging in humanitarian activities in 19 countries, 12 of which are leprosy-affected countries identified by WHO as a priority. Leprosy-related non-governmental organizations usually cooperate with central and local governments, filling the gaps, especially at the community level.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "See https://zeroleprosy.org/covid-data/?fbclid=IwAR0xCWKzEBAHyClZYc0ojWdcKnoZGFvbrPnaK1jaAiJg0IkPUNneeuQqZvc."}], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "C. Filling the gaps"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "During lockdown measures, non-governmental organizations reached out to isolated communities of persons affected by leprosy, filling the gaps concerning health care, health promotion and food relief. The general provision of health care by non-governmental organizations in the context of the pandemic encompassed the continuum of care, from the delivery of essential medicines, including multidrug therapy and drugs for treating leprosy reactions, to wound dressing kits for ulcers, protective footwear and self-care kits. Telemedicine, mobile clinics and home-based care services were part of a set of strategies developed to reach people under lockdown measures, alongside the provision of key support to local health systems, especially to community health-care workers and front-line health-care workers. Health promotion was also targeted, with the distribution of hygiene and sanitation supplies, masks and information about COVID-19 prevention. Food relief has also been frequent and widespread, with the delivery of food, cash transfers and cooked meals by community kitchens at leprosy hospitals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "C. Filling the gaps"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "The Special Rapporteur considers good practices to be the set of strategies put in place through collaborative work with persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations, respecting autonomy, enhancing local capacities and linking relief to development.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Active Learning Network for Accountability and Performance in Humanitarian Action, “Participation by crisis-affected populations in humanitarian action: a handbook for practitioners”, (London, Overseas Development Institute, 2003)."}], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "D. Good practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Coproduction of health[[fn:51]] through participatory strategies that engage persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations as agents, and not just as passive beneficiaries, has been at the core of the work of a more limited number of non-governmental organizations. Some of the good practices that they have developed in the context of the pandemic are as follows:\n(a) In Brazil, NHR Brazil has provided support to persons affected by leprosy for moving the sale of their products online;\n(b) In India, the Karuna project of the Stepping Stone Charitable Society, with the support of the Leprosy Mission England and Wales, supported trainee tailors in stitching washable face masks, which were then distributed among various communities;\n(c) In India, the LEPRA Society office in Odisha implemented a resilience project that enhanced the local capacity of extremely marginalized families to fend for themselves against the adverse effects of the pandemic;\n(d) In India, the Leprosy Mission Trust India developed accessible COVID-19 awareness-raising materials that also included information on mental well-being and care at home under lockdown measures, within a participatory and intercultural framework;\n(e) In Nepal, the Nepal Leprosy Trust of the Lalgadh Hospital and Leprosy Services Centre partnered with persons affected by leprosy to enable them to advocate for the protection of their human rights in the context of the pandemic at the local government level;\n(f) In Nepal, the Leprosy Mission Nepal produced accessible and intercultural materials based on the WHO guidelines;\n(g) In Papua New Guinea, the Leprosy Mission Papua New Guinea used locally available materials to produce clean water for the use of communities;\n(h) In Myanmar, the Leprosy Mission Myanmar facilitated the process for persons affected by leprosy to apply for cash transfers and supported the Myanmar Association of Persons Affected by Leprosy to advocate for their rights;\n(i) The Sasakawa Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease) Initiative provided funds and technical support to 22 organizations of persons affected by leprosy from 14 countries in order for them to provide emergency relief to their communities, through a grant based on four pillars, namely, emergency relief, advocacy for rights enforcement, communication and building sustainability, the core objective of which is respect for the autonomy of the organizations and increasing their capacity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "Cicely Marston and others, “Community participation is crucial in a pandemic”."}], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "D. Good practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "Grass-roots organizations, such as the Advancing Leprosy and Disadvantaged Peoples’ Opportunities Society, the Movement of Reintegration of Persons Affected by Hansen’s Disease (MORHAN), the Federación de Asociaciones de Personas Afectadas por Lepra (FELEHANSEN), the Organization of People Affected by Leprosy in Congo (OPALCO), the Ethiopian National Association of Persons Affected by Leprosy (ENAPAL), the Saksham Kushthanteya Swabhimani Sanstha, the Independent Leprosy Association (PerMaTa) and the Tanzania Leprosy Association, as well as many others that the Special Rapporteur will not refer to in the present report so as to safeguard confidentiality, have been at the forefront of responding to and mitigating the disproportionate impact of the pandemic on their peers and communities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "D. Good practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "Such organizations were in fact the first ones to sound the alarm about the disproportionate impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on persons affected by leprosy and to mobilize resources to ensure their survival amid the health and socioeconomic crises. In the face of an absence of data collection about persons affected by leprosy in national COVID-19 monitoring systems, grass-roots organizations produced data and introduced bottom-up, contextualized and effective solutions to problems. In the context of the pandemic, those organizations proved to be experts through experience in the area, as well as in the areas of health and equality data. By the same token, not only did they fill the gaps, they also devised innovative strategies for mapping problems, solving them, providing emergency aid and mainstreaming health education and counselling under lockdown measures. Only grass-roots organizations seemed to have effected strategies that were gender-sensitive, age-sensitive and disability-sensitive. Advocacy for rights enforcement for all, and not just the few within the reach of civil society organizations, is at the core of the work of grass-roots organizations, as is networking with partners outside the leprosy community, such as organizations working on the right to clean and safe water and access to water, sanitation and hygiene. Notably, all of that was done with scarce support from governments.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "D. Good practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "The lived experiences of persons affected by leprosy and their family members in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic acutely illustrate the relevance of the content of general comment No. 36 (2018) of the Human Rights Committee. While recognizing the linkage between the right to life and the enjoyment of a life with dignity, as well as affirming the protection of vulnerable groups and the fight against health-related and disability-related stigmatization as part of the duty of States parties to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights to protect the right to life, the Committee also called for measures to ensure adequate general conditions that included the fulfilment of fundamental economic and social rights. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights[[fn:52]] has identified the undermining of health-care systems in the past decades, the inadequacy of social programmes to respond to poverty and the increase in discrimination, stigmatization and inequality as determining factors for the current health, social and economic crises that disproportionately affect those who are more vulnerable. Discrimination in law and in practice, together with substantive discrimination with regard to access to social and economic rights, has left persons affected by leprosy in a situation of extreme vulnerability to COVID-19 and to the crisis that has unfolded, compromising their right to life and unveiling, in practice, the indivisibility, interdependence and interrelation of human rights. The principle of universality of human rights as provided for in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights has hardly been fulfilled, and the pandemic disclosed the multiple divides that persist and result in the denial of the enjoyment of substantive equality for a significant part of the world population, including persons affected by leprosy. Over the course of the pandemic, the enjoyment of social and economic rights has been compromised not only by structural material deprivation, but also by the intersections of the latter with gender, race, age, disability status and sexual orientation, among other historically oppressed social categories. Such a fact calls for legal and policy frameworks that can ensure de facto universal access to economic, social and cultural rights for the most vulnerable. The principle of progressivity should be applied in a reasonable manner that firmly recognizes poverty as a human rights violation and that guarantees minimum core obligations in a way that is proportional to the needs of vulnerable groups and groups that have been discriminated against. Such is the core principle for building back better by placing those who have systematically been pushed furthest behind at the centre of an inclusive recovery.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "See E/C.12/2020/1."}], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that States put those who are furthest behind at the centre of an inclusive recovery by eliminating double standards in the response to the current crisis, ensuring non-discrimination and the right to participation for the most marginalized. States should establish minimum core obligations of social and economic rights with regard to vulnerable groups as a matter of priority, with the necessary accompanying institutional arrangements and allocation of resources within national budgets. In accordance with articles 4 and 6 of the Declaration on the Right to Development, it is crucial to mitigate the adverse effects of the pandemic on vulnerable groups and to enable comprehensive and human-centred development policies in low- and middle-income countries. Grass-roots organizations should be placed at the centre of emergency aid, coproduction of health and policymaking for systemic change and be recognized as experts through experience, in accordance with the spirit of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, in which it was affirmed that development must go beyond transforming the material conditions of people in disadvantaged circumstances to actually enabling them to have a voice and a choice. States should systematically collect and analyse data in a way that includes disaggregation not only by demographic, environmental, socioeconomic and cultural variables, but also by the various grounds of discrimination recognized in international human rights law, such as gender, age and disability status, with full respect for the principles of participation and privacy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that States fulfil the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health for persons affected by leprosy as follows:\n(a) Health systems should be strengthened and the efforts of national leprosy-related programmes sustained;\n(b) The WHO road map for neglected tropical diseases, 2021–2030, should guide action taken by leprosy-endemic countries, which must be accompanied by proper budget allocations at the national and subnational levels;\n(c) A rights-based strategy for leprosy within health-care systems must be people-centred, having as a priority the well-being of persons, communities and populations, and should ensure the availability, as well as physical and economic accessibility, of health-care services;\n(d) Access to health care should be guaranteed on a non-discriminatory basis through strategies that fight discrimination in health-care settings, ineffective public policies and geographical isolation;\n(e) The scope of national leprosy-related programmes should be expanded to include targeted action on the social determinants of leprosy, which should be based on a comprehensive multisectoral policy with coordinated interventions between the different sectors of government;\n(f) The right to a continuum of medical and psychosocial care that encompasses the full spectrum of prevention, timely access to multidrug therapy, the proper management of leprosy reactions and complementary care, such as wound care, physiotherapy, rehabilitation and reconstructive surgery, should be guaranteed, alongside service delivery at the community level, and access to essential medicines should be ensured through national and international efforts, while also guaranteeing the right to access to information;\n(g) National leprosy programmes should endeavour to ensure the right of persons affected by leprosy to the highest attainable standard of mental health, with an approach that is ethically respectful, culturally appropriate, gender-sensitive and empowering to individuals and that makes use of peer support as an integral part of recovery-based services;\n(h) Short-term mitigation action and long-term systemic change should be developed with the full participation of persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations in the design, implementation and evaluation stages, with proper institutional arrangements that enable the transparent sharing of information, ownership and joint decision-making;\n(i) Accessible mechanisms for filing complaints of rights violations should be made available and the health-care workforce should be trained in not only clinical, but also structural, competencies that can foster in-depth understanding of the root causes of discrimination and emotional distress experienced by users in the context of their culture and life;\n(j) Persons affected by leprosy must be recognized as a vulnerable group with regard to COVID-19, given that many of them are immunocompromised, and leprosy should be recognized as grounds for priority in COVID-19 testing, COVID-19 vaccinations and access to health care.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that States protect the right to work of persons affected by leprosy as follows:\n(a) Abolishing discriminatory laws that hinder persons affected by leprosy from enjoying the right to work and enjoying their rights at work;\n(b) Recognizing persons affected by leprosy as active economic agents, respecting their legal capacity and realizing their rights to equal work opportunities in the open labour market and to equal remuneration;\n(c) Guaranteeing the right to education through the creation of an inclusive and enabling education system that is non-discriminatory and that ensures the availability of education services, accessibility at all levels of education and the promotion of life-long training and skills development opportunities, as well as the provision of reasonable accommodation;\n(d) Implementing gender-inclusive approaches to ensuring the right to work and ensuring rights at work that fight the intersection of gender with leprosy-related harmful stereotypes and disability and which affirm women’s rights to inclusive education, vocational training, decent work and equal remuneration, and properly recognizing unpaid care work in social protection schemes;\n(e) Implementing a whole-of-government approach that mainstreams persons affected by leprosy into macro-level policies aimed at the transition from the informal economy to the formal economy, as well as develops specific intervention models adapted to the reality of persons affected by leprosy working in the informal economy, including strategic objectives and key performance indicators;\n(f) Formally recognizing the social and solidarity economy, as well as its tangible economic benefits and intangible social benefits;\n(g) Including persons affected by leprosy in public employment programmes;\n(h) Opening social dialogue to organized groups of persons affected by leprosy working in the informal economy and guaranteeing barrier-free participation by addressing both physical barriers and those related to illiteracy, poor education, culture, gender and the digital divide;\n(i) Enabling the right to collective bargaining for persons affected by leprosy, working both in the formal and informal economy, including by making available a defined interface with the institutions and government bodies with which the organizations must dialogue;\n(j) Fulfilling accessibility and reasonable accommodation rights in all productive sectors and work arrangements, including agriculture, husbandry and fishing; and recognizing visible physical impairments related to leprosy for the provision of reasonable accommodation, as well as invisible ones, such as pain or loss of sensation, and psychosocial disabilities related to stigmatization;\n(k) Implementing affirmative measures as a means to correct historical and structural disadvantage, which should encompass both work and education opportunities and come with targets and key performance indicators, as well as with effective enforcement mechanisms and remedies, while also following paragraph 11 (i) of ILO recommendation No. 168 concerning vocational rehabilitation and employment with regard to awareness-raising, and the eligibility criteria for which should be defined in consultation with grass-roots organizations and should ensure the accessibility of procedures.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that States fulfil the right to social protection of persons affected by leprosy. Social protection measures to respond to the current crisis should act as building blocks for founding national social protection floors and contribute to the realization of universal health coverage and to universal social protection schemes, while also fulfilling urgent needs regarding health care, basic income security and access to food and to personal protective equipment. Given the interlinkages between leprosy and poverty, the rights to an adequate standard of living and to independent living cannot be realized without the prior granting of social benefits under a rights-based, comprehensive social protection policy, which must be implemented through administrative services and bureaucratic procedures that can guarantee full accessibility to illiterate or poorly educated populations, as well as to populations living in remote areas. Such a comprehensive social protection policy should also target active citizenship by promoting training opportunities and formal employment, while guaranteeing support as needed. In the design of social benefits, such as unconditional cash transfers, the real needs of the target population, including the additional costs of disability, should be taken into consideration. Specific measures for short-term action regarding the adverse effects of the pandemic include broadening social protection to persons affected by leprosy and simplifying both eligibility criteria and administrative requirements, providing cash and in-kind benefits, supporting people who provide long-term care for older persons affected by leprosy, supporting the special needs and responding to the specific challenges faced by women, children, teenagers and older persons affected by leprosy, ensuring a universal basic income for persons affected by leprosy and ensuring security, access to health care and fundamental goods to people living in former leprosy colonies.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "In the present report, developed in accordance with Human Rights Council resolution 44/6, the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, Alice Cruz, addresses the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health for persons affected by leprosy, also known as Hansen’s disease, and their family members. With the report, the Special Rapporteur hopes to provide people-centred and action-oriented elements that can help to detail, in practical and pragmatic terms, both the content and the application of the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health for persons affected by leprosy and their family members, and also for persons who experience neglected tropical diseases other than leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "Few human rights have such intricate, controversial and uncertain features as the right to health.[[fn:1]] While there has been undeniable progress towards the generalized recognition of health as a human right, as well as in regard to the specification of its normative content, debates about the right to health are still rather fragmented and sprawl over diverse theoretical and practical fields, each with its own, and many times competing, agenda. Such uncertainty is coupled with difficulties in defining health.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Jennifer Ruger, “Toward a theory of a right to health: capability and incompletely theorized agreements”, Yale Journal of Law & the Humanities, vol. 18 (2006)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "Health is far from being a univocal concept. Contending visions about the human body and what it means to enjoy a good life fills this concept with controversy. Notwithstanding the rich cultural diversity around the concept, most of international and national policymaking adopts one hegemonic narrative about health and the adequate means to foster it. The narrative is anchored on biomedicine’s explanatory models and technologies and on the State’s regulation of human bodies within a capitalist model that aims to maximize their productivity, as well as on the consumer market.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "In its Constitution, the World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, whereas article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights presents a more overarching concept that connects health and well-being to the guarantees to a dignified and secure standard of living, encompassing access not only to food, clothing and housing, but also to medical care and social security. Yet the majority of global and national health narratives and strategies continue to be dominated by the biomedical narrative on human suffering, which narrows diseases to mere biological phenomena, and thus remain disease-centred. Although they include recommendations on ensuring universal and affordable access to water, sanitation and hygiene in order to tackle diseases related to poverty, global health policies do not address the structural violence that is at the root of many of such diseases (as is the case of leprosy and other neglected tropical diseases) and much of the human suffering and economic loss they cause.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Biomedical practices are usually structured upon unequal power relations, which are exacerbated in the cases of groups and populations historically subjected to structural violence, as a woman affected by leprosy sharply pointed out to the Special Rapporteur:\nI need to persuade the health professional that I really need assistance, like I didn’t have the right to the service. Often, they don’t even bother listening. Their answer is already ready: “Let’s wait and see what happens and if you don’t improve by next month, we’ll see what to do.” Who suffers from pain shouldn’t have to wait. But that’s what we’ve been doing. We’re getting used to the pain, the prejudice, the lack of rights, because it’s very tiring, having to fight every day for something you are entitled to.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "Unequal power relations convert people into passive beneficiaries without the means to overcome the unintentional harm that misguided policies and practices may, and often do, cause. Significantly, while leprosy is mostly endemic in countries of the global South, the global North continues to lead decision-making, without sufficiently taking into account the immense expertise consistently being produced by the global South. As some authors point out, imbalances in power can predispose programme implementers to important blind spots.[[fn:2]] The reductionist approach, together with unbalanced power relations between decision makers, health practitioners and persons affected by leprosy, often engenders misconceptions and bottlenecks that end up producing and reproducing discrimination, as the present report will demonstrate.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "David G. Addiss and Joseph J. Amon, “Apology and unintended harm in global health”, Health and Human Rights Journal, vol. 21, No. 1 (June 2019)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "In a historical moment marked by a pandemic that has had devastating consequences at the global level, which were exacerbated by an economic crisis that led, in many contexts, to a regression in terms of people’s enjoyment of social and economic rights, it seems more relevant than ever to detail the content of the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, particularly from a people-centred and action-oriented perspective. Furthermore, and as the Special Rapporteur has already mapped and reported on, the disproportionate impact of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic on persons affected by leprosy has jeopardized not only the individuals’ right to health, but also the efforts made over decades. Estimates shared by the Special Rapporteur regarding a significant drop in new case detection rates[[fn:3]] were recently confirmed by WHO.[[fn:4]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See A/HRC/47/29."}, {"n": 4, "text": "According to WHO, the proportion of new cases in many countries was significantly lower than in 2019 (31.1 per cent on average,), which may reflect the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. WHO, Weekly Epidemiological Record No. 36 (2021), pp. 421–444."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The COVID-19 pandemic has simultaneously unveiled and deepened structural gaps regarding the enjoyment of the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health by persons affected by leprosy. In the view of the Special Rapporteur, some of these gaps relate to the priority that has been given over the years to only one of the three components of the overarching goal of zero leprosy, namely, to zero infection and disease (meaning stopping transmission and eliminating leprosy), over zero disabilities (prevention of impairments and rehabilitation) and zero discrimination (elimination of both formal and substantive discrimination), which reflects the hegemony of the reductionist interpretation in biomedicine of health and human suffering.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Moreover, and as the prevalence of leprosy has declined (even though incidence has proved to be much harder to reduce), the tendency for leprosy to lose priority at the government level has increased. And so has the historical underfunding of basic, clinical and operational research on leprosy, leaving key questions about leprosy and how to mitigate the suffering it causes unanswered. Additionally, the dramatic loss of expertise to diagnose and treat leprosy is decried by many leprosy experts as a major cause of the systematic denial of the right to health of persons affected by leprosy. Such structural dynamics, which encompass all levels of health production, from the global to the local, lie at the root of the pain expressed to the Special Rapporteur by one woman affected by leprosy: “Stop saying that this disease is curable! It is not! One cannot ever go back to living a normal life.”", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Such complaints are common. Many persons affected by leprosy claim that, even though health-care workers say they are cured, they do not feel healed. Such complaints are commonly dismissed by health-care workers and experts as being the result of a limited understanding by lay people of this highly specialized area of biomedicine, since, officially, a cure for leprosy has existed for seven decades. The Special Rapporteur strongly disagrees with this reading and affirms that such complaints are not the result of ignorance, but are instead a valuable source of knowledge to be used for the evaluation of existing public health policies, as well as an enlightening statement about diverse but interrelated subjects, such as: the classification of diseases, namely, the boundary between the normal and the pathologic); public health strategies; the continuum of care; the quality of health-care systems; the reach of universal health coverage; and the barriers people face in accessing health care.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "What this woman is saying is that health is not a purely biological, individual and/or technical issue, as it is portrayed in a reductionist approach, but rather a deeply political matter, which is very much in line with what Rudolph Virchow, the father of social medicine stated in the late nineteenth century. His famous saying – that medicine is a social science and politics is nothing but medicine at a larger scale – was rarely taken into account in the subsequent development of the field of traditional top-down public health (with important exceptions, such as in the case of Latin American collective health), which relegated to a secondary status the social medicine perspective that defended the view that ill health resulted from social deprivation and poor living conditions.[[fn:5]] His words nonetheless reflect the fact that the human body always tells a story about society. In the case of leprosy, that story speaks of endemic social injustice.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See Abadía-Barrero and Ardila-Sierra, “The right to health under capitalism”."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Over the past years, the Special Rapporteur has always made herself available to cooperate with intergovernmental agencies and their leprosy-related programmes, such as WHO, in particular its Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases department and Global Leprosy Programme, but also with other stakeholders that work hard to fight leprosy and its consequences, such as the WHO Goodwill Ambassador for Leprosy Elimination, the Global Partnership for Zero Leprosy (a coalition that includes WHO, the Novartis Foundation, the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, the Sasakawa Health Foundation and the International Association for Integration, Dignity and Economic Advancement) and the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations and its members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The Special Rapporteur acknowledges the comprehensive nature of the guidelines recommended and the practices implemented by some of these key stakeholders. She regrets the difficulties of implementation of the same guidelines at the national and subnational levels, which often result from budget limitations, but also from the low awareness of decision makers as to the human suffering and economic losses caused by leprosy. The Special Rapporteur thus believes that a new narrative about the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health for persons affected by leprosy and their family members is of the essence.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Such a narrative must be drawn from the expertise of the community of persons affected by leprosy and their own interpretation of their right to health, but also from evidence that is alternative and complementary to official epidemiology. Why is alternative and complementary evidence necessary? Because in the field of global health, metrics, as technologies of counting, are standardized and uniformized in order to enable global conversation,[[fn:6]] many times making invisible local knowledge that might be key for meeting agreed-upon targets. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur aims to posit people-centred elements that can encourage States, intergovernmental agencies and international, national and local stakeholders to produce knowledge that places people’s experience at the centre of the analysis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See Vincanne Adams, ed., Metrics: What Counts in Global Health (Durham, Duke University Press, 2016)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "In order to prepare the present report, the Special Rapporteur undertook several consultations, in line with her usual working methods. She consulted States and civil society organizations about national policies and practices. She also developed an online questionnaire to try to reach as many persons affected by leprosy as possible, while being very much aware that the majority of the target population does not have access to the Internet and struggles with multiple barriers to participation.[[fn:7]] This means that the responses to the online questionnaire reflect a very specific layer of the target population, one that already enjoys a higher degree of inclusion, which is not the harsh reality of the great majority of persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Sasakawa Health Foundation, the International Association for Integration, Dignity and Economic Advancement and The Leprosy Mission International, but also individuals such as Deepa Palaniappan, for their support in the preparation and dissemination of the online questionnaire."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "For the report, the Special Rapporteur also draws on her continuous collaboration with the key stakeholders mentioned above, and others, such as the International Leprosy Association, alongside which she has learned greatly over the years.[[fn:8]] She particularly relied on her permanent dialogue with persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations. As usual, through her work, the Special Rapporteur aims to identify the particular patterns of discrimination experienced by women affected by leprosy. In this sense, she was privileged to participate in three international meetings organized by the women’s policy department of Movimento de Reintegração das Pessoas Atingidas pela Hanseníase, a non-profit organization in Brazil, with the goal of listening to girls and women affected by leprosy, as well as female family members of persons affected by the disease. The meetings were held in three sessions (Africa, the Americas and Asia) between November and December 2021. An important source of data concerning young people affected by leprosy were the webinars on human and youth rights organized by the Sasakawa Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease) Initiative.[[fn:9]] Lastly, the report is also informed by two decades of intense work by the Special Rapporteur with persons affected by leprosy and their family members in relation to their right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks Mauricio Lisboa Nobre, leprologist and specialist in tropical medicine, for his support in clinical matters related to leprosy."}, {"n": 9, "text": "See https://sasakawaleprosyinitiative.org/latest-updates/initiative-news/1062/."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "From the nineteenth century onwards, the global health agenda has put greater emphasis on the right to health care to the detriment of the right to be healthy. Likewise, subsequent scholarly work on the right to health has been dedicated mainly to clarifying States’ obligations on ensuring access to health care. The right to health, although supported by a body of international law, is usually referred to as being too vague, barely enforceable and as an inaccessible standard in itself. Services, freedoms, resources, opportunities and goods seem more adequate variables for monitoring the enforcement of the right to health than health itself.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "B. Right to be healthy versus the right to health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "Provisions in international norms about the right to health reflect this biased reasoning and sectarian approach, by putting greater emphasis on individual access to health care to the detriment of the promotion of the collective conditions that can allow groups and populations to experience healthy living. Notably, the right to health was codified in a time of utter trust in the lineal progress of science and in biomedicine as the decisive tool for fighting the burden of diseases. Such ideas shaped the architecture and goals of contemporary institutions. Those institutions match the right to health with the individual right to receive medical treatment, encourage the expansion of the medical and pharmaceutical industries, and sideline approaches targeting the underlying social determinants of health.[[fn:10]] In this context, health has become one of the more profitable industries of our time, with shameful discriminatory effects.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Benjamin Mason Meier and Ashley M. Fox, (2008) “Development as health: employing the collective right to development to achieve the goals of the individual right to health”, Human Rights Quarterly, vol. 30 (2008)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "B. Right to be healthy versus the right to health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "The right to health, as provided for in international human rights law, and particularly in article 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, faces important restrictions. One such limitation is that the right to health is inherently resource dependent.[[fn:11]] Progressive realization, meaning that States are only obliged to progressively realize, to the maximum of their available resources, the highest achievable standards of health, hinders agreement over a theoretical framework that can objectively evaluate the cost-effectiveness of States’ health expenditures.[[fn:12]] In practice, States can simultaneously not implement and not violate the right to health. Another limitation concerns accountability. As the experience of persons affected by leprosy demonstrates, it is almost unfeasible for individuals who have been left behind by health-care policies to successfully find the means to legally hold States accountable under international human rights mechanisms. If States can evade accountability, underfunded health-care systems will hardly meet the needs of groups and populations living in vulnerable situations, as is the case for persons affected by leprosy and other neglected tropical diseases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Benjamin Mason Meier and Larisa M. Mori, “The highest attainable standard: advancing a collective human right to public health”, Columbia Human Rights Law Review, vol. 37 (2005); and Philip Alston and Gerard Quinn, “The nature and scope of States Parties’ obligations under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights”, Human Rights Quarterly, vol. 9 (1987), p. 177."}, {"n": 12, "text": "Meier and Fox, “Development as health”."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "B. Right to be healthy versus the right to health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Global health, a movement very much aligned with the business interests of the global North, has encouraged solutions to health problems that support the commodification of health and the privatization of health care,[[fn:13]] which, together with States’ discretion to progressively realize economic, social and cultural rights, have favoured the individualistic model of health, as well as sectarian approaches to it. Contrarily to the wide consensus that technocratic approaches are temporary and do not provoke substantial shifts, international and national decision makers have largely opted for such approaches to problem-solving. And with that, the dependency of the global South on external aid and technology transfers remained an obstacle to the enjoyment of health and well-being by many people around the world, as the unequal access to vaccination against COVID-19 has gloomily shown. Furthermore, the privatization of health care undermines implicit values of health as a right, as its outcomes are unfair health systems that provide unequal health care dependent on the income of each person.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "See Audrey R. Chapman, Global Health, Human Rights and the Challenge of Neoliberal Policies (Cambridge University Press, 2016)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "B. Right to be healthy versus the right to health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The market model applied to health stimulates biases and diverts the attention from primary prevention and collective action. Global-health, disease-control and prevention programmes – generally seen as apolitical ways of providing medication and technologies to the poorest – are, in fact, highly political, since they often operate from the outside and impose devices and solutions that are many times unrelated to the reality and knowledge developed at the local level.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "B. Right to be healthy versus the right to health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "These are strategies that favour the accumulation of power and benefits in the hands of already powerful actors, while transferring the responsibility for the disease to the diseased. By blaming the victim, collective and structural issues of societies as a whole are seen as mere individual problems. Explanations of disease incidence based on individual behaviour spare the whole society, as well as those who are more privileged, from committing themselves to structural changes and engaging in collective actions. Victim blaming triggers data about individual refusal to engage in treatment or other forms of disease prevention and control. It may even criminalize victims, as has happened with leprosy and as is still the case with the more than 100 legal frameworks that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy worldwide.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See A/76/148."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "B. Right to be healthy versus the right to health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Leprosy is one of the 20 diseases classified by WHO as a neglected tropical disease. Neglected tropical diseases disproportionately affect populations living in poverty, predominantly in Africa, the Americas and Asia, and have a devastating social and economic effect on over 1 billion people,[[fn:15]] in particular in low-income countries and the most disadvantaged communities in middle-income countries.[[fn:16]] Neglected tropical diseases are formally recognized as targets for global action in target 3.3 of the Sustainable Development Goals, and WHO developed a road map for tackling these diseases throughout the current decade.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "WHO, Ending the Neglect to Attain the Sustainable Development Goals: A Roadmap for Neglected Tropical Diseases 2021–2030 (2020)."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Dirk Engels and Xiao-Nong Zhou, “Neglected tropical diseases: an effective global response to local poverty-related disease priorities”, Infectious Diseases of Poverty, vol. 9, art. No. 10 (2020)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "C. Commodification of health and neglected tropical diseases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Neglected tropical diseases are classified as such because of the low priority they are given in the context of global health, which, together with the limited resources of middle- and low-income countries, leads to gaps in health systems and coverage that severely affect groups of people that already struggle with multiple barriers to access fundamental rights. Neglected tropical diseases share one same pattern of deprivation, structural disadvantage, stigmatization, poor access to State services, disability and diminished participation in decision-making.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "C. Commodification of health and neglected tropical diseases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Because they mainly affect the poorest, neglected tropical diseases present no market opportunities, hence the pharmaceutical industry does not invest in products to address them. Governments, through tax incentives and patent protection, contribute to these market-driven choices,[[fn:17]] leaving the poorest with few or no treatment options. While the majority of neglected tropical diseases disable more than they kill, the burden they cause to individuals and their families, and also to economies and societies, is significant. Such diseases can also have a “hidden burden” in wealthy countries, where they may go unnoticed by Governments, in particular health monitoring mechanisms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Gavin Yamey and Els Torreele (2002). “The world’s most neglected diseases”, BMJ, 325 (July 2002)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "C. Commodification of health and neglected tropical diseases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "While there has a been an important paradigmatic shift in the past decade towards multi-disease service integration and the recognition of the importance of partnerships,[[fn:18]] in practice public-health strategies continue to be disease-centred, as they maintain focus on the individual body and sideline knowledge that is able to address both the psychosocial dimension of the human being and the collective dimension of health and illness. The knowledge that seems to count for policymaking is the kind that reaffirms top-down analysis and the pharmaceuticalization of public health, that is, the emphasis that is put on the distribution of medicines. Two concrete examples follow.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Lucinda Claire Fuller, Kingsley B. Asiedu and Roderick J. Hay, “Integration of management strategies for skin-related neglected tropical diseases”, Dermatologic Clinics, vol. 39, No. 1 (2021)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "C. Commodification of health and neglected tropical diseases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "First, calls to act on the underlying social determinants of health are restricted to universal and affordable access to water, sanitation and hygiene, when the right to work, the right to education and the right to social protection are equally important for preventing diseases and poor health outcomes. Moreover, hardly any strategies are effectively put into place to promote access to water, sanitation and hygiene by people living in vulnerable situations as part of public health programmes. Second, stigmatization and discrimination, while increasingly acknowledged as being interrelated with physical and mental health, are still analytically narrowed to the micro level of social interaction and regarded from the perspective of a functionalist understanding of stigmatization that describes it as a natural consequence of the disease and that fails to address the socioeconomic and political factors that produce and reproduce stigmatizing identities and discriminatory practices. Moreover, emphasis is put on the profoundly discriminatory expression of “self-stigmatization” and on how this “self-stigmatization” leads people to avoid diagnosis and treatment. Such a narrow understanding of stigmatization and discrimination does no more than blame the victim.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "C. Commodification of health and neglected tropical diseases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "According to WHO, early diagnosis and complete antibacterial treatment with multidrug therapy – a combination of rifampicin, clofazimine and dapsone – remain the most effective strategies for tackling leprosy.[[fn:19]] Multidrug therapy is provided free of charge to all detected leprosy patients in accordance with WHO recommendations and through an agreement between the pharmaceutical company Novartis and WHO, which began in 2000 and was recently extended to 2025. The company produces the multidrug-therapy components in India, and WHO manages its distribution to national leprosy programmes. During 2020, problems in production and in the supply chain left several countries with multidrug-therapy shortages, with devastating consequences for individuals and the transmission of leprosy.[[fn:20]] The Special Rapporteur notes that at that time, the right of access to information was denied to persons affected by leprosy and that the lack of accountability mechanisms and remedies for failures in the overall multidrug-therapy supply chain was made manifest, evincing double standards at play in terms of the protection of the right to health for persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "WHO, Guidelines for the Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Leprosy (2017)."}, {"n": 20, "text": "See A/HRC/47/29."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "D. Health industry, and gaps in leprosy care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Multidrug therapy was created by WHO in the 1980s, with the combination of three drugs to avoid drug resistance. These drugs were also cheap, which seemed to be a positive factor for ensuring massive distribution.[[fn:21]] However, the drugs included in multidrug therapy have significant side effects that compromise people’s physical, mental and social well-being. For example, clofazimine causes darkening of the skin and often leads to stigmatization and poor mental health. Dapsone can cause severe to lethal anaemia. Drugs for treating leprosy are old and the pharmaceutical industry is not interested in paying for research that could prove the safety and efficacy of other and better drugs, nor in developing new drugs that could be administered for a shorter period of time and thus improve the quality of life of people under medical care.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "World Health Organization, “Chemotherapy of leprosy for control programmes: report of a WHO study group” (Geneva, 1982)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "D. Health industry, and gaps in leprosy care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "One of the greatest challenges in the medical care of leprosy are leprosy reactions, which cause great physical and mental suffering. Leprosy reactions frequently occur during and after antibacterial treatment. They are also associated with nerve damage, which is the main cause of physical impairments. Leprosy reactions may require prolonged treatment,[[fn:22]] sometimes for several years. Mechanisms of reactions are poorly understood and treatment is largely empirical. In addition, some of the drugs used impair the immune system of the patients. Unlike multidrug therapy, most of the drugs used for treating leprosy reactions are not provided to countries free of charge. They include steroids and thalidomide – the latter being well-known for its teratogenic effects and risks to sexual and reproductive health. Both steroids and thalidomide cause insufferable side effects. Thalidomide, if used during pregnancy, can harm the fetus and cause malformation of the limbs. Steroids can cause dependence and radical body changes. While sharing common clinical features, progress in the medical treatment of inflammatory diseases does not seem to have extended to the care of leprosy reactions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "Diana N.J. Lockwood and others, “Three drugs are unnecessary for treating paucibacillary leprosy – a critique of the WHO guidelines”, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases (October 2019)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "D. Health industry, and gaps in leprosy care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Both antibacterial treatment and reactions management rely on obsolete and cheap drugs that can cause major side effects. The commodification of health and the lack of interest of the pharmaceutical industry in neglected tropical diseases, together with the low priority Governments give to leprosy, explain why persons affected by leprosy are offered such low-quality medical treatment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "D. Health industry, and gaps in leprosy care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "Despite being curable with multidrug therapy, if not detected and treated early, leprosy can become a disabling and chronic disease that demands a continuum of medical and psychosocial care, which includes rehabilitation, reconstructive surgery, the provision of assistive devices and psychosocial support. Such a continuum of medical and psychosocial care should be fully addressed by effective referrals within national health-care systems. However, the harsh reality of health care for persons affected by leprosy is the progressive dismantlement of leprosy services and of key infrastructure, such as laboratories, and loss of expertise,[[fn:23]] which aggravate the systemic barriers to access to diagnosis and treatment widely faced by persons affected by leprosy in both endemic and non-endemic countries. Another issue of great concern is that access to quality health-care services after bacteriological cure is extremely limited for persons affected by leprosy, although it is critical for preventing physical impairments. As some leprosy experts say, such a gap is a clear manifestation of stigmatization against discharged leprosy patients among health workers.[[fn:24]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Letícia Gomes Costa and others, “Factors associated with the worsening of the disability grade during leprosy treatment in Brazil”, Leprosy Review, vol. 86, No. 3 (September 2015); and Liliana Müller Larocca and Maria Marta Nolasco Chaves, “Multiple dimensions of healthcare management of leprosy and challenges to its elimination”, Revista da Escola de Enfermagem da USP (2020)."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Maria Rita de Cassia Oliveira Cury and others, “Spatial analysis of leprosy incidence and associated socioeconomic factors”, Revista de Saúde Pública, vol. 46 (2012)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "D. Health industry, and gaps in leprosy care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "In its Global Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease) Strategy 2021–2030: Towards Zero Leprosy,[[fn:25]] WHO reports a total of 202,256 new cases detected in 118 countries in 2019, of which 96 per cent were reported by the 23 global priority countries, including 79 per cent in Brazil, India and Indonesia. In total, 10,816 new cases in 94 countries, including 370 children, presented irreversible physical impairments at the time of diagnosis in 2019, an indication of late diagnosis. The number of children diagnosed with irreversible physical impairments is likely to be significantly higher, as some countries did not report such data. It is estimated that 3 million to 4 million people are living with visible physical impairments due to leprosy. The new strategy is focused on interrupting transmission and achieving zero autochthonous cases. It encourages high-burden countries to accelerate activities, and compels low-burden countries to reach zero autochthonous cases. It is based upon four strategic pillars.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789290228509."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "E. International guidance and national action for fighting leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "In practice, and as indicated by the information the Special Rapporteur received for the present report and previous reports, most of the national programmes focus on multidrug therapy, which, as explained, is distributed free of charge to countries. With regard to the questionnaire, only nine States[[fn:26]] responded to questions about national strategies for addressing leprosy; the implementation of such strategies within the national health-care system; leprosy services at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels of health care; the continuum of medical and psychosocial care; capacity-building of the health-care workforce in the clinical, socioeconomic and cultural aspects of leprosy; and the implementation of the WHO guidelines for strengthening participation of persons affected by leprosy in leprosy services. The Special Rapporteur regrets the lack of cooperation from high-endemic countries, while she appreciates the collaboration from non-endemic ones.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Côte d’Ivoire, Japan, Jordan, Mali, Nigeria, Paraguay, Peru and Portugal. Submissions from States that have authorized their statements to be made public will be available on the web page of the mandate of the Special Rapporteur: https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-leprosy."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "E. International guidance and national action for fighting leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "All responding States mentioned the existence of national leprosy programmes and/or strategies as part of their epidemiological or infectious disease control departments. As a rule, the treatment of leprosy is ensured within the primary level of health care, while secondary and tertiary levels of health care largely fail to address leprosy complications. Furthermore, few States mentioned measures taken to ensure psychosocial care for persons affected by leprosy. Some States recognized important bottlenecks that required significant improvement. The Plurinational State of Bolivia acknowledged that the psychosocial approach to leprosy was a neglected area that should be prioritized. Peru and Paraguay explicitly reported the lack of measures aimed at guaranteeing occupational therapy. Peru also highlighted the lack of group therapy, as well as the need to strengthen physiotherapy and rehabilitation services. Japan mentioned the need for improvement in the care provided to elderly persons affected by leprosy that remained in former sanatoriums. While the majority of States reported on the existence of periodic training of health-care personnel, especially on up-to-date procedures for leprosy diagnosis, control and treatment, some also mentioned the difficulties that the constant rotation of health-care workers within the system posed to early diagnosis and active case finding. Some States also mentioned the negative impact of their dependency on external funding for fighting leprosy in the country. Mentions of measures to promote the participation of persons affected by leprosy in health services, as recommended by WHO, were conspicuously absent in State responses. Only Nigeria mentioned the participation of persons affected by leprosy in all leprosy-related activities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "E. International guidance and national action for fighting leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Such data is in line with submissions from civil society organizations provided for the preparation of the present report and for previous reports. Information provided by civil society organizations operating in endemic countries[[fn:27]] points to the existence of national programmes aimed at fighting leprosy in such countries. In some of the countries (Brazil, India, Indonesia, Nepal, the Niger and Papua New Guinea), there are specific national leprosy programmes, while in others (Burundi, Cameroon, the Congo, Liberia, Senegal and Togo), leprosy programmes are integrated into tuberculosis or neglected tropical disease programmes. As a rule, leprosy services are provided at the primary level of care, with activities aimed mainly at diagnosing and treating leprosy. A considerable number of civil society organizations highlighted the fact that health-care workers showed limited skills with regard to diagnosing and managing leprosy reactions and that training for health-care workers was sporadic, limited to specialized hospitals and focused mainly on the clinical aspects of the disease. Treatment of adverse reactions, wound care, reconstructive surgery and rehabilitation are restricted and often inaccessible for persons living in remote areas. Secondary and tertiary health-care services are, generally speaking, dependent on private donations and/or non-governmental organizations programmes and services. Another important gap is the limited awareness of persons affected by leprosy about insurance schemes, owing to the unavailability of such information through health-care services, which diminishes their chances of accessing comprehensive and quality care. Regarding the participation of persons affected by leprosy in health services, information provided by civil society organizations points to a lack of policies that can foster meaningful participation. The engagement of one national organization of persons affected by leprosy in the national leprosy programme in Senegal was the only example of such participation identified, and the limited participation of persons affected by leprosy at the decentralized level was also mentioned.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "Submissions from civil society organizations that have authorized their statements to be made public will be available on the web page of the mandate of the Special Rapporteur: https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-leprosy."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "E. International guidance and national action for fighting leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "In summary, State strategies to ensure the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health are, in most cases, restricted to guaranteeing access to free medicine for treating infection, whereas the other elements of the continuum of care, which include reaction management, psychological care, physiotherapy, occupational therapy, group therapy, wound care, surgery, provision of assistive devices and rehabilitation, and also the right to participation, are largely unattended to. Dependency on external private funding also has an impact on national budgets for leprosy and their reach. And while it is true that civil society organizations and non-governmental organizations fill many of the existing gaps, it is also true that they are far from reaching everyone. Hence, their action is not enough to ensure that everyone affected by leprosy can access his or her right to health. Such universal access can be guaranteed only by the State itself. While partnerships between the public and the private sectors can improve national responses to leprosy, Governments still have the primary responsibility for fulfilling their obligations under national constitutions and international human rights law.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "E. International guidance and national action for fighting leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "One of the topics consistently pointed out to the Special Rapporteur by persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations as being of the utmost importance to them are the unsatisfactory results of medical technologies and practices for treating leprosy, which are too often experienced by persons affected by leprosy as discriminatory and disabling. Centring her analysis on people’s experience, the Special Rapporteur begins and ends the present section with two individual stories. Both stories speak less about leprosy as a disease and more about the gaps in political action to fight it. None of the cases presented in the report are isolated events, but rather examples of a pattern of violations suffered by persons affected by leprosy worldwide.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "The first story is about João.[[fn:28]] In 2021, when he was only 15 years old, João died due to leprosy complications in a city in the interior of Brazil. João’s story is told by one of the leaders of the Brazilian national movement of persons affected by Hansen’s disease, Faustino Pinto:[[fn:29]]\nMy first encounter with João dazed me, he was 14 years old, but he looked like he was 8 years old: undernourished, swollen belly and face due to the excessive use of steroids for controlling leprosy reactions, with a distant and sad look. We began to visit João monthly. On one of those visits, his grandmother told me that other children bullied him. One day I met João and his grandmother at a public health-care service. There, his medical doctor told me that João had developed Cushing’s syndrome due to the prolonged use of steroids; days later I received the news that João had been hospitalized with Lucio’s phenomenon (a rare reactional leprosy state). João spent 40 days hospitalized. He turned 15 on top of a hospital bed, both of his legs were amputated, his organs began to fail and he died. João is just another victim of negligence from the government, of structural invisibility, of the lack of coverage of primary health care, of the lack of public policies for leprosy, of the lack of early diagnosis, of the lack of a multidisciplinary treatment for leprosy, and of the lack of empathy.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "In order to protect the child and his family, the Special Rapporteur has used a pseudonym."}, {"n": 29, "text": "The individual is identified in the present report with his full authorization."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "Perhaps medical and leprosy experts will say that this is an isolated case. And perhaps they will have such a view because of the gap between people working on the ground and those making decisions from a geographically and epistemologically distant place. In the extensive experience of the Special Rapporteur, feedback from health-care practitioners working on the ground is usually very different from that coming from those working at the government level and those at the international level of decision-making. The Special Rapporteur recalls the words of one medical doctor with decades of experience treating people in one of the top three priority countries for leprosy:\nIt’s one thing for the doctor who works with the patient, and another for the manager who works behind a desk at the Ministry of Health’s headquarters. Those people are concerned with numbers, with statistics. They are not concerned with people. So, what’s their concern? Lowering the incidence; lowering the prevalence. How is this done? Treating faster. The faster you treat, the faster you discharge. If you take a person and discharge that person, it’s over. That person is no longer a numerical problem. That person is going to be a problem for me. Why? Because I’m going to discharge that person and in three months he or she will come back. That person is no longer part of the statistics, but is still part of my problem.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Or as one representative from an organization of persons affected by leprosy in a priority country for leprosy in Africa told the Special Rapporteur: “It really depends on whether or not you go into the field. Public health managers are bureaucrats, they know much from top to bottom, but they know very little from bottom to up.”", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "In order to promote bottom-up knowledge, the Special Rapporteur developed an online questionnaire with 52 questions on the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health for persons affected by leprosy; 174 people from and living in Afghanistan, Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Ethiopia, France, Germany, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Malaysia, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, the Niger, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, the Philippines, Portugal, Peru, Sierra Leone, Spain (Santander), Switzerland, Timor-Leste, the United States of America, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Zambia and Zimbabwe responded.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "Of the people who responded, 41 per cent were women affected by leprosy and 37 per cent were men affected by leprosy; 8 per cent were female family members, 6 per cent were male family members and 4 per cent were health-care workers, all responding on behalf of persons affected by leprosy. Of the respondents, 67 per cent were part of a leprosy organization, with more than half participating in organizations of persons affected by leprosy. A total of 70 per cent lived in an urban area, which indicates difficulties in reaching out to people living in rural and remote areas. Most of the respondents were between 29 and 59 years old.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "A total of 40 per cent of the persons affected by leprosy had been between the ages of 11 to 21 at the time of their leprosy diagnosis; 35 per cent had been between the ages of 21 and 31. The majority of the persons affected by leprosy (55 people) were diagnosed 1 year after their first symptoms appeared, 21 persons were diagnosed after 2 years, 19 persons after three years, 13 persons after five years, and 10 persons were diagnosed only 10 to 15 years after symptoms appeared, demonstrating the difficulties in getting an early diagnosis for leprosy. A total of 68 per cent of the diagnoses were given in public health-care services. Information people received through health-care services at the time of diagnosis was mainly about treatment, and half of the respondents stated that such information was not enough, with 30 per cent demanding more information on rights, 20 per cent demanding more information on leprosy reactions and 11 per cent demanding more information on self-care.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "With regard to the type of care received for leprosy, 38 per cent of the respondents, which included persons affected by leprosy and people responding on their behalf, referred to drugs, 19 per cent to physiotherapy, 14 per cent to wound care, 12 per cent to surgery and only 5 per cent to orthotics and prosthetics, which proves the emphasis leprosy services place on treating the disease with multidrug therapy, and reveals existing gaps in complementary care. When asked if there was any specific care that was seen as needed but was not provided by health-care services, 51 per cent said yes, and the majority of respondents mentioned unfulfilled needs regarding psychological support, information about the disease, physiotherapy, supplementary medicines and wound care.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "While 90 per cent of the persons affected by leprosy did not pay for multidrug therapy, 77 per cent did not pay for drugs to manage leprosy reactions and 75 per cent were treated through public health-care services, out-of-pocket expenses were considerable, with 76 per cent of respondents paying for transportation to health-care services. About 59 per cent of people under treatment were not able to continue working during the course of treatment and 48 per cent could not afford all of the medical treatment and additional expenses. The majority of the persons affected by leprosy were not aware of any alternative sources of financial assistance for meeting leprosy-related health needs. A total of 71 per cent of the persons affected by leprosy did not have access to financial support from the government during the course of treatment, while 59 per cent did not have access to disability benefits. About 50 per cent of the respondents claimed that difficulties in access to disability benefits were due mainly to the lack of medical expertise to identify leprosy-related impairments.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "A total of 88 per cent of the persons affected by leprosy had experienced leprosy reactions, pain, psychological distress and stigmatization. About 71 per cent had required additional care after being cured for leprosy, and only 45 per cent indicated that they had access to it. A total of 75 per cent had developed physical, mental and social impairments and disabilities, with 67 per cent referring to physical impairments on their upper and lower limbs, as well as to a loss of sensitivity. About 46 per cent needed to be hospitalized during the course of treatment, and 32 per cent required assistive devices, 59 per cent of whom did not have access to such devices when they needed them.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "Discrimination in health-care services was reported by 37 per cent of the respondents. About 50 per cent referred to important gaps in knowledge about leprosy in the health-care workforce, which in 20 per cent of the cases had led to diagnosis errors. A total of 24 per cent of the respondents mentioned violations of the patients’ rights to privacy, speaking about inhumane and humiliating treatment and breaches of professional secrecy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "About 83 per cent of the persons affected by leprosy stated that leprosy, its complications and the associated stigma affected their feelings, self-esteem and well-being, with 16 per cent mentioning sadness, 15 per cent fear; 13 per cent anxiety; 13 per cent loneliness; 10 per cent depression, 9 per cent exhaustion, 8 per cent insomnia, 6 per cent aggressivity, 6 per cent suicidal thoughts and 4 per cent mental confusion. A total of 44 per cent did not feel cured.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "Such data is in line with the picture provided over the years to the Special Rapporteur by organizations of persons affected by leprosy from 15 endemic countries. Their feedback with regard to health issues emphasizes neglect as a shared pattern among countries.[[fn:30]] All of the organizations concurred that the global elimination of leprosy as a public health problem in 2000,[[fn:31]] as well as progressive multi-disease service integration, while positive, had also raised considerable barriers to the access of persons affected by leprosy to high quality health care. In the words of representatives of one organization of persons affected by leprosy from an Asian endemic country:\nUntil a few years ago there were special Hansen’s disease hospitals at provincial or district levels in which all persons affected with reactions, wounds or rehabilitation needs were admitted. These have now all been converted into general hospitals. District hospitals are now generally responsible for treating complications, but this is not always possible due to stigmatization. The health insurance system has also changed and makes no distinction between persons affected and other patients, which is good in principle, but persons affected often remain untreated in this system. Since the transformation of special Hansen’s disease hospitals into general hospitals, there are almost no medical rehabilitation services for persons affected. Severe reactions and repeated reactions occur in people living in remote areas and they receive no decent treatment.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "Health issues are connected to disability issues. However, the Special Rapporteur does not address disability issues in the present report, as she plans to dedicate a report to them."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leprosy."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Other issues on which the views of these organizations converge include the following:\n(a) The biomedical classification of leprosy fails to respond to the reality of radically different experiences that call for distinct approaches to health care. An emphasis on infection seems to lead to neglect of individual case management and care after bacteriological cure. However, for many people the more serious issues they experience are leprosy reactions, neuropathic pain, nerve damage and physical and psychosocial impairments and disabilities that may appear during treatment and/or after bacteriological cure;\n(b) An emphasis on delivering multidrug therapy leads to shortages of drugs to treat reactions, but also of other supplementary medicines. The limited availability of psychosocial and mental health care, diagnosis and treatment of leprosy reactions, information on self-care, rehabilitation and reconstructive surgery, and limited prevention of impairments and provision of assistive devices, together with persisting discriminatory practices perpetrated by the health-care workforce, violate people’s rights;\n(c) Deficient health coverage in remote areas, together with limited budgets for leprosy at the national and subnational levels, as well as misappropriation of funds allocated for leprosy by subnational administrators, maintain transmission and may be causing a hidden epidemic of leprosy;\n(d) There is a lack of awareness-raising activities, and a lack of acknowledgement of the limitations of traditional approaches to health education that do not recognize local cultures and knowledge, communities as co-producers of health, traditional healers and leaders as key players, women as key agents of health education, and community media, such as radio, which are much more effective than traditional and/or social media in vulnerable communities that face issues of access;\n(e) Socioeconomic empowerment and rehabilitation, rarely promoted by government policies, are essential to restoring people’s right to a healthy standard of living and to promoting their physical, mental and social well-being; they are also key to stopping leprosy’s transmission within families and communities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "While most global and national policies and strategies are based on metrics that do not disaggregate data by demographic, environmental, socioeconomic and cultural variables, or the various grounds of discrimination recognized in international human rights law, the data underlying bottom-up knowledge produced by organizations of persons affected by leprosy frequently is disaggregated by such variables. The Special Rapporteur has already addressed intersections of leprosy with age and gender in a previous report, but she recalls some of the key issues affecting women affected by leprosy’s right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, as well as their fundamental role in protecting and promoting health, which require policies that specifically involve women as co-producers of health and are aimed at guaranteeing their physical, mental and social well-being. Those key issues include the following:\n(a) Due to multiple and intersecting barriers, women experience longer delays than men do in diagnosis and frequently have a higher risk of developing leprosy-related physical impairments and disability;\n(b) A generalized lack of gender-sensitive health-care services, including women health-care workers, leads to late diagnosis and treatment, especially in contexts characterized by deep patriarchal values. Many women are also dependent on third-party authorization, especially from husbands and fathers, to seek health care;\n(c) Power imbalances between health-care workers and patients mainly affects women, whose suffering is frequently dismissed by health-care workers, especially in the case of neuropathic and chronic pain caused by leprosy;\n(d) The use of drugs to treat leprosy reactions usually leads to bodily changes that have an impact on women’s mental health and their relationships, often leading to discrimination within the household and divorces entailing significant economic losses for women and separation from their children;\n(e) Many women affected by leprosy experience acute psychological stress and depression and report having suicidal thoughts due to discrimination within the household and in work environments that do not accommodate the physical impairments caused by leprosy;\n(f) As the Special Rapporteur has already reported, there is a pattern of psychological, physical and sexual violence experienced by women affected by leprosy, especially within the household.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Intersection between stigmatization on the grounds of leprosy and gender-based discrimination can even threaten women’s right to life, as the next case, told to the Special Rapporteur by representatives of persons affected by leprosy from one of the top three priority countries, dramatically demonstrates:\nA lady who left home because her husband didn’t accept her anymore due to leprosy had to stay in a place like a small house on the street. She then looked for the help of her family, but her family also rejected her and made her a small house outside. Complications due to the disease appeared and we contacted health professionals, but they said they could not come to take her to the hospital as there was no budget for that. The lady eventually died.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "Leprosy, or gaps in the system, can also have a brutal impact on women’s sexual and reproductive rights. It has already been explained that one of the drugs for treating leprosy reactions is thalidomide, which if used during pregnancy can severely harm the fetus. As recently as 2019, a child born with thalidomide syndrome was detected in Brazil, while others have been mapped over the years.[[fn:32]] This child, born with congenital anomalies in her upper and lower limbs, is currently under medical review, which means she may have other health problems (heart, ears and eyes) due to the use of thalidomide by her mother during pregnancy. When reporting on this to the Special Rapporteur, the geneticist[[fn:33]] who has been monitoring this child spoke of a cascading effect of late diagnosis, deficient communication between health-care workers and patients and vulnerable socioeconomic conditions of patients. Undoubtedly, the health system shamefully failed both this mother and her child, but no one is being held accountable for a child that was born in 2019 with a syndrome identified back in the 1960s.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "Thayne Woycinck Kowalski and others, “Thalidomide embryopathy: follow-up of cases born between 1959 and 2010”, Birth Defects Research – Part A, Clinical and Molecular Teratology, vol. 103, No. 9 (2015); F. Sales Luiz Vianna and others, “The impact of thalidomide use in birth defects in Brazil”, European Journal of Medical Genetics (2016)."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Lavínia Schüler-Faccini, professor at the department of genetics at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, and chief of the medical genetics service at the Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre. The individual is identified in the present report with her full authorization."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Family members also experience deterioration of their mental health. The Special Rapporteur was struck by comments from representatives of persons affected by leprosy during the webinars on human and youth rights organized by the Sasakawa Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease) Initiative that many young family members chose not to develop their full potential in life and to hide themselves because they were fearful of the consequences if their community, co-workers or employers discovered their family’s history with leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "The Special Rapporteur was informed that the leader who had shared with her the case of João, described above, had recently discovered that he was, after three decades of being considered cured, again ill with Hansen’s disease.[[fn:34]] His diagnosis is of lepromatous leprosy. Given the lack of annual vigilance by the health-care system, remaining bacilli within his nerves have thus been able to multiplicate over the years, which led to a relapse. His nerves are damaged beyond any possibility of recovery.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "The individual in question denounces the use of the word leprosy as one of the root causes of persistent stigmatization against affected individuals, a subject to which the Special Rapporteur will come back in a following report, but that does not fall within the scope of the present report."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "Much of the human suffering described in the present section is preventable. States are called to acknowledge such human suffering and take action to prevent and mitigate it. As one organization’s representative told the Special Rapporteur: “For leprosy affected persons, services from [non-governmental organizations] are very much limited and not what we would expect as citizens. What we want is for the Government to take responsibility. But this should not be a process which we have to ask for. These should be regular entitlements.” Furthermore, people and reality are far more complex than the projections of experts can account for, making it imperative for decision-making to be open to those who bear the consequences of such decisions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "As data presented in the present report show, leprosy and its consequences are the product of structural violence. Structural violence, which is inherently cumulative, reflects the systematic restrictions that prevent people who occupy the bottom rungs of societies from meeting their basic needs. It is often invisible, accepted as the natural order of things and perpetrated on a daily basis by dominant institutions. A growing body of evidence has shown that disadvantaged people are more prone to illness, distress and disability and also die younger. That is why reducing diseases to mere pathological entities is like telling a story without telling its beginning and its end. Metrics employed by global health and national health programmes tell us little about structural violence as a cause, and human suffering as a consequence, of leprosy. In order to fulfil the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health for the most disadvantaged, diseases must be acknowledged as political issues and action to tackle them must be subjected to accountability mechanisms at all levels of human agency – from the global to the local.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conclusion: what people create, people can change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "While scholars dwell on attempts to define the content of the right to health, persons affected by leprosy who endure extreme physical, mental and social suffering, and whose right to life is threatened by such suffering, interpret the right to health from the perspective not of written law, but of what it means to enjoy equal opportunities in life on an equal basis with others without discrimination and violence. Furthermore, persons affected by leprosy demand to be recognized as people who are entitled to self-determination over their bodies, as well as people whose special needs, such as accessibility, accommodation and support, must be guaranteed. Lastly, their narrative about the right to health calls for very practical but fundamental steps, as well as for a shift of the place where planning starts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conclusion: what people create, people can change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "The Special Rapporteur urges States, especially those where leprosy is endemic, to develop a country-owned political agenda for fighting leprosy and protecting, promoting and fulfilling the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health for persons affected by leprosy and their family members, and recommends that they:\n(a) Put people at the centre of health production, and to that end:\n(i) Implement guideline 14.1 of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, which affirms that States should create a committee to address activities relating to the human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, which should include individuals affected by leprosy and their family members and representatives of organizations of persons affected by leprosy;\n(ii) Ensure that planning starts with a needs assessment and that persons affected by leprosy and their family members own the process of policy design, monitoring and evaluation;\n(b) Start with the community and strengthen community-based support systems, and to that end:\n(i) Involve communities as co-producers of health; identify relevant communities through spatial analysis that can map clusters of leprosy; and implement community diagnosis in such contexts, reflecting a participatory and bottom-up method for attaining a quantitative and qualitative description of the health of citizens and the factors that influence their health, identifying problems, proposing areas for improvement and stimulating action;\n(ii) In contexts where leprosy is more dispersed, ensure that primary health-care services are settings where, through the promotion of self-care and self-help groups with a focus on building advocacy skills, people can engage in diagnoses of problems and in solutions;\n(iii) Promote systematic data collection through the primary health-care services that includes disaggregation of leprosy not only by demographic, environmental, socioeconomic and cultural variables, but also by the various grounds of discrimination recognized in international human rights law, and with full respect for the principles of participation and privacy; and use such data to identify groups that are more vulnerable to leprosy, leprosy-related impairments and discrimination, such as women and children, and develop special measures to protect them;\n(c) Invest in health education and guarantee people’s right to access to information, and to that end:\n(i) Identify communities affected by diseases with shared root causes, such as diseases of poverty, and implement integrated multi-disease awareness-raising programmes that are sensitive to culture, language, gender, age and disability and that are developed in close collaboration with local communities in order to ensure both accessibility and efficacy; address barriers created by the digital divide and invest in community media in order to reach as many people as possible; raise awareness among community leaders, traditional leaders and healers, religious leaders, local pharmacists and school teachers with regard to leprosy and engage them in further awareness-raising; and support women to enable them to engage in health promotion activities;\n(ii) Guarantee people’s right to access to information at all stages of health care and leprosy prevention, as well as their right to privacy, making informed consent an indispensable procedure for any intervention – from post-exposure prophylaxis with single-dose rifampicin to the examination of contacts and medical care of persons affected by leprosy; and ensure that the information being provided is focused on reducing stigma;\n(iii) Provide information through primary health-care services on the rights of users, on the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, and on the WHO guidelines for strengthening participation of persons affected by leprosy in leprosy services;\n(iv) Strengthen the structural competency of the primary health-care workforce by building their capacity on the socioeconomic and cultural aspects of leprosy and on user-involved design, and train them to mitigate stigmatization in all their activities;\n(d) Prioritize primary prevention through multisectoral policymaking and action, and to that end:\n(i) Mainstream leprosy into poverty reduction programmes;\n(ii) Recognize that key aspects of health promotion match the rights set out in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, but also others contained in treaties created to protect groups that face discrimination; frame such issues as rights and develop country-owned theoretical frameworks for evaluating the cost-effectiveness of States’ expenditures on enforcing them; and identify responsibilities within the government and enable accountability mechanisms.\n(e) Bet on multiservice integration without discriminating against leprosy, and to that end:\n(i) Strengthen universal health coverage and integrate leprosy into primary health care, ensuring universality of access through public services, which should be culturally appropriate and gender-sensitive, age-friendly and disability-friendly;\n(ii) Sustain and strengthen the efforts of national leprosy-related programmes and implement the four pillars of the Global Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease) Strategy 2021–2030, with proper budget allocations at the national and subnational levels, as well as targets, indicators and benchmarks;\n(iii) Include leprosy in medical schools’ curriculums and build the capacity of the primary health-care workforce on the clinical aspects of leprosy; prioritize action that supports early detection of leprosy and prevention of both its transmission and associated impairments and disabilities; and partner with organizations of persons affected by leprosy to undertake active case-finding and the examination of contacts;\n(iv) Ensure the continuum of care (prevention, treatment and rehabilitation) without discrimination; sustain monitoring of nerve damage during medical treatment and after bacteriological cure as part of primary health-care services; and guarantee people’s access to secondary and tertiary care when needed;\n(v) Provide, free of charge, assistive devices for protection and assistive devices for the facilitation of activities of daily life;\n(vi) Invest in mitigating suffering caused by neuropathic pain and stigmatization through high quality pain management and effective referral within national health-care systems for mental health care, under a recovery-based paradigm and through services that are ethical, respectful, culturally appropriate, gender-sensitive and empowering to individuals; and ensure access by family members of persons affected by leprosy to mental health care;\n(vii) Partner with organizations of persons affected by leprosy to strengthen peer-to-peer counselling, as well as family-based counselling, and extend counselling to family members of persons affected by leprosy;\n(viii) Promote peer-to-peer cooperation between national leprosy programmes of endemic countries to share good practices and foster progress;\n(f) Guarantee social protection and, to that end:\n(i) Ensure food security and cash transfers for people under medical treatment for leprosy;\n(ii) Guarantee disability rights to people under medical treatment and after bacteriological cure;\n(iii) Target active citizenship by promoting training opportunities and formal employment, while guaranteeing support as needed;\n(iv) Partner with non-governmental organizations to provide socioeconomic and vocational empowerment and rehabilitation;\n(v) Empower women affected by leprosy through income-generation programmes, creation of cooperatives and continued education;\n(g) Ensure democratic engagement and, to that end:\n(i) Provide legal aid and accessible mechanisms for filing complaints of rights violations at primary health-care services;\n(ii) Enforce the right of access to justice and guarantee the accessibility of procedures and infrastructure;\n(iii) Provide monitoring and accountability mechanisms with transparent sharing of information.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also recommends that non-endemic States fulfil their international cooperation obligations, in particular with regard to target 3.3 of the Sustainable Development Goals. She urges States to accept responsibility for drug development, taking it into the public sector, and facilitating access by the world’s poorest to high-quality medicines. She also makes an appeal to the health industry to comply with the Doha Declaration on the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights and Public Health, in particular when it affirms that the agreement should be interpreted and implemented in a manner that promotes access to medicines for all.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "In 2010, the General Assembly adopted resolution 65/215 on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, reaffirming that all such persons should be treated as individuals with dignity and should enjoy all human rights and fundamental freedoms under customary international law, relevant conventions and national constitutions and laws. The Assembly also took note of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The adoption of the above resolution was an important milestone in the history of centuries of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their families, by which the States Members of the United Nations recognized that leprosy is not only a health issue, but also a deeply rooted human rights issue: the adoption of the resolution was a remarkable achievement, given the decades of persecution and segregation of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, with States being the main perpetrators of such violations.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "The official policy of forced segregation of persons affected by leprosy was implemented from at least the late nineteenth into the mid-twentieth century, although in some countries it went well beyond that time, into the last decades of the twentieth century. Such policies were never supported by scientific evidence but were rather the product of harmful stereotypes about leprosy and harmful stereotyping of persons affected by leprosy, which were wrongly sanctioned by biomedicine as authoritative truths. Moreover, many family members of persons affected by leprosy were also segregated and forcibly institutionalized. There are still more than one thousand so-called leprosy colonies in the world today. Regrettably, the Special Rapporteur has received reports of people who continue to live in segregated places, continuing the discrimination they experience at the community level, owing to lack of adequate health care, quality mobility aids, assistive devices and rehabilitation close to home.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At a minimum, States must provide redress to persons affected by leprosy and their family members since the violations of their rights were both of a permanent nature and also generated widespread fear and stigmatization against people who were wrongfully blamed and persecuted on the grounds of leprosy. In addition, after the global elimination of leprosy as a public health problem in 2000 (often misunderstood as eradication, when it meant prevalence of less than 1 incidence per 10,000 population), efforts and political will to tackle the disease decreased dramatically. In many countries, as a result of ongoing discrimination against them, persons affected by leprosy were forced to turn to charity-based organizations to gain access to health care and livelihoods.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The General Assembly, by its adoption of resolution 65/215, not only paved the way for remedies against past and present violations against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, it also placed leprosy on the global human rights agenda. This meant that all States where leprosy, whether endemic or non-endemic, must fully recognize the need to take the steps necessary to eliminate leprosy-related discrimination and to cooperate to ensure the human rights of persons affected by leprosy globally. Resolution 65/215, including the referenced principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members,[[fn:1]] also helped to highlight the particular needs of persons affected by leprosy and their family members as a group in an extremely vulnerable situation and in need of special protection. It focused on very specific issues to be addressed by the entities of the human rights system and its mechanisms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A/HRC/15/30, annex."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "Nevertheless, notwithstanding the adoption of resolution 65/215, widespread inaction continued. In response, in 2017, the Human Rights Council, by its resolution 35/9, established the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members to follow up and report on progress made and measures taken by States for the effective implementation of the above-mentioned principles and guidelines. Subsequently, in 2020, by its resolution 44/6, the Council extended the mandate, requesting that the Special Rapporteur continue to report annually to the Council and to report also to the General Assembly, starting from its seventy-sixth session.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "As the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, Alice Cruz, has detailed in her previous reports,[[fn:2]] the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members referenced in resolution 65/215 are a non-treaty standard that reinforces customary law and the normative integration of several international human rights instruments, interpreting and translating legally binding norms, in close connection with the conditions and needs of persons affected by leprosy and their family members. The principles and guidelines provide States with a road map for monitoring the situation of persons affected by leprosy and their family members and for implementing measures that, by enforcing international human rights law, can help to guarantee formal and substantive equality to this group of people.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "A/HRC/38/42, A/HRC/41/47, A/HRC/44/46, A/HRC/44/46/Add.1, A/HRC/44/46/Add.2, A/HRC/44/46/Add.3, A/HRC/47/29, A/HRC/50/35, A/76/148 and A/77/139."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "In her first report to the Council about her vision and methods for the mandate entrusted to her, the Special Rapporteur argued that discrimination on the grounds of leprosy is multiple and intersects with other prohibited grounds of discrimination, including gender, disability, age and race.[[fn:3]] Over the course of her work as mandate holder, this assertion has been fully borne out by evidence collected both for thematic reports and during country visits.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "A/HRC/38/42, para. 64."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "National legal frameworks and policies designed to implement international human rights law and, more particularly, provisions on non-discrimination should expressly recognize persons affected by leprosy and their family members as individuals entitled to protection under those same legal frameworks and policies and all necessary steps should be taken to integrate leprosy into related strategies. In gathering evidence in fulfilment of her mandate, the Special Rapporteur has come to the conclusion that more efforts are needed in this regard.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "To address this matter, it is important to increasingly detail entitlements for persons affected by leprosy and their family members under an expanding framework that aligns more closely with the comprehensive nature of core human rights instruments on civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, as well as with rights elaborated for groups historically discriminated against or in need of special protection, given the vulnerability of their historic, social, political and economic situation, including women, children and persons with disabilities, and with the jurisprudence elaborated by the treaty bodies.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "On the subject of the nature of the State’s obligations to ensure the human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, it is worth noting that States from both the Global South and the Global North have responsibilities in this regard. While leprosy is endemic today in countries of the Global South, the dehumanizing official policy of forced segregation and its stigmatizing corollaries were originally the creation of European nations, which transplanted the policy to the countries and territories under their colonial rule and domination, making institutionalized, formal and direct discrimination against persons affected by leprosy a global reality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "As detailed by the Special Rapporteur in her previous reports, while colonialism and its corollaries form the core of many of the stigmatizing beliefs about leprosy, they are also relevant to an understanding of the current social determinants of leprosy and of other neglected tropical diseases in many countries of the Global South. In and of itself, the classification of such diseases as tropical is deeply colonial since not all are tropical. In any case, leprosy and other neglected tropical diseases should be addressed as global issues and should form part of international cooperative efforts to achieve Sustainable Development Goal target 3.3[[fn:4]] and as part of the commitment of all Governments to the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, in particular under Sustainable Development Goal 17, as well as under article 55 of the Charter of the United Nations and articles 3 and 4 of the Declaration on the Right to Development.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Communicable diseases: By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical diseases and combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Furthermore, leprosy and the persistence of discrimination against those affected by the disease, as well as against their family members, reveals to what extent States have made progress in terms of the protection, promotion and fulfillment of human rights, given that this group of people is among those groups furthest behind. The situation of people affected by leprosy is a clear marker of the overall promotion and protection of human rights in a given country. In general, with regard to measures in place to guarantee equality and non-discrimination, as well as the enjoyment of social, economic and cultural rights on a universal basis, the situation of people affected by leprosy is also a clear marker of the degree to which States have provided for the enjoyment of the comprehensive right to development, as set out in the Declaration on the Right to Development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The present report is the final report of the current Special Rapporteur to the Council. For that reason, it contains an overview of lessons learned and an assessment of progress and remaining challenges regarding the elimination of discrimination on the grounds of leprosy. The report also presents a set of key recommendations to States, intergovernmental agencies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) concerning the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank persons affected by leprosy and their family members for the continuous encouragement and support given to her as mandate holder. During the years of her tenure, her admiration for their resilience and their determination to survive leprosy and its consequences, together with their dedication to support their peers and improve their living conditions, has only increased. The Special Rapporteur finds great hope in the increasing interaction of organizations of persons affected by leprosy with the overall human rights system and she leaves her office inspired by their formidable example.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "The Special Rapporteur implemented a people-centered approach to the mandate entrusted to her by the Council. She delivered her mandate using a bottom-up approach to human rights, always prioritizing inputs from persons affected by leprosy and their family members as the primary source of information and guidance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "She consistently recognized persons affected by leprosy and their family members as experts through experience and defended their right to participate and be involved in decision-making in a wide range of settings, from the public to the private. While she endeavored to identify and report on the consequences of deep-rooted stigmatization and discrimination and to elaborate recommendations on how to mitigate and eliminate both interpersonal and systemic discrimination, she always carried out her mandate side by side with persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations and continued to be guided by them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The people-centred approach adopted by the Special Rapporteur has had an empowering effect among persons affected by leprosy, their family members and representative organizations. The Special Rapporteur considers this to be the most consistent and sustainable outcome of her mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Empowerment is key both in fighting the historical and systemic dehumanization of persons affected by leprosy and their family members and in the ongoing struggle against their structural and widespread subordination. By promoting their active participation and critical reflection, including their understanding, access to and control over important decisions and resources, empowerment allows people in disadvantaged situations to achieve greater control over their lives. It also furthers their democratic engagement in public affairs, with an enhanced critical understanding of their own settings and their relationship to power relations and hegemonic social structures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Using this approach, the Special Rapporteur aimed to ensure that her mandate provided a bridge for a group of people living in an extremely vulnerable situation, who have been systematically pushed furthest behind, helping them to gain access to the human rights system and to relevant intergovernmental agencies, Governments and international organizations working in the field.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The goal of the Special Rapporteur has been to ensure the sustainability of efforts to eliminate both the disease and the discrimination attached to it. In the long-term, what contributes the most to transforming laws, policies, practices, norms and power relations is the empowerment and active participation of people affected by leprosy and their family members in public affairs and in all matters concerning their lives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Systemic change can only be achieved by ensuring that affected groups have a voice and choice in all decision-making processes that affect their lives. Their autonomy, active citizenship and ability to defend their interests in public affairs are key to any sustainable action. A free civic space is essential to building just societies and participation means ensuring that Governments, NGOs and intergovernmental agencies are held accountable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Accountability, access to justice and even the justiciability of rights are fundamental mechanisms to guarantee human rights and fundamental freedoms. However important formal equality and recognition of entitlements and rights can be, without the political will to convert such recognition into policies, strategies and practices, laws alone will not have the power to have a transformative impact on people’s lives. Participation and accountability are of the essence in order to guarantee that law is put into action.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Traditionally, the situation of persons affected by leprosy has been addressed either within medical or charity-based frameworks and they have rarely been recognized as rights holders. The need for a paradigm shift is imperative and the mandate of the Special Rapporteur has played an important role in encouraging the first steps towards such an important change. The global human rights system and the world community must support such a shift by cooperating closely with local and national organizations of persons affected by leprosy and by enabling the participation of such organizations in their work. It is important to note that such participation is still severely compromised by multiple barriers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "With specific regard to the human rights system, over the years the Special Rapporteur has come to realize that it is not easily accessed by those who need it the most. Significant factors hindering persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations from making use of the human rights system include: language (the majority of persons affected by leprosy and their families do not speak any of the six official United Nations languages); the digital divide; difficult-to-use procedures that require a level of literacy and expertise that those who have been marginalized do not always possess; and non-inclusion of the particular issues that affect them on the agendas of international civil society organizations with experience and expertise about the system. These are only a few of the barriers that the human rights system itself should properly identify and remove.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The Special Rapporteur, with few resources at her disposal, has used her position to overcome barriers in her collaborative work with persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations. She regrets not having had sufficient resources to undertake key activities, for example, expert consultations or regional consultations, for a mandate that was new to the human rights system. Such activities might have enhanced further awareness and promoted important synergies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "While she has dedicated considerable efforts to making persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations aware of human rights standards, as well as to developing and strengthening their awareness of their rights and how to claim them, she still believes that the overall accessibility of the system to those furthest behind is a major issue to be discussed and addressed. In reference to the well-known thought piece on whether those in subordinate positions can speak,[[fn:5]] the Special Rapporteur would respond that, of course, they can speak, but that it is high-level forums that do not properly listen to them, hindering their right to claim to their human rights. This is an important limitation of the system itself, which requires a greater commitment from States in terms of budget allocation to the overall system and its offices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Gayatri C. Spivak, “Can the subaltern speak?”, in Patrick Williams and Laura Chrisman (eds.), Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory (Routledge, London, 1993)."}], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "In always encouraging a cooperative approach, the Special Rapporteur has continuously engaged with United Nations bodies and intergovernmental agencies, especially the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). During country visits, she has consistently made an effort to interact with relevant agencies, such as the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), UNICEF and WHO. She has also used country visits as opportunities for connecting persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations with their respective Governments and with intergovernmental agencies working in the country. Awareness-raising has been a major task for her mandate. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur always adopted a cooperative approach with Governments and regrets their very limited engagement with her mandate. The mandate of the Special Rapporteur was, like all others, deeply impacted by the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, and she was only able to visit four countries in her official capacity. Nevertheless, she visited three countries in the three most important regions in terms of the incidence of leprosy (Asia, Africa and South America). The three countries, Angola, Bangladesh and Brazil, are also among the 23 WHO priority countries for leprosy. In addition, she visited one country (Japan) that has already eliminated leprosy, which enabled her to elaborate recommendations for a post-elimination scenario. While she commends the willingness of the three countries to assess their national gaps and to improve their responses to leprosy-related discrimination, she regrets that other highly endemic countries did not invite her to visit. Commitments under the Sustainable Development Goals should have inspired States to leave no one behind and cooperate with her mandate.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "With a view to promoting synergies and catalyzing systemic change, the Special Rapporteur reached out to, and worked closely with, political and religious world leaders, members of academia both from the Global South and the Global North, and the main stakeholders in the field, such as the WHO Goodwill Ambassador for the Elimination of Leprosy, the Global Partnership for Zero Leprosy, civil society organizations for persons affected by leprosy and national and grassroots organizations of persons affected by leprosy. Further, she has always been available to provide technical guidance to key stakeholders for tackling stigmatization and discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "In order to facilitate the implementation of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, as well as the discussion of such discrimination as part of the work of the universal periodic review and the treaty bodies, the Special Rapporteur has presented a policy framework for rights-based action plans,[[fn:6]] including specific recommendations in four main areas: adequate standard of living and economic autonomy; non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community; elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory; and empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups. The report also included concrete examples of good practices in the four aforementioned areas for action.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See A/HRC/44/46."}], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Special Rapporteur contributed to the WHO road map for neglected tropical diseases 2021–2030[[fn:7]] and the WHO global leprosy strategy 2021–2030.[[fn:8]] Since she became the mandate holder, the Special Rapporteur has endeavoured to mainstream leprosy within the entire human rights system and has focused, in particular, on raising awareness about discrimination against persons affected by leprosy within the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. She made several submissions to the Committee with regard to the Committee’s reviews of endemic countries and also contributed to the drafting of the Committee’s general comment No. 8 (2022) on the right of persons with disabilities to work and employment, as enshrined in article 27 of the Convention.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "WHO, Ending the neglect to attain the Sustainable Development Goals: A road map for neglected tropical diseases 2021–2030, Geneva, 2020."}, {"n": 8, "text": "WHO, Towards Zero Leprosy: Global Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease) Strategy 2021–2030, Geneva, 2021."}], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The Special Rapporteur extends her appreciation to the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities for its efforts to guarantee the recognition of persons affected by leprosy as persons with disabilities within national legal and regulatory frameworks and for making recommendations to countries where leprosy is endemic in this regard. She also notes the importance of recognizing the specific experiences and needs of women, children and older people with leprosy-related disabilities, as well as ensuring accessibility to the work of the Committee by organizations of persons affected by leprosy, which, historically, have been excluded from the overall system as a result of the above-mentioned barriers.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, the Special Rapporteur has worked tirelessly, reaching out to persons affected by leprosy and their families, to assess the impact of the pandemic on them. Organizations of persons affected by leprosy were key to this work, given the extent to which the digital divide excludes the majority of persons affected by leprosy from engaging with the human rights system. Using the gathered evidence, she elaborated a guidance document for States and presented a comprehensive report on the disproportionate impact of the pandemic persons affected by leprosy and their families.[[fn:9]] The report examines the root causes of the group’s vulnerability to the pandemic and to the crisis that has unfolded. The Special Rapporteur considers that the comprehensive nature of the report, which encompasses both causes, consequences and necessary measures to overcome such a crisis, makes it an important and fundamental document in the event of future crises.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See A/HRC/47/29."}], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The work of the Special Rapporteur has enabled the production of a body of new evidence about discrimination on the grounds of leprosy. Over the past several years, she has extensively documented such discrimination and has presented evidence on the pervasiveness of formal and substantive discrimination against this group of people, including the systemic denial of their right to access to opportunities on an equal basis with others in areas such as education, work, social protection and access to justice. She has also presented evidence on physical, psychological and sexual violence, particularly against women and children affected by leprosy, and how harmful stereotypes about leprosy can threaten the right to life of persons affected by leprosy. All of this work was made possible as a result of the unwavering support of persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has always worked under the principle that leprosy-related discrimination intersects with wider processes of oppression, marginalization, violation and social conflict. She has examined discrimination related to gender, age, health care, disability and legal frameworks from the point of view of the particular situation of persons affected by leprosy, while also contributing to a wider discussion on core topics of the human rights agenda. She believes that social gaps and problems are better identified when society is viewed from the margins. She firmly believes that persons affected by leprosy and their family members, while a minority, have much to contribute to the advancement of the overall human rights agenda, especially in the areas of inclusion and rights enforcement for dehumanized groups and populations living in poverty and extremely vulnerable situations.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "There is more knowledge available today about the nature and root causes of leprosy-related discrimination. It is also possible to put together a narrative about leprosy-related discrimination and the steps necessary to tackle it. Furthermore, persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations have increasingly taken ownership of the leprosy-related narrative, as well as of the activities for claiming their rights, especially at the subnational and national levels.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "While the Special Rapporteur has been able to extensively map the intersections of discrimination on the grounds of leprosy with discrimination based on gender, age and disability, she did not have resources to examine its intersection with discrimination based on race, although, in some contexts, there are a few cases pointing in that direction. She believes that further research is needed in this area.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "Another issue that, in the view of the Special Rapporteur, deserves further attention concerns what she referred to in the introduction to the present report as the need to increasingly detail entitlements for persons affected by leprosy and their family members under an expanding framework that aligns more closely with the comprehensive nature of core human rights instruments and jurisprudence elaborated by the treaty bodies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "In practice, this could be converted into, at least, three important tasks: (a) to ensure continuity in the mainstreaming of the question of leprosy into relevant human rights mechanisms, together with developing and strengthening the capacity of the organizations of persons affected by leprosy to interact with those mechanisms; (b) to develop guidance on anti-discrimination legislation, policies and programmes; (c) to ensure that relevant States, at both the national and subnational levels, cooperate more closely in examining their legal frameworks and policies and in the assessment of both opportunities and gaps in such legal frameworks and policies. The Special Rapporteur stresses, once again, that greater cooperation between relevant States will be essential in undertaking the above-mentioned task.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "Only two countries in the world have implemented reparation measures for the harm done to persons affected by leprosy and their family members by official State policies of segregation. As thoroughly detailed in the Special Rapporteur’s country reports on Brazil and Japan, laws were enacted by both countries to provide reparations to persons affected by leprosy who were segregated in the past by the State and a law was enacted by Japan to provide reparations to family members who were also the victims of State segregation. Remedies, compensation and reparations for violations on the grounds of leprosy suffered both by persons affected and their family members are justice measures which, through general acknowledgment of the unfairness of violations and of the legal obligation of States to take such a violation of human rights seriously, can lead to positive spillover effects, raise awareness and guarantee the non-repetition of such violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Brazil has also enacted an anti-discriminatory law that officially changes the name of leprosy to Hansen’s disease (Hanseníase in Portuguese). The official change of the name to a more dignified term in the last decades of the twentieth century in Brazil has produced positive results in mitigating stigmatization against persons affected by the disease in the country. It is important that such a change be legally formalized, not only in practice, since it obliges the entire administration of the State to fully comply with it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "While the Special Rapporteur appreciates the complexity of the issue, and that pejorative negative vernacular terms for leprosy are used in some countries and that Western-centred language should not be imposed on non-Western countries, she considers the change of the name of leprosy to a more neutral one to be a best practice for eliminating the harmful stereotypes attached to leprosy, as witnessed in the recent change by WHO of the name of monkey pox to mpox. In another report, the Special Rapporteur presented data suggesting that a large number of persons affected by leprosy prefer the term Hansen’s disease.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "Since the Special Rapporteur took office, there has been further progress with regard to legal frameworks. Noting ongoing discriminatory practices, in 2018, the Supreme Court of India, in its judgment in the case of Pankaj Sinha v. the Union of India and others,[[fn:10]] directed entities of the State to address various forms of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy. In the same judgment, the Supreme Court took note of a writ petition filed by the Vidhi Centre for Legal Policy in its case against the Union of India,[[fn:11]] which listed 119 central and local laws that violate the fundamental rights of persons affected by leprosy under articles 14, 19 and 21 of the Constitution. The Court also took note of the report of the Law Commission of India, in which the Commission expressed its concern over the number of Indian laws that continue to discriminate, directly and indirectly, against persons affected 10 Supreme Court of India, Writ petition (civil) No. 767/2014, Judgment, 14 September 2018. 11 Ibid., para. 8. GE.23-05936 by leprosy. Since then, up to 20 or more laws[[fn:12]] have been either repealed, modified or abolished.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Supreme Court of India, Writ petition (civil) No. 767/2014, Judgment, 14 September 2018."}, {"n": 11, "text": "Ibid., para. 8."}, {"n": 12, "text": "It is difficult to estimate with precision the number of laws since this is an ongoing movement happening at the subnational level of government."}], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "In Brazil, three regional States have transferred the usufruct and ownership of properties of former colonies to persons affected by leprosy and their family members who were once segregated there. One regional State approved reparations to individuals who were segregated because their parents were affected by leprosy, although the monetary compensation given to the victims was shamefully low given the permanent nature of such violations. Some victories in terms of reparations from the State were achieved by individuals who suffered similar violations of their rights, although the Federal Government has yet to approve a reparation law that includes all individuals who were victims of the official State policy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "Strategic litigation and access to justice have been increasingly incorporated into the agendas of some civil society organizations working for persons affected by leprosy, with important victories in favour of their rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "In addition, progress has been made regarding a gender-sensitive approach to leprosy, especially on the part of civil society organizations for persons affected by leprosy, as well as by WHO and through national leprosy programmes. Increasingly, women, who had largely been excluded from leadership positions in such civil society organizations, have been taking over leadership positions and pushing for greater awareness on the specific issues faced by women affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "There has also been progress in the recognition of persons affected by leprosy as persons who are entitled to disability rights, especially with regard to greater openness on the part of national and subnational governments to dialogue with organizations of persons affected by leprosy as part of their disability agendas. By the same token, persons affected by leprosy have developed a deeper understanding of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and have increasingly incorporated its principles into their action plans and advocacy work, especially in supporting the efforts of their peers to access disability-related social benefits. They have also deepened their relations with the overall disability community.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "Significant progress has been made on the interaction between civil society organizations for persons affected by leprosy and other organizations of persons affected by leprosy with international monitoring mechanisms, with several submissions being made, inter alia, as part of the universal periodic review process as well as to the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "Good practices targeting the economic empowerment and the mental health of persons affected by leprosy and their family members have been strengthened by NGOs, as well as by organizations of persons affected by leprosy and local groups and associations of persons affected by leprosy. The Special Rapporteur considers strategies implemented by the aforementioned civil society organizations in the field of solidarity economy to be a best practice for people in overcoming the intersection of poverty with discrimination on the grounds of leprosy and in changing the way communities think of and interact with them.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "While there has been undeniable progress on the right to participation of persons affected by leprosy over the last few years, the Special Rapporteur worries that, in many instances, participation is still mainly tokenistic and that, while relevant intergovernmental agencies, international organizations and Governments seem to be keener to listen to the representative organizations of persons affected by leprosy, the extent to which people’s demands are effectively incorporated into their work plans is still limited.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Despite progress, persons affected by leprosy and some of their family members continue to experience discrimination in law and in practice. There are still around 100 laws in place that actively discriminate against persons affected by leprosy. India alone accounts for the majority of such discriminatory legal frameworks. Laws that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy violate a wide range of rights through policies including: compulsory segregation and isolation of persons affected by leprosy; prohibitions on their participation in elections and their holding of public office; restrictions on their freedom of movement and the use of public transportation; dissolution of marriage on the grounds of leprosy, which, as many women affected by leprosy shared frequently with the Special Rapporteur, contributes to their subordination, poverty and the interpersonal and structural violence perpetrated against them; prohibition on the exercise of a large number of jobs; and denial of rights to migrants affected by leprosy. There are also cases of the discriminatory application of laws that appear neutral at face value, as already documented by the Special Rapporteur in one of her previous reports.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "As the lived experience of persons affected by leprosy indicates, discrimination under the law promotes substantive discrimination by significantly compromising their livelihoods, formalizing harmful stereotypes as lawful labels and normalizing humiliation and violence against them. Some laws also exclude them from political and civic participation, therefore hindering their chances of defending their interests and rights. Women are particularly harmed by such laws. As an example, in countries where leprosy is legal grounds for divorce, such laws can not only lead to divorce, but also hinder women’s access to justice in demanding enforcement of the rights that are entitled to them after divorce, such as their share of marital property and custody of their children, which leaves many women living in poverty.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Traditional non-written customs and practices that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy, often grounded in beliefs from world or local religions, persist in some societies, especially where religion strongly frames social interaction. Such customs and practices, mostly unaddressed and unexamined, are a leading cause of interpersonal discrimination at both the family and the community level.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "Interpersonal discrimination against persons affected by leprosy is not restricted to endemic countries, as evidenced by the fact that the Special Rapporteur has received worrying reports from countries that have reached nearly zero cases of leprosy. As an example, the Special Rapporteur recently received reports about a young man living in a country with nearly zero cases, who cannot go to the health-care services to get his medication because taxi drivers will not take him. People have taken photos of him and published them on social media to bully him. Neighbours have set fire to his house and have demanded that he and his entire family leave the neighbourhood because, in their view, leprosy is a curse. This person is not, however, an isolated case, showing the need for greater attention to leprosy issues by non-endemic countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Institutionalized discrimination within State services is a shameful reality that often results from public servants not being educated about leprosy and acting based on prejudice and harmful stereotypes, especially in the fields of health care, education and social protection. The Special Rapporteur has also received complaints about a lack of understanding about leprosy and discriminatory attitudes on the grounds of leprosy within the justice system in Brazil. One example concerns a case that is still pending in a civil court in São Paulo. Demonstrating very limited knowledge about leprosy, its history in Brazil or the violations suffered both by persons affected by the disease and by their children, the judge has refused, without justification, to listen to the testimonies of the aggrieved and has excluded the national organization of persons affected by leprosy from taking part in the case, accepting its participation only as amicus curiae. Furthermore, the judge has imposed a fine on the organization.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "Another issue of concern is the limited integration of the subject of leprosy-related discrimination into the work of national oversight institutions. While the visit of the Special Rapporteur to Brazil promoted greater synergies between the office of the federal public defender and representative organizations of persons affected by leprosy, in the majority of countries, oversight institutions fail to monitor leprosy-related discrimination. Quasi-judicial systems and human rights protection systems in general fail to ensure justiciability, availability, accessibility, good quality, provision of remedies and accountability for persons affected by leprosy and their family members. Furthermore, and as the Special Rapporteur has stated in several reports, there is a data gap concerning the multiple dimensions of living with leprosy, from health to socioeconomic and discrimination variables. Such a data gap hinders the ability of States to develop evidence-based policies to address discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "More efforts are necessary to guarantee accessible mechanisms for persons affected by leprosy, their family members and representative organizations filing complaints on discrimination and violations on the grounds of leprosy. Complaints on human rights violations on the grounds of leprosy should be duly investigated and punished. Lastly, access to justice should be enabled and guaranteed to persons affected by leprosy, their family members and representative organizations on an equal basis with others facing discrimination, to which end multiple barriers, from physical barriers to information barriers, should be removed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "Leprosy-related discrimination does not impact everyone in the same way. In fact, it affects different persons in different ways according to his or her social status and capital. The Special Rapporteur has already demonstrated how women and children are particularly vulnerable to leprosy-related discrimination. While the Special Rapporteur commends the growing understanding of the need to integrate a gender-sensitive approach to leprosy-related discrimination among key stakeholders, she worries that girls, children and teenagers affected by leprosy still lack adequate protection of their rights. The Special Rapporteur recommends that both States and private stakeholders, including the health industry, ensure child-friendly health-care services, appropriate medical expertise and public policies to treat leprosy in children. Children affected by leprosy must also be recognized as rights-holders and their meaningful participation in relevant policy-making processes must be duly enabled.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "In some countries, children have also experienced separation from their parents and segregation from society on the grounds of leprosy. In Brazil, it is reported that approximately 16,000 children were separated from their parents as a result of the State segregation policy; they were sent to institutions known as preventoriums between the 1920s and the 1980s. There are also reports of illegal adoptions, forced disappearances and even executions. As a result, many people who suffered from such violations currently lack access to an adequate standard of living and economic autonomy and many suffer from psychosocial disorders and disabilities that impair their rehabilitation and inclusion in society. These people should be guaranteed remedies and reparation for the violation of their rights and the suffering incurred as a result of the compulsory isolation of their biological parents, in particular the abuse and violence that they were subjected to within State facilities.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Although it is difficult to estimate how many leprosy colonies remain active in the world, there are probably around one to two thousand, mostly in Africa, Asia and South America. While some colonies were created by States in order to segregate persons affected by leprosy, others were the result of deep-rooted stigmatization against persons affected by leprosy, who were forced to leave their home communities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "In institutions created by States, the majority of the population comprises older persons affected by leprosy, who have special needs resulting from the psychosocial effects of the multiple forms of discrimination and violations they have been subjected to throughout their lives, in particularly the absence of family ties and the internalization of stigmatization, as well as physical impairments and disabilities related both to leprosy and to ageing. This population demands proper comprehensive health care, which is largely missing in the majority of State institutions. Furthermore, older persons affected by leprosy and related disabilities should never be denied their rights to legal capacity on the grounds of their age or mental health and should be ensured of their rights to make decisions on budgeting and financial planning, making wills, health care, palliative care and end-of-life care. Older persons should have the right to receive support in decision-making under all circumstances. Their needs may include mobility aids and assistive technologies, as well as access to participation in leisure activities and in other social, religious, cultural, political or educational activities, including the enjoyment of personal relationships on an equal basis with others.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "People living in both State created and non-State created leprosy colonies and/or institutions face similar problems and should be provided with the same rights and conditions, however, in both instances it is important to emphasize that second and third generations of persons affected by leprosy and their families have been born and grown up in such places, and that they have become their homes. They should, as such, enjoy fundamental housing rights. According to the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the seven components of the right to an adequate housing are: legal security of tenure; availability of services, materials, facilities and infrastructure; affordability; habitability; accessibility; location; and cultural adequacy. Over the years, the Special Rapporteur has received a few reports about the imminent eviction of these populations. Forced eviction is considered a prima facie violation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Decisions regarding staying or leaving leprosy colonies and/or institutions, including the future of such locations, should always be made with the inclusion of the inhabitants at the centre of decision-making.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "The most generalized problem faced by persons affected by leprosy concerns the multiple barriers they face in accessing opportunities on an equal basis with others, especially work, health care, education, higher education and social protection, as well as fundamental disability rights, such as participation, accessibility, reasonable accommodation, independent living, inclusion in the community, habilitation and rehabilitation. Deficient access to and limited enjoyment of an adequate standard of living, including access to decent housing, clean water, sanitation and proper and high-quality health care are also important social determinants of leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "Substantive discrimination resulting from entrenched and systemic ostracization and marginalization stands out as a leading cause of the persistent denial of the enjoyment of rights by persons affected by leprosy and their family members on an equal basis with others. Persons affected by leprosy have been trapped in a cycle of disadvantage. Leprosy is a disease of poverty, leading to discrimination and disability, which enhances vulnerability and thus leads to further poverty. The enforcement of economic, social, cultural and disability rights for persons affected by leprosy are of the essence to break this cycle of disadvantage.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recalls that, according to the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, merely guaranteeing equality in law does not necessarily ensure substantive equality, since the effective enjoyment of rights is often influenced by whether a person is a member of a group characterized by prohibited grounds of discrimination. According to the Committee, eliminating discrimination in practice requires paying sufficient attention to groups of individuals who suffer historical or persistent prejudice instead of merely comparing the formal treatment of individuals in similar situations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, persons affected by leprosy and their families have suffered disproportionately as a result of the long-term structural violence they have been exposed to. For example, they have been denied access to decent work and have been excluded from the formal work market due to systemic stigmatization and, as a consequence, lack access to social protection schemes. These multiple exclusions have posed continuing life-threatening menace to persons affected by leprosy and their families during the COVID-19 pandemic.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "The principle of the progressive realization of economic, social and cultural rights means that those rights are often neglected in national budgeting and that universality is rarely guaranteed, leaving those who already experience structural discrimination, such as persons affected by leprosy and their families, furthest behind and largely unprotected. Poverty, together with structural and systemic discrimination, contributes to the dehumanization of persons affected by leprosy and their family members. The Special Rapporteur strongly recommends that the principle of progressivity should be applied in a reasonable manner that firmly recognizes poverty as a human rights violation and that guarantees minimum core obligations in a way that is proportional to the needs of vulnerable groups and groups that have been discriminated against.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "One related issue of great concern is the clear set back on the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, as witnessed by the Special Rapporteur during her country visits and reported to her by organizations of persons affected by leprosy from a great number of countries. In addition to factors explaining the limited enjoyment by persons affected by leprosy to same rights as others, as detailed in a previous report of the Special Rapporteur,[[fn:13]] she realized, especially during country visits, that the global elimination of leprosy as public health problem in 2000 has contributed greatly to the deterioration of services, as well as to a decrease in both financial and human resources guaranteeing the right of persons affected by leprosy and their families to health.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "A/HRC/50/35."}], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "Over the years, it has become increasingly evident to the Special Rapporteur that the limited enjoyment of persons affected by leprosy and their family members of social, economic and cultural rights, mainly due to systemic discrimination, are intertwined with the multiple barriers to their participation in public affairs and in making decisions that affect their lives, which limits their capacity to defend their interests. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur has realized how the dramatic decrease of international funds for fighting leprosy and its consequences has contributed to a worrying exclusion of leprosy from the global health agenda and from national budgeting. The few efforts that remain in place to fight leprosy and its consequences are undertaken by international NGOs under a development framework. The above developments call for a clarification of the basic principles for action under a rights-based approach to development in order to build a sustainable approach to leprosy as well as to other neglected tropical diseases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "The Declaration on the Right to Development affirms that development is a comprehensive economic, social, cultural, and political process, which aims at the constant improvement of the well-being of the entire population and of all individuals on the basis of their active, free and meaningful participation in development and in the fair distribution of benefits resulting therefrom. In preparing the present report, the Special Rapporteur sent a questionnaire to States and civil society organizations on the situation of the right to development for persons affected by leprosy, in particular concerning article 3 of the Declaration, and inquired about measures taken to ensure that persons affected by leprosy can participate in, contribute to and enjoy economic, social, cultural and political development. Only four States, together with 17 civil society organizations, responded to the invitation of the Special Rapporteur for submissions to the present report. Responses were received from Brazil, Cambodia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mauritius, Mozambique, Nepal, Togo, Uganda, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United Republic of Tanzania.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "Overall, there were just a few submissions that described any kind of development policies or strategies implemented by States. The submissions received describe more social-protection type measures rather than rights-based approaches to development that guarantee the enjoyment by persons affected by leprosy an adequate standard of living as well as their empowerment as participants in development. Further, development strategies are being mainly implemented by civil society organizations for persons affected by leprosy, which have also been increasingly adopting a participatory dimension to traditional income-generation activities and self-care practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "The analysis of the responses received, including the data gathered by the Special Rapporteur over the years, points to a deficit in the development of State policies guaranteeing the right to non-discrimination. In essence, development is still largely approached from an economic growth framework and core principles of a rights-based approach to development are side-lined. Such an approach leads to an inability of both international and national development policies to reach those who have been hardest hit by deeply disabling forces, such as colonialism, capitalism, patriarchy, economic inequalities and, more recently, climate change. Climate change is already impacting persons affected by leprosy and their families, who mainly live in countries in the Global South and who oftentimes rely solely on agriculture for their livelihoods.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "The particular situation of persons affected by leprosy and their family members indicates that the principles of the right to development, such as equity in the enjoyment of the benefits of economic growth, self-determination, participation and justice, are still not being met. Their situation also shows the importance of integrating a non-discriminatory dimension to international and national development policies, together with the right to participation, both as a means and a goal of development. Development strategies should empower those who have faced systemic discrimination and both the outcomes and processes of all development policies should always be monitored in a transparent manner in order to ensure that this is the case.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "Both leprosy-endemic and non-leprosy-endemic States should commit themselves to ending formal, substantive, interpersonal, direct, indirect, systemic and intersectional discrimination, as well as violence against and the dehumanization of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, which persist today.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "As affirmed in general comment No. 20 (2009) of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, States parties should ensure that a person’s actual or perceived health status does not constitute an obstacle to the realization of his/her rights and should also adopt the necessary measures to address widespread stigmatization of persons on the basis of that his/her health status, including diseases such as leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "Furthermore, as clarified by general comment No. 6 (2018) of the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, the mere recognition of formal equality is not sufficient to combat deep-rooted attitudinal barriers, including those related to leprosy. As also detailed in general comment No. 6, States parties are not only obliged to modify or abolish existing discriminatory laws, regulations, customs and practices, but must also take positive measures, on the one hand, to prevent discrimination, and on the other hand, to tackle it through specific measures aimed at accelerating or achieving de facto equality, non-discrimination, dignity and integrity for groups of people who experience structural disadvantage based on their actual or perceived differences.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "In order to eliminate all forms of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, the Special Rapporteur recommends that leprosy endemic States:\n(a) Review, amend, repeal or abolish all laws, regulations, ordinances, resolutions and policies that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy at both the national and subnational levels of government;\n(b) Prohibit discrimination on the grounds of leprosy and extend such prohibition to the private and public spheres;\n(c) Develop and enact comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and/or statutes, in close consultation with organizations of persons affected by leprosy, to criminalize and punish by effective, proportionate and dissuasive criminal penalties violence and discrimination on the grounds of leprosy;\n(d) Include leprosy as prohibited grounds for discrimination in existing monitoring mechanisms and oversight institutions and systematically collect data disaggregated by demographic, environmental, socioeconomic and cultural variables, with full respect for the principles of participation and privacy;\n(e) Provide accessible mechanisms for filing complaints about the violation of rights on the grounds of leprosy, as well as accessible and effective redress mechanisms and free legal aid, and ensure access to justice, on an equal basis with others, for persons affected by leprosy and their family members;\n(f) Reformulate policies and bodies for the protection of vulnerable groups, in a manner that recognizes and addresses the specific realities and needs of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, with a proper budget allocation at the national and subnational levels, with targets, indicators and benchmarks;\n(g) Increase knowledge in all parts of society, including among State officials and public servants working in different areas of the State administration, particularly in health care, education, work and justice, as well as in the private sector, about updated scientific evidence on leprosy, as well as on the rights to non-discrimination and equality of persons affected by leprosy;\n(h) Develop and enact comprehensive affirmative measures as a means of correcting historical and structural disadvantage, in line with general recommendation No. 25 (2004) of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, in which the Committee affirms that the duration of a temporary special measure should be determined by its functional result in response to a concrete problem and not by a predetermined passage of time; ensure that affirmative measures are defined in consultation with persons affected by leprosy, their family members and representative organizations; and ensure that affirmative measures come with targets and key performance indicators, as well as effective enforcement mechanisms and remedies; affirmative measures should recognize the intersectional discrimination against women and children affected by leprosy;\n(i) Guarantee the right to education for children and teenagers affected by leprosy through the creation of an inclusive and enabling education system that is non-discriminatory and that ensures the availability of education services, accessibility at all levels of education and the promotion of life-long training and skills development opportunities; education services should ensure both accessibility and reasonable accommodation;\n(j) Prohibit and punish domestic violence against women affected by leprosy, as well as all kinds of violence against them, including institutionalized violence in relation to State services, such as health care, education, social protection and employment, as well as all forms of interpersonal violence;\n(k) Ensure that the State’s formal legal system is accessible to women affected by leprosy and ensure gender awareness training for government officials who are responsible for enforcing laws that may be harmfully applied against women affected by leprosy;\n(l) Establish minimum core obligations for guaranteeing fundamental access to economic and social rights for vulnerable groups and groups that have been discriminated against, including persons affected by leprosy and their family members, as part of national development plans;\n(m) Guarantee access to health-care services at all levels of the health system by persons affected by leprosy on a non-discriminatory basis; and ensure their right to a continuum of medical and psychosocial care that encompasses the full spectrum of prevention, timely access to multidrug therapy, the proper management of leprosy reactions and complementary care, including wound care, physiotherapy, rehabilitation and reconstructive surgery in the public health system;\n(n) Invest in mitigating suffering caused by neuropathic pain and stigmatization through high quality pain management and effective referral within national health-care systems for mental health care, under a recovery-based paradigm and through services that are ethical, respectful, culturally appropriate, gender-sensitive and empowering to individuals; and ensure access by family members of persons affected by leprosy to mental health care;\n(o) Provide, free of charge, assistive devices for protection and assistive devices for the facilitation of activities of daily life for persons with leprosy-related impairments and disabilities;\n(p) Partner with organizations of persons affected by leprosy to strengthen peer-to-peer counselling, as well as family-based counselling, and extend counselling to family members of persons affected by leprosy;\n(q) Recognize persons affected by leprosy as active economic agents, respecting their legal capacity and realizing their rights to equal work opportunities in the open labour market and to equal remuneration, and include persons affected by leprosy in public employment programmes;\n(r) Open social dialogue to organized groups of persons affected by leprosy working in the informal economy and enable their right to collective bargaining, including by making available a defined interface with the institutions and government bodies with which the organizations must hold dialogues;\n(s) Fulfil accessibility and reasonable accommodation rights in all productive sectors and work arrangements, including agriculture, husbandry and fishing, and recognize visible physical impairments related to leprosy as well as invisible ones, such as pain or loss of sensation, and psychosocial disabilities related to stigmatization, in the provision of reasonable accommodation;\n(t) Ensure both work and education opportunities for persons affected by leprosy, which should come with targets and key performance indicators, as well as with effective enforcement mechanisms and remedies, while also following paragraph 11 (i) of recommendation No. 168 of the International Labour Organization (ILO) concerning vocational rehabilitation and employment;\n(u) Ensure that social protection measures and social benefits are implemented through administrative services and bureaucratic procedures that guarantee full accessibility to illiterate or poorly educated populations, as well as to populations living in remote areas; such comprehensive social protection policies should also target active citizenship by promoting training opportunities and formal employment, while guaranteeing support, as needed;\n(v) Recognize, in the design of social benefits, such as unconditional cash transfers, the real needs of the target population, including the additional costs of disability, as well as the specific challenges faced by women, children, teenagers and older persons affected by leprosy, and ensure a universal basic income for persons affected by leprosy in order to guarantee them a minimum standard of living and to break the cycle of poverty, disease, disability and discrimination;\n(w) Establish a framework to promote and monitor the implementation of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities that recognizes persons affected by leprosy and their family members as persons with multiple disabilities;\n(x) Implement awareness-raising programmes that are sensitive to culture, language, gender, age and disability and that are developed in close collaboration with organizations of persons affected by leprosy in order to ensure both accessibility and efficacy, address barriers created by the digital divide and invest in community media in order to reach as many people as possible, raise awareness among community leaders, traditional leaders and healers, religious leaders, local pharmacists and schoolteachers with regard to leprosy and engage them in further awareness-raising, and reinforce the positive image of persons affected by leprosy and their family members as rights holders;\n(y) Duly recognize the damage perpetrated by both official and non-official historical segregation through the enactment of reparation measures that can simultaneously redress harm at the individual level and eliminate leprosy-related segregation and violations;\n(z) Recognize and enforce housing and property rights for persons affected by leprosy who were forcibly segregated into leprosy colonies and ensure the same rights to second- and third-generation family members;\n(aa) Implement participatory planning and management of former leprosy colonies and ensure that health care and rehabilitation, including psychosocial support, are available to current residents;\n(bb) Provide urgent symbolic and material reparation, as well as rehabilitation, at the national level to individuals who as children were separated from their parents affected by leprosy and segregated from society.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that intergovernmental agencies:\n(a) Use leprosy as a case study to fill evidence gaps on the relationship between disease, disability, poverty and discrimination;\n(b) Ensure leprosy inclusiveness in addressing discrimination, as well as issues concerning women, children, older people, disability, minorities and development;\n(c) Make sure to consult with organizations of persons affected by leprosy when working in leprosy endemic countries on cooperation plans and programmes;\n(d) Discuss with WHO and consult with organizations of persons affected by leprosy the possibility of changing the name of leprosy to a more neutral one, such as Hansen’s disease, in order to address harmful stereotypes attached to the term leprosy.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that international civil society organizations for persons affected by leprosy:\n(a) Establish measures to ensure that persons affected by leprosy are included in decision-making on all relevant programmes and action plans;\n(b) Establish measures ensuring equality of participation of women affected by leprosy in decision-making with regard to all relevant programmes and action plans;\n(c) Develop measures for proper consultation with children and teenagers affected by leprosy, assess their real needs and ensure they are included in decision-making with regard to all relevant programmes and action plans;\n(d) Establish quotas for the employment of persons affected by leprosy in order to ensure their representation at the organizational level;\n(e) Provide training to members of national and local organizations of persons affected by leprosy about their rights and how to claim them, as well as on basic organizational issues, in order to promote the development of such organizations;\n(f) Establish, with sufficient material and technical resources, an international platform for monitoring the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, find prompt solutions to urgent needs and provide the human rights system regularly with information about discrimination on the grounds of leprosy.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "While sensitive to the epidemiological heterogeneity of leprosy worldwide, the Special Rapporteur reminds all States of their commitments under the Declaration on the Right to Development and the Sustainable Development Goals, in accordance with which both leprosy endemic and non-endemic States should:\n(a) Allocate sufficient resources to removing any barriers to the participation of marginalized and vulnerable populations in the human rights system and ensure accessibility of procedures for the submission of information to the human rights mechanisms;\n(b) Use a more neutral term than leprosy, such as Hansen’s disease, in future resolutions;\n(c) Remove any obstacles to development, recognizing human beings as the central subject of development and ensure that individuals actively participate in and enjoy the benefits of development and formulate international development policies that complement the efforts of developing countries in the search for solutions that are equitable, inclusive and sustainable; development policies, both national and international, should include non-discrimination as the guiding principle of both processes and outcomes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present thematic report of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members is the first of the current mandate holder, Beatriz Miranda-Galarza, since she took up her functions on 1 November 2023. The report is submitted pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 53/8, in which the Council renewed the mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "Recognizing the need to respond to the demands that have been made regarding violations of the fundamental rights of persons affected by leprosy and their families, the Human Rights Council, in its resolution 35/9, established the mandate of Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members. This pivotal decision underscores the Council’s acknowledgement of the long-standing exclusion and discrimination experienced by those affected by leprosy and their families on a global scale, and emphasizes the urgent need to affirm their status as human rights holders and to undertake prompt and decisive measures accordingly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "In the present report, the Special Rapporteur provides an overview of the impact of the work of the previous mandate holder and describes her vision for the mandate, her working methods and the strategic themes to be addressed during her mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "The Special Rapporteur extends her sincere appreciation and gratitude to her predecessor for her pioneering work, as documented in her last report to the Human Rights Council,[[fn:1]] and to the team working with the mandate in the Special Procedures Branch of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). She also acknowledges the work of United Nations agencies and Member States that have supported the mandate and, most importantly, organizations of and for persons affected by leprosy, their families and their allies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A/HRC/53/30."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Leprosy, also known as Hansen’s disease, is a chronic infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae. It primarily affects the skin, peripheral nerves, mucosa of the upper respiratory tract and eyes. It is known for causing skin lesions, nerve damage and deformities, which lead to impairments, especially in untreated cases. It is not highly contagious but can be spread through respiratory droplets from an infected person, although prolonged close contact is usually required for transmission. Nevertheless, there is still social stigma attached to the disease, leading to discrimination against and the isolation of affected persons and their families. With appropriate diagnosis and treatment using multidrug therapy, it is curable. Such diagnosis and treatment are also crucial in preventing long-term complications and reducing transmission of the disease.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "In 2010, the General Assembly adopted resolution 65/215, in which it took note with appreciation of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. The adoption of this resolution was a milestone in the history of persons affected by leprosy: on the one hand, the General Assembly thereby recognized the need for international instruments to promote the consideration of leprosy as a human rights issue; on the other, it encouraged Member States to give due consideration to the principles and guidelines in the formulation and implementation of their policies and measures concerning persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Behind that achievement lies a long history of isolation and exclusion and a continual struggle by persons affected by leprosy to reclaim their status as human rights holders. That history can be understood in a deeper way if seen through the lens of four main approaches: (a) a religious and moral approach; (b) a scientific and administrative approach; (c) a representational and cultural approach; and (d) a human rights-based approach. These diverse approaches have led to varied responses to the disease and, ultimately, to the persons affected by it. Such responses are interconnected and have had an impact on the elaboration and implementation of policies, social programmes and legal frameworks relating to the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their families.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recognizes the semantic and political nuances associated with the terms “leprosy” and “Hansen’s disease”. While some countries and organizations opt to use the latter term in deference to the preferences of members of the social movement of persons affected by leprosy in their localities, the term “leprosy” remains widely recognizable to most organizations and affected persons. Consequently, she will use both terms interchangeably and advocate the use of “Hansen’s disease” wherever it aligns with the decisions made by the leprosy rights movement.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "An understanding and thorough examination of the approaches mentioned above could shed light on the existence of derogatory laws and discriminatory practices that are still present, especially in countries in which leprosy is endemic. In this regard, it is important to recognize the invaluable contribution of the disability rights movement, which has provided the theoretical and conceptual frameworks essential for understanding the complexities surrounding the history of leprosy.[[fn:2]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See Patrick J. Devlieger, “Generating a cultural model of disability”, paper presented at the nineteenth Congress of the European Federation of Associations of Teachers of the Deaf, 14–16 October 2005."}], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "From a religious and moral approach, the source of leprosy is a divine figure commonly called God. Across various cultures, and influenced by religious interpretations and, at times, misinterpretations, leprosy has often been associated with divine punishment for immoral behaviour. The link between leprosy and sin and impurity has been prevalent in major world religions,[[fn:3]] such as Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism,[[fn:4]] Buddhism and Islam. However, while some religious texts contain references to leprosy and recommendations for social treatment, others, such as the Qur’an, refer to the disease in an ambiguous way.[[fn:5]] It is crucial to acknowledge and understand the ways in which societies have responded to leprosy on the basis of the transmission and interpretation of religious texts. This view of leprosy-related moral wrongdoing has resulted in paternalistic and charity-oriented responses, neglecting the rights of the persons affected and their families.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See Zachary Gussow and George S. Tracy, “Stigma and the leprosy phenomenon: the social history of a disease in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries”, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 44, No. 5 (1970)."}, {"n": 4, "text": "See A.K. Sinha, B.G. Banerjee and S. Singh, “Leprosy and its socio-cultural perception in Indian religions and ancient texts”, Indian Journal of Leprosy, vol. 82, No. 1 (2010)."}, {"n": 5, "text": "See Rooshey Hasnain and others, “Islam, leprosy, and disability: how religion, history, art, and storytelling can yield new insights and acceptance”, Societies, vol. 10, No. 1 (2020)."}], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights", "A. Religious and moral approach"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "From a scientific and administrative standpoint, leprosy has been approached as a disease necessitating scientific research and the isolation of affected individuals, often through the implementation of laws and norms. The medical understanding of leprosy began to take shape in the 1840s, with the work of Daniel Cornelius Danielssen and Carl Wilhelm Boeck, and was further advanced in 1873 when Gerhard Armauer Hansen discovered Mycobacterium leprae, a significant milestone in understanding its aetiology. Despite scientific scepticism regarding the high risk of contagion and the hereditary theory of transmission, Governments, in collaboration with the global scientific community, enforced compulsory segregation, leading to the establishment of numerous leprosaria worldwide. In tandem with segregation, laws were enacted to strip individuals affected by leprosy of their citizenship. The introduction of sulfone drugs, particularly dapsone, in 1940 revolutionized leprosy treatment, and multidrug therapy later became the standard treatment, significantly reducing leprosy prevalence globally. The World Health Organization (WHO) launched global leprosy control programmes in the mid-twentieth century, focusing on early detection, prompt treatment with multidrug therapy and public health interventions. Despite expectations that leprosaria would close with the introduction of effective treatment, the process of inclusion of individuals affected by leprosy into their communities has been complex and challenging, with a significant impact on their lives and families. In 2001, WHO announced the global elimination of leprosy as a public health problem, but challenges remain, with rates of transmission and the detection of new cases not meeting expectations. This biomedical and administrative approach to leprosy has led some Governments to treat persons affected by leprosy primarily as persons with a disease rather than as persons with rights.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights", "B. Scientific and administrative approach"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "A medical and administrative approach to leprosy has proved insufficient in eliminating it. Stigmatization and discrimination have hindered diagnosis, treatment and the fulfilment of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, particularly in countries in which it is endemic. Efforts to raise awareness about leprosy have often inadvertently reinforced negative stereotypes, portraying affected individuals as dangerous and perpetuating the myth of leprosy as highly contagious. Cultural and contextual interpretations of religious, legal and medical accounts have influenced representations of leprosy and affected individuals. For example, while the term “leprosy” is widely used, especially in Western cultures, its etymology is complex, with theologians and researchers uncovering potential mistranslations and misinterpretations in sacred texts, such as the Old Testament and the Qur’an.[[fn:6]] A similar situation can be observed regarding segregation and the violation of citizens’ rights, stemming from the disregarding of reports and evidence indicating that leprosy is not as dangerous or contagious as fear and power have led people to believe.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See Gilbert Lewis, “A lesson from Leviticus: leprosy”, Man, vol. 22, No. 4 (1987)."}], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights", "C. Representational and cultural approach"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "In the latter half of the twentieth century, leprosy gained recognition as a human rights issue amid the global human rights movement. Advocates highlighted systematic violations of the rights of affected individuals, leading to increased attention to their plight. In 2010, the General Assembly adopted resolution 65/215, on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, marking a significant step. The rights of those affected by leprosy have since been integrated into the protective frameworks of international human rights instruments, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Legal challenges and advocacy efforts, led by organizations such as the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations and the Sasakawa Health Foundation, have been instrumental in advancing the rights of affected individuals. With this approach, emphasis is given to empowering grass-roots organizations and inclusive community programmes.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights", "D. Human rights-based approach"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that the emergence of each approach does not indicate the overcoming of the previous one; rather, they coexist, with one or two sometimes prevailing in certain contexts or cultures. For example, even if persons affected by leprosy are undergoing treatment, their religious beliefs may still lead them to perceive leprosy to be a result of misbehaviour.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights", "E. Observations regarding the four approaches"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "In addition, it is important to recognize that each approach has made positive contributions, including medical advancements in treatment and the transformation of the approach of various religious organizations from one that is charity-focused to one that is based on human rights approach. The significance of these approaches lies in their utility for analysing how legal, social and political frameworks are developed to address the challenges faced by individuals affected by leprosy in their daily lives. By understanding the complexities of medical, cultural, human rights and other approaches, policymakers, lawmakers and advocates can craft more comprehensive and effective strategies to tackle the stigma, discrimination and barriers to health-care access experienced by those affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights", "E. Observations regarding the four approaches"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "The first Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members held the mandate from 2017 to 2023. During that period, she addressed several pertinent issues, as highlighted in the reports that she submitted to the Human Rights Council[[fn:7]] and the General Assembly.[[fn:8]] They included: (a) stigmatization and discrimination based on leprosy; (b) the social determinants of leprosy; (c) women and children affected by leprosy; (d) the right to health and the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) emergency; (e) discriminatory law and policy; (f) disability rights; and (g) the participation and empowerment of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "A/HRC/38/42, A/HRC/41/47, A/HRC/44/46, A/HRC/47/29, A/HRC/50/35 and A/HRC/53/30."}, {"n": 8, "text": "A/76/148, A/77/139 and A/78/173."}], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "A. Overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "In her last report, the previous Special Rapporteur underlined that she had dedicated considerable efforts to making persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations aware of human rights standards.[[fn:9]] Awareness-raising, technical input and collaboration with political and religious leaders from around the world, and especially with grass-roots organizations of persons affected by leprosy, have contributed to changing policies, practices, norms and power relations and have brought about an understanding of persons affected by leprosy as rights holders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "A/HRC/53/30, para. 27."}], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "A. Overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "An exemplary transformation was achieved by the social movement of persons affected by leprosy and their allies in Brazil. On 24 November 2023, the President of Brazil, in line with the recommendations of the Special Rapporteur,[[fn:10]] signed a law amending legislation adopted in 2007. The new law provides for a monthly stipend for persons with Hansen’s disease of not less than the minimum wage. Children separated from parents affected by the disease may receive the stipend as a form of reparation.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "A/HRC/44/46/Add.2, para. 80. See also communication BRA 15/2019, available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=24952; and https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2020/10/leprosy-brazil-children-sent-preventoriums-long-overdue-justice-says-un."}], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "A. Overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "The previous Special Rapporteur identified several significant barriers to accomplishing the objectives of the mandate. They included the limited resources at her disposal, which affected the implementation of key activities, such as expert or regional consultations and the examination of additional, intersectional leprosy-related issues, such as race.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "A. Overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "The previous Special Rapporteur acknowledged factors hindering persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations from making use of the human rights system. Such factors include language barriers, as the majority of persons affected do not speak any of the six official languages of the United Nations; the digital divide; complex procedures that require a level of literacy and expertise that marginalized groups often do not possess; and the fact that international and civil society organizations with experience and expertise in the system do not have issues faced by persons affected by leprosy, such as access to health care, on their agendas.[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "A/HRC/53/30, para. 25."}], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "A. Overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "While adopting a cooperative approach with Governments, the previous Special Rapporteur expressed regret over their limited engagement. The former Special Rapporteur 7 A/HRC/38/42, A/HRC/41/47, A/HRC/44/46, A/HRC/47/29, A/HRC/50/35 and A/HRC/53/30. 8 A/76/148, A/77/139 and A/78/173. 9 A/HRC/53/30, para. 27. 10 A/HRC/44/46/Add.2, para. 80. See also communication BRA 15/2019, available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=24952; and https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2020/10/leprosy-brazil-children-sent-preventoriumslong-overdue-justice-says-un. 11 A/HRC/53/30, para. 25. GE.24-05912 visited four countries, namely, Angola, Bangladesh, Brazil and Japan,[[fn:12]] but 16 countries13 to which she sent a request for a visit, most of which were countries in which leprosy is highly endemic, failed to accept her request. She stressed that greater cooperation from relevant States would be essential to the success of the mandate.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "The country visit reports may be accessed at https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents-listing?field_content_category_target_id%5B182%5D=182&field_entity_target_id%5B1275%5D=1275."}], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "A. Overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "The previous Special Rapporteur issued crucial recommendations relating to: (a) discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy at all levels of government; (b) increasing knowledge about leprosy and the right to non-discrimination among State officials and public servants; (c) ensuring the accessibility of legal systems to women affected by leprosy and providing gender awareness training for officials; (d) guaranteeing non-discriminatory access to health-care services; and (e) ensuring comprehensive medical and psychosocial care within the public health system.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See A/HRC/53/30."}], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "A. Overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The current Special Rapporteur is committed to continuing the work started by her predecessor and to making the mandate a people-centred one.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "A. Overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "In accordance with the underlying philosophy of the mandate, which is that the voice, knowledge and life experience of persons affected by leprosy must guide the work of the mandate holder, the current Special Rapporteur conducted interviews with representatives of organizations of persons affected by leprosy and their allies in Bangladesh, Colombia, Ethiopia, Kenya, India, Indonesia, Japan, New Zealand and Paraguay. The interviews addressed two specific topics: the impact of the implementation of the mandate at the local and international levels; and relevant issues that should be addressed in the coming years.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that, due to the short time between her appointment and the submission of the present report, which she primarily spent familiarizing herself with the responsibilities of the mandate, there was insufficient time in which to interview representatives of other organizations, including organizations in other countries. However, she is committed to continuing to elicit suggestions for her work, which will be shared in her next report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "International organizations report that, since the establishment of the mandate, there has been increased awareness regarding leprosy as a human rights issue, enabling discussions about the topic to extend beyond the medical domain. In addition, the previous mandate holder provided valuable recommendations to United Nations bodies and Member States to assist them in introducing appropriate legislative, administrative and other measures to implement anti-discriminatory laws, programmes and procedures. That included modifying, repealing or abolishing laws, regulations, policies, customs and practices that promoted discrimination. Those efforts were aimed at ensuring equitable conditions of life for persons affected by leprosy and their families.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "In the United Nations system and internationally, leprosy has gained more recognition, and awareness has been raised about the concerns of persons affected by leprosy and their allies globally. The mandate has been successful, accompanied by the ongoing efforts of various international organizations to influence some of the United Nations bodies that are directly or indirectly concerned with leprosy. According to the interviewees, the creation of the mandate has reinforced the visibility of leprosy within the United Nations and the involvement of international leprosy donors in activities and dialogues with different United Nations bodies, including OHCHR.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The Special Rapporteur was informed that another impact of the mandate was an increased interest within major leprosy donor organizations in amplifying knowledge about the human rights approach among organizations of persons affected by leprosy and beyond. Representatives of international and local organizations believe that the shift towards recognizing leprosy as a human rights issue at the United Nations was evidenced by the extension of the mandate for three more years. This development instils confidence that the voices of persons affected by leprosy are being heard and are gradually reaching important decision makers, both internationally and locally. According to one of the persons affected by leprosy who was interviewed, “if a person affected by leprosy is heard and seen by somebody coming from an organization such as the United Nations, she feels important and thinks that her problems are important too. That makes a difference in her life.” Nevertheless, the view was expressed that there was still a long way to go to eliminate discriminatory practices and laws, especially in some of the countries in which leprosy is endemic.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "While some changes at the international level have been noted, the impact of the mandate is not yet as visible at the local level as persons affected by leprosy and their allies would desire. Nevertheless, the Special Rapporteur’s request for information about the situation of persons affected by leprosy in each country has motivated grass-roots organizations to stay informed about the various violations of the rights of persons affected by leprosy in their own communities. They have noted the scarcity of information available regarding the challenges faced by persons affected by leprosy and their families, with existing data often being outdated and unreliable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "Moreover, it seems that, at the country level, major organizations of persons affected by leprosy in urban areas have received information regarding the work implemented under the mandate, but a notable number of smaller organizations in rural and marginal areas have not received such information. This difference could be attributed to challenges in disseminating centralized information to peripheral areas, as well as language barriers, given that English is the language predominantly used and spoken within international leprosy organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Organizations of persons affected by leprosy have gained increased recognition at the local and international levels, partly through their participation in human rights events related to leprosy and their engagement with the United Nations. They have become more aware of the importance of their involvement in decision-making processes at the local level, with the mandate playing an encouraging role in this regard. This impact became evident following the country visits undertaken by the Special Rapporteur, which gave persons affected by leprosy a sense of being heard and increased awareness of their rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The transition to online meetings during the COVID-19 pandemic enabled the Special Rapporteur to have more frequent contact with representatives of grass-roots organizations. As a result of those meetings, information has circulated more widely, leading some organizations to rethink the methods that they use to inform communities about leprosy. In addition, they have shown improvements, potentially influenced by the mandate, in managing funds and conducting democratic elections for leaders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "Due to the formal nature of communication procedures within the special procedures system, some grass-roots organizations of persons affected by leprosy have learned to implement more formal systems of work within their organizational structures. This includes the collection of data and the registration of cases to be used as evidence when demanding action from local and international institutions regarding violations of human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The work carried out under the mandate has provided hope to persons affected by leprosy, their families and grass-roots organizations, although the impact is not easily measurable. This effect is essential to highlight because, as persons affected by leprosy have historically been discriminated against and excluded, the acknowledgement by their communities and by local authorities of the significant role that they could play in processes of social change has a parallel effect on their personal and family lives. In one of the interviews conducted by the Special Rapporteur, it was mentioned that, “when persons affected by leprosy realize they have rights, like any other person, their self-confidence changes, and also there is confidence in what their organizations can achieve”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "It is important to stress the importance of acknowledging that the impact of the mandate on the lives of people and organizations is intertwined with various factors, such as the widespread adoption of new digital strategies for outreach and communication, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic; the groundwork laid by international leprosy donors; collaboration with the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities; and the partnerships formed between organizations of persons affected by leprosy and disability rights organizations. The changes that have occurred in the past six years have been the result of collaboration between the Special Rapporteur, international leprosy organizations, the Governments that have supported the mandate and persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "However, there is still a need for clarification of the Special Rapporteur’s role at the local level, as expectations on the ground may exceed the capacity of the mandate. Many grass-roots organizations might assume that the Special Rapporteur can take more direct action at the local level, without realizing that her role is primarily informational and advisory as opposed to action-oriented.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "International leprosy organizations believe that, although international attention has increased, it is not yet sufficient. There is a greater need for the implementation of policies and guidelines on the ground, which is primarily the responsibility of Member States. Governmental institutions could rely more on the advice and support of organizations of persons affected by leprosy and the Special Rapporteur to take leading actions to guarantee the protection of the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their families.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "Civil society organizations and affected persons welcomed the decision of the Human Rights Council to extend the mandate. The existence of the mandate signifies – for persons affected, their families, their communities and their allies – that leprosy is in the spotlight of the international community. This marks a significant step in the long history of violations of the rights of persons affected by leprosy. For this reason, one of the Special Rapporteur’s requests is that Member States and the members of the Council continue to support the existence of the mandate and its work.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "Such support would include facilitating the production of accessible human rights information materials, fostering collaboration with mandates that are directly or indirectly related to leprosy (such as those in the areas of health and disability) and allowing the dissemination of information about leprosy-related human rights issues within the United Nations system and among Member States.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "Furthermore, the interviewees called for active collaboration on the part of Member States to accept and implement the recommendations made by the Special Rapporteur, ensuring that the measures adopted benefit not only persons affected by leprosy but also their families, communities and countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "The second topic raised by the Special Rapporteur during her discussions with various representatives of international leprosy organizations and grass-roots organizations concerned the pertinent issues that, in their view, she should address in the coming years. Their responses aided the Special Rapporteur in identifying the priorities among the numerous unresolved issues concerning the elimination of discriminatory practices against and violations of the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their families. Many of the issues presented to the Special Rapporteur had already been discussed with representatives of the organizations concerned in initial meetings held as part of the process of introducing the new mandate holder. Similarly, they were noted by her predecessor in her reports. Regrettably, this underscores the fact that there remains a long journey ahead to guarantee and protect the rights of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "Taking into account these key priorities, the Special Rapporteur will ensure that her various thematic reports are designed to inform and give rise to regional or domestic debates about practical steps that can be taken to bring about a cultural shift towards respect for the values and rights enshrined in the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, to advance law and policy reform and to ensure that systems change in order to enable the enjoyment of human rights by persons affected by leprosy and their families. Each thematic report will be informed by a gender perspective, will cover the accumulated disadvantages faced by children, youth and older persons and will illustrate the different circumstances that persons affected by leprosy face in different localities and contexts.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that one of the key objectives of her mandate is to propel the understanding of leprosy as a human rights issue into the twenty-first century. This involves emphasizing that the issue is inherently societal rather than individual, meaning that it implicates States, Governments, institutions and organizations and not only persons affected by leprosy and their families. As both a human rights and a social problem, it evolves alongside global developments; consequently, the primary challenges confronting humanity are echoed in the experiences of persons affected by leprosy, often with a magnified impact.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has categorized the issues presented to her into five clusters: fundamental rights and support and care systems; crucial intersectional issues and marginalized groups; social, political and cultural considerations; legal and economic dimensions related to leprosy; and conflict-related and environmental considerations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "According to WHO,[[fn:15]] in 2019, 161 countries submitted information regarding leprosy. A total of 202,256 new cases were detected in 118 countries. Of those cases, 96 per cent were reported by the 23 global priority countries, and 79 per cent by Brazil, India and Indonesia. Sixty-six countries reported fewer than 100 cases. It is important to mention that the true number of cases could be higher due to underreporting.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "WHO, “Towards zero leprosy: global leprosy (Hansen’s disease) strategy 2021–2030”, 2021."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Considering that statistics regarding leprosy cases should be multiplied by four, as leprosy has an impact not only on the affected individuals but also on their family members, it becomes evident that the discussion surrounding support and care for leprosy within the familial and communal context is crucial. This recognizes the substantial burden borne by families and communities, which is often worsened by the limited support offered by Governments in many countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "Historically, care has been perceived through a paternalistic lens, leading to the relegation of the rights of the individuals affected. Slogans such as “taking care of” or “being cared for” have typically characterized settlements, leprosaria and hospitals, reflecting paternalistic and segregationist paradigms. This approach has tended to medicalize care and relegate persons affected by leprosy to the status of dependent subjects as opposed to active rights holders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "The social movement of persons affected by leprosy challenges the medicalized approach to care, pushing for a transition towards a human rights framework in which support, care and assistance are positioned as inherent rights rather than as patronizing gestures. Aligned with this framework, and supported by the principles and guidelines on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, Human Rights Council resolution 54/6, on the centrality of care and support from a human rights perspective, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the WHO 2011 guidelines for strengthening participation of persons affected by leprosy in leprosy services, the community of persons affected by leprosy and their families demand an appropriate support system that guarantees their full participation at all levels and the fulfilment of their daily life activities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "Support and care for persons affected by leprosy encompass a wide range of formal and informal interventions, including live assistance and intermediaries, as well as personal assistance; living arrangements services for securing housing and household help; treatment, medical assistance and follow-up; and community services. Persons with leprosy-related disabilities may need support in accessing and using general services, such as health, education and justice support; support in decision-making; mobility and support aids, such as assistive technology and devices; and communicational assistance.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "The complexity of adopting a human rights-based approach to leprosy support, care and assistance stems from the recognition that, while leprosy is a curable disease, the journey does not end with the elimination of the bacteria. Post-treatment health complications and reactions may persist, necessitating ongoing support that extends beyond the treatment period and often lasts for the remainder of the individual’s life.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "The implementation of a human rights-based system of support and care must be guided by reliable and relevant data regarding the mental, social and economic impact of leprosy on affected persons and their families. There are limited data on the economic burden borne by the families of persons affected by leprosy.[[fn:16]] A study undertaken in rural India demonstrated that the impact on households of Erythema nodosum leprosum, a common immune-mediated complication of lepromatous and borderline lepromatous leprosy, was predominantly through indirect costs, which accounted for 65 per cent of total household costs. By comparison, indirect costs accounted for only 21 per cent of total household costs for those in the control group. Indirect costs, in the study, referred to the reduction in household productivity resulting from the interruption of the normal or preferred activities of household members.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See Syahroni Bahtiar, Tantut Susanto and Dewi Rokhmah, “People affected by leprosy needs during rehabilitation in community: study of health care provider perceptions”, NurseLine Journal, vol. 5, No. 2 (2020)."}, {"n": 17, "text": "David J. Chandler and others, “Household costs of leprosy reactions (ENL) in rural India”, PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, vol. 9, No. 1 (2015)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "A similar study carried out among migrant and resident patient populations in Guangdong Province, China, concluded that the median yearly total expense after diagnosis amounted to 15 per cent of migrant and 38 per cent of resident patients’ annual income. Among migrant patients, the median cost before diagnosis was $131.6, the median yearly cost of leprosy treatment after diagnosis was $300.6 and the median yearly cost of leprosy complications was $69.5. By comparison, among residents, the median yearly costs were $152.4 pre-diagnosis, $309.7 after diagnosis and $91.9 for leprosy complications.[[fn:18]]", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Mingzhou Xiong and others, “Evaluation of the economic burden of leprosy among migrant and resident patients in Guangdong Province, China”, BMC Infectious Diseases, vol. 17, No. 1 (2017)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Equally important is to assess existing support and care policies in each country in order to understand the measures implemented, identify gaps and determine the necessary steps forward. This comprehensive analysis should help to rethink care and support services as human rights-based support services.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "The central obstacle to achieving the goal of leprosy elimination revolves around securing access to quality and compassionate health-care services.[[fn:19]] This entails the operation of services in a way that is interlinked with other essential services. The far-reaching effects of this challenge significantly hinder strategies aimed at prevention, detection, treatment and subsequent follow-up. Crucially, this includes the consequences of delayed detection, inadequate post-treatment monitoring, falling numbers of well-trained health-care personnel and obstacles in accessing essential medicines. Similarly, there is a need to consider in this context the impact of investment in medical and social research, which seems to be falling.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Issues regarding access to health services were raised in a thematic report by the previous Special Rapporteur (A/HRC/50/35)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "In a recent report, entitled “Good practices of support systems enabling community inclusion of persons with disabilities”,[[fn:20]] OHCHR reiterated the importance of adopting a rights-based approach to disability. In the report, OHCHR provided a diverse range of good practices for support and care systems that were enabling persons with disabilities to live independently and ensuring their inclusion in the community. Such examples show how progress can be made in meeting the demand for human rights-based health, care and support systems for persons affected by leprosy and their families to bring about change in their lives.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "A/HRC/55/34."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "Support and mental well-being are undoubtedly connected to what has been mentioned above. The Special Rapporteur acknowledges that the implications of the disease extend beyond the physical and social spheres for those affected and their families. Mental health concerns caused by the disease’s effects on the body, coupled with discrimination and exclusion, have historically been disregarded. The shared and personal histories of individuals affected by leprosy and their families have led to emotional and psychological challenges, which can be recognized as forms of collective and individual trauma. There has been a notable lack of accountability on the part of States and Governments in addressing these critical issues, the burden on persons affected by leprosy and their families and the lack of strong and committed public support and care systems.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "To illuminate this demand for human rights-based support and care systems, including with regard to mental health, the following case of a person affected by leprosy in Indonesia was relayed to the Special Rapporteur:\nHadi, 32 years old, is a construction worker with a wife and two children. He was initially treated for leprosy for 12 months (2021/22). After treatment, he began to suffer from recurrent reactions. He was given prednisone by the health centre, but the reactions recurred whenever he tapered off the prednisone. The health centre staff did not know what else to do, so he was eventually told to take multidrug therapy treatment again for six months. At this point, he was already dependent on prednisone. He is now (February 2024) still on multidrug therapy and still taking prednisone. The recurring reactions led to persistent exhaustion, which left him unable to work. His eyes are affected by prednisone, meaning he can no longer ride a motorcycle from his remote home to the town where he worked. He is at home and has no income. His wife now works in a small kiosk but does not earn enough to cover the small family’s expenses. He is under stress and pressure due to this situation; he feels useless, as he is unable to provide for his family. This is likely what caused his reactions to persist, causing him to continue taking prednisone and his health problems to worsen, leaving him unable to work.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "When left untreated, leprosy can lead to deformity and resultant disabilities. In 2019, 10,816 persons, including 370 children, in 94 countries presented with a grade 2 disability[[fn:21]] at the time of diagnosis, which is an indication of late diagnosis and lack of community awareness. The number of children with grade 2 disabilities is likely to be significantly higher, as some countries did not report data on grade 2 disabilities in children. The overall grade 2 disability rate was 1.4 per million population.[[fn:22]] In the same report, it is estimated that between 3 and 4 million people are living with visible impairments or deformities due to leprosy. Of the new cases, 38.9 per cent were in women and 7.4 per cent in children. Detection of cases in children is considered an indicator of recent community transmission. Globally, the new case detection rate for those aged under 14 years was 7.9 per million children.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "In leprosy, disabilities are categorized into different grades based on their severity. “Grade 2 disability” refers to visible impairment of the hands, feet or eyes due to leprosy. These impairments can include clawed fingers, dropped feet or visual impairments. Grade 2 disability indicates a more advanced stage of disability compared with grade 1 disability, which refers to less visible impairment. It is an important measure used in assessing the severity and progression of leprosy-related disabilities."}, {"n": 22, "text": "WHO, “Towards zero leprosy”."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "B. Crucial intersectional issues and marginalized groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "There is very little information available on the kinds of problems faced by persons with leprosy-related disabilities, the resulting needs that they have for services[[fn:23]] and violations of their rights to access those services. However, they encounter challenges in their daily lives that span a spectrum of material and emotional issues. In addition to these challenges, the need for rehabilitation services and medication must be considered, with many persons requiring lifelong treatment. When discussing disability issues related to leprosy, it is crucial to address leprosy reactions, which are frequently mentioned by individuals who have completed their treatment and have been declared cured.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See Wim H. van Brakel and others, “Disability in people affected by leprosy: the role of impairment, activity, social participation, stigma and discrimination”, Global Health Action, vol. 5 (2012)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "B. Crucial intersectional issues and marginalized groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "While the above-mentioned issues include the circumstances of children, women, young people and older persons – groups whose rights are often the most vulnerable – there remains a demand for a more comprehensive examination of the specific challenges faced by these groups. A study conducted in Indonesia concerning women with leprosy-related disabilities reveals that most of them were unable to contribute to the family income, although they did undertake household duties.[[fn:24]] Overall, women with leprosy-related disabilities often find themselves responsible for their own care, as well as caregiving for other family members, leading to stressful situations that can exacerbate their health conditions.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Ilse Schuller and others, “The way women experience disabilities and especially disabilities related to leprosy in rural areas in South Sulawesi, Indonesia”, Asia Pacific Disability Rehabilitation Journal, vol. 21, No. 1 (2010)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "B. Crucial intersectional issues and marginalized groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "Women affected by leprosy face negligence and discrimination when seeking medical attention.[[fn:25]] The following case of a young woman affected by leprosy in India, which was relayed to the Special Rapporteur by an activist for the rights of persons affected by leprosy, exemplifies their situation:\nDue to the closure of some leprosy hospitals and the integration of specialized medical staff into hospitals located far from villages, reconstructive surgeries for leprosy patients are often conducted in camps. However, after such surgeries, patients require ongoing therapy and rehabilitation, posing challenges for follow-up care. I know of the case of a young pregnant woman who is also a double amputee and a mother of a child. She recently underwent surgery and received care from a skilled doctor at a distant hospital. However, she had to endure a difficult eight-hour journey alone, surrounded by strangers, due to the lack of support from her husband, who may leave her at any time because they are poor people. This case is just one example of the many similar situations faced by women worldwide in similar circumstances.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See A/HRC/41/47."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "B. Crucial intersectional issues and marginalized groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "During the interviews and initial meetings with leprosy donor organizations, the Special Rapporteur received information about issues concerning children affected by leprosy and the medical treatment and attention provided to them. While studies have been conducted regarding the complex situation of children between the ages of 10 and 15,[[fn:26]] there is a recognized need for further research to understand the specific challenges faced by children under the age of 10. These include the effects of the medical treatment provided. Similar demands have been made regarding young people affected by leprosy, who may face consequences after completing treatment. However, there is often a lack of post-treatment follow-up, which, in some cases, has resulted in a recurrence of the disease in affected individuals. According to one study, it is time to consider the mortality rates associated with leprosy in countries in which it is endemic in the twenty-first century and, specifically, to determine whether, even today, those diagnosed with lepromatous leprosy (in particular young people and those with Erythema nodosum leprosum) have a shortened life expectancy compared with the general population.[[fn:27]]", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See Álisson Neves Santos and others, “Epidemiological profile and tendency of leprosy in people younger than 15 years”, Revista da Escola de Enfermagem da USP, vol. 54 (2020)."}, {"n": 27, "text": "C. Ruth Butlin, “Excess of deaths of leprosy-affected people”, Leprosy Review, vol. 91, No. 2 (2020), p. 222."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "B. Crucial intersectional issues and marginalized groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "One of the successful steps taken during the twenty-first century is the strengthening of the social movement of persons affected by leprosy. As previously mentioned, this development marks the initiation of a human rights approach to leprosy. Small, grass-roots organizations have notably expanded their efforts, often forming alliances with disability organizations. Their funding typically stems from the activities that they undertake or from international donors. The various challenges that these organizations encounter in their efforts to sustain themselves hinder their ability to emerge as influential political voices both locally and internationally. Ensuring the political engagement of persons affected by leprosy across various levels within their communities and countries and on the global stage remains an unfinished task.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "C. Social, political and cultural considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "The actions undertaken by activists for the human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their allies to amplify awareness about the situation of persons affected by leprosy have consistently encountered obstacles due to inadequate governmental allocation of resources towards enhancing their political and organizational capabilities. Examining the nature of these organizations and their difficulties and obstacles and assessing the extent of the support that they receive from governmental, national and international bodies will shed light on their essential role in addressing leprosy through a human rights lens.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "C. Social, political and cultural considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "Another important issue raised by persons affected by leprosy concerns the preservation of leprosy history, which has often been viewed solely as a moral obligation. However, it is crucial to recognize that communities and collectives have a right to safeguard their memory, particularly when their history involves rights violations by Governments and societies. Hence, it is imperative to advocate the protection of archives, sites and the oral history and artefacts intrinsic to leprosy history, seeking their active safeguarding by States and Governments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "C. Social, political and cultural considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "Historically, numerous leprosy settlements have been established worldwide, often because of segregation policies. Many of the settlements have undergone transformations over time, with some being converted into integrated communities or repurposed for other uses. While the number of active leprosy colonies has decreased over the years due to advancements in treatment, some continue to exist, particularly in regions where leprosy remains prevalent or where affected persons face challenges in living in mainstream society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "C. Social, political and cultural considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "A study conducted in one of the settlements in Ghana revealed that persons affected by leprosy and their families who continue to reside in the area expressed dissatisfaction with their living conditions, particularly due to their limited and sometimes neglected access to health-care services. Similar complaints have arisen from so-called former colonies, for instance in Brazil,[[fn:28]] Ethiopia,[[fn:29]] India[[fn:30]] and Thailand,[[fn:31]] where insecurity is a prevalent issue. Governments have not granted land ownership rights to these individuals, despite their long-standing residency, leading to concerns about security of tenure. In addition, inadequate access to essential amenities, such as electricity and sanitation, compounds the challenges faced by these communities. It is worth noting that a significant portion of the population in these settlements comprises older individuals struggling with health difficulties, which further complicates their lives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "See Raissa Mariah Ferraz Moreira Barcelos and others, “Leprosy patients’ quality of life: a scoping review”, Revista da Escola de Enfermagem da USP, vol. 55 (2021)."}, {"n": 29, "text": "See Hunegnaw Ayele, “Leprosy stigma and its effect on the marriage experience of leprosy affected people and their descendants: the case of Addis-Tesfa Hiwot settlements in Ethiopia”, Leprosy Review, vol. 93, No. 2 (2022)."}, {"n": 30, "text": "See James Staples, “Communities of the afflicted: constituting leprosy through place in South India”, Medical Anthropology, vol. 33, No. 1 (2014)."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See Nils Kaehler and others, “Perceived stigma towards leprosy among community members living close to Nonsomboon Leprosy Colony in Thailand”, PLOS ONE, vol. 10, No. 6 (2015)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "C. Social, political and cultural considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "Migration is another contemporary issue that deserves consideration in relation to leprosy. Numerous studies conducted in countries such as Brazil, India and Indonesia have shed light on the role of internal migration and rural development trends in the spread of leprosy. Migration and displacements often correlate with the exacerbation of poverty and inequality, contributing to the transmission of the disease. Furthermore, international migration emerges as another significant factor to consider in twenty-first-century discussions. Research on leprosy and immigration in the United States of America has highlighted several knowledge gaps within the broader medical community regarding the disease. Similar concerns have been raised regarding cases in Canada and countries in Europe.[[fn:32]] These studies indicate that individuals migrating from low-prevalence regions may experience delays in receiving treatment compared with patients from nations where leprosy is endemic and who are more familiar with its early symptoms. In addition, there is a suggestion that physicians may be more inclined to consider leprosy as a possibility when treating individuals from countries where the disease is highly prevalent.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "See Cassandra White and Carlos Franco-Paredes, “Leprosy in the 21st century”, Clinical Microbiology Reviews, vol. 28, No. 1 (2015)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "C. Social, political and cultural considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "Two ongoing demands made by persons affected by leprosy relate to the persistence of discriminatory laws that impede their rights and those of their families and to the economic and financial hardships that they encounter in their daily lives. The issue of discriminatory law has already been addressed in a previous report under the mandate.[[fn:33]] While changes have been implemented in various countries, there remains much work to be done, particularly in documenting the tangible impact of these laws on people’s lives. Further research in this field is imperative, alongside the provision of legal assistance and advice to support the efforts of the social movement of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "A/76/148."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "D. Legal and economic dimensions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "Leprosy is a disease entrenched in societies characterized by structural inequalities, where poverty serves as one of numerous barriers to prevention, transmission mitigation and timely treatment and follow-up. Comparative research spanning Brazil, China, India, Indonesia and Nepal[[fn:34]] has highlighted geographical location and socioeconomic status as primary factors influencing leprosy prevalence. Furthermore, researchers have underscored the existence of a structurally rooted vicious cycle, wherein poverty contributes to leprosy incidence, while leprosy, in turn, exacerbates poverty conditions or fosters its onset.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "Yu-Ye Li and others, “Factors influencing leprosy incidence: a comprehensive analysis of observations in Wenshan of China, Nepal, and other global epidemic areas”, Frontiers in Public Health, vol. 9 (2021)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "D. Legal and economic dimensions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that the economic dimensions of leprosy intersect with every issue raised by affected persons, including both the physical and the social determinants of income generation.[[fn:35]] On the basis of the interviews held, she acknowledges that socioeconomic empowerment could not only enhance quality of life for individuals and their families but also boost their self-esteem. Empowerment facilitates engagement in productive work, fulfilment of social roles and recognition by families and communities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See Messono O. Omang and Simplice A. Asongu, “Historical prevalence of infectious diseases and entrepreneurship: evidence from 125 countries”, Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies, 21 November 2023."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "D. Legal and economic dimensions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "While it might not seem immediately apparent, the consequences of war, conflict and violence linked to perpetuating the rights of powerful groups, as well as issues such as drug trafficking, significantly affect the lives of individuals affected by leprosy. In countries such as the Congo, Ethiopia, Liberia, Myanmar and the Sudan, those living with leprosy face increased risks to their safety and well-being.[[fn:36]] During times of national crisis, they are often overlooked, left behind and denied access to basic services crucial for their survival. This oversight exacerbates their exposure and underscores the urgency of addressing these systemic gaps during times of conflict.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "See Laura Dean and others, “A syndemic born of war: combining intersectionality and structural violence to explore the biosocial interactions of neglected tropical diseases, disability and mental distress in Liberia”, PLOS Global Public Health, vol. 2, No. 6 (2022)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "E. Environmental and conflict-related considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "War and political instability have had a significant impact on rural areas and persons affected by leprosy, resulting in food insecurity and limited access to essential services. In conflict-affected countries, individuals with leprosy face disruptions in logistics, early detection and treatment services, amplifying their health and economic fragility and isolation. Furthermore, conflicts and wars may compel Governments to divert resources and attention away from leprosy and other neglected tropical diseases, further exacerbating the already precarious living conditions of these communities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "E. Environmental and conflict-related considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "Given that climate change is a paramount concern for human existence and has wide-ranging effects, it is crucial to examine its impact on individuals affected by leprosy. This entails exploring how, for those affected, the rights of access to clean water, sanitation and a safe environment have been integrated into policies and procedures. For instance, according to information provided to the Special Rapporteur about the situation in Ethiopia, severe drought in the southern part of the country has aggravated hunger, and organizations of persons affected by leprosy have been aiding marginalized populations, including those affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "E. Environmental and conflict-related considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "Furthermore, understanding the role of environmental factors and their function in the continued transmission of the bacteria should be taken into consideration when analysing the rights to safe drinking water and sanitation, as well as the right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment. Moreover, endemicity in India and Indonesia has been shown to be linked to environmental factors and housing conditions.[[fn:37]] Measures to improve environmental health (including measures relating to housing, nutrition, access to clean water and sanitation) would not only be relevant for leprosy but also contribute to a life free from many diseases.[[fn:38]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See Flora Ramona Sigit Prakoeswa and others, “Environmental factors and leprosy in mother and child: a study in endemic areas in East Java, Indonesia”, Indian Journal of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, vol. 15, No. 2 (2021)."}, {"n": 38, "text": "See Vishwa Mohan Katoch, “Eradication of leprosy from India: reflections on past, present and future”, Indian Journal of Medical Research, vol. 159, No. 1 (2024)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "E. Environmental and conflict-related considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "In the present section, the Special Rapporteur articulates her understanding of her role and methods of work and delineates the central pillars of her vision for the mandate. This encompasses the core values that will steer her efforts: implementing an ethics of care, fostering a culture of listening and advocating cooperation and co-production at various levels.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "The Special Rapporteur intends to undertake her tasks in accordance with the mandate established by the Human Rights Council in its resolution 53/8. With regard to facilitating cooperation and fostering connections, she envisions her role as one that facilitates cooperation among stakeholders and the building of bridges between projects, initiatives, stakeholders, countries and continents. This entails creating platforms for the exchange of good practices and lessons learned. With regard to providing advisory services and support, she will aim to facilitate and support the provision of advisory services, technical assistance, capacity-building and international cooperation to boost national efforts aimed at effectively realizing the rights of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "A. Methods of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "The Special Rapporteur acknowledges the following as among the fundamental instruments that will support her work: the principles and guidelines on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members; the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities; the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development; the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination; the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women; the Convention on the Rights of the Child; the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage; the WHO “Towards Zero Leprosy” Global Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease) Strategy 2021–2030; and the WHO guidelines for strengthening participation of persons affected by leprosy in leprosy services of 2011.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "A. Methods of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "The Special Rapporteur will promote the protection of the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their families and their participation at different levels in the national and international arenas. To this end, her mandate will be supported by three main principles: (a) an ethics of care; (b) a contribution to a culture of listening; and (c) promoting cooperation and the co-production of policies and strategies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "B. Vision and fundamental pillars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "To support the efforts of leprosy rights activists and affected persons and families, the Special Rapporteur shares the views of care and disability thinkers who have contributed to reshaping the understanding and application of both “ethics” and “care”. She emphasizes that a mandate aimed at eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy would be ineffective without continual reflection on, and the application of, the foundational principles of ethics as the knowledge of how to lead a fulfilling life, extending to all individuals. This perspective acknowledges that care has often been undervalued and misconstrued in contemporary societies, reduced to a patronizing and gender-biased definition, and that care permeates every aspect of daily life, institutional frameworks and governmental structures. For this reason, the Special Rapporteur advocates an ethics of care as one of the pillars of the mandate, highlighting care as a fundamental aspect of human life. The Special Rapporteur underscores the need to change the overall public value associated with care. In this context, an ethics of care encompasses “everything that we do to maintain, continue, and repair our ‘world’ so that we can live in it as well as possible. That world includes our body, our selves, and our environment, all of which we seek to interweave in a complex life-sustaining web.”[[fn:39]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "Bernice Fisher and Joan C. Tronto, “Toward a feminist theory of care”, in Circles of Care: Work and Identity in Women’s Lives, Emily K. Abel and Margaret K. Nelson, eds. (State University of New York Press, 1990), p. 40."}], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "B. Vision and fundamental pillars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "An ethics of care is intrinsically connected to a culture of listening, in this case to persons affected by leprosy. Listening is the profound act of acknowledging and appreciating the presence of others, while recognizing one’s own presence. As Evelyn Glennie, the renowned deaf percussionist, noted, listening “isn’t always about sound; it’s often about no sound … It’s the presence. It’s the presence of two people being there together. So, no words are necessarily spoken at all. But it is the presence and the acknowledgement and, actually, the volume of that person. And we have to hang on and appreciate the value that we have ourselves and the value of other people and exchanging this feeling and therefore respect.”[[fn:40]] The right of persons affected by leprosy to participate at every level of public and private life will not be realized unless listening is embraced as a practice that evolves into a culture. A human rights approach to leprosy must be founded upon a culture of listening that supports the advancement of persons affected by leprosy, their families and their allies in their struggle to protect and ensure their rights.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "Oscar Trimboli, “Teaching the world to listen with Evelyn Glennie”, Deep Listening: Impact beyond Words, podcast, episode No. 70."}], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "B. Vision and fundamental pillars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "An ethics of care and a culture of listening would promote a practice of cooperation and co-creation to achieve not only the objectives of the mandate, but also the goals set by the leprosy rights movement, such as “leaving no one behind”. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is explicit in its requirement that the voices of persons and their representative organizations be heard. It emphasizes that persons, in this case those affected by leprosy, should be closely consulted on and actively involved in the development and implementation of legislation, policies and other decision-making processes that affect them. Applied to the field of leprosy, articles 4 and 33 of the Convention provide for the active engagement of civil society, organizations and persons affected by leprosy in any process that affects their lives and at any level. The Special Rapporteur aims to establish collaborative partnerships with other mandates relevant to her role and with United Nations bodies and Member States. She is looking to promote collaboration with academic institutions, local and international human rights and development organizations and representatives of social movements that are linked to leprosy. This cooperative approach will facilitate the development of strategies to enhance the lives of persons affected by leprosy. She intends to focus her efforts on co-creating materials and information with the leprosy rights movement to promote the defence of their rights. Similarly, she will advocate the participation of persons affected by leprosy in shaping policies, programmes and legal frameworks that have an impact on their lives.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "B. Vision and fundamental pillars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "Since taking up the mandate, the current Special Rapporteur has held numerous meetings and bilateral consultations with representatives of organizations of persons affected by leprosy and other civil society organizations, States and regional organizations, academics, representatives of the United Nations system, donors and other stakeholders. Those with whom she met included representatives of international leprosy donors and local grass-roots organizations of persons affected by leprosy; representatives of WHO, in India and Geneva; representatives of the Pan American Health Organization and OHCHR, in Mexico; representatives of the National Commission of Human Rights of Mexico; representatives of the Permanent Missions of Ecuador, Japan and Mexico to the United Nations Office and other international organizations in Geneva; representatives of the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, in Geneva and Mexico; and other mandate holders. In addition, she has entered into conversations with academics at the University of Copenhagen, the University of Toronto, Canada, and the University of Leeds, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "C. First steps forward"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "She has participated in numerous events focused on human rights and leprosy, including the launch of the Global Appeal 2024 to End Stigma and Discrimination against Persons Affected by Leprosy and the thirtieth session of the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, both in Geneva.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "C. First steps forward"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is advancing discussions on leprosy beyond the confines of the field by initiating a series of radio programmes on leprosy in the twenty-first century.[[fn:41]] In these programmes, guests share their experiences with leprosy and offer insights on the necessary work ahead. In addition, she is facilitating the dissemination of information about grass-roots organizations worldwide through the editorial platform of 17, Institute of Critical Studies, in Mexico.[[fn:42]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See https://17radio.org/index.php/episodios/la-lepra-en-el-siglo-xxi-memoria-y-re-escritura/."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See, for example, https://diecisiete.org/actualidad/the-transformative-power-of-grassroots-initiatives."}], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "C. First steps forward"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "During this initial period, the Special Rapporteur has crafted public statements and communications. In addition, she has endorsed statements prepared by other special procedures addressing issues relevant to the scope of the mandate. She has collaborated with different news outlets to disseminate information about leprosy and her mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "C. First steps forward"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "In accordance with her mandate, the Special Rapporteur will promote a human rights approach guided by an ethics of care that places people’s voices at the centre and as the primary source of evidence, thereby contributing to the construction of a culture of listening and more equitable and just societies. The Special Rapporteur underlines the particularity of leprosy (Hansen’s disease) as a catalyst of social, political and cultural change, serving as a beacon for a more democratic, humane and diversity-respecting world. In the present report, she underscores the significant transformation for individuals affected by leprosy, as well as their families, organizations and allies, brought about by the implementation of the mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is submitted pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 53/8, in which the Council extended the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members In this report, which is submitted in follow-up her 2024 vision report,[[fn:1]] the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members, Beatriz Miranda-Galarza, highlights both the progress made and the challenges remaining in ensuring that international cooperation is inclusive and accessible to persons affected by leprosy and their families. She provides guidance to States and international stakeholders on implementing leprosy-inclusive strategies, policies, initiatives and partnerships. The report also includes an overview of her work and achievements over the past year.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A/HRC/56/59."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "International cooperation plays a crucial role in addressing the challenges faced by persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their families. Leprosy is a disease that disproportionately affects marginalized communities and which requires a coordinated global response that ensures access to healthcare, social and political participation and the protection of human rights. This goal has become increasingly difficult to achieve, however, owing to shifting international priorities and financial constraints.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "In 2021, the World Health Organization (WHO) launched the global leprosy (Hansen’s disease) strategy 2021–2030, Towards zero leprosy,[[fn:2]] with a long-term vision of achieving zero infection and disease, zero disability and zero stigma and discrimination. The global targets for 2030 include a 70 per cent reduction in annual new cases, a 90 per cent reduction in severe (grade-2) disabilities and a 90 per cent reduction in new cases among children.[[fn:3]] However, given the trend in new cases over the past decade, it is clear that continuing past and current leprosy control efforts will not be sufficient to achieve those targets. A significant scaling up of preventive treatment, alongside active case detection, is required. At present, post-exposure prophylaxis with a single dose of the antibiotic rifampicin remains the most promising preventive treatment. In the current distressing scenario, with limited funding, ensuring access to care, follow-up support and overall quality-of-life improvements for persons affected by leprosy and their families remains a major obstacle.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789290228509."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At the time of writing, funding for international development projects, including health initiatives, provided through bilateral cooperation has been scaled back.[[fn:4]] This reduction in financial support threatens efforts to eliminate leprosy and exacerbates inequalities. Many programmes that rely on international funding are now struggling to sustain essential services, particularly in endemic countries where national resources are insufficient to address the full spectrum of needs.[[fn:5]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "The withdrawal of the United States of America from WHO and the suspension of funding from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) (see https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/reevaluating-and-realigning-united-states-foreign-aid/ and https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/withdrawing-the-united-states-from-the-worldhealth-organization/), as ordered by the Trump administration, could have significant consequences for international cooperation on leprosy. This includes potential setbacks in research, treatment programmes and human rights advocacy. The cut in funding may weaken initiatives aimed at improving the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their families, as well as scientific and social research efforts. In the near future, this reduction in support could also have broader impacts on affected communities and endemic countries."}, {"n": 5, "text": "See joint statement of United Nations experts and special rapporteurs (https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2025/02/new-us-administration-must-recommit-human-rights-home-and-abroad-un-experts); see also communication OL USA 5/2025. All communications mentioned in the present report are available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMsearch/TMdocuments."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Despite these challenges, solidarity among grassroots organizations, partnerships within the Global South and innovative financing mechanisms are in place. Strengthening 1 A/HRC/56/59. 2 See https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789290228509. 3 Ibid. 4 The withdrawal of the United States of America from WHO and the suspension of funding from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) (see https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/reevaluating-and-realigning-united-statesforeign-aid/ and https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/withdrawing-the-unitedstates-from-the-worldhealth-organization/), as ordered by the Trump administration, could have significant consequences for international cooperation on leprosy. This includes potential setbacks in research, treatment programmes and human rights advocacy. The cut in funding may weaken initiatives aimed at improving the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their families, as well as scientific and social research efforts. In the near future, this reduction in support could also have broader impacts on affected communities and endemic countries. 5 See joint statement of United Nations experts and special rapporteurs (https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2025/02/new-us-administration-must-recommit-humanrights-home-and-abroad-un-experts); see also communication OL USA 5/2025. All communications mentioned in the present report are available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMsearch/TMdocuments. GE.25-05250 international cooperation through a human rights-based approach, one that prioritizes compassion, participation and sustainability, is essential to ensuring that persons affected by leprosy are not left behind and that their rights are protected.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "In preparing the report, the Special Rapporteur analysed 23 responses to a questionnaire sent to Member States, reviewed interviews with 10 representatives of international organizations, national human rights institutions and civil society organizations and gathered insights from representatives of 10 grassroots organization from various countries. In addition, she interviewed five experts in international cooperation and development, as well as the Special Rapporteur on the right to development and the Independent Expert on human rights and international solidarity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Owing to lack of financial support, the Special Rapporteur was unable to conduct an expert group consultation, which could have provided additional insights and information to enrich the report. Such a consultation could also have contributed valuable advice for States and international organizations regarding the importance of funding and investing in the field of leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The Special Rapporteur highlights the need for support for the mandate and welcomes discussions on country visits. She also expresses concern about a country visit to Morocco that could not take place because of the request of the Moroccan Government that the sub-Saharan region be included in the agenda, despite the fact that it is not considered to be an endemic area. Country visits provide the Special Rapporteur with an opportunity to gain a better understanding of the situation of persons affected by leprosy and the progress made by Member States in protecting their rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "The duty to cooperate internationally towards the fulfilment of all economic, social and cultural rights is enshrined in international standards, including article 2 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and articles 55 and 56 of the Charter of the United Nations. Despite being one of the world’s oldest diseases, leprosy remains a critical global health concern, characterized by discrimination, exclusion and chronic underfunding. Over the past decade, global funding for leprosy programmes have stagnated, leaving thousands without access to appropriate diagnosis and treatment, while human rights violations continue unchecked. The Special Rapporteur calls for urgent international cooperation that moves beyond outdated charity models toward a framework grounded in human rights and justice, supported by a normative and legal framework based on the following two essential General Assembly resolutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "In its resolution 65/215, the General Assembly called upon governments and other stakeholders to give due consideration to the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members[[fn:6]] in the formulation and implementation of their leprosy-related policies. The principles and guidelines shed light on international cooperation, in particular regarding four main points:\n(a) Knowledge sharing: exchange research, medical advancements and legal frameworks to combat discrimination;\n(b) Financial and technical support: provide funding and expertise to strengthen healthcare and treatment access;\n(c) Capacity-building: train healthcare workers, policymakers and community leaders;\n(d) Advocacy and awareness: combat discrimination and misinformation through global campaigns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See A/HRC/15/30, annex."}], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "In its resolution 78/280, the General Assembly addressed global health challenges in the foreign policy space, stressing the need for Member States to implement health policies to guarantee access to health services for all, to achieve universal health coverage and to reinforce actions and initiatives, including research and development, to tackle known health challenges, including neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), in collaboration with the United Nations and other international actors. The effective implementation of the Assembly resolutions depends on two critical pillars: local commitment and international cooperation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The Universal Declaration of Human Rights recognizes that economic, social and cultural rights can only be attained through both national efforts and international cooperation, as stated in its articles 22 and 28. This is further reinforced by article 28, which affirms that every individual is entitled to a social and international order that enables the full realization of human rights. These articles highlight the responsibility of the international community to improve the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their communities. This responsibility should be carried out through actions to promote scientific and social research, ensure the continuous and timely provision of medication and provide sustained support for the implementation of monitoring systems. Such systems should facilitate the identification of new cases, the prevention of potential ones and the provision of support to individuals whose health and well-being are affected by treatment, post-treatment reactions and social discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The mandate has been vocal in advocating for the demands of persons affected by leprosy, ensuring that their economic, social and cultural rights are protected,[[fn:7]] in alignment with the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, particularly articles 2 (1) and 11 (2), which emphasize both national responsibility and international assistance in safeguarding these rights. Under article 2 (1), States parties pledge to take steps, individually and through international assistance and cooperation, to progressively achieve the full realization of economic, social and cultural rights. Article 12 further establishes the right to the highest attainable standard of health, obligating States to prevent, treat and control epidemic, endemic, occupational and other diseases. This duty extends to fostering international cooperation in public health efforts, including those aimed at eliminating neglected tropical diseases such as leprosy. In addition, States are responsible not only for their individual actions but also for fostering international cooperation to establish programmes and policies that promote economic stability and social participation and provide support for the fight against hunger, ensuring food security for all citizens, including persons affected by leprosy and their families. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, in its general comment No. 22 on the right to sexual and reproductive health (article 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights),[[fn:8]] underscored that international cooperation and assistance are key elements of article 2 (1) of the Covenant. States that are not able to comply with their obligations under the Covenant due to a lack of resources must seek international cooperation and assistance. States that are able to do so must respond to such requests in good faith and in accordance with the international commitment of contributing at a minimum 0.7 per cent of their gross national income (for international cooperation and assistance. Ensuring compliance with these provisions is essential to address the structural inequalities that perpetuate the marginalization of people affected by leprosy. International cooperation remains a critical mechanism for advancing their rights and promoting inclusive sustainable development.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "A/HRC/38/42."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 22 (2016), para. 50."}], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic underscored the urgent need to strengthen international cooperation to protect the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their families. This includes ensuring access to health services, medicines, employment, food security, information and housing.[[fn:9]] The global emergency caused by the pandemic disrupted assistance programmes for those affected by neglected tropical diseases, including leprosy, exposing weaknesses in the global health system. This situation raised critical questions about the implementation of Articles 1 (3), 55 and 56 of the Charter of the United Nations, which call for international cooperation in promoting human rights, including collective 7 A/HRC/38/42. 8 Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 22 (2016), para. 50. 9 See A/HRC/47/29. GE.25-05250 efforts to guarantee the rights to health, education and well-being of all individuals without distinction of any kind. Specifically, Article 1 states that one of the purposes of the United Nations is to “achieve international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See A/HRC/47/29."}], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "A key demand among persons affected by leprosy is the right to preserve their history – not only to ensure that the past is not forgotten but also to foster societal and State recognition of their experiences, thereby improving their present and future lives. This includes advocating for investments in social, scientific and technological research and implementation, supported by the international community. This demand aligns with article 15 (4) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, in which Member States recognized the benefits of international cooperation in the scientific and cultural fields. Efforts by some governments to preserve historical sites, archives and oral histories related to leprosy have been made possible through bilateral cooperation, which secures funding for activities that might otherwise remain unattainable. These efforts highlight the importance of international collaboration in addressing both the historical and cultural dimensions of leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "The adoption of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities by the General Assembly in 2006, in particular articles 4, 11 and 32,marked a significant step towards the inclusion of persons with disabilities in the development agenda and, by extension, within the scope of international cooperation. Persons with leprosy-related disabilities should be included within the framework of the Convention, as well as within mechanisms that guarantee the protection of their rights during catastrophic and humanitarian crises.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See A/75/186."}], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "In line with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its 17 Sustainable Development Goals, the Addis Ababa Action Agenda of the Third International Conference on Financing for Development serves as a global framework for mobilizing financial resources, promoting investment and strengthening international cooperation to achieve sustainable development. While it does not explicitly mention leprosy, it includes persons with disabilities, which implies that individuals affected by neglected tropical diseases, including those who have acquired impairments related to leprosy, should be considered as part of its commitments.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goal 3, directly address the fight against neglected tropical diseases. Specifically, target 3.3 aims to end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical diseases, including leprosy. While the target specifically focuses on the right to health, all Sustainable Development Goals must be met for persons affected by leprosy, in line with the overarching principle, “Nothing about us without us”. International forums frequently stress that the implementation of the 2030 Agenda will not be achieved by the deadline unless international cooperation is fully committed to that end result. This is also reflected in the Kigali Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases (2022), which has been endorsed by various stakeholders, including governments, pharmaceutical companies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The declaration emphasizes the need for collaborative action to eliminate neglected tropical diseases, including leprosy, as well as the importance of addressing human rights and ensuring access to treatment and care for affected individuals.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "At the same time, international solidarity is a cross-cutting principle in the international normative and legal framework, underpinning efforts to address global challenges such as poverty, inequality, climate change and human rights violations. In 2017, the Human Rights Council adopted resolution 35/3, recognizing the fundamental value of solidarity in international relations and welcoming the drafting of a declaration on the right to international solidarity. This principle has been a recurring theme in United Nations documents, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which emphasizes the importance of cooperation and solidarity in achieving human rights for all. The 2030 Agenda also highlights solidarity as a core principle for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly in addressing the needs of the most marginalized populations. While the principle is widely recognized, its implementation depends largely on political will and the commitment of States to work together for the common good.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "International cooperation on leprosy, which dates to the 19th century, was initially driven by colonial administrations, religious missions, and philanthropic organizations. Misconceptions about the disease led to widespread segregation in leprosaria. Christian missionaries, such as Father Damien in Hawaii and Mother Teresa in India, provided care but often reinforced dependency rather than empowerment. Over time, cooperation expanded beyond charity to include medical research and livelihood programmes, although critics argue these efforts often imposed colonial frameworks rather than fostering genuine collaboration.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Historical overview of international cooperation and solidarity related to leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Following Dr. Armauer Hansen’s discovery of mycobacterium leprae in 1873, the first International Leprosy Congress (1897) institutionalized leprosaria as the primary control method for treatment of the disease. While this marked a shift from religious to medical approaches, isolation global policies violated human rights, reinforcing discrimination and exclusion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Historical overview of international cooperation and solidarity related to leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Colonial-era leprosaria in Africa, Asia and the Americas relied on funding from religious groups, philanthropists and governments, which viewed leprosy as a public health and economic threat. International organizations later formalized efforts, often headquartered in the global North while operating in the global South. Although medicalization and charity dominated early interventions, affected individuals and advocates eventually challenged isolation policies, prompting a shift toward community-based care. The push to close leprosaria gained momentum in the mid-twentieth century, spurred by medical advances such as the development of the antibiotic dapsone in the 1940s and the introduction of multidrug therapy in the 1980s. Established in 1948, WHO has played a key role in coordinating global responses, with multidrug therapy becoming the standard treatment for the disease.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Historical overview of international cooperation and solidarity related to leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Multilateral and bilateral cooperation have been instrumental in the fight to eliminate leprosy. Since 1995, WHO has ensured the global distribution of multidrug therapy through donations from the Nippon Foundation and Novartis Foundation. National leprosy control programmes manage distribution and monitor progress toward elimination. International organizations have also played a vital role in prevention, treatment, advocacy and policy development while strengthening efforts by grassroots organizations. However, international cooperation remains limited, with slow progress being made towards a human rights-based approach.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Historical overview of international cooperation and solidarity related to leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "The establishment of a mandate to eliminate discrimination against persons affected by leprosy by the Human Rights Council marked a major milestone. Led by international organizations and some Member States, the initiative has reshaped global discourse. Nevertheless, resistance persists, with some international cooperation efforts still prioritizing medical or moral approaches over structural change.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Historical overview of international cooperation and solidarity related to leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Historically, leprosy-related aid has portrayed affected individuals as passive recipients, reinforcing the image of them as dependents. However, a human rights-based approach has gained traction over the past decade, fostering new narratives and recognizing affected persons as active partners in international cooperation. Voices from the field: “Many founders of international leprosy organizations took a person-centred approach in their early work. However, one or two centuries ago, human rights discourse was virtually non-existent. Still, I think that their efforts were driven by a genuine intent to alleviate suffering. We can’t judge past actions by today’s standards. Today, there GE.25-05250 is no excuse to not contribute to the protection of rights of persons affected by leprosy. It is a global responsibility.”[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "International leprosy organization representative interviewed in December 2024."}], "section": ["III. Historical overview of international cooperation and solidarity related to leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "Valuable practice: the Fontilles Foundation in Valencia, Spain, exemplifies a remarkable transformation from a leprosarium into a global non-profit dedicated to supporting persons affected by leprosy. Established in 1909 as a centre for isolating individuals with leprosy, Fontilles has evolved into an international organization advocating for health, inclusion and human rights not only for persons affected by leprosy but also for persons with disabilities and elderly persons. Today, it continues to advance treatment and to foster research, advocacy and global partnerships in multiple countries.[[fn:12]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Information gathered through interviews and discussions with various representatives of leprosy organizations. For more information see https://fontilles.org/."}], "section": ["III. Historical overview of international cooperation and solidarity related to leprosy", "Voices from the field:"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "In 2006, the Human Rights Council, in its resolution 8/13, recognized that leprosy-related discrimination constitutes a violation of fundamental human rights. This was the first instance of international recognition of the human rights of persons affected by leprosy. In 2010, the General Assembly took note of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, which called on governments to: end laws discriminating against persons affected by leprosy; ensure access to education, employment and healthcare; and protect the rights of families of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Since these landmark developments, bilateral and multilateral donors and agencies, the private sector and philanthropic foundations have increasingly incorporated human rights considerations into their work regarding leprosy. However, the scope and effectiveness of these efforts vary widely depending on the donor, leading to inconsistencies in inclusive strategies, policies, and programmes. This section of the report reflects the findings of the Special Rapporteur on how international cooperation actors currently integrate a human rights perspective to leprosy and its impact on the life of affected persons, their families and communities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Most international leprosy donors lack specific human rights policies, although many are moving in that direction. Only a third of international organizations have formal human rights strategies aligned with United Nations guidelines, including commitments to accountability and impact assessments. Two-thirds of international organizations note non-discrimination, social inclusion and community empowerment as part of their mission, although not all have explicit policies. About 50 per cent integrate human rights criteria into funding and project evaluations, which is central to ensure interventions respecting the dignity and rights of those affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Integration of human rights in leprosy funding"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "It is important to notice that many organizations align their programmes with ethical practices and non-discriminatory service delivery, even if they are not explicitly labelled as “human rights” policies. The challenge going forward is to ensure that these commitments are effectively translated into operational practice, where roughly 60 per cent to 70 per cent of organizations are making measurable progress. It is important to note that these percentages are approximate and based on a general analysis of available information; for a more precise evaluation, a systematic review of each organization’s policies and practices would be necessary. 11 International leprosy organization representative interviewed in December 2024. 12 Information gathered through interviews and discussions with various representatives of leprosy organizations. For more information see https://fontilles.org/. GE.25-05250 Commitment of multilateral and bilateral donors", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Integration of human rights in leprosy funding"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Approximately 80 per cent to 90 per cent of major multilateral agencies such as WHO, the World Bank and regional development banks investing in health issues, including neglected tropical diseases, now embrace human rights language in their strategic documents, aligning with international frameworks such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other global health equity initiatives. Similarly, many bilateral donors, like the Department for International Development (now the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office), and others, show a strong normative commitment to human rights, with roughly 80 per cent incorporating those principles into their funding guidelines and programme strategies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Commitment of multilateral and bilateral donors"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "However, the explicit inclusion of leprosy-related human rights, particularly within agencies focused on social and economic rights, remains a challenge. According to representatives of international organizations interviewed, leprosy is not considered a priority outside a small circle of organizations that have a long involvement with the disease. This poses a challenge, especially in increasingly competitive funding environments", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Commitment of multilateral and bilateral donors"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "A 2023 report on leprosy research reveals key insights into funding and research priorities.[[fn:13]] According to the study, between 2017 and 2021, international leprosy organizations invested nearly $50 million over five years, averaging around $10 million per year. The report identifies five priority areas: diagnostics; disability; stigma and discrimination; operational research; and transmission. Notably, all participating organizations supported transmission research, even during challenging times such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The study also indicates that at least 38 per cent of participants applied for research grants and that 64 per cent had received at least one, although many noted difficulties in accessing funding. The Leprosy Research Initiative, a platform dedicated to leprosy research, was frequently cited as a key funding source.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "D. Scollard, S.C.M. Trienekens, A. Tucker, S. Goswami and D.A. Hagge, “Money matters: priorities in leprosy research funding: Leprosy Review, vol. 94, No.4 (2023), pp. 364–368."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Funding for leprosy research and priority areas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The report also notes that while the actual global funding for leprosy research could be higher than the aforementioned figure, it remains insufficient to meet the growing demand in the field. Despite being one of the oldest known diseases, leprosy remains underfunded. In 2016, research on neglected tropical diseases, including leprosy, received approximately $100 million in the United States, a fraction compared to funding for HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis.[[fn:14]] There is a clear need for a more comprehensive assessment that includes a broader range of international bilateral and multilateral cooperation and provides detailed breakdowns of funding by research priority.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "S.L. Reed and J.H. McKerrow, “Why funding for neglected tropical diseases should be a global priority”, Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol. 67, No. 3 (2018), pp. 323–326."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Funding for leprosy research and priority areas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The Special Rapporteur highlights that most international leprosy organizations have committed to financial accountability. For instance, in its 2023 annual report, the Leprosy Research Initiative publicly disclosed the budget allocated for research projects. Similar practices are observed by other organizations, including the Fontilles Foundation, Fundación Anesvad, the Sasakawa Health Foundation and the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, demonstrating their strong commitment to budget transparency, which enables the public to understand how organizational revenues are collected, allocated and spent. These actions build trust among future donors and set an example, positioning international cooperation on leprosy as a benchmark for transparency.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Transparency and financial accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Over the past decade, international funding for leprosy has been allocated to several key areas, ranging from large-scale initiatives to smaller-scale projects:\n(a) Early detection and treatment – enhancing diagnosis, treatment and public awareness to prevent transmission and disabilities, in collaboration with national health systems;\n(b) Scientific research – investing in research to improve understanding and management of the disease;\n(c) Disability prevention and rehabilitation – supporting early detection, rehabilitation and assistive devices to reduce disabilities;\n(d) Stigma reduction and empowerment – strengthening organizations of people affected by leprosy, promoting policy participation and supporting education.\n(e) Social and economic inclusion – advancing livelihood programmes, education and vocational training for affected individuals and families;\n(f) Awareness and advocacy – conducting campaigns to combat stigma and misinformation;\n(g) Preserving leprosy history – documenting life stories, archiving materials, and researching lessons learned;\n(h) Human rights and anti-discrimination – advocating for rights, repealing discriminatory laws and engaging global stakeholders;\n(i) Intersectional issues – addressing gender, violence, climate change, disability, neglected tropical diseases, mental health and social justice as interconnected challenges.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Funding distribution across key areas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "According to grassroot organizations, most funding has traditionally gone towards medical research, treatment and control programmes, which are seen as being substantial and measurable. This is one of the most successful examples of international cooperation in global health, which has certainly significantly reduced the global burden of leprosy. Historically, governments, pharmaceutical companies and research institutions have invested in leprosy research, particularly during the mid-twentieth century when the disease was more prevalent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Funding distribution across key areas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "Increased investment has been made in awareness campaigns, education and collaborative, all of which are crucial for combating discrimination and promoting early diagnosis. NGOs, religious groups and international agencies fund such efforts, while grassroots organizations play a key role in community outreach. However, many people affected by leprosy, who feel that such campaigns still present them as objects of pity rather than as people with agency, attribute this portrayal to outdated, uncreative messaging that fails to prioritize their participation as meaningful.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Funding distribution across key areas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "Prevention and long-term solutions are increasingly seen as areas of collaboration, although they are still underfunded. Although there are more efforts to prevent leprosy, including through post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP),[[fn:15]] it is reported that community engagement and integration with other health programmes are often overlooked or, when implemented, lack follow-up strategies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "Post-exposure prophylaxis is a preventive treatment, usually a single dose of rifampicin, given to close contacts of affected persons to reduce their risk of developing the disease."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Challenges in funding allocation and drug distribution"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "The limited funding available for follow-up systems for cases of leprosy reactions, relapses and chronic conditions resulting from treatment is seen as an important issue. Although leprosy is rarely fatal when diagnosed early and treated properly with multidrug therapy, severe reactions, especially erythema nodosum leprosum and other inflammatory complications, can be life-threatening if not promptly and effectively managed.[[fn:16]] Historical case reports and medical studies have documented deaths related to such severe reactions and reported that additional deaths from treatable conditions may occur among leprosy-affected persons, particularly in settings with limited access to advanced healthcare or where treatment is delayed.[[fn:17]] Additional funding is needed for research, training and surveillance to prevent fatalities. A human rights-based approach to leprosy requires integrating field reports into the global agenda.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See A/79/152."}, {"n": 17, "text": "C.R. Butlin, “Excess of deaths of leprosy-affected people”, Leprosy Review, vol. 91. No. 2 (2020), pp. 220–223."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Challenges in funding allocation and drug distribution"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Multilateral partnerships are essential for comprehensive disease monitoring and timely information sharing, both of which are critical for early intervention and outbreak prevention. They also play a key role in ensuring the efficient distribution of leprosy drugs, a challenge frequently reported in endemic countries. The COVID-19 pandemic has intensified those issues by draining funding and human resources, which, in turn, has disrupted regular drug distribution processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Challenges in funding allocation and drug distribution"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "In 2024, Nigeria experienced a major crisis in leprosy drug distribution. For 11 months, the supply of multidrug therapy, the essential life-saving treatment for leprosy, was severely disrupted due to bureaucratic bottlenecks and regulatory hurdles.[[fn:18]] The delay has left over 3,000 patients, including around 800 children, without timely treatment, increasing the risk of irreversible disabilities and jeopardizing progress toward eliminating the disease.[[fn:19]] While the immediate impact may have been contained, experts warn that long-term effects will emerge if distribution challenges are not addressed.[[fn:20]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "The leprosy medicines arrived in Abuja on 9 March 2025. While undergoing customs clearance before distribution, the National Tuberculosis, Leprosy and Buruli Ulcer Control Programme stated that efforts were coordinated to ensure timely distribution based on State-provided data."}, {"n": 19, "text": "See the Leprosy Mission and Parliamentarian call for the immediate delivery of leprosy drugs to Nigeria (2025), available at https://www.leprosymission.org.uk/latest-news/parliamentarian-call-for-immediate-delivery-drugs-nigeria/."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Information was gathered through ongoing communication with organizations of persons affected by leprosy in Nigeria, as well as meetings with their representatives, government officials and WHO representatives. In addition, news reports from various outlets highlighted the human impact of the delay and international and national leprosy organizations called on the Nigerian Government and WHO to intervene urgently to resolve the crisis and ensure the rapid delivery of the needed medication. See: https://dailytrust.com/leprosy-fg-tasked-on-life-saving-drugs-for-over-3000-patients/ and https://www.arise.tv/human-rights-group-raises-alarm-over-3000-leprosy-patients-left-without-access-to-drugs/."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Challenges in funding allocation and drug distribution"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The Special Rapporteur observes that, despite the progresses made, social and structural issues remain underrepresented in the funding landscape. Critical areas, including disability care, mental health, relapse and post-treatment challenges, distribution of leprosy drugs and the social and economic determinants of the disease, receive limited funding, despite their vital role in addressing the comprehensive impact of leprosy. In some instances, reductions in international funding have forced local organizations to prioritize between implementation areas, often focusing on reducing case numbers rather than adopting a multisectoral approach. In general, investing in more integrated attention to neglected tropical diseases, in general, has proven that, in addition to producing beneficial health effects, there are significant gains in education, agricultural productivity and poverty reduction. It has been estimated that for every dollar invested in the control of neglected tropical diseases, economic productivity will increase 50-fold.[[fn:21]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "S.L. Reed and J.H. McKerrow, “Why funding for neglected tropical diseases should be a global priority”, Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol. 67, No. 3 (2018), pp. 323–326."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Need for a comprehensive, human rights-based approach"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "With the recent changes in the approach of the Government of the United States of America to international aid and human rights, shifts in institutional policies are expected.[[fn:22]] These shifts could significantly undermine the already limited progress in integrating leprosy into international cooperation frameworks. Furthermore, they may impede timely detection, case follow-up, investment in livelihood projects, disability prevention and the protection of the human rights of those affected by leprosy and their families. Overall, these shifts are in opposition to the stance of multilateral organizations such as the Pan American Health 17 C.R. Butlin, “Excess of deaths of leprosy-affected people”, Leprosy Review, vol. 91. No. 2 (2020), pp. 220–223. 18 The leprosy medicines arrived in Abuja on 9 March 2025. While undergoing customs clearance before distribution, the National Tuberculosis, Leprosy and Buruli Ulcer Control Programme stated that efforts were coordinated to ensure timely distribution based on State-provided data. 19 See the Leprosy Mission and Parliamentarian call for the immediate delivery of leprosy drugs to Nigeria (2025), available at https://www.leprosymission.org.uk/latest-news/parliamentarian-call-forimmediate-delivery-drugs-nigeria/. 20 Information was gathered through ongoing communication with organizations of persons affected by leprosy in Nigeria, as well as meetings with their representatives, government officials and WHO representatives. In addition, news reports from various outlets highlighted the human impact of the delay and international and national leprosy organizations called on the Nigerian Government and WHO to intervene urgently to resolve the crisis and ensure the rapid delivery of the needed medication. See: https://dailytrust.com/leprosy-fg-tasked-on-life-saving-drugs-for-over-3000-patients/ and https://www.arise.tv/human-rights-group-raises-alarm-over-3000-leprosy-patients-left-withoutaccess-to-drugs/. 21 S.L. Reed and J.H. McKerrow, “Why funding for neglected tropical diseases should be a global priority”, Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol. 67, No. 3 (2018), pp. 323–326. 22 UN News, “US funding pause leaves millions ‘in jeopardy’, insist UN humanitarians”, available at https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/02/1159746. GE.25-05250 Organization (PAHO), which emphasizes that addressing neglected tropical diseases, including leprosy, requires systematic and collaborative international efforts.[[fn:23]] Voices from the field: “Adhi was just 22 when he passed away. He had finished leprosy treatment two years earlier, but ongoing pain and other symptoms were never properly diagnosed or treated at his local clinic. Sadly, he’s not the only one. Others in my country have died because there aren’t enough trained healthcare workers, proper follow-up or accessible care after one has finished treatment.”[[fn:24]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "UN News, “US funding pause leaves millions ‘in jeopardy’, insist UN humanitarians”, available at https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/02/1159746."}, {"n": 23, "text": "Pan-American Health Organization (PAHO ) “PAHO calls for intensified efforts to address leprosy and other neglected tropical diseases” (2025), available athttps://www.paho.org/en/news/24-1-2025-paho-calls-intensified-efforts-address-leprosy-and-other-neglected-tropical-diseases."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Person affected by leprosy from Indonesia interviewed in August 2024."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Need for a comprehensive, human rights-based approach"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "Valuable practice: while the reliance of international leprosy organizations on government support and private donors remains an urgent challenge, the ANESVAD Foundation, a Spanish-based NGO, offers a viable alternative. It has adopted a diversified funding approach, combining private donations, government funding and a responsible asset management strategy. A portion of its assets is allocated to impact investments, ensuring long-term sustainability. In 2022, 31.5 per cent of its asset management was dedicated to 23 impact funds, supporting projects aligned with its mission to combat neglected tropical diseases and to promote sustainable development. This strategic approach strengthens the ability of the organization to sustain initiatives that improve health outcomes in marginalized communities.[[fn:25]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "Information gathered through interviews and discussions with representatives of various leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.anesvad.org/ (in Spanish)."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Voices from the field:"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Bilateral donors and multilateral agencies involved in neglected tropical diseases are taking steps to strengthen organizational capacity on human rights. This is primarily achieved through the development and implementation of strategies aimed at promoting non-discriminatory practices and ensuring equitable access to national healthcare and social services for all, including those affected by leprosy. An example is the aforementioned WHO global leprosy (Hansen’s disease) strategy 2021–2030, Towards zero leprosy, which emphasizes strengthening health systems to provide early diagnosis and treatment; empowering persons affected by leprosy to participate in decision-making processes; and combating stigma and discrimination through awareness-raising campaigns and education. This wider strategy calls for sustained financing in areas such as diagnostic research, surveillance and policy development. Similarly, the WHO global neglected tropical diseases road map 2021–2030[[fn:26]] outlines a human rights-based approach to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Key actions comprise prioritizing marginalized populations, including women and children to ensure that no one is left behind; empowering affected communities to participate in decision-making and programme implementation; and addressing stigma and discrimination associated with neglected tropical diseases through education and awareness-raising campaigns.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "WHO, Ending the Neglect to Attain the Sustainable Development Goals: A Road Map for Neglected Tropical Diseases 2021–2030 (2020), available at https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240010352."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "B. Funding national strategies and capacity building", "Strengthening organizational capacity through human rights-based approaches"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "The World Bank has not implemented a policy on leprosy inclusion, although it has addressed leprosy at certain periods, for example in support of national control programmes in India and in different countries in Africa through efforts to strengthen broader health systems and social inclusion programmes. The Nippon Foundation, a Japanese philanthropic organization, has been a leading advocate for leprosy-related human rights. Initiatives include support for the Global Appeal to End Stigma and Discrimination against Persons Affected 23 Pan-American Health Organization (PAHO ) “PAHO calls for intensified efforts to address leprosy and other neglected tropical diseases” (2025), available athttps://www.paho.org/en/news/24-1-2025paho-calls-intensified-efforts-address-leprosy-and-other-neglected-tropical-diseases. 24 Person affected by leprosy from Indonesia interviewed in August 2024. 25 Information gathered through interviews and discussions with representatives of various leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.anesvad.org/ (in Spanish). 26 WHO, Ending the Neglect to Attain the Sustainable Development Goals: A Road Map for Neglected Tropical Diseases 2021–2030 (2020), available at https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240010352. GE.25-05250 by Leprosy27 and funding for research, advocacy and community programmes to promote the rights of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "B. Funding national strategies and capacity building", "Strengthening organizational capacity through human rights-based approaches"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "Leprosy training initiatives by bilateral and multilateral cooperation organizations are critical for building the capacity of healthcare workers, policymakers and communities to effectively address leprosy. These initiatives focus on early diagnosis, treatment, stigma reduction and the integration of human rights principles into leprosy-related programmes. WHO provides training through its global and regional programmes and organizes regional training workshops on integrated control of neglected tropical diseases.[[fn:28]] Japanese organizations have been key players in leprosy training and capacity-building. Their initiatives include the Global Health Innovative Technology Fund, which provides training on the use of new diagnostic tools and treatments for neglected tropical diseases, including leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "See https://www.who.int/about/who-academy."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "B. Funding national strategies and capacity building", "Strengthening organizational capacity through human rights-based approaches"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "In collaboration with WHO and the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, regional training programmes in Africa, Asia and Latin America receive supported. The Japan International Cooperation Agency is also involved in building capacity for leprosy organizations, including the provision of support through collaboration with organizations such as Leprosy Mission International. USAID has supported leprosy training as part of its broader health and development programmes, including funding for training programmes for healthcare workers in countries where neglected tropical diseases are endemic. Training is focused on integrated control of neglected tropical diseases and the education of community health workers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "B. Funding national strategies and capacity building", "Strengthening organizational capacity through human rights-based approaches"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "In the area of capacity-building, the improvement of national leprosy control programme has been a key priority for organizations dedicated to reducing transmission and eliminating the disease. Ministries of Health, WHO and international NGOs have supported such programmes, contributing to a significant global decline in leprosy cases. Many countries have developed national strategic plans for leprosy control, often aligned with the WHO global leprosy strategy (2021–2030). Collaborative training programmes and knowledge exchanges have helped to enhance the skills of healthcare professionals in early detection, diagnosis and treatment. However, national programmes have reported challenges, including:\n(a) Insufficient training and expertise: leprosy is often excluded from medical training as it is mistakenly believed to have been eliminated. As a result, healthcare providers lack expertise in diagnosis and treatment, leading to delayed detection and poor case management. With leprosy hospitals closing, experienced doctors are reassigned, further reducing specialized care. This leaves communities with limited access to proper treatment, often requiring travel to distant facilities;\n(b) Resource and infrastructure limitations: chronic shortages of funding, staff and specialized facilities hinder outreach, diagnosis and care in endemic regions, especially marginalized communities. The situation has worsened since the COVID-19 pandemic, even in non-endemic countries, potentially leading to more cases, untreated patients and increased levels of disability. Grassroots organizations in Latin America report that untreated cases in non-endemic rural areas often go unnoticed by governments, despite efforts by unpaid health volunteers.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "B. Funding national strategies and capacity building", "Challenges in national leprosy control programmes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Limited government funding is a common issue, with many countries relying on international donors to cover budget gaps. Analysis indicates that endemic countries, particularly in Africa, are largely donor-dependent, with limited funding for their national control programmes, whereas countries such as Bangladesh and India having some structured 27 The Initiative is a strategic alliance that links together the WHO Goodwill Ambassador for Leprosy Elimination, the Sasakawa Health Foundation and the Nippon Foundation for achieving leprosy elimination, available at https://gasasakawa.org/. 28 See https://www.who.int/about/who-academy. GE.25-05250 government funding. Timor-Leste reports a lack of resources as leprosy is considered to have been eliminated in the country. In Brazil and Nigeria, the Governments report their active participation in global funding initiatives. Voices from the field: “I can tell you many stories about how delays in leprosy treatment are affecting people in Nigeria. Children are becoming disabled because, months after diagnosis, they still haven’t received treatment. Their lives will be forever changed, facing discrimination and daily challenges. Governments and organizations do not see the true impact of these failures.”[[fn:29]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Person affected by leprosy from Nigeria interviewed in January 2025."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "B. Funding national strategies and capacity building", "Funding constraints and reliance on international support"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "Valuable practice: the Ethiopian National Association of Persons Affected by Leprosy primarily relies on international support, notably from the Sasakawa Health Foundation. This support has facilitated the construction of a five-story headquarters in Addis Ababa, built on land donated by the Ethiopian Government. The building, which is the central office of the Association, generates income through leased spaces, thus contributing to overall financial sustainability. The financial security enables the Association to focus on key initiatives, including rehabilitation, stigma reduction and the promotion of equal opportunities for its members.[[fn:30]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "Information gathered through interviews and discussions with various representatives of leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.leprosy-information.org/organization/enapal-ethiopian-national-association-persons-affected-leprosy."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "B. Funding national strategies and capacity building", "Voices from the field:"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Many leprosy-endemic countries have developed country-specific training programmes with international support that is shared beyond national borders. For example, the National Leprosy Eradication Programme of India regularly trains healthcare workers, both national and international, at all levels, including staff at primary health centres as well as accredited social health activists. In Brazil, the Ministry of Health, in collaboration with WHO and PAHO, trains healthcare workers in leprosy diagnosis and management, stigma reduction and community engagement, offering access to its educational programmes to countries in Latin America and in other continents. Similarly, the Indonesian Government reports that, with the support of the Japan International Cooperation Agency and the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, it organizes training programmes to raise leprosy awareness for healthcare workers in remote areas and for community volunteers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Expanding training and knowledge exchange"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "However, despite the above initiatives, grassroots organizations report that efforts have not been sufficient. One of the challenges reported is that knowledge is often dispersed across different organizations, research institutions and NGOs, with limited coordination. This fragmentation can lead to duplication of efforts, inconsistencies in guidelines and difficulties in accessing the latest evidence-based practices. Another issue raised is linked to the digital divide and technology access. In many endemic areas, affected persons and families, as well as healthcare workers, have limited Internet connectivity or access to digital platforms where knowledge is shared. This creates a barrier to online training, webinars and digital resources, including digital health solutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Expanding training and knowledge exchange"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Building international networks has become a key strategy for countries to share knowledge and establish meaningful collaborations. Conferences like the International Leprosy Congress, widely recognized as the foremost academic and scientific forum on leprosy, serve as important platforms for exchange. Nevertheless, persons affected by leprosy have often been excluded owing to language barriers and limited opportunities for direct participation. The structure and focus of the International Leprosy Congress are primarily academic and clinical, prioritizing contributions from researchers and healthcare 29 Person affected by leprosy from Nigeria interviewed in January 2025. 30 Information gathered through interviews and discussions with various representatives of leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.leprosy-information.org/organization/enapalethiopian-national-association-persons-affected-leprosy. GE.25-05250 professionals. This often leaves little room for direct input from persons with lived experience of the disease. Affected persons may also face financial, travel or stigma-related barriers that hinder their ability to attend or engage fully at such international forums.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Strengthening international networks"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "A notable aspect of collaboration and international cooperation in the field of leprosy is the establishment of platforms through agreements between various international organizations. The platforms facilitate the exchange of knowledge and enhance the effectiveness of funding allocation. The International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations is a network of international NGOs dedicated to eliminating leprosy and combating discrimination. It supports national leprosy programmes, provides funding and promotes rights-based approaches. Members include organizations based in Canada, Germany, Japan, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Spain, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States. The Global Partnership for Zero Leprosy was established to foster collaboration among international leprosy organizations and individuals and to mobilize funding to achieve three main goals: zero transmission; zero disability; and zero stigma and discrimination. It conducts training workshops for stakeholders in leprosy-endemic countries, focusing on best practices for leprosy control and the integration of human rights into leprosy programmes towards the elimination of the disease.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Strengthening international networks"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "The Special Rapporteur highlights the progress achieved through the above platforms, particularly the methodologies implemented in their work. The model of working through pillar groups, incorporating both scientific research and the perspectives and demands of persons affected by leprosy, is highly valuable. However, further efforts are needed to ensure that persons affected by leprosy and their organizations are well-informed about the progress and findings emerging from these platforms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Strengthening international networks"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "Despite progress, greater collaboration is needed. Many international organizations work independently, leading to duplicated efforts, especially in case detection, awareness and post-treatment follow-up. Better coordination could significantly improve outcomes. For instance, it was reported that in addressing issues like leprosy drug distribution, in addition to the matter of government monitoring gaps, stronger collaboration between local and international organizations is essential to establish a dialogue with national and local authorities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Improving coordination, funding stability and ensuring meaningful participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "In addition, the challenges of working as a network are compounded by the financial uncertainties faced by international leprosy organizations, which remain highly dependent on private donors and government funding. With more governments from the global North, including the governments of Belgium, France, Germany, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Switzerland and the United Kingdom,[[fn:31]] announcing reductions in international aid that has supported marginalized communities, international leprosy organizations working in the global South may face significant challenges in the coming years. This will have a tremendous impact on grassroot organizations that struggle to survive.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "Forbes (2025) “Foreign aid is shrinking—what happens next?” (2025), available at https://www.forbes.com/sites/globalcitizen/2025/02/25/foreign-aid-is-shrinking-what-happens-next/."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Improving coordination, funding stability and ensuring meaningful participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has also identified ongoing challenges in ensuring the meaningful participation of persons affected by leprosy in decision-making processes related to funding priorities and allocation. Representatives of grassroots organizations emphasized that establishing organizational policies that guarantee the active presence of persons affected by leprosy in boards or decision-making committees could significantly impact how international cooperation is perceived and implemented. Although organizations like International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations and the Global Partnership for Zero Leprosy actively promote such practices, challenges related to representation and language continue to hinder the meaningful participation of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Improving coordination, funding stability and ensuring meaningful participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "Regarding cross-border collaboration, most countries lack specific policies on cross-border leprosy treatment or care. However, Uganda reports having memorandums of understanding with neighbouring nations, including the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya and South Sudan, to ensure coordination of control of neglected tropical diseases. Togo has implemented a cross-border policy with Benin. In Brazil, the Comoros, Ecuador, Nepal and India, foreigners receive treatment for leprosy, and their information is shared with their home countries, when needed. India is exploring treatment methods that involve tracking migrants receiving care within the country. In 2019, the Ugandan Ministry of Health launched a national strategic plan for cross-border activities for control of neglected tropical diseases and elimination. Brazil, India, Indonesia and Nigeria offer training to professionals from other nations.[[fn:32]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "Information gathered from the responses of Member States to the questionnaire sent by the Special Rapporteur."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Improving coordination, funding stability and ensuring meaningful participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "South-south cooperation has been vital in leprosy elimination, health system strengthening and social inclusion. Key initiatives include the Brazil-India Partnership, which exchanges best practices in early detection, social protection and healthcare integration; the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) collaboration (Indonesia, Myanmar, the Philippines and Thailand) to standardize diagnosis, integrate services for neglected tropical diseases and combat stigma; Africa-Asia training initiatives, through which India supports Ethiopia, Mozambique and Nigeria by training health workers, including in multidrug therapy management; Latin American research networks (Brazil, Colombia and Cuba) focusing on vaccine research, rehabilitation and data-sharing; and African regional advocacy, involving collaboration between Ethiopia, Nigeria and Mozambique on community-based rehabilitation and policy reform at the African Union level. A project supported by the Sasakawa Leprosy Initiative is under way to train young leaders from the leprosy-affected community and to facilitate knowledge exchange between Colombia and Indonesia. Voices from the field “We need better strategies to connect with others affected by leprosy. When an international organization funds a project, only those leading it are informed, leaving us, the rest, without opportunities to meet other people facing similar challenges. We need a dedicated platform, like a “Facebook” for persons affected, where languages can be translated to advance global connection and support.”[[fn:33]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "Person affected by leprosy from Nepal interviewed in November 2024."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Improving coordination, funding stability and ensuring meaningful participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "Valuable practice: the Global Forum of People’s Organizations on Hansen’s Disease is a key event that brings together representatives from organizations of persons affected by leprosy along with major stakeholders. Strategically held just before the International Leprosy Congress, the forum serves as a platform for dialogue, capacity-building and amplifying the voices of those directly impacted by the disease. Organized by the Sasakawa Health Foundation and the Nippon Foundation, it was first held in 2019, bringing together participants from over 15 countries, more than 100 persons affected by leprosy and over 20 grassroots organizations. The next forum will take place in Bali, Indonesia, in July 2025.[[fn:34]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "Information gathered through interviews and discussions with representatives of various leprosy organizations. For more information see https://ilcbali2025.com/about-ila."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Voices from the field"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "The Leprosy Research Initiative resulted from a joint venture of multiple international organizations that recognize leprosy research and innovation as crucial components in eliminating the disease and improving the lives of persons affected by it. Its research priorities include diagnostic tests, disability, operational research, stigma and discrimination and transmission. The initiative has supported multi-countries initiatives and the exchange of knowledge between researchers from different countries and experiences. In 1931, before the creation of the initiative, the International Leprosy Association was established as a professional society comprising physicians, scientists and organizations dedicated to advancing research and addressing the challenges associated with leprosy. The two major means of accomplishing that vital work have been the publication of the International Journal of Leprosy and the organization of the International Leprosy Congress every 3 to 4 years. Due to rising costs and lack of funding, the publication of the journal became financially unviable, and publication ceased after volume 73 in 2005.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "D. Research and innovation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "These initiatives, which enhance understanding and management of the disease, are crucial for improving the living conditions of persons affected by leprosy and their families. The reduction in funding, particularly for disseminating scientific research findings, poses a significant setback in the field. Additionally, grassroots organizations have expressed concerns that, despite changes in research approaches, persons affected by leprosy still feel utilized rather than actively involved in research at all levels. The Special Rapporteur has also observed the need to make research findings accessible to affected persons, including through easy-to-read formats. Moreover, there is a lack of organizational policies that recognize the right of persons affected to be informed and updated about research related to the disease and to their lives. This includes the development and dissemination of annual reports, evaluation reports and research findings.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "D. Research and innovation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "International donors and bilateral cooperation have supported scientific and medical research in leprosy control. The post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) programme has piloted single-dose rifampicin integration in multiple countries, proving its feasibility, while the “Ready4PEP” project is expanding its implementation in Mozambique and Nigeria to curb transmission. Despite its potential, challenges remain. Confidentiality and community education are crucial to prevent discrimination. Successful implementation requires efficient contact tracing, trained healthcare workers and a steady supply of rifampicin, which can be difficult in resource-limited areas. Additionally, effectiveness varies by exposure level, requiring alternative preventive measures for high-risk contacts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "D. Research and innovation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "International organizations have played a key role in enhancing the availability of digital platforms, social media and specialized applications, significantly improving various aspects of leprosy management, including awareness, early diagnosis, treatment adherence and peer support. Social media platforms such as Facebook and Instagram have been instrumental in disseminating information, combating stigma and promoting early detection, with awareness campaigns leveraging these tools to enhance community engagement. For example, in countries like Mozambique, the implementation of the text message-based leprosy case management system has strengthened case monitoring and management.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "D. Research and innovation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "Along the same lines, a project on leprosy mapping and data collection is under way that aims to collect and analyse case data to identify clusters of leprosy cases, allowing for more targeted interventions. The project has involved partnerships between different international organizations, including international universities, as well as multilateral cooperation. This project is being implemented in Nepal but is part of a broader regional effort, with similar projects in Myanmar and the United Republic of Tanzania.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "D. Research and innovation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "Countries like India, Senegal and Togo have reported leading in innovative approaches, including the use of artificial intelligence,[[fn:35]] for diagnosis, active screening, research on chemoprophylaxis, the production of multidrug therapy and vaccine development. Further, WHO has introduced a mobile application that leverages artificial intelligence to assist in diagnosing neglected tropical diseases, including leprosy. The WHO mobile application is particularly beneficial in resource-limited settings, offering support to healthcare workers by providing diagnostic assistance and educational resources.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights general comment No. 25 (2020), which focuses on the right to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress in relation to economic, social, and cultural rights under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. It provides guidance on how States should implement article 15 (1) (b) of the International Covenant, which recognizes this right."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "D. Research and innovation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "The Special Rapporteur highlights the challenges faced by projects using artificial intelligence, as reported from the field. Artificial intelligence models require diverse and high-quality datasets, yet collecting sufficient standardized images is difficult because of leprosy’s varied manifestations and declining prevalence. In addition, artificial intelligence tools must integrate skin image analysis with patient history and symptoms for accurate diagnosis, a process that remains complex. Privacy concerns, data security, informed consent and regulatory approvals present significant barriers, particularly in communities with 35 See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights general comment No. 25 (2020), which focuses on the right to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress in relation to economic, social, and cultural rights under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. It provides guidance on how States should implement article 15 (1) (b) of the International Covenant, which recognizes this right. GE.25-05250 limited awareness of the implications of sharing information. Furthermore, many endemic regions face challenges such as unreliable Internet access, inadequate healthcare infrastructure and a shortage of trained personnel, all of which hinder the effective adoption of artificial intelligence technologies. Voices from the field: “The areas I visit face two main issues: undiagnosed new cases and a lack of medical services. The government is trying to implement digital healthcare, allowing doctors from other regions to diagnose patients via Zoom or similar platforms. However, these areas lack Internet access, among other services. I hope the government addresses both the communication and healthcare challenges.”[[fn:36]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "Leprosy volunteer health worker from Colombia interviewed in September 2024."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "D. Research and innovation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "Valuable practice: The AI4Leprosy Diagnostic Tool has been developed in Brazil through a collaboration between the Oswaldo Cruz Institute, AI for Health developed by Microsoft Research, and the Novartis Foundation. It is an artificial intelligence-enabled diagnostic assistant designed to identify suspected leprosy lesions. By analysing images of skin lesions alongside patient symptoms, the tool has demonstrated over 90 per cent accuracy in detecting leprosy. The tool is being used to accelerate diagnosis, thereby facilitating prompt treatment and reducing transmission rates.[[fn:37]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "Information gathered through interviews and discussions with representatives of various leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.ioc.fiocruz.br/en/noticias/fiocruz-microsoft-e-novartis-criam-inteligencia-artificial-para-acelerar-o-diagnostico-da."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "D. Research and innovation", "Voices from the field:"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "Several international organizations are actively engaged in community inclusive development and leprosy eradication. Shifting from a community-based rehabilitation model into an inclusive development one has also helped organizations to reflect more on a social model of leprosy that emphasizes human rights, social participation, livelihoods and dignity. Community inclusive development approaches promote economic empowerment, education and community participation for persons affected by leprosy, incorporating a human rights framework. In addition, in community inclusive development frameworks, the importance of promoting collaboration between the leprosy sector and other neglected tropical diseases is highlighted. The experience and progress of the leprosy rights movement can inform the development of a human rights-based approach to other neglected tropical diseases. On the other hand, valuable insights from the broader field of neglected tropical diseases, particularly diseases of the skin, can enhance strategies for addressing leprosy-related challenges, creating opportunities for mutual learning and knowledge exchange.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "E. Human rights and inclusive development"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "Notably, most international organizations focused on leprosy have already integrated one or more neglected tropical diseases into their workplans. As the global crisis in international aid persists, this trend is likely to intensify, driving organizations toward a more integrated, cross-sectoral approach to enhance impact, optimize resources and ensure the sustainability of their efforts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "E. Human rights and inclusive development"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "Leprosy-related discrimination is deeply connected to broader global inequalities, disproportionately affecting marginalized communities facing poverty, disability and limited access to healthcare. Addressing leprosy through a human rights lens requires integrating it into global discussions on economic justice, disability rights and gender and inclusive development", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "E. Human rights and inclusive development"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "While many international leprosy organizations have adopted a human rights approach, more work is needed to establish independent national organizations that balance power between the global North and the global South. Some have taken steps by transitioning local offices into autonomous NGOs, such as the LEPRA Society in India and Anandaban Leprosy Hospital in Nepal, a previous Leprosy Mission project, which now operate independently while collaborating with former affiliates. NLR (until No Leprosy Remains) 36 Leprosy volunteer health worker from Colombia interviewed in September 2024. 37 Information gathered through interviews and discussions with representatives of various leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.ioc.fiocruz.br/en/noticias/fiocruz-microsoft-enovartis-criam-inteligencia-artificial-para-acelerar-o-diagnostico-da. GE.25-05250 has also converted branch offices into national NGOs to strengthen local leadership. However, local NGOs still rely on international funding, highlighting the need for sustainable strategies. Voices from the field: “Helping an office achieve financial independence and sustainability is challenging, as power dynamics remain. Both international and national offices must learn to weight their strengths. In international development, a balance between bottom-up and top-down approaches is essential, even for local organizations.”[[fn:38]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Representative of a disability and leprosy international organization interviewed in October 2024."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "E. Human rights and inclusive development"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "Valuable practice: In Senegal, the Association Sénégalaise de Lutte Contre la Lèpre et les Maladies Tropicales Négligées plays a pivotal role in advocating for the rights and well-being of persons affected by leprosy and other neglected tropical diseases neglected tropical diseases. The organization emphasizes community-based strategies, fostering understanding and solidarity to combat stigma and discrimination. A notable achievement of the association is its successful advocacy for the repeal of Law No. 76-03 in 2023, which mandated the isolation of persons affected by leprosy in designated villages. This was made possible with the collaboration between the organization, the German Leprosy and Tuberculosis Relief Association and the Association Sénégalaise.[[fn:39]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "Information gathered through interviews and discussions with representatives of various leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.facebook.com/p/Association-S%C3%A9n%C3%A9galaise-de-Lutte-Contre-la-L%C3%A8pre-et-les-MTN-100066970336476/."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "E. Human rights and inclusive development", "Voices from the field:"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "Solidarity in the context of leprosy extends beyond immediate humanitarian assistance. It is manifested in various forms, including political advocacy, community empowerment, international cooperation and ethical commitment. During the COVID-19 pandemic, which disproportionately impacted marginalized communities, including persons affected by leprosy, expressions of solidarity were expressed in the more traditional way. Despite the immense challenges, various expressions of solidarity emerged globally, driven by grassroots organizations, international NGOs and governments. Self-help groups and leprosy-affected networks mobilized resources. Organizations such as the Association of People Affected by Leprosy-India and the Ethiopian Association of Persons Affected by Leprosy distributed food, hygiene kits and essential medicines. Community kitchens were set up in former leprosy colonies in Brazil, India and Indonesia.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "F. Practices of solidarity"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "Since the COVID-19 pandemic, one practice that has become regular is the use of social media and text messaging as a form of digital solidarity to provide mental health support and to share information. The digital space has become a common place to exchanges ideas and have discussions about issues faced by persons affected in different parts of the world.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "F. Practices of solidarity"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "Training in compassion has played a crucial role in addressing neglected tropical diseases, such as leprosy, lymphatic filariasis, schistosomiasis, trachoma and onchocerciasis (river blindness).[[fn:40]] For example, training healthcare workers in patient-centred care with a compassionate approach has been shown to reduce bias and discrimination against persons affected by neglected tropical diseases, foster empathetic communication, strengthen patient trust and promote dignified, patient-centred care — leading to better treatment. In Ethiopia, training programmes for nurses and community health workers emphasized compassionate, non-judgmental care for people with leprosy and related diseases, improving both patient outcomes and healthcare accessibility.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "D.G. Addiss, Y. Kienast and J.V. Lavery, “Ethical dimensions of neglected tropical disease programming”, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, vol. 115, No. 2 (2021), pp. 190–195."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "F. Practices of solidarity"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "In many African countries, traditional healers and religious figures play a significant role in healthcare. Training them in compassion and medical knowledge about neglected tropical diseases has proven effective in several ways: it reduces harmful traditional practices 38 Representative of a disability and leprosy international organization interviewed in October 2024. 39 Information gathered through interviews and discussions with representatives of various leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.facebook.com/p/AssociationS%C3%A9n%C3%A9galaise-de-Lutte-Contre-la-L%C3%A8pre-et-les-MTN-100066970336476/. 40 D.G. Addiss, Y. Kienast and J.V. Lavery, “Ethical dimensions of neglected tropical disease programming”, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, vol. 115, No. 2 (2021), pp. 190–195. GE.25-05250 that exacerbate neglected tropical diseases (for example, the isolation of affected persons), bridges the gap between modern medicine and religious beliefs and fosters greater community acceptance of treatment and rehabilitation services. In Nigeria, training traditional healers in compassion and awareness of neglected tropical diseases led to early referrals for leprosy and related diseases, significantly improving health outcomes Voices from the field: “Compassion and ethical solidarity, either within self-help groups or international leprosy organizations, must shift from charity-based models to human rights-centred frameworks. Upholding the ethics of solidarity and compassion ensures that persons affected by leprosy are not merely recipients of aid but active participants in shaping policies and making financial and programming decisions that impact their lives.”[[fn:41]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "Representative of an international health organization interviewed in December 2024."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "F. Practices of solidarity"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "Valuable practice: the International Association for Integration, Dignity and Economic Advancement promotes peer mentorship, leadership training and self-advocacy. Many self-help organizations led by persons affected by leprosy provide both emotional and financial support. The Association operates on the principles of dignity, integration and self-empowerment, with a particular focus on adopting peer support and solidarity among persons affected by leprosy. Unlike traditional leprosy organizations that primarily focus on medical interventions, it emphasizes the voices, experiences and leadership of those directly affected.[[fn:42]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "Information gathered through interviews and discussions with representatives of various leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.ideaadvocates.org/index.html."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "F. Practices of solidarity", "Voices from the field:"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "At a time when international aid for social and health initiatives is facing unprecedented cuts, persons affected by leprosy and their families find themselves in an increasingly vulnerable position. The historical underfunding of leprosy programmes, coupled with shifting global priorities, threatens to reverse the progress achieved in reducing transmission, ensuring early detection and eliminating discrimination. This regression would not only violate fundamental human rights but would also undermine the commitments made by States and international organizations to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and leaving no one behind.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that leprosy is not merely a medical condition; it is a social justice and human rights issue. The persistence of exclusion of affected persons from decision-making processes and the lack of sustainable funding mechanisms expose the deep structural inequalities that continue to define the global response to leprosy. Despite these challenges, grassroots movements, South-South cooperation, collaboration between the leprosy sector and other neglected tropical diseases, and innovative financing models demonstrate that a rights-based, solidarity-driven approach to leprosy is both possible and necessary.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "As outlined in the present report, international cooperation on leprosy must move beyond charity-based models toward frameworks rooted in dignity, inclusion and justice. Strengthening partnerships, securing sustainable funding and ensuring the meaningful participation of affected persons in decision-making are crucial steps in safeguarding the rights of those affected. The current funding crisis calls for urgent collective action: without it, the global community risks failing in its commitment to eliminate leprosy-related discrimination and exclusion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "To ensure that leprosy is integrated within the international cooperation agenda, the Special Rapporteur makes the following recommendations: 41 Representative of an international health organization interviewed in December 2024. 42 Information gathered through interviews and discussions with representatives of various leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.ideaadvocates.org/index.html. GE.25-05250 Strengthening international cooperation and funding (a) Urgent reinvestment in international cooperation for leprosy: States and multilateral agencies should commit to increasing financial support for leprosy-related initiatives, integrating them into broader aid frameworks for neglected tropical diseases, disability rights and social inclusion: international donors should expand funding mechanisms beyond medical interventions to include social, economic and human rights-based programmes, ensuring a comprehensive response to leprosy; (b) Strengthening a human rights-based approach: States should align their national strategies with the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their families and integrate human rights protections into their legal frameworks: bilateral and multilateral donors should incorporate human rights criteria into their funding allocation, prioritizing programmes that empower affected communities rather than reinforcing dependency models; Embedding a human rights-based approach (c) Securing sustainable funding mechanisms: international financial institutions, including the World Bank and regional development banks, should establish dedicated funding streams for leprosy-related programmes, particularly in endemic countries; (d) Bilateral and multilateral donors should implement transparent reporting mechanisms, ensuring that funding commitments for leprosy are trackable, publicly disclosed and sustained over the long term; Advancing research and innovation for equity (e) Public-private partnerships should be leveraged to create long-term financing solutions, following models such as impact investment funds that ensure sustainability beyond short-term aid cycles: governments should commit a percentage of their international development budgets to neglected tropical diseases, ensuring leprosy is not overlooked within broader global health strategies; (f) Centring persons affected by leprosy in decision-making: international organizations and national programmes must guarantee that persons affected by leprosy are meaningfully represented in decision-making bodies, advisory boards and funding allocation committees: global platforms, such as the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, the Leprosy Research Initiative and the Global Partnership for Zero Leprosy should ensure that affected persons are fully informed of research developments, policy changes and funding priorities in accessible formats; Enhancing global coordination and inclusion (g) Advancing research and innovation with equality: increased investment is needed in research on new diagnostics, prevention strategies and post-treatment complications, ensuring that innovations reach affected communities rather than remaining confined to academic settings; research institutions should adopt ethical guidelines that ensure that persons affected by leprosy are active participants in shaping study objectives and methodologies; (h) Strengthen international cooperation to combat gender-specific discrimination and stigma: governments should collaborate to address gender-based discrimination and stigma related to leprosy through shared best practices and gender-sensitive policies that include women’s empowerment programmes; (i) Enhancing global coordination and cross-sectoral collaboration: governments, donors and international organizations should strengthen South-South and triangular cooperation, facilitating knowledge exchange, training programmes, and shared policy solutions between endemic countries: global health and human rights organizations should integrate leprosy within broader discussions on disability, mental GE.25-05250 health, care and support services and social justice, ensuring a multisectoral response to its social and economic consequences; (j) Support local programmes to integrate leprosy into universal health coverage frameworks: governments should incorporate leprosy services into universal health coverage through international collaboration, ensuring accessible and inclusive healthcare; (k) Ensure access to essential medicines and treatment through international cooperation: governments and international organizations must work together to secure the continuous availability and equitable distribution of leprosy medicines and treatment; Integrating leprosy into global development agendas (l) Expanding practices of solidarity and ethical cooperation: the international community should recognize that solidarity with persons affected by leprosy must extend beyond emergency aid towards sustainable, rights-based partnerships that empower affected persons: international organizations and donors should support grassroots movements and self-advocacy groups, ensuring they have the financial and technical resources needed to strengthen their leadership and organizational sustainability; (m) Integrating leprosy into global health and development agendas: the United Nations and its agencies should ensure that leprosy is explicitly included in global health, disability and human rights frameworks, preventing its continued marginalization in international policy discussions: the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goal 3 (good health and well-being) and Goal 10 (reduced inequalities), should be operationalized to ensure that persons affected by leprosy benefit from development initiatives.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "The protection of the rights of persons affected by leprosy depends on daring action now. Without urgent investment and systemic change, the global community risks failing millions of people who continue to face discrimination, exclusion and preventable disabilities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Integrating leprosy into global development agendas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is submitted pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 53/8, in which the Council extended the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members. In this report, the Special Rapporteur, Beatriz Miranda-Galarza, examines the consequences of neglecting the history of leprosy and the impact that such neglect has had on the lives of persons affected and their families and will continue to have if it is not addressed in accordance with principles of justice and human rights. She argues that, beyond the ruined, abandoned and partially or even fully preserved former leprosaria and leprosy colonies and settlements, there lies a deeper failure of States and society to recognize past rights violations and the persistence of discriminatory practices. Presenting these sites as merely historical medical facilities obscures their true function as legally sanctioned, administratively organized and socially normalized systems of forced segregation. These systems produced intergenerational harm and entailed violations of the fundamental rights of persons affected by leprosy and their families, the consequences of which continue to be felt today.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "Despite the work carried out over the past two decades by grass-roots organizations and international organizations working in this field and the Special Rapporteurs on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members, State recognition of and reparation for the rights violations experienced by persons affected by leprosy and their families, including violations that persist, remain limited and uneven across jurisdictions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "Several factors help explain States’ reluctance to recognize such violations. Policies that constituted rights violations are often framed as legitimate public health measures of the past, despite their continuing consequences. Although the international human rights framework was not fully developed during the early implementation of leprosy segregation policies, post-war international law made clear that public health measures must respect human dignity, equality and non-discrimination.[[fn:1]] Concerns about financial liability, institutional responsibility and limited documentation, together with the long-standing marginalization of persons affected by leprosy and fears of further stigmatization, have hindered recognition. These violations should also be understood as continuing violations under international human rights law, given their ongoing impact on survivors and their descendants.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See Charter of the United Nations, preamble and arts. 1 (3) and 55 (c); and Universal Declaration of Human Rights, arts. 1–3, 13 and 16."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "In this report, the Special Rapporteur argues that the historical segregation of persons affected by leprosy constitutes a system of structural injustice that may be analysed alongside other forms of institutionalized discrimination recognized in international human rights law and that addressing its consequences requires the application of a human rights framework based on truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantees of non-recurrence. These principles are reflected in international human rights law, including the Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members and other relevant international standards related to cultural rights and the right to truth. Historical systems of segregation frequently resulted in arbitrary detention, forced family separation, restrictions on marriage and reproduction and violations of bodily autonomy. In many cases, such measures may also amount to arbitrary detention under international human rights law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "According to a survey done for this report and other available information, it is important to note that countries such as Brazil, Japan and the Republic of Korea have adopted measures focusing on certain principles, including the judicial recognition of violations, compensation schemes and official apologies.[[fn:2]] However, such measures remain exceptional, and comprehensive approaches encompassing the five principles of truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantees of non‑recurrence are largely absent at the global level. This demonstrates that there is still no consistent global practice of recognition, remedy and institutional reform in this area.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See A/HRC/44/46/Add.1; A/HRC/44/46/Add.2; and Celeste L. Arrington, “Leprosy, legal mobilization, and the public sphere in Japan and South Korea”, Law & Society Review, vol. 48, No. 3 (2014), pp. 563-593."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "In preparing the report, the Special Rapporteur analysed the responses to a questionnaire sent to Member States, reviewed information obtained through individual interviews with representatives of international organizations and experts on the topic and gathered insights from representatives of grass-roots organizations from various countries. In addition, the Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the Special Rapporteur on the promotion of truth, justice, reparation and guarantees of non-recurrence and those working with the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights for their valuable insights on the topic. Owing to the lack of financial support, the Special Rapporteur was unable to conduct an expert group consultation that could have provided additional perspectives and information to enrich the report. She also regrets that several leprosy-endemic countries did not respond to the questionnaire, which made it difficult to include official information on the issues raised.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "As the decision on the renewal of the mandate will be taken by the Council at its sixty-second session, the Special Rapporteur seeks to raise awareness of the critical importance of preserving the independence and continuity of the mandate. The rights violations historically experienced by persons affected by leprosy have not yet been repaired, as evidenced in this and previous reports, and they have yet to find justice. As emphasized in numerous reports and public presentations, this mandate represents the only dedicated space within the United Nations human rights system where persons affected and their organizations can bring their concerns and demands before such bodies as the Human Rights Council and the General Assembly. The Special Rapporteur urges Member States to continue supporting the mandate as a means of addressing the centuries of neglect and exclusion faced by persons affected by leprosy. The mandate must remain in place until discrimination no longer endangers their lives and dignity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Leprosaria and leprosy colonies were not spontaneous communities. In most cases, they were established through legislation, administrative decisions, religious initiatives and social pressure, varying according to historical period and regional context. In medieval Europe, institutions functioning as hospitals or places of isolation were often established under the administration of religious congregations. At that time, however, modern germ theory did not exist and there was no scientific evidence regarding the transmission of the disease; forced segregation measures were therefore precautionary and rooted in fear, religious interpretation and social exclusion rather than evidence-based public health policy. By the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, leprosy colonies were formally institutionalized around the world through public health legislation mandating compulsory isolation, frequently on remote islands or in rural areas, while colonial administrations often imposed stricter segregation regimes in colonized territories. Their legal assessment under international human rights law arises more in relation to the later persistence and institutionalization of such systems in the twentieth century.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. An evolution of structural injustice: a brief overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "It was during the International Leprosy Congress held in Berlin in 1897 that recommendations for the isolation of persons affected by leprosy, the establishment of special institutions or colonies, the registration of patients and State supervision were strongly promoted, with isolation and segregation presented as the most effective method for controlling the disease. Although not legally binding, these recommendations heavily influenced domestic segregation laws and administrative practices around the world. The Congress, and those that followed, brought together physicians, public health officials, colonial administrators and scientists from different countries, while largely ignoring the voices of persons affected.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. An evolution of structural injustice: a brief overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "It should be noted that Mycobacterium leprae, the bacterium that causes the disease, was identified in 1873 by Gerhard Armauer Hansen and subsequent research established that leprosy transmission is relatively difficult, typically requiring prolonged close contact and that most individuals exposed do not develop the disease. Compared with other infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis, leprosy has low infectivity. The World Health Organization has long clarified that isolation is not required for treatment or prevention where appropriate multidrug therapy is available. Scientific knowledge did not demonstrate that lifelong or mass segregation was necessary. Although many such systems remained in place into the later twentieth century, restrictions on liberty and movement were required under international human rights law to satisfy the standards of legality, necessity and proportionality.[[fn:3]] Despite this, many States enacted and maintained strict segregation laws in the early and mid-twentieth century, resulting in policies that were far more restrictive than the available scientific evidence justified, raising serious questions as to their necessity and proportionality under international human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 4 and 12; Human Rights Committee, general comments No. 27 (1999) on freedom of movement, para. 14, and No. 29 (2001) on derogations from provisions of the Covenant during a state of emergency, paras. 4 and 13–16; and Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation Provisions in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, E/CN.4/1985/4, annex."}], "section": ["II. An evolution of structural injustice: a brief overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "As explained in previous reports presented under the present mandate,[[fn:4]] leprosy colonies were inhabited by persons of all ages who were subjected to seclusion, often for life. Such seclusion practices can also be understood as forms of long-term institutionalization. Until the 1970s, and in some cases the 1980s, residents were generally not permitted to leave the colonies, which reinforced their physical and social separation from the broader community, and many died there. They were frequently buried in separate cemeteries. In numerous contexts, identity documents were withdrawn or invalidated, families were separated and fundamental rights were severely restricted, including the rights to marry and to found a family. Practices of forced or coerced sterilization were reported in many settings and children were separated from their parents and placed in institutions or adoption systems. In some instances, neglect and inadequate living conditions resulted in the preventable suffering and deaths of children. Research and survivor testimony indicate that medical experimentation occurred in certain institutions without adequate safeguards or informed consent being in place. Although not systematically documented through formal State investigations, survivor testimonies and archival material from some sites suggest that sexual and physical violence occurred. In some cases, many leprosy colonies included prison facilities used to punish those who violated the rules established within the colony. Such practices may infringe upon, among others, the rights to liberty, family life, bodily autonomy and freedom from cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "A/79/152, A/HRC/56/59, A/HRC/44/46 and A/HRC/38/42."}], "section": ["II. An evolution of structural injustice: a brief overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The dismantling of leprosy segregation systems began, at least formally, between the 1940s and the 1960s and accelerated between the 1970s and the 1980s. There were at least three main turning points: (a) sulfone antibiotic therapy (especially with dapsone) became available in the 1940s; (b) the World Health Organization started promoting outpatient treatment, community-based care and the integration of treatment into general health services between the 1960s and the 1980s; and (c) the World Health Organization officially recommended multidrug therapy in 1981, which was a global main turning point.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. An evolution of structural injustice: a brief overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "However, laws were not immediately changed. Instead, Governments implemented incremental administrative adjustments, while leprosaria continued to operate as long-term residential institutions for former patients who had no families to which they could return or who chose to remain after building their lives and those of their families there. In each country, the pace and nature of changes and the processes of deinstitutionalization were shaped by the political context, institutional interests, social movements, leadership and the availability of acceptable alternatives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. An evolution of structural injustice: a brief overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Following this logic, many former settlements, particularly in endemic countries, continue to be home to persons affected by leprosy and their relatives. Residents commonly face multiple challenges, including limited or inadequate access to basic services, such as water, electricity and sanitation, the denial of land and property rights and ongoing discrimination from surrounding communities. These conditions result in barriers to employment, exclusion from education, inadequate housing and persistent obstacles to accessing health services and treatment, thereby giving rise to violations of a range of economic, social and cultural rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. An evolution of structural injustice: a brief overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Furthermore, discriminatory legal frameworks persist to this day, with approximately 139 discriminatory laws remaining in force across some 24 countries, even where certain provisions are no longer actively enforced.[[fn:5]] These laws impose restrictions on marriage and divorce, immigration and residency, employment, access to public spaces and transportation, public health measures and voting and other civil rights, often disproportionately affecting women. Even where they are no longer actively enforced, they continue to reinforce stigma and perpetuate structural discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. Their continued existence is incompatible with States’ obligations to eliminate discrimination in law and in practice.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See A/76/148 and International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, “Updated list of discriminatory laws affecting”, available at https://ilepfederation.org/updated-list-of-discriminatory-laws."}], "section": ["II. An evolution of structural injustice: a brief overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Understanding the historical development of leprosy segregation is essential to recognizing the need for a normative framework capable of addressing the long-term consequences of that segregation. The call to apply a human rights-based framework – grounded in the principles of truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantees of non-recurrence – in addressing historical leprosy-related rights violations finds its basis in international human rights law and is reflected in United Nations normative frameworks. For the purposes of the present report, those principles may be understood through a “normative triangle” composed of three interrelated obligations: the guarantee of the right to an effective remedy; the duty to ensure substantive equality and eliminate structural discrimination; and the obligation to uphold human dignity and meaningful participation. Together, these three obligations provide a coherent human rights framework for addressing structural justice, within which the interrelated principles of truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantees of non-recurrence may be understood.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. A normative framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "The right to an effective remedy, which addresses the procedural dimension of accountability, is grounded in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, particularly article 2 (3), which obliges States to ensure access to effective remedies determined by competent authorities and enforced when granted. This obligation is further elaborated in the Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation, which provide a framework for addressing structural injustice and systemic discrimination through victim-centred approaches. These standards require equal access to justice, adequate and prompt reparation and information on violations and define the forms of reparation, including restitution, compensation, rehabilitation, satisfaction and guarantees of non-repetition. In the context of leprosy, they support the recognition that violations are systemic and require not only individual remedies but also structural measures, such as legal reform, the removal of institutional barriers, public acknowledgement and preservation of memory. However, as noted above, these principles have rarely been implemented, leaving persons affected by leprosy in conditions of prolonged invisibility and neglect.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. A normative framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The duty to ensure substantive equality and eliminate structural discrimination reflects the transformative nature of this framework and is grounded in key international conventions. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is particularly relevant where persons affected by leprosy experience disability or disability-based discrimination, as it requires States to eliminate discrimination, ensure accessibility, promote awareness, combat stigma, guarantee participation, support independent living and provide rehabilitation. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women reinforces this approach by requiring States to address discrimination in law and practice and to transform social and cultural norms. It strengthens the obligation to address the intersecting discrimination across family life, health, education and employment that affects women affected by leprosy, who often face heightened stigma and exclusion. Similarly, the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination requires States to review and amend laws and policies with discriminatory effects, which is particularly relevant in contexts where persons affected by leprosy belong to marginalized ethnic or social groups. Together, these instruments provide a normative basis for addressing the structural inequalities that continue to shape the lives of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. A normative framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "The normative foundation of dignity and participation reflects the recognition and inclusion dimension of this framework. It is grounded in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, particularly articles 13 (education), 11 (adequate standard of living) and 15 (participation in cultural life), which are directly affected in the context of leprosy. The Covenant requires States to take deliberate, concrete and targeted steps to realize these rights and eliminate discrimination and use the maximum available resources to do so. Forced separation, poverty, social marginalization and limited access to treatment illustrate how discrimination related to leprosy produces structural injustice rather than isolated harm. Complementing this, the independent expert in the field of cultural rights, in a report to the Human Rights Council,[[fn:6]] affirms that cultural heritage is integral to human rights, linking identity, dignity and participation. That affirmation reinforces the right of persons affected by leprosy to take part in how their histories are documented, preserved and remembered, ensuring that memory processes uphold dignity and counter historical erasure.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "A/HRC/17/38 and A/HRC/17/38/Corr.1."}], "section": ["III. A normative framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "In this context, the Special Rapporteur on the promotion of truth, justice, reparation and guarantees of non-recurrence has emphasized that violations of economic, social and cultural rights, including the lack of access to health, housing, work, education and cultural resources, are often both root causes and consequences of systemic abuse.[[fn:7]] He, therefore, argues that a “holistic, rights-based” approach to addressing such abuses should integrate concerns related to economic, social and cultural rights across the five pillars of transitional justice. The present report builds on that recommendation by examining the violations of economic, social and cultural rights historically experienced by persons affected by leprosy and their families, including those related to land rights, housing, electricity, water and sanitation and access to treatment, as well as their links to reparation and social redress.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See A/80/175."}], "section": ["III. A normative framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "In addition to the normative triangle described above, the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members provide a clear normative basis that aligns with the five-pillar framework adopted in the present report. This alignment is consistent with United Nations practice, as many of their provisions operationalize these principles in the specific context of leprosy. The principles and guidelines support truth through awareness-raising, the dissemination of scientific knowledge and the elimination of myths; justice through the repeal of discriminatory laws and equal access to rights; reparation through rehabilitation, reintegration and restoration of rights; memorialization through public recognition and efforts to combat stigma; and guarantees of non-recurrence through legal reform, policy change and the meaningful participation of persons affected in decision-making processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. A normative framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "While the five normative principles on which the human rights framework to address historical violations of the rights of persons affected by leprosy is based have traditionally been associated with the five pillars of transitional justice, the principles have increasingly informed scholarly and advocacy-based human rights approaches to addressing historical and structural injustices in societies beyond those emerging from conflict or authoritarian rule. 6 A/HRC/17/38 and A/HRC/17/38/Corr.1. 7 See A/80/175. GE.26-04739 In some cases, practices contrary to these principles have been recognized as constituting gross human rights violations under international law. Scholars, researchers and human rights advocates have argued that these principles can address deep structural injustices, including disability-based institutionalization,[[fn:8]] 8 psychiatric confinement,[[fn:9]] 9 the forced assimilation of Indigenous children,[[fn:10]] racial segregation and apartheid,[[fn:11]] the forced sterilization of women[[fn:12]] and violence against LGBTQIA+ persons.[[fn:13]] 13 They have also been operationalized in situations of institutional abuse and colonial legacies, including in public health contexts, where State policies resulted in long-term discrimination and social exclusion.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Linda Steele, “Truth commissions on disability institutions: towards a disability truth and repair framework”, Human Rights Law Review, vol. 25, No. 2 (2024)."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Helen Spandler and Mick McKeown, “Exploring the case for truth and reconciliation in mental health services”, Mental Health Review Journal, vol. 22, No. 2 (2017), pp. 83–94."}, {"n": 10, "text": "Natasha Chandok and Eric M. Yoshida, “Demanding truth, reconciliation, and justice for Canada’s Indigenous Peoples: now and forever”, Canadian Liver Journal, vol. 4, No. 3 (2021), pp. 255–256; and A/72/186."}, {"n": 11, "text": "Annah Moyo, Maxine Rubin and Hugo van der Merwe, “Reparations for apartheid-era victims in South Africa: the unfinished business of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission”, in Reparations for Victims of Genocide, War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, Carla Ferstman and Mariana Goetz, eds. (Brill Nijhoff, 2020)."}, {"n": 12, "text": "Jocelyn E. Getgen, “Untold truths: the exclusion of enforced sterilizations from the Peruvian Truth Commission’s final report”, Boston College Third World Law Journal, vol. 29, No. 1 (2009); and Linda Steele, “Sites of conscience redressing disability institutional violence”, Incarceration, vol. 3, No. 2 (2022)."}, {"n": 13, "text": "Emily Jones, “Gender and reparations: seeking transformative justice”, in Reparations for Victims of Genocide, War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The Special Rapporteur highlights that, although the framework presented here may provide general guidance, its application in local contexts must take into consideration the needs of affected communities, as well as the relationship between addressing the past and building reconciliation for the future. In this context, affected communities involve all members of those communities, including victims, survivors, their families and other relevant actors concerned, with these historical processes.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "Wendy Lambourne, “Transformative justice, reconciliation and peacebuilding”, in Transitional Justice Theories, Susanne Buckly-Zistel and others, eds. (Routledge, 2013)."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Within this framework, the recognition of victims becomes a central element for addressing injustices. For guidance, the Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation define victims as any “persons who individually or collectively suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering, economic loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights, through acts or omissions that constitute gross violations of international human rights law or serious violations of international humanitarian law”.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "Cited in A/80/175."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "In conversations that the Special Rapporteur has had with grass-roots organizations of persons affected by leprosy, it has become evident that enduring stigma has often prevented those persons from recognizing themselves as victims of historical and structural rights violations. This situation has been reinforced by approaches that frame segregation policies solely as outdated public health measures rather than as violations of human rights, thereby limiting the realization of the rights of persons affected and their families to truth, reparation and guarantees of non-recurrence. The application of the five-pillar framework makes such recognition possible.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "Héctor was 10 years old when the police threatened his parents and ordered that he be sent to the leprosy colony located kilometres from their home. His parents tried to hide him at the back of the house, but the police entered with dogs and found him. Hours later, his parents were forced to hand him over to a woman who made him walk away until he disappeared from their sight. Héctor died in the leprosy colony a few years later. His parents could not afford to visit him and were informed only of his death. His body was buried in the leprosy cemetery in a grave marked with a numbered cross, as his surname had been changed when he entered the institution. This took place in 1935 in a South American country. In 2010, the site of the colony was auctioned off by the Government and demolished. Today, among the rubble and few remaining ruins, there is a parking lot. Neither the Government nor civil society have taken measures seeking to implement reparatory measures for the persons affected and their families.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "A. Truth-seeking and truth-telling"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The story of Héctor was recounted as a distant memory by one of the last remaining former patients who had lived in that leprosarium and who remembered many episodes from life in that place, including the forced sterilization of women, babies being separated from their parents, sexual violence and other abuses.[[fn:16]] Some of the descendants of these former patients have organized themselves and are calling on the Government to deliver justice. However, as one person affected by leprosy said, “justice could only be served when the truth is brought into the open”.[[fn:17]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Personal communication with a person affected by leprosy on 15 December 2025."}, {"n": 17, "text": "Personal communication with a person affected by leprosy on 4 March 2026."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "A. Truth-seeking and truth-telling"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Truth-seeking, including in relation to gross human rights violations and enforced disappearance, refers to the processes through which societies investigate, document and publicly acknowledge past human rights violations, their causes and consequences and the experiences of victims, and identify institutional responsibilities with the purpose of restoring dignity, preserving memory and preventing recurrence. It has been recognized by the Human Rights Council, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights and the Working Group on Enforced Disappearances.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "A. Truth-seeking and truth-telling"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "In his 2013 report,[[fn:18]] the Special Rapporteur on the promotion of truth, justice, reparation and guarantees of non-recurrence highlighted the importance attributed by the inter-American human rights system to the obligations of States not only towards direct victims but also towards their families. He noted that the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights had observed that “every society has the inalienable right to know the truth about past events, as well as the motives and circumstances in which aberrant crimes came to be committed, in order to prevent repetition of such acts in the future” and that the Court had stressed that “the next of kin of the victims and society as a whole must be informed of everything that has happened in connection with the said violations”.[[fn:19]] While developed in another context, this reasoning is instructive for understanding the claims of persons affected by leprosy and their families to truth, acknowledgement and access to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "A/HRC/24/42."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Ibid., para. 19."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "A. Truth-seeking and truth-telling"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "Whereas some scholars have documented the history of well-known leprosaria, such as Molokai in Hawaii (United States), Agua de Dios in Colombia and Culion in the Philippines, much of the available information around the world comes from personal testimonies published by former leprosy patients or from initiatives promoted by local or international organizations,[[fn:20]] which have recorded accounts of forced institutionalization, restriction on movement and marriage, forced sterilization and abortions, medical experimentation, and stigma and discrimination. Despite these efforts, government-led investigations into the abuses associated with these systems of segregation remain extremely limited.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "The International Leprosy Association’s Global Project on the History of Leprosy is one of the main initiatives addressing the global history of leprosy (see https://leprosyhistory.org/). Based at the University of Oxford and funded by the Nippon Foundation and the Sasakawa Health Foundation, it is a comprehensive initiative mapping global archives, records and personal testimonies related to leprosy dating from 1847 onwards."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "A. Truth-seeking and truth-telling"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Systems of forced institutionalization were frequently implemented through public health legislation authorizing the isolation and confinement of persons affected by leprosy. In some contexts, quarantine regimes established specialized settlements where individuals were required to live under strict surveillance. One example is the United States, where federal legislation adopted in 1917 under the United States Quarantine Acts authorized the detention of persons affected by leprosy in national institutions, such as the National Leprosarium in Carville, Louisiana. Regulations adopted in 1922 further formalized these policies by allowing involuntary admission, restricting movement and communication and imposing strict discharge procedures. The history of the National Leprosarium in Carville has been partly documented by the National Hansen’s Disease Program, while the archives of the patient newsletter The Star Newsletter[[fn:21]] provide valuable accounts of the experiences of persons who lived in the institution.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "The Star Newsletter was a bimonthly publication by the patients of the United States Public Health Service Hospital, Carville, Louisiana, between 1941 and 2001."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "A. Truth-seeking and truth-telling"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "Medical and cultural interpretations of leprosy have often been shaped by racialized and sexualized stereotypes, associating the disease with race and ethnicity, morality, hygiene and sexual behaviour. In colonial contexts, segregation policies were also closely intertwined with systems of racial hierarchy and labour control. In Suriname, for instance, the historical research available suggests that segregation laws introduced as early as 1728 were linked to the management of enslaved labour and to efforts to protect the plantation economy during Dutch colonial rule, reinforcing colonial hierarchies and helping legitimize the segregation and surveillance of enslaved persons and other marginalized populations. Even after the abolition of slavery and with the arrival of indentured labourers from China, India and Indonesia, compulsory isolation remained a central element of leprosy policy well into the twentieth century.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "A. Truth-seeking and truth-telling"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "Gendered dimensions to these policies can also be observed in several countries. Forced sterilization was practised in many leprosy colonies and hospitals around the world. In Argentina, for example, the historical research available suggests that some policies were influenced by eugenic ideas from the early twentieth century that framed disease in terms of heredity, social order and racial degeneration. Although leprosy was not explicitly included in legislation permitting abortion, concerns about the living conditions of women affected and the fate of their children contributed to the widespread acceptance of such practices as abortion and sterilization, particularly among poor women. Women affected by leprosy were often encouraged to undergo sterilization if they formed relationships, while men, in most cases, retained their reproductive rights. In leprosy colonies, especially from the 1960s onwards, some women underwent sterilization, sometimes at their own request, to avoid the pain of separation from their children or the risk to their lives posed by abortions. Infants born in these colonies were routinely removed from their mothers and placed in institutions, such as the “Mi Esperanza” colony, creating lasting experiences of loss and suffering.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "A. Truth-seeking and truth-telling"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The experiences described above illustrate how systems of segregation generated widespread violations, the truth of which has rarely been officially investigated, leaving the historical record largely dependent on the efforts of survivors, researchers and civil society. In most countries, States do not appear to have conducted formal truth commissions or comprehensive national investigations into the history and consequences of leprosy segregation and its continuing impact on survivors and their descendants. This lack of investigation reflects broader failures of accountability at the State level.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "A. Truth-seeking and truth-telling"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "While truth-seeking processes are essential for documenting historical injustices and restoring dignity to victims, they must also be accompanied by measures that ensure justice and accountability. International human rights law recognizes access to justice and accountability as essential elements of remedy and redress.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "B. Justice and accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Justice, in the context of the historical segregation of persons affected by leprosy, requires that States recognize the violations committed, remove existing legal barriers and ensure access to effective remedies for survivors and their families. Without such measures, the harm produced by systems of segregation risk remaining unaddressed and the rights of those affected insufficiently protected. Measures should include both judicial and administrative avenues, depending on the context and survivors’ needs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "B. Justice and accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "The right to justice and accountability is recognized as a core component of the Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for victims of human rights violations. The Basic Principles and Guidelines support the proposition that victims must have equal and effective access to justice and that States have an obligation to investigate violations and ensure accountability for acts or omissions that resulted in harm. This obligation applies not only for recent violations but also for historical injustices whose consequences continue to affect individuals and communities. In this regard, the work of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion of truth, justice, reparation and guarantees of non-recurrence has emphasized that justice mechanisms play a crucial role in recognizing victims, establishing responsibility and contributing to the restoration of dignity and public trust.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "B. Justice and accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "Despite these normative standards, judicial recognition of the violations experienced by persons affected by leprosy remains extremely limited. In many contexts, this reflects systemic barriers to accessing justice. In most countries, survivors have faced significant barriers in seeking justice, including the passage of time, a lack of documentation, persistent stigma and limited access to legal assistance. In addition, the framing of segregation policies as legitimate public health measures has often obscured their human rights implications and hindered efforts to hold institutions accountable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "B. Justice and accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "One of the most significant examples of judicial accountability occurred in Japan. In 2001, former patients filed lawsuits against the Government challenging the constitutionality of the country’s long-standing segregation policy. In a landmark ruling, Kumamoto District Court determined that the leprosy prevention law was unconstitutional and that the Government had failed to abolish the law in a timely manner despite scientific evidence demonstrating that compulsory isolation was unnecessary. The Court concluded that the prolonged institutionalization of persons affected by leprosy had violated their fundamental rights and that the State bore responsibility for the physical and psychological suffering, social discrimination and deprivation of liberty experienced by former patients.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "B. Justice and accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "Importantly, the Government of Japan accepted the judgment and chose not to appeal the decision. This recognition of responsibility marked a turning point, paving the way for the adoption of legislation providing financial compensation to former patients and contributing to broader public acknowledgement of the injustices produced by segregation policies. The case demonstrates one important pathway through which domestic courts can recognize historical wrongs and open the way to reparative measures and broader social recognition.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "B. Justice and accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "In other countries, efforts to advance justice have also taken the form of legal advocacy aimed at eliminating discriminatory legislation and promoting equal protection under the law. Civil society organizations and networks of persons affected by leprosy have played an important role in challenging legal provisions that continue to restrict civil rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "B. Justice and accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "These examples demonstrate that justice and accountability can take multiple forms, including judicial decisions, legal reforms and the recognition of State responsibility. However, the limited number of such initiatives worldwide highlights the need for greater efforts to ensure that persons affected by leprosy and their families are able to access justice and obtain recognition for the violations they have endured.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "B. Justice and accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "Reparation seeks to address the harm caused by discriminatory policies and practices and restore, as far as possible, the rights and dignity of victims. In the context of leprosy segregation, reparation must respond to the harm produced by decades of legally enforced isolation and enable survivors and their families to rebuild their lives. Beyond compensation, reparation also acknowledges wrongdoing and contributes to transforming the conditions that allowed violations to occur.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "C. Reparation and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "Brazil is one of the few countries where State policies of leprosy segregation have been explicitly recognized as human rights violations requiring reparative measures.[[fn:22]] From the early twentieth century until the 1980s, compulsory isolation policies required institutionalization in more than 30 leprosy colonies across the country. Many people remained confined for decades, while children born to affected parents were frequently separated and placed in institutions known as preventórios (preventative care centres). These policies produced long-term physical, social, economic and psychological harm, affecting both survivors and their descendants.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See A/76/148."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "C. Reparation and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "The reparation process in Brazil was largely driven by civil society advocacy, particularly by Morhan (Movimento de Reintegração das Pessoas Atingidas pela Hanseníase), which documented abuses, mobilized survivors and advocated legal recognition and reparation. A major milestone was the adoption of Law No. 11.520 in 2007, establishing a special pension for persons subjected to compulsory isolation. The measure provides monthly financial compensation and formally recognizes the injustice of past segregation policies, illustrating how compensation, satisfaction and guarantees of non-repetition can be implemented in practice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "C. Reparation and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "In 2023, Law No. 14.736 extended reparatory benefits to children who had been separated from their parents as a result of isolation or compulsory hospitalization. This measure reflects protections recognized in the Convention on the Rights of the Child, including of the rights to family life, identity and from unjustified separation. The measures taken illustrate important reparative steps, while not necessarily exhausting the broader requirements of redress, equality and non-discrimination.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "C. Reparation and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "Restitution seeks to restore rights and opportunities denied to victims. For persons affected by leprosy, this may include, where appropriate, the recognition of land rights, access to identity documents and the restoration of family relationships and freedom of movement. In consultations with the Special Rapporteur, persons affected repeatedly emphasized land rights and security of tenure as central concerns. The relevance of these issues is evident in, for example, India, where approximately 2,000 settlements inhabited by persons affected by leprosy still exist and residents often lack landownership, adequate housing and basic services.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "C. Reparation and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "Similar situations are reported in some former leprosy colonies in Brazil and in settlements in Indonesia, where around 58 such communities remain. Many houses were built decades ago and are now in poor condition. Residents frequently face discrimination in education and employment, while disability and social exclusion push some individuals into begging or pursuing other precarious livelihoods. These conditions demonstrate how the legacy of segregation continues to shape patterns of poverty and spatial marginalization.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "C. Reparation and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that reparation can contribute significantly to healing and to combating stigma. In conversations with the mandate holders, persons affected by leprosy have stressed that public acknowledgement of historical injustices and official apologies would restore their sense of citizenship and affirm that they had done nothing wrong. As one resident of a former leprosy colony expressed:\nBeing owners of this land would mean acknowledging that this is where we were forced to live, but also where we decided to make the most of our lives. Even one public apology from the President for what we have endured for centuries would bring peace to our souls and help others understand that it was not our fault to have leprosy and it was not our choice to be sent away from the world.[[fn:23]]\nThese experiences demonstrate that reparation is not only about financial compensation but also about restoring dignity, acknowledging historical injustice and transforming the conditions that continue to marginalize persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Interview of a person affected by leprosy from an endemic country on 13 January 2026."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "C. Reparation and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "Systems of segregation produce social invisibility and exclusion from national narratives. Memory therefore plays a crucial role in restoring dignity and visibility to persons whose experiences have been historically silenced. The confinement of the history of persons affected by leprosy to medical records reflects a broader process of historical erasure. Memorialization contributes to restoring citizenship by recognizing that sites, cemeteries, archives, documents and other materials form part of a historical record marked by structural injustice. It also helps transform survivors from subjects of study and charity into historical actors whose dignity and cultural rights have long been denied.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "D. Memorialization as symbolic reparation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Memorialization is recognized in international human rights law as a form of symbolic reparation. The Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation identify “satisfaction” as a form of reparation, including the public acknowledgement of violations, commemorations, memorials and the preservation of historical truth. These measures are closely linked to cultural rights, including the right of individuals and communities to participate in cultural life and to preserve and transmit their histories. In the context of leprosy segregation, symbolic reparation is particularly important in addressing the stigma and social exclusion associated with the disease.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "D. Memorialization as symbolic reparation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "In some contexts, former leprosy settlements are increasingly being recognized as sites of historical memory. Memorial initiatives have sought to transform these places into spaces of remembrance, education and recognition that affirm the dignity of those who lived under systems of segregation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "D. Memorialization as symbolic reparation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Several former leprosy settlements, originally established under colonial or segregation regimes, are gradually being recognized as sites of conscience through the efforts of persons affected by leprosy, their descendants and allies. These initiatives respond to long-standing demands for truth, recognition and dignity, while contributing to civic trust and social solidarity between survivors and broader society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "D. Memorialization as symbolic reparation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "The Sungai Buloh, or “Valley of Hope”, settlement in Malaysia, established in 1930 and once one of the largest leprosy communities in the world, has increasingly been recognized for its historical significance. Originally created under colonial segregation policies, the settlement evolved into a complex community where thousands of persons affected by leprosy lived for decades. Grass-roots movements resisted demolition beginning in 2007, and the site was later recognized by the National Heritage Department. In 2019 it was included on the tentative list of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),[[fn:24]] which reflects the growing recognition of its cultural, architectural and historical significance, while remaining distinct from inscription on the World Heritage List.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "See https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6388/."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "D. Memorialization as symbolic reparation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Other former leprosy colonies, such as Fontilles in Spain, have followed a preservation approach that combines memory, research and continued community life. That site has become an international centre for research and advocacy on Hansen’s disease and neglected tropical diseases. Such initiatives as the digitization of its historical archives, now available through the Miguel de Cervantes Digital Library,[[fn:25]] illustrate how preserving archives and documenting patients’ histories can transform a former colony into a site of memory, research and education.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See https://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obras/materia/fontilles-34495."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "D. Memorialization as symbolic reparation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "Although neither of these States has issued formal public acknowledgements of past violations or implemented economic reparations, these initiatives may be understood as contributing to forms of symbolic reparation. Such measures are non-pecuniary forms of redress, which may include memorials, museums, commemorative sites, public apologies, rituals or other acts of remembrance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "D. Memorialization as symbolic reparation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "Efforts to preserve the history of leprosy segregation have also relied on technological tools and international documentation initiatives. One example is the Global Project on the History of Leprosy.[[fn:26]] By compiling archival materials, publications and oral testimonies, the project contributes to preserving historical memory and documenting the global impact of segregation policies and serves as an important documentation and educational resource.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See footnote 20 above."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "D. Memorialization as symbolic reparation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "Despite these initiatives, many former leprosaria have been left in ruins due to the lack of State commitment to preserving historical memory. Interviews conducted by the Special Rapporteur indicate that former leprosy colonies in, among other countries, the Plurinational 24 See https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6388/. 25 See https://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obras/materia/fontilles-34495. 26 See footnote 20 above. GE.26-04739 State of Bolivia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru and the United Republic of Tanzania, are deteriorating or at risk of abandonment, particularly where preservation policies are absent. Concerns are especially great in sites that are no longer used for medical purposes or where Governments fail to involve current residents in decisions about their future.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "D. Memorialization as symbolic reparation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "Guarantees of non-recurrence aim to transform the structural conditions that allowed violations to occur and to prevent their repetition. The updated set of principles for the protection and promotion of human rights through action to combat impunity identifies four core obligations of States in response to serious human rights violations: the prosecution of perpetrators, reparation for victims, truth-seeking and guarantees of non-recurrence. Although the latter remains the least developed dimension, several normative frameworks provide guidance thereon, including the updated set of principles and the Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation, which emphasize the obligation of States to adopt legal, institutional and social reforms to prevent the recurrence of violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "E. Guarantees of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "In the context of leprosy, guarantees of non-recurrence require addressing the structural discrimination that historically justified segregation and continues to affect persons affected by leprosy and their families. Key measures include repealing discriminatory legislation, adopting anti-discrimination policies, promoting public education to combat stigma and ensuring the participation of persons affected by leprosy in decision-making processes. These measures should be framed as present legal obligations, not matters of charity or historical discretion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "E. Guarantees of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "Repealing discriminatory laws remains one of the most direct guarantees of non-recurrence. As noted in chapter II above, several countries still maintain legal provisions restricting the rights of persons affected by leprosy, including marriage restrictions, immigration limitations or provisions permitting segregation. Advocacy efforts in Nepal illustrate how civil society and organizations of persons affected by leprosy have mobilized to repeal discriminatory provisions in the 2017 Civil Code.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "E. Guarantees of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "In some countries, guarantees of non-recurrence have included the judicial recognition of past violations and the abolition of segregation laws, as in Japan, as well as reparatory legislation and public awareness policies, as in Brazil. India has also undertaken legislative reforms, including the adoption of the 2018 Personal Laws (Amendment) Act removing leprosy as grounds for divorce, while such proposals as the Eliminating Discrimination Against Persons Affected by Leprosy Bill have sought to repeal remaining discriminatory provisions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "E. Guarantees of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "Judicial decisions have also contributed to recognizing abuses committed in leprosy institutions. In the Republic of Korea, cases concerning Sorokdo Island revealed forced labour, forced sterilization, medical experimentation and severe restrictions on freedom of movement. Court rulings in the 2010s acknowledged State responsibility and led to compensation measures for victims.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "E. Guarantees of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "Efforts to prevent the recurrence of discrimination have also included public education and stigma reduction initiatives. In Japan, museums and educational programmes in former sanatoriums contribute to raising awareness of past injustices. In India, the Sparsh Leprosy Awareness Campaign promotes reliable information to reduce stigma. In such countries as Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Indonesia and Senegal, community-based initiatives have sought to empower persons affected by leprosy and promote their participation in public life.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "E. Guarantees of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "Guarantees of non-recurrence also require strengthening access to health services, social protection and equal participation in community life, ensuring that segregation and compulsory isolation are never again used as responses to leprosy. Addressing both legal and social dimensions of discrimination is essential to prevent the repetition of past injustices and to build societies grounded in equality and human dignity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "E. Guarantees of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "All such measures must ensure the meaningful participation of persons affected by leprosy. Their involvement in designing and implementing policies is a key safeguard against the re-emergence of discriminatory practices. In such countries as Argentina and Peru, organizations formed by children of persons affected by leprosy are working with activists to ensure recognition of past violations and their right to reparation and healing.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "E. Guarantees of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "Leprosy segregation must be framed as a historical and ongoing condition of structural injustice, in a manner that invites comparison with other historical injustices, such as the forced institutionalization of persons with disabilities, the forced assimilation of Indigenous children and racial segregation regimes, whose consequences extend across generations. These systems frequently involved forced segregation, institutionalization and severe restrictions on liberty.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "Segregation policies constituted State-sanctioned systems of discrimination shaped by broader regimes of power, including racism, gender bias and migration control, and were adopted despite the fact that scientific evidence did not support segregation as a necessary and proportionate public health measure. These policies were also driven by prejudice, fear and, in many contexts, eugenic ideologies that influenced institutional and political approaches to leprosy around the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "Despite the formal closure of leprosy colonies, their consequences persist. Many people continue to live in former colonies and settlements where violations of their rights remain evident, including limited access to treatment, inadequate housing and lack of basic services.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "The consequences for survivors and their descendants are not only material but also psychological. Family relationships were broken as children were separated from their parents. Many parents endured years of isolation and, in some cases, the preventable deaths of their children, often without knowing where those children had been taken.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "Taken together, the principles of truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantees of non-recurrence provide a useful and coherent framework for addressing the historical and structural injustice experienced by persons affected by leprosy and their families. These principles are not isolated measures but mutually reinforcing processes that enable societies to acknowledge past violations, restore dignity to survivors and transform the conditions that allowed discrimination to persist for generations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "Applying this human rights-based framework to the history of leprosy segregation enables States and societies to move beyond viewing these experiences as mere public health measures, recognizing them instead as serious human rights violations, the ongoing effects of which require acknowledgement, redress and institutional reform. It also allows persons affected by leprosy to see themselves as rights holders and victims of violations, rather than only as patients who endured a disease.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "There is an urgent need to implement such a framework, as States have largely failed to act. This inaction continues to perpetuate stigma and discrimination against persons affected by leprosy, survivors of leprosy colonies and their descendants.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "The framework must be person-centred, ensuring that persons affected by leprosy lead discussions on how to address the legacy of segregation, the forms of reparation they consider appropriate and the ways in which these measures should be implemented. Such an approach safeguards their dignity and restores the recognition of their citizenship, which segregation sought to deny.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "Addressing the legacy of leprosy segregation is not solely a matter of reflecting on history. It is also a present human rights obligation, particularly in relation to non-discrimination, access to remedies, social protection, participation and the repeal of discriminatory laws. Recognizing past injustices and repairing their consequences is essential to restoring dignity to persons affected by leprosy and to building societies grounded in equity, memory and justice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "The mandate must be renewed, as there is still significant progress to be made to ensure that the rights of persons affected by leprosy are fully protected and that justice is achieved. This report demonstrates that, as victims of structural injustice, persons affected by leprosy continue to need their voices to be heard in such international forums as the United Nations and that their demands must be recognized as human rights claims. The mandate therefore remains essential.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "The Special Rapporteur respectfully urges Member States to:\n(a) Conduct independent national investigations or historical inquiries into the history and consequences of leprosy segregation, including through commissions, expert panels or other mechanisms tasked with documenting violations, identifying institutional responsibilities and recognizing the experiences of persons affected and their families;\n(b) Ensure the preservation, accessibility and digitization of historical archives relating to leprosy policies and institutions and support research and documentation initiatives, including oral history projects, that record the testimonies of survivors and their families and contribute to the public understanding of this history, subject to safeguards relating to privacy, dignity, free and informed consent and the protection of sensitive personal data;\n(c) Establish accessible judicial and administrative mechanisms through which persons affected by leprosy and their family members can seek recognition of past violations and obtain effective remedies, including legal assistance and victim-centred procedures adapted to the needs of older persons and persons with disabilities;\n(d) Review and remove legal and procedural barriers that prevent access to justice for victims of historical discrimination, including the removal or suspension of statutes of limitation where necessary and evidentiary barriers that may impede the investigation and adjudication of past violations;\n(e) Develop and implement comprehensive reparation programmes that address the harm caused by segregation policies, including financial compensation, social protection measures, access to healthcare and rehabilitation, the recognition of land and housing rights in former settlements and specific support for descendants who were separated from their families or otherwise affected by these policies;\n(f) Recognize and protect former leprosy colonies, settlements and institutions and cemeteries as sites of historical memory, ensuring that their preservation respects the dignity of those who lived there and that decisions regarding their future involve the participation of affected communities;\n(g) Support initiatives aimed at preserving and transmitting the history of leprosy segregation, including the strengthening of museums, archives, documentation centres, memorials and educational programmes that contribute to public awareness and the reduction of stigma. The preservation of these sites should be considered in the light of the evolving understanding of culture, heritage and its changing social contexts;\n(h) Repeal or amend all remaining discriminatory laws and regulations and administrative provisions that restrict the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, including provisions related to marriage, divorce, employment, immigration, voting rights and access to public spaces;\n(i) Take appropriate legal, policy and institutional measures to prohibit, prevent and redress discrimination on the basis of present or past experience with leprosy and ensure equal protection of the law, access to services and full participation in social, economic and political life;\n(j) Ensure the meaningful, safe and effective participation of persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations in the design, implementation and monitoring of laws, policies and programmes that affect their lives, in accordance with the principles of dignity, equality and inclusion.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that relevant international organizations, in particular the World Health Organization, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, UNESCO and the United Nations Development Programme:\n(a) Support initiatives aimed at documenting the history and lived experiences of persons affected by leprosy, including research projects, oral history initiatives and the preservation and digitization of archival materials, in collaboration with academic institutions and organizations of persons affected by leprosy;\n(b) Provide technical assistance and policy guidance to Member States in the design and implementation of comprehensive reparation programmes addressing the consequences of historical segregation policies, including measures related to compensation, social protection, rehabilitation and community development;\n(c) Promote the identification, preservation and protection of former leprosy colonies, settlements and institutions as sites of historical memory and cultural heritage, including through heritage protection frameworks and international cooperation mechanisms, while recognizing that inclusion on national registers or UNESCO tentative lists does not in itself resolve questions of reparation, participation or the rights of current residents;\n(d) Integrate the issues of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members into relevant international human rights monitoring, development and public health frameworks, including through data collection, reporting mechanisms and guidance aimed at supporting States in eliminating stigma and structural discrimination: this should include stronger coordination across disability, health, equality and cultural rights frameworks.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that civil society and grass-roots organizations:\n(a) Continue documenting and preserving the testimonies and lived experiences of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, including through oral history initiatives, community archives and research collaborations, in order to ensure that their histories are recognized and transmitted to future generations;\n(b) Support legal advocacy and strategic litigation aimed at challenging discriminatory laws and practices, promoting accountability for historical violations and strengthening the protection of the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members;\n(c) Promote public education and awareness campaigns to combat stigma and discrimination related to leprosy, including initiatives that disseminate accurate scientific information about the disease and highlight the dignity, rights and contributions of persons affected by leprosy;\n(d) Strengthen networks of organizations of persons affected by leprosy so that they can lead dialogue with Governments and institutions in the design and implementation of programmes and initiatives aimed at advancing reparation, including through sustained funding, leadership development and support for intergenerational participation;\n(e) Promote alliances with disability, human rights and social justice movements in order to foster mutual learning and support actions aimed at advancing broader societal transformation.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "The Special Rapporteur respectfully calls upon the Human Rights Council to:\n(a) Continue supporting the mandate, recognizing its unique role within the United Nations human rights system in bringing visibility to the situation of persons affected by leprosy and advancing efforts to eliminate discrimination;\n(b) Ensure that the mandate is provided with adequate financial and institutional support to effectively carry out its functions, including research, engagement with affected communities, country visits and cooperation with Member States and relevant stakeholders;\n(c) Encourage Member States to cooperate fully with the work of the mandate, including by responding to communications and questionnaires, facilitating country visits and engaging constructively with the recommendations issued by the Special Rapporteur;\n(d) Encourage greater integration of the human rights of persons affected by leprosy within the work of the Human Rights Council and its mechanisms, including through dialogue, cooperation and the sharing of good practices among Member States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "Lastly, the Special Rapporteur proposes that States and stakeholders could usefully consider a strategic recommendation aimed at strengthening alliances between the leprosy and human rights communities, Governments and local and international organizations on the establishment of a global initiative on truth, justice and reparations for persons affected by leprosy, which could include:\n(a) The updating and continued maintenance of the existing international digital documentation project on the history of leprosy developed by the International Leprosy Association and hosted by the University of Oxford, paying attention to long-term accessibility, multilingual availability and ethical standards concerning consent and privacy;\n(b) The mapping of former leprosy colonies and settlements worldwide, including those that have become invisible or forgotten, particularly in countries where leprosy is no longer endemic: this effort should make use of innovative technological and creative strategies to document, preserve and make accessible these historical sites;\n(c) Support for the development and implementation of reparation programmes, including the establishment of partnerships with local, regional and international human rights and legal associations to provide training and support to persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations;\n(d) The preservation of the history and heritage of leprosy segregation while taking into account the present and future of persons affected by leprosy and their communities. In this regard, the use of digital technologies, artistic initiatives and participatory approaches could contribute to building shared understanding and consensus among all actors involved in the preservation and interpretation of this heritage, provided that such efforts are guided by the dignity, priorities and free and informed participation of affected communities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "B. Recommendations"]}] \ No newline at end of file +[{"id": "a-76-148-0001", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "In 2010, the General Assembly adopted resolution 65/215 on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, reaffirming that persons affected by leprosy and their family members should be treated as individuals with dignity and are entitled to all human rights and fundamental freedoms under customary international law, relevant conventions and national constitutions and laws. In the resolution, the Assembly also took note of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0002", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The principles and guidelines are a non-treaty standard that reinforces international human rights instruments, interpreting and translating legally binding norms in close connection with the conditions and needs of the particular group of persons affected by leprosy and their family members (see A/HRC/41/47). They provide States with a road map for monitoring the situation of persons affected by leprosy and their family members and for implementing measures that, by enforcing international human rights law, can guarantee formal and substantive equality for them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0003", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "In its resolution 35/9, the Human Rights Council established the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members to follow up and report on progress made and measures taken by States for the effective implementation of the principles and guidelines. In its resolution 44/6, the Council extended the mandate of the Special Rapporteur to continue to report to it annually, and to report also to the General Assembly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0004", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "The Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, Alice Cruz, has implemented a people-centred approach to the mandate entrusted to her by the Human Rights Council. The historical and systemic dehumanization of persons affected by leprosy and their family members makes empowerment key for fighting back against their structural and widespread subordination. By promoting active participation, critical reflection, awareness-raising, understanding and access to and control over important decisions and resources, empowerment allows for people in disadvantaged situations to achieve greater control over their lives, furthering their democratic engagement, with enhanced critical understanding of their own settings and their relationship to power relations and hegemonic social structures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0005", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "With such an approach, the Special Rapporteur seeks to provide a bridge for a group of people living in an extreme vulnerable situation who have been systematically pushed furthest behind within the overall human rights system, and thus ensure the sustainability of efforts undertaken for eliminating both the disease and the stigmatization attached to it, since the empowerment of individuals and groups can contribute to transforming laws, policies, practices, norms and power relations. Such an approach also reflects the spirit of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, in which it was affirmed that development must go beyond transforming the material conditions of people in disadvantaged circumstances to actually enabling them to have a voice and a choice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0006", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "Building also on a cooperative approach, the Special Rapporteur has continuously engaged with United Nations bodies and intergovernmental agencies – especially the World Health Organization (WHO) – Member States, political and religious world leaders, academia and the main stakeholders in the field, such as the WHO Goodwill Ambassador for the Elimination of Leprosy, the Global Partnership for Zero Leprosy, civil society organizations working with leprosy and national and grass-roots organizations of persons affected by leprosy, to promote synergies and catalyse systemic change.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0007", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has contributed to the WHO road map for neglected tropical diseases 2021–2030[[fn:1]] and to the WHO global leprosy strategy 2021–2030[[fn:2]] and has proactively promoted the mainstreaming of leprosy within the treaty bodies, especially the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, and the universal periodic review. She has also dedicated efforts to make human rights standards accessible to persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations. She has continuously made herself available to provide technical guidance to key stakeholders for tackling stigmatization and discrimination on the grounds of leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Leprosy/AliceCruz-April2019.pdf."}, {"n": 2, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Leprosy/STM_WHO_consultation.pdf."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0008", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The work of the mandate of the Special Rapporteur has enabled the production of a body of new evidence about discrimination on the grounds of leprosy and increased wider attentiveness to, and engagement with, a gender approach to leprosy-related issues, as well as the participation of persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations. The Special Rapporteur has presented a policy framework for rights-based action plans and has provided guidance to States and civil society organizations on the context of the disproportionate impact of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic on persons affected by leprosy and their family members.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Leprosy/SR_leprosy_Open_letter_22May2020.pdf and A/HRC/47/29."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0009", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "In the present report, which is her first report to the General Assembly, the Special Rapporteur examines discrimination against persons affected by leprosy in national legal frameworks. The imperative of legal harmonization as part of global and national efforts to eliminate discrimination on the grounds of leprosy is included in: guideline No. 1 of the principles and guidelines, which affirms that States should take all appropriate legislative, administrative and other measures to modify, repeal or abolish existing laws, regulations, policies, customs and practices that discriminate directly or indirectly against persons affected by leprosy and their family members; several provisions of international human rights law; and strategic pillar 4 of the WHO global leprosy strategy. According to WHO, 21 countries reported that they still had 39 laws in place in 2018 that permit discrimination on the basis of leprosy,[[fn:4]] which evinces the importance of enforcing formal equality for persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "WHO, “Weekly epidemiological record”, vol. 94, No. 35/36 (30 August 2019), pp. 389–412."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0010", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "The importance and impact of discrimination in law includes: classification of groups of people and framing of identities; access to resources, services and rights; and opportunities for freely and autonomously acting in society. The increasing power of the law to frame public and private dimensions of social life is undeniable. It has been noted by the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls that laws are an essential mechanism for the enjoyment of human rights. Laws determine the operating values and principles through which actions and behaviours are considered acceptable or criminalized and stigmatized (see A/HRC/35/29). Undeniably, laws play a structuring role in the dynamics of formal, as well as substantive, discrimination in the sense that they codify, regulate and influence social behaviour.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0011", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "If it is true that, in practice, discrimination refers to any unfair or prejudicial treatment of people that leads to loss of opportunities, material deprivation, structural disadvantage, stigmatization and poor access to the State’s goods and services, the fact is that an ideological bias always lies at the root of discrimination.[[fn:5]] Such ideological biases are simultaneously sustained by and sustain unequal power relations. That is why groups discriminated against are usually deprived of the means to fight back against discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Nancy Krieger, “Discrimination and health inequities”, International Journal of Health Services, vol. 44, No. 4 (2014), pp. 643–710."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0012", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The key point in this regard is that institutionalized discrimination against persons affected by leprosy reflects an ideological bias socially produced throughout time by different cultural systems and explanatory models of leprosy, which has historically subordinated persons affected by leprosy to social structures that deny not only their belonging to local and national communities, but also their humanity. Institutionalized discrimination against persons affected by leprosy has also simultaneously been sustained by and sustained such ideological biases, authorizing and perpetuating their dehumanization by framing what society sees as normal, acceptable and desirable, as well as the opposite, which leprosy came to embody against different cultural backdrops. Undeniably, the institutionalization of discrimination on the grounds of leprosy has prompted and normalized the stigmatization and dehumanization of affected individuals. That is why legal harmonization and formal recognition of persons affected by leprosy as right holders is not only the State’s obligation, but also a moral imperative.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0013", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Discrimination against persons affected by leprosy in law persists in the realm of States that have ratified international human rights instruments and whose national constitutions affirm the rights to equality and non-discrimination. Their mere existence hinders recognition of the human rights of persons affected by leprosy, starting with the most basic one of all: the right to equality. If a State asserts the equality of all persons before the law and at the same time keeps in place laws that discriminate against a certain group of people, then the State is actively denying fundamental rights and freedoms to that group of people and hence violating international and national obligations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0014", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "In order to map and report on existing discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy and to provide technical guidance to States in this regard, the Special Rapporteur consulted Member States and civil society organizations on national laws, regulations, ordinances, resolutions and policies that have discriminatory impacts on persons affected by leprosy and/or their family members, as well as existing customary regulations, including traditional non-written norms, that have discriminatory impacts on them. The Special Rapporteur acknowledges that different legal systems coexist in some societies, and has therefore called for the support of States and civil society organizations to map traditional non-written norms that are part of non-State legal systems. She has also requested information on measures taken to abolish or amend discriminatory laws and norms. A total of 10 States and 22 civil society organizations[[fn:6]] have responded to her call for cooperation in assessing discrimination in law. The Special Rapporteur has also held in-depth conversations with several persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations in order to better understand their lived experience with regard to discrimination in law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "The submissions from States and civil society organizations that were authorized by them to be made public will be available on the web page of the mandate of the Special Rapporteur: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/LeprosyIndex.aspx."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0015", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Information submitted by civil society organizations, which includes the most thorough database of discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy that currently exists, put together by the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations,[[fn:7]] as well as data reported by other civil society organizations, was thoroughly reviewed, with the full texts of the reported laws properly identified and examined. A list with examples of discriminatory laws from different countries will be made available on web page for the present report.[[fn:8]] The Federation’s database alone identifies 130 laws in different countries that directly discriminate against persons affected by leprosy. For the assessment of discrimination in law against persons affected by leprosy, the Special Rapporteur took into consideration laws in both a strict and a broad sense. Laws in a strict sense are normative acts elaborated and approved in parliaments at the central and local levels. Laws in a broad sense are normative acts, such as regulations, decrees and guidelines, established by other regulatory bodies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See https://ilepfederation.org/discriminatory-laws."}, {"n": 8, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0016", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "The Special Rapporteur acknowledges the difficulty of mapping such laws, regulations and norms and of keeping updated information on their status. While she draws on the work of different stakeholders to map discriminatory laws, she welcomes further discussion with Members States on this particular issue and makes herself available for engaging in technical cooperation for their amendment or abolishment. With the present report, she wishes to call attention to a matter of unfinished business: legal harmonization and enforcement of formal equality for persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0017", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Available data on discrimination in law against persons affected by leprosy show that laws that discriminate against this group of people have been elaborated and put into force since the beginning of the twentieth century. The widespread institutionalization of prohibitions and discrimination on the grounds of leprosy started to be enacted during the first stage in the modern history of leprosy, between 1873 and 1948 (see A/HRC/38/42), and did not stop there, as will be further demonstrated.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Looking back to understand current institutionalized discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0018", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recalls that the discovery of the causative agent of leprosy, Mycobacterium leprae, in the late nineteenth century led to a unified response by European experts and Governments in 1879 based upon the idea of contagion, which gave rise to the establishment of thousands of places for the segregation and confinement of persons affected by leprosy in what were then the imperial nations, as well as in countries and territories under colonial rule. Leprosy was described by European powers as an imperial danger (ibid.).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Looking back to understand current institutionalized discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0019", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Under these State policies, persons affected by leprosy were separated from their families and communities, and prohibitions on their reproduction were enacted in many countries, while others went as far as to practise their forced sterilization. The same policies were applied in 1923 to children of persons affected by leprosy. Healthy newborns were forcibly separated from their parents and many were also secluded from their communities.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Looking back to understand current institutionalized discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0020", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "There was never any scientific evidence to support the prophylactic segregation of persons affected by leprosy, and yet such segregation was widespread from the late nineteenth century until the late twentieth century – almost half a century after the discovery of a cure for leprosy. The year 1948 signalled the point at which leprosy experts abandoned the policy of compulsory segregation. However, segregation as an official policy persisted in some countries until the late twentieth century. However hard it may be to estimate the number of leprosy colonies in the world that are still active, it is probably well over 1,000.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Looking back to understand current institutionalized discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0021", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The COVID-19 pandemic has taught the world what persons affected by leprosy have known for decades and centuries, namely that health and illness are not just biological phenomena. Accumulated knowledge in the field of medical anthropology has proved the difference between illness, meaning the bodily process itself, and disease, meaning the nosology produced by a given medical system, which is always culturally grounded. Diseases are biosocial constructs and, as the history of epidemics shows, explanatory models of disease can produce labelling and even give rise to institutionalized and structural stigmatization. For modern nations, biomedicine became central to the definition of the boundaries between the normal and the pathological, as well as to the classification of groups of people under those categories. The very notion of the modern citizen is embedded with biopolitical conceptions about what is normal and desirable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Looking back to understand current institutionalized discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0022", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "During the early shaping of modern nations, leprosy came to embody all that was considered to be antithetical to the modern project, namely the structural backwardness that was to be purged from modern nations. It is not an exaggeration to say that stigma was the dolus behind the State’s policy of forced segregation, since it resulted more from an ideological bias than from scientific evidence, while it aimed at nothing less than banishing leprosy by banishing the people who were infected by it. But if this ideological bias was harboured in central nations, it was also transplanted into the countries and territories under colonial rule and domination, turning institutionalized discrimination against persons affected by leprosy into a global reality. Moreover, the policy continues to have an impact on the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their family members who were subjected to it, therefore comprising a continuous violation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Looking back to understand current institutionalized discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0023", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "This ideological bias and its power to shape institutionalized discrimination endured over time, even after the discovery of a cure for leprosy in the mid-twentieth century. Even after being debunked, the biomedical concept that affirmed the need for prophylactic segregation continued to influence national legal and regulatory frameworks in fields as varied as those concerning freedom of movement, participation in political and social life, family life, work regulations and immigration and visa regulations. These legal and regulatory frameworks give legal legitimacy to, and reinforce, structural and interpersonal discrimination on the grounds of leprosy, endorsing and normalizing the dehumanization of persons affected by leprosy and denying them any possibility of enjoying a life with dignity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Looking back to understand current institutionalized discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0024", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Laws that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy were identified in both endemic and non-endemic countries. According to the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, discriminatory laws persist in the Bahamas, Barbados, Dominica, Egypt, India, Jamaica, Malaysia, Mali, Malta, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, the Niger, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Senegal, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan Province of China, Thailand, the United Arab Emirates and the United States of America.[[fn:9]] According to both the Federation’s database and the information submitted by other civil society organizations, Asia is the continent where discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy are most prevalent. The existence of discriminatory laws has been reported by civil society organizations, including the Federation, in Ethiopia, India, Myanmar,[[fn:10]] Nepal, Papua New Guinea and Sri Lanka.[[fn:11]] India alone counts for approximately 77 per cent of the discriminatory laws mapped worldwide, with more than 100 such laws having been identified, according to the Federation’s database.[[fn:12]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See table 1 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}, {"n": 10, "text": "Civil society organizations of Myanmar emphasized that they had doubts as to whether or not the laws were still in force."}, {"n": 11, "text": "See table 2 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}, {"n": 12, "text": "The number of laws that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy in India varies in the different submissions for the present report, which also demonstrates the complexity of discrimination in law against persons affected by leprosy in the country and contributes to calls for robust action to identify formal and institutionalized discrimination in the country that has the highest absolute number of cases of leprosy in the world."}], "section": ["III. Discriminatory laws throughout the world"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0025", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "In the countries where at least one discriminatory law was mapped, they encompass: (a) public health-related laws that establish forced isolation, hospitalization and segregation of persons affected by leprosy; and (b) immigration-related laws that deny admission, visas and residence and work permits for persons affected by leprosy. In the countries where more than one discriminatory law was mapped, it is possible to identify a multifaceted system that separates persons affected by leprosy from the rest of society through the application of laws in different fields of social life. Such multifaceted systems are formed by different laws and norms that regulate the relation between society and persons affected by leprosy under the ideological bias (totally debunked by current science) that classifies persons affected by leprosy as a health risk to the rest of society. Hence, laws are employed to separate persons affected by leprosy from situations of public, professional and family conviviality, radically excluding them from work settings, political representation and active participation in different sectors of society. In some cases, the laws go as far as to include sanctions for public authorities when they fail to remove persons affected by leprosy from public spaces and transportation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Discriminatory laws throughout the world"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0026", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "In the specific case of India, the large number of laws that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy in the country suggests the existence of a highly complex system in which discrimination spreads over several dimensions of life, encompassing both public and private spaces and ranging from public health regulations, the organization of cities and places of detention, access to management and decision-making positions in public and private settings and work regulations to the criminalization of begging. It is worth highlighting that the proliferation of such laws in India is also a result of the country’s complex administrative and territorial organization, under which both the central and the local governments have legislative powers. Discriminatory mechanisms have thus been multiplied at the different levels of government and administration, with the abundant production of similar laws and regulations by different government bodies and administrations.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Discriminatory laws throughout the world"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0027", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "Notably, many of the discriminatory laws that have been mapped throughout the world present compelling examples of how legal and regulatory frameworks that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy are shaped by ideological biases that simultaneously reproduce and maintain stigmatizing labels. Not only is the content of such laws discriminatory, but also the language adopted, which reproduces, gives legitimacy to and keeps in force harmful stereotypes. Indeed, many of the mapped discriminatory laws adopt derogatory language – identifying persons affected by leprosy as “lepers”, which is prohibited by guideline No. 9 of the principles and guidelines, which explicitly affirms that States should remove discriminatory language, including the derogatory use of the term “leper” or its equivalent in any language or dialect, from governmental publications and should revise expeditiously, where possible, existing publications containing such language – even though many of the States that use such language in their legal texts have endorsed the principles and guidelines. Moreover, in some of the legal texts that frame these laws, leprosy is wrongfully described as virulent, contributing to the persistence of misconceptions about its transmission. Lastly, rules that establish the ineligibility of persons affected by leprosy to take positions as civil servants make stigmatizing associations between different groups of people, including persons affected by leprosy, who are described as inferior and inept.[[fn:13]] Such examples clearly show the power of the law to frame identities and generate stigmatizing labels.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "See table 3 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["III. Discriminatory laws throughout the world"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0028", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "In 1943, Dr. Guy Faget of the United States discovered a drug with a reasonable degree of efficacy in curing leprosy, despite its long-term use and severe iatrogenic effects. The efficacy of dapsone in curing leprosy led to a transition from a policy of compulsory segregation to a policy of decentralization to general health-care services. It was in this period that WHO took up leadership in what was then called the eradication of leprosy, with funds from the United Nations Children’s Fund. This new policy also called upon States to amend discriminatory legislation, arguing that such legislation was a barrier to the eradication of leprosy. It was also in this period that the first calls emerged from leprosy colonies demanding recognition of the dignity and rights of persons affected by leprosy. In the spirit of the International Conference on Primary Health Care, held in Alma-Ata (now Almaty, Kazakhstan) in 1978, leprosy was progressively reframed under the right to health (see A/HRC/38/42).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Timeline of discriminatory laws"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0029", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Nevertheless, the analysis of existing discriminatory laws in the present report shows that from a legal perspective the biomedical concept of prophylactic segregation of persons affected by leprosy as a means to protect society from leprosy continues to be fully in effect in some countries. Appallingly, laws establishing the mandatory isolation of persons affected by leprosy have not yet been repealed or abolished from some national legal frameworks, while laws that restrict the rights of persons affected by leprosy and actively promote discrimination against them are still being elaborated and promulgated.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See table 4 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["IV. Timeline of discriminatory laws"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0030", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "Public health-related laws establishing the compulsory isolation of persons affected by leprosy that were promulgated during the period prior to the 1950s prevailed over time in some countries without being amended or abolished. It is also possible to identify laws that regulate both public and private dimensions of life and that impose the same biomedical concept of prophylactic segregation on distinct dimensions of social life. Hence, before the 1950s, city laws, regulations for the management of places of detention and universities, anti-begging laws, public transportation regulations and family laws that reproduced the misconception about the need for prophylactic segregation of persons affected by leprosy had already been enacted.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Timeline of discriminatory laws"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0031", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "From the 1950s to the present day, mechanisms establishing segregation, prohibitions on the grounds of leprosy and restrictions on the rights of persons affected by leprosy have been reiterated in the proliferation of laws that regulate the operation of various public and private dimensions of social life, as well as institutional bodies.[[fn:15]] The incidence of such phenomena has been particularly high in India, where this type of legislation started to be elaborated and established by different local governments after the 1950s.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See table 5 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["IV. Timeline of discriminatory laws"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0032", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "According to the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations database, some examples of laws approved after 1950 include: laws restricting political rights, such as the prohibition of participating in elections, holding office or occupying certain positions of authority and decision-making positions; laws restricting freedom of movement, with prohibitions regarding the use of public transportation; laws establishing leprosy as grounds for divorce; restrictions on migrants’ admission, visas and residence and work permits; and restrictions on the right to work, with prohibitions on the practice of certain professions. The production of laws after 1950 occurred in at least the following countries: Barbados, Dominica, India, Mali, Namibia, Nepal, Niger, Pakistan, Philippines, Senegal, Singapore, Taiwan Province of China, Thailand and United Arab Emirates. Submissions from other civil society organizations also point to the production of discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy after 1950, up to the present day.[[fn:16]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See table 6 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["IV. Timeline of discriminatory laws"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0033", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The analysis of the types of laws that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy allows for the identification of spheres of life in which such laws radically exclude persons affected by leprosy, as well as the rights that the laws violate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0034", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "These are laws and normative acts that regulate the operation of city bodies, as well as private and religious institutions. In these cases, leprosy is considered grounds for the prohibition of participation in elections for some positions, as well as for removing persons affected by leprosy from positions that they already occupy.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See table 7 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Discriminatory laws violating political rights through the prohibition of participation in elections or of holding public office"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0035", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "These laws regulate the use of public transportation and, as a rule, prohibit use by persons affected by leprosy or condition it upon the presentation of a medical certificate that attests that the individual is non-infectious.[[fn:18]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "See table 8 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Discriminatory laws restricting freedom of movement by prohibiting or restricting the use of public transportation"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0036", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "These are civil laws, as well as laws regulating marriage in different religions. According to these laws, the dissolution, annulment, separation and non-conclusion of marriage are allowed in cases in which one of the individuals entering the union is affected by leprosy.[[fn:19]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See table 9 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Laws allowing for the dissolution of marriage on the grounds of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0037", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "These are laws or regulations by State bodies responsible for migration and national security affairs. According to these laws, leprosy can underpin decisions against the granting of visas, work permits, residence and citizenship.[[fn:20]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See table 10 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Discriminatory laws denying rights to migrants"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0038", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "Laws hindering the practice of certain occupations by persons affected by leprosy extend to a large number of jobs, including: handling food and drinks; providing services in courts and universities; driving public transportation vehicles; working as magistrates; occupying positions of authority in cooperatives, universities and assistance and religious entities; and providing bookkeeping, typing, legal, medical, nursing and domestic services. The laws also prohibit persons affected by leprosy from obtaining certain professional licences and having access to certain positions and careers.[[fn:21]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "See table 11 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Discriminatory laws restricting access to certain jobs"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0039", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "These are laws that regulate the operation of institutions, especially universities. They abound in India and have been multiplied by several bodies at the State administration. Under these laws, leprosy is considered grounds for excluding applications for higher-level work positions and for removing people from such positions as well as on councils, committees and other collegiate decision-making bodies. In some cases, leprosy is also considered grounds for removing people who work as providers of non-teaching service in universities.[[fn:22]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See table 12 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Discriminatory laws combining restrictions on the right to work with restrictions on the right to significant political participation, and prohibiting persons affected by leprosy from occupying positions of authority in public or private entities"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0040", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "These are laws adopted to fight mendicancy, with the definition of offences and application of sanctions by courts. Such laws determine the isolation of mendicants affected by leprosy and authorize their imprisonment or segregation in asylums or special centres or shelters. The detention of mothers and fathers may also apply to their children. In other cases, detention leads to the separation of parents and children.[[fn:23]],[[fn:24]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Anubhuti Jain, “Discrimination against persons afflicted with leprosy as a violation of their international human rights”, PEOPLE: International Journal of Social Sciences, vol. 5, No. 2 (2019), pp. 454–470."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See table 13 on the report web page at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Discriminatory laws determining the compulsory segregation and hospitalization of persons affected by leprosy as part of anti-begging measures"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0041", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "These are laws that regulate the operation of city bodies and public spaces. Such laws include prohibitions on persons affected by leprosy taking up positions or participating in city-level elections. A common mechanism in these laws is the establishment of the city authority’s duty to remove persons affected by leprosy from public markets.[[fn:25]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See table 14 on the report web page at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "City organization laws restricting political and work rights and limiting the freedom of movement of persons affected by leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0042", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "These laws regulate the operation of the penitentiary system and establish the duty of its managers to remove persons affected by leprosy to separate places for hospitalization.[[fn:26]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See table 15 on the report web page at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Discriminatory laws promoting the compulsory segregation of persons affected by leprosy as part of penitentiary system regulations"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0043", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "These laws maintain segregation as the State’s official applicable policy for the control of leprosy. Some of the measures covered by such laws are isolation, compulsory hospitalization, detention and prohibition on attending school and entering other public spaces for persons affected by leprosy. 27 22 See table 12 on the report web page at: www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx. 23 Anubhuti Jain, “Discrimination against persons afflicted with leprosy as a violation of their international human rights”, PEOPLE: International Journal of Social Sciences, vol. 5, No. 2 (2019), pp. 454–470. 24 See table 13 on the report web page at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx. 25 See table 14 on the report web page at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx. 26 See table 15 on the report web page at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx. 27 See table 16 on the report web page at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/DiscriminatoryImpacts.aspx. Indirect discrimination of persons affected by leprosy through the discriminatory application of laws that appear neutral at face value", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Public health discriminatory laws establishing policies for compulsory segregation and isolation of persons affected by leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0044", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "Reports about indirect discrimination by means of the application of national laws, regulations and policies that appear neutral at face value in a manner that discriminates against persons affected by leprosy point to another dimension of institutionalized discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Indirect discrimination of persons affected by leprosy through the discriminatory application of laws that appear neutral at face value"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0045", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "In India, persons affected by leprosy who need to undergo amputation surgery may face barriers in their access to benefits owed by health insurance plans and may need to cover all the costs of the surgery, depending on the place in which they undergo surgery, and specifically on whether or not the hospital has an orthopaedic specialist centre. Likewise, the Special Rapporteur’s attention was called to the fact that the Rehabilitation Council of India Act of 1992 and the Persons with Disabilities Act of 1995 may not be inclusive of all persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Indirect discrimination of persons affected by leprosy through the discriminatory application of laws that appear neutral at face value"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0046", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "In Ethiopia, leprosy may be used for the dissolution of marriage, since family law considers becoming ill with an incurable disease to be a fundamental error that justifies the dissolution of marriage.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Indirect discrimination of persons affected by leprosy through the discriminatory application of laws that appear neutral at face value"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0047", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "In Papua New Guinea, discrimination against persons with disabilities affected by leprosy is not acknowledged in the Discriminatory Practices Act of 1963. Although national plans recognize the importance of protecting and promoting the human rights of persons with disabilities, the law does not recognize disability or leprosy as prohibited grounds for discrimination.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Indirect discrimination of persons affected by leprosy through the discriminatory application of laws that appear neutral at face value"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0048", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "From Brazil the Special Rapporteur received information about the discriminatory effects of the application of two norms. Resolution No. 130/2001 of 8 October 2001 of the state of São Paulo establishes guidelines for the control of Hansen’s disease in the state and, based on this norm, the state has required the eviction of persons affected by leprosy or their family members living in its former leprosy colonies that do not fulfil the requirements of the resolution. Law No. 23.137/2018 of the state of Minas Gerais, which establishes reparations for persons who, as children, were forcibly segregated and confined on the grounds that a parent was affected by leprosy, is being enforced through monetary compensation, the amount of which is strikingly low and far from proportional to the gravity of the violations suffered by the victims, which goes against the core principles of the right to remedy and reparation provided for in international human rights law (see A/HRC/44/46) and explicitly encoded in the Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, as well as under the current practice for Brazilian national remedies.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Rights violated by discriminatory laws", "Indirect discrimination of persons affected by leprosy through the discriminatory application of laws that appear neutral at face value"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0049", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The information available to the Special Rapporteur in the contributions from States and civil society organizations is insufficient to affirm the existence of norms that are part of non-State legal systems and that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy. By the same token, a review of the relevant literature does not put forward any data that indicate discrimination related to the exercise of justice by non-State systems and their corresponding justice operators. Hypothetically, this may be the result not so much of the non-existence of such norms but rather of the scarcity of systematized knowledge about the social and cultural dynamics that frame leprosy in countries and regions where different legal systems coexist and operate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Traditional discriminatory customs and practices"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0050", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "One thing that is clear from the information submitted for the present and previous reports (see, for example, A/HRC/41/47) is the persistence of traditional non-written customs and practices that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy and are sustained by deep-rooted harmful stereotypes that are, in turn, interconnected with structured systems of traditional beliefs about leprosy, many of which come from world or local religions. This connection between customs and practices that systematically discriminate against persons affected by leprosy and religious beliefs indicates that there is a strong need for States to enable knowledge of the relation between discrimination on the grounds of leprosy and local traditions, through effective monitoring systems that involve local communities, which should be properly recognized as experts on legal pluralism and/or local norms framing collective behaviour. Notably, such discriminatory customs and practices are still the standardized manner in which local communities respond to leprosy, leading to the segregation of persons affected by leprosy from private and community spaces, as previously mapped by the Special Rapporteur (ibid.). Some examples are provided below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Traditional discriminatory customs and practices"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0051", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "In the Plurinational State of Bolivia, women continue to be dependent on third-party authorization, especially from their husbands, to obtain medical care, owing to the country’s strong patriarchal social structure. Stigmatization and a lack of correct knowledge about the disease are reportedly interrelated in the country as well. In Burundi, traditional and wrongful beliefs about leprosy have an impact on the children of those affected in several life dimensions, such as marriage. There, as in other countries such as Cameroon, leprosy is considered to be a curse. This belief gives way to several prohibitions and discriminatory regulations that segregate persons affected by leprosy from social interaction and community life. In Nigeria, leprosy is also considered to be a curse and the result of an abhorrent offence that justifies treating persons affected by leprosy as outcasts, who are discriminated against in settings as varied as health care, schools, public transportation, restaurants and even within the family. Most persons affected by leprosy in the country are living in separate communities, known as leprosy colonies. Derogatory terms are also used to label persons affected by leprosy in the country. In Nepal, discriminatory practices against persons affected by leprosy include exclusion from festivities, community life and schools and people not buying goods or products from persons affected by leprosy. The Special Rapporteur heard striking reports of people being forced to live in caves and other isolated places in Nepal with no conditions whatsoever to ensure their living and survival after being diagnosed with leprosy. There, as in Papua New Guinea, leprosy is considered to be a curse that passes from one generation to another.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Traditional discriminatory customs and practices"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0052", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "With regard to a more direct linkage between discriminatory customs and practices and religious systems, in Ethiopia the Orthodox Church reportedly restricts access by clergy who are affected by leprosy to church activities and services. In India, it has been noted that a major obstacle to the upliftment of the status of persons affected by leprosy is the stigma associated with it. These stigmatizing beliefs about leprosy are reportedly associated with ancient Hindu scriptures, such as the Atharva Veda, the Manusmriti and the Sushruta Samhita. Reports point to wrongful stereotyping, with the employment of derogatory language, as practices are attached to a deep-rooted system of beliefs. In Myanmar, the persistence of beliefs that classify leprosy as the result of bad deeds in past life and justify the marginalization of affected persons is reportedly associated with Buddhism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Traditional discriminatory customs and practices"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0053", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Importantly, deep-rooted systems of beliefs can motivate not only discriminatory practices but also violence on the grounds of leprosy, as previously noted by the Special Rapporteur (ibid.). Deep-rooted systems of beliefs play an important role in the dehumanization of persons affected by leprosy. Dehumanization becomes possible when the target group can readily be identified as a separate category of persons, who are stereotyped and stigmatized as inferior, dangerous or uncivilized. Through dehumanization, moral restraints that prevent the exercise of abuse and violence against certain groups of people lose strength. Dehumanized groups are regarded as disposable and their annihilation (civil or material) is established as morally acceptable. Extreme cases of violence being perpetrated against persons affected by leprosy and leading to their summary execution have come to the knowledge of the Special Rapporteur. Recently, in a country in Western Africa,[[fn:28]] a person affected by leprosy was accused of witchcraft due to having leprosy and was brutally murdered. All the persons who witnessed the crime were also murdered.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "In order to protect her sources, the Special Rapporteur wishes to keep the name of the country and the individuals confidential."}], "section": ["VI. Traditional discriminatory customs and practices"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0054", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "Some States, such as Colombia and Japan, reported efforts that led to the abolishment of public health-related discriminatory laws that determined the forced segregation of persons affected by leprosy. Others, such as Sri Lanka, mentioned ongoing efforts to amend laws that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy. India referred to recent and ongoing efforts towards the elimination of a multifaceted system of laws that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy in different areas of life. India specifically alluded to the abolishment of the Lepers Act by the central State in 2016 and to how the central State had led the process that finally modified provisions of personal laws that affirmed leprosy as grounds for divorce. India also mentioned the efforts undertaken by the Law Commission of India in identifying all existing discriminatory laws in the country and putting together recommendations for their abolishment.[[fn:29]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Government of India, Law Commission of India, Eliminating Discrimination against Persons Affected by Leprosy, Report No. 256 (April 2015)."}], "section": ["VII. Efforts towards eliminating discrimination in law"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0055", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Some States reported the adoption of laws and programmes that protect the rights of persons affected by leprosy. In Brunei Darussalam, the Old Age and Disability Pensions Act provides a pension to older persons affected by leprosy that extends to their dependents and also covers a period of six months for the rehabilitation of individuals affected by leprosy. Colombia provides an economic allowance to persons affected by leprosy-related disabilities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Efforts towards eliminating discrimination in law"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0056", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "Other countries referred to anti-discriminatory laws that simultaneously protect the rights of persons affected by leprosy and prohibit discrimination on the grounds of leprosy. In Japan, several acts were enacted with such a purpose, including the Act on Payment of Compensation to Inmates of Hansen’s Disease Sanatorium of 2001, the Act on Promotion of Resolution of Issues Related to Hansen’s Disease of 2008 and the Act on Payment of Compensation to Family of Former Hansen’s Disease Patients of 2019. Under these acts, a complex reparation programme that includes compensation for persons affected by leprosy and their family members has been put in place (see A/HRC/44/46/Add.1). The 2008 act specifically prohibits discrimination on the grounds of leprosy and, as a whole, the acts include measures for consulting with persons affected by leprosy and guaranteeing their rights, as well as measures for investigating allegations of human rights abuses and providing remedies accordingly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Efforts towards eliminating discrimination in law"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0057", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "In India, the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act is applicable to persons who have been cured of leprosy and have valid disability certificates. It mandates the appropriate administrative and government bodies to develop schemes and programmes in the areas of social security, health, rehabilitation and skills development. It prohibits discrimination on the grounds of disability and recognizes “leprosy-cured persons” as persons with disabilities who are entitled to social benefits and access to positions in government and higher education institutions. The Special Rapporteur calls attention to the fact that the terminology employed in the Act (“leprosy-cured persons”) may exclude, in practice, people undergoing treatment and who already live with leprosy-related physical impairments and disabilities, as well as to the problems that have been systematically raised by persons affected by leprosy with regard to the narrow classification and assessment of a 40 per cent disability grade as the basis for entitlement to the rights provided for in the act.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Efforts towards eliminating discrimination in law"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0058", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "Civil society organizations reported on strategies mainly directed at tackling discriminatory customs and practices. In Brazil, NHR Brasil has been implementing activities in line with WHO health policies for leprosy in the fields of access to health care, promotion of mental health and socioeconomic empowerment. In Burundi, the Damien Foundation has been working closely with the Government on awareness-raising activities, reaching out to religious and community leaders to increase their awareness of leprosy-related issues, training health-care workers and promoting joint awareness committees to support grass-roots organizations. In Papua New Guinea and South Africa, The Leprosy Mission undertakes efforts in the field of awareness-raising, as does the Ethiopian National Association of Persons Affected by Leprosy in Ethiopia.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Efforts towards eliminating discrimination in law"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0059", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "Actions taken by civil society organizations regarding discrimination in law encompass both advocacy and strategic litigation. In Nepal, The Leprosy Mission, together with groups and organizations of persons affected by leprosy, has been calling on the Government to abolish a remaining law that discriminates against persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Efforts towards eliminating discrimination in law"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0060", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Strategic litigation has been employed mostly in India, with important achievements in the courts. In 2014, the Supreme Court asked the central and local governments to take steps towards the inclusion of persons affected by leprosy. In 2015, the Law Commission of India submitted its report No. 256 entitled Eliminating Discrimination against Persons Affected by Leprosy to the Union Minister of Law and Justice and proposed a comprehensive new anti-discrimination law, referred to as the Elimination of Discrimination against Persons Affected by Leprosy Bill. Noting ongoing discriminatory practices, the Supreme Court in 2018 gave directions in its judgment in the case of Pankaj Sinha versus Union of India and others (writ petition (civil) No. 767/2014) to address the various forms of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy. In the same judgment, the Supreme Court took note of writ petition (civil) No. 1151/2017, filed by the Vidhi Centre for Legal Policy in its case against the Union of India, which listed 119 central and local laws that violate the fundamental rights of persons affected by leprosy under articles 14, 19 and 21 of the Constitution. It also took note of the report of the Law Commission of India, in which concern was expressed over the number of Indian laws that continue to discriminate, directly and indirectly, against persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Efforts towards eliminating discrimination in law"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0061", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "Notably, the case of India shows not only the importance of access to justice and strategic litigation as a key means of fighting formal discrimination, but also the difficulties in moving forward with formal equality when there is no agreement between, or firm decision by, central and local governments to finish the business of legal harmonization.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Efforts towards eliminating discrimination in law"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0062", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "In the words of one of the representatives of the global community of persons affected by leprosy, Amar Timalsina,[[fn:30]] the global network coordinator for IDEA International, who was forced to sign divorce papers owing to the discriminatory law kept in force in his home country, persons affected by leprosy feel “anxious to breathe the air of dignity”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "The individual is identified in the present report with his full authorization."}], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0063", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "Dignity robbed from persons affected by leprosy through formal discrimination has also fuelled their dehumanization. The analysis of formal and institutionalized discrimination against persons affected by leprosy enabled the uncovering of ongoing direct discrimination against this group of people. It also identified indirect discrimination against persons affected by leprosy resulting from the discriminatory enforcement of laws, regulations and policies that appear neutral at face value. Furthermore, many States that keep discriminatory laws in place did not report on them, which suggests a lack of knowledge and updated data on discrimination in law in relevant countries, and thus contributes to calls for action to both monitor discrimination in law and move forward with harmonizing national legislation and practices. Lastly, and equally importantly, the derogatory language employed in many of the texts of the laws that were mapped and that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy can be a driving cause of hate speech against such persons.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0064", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "Traditional customs and practices that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy also abound and, if not directly connected to legal pluralism and the exercise of non-State systems of justice, nevertheless seem to be grounded in deep-rooted systems of beliefs that reinforce discrimination and dehumanization as the standardized responses to leprosy. The limited knowledge available on how such systems (encompassing both local cultures and world and local religions) structure discriminatory customs and practices leads to calls for in-depth studies that take local communities as experts and make use of dialogue and mutual learning as a key method for eliminating harmful stereotypes on the ground.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0065", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "If during the consultations undertaken by the Special Rapporteur with persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations for the present report no evidence of the recent application of discriminatory laws that determine isolation and segregation on the grounds of leprosy was mentioned, the application of discriminatory laws that regulate social relations, such as family relations, was indeed reported. Furthermore, institutionalized discrimination, encompassing both State administration and the discriminatory application of laws, was frequently alluded to. Lastly, from the consultations with persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations, it is possible to affirm that the impact of discrimination in law on the enjoyment of rights and access to justice, legal remedies and reparation is enormous. By the same token, formal discrimination has been at the root of widespread substantive discrimination, which continues to keep persons affected by leprosy excluded from access to opportunities on an equal basis with others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0066", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "Before describing the impact of formal discrimination, a word on the gender imbalance of both the application and adverse effects of discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy is required. As described several times to the Special Rapporteur, given the limited economic independence and autonomy of women affected by leprosy (see A/HRC/41/47), laws such as those allowing for divorce on the grounds of leprosy have a greater impact on them, heightening their already subordinated status. Likewise, the mere existence of such laws hinders women’s access to justice in demanding enforcement of the rights that are entitled to them after divorce.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0067", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "This was in fact one of the main adverse impacts of remaining discriminatory laws pointed out to the Special Rapporteur by persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations: the barriers that such laws create to access to rights and the enjoyment of opportunities on an equal basis with others, as well as access to justice and the right to an adequate remedy in the face of discrimination and human rights violations. As pointed out systematically to the Special Rapporteur, in the face of discrimination and/or violence against them, persons affected by leprosy cannot take legal action. Another major impact of such laws is that by not being abolished they authorize discrimination and violence. While the State may not enforce such laws, other social players may do so freely, and often do.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0068", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "Lastly, formal discrimination motivates, authorizes and normalizes substantive discrimination against persons affected by leprosy by, inter alia: (a) significantly compromising the livelihoods of persons affected by leprosy; (b) formalizing harmful stereotypes as lawful labels and normalizing humiliation and violence against persons affected by leprosy as authorized practices; (c) excluding persons affected by leprosy from political and civic participation and therefore hindering changes with regard to democratic engagement and involvement with decision-making; and (d) augmenting the State’s negligence towards this marginalized group of people and its lack of commitment to systemic change and accommodation of differences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0069", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "International provisions violated by these laws are abundant but the foundational principles of equality, dignity and non-discrimination that sustain international human rights law and are affirmed in articles 1 and 2 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as well as in article 8 that upholds the right to an effective remedy by the competent national courts in the face of acts violating recognized fundamental rights, stand out. Importantly, many of the rights provided for by the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights are directly violated by discriminatory laws and practices. The same is true for many of the rights provided for by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0070", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "Article 4 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities establishes the obligation of States to take all appropriate measures, including legislation, to modify or abolish existing laws, regulations, customs and practices that constitute discrimination against persons with disabilities, while the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, in its general comment No. 6, affirms that promoting equality and tackling discrimination are cross-cutting obligations of immediate realization and are not subject to progressive realization. Importantly, persons affected by leprosy should widely be recognized as persons with disabilities, in accordance with articles 1 and 2 of the Convention, on the grounds not only of physical impairment and the multiple barriers imposed by society to their full participation, but also of discrimination based on harmful stereotypes of leprosy itself, and are entitled to the rights provided for by the Convention. Likewise, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, in its general comment No. 20, while explicitly stating that States should adopt measures to address widespread stigmatization of persons on the basis of their health status, including diseases such as leprosy, also affirms that discrimination must be eliminated both formally and substantively and that non-discrimination is an immediate and cross-cutting obligation in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0071", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "To conclude, it is vital to note that laws can also be a means of preventing and remedying stigmatization, harm and violence.[[fn:31]] They can endow individuals with instruments to fight back against discrimination. Equal and effective legal protection against discrimination means that States have positive obligations to protect persons affected by leprosy from discrimination. Affirmative measures and comprehensive anti-discriminatory laws and acts are some of the means through which States have been fulfilling their obligation to protect other groups from discrimination and should be applied for eliminating discrimination on the grounds of leprosy, especially in countries with a leprosy endemic. States are faced with a key choice: whether to keep formal discrimination against persons affected by leprosy in place and thus continue to violate international human rights law and contribute to persistent dehumanization and substantive discrimination against them, or to take an active approach to eliminating systemic discrimination against this group of people. Eliminating interrelated de jure and de facto discrimination on the grounds of leprosy is without doubt an unfinished business that States must actively and urgently address.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "Scott Burris, “Stigma and the law”, The Lancet, vol. 367, No. 9509 (2006), pp. 529–531."}], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0072", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that States, at both the national and the subnational levels of government and administration, adopt and implement the measures set out below in order to enforce formal equality for persons affected by leprosy, as well as to fight against the consequences of extended discrimination in law with regard to the enjoyment of rights by persons affected by leprosy and their family members on an equal basis with others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IX. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0073", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "In general, States should:\n(a) Review, amend, repeal or abolish all laws, regulations, ordinances, resolutions and policies that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy and deny them the enjoyment of rights on an equal basis with others at both the national and subnational levels of government;\n(b) Prohibit discrimination on the grounds of leprosy and extend such prohibition to the private and public spheres;\n(c) Develop and enact comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and/or statutes, in close consultation with organizations of persons affected by leprosy, especially in endemic countries, that criminalize and punish by effective, proportionate and dissuasive criminal penalties violence and discrimination on the grounds of leprosy, provide for victims to be offered an assessment of their potentially specific protection needs and protect the right of persons affected by leprosy to equal opportunities and treatment in both the public and private spheres, spanning health care, education, work and employment, justice and social protection;\n(d) Ensure the recognition and inclusion of persons affected by leprosy as being entitled on an equal basis with other groups to the protection granted by mainstream equality policies and strategies in both endemic and non-endemic countries;\n(e) Include leprosy as prohibited grounds for discrimination in existing monitoring mechanisms, while involving organizations of persons affected by leprosy, and systematically collect data disaggregated by demographic, environmental, socioeconomic and cultural variables, as well as by the various grounds for discrimination recognized in international human rights law, with full respect for the principles of participation and privacy;\n(f) Provide accessible mechanisms for filing complaints about the violation of rights on the grounds of leprosy, as well as accessible and effective redress mechanisms, and ensure access to justice, on an equal basis with others, for persons affected by leprosy and their family members;\n(g) Reformulate policies and bodies for the protection of vulnerable groups, in a manner that recognizes and addresses the specific reality and needs of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, with proper budget allocation at the national and subnational levels, with targets, indicators and benchmarks, especially in endemic countries;\n(h) Increase knowledge in all parts of society, including among State officials and public servants working in different areas of the State administration, particularly in health care, education, work and justice, as well as in the private sector, about updated scientific evidence on leprosy, as well as on the rights to non-discrimination and equality of persons affected by leprosy, especially in endemic countries;\n(i) Eliminate institutionalized discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members by monitoring and preventing the discriminatory application of laws that appear neutral at face value;\n(j) Eliminate derogatory language from official documents, laws, regulations, ordinances, resolutions and policies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IX. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0074", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "With regard to eliminating traditional discriminatory customs and practices, States should:\n(a) Carry out participatory research that can enable knowledge of the relation between discriminatory traditional customs and practices and non-State legal systems, while involving local communities, which should be properly recognized as experts;\n(b) Implement effective monitoring systems on traditional customs and practices that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy and their family members at the local level;\n(c) Make use of intercultural dialogue and mutual learning as effective methods for generating greater awareness of the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members and eliminating harmful traditional customs and practices based on leprosy at the local level, with the full participation of organizations of persons affected by leprosy;\n(d) Implement awareness-raising programmes that are sensitive to culture, language, gender, age and disability and that are developed in close collaboration with local communities in order to ensure both accessibility and efficacy;\n(e) Engage with public authorities, the media, State officials from all branches of the government, State and non-State justice operators and traditional and religious leaders in the prevention and elimination of leprosy-related violations.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IX. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0075", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "With regard to connecting restorative justice to prevention, States should:\n(a) Prohibit all laws, norms and official and traditional practices that lead to the segregation of persons affected by leprosy and duly recognize the damage perpetrated by both official and non-official historical segregation through the enactment of reparation measures that can simultaneously redress harm at the individual level and eliminate leprosy-related segregation and violations;\n(b) Implement reparation programmes that encompass both material reparations, aimed at redressing structural disadvantages, and symbolic reparations, aimed at enabling systemic change, with effective remedies, including compensation, reparation, restitution and rehabilitation;\n(c) Put in place comprehensive prevention structures that make use of education, arts and culture, archives and documentation, linking reparation programmes with memorialization processes that should also educate communities near former leprosy colonies;\n(d) Recognize and enforce housing and property rights for persons affected by leprosy who were forcibly segregated into leprosy colonies and ensure the same rights to second- and third-generation family members;\n(e) Implement participatory planning and management of former leprosy colonies and ensure that health care and rehabilitation, including psychosocial support, are available to current residents.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IX. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0076", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "With regard to enabling systemic change, States should:\n(a) Support and protect the engagement of persons affected by leprosy and their family members in leadership positions in public and political life by eliminating all laws, regulations, ordinances, resolutions and policies that hinder access for persons affected by leprosy to positions of power and/or holding office, and/or elaborate affirmative measures that can correct the historical and structural disadvantage that has curtailed their rights and those of their family members to participate in public and political life;\n(b) Encourage and promote the participation of persons affected by leprosy and their family members at the community level and in all public affairs that directly concern their life;\n(c) Take steps to ensure that children affected by leprosy are guaranteed the right to education and to stay in school, raising community awareness of leprosy and of the rights of persons affected by leprosy at school and providing families with incentives to allow their children to complete their education;\n(d) Ensure that children with leprosy-related disabilities participate on an equal basis with others in education services and recreational, leisure and sporting activities. Education services should ensure both accessibility and reasonable accommodation;\n(e) Enact affirmative measures to guarantee that children affected by leprosy and children of persons affected by leprosy have access to higher education on an equal basis with others, including the provision of financial incentives to allow them to finish their studies.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IX. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-76-148-0077", "docId": "a-76-148", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "With regard to protecting women affected by leprosy from violence, States should:\n(a) Eliminate discriminatory laws and/or practices that restrict or deny the rights of women affected by leprosy, including those regarding physical and mental health, sexuality and reproduction, as well as those concerning family issues, such as marriage and divorce, and provide for adequate solutions, remedies and reparation measures;\n(b) Eliminate all laws and/or practices that restrict rights and access to opportunities on an equal basis with others for women who experienced divorce or separation owing to leprosy and guarantee them their share of marital property and custody of their children, as well as housing, property and land rights;\n(c) Prohibit and punish domestic violence against women affected by leprosy, as well as all kinds of violence against them, including institutionalized violence in relation to State services, such as health care, education, social protection and employment, as well as any forms of interpersonal violence;\n(d) Ensure that the State’s formal legal system is accessible to women affected by leprosy and ensure gender awareness training for government officials who are responsible for enforcing laws that may be harmfully applied against women affected by leprosy;\n(e) Empower women affected by leprosy to know their rights and how to claim them, including through income-generation programmes, the creation of cooperatives and vocational continuing education, in order to secure for them economic independence and access to decent work and equal remuneration, as well as guarantee rights at work, including accessibility and reasonable accommodation for them, and recognize unpaid care work in social protection schemes;\n(f) Establish affirmative measures for ensuring equality of participation of women affected by leprosy in any decision-making that affects their lives, as well as in the mechanisms of representative and participatory democracy, non-governmental organizations, epistemic communities and health-care services.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IX. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0001", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "In the present report, submitted pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 44/6, the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, Alice Cruz, focuses on national legal protections available for persons affected by leprosy (also known as Hansen’s disease) and their family members, along with remaining challenges. More specifically, she discusses how the recognition of persons affected by leprosy and their family members as persons who are entitled to the rights provided for in the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is an important step in protecting this group of people, eliminating systemic discrimination against them and fulfilling their human rights. The Special Rapporteur also examines measures taken by States to recognize persons affected by leprosy and their family members as persons who are entitled to disability rights, as well as the barriers that hinder them from gaining access to and enjoying those rights, and offers constructive recommendations in that regard.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0002", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "Since the beginning of her mandate, the Special Rapporteur has endeavoured to mainstream leprosy awareness within the entire human rights system and has focused in particular on raising awareness of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy within the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. She has made several submissions to the Committee on the occasion of its reviews of leprosy-endemic countries. She has also contributed to the drafting of the Committee’s general comment on article 27 of the Convention, which is in progress.[[fn:1]] The Special Rapporteur appreciates the increasing inclusion of leprosy-related matters within the system and in the work of the Committee.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The Special Rapporteur’s oral statement to the Committee in this regard is available at www.ohchr.org/en/events/days-general-discussion-dgd/2021/day-general-discussion-right-persons-disabilities-work-and."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0003", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "Only four States actively contributed to the present report, which reflects the extent to which persons affected by leprosy and their family members are neglected by their own Governments, given the fact that, according to the World Health Organization (WHO), at least 23 countries are significantly affected by leprosy. Twenty civil society organizations working in 11 countries, 10 of which are leprosy-endemic countries, submitted key information for the present report. In total, 195 people from 23 countries, the majority being endemic, responded to the Special Rapporteur’s online questionnaire. In her work, the Special Rapporteur also relies on two decades of engagement with persons affected by leprosy and their family members and always keeps in mind the words of a woman affected by leprosy, which express the paradox of living with an invisible and unrecognized impairment but still being disabled by discrimination and society’s multiple barriers to a dignified life: “I cannot work as a domestic worker, which is what I did before, due to the constant pain I feel, and I cannot hold my baby, because I have no strength in my arms, and yet I am denied social protection because medical doctors say I have no disability.” As provided for in the preamble to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, it is the States parties’ obligation to recognize further the diversity of persons with disabilities. The present report is intended to contribute precisely to that end.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0004", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "The Special Rapporteur adopts the distinction established by the social model of disability between “impairment” (referring to any loss or difference of physical, mental, intellectual or sensory functioning) and “disability” (referring to the avoidable and imposed restrictions and losses caused by societies’ multiple barriers hindering people with impairments and their enjoyment of opportunities on an equal basis with others).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Disabling societies"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0005", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "It is not impairments, but rather disability, that actively marginalizes, excludes and dehumanizes people who experience any physical, mental, intellectual or sensory loss or difference. Ableism (meaning a system of oppression in which beliefs about disability are in great measure defined by persons without disabilities, reinforcing notions of “normal”, “ideal” or “able” bodies, while at the same time objectifying the lived experiences of persons with disabilities as a deviance from the “normal” and “desirable”),[[fn:2]] and its relationship with a capitalist model of social organization and production, is at the root of many of the attitudinal, environmental, legal, institutionalized and systemic barriers that disable people living with impairments. The Special Rapporteur also agrees with feminist scholars and activists who draw attention to the need not to overlook the phenomenological experience of living with impairments, and the present report also reflects that.[[fn:3]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See A/HRC/43/41."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Ana Bê, “Feminism and disability: a cartography of multiplicity”, in Routledge Handbook of Disability Studies, Nick Watson, Alan Roulstone and Carol Thomas, eds. (London, Routledge, 2012)."}], "section": ["II. Disabling societies"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0006", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "Likewise, the Special Rapporteur concurs with scholars and activists from the global South who argue in favour of examining global disabling forces,[[fn:4]] such as the enduring effects of colonialism, the devastating consequences of capitalism and the oppression of patriarchy, which have a disproportionate impact on people with impairments living in the global South, including persons affected by leprosy. One of the more important outputs of such a perspective would be to integrate the experiences and views of underrepresented people, such as persons affected by leprosy, into global discussions around disability.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Dan Goodley and Leslie Swartz, “The place of disability”, in Disability in the Global South: The Critical Handbook, Shaun Grech and Karen Soldatic, eds. (Springer, 2016)."}], "section": ["II. Disabling societies"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0007", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy and their family members have been largely excluded from the global conversation about disability, and society’s disabling forces affecting them have been left unexamined. An example of this are the scarce references to leprosy in the profuse set of international policies, guidance documents and papers focusing on disability. In the examination of 115 documents issued by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, the International Civil Aviation Organization, the International Labour Organization, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, WHO, the World Bank, the United Nations Development Programme, the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/ AIDS, the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women, and the United Nations Children’s Fund, only 3 were found that mentioned leprosy.[[fn:5]] There are several reasons explaining such limited recognition, including the following:\n(a) Since its medicalization in the late nineteenth century, leprosy has been under the jurisdiction of the medical professions. According to the reductionist approach of biomedicine, leprosy is a purely biological phenomenon that is immune to culture and politics. Such classification relegated to a secondary role the discrimination associated with the disease in policymaking and also contributed to curtailing the autonomy and self-determination of persons affected by leprosy. The Special Rapporteur also recalls that the discovery of the causative agent of leprosy (Mycobacterium leprae) in the late nineteenth century led to a unified response by European experts and Governments in 1879 based upon the idea of contagion, which gave rise to the establishment of thousands of leprosariums throughout the world, many of which implemented an official State policy of compulsory internment of persons affected by leprosy. The same policy was applied in 1923 to children of persons affected by leprosy. Many countries continued to implement this policy until quite recently. Subsequent developments in global guidance on addressing leprosy as a health problem continued to deny persons affected by leprosy the right to participate in decision-making processes. In addition, notwithstanding the growing recognition of people’s right to participation, the participation of persons affected by leprosy is usually tokenistic in nature;\n(b) Historically, services for persons affected by leprosy have been provided by charitable organizations and institutions. Such private organizations and institutions have been filling the substantial and formidable gaps in States’ actions regarding the needs of persons affected by leprosy. However, until quite recently, those same organizations and institutions did not engage with a rights-based approach to leprosy, often reproducing paternalistic approaches to persons affected by leprosy. Progress made by some of the private players working in the field is well known, but, at the organization level, the majority of these organizations are still for persons affected by leprosy and not of persons affected by leprosy;\n(c) Leprosy is mostly present in countries of the global South, and the global narrative on disability and disability rights is still largely framed by the perspectives coming from the global North. An example of this is the drafting process of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which resulted from an initiative taken mainly by States from the global South. Resource limitations meant, however, that more organizations from the global North than from the global South were able to engage in the prioritization and framing of the provisions of the Convention.[[fn:6]] Notwithstanding the richness of the work done by disability activists and scholars from the global South, the global approach to disability is still dominated by the agenda of the organizations from the global North.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "WHO, “Improving the health and wellbeing of people living with neglected tropical diseases through rehabilitation and assistive technology”; World Bank, “Disability inclusion in Nigeria: a rapid assessment”; and World Bank, “Poverty reduction strategies: their importance for disability”."}, {"n": 6, "text": "Paul Harpur and Michael Ashley Stein, “The U.N. Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and the Global South”, Yale Journal of International Law, vol. 47, No. 1 (2022)."}], "section": ["II. Disabling societies"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0008", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy should be fully recognized as persons with disabilities in accordance with articles 1 and 2 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, not only on the grounds of physical impairments caused by leprosy and the multiple barriers to their full participation imposed by society, but also on the ground of discrimination based on harmful stereotypes about leprosy itself. Furthermore, and as will be shown in the present report, many family members experience psychosocial impairments and disabilities owing to systemic discrimination on the ground of leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Disabling societies"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0009", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy have been systematically subjected to direct and indirect discrimination. Human rights abuses and violations have been perpetrated both in law and in practice. While discrimination in law endures, substantive discrimination, as a result of entrenched and systemic ostracization and marginalization, stands out as a leading cause of the persistent denial of the enjoyment of rights by persons affected by leprosy and their family members on an equal basis with others.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 20 (2009)."}], "section": ["II. Disabling societies"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0010", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has identified a generalized lack of acknowledgement among policymakers of the broad structural causes of ongoing discrimination, as well as gaps in human rights policymaking, with States’ actions being limited to the health field. Furthermore, she also identified States’ failures to fulfil their obligations to enforce the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, which are at the root of the extensive number of persons living with leprosy-related physical impairments.[[fn:8]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "A/HRC/50/35."}], "section": ["II. Disabling societies"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0011", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "It is labelling based upon harmful stereotypes, and not leprosy itself, that disrupts the social location of a person diagnosed with the disease. However, biomedicine has also played a determining role in framing leprosy as a condition that is antithetical to the modern project, matching it with the structural backwardness that was to be purged from modern nations. Even after being discredited, the biomedical concept that affirmed the need to segregate persons affected by leprosy continued to influence national legal and regulatory frameworks in fields as varied as those concerning freedom of movement, participation in political and social life, family life, work regulations, and immigration and visa regulations. The Special Rapporteur has identified more than 100 laws in place that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "A/76/148."}], "section": ["II. Disabling societies"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0012", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Despite being curable, if not detected early and treated leprosy can cause irreversible damage to the skin, nerves, limbs and eyes, leading to disfigurement, blindness, loss of sensation, chronic wounds and neuropathic pain. The main cause of the impairments associated with leprosy is nerve damage, which can occur before and during treatment, as well as after bacteriological cure. A unique feature of the impairments caused by leprosy is their preventable nature, for which access to early diagnosis and treatment are determining factors.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Medical model"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0013", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The WHO global leprosy strategy[[fn:10]] contains a grading system for assessing and measuring leprosy-related impairments. Even though such a system uses the term “disability”, it only measures physical impairments, which contributes to misinterpretations of disability associated with leprosy and to misguided policies and practices. The grading system used by WHO consists of grade 0, meaning no impairment, grade 1, meaning loss of sensation in the hand, eye or foot, and grade 2, meaning visible impairment. It is, in essence, a medical and narrow approach that misuses the term “disability”.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "WHO, “Towards zero leprosy: global leprosy (Hansen’s disease) strategy 2021–2030”."}], "section": ["III. Medical model"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0014", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The long-term vision of the global leprosy strategy includes zero infection and disease, zero disability, and zero stigma and discrimination. One of the global targets for 2030 is a 90 per cent reduction in the rate per million people of new cases with grade 2 disability. Again, such a target is supposed to be met with a strategy that is purely based on a medical approach that fails to acknowledge disability as the result of the interaction between impairments and attitudinal and environmental barriers.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Medical model"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0015", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "The limitations to the medical approach are clear. For example, owing to systemic discrimination, the majority of persons affected by leprosy work in the informal economy and depend on unreliable casual labour with low income and unsafe working conditions. Physically demanding labour, which for many persons affected by leprosy is the daily reality of sustaining a livelihood, can aggravate physical impairments related to nerve damage. The interrelation between physical impairments, discrimination and unequal opportunities for decent work illustrates how the medical approach, by focusing solely on physical impairments, overlooks important socioeconomic factors and generates misinterpretations that negatively influence policymaking, and in so doing, contributes to disabling persons affected by leprosy. 8 A/HRC/50/35. 9 A/76/148. 10 WHO, “Towards zero leprosy: global leprosy (Hansen’s disease) strategy 2021–2030”. 8/21", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "section": ["III. Medical model"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0016", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "As the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic had a huge impact on leprosy case detection,[[fn:11]] data gathered before its outbreak are more reliable. In 2019, a total of 202,256 new cases were detected in 118 countries. In total, 10,816 new cases in 94 countries, including 370 among children, presented irreversible physical impairments at the time of diagnosis – an indication of late diagnosis. The number of affected children is likely to be significantly higher, as some countries did not report data on irreversible physical impairments at the time of diagnosis among children. Also, according to WHO, in the absence of verifiable data it is estimated that between 3 million and 4 million people are living with visible impairments owing to leprosy.[[fn:12]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "A/HRC/47/29."}, {"n": 12, "text": "WHO, “Towards zero leprosy”."}], "section": ["III. Medical model"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0017", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "WHO global priority countries for action are derived from a composite index using parameters such as prevalence, new case detection, proportions of female children and irreversible physical impairments at the time of diagnosis. The 23 WHO global priority countries are Angola, Bangladesh, Brazil, the Comoros, Côte d’Ivoire, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Micronesia (Federated States of), India, Indonesia, Kiribati, Madagascar, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Nigeria, the Philippines, Somalia, South Sudan, Sri Lanka, the Sudan and the United Republic of Tanzania. It is important to note that leprosy also affects countries not among the 23 WHO global priority countries, especially in South America, Africa and Asia.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Medical model"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0018", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "An analysis of the evolution of the number of people diagnosed with already irreversible physical impairments in the 23 WHO global priority countries over the past five years shows that the decrease is manifestly slow. Many people continue to be diagnosed with already irreversible impairments, and efforts to monitor the evolution of impairments after discharge from the health-care services once the bacteriological treatment for the leprosy infection has been completed, together with the provision of rehabilitation, are clearly lacking, as previously documented by the Special Rapporteur.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "A/HRC/50/35."}], "section": ["III. Medical model"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0019", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Apart from South Sudan, the remaining 22 WHO global priority countries for action against leprosy have either ratified or acceded to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. However, a significant number of those States parties have not signed, ratified or acceded to the Optional Protocol, including the Comoros, Egypt, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Kiribati, Madagascar, Micronesia (Federated States of), Myanmar, the Philippines, Somalia and Sri Lanka.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0020", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "This situation hinders persons with disabilities from gaining access to their right to an effective remedy and reparation, as provided for in article 2 (3) of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and subsequently clarified by the Human Rights Committee in its general comment No. 31 (2004) on the nature of the general legal obligation imposed on States parties to the Covenant, since the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities establishes the competence of the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities to receive individual and collective complaints regarding human rights violations in the countries that are party to the Convention and to undertake relevant investigations.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0021", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Whether through constitutional norms, national laws or policies, the majority of the WHO global priority countries for action against leprosy that have either ratified or acceded to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities recognize the right to equality for persons with disabilities. Nevertheless, while some of these 11 A/HRC/47/29. 12 WHO, “Towards zero leprosy”. 13 A/HRC/50/35. countries have developed legal and regulatory frameworks that are in accordance with the social model of disability and the provisions of the Convention, others continue to draw from a medicalized approach to disability when establishing their provisions. A very small number of countries explicitly mention leprosy as a formally recognized category related to disability in their national legal and regulatory frameworks. The Special Rapporteur urges relevant States that are drafting or enacting new legislation on protecting the rights of persons with disabilities to explicitly refer to persons affected by leprosy as being entitled to those rights. An example is Bangladesh, a country with a significant number of people living with leprosy and leprosy-related disabilities, where efforts to enact an anti-discrimination bill are under way.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0022", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "More detailed information submitted for the purposes of the present report by States and civil society organizations from 15 countries where leprosy is an issue of concern confirms the limited references to leprosy in national legal and regulatory frameworks designed to protect, promote and fulfil the rights of persons with disabilities. Below are a few examples of States where leprosy is an issue of concern and where it is formally recognized as a disability-related category.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0023", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Brazil, the country with the highest relative incidence of leprosy, has ratified both the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and its Optional Protocol. What is notable about Brazil, however, is that it has attributed the value of a constitutional norm to the Convention and its Optional Protocol through Decree No. 6.949. Furthermore, Law No. 13.146/2015, known as the Brazilian Law of Inclusion, integrates the social model of disability that lies at the heart of the Convention. Issues such as accessibility, universal design, assistive technology, communication, reasonable accommodation, independent living and support are fully addressed in the law. Rehabilitation and inclusive labour rights for persons with disabilities are also provided for by Laws No. 8213/1991 and No. 13146/2015. While leprosy is not explicitly referred to in these laws, Brazil has put in place key anti-discriminatory legislation with Law No. 9010/1995, which replaces the term “leprosy” with “Hansen’s disease” (acknowledging the relationship between stereotyping and discrimination, referred to in article 8 of the Convention) and has recognized the damage caused by the State policy of forced isolation of persons affected by leprosy (which had been in place from the 1920s to the 1980s), establishing an administrative programme to provide for material reparation under Law No. 11520/2007.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0024", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "In Colombia, article 47 of the Constitution provides that the State is responsible for implementing a policy of rehabilitation and social integration for persons with physical, sensory and psychological impairments. Several laws have been enacted to protect persons with disabilities, and, in 2013, a national public policy for disability and social inclusion was put in place. Important jurisprudence established a prohibition on using derogatory terms to refer to person with disabilities. Several laws, and more particularly Law No. 380/1997, were also enacted specifically to provide social protection benefits to persons affected by leprosy living in poverty and with physical impairments caused by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0025", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "India, the country with the highest absolute incidence of leprosy, has significant legal and regulatory frameworks in place to protect the rights of persons with disabilities, including: the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act of 2016; the Mental Healthcare Act of 2017; the National Trust for the Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities Act of 2000; the Rehabilitation Council of India Act of 1992; the National Policy for Persons with Disabilities of 2006; and the National Mental Health Policy of India of 2014. Of these, the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act guarantees: the right to equality and non-discrimination; the right to community life; protection from cruelty and inhuman treatment; protection from abuse, violence and exploitation; equal protection and safety in situations of risk, armed conflict, humanitarian emergencies and natural disasters; rights related to the home and family; reproductive rights; accessibility in voting; and access to justice. Various types of conditions are also recognized as disabilities in the Act. Persons affected by leprosy are included in the “persons cured of leprosy” category. According to the stipulated definition, persons cured of leprosy are subdivided into persons with three categories of impairments. However, and as the name suggests, only those individuals who have finished bacteriological treatment are recognized. This distinction between the cured and uncured leaves those yet to be diagnosed and those undergoing treatment, who may be equally or more vulnerable to stigmatization and discrimination, completely unprotected under the Act. Another issue of concern is that the Act draws heavily from the medical model when creating a category of persons with benchmark disabilities (whose degree of physical impairment must be 40 per cent or higher), which is decided by designated medical boards in government hospitals. A person who meets this benchmark is entitled to receive a disability certificate, a pension, financial support, a reserved place in educational institutions and workplaces, and other benefits. Others, who do not meet the 40 per cent criteria, are excluded from social protection.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0026", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "Indonesia, which together with India and Brazil accounts for 79 per cent of global leprosy cases, enacted Law No. 8 on persons with disabilities in 2016. This law guarantees a broad range of political, civil, economic, social and cultural rights to persons with disabilities, provides for better access to benefits and other relevant services for persons with disabilities, and promotes government engagement with organizations of persons with disabilities on matters such as policymaking, budgeting, planning and the provision of reasonable accommodation. Leprosy is explicitly mentioned in the law when defining persons with physical disabilities, although the definition contained therein relies heavily on the medical model.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0027", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "Article 18 of the Constitution of Nepal establishes the right to equality as a fundamental right and prohibits any kind of discrimination on the basis of physical condition or disability. The Penal Code also prohibits discrimination against persons with disabilities. The Act relating to Rights of Persons with Disabilities of 2017 provides that persons with disabilities are entitled to fully enjoy the right to non-discrimination, the right to protection, the right to political participation, the right to participation in policymaking, the right to establish representative organizations, the right to access services, the right to justice, and the right to social security, among others. The Act classifies disabilities into 10 categories and expressly recognizes disability that arises as an effect of leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0028", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Constitutional norms, legislation, programmes and strategies in force in some countries where leprosy is relevant create favourable conditions for protecting the rights of persons with leprosy-related impairments and disabilities. This situation notwithstanding, information submitted for the purpose of the present report both by organizations of persons affected by leprosy and by organizations for persons affected by leprosy indicate the existence of important challenges regarding the execution and implementation of such frameworks, as well as significant problems with the content of the aforementioned norms, legislation, programmes and strategies.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. National legal and regulatory frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0029", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "In order to illustrate such difficulties and problems, the Special Rapporteur describes the challenges faced by persons affected by leprosy in gaining access to disability rights specifically in the countries already referred to as having legal and regulatory frameworks that recognize persons affected by leprosy as being entitled to such rights.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0030", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "In Bangladesh, the definition itself of disability constitutes an important barrier hindering persons affected by leprosy from having access to State services and benefits. Invisible physical impairments, as well as psychosocial impairments caused by discrimination on the ground of leprosy, are not recognized as disabilities, thereby excluding an important number of individuals from enjoying social protection and benefits. Civil society organizations also report significant geographical and information barriers, mentioning the limited reach of tertiary health-care facilities and of the provision of rehabilitation and assistive devices, as well as a lack of awareness among public servants and service providers about leprosy-related impairments and disabilities. The same organizations mention enhanced risks to mental health experienced by women affected by leprosy. Many cases of divorce or separation owing to leprosy take place, and these particularly affect women. Stigmatization on the ground of leprosy also hinders people from having access to employment and vocational training opportunities. Responses to the crisis generated by the COVID-19 pandemic, while inclusive of persons with disabilities, left out persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0031", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "In Brazil, access to disability rights and benefits is dependent on a medical evaluation of physical impairments. Most doctors working in the public health system are not prepared to diagnose leprosy-related impairments. This can result in people being denied social protection benefits, while their impairments, whether visible or invisible, may severely limit their activities and ability to work. Difficulties with bureaucratic procedures, which do not provide timely responses to the people who need them, were also reported as barriers to access to disability rights. Reports of stigmatization against persons affected by leprosy perpetrated by the health-care workforce are also common, and such stigmatization acts as a barrier to the recognition that persons affected by leprosy are entitled to disability rights, especially to social protection and benefits, since access is dependent on a medical certificate. Article 4 of Law No. 11520 provides for full rehabilitation and ensures free access to orthotic devices, prostheses and other assistive devices and technologies for the beneficiaries of the special pension provided for in the law. Nevertheless, the relevant article has not yet been regulated, and the aforementioned services, as well as key materials such as assistive devices, lubricating eye drops, thermal gloves, orthotics, prostheses and special shoes, are manifestly lacking for persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0032", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "In Colombia, issues around the intersection of leprosy with deep-rooted harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping, with poverty and with geographical barriers for people living in remote and rural areas stand as the main barriers hindering persons affected by leprosy from enjoying disability-related social protection. The Special Rapporteur has also received worrying reports about bad practices on the part of public servants and service providers with regard to the attribution of disability benefits to persons affected by leprosy that may indicate an abuse of power over people living in vulnerable situations, as well as institutionalized corruption.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0033", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The same issues around the intersection of leprosy with deep-rooted harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping, with poverty and with geographical barriers for people living in remote and rural areas were raised by civil society organizations working in India. Those organizations also referred to information barriers, especially those faced by people living in rural areas who were deprived of access to their rights and enjoying their entitlements, aggravated by the lack of a viable mechanism to disseminate information within the system of national and subnational governmental bodies. Significant problems with institutional service delivery were also observed, including a lack of knowledge and capacity among public servants and service providers. Bureaucratic and administrative barriers were also reported, especially with regard to access to disability certificates. Concerning the quota system for access to public employment, limited resources are woefully insufficient, resulting in those more vulnerable being left out. Barriers to access to livelihood loans from government financial institutions, housing schemes and marriage grants were also reported. Another important barrier lies in the definition of disability in national laws. While the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act of 2016 includes persons affected by leprosy within its purview, there are two major issues with the provisions concerned that hinder the effective guarantee of such rights under the Act for persons affected by leprosy. First, the restriction of a specified disability only to persons who have been cured of leprosy excludes a large proportion of persons who may live with leprosy-related impairments but who have not yet been cured of leprosy. Second, the manner in which disability percentages are calculated (only disabilities of 40 per cent or more give access to disability-related benefits) does not give sufficient weight to the loss of sensation and other important invisible impairments, which often leads to the denial of disability certificates to persons affected by leprosy. The scoring grade misses out on the important aspect of nerve damage, which causes partial or complete loss of sensation and has the potential to cause dynamic changes resulting in further, visible impairments. There are more than 100 discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy in the country – an issue that has already been addressed by the Special Rapporteur.[[fn:14]] Lastly, there is a significant problem with the non-discrimination clause set out in section 3 (3) of the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, which reads as follows: “No person with disability shall be discriminated on the ground of disability, unless it is shown that the impugned act or omission is a proportionate means of achieving a legitimate aim.” Neither the law nor its implementing regulations define what constitutes a “legitimate aim” or “proportionate means”, and the reality of the negative attitudes towards and perceptions of leprosy disability, coupled with a lack of awareness, will form the basis of the decisions that people make regarding what constitutes a legitimate purpose. This subsection nullifies the objective of protection from discrimination under the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act in its entirety, rather than providing for the same in unambiguous terms. It is therefore essential to repeal section 3 (3) of the Act and insert a non-discrimination subsection that is in line with the dispositions on special and affirmative measures as detailed by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in its general recommendations No. 32 (2014) on the gender-related dimensions of refugee status, asylum, nationality and statelessness of women and No. 25 (2004) on temporary special measures and by the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in its general comment No. 20 (2009) on non-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights.", "labels": ["Non-citizens and stateless", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "A/76/148."}], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0034", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "Issues around the intersection of leprosy with deep-rooted harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping, with poverty and with geographical barriers for people living in remote and rural areas are also referred to by civil society organizations as outstanding barriers hindering persons affected by leprosy from having access to disability rights in Indonesia. According to these organizations, the enjoyment of disability-related protection and benefits by persons affected by leprosy remains very limited, and stigmatization against persons affected by leprosy is a major barrier that calls for leprosy-specific affirmative measures. Examples provided by the organizations include access to employment, especially in the area of food production and services, which is restricted for persons affected by leprosy but open to persons with disabilities as a very common income generation opportunity in Indonesia. Persons affected by leprosy are regarded as leprosy patients in the health-care services and are treated in a separate leprosy room, often located at the back of the health-care centre, even if their current illness is not leprosy-related. Reasonable accommodation is provided to people with visual impairments, hearing impairments and mobility impairments, but not for the special needs of persons affected by leprosy. These special needs are often caused by stigmatization. For example, persons affected by leprosy are reluctant to go to a district general hospital owing to previous experiences of discrimination on the part of health-care workers. They felt accepted and well treated in the former leprosy hospitals but not in the general hospitals. Therefore, since currently they only have the option of being treated in general district hospitals, they need support in admission, and it must be ensured that the hospitals accept them and have the right capacities to treat them. Statutory health insurance companies should also offer special help addressing the needs of persons affected by leprosy. The health insurance companies argue that the wounds of persons affected by leprosy are no different from diabetic wounds, but, unlike people with diabetic wounds, persons affected by leprosy cannot go to local wound services because they are not accepted there. When they are told to treat their wounds at home, they often cannot do so because they live in poverty and have to work. Civil society organizations also call attention to the preventable nature of physical impairments caused by leprosy and demand the right to an effective remedy for those people whose right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, including early diagnosis and prompt treatment of leprosy, has not been guaranteed, leading to irreversible physical impairments.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0035", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "In Nepal, the definition of persons with disabilities set out in the Disability Act of 2017 is comprehensive in nature, but in practice persons with sensory impairments face many difficulties in gaining access to disability cards. Furthermore, psychosocial impairments and disabilities resulting from stigmatization on the ground of leprosy are not recognized de facto. Information barriers, with a lack of awareness among persons affected by leprosy about their rights and how to claim them, was also reported. An important gap in the country concerns the collection of data on leprosy-related disabilities. According to the civil society organizations that submitted information for the purpose of the present report, during the preparation of a population census conducted in 2021, several disability groups were included in the discussion, and their inputs were sought before and after the census. However, representatives of organizations of persons affected by leprosy were not invited to participate, and their specific situation was thus not duly taken into account. Overall, the participation of persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations in policymaking remains low when compared with that of other organizations of persons with disabilities. Lastly, Nepal has not yet abolished discriminatory norms against persons affected by leprosy under its Civil Code.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0036", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Importantly, the difficulties and problems described herein are not particular to these countries, but rather reflect a common pattern of non-recognition and exclusion that is shared by people living in other countries and that calls for reviewing legal and regulatory frameworks, as well as administrative procedures for their implementation. While the majority of countries in which leprosy is relevant have legal and regulatory frameworks in place that, in principle, recognize visible impairments caused by leprosy, issues around the assessment and recognition of invisible impairments and psychosocial impairments, disability as the interaction between impairments and society’s restrictions, effective access to disability-related benefits, the right to an effective remedy and reparation, the elimination of discriminatory legal and regulatory frameworks, the elimination of harmful stereotypes, and measures to protect the rights of people living in former leprosy colonies, among others, remain unaddressed. In essence, disability rights seem to be restricted to social protection, and decisions on who is or is not entitled to such protection remain largely in the hands of the medical professions.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0037", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "The situations described above, taken together, echo the paternalistic approach to persons with disabilities and to persons affected by leprosy that international human rights law was set to transform through provisions aimed at promoting an active citizenship and creating enabling environments that embrace diversity. Importantly, it is clarified in the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities that States’ obligations include not only non-discrimination but also taking all the steps necessary to eliminate barriers and promote enabling environments that guarantee the right of persons with disabilities to enjoy opportunities on an equal basis with others. Undoubtedly, systemic change requires more than what is provided for in existing national legal and regulatory frameworks.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0038", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "Another issue of concern is that few countries have established mechanisms for monitoring the implementation of the Convention and of disability-related national legal and regulatory frameworks. Monitoring mechanisms, together with proper budget allocation and transparent accountability procedures, are essential to the enforcement of international and national human rights law. The same is true of the enforcement of participation rights, especially for historically marginalized groups who have been structurally denied the opportunity to engage in public affairs and to defend their own interests in the democratic construction of free societies.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Barriers to disability rights"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0039", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "At the heart of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities lies the right to participation. This right is implicit in the preamble to the Convention, which contains recognition of the valued existing and potential contributions made by persons with disabilities to the overall well-being and diversity of their communities and of the importance for persons with disabilities of their individual autonomy and independence, including their freedom to make their own choices. By the same token, it is stated in the preamble that the Convention will make a significant contribution to redressing the profound social disadvantage of persons with disabilities and promote their participation in the civil, political, economic, social and cultural spheres with equal opportunities, in both developing and developed countries. The right to participation is mentioned in article 3 (c), which provides for the full and effective participation and inclusion of persons with disabilities in society; in article 4 (3), which provides that persons with disabilities and their representative organizations shall be involved in the development and implementation of legislation and policies to implement the Convention and in other decision-making processes concerning issues relating to them; and in articles 29 and 30, where it is further elaborated.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0040", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "In the Convention, it is acknowledged that persons with disabilities are not homogenous, and their diversity is recognized, which is essential to guiding States towards ensuring the participation of all groups of persons with disabilities in the development and implementation of legislation and policies and in decision-making processes that concern them. Only those with the experience of specific impairments and disabilities are best positioned to identify the exact barriers and risks affecting them, vocalize their needs and contribute to solutions. Communities have an accumulated and action-oriented knowledge about their territory and people, which can only enhance the efficiency of States’ responses to their problems. This notwithstanding, participation is often used in discourse and seldom put into practice. In order for participation to be meaningful and not merely tokenistic, issues around recognition and access, as well as the barriers that hinder both, need to be prioritized in States’ frameworks for implementing the Convention.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0041", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Several civil society organizations report that limited participation is enjoyed by persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations in institutional matters relating to them, as well as in umbrella organizations for persons with disabilities. Unarguably, there are numerous systemic barriers to the full and meaningful participation of persons affected by leprosy and their family members. Such barriers include: institutionalized discrimination; illiteracy and low educational qualifications; legal impediments; inaccessibility of administrative procedures and requirements; inaccessibility and unintelligibility of the information being provided; physical and environmental barriers; and a lack of support mechanisms for overcoming structural disadvantages reflected in unequal and unfair socioeconomic and education status.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0042", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "Under the Convention, States are obliged to actively promote enabling environments, ensuring equality, guarantees to free expression, accessibility, accommodation in procedures and support. Accessibility as an indispensable condition for the fulfilment of the right to participation relates to information, communication, infrastructure and transport. In order to promote the participation of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, States are required to identify and remove any legal barrier and any institutionalized discriminatory practice. Adopting temporary special measures to guarantee de facto equality in participation in public affairs, as endorsed by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in its general recommendation No. 23 (1997) on women in political and public life, may also be needed.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0043", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The Special Rapporteur, in line with her working methods, has consulted persons affected by leprosy and their family members on issues such as self-identification and disability when preparing the present report. Their experience and needs show the limitations of existing legal and regulatory frameworks for protecting the rights of persons with disabilities and, accordingly, the value of ensuring their right to participation in the development and implementation of legislation and policies and in decision-making processes that concern them.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0044", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "A total of 195 people from 23 countries (Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Brazil, Colombia, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Kenya, Morocco, Myanmar, Nepal, Nigeria, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines, Portugal, Senegal, Solomon Islands, Timor-Leste, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the United States of America and Zambia), the majority being leprosy-endemic countries, responded to the online questionnaire designed for the present report. A total of 43 per cent of the respondents were women affected by leprosy, 27 per cent were men affected by leprosy, 10 per cent were female family members of persons affected by leprosy, 6 per cent were male family members of persons affected by leprosy and 14 per cent were categorized as “other” (of which 60 per cent were members of organizations of persons affected by leprosy or organization of persons with disabilities and 40 per cent were health-care professionals). Of the 195 respondents, 58 per cent were members of organizations of persons affected by leprosy or organizations of persons with disabilities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0045", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "When asked whether they self-identified as a person with disabilities, 74 per cent of the specific group of persons affected by leprosy responding to the questionnaire answered in the affirmative, as did 30 per cent of the family members of persons affected by leprosy. A total of 23 per cent of the persons affected by leprosy who self-identified as persons with disabilities mentioned living with impairments on their feet, 23 per cent mentioned living with impairments on their hands, 19 per cent described numbness of their limbs and skin, 11 per cent described visible impairments, 8 per cent referred to mobility impairments, 7 per cent referred to visual impairments, 6 per cent referred to loss of sensation and 3 per cent referred to the amputation of limbs. Importantly, 43 per cent of the family members of the persons affected by leprosy mentioned living with mental illnesses.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0046", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "It is worthwhile to note that, while the majority of persons affected by leprosy identify as persons with disabilities (74 per cent), others do not. Discussion about the recognition of persons affected by leprosy and their family members as persons with disabilities challenges any fixed definition of disability, as well as dichotomic frontiers between “disabled” and “non-disabled”. Acknowledgement of fluid, complex and evolving identities is key not only to avoiding any exclusion but also to preventing any labelling that goes against people’s right to self-identification.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0047", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "As recognized in the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, persons with disabilities are not a homogeneous group, but rather a very internally diverse one, as is the case with persons affected by leprosy and their family members. Fluidity is at the heart of the preamble to the Convention, in which it is affirmed that disability is an evolving concept. However, binary definitions of “disabled” and “non-disabled” that do not recognize disability as a dynamic and evolving experience in people’s lives are largely dominant.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0048", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "It is affirmed in article 1 of the Convention that persons with disabilities include those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others, thereby not restricting coverage to any person. Such definition accommodates family members of persons affected by leprosy who self-identify as persons with psychosocial disabilities owing to stigmatization and discrimination on the ground of leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0049", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "When asked what daily activities were more challenging in people’s lives, 26 per cent of the specific group of persons affected by leprosy who responded to the questionnaire referred to mobility issues; 19 per cent referred to personal daily activities such as bathing and changing clothes; 18 per cent referred to kitchen work; 14 per cent referred to difficulties in getting to work, performing heavy work and working; 11 per cent referred to holding and picking up objects; and 12 per cent referred to housekeeping activities. Nevertheless, 54 per cent did not receive any support or State benefits, nor did 73 per cent of family members of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0050", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "A total of 36 per cent of persons affected by leprosy mentioned not being recognized as a person with disabilities by doctors as a barrier to disability-related protection, while 32 per cent said that they did not know about any possible benefits and another 32 per cent complained about the absence of any benefit. Medical jurisdiction over the assessment of disability and a lack of information seem to be the major barriers at work with regard to access to disability-related social protection.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0051", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "In total, 61 per cent of persons affected by leprosy reported having been discriminated against on the ground of their impairments, as did 57 per cent of family members of persons affected by leprosy. The Special Rapporteur has extensively documented discrimination on the ground of leprosy, which ranges from interpersonal to structural and institutionalized violence, and has also detailed the specific patterns of discrimination perpetrated against women and children affected by leprosy.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "A/HRC/41/47."}], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0052", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "The Special Rapporteur believes that it is important to signal in the present report that not only are persons with disabilities a diverse group of people, but that their problems and needs may also differ from those of other persons with disabilities, which emphasizes the importance of recognizing diversity and consulting all groups of persons with disabilities. Specific examples involving issues such as reasonable accommodation, deinstitutionalization and the disabling effects of institutionalized and structural discrimination and violence in family members follow:\n(a) As previously mentioned, the majority of persons affected by leprosy have been pushed out of the formal economy and into poverty and extreme poverty. The majority work in the informal economy and have been systematically denied the rights to decent work and social protection, and they have also been voiceless in social dialogue and other decision-making processes. Their sector of activity is mostly petty trade, agriculture, fishing and other manual activities. While reasonable accommodation, as described in article 2 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, and as provided for in article 27 of the Convention regarding the workplace, may not be an obligation of the State unless it relates to public employment, but rather of the employer, it is still the responsibility of the State to create the conditions for reasonable accommodation to be provided in all productive sectors and work arrangements. In this sense, States should be obliged to create mechanisms that can ensure reasonable accommodation to own-account workers and to people working in agriculture, husbandry, fishing and other physical labour, as is the case for many persons who have experienced leprosy. The latter face several barriers to their enjoyment of the right to education, and this pushes them into performing manual labour, which, owing to nerve damage caused by leprosy, can aggravate physical impairments and chronic pain. Importantly, women, who bear the brunt of unpaid care and household work, often lack rest periods, self-care and assistive devices that are essential to their well-being. The right to reasonable accommodation should, as such, be mainstreamed into relevant government programmes, such as those related to gender, agriculture and the rural population. Furthermore, the provision of reasonable accommodation should take into consideration not only visible physical impairments related to leprosy, but also invisible ones, such as pain or loss of sensation, as well as psychosocial disabilities related to stigmatization;\n(b) The majority of people who were forcibly segregated into what have become globally known as leprosy colonies (there are nearly 2,000 such colonies active in the world) and their descendants do not enjoy property rights over the land where they were once confined, and this situation aggravates poverty. Notably, these places have become, for many people, their home and their descendants’ home. As such, article 19 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities should be interpreted in the light of guideline 5 of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. It is affirmed in the guideline that States should promote the enjoyment of the same rights for persons affected by leprosy and their family members as for everyone else, allowing their full inclusion and participation in the community, but also that States should allow any persons affected by leprosy and their family members who were once forcibly isolated by State policies to continue to live in the places that have become their homes, if they so desire. States should also improve living conditions in those places. The Special Rapporteur has received worrying reports of cases of forced eviction from former leprosy colonies. Such colonies should come under the protection of housing rights, as provided for in article 11 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and land and property should be regulated in order to guarantee ownership of property and land to persons affected by leprosy and their descendants, if they so desire;\n(c) For many family members of persons affected by leprosy, discrimination on the ground of leprosy has a severe impact on their enjoyment of opportunities on an equal basis with others, and stigmatization also affects their mental health and well-being. In the case of some family members, moreover, human rights violations have been equally perpetrated against them on the ground of leprosy. This is the case for the children and family members who experienced separation from their parents and segregation from society. In Brazil, it is reported that approximately 16,000 children were separated from their parents as a result of the segregation policy; they were sent to institutions known as preventoriums between the 1920s and the 1980s. There are also reports of illegal adoptions and even executions.[[fn:16]] As a result of these violations, many of these people currently do not have access to an adequate standard of living and economic autonomy, and many suffer from psychosocial disorders and disabilities that impair their rehabilitation and inclusion in society. In accordance, they should be guaranteed remedies and reparation for the damages they have suffered owing to the compulsory isolation of their biological parents and the abuse and violence that they suffered within State facilities.", "labels": ["Children", "Internally displaced persons", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons living in rural/remote areas", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Pedro Pulzatto Peruzzo and others, “Contribuição para o relatório temático da relatora especial das Nações Unidas para a eliminação da discriminação contra as pessoas atingidas pela hanseníase e seus familiares ao Conselho de Direitos Humanos da ONU”, Revista de Direitos Humanos e Desenvolvimento Social, vol. 2 (2021)."}], "section": ["VI. Why inclusive participation matters"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0053", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "An important element of enjoying dignity, which is a core human rights principle, relates to people’s power to choose how they are identified and referred to. As part of their struggle against dehumanization, people who were stigmatized on the basis of leprosy rejected both discriminatory and medical terminology, preferring the expression “persons affected by leprosy” (which came to be employed by the Human Rights Council in its resolution 35/9) to refer to individuals currently under treatment for leprosy and individuals who had been cured of leprosy. That expression was adopted by representatives of the people’s organizations as an important step towards self-identification. Nevertheless, recent developments are leading to an increasing use of the alternative terminology “persons who have experienced leprosy” by the people’s organizations and to a rejection of the term “leprosy” altogether in favour of the term “Hansen’s disease”. The Special Rapporteur included in her questionnaire two questions on issues of terminology, to be answered only by persons affected by leprosy. In total, 82 per cent of the respondents preferred terms such as “Hansen’s disease”, while 66 per cent would rather use the expression “persons affected by Hansen’s disease”, compared with 34 per cent who preferred to use “persons who have experienced Hansen’s disease”. While no definite conclusions can be drawn from these results, they certainly point to a large majority of people preferring “Hansen’s disease” over “leprosy”, and to the need for a wider discussion at the national level, but also within WHO, on terminology.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Terminology"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0054", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "While progress made in the elaboration of norms at the national level that recognize equality for persons with disabilities is well known, States must do more to effectively implement the provisions of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, given the fact that, in practice, the implementation of such norms reproduces paternalistic approaches that largely fail to promote systemic change. By the same token, recognition of the diversity of persons with disabilities is limited, and more marginalized groups of persons with disabilities, such as persons affected by leprosy and their family members, are overlooked in national policymaking. Issues that demand much more attention from policymakers include those surrounding the definition and assessment of disability, the removal of institutionalized and extra-institutional barriers hindering access to rights, the relationship between poverty and disability, the provision of remedies and reparation, and the establishment of specific measures with proper budget allocations that can promote active and participatory citizenship.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0055", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "In order for States to develop and implement leprosy-inclusive disability laws and policies, the Special Rapporteur recommends that they adopt and implement the measures set out below.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0056", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "In general, States should:\n(a) Ratify both the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and its Optional Protocol, if they have not already done so;\n(b) Establish a framework to promote and monitor the implementation of the Convention that recognizes persons affected by leprosy and their family members as persons with multiple disabilities and that duly takes guidance from the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members as a road map that clarifies the normative content of legally binding international human rights instruments in the specific context of the systemic and structural violation of the human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members;\n(c) Make use of a concept of disability that is in line with the Convention and guarantee that recognition of rights holders is not dependent on medical criteria and assessment, but rather is based on encompassing standards that acknowledge the disabling effect of discrimination, integrate self-identification and accommodate the complexity and fluidity of people’s experiences and identities; review administrative procedures for gaining access to disability rights and benefits and guarantee their accessibility; and ensure that persons affected by leprosy, their family members and representative organizations are fully involved in such a reform.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0057", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "With regard to equality and non-discrimination, States should:\n(a) Review, amend, repeal or abolish all laws, regulations, ordinances, resolutions and policies that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy and deny them the enjoyment of rights on an equal basis with others at both the national and subnational levels of government;\n(b) Duly ensure civil and political rights for persons affected by leprosy and their family members, including owning national identity cards, voting and standing in elections and holding public office; develop and enact comprehensive affirmative measures as a means of correcting historical and structural disadvantage, in line with general recommendation No. 25 (2004) of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, in which the Committee affirms that the duration of a temporary special measure should be determined by its functional result in response to a concrete problem and not by a predetermined passage of time; ensure that affirmative measures are defined in consultation with persons affected by leprosy, their family members and representative organizations; and ensure that affirmative measures come with targets and key performance indicators, as well as effective enforcement mechanisms and remedies;\n(c) Strengthen the protection of persons affected by leprosy and their family members against violence and abuse by prohibiting discrimination on the ground of leprosy and extending that prohibition to the private and public spheres, as well as by establishing inclusive and accessible victim support services;\n(d) Recognize and enforce housing and property rights for persons affected by leprosy who were forcibly segregated into leprosy colonies, and ensure the same rights for second-generation and third-generation family members.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0058", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "With regard to awareness-raising and access to information, States should:\n(a) Increase knowledge in all parts of society, including among State officials and public servants working in different areas of the State Administration, particularly in health care, education, labour and justice, as well as in the private sector, about updated scientific evidence on leprosy and on the rights to non-discrimination and equality for persons affected by leprosy and their family members;\n(b) Implement awareness-raising programmes that are sensitive to culture, language, gender, age and disability and that are developed in close collaboration with organizations of persons affected by leprosy, in order to ensure both accessibility and efficacy; address barriers created by the digital divide and invest in community media in order to reach as many people as possible; raise awareness among community leaders, traditional leaders and healers, religious leaders, local pharmacists, and schoolteachers with regard to leprosy and engage them in further awareness-raising; and reinforce the positive image of persons affected by leprosy and their family members as rights holders;\n(c) Translate the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, as well as the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and its Optional Protocol, together with national legal and regulatory frameworks designed to implement those instruments, into the local languages, and disseminate them widely in accessible formats.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0059", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "With regard to health and rehabilitation, States should:\n(a) Strengthen universal health coverage, ensuring the universality of access in both rural and urban areas, through public services, which should be culturally appropriate, gender-sensitive, age-friendly and disability-friendly; and build the capacity of the health-care workforce on the human rights model of disability, as well as on the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members;\n(b) Guarantee habilitation and rehabilitation programmes for persons affected by leprosy and their family members; guarantee to persons affected by leprosy and their family members access to mental health-care services on the basis of a recovery-based paradigm and through services that are ethical, respectful, culturally appropriate, gender-sensitive and empowering to individuals; provide, free of charge, assistive devices for protection and assistive devices for the facilitation of activities of daily life; partner with organizations of persons affected by leprosy to strengthen peer-to-peer counselling and family-based counselling; and extend counselling and support to family members of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0060", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "With regard to decent work and employment, States should: prevent and address discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members at the workplace; implement a gender approach to article 27 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities that fights the intersection of gender with disability and affirms the rights of women with disabilities to an inclusive education, vocational training, decent work and equal remuneration; guarantee the transition of persons affected by leprosy and their family members from the informal economy to the formal economy, and open social dialogue to organized groups of persons with disabilities, including persons affected by leprosy, working in the informal economy; fulfil accessibility and reasonable accommodation rights in all productive sectors and work arrangements, including agriculture, husbandry and fishing; and recognize visible physical impairments related to leprosy for the provision of reasonable accommodation, as well as invisible ones such as pain or loss of sensation, and psychosocial disabilities related to stigmatization.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0061", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "With regard to social protection, States should: review the qualification requirements for social protection to ensure access for persons with invisible and psychosocial impairments, as well as for persons with disabilities living in poverty, recognizing the additional costs of disability; and ensure a universal basic income for persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0062", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "With regard to guaranteeing the right to access to justice and the right to an effective remedy, States should: ensure that accessible mechanisms are in place for filing complaints of rights violations and that legal procedures include gender-sensitive and age-appropriate accommodations for persons with disabilities, including persons with invisible and psychosocial impairments; provide training and awareness-raising for public officers and the judiciary on leprosy-related discrimination and to organizations of persons affected by leprosy on how to bring complaints and access justice; put in place an independent mechanism in line with the principles relating to the status of national institutions for the promotion and protection of human rights (the Paris Principles) to monitor the implementation of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, together with a consultative mechanism for systematic consultations with persons with disabilities that is inclusive of persons affected by leprosy, their family members and their representative organizations.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0063", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "With regard to data collection, States should: ensure the full recognition of persons affected by leprosy and their family members in disability-related data collection, which should also include disaggregation not only by demographic, environmental, socioeconomic and cultural variables, but also by the various grounds of discrimination recognized in international human rights law, and respect for the principles of participation and privacy; and guarantee analysis and dissemination of disaggregated data across all sectors, in close cooperation with organizations of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-77-139-0064", "docId": "a-77-139", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also recommends that intergovernmental agencies use leprosy as a case study to fill the evidence gap on the relationship between disability and poverty; review the definition of leprosy-related disabilities in line with the human rights model; recognize the diversity of persons with disabilities; and ensure leprosy inclusiveness in intergovernmental agencies and human rights monitoring mechanisms when addressing disability-related issues.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0001", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "In the present report, the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, Alice Cruz, focuses on States’ obligations to protect persons affected by leprosy (also known as Hansen’s disease) and their family members from discrimination. At her discretion as an expert on the matter, she henceforth refers to Hansen’s disease instead of leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0002", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "More precisely, the Special Rapporteur discusses how the provisions of international human rights law and jurisprudence from international human rights monitoring mechanisms bind States to develop and enact both general and specific anti-discrimination legal frameworks in order to fulfil their positive obligations to protect all persons, and especially those in more disadvantaged situations, from discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0003", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "With this report, which is also her final report to the General Assembly, the Special Rapporteur closes a discussion on legal frameworks that started with her report about discrimination in law against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members (A/76/148) and was followed by her report on legal frameworks for guaranteeing disability rights to persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members (A/77/139).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0004", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "In her final report to the Human Rights Council, the Special Rapporteur identifies the development of guidance on anti-discrimination legislation, policies and programmes as important tasks to be included in the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. The present report partially undertakes such a task by focusing on providing guidance on the anti-discrimination legal framework. The Special Rapporteur would like to remind States that she already presented a report that contains a policy framework for rights-based action plans to the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/44/46).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0005", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "With nearly six years’ experience as a special procedure mandate holder, the Special Rapporteur is convinced that the mere fulfilment of States’ negative obligations not to discriminate against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members is insufficient to properly address human rights violations, discrimination and unequal access to opportunities and results for this extremely marginalized and historically ostracized group of people. In order to truly eliminate discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease, States must take positive steps to both protect those who are discriminated against on such grounds and fulfil their rights. To that end, the Special Rapporteur strongly recommends that the relevant States elaborate and enact anti-discrimination legal frameworks, together with affirmative measures that can correct the historical and persistent disadvantage endured by this group of people and which results from systemic discrimination against them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0006", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "In the present report, the Special Rapporteur only addresses anti-discrimination legal frameworks. Given that the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, of which the General Assembly took note in its resolution 65/215, already provided guidance on the material scope of protection from discrimination, that is to say, the areas of life in which persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members should be duly protected from discrimination, which are also the areas more relevant for the implementation of affirmative measures, the Special Rapporteur will not address the material scope of anti-discrimination legal frameworks in the present report. She urges States to use the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members as a road map for monitoring the situation of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members, as well as for implementing measures that, by enforcing international human rights law, can guarantee formal and substantive equality for them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0007", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur discusses the importance of guaranteeing the right to participation to persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in amending existing laws, as well as in designing, implementing and evaluating new laws. As outlined in her final report to the Human Rights Council, there is more knowledge today about discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease (A/HRC/53/30). Systematic empirical data collected by the Special Rapporteur over the years confirms the vision she outlined in her first report to the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/38/42), in which she affirmed that discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease should be approached and tackled using an intersectional lens. Accordingly, she offers basic guidance in the present report on how to design an anti-discrimination law with an intersectional perspective. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur also analyses the legal frameworks of the 23 global priority countries identified by the World Health Organization (WHO) as priority countries for action on Hansen’s disease, identifying a considerable gap in both general anti-discrimination legislation and that which is specific to Hansen’s disease.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0008", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "While the principle of non-discrimination is recognized in many constitutions, it is less often translated into policymaking and subsequent programmes and strategies. In addition, budget allocation for anti-discrimination policies is rarely sufficient to meet their goals. That is why the Special Rapporteur starts by examining the provisions and jurisprudence with which States parties should comply. After which, she provides basic guidance on the protected grounds that should be present in any anti-discrimination law specific to Hansen’s disease. The guidance provided by the Special Rapporteur is essentially generic, mainly because both the personal and the material scope of protection should be duly detailed in full accordance with the reality of national and subnational local contexts. To that end, persons affected by Hansen’s disease, their family members and their representative organizations must be recognized as experts by experience and their right to participate in all matters that concern their lives duly guaranteed. The fact that, in most countries, oversight institutions fail to monitor discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease and that States are usually highly inefficient in collecting data that can inform anti-discrimination evidence-based policies related to Hansen’s disease, illustrates why the participation of concerned groups is essential to the design, implementation and evaluation of any anti-discrimination law specific to Hansen’s disease.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0009", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "In the present report, anti-discrimination laws refer to a set of norms and rules, which may include national laws, but also other subnational, regional and international normative instruments. They put forward a set of norms and rules aimed at fighting back and eliminating discrimination. The set of rules may comprise: (a) constitutional provisions, as constitutions can contain fundamental rights provisions that affirm equality and prohibit discrimination, in line with international treaties and conventions; (b) international human rights law, as many States are legally bound by regional human rights frameworks, as well as by treaties, conventions and the supervisory bodies of the United Nations system; (c) guidelines from intergovernmental organizations, in the case of the European Union, for example, protection against discrimination is expressed in both European Union law and the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union; (d) specific anti-discrimination laws that provide for the prohibition of discrimination with regard to specific groups, specific grounds, specific areas or themes and specific structural barriers; and (e) comprehensive anti-discrimination laws that aim at eliminating all forms of discrimination and promote equality for all.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0010", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Anti-discrimination laws, in general, refer to perceived or actual characteristics of individuals and/or groups of people that should be considered protected grounds in order to address patterns of exclusion and social injustice against these same individuals and groups. Examples of protected grounds that may fall under the scope of anti-discrimination laws include, inter alia: age; birth; nationality; Indigenous origin; descent, including caste; language; colour; race; disability; economic status; ethnicity; genetic or other predisposition towards some illness; health status; marital status; maternity or paternity status; migrant status; minority status; political or other form of opinion and expression, including human rights defender status, trade union membership, or political affiliation; refugee status; religion or belief; sex and gender; and sexual orientation.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Migrants", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0011", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "An anti-discrimination law should take into consideration the different attitudes, behaviours and practices that must be prohibited in strict accordance with international human rights standards. Such attitudes, behaviours and practices may include, but are not limited to:[[fn:1]]\n(a) Direct discrimination, which occurs when in a similar situation, persons or groups are treated, through detrimental acts or omissions, differently owing to their perceived or actual characteristics and in such a way that creates unfavourable or disadvantageous situations for them;\n(b) Indirect discrimination, which occurs when seemingly neutral norms or practices are applied in an such a way that denies, in practice, access to what seemed to be equal opportunities and/or causes a disproportionate and unfavourable impact on certain persons or groups;\n(c) Harassment, which occurs when a hostile, offensive, degrading or humiliating environment is actively generated in order to target certain persons or groups;\n(d) Denial of reasonable accommodation, meaning that a disproportionate and undue burden is imposed on certain persons and groups as a result of the denial and/or absence of modifications, adjustments or support that would have been necessary for these same persons and groups to enjoy the same rights on an equal basis with others;\n(e) Segregation, which occurs when persons and groups are subjected to separation from mainstream society and denied equal and fair access to environments, institutions, goods and services owing to their perceived or actual characteristics;\n(f) Victimization, which occurs when persons or groups who filed complaints about discriminatory practices or claimed for the rightful application of provisions on equality and non-discrimination are treated in an adverse and undignified manner with significant psychosocial consequences.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Protecting Minority Rights: A Practical Guide to Developing Comprehensive Anti-Discrimination Legislation (United Nations publication, 2023). See also Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 6 (2018) on equality and non-discrimination, para. 20."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0012", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "As can be found in both the thematic and country reports of the Special Rapporteur, persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members continue to suffer from direct and indirect discrimination, harassment, denial of reasonable accommodation, and victimization, as well as interpersonal and structural violence. It is the view of the Special Rapporteur that violence should be added to the list of forms of discrimination, since it is too often the consequence of discrimination, in the case of interpersonal violence, but also the root cause of discrimination, as in the case of structural violence. The Special Rapporteur has simultaneously detailed and elaborated on all these forms of discrimination and violence, as they are still experienced by persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their families, in her reports, and for that reason will neither detail nor elaborate on the same issues in the present report. Furthermore, the Special Rapporteur has identified a major gap in the provision of remedies and reparations for present and past human rights violations against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members, while oversight institutions do not monitor discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease. The foregoing considerations duly justify the need to enact anti-discrimination legal frameworks specific to Hansen’s disease, especially in endemic countries.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0013", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Any anti-discrimination law should also recognize that discrimination can result either from perception or association. In other words, people can be excluded by reason of being either identified as having certain characteristics or associated with persons or groups that are perceived as having those same characteristics. This is particularly important for the specific case of family members of persons affected by Hansen’s disease, who many times suffer the same patterns of exclusion as the latter. Furthermore, such a law should consider multiple forms of discrimination, that is, discrimination based on more than one ground or resulting from the interaction of different grounds of discrimination which give rise to specific situations of disadvantage, exclusion, discrimination and violence. The law should include provisions for the enactment of specific affirmative measures aimed at guaranteeing de facto equality for the persons and groups protected under the same legal framework. Lastly, the protection provided by anti-discrimination laws should take into consideration a personal scope (the protected grounds) and a material scope (the areas of life to be protected).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0014", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The Human Rights Committee expressly affirms that: “Non-discrimination, together with equality before the law and equal protection of the law without any discrimination, constitute a basic and general principle relating to the protection of human rights.”[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 18 (1989) on non-discrimination, para. 1."}], "section": ["II. The principle of non-discrimination in the framework of international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0015", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Equality and non-discrimination, besides being fundamental principles of international human rights law, are essential to the enforcement of the rights provided for in international treaties and conventions. In article 2 (2) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, it is stipulated that each State party must “undertake to guarantee that the rights enunciated in the present Covenant will be exercised without discrimination of any kind as to race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status”. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights clarifies that non-discrimination is an immediate and cross-cutting obligation in the Covenant. Under article 2 (2) States parties must ensure “non-discrimination in the exercise of each of the economic, social and cultural rights” and must also ensure the application of these rights in combination with non-discrimination. According to the Committee, “discrimination constitutes any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference or other differential treatment that is directly or indirectly based on the prohibited grounds of discrimination and which has the intention or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of Covenant rights. Discrimination also includes incitement to discriminate and harassment”.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 20 (2009) on non-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights (art. 2, para. 2 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), para. 7."}], "section": ["II. The principle of non-discrimination in the framework of international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0016", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "In article 26 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights it is stated that “all persons are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to the equal protection of the law. In this respect, the law shall prohibit any discrimination and guarantee to all persons equal and effective protection against discrimination”. The Human Rights Committee reinforces that the right to non-discrimination provided for in article 26 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights constitutes an autonomous right. In article 26, “obligations imposed on States parties in regard to their legislation and the application thereof” are established and that it is up to those States to ensure that the content of their legislation is non-discriminatory. Furthermore, the application of the principle of non-discrimination contained in article 26 is not limited to those rights which are provided for in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.[[fn:4]] The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights further establish the equal treatment of men and women in their article 3: “the States Parties to the present Covenant undertake to ensure the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment” of the rights set forth in the respective Covenants.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 18 (1989), para. 12."}], "section": ["II. The principle of non-discrimination in the framework of international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0017", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Considering the need for the elimination of discrimination on specific grounds, specific instruments have been created, which include, for example, the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. According to article 5 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the duty to prohibit and eliminate racial discrimination in all its forms and to guarantee the right of everyone to equality before the law should be ensured through a minimum set of specific rights, which span from civil and political to economic, social and cultural rights. Similar provisions can be found in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. The principle of non-discrimination in the framework of international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0018", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "According to article 5 (2) of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, “States Parties shall prohibit all discrimination on the basis of disability and guarantee to persons with disabilities equal and effective legal protection against discrimination on all grounds.” According to the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, article 5 brings with it a set of obligations, namely “obligations to prohibit all discrimination on the basis of disability [including] persons with disabilities and their associates … [and] the obligation to guarantee to persons with disabilities equal and effective legal protection”. The Committee further notes that “persons with disabilities will not be granted more or fewer rights or benefits than the general population” and “States parties should take concrete specific measures to achieve de facto equality for persons with disabilities to ensure that they can in fact enjoy all human rights and fundamental freedoms”.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 6 (2018), para. 17."}], "section": ["II. The principle of non-discrimination in the framework of international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0019", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "More examples of this commitment to assert the obligation of States to equality and non-discrimination can be found in other international human rights instruments. A few examples are: the Convention on the Rights of the Child (art. 2 (1)) and the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (art. 1 (1)).", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. The principle of non-discrimination in the framework of international human rights law"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0020", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "As a result of their obligations under international treaties and conventions, States are responsible for adopting all the necessary administrative, legislative and judicial measures to implement and enforce the rights set forth in those instruments and to respect, protect and fulfil human rights, as well as to provide remedies for their violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0021", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The obligation to respect is a negative obligation. It refers to the duty of States to refrain from discriminating, whether through laws, policies, practices or the attitudes of its officials. On the one hand, there is the State’s commitment to refrain from any kind of discriminatory act or the promotion of any kind of discriminatory legislation, policy, programme or initiative, whether in its objective or in its result. On the other hand, this obligation refers to the State’s commitment to amend, repeal or abolish any rules that have either the objective or lead to a result that produces and/or maintains discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0022", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "As a negative obligation, the obligation to respect relates to preventing persons affected by Hansen’s disease from suffering abuses by the State itself and by its public authorities. In this sense, international human rights treaties establish States’ primary obligation not to discriminate against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members. They also hold States responsible in cases where public authorities are the ones perpetrating acts of discrimination. This obligation concerns laws, as well as the activities that States undertake to implement or enforce them. As thoroughly documented by the Special Rapporteur, States continue to formally discriminate against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members, while institutionalized discrimination against this group of people also endures, especially on the part of public servants with insufficient knowledge in relation to Hansen’s disease in several State services, such as education, employment, social protection and justice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0023", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The obligation to respect the rights of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members binds States to refrain from interfering directly or indirectly with these individuals’ enjoyment and exercise of their civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. States must ensure that their actions do not impair the enjoyment and exercise of any rights, either through direct or indirect discrimination. This duty includes the obligation to abolish or repeal discriminatory laws against persons affected by Hansen’s disease that are still in force. By the same token, States must ensure that all public authorities and institutions eliminate discriminatory policies, measures and practices on the grounds of Hansen’s disease.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0024", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "The obligation to respect also concerns States’ obligation not to discriminate against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in functions and activities where there are responsibilities to be assumed by public authorities and institutions, such as: celebrations and rules related to marriage and divorce; decisions on parental authority; the production of identification documents; the granting of citizenship; access to public schools and training programmes; and the language used by State bodies and in official documents.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0025", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "The obligation to protect persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members from discrimination should be understood as requiring States to take measures to prevent third parties from interfering with these individuals’ ability to exercise their rights. Hence, it will not be enough for the State to limit itself to merely not discriminating against this group of people. States must take all the necessary measures to ensure that the principle of non-discrimination is implemented and guaranteed by all, including private actors. Therefore, States have a positive obligation to fight discrimination in the various areas of life, extending to customary practices based on local and world religions, which, as previously mapped by the Special Rapporteur, continue to be the source of discriminatory attitudes towards persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members.[[fn:6]] This positive obligation requires the adoption of specific legal and policy measures, including legislation. The duty of the relevant States to adopt anti-discrimination legislation specific to Hansen’s disease is therefore implicit in this positive obligation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See A/76/148."}], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0026", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "States must ensure that private organizations, companies, establishments and services eliminate discriminatory measures and practices towards persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members. This obligation includes the responsibility to enact and enforce legislation that prohibits discriminatory acts, which includes interpersonal discrimination, institutionalized discrimination and systemic discrimination, as well as any discriminatory acts perpetrated by third parties that may restrict the equal access of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members to services, facilities, transportation and educational and employment opportunities. States are also responsible for ensuring that acts of violence committed against this group of people are duly investigated and punished.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0027", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "In addition, it is also the responsibility of States to fulfil de facto the rights to equality and non-discrimination. Guaranteeing these rights in practice requires that deliberate and purposeful concrete steps are taken to ensure that the structural disadvantage and violence experienced by persons who are structurally discriminated against, like individuals affected by Hansen’s disease, are duly addressed. This positive obligation includes developing and implementing evidence-based public policies, plans, programmes and strategies, for which systematic data collection is essential and must include disaggregation, not only by demographic, environmental, socioeconomic and cultural variables, but also by the various grounds of discrimination recognized in international human rights law, and must respect the principles of participation and privacy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0028", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Likewise, the provision of remedies for ongoing human rights violations, as well as reparation measures provided within the framework of transitional justice for past violations perpetrated by States in the name of public health, are fundamental to ensuring that society as a whole commits to the principles of fairness, equality and non-discrimination, and also to promoting free and fair societies.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See A/HRC/44/46."}], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0029", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "With respect to positive obligations to develop and implement policies, programmes and strategies for eliminating discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease, the Special Rapporteur recommends that States adopt her policy framework for rights-based action plans[[fn:8]] as guidance, which focuses on four main areas: adequate standard of living and economic autonomy; non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community; elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory; and empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil the core principle of non-discrimination for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0030", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "Within the scope of their competence, the treaty bodies have reinforced the duty of States to take concrete measures to ensure the right to non-discrimination. The Human Rights Committee, in its general comment No. 18 (1989) on non-discrimination, states that “It is for the States parties to determine appropriate measures to implement 6 See A/76/148. 7 See A/HRC/44/46. 8 Ibid. the relevant provisions. However, the Committee is to be informed about the nature of such measures and their conformity with the principles of non-discrimination and equality before the law, and equal protection of the law.” The Human Rights Committee called the attention of States parties to the fact that the Covenant sometimes expressly requires them to take measures to guarantee the equality of rights of the persons concerned. Such steps may take the form of legislative, administrative or other measures.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 18 (1989), paras. 4 and 5."}], "section": ["IV. The duty of enacting anti-discrimination legal frameworks, as provided for in the jurisprudence of the treaty bodies"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0031", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "In its general comment No. 20 (2009) on non-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights establishes that, in addition to refraining from discriminatory actions, States parties should take concrete, deliberate and targeted measures to ensure that discrimination in the exercise of Covenant rights is eliminated. The adoption of legislation to address discrimination is indispensable. States parties are therefore encouraged to adopt specific legislation that prohibits discrimination in the field of economic, social and cultural rights. Such laws should aim at eliminating formal and substantive discrimination, attribute obligations to public and private actors and cover the prohibited grounds.[[fn:10]] The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights further reinforces the importance of involving groups targeted by discrimination in decision-making processes regarding anti-discrimination measures to be taken by States parties, as well as the obligation to monitor the effectiveness of such measures: “Individuals and groups of individuals, who may be distinguished by one or more of the prohibited grounds, should be ensured the right to participate in decision-making processes over the selection of such measures. States parties should regularly assess whether the measures chosen are effective in practice.”[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 20 (2009), paras. 36 and 37."}, {"n": 11, "text": "Ibid., para. 36."}], "section": ["IV. The duty of enacting anti-discrimination legal frameworks, as provided for in the jurisprudence of the treaty bodies"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0032", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "In its general comment No. 6 (2018) on equality and non-discrimination, the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities provides guidance on the adoption of anti-discrimination laws that are based on the human rights of persons with disabilities. The Committee establishes the positive obligation of States to protect persons with disabilities from discrimination, which implies enacting comprehensive and specific anti-discrimination laws. The Committee further stresses the importance of creating effective responses to make anti-discrimination legislation effective. According to the Committee:\n“Equal and effective legal protection against discrimination” means that States parties have positive obligations to protect persons with disabilities from discrimination, with an obligation to enact specific and comprehensive anti-discrimination legislation. The explicit legal prohibition of disability-based and other discrimination against persons with disabilities in legislation should be accompanied by the provision of appropriate and effective legal remedies and sanctions in relation to intersectional discrimination in civil, administrative and criminal proceedings. Where the discrimination is of a systemic nature, the mere granting of compensation to an individual may not have any real effect in terms of changing the approach. In those cases, States parties should also implement “forward-looking, non-pecuniary remedies” in their legislation, meaning that further effective protection against discrimination carried out by private parties and organizations is provided by the State party.[[fn:12]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 6 (2018), para. 22."}], "section": ["IV. The duty of enacting anti-discrimination legal frameworks, as provided for in the jurisprudence of the treaty bodies"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0033", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "In discussing the implementation of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities at the national level, the Committee on the Rights of Persons with 9 See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 18 (1989), paras. 4 and 5. 10 Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 20 (2009), paras. 36 and 37. 11 Ibid., para. 36. 12 Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 6 (2018), para. 22. 12/22 Disabilities explicitly highlights the State’s obligations to enact anti-discrimination legislation. The Committee reinforces the importance of ensuring that the legislation has a broad personal and material scope, provides for legal remedies and has a broad definition of impairment-related disability, indicating that States parties should: Develop anti-discrimination laws where they do not exist and enact disabilityinclusive anti-discrimination laws that have a broad personal and material scope and provide effective legal remedies.… Ensure that non-discrimination legislation extends to the private and public spheres, covers areas including education, employment, goods and services, and tackles disability-specific discrimination, such as segregated education, institutionalization, denial or restriction of legal capacity, forced mental health treatment, denial of the provision of sign language instructions and professional sign language interpretation, and denial of Braille or other alternative and augmentative modes, means and formats of communication.[[fn:13]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Ibid., para. 73 (b) and (c)."}], "section": ["IV. The duty of enacting anti-discrimination legal frameworks, as provided for in the jurisprudence of the treaty bodies"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0034", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "Women’s right to non-discrimination is the pillar of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women stresses the comprehensive nature of State obligations to ensure non-discrimination against women in its general recommendation No. 28 (2010) on the core obligations of States parties under article 2 of the Convention:\nStates parties must address all aspects of their legal obligations under the Convention to respect, protect and fulfil women’s right to non-discrimination and to the enjoyment of equality. The obligation to respect requires that States parties refrain from making laws, policies, regulations, programmes, administrative procedures and institutional structures that directly or indirectly result in the denial of the equal enjoyment by women of their civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. The obligation to protect requires that States parties protect women from discrimination by private actors and take steps directly aimed at eliminating customary and all other practices that prejudice and perpetuate the notion of inferiority or superiority of either of the sexes, and of stereotyped roles for men and women. The obligation to fulfil requires that States parties take a wide variety of steps to ensure that women and men enjoy equal rights de jure and de facto, including, where appropriate, the adoption of temporary special measures … This entails obligations of means or conduct and obligations of results. States parties should consider that they have to fulfil their legal obligations to all women through designing public policies, programmes and institutional frameworks that are aimed at fulfilling the specific needs of women leading to the full development of their potential on an equal basis with men.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 28 (2010) on the core obligations of States parties under article 2 of the Convention, para. 9."}], "section": ["IV. The duty of enacting anti-discrimination legal frameworks, as provided for in the jurisprudence of the treaty bodies"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0035", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "It is clear that the jurisprudence of the treaty bodies clearly affirms the positive obligation of States to develop and enact anti-discrimination legal frameworks as part of the measures they must take to enforce the core human rights principle of non-discrimination and guarantee the universality of human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The duty of enacting anti-discrimination legal frameworks, as provided for in the jurisprudence of the treaty bodies"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0036", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Anti-discrimination legal frameworks in the 23 WHO global priority countries for action on Hansen’s disease were examined in order to understand whether or not Hansen’s disease is included in comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and if there are any anti-discrimination laws in place with provisions specific to Hansen’s disease. This exercise aims at supporting the relevant States in assessing the state of their positive obligations towards the protection of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members. It does not pretend to be an exhaustive exercise and the Special Rapporteur is always open to dialogue, in case some information was missed. The fact is that, over the years, the requests by the Special Rapporteur for Member States to provide input were quite often dismissed by the majority of States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0037", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "WHO global priority countries for action on Hansen’s disease are derived from a composite index using parameters such as prevalence, new case detection, the proportion of females and children affected, and irreversible physical impairments at the time of diagnosis. The 23 priority countries are: Angola, Bangladesh, Brazil, Comoros, Côte d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Micronesia (Federated States of), India, Indonesia, Kiribati, Madagascar, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Nigeria, Philippines, Somalia, South Sudan, Sri Lanka, Sudan and United Republic of Tanzania.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0038", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "It is important to note that Hansen’s disease also affects countries that are not among the 23 priority countries, especially in South America, Africa and Asia. One of the four pillars of the WHO global leprosy strategy 2021–2030 concerns combating stigma and ensuring that human rights are respected. In that regard, States should report to WHO annually on their efforts to combat stigma and ensure that the human rights of persons affected by Hansen’s disease are respected. The Special Rapporteur recommends that States make use of the standards she has developed over the years to: (a) define the criteria for assessing stigmatization and discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease; and (b) document good practices for combating both stigmatization and discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease with a view to sharing best practices among States.[[fn:15]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "The Special Rapporteur would like to thank the Global Leprosy Programme of WHO for the discussions on pillar IV of the global leprosy strategy 2021–2030 for the present report."}], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0039", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "All 23 countries have some constitutional provisions regarding the right to equality and non-discrimination, but very few translate such provisions into domestic law. According to the sources that were consulted,[[fn:16]] only Bangladesh has a comprehensive anti-discrimination law, which is still under discussion in the Parliament.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "United States, Department of State, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2022 and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, SIGI 2023 Global Report: Gender equality in times of crisis – Social and Institutions Gender Index (Paris, 2023)."}], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0040", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "The Special Rapporteur discussed the anti-discrimination bill of 2022, elaborated by the Law Commission of Bangladesh, in her country visit report and has specifically called upon the Government to include Hansen’s disease as a prohibited ground of discrimination in that bill.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See A/HRC/53/30/Add.2."}], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0041", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Other than the bill in Bangladesh, there is no information available about any comprehensive anti-discrimination law in any of the 22 remaining countries. Nevertheless, there are several examples of legal frameworks that address discrimination, although not in a comprehensive manner, but merely focusing on a few specific grounds of discrimination. Only one country, Brazil, enacted what might be considered an anti-discrimination law specific to Hansen’s disease, although its scope is extremely narrow, only prohibiting what the same law considers to be discriminatory language. The text in question is Law No. 9010/1995, which protects persons affected by Hansen’s disease from discriminatory language, by officially replacing the term leprosy with “hanseníase”.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0042", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "The research raised important concerns about the fact that, in many of these countries, there are provisions in force that either discriminate on certain grounds (the most frequent one being sexual orientation) or fail to fully protect some groups of people (such as women or persons with disabilities), which include persons affected by Hansen’s disease.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0043", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The obligation to not discriminate extends to all groups of people, without exception. Reservations to the provisions of international human rights instruments continue to act as a major barrier to enforcing human rights in accordance with the provisions of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the principles endorsed by the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, which affirms that all human rights are universal, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0044", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "The presents analysis shows that non-discrimination, while being a core human rights principle, together with equality as one of the more fundamental pillars of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, is still far from being duly enforced.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0045", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "Existing laws and norms with non-discriminatory provisions should be reviewed and amended to include all grounds of discrimination, including Hansen’s disease. States must do more to comply with paragraph 32 of the Vienna Declaration, which reaffirms the importance of ensuring the universality, objectivity and non-selectivity of the consideration of human rights issues. Human rights are universal and must be enjoyed on a non-discriminatory basis by all people, including persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and those specific to Hansen’s disease among the priority countries for Hansen’s disease"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0046", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has continuously drawn attention to the centrality of the right of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members to participate in decision-making processes that affect them. This right is even more essential considering the multiple barriers faced by persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members to enjoying effective civic and political participation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0047", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "The principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members reiterate the need for full participation of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members, with autonomy, in all aspects of life. The same instrument emphasizes their right to defend their own interests in decisions about policies, programmes and other measures that directly involve them and have an impact on their lives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0048", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "The difficulties faced by excluded or underrepresented groups in exercising the right to participation include the following: outdated paternalistic approaches; harmful stereotypes; stigmatization; inaccessibility (physical, cultural, linguistic, infrastructural and informational); legal and administrative barriers (restrictions on their legal and political capacity); formal and informal segregation (in schools, workplaces and public institutions); and a lack of support.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0049", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The participation of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members should be fully ensured in any legislative process aimed at discussing anti-discrimination law or provisions, both general and specific to Hansen’s disease, for several reasons. First, their participation adds political legitimacy to such a law, while also increasing the chances of it being successfully implemented. Second, guaranteeing their involvement and participation ensures that the law will be passed by a parliament that has strived to be more inclusive in the decision-making process and that can therefore gain greater trust from society and also share responsibility with society for the implementation of the law. Third, in addition to the more obvious advantage of ensuring greater accountability and transparency in the law-making process, the effective participation of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members ensures that the text of the law truly speaks to their legitimate interests.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0050", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "Sherry Arnstein[[fn:18]] presented a sort of ladder for citizen participation, ranging from more elementary forms to more complex ones. Among the types of involvement and participation described by Arnstein, the following are emphasized:\n(a) Informing. This is a basic first step in ensuring participation, by informing citizens about their rights and responsibilities. The limitations of this step for participation are made evident in the fact that information is often given in one direction, without room for individual involvement in the issue or the power to intervene in it. On the other hand, it is common for lay people to feel intimidated by the technical nature of terms and procedures;\n(b) Consultation. Providing a space for citizens to give their opinion is a second important step for ensuring participation. It also has limitations, however, when there is no guarantee that these opinions will actually be taken into account. In practice, consultation often provides an abstract statistical number of meetings that have been held and the number of people involved, without being accompanied by effective mechanisms that can ensure that opinions and viewpoints are actually taken into consideration;\n(c) Placation. This occurs when some citizens are guaranteed a limited degree of influence in a process. An example of this might be when power-holders choose certain citizens, who are already aligned with them, to make up committees or working groups, merely to show that citizens have been involved in the process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Sherry R. Arnstein, “A ladder of citizen participation”, Journal of the American Institute of Planners, vol. 35, No. 4 (1969), pp. 216–224."}], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0051", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Informing, consultation and placation may very well be merely tokenistic strategies and, in the cases observed by the Special Rapporteur over the years regarding the participation of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members, in Governments, intergovernmental bodies and civil society organizations, they usually are.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0052", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "Increased degrees of actual influence on policymaking include the following:\n(a) Delegated power. Whereby public institutions, officials or administrators give up some degree of control, administration, decision-making authority or funding to be managed and administered by the citizens themselves, such as the administration of some community programmes;\n(b) Citizen control. Such that citizens effectively manage or have power over certain programmes or institutions. To have power means to make decisions about political and managerial aspects, and to have control over the conditions under which there can be a change in programmes or in the ways the institutions operate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0053", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "These categories are important for identifying the possible stages of citizen involvement in a legislative process responsible for drafting an anti-discrimination law. The passing of new laws and the monitoring of existing laws and programmes, that may have a discriminatory impact on persons affected by Hansen’s disease, are examples of opportunities for participation that should afford those persons meaningful capacity to influence decision-making, by making use of delegated power and citizen control.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0054", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "Another critical aspect in the promotion of participation by persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members is mentioned in the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Inarguably, there are several systemic barriers to the full and meaningful participation of marginalized groups, which persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their families often face. Such barriers include: illiteracy and low levels of educational qualifications; legal impediments; inaccessibility of administrative procedures and requirements; inaccessibility and unintelligibility of the information being provided; physical and environmental barriers; and the lack of support mechanisms for overcoming structural disadvantages that are reflected in unequal and unfair socioeconomic and education status.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0055", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "In article 29 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, with the acknowledgement of those multiple barriers, the obligation of States to actively promote enabling environments, ensuring equality and guarantees of the freedom of expression, accessibility, accommodation of procedures and support is affirmed. Accessibility is an indispensable condition for the fulfilment of the right to participation related to information, communication, infrastructure and transport.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0056", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "In order to strengthen the conditions under which participation can become effective, legislative bodies and other public agencies should make all efforts necessary to educate citizens and raise awareness about opportunities for their engagement in legislative activities, as well as provide incentives to encourage citizens to participate in the same legislative processes. According to ParlAmericas, examples of measures that can be adopted to encourage citizen participation in legislative processes are:[[fn:19]]\n(a) Awareness-raising programmes and campaigns. Parliaments can conduct awareness-raising campaigns to educate citizens as to the function of the parliament and expose them to existing participation mechanisms and/or promote participation in a specific process. Campaigns can also be launched in collaboration with civil society organizations;\n(b) Citizen participation offices and communications departments. A citizen participation office or communications department can have various mandates, from educating citizens regarding the role of the parliament to disseminating information on the work of the parliament and collecting direct input from citizens into the legislative process;\n(c) Parliamentary websites. As a hub of information, parliaments’ websites can include a section to educate citizens about their role, work and impact, as well as other explanations of the mechanisms through which citizens can participate in the legislative process;\n(d) Educational programmes for children and youth. Learning about the role and value of parliament at an early age can prepare children and youth to become politically active citizens. Such programmes can be virtual or in-person and include interactions with parliamentarians, games, simulations of parliamentary processes, prizes and interactive materials tailored to children and youth;\n(e) Meetings, public hearings and public forums. Meetings can be held to invite citizens to participate in a particular legislative process, and they can also be useful mechanisms to educate citizens regarding the role and functions of the parliament, explain the day-to-day impact of legislative issues on citizens’ lives and share how citizens can get involved;\n(f) Supporting the work of independent civil society organizations. Parliamentarians can contribute to building a strong and independent civil society by promoting and supporting the work of civil society organizations, including parliamentary monitoring organizations, by participating in their activities, contributing to their projects and encouraging citizens to work with them;\n(g) Incentives for participation. Parliaments can provide incentives to citizens to encourage their participation. These can include awards, prizes, public records of input or even providing online users with special benefits based on the frequency of their use of a particular participatory mechanism;\n(h) Media. Through its own parliamentary television and radio channels, collaboration with State-owned or private channels, online or printed newspapers, and new digital platforms such as video-sharing platforms and podcasts, the parliament can develop content to inform citizens of its role and functions and mechanisms that are available for citizens to participate in its work, as well as livestream its proceedings.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See ParlAmericas, Citizen Participation in the Legislative Process (Ottawa, 2018)."}], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0057", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "The steps set out in paragraph 56 above are some of the fundamental steps States should take to fully guarantee the right to participation on a non-discriminatory basis to citizens in general, but also to individuals entitled to the provisions of any anti-discrimination law to be drafted and enacted. Governments and parliamentarians have a duty to seek to be informed about discrimination and its impact on the people affected, to raise awareness among other public servants, members of the judiciary and law enforcement officers, to facilitate committees of parliamentarians aiming to promote good laws that advance the well-being and fundamental dignity of all and to call for a review of the legislation when needed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0058", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "Actions that could be taken by civil society organizations with a view to changing laws and enacting new ones include, but are not limited to: (a) building evidence with which to raise awareness among legislators and working with parliamentarians with a view to undertaking the necessary reforms; (b) strategic litigation undertaken by either individuals and organizations; and (c) advocating the holding of public consultations and referendums.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Ensuring the right to participation for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in legislative processes"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0059", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "As a rule, anti-discrimination law and jurisprudence focus on a single ground of discrimination. Human rights bodies, mechanisms and courts either concentrate on a sequential analysis of multiple grounds of discrimination, trying to separate the discrimination suffered on each ground, or strategically choose a ground of discrimination, taking into account the strongest evidence available about the concerned act of discrimination. In other situations, the grounds of discrimination are added up, and one ground is seen as aggravating the discrimination already enacted on another ground.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. An intersectional approach to anti-discrimination legal frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0060", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Sandra Fredman[[fn:20]] conceptualizes three categories of discriminations that occur on the basis of more than one ground: (a) sequential multiple discrimination, which occurs when a person suffers discrimination on different grounds on separate occasions; (b) additive multiple discrimination, which occurs when a person is discriminated against on the same occasion but in two different ways; and (c) intersectional discrimination, meaning discrimination that does not simply consist of the addition of two sources of discrimination. A specific and distinct form of discrimination results from the simultaneous combination of two or more discrimination grounds that operate synergistically.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "Sandra Fredman, Intersectional discrimination in EU gender equality and non-discrimination law (Luxembourg, European Union, 2016)."}], "section": ["VII. An intersectional approach to anti-discrimination legal frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0061", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "That was the original concept of intersectionality. It originated from the need to understand the discrimination against black women through an analysis that simultaneously encompassed gender and race. Intersectionality is not an additive approach. Accordingly, different categories do not accumulate, but interrelate in dynamic ways that always have a particular system of domination as a background. This means that intersectionality stands for the numerous effects that result from the intersection of distinct differential axes in specific historical contexts. It also means that different dimensions of social life cannot be artificially separated into pure phenomena.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. An intersectional approach to anti-discrimination legal frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0062", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "In practice, this means that discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease affects individuals in different ways according to their social status and capital, often by intersecting with gender-based discrimination, discrimination against children, discrimination against older people or disability-based discrimination, but also with other grounds, such as race, caste or social class. That concept is fully supported by the evidence collected for both the thematic and country reports of the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. An intersectional approach to anti-discrimination legal frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0063", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "In the case of persons affected by Hansen’s disease, the legal framework for anti-discrimination must adopt an intersectional perspective because the traditional rationale for addressing discrimination based on Hansen’s disease is based on a single-ground approach. That is one of the areas where the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members might be expanded. As affirmed by the Special Rapporteur in another report,[[fn:21]] while the aforementioned instrument has many strong points, discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease, especially as it is experienced by younger generations, calls for detailing the rights of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members under an expanding framework that aligns more closely with the comprehensive nature of core human rights instruments on civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, as well as with rights elaborated for groups historically discriminated against or in need of special protection, and with the jurisprudence elaborated by the human rights treaty bodies. This should be done through an intersectional approach to discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "A/HRC/53/30."}], "section": ["VII. An intersectional approach to anti-discrimination legal frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0064", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "Traditionally, persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members have been approached as victims of discrimination with what can be called an essentialist approach, meaning they have largely been seen as a homogeneous group that suffers from the same patterns of discrimination. The reality is much more complex than that. There are different levels of vulnerability to discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease among different individuals, requiring consideration of overlapping layers of protection. Often occupying the bottom of the social pyramid, persons affected by Hansen’s disease tend to be the victims of intersecting and aggravated forms of discrimination and are often affected by the larger structural inequalities of society, especially those manifested by gender, age, disability and oppressive poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. An intersectional approach to anti-discrimination legal frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0065", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "Based on the guidance note on intersectionality prepared by the United Nations network on racial discrimination and protection of minorities,[[fn:22]] taking intersectionality seriously in anti-discrimination laws and provisions aimed at protecting persons affected by Hansen’s disease involves measures, such as:\n(a) Paying specific attention to individuals who are insufficiently protected from human rights violations, including but not limited to women, children, older persons, persons with disabilities, people of African descent, Indigenous people and people from marginalized castes and communities;\n(b) Recognizing that persons affected by Hansen’s disease are not a homogenous group of people and making every effort to increase the visibility and active participation of those who, within the same community, are more marginalized and face more barriers to making their voices heard and taken into account;\n(c) Stressing that addressing discrimination is interconnected with the empowerment of concerned groups, which should always include their critical understanding of the forces that disable them, and also their greater control over decisions and resources, including matters that concern the development, implementation and monitoring of policies and programmes that have an impact on their lives; in this regard, it is important to ensure that decision-making processes are gender-, child- and disability-sensitive, and also inclusive of local languages;\n(d) Developing policies and programmes that recognize intragroup diversity and avoiding homogenizing approaches while respecting, protecting and ensuring the exercise of human rights for all and responding to the unaddressed needs of all;\n(e) Enhancing the availability and analysis of disaggregated data as the basis for effective policy development and programming;\n(f) Advancing systemic change by addressing the structural causes of the inequality and disadvantages that are associated with intersecting forms of discrimination, including sociocultural and religious norms and harmful stereotypes that perpetuate and/or aggravate the exclusion of certain individuals, groups and communities, as well as the substantive discrimination that keeps those discriminated against in poverty and extreme poverty, as is the case of the majority of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members.", "labels": ["Children", "Indigenous peoples", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "United Nations network on racial discrimination and protection of minorities, Guidance Note on Intersectionality, Racial Discrimination and Protection of Minorities (Geneva, 2022)."}], "section": ["VII. An intersectional approach to anti-discrimination legal frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0066", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "In order to fulfil their obligations of non-discrimination under international human rights law, States should enact comprehensive anti-discrimination legal frameworks that are inclusive of all individuals and groups in order to guarantee the universal enjoyment of human rights. There cannot be double standards in the enforcement and enjoyment of the right to non-discrimination. Already three decades since the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action was adopted, human rights for all has yet to be achieved and selectivity, which is contrary to article 32 of the Declaration, is still occurring both in law and in practice. Greater commitment to the core principle of non-discrimination is required.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0067", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "In order to combat systemic discrimination against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members (which is persistent and encompasses direct and indirect discrimination, harassment, denial of reasonable accommodation, victimization, as well as interpersonal and structural violence) States should take all the necessary steps to fulfil their positive obligations to protect this group of people and guarantee them both formal and substantive equality.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0068", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "States should begin by reviewing, amending, repealing or abolishing all laws, regulations, ordinances, resolutions and policies that discriminate against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and that deny them the enjoyment of rights on an equal basis with others at both the national and subnational levels of government.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0069", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "States in which there is still a high incidence of Hansen’s disease should make every effort to ensure that individuals affected by the disease, and their family members, enjoy human rights on an equal basis with others, and to that end they should develop and enact anti-discrimination laws and/or statutes specific to Hansen’s disease, involving organizations of persons affected by Hansen’s disease in the overall process, as detailed by the Special Rapporteur in the present report. Such laws or statutes should be guided by the principles set out below.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0070", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "The personal scope of these legal frameworks should refer to Hansen’s disease, prohibiting discrimination on that ground and extending such prohibition to all areas of the private and public spheres. Prohibition of discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease should always reflect the fact that the majority of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members are the victims of structural violence and that their experience results from the intersection of Hansen’s disease with other prohibited grounds of discrimination, thereby expressly recognizing the aggravated discrimination suffered by women, children, older persons, persons with disabilities, people of African descent, Indigenous people and people from marginalized castes and communities, and including special measures to respond to intersectional discrimination.", "labels": ["Children", "Indigenous peoples", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0071", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "Discrimination should be prohibited both on the basis of perception and association. Consistent definitions of all forms of discrimination faced by persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members should be provided and in line with what is recognized in international human rights law. Direct and indirect discrimination, harassment, segregation, denial of reasonable accommodation, victimization and interpersonal violence, among other prohibited behaviours identified by persons affected by Hansen’s disease, their family members and representative organizations, should be properly prohibited.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0072", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "Discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease by public authorities, public servants and the entire administration of the State, at both the national and subnational levels, should be expressly prohibited, investigated and punished. Discriminatory language should be monitored and removed from any material published by the government. Public servants in key sectors, such as education, public employment, social protection and justice, should receive training on the rights of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0073", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "Third parties should be prohibited from interfering with the rights of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members and measures for monitoring discrimination in the private sector should be enacted.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0074", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "Effective monitoring systems on traditional customs and practices that discriminate against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members at the local level should be implemented; and communities, community and traditional leaders, as well as women, should be mobilized for the elimination of harmful traditional customs and practices based on Hansen’s disease at the local level, with the full participation of organizations of persons affected by Hansen’s disease, including women and children affected by Hansen’s disease; traditional customs and practices that discriminate against persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members should be criminalized when needed.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0075", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "Awareness-raising programmes that are sensitive to culture, language, gender, age and disability and that are developed in close collaboration with local communities in order to ensure both accessibility and efficacy should be implemented.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0076", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "Discrimination on the grounds of Hansen’s disease should be criminalized, prevented, investigated and punished by effective, proportionate and dissuasive criminal penalties. Redress should be guaranteed and the specific protection needs of victims should be assessed as part of redress measures. Victims should never be victimized in the process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0077", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "Domestic violence against persons affected by Hansen’s disease, especially women, children and older people, should be prohibited, investigated and punished.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0078", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "Hansen’s disease should be included as prohibited grounds for discrimination in existing monitoring mechanisms and oversight institutions, with the participation of organizations of persons affected by Hansen’s disease, and data should be systematically collected and disaggregated by demographic, environmental, socioeconomic and cultural variables, with full respect for the principles of participation and privacy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0079", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "Accessible mechanisms for filing complaints about the violation of rights on the grounds of Hansen’s disease should be provided, while guaranteeing that those filing complaints would never experience any form of victimization or retaliation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0080", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "Remedies and redress should be duly provided to victims and access to justice should be enabled by removing all the barriers that persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members face in accessing justice. It should be fully recognized that access to justice is one of the main instruments for protecting civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. It is through the equal and effective guarantee of access to justice that people may stand up in defence of their rights, objecting to situations of discrimination and violation and holding policymakers accountable. Equal access to justice for all and capacity-building with respect to legal rights and legal aid should be fully guaranteed and made available to persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members. States should implement the necessary measures for: removing economic barriers, with the provision of legal aid; removing linguistic and cultural barriers, with the provision of translation and interpretation services; providing assistance to illiterate individuals and intercultural interpretation; developing partnerships with traditional justice systems to ensure that a rights-based approach to Hansen’s disease is taken in contexts of juridical pluralism; systematically recording discrimination for supporting research and analysis of risk factors; training judicial staff on issues related to Hansen’s disease; and providing quick, adequate, holistic, efficient and proportional remedies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0081", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "Restorative justice should be connected to prevention, through the prohibition of all forms of segregation of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and the recognition of the damage perpetrated by both official and non-official historical segregation through the enactment of reparation measures that can simultaneously redress harm at the individual level and eliminate segregation and violations related to Hansen’s disease. Reparation programmes that encompass both material reparations, aimed at redressing structural disadvantages, and symbolic reparations, aimed at enabling systemic change, with effective remedies, including compensation, reparation, restitution and rehabilitation, should be implemented.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0082", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "The engagement of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members in leadership positions in public and political life should be protected and promoted through affirmative measures that can correct the historical and structural disadvantage that has curtailed their rights and those of their family members to participate in public and political life.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0083", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "The material scope of anti-discrimination laws or statutes should encompass all the areas of life regulated by law and the behaviour of both public and private actors. The material scope of anti-discrimination laws should also emphasize the areas of life identified by the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, in which measures for ensuring substantive equality for persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members, as well as access to fundamental rights on an equal basis with others, should be implemented.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0084", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "In order to accelerate de facto equality, affirmative or special measures should be expressly permitted and their development and enactment required, and in all cases, guaranteeing the meaningful participation of organizations of persons affected by Hansen’s disease. They should be temporary in principle, but in some cases, they may need to be permanent in nature and should be implemented by the public sector and their implementation promoted for replication in the private sector.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-78-173-0085", "docId": "a-78-173", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "A proper institutional framework will be needed for the implementation of anti-discrimination laws, which may include the creation of an equality body responsible for assessing the enjoyment of equality by persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members, as well as discrimination against them. The same equality body should make every effort to: educate persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members as to their rights; establish mechanisms for receiving complaints on discrimination that should be accessible and sensitive to local languages, disability, age and gender; monitor the degree to which the laws in question are effective in partnership with representative organizations and groups of persons affected by Hansen’s disease; systematically publish data collected, with full transparency and in accessible formats; mainstream the protection and fulfilment of the rights of persons affected by Hansen’s disease and their family members into the different sectors of government, especially in education, public employment, social protection and justice; and make evidence-based proposals for changes to laws and policies. The equality body must guarantee the meaningful participation of persons affected by Hansen’s disease, their family members and representative organizations in all its activities. Governments must ensure proper budget allocation to the work of the equality body.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0001", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "In accordance with Human Rights Council resolution 35/9, the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members reports annually to the Council, and to the General Assembly. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur sets out the urgency of implementing a human rights-based care and support system for persons affected by leprosy, identifying key definitions, challenges and opportunities for persons, families, communities and governments. The report includes some key elements to rethink leprosy care and support from a human rights perspective. It concludes with a brief overview of the activities carried out by the Special Rapporteur, as well as some conclusions and recommendations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0002", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The present report is based on insights gathered from group interviews organized by the Special Rapporteur, engaging persons affected by leprosy from countries including Brazil, Colombia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Liberia, Myanmar, Nepal, Peru, Senegal, Sierra Leone and Timor-Leste. Consultations were also held with United Nations experts, disability advocates, academic scholars specializing in the field, and representatives from international leprosy organizations. A comprehensive questionnaire was distributed to Member States, national human rights institutions, United Nations agencies, civil society groups, and organizations representing persons affected by leprosy. The report synthesizes the findings of a literature review encompassing journal articles and reports on leprosy, disability and related topics, such as gender, children, care and support for older persons, and social protection. It also integrates insights from previous reports of other special procedures mandate holders covering the themes of disability, health, poverty and older persons.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0003", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "The present thematic report addresses the needs of persons affected by leprosy regarding access to care and support. Untreated leprosy can cause impairments, and even after eliminating the bacteria, chronic pain, impairments and long-term conditions may persist due to treatment reactions. These issues are worsened by inadequate medical support, poor diet, insufficient rest, emotional conditions and underlying health issues, all of which are exacerbated by poverty and inequality. Care and support are therefore crucial at all stages of the disease: diagnosis, treatment and post-treatment.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0004", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "The centuries-long reduction of leprosy to solely a medical condition has limited discussions about care and support to health-related care and support and provision issues. During dialogues with persons affected by leprosy, the Special Rapporteur identified the need to shift the focus to include leprosy in the broader agenda of care and support that has also been envisioned in the mandates of the Special Rapporteur on the rights of persons with disabilities, the Independent Expert on the enjoyment of all human rights by older persons, the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, and the Special Rapporteur on human rights and extreme poverty, all aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0005", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Discrimination based on false information, myths and lack of awareness on the part of communities, professionals and authorities end up limiting the access of persons affected by leprosy and their families to various sectors and services, including health care, social security, education, work, water and sanitation, electricity, accessible and adequate household arrangements, leisure and independent living, all of which are components of the care and support agenda.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0006", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also considered a life course approach. Given that children, young people, adults and older persons can face leprosy and its effects throughout their lives, a life course approach helps to identify the specific needs of each generational group, as well as commonalities across them. A life course approach also helps to visualize an integral understanding of the impact of the disease, which is often lifelong, even for persons without an impairment, and to address the multifaceted and evolving needs of persons affected by leprosy, through the provision of policies and tailored interventions during the different stages of their lives.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0007", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "In her report, the Special Rapporteur employs a gender transformative approach to discuss the situation of women and girls as both caregivers and receivers of care and support. Cultural practices and social inequalities have often impeded discussions about redistributing care and support responsibilities within families. In many countries, care is historically viewed as a natural skill that women and, in many places, children possess and are obliged to perform within their families and communities.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0008", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Issues about children and older persons with leprosy-related disabilities are not dismissed in the report. It is evident that one of the questions regarding care and support in current times is related to the fact that by 2050, the proportion of the world’s population aged 60 and above will nearly double, with profound consequences for care and support systems.[[fn:1]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "World Health Organization, “Aging and health”, fact sheet, 1 October 2022. Available at www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0009", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "In her report, the Special Rapporteur takes into consideration the current century’s crisis in care and support that societies are experiencing due to issues such as increased poverty, the breakdown of health systems, the impact of climate change, conflicts and wars, and migration, particularly among poor populations. These issues contribute to and, in some cases, are exacerbated by the rising number of people facing mental health conditions, as well as the long-term effects of coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Such challenges are familiar to persons dealing with various health conditions, disabilities and, of course, leprosy. The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the unequal distribution of care and support responsibilities, burdening families and particularly women in the global South. Often, women affected by leprosy also serve as primary caregivers under unjust and unpaid conditions. This aggravates their already difficult situations and negatively impacts overall family conditions.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0010", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Feminist movements and their allies worldwide, such as civil society, together with representatives of organizations of populations that have historically been marginalized, have driven the discussion about policies and social and economic programmes that address integral and inclusive care and support with a human rights perspective. These actions have resonated with other social movements, such as the disability rights movement, and within various United Nations entities and governing bodies, as well as regional mechanisms such as the European Commission.[[fn:2]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "International Labour Organization, United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, United Nations Children’s Fund, World Health Organization, United Nations Development Programme, General Assembly of the United Nations, Economic and Social Council, Human Rights Council and International Labour Conference."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0011", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The Special Rapporteur welcomes the resolution on promoting care and support systems for social development[[fn:3]] approved in February 2024 by the Commission for Social Development of the Economic and Social Council. In it, the Council urges States “to ensure the creation of enabling environments for promoting care and support systems for social development and implement all measures necessary to ensure the well-being and rights of care recipients and caregivers, to recognize and redistribute care work among individuals, as well as families, communities, the private sector and States, and to contribute to the achievement of gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls”.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "E/CN.5/2024/L.5."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0012", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Other important highlights are Human Rights Council resolution 54/6 on the centrality of care and support from a human rights perspective, adopted in October 2023, and General Assembly resolution 77/317 establishing the International Day of Care and Support, to be commemorated annually on 29 October. In resolution 77/317, the Assembly emphasizes the critical role of both paid and unpaid care work and stresses the need for substantial investments and policy improvements in the care and support system.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0013", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "In the present report, the Special Rapporteur invites Member States, civil society organizations, international donors and the private sector to implement strategies that ensure the participation of persons affected by leprosy in the consultation, design and implementation of inclusive and integral policies and social programmes addressing care and support. The Special Rapporteur also calls on United Nations agencies, bodies and international organizations to rethink the definition of care and support, taking into consideration the demands, needs and experiences of persons affected by leprosy and their families. The progress they have made in areas such as self-care offers valuable lessons for other fields and human rights movements.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0014", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "To understand the significance of care and support in the field of leprosy and the need to rethink care and support from a human rights perspective, it is necessary to consider the basic aspects of leprosy and review data that can help connect the realities of persons affected by leprosy and their families with current discussions about care and support systems.[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "The data presented in the present report have been taken from World Health Organization, Towards zero leprosy. Global Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) Strategy 2021–2030 (New Delhi, 2017)."}], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0015", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Leprosy, also known as Hansen’s disease, is a chronic infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae. It primarily affects the skin, peripheral nerves, mucosa of the upper respiratory tract and eyes. It is known for causing skin lesions, nerve damage and deformities, which lead to visible and invisible impairments, especially in untreated cases. It is not highly contagious but can be spread through respiratory droplets from an infected person, although prolonged close contact is usually required for transmission. With appropriate diagnosis and treatment using multidrug therapy, it is curable. Diagnosis and treatment is also crucial in preventing and minimizing long-term complications and reducing transmission of the disease.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0016", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "In 2019, leprosy data reported by 161 countries to the World Health Organization (WHO) showed that 202,256 new cases were detected in 118 countries. Of those, 96 per cent were reported by the 23 global priority countries, including 79 per cent in India, Brazil and Indonesia. In total, 10,816 new cases in 94 countries, including 370 children, presented with grade 2 disabilities at the time of diagnosis. Of the new cases, 38.9 per cent were female, and 7.4 per cent were children. The number of children is likely to be significantly higher, as some countries did not report data on grade 2 disabilities in children. Detection of cases in children is considered an indicator of recent transmission of infection in the community. Globally, the new case detection rate for those aged 0 to 14 years was 7.9 per million children.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0017", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy can experience a variety of reactions both during and after treatment. These reactions are important to recognize and manage because they can significantly impact the patient’s health, causing impairment and lifelong illness that will necessarily have an effect on quality of life. According to WHO, in the absence of verifiable data, it is estimated that 3–4 million people are living with visible impairments or deformities due to leprosy. Leprosy-related disabilities can negatively affect a family’s daily income due to job losses and increased family expenses for medical and rehabilitation costs, intensifying other challenges faced by families affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0018", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "Myths, false information, misunderstandings and lack of reliable data not only affect the detection and treatment of persons affected by leprosy, but also hinder the prevention and identification of new cases, as well as the treatment of those who are aware of being infected, especially within families that already have a relative affected by the disease. In 2019, 56 countries (35 per cent) reported the availability of counselling services, which is significant given the mental health consequences of leprosy diagnosis, disability, discrimination and social exclusion. The workload carried by both caregivers and receivers of care due to limited support from States and communities also contributes to critical mental health conditions experienced at individual, family and community levels. The physical, social, mental, emotional, cultural, political and economic aspects of leprosy have historically been viewed as disassociated and unconnected. This has led to a fragmented understanding of care and support, often excluding considerations of gender, class, ethnicity and race, religion, age and geographical background.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0019", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Against this background, the Special Rapporteur proposes rethinking the understanding of care and support that has predominated in the field of leprosy and influenced political, social and economic spaces. Considering care and support from a human rights perspective requires reimagining the conditions of persons affected by leprosy as human rights holders whose lives are affected by issues such as income generation, gender inequality, age, and social class disparities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0020", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "The issue of care raises important questions regarding its definition, the social actors involved, and its implementation. While the answers to these questions may vary based on context and historical circumstances, it is clear that care is fundamental to any proposal addressing human development. In the words of the Executive Director of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), Sima Bahous, “care is the thread that weaves across our societies and underpins all aspects of our daily lives and well-being”.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Closing remarks delivered at the inaugural commemoration of the International Day of Care and Support at the Headquarters of the United Nations on 31 October 2023. Available at www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/speech/2023/10/speech-international-day-of-care-and-support-2023."}], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "A. What is care?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0021", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The notion of care has become central to the analysis and research of social protection policies and programmes aimed at marginalized populations, such as women and children, persons with disabilities, older persons and those with chronic diseases. Issues of citizenship and rights within the private and public spheres where care takes place are crucial when proposing a care and support system in any society, especially when aiming for a consensual concept of care. These discussions began to take shape in the academic and feminist sectors during the 1960s and have been reactivated, particularly in the light of the COVID-19 pandemic and its social and economic effects.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "A. What is care?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0022", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Care could be defined as “an ethical framework that emphasizes responsibility, attentiveness, and responsiveness to the needs of others”.[[fn:6]] This approach prioritizes empathy and the nurturing of relationships over abstract principles and rules. According to Joan Tronto, a political theorist who has contributed to the development of care ethics, there are five interconnected phases of care:\n(a) Caring about: recognizing the need for care;\n(b) Caring for: taking responsibility to meet the need;\n(c) Caregiving: directly meeting the needs, often involving physical labour;\n(d) Care receiving: the response of the person receiving care, which provides feedback on the effectiveness and adequacy of care and support;\n(e) Caring with: this involves collective responsibility, and the recognition that caring for others demands justice, solidarity and mutual and reciprocal care.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "J. C. Tronto, “An ethic of care”, Generations, vol. 22, No. 3 (1998)."}, {"n": 7, "text": "J. Tronto, “Democratic caring and global responsibilities for care”, paper presented at the annual meeting of the Western Political Science Association, Hollywood, United States of America, March 2013."}], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "A. What is care?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0023", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "At a more institutional level, care is seen as “an indispensable social function for the sustainability of life that encompasses the activities that daily and generationally regenerate the physical and emotional well-being of persons, including everyday tasks related to the management and sustenance of life, such as the maintenance of domestic spaces and goods, and the education and development of persons, among other aspects”.[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "EU-LAC Foundation and others, Hacia políticas y sistemas integrales de cuidados con las personas en el centro: diálogos entre América Latina, el Caribe y la Unión Europea (2023)."}], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "A. What is care?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0024", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Although in democratic societies, care should generally involve a balanced relationship between families, communities, organizations, the State and the private sector, its practice has been relegated to families, especially to women and girls, in lower and middle-income countries, promoting and deepening inequalities. This effect has highlighted the public nature of care and support and underscored that it cannot be discussed solely as a private issue. It has also brought to the forefront elements that are transversal and often overlooked, such as ableism and discrimination based on gender, race, social class, age and place of residence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "A. What is care?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0025", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "The interplay between the private and public spheres has been a key factor in shaping a paradox, where the division of time, efforts, responsibilities and resources has also implied inequality and discrimination, particularly against women and even children. The paradox of care refers to the distinction between its legal and economic dimensions and its moral and emotional ones. Historically understood as a selfless act between human beings (and, lately, towards other species), care has essentially been exercised between family members, friends and close relatives and been unpaid. However, it has also involved economic compensation when provided by persons external to the families and as a labour action.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "A. What is care?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0026", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "In this sense, current discussions on integral and inclusive care and support systems consider various aspects to be incorporated in their design and implementation. Such aspects include the regulation and supervision of services, working conditions of caregivers, and time policies; the creation and expansion of services; the training of caregivers; information and knowledge management; the participation of receivers of care and support; and communication to promote cultural change.[[fn:9]] Furthermore, the discussions have also highlighted the need to ensure that specific groups in vulnerable conditions, such as older persons, persons with disabilities, children, and persons with chronic diseases, are considered as partners in the design and structuring of care and support systems. Such systems must incorporate the participation of those identified as receivers of care and support, who, in different situations, could also be playing the role of caregivers.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "A. What is care?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0027", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "In the present section, the Special Rapporteur builds on the work of previous Special Rapporteurs on the rights of persons with disabilities, who have also addressed the issue of care and support in alignment with the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, as discussed in her previous report (A/HRC/56/59). The Special Rapporteur also draws on a number of resolutions adopted by the Human Rights Council related to support and care,[[fn:10]] as well as the report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on good practices of support systems enabling community inclusion of persons with disabilities (A/HRC/55/34). In each case, support has been presented from a human rights perspective and as a demand that is integral to persons’ experiences and responsive to cultural and contextual elements.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Human Rights Council resolutions 28/4, 40/14, 43/13, 47/15 and 54/6."}], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "B. What is support?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0028", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Support refers to “the act of providing help or assistance to someone who requires it to carry out daily activities and participate in society. Support is a practice, deeply embedded in all cultures and communities, that is at the basis of all our social networks”.[[fn:11]] Like care, support has been historically undervalued and medicalized, leading to its importance being overlooked when addressing matters of rights. The disability rights movement has made significant progress in discussions, particularly regarding the support needed to ensure the participation of persons with disabilities in society and politics. It has also raised concerns that the required support for persons with long-term conditions, impairments, chronic pain and terminal diseases is often seen as irrelevant, and their support needs frequently neglected. Support encompasses considerations of material, emotional and mental assistance needed in everyday life, which vary across cultures, contexts and different stages of a person’s life. It involves both formal and informal interventions, including live assistance, mobility aids and assistive devices, personal assistance, decision-making support, communication support, mobility support, services for securing housing and household help, and community services. In addition, it includes the necessary support for persons to access and use general services such as health, education and justice.[[fn:12]]", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "A/HRC/34/58."}, {"n": 12, "text": "A/HRC/34/58 and A/HRC/56/59."}], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "B. What is support?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0029", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Considering support systems as a set of resources and strategies aimed at promoting the development, interests, quality of life and autonomy of persons, they are undoubtedly an essential factor for reducing poverty, isolation, and preventable impairments and deaths among socially, economically and geographically at-risk groups. The discussion about access to support and care from a human rights perspective is now more urgent than ever, given the new challenges societies face regarding climate change, displacement, conflict and war, natural disasters, migration, and potential future pandemics.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "B. What is support?"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0030", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "Care and support for persons with chronic illnesses and disabilities are explicitly recognized and protected under several international human rights instruments and treaties. Such documents provide a framework for ensuring that persons with chronic illnesses and disabilities receive appropriate care, support and protection to live with dignity and full participation in society. The Special Rapporteur considers it relevant 10 Human Rights Council resolutions 28/4, 40/14, 43/13, 47/15 and 54/6. 11 A/HRC/34/58. 12 A/HRC/34/58 and A/HRC/56/59. 10/22 to examine these key instruments so that governments, international organizations and grassroots organizations can use them to support their work. They also serve as a reference for the movement of persons affected by leprosy to claim their rights.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0031", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Universal Declaration of Human Rights recognizes, in its article 25 (1), the right to an adequate standard of living, including food, clothing, housing, medical care and necessary social services. Article 25 (2) emphasizes the right of mothers and children to special care and assistance.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0032", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights recognizes the right of everyone to social security (article 9), to an adequate standard of living (article 11), and to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health (article 12).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0033", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, in its article 19, on living independently and being included in the community, recognizes the right of persons with disabilities to have access to in-home, residential and other community support services. Article 25 recognizes the right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health without discrimination on the basis of disability. Article 26 mandates that States Parties shall provide comprehensive rehabilitation services and programmes in the areas of health, employment, education and social services. Article 28 recognizes the right of persons with disabilities to an adequate standard of living and to social protection.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0034", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women protects the right to social security, particularly in cases of retirement, unemployment, sickness, invalidity and old age (article 11 (1) (e)), and access to health-care services, including those related to family planning (article 12).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0035", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The Convention on the Rights of the Child recognizes the right of every child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and access to health-care services (article 24), to benefit from social security (article 26), and to a standard of living adequate for the child’s physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development (article 27).", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0036", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "The International Labour Organization (ILO) Vocational Rehabilitation and Employment Convention, 1983 (No. 159) promotes the provision of vocational rehabilitation and employment opportunities for persons with disabilities. The ILO Social Protection Floors Recommendation, 2012 (No. 202) encourages the establishment of social protection floors that provide access to essential health care and income security, especially for those unable to earn sufficient income due to chronic illness or disability.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0037", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "There are also regional instruments that must be taken into consideration, such as the European Social Charter, which guarantees the right to social and medical assistance, social security, protection of health, and social welfare services. The African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights recognizes the right to health and social security. The American Convention on Human Rights protects economic, social and cultural rights, including the right to health and social security.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0038", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted in 2015 includes goals that refer directly to care and support. Sustainable Development Goal 3, on ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all at all ages, includes targets related to universal health coverage and access to quality health-care services. Goal 10, on reducing inequality within and among countries, emphasizes the social, economic and political inclusion of all, including persons with disabilities. Goal 11, on making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable, promotes access to safe and affordable housing and basic services.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0039", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "The Human Rights Council has adopted several resolutions related to support and care, including resolution 54/6, which highlights the centrality of care and support from a human rights perspective. In it, the Council calls for the recognition of care work, the promotion of care and support systems, and the implementation of measures to ensure the well-being and rights of both caregivers and care recipients. The Council also underscores the importance of creating gender-responsive and inclusive care and support systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0040", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also considers it important to mention the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for strengthening participation of persons affected by leprosy in leprosy services. The guidelines recognize the crucial role that persons affected by leprosy and their families play in transforming health and care and support services with a person-centred approach. Including persons affected by leprosy in decisions about the care and support they need results in their empowerment and fosters community development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0041", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "The United Nations principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members are also relevant and must be considered within the debate about care and support from a human rights approach. They provide a framework to ensure the rights and dignity of persons affected by leprosy. Key aspects related to care include access to services and support without discrimination, comprehensive care, promotion of community-based rehabilitation programmes, health education, training of service providers and legal protection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Care and support: semantics, definitions and normativity", "C. Care and support systems: normative frameworks"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0042", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "For the following section, the Special Rapporteur collected information from persons affected by leprosy, grass-roots organizations and representatives of donor organizations through online workshops and interviews. In total, 80 persons from different parts of the world participated in these dialogues. The questions focused on the issues of daily care and the support that affected persons and their families receive from communities and governments. Information has also been collected continuously through informal channels, such as WhatsApp groups, which have been established by the Special Rapporteur to facilitate direct dialogue with people.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0043", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "Participants in the dialogues described care as “the opportunity to access a normal life through inclusion in regular systems such as health, education, employment, leisure, social, and community life”. Generally, care and support were seen in relation to strategies implemented by governments and communities to assist persons affected by leprosy in improving their health. These categories were also linked to social and economic advancement. Specifically, support was referred to as access to medication, treatment, rehabilitation and financial assistance, particularly for individuals experiencing permanent impairments or long-term chronic conditions. According to one interviewee, the fact that care and support for affected persons are primarily related to medical and financial aspects reflects the historical approach to “caring for” persons affected by leprosy, which often excluded their involvement in decision-making, presenting care and support as a disease-centred issue instead of a person-centred one.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0044", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "In her previous report,[[fn:13]] the Special Rapporteur highlighted that modern care and support for leprosy has often been institutionalized, neglecting the rights of affected persons. Settlements and hospitals have treated these persons as dependents rather than rights holders. Despite this, many patients appreciated the accurate medical treatment in dedicated leprosy hospitals. Consequently, the concept of care and support has been undervalued and misrepresented in the field of leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "A/HRC/56/59."}], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "A. From an institutional perspective to a human rights approach of care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0045", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes that this issue is common in various health fields, including disability and mental health. Before the nineteenth century, care for leprosy in some cultures could have been seen as segregation rather than abandonment. Recent archaeological studies in England[[fn:14]] reveal that medieval shelters treated leprosy patients communally rather than as segregated persons, although care varied by social class. With the establishment of leprosaria and hospitals, care was often provided by religious orders and sometimes by laypeople.[[fn:15]] The quality of care varied significantly based on location, resources and attitudes towards leprosy.[[fn:16]] It is important to underline the role that patients themselves played as caregivers for others, due to neglect from official caregivers. Testimonies collected from persons affected by leprosy who lived in colonies, leprosaria and, later, hospitals reveal how they played an important role as caregivers and self-carers.[[fn:17]] Shared experiences, community bonds and the need to survive led patients to provide essential care and support to one another in the absence of adequate external support.[[fn:18]] This was also possible as patients often learned caregiving skills through experience and observation. They organized themselves to manage daily life aspects, ensuring that everyone’s needs were met despite being secluded. Unfortunately, patients were also often obliged to ensure that no one left the facility due to societal fears and misconceptions about the contagious nature of the disease.[[fn:19]] Methods included physical barriers, surveillance, strict internal regulations, and self-policing among patients. This could be due to a sense of community responsibility or fear of collective punishment.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "Simon Roffey, “Medieval leper hospitals in England: an archaeological perspective”, Medieval Archaeology, vol. 56, No. 1 (November 2012), pp. 203–233."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Kathleen Vongsathorn, “Gnawing pains, festering ulcers and nightmare suffering: selling leprosy as a humanitarian cause in the British empire, c. 1890–1960”, The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, vol. 40, No. 5 (December 2012), pp. 863–878."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Z. Gussow and G. S. Tracy, “Stigma and the leprosy phenomenon: the social history of a disease in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries”, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 44, No. 5 (1970), pp. 425–449."}, {"n": 17, "text": "James L. Flexner, “An institution that was a village: archaeology and social life in the Hansen’s disease settlement at Kalawao, Moloka‘i, Hawaii”, International Journal of Historical Archaeology, vol. 16, No. 1 (March 2012), pp. 135–163."}, {"n": 18, "text": "Chryssi Bourbou, “The leprosarium of Spinalonga (1903–1957) in eastern Crete (Greece)”, Eres. Arqueología/Bioantropología, vol. 14 (2006), pp. 121–136."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Susan L. Burns, “From ‘Leper Villages’ to Leprosaria: Public Health, Nationalism and the Culture of Exclusion in Japan”, in Isolation, Alison Bashford and Carolyn Strange, eds. (London, Routledge, 2003)."}], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "A. From an institutional perspective to a human rights approach of care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0046", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Many leprosaria, colonies and specialized leprosy hospitals began to close from the mid-twentieth century onwards, with the process accelerating after the introduction of multidrug therapy in the 1980s.[[fn:20]] Maintaining these institutions was expensive, and there was a shift towards community-based health services to provide more comprehensive and less stigmatizing care and support. This transition shifted care for leprosy patients to the community and families.[[fn:21]] Health-care systems were often not equipped to provide specialized care and support for leprosy. Many countries lacked the resources for comprehensive care and support systems, placing the financial and caregiving workload on families and communities.[[fn:22]] Cultural factors need to be considered here too, as in many cultures, there is a strong expectation that families will take care of and support their ill, impaired or older members.[[fn:23]] Women bear a significant workload of care due to gender stereotypes of caregiving as a female characteristic, which in many cultures gives them recognition and a role within the family and community. In addition to household responsibilities, economic hardships, navigating the health-care system, and mental health struggles, women must also balance their roles in both public and private spheres.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "Dorothy McMenamin, “Out of Sight and Out of Mind: The Ongoing Problem of Treating Leprosy”, The Journal of Pacific History, vol. 52, No. 3 (2017), pp. 343–359."}, {"n": 21, "text": "Jing Jing Lim and Yong Long Lim, “The dawn of humane leprosy segregation: transforming leprosarium into home”, International Journal of Built Environment and Sustainability, vol. 4, No. 1 (2017)."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Annisa Ika Putri and others, “Understanding leprosy reactions and the impact on the lives of people affected: An exploration in two leprosy endemic countries”, PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, vol. 16 (No. 6) (June 2022)."}, {"n": 23, "text": "A. Kleinman, L. Eisenberg and B. Good, “Culture, illness, and care: clinical lessons from anthropologic and cross-cultural research”, Annals of Internal Medicine, vol. 88, No. 2 (1978), pp. 251–258."}], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "A. From an institutional perspective to a human rights approach of care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0047", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "The movement advocating for the rights of persons affected by leprosy offers an opportunity to improve care and support systems. A human rights-based approach emphasizes the agency and autonomy of affected persons, contrasting with traditional, disease-based care and support models. However, to build this approach, it is important to listen to the experiences and demands of persons affected by leprosy, their families, and the sectors involved in leprosy care.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "A. From an institutional perspective to a human rights approach of care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0048", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy emphasize the need to understand the disease’s multifactorial nature, its treatments, and complications. As one person stated, “if people do not understand what we go through physically and mentally, they will never understand why we need support”. Historically, persons affected by leprosy have been stereotyped with disfigured faces, hands and feet, perpetuating myths about the disease. However, the physical and mental health challenges they face have multifactorial causes.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0049", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "Interviewees described various physical conditions caused by leprosy: (a) skin lesions and nerve damage, which manifest as nodules and patches, leading to loss of sensation in hands, feet and face, increasing injury risk; (b) muscle weakness and paralysis, especially in hands and feet, causing deformities such as claw hand and foot drop; (c) eye problems, including loss of blinking reflex, dry eyes, corneal ulcers and potential blindness; (d) ulcers and infections from unnoticed injuries, possibly leading to amputations; (e) disfigurement and deformities, such as loss of eyebrows, nasal collapse and other facial changes; and (f) mobility issues due to deformities and muscle weakness, hindering daily activities and independence.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0050", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "People affected by leprosy also experience secondary health issues, such as malnutrition, respiratory problems and general poor health. These issues can arise during treatment and are classified into two types. Type 1 reactions involve acute inflammation of skin lesions, new lesions, neuritis, swelling, redness and pain, caused by the immune system reacting to remaining bacteria. This can happen before, during or after treatment. Corticosteroids are used to reduce inflammation and nerve damage, and timely treatment is essential to prevent permanent disability. Type 2 reactions (erythema nodosum leprosum) are characterized by painful red nodules, fever, joint pain, general malaise, neuritis, and sometimes internal organ involvement. Common in patients with multibacillary leprosy, these immune complex-mediated reactions can recur during treatment. Treatment includes thalidomide (in some countries), corticosteroids, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Proper management is crucial to control symptoms and prevent complications.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0051", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "According to WHO, type 1 reactions occur in about 30 per cent of borderline leprosy cases, while type 2 reactions occur in 10–50 per cent of lepromatous and borderline lepromatous cases. Despite the proclaimed elimination of leprosy, effective treatment for these reactions remains inadequate. Persons affected by leprosy can also experience a relapse, the symptoms of which are the reappearance of new skin lesions and possibly new nerve involvement. Relapse can be caused by inadequate treatment or resistance to multidrug therapy. It can also be due to a dormant bacilli resurgence. In this case, it requires re-evaluation and possibly a new course of multidrug therapy, sometimes with additional drugs if resistance is suspected. There can also be late reactions post-treatment, with symptoms similar to type 1 and type 2 reactions; such reactions can occur years after completing treatment. They are caused by late immune responses to remaining bacterial antigens. The management is the same as for acute reactions, often involving corticosteroids or other immunosuppressive treatments. In 2019, only 47 countries reported treatment completion rates above 85 per cent. Furthermore, 3,897 relapses were reported by 54 countries, 44 per cent of them in Brazil. The increase in relapses may be attributable to better reporting, although there are still weaknesses in diagnosing relapse. The overall relapse rate in leprosy appears low at around 1 per cent over 5–10 years. As there is limited availability of second-line drugs for leprosy, vigilance is needed to avert amplification of drug resistance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0052", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "Leprosy, its complications, and relapses are influenced by multiple factors, with bacterial activity and immune response being just one aspect. The institutional and bureaucratic barriers within medical services are significant challenges for affected persons. Access to specialized health care and trained professionals is increasingly problematic, unlike in the past, when dedicated hospitals provided extensive training for managing leprosy. In addition, since leprosy is often considered an eliminated disease, medical schools only cover it as a rare occurrence.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0053", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Persons living in marginalized and rural areas complain about distance and transportation issues, especially in leprosy-endemic countries where major health facilities are centralized in main cities and capitals. This makes it difficult to receive timely and regular treatment. In addition, in countries with few cases of leprosy, there is a shortage of professionals trained to treat the disease, which also presents a significant barrier to accessing care and support. Delayed diagnosis and treatment can result in more severe complications and disabilities. This is linked to the factors mentioned above, but social stigma can also have an impact on seeking care and support behaviour among persons, families, communities, health workers and professionals.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0054", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "Although it is established that leprosy treatment should be completely free, persons in some countries report having to pay for it. Financial constraints also make transportation and rehabilitation services prohibitive for many patients, leading to delays or avoidance of care and support. This situation is aggravated by the fact that, even when the treatment is free, persons must pay for medication, medical appointments and other expenses during reactions and relapses. In addition, misdiagnoses can result in incorrect treatment, further complicating the issue. There were also complaints about shortages of medications used to control reactions and relapses. For example, in certain countries, including Indonesia, the use of thalidomide is restricted, and in most cases, it is not authorized for patients affected by leprosy. Thalidomide is used in cases of severe erythema nodosum leprosum or when patients do not respond adequately to other treatments, such as corticosteroids or NSAIDs, as well as in chronic or refractory erythema nodosum leprosum. Without the appropriate medication, the outcome can be fatal.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0055", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Another issue is lack of awareness and information. There is often insufficient information about the disease, its treatment options, and available services, both among patients and within the health-care and support system. In addition, rehabilitation services, including physiotherapy, occupational therapy and reconstructive surgery, are often inadequate, insufficient or unavailable, affecting the quality of life and recovery of patients.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0056", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "There is an ambiguous sentiment regarding the universal practice of inclusive health services, particularly concerning the conversion of leprosy-specialized hospitals into general hospitals. While the practice of inclusion has pushed communities and authorities to recognize that persons affected by leprosy have the right to access any service, it has also resulted in a reduction in the number of professionals knowledgeable about the disease and a decrease in support from medical staff.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0057", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "High-quality and respectful treatment appears to hinge not solely on the enforcement of laws and regulations, but also on the commitment and dedication of authorities, professionals and health workers. Some participants noted varying levels of support across different regions of their countries; while some areas receive adequate support, particularly from health workers, in others, persons affected by leprosy experience stigma and rejection. The sustainability of effective practices often relies more on individual authority and commitment rather than strict adherence to legal frameworks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0058", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "One of the primary concerns relates to the limited, and sometimes non-existent, mental health support provided by public services. Such support is crucial at every stage of the disease and often remains necessary for years after treatment has ended. Some interviewees reported that mental health issues are stigmatized in their communities. Consequently, they may avoid seeking help, fearing judgment or discrimination. This reluctance to seek help also diminishes accountability for public services that should be provided.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "B. Access to medical and rehabilitation services is essential for understanding leprosy care and support"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0059", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "Social discrimination poses a significant barrier that hinders the rights of persons affected by leprosy to access support and care. Participants expressed frustration that many governments, particularly in leprosy-endemic countries, lack laws and enforcement against discrimination of leprosy-affected persons. This includes anti-discrimination laws, equal opportunity policies and specific regulations to protect their rights. While disability discrimination laws are more prevalent, not all persons affected by leprosy are classified as persons with disabilities, yet the majority have faced discrimination at some point in their lives.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0060", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Participants noted that some countries offer State-sponsored social welfare programmes providing financial assistance, vocational training and cash transfers to help persons affected by leprosy. Cash benefits, typically $30–$50 a month, support persons with disabilities, older persons and those below the poverty line. However, bureaucratic barriers and lack of information often prevent access. Despite being small amounts, these benefits can cover basic necessities such as food. Economic benefits provided during the COVID-19 pandemic have now been discontinued.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0061", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "In countries where disability benefits have been implemented, persons affected by leprosy often find it difficult to become beneficiaries because their impairments are frequently considered not severe or are invisible. Disability identity cards, where the grade of disability is registered, are required to access such benefits. Many persons affected by leprosy are rejected because they are not considered “legally disabled”. There have also been cases where persons have been rejected because their impairment has been linked to leprosy. Social pensions that are generally offered to employed persons are typically inaccessible for persons affected by leprosy who have impairments, especially women. In many low- and middle-income countries, most persons affected by leprosy are either unemployed or engaged in informal work, which prevents them from making formal contributions to social security schemes.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0062", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "Governments have overlooked the importance of accurate data and proactive identification of persons affected by leprosy to assess their specific support and care needs. Those living in remote areas often remain unregistered for social schemes and lack information about their rights and entitlements. While some measures have improved, interviewees believe that governments need to take more initiative in raising awareness about leprosy, dispelling myths, reducing stigma through education and media campaigns, and informing persons affected by leprosy about their rights as citizens.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0063", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "Regarding the situation of families, interviewees said that, fortunately, things had changed compared with decades ago, when families used to expel persons affected by leprosy from their homes. Nowadays, some families still hesitate to accept a member affected by leprosy due to lack of information, fear of community exclusion, and cultural and religious beliefs, among other reasons. However, as the responsibility for care and support falls primarily on families, especially women, they often find ways to accept and support the affected relative within their close family circle.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0064", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "Burnout resulting from fatigue, economic challenges, illness and other difficulties can inadvertently lead families to harm relatives affected by leprosy. When caregiving responsibilities fall primarily on women and girls, it adds significant stress to both caregivers and receivers of care. Despite the need for respite and self-care, cultural norms often fail to recognize this necessity, perpetuating stereotypes that women are inherently responsible for continuous care and support and protection.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0065", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "Women affected by leprosy in Latin American countries highlighted the overwhelming workload they bear as caregivers without any payment. They not only manage their own illness, but also care for and support other ill relatives or family members with disabilities without receiving financial recognition. One interviewee said, “Being a caregiver is not just about the physical tasks at home; it involves navigating complex processes such as accessing benefits, monitoring medications and managing finances, often with limited or no resources. Being sick is a job itself, but being a sick caregiver is a double full-time job without any payment.”", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0066", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "In many cases, families must provide financial support to persons affected by leprosy. In her previous report,[[fn:24]] the Special Rapporteur underlined the fact that there is limited data on the economic burden borne by the families of persons affected by leprosy. A study implemented in rural India[[fn:25]] demonstrated that the impact of severe leprosy reactions on households predominantly took the form of indirect costs (reduction in household productivity resulting from the interruption of normal or preferred activities of household members), which accounted for 65 per cent of total household costs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "A/HRC/56/59."}, {"n": 25, "text": "David J. Chandler and others, “Household costs of leprosy reactions (ENL) in rural India”, PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, vol. 9, No. 1 (2015)."}], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0067", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "A similar study carried out among migrant and resident patient populations in Guangdong Province, China, concluded that the median yearly total expense after diagnosis amounted to 15 per cent of migrant and 38 per cent of resident patients’ annual income. Among migrant patients, the median cost before diagnosis was $131.60, the median yearly cost of leprosy treatment after diagnosis was $300.60, and the median yearly cost of leprosy complications was $69.50. By comparison, among residents, the median yearly costs were $152.40 pre-diagnosis, $309.70 after diagnosis and $91.90 for leprosy complications.[[fn:26]]", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Mingzhou Xiong and others, “Evaluation of the economic burden of leprosy among migrant and resident patients in Guangdong Province, China”, BMC Infectious Diseases, vol. 17, No. 1 (December 2017)."}], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0068", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "Men also voiced concerns about cultural gender stereotypes that often place them as the primary providers for their families. However, when men develop impairments or chronic conditions, it can significantly reduce their ability to work, placing additional pressure on women to become primary earners. One female interviewee pointed out that “The division of labour between men and women affects women doubly. When men cannot work and support the family, women often have to take on that role. They also face increased domestic violence due to the mental health challenges their husbands, fathers or brothers experience.”", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0069", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "It was emphasized that in countries with families, especially older persons, still living in former leper colonies, governments and communities must address the issue of abandonment, which affects them across multiple dimensions: health, social, economic, legal and psychological. Many individuals in these areas face legal uncertainties regarding land and housing rights. Others live without social protection and rely solely on community members for care and support, often passing away with their generation’s history, overlooked by States and authorities, who may erase their historical memory from national narratives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "C. Discrimination versus social and economic support: the role of the State and families"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0070", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "Several persons affected by leprosy emphasized the importance of advocacy and awareness within care and support systems. They highlighted issues of stigma and discrimination exacerbated by insufficient government and community support for awareness campaigns and dissemination of reliable information. They also stressed the need for confidential channels where affected individuals and their relatives can address concerns about leprosy and treatment within their families and communities. In some countries, self-care groups, initially established for medical or rehabilitation purposes, have transformed into platforms for political awareness. Such groups have enabled persons affected by leprosy and their families to unite, understand their rights and participate actively in community decision-making. However, achieving these goals requires sustained efforts to combat social discrimination and alleviate fears of societal judgment, which is a gradual process.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "D. Community engagement, advocacy and awareness as part of the care and support system"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0071", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "Fear and ignorance leading to negative reactions within communities often stem from deeply rooted religious beliefs and practices passed down through generations. The importance of dialogue between religious and spiritual leaders, activists and representatives of organizations of persons affected by leprosy was emphasized as a strategy to shift perspectives on care and support. Given their role in pastoral care, religious figures play a crucial role in disseminating accurate information, underscoring the need to elevate their involvement more significantly.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "D. Community engagement, advocacy and awareness as part of the care and support system"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0072", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "Many of the successful practices in care and support are documented by grass-roots organizations in countries including Brazil, Colombia, Ethiopia, Indonesia, India, Nepal and Senegal. Representatives from these organizations attribute their success to innovative projects and programmes that involve persons affected by leprosy in every stage, from inception to evaluation. Financially sustainable community projects and youth-led awareness campaigns are actively promoted. In addition, knowledge exchange and leadership training programmes between Indonesia and Colombia are under way. In Brazil and Nepal, legal support initiatives include training persons affected by leprosy in legal matters, facilitated in collaboration with legal firms and local lawyers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "D. Community engagement, advocacy and awareness as part of the care and support system"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0073", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "In Latin America, countries have made significant advances in care and support policies. For instance, discussions on legislation about inclusive health systems are actively ongoing in Brazil and Colombia. Persons affected by leprosy in Brazil have played a proactive role in advocating for their experiences and demands to be included in such discussions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Lived experience of care and support of persons affected by leprosy and their families", "D. Community engagement, advocacy and awareness as part of the care and support system"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0074", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "Considering the perspectives of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations, the Special Rapporteur emphasizes that for governments to implement and protect care and support from a human rights perspective, specific key measures must be established. These include creating inclusive, human-rights based support and care systems that are responsive to age, disability and gender. Such systems should be built on contextual and culturally sensitive foundations, respecting local concepts of care and support intertwined with cultural and religious understandings. They should ensure appropriate access to services while upholding the rights of both caregivers and receivers of care.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0075", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "Care and support from a human rights perspective challenges the gender stereotypes regarding caregiving and advocates for the redistribution of responsibilities between families, communities, organizations, the private sector and States. Such an approach includes the recognition of informal support, such as unpaid care and support work, primarily from families and personal networks; and formal support, provided through support services and support workers, such as professional personal assistants, domestic care and support workers, and communication facilitators, or through assistive and technological devices.[[fn:27]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on good practices of support systems enabling community inclusion of persons with disabilities (A/HRC/55/34)."}], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0076", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "Reclaiming rights within the care and support agenda – specifically the right to provide care, receive care and engage in self-care – is crucial,[[fn:28]] particularly for persons affected by leprosy. Historically, self-care has played a pivotal role in their lives and families. Defined by WHO as “the ability to promote and maintain health, prevent disease, and cope with illness”,[[fn:29]] self-care should empower persons affected by leprosy to assert control over their health needs while advocating for their rightful place in the care and support system from a human rights perspective.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Laura Pautassi, “The right to care. From recognition to its effective exercise” (Mexico City, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 2023)."}, {"n": 29, "text": "WHO guideline on self-care interventions for health and well-being, 2022 revision (Geneva, 2022)."}], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0077", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "With these insights in mind, the Special Rapporteur revisits the key principles outlined in the report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on good practices of support systems enabling community inclusion of persons with disabilities (A/HRC/55/34), which serve as essential guidelines for Member States aiming to implement inclusive, rights-based care and support systems. The Special Rapporteur has added one more principle that involves ethics and compassion.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0078", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "Good governance involves offering adequate and participatory legal, policy, institutional and administrative frameworks. It includes careful needs and demands assessments for support and care, as well as the meaningful involvement of persons affected by leprosy, their families and their allies in the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of support and care systems. The key principles of good governance should include accountability, transparency, participation, equality and sustainability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "A. Good governance"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0079", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "Good governance implies an inclusive approach, considering the broader context in which persons live, including their living environment, social support networks, and access to community resources. Awareness of evidence-based practices is crucial for implementing and evaluating good governance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "A. Good governance"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0080", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy often struggle to access inclusive services due to inadequate data and professional knowledge about their condition and treatment. Effective assessment of their care and support needs requires improved information management and data collection efforts, as well as a multisectoral and multidisciplinary approach. Therefore, assessments and evaluations should involve professionals from diverse fields and sectors, as well as caregivers and receivers of care.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "B. Accurate assessment of support and care needs"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0081", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "An accurate assessment entails a participatory evaluation involving both caregivers and receivers of care to ensure an individualized approach that addresses each person’s unique needs. This approach must consider their medical condition, psychosocial and economic circumstances, cultural factors influencing care and support needs, and personal preferences. Respect for the person’s autonomy and choices is crucial, while ensuring their safety and well-being.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "B. Accurate assessment of support and care needs"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0082", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "Integral social protection addresses extra costs, including direct expenses, related to impairment, long-term consequences and chronic conditions associated with leprosy. The economic impact of leprosy on the lives of affected individuals and their families is variable and multilayer, and includes, for example, the purchase of assistive technology, paying for accessible transport and housing, and indirect costs arising from reduced earning capacity owing to limited access to education and employment opportunities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "C. Development of comprehensive social protection systems"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0083", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "Integral social protection ensures that care and support services are accessible to all individuals, especially those in vulnerable situations, by reducing financial barriers and promoting social and economic inclusion. It also promotes the delivery of high-quality care and support services that meet standards of effectiveness, safety and patient-centeredness.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "C. Development of comprehensive social protection systems"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0084", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "Integral social protection provides financial assistance and benefits to cover the costs associated with care and support, alleviating economic burdens on individuals and families. To achieve this, it establishes sustainable funding mechanisms and policies to ensure the continuity and effectiveness of care and support systems over time, adapting to demographic changes and evolving societal needs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "C. Development of comprehensive social protection systems"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0085", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "This principle highlights the need for high-quality support services, emphasizing that knowledge and reliable information are essential for those providing care and support, even on an unpaid basis. This ensures that expertise, up-to-date knowledge and good practices are available to individuals affected by leprosy and their families.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "D. Cultivating a skilled and diverse support and care workforce"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0086", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "It also ensures that patients and those seeking support will find reliable references, effectively addressing their doubts and needs, preventing the aggravation of situations, and potentially saving lives. It also guarantees that skilled and ethically trained professionals and front-line workers will recognize and utilize the knowledge that patients and their families possess to enhance their care and support.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "D. Cultivating a skilled and diverse support and care workforce"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0087", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "This principle involves prioritizing funding and resources for support and care services in a manner that respects and upholds human rights principles. It ensures that care and support services are accessible, equitable, and respect the dignity and rights of all individuals, particularly the most vulnerable populations. To do this, States need to allocate sufficient funding to care and support services, which includes investing in infrastructure, training, and support for care providers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "E. Increasing human rights-based investment"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0088", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 88, "n": 88, "text": "Funding mechanisms should be multisectoral, including taxation, public and private insurance schemes, and direct subsidies to service providers and users. In this context, the involvement of the private and public sectors, communities, and international cooperation is vital to sustain development with equality and justice. This principle also takes into account gender inequality issues, recognizing the status of those who are caregivers, especially women and girls, as rights holders. In a similar line, the principle recognizes persons who are receivers of care as rights holders.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "E. Increasing human rights-based investment"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0089", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 89, "n": 89, "text": "Integrating an ethical and compassionate approach into care and support systems is an acknowledgement of the diversity of contexts and cultures in which these services operate. This approach underlines the importance of viewing care and support through a lens of compassion, which entails recognizing every person as an essential and unique agent in the human development process, deserving of freedom from suffering and unjust treatment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Rethinking care and support for persons affected by leprosy and their families from a human rights perspective", "F. Implementing ethical and compassionate policies and programmes"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0090", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 90, "n": 90, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has participated in various meetings, particularly with United Nations agencies focusing on care and support issues, such as the United Nations Children’s Fund, UN-Women and WHO. She has also engaged with universities in the United Kingdom and Australia to explore potential collaborations on religious and spiritual aspects related to leprosy. In addition, she has met with representatives of international organizations, including Enablement in the Netherlands. She has also been in constant contact with organizations of persons affected by leprosy, as well as with international donor organizations.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Annual activities report of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0091", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 91, "n": 91, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has attended multiple conferences on health, leprosy, disability and family issues. She has been invited to speak about her mandate’s role in the lives of persons affected by leprosy at universities in the United Kingdom, Canada and Mexico. She has conducted interviews with media outlets in countries including Denmark, the United States of America and Turkey to discuss the situation of persons affected by leprosy worldwide. She continues to advocate for the rights of persons affected by leprosy through radio programmes and editorial platforms. She also utilizes digital social media platforms such as X and Facebook to connect with organizations and individuals affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Annual activities report of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0092", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 92, "n": 92, "text": "Communications expressing her interest in visiting certain countries have been sent to missions in Geneva. During her visit to Geneva in June 2024, she held meetings with representatives from Indonesia and Nigeria to discuss potential country visits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Annual activities report of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0093", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 93, "n": 93, "text": "There is an urgent need to create and implement care and support systems from a human rights perspective for persons affected by leprosy and their families. In addition, it is essential to include leprosy in the broader debate about care and support. Introducing this approach and raising awareness at the national and international levels will facilitate a transition from a disease-centred model to a person-centred model rooted in human rights and compassion. Such discussions must be promoted within the leprosy rights movement and supported by different social movements, civil society and academics.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0094", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 94, "n": 94, "text": "States and governments must ensure equitable access and design systems that will uphold the dignity and respect that persons affected by leprosy deserve. This involves combating any kind of discrimination and stigmatization.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0095", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 95, "n": 95, "text": "Robust rights-base care and support systems have robust legal frameworks that guarantee just access to services and social protection. In this connection, ethical monitoring and evaluation mechanisms with a human rights perspective must be incorporated.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0096", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 96, "n": 96, "text": "Sustainability is a crucial aspect of care and support systems. The State must ensure that policies and laws supporting their creation are backed by reliable funding mechanisms. It is important to emphasize the alliance of the public and private sectors, civil society, and international cooperation in this effort.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0097", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 97, "n": 97, "text": "Care and support systems must be comprehensive, extending beyond health care to address daily life conditions, especially for those with severe and chronic effects of leprosy. These systems should also address gender inequality and the disparity between paid and unpaid caregivers. States must implement interdisciplinary research to have more information and data regarding these issues.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0098", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 98, "n": 98, "text": "These systems shall incorporate an approach that considers cultural perspectives on care, acknowledging both positive aspects and those that cause harm. Strategies must be implemented to facilitate dialogue and motivate positive changes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0099", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 99, "n": 99, "text": "The Special Rapporteur argues that without implementing a human rights approach alongside compassionate and ethical care, care and support systems will fail to adequately meet the needs and demands of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-79-152-0100", "docId": "a-79-152", "idx": 100, "n": 100, "text": "Overall, the participation and agency of persons affected by leprosy and their families must guide the processes of design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "In its resolution 35/9, the Human Rights Council established the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. In the resolution, the Council recognized that, in various parts of the world, persons affected by leprosy and their family members continue to face multiple forms of discrimination and widespread barriers to their participation as equal members of society, including isolation, discrimination and violations of their human rights. The adoption of the resolution was aimed at intensifying efforts to eliminate all forms of prejudice and discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members and to promote policies that facilitate their inclusion and participation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The resolution mandates the Special Rapporteur to report annually to the Council, starting from its thirty-eighth session. Following the adoption of the resolution, the Council appointed Alice Cruz to lead the mandate. She assumed her duties on 1 November 2017. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur introduces leprosy and details her vision, priorities and working methods for the next three years.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "Leprosy, also known as Hansen’s disease, is a chronic infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae. Leprosy has a long incubation period and symptoms may appear between 2 and 20 years after infection. Leprosy can occur from early infancy to very old age. The disease mainly affects the skin, the peripheral nerves, the mucosal surfaces of the upper respiratory tract and the eyes.[[fn:1]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leprosy."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "A. A curable disease"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "Contrary to the social representation of leprosy as a highly contagious disease, leprosy is not highly infectious, and most persons (around 95 per cent) who are in contact with the disease do not develop it. In fact, most people are naturally immune to leprosy. The mechanism of transmission is not yet clear. However, leprosy is most likely transmitted through droplets, from the nose and mouth, and during close and frequent contact with untreated cases.[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "A. A curable disease"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Leprosy is curable with a combination of drugs known as multidrug therapy. The treatment of leprosy with only one drug can lead to drug resistance. The combination of drugs depends on the classification of the disease. Rifampicin, the most important drug, is included in the treatment for both types of leprosy (paucibacillary and multibacillary). Multidrug therapy has been supplied free of charge by the World Health Organization (WHO) since 1995. Multidrug therapy was donated until 2000 by the Nippon Foundation. Since then, it has been donated by Novartis and will continue to be so until 2020. The elimination of leprosy as a public health problem (defined as a registered prevalence of less than 1 case for every 10,000 persons) was achieved globally in 2000.[[fn:3]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "A. A curable disease"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "However, the global elimination of leprosy as a public health problem may hide the fact that there are still highly endemic countries, as well as highly endemic pockets within countries. The drastic decline in the prevalence of leprosy in the last three decades has not meant that leprosy has disappeared. In fact, there is still ongoing transmission.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "A. A curable disease"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Stigmatization and discrimination remain major obstacles to the elimination of leprosy, a fact that has been agreed upon by the main stakeholders. In 2010, the General Assembly adopted resolution 65/215 on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members and took note of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members (A/HRC/15/30, annex). In 2016, WHO adopted the Global Leprosy Strategy 2016–2020, which is based upon three strategic pillars, the third of which is on stopping discrimination and promoting inclusion.[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "WHO Regional Office for South-East Asia, Global Leprosy Strategy 2016−2020. Accelerating Towards a Leprosy-free World (New Delhi, 2016)."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "A. A curable disease"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Despite being curable, if not detected early and treated, leprosy can cause irreversible damage to the skin, nerves, limbs and eyes, leading to disfigurement, blindness, loss of sensation, chronic wounds and neuropathic pain.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leprosy."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "B. Gap between curing and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "A unique feature of the impairments[[fn:6]] caused by leprosy are their preventable nature, which depends on access to early diagnosis, treatment and high-quality care. However, late diagnosis is very frequent. Moreover, the global elimination of leprosy as a public health problem has resulted in a loss of expertise in diagnosis and treatment. Finally, a high-quality treatment to address nerve damage, which is the main cause of leprosy-related impairments, is yet to be achieved.[[fn:7]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "In the present report, the Special Rapporteur uses the terms “impairment” to refer to the loss of functioning or the detriment to the health of persons affected by leprosy and “disability” to refer to the social responses of discrimination and exclusion to leprosy-related impairments. This distinction is based upon the social model of disability, which is embraced by the Special Rapporteur in her work."}, {"n": 7, "text": "WHO Regional Office for South-East Asia, Global Leprosy Strategy 2016−2020. Accelerating Towards a Leprosy-free World — Operational Manual (New Delhi, 2016), pp. 5–6."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "B. Gap between curing and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Leprosy is undoubtedly a neglected disease and the lack of funds for basic and clinical research explain why the main available drugs for treating leprosy reactions (which are a major cause of nerve damage and resulting impairment) are steroids and thalidomide, the latter of which carries a high risk of causing severe iatrogenic effects.[[fn:8]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Alice Cruz, “Leprosy as a multilayered biosocial phenomenon: the comparison of institutional responses and illness narratives of an endemic disease in Brazil and an imported disease in Portugal”, Clinics in Dermatology, vol. 34, No. 1 (2016), pp. 16–23."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "B. Gap between curing and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Institutional and extra-institutional barriers to access to an early diagnosis, lack of medical expertise among health services and professionals and drugs with severe iatrogenic effects explain why so many persons affected by leprosy claim that, after completing multidrug therapy, even though they are said to be cured, they do not feel healed.[[fn:9]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "B. Gap between curing and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Few other diseases show the gap between a medical cure and the phenomenological experience of healing as much as leprosy. Such a gap is deeply forged by social mediator factors and the social determinants of health and illness, among which stigmatization and discrimination play a critical role.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "B. Gap between curing and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "In 2016, 214,783 new cases were reported to WHO by 145 countries. The highest absolute and relative number of cases of leprosy were reported in India, Brazil and Indonesia. There is still a worrying prevalence in 22 countries that, according to a set of indicators (which includes prevalence, the detection of new cases and the proportion of female, child and grade-2 disability[[fn:10]] cases), are identified as global priority countries for leprosy control. The countries with more than 1,000 new cases in 2016 were: Bangladesh, Brazil, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Nigeria and Philippines. In endemic countries, leprosy mainly affects poorer communities and regions.[[fn:11]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Grade-2 disability refers to visible impairment. The grading system used by the Global Leprosy Programme consists of “grade 0” meaning no impairment, “grade 1” meaning loss of sensation in the hand, eye or foot and “grade 2” meaning visible impairment."}, {"n": 11, "text": "WHO Regional Office for South-East Asia, Global Leprosy Strategy 2016−2020 — Operational Manual, p. 2."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "C. Epidemiology and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Furthermore, as the prevalence of leprosy declines, new challenges arise, such as the increase of foreign-born cases in countries in which it has already been eliminated. In 2016, 328 foreign-born cases were reported in 23 countries.[[fn:12]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "WHO, Weekly Epidemiological Record, No. 35 (92) (2017), pp. 501–520."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "C. Epidemiology and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Finally, the number of cases reported globally is not exact, as many cases go unreported due to institutional and extra-institutional barriers in accessing leprosy-related diagnosis and treatment in many parts of the world. A large number of people continue to receive treatment for leprosy and many live with impairments caused by leprosy and with disabilities caused by their social exclusion. In addition, the figure does not cover family members of the affected individuals, who are equally affected by leprosy-related stigmatization and discrimination.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "C. Epidemiology and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Despite the impressive decrease in the number of cases since the introduction of multidrug therapy three decades ago (from over 5 million cases in the mid-1980s to less than 200,000 cases at the end of 2016), no major change in the trends of newly detected cases has been observed. Most recently, an increase in new cases from 210,758 in 2015 to 214,783 in 2016 has been reported.[[fn:13]] This suggests a number of things:", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "C. Epidemiology and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "First, the prevalence rate may not be reliable in fully assessing the evolution of leprosy, since before the discovery of multidrug therapy, patients had to undergo treatment for years, sometimes for life. Following the introduction of multidrug therapy, treatment time was drastically reduced. Since 2000, such a reduction in treatment has reached 12 months for multibacillary patients and 6 months for paucibacillary patients. Paucibacillary patients may not reach the annual prevalence record, leaving them uncounted. And there are gaps in the reporting of new cases, especially in low-income countries, in which conditions are favourable for higher rates of leprosy and in which well-structured health services are lacking.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "Claudio Guedes Salgado and others, “Are leprosy case numbers reliable?”, Lancet, vol. 18, No. 2 (February 2018), pp. 135–137."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "C. Epidemiology and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "Second, the data suggest that more efforts are required to stop the transmission of leprosy. Besides the aforementioned loss of expertise, it is necessary to reframe leprosy under the current debate on the social determinants of health and inclusive development. Leprosy’s transmission depends not only on biological factors, but also on social determinants, including access to sanitation, clean water and education, among others, that have not yet been responded to by public health programmes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "C. Epidemiology and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Of the 214,783 new cases reported in 2016, 12,437 presented grade-2 disability cases, namely visible impairments. As already mentioned, impairments caused by leprosy are preventable and its incidence means that delays in access to diagnosis and to a high-quality treatment have occurred, in sum to the fundamental rights of every human being to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health. In such cases, States have failed to fulfil their obligations to respect, protect and fulfil such a right.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "C. Epidemiology and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Some 281 of the 12,437 new cases reported in 2016 were children with impairments. The overall rate of new cases of leprosy in children represents 8.9 per cent of all new cases, a shamefully high figure. This reveals social vulnerability as a key factor in the transmission and prevalence of leprosy. Additionally, the overall underreporting on women affected by leprosy remains a cause for great concern.[[fn:15]] This is indicative of the vulnerability of women and their lack of access to health services in many settings, especially in poorer communities. The epidemiology of leprosy is linked to the continuous violation of the human rights of vulnerable groups both within countries and worldwide.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "WHO, Weekly Epidemiological Record."}], "section": ["II. Leprosy", "C. Epidemiology and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Leprosy has been associated with the abuse and violation of the human rights of countless women, men and children for thousands of years. Yet, its recognition as a human rights violation is a recent development.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Some may argue that such violations resulted from the fact that, for a long time, leprosy was an incurable, disfiguring and disabling disease that spurred an automatic response of fear and rejection.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "However, this type of functionalist approach does not acknowledge that many societies did not consider leprosy as a transmissible disease.[[fn:16]] Moreover, in the late nineteenth century, when the theory of contagion became the paradigmatic explanatory model for leprosy’s transmission, it lacked any scientific evidence to back it up. And yet, persons affected by leprosy were systematically labelled as shameful and set apart. Hence, the functionalist approach always ends up by blaming the persons who are stigmatized and discriminated against, while failing to question the persons who stigmatize and discriminate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Silathan Sermrittirong and Wim H. Van Brakel, “Stigma in leprosy: concepts, causes and determinants”, Leprosy Review, vol. 85, No. 1 (2014), pp. 36–47."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Religious and ideological beliefs, cultural practices and misconceptions are the attributing factors that supported the discrimination of persons affected by leprosy in different historical periods and regions. Certain cultural norms have provided favourable conditions for leprosy to be regarded as shameful and harmful to the social order.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Mary Douglas, “Witchcraft and leprosy: two strategies of exclusion”, Man, vol. 26 (1991), pp. 723–736."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Leprosy came to embody what was socially prescribed as shameful and disrupting, and was thus rendered something beyond a mere disease. It became a symbol, a powerful metaphor, for everything that should be kept apart, whether it was attributed to punishment for sinful conduct,[[fn:18]] unregulated behaviour,[[fn:19]] past offences[[fn:20]] and socially constructed ideas of racial inferiority,[[fn:21]] among others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Gilbert Lewis, “A lesson from Leviticus: leprosy”, Man, vol. 22, No. 4 (1987), pp. 593–612."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Emilio M. Férnandez, Fantasmas de la sociedad medieval: enfermedad, peste, muerte (Valladolid, University of Valladolid, 2004)."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Sermrittirong and Van Brakel, “Stigma in leprosy”."}, {"n": 21, "text": "Ron Edmond, Leprosy and Empire: A Medical and Cultural History (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006); Zachary Gussow and George S. Tracy, “The use of archival materials in the analysis and interpretation of field data: a case study in the institutionalization of the myth of leprosy as ‘leper’”, American Anthropologist, vol. 73, No. 3 (1971), pp. 695–709, and “The phenomenon of leprosy stigma in the continental United States”, Leprosy Review, vol. 63 (1972), pp. 85–93."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy have historically been deprived of their civic, political, economic, social and cultural rights. Women, men and children affected by leprosy were, and continue to be in many contexts, denied not only their dignity, but also an acknowledgement of their humanity. It is not a coincidence that it is commonly said that persons affected by leprosy experience a civil death. They have been consistently subjected to: stigmatizing language; segregation; separation from their families and within the household; separation from their children; denial of care; denial of the means of subsistence; denial of a place to live; denial of education; denial of the right to own property; impediments to marry; impediments to have children; restrictions on their freedom of movement; denial of their right to participate in community, public and political life; physical and psychological abuse and violence; compulsory internment; forced sterilization; institutionalized silencing and invisibility; and removal from history.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The use of leprosy as a metaphor bedevils us in public and private spaces. Its stigmatizing effects restrain the social participation of not only those affected by leprosy, 16 Silathan Sermrittirong and Wim H. Van Brakel, “Stigma in leprosy: concepts, causes and determinants”, Leprosy Review, vol. 85, No. 1 (2014), pp. 36–47. 17 Mary Douglas, “Witchcraft and leprosy: two strategies of exclusion”, Man, vol. 26 (1991), pp. 723–", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 28, "n": 736, "text": "18 Gilbert Lewis, “A lesson from Leviticus: leprosy”, Man, vol. 22, No. 4 (1987), pp. 593–612. 19 Emilio M. Férnandez, Fantasmas de la sociedad medieval: enfermedad, peste, muerte (Valladolid, University of Valladolid, 2004). 20 Sermrittirong and Van Brakel, “Stigma in leprosy”. 21 Ron Edmond, Leprosy and Empire: A Medical and Cultural History (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006); Zachary Gussow and George S. Tracy, “The use of archival materials in the analysis and interpretation of field data: a case study in the institutionalization of the myth of leprosy as ‘leper’”, American Anthropologist, vol. 73, No. 3 (1971), pp. 695–709, and “The phenomenon of leprosy stigma in the continental United States”, Leprosy Review, vol. 63 (1972), pp. 85–93. but also their families. Yet, it has been imagined as something that no longer exists, something of the past, something remote, something that is still and always apart.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 29, "n": 28, "text": "It is in this context that persons affected by leprosy and their family members continue to face endless stigmatization and discrimination in their households, communities and societies and in legislative and juridical institutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 30, "n": 29, "text": "The idea that the elimination of leprosy would solve the problem of stigmatization and discrimination is a narrow approach and is indicative of limited understanding, not only of stigmatization and discrimination, but also of the dynamics of history. Eliminated diseases may re-emerge and with them stigmatization and discrimination. This is seen in countries where leprosy re-emerges with foreign-born cases, and where loss of expertise results in a delay in diagnosis. Such delays strengthen the chain of transmission and the accompanying stigmatizing and discriminatory practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "A. Thousands of years of human rights abuses and violations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 31, "n": 30, "text": "It is true that leprosy is an ancient disease. Not only is its causative agent, Mycobacterium leprae, old, but it has not changed significantly.[[fn:22]] However, this does not mean that leprosy is a disease of the past or a residue from the past.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See https://1drv.ms/b/s!ApNa7GHD7siggvE3a-EjQN5N83XWQg; https://1drv.ms/b/s!ApNa7GHD7sighf4wL5kqb-xONmO2vg; https://1drv.ms/b/s!ApNa7GHD7siggu1iUbSjy45Oq5CoRw."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 32, "n": 31, "text": "Leprosy is a contemporary disease closely linked with socioeconomic, civil and political vulnerability. Despite the dramatic decline of its prevalence in the last three decades, there are still: (a) considerable and concerning rates of incidence and transmission; (b) a high proportion of late diagnosis; (c) underreporting; and (d) emerging new challenges, such as an increase in foreign-born cases in countries that no longer have the expertise to diagnose and treat leprosy, resulting in increasing transmission.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 33, "n": 32, "text": "Moreover, much of the legislation that deals with leprosy was produced in modern times. The contemporary social representation of leprosy results from a complex intersection between traditional myths, religious beliefs and modern ideas on contagion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 34, "n": 33, "text": "Until the late nineteenth century, the cause of leprosy remained unknown. It was in 1873, that the Norwegian Gerard A. Hansen identified the acid-fast, rod-shaped Mycobacterium leprae as its etiological agent. This breakthrough allowed for the medicalization of leprosy, that is, its transformation from a moral condition into a medical one. It also marked the modern history of leprosy, which is made up of turning points that gave rise to different State and public health policies, as well as social experiences and discriminatory practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 35, "n": 34, "text": "The first period of the modern history of leprosy started with Hansen’s discovery, which led to a unified response to leprosy by European experts and Governments in 1879. Such a response was based on a consensus on contagion (understood as the spread of a disease through physical contact, particularly through touch) as leprosy’s transmission mechanism.[[fn:23]] However, there was no evidence to support such a claim, since it was not possible to grow Mycobacterium leprae in vivo or in vitro. Such a consensus, alongside the description of leprosy as an “imperial danger”,[[fn:24]] which demanded establishing sanitary borders[[fn:25]] to prevent a massive invasion of leprosy[[fn:26]] among the central States, opened the way for a general agreement on the need for prophylactic segregation of persons affected by leprosy. This gave rise to the establishment of leprosaria around the globe. 1948 signalled the year in which leprosy experts abandoned the policy of compulsory internment.[[fn:27]] However, such a policy lasted in some countries until the late twentieth century. Moreover, it can still be found in some national legislations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Mittheilungen und Verhandlungen der internationalem wissenschaftlichen. Lepra-Conferenz zu Berlin im October 1897 (Berlin, Verlag von August Hirschwald, 1898)."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Tony Gould, A Disease Apart: Leprosy in the Modern World (New York, St. Martin’s Press, 2005)."}, {"n": 25, "text": "S. Shubada Pandya, “The First International Leprosy Conference, Berlin, 1897: the politics of segregation”, História, Ciências, Saúde – Manguinhos, vol. 10, No. 1 (2003), pp. 161–177."}, {"n": 26, "text": "Zeferino Falcão, A lepra em Portugal (Lisbon, Royal Academy of Science, 1900)."}, {"n": 27, "text": "International Leprosy Congress, Memoria del V Congreso Internacional de la Lepra. Celebrado en la Habana, Cuba del 3 al 11 de Abril de 1948. Organizado por el gobierno de la República de Cuba con la colaboración de la Asociación Internacional de la Lepra (Havana, Editorial Cenit, 1949)."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "First period of the modern history of leprosy (1873–1948)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 36, "n": 35, "text": "Thousands of leprosaria were established throughout the world after the late nineteenth century, many of them implementing an official State policy of compulsory internment of persons affected by leprosy, while others emerged as non-official State policy as a consequence of the social marginalization of persons affected by leprosy.[[fn:28]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "There are still thousands of leprosy colonies throughout the world. Many of those affected still live in these colonies, as well as their children and grandchildren."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "First period of the modern history of leprosy (1873–1948)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 37, "n": 36, "text": "Segregation denied the civil and political rights of persons affected by leprosy, who were separated from their families and communities, often at a very early age. The same policy was applied in 1923 to children of persons affected by leprosy.[[fn:29]] Children were forcibly separated from their parents at birth and many were also secluded from their communities. The dissemination of prophylactic propaganda was also part of this policy, which aimed at alerting the public to the dangers of contact with persons affected by leprosy. In 1924, recommendations were sent to the newly created League of Nations, urging it to take leadership in regulating the circulation of persons affected by leprosy and prohibiting them from entering foreign countries.[[fn:30]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Émile Marchoux, III Conférence Internationale de la Lèpre. Strasbourg, 28 au 31 juillet 1923: communications et débats (Paris, Baillière et fils, 1924)."}, {"n": 30, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "First period of the modern history of leprosy (1873–1948)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 38, "n": 37, "text": "There was never any scientific evidence to support prophylactic segregation of persons affected by leprosy. Nevertheless, such a policy was widespread; it reinvented leprosy in modern times as a “dreadful” disease, disseminating stigma in many parts of the world. Much of the current discriminatory national legislation was produced during this period.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "First period of the modern history of leprosy (1873–1948)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 39, "n": 38, "text": "The second period of the modern history of leprosy began with the discovery, in 1943, by the North American Guy Faget of a drug with some reasonable degree of efficacy in curing leprosy, despite its long-term use and severe iatrogenic effects.[[fn:31]] The efficacy of dapsone in curing leprosy led to a transition from a policy of compulsory segregation to a policy of decentralization to general health services. It was in this period that WHO took leadership in what was then called the eradication of leprosy[[fn:32]] with funds from the United Nations Children's Fund.[[fn:33]] This new policy also called upon States to amend discriminatory legislation, arguing that such legislation was a barrier to the eradication of leprosy.[[fn:34]] It was in this period that the first calls emerged from leprosy colonies demanding recognition of the dignity and rights of persons affected by leprosy. It took over a half century to recognize their efforts. However, and in the spirit of the International Conference on Primary Health Care (Alma-Ata, 1978), leprosy was progressively reframed under the right to health.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "G.H. Faget and others, “La prominoterapia de la lepra: estudios en progreso”, International Journal of Leprosy and other Mycobacterial Diseases, vol. 11, No. 1 (1943), pp. 52–62."}, {"n": 32, "text": "WHO, “Editorial: information and comments on development of international leprosy activities”, WHO Chronicle, vol. 14, No. 1 (1960), pp. 3–39."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Michel F. Lechat, “The saga of dapsone”, in Multidrug Therapy against Leprosy: Development and Implementation over the Past 25 years, H. Sansarricq, ed. (Geneva, WHO, 2004), pp. 1–7."}, {"n": 34, "text": "Frans Hemerijckx , “Social aspects of leprosy problem with reference to countries with high leprosy endemicity: epidemiology and control of leprosy”, in Transactions of the VIIth International Congress of Leprology. Tokyo, November 1958. Held Under the Joint Sponsorship of the International Leprosy Association; Tofu Kyokay (Japanese Leprosy Foundation) (Tokyo, Tofu Kyokai, 1959), pp. 442–447."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "Second period of the modern history of leprosy (1948–1981)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 40, "n": 39, "text": "The third period of the modern history of leprosy began with Sheppard’s findings on a technique that allowed for growing Mycobacterium leprae in vivo.[[fn:35]] This technique proved the primary resistance to dapsone. Since primary resistance to dapsone might jeopardize the entire leprosy programme, in 1981, a group of experts from WHO developed a multidrug regime (dapsone and rifampicin — a powerful drug from the field of tuberculosis — for all patients, with clofazimine added for multibacillary patients).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "Lechat, “The saga of dapsone”, pp. 1–7."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "Third period of the modern history of leprosy (1981–2010)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 41, "n": 40, "text": "From 1986 onwards, great efforts were made to expand the delivery of multidrug therapy. Between 1986 and 1990, the coverage of multidrug therapy saw an increase from 1 to 40 per cent.[[fn:36]] In 1991, the World Health Assembly adopted resolution WHA44.9 for the elimination of leprosy as a public health problem (defined as a registered prevalence of less than 1 case for every 10,000 persons) in the year 2000. By the end of 2000, the global prevalence of leprosy declined to less than 1 case for every 10,000 persons. In May 2001, WHO announced the global elimination of leprosy as a public health problem.[[fn:37]] This was a time of great hope, in which the entire leprosy community believed that large-scale delivery of multidrug therapy would not only eliminate leprosy, but also the accompanying stigmatization and discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "D. Daumerie, “Implementation of MDT: successive steps”, in Multidrug Therapy against Leprosy: Development and Implementation over the Past 25 years, H. Sansarricq, ed. (Geneva, WHO, 2004), pp. 45–67."}, {"n": 37, "text": "H. Sansarricq, “The study group”, Multidrug Therapy against Leprosy: Development and Implementation over the Past 25 years, H. Sansarricq, ed. (Geneva, WHO, 2004), pp. 31–44."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "Third period of the modern history of leprosy (1981–2010)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 42, "n": 41, "text": "However, despite such impressive results on the prevalence of leprosy, trends regarding the transmission and detection of new cases did not follow as expected. It became increasingly obvious that leprosy incidence was linked to the social determinants of health, which required more than just a pharmaceuticalized[[fn:38]] approach. In addition, stigmatization and discrimination hindered people from being diagnosed and treated, as well as from fully enjoying their civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "João Biehl, Will to Live: AIDS Therapies and the Politics of Survival (Princeton and Oxford, Princeton University Press, 2007)."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "Third period of the modern history of leprosy (1981–2010)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 43, "n": 42, "text": "As such, during the first decade of the twenty-first century, awareness of the role played by stigmatization and discrimination as barriers to diagnosis and treatment (which had already been pointed out very clearly by leprosy experts as early as 1984 in New Delhi),[[fn:39]] grew among the key stakeholders. Consequently, this became the decade in which evidence demanded an approach to leprosy as a biosocial phenomenon. The acknowledgement that leprosy remained a medical and social problem in contemporary societies called for an intersectoral approach, which is still to be elaborated and put into practice by leprosy programmes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "D.S. Chaudhury, “Global leprosy control: impact of new ideas and priorities”, in XII International Leprosy Congress. Proceedings (New Delhi, Printaid, 1984), pp. 858–860."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "Third period of the modern history of leprosy (1981–2010)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 44, "n": 43, "text": "The first decade of the twenty-first century ended with two historical breakthroughs. First, in 2010, WHO introduced the guidelines for strengthening participation of persons affected by leprosy in leprosy services, acknowledging persons affected by leprosy as powerful agents of change. Second, the General Assembly adopted resolution 65/215 on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members and noted the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members that had been developed by the Human Rights Council Advisory Committee. This was the founding moment of the global acknowledgement of leprosy as a deep-rooted human rights issue.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "Third period of the modern history of leprosy (1981–2010)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 45, "n": 44, "text": "After the global elimination of leprosy as a public health problem, its status as a neglected and forgotten disease solidified. As such, the beginning of the twenty-first century is characterized by an alarming lack of expertise to diagnose and treat the disease; and reduced funding for basic, clinical and operational research, as well as for tackling both the medical and social dimensions of the disease. 35 Lechat, “The saga of dapsone”, pp. 1–7. 36 D. Daumerie, “Implementation of MDT: successive steps”, in Multidrug Therapy against Leprosy: Development and Implementation over the Past 25 years, H. Sansarricq, ed. (Geneva, WHO, 2004), pp. 45–67. 37 H. Sansarricq, “The study group”, Multidrug Therapy against Leprosy: Development and Implementation over the Past 25 years, H. Sansarricq, ed. (Geneva, WHO, 2004), pp. 31–44. 38 João Biehl, Will to Live: AIDS Therapies and the Politics of Survival (Princeton and Oxford, Princeton University Press, 2007). 39 D.S. Chaudhury, “Global leprosy control: impact of new ideas and priorities”, in XII International Leprosy Congress. Proceedings (New Delhi, Printaid, 1984), pp. 858–860. C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination Resocializing leprosy-related discrimination", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "B. A very modern disease", "Third period of the modern history of leprosy (1981–2010)"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 46, "n": 45, "text": "The second decade of the twenty-first century was marked by an acknowledgment that the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination (that is to say, the idea that the availability of medical treatment and the dissemination of medical knowledge about the disease would eliminate stigmatization and discrimination) was not enough to eliminate the historically, socially, politically, economically and culturally entrenched discrimination against persons affected by leprosy. Such discrimination had been systematically reproducing unequal opportunities and access to the goods and services of the State and segregation from community, social and family life, and causing tremendous suffering and distress to persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Resocializing leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 47, "n": 46, "text": "Medicalized interventions on what is narrowly described as health-related stigma are mostly based upon “immodest claims of causality”[[fn:40]] and not on evidence. They also compartmentalize the problem in a way that fails to grasp its multidimensionality. While the ground-breaking effect of multidrug therapy on the lives of persons affected by leprosy and on the public’s image of the disease cannot be dismissed, discrimination persists.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "A. Castro and P. Farmer, “Understanding and addressing AIDS-related stigma: from anthropological theory to clinical practice in Haiti”, American Journal of Public Health, vol. 95, No. 1 (2005), pp. 53–59."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Resocializing leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 48, "n": 47, "text": "Stigmatization and discrimination on the grounds of leprosy must be resocialized,[[fn:41]] contextualized and approached as interdependent social, economic, political and cultural issues. Stigmatization and discrimination are mutually reinforcing. Enacted stigmatization produces discrimination, which, in return, reinforces stigmatization, trapping persons affected by leprosy in a spiralling chain of disadvantage.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "Richard Parker and Peter Aggleton, “HIV and AIDS-related stigma and discrimination: a conceptual framework and implications for action”, Social Science and Medicine, vol. 57, No. 1 (2003), pp. 13–24."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Resocializing leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 49, "n": 48, "text": "It is necessary to analyse how leprosy intersects with other social vulnerabilities. Leprosy-related stigmatization is only the tip of the iceberg[[fn:42]] of inequalities and inequities that have historically excluded persons affected by leprosy from participating on equal terms in society. Discrimination on the grounds of leprosy is multiple and directly proportional to social vulnerability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "Castro and Farmer, “Understanding and addressing AIDS-related stigma”, pp. 53–59."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Resocializing leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 50, "n": 49, "text": "However, and despite the current acknowledgment of the persistence of institutionalized and structural discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, existing indicators used to assess discrimination are mostly based on the medical model. It is crucial to develop new tools that, in the light of the progress achieved by the social model of disability, may be able to identify how societies erect barriers to the full inclusion of persons affected by leprosy and how those same barriers can be taken down.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Resocializing leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 51, "n": 50, "text": "Discrimination on the grounds of leprosy is institutionalized, public, iatrogenic, affiliated, multilayered and must be understood in its social, economic, political and cultural context. In order to respond to discrimination in an effective way, it is necessary to identify the societal spheres in which it occurs and manifests itself. Discrimination on the grounds of leprosy may be found at the: (a) macrolevel of the State (in laws, jurisprudence and public policies); (b) intermediary level of State goods and services, such as health services, education, work opportunities and regulation; and (c) microlevel of community life and/or the family.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Resocializing leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 52, "n": 51, "text": "Legal dogmatics alone has failed to acknowledge the gap between written law and the practice of law. Discriminatory laws and policies are not the only reason for the exclusion of persons affected by leprosy, but also the lack of effective implementation of 40 A. Castro and P. Farmer, “Understanding and addressing AIDS-related stigma: from anthropological theory to clinical practice in Haiti”, American Journal of Public Health, vol. 95, No. 1 (2005), pp. 53–", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Institutionalized and structural discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 53, "n": 59, "text": "41 Richard Parker and Peter Aggleton, “HIV and AIDS-related stigma and discrimination: a conceptual framework and implications for action”, Social Science and Medicine, vol. 57, No. 1 (2003), pp. 13–", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Resocializing leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 54, "n": 24, "text": "42 Castro and Farmer, “Understanding and addressing AIDS-related stigma”, pp. 53–59. the already recognized rights, such as access to the highest attainable standard of health, education and justice. Access to the enjoyment of rights depends on extra-institutional factors, such as educational level, inclusion or exclusion from the formal labour market, gender inequalities and racial discrimination. Given the generalized vulnerability of persons affected by leprosy, the gap between written law and the practice of law is severely exacerbated.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Institutionalized and structural discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 55, "n": 52, "text": "Laws that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy still exist in many parts of the world. These laws disregard and disrespect international human rights standards, in particular the principle of non-discrimination as stipulated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenants and subsequent human rights instruments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Institutionalized and structural discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 56, "n": 53, "text": "In 2016, nine countries reported to WHO the existence of discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy.[[fn:43]] A survey conducted by the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations identified more than 20 countries with discriminatory laws, covering segregation, immigration, marriage, voting, public transportation, employment and housing, and violating civic, political, economic, social and cultural rights. According to the survey, 50 per cent of those laws identified as discriminatory are still active and/or with an unknown status and only 8 per cent are under review. Some 52 per cent of those laws were found in the Asian region, followed by 8 per cent in Europe and North America, 7 per cent in Africa and 2 per cent in Oceania. Such laws concern: segregation and separation (29 per cent); immigration (16 per cent); marriage and divorce (10 per cent); employment and voting (6 per cent); public transportation (5 per cent); and residence (2 per cent). Many of these laws date back to the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, but some are as recent as the late twentieth century and first decade of the twenty-first century.[[fn:44]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "WHO, Weekly Epidemiological Record."}, {"n": 44, "text": "See https://www.ilepfederation.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Table-discriminatory-laws-2March2017.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Institutionalized and structural discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 57, "n": 54, "text": "The drafting group in its progress report submitted to the Advisory Committee on the implementation of the principles and guidelines on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members[[fn:45]] also made an effort to map discriminatory laws and practices in order to assess the implementation of the principles and guidelines in different countries. The report is, however, built upon a major gap regarding information from endemic countries, since the majority of the responses were from States in which leprosy was not a major issue. The drafting group acknowledges that discriminatory laws and policies still exist in many countries, depriving persons affected by leprosy from fundamental civil and political rights. It also argues in favour of a more thorough review of the aforementioned laws and policies in order to make positive changes. It goes on to say that such problems are probably not restricted to leprosy-endemic countries, but might also be found in countries in which leprosy was considered a disease of the past. The drafting group identifies discriminatory practices that hinder the enjoyment of the economic, social and cultural rights of persons affected by leprosy, such as divorce on the grounds of leprosy with a strong gender bias or denial of access to school and education to children affected by leprosy, among others. Finally, the drafting group determines that national plans to implement the principles and guidelines are still to be developed; the current level of implementation remains unsatisfactory.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "Available from www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/HRC/AdvisoryCommittee/Pages/Leprosy.aspx."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Institutionalized and structural discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 58, "n": 55, "text": "In addition to law, jurisprudence and public policies, discrimination is also a reality in the administration of certain States, particularly in health services, education and State benefits, reaching extra-institutional settings, such as the workplace, marriage and community and family life. Discrimination against persons affected by leprosy is so pervasive that it even materializes in exclusionary interpersonal relations that impose the separation of food, spaces and household and work-related objects, and that exclude touching persons affected by leprosy, which is one of the most basic human senses employed in socialization and mutual acknowledgment. This multilayered discrimination often causes severe depression, resulting in a high incidence of self-isolation and self-exclusion, as well as mental illness.[[fn:46]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "See https://www.ilepfederation.org/news-item/why-we-must-talk-about-leprosy-stigma-and-mental-health/."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Institutionalized and structural discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 59, "n": 56, "text": "Not only are persons affected by leprosy stigmatized and discriminated against, their families are equally affected by courtesy stigma. Even though courtesy stigma may also affect caregivers,[[fn:47]] it is the family members of persons affected by leprosy that bear the brunt of the worst of discrimination. In many social and cultural contexts, entire families are discriminated against and stigmatization and discrimination may have an impact for two or even three generations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "M. Dako-Gyeke, “Courtesy stigma: a concealed consternation among caregivers of people affected by leprosy”, Social Science and Medicine (January 2018), pp. 190–196."}], "section": ["III. Long path from segregation to human rights", "C. Failure of the medicalization of stigmatization and discrimination", "Institutionalized and structural discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 60, "n": 57, "text": "In 2010, the General Assembly, in a landmark move, adopted resolution 65/215 and took note of the principles and guidelines on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. In so doing, it established leprosy as a human rights issue and stressed that persons affected by leprosy and their family members should be treated as individuals with dignity and entitled to all human rights and fundamental freedoms under customary international law, the relevant conventions and national constitutions and laws.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "A. Background"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 61, "n": 58, "text": "The resolution and the principles and guidelines were preceded by resolutions 8/13 and 12/7 of the Human Rights Council, from which a report and a draft set of principles and guidelines resulted. In resolution 15/10, the Council took note with appreciation of the set of principles and guidelines and invited the General Assembly to consider, as appropriate, the issue of the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, including possible ways to promote further the principles and guidelines.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "A. Background"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 62, "n": 59, "text": "In June 2015, the Council adopted resolution 29/5, mandating the Advisory Committee to undertake a study to review the implementation of the principles and guidelines and to submit a report containing practical recommendations for the wider dissemination and more effective implementation of the principles and guidelines.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "A. Background"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 63, "n": 60, "text": "While the progress report had failed to properly assess the implementation of the principles and guidelines in endemic States, it recommended, however, the establishment of a follow-up mechanism within the United Nations system to monitor and report on progress, and to encourage States and other relevant actors to bring their conduct into line with what was provided in the principles and guidelines.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "A. Background"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 64, "n": 61, "text": "In June 2017, the Council adopted resolution 35/9, establishing the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. It called on States and all relevant stakeholders to cooperate with the Special Rapporteur in the discharge of the mandate. It also requested the Secretary-General and the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights to provide the means for the effective fulfilment of the mandate. Finally, it encouraged the High Commissioner and the Special Rapporteur, in collaboration with States and the relevant international organizations, as well as non-governmental organizations, to organize seminars on leprosy-related discrimination in order to widely disseminate the principles and guidelines, also ensuring substantial participation of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "A. Background"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 65, "n": 62, "text": "The Council decided to appoint the Special Rapporteur for a period of three years with the following mandate:\n(a) To follow up and report on progress made and measures taken by States for the effective implementation of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members for the realization of the enjoyment of human rights by persons affected by leprosy and their family members in all regions of the world, and to make recommendations to the Council in this regard;\n(b) To engage in dialogue and consult with States and other relevant stakeholders, including United Nations bodies, specialized agencies, funds and programmes, in particular WHO, other intergovernmental, regional human rights mechanisms, national human rights institutions and non-governmental organizations to identify, exchange and promote good practices relating to the realization of the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, and to their participation as equal members of society with a view to achieving a leprosy-free world;\n(c) To raise awareness of the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members and to combat stigmas, prejudices and harmful traditional practices and beliefs that hinder their enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms and their participation in society on an equal basis with others;\n(d) To report annually to the Council, starting from its thirty-eighth session.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "B. Mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 66, "n": 63, "text": "The Special Rapporteur commends the establishment of the mandate as an important milestone in addressing the marginalized and mostly forgotten segment of population that experience multiple discrimination and violation. As a new mandate within the Council, the Special Rapporteur will identify key areas in which she can effectively contribute to the advancement of the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members. For the effective implementation of the duties and responsibilities assigned to the mandate, the Special Rapporteur should rely on the support of the States, partners and other stakeholders, especially civil society and organizations of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "B. Mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 67, "n": 64, "text": "Leprosy-related discrimination is multiple and multilayered and there is sufficient evidence to suggest that leprosy commonly intersects with other identity labels subjected to oppression, marginalization, exclusion and violence. Among the more frequent social conditions and identities that intersect with leprosy are: gender; ethnicity and/or race; age; disability; migration; and poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Intersectionality and affirmative action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 68, "n": 65, "text": "In fact, intersectionality is key to an in-depth understanding of leprosy-related discrimination. Intersectionality as a concept came from feminist theory and politics. Its origin came from the need to understand the discrimination of black women through an analysis that simultaneously encompassed gender and race. Intersectionality is not an additive approach. Accordingly, different categories do not accumulate, but interrelate in dynamic ways that always have a particular system of domination as a background.[[fn:48]] This means that intersectionality stands for the numerous effects that result from the intersection of distinct differential axes in specific historical contexts. It also states that different dimensions of social life cannot be artificially separated into pure phenomena.[[fn:49]] In practice, this means that leprosy-related discrimination affects in different ways a person according to his or her social status and capital.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment (Boston, Unwin Hyman, 1990)."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Avtar Brah and Ann Phoenix, “Ain’t I a woman? Revisiting intersectionality”, Journal of International Women’s Studies, vol. 5, No. 3 (2004), pp. 75–86."}], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Intersectionality and affirmative action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 69, "n": 66, "text": "Tackling leprosy-related discrimination based on an approach that acknowledges the intersection of leprosy with other social phenomena of oppression and violence does not mean blurring leprosy into the wider picture of social inequities, inequalities and injustice. On the contrary, that would only increase discrimination and strengthen the structural violence experienced by persons affected by leprosy and their family members by contributing to their invisibility.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Intersectionality and affirmative action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 70, "n": 67, "text": "Tackling leprosy-related discrimination on the basis of an approach that acknowledges the intersection of leprosy with other social phenomena of oppression and violence means producing in-depth analysis and knowledge, contextualizing interpretations on social and cultural milieus and developing more accurate and effective tools. Intersectionality is key for analysis, but responses for action must come from other tools.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Intersectionality and affirmative action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 71, "n": 68, "text": "Given the multiple and multilayered discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, one of the more important tools to be developed and improved is affirmative action, in order to balance the terms that establish not only opportunities, but also outcomes, for persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Intersectionality and affirmative action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 72, "n": 69, "text": "In fact, formal equality in law can result in increasing inequalities, marginalization and invisibility when it fails to recognize the different conditions that specific groups experience and struggle with. From the acknowledgement of such differences, the concept of material equality was born, which aims at a substantive analysis of social realities and practices that goes beyond legal dogmatics or a formal analysis of legal equality.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Roxana Arroyo Vargas, “Igualdad un largo camino para las mujeres”, in Igualdad y no discriminación, el reto de la diversidad, Danilo Caicedo Tapia and Angélica Porras Velasco, eds. (Quito, Ministry of Justice, Human Rights and Religious Affairs, 2010), pp. 421–447."}], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Intersectionality and affirmative action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 73, "n": 70, "text": "One of the several tools able to generate material equality is affirmative action, which means creating mechanisms or policies that allow for protecting and supporting specific social groups that dwell in structural disadvantage, thus enabling equality of opportunities and/or outcomes and eliminating the barriers to the achievement of real and effective equality.[[fn:51]] Measures of affirmative action can take many forms and their use, characteristics and goals for addressing the structural discrimination of persons affected by leprosy and their family members must also be dependent on the context of implementation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "Judith Salgado Álvarez, “Lidiando con la diferencia. Respuestas desde la justicia constitucional ecuatoriana y colombiana”, in Igualdad y no discriminación, el reto de la diversidad, Danilo Caicedo Tapia and Angélica Porras Velasco (Quito, Ministry of Justice, Human Rights and Religious Affairs, 2010), pp. 483–546."}], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Intersectionality and affirmative action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 74, "n": 71, "text": "As detailed in previous chapters, leprosy is not a residue from the past. On the contrary, leprosy is a contemporary disease closely linked with structural vulnerability. The impact of leprosy on the lives of persons affected is still severe and depends on the capacity of States to ensure: (a) functional, and culturally and gender-sensitive access to health services; (b) early diagnosis; (c) high-quality medical care during treatment and after; and (d) social policies that fit the specific needs of persons affected by leprosy (regarding gender, education, housing, work and disability, among others) and access to them. This means that the impact of leprosy on the lives of persons affected is proportional to their vulnerability and resilience.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Vulnerability and intersectorality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 75, "n": 72, "text": "The concept of vulnerability refers to the diminished capacity of an individual or group to anticipate, cope with, resist and recover from any hazard. People differ in their exposure to hazard and leprosy-related discrimination is undoubtedly a factor that increases vulnerability. However, vulnerability also increases the impact of leprosy on the lives of persons affected.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Vulnerability and intersectorality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 76, "n": 73, "text": "Vulnerability must be understood as a political, economic, social and cultural condition and not as an ontological feature of a group of persons. That is to say, any analysis of vulnerability must distinguish between the conditions that diminish an individual’s or a group’s capacity to cope with hazard, from the multiple and creative ways that individuals and groups usually develop to resist it, despite their very limited options and resources.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Vulnerability and intersectorality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 77, "n": 74, "text": "Persons may live in conditions of vulnerability, but they themselves should not be considered as lacking agency in facing those same conditions. In fact, policies for tackling vulnerability should take into consideration the ways through which individuals and groups face vulnerability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Vulnerability and intersectorality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 78, "n": 75, "text": "Having said this, and reaffirming that the impact of leprosy and leprosy-related discrimination is proportional to the degree of vulnerability experienced by persons affected, it is mandatory to develop tools to assess vulnerability and the means to tackle it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Vulnerability and intersectorality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 79, "n": 76, "text": "One important tool is the framework provided by the Sustainable Development Goals. Such a framework may be of great help in developing an intersectoral governance that might avoid duplicity of actions, as well as enhance efficiency, effectiveness and efficacy. In fact, many of the areas of action outlined by the Goals are key in tackling leprosy-related vulnerability and discrimination, such as poverty, hunger, good health and well-being, education, gender, clean water and sanitation, decent work and economic growth, reduced inequalities, and sustainable cities and communities.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Vulnerability and intersectorality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 80, "n": 77, "text": "Intersectorality is key in decreasing vulnerability to leprosy and leprosy-related discrimination. Moreover, in order to strengthen the intersectoral approach, the implementation of the principles and guidelines should be allied with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Vulnerability and intersectorality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 81, "n": 78, "text": "Historically, leprosy became a symbol for exclusion. Recognition by the United Nations of leprosy as a human rights issue has, however, closed that dark chapter of history. Such recognition will advocate for inclusiveness and participation. Being a cross-cutting issue, leprosy can be used as a model for the accomplishment of sustainable development and as a symbol of the reinforcement of human rights. Notably, the international community, civil society and other relevant stakeholders have obligations to keep individuals affected by leprosy and their family members high on the 2030 Agenda. If, by 2030, persons affected by leprosy and their family members have not been left behind, the long-standing issues of social exclusion and invisibility that affect a substantive segment of the population will have been addressed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Vulnerability and intersectorality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 82, "n": 79, "text": "Participation is key for the long-term elimination of leprosy-related discrimination and for a sustainable inclusion of the affected persons and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Participation and lay expertise"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 83, "n": 80, "text": "Participation is multidimensional and includes the elements of representative democracy (the right to vote, to be elected and to hold public office), participatory democracy (elaboration, execution, monitoring and accountability in policymaking), non-governmental organizations and communities (decision-making) and epistemic communities (participation in the production of knowledge), among others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Participation and lay expertise"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 84, "n": 81, "text": "Participation is thus not restricted to the macrospace of the State. It is also interrelated with all human rights, since it is not possible to participate in society at large without enjoying the rights to freedom, work, health, education, a dignified life, freedom of expression and information, among others. Without the fulfilment of human rights, participation becomes a mere formality. In turn, without participation, human rights becomes questionable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Participation and lay expertise"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 85, "n": 82, "text": "For the present purposes, participation is understood as: (a) equal opportunities to participate and enjoy civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights and, when applicable, collective rights;[[fn:52]] (b) the right to participate in all decision-making processes that might have an impact on the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their family members (such as scientific research, public health programmes, health services, policymaking and collective organization); and (c) the right to participate in the elaboration, monitoring, evaluation and accountability mechanisms of public policies that might have an impact on the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "For instance, the right to memory is liable to be treated as a collective right of persons affected by leprosy, who were forcibly segregated from their families, communities and society."}], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Participation and lay expertise"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 86, "n": 83, "text": "Participation in decision-making is not only a right, it is also pivotal for the production of more effective responses to problems. Persons affected by leprosy develop situated knowledge that differs from the knowledge produced by science or the State. Unlike science or State management, lay knowledge does not separate life into different spheres. Instead, it is able to create a synthesis between history, society, culture, etiology and disease. As such, it is particularly helpful in producing new and much needed geographies that might map the complex intersection between leprosy and social factors. By being close to communities, leprosy organizations also know first-hand the difficulties and needs of the persons affected, which are often invisible in State surveys. They are, as such, experts on health and equality data. Such situated knowledge generates alternative evidence, as demonstrated by popular epidemiology. Situated knowledge is also key to evaluation and accountability. Finally, the lay knowledge of organizations of persons affected by leprosy should be taken into consideration for the design of scientific research and policymaking.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Participation and lay expertise"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 87, "n": 84, "text": "Participation also means the right to an active voice in public life. Therefore, the strengthening of organizations of persons affected by leprosy is crucial in enabling such persons and their family members to be their own representatives in public spaces. The organizations also promote a positive identity among persons affected by leprosy. With a positive identity, people start making changes to their surroundings and they tend to make them in an effective way. That is a major contribution towards rights and dignity awareness, as well as towards changing public perceptions of the disease. Finally, such participation in public life is key in achieving the structural change in which the automatic social response of rejection gives way to an empathic understanding of similarities, that is to the recognition of equality. That is why affirmative action and intersectoral governance should create conditions in which persons affected by leprosy can be empowered in such a way as to become the leading protagonists in the elimination of leprosy-related stigmatization and discrimination and ensure its sustainability in the long term.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "C. Vision", "Participation and lay expertise"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 88, "n": 85, "text": "In the discharge of the mandate, the following methodology will be central to the Special Rapporteur’s work.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "D. Methodology"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 89, "n": 86, "text": "Civic engagement: the Special Rapporteur will engage and hold regular dialogue with States, United Nations agencies, funds and programmes, civil society organizations and other relevant partners, including persons affected by leprosy and their family members and their representative organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "D. Methodology", "Principles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 90, "n": 87, "text": "Participation: openness, consultation and participation will remain the driving principles of the Special Rapporteur’s working methods and will actively involve local actors, civil society activists and organizations of persons affected by leprosy in her work.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "D. Methodology", "Principles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 91, "n": 88, "text": "Inclusiveness: the Special Rapporteur will work in an inclusive manner and will pay attention to groups that are more vulnerable to leprosy-related discrimination, in particular women, children and persons affected by leprosy-related disabilities.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "D. Methodology", "Principles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 92, "n": 89, "text": "Annual reports: as mandated by resolution 35/9, the Special Rapporteur will submit annual reports to the Human Rights Council on the activities undertaken in the fulfilment of her mandate and thematic issues.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "D. Methodology", "Methods of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 93, "n": 90, "text": "Country visits: at the invitation of Governments, the Special Rapporteur will make country visits and engage with the country concerned on the implementation of the principles and guidelines, identification of good practices and the provision of technical advice on policymaking and capacity-building.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "D. Methodology", "Methods of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 94, "n": 91, "text": "Communication: the Special Rapporteur will gather, request and exchange information with relevant stakeholders, including States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "D. Methodology", "Methods of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 95, "n": 92, "text": "Identification and dissemination of good practices: the Special Rapporteur will consult States and other stakeholders on the identification and promotion of good practices in the elimination of stigmatization and discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members and on guaranteeing their fundamental rights and inclusion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "D. Methodology", "Methods of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 96, "n": 93, "text": "Building cooperation: the Special Rapporteur acknowledges the crucial role played by the United Nations human rights treaty bodies, the special procedure mandate holders and the universal periodic review in the promotion of human rights globally and will build cooperation to give visibility to leprosy in their work. The Special Rapporteur will work with relevant actors and stakeholders to promote awareness-raising on the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members and combat stigmatization, prejudice and harmful practices and beliefs that hinder their enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "D. Methodology", "Methods of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 97, "n": 94, "text": "In its resolution 35/9, the Human Rights Council mandated the Special Rapporteur to monitor the effective implementation of the principles and guidelines, which recognize the fundamental human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members. The principles and guidelines encourage States to promote, protect and ensure the full realization of all human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "E. Human rights instruments and standards", "Principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 98, "n": 95, "text": "Although the principles and guidelines are not legally binding, they are, however, in line with the human rights standards and reinforce the principle of non-discrimination as a core element stipulated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other human rights instruments. The principles and guidelines provide measures for calling States to account on their duty and responsibility to prohibit discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, as well as to protect, promote and ensure their human rights. Additionally, the content of the principles and guidelines takes its spirit from the provisions of the human rights treaties.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "E. Human rights instruments and standards", "Principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 99, "n": 96, "text": "Given the cross-cutting nature of leprosy, the work of the Special Rapporteur will be guided by the relevant conventions, especially: the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination; the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women; the Convention on the Rights of the Child; the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities; and the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families.", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "E. Human rights instruments and standards", "Principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 100, "n": 97, "text": "Finally, the Special Rapporteur will promote the use of the principles and guidelines among the stakeholders and persons affected by leprosy and their family members as a rights-dissemination instrument, empowerment strategy, and evaluation and research tool.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "E. Human rights instruments and standards", "Principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 101, "n": 98, "text": "The monitoring of the implementation of the principles and guidelines and of States’ efforts to ensure non-discrimination and enforce the human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members will be sensitive to the epidemiological diversity of leprosy worldwide. Priority will be given to endemic countries and will take into consideration the following:\n(a) Regional accountability mechanisms — jurisprudence from existing regional human rights systems of protection,[[fn:53]] the recommendations produced by them and the extent of their implementation;\n(b) National legislative frameworks, public policies and participation mechanisms — to evaluate how States should advance towards the prohibition of discrimination on the grounds of leprosy and towards the protection, promotion and enforcement of the human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, the following will be assessed:\n(i) Measures taken to ensure, at the normative, jurisdictional and policymaking levels, the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members as established by the principles and guidelines, as well as measures taken to ensure access to them;\n(ii) Measures taken for raising awareness about leprosy;\n(iii) Measures taken to ensure the participation of persons affected by leprosy in decision-making processes concerning issues related to them and in following up States’ activities to implement the principles and guidelines.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and the Inter-American Court of Human Rights."}], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "E. Human rights instruments and standards", "Monitoring implementation of the principles and guidelines at the national level and States’ efforts to ensure non-discrimination and full inclusion"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 102, "n": 99, "text": "Additionally, the following will also be assessed to enable the identification of good practices and formulate pragmatic and realistic recommendations on implementing the principles and guidelines:\n(a) How domestic constitutional law coordinates and integrates States’ commitments under international human rights law;\n(b) The state of national anti-discriminatory laws, public policies related to the realization of economic and social rights and the existence of judicial and administrative remedies available to enforce human rights and monitor public policies, and of public participation mechanisms;\n(c) National justice systems, or how domestic courts have adjudicated in cases related to the rights and freedoms of people affected by leprosy and their family members and also heard cases related to discrimination laws and economic, social and cultural rights implementation, in order to develop a better understanding about the use of courts and national case law as an accountability mechanism.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "E. Human rights instruments and standards", "Monitoring implementation of the principles and guidelines at the national level and States’ efforts to ensure non-discrimination and full inclusion"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 103, "n": 100, "text": "Given the limited availability of resources, the Special Rapporteur has identified two priority areas that she deemed key in the promotion of the rights and freedoms of persons affected by leprosy and their family members. These priorities resulted from a consultation undertaken by the Special Rapporteur with some of the main stakeholders in the field of leprosy,[[fn:54]] as well as national NGOs and organizations of persons affected by leprosy,[[fn:55]] which allowed persons affected by leprosy and their family members to be consulted in more than 40 countries. These consultations were aimed at developing a framework that gives primacy to the following priorities:\n(a) Enforcement of equality — harmonize domestic laws and practices with international law, as well as guarantee effective access to rights, in order to tackle the structural disadvantage of persons affected by leprosy and their family members and empower them;\n(b) Acknowledgement of equality — eliminate stigmatization and prejudice through strengthened awareness-raising, and promote change in the social perception of persons affected by leprosy and their family members by encouraging their public participation and by disseminating guidelines for the generic use of images, language and contents.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "Among them: the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, the Nippon Foundation, Sasakawa Memorial Health Foundation, Leprosy Mission International, the International Association for Integration, Dignity and Economic Advancement, the International Leprosy Association, WHO and the Pan American Health Organization."}, {"n": 55, "text": "For example: Movimento de Reintegração de Pessoas Atingidas pela Hanseníase, Perhimpunan Mandiri Kusta, the Coalition of Leprosy Advocates of the Philippines, Handa Rehabilitation and Welfare Association and Felehansen."}], "section": ["IV. Structuring the mandate", "F. Priorities for the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 104, "n": 101, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regards the establishment of the mandate as a historical breakthrough that provides a great opportunity to address the widespread, institutionalized and structural discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. The Special Rapporteur considers this breakthrough as evidence of the United Nations human rights system’s commitment to the realization of leaving no one behind — a goal stressed in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 105, "n": 102, "text": "During the discharge of her duties and in accordance with the mandate entrusted to the Special Rapporteur by the Human Rights Council in its resolution 35/9, she will pay particular attention to the groups that live in more vulnerable conditions to leprosy-related discrimination, giving due consideration to the diversified national and local realities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 106, "n": 103, "text": "The Special Rapporteur aims to undertake the mission entrusted to her in a collaborative manner, working closely with States, the United Nations system — in particular, its human rights mechanisms — intergovernmental agencies, academics and the main stakeholders in the field of leprosy, civil society organizations and organizations of persons affected by leprosy. The Special Rapporteur sees consultation and dialogue as a crucial part of her mandate and will offer, as appropriate, technical advice, especially in the area of capacity-building, which is key for the elimination of leprosy-related discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-42-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-38-42", "idx": 107, "n": 104, "text": "Given the demanding nature of the mandate and the expectations of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, the Special Rapporteur appeals to States, the United Nations system, regional entities and the main stakeholders to join her in her efforts to bring the needed change to the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their family members and ensure that leprosy becomes a positive symbol of inclusiveness in the 2030 Agenda.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is submitted pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 35/9, in which the Council established the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. In its resolution, the Council recognized that specific attention is needed to address all forms of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, and mandated the Special Rapporteur to report to the Council on progress made and measures taken by States for the effective implementation of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members (A/HRC/15/30, annex).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "Following the first report (A/HRC/38/42), in which the Special Rapporteur outlined the vision, priorities and working methods of the mandate, the present report aims at unveiling the multiple nature of discrimination on the grounds of leprosy, focusing on the particular experience of women and children. In order to present a comprehensive description, foster bottom-up participation and promote future evidenced-based policies, the Special Rapporteur methodically resourced more than 600 contributions. She looks into the pervasive structural disadvantage that allocates women and children affected by leprosy to a context of intersecting vulnerabilities and multilayered discrimination, simultaneously acknowledging the shared subordinated status of both groups and rejecting their representation as a composite concept. The Special Rapporteur identifies specific human rights violations against each group, alongside pragmatic and concrete steps for eliminating ongoing institutionalized, structural and interpersonal discrimination.[[fn:1]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to express her gratitude to the valuable cooperation received from States; national human rights institutions; the World Health Organization (WHO); the Pan-American Health Organization; national leprosy programmes; the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, in particular the Sasakawa Memorial Health Foundation; the International Federation’s panel of persons affected by leprosy; Global Partnership for Zero Leprosy; leprosy and law experts and activists; organizations of persons affected by leprosy and their representatives; and, most of all, to the women and men affected by leprosy, as well as many of their family members, who consistently support the Special Rapporteur’s work."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "As with some historically ascribed identity categories (such as race, gender or sexuality), leprosy, also known as Hansen’s disease, has been infused in such a way with moral, religious, cultural and political meanings throughout history that it became a label that unremittingly produces and reproduces a deeply stigmatized social category. Labelling is at the root of discrimination on the grounds of leprosy. It is labelling, and not leprosy itself, that disrupts the social location[[fn:2]] of a person diagnosed with the disease and that symbolically homogenizes a group of people within deeply ingrained stereotypes framed by negative attributes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "The Special Rapporteur makes use of the concept as presented in the report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences (A/HRC/17/26)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "The overlapping of harmful stereotypes, wrongful stereotyping[[fn:3]] and structural iniquities strengthens exclusion, discrimination and violence on the grounds of leprosy and compromises the enjoyment of fundamental rights, such as dignity, equality and nondiscrimination, by millions of persons affected by leprosy worldwide, as well as by many of their family members. Stigmatization of persons affected by leprosy remains institutionalized in the State’s architecture and functioning: more than 50 countries in the world keep hundreds of discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy in force,[[fn:4]] while discriminatory practices at the State’s administration services endure. 1 The Special Rapporteur wishes to express her gratitude to the valuable cooperation received from States; national human rights institutions; the World Health Organization (WHO); the Pan-American Health Organization; national leprosy programmes; the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, in particular the Sasakawa Memorial Health Foundation; the International Federation’s panel of persons affected by leprosy; Global Partnership for Zero Leprosy; leprosy and law experts and activists; organizations of persons affected by leprosy and their representatives; and, most of all, to the women and men affected by leprosy, as well as many of their family members, who consistently support the Special Rapporteur’s work. 2 The Special Rapporteur makes use of the concept as presented in the report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences (A/HRC/17/26). 3 The Special Rapporteur makes use of the conceptual frame developed in the report commissioned by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights entitled Gender Stereotyping as a Human Rights Violation (2013). 4 See www.ilepfederation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Updated-discriminatory-laws-table-Final1.pdf. II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "The Special Rapporteur makes use of the conceptual frame developed in the report commissioned by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights entitled Gender Stereotyping as a Human Rights Violation (2013)."}, {"n": 4, "text": "See www.ilepfederation.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Updated-discriminatory-laws-table-Final-1.pdf."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Harmful stereotypes not only contribute to generating stigmatized categories and identities, but are also drivers for the dehumanization of groups of people. The process through which a group of people comes to be regarded as less human than others has stereotyping at its core. Furthermore, dehumanization and the exercise of abuse and violence are inextricably linked, since they are mutually reinforcing. That is why stereotyping is a paramount mechanism to be addressed in the prevention of violations and the promotion of human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "A. Dehumanization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "Stereotypes are produced through fixity and repetition. Stereotypes fix socially and historically produced patterns of representation on a particular group of people. The repetition of such fixed patterns in different situations allows for its universalization as “natural” truths. Stereotypes also work by excess and default. Labels that deprive people of their identify and of their right to a dignified life are awarded excessive visibility (by social representations from different sources), while insufficient visibility is accorded to the commonalities between the affected individuals and the rest of society. This deprives those individuals of the opportunity to participate in the larger community, and is a violation of their rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "A. Dehumanization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Extreme dehumanization becomes possible when the target group can readily be identified as a separate category of persons who are stereotyped and stigmatized as inferior, dangerous or uncivilized.[[fn:5]] Through dehumanization, moral restraints that prevent the exercise of abuse and violence upon certain groups of people lose strength. Dehumanized groups are regarded as disposable and their annihilation (civil or material) is morally established as acceptable.[[fn:6]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Extreme examples of dehumanization are described in article 7 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court."}, {"n": 6, "text": "Herbert C. Kelman, “Violence without moral restraint: reflection on the dehumanization of victims and victimizers”, Journal of Social Issues, vol. 29, No. 4 (1973), pp. 25–61."}], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "A. Dehumanization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy were historically dehumanized under the harmful stereotype of the leper. Such stigmatizing sign (and its different cultural versions) has been employed throughout history as a label that subsumes a group of individuals under the negative attribute of a disease socially perceived as undesirable, pollutant and dangerous.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "A. Dehumanization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Protest against the widespread use of the stigmatizing sign of the “leper” arose in the mid-twentieth century, when persons who were forcibly segregated by State policies claimed that as long as stigmatizing language was in use, discrimination would persist.[[fn:7]] However, the outcome of this struggle was still largely in the control of the medical community, who decided in favour of the expression “persons with leprosy” to replace the ostracizing sign of the “leper”, using it interchangeably with the noun “patient” and conferring, as such, equal meanings to both terms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Perry Burgess, “Shall we change the names leper and leprosy? Eradication of leprosy”, in Memoria del V Congreso Internacional de la Lepra (Havana, Cenit, 1949), pp. 818–819."}], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "A. Dehumanization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "It was only in the late twentieth century that representatives of already established organizations of persons affected by leprosy moved against the hegemony of biomedicine in classifying groups of persons by diseases and rejected the expression “persons with leprosy”. In their view, the expression continued to put leprosy at the forefront of their identities and concealed the fact that many persons had already been cured of the infection caused by Mycobacterium leprae, even though they continued to live with physical impairments, discrimination and disability.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "A. Dehumanization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The currently used expression “persons affected by leprosy” was adopted as the first step towards self-identification to simultaneously refer to individuals currently under 5 Extreme examples of dehumanization are described in article 7 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. 6 Herbert C. Kelman, “Violence without moral restraint: reflection on the dehumanization of victims and victimizers”, Journal of Social Issues, vol. 29, No. 4 (1973), pp. 25–61. 7 Perry Burgess, “Shall we change the names leper and leprosy? Eradication of leprosy”, in Memoria del V Congreso Internacional de la Lepra (Havana, Cenit, 1949), pp. 818–819. treatment for leprosy and individuals who had been cured of leprosy. It has also been suggested that this expression encompasses family members of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "A. Dehumanization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The Special Rapporteur makes use of the expression “persons affected by leprosy” in accordance with Human Rights Council resolution 35/9 and due to the lack of an alternative terminology emerging from a self-identification process. Notwithstanding, she targets the knowledge gaps that persistently represent persons affected by leprosy as a homogeneous group.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "A. Dehumanization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members simultaneously draw inspiration from the provisions of legally binding human rights instruments[[fn:8]] and recognize persons affected by leprosy and their family members as a group of individuals in need of special measures for eliminating the root causes that perpetuate substantive discrimination against them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Universal Declaration of Human Rights; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment; Convention on the Rights of the Child; Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families; and Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities."}], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "B. The principles and guidelines as a road map towards formal and substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The principles and guidelines are thus in agreement with general comment No. 20 (2009) on non-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The principles and guidelines clarify the normative content of legally binding international human rights instruments, providing guidance on how to enforce human rights in the specific context of the systemic and structural violation of the human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "B. The principles and guidelines as a road map towards formal and substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Firstly, the principles and guidelines are an example of non-treaty standards that reinforce customary law. International human rights norms prohibit inhuman and degrading treatment, as well as arbitrary detention. Such is the point of departure of the principles and guidelines, which recognize the massive violation of the human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members through the enactment of discriminatory policies and institutionalized practices. The principles and guidelines condemn the results of the aforementioned policies and practices, which have contributed to systematic and widespread violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "B. The principles and guidelines as a road map towards formal and substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Secondly, the principles and guidelines embody the fundamental values of international human rights norms. Therefore, they reaffirm and seek to reinforce compulsory general principles of human rights as established by several treaties and conventions such as dignity, non-discrimination and equality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "B. The principles and guidelines as a road map towards formal and substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Thirdly, the multilayered discrimination on the grounds of leprosy calls for acknowledging multiple intersections of leprosy with gender, ethnicity and/or race, age, disability, migration and poverty. This also means that in order to eliminate discrimination on the grounds of leprosy, persons affected by leprosy and their family members are entitled to the rights established for these different social groups and they should be enforced accordingly.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "B. The principles and guidelines as a road map towards formal and substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "In sum, the principles and guidelines underpin the normative integration of several international human rights instruments, interpreting and translating legally binding norms in close connection with the conditions and needs of the particular group of persons affected by leprosy and their family members. They provide States with a road map for monitoring the situation of persons affected by leprosy and their family members and for implementing measures that, by enforcing international human rights law, can guarantee formal and substantive equality.", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "B. The principles and guidelines as a road map towards formal and substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Guideline 3 of the principles and guidelines identifies the adverse impact of leprosy on women and children and recommends the adoption of necessary measures to eliminate discrimination against more vulnerable groups to leprosy-related violations.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "C. Subordination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "It is the view of the Special Rapporteur that vulnerability must be approached as a result of disadvantage caused by unequal power relations and not as an ontological feature of a group of persons.[[fn:9]] This is particularly important in the case of women and children, who are often silenced as political subjects by essentialist views that overlook their agency in the face of disadvantage and impair their participation in decision-making processes. For such reasons, the pervasive structural disadvantage that allocates women and children to the context of intersecting vulnerabilities and multilayered discrimination is addressed by the Special Rapporteur as subordination.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "On vulnerability, see A/HRC/38/42."}, {"n": 10, "text": "The Special Rapporteur agrees with general recommendation No. 19 (1992) on violence against women of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, which addresses how the subordinated social location of women contributes to gender-based violence."}], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "C. Subordination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Subordination is understood as the historical devaluation of some groups of people under hierarchical social structures that, by producing and reproducing an unequal distribution of power, severely constrain their autonomy and participation. Subordination is the structural landscape where the vulnerability of women and children is framed, with accompanying corollaries of subdued participation, neglected intentionality and unrecognized agency.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "C. Subordination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "If a shared subordinate status is the uniting bond between these two groups, women and children should nevertheless not be treated as a composite concept. Such an approach mirrors the widespread and pervasive exclusion of both groups from culture, public life and politics and into their opposites, that is, biology, private life and nature. For this reason, the Special Rapporteur unpicks the composite concept and highlights women and children as distinct social groups.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "C. Subordination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Article 1 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women explicitly identifies as its object the elimination of any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex. Anchoring the target group of the Convention thus allows for universalizing protection onto what is a highly diverse group. Not only is gender the product of power relations that, throughout historical dynamics, imprints patterns of difference that are enacted in and by hierarchized social relations; the embodiment of womanhood is also anchored in iniquities and is far from giving rise to a universal experience. Nor is the concept of woman a discrete and unitary category. In fact, a monolithic model of woman can exclude and affirm inequality by rendering invisible other axes of oppression interconnected with structures of power, as shown by intersectionality theory. At the same time, recourse to strategic essentialism[[fn:11]] may be necessary to develop a more positive stance from which common subordination can be interrogated and challenged. The aim should then be that equality becomes compatible with diversity. Therefore, the Special Rapporteur looks at women affected by leprosy as a plural group that, its contingency notwithstanding, experience shared patterns of subordination and structural violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "G.C. Spivak, In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics (New York, Routledge, 1988)."}], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "C. Subordination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Article 1 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child defines a child as a person below the age of 18, unless the laws of a particular country set the legal age for adulthood younger. Making use of age to define who a child is allows for universalizing protection, as in the case of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. However, it seems to be more difficult to acknowledge the historical dynamics that produce different versions of childhood, which is equally traversed by power relations, than it is to recognize gender as a social construct. Childhood is seldom seen as a subject of articulate scrutiny, reinforcing the lens through which children are seen as weak, vulnerable and incapable; as adults-to-be. The Special Rapporteur approaches children affected by leprosy as social beings whose world is constructed within a historical and cultural frame of reference, and childhood is considered as a period in which children function as a category of a social group immersed in unequal power relations that constrain their autonomy, agency and recognition as rights bearers.[[fn:12]] Children are also regarded as contributors to social thinking and policymaking, and the child’s right to protection, as well as to participation, is emphasized.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "J. Qvortrup and others, eds., Childhood Matters: Social Theory, Practice and Politics (Avebury, United Kingdom, Aldershot, 1994)."}], "section": ["II. Conceptual framework: intersecting stereotypes and human rights standards", "C. Subordination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "An overall male-over-female preponderance in the incidence of leprosy has dominated epidemiological reports of the disease. In 2017, out of the 210,671 new cases reported by 150 countries to the World Health Organization (WHO), only 82,922 (39.3 per cent) were women. Moreover, there are no disaggregated data for women with grade 2 disability[[fn:13]] at the time of diagnosis.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Grade 2 disability refers to visible impairment. The grading system used by the Global Leprosy Programme consists of grade 0, meaning no impairment; grade 1, meaning loss of sensation in the hand, eye or foot; and grade 2, meaning visible impairment. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur uses the terms “impairment” to refer to the loss of functioning or detriment to the health of persons affected by leprosy, and “disability” to refer to the social responses of discrimination and exclusion due to leprosy-related impairments. This distinction is based upon the social model of disability, which is embraced by the Special Rapporteur in her work."}, {"n": 14, "text": "WHO, Weekly Epidemiological Record, vol. 93, No. 35 (31 August 2018), pp. 445–456."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "For decades, biomedical readings of such discrepancy placed biology at the centre of the explanation, overlooking the fact that women in different regions of the world generally have less access to health care. Such interpretation of available data may subsidize long-prevailing non-equitable and discriminatory access by women to their rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The recognition of women’s central role in family health care – especially reproductive and children’s health – contributed to gender-sensitive approaches in public health. At present, the WHO Global Leprosy Strategy (2016–2020) recognizes women as a priority group. Notwithstanding, generalized underreporting prevails. Lack of a gender framework and gender-sensitive indicators, as well as critical analysis of available data (namely, how the data are collected, its quality – completeness and accuracy – and what they represent) are contributing factors to knowledge gaps.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Independent studies in demarcated territories reveal that active-case finding of leprosy at the community level balances the sex ratio, which ascertains generalized underdetection. Independent studies also point to delays in diagnosis and possible higher risk of women to developing leprosy-related physical impairments and disability, which calls for official reporting of disaggregated data on physical impairments at the time of diagnosis for women.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "R. Sarkar and P. Swetalina, “Leprosy and women”, International Journal of Women’s Dermatology, vol. 2 (2016), pp. 117–121."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Some of the institutional barriers to diagnosis and prevention of physical impairments in women result from institutional mediating factors, such as discriminatory legal frames; underfinancing of health care and poorly implemented policies for prevention, care and rehabilitation; status of leprosy services integration into primary care; the reach of health services; and the gender of the health-care workforce in primary care services.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "However, non-addressed social barriers are also a leading cause of deficient access by women to the highest attainable standard of health (A/HRC/32/44). Some of the aforementioned barriers are harmful traditional beliefs and practices; the low status assigned to women, which is at the root of women’s widespread self-concealment of the disease; dependency of women’s access to health services on third-party authorization; women’s limited mobility; illiteracy; and poor knowledge of leprosy.[[fn:16]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "U.-B. Engelbrektsson, Challenged Lives: A Medical Anthropological Study of Leprosy in Nepal (Göteborg, Sweden, University of Gothenburg, 2012); and I. Schuller and others, “The way women experience disabilities and especially disabilities related to leprosy in rural areas in South Sulawesi, Indonesia”, Asia Pacific Disability Rehabilitation Journal, vol. 21, No. 1 (2010), pp. 60–70."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Women’s socioeconomic life conditions, such as quality of nutrition (suggested by some studies to impact cell-mediated immunity and influence the progression of the disease)[[fn:17]] or daily household activities (hindering self-care and exposing women to physical trauma that can lead to impairments), influence public health strategy outcomes at the micro social and individual levels.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Sarkar, “Leprosy and women”."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The global health system at the macro level should also be targeted towards improving the well-being of women affected by leprosy. Knowledge gaps are a harsh reality when it comes to the linkage between leprosy and sexual and reproductive health. Such correlation is hypothesized by independent studies on the following topics: (a) pregnancy and lactation may be contributing factors to leprosy reactions and subsequent nerve damage (the main cause of leprosy-related impairments); (b) leprosy may affect women’s fertility; (c) the health of newborns and children may be impacted by their mother’s leprosy status.[[fn:18]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "There is sufficient knowledge on the side effects of available drugs for treating leprosy on women’s sexual and reproductive rights: (a) thalidomide, a drug that treats nerve-damaging reactions, if not properly managed with informed consent can lead to malformation in babies; (b) clofazimine, one of the first-line drugs used in multidrug therapy,[[fn:19]] produces reversible skin pigmentation, which nonetheless may cause adverse consequences on women’s social life; and (c) steroids, commonly used for treating nerve damage, can cause dependence and its chronic use can lead to irreversible changes in bodily appearance, decalcification and diabetes, negatively impacting women’s quality of life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Leprosy is curable with a combination of drugs known as multidrug therapy."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "Lack of gender-sensitive strategies and obsolete drugs reflect the negative synergies between the patriarchal nature of biomedicine as an institution that still fails to take into full consideration sexual and reproductive rights (A/HRC/32/44) and the increasing mercantilization of health, which is responsible for the disinvestment in basic and pharmacological research on diseases with greater incidence among marginalized populations. Unmistakably, one of the cross-cutting effects of the mercantilization of health is the prorogation of obsolete drugs that can be simultaneously inefficient and capable of generating iatrogenic effects that, given general patterns of gender subordination, marginalization and invisibility, have a greater impact on women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "Clearly, leprosy in women is a typical instance of the intersection of the institutional and extra-institutional mediating factors of health, well-being and enjoyment of rights at the different macro, intermediary, micro and individual levels.[[fn:20]] Leprosy in women is also testimony to the need for a human rights approach, based upon the principles of intersectionality/affirmative action, vulnerability/intersectorality and lay knowledge/ participation (A/HRC/38/42).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "A. Cruz, “Leprosy as a multilayered biosocial phenomenon: the comparison of institutional responses and illness narratives of an endemic disease in Brazil and an imported disease in Portugal”, Clinics in Dermatology, vol. 34, No. 1 (2016), pp. 16–23."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Evidence suggests that women affected by leprosy are structurally more discriminated against than men affected by leprosy. Studies point to gender disadvantage in the social, health and/or psychological domain, with a higher percentage of women experiencing stigmatization and lower quality of life.[[fn:21]] However, such studies seldom take into consideration the relation of the intersection of leprosy and gender with other axes of oppression such as ethnicity and/or race, age, disability, migration and poverty, merely highlighting the tip of the iceberg.[[fn:22]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "J. Dijkstra, W.V. Brakel and M.V. Elteren, “Gender and leprosy-related stigma in endemic areas: a systematic review”, Leprosy Review, vol. 88 (2017), pp. 419–440; and R.M. Peters and others, “Narratives around concealment and agency for stigma-reduction: a study of women affected by leprosy in Cirebon District, Indonesia”, Disability, CBR and Inclusive Development, vol. 25, No. 4 (2014), pp. 5–21."}, {"n": 22, "text": "A. Castro and P. Farmer, “Understanding and addressing AIDS-related stigma: from anthropological theory to clinical practice in Haiti”, American Journal of Public Health, vol. 95, No. 1 (2005), pp. 53–59."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "By the same token, if there is a general underrepresentation of women in political and public life, the absence of women affected by leprosy in programmes and policies that directly affect them, as well as in the leadership of civil society organizations and organizations of persons affected by leprosy, is alarming. Giving voice to women affected by leprosy would lead to the recognition of the correlation between leprosy, gender-based violence, civil death and, in some cases, even material death.[[fn:23]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Engelbrektsson, Challenged Lives. See also A/HRC/35/10 for the importance of addressing these intersections and their impact on women and girls."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "A. Leprosy in women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The age group in which leprosy is most commonly diagnosed in children under 15 years of age is between 10 and 14 years. This is due to the disease’s long incubation period following exposure. The next most affected age group is between 5 and 9 years of age. However, cases among younger children have also been found and, more rarely, cases in infants of less than 1 year have also been reported.[[fn:24]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "M.B.B. Oliveira, “Leprosy among children under 15 years of age: literature review”, Anais Brasileiros de Dermatologia, vol. 91, No. 2 (2016), pp. 196–203."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "Due to the immaturity of their immune system, children appear to be more prone to leprosy than other members of the same household,[[fn:25]] which should raise concerns about their vulnerability to leprosy and prompt special measures to protect them.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "Of the total of 210,671 new cases reported by 150 countries to WHO in 2017, 16,979 (about 8 per cent) were children under 15 years of age, a shamefully high figure. Of the total of 5,591 new cases in children, among priority countries that reported new cases in children under 15 years of age with grade 2 disabilities, 202 presented visible physical impairments, including irreversible damage to the nerves, hands, feet, limbs and eyes, at the time of diagnosis. However, some countries with a high incidence of leprosy, such as India, Nepal, Nigeria and the Philippines, did not provide disaggregated data on grade 2 disabilities at the time of diagnosis for adults and children, meaning that the aforementioned 202 reported cases are a major underestimation.[[fn:26]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "WHO, Weekly Epidemiological Record."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Still, these data only reflect the situation at the time of diagnosis. Independent studies in delimited territories have found a substantial hidden prevalence of leprosy among children in endemic areas, which also indicates a hidden prevalence among adults. Up to 11 per cent of children with visible physical impairments at the time of diagnosis, increasing to 27.3 per cent during follow-up, have also been found.[[fn:27]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "J.G. Barreto and others, “Leprosy in children”, Current Infectious Diseases Reports, vol. 19, Issue 6 (2017), pp. 19–23."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "Data from independent studies suggest two critical concerns: (a) enduring underdetection of new cases of leprosy in children, accompanied by late diagnosis, are both causal factors of physical and psychosocial impairments and disabilities; and (b) physical impairments that can worsen over time without proper care require follow-up studies, the absence of which hinders a clear understanding of the real conditions faced by children affected by leprosy in the medium and long term.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 43, "n": 59, "text": "23 Engelbrektsson, Challenged Lives. See also A/HRC/35/10 for the importance of addressing these intersections and their impact on women and girls. 24 M.B.B. Oliveira, “Leprosy among children under 15 years of age: literature review”, Anais Brasileiros de Dermatologia, vol. 91, No. 2 (2016), pp. 196–203. 25 Ibid. 26 WHO, Weekly Epidemiological Record. 27 J.G. Barreto and others, “Leprosy in children”, Current Infectious Diseases Reports, vol. 19, Issue 6 (2017), pp. 19–23.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 44, "n": 43, "text": "The outbreak of cases in children and adolescents points to recent transmission, as well as to the failure of the health-care system to control the disease. The number of new cases of leprosy among children with visible physical impairments at the time of diagnosis directly reflects late case detection, alongside the incapacity of the health-care system to identify leprosy. However, such evidence should not be taken as a mere indicator of the strength of the epidemic and should also support effective public health strategies capable of ensuring access to the highest attainable standard of health among vulnerable populations and groups.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 45, "n": 44, "text": "Diagnosis and treatment of leprosy in children require medical expertise, since both demand adjustments to immature cognition, perception and bodies. This poses a significant challenge in the global scenario of decline in medical expertise to diagnose and treat leprosy.[[fn:28]] Techniques normally used to diagnose leprosy are not fit for children as they require cooperation from the children, and some may even be experienced as violence.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "N. Mistry and others, “Childhood leprosy revisited”, Pediatric Oncall Journal, vol. 13, No. 4 (October–December 2016), pp. 83–92."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 46, "n": 45, "text": "Such difficulties and barriers are surely a contributing factor for underdetection and late diagnosis, but they are also a result of the diminished public apprehension of leprosy that followed the global elimination of leprosy as a public health problem (defined as a registered prevalence of less than 1 case for every 10,000 persons) in 2000.[[fn:29]] This situation has been generally misunderstood as eradication, when in fact such a scenario is unlikely in the future.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 47, "n": 46, "text": "Treatment dropout rates in children range from 10 to 20 per cent in some programmes, the main cause being the child’s refusal to cooperate in swallowing tablets and the long duration of the treatment, which can be physically challenging and painful. Child-friendly treatment options like flavoured syrups would provide greater quality to the care of children with leprosy and would also help in securing adherence to the treatment. However, no such paediatric formulations are on the horizon, given the overall lack of funds for leprosy.[[fn:30]] Such lack of biomedical technologies that can provide better care is grounded in the mercantilization of health.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 48, "n": 47, "text": "Children are not only more vulnerable to leprosy, but also to the harmful stereotypes that still frame many of the local explanatory models about the disease and that also support stigmatization at the community level, as well as institutionalized, structural and interpersonal discrimination. However, lack of comprehensive data on how harmful stereotypes and traditional practices impact the well-being of affected children is a major void in leprosy research. There is also scarce knowledge on the impact of discrimination on the grounds of leprosy against children of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Overview: leprosy in women and children", "B. Leprosy in children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 49, "n": 48, "text": "Discrimination on any grounds can be fully understood only if the phenomenological dimension enacted in the daily lives of its victims is properly acknowledged. Such phenomenological dimension allows for uncovering epistemological possibilities that cannot be grasped or generated by representations produced by dominant groups.[[fn:31]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "S. Harding, “Rethinking standpoint epistemology: what is ‘strong objectivity’?”, in The Feminist Standpoint Theory Reader: Intellectual and Political Controversies (New York, Routledge, 2002); and D.J. Haraway, “Situated knowledges: the science question in feminism and the privilege of partial perspective”, Feminist Studies, vol. 14, No. 3 (Autumn 1988), pp. 575–599."}], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 50, "n": 49, "text": "In order to assess discrimination from below, the Special Rapporteur strived at giving voice to people living in extreme vulnerable conditions and who are, in consequence, 28 N. Mistry and others, “Childhood leprosy revisited”, Pediatric Oncall Journal, vol. 13, No. 4 (October–December 2016), pp. 83–92. 29 Ibid. 30 Ibid. 31 S. Harding, “Rethinking standpoint epistemology: what is ‘strong objectivity’?”, in The Feminist Standpoint Theory Reader: Intellectual and Political Controversies (New York, Routledge, 2002); and D.J. Haraway, “Situated knowledges: the science question in feminism and the privilege of partial perspective”, Feminist Studies, vol. 14, No. 3 (Autumn 1988), pp. 575–599. persistently silenced by structural disadvantage, low participation in the public sphere and generalized lack of access to information.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 51, "n": 50, "text": "The Special Rapporteur undertook an online and individual consultation with persons affected by leprosy, their family members, health workers and non-governmental organization (NGO) personnel. A total of 575 responses were received from the following eight high-burden countries: Brazil, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Myanmar, Nigeria and the Philippines. Responses were also received from Benin, Cabo Verde, China, Colombia, France, Japan, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Paraguay, Switzerland, Timor-Leste, Trinidad and Tobago, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the United States of America and Venezuela. The majority of the responses came from India, Brazil and Myanmar.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 52, "n": 51, "text": "Women affected by leprosy provided 31.9 per cent of the responses, men affected by leprosy 33.6 per cent, female family members of persons affected 9.8 per cent, male family members of persons affected 8 per cent and other categories, such as health and NGO workers, 16.7 per cent; 72 per cent of the respondents live in a rural area and the majority do not take part in any organization. Due to the limitation of available methods and required ethical procedures for consulting with children, it was not possible to consult with children affected by leprosy, as would have been desirable.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in rural/remote areas", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 53, "n": 52, "text": "The data received were not broken down into demographic variables such as ethnicity and/or race, age, disability or socioeconomic conditions, since the consultation merely intended to provide a preliminary assessment able to identify generic areas of concern. Confidentiality was strictly ensured during data collection and processing. Collected data point to ongoing discrimination against women and children affected by leprosy (including female and underage family members) and allow for identifying the main areas where the human rights of both groups are jeopardized, unfulfilled and violated.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 54, "n": 1, "text": "Harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 55, "n": 53, "text": "When asked about the traditional beliefs regarding leprosy, the majority of responses pointed to the persistence of religious beliefs (grounded in different religious traditions) that classify leprosy as the result of sins committed in current or past lives by the affected person or by the affected person’s ancestors; God’s punishment on the individual and/or the family; a curse pronounced by ancestors; sorcery; possession by evil spirits; and punishment for adultery and/or sexual promiscuity. Leprosy is also attributed to a particular race or caste and to women. Finally, erroneous misconceptions produced by late nineteenth century “modern” medicine, which held that leprosy was a hereditary disease or a highly contagious one transmitted by touch and without a cure, still prevail. Regarding discriminatory language, 52.3 per cent of the respondents confirmed that it is commonly employed.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "1. Harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 56, "n": 54, "text": "When asked about the traditional practices regarding leprosy, responses evinced how harmful stereotypes about leprosy can lead to informal segregation and widespread exclusion by treating individuals as untouchable; segregating individuals within the household and also prohibiting them from leaving the house; divorce on the grounds of leprosy and prohibiting marriage with an affected person or any of his/her family members; barring individuals from participating in religious and community activities as well as in economic transactions; dismissing individuals from their jobs; pushing individuals into begging; and banishing individuals from the community. In fact, 42.7 per cent of the respondents confirmed that affected persons face rejection and/or segregation from their families and communities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "1. Harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 57, "n": 55, "text": "When asked if these traditional beliefs have a more adverse impact on women affected by leprosy than on men affected by leprosy, 45.5 per cent of the responses confirmed that this is the case, citing the following practices: driving out from the household without financial resources to ensure survival (which is at the root of a considerable number of affected women begging and/or selling sex); abuse within the household as a result of women experiencing difficulties in performing the role expected of them (due to pain and other physical impairments caused by leprosy); and lack of resources to fight against discrimination (including lack of access to justice).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "1. Harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 58, "n": 56, "text": "When asked if these traditional beliefs have a more adverse impact on children affected by leprosy, respondents identified the following discriminatory practices against this group: expulsion from schools; separation at school from other students; peer rejection; and segregation.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "1. Harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 59, "n": 57, "text": "Harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping produce and reproduce symbolic violence that, by enacting dehumanizing labelling and accompanying harmful practices,[[fn:32]] sustain informal segregation from community life and denial of fundamental human rights. Harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping have a stronger impact on women and children affected by leprosy due to the low social status attributed to both groups in many societies and to the subordinated position ascribed to them by pervasive and unequal power relations.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "The Special Rapporteur grounds her analysis on joint general recommendation No. 31 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women/general comment No. 18 of the Committee on the Rights of the Child (2014) on harmful practices."}], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "1. Harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 60, "n": 2, "text": "Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence[[fn:33]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "For the concepts of interpersonal, institutional and structural violence, see A/HRC/17/26."}], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "1. Harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 61, "n": 58, "text": "When asked if, as a result of discrimination on the grounds of leprosy, women affected by leprosy experience low self-esteem and isolate themselves, 56.3 per cent of the respondents confirmed that they did, 27 per cent said that they did not and the remaining respondents did not know. The same question applied to children received 40.1 per cent positive responses and 33.1 per cent negative responses. When asked if, also as a result of discrimination on the grounds of leprosy, women experience depression and/or suicidal thoughts, 48.7 per cent of respondents answered positively and 37.4 per cent negatively. The same question applied to children received 41 per cent negative responses and 35.3 per cent positive ones. Such data suggest the internalization of stigmatization as a result of extreme psychological violence.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 62, "n": 59, "text": "Regarding violence against women on the grounds of leprosy, responses pointed to an intersection of leprosy and gender that amounts to the already ascribed subordinated position of women. The following practices were described: separation from children and not being allowed to feed them; verbal abuse from family and community members; beatings perpetrated by family members who regard women affected by leprosy as sinners and/or indolent due to the difficulties they face in fulfilling household activities when living with chronic pain and physical impairments; sexual abuse and violence perpetrated by the spouse and family members; abuse from medical workers; and suicide attempts.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 63, "n": 60, "text": "Children affected by leprosy also experience violence on the grounds of leprosy as a result of the intersection of harmful stereotypes about leprosy and the low social status attributed to children. The former reflects, and is strengthened by, the non-recognition of children as autonomous social beings and the bearers of rights. According to the majority of the responses, children affected by leprosy are subjected to bullying; verbal and physical abuse from family members, neighbours and schoolteachers; physical punishments for going into public spaces; sexual abuse; and isolation (mainly driven by their parents and community members). There are many reports of attempted suicide among adults who were diagnosed with leprosy in childhood and who experienced multilayered stigmatization from a very early age, demonstrating how stigmatization impacts the overall life course of children.[[fn:34]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "Children who have been abused or neglected are often hampered in their development, as described in United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), Hidden in Plain Sight: A Statistical Analysis of Violence against Children (New York, 2014). That is one of the main reasons why the Special Rapporteur considers interpersonal discrimination against children as a violent act."}], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 64, "n": 61, "text": "Children of persons affected by leprosy can also experience similar patterns of violations. In fact, some of the children of persons affected by leprosy who were forcibly segregated by State policies were also segregated by State policies that were stricter than those applied to their parents and had a greater impact in the overall life course of these individuals (A/HRC/38/42).[[fn:35]] This particular group suffered from alienation from their families without consent, imprisonment and other inhumane acts such as torture and physical, sexual and psychological violence within the places built for their confinement, and many live today with severe psychosocial disabilities as well as with physical impairments that resulted from the extreme violence to which they were subjected in such institutions. Their experience shows how institutional and interpersonal violence intersect, generating harmful synergies.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See also J. Robertson, “Leprosy’s untainted child”, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 92, No. 2 (2018), pp. 261–286; G. Maricato and A.M.S. Custódio, “Sequestro e negligência como política de Estado: experiências da segunda geração de atingidos pela hanseníase”, Saúde em Redes, vol. 4, No. 1 (2018), pp. 153–168; and F. Othani, The Walls Crumble: The Emancipation of Persons Affected by Hansen’s Disease in Japan (Tokyo, Tofy Kyokai Association, 1998)."}], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 65, "n": 62, "text": "The intersection of leprosy with other social conditions was preliminarily mapped on the basis of a question on which categories enhance women’s vulnerability to discrimination on the grounds of leprosy. The question allowed each respondent to choose more than one option. Poverty was chosen 412 times, religious affiliation 235, ethnic affiliation 230, marital status 209, race 192 and age 159. With respect to children affected by leprosy, poverty was chosen 364 times, religious affiliation 230, ethnic affiliation 210, gender 191 and race 174. Undoubtedly, poverty seems to be the category that most strongly intersects with leprosy in terms of a discrimination outcome for both groups, highlighting the intersection of leprosy and social iniquities.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 66, "n": 63, "text": "Answers to questions on the traditional role attributed to women, women’s work and economic independence varied from region to region, reflecting different cultural patterns and what could be called a “geopolitics of patriarchy”. Since the Special Rapporteur only aimed at providing a preliminary assessment, the information gathered is presented in a generic way. Household activities, caretaking of family members and agricultural work predominate in the responses to the question on the role attributed to women, also signalling that women affected by leprosy mainly undertake unpaid care and household work, which greatly contributes to the feminization of poverty and gender inequality (A/68/293).", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 67, "n": 64, "text": "However, collected data also suggest a tendency towards an increase in the double working day for women affected by leprosy in all regions. By the same token, responses consistently pointed to unreliable casual labour, low wages and unsafe and degrading working conditions. In fact, most responses indicated that work falls mainly outside the formal economy, without an entitlement to social security benefits.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 68, "n": 65, "text": "Notwithstanding, when asked if the work performed by women provides for independent means of subsistence, 47.1 per cent of the respondents answered no, 38.4 per cent answered yes and 14.5 per cent declared that they did not know. In fact, 65.9 per cent of the respondents affirmed that affected women are not economically independent and identify the family as the main source of income, along with begging, government annuities and international NGOs.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 69, "n": 66, "text": "Particularly relevant to the well-being of women affected by leprosy (especially when considering that for the majority of women affected by leprosy daily activities encompass physical labour that can have an adverse impact on the physical impairments caused by leprosy) was the question on access to adequate utensils (for instance, cooking utensils that can prevent women who have lost sensation from being burned and in consequence develop wounds that can ulcerate and lead to permanent trauma), rest periods and self-care practices that allow for preventing physical impairments, as well as worsening them. Most responses pointed to an intersection with class, declaring that very few women have the means to prevent physical impairments and its negative evolution, which considerably hinders their enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and well-being.[[fn:36]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "The Special Rapporteur adopts in her work the concept of the right to health as enshrined in article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and deepened by general comment No. 14 (2000) on the right to the highest attainable standard of health of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights."}], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 70, "n": 67, "text": "By the same token, responses to the question about protection by work legislation during treatment in the case of physical impairments and disability evinced a low awareness of rights, with 31.6 per cent affirmative answers, 30 per cent negative replies, and as many as 38.4 per cent of responders affirming that they did not know. Concomitantly, the same question applied to mothers of children affected by leprosy, asking whether work legislation allows them to care for their children affected by leprosy during treatment, received 29.4 per cent positive replies and 29.4 per cent negative answers, while 41.2 per cent did not know the answer.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 71, "n": 68, "text": "In turn, when asked if women affected by leprosy-related disabilities have access to social security benefits, 56.4 per cent of the respondents replied yes, 25.7 per cent no and 17.9 per cent did not know, which is an encouraging indicator. However, the question on which impairments are recognized by State policies and administrations as disability highlighted a knowledge gap and low awareness of leprosy’s characteristics among State policymakers and workers that fails to acknowledge non-visible physical impairments as falling under the umbrella of disability rights.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 72, "n": 69, "text": "With regard to social protection of children affected by leprosy, the responses to the question whether there are any measures in place for protecting the rights of children affected by leprosy-related disabilities were mainly “don’t know”. Accordingly, the responses to the question on the existence of measures in place to ensure that children affected by leprosy-related disabilities can proceed with their studies with reasonable accommodation evinced low awareness of rights as well as deficient access to enshrined international human rights, with 35.6 per cent of the responses being affirmative, 34.5 per cent negative and 29.9 per cent answering “don’t know”.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 73, "n": 70, "text": "With respect to health care, the majority of responses pointed to the existence of a health system in place that provides medical care for leprosy. The main gaps, according to the responses received, occur due to the inability of the system to address extra-institutional barriers to the right to the highest attainable standard of health and also to provide complementary care, especially after bacteriological cure. Many responses also pointed to practices of medical pluralism and ongoing recourse to traditional healers to treat leprosy with religious healing and exorcising, among other practices. When asked to choose from among several barriers to access to health services, those most frequently chosen were the lack of health facilities near the home and lack of financial resources.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 74, "n": 71, "text": "Finally, participation was also assessed, and collected data point to very low participation of women affected by leprosy, and even less by children affected by leprosy, in health services and settings, outreach activities, organizations of persons affected by leprosy and NGOs, as well as in the design, target-setting, prioritization, delivery or monitoring of local/regional/national planning for leprosy.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 75, "n": 72, "text": "Lack of access by persons affected by leprosy and their family members to substantive equality is a result of the structural violence imposed upon this group that keeps the group enclosed in a spiral of disadvantage. Structural violence reflects the systematic restrictions that impair people who occupy the bottom rungs of society from meeting their basic needs and that may even cause harm in a way that leads to deprivation and denial of fundamental human rights. This is even more the case of women and children affected by leprosy who, due to the intersection of leprosy with gender and age, experience widespread and systemic structural violence.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. How discrimination harms women and children", "A. Assessing discrimination from below", "2. Interpersonal, institutional and structural violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 76, "n": 73, "text": "With a view to supporting the work undertaken by Governments and civil society organizations to eliminate discrimination on the grounds of leprosy, the Special Rapporteur attempted to map institutional and public responses to leprosy and related violations with respect to women and children by means of a consultation with States and leprosy organizations.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 77, "n": 74, "text": "Thirteen States responded to the call by the Special Rapporteur, providing detailed information on measures in place to tackle leprosy and discrimination on those grounds. Contributions were received from Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Burundi, Côte d’Ivoire, Ecuador, Georgia, Guatemala, Japan, Montenegro, Paraguay, Peru, the Philippines and Tunisia. The majority of the responses came from non-priority countries, with the exception of Brazil, Côte d’Ivoire and the Philippines, which still have a high burden of leprosy. Such a gap calls for sturdier cooperation from priority countries.[[fn:37]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "WHO priority countries for leprosy are: Angola, Bangladesh, Brazil, Comoros, Côte d’Ivoire, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, Ethiopia, Micronesia (Federated States of), India, Indonesia, Kiribati, Madagascar, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Nigeria, Philippines, South Sudan, Sri Lanka, Sudan and United Republic of Tanzania."}], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 78, "n": 75, "text": "Sixteen civil society organizations provided valuable inputs from high-burden countries (Bangladesh, Brazil, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, India, Nepal and Nigeria) and low-burden countries (Cambodia, China, Colombia, Japan, Malaysia, Pakistan and Papua New Guinea).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 79, "n": 76, "text": "Four national human rights institutions, from Azerbaijan, India, Nigeria and Uganda, also responded to the appeal of the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 80, "n": 77, "text": "Approximately half of the responses obtained from Governments and civil society organizations confirmed that there are existing monitoring systems for leprosy in place. The following countries reported statistical data on women and children affected by leprosy: Bangladesh, Bolivia, Brazil, Burundi, Cambodia, Côte d’Ivoire, Colombia, Ecuador, Ethiopia, India, Japan, Nigeria, Pakistan, Paraguay, Peru and the Philippines. The data provided confirm overall male-over-female preponderance in the detection of leprosy.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 81, "n": 78, "text": "Contributions received from Governments, national human rights institutions and civil society organizations confirmed ongoing discrimination against women and children affected by leprosy and referred to practices that align with the results of the individual consultation. The same contributions pointed to the absence of institutional segregation. However, segregation was referred to as a past policy that nevertheless continues to have an impact on the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, including the children and grandchildren of persons affected by leprosy who were forcibly segregated into leprosy colonies. Those violations include generalized informal segregation and lack of property rights in the case of former leprosy colonies.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 82, "n": 1, "text": "Challenges in enforcing formal equality", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 83, "n": 79, "text": "A significant portion of the responses reported the lack of a national plan for the implementation of the principles and guidelines. Nevertheless, responses from countries such as Bangladesh, Brazil, Bolivia, Burundi, Colombia, Ecuador, India, Peru, Paraguay and the Philippines highlighted interventions in the field of care, rehabilitation, assessment of discrimination, awareness-raising and outreach activities that are in line with the WHO Global Leprosy Strategy (2016–2020). Moreover, non-endemic countries, such as Japan, referred to efforts in raising awareness on leprosy as a human rights issue. Lastly, civil society organizations from India and Japan mentioned strategic litigation activities as a means to achieve legal harmonization in the former country and reparation measures for children of persons affected by leprosy who were forcibly separated from their parents in the latter.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "1. Challenges in enforcing formal equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 84, "n": 80, "text": "The majority of the responses reported the absence of discriminatory laws in place, which also reflects the fact that most Government’s responses came from health programmes that are seldom acquainted with such legal frames. Notwithstanding, reference was made to the maintenance in some countries of obsolete laws (with a particular emphasis on the more than 100 discriminatory laws in place in India) that severely constrain the rights of persons affected by leprosy, sustaining stigmatization and impairing their access to justice. Some responses mentioned recent progress in abolishing a number – albeit small – of the overall discriminatory laws in place worldwide, in particular in Bangladesh and India.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "1. Challenges in enforcing formal equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 85, "n": 81, "text": "By the same token, the majority of the responses pointed to the absence of a specific plan of action for amending or abolishing discriminatory laws, norms and practices against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. Some countries, such as Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Ecuador, Paraguay and the Philippines, were referred to as undertaking efforts to eliminate general discrimination against persons living in vulnerable conditions. Examples go from general actions (such as anti-discriminatory laws, creation of institutional bodies and national plans dedicated to anti-discrimination policies) to leprosy-specific ones (educational materials and campaigns).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "1. Challenges in enforcing formal equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 86, "n": 2, "text": "Challenges in enforcing substantive equality", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "1. Challenges in enforcing formal equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 87, "n": 82, "text": "When asked to describe the steps taken by States to ensure autonomous and comprehensive access to the highest attainable standard of health, the majority of the responses mentioned recognition in the national constitution of the aforementioned right. Specific measures adopted in relation to the treatment of leprosy (such as delivering of multidrug therapy, monitoring systems, strategies for ensuring timely diagnosis, awareness-raising activities and implementation of the WHO technical standards) are reported from Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ecuador, Guatemala, Japan, Montenegro, Paraguay, Peru and the Philippines.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "2. Challenges in enforcing substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 88, "n": 83, "text": "Responses from civil society organizations allow for identifying the following barriers in the access to the highest attainable standard of health: (a) lack of complementary health services after bacteriological cure; (b) lack of personal income among persons affected by leprosy; (c) lack of health workers, including health workers properly trained in leprosy and leprosy-related health complications; (d) lack of a consistent supply of multidrug therapy in peripheral health settings; and (e) lack of health education-awareness strategies addressing how to identify the signs and symptoms of leprosy, which can facilitate early diagnosis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "2. Challenges in enforcing substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 89, "n": 84, "text": "With regard to the fulfilment of the right to education, the majority of the responses from States referred to general provisions on the right to education and on the principles of equality and non-discrimination in national constitutions. General laws for ensuring the right to education to children in general, and to children with disabilities in particular, were also mentioned. There was no mention of specific measures for ensuring access to education to persons and children affected by leprosy, as well as to provide the former with training opportunities, skills development, accessibility and reasonable accommodation.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "2. Challenges in enforcing substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 90, "n": 85, "text": "When asked about the access of persons affected by leprosy to the right to dignified work and economic independence, civil society organization identified the following barriers: unemployment; underemployment; unreliable casual labour; job insecurity; lack of access to job opportunities; unequal pay; and insufficiency of the pensions provided by some States. Some examples of the steps taken by States to overcome the aforementioned barriers were also provided, as follows: training opportunities; disability laws that determine a percentage of jobs reserved for persons with disabilities in India; and lifelong pensions, provided by law 11.520, to persons affected by leprosy who were forcibly segregated in Brazil.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "2. Challenges in enforcing substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 91, "n": 86, "text": "When asked to describe the steps taken by States to ensure civil rights with respect to family life, marriage, community and public life, as well as participation in decision-making processes that impact the lives of persons affected and their family members, a significant part of the responses did not provide information on the topic, except for references to constitutional provisions and general laws that guarantee the principles of equality and non-discrimination.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "2. Challenges in enforcing substantive equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 92, "n": 87, "text": "The responses from Governments, civil society organizations and national human rights institutions allow for establishing a complete lack of specific plans to address the needs of women affected by leprosy, as well as discrimination and violence against them. Some responses provided information on legal frames for promoting gender equality and eliminating gender-based discrimination (constitutional provisions, ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, laws to eliminate gender-based violence and general anti-discrimination laws) in countries such as Bolivia, Cambodia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ecuador, Georgia and India. Others referred to education and empowerment programmes aimed at disadvantaged women in countries such as Côte d’Ivoire, Ethiopia and Bangladesh.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "2. Challenges in enforcing substantive equality", "Challenges in protecting women affected by leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 93, "n": 88, "text": "A substantial part of the responses from Governments, civil society organizations and national human rights institutions did not provide information about measures in place to ensure the rights of children affected by leprosy, or about the overall framework for the protection and care of children. However, some examples of generic laws, programmes and initiatives designed for the protection and care of children (especially with regard to the rights to health, education and information) were referred to as being in place in Bolivia, Cambodia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ecuador and Ethiopia. The responses also provided examples of measures specifically related to leprosy, such as educational materials being distributed and leprosy-related projects being implemented in schools in Paraguay; awareness-raising activities among schoolteachers and students, preventive care focused on zero disability in children affected by leprosy and family counselling in Bangladesh; and priority access to health care among vulnerable children in Colombia. There was no mention of measures adopted for enforcing the rights of the children of persons affected by leprosy, except for the reference to an ongoing lawsuit in Japan aimed at reparation for past State offences.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "2. Challenges in enforcing substantive equality", "Challenges in protecting children affected by leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 94, "n": 3, "text": "Good practices for the elimination of discrimination", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "2. Challenges in enforcing substantive equality", "Challenges in protecting children affected by leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 95, "n": 89, "text": "The majority of good practices developed by States fall within the health sector, namely delivery of care and awareness-raising activities. At the international level, Japan mentioned action undertaken to ensure the inclusion of leprosy in the human rights agenda at both the Human Rights Council and the General Assembly. At the national and subnational levels, responses pointed mainly to awareness-raising activities, campaigns and actions for improving health-care services (separated into new case detection, early diagnosis, quality treatment and rehabilitation), alongside the health worker’s expertise, to provide care for persons affected by leprosy. Such activities are driven by health programmes in countries such as Bolivia, Brazil, Burundi, Côte d’Ivoire, Ecuador and Paraguay. Schools as priority places for awareness-raising were referred to in countries such as Brazil, India and Japan. Also with regard to awareness-raising activities, examples of decentralized actions within States that bring together different stakeholders (traditional and religious leaders, politicians, teachers, care providers, etc.) were mentioned in countries such as Brazil and Burundi. Finally, in respect of the autonomous development of the persons affected by leprosy, responses highlighted the role played by civil society organizations in community-based rehabilitation; formation of associative, self-help and self-care groups of persons affected by leprosy (with positive examples of successful advocacy led by such groups); as well as the participation of family members in health services, income generation and education opportunities (with a focus on women) in countries such as Bangladesh, Cambodia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Nigeria and Pakistan.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Progress and bottlenecks in eliminating discrimination", "A. Public responses to leprosy-related discrimination", "3. Good practices for the elimination of discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 96, "n": 90, "text": "The main underlying causes of ongoing discrimination against women and children affected by leprosy, including family members are: (a) at the macro level of global health, the association between the limited public apprehension of leprosy, on the one hand, and the mercantilization of health and the patriarchal nature of biomedicine on the other; (b) at the intermediate level of State governance, discriminatory laws, widespread absence of reparation and awareness-raising measures to counter the iatrogenic stigma created by past State prophylactic segregation, lack of a multisectoral approach to leprosy and persistence of social iniquities that have not been addressed; (c) at the micro level of social life, pervasive harmful stereotypes, wrongful stereotyping and violence; (d) at the individual level, the internalization of stigma as an extreme form of dehumanization.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 97, "n": 91, "text": "Harmful stereotypes and traditional practices and institutionalized, structural and interpersonal discrimination intersect with the already subordinated social location of women and children in many societies, with severe manifestations of physical, sexual and psychological violence and systemic informal segregation. The low participation of both social groups in civil society organizations, health services, decision-making processes and institutional bodies enhances the weakness of the responses from State monitoring systems and policies to map and address discrimination and violence on the grounds of leprosy, strengthening women’s and children’s structural invisibility, social subordination and institutional neglect. The narrow understanding of leprosy as a biological condition hinders much-needed efforts to tackle the social, economic, cultural and political dimensions of leprosy as a social category that, throughout history as well as in contemporary societies, has been used mainly to exclude. Without the de facto recognition that all human rights are inalienable, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated and that they all must be fulfilled on a non-discriminatory basis, alongside a multisectoral strategy that can disaggregate leprosy-related discrimination into the distinct realities of different groups and cultural backdrops, women and children affected by leprosy will surely continue to be left behind.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 98, "n": 92, "text": "The Special Rapporteur calls upon States to take all necessary measures to:\n(a) Review existing legislation to ensure that it is in line with international human rights standards and abolish and/or amend all discriminatory laws in force as an immediate obligation;[[fn:38]]\n(b) Implement the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members as a road map for enforcing enshrined international human rights and achieving substantive equality;[[fn:39]]\n(c) Systematically approach, consult and involve in decision-making processes that directly affect their lives persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations, with the guarantee of all measures for ensuring the participation of women, children and men affected by leprosy-related impairments and disabilities;[[fn:40]]\n(d) Establish reparation measures for persons affected by leprosy, as well as for their children when appropriate, who were forcibly segregated by State policies, in order to address the continuous nature of the violation;\n(e) Eliminate the iatrogenic stigma generated by prophylactic State segregation, with dissemination of accurate information on leprosy and preservation of its history;\n(f) Develop awareness-raising programmes at both the national and subnational levels, with a focus on providing accurate information about leprosy to the general population as well as on the human rights of persons affected by leprosy. Such programmes should provide for dialogue with all relevant population groups (including those possessing non-scientific knowledge and non-official authorities); involve persons affected by leprosy; and be sensitive to local languages, gender, age and disability;\n(g) Improve monitoring systems for leprosy, comprising disaggregated and equality data that may support anti-discriminatory policies. Leprosy health services should include easy-to-access mechanisms for making complaints of discrimination;\n(h) Implement multisectoral governance, and affirmative measures when necessary, in order to tackle the multiple nature of leprosy-related discrimination and vulnerability. Multisectorality should also be reflected in leprosy health services, guaranteeing accessibility, comprehensive care and peer counselling.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "In line with general comment No. 6 (2018) on equality and non-discrimination of the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities."}, {"n": 39, "text": "In agreement with general comment No. 20 of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights."}, {"n": 40, "text": "In line with general comment No. 7 (2018) on the participation of persons with disabilities, including children with disabilities, through their representative organizations, in the implementation of the Convention of the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities."}], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 99, "n": 2, "text": "Recommendations for enforcing the human rights of women affected by leprosy", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 100, "n": 93, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that States, national human rights institutions and civil society organizations take all necessary measures to:\n(a) Ensure that human rights monitoring of gender-based discrimination and violence includes the particular situation of women affected by leprosy. Leprosy monitoring systems and public health strategies should also make use of a gender framework that ensures autonomous, affordable and effective comprehensive care (A/HRC/32/44). Primary care, especially in high-burden areas, should include female health workers. Leprosy services should provide training on self-care techniques and peer counselling;\n(b) Include women affected by leprosy in national plans for gender equality, gender violence prevention and women’s access to justice and raise awareness on gender equality in leprosy services, high-burden communities and priority groups;\n(c) Empower women affected by leprosy to know their rights and how to claim them, including through income-generation programmes, creation of cooperatives and continued education, in order to secure for them economic independence and access to dignified work, which should guarantee reasonable accommodation;\n(d) Establish affirmative measures for ensuring equality of participation of women affected by leprosy in any decision-making that affects their lives, as well as in the mechanisms of representative and participatory democracy, non-governmental organizations, epistemic communities and health services.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Recommendations for enforcing the human rights of women affected by leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 101, "n": 3, "text": "Recommendations for enforcing the human rights of children affected by leprosy", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Recommendations for enforcing the human rights of women affected by leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-47-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-41-47", "idx": 102, "n": 94, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that States, national human rights institutions and civil society organizations take all necessary measures to:\n(a) Recognize that the child is a rights holder and not a beneficiary of benevolent activities of adults, always consulting the child and respecting their agency in the design and implementation of any framework for addressing discrimination on the grounds of leprosy; this should also be done in accordance with the child’s age and evolving capacities;[[fn:41]]\n(b) Undertake further research into the risk factors that may perpetuate violence against children affected by leprosy, alongside the formation of integrated partnerships of experts, parents, teachers and young people that can respond effectively to such violence;\n(c) Guarantee child- and youth-friendly health care and information, as well as comprehensible information guidance for parents. Provide a safe and supportive environment for children that ensures the opportunity to participate in decisions affecting their health, to build life skills, to acquire appropriate information, to receive counselling and to negotiate the health behaviour choices they make. Affirmative measures regarding work and social security should be in place for parents of children affected by leprosy in order to ensure proper care and support;\n(d) Ensure that children with leprosy-related disabilities participate on an equal basis with others in education services and recreational, leisure and sporting activities. Education services should ensure accessibility and reasonable accommodation;\n(e) Recognize that children’s participation is a key element for self-protection. With suitable methods, participation of affected children should be ensured in research and the implementation of public programmes. The same applies to participation in relevant non-governmental organizations, epistemic communities and policy-making affecting them.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "As enshrined in article 19 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child."}], "section": ["VI. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "3. Recommendations for enforcing the human rights of children affected by leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "Pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 35/9, in which the Council affirmed the need to intensify efforts to eliminate all forms of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, and stressed the importance of implementing the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, the Special Rapporteur, Alice Cruz, has set out a policy framework with the aim of assisting States in the development of rights-based national and regional action plans. The Special Rapporteur hopes to contribute to a much-needed paradigmatic shift, from traditional medical and charity-based approaches to the enforcement of de facto equality for persons affected and their family members. Concomitantly, the Special Rapporteur aims to foster the recognition and inclusion of persons affected and their families, who have systematically been left behind and might continue to be the furthest behind, if no positive action is taken, in the global implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The principles and guidelines underpin the normative integration of several international human rights instruments, interpreting and translating legally binding norms in close connection with the conditions required by and the needs of persons affected by leprosy and their family members. The need for a rights-based policy framework is put forward in the principles and guidelines, when identifying development, implementation and follow-up activities, within a participatory arrangement, as the obligations of States. Having identified substantive discrimination as a leading cause of systemic marginalization, the Special Rapporteur agrees with the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, who has raised the matter of the insufficiency of anti-discrimination policies for bringing people who have been subjected to discrimination and poverty into mainstream society groups (see A/72/502). Guaranteeing equal opportunities to people living in poverty may be nothing more than a well-intentioned discourse. A comprehensive multisectoral policy is therefore key for achieving the goal of eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "The Special Rapporteur considers a policy to be any means through which States define and implement action within a comprehensive framework that puts into practice the principles of the indivisibility, interdependence and universality of rights through coordinated interventions between the different aspects of governmentality. In accordance with standardized practice for developing a policy framework, the present report is set out as a continuation of the previous report (A/HRC/41/47), in which the Special Rapporteur recognized the problematic situation with resource to a comprehensive description of the situation of persons affected and their family members that identified root causes of discrimination through a bottom-up approach firmly anchored in the experience of affected persons, their families and key stakeholders in the field of leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "In the previous report, the Special Rapporteur identified a lack of acknowledgement among policymakers of the broad structural causes of ongoing discrimination and the limited number of interventions outside the health field. Such gaps call for a rights-based policy framework structured on the following four main axes: (a) adequate standard of living and economic autonomy, which includes social protection, work and training opportunities and access to health systems; (b) non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community, which includes anti-discrimination principles, accessibility and independent living; (c) elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory, which includes awareness-raising and capacity-building, reparation and the preservation of history; (d) empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups, which includes education, participation and access to justice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The Special Rapporteur acknowledges the epidemiological, social, cultural and political heterogeneity of the expression of leprosy worldwide and, for that reason, has strived to develop a policy framework that simultaneously safeguards universal basic human rights principles and norms and leaves room for the specificities of national and local contexts. Importantly, the policy framework is suitable for implementation within already existing national human rights policies and programmes. However, such integration cannot jeopardize an efficient response to the needs of the target population, for which it may be necessary, in some contexts, to elaborate specific policies and/or programmes within a multisectoral approach.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "Methodologically, the Special Rapporteur conducted extensive bibliographical research and analysis of international standards (see annex) and of the work of the human rights mechanisms, such as the treaty bodies and the special procedures, and the relevant United Nations agencies and organizations. Good and best practices regarding leprosy and those from adjacent human rights fields were also examined. Governments and civil society organizations[[fn:1]] were consulted in order to learn from their positive experiences. Responses to a call for input were received from Brazil, Cambodia, Chad, Cyprus, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, India, Japan, Lebanon, Mauritius, Mexico, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, the Philippines, Romania, Senegal and Uganda. The Special Rapporteur also made use of her extensive experience in the field of leprosy and, in particular, of her permanent dialogue and interactions with persons affected worldwide and their representative organizations. The goals, outline and content of the present report were thoroughly discussed in focus groups, meetings and interviews with representatives of grass-roots organizations of persons affected, at the Global Forum of People’s Organizations on Hansen’s Disease,[[fn:2]] organized by the Sasakawa Health Foundation, in order to deliver a policy framework that responded to the needs and aspirations of persons affected and their families from various regions, cultural contexts and lived experiences.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank Fondation CIOMAL, IDEA, Lepra, the Leprosy Mission, Netherlands Leprosy Relief and the National Alliance Against Leprosy Uganda for their important contributions to the present report."}, {"n": 2, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank Sasakawa Health Foundation for facilitating her in-depth discussions with participants at the Global Forum of People’s Organizations on Hansen’s Disease."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Leprosy is classified as a neglected tropical disease closely linked to poverty by the World Health Organization (WHO).[[fn:3]] According to WHO, infectious diseases contribute to lifelong disadvantages, perpetuating the vicious cycle of poverty and infection. Limited enjoyment of substantive equality among persons affected and their families has an impact on the overall course of leprosy, from transmission, to health care and social rehabilitation and inclusion after persons affected are cured. The socioeconomic and environmental root causes of leprosy are widely acknowledged, although its mechanisms remain unclear. That fact notwithstanding, neither person-to-person transmission nor genetic predisposition are sufficient to explain the incidence or distribution of leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See www.who.int\\\\neglected_diseases\\diseases\\en."}], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Independent research points to the following socioeconomic and environmental risk factors for the incidence of leprosy: poverty and inequality; household crowding; inadequate nutrient intake; poor hygiene; lack of access to clean water (Mycobacterium leprae can survive in some aquatic plants); low education levels; low income; and geographical areas with deficient infrastructure and hindered access to goods and services. Independent research also points to the protective effects of welfare measures on incidence, adherence to treatment and cure.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "However, lack of targeted action on the social determinants of leprosy is a major gap in global and national policies for the control of leprosy. The promotion of material equality through redistributive policies that can guarantee a minimum standard of living to persons affected and their family members, alongside equitable access to public goods and services, is manifestly lacking. Strategies that can guarantee persons affected and their families freedom from want, as well as their right to personal development and economic autonomy, are broadly seen as secondary to public health goals, which continue to be disease-centred, in opposition to being people-centred.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "In accordance with article 11 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Special Rapporteur considers progressive realization thereof to be the standard and acknowledges the need to be sensitive to national specificities. in line with general comment No. 3 (1990) on the nature of States parties’ obligations of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Special Rapporteur recalls that, while being a flexibility device, the concept of progressive realization obligates States to move as expeditiously and effectively as possible towards the realization of the goals of the Covenant. Moreover, and in accordance with the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, an adequate standard of living is only effective to the degree that individuals can live a dignified life and participate on equal terms in society at large. The principles and guidelines state that the fulfilment of the right to an adequate standard of living for persons affected and their families entails access to goods, services and infrastructure, but also poverty reduction measures, as well as education and work opportunities, linking an adequate standard of living to autonomy and personal development.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy and their families continue to bear the impact of systemic and multilayered discrimination and marginalization, which have positioned them as the furthest behind. Such structural disadvantage calls for protective measures to be implemented, irrespective of contributory scheme or employment status. National policies should establish minimum standards of social protection and benchmarks for persons affected and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "A. Social protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "According to the Social Protection Floors Recommendation, 2012 (No. 202), of the International Labour Organization (ILO), States should establish national social protection floors that can ensure income security and universal access to essential health care. In line with article 9 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and general comment No. 19 (2007) on the right to social security of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the principles and guidelines state that financial measures that can guarantee the right to an adequate standard of living, such as benefits for those who cannot work due to age, illness or incapacity, or financial assistance for housing and health care to persons living in poverty, should be made available. According to the Committee, the right to social security may be mandatory for the realization of other social, economic and cultural rights. The Committee therefore recommends that States guarantee access to social security schemes for enabling individuals and families to acquire essential health care, basic shelter and housing, water and sanitation, food and the most basic forms of education. Such access should be non-discriminatory and should take into consideration the special needs of marginalized individuals and groups. An important point made by the Special Rapporteur on the rights of persons with disabilities was that the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities was paving the way towards an inclusive conceptualization of social protection that could promote active citizenship, social inclusion and participation, in opposition to paternalistic approaches that reinforced dependence and segregation (see A/70/297).", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "A. Social protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Given the interlinkage of leprosy and poverty, the right to an adequate standard of living may not be accomplished without the prior granting of social benefits under a rights-based comprehensive social protection policy. Such a policy must be implemented through administrative services and bureaucratic procedures that can guarantee full accessibility to illiterate or poorly educated populations, as well as to populations living in remote or peripheral areas. Furthermore, social benefits, such as unconditional cash transfers, should take into consideration the real needs of the target population, including the additional costs of disability. Such a comprehensive social protection policy should sensitively ponder mainstream and specific programmes and target active citizenship by bridging guarantees to basic income security to policies that promote training opportunities and formal employment", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "A. Social protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Multilayered discrimination has pushed many persons affected by leprosy and their family members out of formal employment opportunities. A significant number of individuals are left to engage in unreliable casual labour, with low wages, in unsafe and degrading working conditions, outside the formal economy and without an entitlement to social security benefits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "B. Work and training opportunities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "According to ILO, the deficit of decent work has a disproportionate impact on already disadvantaged groups. As a consequence, the main policy for increasing productive inclusion of the poorest is providing them with greater human capital. The principles and guidelines recommend measures for the public and private sectors, such as employment inducements in the regular employment market, support for cooperative work, entrepreneurship and vocational education and training, reflecting provisions of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "B. Work and training opportunities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Article 7 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights states that it is both the right of everyone to the enjoyment of just and favourable working conditions and to a decent living. In its general comment No. 23 (2016) on the right to just and favourable conditions of work, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights called for States to raise awareness in the private sector and act affirmatively to mitigate the disadvantaged positioning of some groups. According to the Committee, States should put into place measures enabling education, information and awareness-raising, with a view to ensuring equal work opportunities in both the private and public sectors. The Special Rapporteur notes that such measures should be sensitive to gender, age, disability, illiteracy and low education levels. The Committee also emphasized the responsibility of States to establish non-contributory social security programmes for people working in the informal sector, in order to guarantee them protection from hazards.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "B. Work and training opportunities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Basic guidelines established by the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities to promote job opportunities for persons with disabilities comprise non-discrimination, accessibility, reasonable accommodation and affirmative measures. Article 27 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities guides the public sector, in collaboration with the private sector, to guarantee job opportunities, equal salaries, equality in working conditions, career counselling opportunities and professional education, entrepreneurship opportunities and vocational and professional rehabilitation programmes to assist in returning to work. States are obligated to take measures to guarantee fully accessible workplaces, removing any physical, behavioural, informational, communication or transport barrier. Both the public and private sectors are expected to provide for reasonable accommodation to workers who need it.[[fn:4]] Affirmative measures are to be taken by the public sector and promoted in the private sector in order to increase the employability of persons with disabilities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Whereas accessibility is related to collectivities, reasonable accommodation is called for in relation to individuals in inaccessible environments. Both concepts will be considered further below."}], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "B. Work and training opportunities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The guarantee of equal work opportunities for persons affected by leprosy and their family members should be grounded on the guidelines provided by ILO and the provisions set out in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. States should aim at an inclusive economy that can ensure economic autonomy to persons affected and their family members, encompassing the intersectionality of leprosy with age, gender and disability, through training and formal employment opportunities. Guaranteeing equal work opportunities can be ensured within mainstream and/or disability and programmes, as long as due recognition is given to specific leprosy-related needs and the multiple barriers to inclusion. Affirmative measures may be required in some contexts, in order to avoid this specific population being left furthest behind in mainstream and disability programmes. Affirmative measures should be temporary in principle, but in some cases, they may need to be of a permanent nature. Reasonable accommodation, including workplace access adaptation, adjustment of machines and equipment, but also of work content, time and work organization, as well as availability of assistive devices, must always give due consideration not only to visible physical impairments related to leprosy, but also invisible ones, such as pain or loss of sensation, as well as psychosocial disabilities related to stigmatization. Guarantees of equal opportunities must be context-grounded; they can only be properly enforced with the full participation of affected individuals and their representative organizations.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "B. Work and training opportunities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "The principles and guidelines set forth an approach to the right of persons affected by leprosy and their family members to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health that emphasizes the State’s responsibility in guaranteeing free or affordable medical assistance and treatment, access to free essential drugs and psychological and social counselling. In addition, the Special Rapporteur considers the lack of substantive equality, discrimination, the inaccessibility and inadequacy of health-care services, the lack of clinical and structural competence of the health-care workforce, the inaccessibility of public goods and services, the lack of community services and the lack of participation, accountability and transparency mechanisms as social determinants of leprosy that should be addressed within health-care systems. The Special Rapporteur’s conceptualization of the right to the highest standard of physical and mental health by persons affected and their family members is grounded in the provisions set out in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and in the work of the treaty bodies. She situates the enforcement of such a right on a continuum of medical and psychosocial care that encompasses the full spectrum of prevention, treatment[[fn:5]] and rehabilitation and that should be fully addressed by effective referral within national health-care systems.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "According to Dr. Claudio Guedes Salgado at Pará Federal University, Brazil, and President of the Brazilian Society of Hansen’s Disease, the treatment of leprosy should be multidisciplinary, with the use of drugs, physiotherapy, occupational therapy, individual therapy and group therapy, surgery, orthotics and prosthetics and wound care. The drugs used are categorized into two groups, namely, antibiotics, which is the most well-known treatment, called multidrug therapy, and other substitute antibiotics, which can be used when a problem with multidrug therapy arises. Unfortunately, there is no drug to treat neurodegeneration, a major problem of leprosy, which continues to progress in many cases, even after the completion of treatment with antibiotics. Physiotherapy is aimed at preventing the progression of muscle loss and the maintenance of functions in the affected limbs and face; through occupational therapy, patients with physical impairments are taught new skills; and psychology addresses the emotional condition involved with leprosy, be it individual or familial. Surgery may be used to prevent the neurodegenerative process. The orthotics and prosthetics can be prepared in home mode, with simple material, to prevent burns, for example, or in orthopedic workshops, to return the loss of skills or movements, with the addition of the production of prostheses for amputees. Wound care should be done carefully and technically, with the use of materials that can prevent the evolution of the wound, and even promote its closure, avoiding major physical impairments."}], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "C. Health systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Article 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights defines the steps that States should take to progressively realize, to the maximum of their available resources, the highest achievable standards of health. Article 26 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities establishes as measures to be adopted by States the provision of quality and standard disability-sensitive health care on a non-discriminatory basis, the guarantee of service delivery at the community level and the full respect of autonomy, dignity, informed consent and the needs of persons with disabilities by the health-care workforce. In its general comment No. 14 (2000) on the right to the highest attainable standard of health, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights interpreted the right to health as interdependent with the realization of other economic, social and cultural rights, emphasizing that its proper implementation goes beyond a medicalized view. The general comment is key to understanding how a healthy life is dependent upon a complex set of socioeconomic conditions, binding the right to health with the right to an adequate standard of living.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "C. Health systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights has established the following obligations of the State: access to health facilities, goods and services on a non-discriminatory basis, especially for vulnerable or marginalized groups; access to the minimum essential food, which is nutritionally adequate and safe, to ensure freedom from hunger; access to basic shelter, housing and sanitation and an adequate supply of safe and potable water; provision of essential drugs; equitable distribution of all health-care facilities, goods and services; adoption of a national public health strategy and plan of action seated on epidemiological evidence that is to be devised and periodically reviewed on the basis of a participatory and transparent process; provision of education and access to information; and appropriate training for health-care personnel, including education on human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "C. Health systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "The Special Rapporteur emphasizes the importance of non-discrimination and preventative interventions on the social determinants of health, health education, rehabilitation and the human rights education of the health-care workforce, as well as the provision of health-care at the community level, which is essential for people living in remote areas or peripheral areas, together with outreach services. Focus on primary care must not lead to the loss of medical expertise in diagnosing and properly treating a highly complex disease, nor to the absence of secondary and tertiary services able to address the multiple medical challenges posed by leprosy. The provision of health care to children affected should ensure, in cooperation with social, child protection, education and other relevant services, a continuum of care for children that effectively uses psychoeducational and psychosocial methods for interventions that enhance emotional health and social development. The Special Rapporteur also emphasizes the importance of health-care systems empowering community engagement and participation, including social support, increased patient-provider communication that should fully acknowledge the experience of affected persons as valid knowledge, psychosocial individual and family counselling, self-care and self-help groups, peer support and peer health promoters and outreach activities within partnerships between health services and persons affected as integral parts of health-care services.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "C. Health systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "A rights-based strategy for leprosy within health-care systems must be people-centred, having as its priority the well-being of persons, communities and populations, and must ensure: availability, as well as physical and economic accessibility of health-care services; quality of health-care facilities, goods and services; active and informed participation of users; gender-sensitive and culturally sensitive strategies, as well as child-friendly services; accountability of the health-care workforce, with indicators that facilitate monitoring; non-discriminatory treatment; and provision of high-quality medical care. The strategy must take a holistic approach that includes a rights-based approach to mental health, which should be ethically respectful, culturally appropriate, gender-sensitive and empowering to individuals, making use of peer support as an integral part of recovery-based services.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "C. Health systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "In Brazil, the conditional cash transfer programme Family Allowance and the benefit of continuous instalments for older persons and persons with disabilities have been guaranteeing financial aid to persons affected who are eligible under the established criteria for both benefits, even though difficulties in access have been reported. Private-public partnerships between the Ministry of Health and the Movement of Reintegration of Persons Affected by Hansen’s Disease (MORHAN), Novartis Brazil, DAHW Brazil, the Sasakawa Health Foundation and the Pan American Health Organization are examples of groundbreaking initiatives in the fields of health care and active case detection, awareness-raising, the training of health-care workers, outreach activities and community engagement. In India, the pension for persons with disabilities has been benefiting persons affected by leprosy that fit into the established criteria of disability, but difficulties in access have been reported, as well as the insufficiency of the pension amount to meet basic needs. Civil society has been taking the lead in the training of affected persons for inclusion in the labour market and the creation of job opportunities, an important example being the vocational training centres in India. Microcredit loans, training through partnerships with non-governmental organizations, including initiatives in areas such agriculture and/or livestock rearing, have been reported in Mozambique, the Niger and Nigeria. The existence in some countries of food security programmes also contributes to the improvement of the standards of living of persons affected, such as the case of the food security system established by the Government of India. In Senegal, existing programmes, such as the national, community-based rehabilitation programme, the programme for equality opportunity card for persons with disabilities and the national programme for family security, may be of benefit to persons affected and their families. In countries such as Brazil, India, Japan, Mozambique, Nepal and Nigeria, the existence of self-help and self-care groups have proved to be an effective strategy for fostering recovery, survival and inclusion. Community partnerships between civil society organizations and traditional leaders and healers, as well as religious leaders, have been reported in Brazil, Ghana and Nigeria, with positive effects on rights enforcement.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy", "D. In practice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Pervasive structural disadvantage, harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping place persons affected by leprosy and their families in the context of intersecting vulnerabilities, multilayered discrimination and subordination, perpetuating informal segregation from community life and denial of fundamental human rights. Stigmatization remains institutionalized in State architecture and its functioning. According to the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, there are more than 50 countries in the world that keep discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy in force. Discriminatory practices in State administration services is also an enduring reality, in particular in health-care and education services, work opportunities and regulation and access to disability rights. With regard to the former, a substantive number of persons affected by leprosy are excluded, due to the lack of institutional awareness and/or inadequate eligibility criteria. Specific and targeted measures are mandatory for ensuring de facto non-discrimination and equality. The Special Rapporteur makes use of disability as a core concept for achieving a barrier-free society, emphasizing the need for leprosy-sensitive policies that should go hand in hand with capacity-building on the rights of the target population among State workers, persons affected and their families.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The principles and guidelines are based on legally binding provisions of international human rights instruments that prohibit discrimination, i.e., any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on a specific condition or status. Both the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights prohibit all forms of discrimination on any grounds. For cases of multiple discrimination, in which a person affected or a family member is subjected to intersectional exclusion on the basis of gender, age, disability or race, provisions from the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination also apply.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "A. Non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The enforcement of equality and the prohibition of discrimination are provided in article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 2 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Whereas the full enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights is a progressive obligation, the prohibition of discrimination is an immediate obligation. Furthermore, under the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities States are obligated to take all appropriate measures to modify or abolish existing discriminatory laws, regulations, customs and practices and to eliminate discrimination on the grounds of disability by any person, organization or private company.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "A. Non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "States must abstain from any interference in the enjoyment and exercise of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights by persons affected and their family members, whether through direct or indirect discrimination. Such an obligation includes taking immediate measures to abolish or repeal discriminatory laws. Likewise, States must ensure that every public body, institution and service eliminates leprosy-related discriminatory practices. States are accountable for the cases in which any public authority perpetrates discriminatory acts against persons affected or their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "A. Non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "The principles and guidelines reflect the tenets of general comment No. 20 (2009) on non-discrimination in economic, social and cultural rights, in which the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights established that a person’s actual or perceived health status could not be a barrier to the realization of rights and that the protection of public health used as grounds for restricting the rights of any individual is a clear violation of the Covenant. The Committee also pointed out the duty of the State to adopt the measures necessary to address stigmatization on the grounds of actual or perceived health status. The principles and guidelines set out concrete situations in which States are obligated to prevent persons affected and their family members from being discriminated against. States also have a positive obligation to fight discrimination in the private sphere. States should undertake research on the root causes of discrimination, with systematic collection of data and thorough analysis of risk factors. Such research should be supported by lay experts. Through effective policies, States should establish positive measures to prevent discrimination and investigate, punish and repair any abuse. Such an obligation includes monitoring the private sector and the fields of education, work and health.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "A. Non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "In the light of systemic discrimination and marginalization, discrimination on the grounds of leprosy must be tackled through an inclusive equality policy, as put forward by the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. According to its general comment No. 6 (2018) on equality and non-discrimination, inclusive equality embraces a substantive model of equality based on redistribution to address inequalities, elimination of stigmatization and promotion of dignity, full and effective participation and accommodation of differences. A comprehensive anti-discrimination policy also entails the need for creating mechanisms to receive and provide quick and effective responses to complaints of discriminatory events, both in the administrative sphere and the judicial sphere. Such mechanisms should be implemented within an accessibility framework and in full respect of the legal capacity of persons affected and their family members.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "A. Non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Persons affected and their families continue to experience informal segregation from community life, as well as multiple barriers to access to fundamental rights. The widespread lack of reparation measures and the limited reach of awareness-raising to redress the iatrogenic stigma created by the prophylactic segregation practiced in the past by States are some of the root causes of persistent informal segregation. Persons affected by leprosy and many of their family members are entitled to the rights provided under the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities on the basis of not only physical and psychosocial impairments, but also of the impairing effects of leprosy-related stigmatization.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "B. Accessibility and independent living"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities elaborates thoroughly on the multiple barriers to equal participation, which can occur in isolation or simultaneously, result from direct or indirect discrimination, be grounded on one actual or perceived characteristic or on the intersection between several ones and take multiple forms, namely, institutional, extra-institutional, physical, socioeconomic, attitudinal, environmental, informational, educational and cultural, among others. Persons affected, and also their families, are faced with many of the aforementioned barriers to participate on an equal basis in society with others.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "B. Accessibility and independent living"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "According to article 5 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, interpreted in relation to articles 1, 3 and 4, and general comment No. 6 of the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, in order to enforce the rights of persons with disabilities, States should guarantee accessibility, reasonable accommodation and individual support. In the light of its general comment No. 2 (2014) on accessibility, the Committee has noted that accessibility is a precondition for independent living and for full participation in community life. Its implementation encompasses physical environments, transportation, information and communication and public and private goods, products and services. States must elaborate accessibility standards to guide service providers and all relevant stakeholders.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "B. Accessibility and independent living"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "According to article 5 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, reasonable accommodation should be provided when any individual is faced with an inaccessible situation or environment. Although accessibility should be included in systems and collective processes, reasonable accommodation should be ensured for individualized situations. Examples of reasonable accommodation include: making existing facilities and information accessible; adapting equipment; reorganizing activities; rearranging tasks; adjusting programmes, learning materials and teaching strategies; adjusting medical procedures; and guaranteeing access to support staff without disproportional or undue costs.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "B. Accessibility and independent living"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The principles and guidelines also link the exercise of the right to actively participate in public affairs with the enjoyment of autonomy. With that in mind, the Special Rapporteur recalls the provisions of article 19 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities that are aimed at overcoming any structural barrier that hinders living an independent life and fully participating in the community, and according to which, the State should, to the maximum of its available resources, create supporting environments that enable independent living, through habilitation and rehabilitation services, community-based support services and arrangements, including personal assistance, assisted living arrangements, mobility aids and assistive devices and technologies. The aforementioned measures must be implemented in full respect of the right to privacy and must be available, accessible, affordable, acceptable, gender-sensitive and culturally sensitive. The same applies to psychosocial disabilities related to leprosy. Access to the highest attainable standard of mental health not only implies the right to community-based services, but also support for the full enjoyment of the rights to live independently and to legal capacity.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "B. Accessibility and independent living"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Autonomy and independent living should also be guaranteed in old age. An approach that can address the psychosocial effects of multiple discrimination and violations throughout life, as well as the physical impairments related both to leprosy and to ageing, should be implemented to guarantee a dignified life. Older people affected by leprosy should never be denied the right to legal capacity because of their age and/or mental health status. Older people affected by leprosy have the right to personal autonomy in making decisions, in particular life decisions. For the enjoyment of that right, support services may be required. By the same token, palliative care provided within ethical and deontological standards should be ensured.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "B. Accessibility and independent living"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "Among constitutional democracies, some nations present sophisticated tools for defending equality and prohibiting discrimination in their constitutional texts. However, there are still more than 50 countries in the world with discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy. In India, the country with the most discriminatory laws in place against person affected, positive steps are currently being taken. The Government has adopted a policy of adopting zero discriminatory laws, which may contribute to the abolishment of remaining discriminatory laws. Public interest litigation cases in the Supreme Court of India have been contributing to progress in that regard, which evinces the key role played by civil society in the defence of the rights of persons affected. It is equally important to highlight the actions of civil society in India, undertaken through campaigns and advocacy, against discriminatory laws and practices. In Nepal, IDEA conducts legal advocacy workshops for raising awareness of the rights of persons affected. In Brazil, the National Observatory on Human Rights and Hansen’s Disease has been created as result of a partnership between the Office of the Public Defender of the State of Maranhão, MORHAN and the Sasakawa Health Foundation. The Observatory receives and monitors report of human rights violations of persons affected, with the mission to fight institutionalized discriminatory practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "C. In practice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy and their family members continue to experience the violating effects of unwritten social norms, values and beliefs. Together with the ripple effect of historical State segregation policies, the remaining discriminatory laws and persistent harmful stereotypes sustain the dehumanization of persons affected and their family members, with a damaging and sweeping impact on their autonomy and self-esteem. The internalization of stigmatization is an extreme form of dehumanization that compromises the right to the highest attainable standard of mental health and the overall enjoyment of fundamental freedoms.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "The persistence of harmful stereotypes and wrongful stereotyping calls for fine-grained strategies aimed at both raising awareness among the general public and building capacity among persons affected and their families on their rights and how to claim them. Remedies, compensation and reparation for violations on the grounds of leprosy suffered both by persons affected and their family members are justice measures able to produce positive spillover effects, through general acknowledgment of the unfairness of violations and of the legal obligation of States to take the violation of rights seriously.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "The relationship between stereotypes about leprosy and the dehumanization of affected individuals has been documented by the Special Rapporteur. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has expounded thoroughly on how gender stereotypes are root causes of human rights violations, also pointing out the limited awareness of stereotypes as mechanisms that breach the principles of equality and non-discrimination and undermine human dignity. Article 2 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women establishes the duty of the State to take all appropriate measures to modify or abolish existing discriminatory laws, regulations, customs and practices. Article 7 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination affirms the obligation of the State to adopt measures for fighting prejudices that spur racial discrimination. In its general recommendation No. 35 (2013) on combating racist hate speech, the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination called for ethical conduct among the media and high-level public authorities, with a view to promoting a culture of tolerance and respect. Article 8 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities directly addresses the problem of harmful stereotypes, referring to the obligation of the State to adopt immediate, effective and appropriate measures to combat stereotypes, prejudices and related harmful practices in all areas of life. The principles and guidelines prohibit any discriminatory language against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, acknowledging the interlinkage between language and stigmatization, which should also include the use of images.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "A. Awareness-raising and capacity-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "In joint general recommendation No. 31 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women/general comment No. 18 of the Committee on the Rights of the Child (2019) on harmful practices, the Committees called for a holistic approach to addressing stereotypes that acknowledged the interconnection between different social norms and the need of a comprehensive framework for addressing any harmful practice. The limitations of an approach targeting individual behaviours were also stressed, and a community-based approach aimed at systemic change through the collective adoption of new social rules was put forward. Participation of the victims is a key component of the strategy, which links protection to empowerment.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "A. Awareness-raising and capacity-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "Strategies aimed at transforming social norms and customs about leprosy should be grounded in a holistic framework, community-based, empower affected individuals and have as primary focus the prevention of discrimination. Capacity-building of persons affected and their families on their human rights will promote active citizenship, accountability and strategic use of access to justice. Strategies should target awareness-raising and capacity-building of non-official authorities, such as community and traditional leaders and healers, as well as relevant professional groups, such as health-care workers, educators and social workers. Training health-care workers to overcome personal and institutional discriminatory attitudes should be implemented as a priority, alongside the monitoring of health-care services and health-care delivery.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "A. Awareness-raising and capacity-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "Collection, analysis and dissemination of data, disaggregated by indicators of equality, should be a priority for delivering evidence-based policies, which should be designed, implemented and monitored in close collaboration with persons affected and their family members. Good practices implemented in the HIV/AIDS field should be followed. That field of action shows the importance of empowering individuals and communities to address and respond to discrimination, having developed an outstanding good practice for collecting data on stigmatization and assessing the levels of human rights enjoyment that involved persons living with HIV as primary stakeholders and executors, called the people living with HIV stigma index. Promotion of rights education for affected individuals, as well as the delivery of legal advice, together with the enactment of protective laws and policies and accountability in courts and tribunals, is strongly recommended.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "A. Awareness-raising and capacity-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "Awareness-raising as a structural pillar of any leprosy-related policy framework should be grounded in evidence and give due consideration to local perspectives. Awareness-raising strategies should also be designed and implemented in close consultation with persons affected and communities in order to prevent any backlash against affected individuals. Strategies cannot rely on medical knowledge and information alone, nor be delivered under an individual-centred framework, but must employ accessible, intercultural and gender-, age- and disability-sensitive language and formats. Personal testimonies on the obstacles to living a full and dignified life, but also on how people survive discrimination, are the most effective instruments for achieving systemic change in mindsets. To that end, sharing positive experiences and the promotion of role models and leadership skills should also be employed as effective strategies. Different dissemination channels should be used, such as community-based and mainstream media, the Internet and social media, as well as artistic expressions and performances.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "A. Awareness-raising and capacity-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "Health and illness are not just biological phenomena. Accumulated knowledge in the field of medical anthropology has proved the difference between illness, meaning the bodily process itself, and disease, meaning the nosology produced by a given medical system, which is always culturally grounded. Diseases are biosocial constructs and, as the history of epidemics show, explanatory models of diseases can produce labelling and even spur institutionalized and structural stigmatization, of which the modern history of leprosy is a paradigmatic example. There was never scientific evidence to support the prophylactic segregation of persons affected by leprosy, and yet such segregation was widespread from the late nineteenth century until the late twentieth century – almost half a century after the discovery of a cure. There are still up to 2,000 leprosy colonies and villages active in the world today.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "B. Reparation and memorialization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Segregation was very often accompanied by public campaigns aimed at educating the public on the dangers of interacting with persons affected by leprosy. The eradication of the disease from the public space was pursued at the expense of the rights of those affected by it. In many countries, marriage between persons affected was prohibited and, in some countries, forced sterilization was a standard practice. Stigma was the dolus behind this State policy, which continues to impact the lives of persons affected and their family members, therefore comprising a continuous violation. Due recognizing of that systemic and massive violation calls for reparation measures that not only redress harm at the individual level and recognize victims as rights holders, but also promote social integration. Such measures may be urgent for many persons affected, but also for their descendants, given their age. Second and third generations living in leprosy settlements should also be beneficiaries of complex reparation programmes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "B. Reparation and memorialization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "The legal basis of the right to reparation is anchored in the provisions of international human rights instruments (Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 8; International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, article 2; International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, article 6; Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, article 14; Convention on the Rights of the Child, article 39). The General Assembly adopted the Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, in 2005, according to which reparation comprises restitution, compensation, rehabilitation, satisfaction and guarantees of non-repetition. The Human Rights Committee has also affirmed the State’s obligation, under article 2 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, to promote changes in laws, official procedures and practices as part of reparation. The principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members calls for the reunification of families separated as a result of leprosy-related policies and practices, in full accordance with article 23 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "B. Reparation and memorialization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "The Special Rapporteur on the promotion of truth, justice, reparation and guarantees of non-recurrence elaborates thoroughly on reparation measures, putting forward the idea that reparation programmes should ideally be of a complex nature that allows for benefits to fully acknowledge the complexity of the harm (see A/69/518). Reparation programmes should therefore comprise both material and symbolic reparations. Rehabilitation should be a core measure of reparation programmes, given that victims of serious human rights violations usually need specialized health-care services. By aiming at systemic change and non-recurrence, States should implement a comprehensive prevention structure that makes use of education, arts and culture, archives and documentation, linking reparation programmes with memorialization processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "B. Reparation and memorialization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The principles and guidelines call for attention to be paid to the current situation of leprosy settlements and enumerate the rights of those inhabiting them. Such guidance is in accordance with general comment No. 4 (1991) on the right to adequate housing, in which the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights defined seven components of the right to housing: juridical security; availability of services, materials, installations and infrastructure; accessibility of costs; habitability; accessibility of space; localization; and cultural adequacy. The Committee emphasized the universality of the right to housing and its interdependency with other rights.. The principles and guidelines also reflect article 19 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, on the right to make autonomous and free choices about one’s place of living.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "B. Reparation and memorialization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "Reparation programmes for persons affected and their family members who have been forcibly segregated and separated should be of a complex nature, encompassing material measures aimed at redressing structural disadvantages and symbolic measures aimed at systemic change, and including rehabilitation, a memorialization process and the enforcement of housing rights. Housing and property rights should also be given to second and third generation family members living in leprosy settlements. Even in the contexts in which segregation was not implemented as an official government policy, it was nevertheless the result of systemic stigmatization, and people who have been subjected to it should also be eligible for reparation programmes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "B. Reparation and memorialization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Given the deeply ingrained social representation of leprosy as a symbol for everything that should be kept apart, leprosy is particularly fitting to be used as a powerful example in general human rights education. As an historical epitome of dehumanization, leprosy holds a powerful aptitude to illustrate the importance of human rights for the building of a free and just society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "B. Reparation and memorialization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "Reparation measures for forced segregation have been implemented in Brazil and Japan. Japan has also enacted legislation to provide for reparation to family members, and the state of Minas Gerais in Brazil has granted reparations to persons who were separated from their parents due to the official policy, although only applicable in the state of Minas Gerais, and the remaining population remains to receive reparation. In Brazil, the regulation of lands and property has resulted in the handing over of the usufruct and ownership of property of houses to persons affected and their family members in the states of Acre, Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais. In Japan, pioneering memorialization initiatives stand out, such as the creation of museums and the preservation and study of the artistic production of persons affected who were forcibly segregated. In Brazil and Japan, there are innovative experiences of participatory health-care management and health-care provision in former leprosy colonies. In Taiwan Province of China, strategies are put into place by civil society to ensure that older people affected who are still living in segregated communities are able to live in a dignified manner. In Ghana and Togo, civil society organizations have reunited families living in segregated facilities by assisting them in their return home, if desirable and possible.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory", "C. In practice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "As documented by the Special Rapporteur, leprosy-related discrimination is multilayered – it frequently intersects with discrimination against other marginalized groups. Furthermore, the impact of stigmatization on the grounds of leprosy on the lives of persons affected is proportional to their vulnerability and resilience. She recognizes that the call for special attention to be paid to, and for the protection of, groups that are more vulnerable to leprosy-related discrimination, as set out in the principles and guidelines, identifies women and children as priority target groups. In order to prevent paternalistic approaches to vulnerability, the Special Rapporteur underscores three critical safeguards: vulnerability is not an ontological feature of a group of persons; vulnerability is often coupled with subordination, understood by the Special Rapporteur as the historical devaluation of some groups of people under hierarchical social structures that, by producing and reproducing an unequal distribution of power, severely constrain their autonomy and participation; and vulnerability reduction policies must focus on building the autonomy of target populations by promoting their empowerment.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "Although eradicating vulnerability might not be feasible, diminishing it through policymaking and institutional arrangements is viable. Reinforcing the principle of autonomy implies not only recognizing the independence of individual viewpoints, choices, values and beliefs, but also creating conditions that can enable individuals to act autonomously. A human rights-based approach to vulnerability includes making groups in vulnerable situations the preferential beneficiaries of public policies in order to guarantee their full enjoyment of fundamental rights and freedoms. Vulnerability is at the core of the elaboration of norms, when factors such as disability, age, migration status, deprivation of liberty, refugee status or ethnicity are considered in human rights standards. Furthermore, international human rights law has come to recognize the specificity of the economic, social and political conditions of certain groups, responding to their struggles with specific instruments for protecting their rights, including the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the Convention on the Rights of the Child and the ILO Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169).", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "The obligation of the State to protect, promote and fulfil human rights is, for people living in vulnerable situations, inextricably linked to taking all measures necessary to empower them. Through empowerment, marginalized persons or persons in disadvantaged situations achieve greater control over their lives, furthering their democratic engagement with enhanced critical understanding about their own settings and their relation to power relations and hegemonic social structures. Common elements to the various definitions of empowerment are that it is a process, has a dimension of collective involvement, and involves active participation, critical reflection, awareness-raising, understanding, and access and control over important decisions and resources. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is built upon the recognition that development is not only transforming the material conditions of people in disadvantaged circumstances, but also implies providing them with a voice and choice. The empowerment of individuals and groups can contribute to transforming laws, policies, practices, norms and power relations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "Empowerment is, therefore, a multidimensional concept that highlights the need for States not only to safeguard civil and political rights, but also to duly implement economic, social and cultural rights. Its implementation is twofold: it requires enabling people to claim their rights and actively contribute to shaping decisions, policies and practices; and it entails creating conditions for overcoming any obstacle to personal and collective development. To empower individuals affected and their families, the Special Rapporteur calls upon States to develop research that can identify the groups that are more vulnerable to leprosy-related discrimination and to invest in the education, participation and access to justice for those groups.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "Education is both a human right and a means to fulfil other rights. Education promotes peace, reduces poverty and empowers disadvantaged groups. Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights establishes that one of the goals of the right to education, whether public or private, formal or non-formal, is ensuring both the full development of individuals and generalized respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. Those goals are furthered in article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which reinforces the role of education for the full development of the human personality and for enabling all persons to participate in a free society built upon common understanding among different social groups. Education is key for materializing the rights to dignity and equality in social relations.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "A. Education"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "The principles and guidelines affirm the right to equal access to education opportunities and progress at school by persons affected and their family members, prohibiting the denial of admission or expulsion from school or training programmes on the grounds of having or having had leprosy. It is recommended that States also implement measures that can encourage increasing access for affected persons to educational opportunities. Provisions in the Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities are key for its implementation.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "A. Education"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "In its general comment No. 1 (2001) on the aims of education, the Committee on the Rights of the Child, recalled article 29 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and underscored the far-reaching importance of education. Education should be child-centred, child-friendly and empowering. The Convention is clear in stating that the child’s right to education is not only a matter of access, but also of content. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities have called attention to how education systems can produce and reproduce exclusion, outlining guidelines for States to overcome exclusion. In its general recommendation No. 36 (2017) on the right of girls and women to education, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women noted that equality and non-discrimination as part of the right to education involved three aspects: equal access to education; equal rights within the education system; and equal rights by means of education. Importantly, the Committee drew attention to the need to materialize equality in the way in which education was provided and to direct education for the transformation of disadvantaged social positioning and move forward the structurally disadvantaged positioning of women in society. Article 24 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities calls for inclusive education. In its general comment No. 4 (2016) on the right to inclusive education, the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities identified hindering factors to the right to education, at all levels and for all students, and enumerated the main features of inclusive education, some of which were: taking a whole-person approach; establishing a learning-friendly environment; and ensuring reasonable accommodation when necessary.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "A. Education"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Access to education by persons affected and their family members is therefore not independent of the creation of an inclusive and enabling environment in which the system succeeds in diagnosing and correcting shortcomings related to educational progress. Similarly, education is expected to become an instrument for critical discussion, recognition and dissemination of the human rights of affected persons. States should promote cooperation between the health-care, welfare and education systems, in order to prevent discriminatory attitudes within the education system. The involvement of parents or caregivers and the community and the participation of children affected and the children of persons affected, in accordance with their evolving capacities, should also be guaranteed for the creation of an inclusive and enabling environment.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "A. Education"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "The enforcement of the right to education by persons affected and their family members should be grounded in the elimination of discrimination, the availability of education services, the accessibility of all levels of education, the promotion of training and skills development opportunities and reasonable accommodation. To that end, strategies grounded in the specific context and needs must be developed in close consultation with persons affected and their families and should consider: ensuring that children affected by leprosy participate on an equal basis with other children in education services and recreational, leisure and sporting activities; increasing the enrolment and retention rates of affected children in the education system; enhancing the empowering effects of education by equipping students with the capacity to claim and exercise their rights; training teachers to adopt constructivist strategies that stimulate self-worth and confidence among students; eradicating illiteracy among affected persons; providing for continued and life-long learning, as well as technical and vocational education, as part of both the right to education and the right to work; ensuring the availability of counselling services, psychoeducational methods and medical care within education establishments; guaranteeing reasonable accommodation and support to students when needed; using the education system as an opportunity for raising awareness of leprosy and the human rights of persons affected; fostering the rights to freedom of speech and the participation of children affected in any decision-making process involving their lives, in accordance with their evolving capacities and in respect of their own choices of how to express themselves, including in non-written and/or non-verbal forms; targeting schools as a primary locus for education on leprosy and on the human rights of persons affected; using leprosy as a paradigmatic example in human rights education; and, in line with the recommendation of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to ensure equal rights within the system, medical schools should ensure that their curricula properly include leprosy and in such a way that fully respects the voice and choice of persons affected with regard to dignified health care and their right to the highest standard of physical and mental health.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "A. Education"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "Participation is multidimensional, including the elements of representative democracy, participatory democracy, non-governmental organizations and communities and epistemic communities, as well as the family sphere. Participation can simultaneously play a role in empowering persons affected and their family members and enable them to become agents of change. Participation in decision-making is not only a right, it is also pivotal for the production of more effective responses to problems. The Special Rapporteur has previously called attention to persons affected as being lay experts and called for the inclusion of situated knowledge in scientific research related to leprosy and in data collection and policymaking (see A/HRC/38/42). Moreover, the involvement of persons affected and their representative organizations and non-governmental organizations, as well as research and training institutions, should be a fundamental part of the formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of all leprosy-related policies, which should ensure transparency and the democratization of information and create the mechanisms for holding policymakers, but also the private sector, accountable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "B. Participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "International conventions and treaties, especially the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, recognize the right of everyone to political participation and representation in public office. The opportunity of everyone to take part on an equal basis in public affairs and to have access to inclusive representation is key for the exercise of democracy and of the right to self-determination. For underrepresented groups, exercising the right to participation in public office and politics may require additional efforts, such as affirmative measures, as indicated in the Committee on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. Participation in public life is fundamental for eliminating stereotypes, prejudice and exclusion. The exclusion or underrepresentation of certain groups in decision-making processes contributes to segregated societies and limits the possibilities of disadvantaged groups to protect their own interests. The principles and guidelines uphold the right of persons affected and their family members to take part in political and public life through the fulfilment of the general principle of equality and the prohibition of discrimination.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "B. Participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "One critical aspect for the promotion of participation by persons affected and their family members is indicated in the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Unarguably, there are several systemic barriers to the full and meaningful participation of marginalized groups, which persons affected and their families often face. Such barriers include: illiteracy and low educational qualifications; legal impediments; inaccessibility of administrative procedures and requirements; inaccessibility and unintelligibility of the information being provided; physical and environmental barriers; and lack of support mechanisms for overcoming structural disadvantages reflected in unequal and unfair socioeconomic and education status. Article 29 of the Convention, by fully acknowledging those multiple barriers, affirms the obligation of the State to actively promote enabling environments, ensuring equality, guarantees to free expression, accessibility, accommodation of procedures and support. Accessibility as an indispensable condition for the fulfilment of the right to participation relates to information, communication, infrastructure and transport.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "B. Participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "In order to promote the participation of persons affected and their family members, States are required to identify and remove any legal barrier, as well as any institutionalized discriminatory practice. Adopting temporary special measures to guarantee de facto equality in participation in public affairs, as endorsed by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in its general recommendation No. 23 (1997) on women in political and public life, may also be needed. The implementation of all measures aimed at barrier-free participation, as indicated in the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is an indispensable condition. Participation goes hand in hand with the active promotion of empowerment.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "B. Participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "Access to justice is one of the main instruments for protecting civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights. It is through the equal and effective guarantee of access to justice that people may stand up in defence of their rights, objecting to situations of discrimination and violation and holding policymakers accountable. In the declaration of the high-level meeting of the General Assembly on the rule of law at the national and international levels, Member States emphasized the importance of equal access to justice for all and of capacity-building concerning legal rights, committing themselves to taking all steps necessary to provide fair, transparent, effective, non-discriminatory and accountable services that promote access to justice, including legal aid. A comprehensive approach to ensuring access to justice must take into consideration the plurality of justice systems and address formal courts, specialized agencies, quasi-judicial mechanisms and traditional justice systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "C. Access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "The Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights identified the main obstacles that people in vulnerable conditions must overcome to fully and equally exercise the right to access justice, which included: social and cultural barriers; legal and normative barriers; institutional and structural obstacles in the justice chain; non-existent or inadequate legal assistance; and structural problems of the judicial processes, encompassing formalism and differences in language and culture (see A/67/278). In its general recommendation No. 33 (2015) on women’s access to justice, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women highlighted a set of obstacles experienced by women and girls regarding access to justice, many of which are shared by persons affected, and especially women affected, by leprosy, such as stereotyping, discriminatory laws, intersecting forms of discrimination, procedural and evidentiary requirements and practices and a failure to systematically ensure that judicial mechanisms were physically, economically, socially and culturally accessible.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "C. Access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "Persons affected and their families are among those left furthest behind with regard to access to justice as a means to fight back against discrimination and defend their rights. On the one hand, systemic segregation, marginalization, violation, discriminatory legal frames and institutionalized practices, together with subordination and vulnerability, have made it almost impossible for persons affected to acquire access to justice. On the other hand, the centralization of courts and quasi-judicial bodies in urban centres, the cost and length of time of transportation to those places, as well as the non-accessibility of procedures, information and documentation, the non-availability of legal aid, the many deficiencies of the judicial system and the lack of knowledge among public defenders and judicial staff, have curtailed their right to justice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "C. Access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "In order to enforce the right to justice and the human rights literacy of a population that struggles with financial, physical and knowledge restrictions, States should take all measures necessary to: remove economic barriers, with the provision of legal aid; remove linguistic and cultural barriers, with the provision of translation and interpretation services, assistance to illiterate individuals and intercultural interpretation; develop partnerships with traditional justice systems for ensuring a rights-based approach to leprosy is taken in contexts of juridical pluralism; systematically record discrimination for supporting research, analysis of risk factors and providing quick, adequate, holistic, efficient and proportional remedies, with easy-to-access mechanisms for making complaints of discrimination; train judicial staff on issues related to leprosy; and build capacity on core human rights of those affected and their families.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "C. Access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "In some countries, like Brazil and Nepal, persons affected have been participating in collegiate bodies, officially instituted working groups and committees. In countries such as Brazil, India and Japan, the existence of and action plans for protecting vulnerable groups, such as inclusion of persons with disabilities, elimination of violence against women and protection of the rights of children and older persons, may benefit persons affected by leprosy and their family members. However, it is necessary to pinpoint affected persons as the main target group of such policies and to monitor their impact and results. The work of some civil society groups deserves to be equally highlighted, including the work of MORHAN in Brazil and the Leprosy Mission and the Leprosy Society in India, in promoting and supporting affected women to take on leadership positions in their organizations and also in forums for institutional participation.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups", "D. In practice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "Recommendations for implementing the policy framework presented in the present report are already integrated into the four main areas of the aforementioned policy. The Special Rapporteur calls attention to basic operational principles for the implementation of a rights-based policy for eliminating discrimination and promoting inclusion of persons affected by leprosy and their family members comprising the following tenets:\n(a) Due recognition of persons affected by leprosy and their family members as rights holders;\n(b) Substantive equality and inclusive governance as core paradigms of anti-discrimination policies;\n(c) Adjustment or creation of adequate institutional arrangements and schemes;\n(d) Meaningful participation of the target group, recognized as lay experts, in policymaking, monitoring and evaluation;\n(e) Elaboration of special temporary affirmative measures when needed;\n(f) Systematic data collection that includes disaggregation not only by demographic, environmental, socioeconomic and cultural variables, but also by the various grounds of discrimination recognized in international human rights law, and respect for the principles of participation and privacy;\n(g) Monitoring and accountability mechanisms with transparent sharing of information;\n(h) Provision of accessible mechanisms for filing complaints on the violation of rights;\n(i) Proper budget allocation at the national and subnational levels, with targets, indicators and benchmarks;\n(j) International cooperation, which is key to supporting the promotion of human rights policies for persons affected and their families in low-income countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusion and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "Considering the global prevalence of leprosy, necessary resources from Member States would be modest, whereas the return on the investment would be of great value for the promotion of the human rights of extremely vulnerable groups, especially within the context of the realization of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusion and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 73, "n": 1, "text": "On how to elaborate a policy framework see: Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. Public policy with a human rights approach: approved by the InterAmerican Commission on Human Rights on September 15, 2018.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "General issues"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 74, "n": 2, "text": "On the conceptualization of good and best practices see: A/58/427 and A/HRC/35/29.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "General issues"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 75, "n": 3, "text": "On the conceptualization of affirmative measures see: General Recommendation No. 32 of CEDAW, General Recommendation No. 25 of CEDAW. and General Comment No. 20 of CESCR.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "General issues"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 76, "n": 4, "text": "On the importance of disaggregated data for guaranteeing the rights of underprivileged groups see: Leaving no one behind: the imperative of inclusive development Report on the World Social Situation 2016” (New York: United Nations, 2016).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "General issues"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 77, "n": 5, "text": "On a rights-based data collection see: OHCHR, Guidance note to data collection and disaggregation, 2018.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "General issues"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 78, "n": 6, "text": "On the relation between infectious diseases and pervert see: World Health Organization & UNICEF/UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases. (‎2012)‎. Global report for research on infectious diseases of poverty 2012. World Health Organization.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 79, "n": 7, "text": "On the social determinants of leprosy see: Inequality and leprosy in Northeast Brazil: an ecological study Ligia Regina. Sansigolo Kerr-Pontes,Ana Cláudia Dorta Montenegro, Maurício Lima Barreto, Guilherme Loureiro Werneck and Hermann Feldmeier. International Journal of Epidemiology 2004;33:262–269. Oktaria S, Hurif NS, Naim W, Thio HB, Nijsten TEC, RichardusJH (2018) Dietary diversity and poverty as risk factors for leprosy in Indonesia: A case-control study. PLoS Negl TropDis 12(3): e0006317.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. pntd.0006317. Socioeconomic, environmental, and behavioural risk factors for leprosy in North-east Brazil: results of a case-control study. Ligia RS Kerr-Pontes, Maurıcio L Barreto, Clara MN Evangelista, Laura C Rodrigues, Jorg Heukelbach and Hermann Feldmeier. International Journal of Epidemiology 2006; 35:994–1000; Effect of a conditional cash transfer programme on leprosy treatment adherence and cure in patients from the nationwide 100 Million Brazilian Cohort: a quasi-experimental study. Julia M Pescarini, Elizabeth Williamson, Joilda S Nery, Anna Ramond, Maria Yury Ichihara, Rosemeire L Fiaccone, Maria Lucia F Penna, Liam Smeeth, Laura C Rodrigues, Gerson O Penna, Elizabeth B Brickley, Mauricio L Barreto. Lancet Infect Dis 2020 Published Online February 14, 2020 https://doi.org/10.1016/ S1473-3099(19)30624-3.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 80, "n": 8, "text": "On social protection see: ILO, World Social Protection Report 2017–19; ILO. Public employment services: Joined-up services for people facing labour market disadvantage. ILO briefs on Employment Services and ALMPs. Issue No. 1; Azizur Rahman Khan. Issues in Employment and Poverty. Discussion Paper. Employment policies for poverty reduction. ILO Office Geneva, 2001.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 81, "n": 9, "text": "On human rights education of the healthcare workforce see: A/74/174.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 82, "n": 10, "text": "On the concept of health systems see: E/CN.4/2006/48. Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "section": ["Reference documents", "Adequate standard of living and economic autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 83, "n": 11, "text": "On direct and indirect discrimination see: General Comment No. 20 of CESCR.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 84, "n": 12, "text": "On mechanisms to receive and provide quick and effective responses to complaints of discriminatory events see General Recommendation No. 33 of CEDAW.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 85, "n": 13, "text": "On the right highest attainable standard of mental health see: A/HRC/35/21.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 86, "n": 14, "text": "On palliative care as part of the right to health see: CESCR, , General Comment No. 14 and CEDAW, General Recommendation No. 27.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 87, "n": 15, "text": "On dehumanization see: A/HRC/41/47.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 88, "n": 16, "text": "On stereotyping see: OHCHR Commissioned Report, Gender stereotyping as a human rights violation – CEDAW.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 89, "n": 17, "text": "On UNAIDS’s strategies for stigma reduction see: UNAIDS (2017). Confronting discrimination. Overcoming HIV-related stigma and discrimination in healthcare settings and beyond.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 90, "n": 18, "text": "On guidelines on measures of reparation under the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights see: CCPR/C/158.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 91, "n": 19, "text": "On memorialization processes see: A/HRC/25/49.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 92, "n": 20, "text": "On empowerment see: Perkins, D.D. (2010). Empowerment. in R.A. Couto (Ed.), Political and Civic. Leadership: a reference handbook (pp. 207-218). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage; Empowerment, Inclusion, Equality: Accelerating sustainable development with human rights. United Nations Human Rights. Office of the High Commissioner.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 93, "n": 21, "text": "On promoting empowerment of people in achieving poverty eradication, social integration and full employment and decent work for all see: E/RES/2014/5.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 94, "n": 22, "text": "On inclusive education see: CRPD, General comment No. 4 (2016).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 95, "n": 23, "text": "On access to justice see: CEDAW, General Recommendation No. 33.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-46-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-44-46", "idx": 96, "n": 24, "text": "On the barriers to access to justice by vulnerable groups see: A/67/278.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Reference documents", "Elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, Alice Cruz, submits the present report pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 44/6. In the report, she explains how the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has had a disproportionate impact on persons affected by leprosy[[fn:1]] and their family members, discussing the underlying causes of such an impact and offering constructive recommendations for an inclusive recovery.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A discussion among persons with a personal experience of leprosy and their representative organizations about terminology regarding the disease and the people who experience it is ongoing, with some segments of the community preferring the terms “Hansen’s disease” and “persons who have experienced Hansen’s disease”. The Special Rapporteur appreciates such a discussion, but given that there is still no consensus, in the present report, she employs the terminology used by the Human Rights Council in its resolution 44/6."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "In November 2020, the Special Rapporteur consulted with grass-roots organizations,[[fn:2]] in order to develop a participatory work plan for the following three years that embodied the views of experts through experience. The Special Rapporteur also consulted with key stakeholders in the field of leprosy, the World Health Organization (WHO) and relevant human rights mechanisms, with the aim of aligning her efforts with those of the wider health and human rights community.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Sasakawa Health Foundation, the Leprosy Mission International and the International Association for Integration, Dignity and Economic Advancement for their support in the consultation process."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "In her second term, the Special Rapporteur plans to build on the work developed during the previous three years and support the implementation of the global health policies for tackling leprosy in the next decade, to which she has contributed in the context of her mandate,[[fn:3]] but she also seeks to integrate into her work responses to the global challenges arising from the COVID-19 pandemic.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Leprosy/AliceCruz-April2019.pdf; and www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Leprosy/STM_WHO_consultation.pdf."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "There is much to learn from the history of leprosy that can be applied to the current global crisis. Since the beginning of 2020, the world has been experiencing the disruption of social ties and livelihoods, discovering the impacts on mental health of separation from family members, friends and social environments, acknowledging long-existing hidden epidemics, such as domestic violence against women and children, and realizing how people are stigmatized on the basis of their health status, as well as the fact that inequalities can kill and institutional neglect can impair lives. All this has been known for centuries by persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "While examining the disproportionate impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, another lesson came to light: there is no building back better if States fail to put those who have been systematically pushed further behind at the centre of recovery efforts. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur, drawing on the lived experiences of members of a marginalized and dehumanized group, calls for a recovery paradigm that begins building back better by enforcing the rights of those who have been systematically pushed into the margins and denied not only fundamental rights and freedoms, but also the right to claim rights. If one thing became clear during the pandemic, it is that “other people’s problems” are everyone’s problems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "In March 2020, the Special Rapporteur began monitoring the impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on persons affected by leprosy and their family members. She joined forces with the Global Partnership for Zero Leprosy, a coalition that includes WHO, the Novartis Foundation, the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, the Sasakawa Health Foundation and the International Association for Integration, Dignity and Economic Advancement, as well as with Federation members and grass-roots organizations, providing guidance and supporting the production of documents and reports. She issued an open letter on COVID-19 and leprosy to States. For the present report, she received information from 13 States (Algeria, Bolivia, Brazil, Costa Rica, Denmark, Guatemala, India, Japan, Kyrgyzstan, Maldives, Mauritius, Morocco and Mozambique) and 32 civil society organizations, including non-governmental organizations and grass-roots organizations.[[fn:4]] The webinar, entitled “Zero leprosy for whom in the post-COVID world?”,[[fn:5]] organized by the Sasakawa Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease) Initiative, which gave voice to grass-roots organizations, was also a relevant source of information. The present report is aimed at providing a clear portrait of the lived experience of historically dehumanized groups under the current global health and socioeconomic crises and at elaborating specific steps for an inclusive recovery.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is extremely grateful for the contributions provided by States and civil society organizations for the present report. The submissions will be available on the webpage of the Special Rapporteur (www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Leprosy/Pages/LeprosyIndex.aspx)."}, {"n": 5, "text": "See www.shf.or.jp/information/10426?lang=en."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Unreliable casual labour with low income, unsafe working conditions and without entitlements to social protection or participation in social dialogue defines the livelihoods of the majority of persons affected by leprosy. The former make up part of the 2 billion people that the International Labour Organization (ILO) estimates work in the informal economy;[[fn:6]] they are denied rights to decent work and, at work, to social protection and income security. ILO estimates that 1.6 billion informal economy workers are experiencing significant effects from the current crisis,[[fn:7]] with women affected more greatly than men, while also facing other COVID-19-related impacts, such as increased unpaid care work and gender-based domestic violence.[[fn:8]] Informal economy workers are also largely excluded from social dialogue, an activity which is key for a sustainable economic recovery.[[fn:9]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "In its recommendation No. 204, the General Conference of the International Labour Organization (ILO) defines the informal economy as encompassing all economic activities undertaken by workers and economic units that are, in law or in practice, not covered or insufficiently covered by formal arrangements, apart from illicit activities. Importantly, ILO distinguishes the informal economy from the shadow economy. The informal economy is also heterogeneous. See also Transition to Formality and Structural Transformation: Challenges and Policy Options, Iyanatul Islam and Frédéric Lapeyre (eds.) (Geneva, ILO, 2020)."}, {"n": 7, "text": "ILO, Global Wage Report 2020/21: Wages and minimum wages in the time of COVID-19 (Geneva, ILO, 2020)."}, {"n": 8, "text": "ILO, “The global deal for decent work and inclusive growth flagship report: social dialogue, skills and COVID-19” (April 2020)."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "A. Exclusion from the formal economy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The majority of persons affected by leprosy work in the informal economy and have been systematically denied the rights to decent work and social protection, and they have also been voiceless in social dialogue and other decision-making processes. Furthermore, as with so many people, the pandemic imposed upon them the immoral dilemma of having to choose between dying from hunger or from the virus. If before the pandemic this marginalized group was already struggling with what one organization’s representative referred to as the “pre-pandemic crisis”, the pandemic became one additional basis for discrimination, aggravating structural violence and rights violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "A. Exclusion from the formal economy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy face formidable, intersecting and multiple barriers to freely choosing their work and to enjoying their rights at work. The testimony of one individual captures all too well how leprosy-related discrimination simultaneously operates at different levels of social life and is at the root of rights violations. While working as a public servant, he was dismissed from his job after being diagnosed with leprosy; he then went back to work as a farmer on community land, but he was also dismissed by the village committee that administered the land. Resorting to growing vegetables in his backyard, he could not sell them at the local market because people were afraid to buy vegetables from him. His testimony represents a shared pattern of denial of equality of opportunity, as well as of denial of equality of treatment, both of which are in violation of the ILO Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Convention, 1958 (No. 111).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "B. Barriers to the right to decent work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Some of the barriers that have systematically hindered persons affected by leprosy from working in the formal economy are as follows:\n(a) The State policy that for more than a century forcibly segregated persons with leprosy and that was aimed at the elimination of leprosy through the elimination of those who carried the disease in their bodies;[[fn:10]] such a policy still reverberates in the public mindset, reinforcing structural discrimination, and shapes the more than 100 discriminatory laws that are still in force worldwide;[[fn:11]]\n(b) The fact that the majority of people who were forcibly segregated into what has become globally known as leprosy colonies (there are nearly 2,000 leprosy colonies active in the world) and their descendants do not enjoy property rights over the land where they were once confined, which aggravates poverty;\n(c) The fact that, in some countries, customary law denies land and inheritance rights to persons affected by leprosy, especially to women, which aggravates the feminization of leprosy-related poverty;\n(d) The aforementioned discrimination in law that, in some countries, also applies in the context of employment;\n(e) Institutionalized discrimination in hiring policies for public jobs;\n(f) Discrimination at school, which has pushed too many people out of education;\n(g) Interpersonal discrimination in both public and private employment settings.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See A/HRC/38/42."}, {"n": 11, "text": "See https://ilepfederation.org/discriminatory-laws."}], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "B. Barriers to the right to decent work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Such barriers have systematically pushed people into poverty and extreme poverty, forcing many of them to resort to begging. Their work is characterized as follows: (a) insufficient and irregular income, in many cases dependent on begging and/or assistance from families, religious institutions and non-governmental organizations; (b) employment as small-scale, own-account, casual and domestic workers; (c) sector of activity mostly being petty trade, agriculture, fishing and other manual activities; (d) no written contracts, job cards, payment through bank accounts or grievance or appeal mechanisms, as well as no social security or employment protection. Such a profile is not accidental. It is the result of intentional and systemic exclusion.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "B. Barriers to the right to decent work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The rights protected by articles 6 and 7 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, but also article 27 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, and other closely interrelated articles, such as article 11 of the Covenant and article 19 of the Convention, have been systematically and grossly violated with regard to persons affected by leprosy. As the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights has acknowledged in its general comment No. 18 (2005), the right to work is essential for realizing other human rights and forms an inseparable and inherent part of human dignity. The Committee also connects the right to work with the right to life, speaking of the survival of the individual and that of his or her family, on the one hand, and to the right to development, insofar as work is freely chosen or accepted, on the other. Work is recognized by ILO as being crucial to ensuring dignity, well-being and development. Concomitantly, the ILO Employment Policy Convention, 1964 (No. 122) affirms that productive employment and decent work are prerequisites for raising living standards and alleviating poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "B. Barriers to the right to decent work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Only India reported on the existence of reservations for persons with disabilities in government jobs and in government or government-aided higher education institutions, to which persons affected by leprosy are eligible.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "B. Barriers to the right to decent work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Civil society organizations, including non-governmental organizations and grass-roots organizations, undertake various projects in the areas of socioeconomic and vocational rehabilitation. In their submissions, non-governmental organizations described socioeconomic and vocational rehabilitation projects that were disability-inclusive, many starting with self-care and self-help groups. Skills development is applied in the areas of gastronomy, handicrafts, agriculture, animal husbandry, health-care facilitation and entrepreneurship. Support is also provided to the children of persons affected by leprosy so that they may pursue their education. Microcredit loans and seed funding are provided to support people in starting their own businesses. Capacity-building is provided in the areas of entrepreneurship and leadership, but also in terms of access to government schemes. Social and economic solidarity is also stimulated by cooperatives and savings groups.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "B. Barriers to the right to decent work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "The “pre-pandemic crisis” in which persons affected by leprosy were trapped pushed them to work as daily laborers and left them more vulnerable to economic hazards. In addition, if the global work scenario for persons with disabilities is worrying – with persons with disabilities less likely to be in employment or to enjoy decent employment conditions than persons without disabilities, while also not being adequately covered by social protection rights – persons affected by leprosy are further behind within the heterogeneous population with disabilities and are among the 80 per cent of people with severe disabilities who do not have access to disability-related social protection schemes in low- and middle-income countries.[[fn:12]] Moreover, the fact that leprosy-related physical impairments have nerve damage as a main cause, and that physical labour can severely aggravate it, leads to too many persons affected by leprosy experiencing the deterioration of their health and well-being as a result of the need to perform manual labour in the face of structural exclusion from education opportunities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "ILO, “COVID-19 and the world of work: Ensuring the inclusion of persons with disabilities at all stages of the response”, policy brief, June 2020."}], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "C. Barriers to the right to social security"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "With the COVID-19 outbreak and the lockdown and containment measures, social distancing regulations, mobility restrictions and public transportation restrictions and prohibitions that followed, persons affected by leprosy, who were already outside the formal economy and denied employment protection, faced the loss of jobs, income-generating activities and safety nets. People who, before the pandemic, had depended on begging, their families, charity institutions and non-governmental organizations could no longer rely on that support. Regarding family support, the Special Rapporteur received many reports of persons with leprosy-related disabilities who were experiencing discrimination within their own families due to the economic blow. People working as daily labourers in informal and unreliable activities, such as petty trade, agriculture or fishing, are not bringing in any income, due to the disruption in supply chains, restrictions on movement and limited market access. Importantly, women are the hardest-hit among those engaged in business and agriculture activities. Furthermore, people working in agriculture usually do not own the land on which they work, which adds an additional barrier to ensuring their livelihoods in the context of the pandemic. Children with leprosy or those with affected parents lack access to the technology necessary to move to online learning, and many have dropped out of school.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "D. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Notably, many people had no savings available to help them to endure lockdown measures and their effects, given the lack of income security in pre-pandemic times, which also compromised their ability to recover from the present crisis. The widespread denial of social protection to persons affected by leprosy aggravates those worsening scenarios and prospects. Social protection would have guaranteed a safety net in times of economic crisis,[[fn:13]] and it is acknowledged to be essential for preventing crises, enabling recovery and building resilience.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "ILO, Rules of the Game: An Introduction to the Standards-related Work of the International Labour Organization (Geneva, ILO, 2019)."}, {"n": 14, "text": "ILO, “Employment and decent work for peace and resilience recommendation, 2017 (No. 205)”."}], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "D. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "However, social protection floors are still far from where they should be,[[fn:15]] and persons affected by leprosy are still not recognized in existing social protection schemes, poverty reduction measures and in many disability-related social protection schemes. As the Special Rapporteur has heard repeatedly from grass-roots organizations, widespread barriers to access to disability benefits as a result of eligibility criteria based on a limited medical assessment, alongside the non-recognition of invisible impairments, such as loss of sensitivity and chronic pain, as well as mental health disorders caused by stigmatization on the grounds of leprosy, continue to be in violation of the provisions of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "ILO, “Financing gaps in social protection: global estimates and strategies for developing countries in light of the COVID-19 crisis and beyond”, working paper No. 14, October 2020."}], "section": ["II. Access to livelihoods", "D. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Recommendations made and measures taken by governments to contain COVID-19 disclosed the unequal distribution of fundamental goods worldwide. Containment measures based on isolation, social distancing outside and within the household, frequent hand washing, space cleaning and the use of masks can only be implemented if individuals enjoy decent housing, access to clean water and soap and the income security with which to ensure subsistence during lockdown measures and to purchase masks and other personal protective equipment. Such measures are inaccessible to a large share of the world’s population, in which persons affected by leprosy are included.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "A. Social determinants of health and illness"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "As previously noted by the Special Rapporteur, social determinants play a crucial role in the incidence of leprosy,[[fn:16]] in particular household crowding, inadequate nutrient intake, poor hygiene and lack of access to clean water. The social determinants of leprosy shape the socioeconomic conditions in which affected people live. The same social determinants augment vulnerability to COVID-19 and feed back into the disproportionate impact of the pandemic on such vulnerable populations. Gaps in access to water, sanitation and hygiene and in poverty reduction policies are unmistakably at the root of the incidence of leprosy, but also of vulnerability to COVID-19.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Leprosy is one of the 20 diseases classified by WHO as a neglected tropical disease. Neglected tropical diseases disproportionately affect populations living in poverty and have a devastating social and economic effect on over 1 billion people, in particular in low-income countries and the most disadvantaged communities in middle-income countries. Neglected tropical diseases are formally recognized as targets for global action in target 3.3 of the Sustainable Development Goals."}], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "A. Social determinants of health and illness"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The current global recession – the worst in nearly a century – has pushed an estimated 70 to 100 million more people into extreme poverty.[[fn:17]] Model-based simulations suggest an even greater number of around 90 million to 150 million people.[[fn:18]] Considering the fact that the poorest households spend around 70 per cent of their incomes on food, the pandemic is generating a global food crisis.[[fn:19]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "United Nations, “United Nations comprehensive response to COVID-19: saving lives, protecting societies, recovering better”, September 2020."}, {"n": 18, "text": "David Laborde and others, “COVID-19 risks to global food security”, Science, vol. 369 No. 6503."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "B. Food emergency"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Recognized as a human right in article 11 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the right to food is explicitly referred to by the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in its general comment No. 12 (1999) as being inseparable from social justice. The aforementioned barriers to the enjoyment of the right to decent work have also made persons affected by leprosy food insecure and particularly vulnerable to food crises. Independent studies have shown the relation between leprosy and malnutrition, which lowers immunity and therefore makes people more prone to infection.[[fn:20]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "Sharika Mahato and others, “Inequities towards leprosy-affected people: a challenge during COVID-19 pandemic”, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, vol. 14; K.N. Rao and others, “Undernutrition in lepromatous leprosy, Part I. Is it associated with poverty or with disease?” Leprosy Review, vol. 57 (1986); S.G. Feenstra and others “Recent food shortage is associated with leprosy disease in Bangladesh: a case-control study”. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, vol. 5; and Julia Moreira Pescarini and others, “Socioeconomic risk markers of leprosy in high-burden countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis”, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, vol. 12."}], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "B. Food emergency"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Since March 2020, the Special Rapporteur has been receiving reports from all leprosy-endemic countries about a food emergency among affected persons. A food emergency is defined as an extraordinary situation in which people are unable to meet their basic survival needs or there are serious and immediate threats to human life and well-being.[[fn:21]] As daily workers, the majority of persons affected by leprosy depend on their daily income to buy food. Together with the generalized increase in food prices, this has generated a food emergency. As one contributor to the present report expressed: “It is tough to see members [of the organization] dying from lack of food and other COVID-19 issues.”", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "United Nations, “The impact of COVID-19 on food security and nutrition”, policy brief, June 2020."}], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "B. Food emergency"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "The right to food is closely related to other rights, such as health, water, adequate housing and education. Access to fundamental and life-saving goods other than food, such as energy for cooking, clean water, soap, masks and personal protective equipment, has also been missing for the majority of affected people and their families.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "B. Food emergency"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "According to the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the seven components of the right to an adequate housing are: legal security of tenure, availability of services, materials, facilities and infrastructure, affordability, habitability, accessibility, location and cultural adequacy.[[fn:22]] Forced eviction is considered a prima facie violation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The Committee also acknowledged the close connection between adequate housing and the right to health.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 4 (1991)."}], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "C. Housing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has received reports of a lack of adequate housing, clean water, sanitation and electricity, as well as of housing deprivation due to loss of income, the specific risks faced by refugees affected by leprosy and cases of forced eviction in one former leprosy colony in Brazil.[[fn:23]] Widespread institutional neglect leading to lack of food, clean water and personal protective equipment in the nearly 2,000 leprosy colonies that are still active in the world today has also been reported.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See https://g1.globo.com/sp/mogi-das-cruzes-suzano/noticia/2021/03/13/familias-que-moram-no-1o-leprosario-do-brasil-recebem-notificacoes-de-despejo-durante-a-pandemia.ghtml (in Portuguese)."}], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "C. Housing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "Key information for COVID-19 prevention has, to a large extent, not been accessible to a considerable number of persons affected by leprosy, especially those living in rural areas, those who cannot read and those without access to technology. Lack of information, misinformation and low levels of awareness of how COVID-19 spreads, as well as of protection mechanisms, has been frequently reported.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "D. Access to information"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "In the face of the absence of medical technologies to stop the spread of COVID-19, its containment largely depends on individual and community engagement in preventive behaviour. The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS) has recommended a community-centred response to the pandemic, with the prioritization of the most vulnerable.[[fn:24]] Experience has shown that health education, in order to be effective and empowering to people, should be cognizant of the varying levels of comprehension and not be too technical, complex, hasty or delivered in a language, manner or context that people do not understand.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), “Rights in the time of COVID-19: lessons from HIV for an effective, community-led response”, 2020."}], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "D. Access to information"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Low-literacy populations require additional efforts to facilitate comprehension of technical concepts. The same is true for specific groups, such as children. Health education must be gender-sensitive, accessible for persons with disabilities and culturally appropriate. Furthermore, it is critical to address barriers created by the digital divide. Communication should also be reciprocal and channels for receiving the feedback from the community be made available. The right to access to information is provided for under article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Taking into consideration the risks to life associated with the lack of information about COVID-19, the Special Rapporteur considers such information to be fundamental to guaranteeing the right to life in the context of the pandemic and the lack of effective measures taken by governments to make it accessible to all people, especially those who are the most vulnerable, to be a human rights violation.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Access to fundamental goods and life-saving information", "D. Access to information"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "According to WHO, early diagnosis and complete antibacterial treatment with multidrug therapy – a combination of rifampicin, clofazimine and dapsone – remain the most effective strategies for tackling leprosy.[[fn:25]] Multidrug therapy is provided free of charge to all detected leprosy patients in accordance with WHO recommendations and through an agreement between the pharmaceutical company Novartis and WHO, which began in 2000 and was recently extended to 2025. The company produces the multidrug therapy components in India, and WHO manages its distribution to national leprosy programmes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "WHO, “Guidelines for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of leprosy”, 2017."}], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "A. Continuum of care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "One of the greatest challenges in the medical care of leprosy is leprosy reactions, which cause great physical and mental suffering. Leprosy reactions frequently occur during and after antibacterial treatment. They are also associated with nerve damage, which is the main cause of physical impairments. Leprosy reactions may require prolonged treatment, sometimes for several years.[[fn:26]] Unlike multidrug therapy, most of the drugs used for treating leprosy reactions are not provided to countries free of charge. They include steroids and thalidomide – the latter being well-known for its teratogenic effects and risks to sexual and reproductive health. Drugs used for treating leprosy reactions are immunosuppressive and are likely to increase susceptibility to COVID-19, which means that a high percentage of persons affected by leprosy are especially vulnerable to COVID-19.[[fn:27]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Diana N.J. Lockwood and others, “Three drugs are unnecessary for treating paucibacillary leprosy: a critique of the WHO guidelines”, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, viewpoints, 31 October 2019."}, {"n": 27, "text": "See www.who.int/docs/default-source/searo/thailand/advice-about-leprosy-and-covid-19.pdf?sfvrsn=6171bfc0_0."}], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "A. Continuum of care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "Despite being curable with multidrug therapy, if not detected early and treated, leprosy can become a chronic disease that demands a continuum of medical and psychosocial care, which includes rehabilitation, reconstructive surgery, the provision of assistive devices and psychosocial support. Such a continuum of medical and psychosocial care should be fully addressed by effective referral within national health-care systems. While assessing the impact of COVID-19 on medical care, the continuum of care must be properly taken into consideration.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "A. Continuum of care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "During the first months of the pandemic, specifically from early March to late July 2020, the Special Rapporteur received many reports pointing to a generalized pattern of multiple barriers to access to health care, such as the following:\n(a) The loss of financial and human resources from national leprosy programmes with the redirection of leprosy funds and staff to the fight against COVID-19, which caused a substantive reduction in leprosy-related initiatives;\n(b) The interruption of key activities for early diagnosis and the concomitant prevention of physical impairments, such as active case detection and post-exposure prophylaxis with single dose rifampicin;\n(c) The non-availability of leprosy care among health-care services, which in some cases even refused to attend to people suspected of having leprosy;\n(d) Sporadic difficulties in the provision of multidrug therapy;\n(e) Generalized difficulties in the treatment and clinical management of leprosy reactions, aggravated by the lack of monitoring necessary for the treatment of a highly complex health problem;\n(f) Lack of drugs for treating leprosy reactions;\n(g) The deferral of complementary care that was essential for the prevention of physical and psychosocial disabilities, such as wound care, protective footwear and other assistive devices or self-care and self-help groups;\n(h) A reduction in and the interruption of disability prevention and rehabilitation;\n(i) A reduction in and the interruption of community-based rehabilitation;\n(j) Self-diagnosed cases not receiving a diagnosis or treatment at health-care facilities;\n(k) The lack of effective national systems in place to monitor COVID-19 infection among immunocompromised persons affected by leprosy;\n(l) Older people living in former leprosy colonies being at greater risk of contracting COVID-19, with some public administrations turning parts of those former colonies into field hospitals for COVID-19;\n(m) The unavailability of health care in former leprosy colonies, due to lockdown and mobility restrictions;\n(n) Specific cases in which persons affected by leprosy could not receive health care, due to recently adopted procedures that excluded persons such as themselves, who do not possess citizenship cards, health insurance or the financial means to buy COVID-19 tests;\n(o) The lack of income to buy means of transportation to gain access to health-care services;\n(p) Political instability, with forced displacement in some countries, with no measures in place to ensure leprosy treatment.\nAs the Special Rapporteur wrote in her open letter to governments,[[fn:28]] the first months of the pandemic pointed to a serious threat to the continuum of care for persons affected by leprosy, as well as to the high probability of setbacks in the interruption of transmission and early diagnosis in the near future. During the second half of 2020, not only have those concerns been proven to be well-founded, but they have also increased.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Leprosy/SR_leprosy_Open_letter_22May2020.pdf."}], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "B. Barriers to the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "Shortages in multidrug therapy have been reported since August 2020. The first reports came from Brazil, with complaints of what was soon revealed to be a serious problem of a national scale, with a high number of people going without treatment. In the second half of 2020, the Special Rapporteur received news from more leprosy-endemic countries facing multidrug therapy shortages.[[fn:29]] According to the sources consulted by the Special Rapporteur, including Novartis, WHO and a number of national leprosy programmes, the problem was the result of distinct issues affecting the overall supply chain at various times, with the pandemic playing an important role, especially in terms of distribution and delivery to patients.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "In order to protect the sources, the Special Rapporteur will only disclose information about Brazil in the present report, given that such information is publicly available. See BRA 10/2020. Available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "C. Barriers to access to essential medicines"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "Reportedly, three issues affected access for leprosy patients to essential medicines: (a) shortages in one of the multidrug therapy drugs, namely, dapsone, at the end of 2019; (b) problems in the shipment of multidrug therapy after the outbreak of the pandemic; and (c) the discovery of impurities in one of the three multidrug therapy drugs, namely, of nitrosamines in rifampicin, in the second half of 2020. Importantly, multidrug therapy is not available to be bought at local pharmacies, and access for leprosy patients to it depends on donations to countries and in-country distribution.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "C. Barriers to access to essential medicines"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "In December 2020, the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations mapped the shortage of multidrug therapy drugs in countries in which its members operate and identified at least five leprosy-endemic countries whose patients were not receiving multidrug therapy and four countries that had run out of stocks for multidrug therapy treatment for children. According to the Federation, many other countries were expected to run out of multidrug therapy stocks in the months that followed. The Special Rapporteur received non-official and official complaints about the shortage of multidrug therapy drugs in more than the five countries mapped by the Federation, bringing to 10 the number of countries identified by the Special Rapporteur with multidrug therapy drug shortages during the period from mid-2020 through the beginning of 2021.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "C. Barriers to access to essential medicines"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "Being the cornerstone of leprosy control, multidrug therapy gaps increase transmission, transmission within households, including to children, neuropathic pain, physical impairments and mental health problems as a result of the extreme physical, mental and social suffering caused by leprosy.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "C. Barriers to access to essential medicines"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "In its general comment No. 14 (2000), the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights explicitly mentioned the provision of essential drugs as part of the right to health. The Committee also noted that, in the face of disaster, the international community bore the duty to contribute to relief and humanitarian assistance by providing medical supplies as a matter of priority. The Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health has elaborated further on those obligations, affirming that the requirement of human rights accountability extended to both the public and the private sectors and that it was not confined to national bodies, but encompassed international actors working on health-related issues.[[fn:30]] Importantly, in the Doha Declaration on the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights and Public Health, the members of the World Trade Organization affirmed that the agreement should be interpreted and implemented in a manner that promoted access to medicines for all.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "See A/63/263."}], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "C. Barriers to access to essential medicines"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "Principle 11.3 of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members provides for the obligation of all States to ensure that persons affected by leprosy have access to free medication for leprosy, as well as appropriate health care, reflecting articles 25 and 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "C. Barriers to access to essential medicines"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "The multidrug therapy crisis revealed double standards at play in terms of the protection of the right to health in the context of the pandemic. The Special Rapporteur has been calling attention to those double standards since mid-2020 at several stakeholders’ meetings and through the mandate holder’s regular working methods.[[fn:31]] The Special Rapporteur notes that global action to ensure supply channels for delivering essential medicines and goods did not reach persons affected by leprosy, nor did the definition of priority groups for COVID-19 vaccinations include them, despite the fact that many such persons are immunocompromised.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26697&LangID=E."}], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "D. Double standards"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "No official information has been released about the causes of the multidrug therapy crisis, nor about problem-solving activities or estimates of the resumption of delivery. The Special Rapporteur appreciates the difficulties of communicating information in uncertain scenarios, in addition to that fact that multidrug therapy delivery is conveyed through a complex chain of shared responsibilities, but she calls attention to the negative consequences of the failure to proactively communicate gaps and what is being done to fill them. Such a failure leads to the loss of trust and hinders people from being empowered with key information about matters that have a direct impact on their lives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "D. Double standards"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "The multidrug therapy crisis revealed the following gaps in need of an immediate response: (a) lack of international and national contingency plans for emergency situations, such as the one created by the COVID-19 crisis; (b) lack of multidrug therapy buffer stocks; (c) lack of guarantees of the right of the concerned people to access to information; and (d) lack of accountability mechanisms and remedies for failures in the overall multidrug therapy supply chain.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "D. Double standards"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The year 2021 began with the confirmation of the worst estimates regarding leprosy control and the fear that leprosy would continue to be kept furthest behind, as health resources and health-care personnel continued to be directed towards the fight against COVID-19 and were now also being directed towards COVID-19 vaccination campaigns. According to the WHO global leprosy programme,[[fn:32]] the impact of the pandemic on leprosy control is currently characterized as follows:\n(a) Delays in multidrug therapy provision and stock-outs;\n(b) Significant reductions in case detection in many countries;\n(c) Delays in case detection;\n(d) Increases in the number of hidden cases;\n(e) Increases in the development of irreversible physical impairments;\n(f) Slowdowns in the reduction in the incidence of leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "Personal communication."}], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "D. Double standards"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "The Special Rapporteur received reports from civil society organizations working in various countries that pointed in that direction, more specifically to a 50 per cent decrease in the diagnosis of new cases, with concerns over an increase in transmission rates and new cases among children, who may also be more likely to be diagnosed with already irreversible physical impairments. Official data from Brazil, the country with the highest relative incidence of leprosy worldwide, indicates that the number of new cases diagnosed in 2020 was less than half that of the new cases diagnosed in the same period in the year before the pandemic, which denotes a dangerous increase in transmission and disability in the near future.[[fn:33]] No strategies have been reported for tackling the situation, nor for ensuring the priority vaccination of immunocompromised leprosy patients. Again, double standards seem to be at play.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See www.aids.gov.br/pt-br/pub/2021/boletim-epidemiologico-hanseniase-2021 (in Portuguese)."}], "section": ["IV. Access to health care and essential medicines", "D. Double standards"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "Women and children are more vulnerable to discrimination on the grounds of leprosy.[[fn:34]] While monitoring the adverse effects of the pandemic, the Special Rapporteur, realizing how women and children faced multiple barriers which amplified the challenges 31 See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26697&LangID=E. 32 Personal communication. 33 See www.aids.gov.br/pt-br/pub/2021/boletim-epidemiologico-hanseniase-2021 (in Portuguese). 34 See A/HRC/41/47. they faced, made special efforts to listen to them. Such an endeavour was more successful in amplifying the voices of women than of children. In fact, it was with great concern that the Special Rapporteur learned, especially from female representatives of grass-roots organizations, that the counselling strategies in place to respond to leprosy-related discrimination were not age-sensitive and failed to effectively provide support to children and teenagers, whose needs went mostly unmet.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "See A/HRC/41/47."}], "section": ["V. Women and children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "The following testimony of a woman affected by leprosy shows how the denial of inclusive education, furthered by the denial of opportunities that can ensure economic security, makes women who have experienced leprosy more vulnerable to poverty, denial of autonomy and physical, psychological and sexual violence within the household: “As a woman with [a] disability, I am more disadvantaged. The society outcasts me; even if I am allowed to live within the household, I am like dead, not getting involved and no opinions are asked [of] me. I got the disease in childhood. I was denied education; it was like a predestination, because of the disease. I became dependent [on] my family, providing support within the household. But the household activities can be quite challenging; things like fetching water can be very difficult, because of my disability. I have been hiding inside the house, but men within the household take advantage of me, they intimidate me and they also sexually abuse me. They think that people like me must accept that. Other members of our organization say that, once they got the disease, their husbands blamed them and started beating them.”", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Women and children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "The general pattern of institutionalized, structural and interpersonal violence against women affected by leprosy has worsened with the pandemic and lockdown measures, while no institutional attempt to map the disproportionate impact of the pandemic on women and children has been reported. If the COVID-19-related health and socioeconomic crises hit women harder than men, for women affected by leprosy, the following root causes have aggravated their vulnerability to the adverse effects of the pandemic:\n(a) In some countries, customary law denies, on the grounds of leprosy, land and inheritance rights, which affects women more than men;\n(b) Discrimination in law on the grounds of leprosy disproportionately affects women;\n(c) Women bear the brunt of unpaid care and household work, which, together with the denial of the continuum of care in the context of the pandemic, causes the severe deterioration of their mental and physical health;\n(d) Women have been the hardest hit among those engaged in business and agriculture activities, and initiatives for economic empowerment, such as cooperatives and other social and solidarity economy endeavours, have been put on hold due to the pandemic;\n(e) Household isolation during lockdown measures, which further restricted the already limited autonomy of women affected by leprosy, including with regard to health, sexual and reproductive rights, has left them more vulnerable to domestic violence; the multidrug therapy crisis has aggravated that situation.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Women and children"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "The pandemic disclosed serious gaps in social protection coverage. According to ILO, at the time of the COVID-19 outbreak, only 45 per cent of the world’s population had access to at least one social protection benefit and less than one third was fully covered, while half of the global population lacked access to health-care services.[[fn:35]] As the crisis unfolded, many countries responded with mitigation measures and, by the end of 2020, around 1,600 social protection measures had either been announced or implemented.[[fn:36]] Despite such a remarkable number, the majority of those measures have been defined as short-term, reactive and inaccessible for many, especially for those most in need.[[fn:37]] The resources employed were only a fraction of what was needed to fill the social protection gaps in developing countries.[[fn:38]] Once again, the lived experience of persons affected by leprosy, as reported to the Special Rapporteur, confirm the existence of such gaps.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "ILO, “Financing gaps in social protection”."}, {"n": 36, "text": "ILO, “Towards solid social protection floors? The role of non-contributory provision during the COVID-19 crisis and beyond”, January 2021."}, {"n": 37, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Poverty/Pages/Covid19.aspx."}, {"n": 38, "text": "ILO, “Financing gaps in social protection”."}], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "A. Social protection and COVID-19-related mitigation measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "In mid-2020, a survey about the global public and private responses to the adverse effects of the crisis on persons affected by leprosy showed that, out of 24 countries[[fn:39]] (10 of which were among the 23 leprosy-affected countries identified by WHO as a priority), 18 had put into place protection measures from which persons affected by leprosy could benefit. Only one of the countries on that list, Myanmar, had implemented a specific measure to protect persons affected by leprosy. Most of the measures comprised short-term food aid and were discontinued after the first months of the outbreak.[[fn:40]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "Brazil, Cambodia, Chad, Colombia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ecuador, Gabon, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, Togo, Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of) and Yemen."}, {"n": 40, "text": "See https://zeroleprosy.org/covid-data/?fbclid=IwAR0xCWKzEBAHyClZYc0ojWdcKnoZGFvbrPnaK1jaAiJg0IkPUNneeuQqZvc."}], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "A. Social protection and COVID-19-related mitigation measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "By the end of 2020, 14 Governments (of which only 3 were leprosy-affected countries identified by WHO as a priority), had provided information on the general and specific social protection measures from which persons affected by leprosy could benefit in the context of the pandemic. Regarding pre-existing and regular social protection schemes, persons affected by leprosy are eligible to enjoy either disability, old age-related or poverty-related benefits in some of those 14 countries.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "A. Social protection and COVID-19-related mitigation measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "In India, the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act is applicable to persons cured of leprosy[[fn:41]] who have valid disability certificates. The Act mandates the appropriate administrative and government bodies to develop schemes and programmes in the areas of social security, health, rehabilitation and skills development. In order to apply online for the aforementioned certificate and receive it in digital form, the government implemented the Unique Disability Identity Card, from which 17,973 persons cured of leprosy have registered to date. Under the Department of Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities, several initiatives to support persons with disabilities have been put into motion, among which is the project for the rehabilitation of persons cured of leprosy, with a grant being provided to non-governmental organizations working in the field. In Brazil, persons affected by leprosy are eligible for a continuing instalment benefit, under Law No. 13.982/2020, that provides a monthly minimum wage to people with disabilities or to people over 65 years of age. Also in Brazil, Law No. 11.520/2007 provides for special lifelong, monthly, non-transferable pensions to persons affected by leprosy who were subjected to compulsory isolation up to 31 December 1986. In Maldives, persons affected by leprosy are eligible for the Senior Citizen Allowance. In Mauritius, the Ministry of Social Integration and Economic Empowerment targets its efforts at the inclusion of vulnerable groups, providing free gender-sensitive and culturally sensitive education and benefits to vulnerable families and support to persons living in extreme poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "It has been brought to the attention of the Special Rapporteur that such terminology could exclude people under medical treatment."}], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "A. Social protection and COVID-19-related mitigation measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "With regard to COVID-19-related mitigation measures, only the delivery of multidrug therapy, where available, seems to have been the object of specific leprosy-related measures, as part of countries’ responses aimed at enhancing effective access to health care in the context of the pandemic. The majority of the measures reported are of a general type. General health-care protection measures range from increasing the capacity of the health-care system, such as was done in Costa Rica, to the simplification of occupational medicine procedures, as well as benefits, for persons with chronic diseases and disabilities, as was done in Algeria. Measures aimed at ensuring the proper delivery of multidrug therapy were implemented in Bolivia, Guatemala, Maldives and Morocco. In India, guidelines to ensure the supply of multidrug therapy, the sustenance of disability prevention activities and new case detection were issued by the central Government. In Mozambique, COVID-19-related health awareness-raising materials, hygiene items and masks were distributed among leprosy-affected communities. Socioeconomic measures were enacted in Brazil, where a cash transfer benefit has been provided to informal and self-employed workers, as well as to unemployed persons. Similar measures were implemented in Maldives. In Japan, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare held a consultation in October 2020, in order to assess the needs of persons affected by leprosy and their families due to COVID-19, and implemented special prevention measures against COVID-19 at leprosy sanatoriums, with accompanying budgetary measures.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "A. Social protection and COVID-19-related mitigation measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Social protection systems have not only proved to be essential in responding to the crisis, but are also economic and social stabilizers that can play an important role in recovery.[[fn:42]] Social protection systems should, in principle, extend security to all, throughout the life cycle, underpinning universality and linking basic income security to dignity.[[fn:43]] The Special Rapporteur received a considerable number of reports that pointed to multiple and intersecting barriers to access for persons affected by leprosy to social protection benefits before and during the pandemic. As regards disability-related benefits, eligibility criteria based on a limited medical assessment, together with administrative services and bureaucratic procedures that are not accessible to illiterate or poorly educated populations or to populations living in remote or peripheral areas, are widespread and exclude, in practice, a large number of persons affected by leprosy. Moreover, the shutdown of public administration, in addition to transportation restrictions, acted as barriers to social protection measures during lockdown measures. A considerable number of people also reported being discriminated against on the grounds of leprosy when seeking access to social protection services. Notably, ILO identified geographical and financial accessibility to essential services, such as water, sanitation, health and education, as an integral part of comprehensive social protection systems,[[fn:44]] and the ILO Social Protection Floors Recommendation, 2012 (No. 202) explicitly indicates that States should identify barriers to protection.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "ILO, “Financing gaps in social protection”."}, {"n": 43, "text": "ILO Social Protection Floors Recommendation, 2012 (No. 202)."}, {"n": 44, "text": "ILO, “Towards the right to work: innovations in public employment programmes”, employment working paper No. 69, 23 June 2010."}], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "B. Issues of access and gaps"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "With regard to COVID-19-related mitigation measures, barriers, such as eligibility criteria, lack of recognition of the additional costs of disability, inaccessible administrative services or bureaucratic procedures, lack of access to the Internet and digital illiteracy, in addition to civil and political rights violations on the grounds of leprosy, which have resulted in the denial of the right to own identity cards and to be integrated into cities and municipalities’ databases in some countries, amount to a widespread denial of protection. Furthermore, emergency measures were mostly one-off and indisputably insufficient. Concomitantly, persons affected by leprosy are reportedly not being taken into consideration in national recovery plans.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "B. Issues of access and gaps"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Temporary measures enacted during the pandemic should act as building blocks for founding national social protection floors.[[fn:45]] With such an aim in view, the Special Rapporteur considers that significant improvement is indispensable and recommends the fulfilment of one gap in particular. Apart from Japan, no other country provided information on attempts to guarantee the participation of persons affected by leprosy and of their representative organizations in the formulation and implementation of social protection measures in response to the crisis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "ILO, “Towards solid social protection floors?”."}], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "B. Issues of access and gaps"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "Participation is a fundamental principle of human rights and community engagement a well-documented key strategy for simultaneously preventing and responding to outbreaks in an equitable, appropriate and efficient manner.[[fn:46]] A very limited number of WHO member States report having included community engagement in COVID-19-related plans.[[fn:47]] Policymakers must guarantee that citizens’ voices are being heard[[fn:48]] on a non-discriminatory basis that enables marginalized groups to have a voice and a choice in problem-solving endeavours, even more so because they possess key knowledge, which is many times absent from official monitoring systems, and can easily identify both additional needs and solutions. As the world starts rolling out COVID-19 vaccines, and while the socioeconomic crisis expands, ensuring the participation of those who have been systematically pushed furthest behind is a sine qua non for ensuring equity in recovery.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "Brynne Gilmore and others, “Community engagement for COVID-19 prevention and control: a rapid evidence synthesis”, BMJ Global Health, vol. 5, No. 10."}, {"n": 47, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 48, "text": "Cicely Marston and others, “Community participation is crucial in a pandemic”, The Lancet, vol. 395, No. 10238."}], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "B. Issues of access and gaps"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "Once the health crisis and food emergency became evident, many non-governmental organizations working in the field of leprosy transferred resources from field activities to humanitarian aid. In October 2020, non-governmental organizations were providing emergency relief to persons affected by leprosy in at least 16 countries.[[fn:49]] In the beginning of 2021, 23 leprosy-related non-governmental organizations informed the Special Rapporteur that they were engaging in humanitarian activities in 19 countries, 12 of which are leprosy-affected countries identified by WHO as a priority. Leprosy-related non-governmental organizations usually cooperate with central and local governments, filling the gaps, especially at the community level.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "See https://zeroleprosy.org/covid-data/?fbclid=IwAR0xCWKzEBAHyClZYc0ojWdcKnoZGFvbrPnaK1jaAiJg0IkPUNneeuQqZvc."}], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "C. Filling the gaps"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "During lockdown measures, non-governmental organizations reached out to isolated communities of persons affected by leprosy, filling the gaps concerning health care, health promotion and food relief. The general provision of health care by non-governmental organizations in the context of the pandemic encompassed the continuum of care, from the delivery of essential medicines, including multidrug therapy and drugs for treating leprosy reactions, to wound dressing kits for ulcers, protective footwear and self-care kits. Telemedicine, mobile clinics and home-based care services were part of a set of strategies developed to reach people under lockdown measures, alongside the provision of key support to local health systems, especially to community health-care workers and front-line health-care workers. Health promotion was also targeted, with the distribution of hygiene and sanitation supplies, masks and information about COVID-19 prevention. Food relief has also been frequent and widespread, with the delivery of food, cash transfers and cooked meals by community kitchens at leprosy hospitals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "C. Filling the gaps"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "The Special Rapporteur considers good practices to be the set of strategies put in place through collaborative work with persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations, respecting autonomy, enhancing local capacities and linking relief to development.[[fn:50]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Active Learning Network for Accountability and Performance in Humanitarian Action, “Participation by crisis-affected populations in humanitarian action: a handbook for practitioners”, (London, Overseas Development Institute, 2003)."}], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "D. Good practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Coproduction of health[[fn:51]] through participatory strategies that engage persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations as agents, and not just as passive beneficiaries, has been at the core of the work of a more limited number of non-governmental organizations. Some of the good practices that they have developed in the context of the pandemic are as follows:\n(a) In Brazil, NHR Brazil has provided support to persons affected by leprosy for moving the sale of their products online;\n(b) In India, the Karuna project of the Stepping Stone Charitable Society, with the support of the Leprosy Mission England and Wales, supported trainee tailors in stitching washable face masks, which were then distributed among various communities;\n(c) In India, the LEPRA Society office in Odisha implemented a resilience project that enhanced the local capacity of extremely marginalized families to fend for themselves against the adverse effects of the pandemic;\n(d) In India, the Leprosy Mission Trust India developed accessible COVID-19 awareness-raising materials that also included information on mental well-being and care at home under lockdown measures, within a participatory and intercultural framework;\n(e) In Nepal, the Nepal Leprosy Trust of the Lalgadh Hospital and Leprosy Services Centre partnered with persons affected by leprosy to enable them to advocate for the protection of their human rights in the context of the pandemic at the local government level;\n(f) In Nepal, the Leprosy Mission Nepal produced accessible and intercultural materials based on the WHO guidelines;\n(g) In Papua New Guinea, the Leprosy Mission Papua New Guinea used locally available materials to produce clean water for the use of communities;\n(h) In Myanmar, the Leprosy Mission Myanmar facilitated the process for persons affected by leprosy to apply for cash transfers and supported the Myanmar Association of Persons Affected by Leprosy to advocate for their rights;\n(i) The Sasakawa Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease) Initiative provided funds and technical support to 22 organizations of persons affected by leprosy from 14 countries in order for them to provide emergency relief to their communities, through a grant based on four pillars, namely, emergency relief, advocacy for rights enforcement, communication and building sustainability, the core objective of which is respect for the autonomy of the organizations and increasing their capacity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "Cicely Marston and others, “Community participation is crucial in a pandemic”."}], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "D. Good practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "Grass-roots organizations, such as the Advancing Leprosy and Disadvantaged Peoples’ Opportunities Society, the Movement of Reintegration of Persons Affected by Hansen’s Disease (MORHAN), the Federación de Asociaciones de Personas Afectadas por Lepra (FELEHANSEN), the Organization of People Affected by Leprosy in Congo (OPALCO), the Ethiopian National Association of Persons Affected by Leprosy (ENAPAL), the Saksham Kushthanteya Swabhimani Sanstha, the Independent Leprosy Association (PerMaTa) and the Tanzania Leprosy Association, as well as many others that the Special Rapporteur will not refer to in the present report so as to safeguard confidentiality, have been at the forefront of responding to and mitigating the disproportionate impact of the pandemic on their peers and communities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "D. Good practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "Such organizations were in fact the first ones to sound the alarm about the disproportionate impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on persons affected by leprosy and to mobilize resources to ensure their survival amid the health and socioeconomic crises. In the face of an absence of data collection about persons affected by leprosy in national COVID-19 monitoring systems, grass-roots organizations produced data and introduced bottom-up, contextualized and effective solutions to problems. In the context of the pandemic, those organizations proved to be experts through experience in the area, as well as in the areas of health and equality data. By the same token, not only did they fill the gaps, they also devised innovative strategies for mapping problems, solving them, providing emergency aid and mainstreaming health education and counselling under lockdown measures. Only grass-roots organizations seemed to have effected strategies that were gender-sensitive, age-sensitive and disability-sensitive. Advocacy for rights enforcement for all, and not just the few within the reach of civil society organizations, is at the core of the work of grass-roots organizations, as is networking with partners outside the leprosy community, such as organizations working on the right to clean and safe water and access to water, sanitation and hygiene. Notably, all of that was done with scarce support from governments.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Responses to the crisis", "D. Good practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "The lived experiences of persons affected by leprosy and their family members in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic acutely illustrate the relevance of the content of general comment No. 36 (2018) of the Human Rights Committee. While recognizing the linkage between the right to life and the enjoyment of a life with dignity, as well as affirming the protection of vulnerable groups and the fight against health-related and disability-related stigmatization as part of the duty of States parties to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights to protect the right to life, the Committee also called for measures to ensure adequate general conditions that included the fulfilment of fundamental economic and social rights. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights[[fn:52]] has identified the undermining of health-care systems in the past decades, the inadequacy of social programmes to respond to poverty and the increase in discrimination, stigmatization and inequality as determining factors for the current health, social and economic crises that disproportionately affect those who are more vulnerable. Discrimination in law and in practice, together with substantive discrimination with regard to access to social and economic rights, has left persons affected by leprosy in a situation of extreme vulnerability to COVID-19 and to the crisis that has unfolded, compromising their right to life and unveiling, in practice, the indivisibility, interdependence and interrelation of human rights. The principle of universality of human rights as provided for in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights has hardly been fulfilled, and the pandemic disclosed the multiple divides that persist and result in the denial of the enjoyment of substantive equality for a significant part of the world population, including persons affected by leprosy. Over the course of the pandemic, the enjoyment of social and economic rights has been compromised not only by structural material deprivation, but also by the intersections of the latter with gender, race, age, disability status and sexual orientation, among other historically oppressed social categories. Such a fact calls for legal and policy frameworks that can ensure de facto universal access to economic, social and cultural rights for the most vulnerable. The principle of progressivity should be applied in a reasonable manner that firmly recognizes poverty as a human rights violation and that guarantees minimum core obligations in a way that is proportional to the needs of vulnerable groups and groups that have been discriminated against. Such is the core principle for building back better by placing those who have systematically been pushed furthest behind at the centre of an inclusive recovery.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "See E/C.12/2020/1."}], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that States put those who are furthest behind at the centre of an inclusive recovery by eliminating double standards in the response to the current crisis, ensuring non-discrimination and the right to participation for the most marginalized. States should establish minimum core obligations of social and economic rights with regard to vulnerable groups as a matter of priority, with the necessary accompanying institutional arrangements and allocation of resources within national budgets. In accordance with articles 4 and 6 of the Declaration on the Right to Development, it is crucial to mitigate the adverse effects of the pandemic on vulnerable groups and to enable comprehensive and human-centred development policies in low- and middle-income countries. Grass-roots organizations should be placed at the centre of emergency aid, coproduction of health and policymaking for systemic change and be recognized as experts through experience, in accordance with the spirit of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, in which it was affirmed that development must go beyond transforming the material conditions of people in disadvantaged circumstances to actually enabling them to have a voice and a choice. States should systematically collect and analyse data in a way that includes disaggregation not only by demographic, environmental, socioeconomic and cultural variables, but also by the various grounds of discrimination recognized in international human rights law, such as gender, age and disability status, with full respect for the principles of participation and privacy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that States fulfil the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health for persons affected by leprosy as follows:\n(a) Health systems should be strengthened and the efforts of national leprosy-related programmes sustained;\n(b) The WHO road map for neglected tropical diseases, 2021–2030, should guide action taken by leprosy-endemic countries, which must be accompanied by proper budget allocations at the national and subnational levels;\n(c) A rights-based strategy for leprosy within health-care systems must be people-centred, having as a priority the well-being of persons, communities and populations, and should ensure the availability, as well as physical and economic accessibility, of health-care services;\n(d) Access to health care should be guaranteed on a non-discriminatory basis through strategies that fight discrimination in health-care settings, ineffective public policies and geographical isolation;\n(e) The scope of national leprosy-related programmes should be expanded to include targeted action on the social determinants of leprosy, which should be based on a comprehensive multisectoral policy with coordinated interventions between the different sectors of government;\n(f) The right to a continuum of medical and psychosocial care that encompasses the full spectrum of prevention, timely access to multidrug therapy, the proper management of leprosy reactions and complementary care, such as wound care, physiotherapy, rehabilitation and reconstructive surgery, should be guaranteed, alongside service delivery at the community level, and access to essential medicines should be ensured through national and international efforts, while also guaranteeing the right to access to information;\n(g) National leprosy programmes should endeavour to ensure the right of persons affected by leprosy to the highest attainable standard of mental health, with an approach that is ethically respectful, culturally appropriate, gender-sensitive and empowering to individuals and that makes use of peer support as an integral part of recovery-based services;\n(h) Short-term mitigation action and long-term systemic change should be developed with the full participation of persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations in the design, implementation and evaluation stages, with proper institutional arrangements that enable the transparent sharing of information, ownership and joint decision-making;\n(i) Accessible mechanisms for filing complaints of rights violations should be made available and the health-care workforce should be trained in not only clinical, but also structural, competencies that can foster in-depth understanding of the root causes of discrimination and emotional distress experienced by users in the context of their culture and life;\n(j) Persons affected by leprosy must be recognized as a vulnerable group with regard to COVID-19, given that many of them are immunocompromised, and leprosy should be recognized as grounds for priority in COVID-19 testing, COVID-19 vaccinations and access to health care.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that States protect the right to work of persons affected by leprosy as follows:\n(a) Abolishing discriminatory laws that hinder persons affected by leprosy from enjoying the right to work and enjoying their rights at work;\n(b) Recognizing persons affected by leprosy as active economic agents, respecting their legal capacity and realizing their rights to equal work opportunities in the open labour market and to equal remuneration;\n(c) Guaranteeing the right to education through the creation of an inclusive and enabling education system that is non-discriminatory and that ensures the availability of education services, accessibility at all levels of education and the promotion of life-long training and skills development opportunities, as well as the provision of reasonable accommodation;\n(d) Implementing gender-inclusive approaches to ensuring the right to work and ensuring rights at work that fight the intersection of gender with leprosy-related harmful stereotypes and disability and which affirm women’s rights to inclusive education, vocational training, decent work and equal remuneration, and properly recognizing unpaid care work in social protection schemes;\n(e) Implementing a whole-of-government approach that mainstreams persons affected by leprosy into macro-level policies aimed at the transition from the informal economy to the formal economy, as well as develops specific intervention models adapted to the reality of persons affected by leprosy working in the informal economy, including strategic objectives and key performance indicators;\n(f) Formally recognizing the social and solidarity economy, as well as its tangible economic benefits and intangible social benefits;\n(g) Including persons affected by leprosy in public employment programmes;\n(h) Opening social dialogue to organized groups of persons affected by leprosy working in the informal economy and guaranteeing barrier-free participation by addressing both physical barriers and those related to illiteracy, poor education, culture, gender and the digital divide;\n(i) Enabling the right to collective bargaining for persons affected by leprosy, working both in the formal and informal economy, including by making available a defined interface with the institutions and government bodies with which the organizations must dialogue;\n(j) Fulfilling accessibility and reasonable accommodation rights in all productive sectors and work arrangements, including agriculture, husbandry and fishing; and recognizing visible physical impairments related to leprosy for the provision of reasonable accommodation, as well as invisible ones, such as pain or loss of sensation, and psychosocial disabilities related to stigmatization;\n(k) Implementing affirmative measures as a means to correct historical and structural disadvantage, which should encompass both work and education opportunities and come with targets and key performance indicators, as well as with effective enforcement mechanisms and remedies, while also following paragraph 11 (i) of ILO recommendation No. 168 concerning vocational rehabilitation and employment with regard to awareness-raising, and the eligibility criteria for which should be defined in consultation with grass-roots organizations and should ensure the accessibility of procedures.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-29-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-47-29", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that States fulfil the right to social protection of persons affected by leprosy. Social protection measures to respond to the current crisis should act as building blocks for founding national social protection floors and contribute to the realization of universal health coverage and to universal social protection schemes, while also fulfilling urgent needs regarding health care, basic income security and access to food and to personal protective equipment. Given the interlinkages between leprosy and poverty, the rights to an adequate standard of living and to independent living cannot be realized without the prior granting of social benefits under a rights-based, comprehensive social protection policy, which must be implemented through administrative services and bureaucratic procedures that can guarantee full accessibility to illiterate or poorly educated populations, as well as to populations living in remote areas. Such a comprehensive social protection policy should also target active citizenship by promoting training opportunities and formal employment, while guaranteeing support as needed. In the design of social benefits, such as unconditional cash transfers, the real needs of the target population, including the additional costs of disability, should be taken into consideration. Specific measures for short-term action regarding the adverse effects of the pandemic include broadening social protection to persons affected by leprosy and simplifying both eligibility criteria and administrative requirements, providing cash and in-kind benefits, supporting people who provide long-term care for older persons affected by leprosy, supporting the special needs and responding to the specific challenges faced by women, children, teenagers and older persons affected by leprosy, ensuring a universal basic income for persons affected by leprosy and ensuring security, access to health care and fundamental goods to people living in former leprosy colonies.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2021, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "In the present report, developed in accordance with Human Rights Council resolution 44/6, the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, Alice Cruz, addresses the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health for persons affected by leprosy, also known as Hansen’s disease, and their family members. With the report, the Special Rapporteur hopes to provide people-centred and action-oriented elements that can help to detail, in practical and pragmatic terms, both the content and the application of the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health for persons affected by leprosy and their family members, and also for persons who experience neglected tropical diseases other than leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "Few human rights have such intricate, controversial and uncertain features as the right to health.[[fn:1]] While there has been undeniable progress towards the generalized recognition of health as a human right, as well as in regard to the specification of its normative content, debates about the right to health are still rather fragmented and sprawl over diverse theoretical and practical fields, each with its own, and many times competing, agenda. Such uncertainty is coupled with difficulties in defining health.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Jennifer Ruger, “Toward a theory of a right to health: capability and incompletely theorized agreements”, Yale Journal of Law & the Humanities, vol. 18 (2006)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "Health is far from being a univocal concept. Contending visions about the human body and what it means to enjoy a good life fills this concept with controversy. Notwithstanding the rich cultural diversity around the concept, most of international and national policymaking adopts one hegemonic narrative about health and the adequate means to foster it. The narrative is anchored on biomedicine’s explanatory models and technologies and on the State’s regulation of human bodies within a capitalist model that aims to maximize their productivity, as well as on the consumer market.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "In its Constitution, the World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, whereas article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights presents a more overarching concept that connects health and well-being to the guarantees to a dignified and secure standard of living, encompassing access not only to food, clothing and housing, but also to medical care and social security. Yet the majority of global and national health narratives and strategies continue to be dominated by the biomedical narrative on human suffering, which narrows diseases to mere biological phenomena, and thus remain disease-centred. Although they include recommendations on ensuring universal and affordable access to water, sanitation and hygiene in order to tackle diseases related to poverty, global health policies do not address the structural violence that is at the root of many of such diseases (as is the case of leprosy and other neglected tropical diseases) and much of the human suffering and economic loss they cause.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Biomedical practices are usually structured upon unequal power relations, which are exacerbated in the cases of groups and populations historically subjected to structural violence, as a woman affected by leprosy sharply pointed out to the Special Rapporteur:\nI need to persuade the health professional that I really need assistance, like I didn’t have the right to the service. Often, they don’t even bother listening. Their answer is already ready: “Let’s wait and see what happens and if you don’t improve by next month, we’ll see what to do.” Who suffers from pain shouldn’t have to wait. But that’s what we’ve been doing. We’re getting used to the pain, the prejudice, the lack of rights, because it’s very tiring, having to fight every day for something you are entitled to.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "Unequal power relations convert people into passive beneficiaries without the means to overcome the unintentional harm that misguided policies and practices may, and often do, cause. Significantly, while leprosy is mostly endemic in countries of the global South, the global North continues to lead decision-making, without sufficiently taking into account the immense expertise consistently being produced by the global South. As some authors point out, imbalances in power can predispose programme implementers to important blind spots.[[fn:2]] The reductionist approach, together with unbalanced power relations between decision makers, health practitioners and persons affected by leprosy, often engenders misconceptions and bottlenecks that end up producing and reproducing discrimination, as the present report will demonstrate.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "David G. Addiss and Joseph J. Amon, “Apology and unintended harm in global health”, Health and Human Rights Journal, vol. 21, No. 1 (June 2019)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "In a historical moment marked by a pandemic that has had devastating consequences at the global level, which were exacerbated by an economic crisis that led, in many contexts, to a regression in terms of people’s enjoyment of social and economic rights, it seems more relevant than ever to detail the content of the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, particularly from a people-centred and action-oriented perspective. Furthermore, and as the Special Rapporteur has already mapped and reported on, the disproportionate impact of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic on persons affected by leprosy has jeopardized not only the individuals’ right to health, but also the efforts made over decades. Estimates shared by the Special Rapporteur regarding a significant drop in new case detection rates[[fn:3]] were recently confirmed by WHO.[[fn:4]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See A/HRC/47/29."}, {"n": 4, "text": "According to WHO, the proportion of new cases in many countries was significantly lower than in 2019 (31.1 per cent on average,), which may reflect the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. WHO, Weekly Epidemiological Record No. 36 (2021), pp. 421–444."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The COVID-19 pandemic has simultaneously unveiled and deepened structural gaps regarding the enjoyment of the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health by persons affected by leprosy. In the view of the Special Rapporteur, some of these gaps relate to the priority that has been given over the years to only one of the three components of the overarching goal of zero leprosy, namely, to zero infection and disease (meaning stopping transmission and eliminating leprosy), over zero disabilities (prevention of impairments and rehabilitation) and zero discrimination (elimination of both formal and substantive discrimination), which reflects the hegemony of the reductionist interpretation in biomedicine of health and human suffering.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Moreover, and as the prevalence of leprosy has declined (even though incidence has proved to be much harder to reduce), the tendency for leprosy to lose priority at the government level has increased. And so has the historical underfunding of basic, clinical and operational research on leprosy, leaving key questions about leprosy and how to mitigate the suffering it causes unanswered. Additionally, the dramatic loss of expertise to diagnose and treat leprosy is decried by many leprosy experts as a major cause of the systematic denial of the right to health of persons affected by leprosy. Such structural dynamics, which encompass all levels of health production, from the global to the local, lie at the root of the pain expressed to the Special Rapporteur by one woman affected by leprosy: “Stop saying that this disease is curable! It is not! One cannot ever go back to living a normal life.”", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Such complaints are common. Many persons affected by leprosy claim that, even though health-care workers say they are cured, they do not feel healed. Such complaints are commonly dismissed by health-care workers and experts as being the result of a limited understanding by lay people of this highly specialized area of biomedicine, since, officially, a cure for leprosy has existed for seven decades. The Special Rapporteur strongly disagrees with this reading and affirms that such complaints are not the result of ignorance, but are instead a valuable source of knowledge to be used for the evaluation of existing public health policies, as well as an enlightening statement about diverse but interrelated subjects, such as: the classification of diseases, namely, the boundary between the normal and the pathologic); public health strategies; the continuum of care; the quality of health-care systems; the reach of universal health coverage; and the barriers people face in accessing health care.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "What this woman is saying is that health is not a purely biological, individual and/or technical issue, as it is portrayed in a reductionist approach, but rather a deeply political matter, which is very much in line with what Rudolph Virchow, the father of social medicine stated in the late nineteenth century. His famous saying – that medicine is a social science and politics is nothing but medicine at a larger scale – was rarely taken into account in the subsequent development of the field of traditional top-down public health (with important exceptions, such as in the case of Latin American collective health), which relegated to a secondary status the social medicine perspective that defended the view that ill health resulted from social deprivation and poor living conditions.[[fn:5]] His words nonetheless reflect the fact that the human body always tells a story about society. In the case of leprosy, that story speaks of endemic social injustice.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See Abadía-Barrero and Ardila-Sierra, “The right to health under capitalism”."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Over the past years, the Special Rapporteur has always made herself available to cooperate with intergovernmental agencies and their leprosy-related programmes, such as WHO, in particular its Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases department and Global Leprosy Programme, but also with other stakeholders that work hard to fight leprosy and its consequences, such as the WHO Goodwill Ambassador for Leprosy Elimination, the Global Partnership for Zero Leprosy (a coalition that includes WHO, the Novartis Foundation, the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, the Sasakawa Health Foundation and the International Association for Integration, Dignity and Economic Advancement) and the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations and its members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The Special Rapporteur acknowledges the comprehensive nature of the guidelines recommended and the practices implemented by some of these key stakeholders. She regrets the difficulties of implementation of the same guidelines at the national and subnational levels, which often result from budget limitations, but also from the low awareness of decision makers as to the human suffering and economic losses caused by leprosy. The Special Rapporteur thus believes that a new narrative about the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health for persons affected by leprosy and their family members is of the essence.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Such a narrative must be drawn from the expertise of the community of persons affected by leprosy and their own interpretation of their right to health, but also from evidence that is alternative and complementary to official epidemiology. Why is alternative and complementary evidence necessary? Because in the field of global health, metrics, as technologies of counting, are standardized and uniformized in order to enable global conversation,[[fn:6]] many times making invisible local knowledge that might be key for meeting agreed-upon targets. In the present report, the Special Rapporteur aims to posit people-centred elements that can encourage States, intergovernmental agencies and international, national and local stakeholders to produce knowledge that places people’s experience at the centre of the analysis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See Vincanne Adams, ed., Metrics: What Counts in Global Health (Durham, Duke University Press, 2016)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "In order to prepare the present report, the Special Rapporteur undertook several consultations, in line with her usual working methods. She consulted States and civil society organizations about national policies and practices. She also developed an online questionnaire to try to reach as many persons affected by leprosy as possible, while being very much aware that the majority of the target population does not have access to the Internet and struggles with multiple barriers to participation.[[fn:7]] This means that the responses to the online questionnaire reflect a very specific layer of the target population, one that already enjoys a higher degree of inclusion, which is not the harsh reality of the great majority of persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks the Sasakawa Health Foundation, the International Association for Integration, Dignity and Economic Advancement and The Leprosy Mission International, but also individuals such as Deepa Palaniappan, for their support in the preparation and dissemination of the online questionnaire."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "For the report, the Special Rapporteur also draws on her continuous collaboration with the key stakeholders mentioned above, and others, such as the International Leprosy Association, alongside which she has learned greatly over the years.[[fn:8]] She particularly relied on her permanent dialogue with persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations. As usual, through her work, the Special Rapporteur aims to identify the particular patterns of discrimination experienced by women affected by leprosy. In this sense, she was privileged to participate in three international meetings organized by the women’s policy department of Movimento de Reintegração das Pessoas Atingidas pela Hanseníase, a non-profit organization in Brazil, with the goal of listening to girls and women affected by leprosy, as well as female family members of persons affected by the disease. The meetings were held in three sessions (Africa, the Americas and Asia) between November and December 2021. An important source of data concerning young people affected by leprosy were the webinars on human and youth rights organized by the Sasakawa Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease) Initiative.[[fn:9]] Lastly, the report is also informed by two decades of intense work by the Special Rapporteur with persons affected by leprosy and their family members in relation to their right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "The Special Rapporteur thanks Mauricio Lisboa Nobre, leprologist and specialist in tropical medicine, for his support in clinical matters related to leprosy."}, {"n": 9, "text": "See https://sasakawaleprosyinitiative.org/latest-updates/initiative-news/1062/."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "A. Goals and methodology: a bottom-up narrative about the right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "From the nineteenth century onwards, the global health agenda has put greater emphasis on the right to health care to the detriment of the right to be healthy. Likewise, subsequent scholarly work on the right to health has been dedicated mainly to clarifying States’ obligations on ensuring access to health care. The right to health, although supported by a body of international law, is usually referred to as being too vague, barely enforceable and as an inaccessible standard in itself. Services, freedoms, resources, opportunities and goods seem more adequate variables for monitoring the enforcement of the right to health than health itself.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "B. Right to be healthy versus the right to health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "Provisions in international norms about the right to health reflect this biased reasoning and sectarian approach, by putting greater emphasis on individual access to health care to the detriment of the promotion of the collective conditions that can allow groups and populations to experience healthy living. Notably, the right to health was codified in a time of utter trust in the lineal progress of science and in biomedicine as the decisive tool for fighting the burden of diseases. Such ideas shaped the architecture and goals of contemporary institutions. Those institutions match the right to health with the individual right to receive medical treatment, encourage the expansion of the medical and pharmaceutical industries, and sideline approaches targeting the underlying social determinants of health.[[fn:10]] In this context, health has become one of the more profitable industries of our time, with shameful discriminatory effects.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Benjamin Mason Meier and Ashley M. Fox, (2008) “Development as health: employing the collective right to development to achieve the goals of the individual right to health”, Human Rights Quarterly, vol. 30 (2008)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "B. Right to be healthy versus the right to health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "The right to health, as provided for in international human rights law, and particularly in article 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, faces important restrictions. One such limitation is that the right to health is inherently resource dependent.[[fn:11]] Progressive realization, meaning that States are only obliged to progressively realize, to the maximum of their available resources, the highest achievable standards of health, hinders agreement over a theoretical framework that can objectively evaluate the cost-effectiveness of States’ health expenditures.[[fn:12]] In practice, States can simultaneously not implement and not violate the right to health. Another limitation concerns accountability. As the experience of persons affected by leprosy demonstrates, it is almost unfeasible for individuals who have been left behind by health-care policies to successfully find the means to legally hold States accountable under international human rights mechanisms. If States can evade accountability, underfunded health-care systems will hardly meet the needs of groups and populations living in vulnerable situations, as is the case for persons affected by leprosy and other neglected tropical diseases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Benjamin Mason Meier and Larisa M. Mori, “The highest attainable standard: advancing a collective human right to public health”, Columbia Human Rights Law Review, vol. 37 (2005); and Philip Alston and Gerard Quinn, “The nature and scope of States Parties’ obligations under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights”, Human Rights Quarterly, vol. 9 (1987), p. 177."}, {"n": 12, "text": "Meier and Fox, “Development as health”."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "B. Right to be healthy versus the right to health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Global health, a movement very much aligned with the business interests of the global North, has encouraged solutions to health problems that support the commodification of health and the privatization of health care,[[fn:13]] which, together with States’ discretion to progressively realize economic, social and cultural rights, have favoured the individualistic model of health, as well as sectarian approaches to it. Contrarily to the wide consensus that technocratic approaches are temporary and do not provoke substantial shifts, international and national decision makers have largely opted for such approaches to problem-solving. And with that, the dependency of the global South on external aid and technology transfers remained an obstacle to the enjoyment of health and well-being by many people around the world, as the unequal access to vaccination against COVID-19 has gloomily shown. Furthermore, the privatization of health care undermines implicit values of health as a right, as its outcomes are unfair health systems that provide unequal health care dependent on the income of each person.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "See Audrey R. Chapman, Global Health, Human Rights and the Challenge of Neoliberal Policies (Cambridge University Press, 2016)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "B. Right to be healthy versus the right to health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The market model applied to health stimulates biases and diverts the attention from primary prevention and collective action. Global-health, disease-control and prevention programmes – generally seen as apolitical ways of providing medication and technologies to the poorest – are, in fact, highly political, since they often operate from the outside and impose devices and solutions that are many times unrelated to the reality and knowledge developed at the local level.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "B. Right to be healthy versus the right to health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "These are strategies that favour the accumulation of power and benefits in the hands of already powerful actors, while transferring the responsibility for the disease to the diseased. By blaming the victim, collective and structural issues of societies as a whole are seen as mere individual problems. Explanations of disease incidence based on individual behaviour spare the whole society, as well as those who are more privileged, from committing themselves to structural changes and engaging in collective actions. Victim blaming triggers data about individual refusal to engage in treatment or other forms of disease prevention and control. It may even criminalize victims, as has happened with leprosy and as is still the case with the more than 100 legal frameworks that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy worldwide.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See A/76/148."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "B. Right to be healthy versus the right to health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Leprosy is one of the 20 diseases classified by WHO as a neglected tropical disease. Neglected tropical diseases disproportionately affect populations living in poverty, predominantly in Africa, the Americas and Asia, and have a devastating social and economic effect on over 1 billion people,[[fn:15]] in particular in low-income countries and the most disadvantaged communities in middle-income countries.[[fn:16]] Neglected tropical diseases are formally recognized as targets for global action in target 3.3 of the Sustainable Development Goals, and WHO developed a road map for tackling these diseases throughout the current decade.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "WHO, Ending the Neglect to Attain the Sustainable Development Goals: A Roadmap for Neglected Tropical Diseases 2021–2030 (2020)."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Dirk Engels and Xiao-Nong Zhou, “Neglected tropical diseases: an effective global response to local poverty-related disease priorities”, Infectious Diseases of Poverty, vol. 9, art. No. 10 (2020)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "C. Commodification of health and neglected tropical diseases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Neglected tropical diseases are classified as such because of the low priority they are given in the context of global health, which, together with the limited resources of middle- and low-income countries, leads to gaps in health systems and coverage that severely affect groups of people that already struggle with multiple barriers to access fundamental rights. Neglected tropical diseases share one same pattern of deprivation, structural disadvantage, stigmatization, poor access to State services, disability and diminished participation in decision-making.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "C. Commodification of health and neglected tropical diseases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Because they mainly affect the poorest, neglected tropical diseases present no market opportunities, hence the pharmaceutical industry does not invest in products to address them. Governments, through tax incentives and patent protection, contribute to these market-driven choices,[[fn:17]] leaving the poorest with few or no treatment options. While the majority of neglected tropical diseases disable more than they kill, the burden they cause to individuals and their families, and also to economies and societies, is significant. Such diseases can also have a “hidden burden” in wealthy countries, where they may go unnoticed by Governments, in particular health monitoring mechanisms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Gavin Yamey and Els Torreele (2002). “The world’s most neglected diseases”, BMJ, 325 (July 2002)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "C. Commodification of health and neglected tropical diseases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "While there has a been an important paradigmatic shift in the past decade towards multi-disease service integration and the recognition of the importance of partnerships,[[fn:18]] in practice public-health strategies continue to be disease-centred, as they maintain focus on the individual body and sideline knowledge that is able to address both the psychosocial dimension of the human being and the collective dimension of health and illness. The knowledge that seems to count for policymaking is the kind that reaffirms top-down analysis and the pharmaceuticalization of public health, that is, the emphasis that is put on the distribution of medicines. Two concrete examples follow.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Lucinda Claire Fuller, Kingsley B. Asiedu and Roderick J. Hay, “Integration of management strategies for skin-related neglected tropical diseases”, Dermatologic Clinics, vol. 39, No. 1 (2021)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "C. Commodification of health and neglected tropical diseases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "First, calls to act on the underlying social determinants of health are restricted to universal and affordable access to water, sanitation and hygiene, when the right to work, the right to education and the right to social protection are equally important for preventing diseases and poor health outcomes. Moreover, hardly any strategies are effectively put into place to promote access to water, sanitation and hygiene by people living in vulnerable situations as part of public health programmes. Second, stigmatization and discrimination, while increasingly acknowledged as being interrelated with physical and mental health, are still analytically narrowed to the micro level of social interaction and regarded from the perspective of a functionalist understanding of stigmatization that describes it as a natural consequence of the disease and that fails to address the socioeconomic and political factors that produce and reproduce stigmatizing identities and discriminatory practices. Moreover, emphasis is put on the profoundly discriminatory expression of “self-stigmatization” and on how this “self-stigmatization” leads people to avoid diagnosis and treatment. Such a narrow understanding of stigmatization and discrimination does no more than blame the victim.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "C. Commodification of health and neglected tropical diseases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "According to WHO, early diagnosis and complete antibacterial treatment with multidrug therapy – a combination of rifampicin, clofazimine and dapsone – remain the most effective strategies for tackling leprosy.[[fn:19]] Multidrug therapy is provided free of charge to all detected leprosy patients in accordance with WHO recommendations and through an agreement between the pharmaceutical company Novartis and WHO, which began in 2000 and was recently extended to 2025. The company produces the multidrug-therapy components in India, and WHO manages its distribution to national leprosy programmes. During 2020, problems in production and in the supply chain left several countries with multidrug-therapy shortages, with devastating consequences for individuals and the transmission of leprosy.[[fn:20]] The Special Rapporteur notes that at that time, the right of access to information was denied to persons affected by leprosy and that the lack of accountability mechanisms and remedies for failures in the overall multidrug-therapy supply chain was made manifest, evincing double standards at play in terms of the protection of the right to health for persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "WHO, Guidelines for the Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention of Leprosy (2017)."}, {"n": 20, "text": "See A/HRC/47/29."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "D. Health industry, and gaps in leprosy care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Multidrug therapy was created by WHO in the 1980s, with the combination of three drugs to avoid drug resistance. These drugs were also cheap, which seemed to be a positive factor for ensuring massive distribution.[[fn:21]] However, the drugs included in multidrug therapy have significant side effects that compromise people’s physical, mental and social well-being. For example, clofazimine causes darkening of the skin and often leads to stigmatization and poor mental health. Dapsone can cause severe to lethal anaemia. Drugs for treating leprosy are old and the pharmaceutical industry is not interested in paying for research that could prove the safety and efficacy of other and better drugs, nor in developing new drugs that could be administered for a shorter period of time and thus improve the quality of life of people under medical care.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "World Health Organization, “Chemotherapy of leprosy for control programmes: report of a WHO study group” (Geneva, 1982)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "D. Health industry, and gaps in leprosy care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "One of the greatest challenges in the medical care of leprosy are leprosy reactions, which cause great physical and mental suffering. Leprosy reactions frequently occur during and after antibacterial treatment. They are also associated with nerve damage, which is the main cause of physical impairments. Leprosy reactions may require prolonged treatment,[[fn:22]] sometimes for several years. Mechanisms of reactions are poorly understood and treatment is largely empirical. In addition, some of the drugs used impair the immune system of the patients. Unlike multidrug therapy, most of the drugs used for treating leprosy reactions are not provided to countries free of charge. They include steroids and thalidomide – the latter being well-known for its teratogenic effects and risks to sexual and reproductive health. Both steroids and thalidomide cause insufferable side effects. Thalidomide, if used during pregnancy, can harm the fetus and cause malformation of the limbs. Steroids can cause dependence and radical body changes. While sharing common clinical features, progress in the medical treatment of inflammatory diseases does not seem to have extended to the care of leprosy reactions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "Diana N.J. Lockwood and others, “Three drugs are unnecessary for treating paucibacillary leprosy – a critique of the WHO guidelines”, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases (October 2019)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "D. Health industry, and gaps in leprosy care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Both antibacterial treatment and reactions management rely on obsolete and cheap drugs that can cause major side effects. The commodification of health and the lack of interest of the pharmaceutical industry in neglected tropical diseases, together with the low priority Governments give to leprosy, explain why persons affected by leprosy are offered such low-quality medical treatment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "D. Health industry, and gaps in leprosy care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "Despite being curable with multidrug therapy, if not detected and treated early, leprosy can become a disabling and chronic disease that demands a continuum of medical and psychosocial care, which includes rehabilitation, reconstructive surgery, the provision of assistive devices and psychosocial support. Such a continuum of medical and psychosocial care should be fully addressed by effective referrals within national health-care systems. However, the harsh reality of health care for persons affected by leprosy is the progressive dismantlement of leprosy services and of key infrastructure, such as laboratories, and loss of expertise,[[fn:23]] which aggravate the systemic barriers to access to diagnosis and treatment widely faced by persons affected by leprosy in both endemic and non-endemic countries. Another issue of great concern is that access to quality health-care services after bacteriological cure is extremely limited for persons affected by leprosy, although it is critical for preventing physical impairments. As some leprosy experts say, such a gap is a clear manifestation of stigmatization against discharged leprosy patients among health workers.[[fn:24]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Letícia Gomes Costa and others, “Factors associated with the worsening of the disability grade during leprosy treatment in Brazil”, Leprosy Review, vol. 86, No. 3 (September 2015); and Liliana Müller Larocca and Maria Marta Nolasco Chaves, “Multiple dimensions of healthcare management of leprosy and challenges to its elimination”, Revista da Escola de Enfermagem da USP (2020)."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Maria Rita de Cassia Oliveira Cury and others, “Spatial analysis of leprosy incidence and associated socioeconomic factors”, Revista de Saúde Pública, vol. 46 (2012)."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "D. Health industry, and gaps in leprosy care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "In its Global Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease) Strategy 2021–2030: Towards Zero Leprosy,[[fn:25]] WHO reports a total of 202,256 new cases detected in 118 countries in 2019, of which 96 per cent were reported by the 23 global priority countries, including 79 per cent in Brazil, India and Indonesia. In total, 10,816 new cases in 94 countries, including 370 children, presented irreversible physical impairments at the time of diagnosis in 2019, an indication of late diagnosis. The number of children diagnosed with irreversible physical impairments is likely to be significantly higher, as some countries did not report such data. It is estimated that 3 million to 4 million people are living with visible physical impairments due to leprosy. The new strategy is focused on interrupting transmission and achieving zero autochthonous cases. It encourages high-burden countries to accelerate activities, and compels low-burden countries to reach zero autochthonous cases. It is based upon four strategic pillars.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789290228509."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "E. International guidance and national action for fighting leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "In practice, and as indicated by the information the Special Rapporteur received for the present report and previous reports, most of the national programmes focus on multidrug therapy, which, as explained, is distributed free of charge to countries. With regard to the questionnaire, only nine States[[fn:26]] responded to questions about national strategies for addressing leprosy; the implementation of such strategies within the national health-care system; leprosy services at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels of health care; the continuum of medical and psychosocial care; capacity-building of the health-care workforce in the clinical, socioeconomic and cultural aspects of leprosy; and the implementation of the WHO guidelines for strengthening participation of persons affected by leprosy in leprosy services. The Special Rapporteur regrets the lack of cooperation from high-endemic countries, while she appreciates the collaboration from non-endemic ones.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Côte d’Ivoire, Japan, Jordan, Mali, Nigeria, Paraguay, Peru and Portugal. Submissions from States that have authorized their statements to be made public will be available on the web page of the mandate of the Special Rapporteur: https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-leprosy."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "E. International guidance and national action for fighting leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "All responding States mentioned the existence of national leprosy programmes and/or strategies as part of their epidemiological or infectious disease control departments. As a rule, the treatment of leprosy is ensured within the primary level of health care, while secondary and tertiary levels of health care largely fail to address leprosy complications. Furthermore, few States mentioned measures taken to ensure psychosocial care for persons affected by leprosy. Some States recognized important bottlenecks that required significant improvement. The Plurinational State of Bolivia acknowledged that the psychosocial approach to leprosy was a neglected area that should be prioritized. Peru and Paraguay explicitly reported the lack of measures aimed at guaranteeing occupational therapy. Peru also highlighted the lack of group therapy, as well as the need to strengthen physiotherapy and rehabilitation services. Japan mentioned the need for improvement in the care provided to elderly persons affected by leprosy that remained in former sanatoriums. While the majority of States reported on the existence of periodic training of health-care personnel, especially on up-to-date procedures for leprosy diagnosis, control and treatment, some also mentioned the difficulties that the constant rotation of health-care workers within the system posed to early diagnosis and active case finding. Some States also mentioned the negative impact of their dependency on external funding for fighting leprosy in the country. Mentions of measures to promote the participation of persons affected by leprosy in health services, as recommended by WHO, were conspicuously absent in State responses. Only Nigeria mentioned the participation of persons affected by leprosy in all leprosy-related activities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "E. International guidance and national action for fighting leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Such data is in line with submissions from civil society organizations provided for the preparation of the present report and for previous reports. Information provided by civil society organizations operating in endemic countries[[fn:27]] points to the existence of national programmes aimed at fighting leprosy in such countries. In some of the countries (Brazil, India, Indonesia, Nepal, the Niger and Papua New Guinea), there are specific national leprosy programmes, while in others (Burundi, Cameroon, the Congo, Liberia, Senegal and Togo), leprosy programmes are integrated into tuberculosis or neglected tropical disease programmes. As a rule, leprosy services are provided at the primary level of care, with activities aimed mainly at diagnosing and treating leprosy. A considerable number of civil society organizations highlighted the fact that health-care workers showed limited skills with regard to diagnosing and managing leprosy reactions and that training for health-care workers was sporadic, limited to specialized hospitals and focused mainly on the clinical aspects of the disease. Treatment of adverse reactions, wound care, reconstructive surgery and rehabilitation are restricted and often inaccessible for persons living in remote areas. Secondary and tertiary health-care services are, generally speaking, dependent on private donations and/or non-governmental organizations programmes and services. Another important gap is the limited awareness of persons affected by leprosy about insurance schemes, owing to the unavailability of such information through health-care services, which diminishes their chances of accessing comprehensive and quality care. Regarding the participation of persons affected by leprosy in health services, information provided by civil society organizations points to a lack of policies that can foster meaningful participation. The engagement of one national organization of persons affected by leprosy in the national leprosy programme in Senegal was the only example of such participation identified, and the limited participation of persons affected by leprosy at the decentralized level was also mentioned.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "Submissions from civil society organizations that have authorized their statements to be made public will be available on the web page of the mandate of the Special Rapporteur: https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/sr-leprosy."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "E. International guidance and national action for fighting leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "In summary, State strategies to ensure the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health are, in most cases, restricted to guaranteeing access to free medicine for treating infection, whereas the other elements of the continuum of care, which include reaction management, psychological care, physiotherapy, occupational therapy, group therapy, wound care, surgery, provision of assistive devices and rehabilitation, and also the right to participation, are largely unattended to. Dependency on external private funding also has an impact on national budgets for leprosy and their reach. And while it is true that civil society organizations and non-governmental organizations fill many of the existing gaps, it is also true that they are far from reaching everyone. Hence, their action is not enough to ensure that everyone affected by leprosy can access his or her right to health. Such universal access can be guaranteed only by the State itself. While partnerships between the public and the private sectors can improve national responses to leprosy, Governments still have the primary responsibility for fulfilling their obligations under national constitutions and international human rights law.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "E. International guidance and national action for fighting leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "One of the topics consistently pointed out to the Special Rapporteur by persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations as being of the utmost importance to them are the unsatisfactory results of medical technologies and practices for treating leprosy, which are too often experienced by persons affected by leprosy as discriminatory and disabling. Centring her analysis on people’s experience, the Special Rapporteur begins and ends the present section with two individual stories. Both stories speak less about leprosy as a disease and more about the gaps in political action to fight it. None of the cases presented in the report are isolated events, but rather examples of a pattern of violations suffered by persons affected by leprosy worldwide.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "The first story is about João.[[fn:28]] In 2021, when he was only 15 years old, João died due to leprosy complications in a city in the interior of Brazil. João’s story is told by one of the leaders of the Brazilian national movement of persons affected by Hansen’s disease, Faustino Pinto:[[fn:29]]\nMy first encounter with João dazed me, he was 14 years old, but he looked like he was 8 years old: undernourished, swollen belly and face due to the excessive use of steroids for controlling leprosy reactions, with a distant and sad look. We began to visit João monthly. On one of those visits, his grandmother told me that other children bullied him. One day I met João and his grandmother at a public health-care service. There, his medical doctor told me that João had developed Cushing’s syndrome due to the prolonged use of steroids; days later I received the news that João had been hospitalized with Lucio’s phenomenon (a rare reactional leprosy state). João spent 40 days hospitalized. He turned 15 on top of a hospital bed, both of his legs were amputated, his organs began to fail and he died. João is just another victim of negligence from the government, of structural invisibility, of the lack of coverage of primary health care, of the lack of public policies for leprosy, of the lack of early diagnosis, of the lack of a multidisciplinary treatment for leprosy, and of the lack of empathy.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "In order to protect the child and his family, the Special Rapporteur has used a pseudonym."}, {"n": 29, "text": "The individual is identified in the present report with his full authorization."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "Perhaps medical and leprosy experts will say that this is an isolated case. And perhaps they will have such a view because of the gap between people working on the ground and those making decisions from a geographically and epistemologically distant place. In the extensive experience of the Special Rapporteur, feedback from health-care practitioners working on the ground is usually very different from that coming from those working at the government level and those at the international level of decision-making. The Special Rapporteur recalls the words of one medical doctor with decades of experience treating people in one of the top three priority countries for leprosy:\nIt’s one thing for the doctor who works with the patient, and another for the manager who works behind a desk at the Ministry of Health’s headquarters. Those people are concerned with numbers, with statistics. They are not concerned with people. So, what’s their concern? Lowering the incidence; lowering the prevalence. How is this done? Treating faster. The faster you treat, the faster you discharge. If you take a person and discharge that person, it’s over. That person is no longer a numerical problem. That person is going to be a problem for me. Why? Because I’m going to discharge that person and in three months he or she will come back. That person is no longer part of the statistics, but is still part of my problem.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Or as one representative from an organization of persons affected by leprosy in a priority country for leprosy in Africa told the Special Rapporteur: “It really depends on whether or not you go into the field. Public health managers are bureaucrats, they know much from top to bottom, but they know very little from bottom to up.”", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "In order to promote bottom-up knowledge, the Special Rapporteur developed an online questionnaire with 52 questions on the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health for persons affected by leprosy; 174 people from and living in Afghanistan, Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Ethiopia, France, Germany, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Malaysia, Mozambique, Myanmar, Nepal, the Niger, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay, the Philippines, Portugal, Peru, Sierra Leone, Spain (Santander), Switzerland, Timor-Leste, the United States of America, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Zambia and Zimbabwe responded.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "Of the people who responded, 41 per cent were women affected by leprosy and 37 per cent were men affected by leprosy; 8 per cent were female family members, 6 per cent were male family members and 4 per cent were health-care workers, all responding on behalf of persons affected by leprosy. Of the respondents, 67 per cent were part of a leprosy organization, with more than half participating in organizations of persons affected by leprosy. A total of 70 per cent lived in an urban area, which indicates difficulties in reaching out to people living in rural and remote areas. Most of the respondents were between 29 and 59 years old.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "A total of 40 per cent of the persons affected by leprosy had been between the ages of 11 to 21 at the time of their leprosy diagnosis; 35 per cent had been between the ages of 21 and 31. The majority of the persons affected by leprosy (55 people) were diagnosed 1 year after their first symptoms appeared, 21 persons were diagnosed after 2 years, 19 persons after three years, 13 persons after five years, and 10 persons were diagnosed only 10 to 15 years after symptoms appeared, demonstrating the difficulties in getting an early diagnosis for leprosy. A total of 68 per cent of the diagnoses were given in public health-care services. Information people received through health-care services at the time of diagnosis was mainly about treatment, and half of the respondents stated that such information was not enough, with 30 per cent demanding more information on rights, 20 per cent demanding more information on leprosy reactions and 11 per cent demanding more information on self-care.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "With regard to the type of care received for leprosy, 38 per cent of the respondents, which included persons affected by leprosy and people responding on their behalf, referred to drugs, 19 per cent to physiotherapy, 14 per cent to wound care, 12 per cent to surgery and only 5 per cent to orthotics and prosthetics, which proves the emphasis leprosy services place on treating the disease with multidrug therapy, and reveals existing gaps in complementary care. When asked if there was any specific care that was seen as needed but was not provided by health-care services, 51 per cent said yes, and the majority of respondents mentioned unfulfilled needs regarding psychological support, information about the disease, physiotherapy, supplementary medicines and wound care.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "While 90 per cent of the persons affected by leprosy did not pay for multidrug therapy, 77 per cent did not pay for drugs to manage leprosy reactions and 75 per cent were treated through public health-care services, out-of-pocket expenses were considerable, with 76 per cent of respondents paying for transportation to health-care services. About 59 per cent of people under treatment were not able to continue working during the course of treatment and 48 per cent could not afford all of the medical treatment and additional expenses. The majority of the persons affected by leprosy were not aware of any alternative sources of financial assistance for meeting leprosy-related health needs. A total of 71 per cent of the persons affected by leprosy did not have access to financial support from the government during the course of treatment, while 59 per cent did not have access to disability benefits. About 50 per cent of the respondents claimed that difficulties in access to disability benefits were due mainly to the lack of medical expertise to identify leprosy-related impairments.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "A total of 88 per cent of the persons affected by leprosy had experienced leprosy reactions, pain, psychological distress and stigmatization. About 71 per cent had required additional care after being cured for leprosy, and only 45 per cent indicated that they had access to it. A total of 75 per cent had developed physical, mental and social impairments and disabilities, with 67 per cent referring to physical impairments on their upper and lower limbs, as well as to a loss of sensitivity. About 46 per cent needed to be hospitalized during the course of treatment, and 32 per cent required assistive devices, 59 per cent of whom did not have access to such devices when they needed them.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "Discrimination in health-care services was reported by 37 per cent of the respondents. About 50 per cent referred to important gaps in knowledge about leprosy in the health-care workforce, which in 20 per cent of the cases had led to diagnosis errors. A total of 24 per cent of the respondents mentioned violations of the patients’ rights to privacy, speaking about inhumane and humiliating treatment and breaches of professional secrecy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "About 83 per cent of the persons affected by leprosy stated that leprosy, its complications and the associated stigma affected their feelings, self-esteem and well-being, with 16 per cent mentioning sadness, 15 per cent fear; 13 per cent anxiety; 13 per cent loneliness; 10 per cent depression, 9 per cent exhaustion, 8 per cent insomnia, 6 per cent aggressivity, 6 per cent suicidal thoughts and 4 per cent mental confusion. A total of 44 per cent did not feel cured.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "Such data is in line with the picture provided over the years to the Special Rapporteur by organizations of persons affected by leprosy from 15 endemic countries. Their feedback with regard to health issues emphasizes neglect as a shared pattern among countries.[[fn:30]] All of the organizations concurred that the global elimination of leprosy as a public health problem in 2000,[[fn:31]] as well as progressive multi-disease service integration, while positive, had also raised considerable barriers to the access of persons affected by leprosy to high quality health care. In the words of representatives of one organization of persons affected by leprosy from an Asian endemic country:\nUntil a few years ago there were special Hansen’s disease hospitals at provincial or district levels in which all persons affected with reactions, wounds or rehabilitation needs were admitted. These have now all been converted into general hospitals. District hospitals are now generally responsible for treating complications, but this is not always possible due to stigmatization. The health insurance system has also changed and makes no distinction between persons affected and other patients, which is good in principle, but persons affected often remain untreated in this system. Since the transformation of special Hansen’s disease hospitals into general hospitals, there are almost no medical rehabilitation services for persons affected. Severe reactions and repeated reactions occur in people living in remote areas and they receive no decent treatment.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "Health issues are connected to disability issues. However, the Special Rapporteur does not address disability issues in the present report, as she plans to dedicate a report to them."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leprosy."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Other issues on which the views of these organizations converge include the following:\n(a) The biomedical classification of leprosy fails to respond to the reality of radically different experiences that call for distinct approaches to health care. An emphasis on infection seems to lead to neglect of individual case management and care after bacteriological cure. However, for many people the more serious issues they experience are leprosy reactions, neuropathic pain, nerve damage and physical and psychosocial impairments and disabilities that may appear during treatment and/or after bacteriological cure;\n(b) An emphasis on delivering multidrug therapy leads to shortages of drugs to treat reactions, but also of other supplementary medicines. The limited availability of psychosocial and mental health care, diagnosis and treatment of leprosy reactions, information on self-care, rehabilitation and reconstructive surgery, and limited prevention of impairments and provision of assistive devices, together with persisting discriminatory practices perpetrated by the health-care workforce, violate people’s rights;\n(c) Deficient health coverage in remote areas, together with limited budgets for leprosy at the national and subnational levels, as well as misappropriation of funds allocated for leprosy by subnational administrators, maintain transmission and may be causing a hidden epidemic of leprosy;\n(d) There is a lack of awareness-raising activities, and a lack of acknowledgement of the limitations of traditional approaches to health education that do not recognize local cultures and knowledge, communities as co-producers of health, traditional healers and leaders as key players, women as key agents of health education, and community media, such as radio, which are much more effective than traditional and/or social media in vulnerable communities that face issues of access;\n(e) Socioeconomic empowerment and rehabilitation, rarely promoted by government policies, are essential to restoring people’s right to a healthy standard of living and to promoting their physical, mental and social well-being; they are also key to stopping leprosy’s transmission within families and communities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "While most global and national policies and strategies are based on metrics that do not disaggregate data by demographic, environmental, socioeconomic and cultural variables, or the various grounds of discrimination recognized in international human rights law, the data underlying bottom-up knowledge produced by organizations of persons affected by leprosy frequently is disaggregated by such variables. The Special Rapporteur has already addressed intersections of leprosy with age and gender in a previous report, but she recalls some of the key issues affecting women affected by leprosy’s right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, as well as their fundamental role in protecting and promoting health, which require policies that specifically involve women as co-producers of health and are aimed at guaranteeing their physical, mental and social well-being. Those key issues include the following:\n(a) Due to multiple and intersecting barriers, women experience longer delays than men do in diagnosis and frequently have a higher risk of developing leprosy-related physical impairments and disability;\n(b) A generalized lack of gender-sensitive health-care services, including women health-care workers, leads to late diagnosis and treatment, especially in contexts characterized by deep patriarchal values. Many women are also dependent on third-party authorization, especially from husbands and fathers, to seek health care;\n(c) Power imbalances between health-care workers and patients mainly affects women, whose suffering is frequently dismissed by health-care workers, especially in the case of neuropathic and chronic pain caused by leprosy;\n(d) The use of drugs to treat leprosy reactions usually leads to bodily changes that have an impact on women’s mental health and their relationships, often leading to discrimination within the household and divorces entailing significant economic losses for women and separation from their children;\n(e) Many women affected by leprosy experience acute psychological stress and depression and report having suicidal thoughts due to discrimination within the household and in work environments that do not accommodate the physical impairments caused by leprosy;\n(f) As the Special Rapporteur has already reported, there is a pattern of psychological, physical and sexual violence experienced by women affected by leprosy, especially within the household.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Intersection between stigmatization on the grounds of leprosy and gender-based discrimination can even threaten women’s right to life, as the next case, told to the Special Rapporteur by representatives of persons affected by leprosy from one of the top three priority countries, dramatically demonstrates:\nA lady who left home because her husband didn’t accept her anymore due to leprosy had to stay in a place like a small house on the street. She then looked for the help of her family, but her family also rejected her and made her a small house outside. Complications due to the disease appeared and we contacted health professionals, but they said they could not come to take her to the hospital as there was no budget for that. The lady eventually died.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "Leprosy, or gaps in the system, can also have a brutal impact on women’s sexual and reproductive rights. It has already been explained that one of the drugs for treating leprosy reactions is thalidomide, which if used during pregnancy can severely harm the fetus. As recently as 2019, a child born with thalidomide syndrome was detected in Brazil, while others have been mapped over the years.[[fn:32]] This child, born with congenital anomalies in her upper and lower limbs, is currently under medical review, which means she may have other health problems (heart, ears and eyes) due to the use of thalidomide by her mother during pregnancy. When reporting on this to the Special Rapporteur, the geneticist[[fn:33]] who has been monitoring this child spoke of a cascading effect of late diagnosis, deficient communication between health-care workers and patients and vulnerable socioeconomic conditions of patients. Undoubtedly, the health system shamefully failed both this mother and her child, but no one is being held accountable for a child that was born in 2019 with a syndrome identified back in the 1960s.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "Thayne Woycinck Kowalski and others, “Thalidomide embryopathy: follow-up of cases born between 1959 and 2010”, Birth Defects Research – Part A, Clinical and Molecular Teratology, vol. 103, No. 9 (2015); F. Sales Luiz Vianna and others, “The impact of thalidomide use in birth defects in Brazil”, European Journal of Medical Genetics (2016)."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Lavínia Schüler-Faccini, professor at the department of genetics at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, and chief of the medical genetics service at the Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre. The individual is identified in the present report with her full authorization."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Family members also experience deterioration of their mental health. The Special Rapporteur was struck by comments from representatives of persons affected by leprosy during the webinars on human and youth rights organized by the Sasakawa Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease) Initiative that many young family members chose not to develop their full potential in life and to hide themselves because they were fearful of the consequences if their community, co-workers or employers discovered their family’s history with leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "The Special Rapporteur was informed that the leader who had shared with her the case of João, described above, had recently discovered that he was, after three decades of being considered cured, again ill with Hansen’s disease.[[fn:34]] His diagnosis is of lepromatous leprosy. Given the lack of annual vigilance by the health-care system, remaining bacilli within his nerves have thus been able to multiplicate over the years, which led to a relapse. His nerves are damaged beyond any possibility of recovery.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "The individual in question denounces the use of the word leprosy as one of the root causes of persistent stigmatization against affected individuals, a subject to which the Special Rapporteur will come back in a following report, but that does not fall within the scope of the present report."}], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "Much of the human suffering described in the present section is preventable. States are called to acknowledge such human suffering and take action to prevent and mitigate it. As one organization’s representative told the Special Rapporteur: “For leprosy affected persons, services from [non-governmental organizations] are very much limited and not what we would expect as citizens. What we want is for the Government to take responsibility. But this should not be a process which we have to ask for. These should be regular entitlements.” Furthermore, people and reality are far more complex than the projections of experts can account for, making it imperative for decision-making to be open to those who bear the consequences of such decisions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction: the right to health for subordinated groups", "F. Victims of a disease or of a system that overlooks people’s needs and suffering?"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "As data presented in the present report show, leprosy and its consequences are the product of structural violence. Structural violence, which is inherently cumulative, reflects the systematic restrictions that prevent people who occupy the bottom rungs of societies from meeting their basic needs. It is often invisible, accepted as the natural order of things and perpetrated on a daily basis by dominant institutions. A growing body of evidence has shown that disadvantaged people are more prone to illness, distress and disability and also die younger. That is why reducing diseases to mere pathological entities is like telling a story without telling its beginning and its end. Metrics employed by global health and national health programmes tell us little about structural violence as a cause, and human suffering as a consequence, of leprosy. In order to fulfil the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health for the most disadvantaged, diseases must be acknowledged as political issues and action to tackle them must be subjected to accountability mechanisms at all levels of human agency – from the global to the local.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conclusion: what people create, people can change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "While scholars dwell on attempts to define the content of the right to health, persons affected by leprosy who endure extreme physical, mental and social suffering, and whose right to life is threatened by such suffering, interpret the right to health from the perspective not of written law, but of what it means to enjoy equal opportunities in life on an equal basis with others without discrimination and violence. Furthermore, persons affected by leprosy demand to be recognized as people who are entitled to self-determination over their bodies, as well as people whose special needs, such as accessibility, accommodation and support, must be guaranteed. Lastly, their narrative about the right to health calls for very practical but fundamental steps, as well as for a shift of the place where planning starts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Conclusion: what people create, people can change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "The Special Rapporteur urges States, especially those where leprosy is endemic, to develop a country-owned political agenda for fighting leprosy and protecting, promoting and fulfilling the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health for persons affected by leprosy and their family members, and recommends that they:\n(a) Put people at the centre of health production, and to that end:\n(i) Implement guideline 14.1 of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, which affirms that States should create a committee to address activities relating to the human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, which should include individuals affected by leprosy and their family members and representatives of organizations of persons affected by leprosy;\n(ii) Ensure that planning starts with a needs assessment and that persons affected by leprosy and their family members own the process of policy design, monitoring and evaluation;\n(b) Start with the community and strengthen community-based support systems, and to that end:\n(i) Involve communities as co-producers of health; identify relevant communities through spatial analysis that can map clusters of leprosy; and implement community diagnosis in such contexts, reflecting a participatory and bottom-up method for attaining a quantitative and qualitative description of the health of citizens and the factors that influence their health, identifying problems, proposing areas for improvement and stimulating action;\n(ii) In contexts where leprosy is more dispersed, ensure that primary health-care services are settings where, through the promotion of self-care and self-help groups with a focus on building advocacy skills, people can engage in diagnoses of problems and in solutions;\n(iii) Promote systematic data collection through the primary health-care services that includes disaggregation of leprosy not only by demographic, environmental, socioeconomic and cultural variables, but also by the various grounds of discrimination recognized in international human rights law, and with full respect for the principles of participation and privacy; and use such data to identify groups that are more vulnerable to leprosy, leprosy-related impairments and discrimination, such as women and children, and develop special measures to protect them;\n(c) Invest in health education and guarantee people’s right to access to information, and to that end:\n(i) Identify communities affected by diseases with shared root causes, such as diseases of poverty, and implement integrated multi-disease awareness-raising programmes that are sensitive to culture, language, gender, age and disability and that are developed in close collaboration with local communities in order to ensure both accessibility and efficacy; address barriers created by the digital divide and invest in community media in order to reach as many people as possible; raise awareness among community leaders, traditional leaders and healers, religious leaders, local pharmacists and school teachers with regard to leprosy and engage them in further awareness-raising; and support women to enable them to engage in health promotion activities;\n(ii) Guarantee people’s right to access to information at all stages of health care and leprosy prevention, as well as their right to privacy, making informed consent an indispensable procedure for any intervention – from post-exposure prophylaxis with single-dose rifampicin to the examination of contacts and medical care of persons affected by leprosy; and ensure that the information being provided is focused on reducing stigma;\n(iii) Provide information through primary health-care services on the rights of users, on the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, and on the WHO guidelines for strengthening participation of persons affected by leprosy in leprosy services;\n(iv) Strengthen the structural competency of the primary health-care workforce by building their capacity on the socioeconomic and cultural aspects of leprosy and on user-involved design, and train them to mitigate stigmatization in all their activities;\n(d) Prioritize primary prevention through multisectoral policymaking and action, and to that end:\n(i) Mainstream leprosy into poverty reduction programmes;\n(ii) Recognize that key aspects of health promotion match the rights set out in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, but also others contained in treaties created to protect groups that face discrimination; frame such issues as rights and develop country-owned theoretical frameworks for evaluating the cost-effectiveness of States’ expenditures on enforcing them; and identify responsibilities within the government and enable accountability mechanisms.\n(e) Bet on multiservice integration without discriminating against leprosy, and to that end:\n(i) Strengthen universal health coverage and integrate leprosy into primary health care, ensuring universality of access through public services, which should be culturally appropriate and gender-sensitive, age-friendly and disability-friendly;\n(ii) Sustain and strengthen the efforts of national leprosy-related programmes and implement the four pillars of the Global Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease) Strategy 2021–2030, with proper budget allocations at the national and subnational levels, as well as targets, indicators and benchmarks;\n(iii) Include leprosy in medical schools’ curriculums and build the capacity of the primary health-care workforce on the clinical aspects of leprosy; prioritize action that supports early detection of leprosy and prevention of both its transmission and associated impairments and disabilities; and partner with organizations of persons affected by leprosy to undertake active case-finding and the examination of contacts;\n(iv) Ensure the continuum of care (prevention, treatment and rehabilitation) without discrimination; sustain monitoring of nerve damage during medical treatment and after bacteriological cure as part of primary health-care services; and guarantee people’s access to secondary and tertiary care when needed;\n(v) Provide, free of charge, assistive devices for protection and assistive devices for the facilitation of activities of daily life;\n(vi) Invest in mitigating suffering caused by neuropathic pain and stigmatization through high quality pain management and effective referral within national health-care systems for mental health care, under a recovery-based paradigm and through services that are ethical, respectful, culturally appropriate, gender-sensitive and empowering to individuals; and ensure access by family members of persons affected by leprosy to mental health care;\n(vii) Partner with organizations of persons affected by leprosy to strengthen peer-to-peer counselling, as well as family-based counselling, and extend counselling to family members of persons affected by leprosy;\n(viii) Promote peer-to-peer cooperation between national leprosy programmes of endemic countries to share good practices and foster progress;\n(f) Guarantee social protection and, to that end:\n(i) Ensure food security and cash transfers for people under medical treatment for leprosy;\n(ii) Guarantee disability rights to people under medical treatment and after bacteriological cure;\n(iii) Target active citizenship by promoting training opportunities and formal employment, while guaranteeing support as needed;\n(iv) Partner with non-governmental organizations to provide socioeconomic and vocational empowerment and rehabilitation;\n(v) Empower women affected by leprosy through income-generation programmes, creation of cooperatives and continued education;\n(g) Ensure democratic engagement and, to that end:\n(i) Provide legal aid and accessible mechanisms for filing complaints of rights violations at primary health-care services;\n(ii) Enforce the right of access to justice and guarantee the accessibility of procedures and infrastructure;\n(iii) Provide monitoring and accountability mechanisms with transparent sharing of information.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-35-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-50-35", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also recommends that non-endemic States fulfil their international cooperation obligations, in particular with regard to target 3.3 of the Sustainable Development Goals. She urges States to accept responsibility for drug development, taking it into the public sector, and facilitating access by the world’s poorest to high-quality medicines. She also makes an appeal to the health industry to comply with the Doha Declaration on the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights and Public Health, in particular when it affirms that the agreement should be interpreted and implemented in a manner that promotes access to medicines for all.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "In 2010, the General Assembly adopted resolution 65/215 on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, reaffirming that all such persons should be treated as individuals with dignity and should enjoy all human rights and fundamental freedoms under customary international law, relevant conventions and national constitutions and laws. The Assembly also took note of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The adoption of the above resolution was an important milestone in the history of centuries of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their families, by which the States Members of the United Nations recognized that leprosy is not only a health issue, but also a deeply rooted human rights issue: the adoption of the resolution was a remarkable achievement, given the decades of persecution and segregation of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, with States being the main perpetrators of such violations.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "The official policy of forced segregation of persons affected by leprosy was implemented from at least the late nineteenth into the mid-twentieth century, although in some countries it went well beyond that time, into the last decades of the twentieth century. Such policies were never supported by scientific evidence but were rather the product of harmful stereotypes about leprosy and harmful stereotyping of persons affected by leprosy, which were wrongly sanctioned by biomedicine as authoritative truths. Moreover, many family members of persons affected by leprosy were also segregated and forcibly institutionalized. There are still more than one thousand so-called leprosy colonies in the world today. Regrettably, the Special Rapporteur has received reports of people who continue to live in segregated places, continuing the discrimination they experience at the community level, owing to lack of adequate health care, quality mobility aids, assistive devices and rehabilitation close to home.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At a minimum, States must provide redress to persons affected by leprosy and their family members since the violations of their rights were both of a permanent nature and also generated widespread fear and stigmatization against people who were wrongfully blamed and persecuted on the grounds of leprosy. In addition, after the global elimination of leprosy as a public health problem in 2000 (often misunderstood as eradication, when it meant prevalence of less than 1 incidence per 10,000 population), efforts and political will to tackle the disease decreased dramatically. In many countries, as a result of ongoing discrimination against them, persons affected by leprosy were forced to turn to charity-based organizations to gain access to health care and livelihoods.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The General Assembly, by its adoption of resolution 65/215, not only paved the way for remedies against past and present violations against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, it also placed leprosy on the global human rights agenda. This meant that all States where leprosy, whether endemic or non-endemic, must fully recognize the need to take the steps necessary to eliminate leprosy-related discrimination and to cooperate to ensure the human rights of persons affected by leprosy globally. Resolution 65/215, including the referenced principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members,[[fn:1]] also helped to highlight the particular needs of persons affected by leprosy and their family members as a group in an extremely vulnerable situation and in need of special protection. It focused on very specific issues to be addressed by the entities of the human rights system and its mechanisms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A/HRC/15/30, annex."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "Nevertheless, notwithstanding the adoption of resolution 65/215, widespread inaction continued. In response, in 2017, the Human Rights Council, by its resolution 35/9, established the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members to follow up and report on progress made and measures taken by States for the effective implementation of the above-mentioned principles and guidelines. Subsequently, in 2020, by its resolution 44/6, the Council extended the mandate, requesting that the Special Rapporteur continue to report annually to the Council and to report also to the General Assembly, starting from its seventy-sixth session.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "As the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, Alice Cruz, has detailed in her previous reports,[[fn:2]] the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members referenced in resolution 65/215 are a non-treaty standard that reinforces customary law and the normative integration of several international human rights instruments, interpreting and translating legally binding norms, in close connection with the conditions and needs of persons affected by leprosy and their family members. The principles and guidelines provide States with a road map for monitoring the situation of persons affected by leprosy and their family members and for implementing measures that, by enforcing international human rights law, can help to guarantee formal and substantive equality to this group of people.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "A/HRC/38/42, A/HRC/41/47, A/HRC/44/46, A/HRC/44/46/Add.1, A/HRC/44/46/Add.2, A/HRC/44/46/Add.3, A/HRC/47/29, A/HRC/50/35, A/76/148 and A/77/139."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "In her first report to the Council about her vision and methods for the mandate entrusted to her, the Special Rapporteur argued that discrimination on the grounds of leprosy is multiple and intersects with other prohibited grounds of discrimination, including gender, disability, age and race.[[fn:3]] Over the course of her work as mandate holder, this assertion has been fully borne out by evidence collected both for thematic reports and during country visits.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "A/HRC/38/42, para. 64."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "National legal frameworks and policies designed to implement international human rights law and, more particularly, provisions on non-discrimination should expressly recognize persons affected by leprosy and their family members as individuals entitled to protection under those same legal frameworks and policies and all necessary steps should be taken to integrate leprosy into related strategies. In gathering evidence in fulfilment of her mandate, the Special Rapporteur has come to the conclusion that more efforts are needed in this regard.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "To address this matter, it is important to increasingly detail entitlements for persons affected by leprosy and their family members under an expanding framework that aligns more closely with the comprehensive nature of core human rights instruments on civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, as well as with rights elaborated for groups historically discriminated against or in need of special protection, given the vulnerability of their historic, social, political and economic situation, including women, children and persons with disabilities, and with the jurisprudence elaborated by the treaty bodies.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "On the subject of the nature of the State’s obligations to ensure the human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, it is worth noting that States from both the Global South and the Global North have responsibilities in this regard. While leprosy is endemic today in countries of the Global South, the dehumanizing official policy of forced segregation and its stigmatizing corollaries were originally the creation of European nations, which transplanted the policy to the countries and territories under their colonial rule and domination, making institutionalized, formal and direct discrimination against persons affected by leprosy a global reality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "As detailed by the Special Rapporteur in her previous reports, while colonialism and its corollaries form the core of many of the stigmatizing beliefs about leprosy, they are also relevant to an understanding of the current social determinants of leprosy and of other neglected tropical diseases in many countries of the Global South. In and of itself, the classification of such diseases as tropical is deeply colonial since not all are tropical. In any case, leprosy and other neglected tropical diseases should be addressed as global issues and should form part of international cooperative efforts to achieve Sustainable Development Goal target 3.3[[fn:4]] and as part of the commitment of all Governments to the implementation of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, in particular under Sustainable Development Goal 17, as well as under article 55 of the Charter of the United Nations and articles 3 and 4 of the Declaration on the Right to Development.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Communicable diseases: By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical diseases and combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases and other communicable diseases."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Furthermore, leprosy and the persistence of discrimination against those affected by the disease, as well as against their family members, reveals to what extent States have made progress in terms of the protection, promotion and fulfillment of human rights, given that this group of people is among those groups furthest behind. The situation of people affected by leprosy is a clear marker of the overall promotion and protection of human rights in a given country. In general, with regard to measures in place to guarantee equality and non-discrimination, as well as the enjoyment of social, economic and cultural rights on a universal basis, the situation of people affected by leprosy is also a clear marker of the degree to which States have provided for the enjoyment of the comprehensive right to development, as set out in the Declaration on the Right to Development.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The present report is the final report of the current Special Rapporteur to the Council. For that reason, it contains an overview of lessons learned and an assessment of progress and remaining challenges regarding the elimination of discrimination on the grounds of leprosy. The report also presents a set of key recommendations to States, intergovernmental agencies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) concerning the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "The Special Rapporteur wishes to thank persons affected by leprosy and their family members for the continuous encouragement and support given to her as mandate holder. During the years of her tenure, her admiration for their resilience and their determination to survive leprosy and its consequences, together with their dedication to support their peers and improve their living conditions, has only increased. The Special Rapporteur finds great hope in the increasing interaction of organizations of persons affected by leprosy with the overall human rights system and she leaves her office inspired by their formidable example.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "The Special Rapporteur implemented a people-centered approach to the mandate entrusted to her by the Council. She delivered her mandate using a bottom-up approach to human rights, always prioritizing inputs from persons affected by leprosy and their family members as the primary source of information and guidance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "She consistently recognized persons affected by leprosy and their family members as experts through experience and defended their right to participate and be involved in decision-making in a wide range of settings, from the public to the private. While she endeavored to identify and report on the consequences of deep-rooted stigmatization and discrimination and to elaborate recommendations on how to mitigate and eliminate both interpersonal and systemic discrimination, she always carried out her mandate side by side with persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations and continued to be guided by them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The people-centred approach adopted by the Special Rapporteur has had an empowering effect among persons affected by leprosy, their family members and representative organizations. The Special Rapporteur considers this to be the most consistent and sustainable outcome of her mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Empowerment is key both in fighting the historical and systemic dehumanization of persons affected by leprosy and their family members and in the ongoing struggle against their structural and widespread subordination. By promoting their active participation and critical reflection, including their understanding, access to and control over important decisions and resources, empowerment allows people in disadvantaged situations to achieve greater control over their lives. It also furthers their democratic engagement in public affairs, with an enhanced critical understanding of their own settings and their relationship to power relations and hegemonic social structures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Using this approach, the Special Rapporteur aimed to ensure that her mandate provided a bridge for a group of people living in an extremely vulnerable situation, who have been systematically pushed furthest behind, helping them to gain access to the human rights system and to relevant intergovernmental agencies, Governments and international organizations working in the field.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The goal of the Special Rapporteur has been to ensure the sustainability of efforts to eliminate both the disease and the discrimination attached to it. In the long-term, what contributes the most to transforming laws, policies, practices, norms and power relations is the empowerment and active participation of people affected by leprosy and their family members in public affairs and in all matters concerning their lives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Systemic change can only be achieved by ensuring that affected groups have a voice and choice in all decision-making processes that affect their lives. Their autonomy, active citizenship and ability to defend their interests in public affairs are key to any sustainable action. A free civic space is essential to building just societies and participation means ensuring that Governments, NGOs and intergovernmental agencies are held accountable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Accountability, access to justice and even the justiciability of rights are fundamental mechanisms to guarantee human rights and fundamental freedoms. However important formal equality and recognition of entitlements and rights can be, without the political will to convert such recognition into policies, strategies and practices, laws alone will not have the power to have a transformative impact on people’s lives. Participation and accountability are of the essence in order to guarantee that law is put into action.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Traditionally, the situation of persons affected by leprosy has been addressed either within medical or charity-based frameworks and they have rarely been recognized as rights holders. The need for a paradigm shift is imperative and the mandate of the Special Rapporteur has played an important role in encouraging the first steps towards such an important change. The global human rights system and the world community must support such a shift by cooperating closely with local and national organizations of persons affected by leprosy and by enabling the participation of such organizations in their work. It is important to note that such participation is still severely compromised by multiple barriers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "With specific regard to the human rights system, over the years the Special Rapporteur has come to realize that it is not easily accessed by those who need it the most. Significant factors hindering persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations from making use of the human rights system include: language (the majority of persons affected by leprosy and their families do not speak any of the six official United Nations languages); the digital divide; difficult-to-use procedures that require a level of literacy and expertise that those who have been marginalized do not always possess; and non-inclusion of the particular issues that affect them on the agendas of international civil society organizations with experience and expertise about the system. These are only a few of the barriers that the human rights system itself should properly identify and remove.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The Special Rapporteur, with few resources at her disposal, has used her position to overcome barriers in her collaborative work with persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations. She regrets not having had sufficient resources to undertake key activities, for example, expert consultations or regional consultations, for a mandate that was new to the human rights system. Such activities might have enhanced further awareness and promoted important synergies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "While she has dedicated considerable efforts to making persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations aware of human rights standards, as well as to developing and strengthening their awareness of their rights and how to claim them, she still believes that the overall accessibility of the system to those furthest behind is a major issue to be discussed and addressed. In reference to the well-known thought piece on whether those in subordinate positions can speak,[[fn:5]] the Special Rapporteur would respond that, of course, they can speak, but that it is high-level forums that do not properly listen to them, hindering their right to claim to their human rights. This is an important limitation of the system itself, which requires a greater commitment from States in terms of budget allocation to the overall system and its offices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "Gayatri C. Spivak, “Can the subaltern speak?”, in Patrick Williams and Laura Chrisman (eds.), Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory (Routledge, London, 1993)."}], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "In always encouraging a cooperative approach, the Special Rapporteur has continuously engaged with United Nations bodies and intergovernmental agencies, especially the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF). During country visits, she has consistently made an effort to interact with relevant agencies, such as the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), UNICEF and WHO. She has also used country visits as opportunities for connecting persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations with their respective Governments and with intergovernmental agencies working in the country. Awareness-raising has been a major task for her mandate. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur always adopted a cooperative approach with Governments and regrets their very limited engagement with her mandate. The mandate of the Special Rapporteur was, like all others, deeply impacted by the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, and she was only able to visit four countries in her official capacity. Nevertheless, she visited three countries in the three most important regions in terms of the incidence of leprosy (Asia, Africa and South America). The three countries, Angola, Bangladesh and Brazil, are also among the 23 WHO priority countries for leprosy. In addition, she visited one country (Japan) that has already eliminated leprosy, which enabled her to elaborate recommendations for a post-elimination scenario. While she commends the willingness of the three countries to assess their national gaps and to improve their responses to leprosy-related discrimination, she regrets that other highly endemic countries did not invite her to visit. Commitments under the Sustainable Development Goals should have inspired States to leave no one behind and cooperate with her mandate.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "With a view to promoting synergies and catalyzing systemic change, the Special Rapporteur reached out to, and worked closely with, political and religious world leaders, members of academia both from the Global South and the Global North, and the main stakeholders in the field, such as the WHO Goodwill Ambassador for the Elimination of Leprosy, the Global Partnership for Zero Leprosy, civil society organizations for persons affected by leprosy and national and grassroots organizations of persons affected by leprosy. Further, she has always been available to provide technical guidance to key stakeholders for tackling stigmatization and discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "In order to facilitate the implementation of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, as well as the discussion of such discrimination as part of the work of the universal periodic review and the treaty bodies, the Special Rapporteur has presented a policy framework for rights-based action plans,[[fn:6]] including specific recommendations in four main areas: adequate standard of living and economic autonomy; non-discrimination, independent living and inclusion in the community; elimination of stereotypes and the right to truth and memory; and empowerment, with a focus on vulnerable groups. The report also included concrete examples of good practices in the four aforementioned areas for action.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See A/HRC/44/46."}], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Special Rapporteur contributed to the WHO road map for neglected tropical diseases 2021–2030[[fn:7]] and the WHO global leprosy strategy 2021–2030.[[fn:8]] Since she became the mandate holder, the Special Rapporteur has endeavoured to mainstream leprosy within the entire human rights system and has focused, in particular, on raising awareness about discrimination against persons affected by leprosy within the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. She made several submissions to the Committee with regard to the Committee’s reviews of endemic countries and also contributed to the drafting of the Committee’s general comment No. 8 (2022) on the right of persons with disabilities to work and employment, as enshrined in article 27 of the Convention.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "WHO, Ending the neglect to attain the Sustainable Development Goals: A road map for neglected tropical diseases 2021–2030, Geneva, 2020."}, {"n": 8, "text": "WHO, Towards Zero Leprosy: Global Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease) Strategy 2021–2030, Geneva, 2021."}], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The Special Rapporteur extends her appreciation to the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities for its efforts to guarantee the recognition of persons affected by leprosy as persons with disabilities within national legal and regulatory frameworks and for making recommendations to countries where leprosy is endemic in this regard. She also notes the importance of recognizing the specific experiences and needs of women, children and older people with leprosy-related disabilities, as well as ensuring accessibility to the work of the Committee by organizations of persons affected by leprosy, which, historically, have been excluded from the overall system as a result of the above-mentioned barriers.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, the Special Rapporteur has worked tirelessly, reaching out to persons affected by leprosy and their families, to assess the impact of the pandemic on them. Organizations of persons affected by leprosy were key to this work, given the extent to which the digital divide excludes the majority of persons affected by leprosy from engaging with the human rights system. Using the gathered evidence, she elaborated a guidance document for States and presented a comprehensive report on the disproportionate impact of the pandemic persons affected by leprosy and their families.[[fn:9]] The report examines the root causes of the group’s vulnerability to the pandemic and to the crisis that has unfolded. The Special Rapporteur considers that the comprehensive nature of the report, which encompasses both causes, consequences and necessary measures to overcome such a crisis, makes it an important and fundamental document in the event of future crises.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See A/HRC/47/29."}], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The work of the Special Rapporteur has enabled the production of a body of new evidence about discrimination on the grounds of leprosy. Over the past several years, she has extensively documented such discrimination and has presented evidence on the pervasiveness of formal and substantive discrimination against this group of people, including the systemic denial of their right to access to opportunities on an equal basis with others in areas such as education, work, social protection and access to justice. She has also presented evidence on physical, psychological and sexual violence, particularly against women and children affected by leprosy, and how harmful stereotypes about leprosy can threaten the right to life of persons affected by leprosy. All of this work was made possible as a result of the unwavering support of persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has always worked under the principle that leprosy-related discrimination intersects with wider processes of oppression, marginalization, violation and social conflict. She has examined discrimination related to gender, age, health care, disability and legal frameworks from the point of view of the particular situation of persons affected by leprosy, while also contributing to a wider discussion on core topics of the human rights agenda. She believes that social gaps and problems are better identified when society is viewed from the margins. She firmly believes that persons affected by leprosy and their family members, while a minority, have much to contribute to the advancement of the overall human rights agenda, especially in the areas of inclusion and rights enforcement for dehumanized groups and populations living in poverty and extremely vulnerable situations.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "There is more knowledge available today about the nature and root causes of leprosy-related discrimination. It is also possible to put together a narrative about leprosy-related discrimination and the steps necessary to tackle it. Furthermore, persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations have increasingly taken ownership of the leprosy-related narrative, as well as of the activities for claiming their rights, especially at the subnational and national levels.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "While the Special Rapporteur has been able to extensively map the intersections of discrimination on the grounds of leprosy with discrimination based on gender, age and disability, she did not have resources to examine its intersection with discrimination based on race, although, in some contexts, there are a few cases pointing in that direction. She believes that further research is needed in this area.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "Another issue that, in the view of the Special Rapporteur, deserves further attention concerns what she referred to in the introduction to the present report as the need to increasingly detail entitlements for persons affected by leprosy and their family members under an expanding framework that aligns more closely with the comprehensive nature of core human rights instruments and jurisprudence elaborated by the treaty bodies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "In practice, this could be converted into, at least, three important tasks: (a) to ensure continuity in the mainstreaming of the question of leprosy into relevant human rights mechanisms, together with developing and strengthening the capacity of the organizations of persons affected by leprosy to interact with those mechanisms; (b) to develop guidance on anti-discrimination legislation, policies and programmes; (c) to ensure that relevant States, at both the national and subnational levels, cooperate more closely in examining their legal frameworks and policies and in the assessment of both opportunities and gaps in such legal frameworks and policies. The Special Rapporteur stresses, once again, that greater cooperation between relevant States will be essential in undertaking the above-mentioned task.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Overview of the work of the Special Rapporteur"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "Only two countries in the world have implemented reparation measures for the harm done to persons affected by leprosy and their family members by official State policies of segregation. As thoroughly detailed in the Special Rapporteur’s country reports on Brazil and Japan, laws were enacted by both countries to provide reparations to persons affected by leprosy who were segregated in the past by the State and a law was enacted by Japan to provide reparations to family members who were also the victims of State segregation. Remedies, compensation and reparations for violations on the grounds of leprosy suffered both by persons affected and their family members are justice measures which, through general acknowledgment of the unfairness of violations and of the legal obligation of States to take such a violation of human rights seriously, can lead to positive spillover effects, raise awareness and guarantee the non-repetition of such violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Brazil has also enacted an anti-discriminatory law that officially changes the name of leprosy to Hansen’s disease (Hanseníase in Portuguese). The official change of the name to a more dignified term in the last decades of the twentieth century in Brazil has produced positive results in mitigating stigmatization against persons affected by the disease in the country. It is important that such a change be legally formalized, not only in practice, since it obliges the entire administration of the State to fully comply with it.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "While the Special Rapporteur appreciates the complexity of the issue, and that pejorative negative vernacular terms for leprosy are used in some countries and that Western-centred language should not be imposed on non-Western countries, she considers the change of the name of leprosy to a more neutral one to be a best practice for eliminating the harmful stereotypes attached to leprosy, as witnessed in the recent change by WHO of the name of monkey pox to mpox. In another report, the Special Rapporteur presented data suggesting that a large number of persons affected by leprosy prefer the term Hansen’s disease.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "Since the Special Rapporteur took office, there has been further progress with regard to legal frameworks. Noting ongoing discriminatory practices, in 2018, the Supreme Court of India, in its judgment in the case of Pankaj Sinha v. the Union of India and others,[[fn:10]] directed entities of the State to address various forms of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy. In the same judgment, the Supreme Court took note of a writ petition filed by the Vidhi Centre for Legal Policy in its case against the Union of India,[[fn:11]] which listed 119 central and local laws that violate the fundamental rights of persons affected by leprosy under articles 14, 19 and 21 of the Constitution. The Court also took note of the report of the Law Commission of India, in which the Commission expressed its concern over the number of Indian laws that continue to discriminate, directly and indirectly, against persons affected 10 Supreme Court of India, Writ petition (civil) No. 767/2014, Judgment, 14 September 2018. 11 Ibid., para. 8. GE.23-05936 by leprosy. Since then, up to 20 or more laws[[fn:12]] have been either repealed, modified or abolished.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Supreme Court of India, Writ petition (civil) No. 767/2014, Judgment, 14 September 2018."}, {"n": 11, "text": "Ibid., para. 8."}, {"n": 12, "text": "It is difficult to estimate with precision the number of laws since this is an ongoing movement happening at the subnational level of government."}], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "In Brazil, three regional States have transferred the usufruct and ownership of properties of former colonies to persons affected by leprosy and their family members who were once segregated there. One regional State approved reparations to individuals who were segregated because their parents were affected by leprosy, although the monetary compensation given to the victims was shamefully low given the permanent nature of such violations. Some victories in terms of reparations from the State were achieved by individuals who suffered similar violations of their rights, although the Federal Government has yet to approve a reparation law that includes all individuals who were victims of the official State policy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "Strategic litigation and access to justice have been increasingly incorporated into the agendas of some civil society organizations working for persons affected by leprosy, with important victories in favour of their rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "In addition, progress has been made regarding a gender-sensitive approach to leprosy, especially on the part of civil society organizations for persons affected by leprosy, as well as by WHO and through national leprosy programmes. Increasingly, women, who had largely been excluded from leadership positions in such civil society organizations, have been taking over leadership positions and pushing for greater awareness on the specific issues faced by women affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "There has also been progress in the recognition of persons affected by leprosy as persons who are entitled to disability rights, especially with regard to greater openness on the part of national and subnational governments to dialogue with organizations of persons affected by leprosy as part of their disability agendas. By the same token, persons affected by leprosy have developed a deeper understanding of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and have increasingly incorporated its principles into their action plans and advocacy work, especially in supporting the efforts of their peers to access disability-related social benefits. They have also deepened their relations with the overall disability community.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "Significant progress has been made on the interaction between civil society organizations for persons affected by leprosy and other organizations of persons affected by leprosy with international monitoring mechanisms, with several submissions being made, inter alia, as part of the universal periodic review process as well as to the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "Good practices targeting the economic empowerment and the mental health of persons affected by leprosy and their family members have been strengthened by NGOs, as well as by organizations of persons affected by leprosy and local groups and associations of persons affected by leprosy. The Special Rapporteur considers strategies implemented by the aforementioned civil society organizations in the field of solidarity economy to be a best practice for people in overcoming the intersection of poverty with discrimination on the grounds of leprosy and in changing the way communities think of and interact with them.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "While there has been undeniable progress on the right to participation of persons affected by leprosy over the last few years, the Special Rapporteur worries that, in many instances, participation is still mainly tokenistic and that, while relevant intergovernmental agencies, international organizations and Governments seem to be keener to listen to the representative organizations of persons affected by leprosy, the extent to which people’s demands are effectively incorporated into their work plans is still limited.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Progress in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Despite progress, persons affected by leprosy and some of their family members continue to experience discrimination in law and in practice. There are still around 100 laws in place that actively discriminate against persons affected by leprosy. India alone accounts for the majority of such discriminatory legal frameworks. Laws that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy violate a wide range of rights through policies including: compulsory segregation and isolation of persons affected by leprosy; prohibitions on their participation in elections and their holding of public office; restrictions on their freedom of movement and the use of public transportation; dissolution of marriage on the grounds of leprosy, which, as many women affected by leprosy shared frequently with the Special Rapporteur, contributes to their subordination, poverty and the interpersonal and structural violence perpetrated against them; prohibition on the exercise of a large number of jobs; and denial of rights to migrants affected by leprosy. There are also cases of the discriminatory application of laws that appear neutral at face value, as already documented by the Special Rapporteur in one of her previous reports.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "As the lived experience of persons affected by leprosy indicates, discrimination under the law promotes substantive discrimination by significantly compromising their livelihoods, formalizing harmful stereotypes as lawful labels and normalizing humiliation and violence against them. Some laws also exclude them from political and civic participation, therefore hindering their chances of defending their interests and rights. Women are particularly harmed by such laws. As an example, in countries where leprosy is legal grounds for divorce, such laws can not only lead to divorce, but also hinder women’s access to justice in demanding enforcement of the rights that are entitled to them after divorce, such as their share of marital property and custody of their children, which leaves many women living in poverty.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Traditional non-written customs and practices that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy, often grounded in beliefs from world or local religions, persist in some societies, especially where religion strongly frames social interaction. Such customs and practices, mostly unaddressed and unexamined, are a leading cause of interpersonal discrimination at both the family and the community level.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "Interpersonal discrimination against persons affected by leprosy is not restricted to endemic countries, as evidenced by the fact that the Special Rapporteur has received worrying reports from countries that have reached nearly zero cases of leprosy. As an example, the Special Rapporteur recently received reports about a young man living in a country with nearly zero cases, who cannot go to the health-care services to get his medication because taxi drivers will not take him. People have taken photos of him and published them on social media to bully him. Neighbours have set fire to his house and have demanded that he and his entire family leave the neighbourhood because, in their view, leprosy is a curse. This person is not, however, an isolated case, showing the need for greater attention to leprosy issues by non-endemic countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Institutionalized discrimination within State services is a shameful reality that often results from public servants not being educated about leprosy and acting based on prejudice and harmful stereotypes, especially in the fields of health care, education and social protection. The Special Rapporteur has also received complaints about a lack of understanding about leprosy and discriminatory attitudes on the grounds of leprosy within the justice system in Brazil. One example concerns a case that is still pending in a civil court in São Paulo. Demonstrating very limited knowledge about leprosy, its history in Brazil or the violations suffered both by persons affected by the disease and by their children, the judge has refused, without justification, to listen to the testimonies of the aggrieved and has excluded the national organization of persons affected by leprosy from taking part in the case, accepting its participation only as amicus curiae. Furthermore, the judge has imposed a fine on the organization.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "Another issue of concern is the limited integration of the subject of leprosy-related discrimination into the work of national oversight institutions. While the visit of the Special Rapporteur to Brazil promoted greater synergies between the office of the federal public defender and representative organizations of persons affected by leprosy, in the majority of countries, oversight institutions fail to monitor leprosy-related discrimination. Quasi-judicial systems and human rights protection systems in general fail to ensure justiciability, availability, accessibility, good quality, provision of remedies and accountability for persons affected by leprosy and their family members. Furthermore, and as the Special Rapporteur has stated in several reports, there is a data gap concerning the multiple dimensions of living with leprosy, from health to socioeconomic and discrimination variables. Such a data gap hinders the ability of States to develop evidence-based policies to address discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "More efforts are necessary to guarantee accessible mechanisms for persons affected by leprosy, their family members and representative organizations filing complaints on discrimination and violations on the grounds of leprosy. Complaints on human rights violations on the grounds of leprosy should be duly investigated and punished. Lastly, access to justice should be enabled and guaranteed to persons affected by leprosy, their family members and representative organizations on an equal basis with others facing discrimination, to which end multiple barriers, from physical barriers to information barriers, should be removed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "Leprosy-related discrimination does not impact everyone in the same way. In fact, it affects different persons in different ways according to his or her social status and capital. The Special Rapporteur has already demonstrated how women and children are particularly vulnerable to leprosy-related discrimination. While the Special Rapporteur commends the growing understanding of the need to integrate a gender-sensitive approach to leprosy-related discrimination among key stakeholders, she worries that girls, children and teenagers affected by leprosy still lack adequate protection of their rights. The Special Rapporteur recommends that both States and private stakeholders, including the health industry, ensure child-friendly health-care services, appropriate medical expertise and public policies to treat leprosy in children. Children affected by leprosy must also be recognized as rights-holders and their meaningful participation in relevant policy-making processes must be duly enabled.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "In some countries, children have also experienced separation from their parents and segregation from society on the grounds of leprosy. In Brazil, it is reported that approximately 16,000 children were separated from their parents as a result of the State segregation policy; they were sent to institutions known as preventoriums between the 1920s and the 1980s. There are also reports of illegal adoptions, forced disappearances and even executions. As a result, many people who suffered from such violations currently lack access to an adequate standard of living and economic autonomy and many suffer from psychosocial disorders and disabilities that impair their rehabilitation and inclusion in society. These people should be guaranteed remedies and reparation for the violation of their rights and the suffering incurred as a result of the compulsory isolation of their biological parents, in particular the abuse and violence that they were subjected to within State facilities.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Although it is difficult to estimate how many leprosy colonies remain active in the world, there are probably around one to two thousand, mostly in Africa, Asia and South America. While some colonies were created by States in order to segregate persons affected by leprosy, others were the result of deep-rooted stigmatization against persons affected by leprosy, who were forced to leave their home communities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "In institutions created by States, the majority of the population comprises older persons affected by leprosy, who have special needs resulting from the psychosocial effects of the multiple forms of discrimination and violations they have been subjected to throughout their lives, in particularly the absence of family ties and the internalization of stigmatization, as well as physical impairments and disabilities related both to leprosy and to ageing. This population demands proper comprehensive health care, which is largely missing in the majority of State institutions. Furthermore, older persons affected by leprosy and related disabilities should never be denied their rights to legal capacity on the grounds of their age or mental health and should be ensured of their rights to make decisions on budgeting and financial planning, making wills, health care, palliative care and end-of-life care. Older persons should have the right to receive support in decision-making under all circumstances. Their needs may include mobility aids and assistive technologies, as well as access to participation in leisure activities and in other social, religious, cultural, political or educational activities, including the enjoyment of personal relationships on an equal basis with others.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "People living in both State created and non-State created leprosy colonies and/or institutions face similar problems and should be provided with the same rights and conditions, however, in both instances it is important to emphasize that second and third generations of persons affected by leprosy and their families have been born and grown up in such places, and that they have become their homes. They should, as such, enjoy fundamental housing rights. According to the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the seven components of the right to an adequate housing are: legal security of tenure; availability of services, materials, facilities and infrastructure; affordability; habitability; accessibility; location; and cultural adequacy. Over the years, the Special Rapporteur has received a few reports about the imminent eviction of these populations. Forced eviction is considered a prima facie violation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Decisions regarding staying or leaving leprosy colonies and/or institutions, including the future of such locations, should always be made with the inclusion of the inhabitants at the centre of decision-making.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "The most generalized problem faced by persons affected by leprosy concerns the multiple barriers they face in accessing opportunities on an equal basis with others, especially work, health care, education, higher education and social protection, as well as fundamental disability rights, such as participation, accessibility, reasonable accommodation, independent living, inclusion in the community, habilitation and rehabilitation. Deficient access to and limited enjoyment of an adequate standard of living, including access to decent housing, clean water, sanitation and proper and high-quality health care are also important social determinants of leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "Substantive discrimination resulting from entrenched and systemic ostracization and marginalization stands out as a leading cause of the persistent denial of the enjoyment of rights by persons affected by leprosy and their family members on an equal basis with others. Persons affected by leprosy have been trapped in a cycle of disadvantage. Leprosy is a disease of poverty, leading to discrimination and disability, which enhances vulnerability and thus leads to further poverty. The enforcement of economic, social, cultural and disability rights for persons affected by leprosy are of the essence to break this cycle of disadvantage.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recalls that, according to the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, merely guaranteeing equality in law does not necessarily ensure substantive equality, since the effective enjoyment of rights is often influenced by whether a person is a member of a group characterized by prohibited grounds of discrimination. According to the Committee, eliminating discrimination in practice requires paying sufficient attention to groups of individuals who suffer historical or persistent prejudice instead of merely comparing the formal treatment of individuals in similar situations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "Throughout the COVID-19 pandemic, persons affected by leprosy and their families have suffered disproportionately as a result of the long-term structural violence they have been exposed to. For example, they have been denied access to decent work and have been excluded from the formal work market due to systemic stigmatization and, as a consequence, lack access to social protection schemes. These multiple exclusions have posed continuing life-threatening menace to persons affected by leprosy and their families during the COVID-19 pandemic.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "The principle of the progressive realization of economic, social and cultural rights means that those rights are often neglected in national budgeting and that universality is rarely guaranteed, leaving those who already experience structural discrimination, such as persons affected by leprosy and their families, furthest behind and largely unprotected. Poverty, together with structural and systemic discrimination, contributes to the dehumanization of persons affected by leprosy and their family members. The Special Rapporteur strongly recommends that the principle of progressivity should be applied in a reasonable manner that firmly recognizes poverty as a human rights violation and that guarantees minimum core obligations in a way that is proportional to the needs of vulnerable groups and groups that have been discriminated against.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "One related issue of great concern is the clear set back on the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health, as witnessed by the Special Rapporteur during her country visits and reported to her by organizations of persons affected by leprosy from a great number of countries. In addition to factors explaining the limited enjoyment by persons affected by leprosy to same rights as others, as detailed in a previous report of the Special Rapporteur,[[fn:13]] she realized, especially during country visits, that the global elimination of leprosy as public health problem in 2000 has contributed greatly to the deterioration of services, as well as to a decrease in both financial and human resources guaranteeing the right of persons affected by leprosy and their families to health.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "A/HRC/50/35."}], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "Over the years, it has become increasingly evident to the Special Rapporteur that the limited enjoyment of persons affected by leprosy and their family members of social, economic and cultural rights, mainly due to systemic discrimination, are intertwined with the multiple barriers to their participation in public affairs and in making decisions that affect their lives, which limits their capacity to defend their interests. Moreover, the Special Rapporteur has realized how the dramatic decrease of international funds for fighting leprosy and its consequences has contributed to a worrying exclusion of leprosy from the global health agenda and from national budgeting. The few efforts that remain in place to fight leprosy and its consequences are undertaken by international NGOs under a development framework. The above developments call for a clarification of the basic principles for action under a rights-based approach to development in order to build a sustainable approach to leprosy as well as to other neglected tropical diseases.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "The Declaration on the Right to Development affirms that development is a comprehensive economic, social, cultural, and political process, which aims at the constant improvement of the well-being of the entire population and of all individuals on the basis of their active, free and meaningful participation in development and in the fair distribution of benefits resulting therefrom. In preparing the present report, the Special Rapporteur sent a questionnaire to States and civil society organizations on the situation of the right to development for persons affected by leprosy, in particular concerning article 3 of the Declaration, and inquired about measures taken to ensure that persons affected by leprosy can participate in, contribute to and enjoy economic, social, cultural and political development. Only four States, together with 17 civil society organizations, responded to the invitation of the Special Rapporteur for submissions to the present report. Responses were received from Brazil, Cambodia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Mauritius, Mozambique, Nepal, Togo, Uganda, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United Republic of Tanzania.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "Overall, there were just a few submissions that described any kind of development policies or strategies implemented by States. The submissions received describe more social-protection type measures rather than rights-based approaches to development that guarantee the enjoyment by persons affected by leprosy an adequate standard of living as well as their empowerment as participants in development. Further, development strategies are being mainly implemented by civil society organizations for persons affected by leprosy, which have also been increasingly adopting a participatory dimension to traditional income-generation activities and self-care practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "The analysis of the responses received, including the data gathered by the Special Rapporteur over the years, points to a deficit in the development of State policies guaranteeing the right to non-discrimination. In essence, development is still largely approached from an economic growth framework and core principles of a rights-based approach to development are side-lined. Such an approach leads to an inability of both international and national development policies to reach those who have been hardest hit by deeply disabling forces, such as colonialism, capitalism, patriarchy, economic inequalities and, more recently, climate change. Climate change is already impacting persons affected by leprosy and their families, who mainly live in countries in the Global South and who oftentimes rely solely on agriculture for their livelihoods.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "The particular situation of persons affected by leprosy and their family members indicates that the principles of the right to development, such as equity in the enjoyment of the benefits of economic growth, self-determination, participation and justice, are still not being met. Their situation also shows the importance of integrating a non-discriminatory dimension to international and national development policies, together with the right to participation, both as a means and a goal of development. Development strategies should empower those who have faced systemic discrimination and both the outcomes and processes of all development policies should always be monitored in a transparent manner in order to ensure that this is the case.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Remaining challenges in eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "Both leprosy-endemic and non-leprosy-endemic States should commit themselves to ending formal, substantive, interpersonal, direct, indirect, systemic and intersectional discrimination, as well as violence against and the dehumanization of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, which persist today.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "As affirmed in general comment No. 20 (2009) of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, States parties should ensure that a person’s actual or perceived health status does not constitute an obstacle to the realization of his/her rights and should also adopt the necessary measures to address widespread stigmatization of persons on the basis of that his/her health status, including diseases such as leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "Furthermore, as clarified by general comment No. 6 (2018) of the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, the mere recognition of formal equality is not sufficient to combat deep-rooted attitudinal barriers, including those related to leprosy. As also detailed in general comment No. 6, States parties are not only obliged to modify or abolish existing discriminatory laws, regulations, customs and practices, but must also take positive measures, on the one hand, to prevent discrimination, and on the other hand, to tackle it through specific measures aimed at accelerating or achieving de facto equality, non-discrimination, dignity and integrity for groups of people who experience structural disadvantage based on their actual or perceived differences.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "In order to eliminate all forms of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, the Special Rapporteur recommends that leprosy endemic States:\n(a) Review, amend, repeal or abolish all laws, regulations, ordinances, resolutions and policies that discriminate against persons affected by leprosy at both the national and subnational levels of government;\n(b) Prohibit discrimination on the grounds of leprosy and extend such prohibition to the private and public spheres;\n(c) Develop and enact comprehensive anti-discrimination laws and/or statutes, in close consultation with organizations of persons affected by leprosy, to criminalize and punish by effective, proportionate and dissuasive criminal penalties violence and discrimination on the grounds of leprosy;\n(d) Include leprosy as prohibited grounds for discrimination in existing monitoring mechanisms and oversight institutions and systematically collect data disaggregated by demographic, environmental, socioeconomic and cultural variables, with full respect for the principles of participation and privacy;\n(e) Provide accessible mechanisms for filing complaints about the violation of rights on the grounds of leprosy, as well as accessible and effective redress mechanisms and free legal aid, and ensure access to justice, on an equal basis with others, for persons affected by leprosy and their family members;\n(f) Reformulate policies and bodies for the protection of vulnerable groups, in a manner that recognizes and addresses the specific realities and needs of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, with a proper budget allocation at the national and subnational levels, with targets, indicators and benchmarks;\n(g) Increase knowledge in all parts of society, including among State officials and public servants working in different areas of the State administration, particularly in health care, education, work and justice, as well as in the private sector, about updated scientific evidence on leprosy, as well as on the rights to non-discrimination and equality of persons affected by leprosy;\n(h) Develop and enact comprehensive affirmative measures as a means of correcting historical and structural disadvantage, in line with general recommendation No. 25 (2004) of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, in which the Committee affirms that the duration of a temporary special measure should be determined by its functional result in response to a concrete problem and not by a predetermined passage of time; ensure that affirmative measures are defined in consultation with persons affected by leprosy, their family members and representative organizations; and ensure that affirmative measures come with targets and key performance indicators, as well as effective enforcement mechanisms and remedies; affirmative measures should recognize the intersectional discrimination against women and children affected by leprosy;\n(i) Guarantee the right to education for children and teenagers affected by leprosy through the creation of an inclusive and enabling education system that is non-discriminatory and that ensures the availability of education services, accessibility at all levels of education and the promotion of life-long training and skills development opportunities; education services should ensure both accessibility and reasonable accommodation;\n(j) Prohibit and punish domestic violence against women affected by leprosy, as well as all kinds of violence against them, including institutionalized violence in relation to State services, such as health care, education, social protection and employment, as well as all forms of interpersonal violence;\n(k) Ensure that the State’s formal legal system is accessible to women affected by leprosy and ensure gender awareness training for government officials who are responsible for enforcing laws that may be harmfully applied against women affected by leprosy;\n(l) Establish minimum core obligations for guaranteeing fundamental access to economic and social rights for vulnerable groups and groups that have been discriminated against, including persons affected by leprosy and their family members, as part of national development plans;\n(m) Guarantee access to health-care services at all levels of the health system by persons affected by leprosy on a non-discriminatory basis; and ensure their right to a continuum of medical and psychosocial care that encompasses the full spectrum of prevention, timely access to multidrug therapy, the proper management of leprosy reactions and complementary care, including wound care, physiotherapy, rehabilitation and reconstructive surgery in the public health system;\n(n) Invest in mitigating suffering caused by neuropathic pain and stigmatization through high quality pain management and effective referral within national health-care systems for mental health care, under a recovery-based paradigm and through services that are ethical, respectful, culturally appropriate, gender-sensitive and empowering to individuals; and ensure access by family members of persons affected by leprosy to mental health care;\n(o) Provide, free of charge, assistive devices for protection and assistive devices for the facilitation of activities of daily life for persons with leprosy-related impairments and disabilities;\n(p) Partner with organizations of persons affected by leprosy to strengthen peer-to-peer counselling, as well as family-based counselling, and extend counselling to family members of persons affected by leprosy;\n(q) Recognize persons affected by leprosy as active economic agents, respecting their legal capacity and realizing their rights to equal work opportunities in the open labour market and to equal remuneration, and include persons affected by leprosy in public employment programmes;\n(r) Open social dialogue to organized groups of persons affected by leprosy working in the informal economy and enable their right to collective bargaining, including by making available a defined interface with the institutions and government bodies with which the organizations must hold dialogues;\n(s) Fulfil accessibility and reasonable accommodation rights in all productive sectors and work arrangements, including agriculture, husbandry and fishing, and recognize visible physical impairments related to leprosy as well as invisible ones, such as pain or loss of sensation, and psychosocial disabilities related to stigmatization, in the provision of reasonable accommodation;\n(t) Ensure both work and education opportunities for persons affected by leprosy, which should come with targets and key performance indicators, as well as with effective enforcement mechanisms and remedies, while also following paragraph 11 (i) of recommendation No. 168 of the International Labour Organization (ILO) concerning vocational rehabilitation and employment;\n(u) Ensure that social protection measures and social benefits are implemented through administrative services and bureaucratic procedures that guarantee full accessibility to illiterate or poorly educated populations, as well as to populations living in remote areas; such comprehensive social protection policies should also target active citizenship by promoting training opportunities and formal employment, while guaranteeing support, as needed;\n(v) Recognize, in the design of social benefits, such as unconditional cash transfers, the real needs of the target population, including the additional costs of disability, as well as the specific challenges faced by women, children, teenagers and older persons affected by leprosy, and ensure a universal basic income for persons affected by leprosy in order to guarantee them a minimum standard of living and to break the cycle of poverty, disease, disability and discrimination;\n(w) Establish a framework to promote and monitor the implementation of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities that recognizes persons affected by leprosy and their family members as persons with multiple disabilities;\n(x) Implement awareness-raising programmes that are sensitive to culture, language, gender, age and disability and that are developed in close collaboration with organizations of persons affected by leprosy in order to ensure both accessibility and efficacy, address barriers created by the digital divide and invest in community media in order to reach as many people as possible, raise awareness among community leaders, traditional leaders and healers, religious leaders, local pharmacists and schoolteachers with regard to leprosy and engage them in further awareness-raising, and reinforce the positive image of persons affected by leprosy and their family members as rights holders;\n(y) Duly recognize the damage perpetrated by both official and non-official historical segregation through the enactment of reparation measures that can simultaneously redress harm at the individual level and eliminate leprosy-related segregation and violations;\n(z) Recognize and enforce housing and property rights for persons affected by leprosy who were forcibly segregated into leprosy colonies and ensure the same rights to second- and third-generation family members;\n(aa) Implement participatory planning and management of former leprosy colonies and ensure that health care and rehabilitation, including psychosocial support, are available to current residents;\n(bb) Provide urgent symbolic and material reparation, as well as rehabilitation, at the national level to individuals who as children were separated from their parents affected by leprosy and segregated from society.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that intergovernmental agencies:\n(a) Use leprosy as a case study to fill evidence gaps on the relationship between disease, disability, poverty and discrimination;\n(b) Ensure leprosy inclusiveness in addressing discrimination, as well as issues concerning women, children, older people, disability, minorities and development;\n(c) Make sure to consult with organizations of persons affected by leprosy when working in leprosy endemic countries on cooperation plans and programmes;\n(d) Discuss with WHO and consult with organizations of persons affected by leprosy the possibility of changing the name of leprosy to a more neutral one, such as Hansen’s disease, in order to address harmful stereotypes attached to the term leprosy.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that international civil society organizations for persons affected by leprosy:\n(a) Establish measures to ensure that persons affected by leprosy are included in decision-making on all relevant programmes and action plans;\n(b) Establish measures ensuring equality of participation of women affected by leprosy in decision-making with regard to all relevant programmes and action plans;\n(c) Develop measures for proper consultation with children and teenagers affected by leprosy, assess their real needs and ensure they are included in decision-making with regard to all relevant programmes and action plans;\n(d) Establish quotas for the employment of persons affected by leprosy in order to ensure their representation at the organizational level;\n(e) Provide training to members of national and local organizations of persons affected by leprosy about their rights and how to claim them, as well as on basic organizational issues, in order to promote the development of such organizations;\n(f) Establish, with sufficient material and technical resources, an international platform for monitoring the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, find prompt solutions to urgent needs and provide the human rights system regularly with information about discrimination on the grounds of leprosy.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-30-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-53-30", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "While sensitive to the epidemiological heterogeneity of leprosy worldwide, the Special Rapporteur reminds all States of their commitments under the Declaration on the Right to Development and the Sustainable Development Goals, in accordance with which both leprosy endemic and non-endemic States should:\n(a) Allocate sufficient resources to removing any barriers to the participation of marginalized and vulnerable populations in the human rights system and ensure accessibility of procedures for the submission of information to the human rights mechanisms;\n(b) Use a more neutral term than leprosy, such as Hansen’s disease, in future resolutions;\n(c) Remove any obstacles to development, recognizing human beings as the central subject of development and ensure that individuals actively participate in and enjoy the benefits of development and formulate international development policies that complement the efforts of developing countries in the search for solutions that are equitable, inclusive and sustainable; development policies, both national and international, should include non-discrimination as the guiding principle of both processes and outcomes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present thematic report of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members is the first of the current mandate holder, Beatriz Miranda-Galarza, since she took up her functions on 1 November 2023. The report is submitted pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 53/8, in which the Council renewed the mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "Recognizing the need to respond to the demands that have been made regarding violations of the fundamental rights of persons affected by leprosy and their families, the Human Rights Council, in its resolution 35/9, established the mandate of Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members. This pivotal decision underscores the Council’s acknowledgement of the long-standing exclusion and discrimination experienced by those affected by leprosy and their families on a global scale, and emphasizes the urgent need to affirm their status as human rights holders and to undertake prompt and decisive measures accordingly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "In the present report, the Special Rapporteur provides an overview of the impact of the work of the previous mandate holder and describes her vision for the mandate, her working methods and the strategic themes to be addressed during her mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "The Special Rapporteur extends her sincere appreciation and gratitude to her predecessor for her pioneering work, as documented in her last report to the Human Rights Council,[[fn:1]] and to the team working with the mandate in the Special Procedures Branch of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). She also acknowledges the work of United Nations agencies and Member States that have supported the mandate and, most importantly, organizations of and for persons affected by leprosy, their families and their allies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A/HRC/53/30."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Leprosy, also known as Hansen’s disease, is a chronic infectious disease caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium leprae. It primarily affects the skin, peripheral nerves, mucosa of the upper respiratory tract and eyes. It is known for causing skin lesions, nerve damage and deformities, which lead to impairments, especially in untreated cases. It is not highly contagious but can be spread through respiratory droplets from an infected person, although prolonged close contact is usually required for transmission. Nevertheless, there is still social stigma attached to the disease, leading to discrimination against and the isolation of affected persons and their families. With appropriate diagnosis and treatment using multidrug therapy, it is curable. Such diagnosis and treatment are also crucial in preventing long-term complications and reducing transmission of the disease.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "In 2010, the General Assembly adopted resolution 65/215, in which it took note with appreciation of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. The adoption of this resolution was a milestone in the history of persons affected by leprosy: on the one hand, the General Assembly thereby recognized the need for international instruments to promote the consideration of leprosy as a human rights issue; on the other, it encouraged Member States to give due consideration to the principles and guidelines in the formulation and implementation of their policies and measures concerning persons affected by leprosy and their family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Behind that achievement lies a long history of isolation and exclusion and a continual struggle by persons affected by leprosy to reclaim their status as human rights holders. That history can be understood in a deeper way if seen through the lens of four main approaches: (a) a religious and moral approach; (b) a scientific and administrative approach; (c) a representational and cultural approach; and (d) a human rights-based approach. These diverse approaches have led to varied responses to the disease and, ultimately, to the persons affected by it. Such responses are interconnected and have had an impact on the elaboration and implementation of policies, social programmes and legal frameworks relating to the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their families.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recognizes the semantic and political nuances associated with the terms “leprosy” and “Hansen’s disease”. While some countries and organizations opt to use the latter term in deference to the preferences of members of the social movement of persons affected by leprosy in their localities, the term “leprosy” remains widely recognizable to most organizations and affected persons. Consequently, she will use both terms interchangeably and advocate the use of “Hansen’s disease” wherever it aligns with the decisions made by the leprosy rights movement.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "An understanding and thorough examination of the approaches mentioned above could shed light on the existence of derogatory laws and discriminatory practices that are still present, especially in countries in which leprosy is endemic. In this regard, it is important to recognize the invaluable contribution of the disability rights movement, which has provided the theoretical and conceptual frameworks essential for understanding the complexities surrounding the history of leprosy.[[fn:2]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See Patrick J. Devlieger, “Generating a cultural model of disability”, paper presented at the nineteenth Congress of the European Federation of Associations of Teachers of the Deaf, 14–16 October 2005."}], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "From a religious and moral approach, the source of leprosy is a divine figure commonly called God. Across various cultures, and influenced by religious interpretations and, at times, misinterpretations, leprosy has often been associated with divine punishment for immoral behaviour. The link between leprosy and sin and impurity has been prevalent in major world religions,[[fn:3]] such as Judaism, Christianity, Hinduism,[[fn:4]] Buddhism and Islam. However, while some religious texts contain references to leprosy and recommendations for social treatment, others, such as the Qur’an, refer to the disease in an ambiguous way.[[fn:5]] It is crucial to acknowledge and understand the ways in which societies have responded to leprosy on the basis of the transmission and interpretation of religious texts. This view of leprosy-related moral wrongdoing has resulted in paternalistic and charity-oriented responses, neglecting the rights of the persons affected and their families.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See Zachary Gussow and George S. Tracy, “Stigma and the leprosy phenomenon: the social history of a disease in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries”, Bulletin of the History of Medicine, vol. 44, No. 5 (1970)."}, {"n": 4, "text": "See A.K. Sinha, B.G. Banerjee and S. Singh, “Leprosy and its socio-cultural perception in Indian religions and ancient texts”, Indian Journal of Leprosy, vol. 82, No. 1 (2010)."}, {"n": 5, "text": "See Rooshey Hasnain and others, “Islam, leprosy, and disability: how religion, history, art, and storytelling can yield new insights and acceptance”, Societies, vol. 10, No. 1 (2020)."}], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights", "A. Religious and moral approach"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "From a scientific and administrative standpoint, leprosy has been approached as a disease necessitating scientific research and the isolation of affected individuals, often through the implementation of laws and norms. The medical understanding of leprosy began to take shape in the 1840s, with the work of Daniel Cornelius Danielssen and Carl Wilhelm Boeck, and was further advanced in 1873 when Gerhard Armauer Hansen discovered Mycobacterium leprae, a significant milestone in understanding its aetiology. Despite scientific scepticism regarding the high risk of contagion and the hereditary theory of transmission, Governments, in collaboration with the global scientific community, enforced compulsory segregation, leading to the establishment of numerous leprosaria worldwide. In tandem with segregation, laws were enacted to strip individuals affected by leprosy of their citizenship. The introduction of sulfone drugs, particularly dapsone, in 1940 revolutionized leprosy treatment, and multidrug therapy later became the standard treatment, significantly reducing leprosy prevalence globally. The World Health Organization (WHO) launched global leprosy control programmes in the mid-twentieth century, focusing on early detection, prompt treatment with multidrug therapy and public health interventions. Despite expectations that leprosaria would close with the introduction of effective treatment, the process of inclusion of individuals affected by leprosy into their communities has been complex and challenging, with a significant impact on their lives and families. In 2001, WHO announced the global elimination of leprosy as a public health problem, but challenges remain, with rates of transmission and the detection of new cases not meeting expectations. This biomedical and administrative approach to leprosy has led some Governments to treat persons affected by leprosy primarily as persons with a disease rather than as persons with rights.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights", "B. Scientific and administrative approach"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "A medical and administrative approach to leprosy has proved insufficient in eliminating it. Stigmatization and discrimination have hindered diagnosis, treatment and the fulfilment of civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights, particularly in countries in which it is endemic. Efforts to raise awareness about leprosy have often inadvertently reinforced negative stereotypes, portraying affected individuals as dangerous and perpetuating the myth of leprosy as highly contagious. Cultural and contextual interpretations of religious, legal and medical accounts have influenced representations of leprosy and affected individuals. For example, while the term “leprosy” is widely used, especially in Western cultures, its etymology is complex, with theologians and researchers uncovering potential mistranslations and misinterpretations in sacred texts, such as the Old Testament and the Qur’an.[[fn:6]] A similar situation can be observed regarding segregation and the violation of citizens’ rights, stemming from the disregarding of reports and evidence indicating that leprosy is not as dangerous or contagious as fear and power have led people to believe.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See Gilbert Lewis, “A lesson from Leviticus: leprosy”, Man, vol. 22, No. 4 (1987)."}], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights", "C. Representational and cultural approach"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "In the latter half of the twentieth century, leprosy gained recognition as a human rights issue amid the global human rights movement. Advocates highlighted systematic violations of the rights of affected individuals, leading to increased attention to their plight. In 2010, the General Assembly adopted resolution 65/215, on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, marking a significant step. The rights of those affected by leprosy have since been integrated into the protective frameworks of international human rights instruments, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. Legal challenges and advocacy efforts, led by organizations such as the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations and the Sasakawa Health Foundation, have been instrumental in advancing the rights of affected individuals. With this approach, emphasis is given to empowering grass-roots organizations and inclusive community programmes.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights", "D. Human rights-based approach"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that the emergence of each approach does not indicate the overcoming of the previous one; rather, they coexist, with one or two sometimes prevailing in certain contexts or cultures. For example, even if persons affected by leprosy are undergoing treatment, their religious beliefs may still lead them to perceive leprosy to be a result of misbehaviour.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights", "E. Observations regarding the four approaches"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "In addition, it is important to recognize that each approach has made positive contributions, including medical advancements in treatment and the transformation of the approach of various religious organizations from one that is charity-focused to one that is based on human rights approach. The significance of these approaches lies in their utility for analysing how legal, social and political frameworks are developed to address the challenges faced by individuals affected by leprosy in their daily lives. By understanding the complexities of medical, cultural, human rights and other approaches, policymakers, lawmakers and advocates can craft more comprehensive and effective strategies to tackle the stigma, discrimination and barriers to health-care access experienced by those affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Background: from exclusion to recognition as holders of rights", "E. Observations regarding the four approaches"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "The first Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members held the mandate from 2017 to 2023. During that period, she addressed several pertinent issues, as highlighted in the reports that she submitted to the Human Rights Council[[fn:7]] and the General Assembly.[[fn:8]] They included: (a) stigmatization and discrimination based on leprosy; (b) the social determinants of leprosy; (c) women and children affected by leprosy; (d) the right to health and the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) emergency; (e) discriminatory law and policy; (f) disability rights; and (g) the participation and empowerment of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "A/HRC/38/42, A/HRC/41/47, A/HRC/44/46, A/HRC/47/29, A/HRC/50/35 and A/HRC/53/30."}, {"n": 8, "text": "A/76/148, A/77/139 and A/78/173."}], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "A. Overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "In her last report, the previous Special Rapporteur underlined that she had dedicated considerable efforts to making persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations aware of human rights standards.[[fn:9]] Awareness-raising, technical input and collaboration with political and religious leaders from around the world, and especially with grass-roots organizations of persons affected by leprosy, have contributed to changing policies, practices, norms and power relations and have brought about an understanding of persons affected by leprosy as rights holders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "A/HRC/53/30, para. 27."}], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "A. Overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "An exemplary transformation was achieved by the social movement of persons affected by leprosy and their allies in Brazil. On 24 November 2023, the President of Brazil, in line with the recommendations of the Special Rapporteur,[[fn:10]] signed a law amending legislation adopted in 2007. The new law provides for a monthly stipend for persons with Hansen’s disease of not less than the minimum wage. Children separated from parents affected by the disease may receive the stipend as a form of reparation.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "A/HRC/44/46/Add.2, para. 80. See also communication BRA 15/2019, available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=24952; and https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2020/10/leprosy-brazil-children-sent-preventoriums-long-overdue-justice-says-un."}], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "A. Overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "The previous Special Rapporteur identified several significant barriers to accomplishing the objectives of the mandate. They included the limited resources at her disposal, which affected the implementation of key activities, such as expert or regional consultations and the examination of additional, intersectional leprosy-related issues, such as race.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "A. Overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "The previous Special Rapporteur acknowledged factors hindering persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations from making use of the human rights system. Such factors include language barriers, as the majority of persons affected do not speak any of the six official languages of the United Nations; the digital divide; complex procedures that require a level of literacy and expertise that marginalized groups often do not possess; and the fact that international and civil society organizations with experience and expertise in the system do not have issues faced by persons affected by leprosy, such as access to health care, on their agendas.[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "A/HRC/53/30, para. 25."}], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "A. Overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "While adopting a cooperative approach with Governments, the previous Special Rapporteur expressed regret over their limited engagement. The former Special Rapporteur 7 A/HRC/38/42, A/HRC/41/47, A/HRC/44/46, A/HRC/47/29, A/HRC/50/35 and A/HRC/53/30. 8 A/76/148, A/77/139 and A/78/173. 9 A/HRC/53/30, para. 27. 10 A/HRC/44/46/Add.2, para. 80. See also communication BRA 15/2019, available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=24952; and https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2020/10/leprosy-brazil-children-sent-preventoriumslong-overdue-justice-says-un. 11 A/HRC/53/30, para. 25. GE.24-05912 visited four countries, namely, Angola, Bangladesh, Brazil and Japan,[[fn:12]] but 16 countries13 to which she sent a request for a visit, most of which were countries in which leprosy is highly endemic, failed to accept her request. She stressed that greater cooperation from relevant States would be essential to the success of the mandate.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "The country visit reports may be accessed at https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents-listing?field_content_category_target_id%5B182%5D=182&field_entity_target_id%5B1275%5D=1275."}], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "A. Overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "The previous Special Rapporteur issued crucial recommendations relating to: (a) discriminatory laws against persons affected by leprosy at all levels of government; (b) increasing knowledge about leprosy and the right to non-discrimination among State officials and public servants; (c) ensuring the accessibility of legal systems to women affected by leprosy and providing gender awareness training for officials; (d) guaranteeing non-discriminatory access to health-care services; and (e) ensuring comprehensive medical and psychosocial care within the public health system.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See A/HRC/53/30."}], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "A. Overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The current Special Rapporteur is committed to continuing the work started by her predecessor and to making the mandate a people-centred one.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "A. Overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "In accordance with the underlying philosophy of the mandate, which is that the voice, knowledge and life experience of persons affected by leprosy must guide the work of the mandate holder, the current Special Rapporteur conducted interviews with representatives of organizations of persons affected by leprosy and their allies in Bangladesh, Colombia, Ethiopia, Kenya, India, Indonesia, Japan, New Zealand and Paraguay. The interviews addressed two specific topics: the impact of the implementation of the mandate at the local and international levels; and relevant issues that should be addressed in the coming years.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "The Special Rapporteur regrets that, due to the short time between her appointment and the submission of the present report, which she primarily spent familiarizing herself with the responsibilities of the mandate, there was insufficient time in which to interview representatives of other organizations, including organizations in other countries. However, she is committed to continuing to elicit suggestions for her work, which will be shared in her next report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "International organizations report that, since the establishment of the mandate, there has been increased awareness regarding leprosy as a human rights issue, enabling discussions about the topic to extend beyond the medical domain. In addition, the previous mandate holder provided valuable recommendations to United Nations bodies and Member States to assist them in introducing appropriate legislative, administrative and other measures to implement anti-discriminatory laws, programmes and procedures. That included modifying, repealing or abolishing laws, regulations, policies, customs and practices that promoted discrimination. Those efforts were aimed at ensuring equitable conditions of life for persons affected by leprosy and their families.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "In the United Nations system and internationally, leprosy has gained more recognition, and awareness has been raised about the concerns of persons affected by leprosy and their allies globally. The mandate has been successful, accompanied by the ongoing efforts of various international organizations to influence some of the United Nations bodies that are directly or indirectly concerned with leprosy. According to the interviewees, the creation of the mandate has reinforced the visibility of leprosy within the United Nations and the involvement of international leprosy donors in activities and dialogues with different United Nations bodies, including OHCHR.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The Special Rapporteur was informed that another impact of the mandate was an increased interest within major leprosy donor organizations in amplifying knowledge about the human rights approach among organizations of persons affected by leprosy and beyond. Representatives of international and local organizations believe that the shift towards recognizing leprosy as a human rights issue at the United Nations was evidenced by the extension of the mandate for three more years. This development instils confidence that the voices of persons affected by leprosy are being heard and are gradually reaching important decision makers, both internationally and locally. According to one of the persons affected by leprosy who was interviewed, “if a person affected by leprosy is heard and seen by somebody coming from an organization such as the United Nations, she feels important and thinks that her problems are important too. That makes a difference in her life.” Nevertheless, the view was expressed that there was still a long way to go to eliminate discriminatory practices and laws, especially in some of the countries in which leprosy is endemic.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "While some changes at the international level have been noted, the impact of the mandate is not yet as visible at the local level as persons affected by leprosy and their allies would desire. Nevertheless, the Special Rapporteur’s request for information about the situation of persons affected by leprosy in each country has motivated grass-roots organizations to stay informed about the various violations of the rights of persons affected by leprosy in their own communities. They have noted the scarcity of information available regarding the challenges faced by persons affected by leprosy and their families, with existing data often being outdated and unreliable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "Moreover, it seems that, at the country level, major organizations of persons affected by leprosy in urban areas have received information regarding the work implemented under the mandate, but a notable number of smaller organizations in rural and marginal areas have not received such information. This difference could be attributed to challenges in disseminating centralized information to peripheral areas, as well as language barriers, given that English is the language predominantly used and spoken within international leprosy organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Organizations of persons affected by leprosy have gained increased recognition at the local and international levels, partly through their participation in human rights events related to leprosy and their engagement with the United Nations. They have become more aware of the importance of their involvement in decision-making processes at the local level, with the mandate playing an encouraging role in this regard. This impact became evident following the country visits undertaken by the Special Rapporteur, which gave persons affected by leprosy a sense of being heard and increased awareness of their rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The transition to online meetings during the COVID-19 pandemic enabled the Special Rapporteur to have more frequent contact with representatives of grass-roots organizations. As a result of those meetings, information has circulated more widely, leading some organizations to rethink the methods that they use to inform communities about leprosy. In addition, they have shown improvements, potentially influenced by the mandate, in managing funds and conducting democratic elections for leaders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "Due to the formal nature of communication procedures within the special procedures system, some grass-roots organizations of persons affected by leprosy have learned to implement more formal systems of work within their organizational structures. This includes the collection of data and the registration of cases to be used as evidence when demanding action from local and international institutions regarding violations of human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The work carried out under the mandate has provided hope to persons affected by leprosy, their families and grass-roots organizations, although the impact is not easily measurable. This effect is essential to highlight because, as persons affected by leprosy have historically been discriminated against and excluded, the acknowledgement by their communities and by local authorities of the significant role that they could play in processes of social change has a parallel effect on their personal and family lives. In one of the interviews conducted by the Special Rapporteur, it was mentioned that, “when persons affected by leprosy realize they have rights, like any other person, their self-confidence changes, and also there is confidence in what their organizations can achieve”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "It is important to stress the importance of acknowledging that the impact of the mandate on the lives of people and organizations is intertwined with various factors, such as the widespread adoption of new digital strategies for outreach and communication, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic; the groundwork laid by international leprosy donors; collaboration with the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities; and the partnerships formed between organizations of persons affected by leprosy and disability rights organizations. The changes that have occurred in the past six years have been the result of collaboration between the Special Rapporteur, international leprosy organizations, the Governments that have supported the mandate and persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "However, there is still a need for clarification of the Special Rapporteur’s role at the local level, as expectations on the ground may exceed the capacity of the mandate. Many grass-roots organizations might assume that the Special Rapporteur can take more direct action at the local level, without realizing that her role is primarily informational and advisory as opposed to action-oriented.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "International leprosy organizations believe that, although international attention has increased, it is not yet sufficient. There is a greater need for the implementation of policies and guidelines on the ground, which is primarily the responsibility of Member States. Governmental institutions could rely more on the advice and support of organizations of persons affected by leprosy and the Special Rapporteur to take leading actions to guarantee the protection of the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their families.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "Civil society organizations and affected persons welcomed the decision of the Human Rights Council to extend the mandate. The existence of the mandate signifies – for persons affected, their families, their communities and their allies – that leprosy is in the spotlight of the international community. This marks a significant step in the long history of violations of the rights of persons affected by leprosy. For this reason, one of the Special Rapporteur’s requests is that Member States and the members of the Council continue to support the existence of the mandate and its work.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "Such support would include facilitating the production of accessible human rights information materials, fostering collaboration with mandates that are directly or indirectly related to leprosy (such as those in the areas of health and disability) and allowing the dissemination of information about leprosy-related human rights issues within the United Nations system and among Member States.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "Furthermore, the interviewees called for active collaboration on the part of Member States to accept and implement the recommendations made by the Special Rapporteur, ensuring that the measures adopted benefit not only persons affected by leprosy but also their families, communities and countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Work of the Special Rapporteur in the period 2017–2023", "B. Voices of persons affected by leprosy and their organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "The second topic raised by the Special Rapporteur during her discussions with various representatives of international leprosy organizations and grass-roots organizations concerned the pertinent issues that, in their view, she should address in the coming years. Their responses aided the Special Rapporteur in identifying the priorities among the numerous unresolved issues concerning the elimination of discriminatory practices against and violations of the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their families. Many of the issues presented to the Special Rapporteur had already been discussed with representatives of the organizations concerned in initial meetings held as part of the process of introducing the new mandate holder. Similarly, they were noted by her predecessor in her reports. Regrettably, this underscores the fact that there remains a long journey ahead to guarantee and protect the rights of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "Taking into account these key priorities, the Special Rapporteur will ensure that her various thematic reports are designed to inform and give rise to regional or domestic debates about practical steps that can be taken to bring about a cultural shift towards respect for the values and rights enshrined in the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, to advance law and policy reform and to ensure that systems change in order to enable the enjoyment of human rights by persons affected by leprosy and their families. Each thematic report will be informed by a gender perspective, will cover the accumulated disadvantages faced by children, youth and older persons and will illustrate the different circumstances that persons affected by leprosy face in different localities and contexts.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that one of the key objectives of her mandate is to propel the understanding of leprosy as a human rights issue into the twenty-first century. This involves emphasizing that the issue is inherently societal rather than individual, meaning that it implicates States, Governments, institutions and organizations and not only persons affected by leprosy and their families. As both a human rights and a social problem, it evolves alongside global developments; consequently, the primary challenges confronting humanity are echoed in the experiences of persons affected by leprosy, often with a magnified impact.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has categorized the issues presented to her into five clusters: fundamental rights and support and care systems; crucial intersectional issues and marginalized groups; social, political and cultural considerations; legal and economic dimensions related to leprosy; and conflict-related and environmental considerations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "According to WHO,[[fn:15]] in 2019, 161 countries submitted information regarding leprosy. A total of 202,256 new cases were detected in 118 countries. Of those cases, 96 per cent were reported by the 23 global priority countries, and 79 per cent by Brazil, India and Indonesia. Sixty-six countries reported fewer than 100 cases. It is important to mention that the true number of cases could be higher due to underreporting.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "WHO, “Towards zero leprosy: global leprosy (Hansen’s disease) strategy 2021–2030”, 2021."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Considering that statistics regarding leprosy cases should be multiplied by four, as leprosy has an impact not only on the affected individuals but also on their family members, it becomes evident that the discussion surrounding support and care for leprosy within the familial and communal context is crucial. This recognizes the substantial burden borne by families and communities, which is often worsened by the limited support offered by Governments in many countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "Historically, care has been perceived through a paternalistic lens, leading to the relegation of the rights of the individuals affected. Slogans such as “taking care of” or “being cared for” have typically characterized settlements, leprosaria and hospitals, reflecting paternalistic and segregationist paradigms. This approach has tended to medicalize care and relegate persons affected by leprosy to the status of dependent subjects as opposed to active rights holders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "The social movement of persons affected by leprosy challenges the medicalized approach to care, pushing for a transition towards a human rights framework in which support, care and assistance are positioned as inherent rights rather than as patronizing gestures. Aligned with this framework, and supported by the principles and guidelines on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, Human Rights Council resolution 54/6, on the centrality of care and support from a human rights perspective, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the WHO 2011 guidelines for strengthening participation of persons affected by leprosy in leprosy services, the community of persons affected by leprosy and their families demand an appropriate support system that guarantees their full participation at all levels and the fulfilment of their daily life activities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "Support and care for persons affected by leprosy encompass a wide range of formal and informal interventions, including live assistance and intermediaries, as well as personal assistance; living arrangements services for securing housing and household help; treatment, medical assistance and follow-up; and community services. Persons with leprosy-related disabilities may need support in accessing and using general services, such as health, education and justice support; support in decision-making; mobility and support aids, such as assistive technology and devices; and communicational assistance.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "The complexity of adopting a human rights-based approach to leprosy support, care and assistance stems from the recognition that, while leprosy is a curable disease, the journey does not end with the elimination of the bacteria. Post-treatment health complications and reactions may persist, necessitating ongoing support that extends beyond the treatment period and often lasts for the remainder of the individual’s life.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "The implementation of a human rights-based system of support and care must be guided by reliable and relevant data regarding the mental, social and economic impact of leprosy on affected persons and their families. There are limited data on the economic burden borne by the families of persons affected by leprosy.[[fn:16]] A study undertaken in rural India demonstrated that the impact on households of Erythema nodosum leprosum, a common immune-mediated complication of lepromatous and borderline lepromatous leprosy, was predominantly through indirect costs, which accounted for 65 per cent of total household costs. By comparison, indirect costs accounted for only 21 per cent of total household costs for those in the control group. Indirect costs, in the study, referred to the reduction in household productivity resulting from the interruption of the normal or preferred activities of household members.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See Syahroni Bahtiar, Tantut Susanto and Dewi Rokhmah, “People affected by leprosy needs during rehabilitation in community: study of health care provider perceptions”, NurseLine Journal, vol. 5, No. 2 (2020)."}, {"n": 17, "text": "David J. Chandler and others, “Household costs of leprosy reactions (ENL) in rural India”, PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, vol. 9, No. 1 (2015)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "A similar study carried out among migrant and resident patient populations in Guangdong Province, China, concluded that the median yearly total expense after diagnosis amounted to 15 per cent of migrant and 38 per cent of resident patients’ annual income. Among migrant patients, the median cost before diagnosis was $131.6, the median yearly cost of leprosy treatment after diagnosis was $300.6 and the median yearly cost of leprosy complications was $69.5. By comparison, among residents, the median yearly costs were $152.4 pre-diagnosis, $309.7 after diagnosis and $91.9 for leprosy complications.[[fn:18]]", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Mingzhou Xiong and others, “Evaluation of the economic burden of leprosy among migrant and resident patients in Guangdong Province, China”, BMC Infectious Diseases, vol. 17, No. 1 (2017)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Equally important is to assess existing support and care policies in each country in order to understand the measures implemented, identify gaps and determine the necessary steps forward. This comprehensive analysis should help to rethink care and support services as human rights-based support services.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "The central obstacle to achieving the goal of leprosy elimination revolves around securing access to quality and compassionate health-care services.[[fn:19]] This entails the operation of services in a way that is interlinked with other essential services. The far-reaching effects of this challenge significantly hinder strategies aimed at prevention, detection, treatment and subsequent follow-up. Crucially, this includes the consequences of delayed detection, inadequate post-treatment monitoring, falling numbers of well-trained health-care personnel and obstacles in accessing essential medicines. Similarly, there is a need to consider in this context the impact of investment in medical and social research, which seems to be falling.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Issues regarding access to health services were raised in a thematic report by the previous Special Rapporteur (A/HRC/50/35)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "In a recent report, entitled “Good practices of support systems enabling community inclusion of persons with disabilities”,[[fn:20]] OHCHR reiterated the importance of adopting a rights-based approach to disability. In the report, OHCHR provided a diverse range of good practices for support and care systems that were enabling persons with disabilities to live independently and ensuring their inclusion in the community. Such examples show how progress can be made in meeting the demand for human rights-based health, care and support systems for persons affected by leprosy and their families to bring about change in their lives.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "A/HRC/55/34."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "Support and mental well-being are undoubtedly connected to what has been mentioned above. The Special Rapporteur acknowledges that the implications of the disease extend beyond the physical and social spheres for those affected and their families. Mental health concerns caused by the disease’s effects on the body, coupled with discrimination and exclusion, have historically been disregarded. The shared and personal histories of individuals affected by leprosy and their families have led to emotional and psychological challenges, which can be recognized as forms of collective and individual trauma. There has been a notable lack of accountability on the part of States and Governments in addressing these critical issues, the burden on persons affected by leprosy and their families and the lack of strong and committed public support and care systems.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "To illuminate this demand for human rights-based support and care systems, including with regard to mental health, the following case of a person affected by leprosy in Indonesia was relayed to the Special Rapporteur:\nHadi, 32 years old, is a construction worker with a wife and two children. He was initially treated for leprosy for 12 months (2021/22). After treatment, he began to suffer from recurrent reactions. He was given prednisone by the health centre, but the reactions recurred whenever he tapered off the prednisone. The health centre staff did not know what else to do, so he was eventually told to take multidrug therapy treatment again for six months. At this point, he was already dependent on prednisone. He is now (February 2024) still on multidrug therapy and still taking prednisone. The recurring reactions led to persistent exhaustion, which left him unable to work. His eyes are affected by prednisone, meaning he can no longer ride a motorcycle from his remote home to the town where he worked. He is at home and has no income. His wife now works in a small kiosk but does not earn enough to cover the small family’s expenses. He is under stress and pressure due to this situation; he feels useless, as he is unable to provide for his family. This is likely what caused his reactions to persist, causing him to continue taking prednisone and his health problems to worsen, leaving him unable to work.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "A. Rights-based support and care systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "When left untreated, leprosy can lead to deformity and resultant disabilities. In 2019, 10,816 persons, including 370 children, in 94 countries presented with a grade 2 disability[[fn:21]] at the time of diagnosis, which is an indication of late diagnosis and lack of community awareness. The number of children with grade 2 disabilities is likely to be significantly higher, as some countries did not report data on grade 2 disabilities in children. The overall grade 2 disability rate was 1.4 per million population.[[fn:22]] In the same report, it is estimated that between 3 and 4 million people are living with visible impairments or deformities due to leprosy. Of the new cases, 38.9 per cent were in women and 7.4 per cent in children. Detection of cases in children is considered an indicator of recent community transmission. Globally, the new case detection rate for those aged under 14 years was 7.9 per million children.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "In leprosy, disabilities are categorized into different grades based on their severity. “Grade 2 disability” refers to visible impairment of the hands, feet or eyes due to leprosy. These impairments can include clawed fingers, dropped feet or visual impairments. Grade 2 disability indicates a more advanced stage of disability compared with grade 1 disability, which refers to less visible impairment. It is an important measure used in assessing the severity and progression of leprosy-related disabilities."}, {"n": 22, "text": "WHO, “Towards zero leprosy”."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "B. Crucial intersectional issues and marginalized groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "There is very little information available on the kinds of problems faced by persons with leprosy-related disabilities, the resulting needs that they have for services[[fn:23]] and violations of their rights to access those services. However, they encounter challenges in their daily lives that span a spectrum of material and emotional issues. In addition to these challenges, the need for rehabilitation services and medication must be considered, with many persons requiring lifelong treatment. When discussing disability issues related to leprosy, it is crucial to address leprosy reactions, which are frequently mentioned by individuals who have completed their treatment and have been declared cured.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See Wim H. van Brakel and others, “Disability in people affected by leprosy: the role of impairment, activity, social participation, stigma and discrimination”, Global Health Action, vol. 5 (2012)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "B. Crucial intersectional issues and marginalized groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "While the above-mentioned issues include the circumstances of children, women, young people and older persons – groups whose rights are often the most vulnerable – there remains a demand for a more comprehensive examination of the specific challenges faced by these groups. A study conducted in Indonesia concerning women with leprosy-related disabilities reveals that most of them were unable to contribute to the family income, although they did undertake household duties.[[fn:24]] Overall, women with leprosy-related disabilities often find themselves responsible for their own care, as well as caregiving for other family members, leading to stressful situations that can exacerbate their health conditions.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "Ilse Schuller and others, “The way women experience disabilities and especially disabilities related to leprosy in rural areas in South Sulawesi, Indonesia”, Asia Pacific Disability Rehabilitation Journal, vol. 21, No. 1 (2010)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "B. Crucial intersectional issues and marginalized groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "Women affected by leprosy face negligence and discrimination when seeking medical attention.[[fn:25]] The following case of a young woman affected by leprosy in India, which was relayed to the Special Rapporteur by an activist for the rights of persons affected by leprosy, exemplifies their situation:\nDue to the closure of some leprosy hospitals and the integration of specialized medical staff into hospitals located far from villages, reconstructive surgeries for leprosy patients are often conducted in camps. However, after such surgeries, patients require ongoing therapy and rehabilitation, posing challenges for follow-up care. I know of the case of a young pregnant woman who is also a double amputee and a mother of a child. She recently underwent surgery and received care from a skilled doctor at a distant hospital. However, she had to endure a difficult eight-hour journey alone, surrounded by strangers, due to the lack of support from her husband, who may leave her at any time because they are poor people. This case is just one example of the many similar situations faced by women worldwide in similar circumstances.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See A/HRC/41/47."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "B. Crucial intersectional issues and marginalized groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "During the interviews and initial meetings with leprosy donor organizations, the Special Rapporteur received information about issues concerning children affected by leprosy and the medical treatment and attention provided to them. While studies have been conducted regarding the complex situation of children between the ages of 10 and 15,[[fn:26]] there is a recognized need for further research to understand the specific challenges faced by children under the age of 10. These include the effects of the medical treatment provided. Similar demands have been made regarding young people affected by leprosy, who may face consequences after completing treatment. However, there is often a lack of post-treatment follow-up, which, in some cases, has resulted in a recurrence of the disease in affected individuals. According to one study, it is time to consider the mortality rates associated with leprosy in countries in which it is endemic in the twenty-first century and, specifically, to determine whether, even today, those diagnosed with lepromatous leprosy (in particular young people and those with Erythema nodosum leprosum) have a shortened life expectancy compared with the general population.[[fn:27]]", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See Álisson Neves Santos and others, “Epidemiological profile and tendency of leprosy in people younger than 15 years”, Revista da Escola de Enfermagem da USP, vol. 54 (2020)."}, {"n": 27, "text": "C. Ruth Butlin, “Excess of deaths of leprosy-affected people”, Leprosy Review, vol. 91, No. 2 (2020), p. 222."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "B. Crucial intersectional issues and marginalized groups"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "One of the successful steps taken during the twenty-first century is the strengthening of the social movement of persons affected by leprosy. As previously mentioned, this development marks the initiation of a human rights approach to leprosy. Small, grass-roots organizations have notably expanded their efforts, often forming alliances with disability organizations. Their funding typically stems from the activities that they undertake or from international donors. The various challenges that these organizations encounter in their efforts to sustain themselves hinder their ability to emerge as influential political voices both locally and internationally. Ensuring the political engagement of persons affected by leprosy across various levels within their communities and countries and on the global stage remains an unfinished task.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "C. Social, political and cultural considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "The actions undertaken by activists for the human rights of persons affected by leprosy and their allies to amplify awareness about the situation of persons affected by leprosy have consistently encountered obstacles due to inadequate governmental allocation of resources towards enhancing their political and organizational capabilities. Examining the nature of these organizations and their difficulties and obstacles and assessing the extent of the support that they receive from governmental, national and international bodies will shed light on their essential role in addressing leprosy through a human rights lens.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "C. Social, political and cultural considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "Another important issue raised by persons affected by leprosy concerns the preservation of leprosy history, which has often been viewed solely as a moral obligation. However, it is crucial to recognize that communities and collectives have a right to safeguard their memory, particularly when their history involves rights violations by Governments and societies. Hence, it is imperative to advocate the protection of archives, sites and the oral history and artefacts intrinsic to leprosy history, seeking their active safeguarding by States and Governments.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "C. Social, political and cultural considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "Historically, numerous leprosy settlements have been established worldwide, often because of segregation policies. Many of the settlements have undergone transformations over time, with some being converted into integrated communities or repurposed for other uses. While the number of active leprosy colonies has decreased over the years due to advancements in treatment, some continue to exist, particularly in regions where leprosy remains prevalent or where affected persons face challenges in living in mainstream society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "C. Social, political and cultural considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "A study conducted in one of the settlements in Ghana revealed that persons affected by leprosy and their families who continue to reside in the area expressed dissatisfaction with their living conditions, particularly due to their limited and sometimes neglected access to health-care services. Similar complaints have arisen from so-called former colonies, for instance in Brazil,[[fn:28]] Ethiopia,[[fn:29]] India[[fn:30]] and Thailand,[[fn:31]] where insecurity is a prevalent issue. Governments have not granted land ownership rights to these individuals, despite their long-standing residency, leading to concerns about security of tenure. In addition, inadequate access to essential amenities, such as electricity and sanitation, compounds the challenges faced by these communities. It is worth noting that a significant portion of the population in these settlements comprises older individuals struggling with health difficulties, which further complicates their lives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "See Raissa Mariah Ferraz Moreira Barcelos and others, “Leprosy patients’ quality of life: a scoping review”, Revista da Escola de Enfermagem da USP, vol. 55 (2021)."}, {"n": 29, "text": "See Hunegnaw Ayele, “Leprosy stigma and its effect on the marriage experience of leprosy affected people and their descendants: the case of Addis-Tesfa Hiwot settlements in Ethiopia”, Leprosy Review, vol. 93, No. 2 (2022)."}, {"n": 30, "text": "See James Staples, “Communities of the afflicted: constituting leprosy through place in South India”, Medical Anthropology, vol. 33, No. 1 (2014)."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See Nils Kaehler and others, “Perceived stigma towards leprosy among community members living close to Nonsomboon Leprosy Colony in Thailand”, PLOS ONE, vol. 10, No. 6 (2015)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "C. Social, political and cultural considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "Migration is another contemporary issue that deserves consideration in relation to leprosy. Numerous studies conducted in countries such as Brazil, India and Indonesia have shed light on the role of internal migration and rural development trends in the spread of leprosy. Migration and displacements often correlate with the exacerbation of poverty and inequality, contributing to the transmission of the disease. Furthermore, international migration emerges as another significant factor to consider in twenty-first-century discussions. Research on leprosy and immigration in the United States of America has highlighted several knowledge gaps within the broader medical community regarding the disease. Similar concerns have been raised regarding cases in Canada and countries in Europe.[[fn:32]] These studies indicate that individuals migrating from low-prevalence regions may experience delays in receiving treatment compared with patients from nations where leprosy is endemic and who are more familiar with its early symptoms. In addition, there is a suggestion that physicians may be more inclined to consider leprosy as a possibility when treating individuals from countries where the disease is highly prevalent.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "See Cassandra White and Carlos Franco-Paredes, “Leprosy in the 21st century”, Clinical Microbiology Reviews, vol. 28, No. 1 (2015)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "C. Social, political and cultural considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "Two ongoing demands made by persons affected by leprosy relate to the persistence of discriminatory laws that impede their rights and those of their families and to the economic and financial hardships that they encounter in their daily lives. The issue of discriminatory law has already been addressed in a previous report under the mandate.[[fn:33]] While changes have been implemented in various countries, there remains much work to be done, particularly in documenting the tangible impact of these laws on people’s lives. Further research in this field is imperative, alongside the provision of legal assistance and advice to support the efforts of the social movement of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "A/76/148."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "D. Legal and economic dimensions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "Leprosy is a disease entrenched in societies characterized by structural inequalities, where poverty serves as one of numerous barriers to prevention, transmission mitigation and timely treatment and follow-up. Comparative research spanning Brazil, China, India, Indonesia and Nepal[[fn:34]] has highlighted geographical location and socioeconomic status as primary factors influencing leprosy prevalence. Furthermore, researchers have underscored the existence of a structurally rooted vicious cycle, wherein poverty contributes to leprosy incidence, while leprosy, in turn, exacerbates poverty conditions or fosters its onset.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "Yu-Ye Li and others, “Factors influencing leprosy incidence: a comprehensive analysis of observations in Wenshan of China, Nepal, and other global epidemic areas”, Frontiers in Public Health, vol. 9 (2021)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "D. Legal and economic dimensions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that the economic dimensions of leprosy intersect with every issue raised by affected persons, including both the physical and the social determinants of income generation.[[fn:35]] On the basis of the interviews held, she acknowledges that socioeconomic empowerment could not only enhance quality of life for individuals and their families but also boost their self-esteem. Empowerment facilitates engagement in productive work, fulfilment of social roles and recognition by families and communities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See Messono O. Omang and Simplice A. Asongu, “Historical prevalence of infectious diseases and entrepreneurship: evidence from 125 countries”, Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies, 21 November 2023."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "D. Legal and economic dimensions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "While it might not seem immediately apparent, the consequences of war, conflict and violence linked to perpetuating the rights of powerful groups, as well as issues such as drug trafficking, significantly affect the lives of individuals affected by leprosy. In countries such as the Congo, Ethiopia, Liberia, Myanmar and the Sudan, those living with leprosy face increased risks to their safety and well-being.[[fn:36]] During times of national crisis, they are often overlooked, left behind and denied access to basic services crucial for their survival. This oversight exacerbates their exposure and underscores the urgency of addressing these systemic gaps during times of conflict.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "See Laura Dean and others, “A syndemic born of war: combining intersectionality and structural violence to explore the biosocial interactions of neglected tropical diseases, disability and mental distress in Liberia”, PLOS Global Public Health, vol. 2, No. 6 (2022)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "E. Environmental and conflict-related considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "War and political instability have had a significant impact on rural areas and persons affected by leprosy, resulting in food insecurity and limited access to essential services. In conflict-affected countries, individuals with leprosy face disruptions in logistics, early detection and treatment services, amplifying their health and economic fragility and isolation. Furthermore, conflicts and wars may compel Governments to divert resources and attention away from leprosy and other neglected tropical diseases, further exacerbating the already precarious living conditions of these communities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "E. Environmental and conflict-related considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "Given that climate change is a paramount concern for human existence and has wide-ranging effects, it is crucial to examine its impact on individuals affected by leprosy. This entails exploring how, for those affected, the rights of access to clean water, sanitation and a safe environment have been integrated into policies and procedures. For instance, according to information provided to the Special Rapporteur about the situation in Ethiopia, severe drought in the southern part of the country has aggravated hunger, and organizations of persons affected by leprosy have been aiding marginalized populations, including those affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "E. Environmental and conflict-related considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "Furthermore, understanding the role of environmental factors and their function in the continued transmission of the bacteria should be taken into consideration when analysing the rights to safe drinking water and sanitation, as well as the right to a clean, healthy and sustainable environment. Moreover, endemicity in India and Indonesia has been shown to be linked to environmental factors and housing conditions.[[fn:37]] Measures to improve environmental health (including measures relating to housing, nutrition, access to clean water and sanitation) would not only be relevant for leprosy but also contribute to a life free from many diseases.[[fn:38]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See Flora Ramona Sigit Prakoeswa and others, “Environmental factors and leprosy in mother and child: a study in endemic areas in East Java, Indonesia”, Indian Journal of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, vol. 15, No. 2 (2021)."}, {"n": 38, "text": "See Vishwa Mohan Katoch, “Eradication of leprosy from India: reflections on past, present and future”, Indian Journal of Medical Research, vol. 159, No. 1 (2024)."}], "section": ["IV. Leprosy in the twenty-first century: key priorities for the mandate", "E. Environmental and conflict-related considerations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "In the present section, the Special Rapporteur articulates her understanding of her role and methods of work and delineates the central pillars of her vision for the mandate. This encompasses the core values that will steer her efforts: implementing an ethics of care, fostering a culture of listening and advocating cooperation and co-production at various levels.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "The Special Rapporteur intends to undertake her tasks in accordance with the mandate established by the Human Rights Council in its resolution 53/8. With regard to facilitating cooperation and fostering connections, she envisions her role as one that facilitates cooperation among stakeholders and the building of bridges between projects, initiatives, stakeholders, countries and continents. This entails creating platforms for the exchange of good practices and lessons learned. With regard to providing advisory services and support, she will aim to facilitate and support the provision of advisory services, technical assistance, capacity-building and international cooperation to boost national efforts aimed at effectively realizing the rights of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "A. Methods of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "The Special Rapporteur acknowledges the following as among the fundamental instruments that will support her work: the principles and guidelines on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members; the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities; the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development; the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights; the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination; the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women; the Convention on the Rights of the Child; the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage; the WHO “Towards Zero Leprosy” Global Leprosy (Hansen’s Disease) Strategy 2021–2030; and the WHO guidelines for strengthening participation of persons affected by leprosy in leprosy services of 2011.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "A. Methods of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "The Special Rapporteur will promote the protection of the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their families and their participation at different levels in the national and international arenas. To this end, her mandate will be supported by three main principles: (a) an ethics of care; (b) a contribution to a culture of listening; and (c) promoting cooperation and the co-production of policies and strategies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "B. Vision and fundamental pillars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "To support the efforts of leprosy rights activists and affected persons and families, the Special Rapporteur shares the views of care and disability thinkers who have contributed to reshaping the understanding and application of both “ethics” and “care”. She emphasizes that a mandate aimed at eliminating discrimination against persons affected by leprosy would be ineffective without continual reflection on, and the application of, the foundational principles of ethics as the knowledge of how to lead a fulfilling life, extending to all individuals. This perspective acknowledges that care has often been undervalued and misconstrued in contemporary societies, reduced to a patronizing and gender-biased definition, and that care permeates every aspect of daily life, institutional frameworks and governmental structures. For this reason, the Special Rapporteur advocates an ethics of care as one of the pillars of the mandate, highlighting care as a fundamental aspect of human life. The Special Rapporteur underscores the need to change the overall public value associated with care. In this context, an ethics of care encompasses “everything that we do to maintain, continue, and repair our ‘world’ so that we can live in it as well as possible. That world includes our body, our selves, and our environment, all of which we seek to interweave in a complex life-sustaining web.”[[fn:39]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "Bernice Fisher and Joan C. Tronto, “Toward a feminist theory of care”, in Circles of Care: Work and Identity in Women’s Lives, Emily K. Abel and Margaret K. Nelson, eds. (State University of New York Press, 1990), p. 40."}], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "B. Vision and fundamental pillars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "An ethics of care is intrinsically connected to a culture of listening, in this case to persons affected by leprosy. Listening is the profound act of acknowledging and appreciating the presence of others, while recognizing one’s own presence. As Evelyn Glennie, the renowned deaf percussionist, noted, listening “isn’t always about sound; it’s often about no sound … It’s the presence. It’s the presence of two people being there together. So, no words are necessarily spoken at all. But it is the presence and the acknowledgement and, actually, the volume of that person. And we have to hang on and appreciate the value that we have ourselves and the value of other people and exchanging this feeling and therefore respect.”[[fn:40]] The right of persons affected by leprosy to participate at every level of public and private life will not be realized unless listening is embraced as a practice that evolves into a culture. A human rights approach to leprosy must be founded upon a culture of listening that supports the advancement of persons affected by leprosy, their families and their allies in their struggle to protect and ensure their rights.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "Oscar Trimboli, “Teaching the world to listen with Evelyn Glennie”, Deep Listening: Impact beyond Words, podcast, episode No. 70."}], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "B. Vision and fundamental pillars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "An ethics of care and a culture of listening would promote a practice of cooperation and co-creation to achieve not only the objectives of the mandate, but also the goals set by the leprosy rights movement, such as “leaving no one behind”. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is explicit in its requirement that the voices of persons and their representative organizations be heard. It emphasizes that persons, in this case those affected by leprosy, should be closely consulted on and actively involved in the development and implementation of legislation, policies and other decision-making processes that affect them. Applied to the field of leprosy, articles 4 and 33 of the Convention provide for the active engagement of civil society, organizations and persons affected by leprosy in any process that affects their lives and at any level. The Special Rapporteur aims to establish collaborative partnerships with other mandates relevant to her role and with United Nations bodies and Member States. She is looking to promote collaboration with academic institutions, local and international human rights and development organizations and representatives of social movements that are linked to leprosy. This cooperative approach will facilitate the development of strategies to enhance the lives of persons affected by leprosy. She intends to focus her efforts on co-creating materials and information with the leprosy rights movement to promote the defence of their rights. Similarly, she will advocate the participation of persons affected by leprosy in shaping policies, programmes and legal frameworks that have an impact on their lives.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "B. Vision and fundamental pillars"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "Since taking up the mandate, the current Special Rapporteur has held numerous meetings and bilateral consultations with representatives of organizations of persons affected by leprosy and other civil society organizations, States and regional organizations, academics, representatives of the United Nations system, donors and other stakeholders. Those with whom she met included representatives of international leprosy donors and local grass-roots organizations of persons affected by leprosy; representatives of WHO, in India and Geneva; representatives of the Pan American Health Organization and OHCHR, in Mexico; representatives of the National Commission of Human Rights of Mexico; representatives of the Permanent Missions of Ecuador, Japan and Mexico to the United Nations Office and other international organizations in Geneva; representatives of the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, in Geneva and Mexico; and other mandate holders. In addition, she has entered into conversations with academics at the University of Copenhagen, the University of Toronto, Canada, and the University of Leeds, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "C. First steps forward"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "She has participated in numerous events focused on human rights and leprosy, including the launch of the Global Appeal 2024 to End Stigma and Discrimination against Persons Affected by Leprosy and the thirtieth session of the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, both in Geneva.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "C. First steps forward"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "The Special Rapporteur is advancing discussions on leprosy beyond the confines of the field by initiating a series of radio programmes on leprosy in the twenty-first century.[[fn:41]] In these programmes, guests share their experiences with leprosy and offer insights on the necessary work ahead. In addition, she is facilitating the dissemination of information about grass-roots organizations worldwide through the editorial platform of 17, Institute of Critical Studies, in Mexico.[[fn:42]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See https://17radio.org/index.php/episodios/la-lepra-en-el-siglo-xxi-memoria-y-re-escritura/."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See, for example, https://diecisiete.org/actualidad/the-transformative-power-of-grassroots-initiatives."}], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "C. First steps forward"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "During this initial period, the Special Rapporteur has crafted public statements and communications. In addition, she has endorsed statements prepared by other special procedures addressing issues relevant to the scope of the mandate. She has collaborated with different news outlets to disseminate information about leprosy and her mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Envisioning change in the period up to 2026", "C. First steps forward"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-59-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-56-59", "idx": 87, "n": 87, "text": "In accordance with her mandate, the Special Rapporteur will promote a human rights approach guided by an ethics of care that places people’s voices at the centre and as the primary source of evidence, thereby contributing to the construction of a culture of listening and more equitable and just societies. The Special Rapporteur underlines the particularity of leprosy (Hansen’s disease) as a catalyst of social, political and cultural change, serving as a beacon for a more democratic, humane and diversity-respecting world. In the present report, she underscores the significant transformation for individuals affected by leprosy, as well as their families, organizations and allies, brought about by the implementation of the mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is submitted pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 53/8, in which the Council extended the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members In this report, which is submitted in follow-up her 2024 vision report,[[fn:1]] the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members, Beatriz Miranda-Galarza, highlights both the progress made and the challenges remaining in ensuring that international cooperation is inclusive and accessible to persons affected by leprosy and their families. She provides guidance to States and international stakeholders on implementing leprosy-inclusive strategies, policies, initiatives and partnerships. The report also includes an overview of her work and achievements over the past year.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A/HRC/56/59."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "International cooperation plays a crucial role in addressing the challenges faced by persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their families. Leprosy is a disease that disproportionately affects marginalized communities and which requires a coordinated global response that ensures access to healthcare, social and political participation and the protection of human rights. This goal has become increasingly difficult to achieve, however, owing to shifting international priorities and financial constraints.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "In 2021, the World Health Organization (WHO) launched the global leprosy (Hansen’s disease) strategy 2021–2030, Towards zero leprosy,[[fn:2]] with a long-term vision of achieving zero infection and disease, zero disability and zero stigma and discrimination. The global targets for 2030 include a 70 per cent reduction in annual new cases, a 90 per cent reduction in severe (grade-2) disabilities and a 90 per cent reduction in new cases among children.[[fn:3]] However, given the trend in new cases over the past decade, it is clear that continuing past and current leprosy control efforts will not be sufficient to achieve those targets. A significant scaling up of preventive treatment, alongside active case detection, is required. At present, post-exposure prophylaxis with a single dose of the antibiotic rifampicin remains the most promising preventive treatment. In the current distressing scenario, with limited funding, ensuring access to care, follow-up support and overall quality-of-life improvements for persons affected by leprosy and their families remains a major obstacle.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789290228509."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At the time of writing, funding for international development projects, including health initiatives, provided through bilateral cooperation has been scaled back.[[fn:4]] This reduction in financial support threatens efforts to eliminate leprosy and exacerbates inequalities. Many programmes that rely on international funding are now struggling to sustain essential services, particularly in endemic countries where national resources are insufficient to address the full spectrum of needs.[[fn:5]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "The withdrawal of the United States of America from WHO and the suspension of funding from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) (see https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/reevaluating-and-realigning-united-states-foreign-aid/ and https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/withdrawing-the-united-states-from-the-worldhealth-organization/), as ordered by the Trump administration, could have significant consequences for international cooperation on leprosy. This includes potential setbacks in research, treatment programmes and human rights advocacy. The cut in funding may weaken initiatives aimed at improving the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their families, as well as scientific and social research efforts. In the near future, this reduction in support could also have broader impacts on affected communities and endemic countries."}, {"n": 5, "text": "See joint statement of United Nations experts and special rapporteurs (https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2025/02/new-us-administration-must-recommit-human-rights-home-and-abroad-un-experts); see also communication OL USA 5/2025. All communications mentioned in the present report are available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMsearch/TMdocuments."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Despite these challenges, solidarity among grassroots organizations, partnerships within the Global South and innovative financing mechanisms are in place. Strengthening 1 A/HRC/56/59. 2 See https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789290228509. 3 Ibid. 4 The withdrawal of the United States of America from WHO and the suspension of funding from the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) (see https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/reevaluating-and-realigning-united-statesforeign-aid/ and https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/withdrawing-the-unitedstates-from-the-worldhealth-organization/), as ordered by the Trump administration, could have significant consequences for international cooperation on leprosy. This includes potential setbacks in research, treatment programmes and human rights advocacy. The cut in funding may weaken initiatives aimed at improving the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their families, as well as scientific and social research efforts. In the near future, this reduction in support could also have broader impacts on affected communities and endemic countries. 5 See joint statement of United Nations experts and special rapporteurs (https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2025/02/new-us-administration-must-recommit-humanrights-home-and-abroad-un-experts); see also communication OL USA 5/2025. All communications mentioned in the present report are available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMsearch/TMdocuments. GE.25-05250 international cooperation through a human rights-based approach, one that prioritizes compassion, participation and sustainability, is essential to ensuring that persons affected by leprosy are not left behind and that their rights are protected.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "In preparing the report, the Special Rapporteur analysed 23 responses to a questionnaire sent to Member States, reviewed interviews with 10 representatives of international organizations, national human rights institutions and civil society organizations and gathered insights from representatives of 10 grassroots organization from various countries. In addition, she interviewed five experts in international cooperation and development, as well as the Special Rapporteur on the right to development and the Independent Expert on human rights and international solidarity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Owing to lack of financial support, the Special Rapporteur was unable to conduct an expert group consultation, which could have provided additional insights and information to enrich the report. Such a consultation could also have contributed valuable advice for States and international organizations regarding the importance of funding and investing in the field of leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The Special Rapporteur highlights the need for support for the mandate and welcomes discussions on country visits. She also expresses concern about a country visit to Morocco that could not take place because of the request of the Moroccan Government that the sub-Saharan region be included in the agenda, despite the fact that it is not considered to be an endemic area. Country visits provide the Special Rapporteur with an opportunity to gain a better understanding of the situation of persons affected by leprosy and the progress made by Member States in protecting their rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "The duty to cooperate internationally towards the fulfilment of all economic, social and cultural rights is enshrined in international standards, including article 2 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and articles 55 and 56 of the Charter of the United Nations. Despite being one of the world’s oldest diseases, leprosy remains a critical global health concern, characterized by discrimination, exclusion and chronic underfunding. Over the past decade, global funding for leprosy programmes have stagnated, leaving thousands without access to appropriate diagnosis and treatment, while human rights violations continue unchecked. The Special Rapporteur calls for urgent international cooperation that moves beyond outdated charity models toward a framework grounded in human rights and justice, supported by a normative and legal framework based on the following two essential General Assembly resolutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "In its resolution 65/215, the General Assembly called upon governments and other stakeholders to give due consideration to the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members[[fn:6]] in the formulation and implementation of their leprosy-related policies. The principles and guidelines shed light on international cooperation, in particular regarding four main points:\n(a) Knowledge sharing: exchange research, medical advancements and legal frameworks to combat discrimination;\n(b) Financial and technical support: provide funding and expertise to strengthen healthcare and treatment access;\n(c) Capacity-building: train healthcare workers, policymakers and community leaders;\n(d) Advocacy and awareness: combat discrimination and misinformation through global campaigns.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See A/HRC/15/30, annex."}], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "In its resolution 78/280, the General Assembly addressed global health challenges in the foreign policy space, stressing the need for Member States to implement health policies to guarantee access to health services for all, to achieve universal health coverage and to reinforce actions and initiatives, including research and development, to tackle known health challenges, including neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), in collaboration with the United Nations and other international actors. The effective implementation of the Assembly resolutions depends on two critical pillars: local commitment and international cooperation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The Universal Declaration of Human Rights recognizes that economic, social and cultural rights can only be attained through both national efforts and international cooperation, as stated in its articles 22 and 28. This is further reinforced by article 28, which affirms that every individual is entitled to a social and international order that enables the full realization of human rights. These articles highlight the responsibility of the international community to improve the lives of persons affected by leprosy and their communities. This responsibility should be carried out through actions to promote scientific and social research, ensure the continuous and timely provision of medication and provide sustained support for the implementation of monitoring systems. Such systems should facilitate the identification of new cases, the prevention of potential ones and the provision of support to individuals whose health and well-being are affected by treatment, post-treatment reactions and social discrimination.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The mandate has been vocal in advocating for the demands of persons affected by leprosy, ensuring that their economic, social and cultural rights are protected,[[fn:7]] in alignment with the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, particularly articles 2 (1) and 11 (2), which emphasize both national responsibility and international assistance in safeguarding these rights. Under article 2 (1), States parties pledge to take steps, individually and through international assistance and cooperation, to progressively achieve the full realization of economic, social and cultural rights. Article 12 further establishes the right to the highest attainable standard of health, obligating States to prevent, treat and control epidemic, endemic, occupational and other diseases. This duty extends to fostering international cooperation in public health efforts, including those aimed at eliminating neglected tropical diseases such as leprosy. In addition, States are responsible not only for their individual actions but also for fostering international cooperation to establish programmes and policies that promote economic stability and social participation and provide support for the fight against hunger, ensuring food security for all citizens, including persons affected by leprosy and their families. The Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, in its general comment No. 22 on the right to sexual and reproductive health (article 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights),[[fn:8]] underscored that international cooperation and assistance are key elements of article 2 (1) of the Covenant. States that are not able to comply with their obligations under the Covenant due to a lack of resources must seek international cooperation and assistance. States that are able to do so must respond to such requests in good faith and in accordance with the international commitment of contributing at a minimum 0.7 per cent of their gross national income (for international cooperation and assistance. Ensuring compliance with these provisions is essential to address the structural inequalities that perpetuate the marginalization of people affected by leprosy. International cooperation remains a critical mechanism for advancing their rights and promoting inclusive sustainable development.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "A/HRC/38/42."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 22 (2016), para. 50."}], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic underscored the urgent need to strengthen international cooperation to protect the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their families. This includes ensuring access to health services, medicines, employment, food security, information and housing.[[fn:9]] The global emergency caused by the pandemic disrupted assistance programmes for those affected by neglected tropical diseases, including leprosy, exposing weaknesses in the global health system. This situation raised critical questions about the implementation of Articles 1 (3), 55 and 56 of the Charter of the United Nations, which call for international cooperation in promoting human rights, including collective 7 A/HRC/38/42. 8 Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 22 (2016), para. 50. 9 See A/HRC/47/29. GE.25-05250 efforts to guarantee the rights to health, education and well-being of all individuals without distinction of any kind. Specifically, Article 1 states that one of the purposes of the United Nations is to “achieve international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms”.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See A/HRC/47/29."}], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "A key demand among persons affected by leprosy is the right to preserve their history – not only to ensure that the past is not forgotten but also to foster societal and State recognition of their experiences, thereby improving their present and future lives. This includes advocating for investments in social, scientific and technological research and implementation, supported by the international community. This demand aligns with article 15 (4) of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, in which Member States recognized the benefits of international cooperation in the scientific and cultural fields. Efforts by some governments to preserve historical sites, archives and oral histories related to leprosy have been made possible through bilateral cooperation, which secures funding for activities that might otherwise remain unattainable. These efforts highlight the importance of international collaboration in addressing both the historical and cultural dimensions of leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "The adoption of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities by the General Assembly in 2006, in particular articles 4, 11 and 32,marked a significant step towards the inclusion of persons with disabilities in the development agenda and, by extension, within the scope of international cooperation. Persons with leprosy-related disabilities should be included within the framework of the Convention, as well as within mechanisms that guarantee the protection of their rights during catastrophic and humanitarian crises.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See A/75/186."}], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "In line with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its 17 Sustainable Development Goals, the Addis Ababa Action Agenda of the Third International Conference on Financing for Development serves as a global framework for mobilizing financial resources, promoting investment and strengthening international cooperation to achieve sustainable development. While it does not explicitly mention leprosy, it includes persons with disabilities, which implies that individuals affected by neglected tropical diseases, including those who have acquired impairments related to leprosy, should be considered as part of its commitments.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goal 3, directly address the fight against neglected tropical diseases. Specifically, target 3.3 aims to end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria and neglected tropical diseases, including leprosy. While the target specifically focuses on the right to health, all Sustainable Development Goals must be met for persons affected by leprosy, in line with the overarching principle, “Nothing about us without us”. International forums frequently stress that the implementation of the 2030 Agenda will not be achieved by the deadline unless international cooperation is fully committed to that end result. This is also reflected in the Kigali Declaration on Neglected Tropical Diseases (2022), which has been endorsed by various stakeholders, including governments, pharmaceutical companies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The declaration emphasizes the need for collaborative action to eliminate neglected tropical diseases, including leprosy, as well as the importance of addressing human rights and ensuring access to treatment and care for affected individuals.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "At the same time, international solidarity is a cross-cutting principle in the international normative and legal framework, underpinning efforts to address global challenges such as poverty, inequality, climate change and human rights violations. In 2017, the Human Rights Council adopted resolution 35/3, recognizing the fundamental value of solidarity in international relations and welcoming the drafting of a declaration on the right to international solidarity. This principle has been a recurring theme in United Nations documents, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which emphasizes the importance of cooperation and solidarity in achieving human rights for all. The 2030 Agenda also highlights solidarity as a core principle for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly in addressing the needs of the most marginalized populations. While the principle is widely recognized, its implementation depends largely on political will and the commitment of States to work together for the common good.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Why normative and legal frameworks of international cooperation and solidarity matter in the field of leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "International cooperation on leprosy, which dates to the 19th century, was initially driven by colonial administrations, religious missions, and philanthropic organizations. Misconceptions about the disease led to widespread segregation in leprosaria. Christian missionaries, such as Father Damien in Hawaii and Mother Teresa in India, provided care but often reinforced dependency rather than empowerment. Over time, cooperation expanded beyond charity to include medical research and livelihood programmes, although critics argue these efforts often imposed colonial frameworks rather than fostering genuine collaboration.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Historical overview of international cooperation and solidarity related to leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Following Dr. Armauer Hansen’s discovery of mycobacterium leprae in 1873, the first International Leprosy Congress (1897) institutionalized leprosaria as the primary control method for treatment of the disease. While this marked a shift from religious to medical approaches, isolation global policies violated human rights, reinforcing discrimination and exclusion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Historical overview of international cooperation and solidarity related to leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Colonial-era leprosaria in Africa, Asia and the Americas relied on funding from religious groups, philanthropists and governments, which viewed leprosy as a public health and economic threat. International organizations later formalized efforts, often headquartered in the global North while operating in the global South. Although medicalization and charity dominated early interventions, affected individuals and advocates eventually challenged isolation policies, prompting a shift toward community-based care. The push to close leprosaria gained momentum in the mid-twentieth century, spurred by medical advances such as the development of the antibiotic dapsone in the 1940s and the introduction of multidrug therapy in the 1980s. Established in 1948, WHO has played a key role in coordinating global responses, with multidrug therapy becoming the standard treatment for the disease.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Historical overview of international cooperation and solidarity related to leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Multilateral and bilateral cooperation have been instrumental in the fight to eliminate leprosy. Since 1995, WHO has ensured the global distribution of multidrug therapy through donations from the Nippon Foundation and Novartis Foundation. National leprosy control programmes manage distribution and monitor progress toward elimination. International organizations have also played a vital role in prevention, treatment, advocacy and policy development while strengthening efforts by grassroots organizations. However, international cooperation remains limited, with slow progress being made towards a human rights-based approach.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Historical overview of international cooperation and solidarity related to leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "The establishment of a mandate to eliminate discrimination against persons affected by leprosy by the Human Rights Council marked a major milestone. Led by international organizations and some Member States, the initiative has reshaped global discourse. Nevertheless, resistance persists, with some international cooperation efforts still prioritizing medical or moral approaches over structural change.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Historical overview of international cooperation and solidarity related to leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Historically, leprosy-related aid has portrayed affected individuals as passive recipients, reinforcing the image of them as dependents. However, a human rights-based approach has gained traction over the past decade, fostering new narratives and recognizing affected persons as active partners in international cooperation. Voices from the field: “Many founders of international leprosy organizations took a person-centred approach in their early work. However, one or two centuries ago, human rights discourse was virtually non-existent. Still, I think that their efforts were driven by a genuine intent to alleviate suffering. We can’t judge past actions by today’s standards. Today, there GE.25-05250 is no excuse to not contribute to the protection of rights of persons affected by leprosy. It is a global responsibility.”[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "International leprosy organization representative interviewed in December 2024."}], "section": ["III. Historical overview of international cooperation and solidarity related to leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "Valuable practice: the Fontilles Foundation in Valencia, Spain, exemplifies a remarkable transformation from a leprosarium into a global non-profit dedicated to supporting persons affected by leprosy. Established in 1909 as a centre for isolating individuals with leprosy, Fontilles has evolved into an international organization advocating for health, inclusion and human rights not only for persons affected by leprosy but also for persons with disabilities and elderly persons. Today, it continues to advance treatment and to foster research, advocacy and global partnerships in multiple countries.[[fn:12]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Information gathered through interviews and discussions with various representatives of leprosy organizations. For more information see https://fontilles.org/."}], "section": ["III. Historical overview of international cooperation and solidarity related to leprosy", "Voices from the field:"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "In 2006, the Human Rights Council, in its resolution 8/13, recognized that leprosy-related discrimination constitutes a violation of fundamental human rights. This was the first instance of international recognition of the human rights of persons affected by leprosy. In 2010, the General Assembly took note of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, which called on governments to: end laws discriminating against persons affected by leprosy; ensure access to education, employment and healthcare; and protect the rights of families of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Since these landmark developments, bilateral and multilateral donors and agencies, the private sector and philanthropic foundations have increasingly incorporated human rights considerations into their work regarding leprosy. However, the scope and effectiveness of these efforts vary widely depending on the donor, leading to inconsistencies in inclusive strategies, policies, and programmes. This section of the report reflects the findings of the Special Rapporteur on how international cooperation actors currently integrate a human rights perspective to leprosy and its impact on the life of affected persons, their families and communities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Most international leprosy donors lack specific human rights policies, although many are moving in that direction. Only a third of international organizations have formal human rights strategies aligned with United Nations guidelines, including commitments to accountability and impact assessments. Two-thirds of international organizations note non-discrimination, social inclusion and community empowerment as part of their mission, although not all have explicit policies. About 50 per cent integrate human rights criteria into funding and project evaluations, which is central to ensure interventions respecting the dignity and rights of those affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Integration of human rights in leprosy funding"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "It is important to notice that many organizations align their programmes with ethical practices and non-discriminatory service delivery, even if they are not explicitly labelled as “human rights” policies. The challenge going forward is to ensure that these commitments are effectively translated into operational practice, where roughly 60 per cent to 70 per cent of organizations are making measurable progress. It is important to note that these percentages are approximate and based on a general analysis of available information; for a more precise evaluation, a systematic review of each organization’s policies and practices would be necessary. 11 International leprosy organization representative interviewed in December 2024. 12 Information gathered through interviews and discussions with various representatives of leprosy organizations. For more information see https://fontilles.org/. GE.25-05250 Commitment of multilateral and bilateral donors", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Integration of human rights in leprosy funding"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Approximately 80 per cent to 90 per cent of major multilateral agencies such as WHO, the World Bank and regional development banks investing in health issues, including neglected tropical diseases, now embrace human rights language in their strategic documents, aligning with international frameworks such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and other global health equity initiatives. Similarly, many bilateral donors, like the Department for International Development (now the Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office), and others, show a strong normative commitment to human rights, with roughly 80 per cent incorporating those principles into their funding guidelines and programme strategies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Commitment of multilateral and bilateral donors"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "However, the explicit inclusion of leprosy-related human rights, particularly within agencies focused on social and economic rights, remains a challenge. According to representatives of international organizations interviewed, leprosy is not considered a priority outside a small circle of organizations that have a long involvement with the disease. This poses a challenge, especially in increasingly competitive funding environments", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Commitment of multilateral and bilateral donors"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "A 2023 report on leprosy research reveals key insights into funding and research priorities.[[fn:13]] According to the study, between 2017 and 2021, international leprosy organizations invested nearly $50 million over five years, averaging around $10 million per year. The report identifies five priority areas: diagnostics; disability; stigma and discrimination; operational research; and transmission. Notably, all participating organizations supported transmission research, even during challenging times such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The study also indicates that at least 38 per cent of participants applied for research grants and that 64 per cent had received at least one, although many noted difficulties in accessing funding. The Leprosy Research Initiative, a platform dedicated to leprosy research, was frequently cited as a key funding source.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "D. Scollard, S.C.M. Trienekens, A. Tucker, S. Goswami and D.A. Hagge, “Money matters: priorities in leprosy research funding: Leprosy Review, vol. 94, No.4 (2023), pp. 364–368."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Funding for leprosy research and priority areas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The report also notes that while the actual global funding for leprosy research could be higher than the aforementioned figure, it remains insufficient to meet the growing demand in the field. Despite being one of the oldest known diseases, leprosy remains underfunded. In 2016, research on neglected tropical diseases, including leprosy, received approximately $100 million in the United States, a fraction compared to funding for HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis.[[fn:14]] There is a clear need for a more comprehensive assessment that includes a broader range of international bilateral and multilateral cooperation and provides detailed breakdowns of funding by research priority.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "S.L. Reed and J.H. McKerrow, “Why funding for neglected tropical diseases should be a global priority”, Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol. 67, No. 3 (2018), pp. 323–326."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Funding for leprosy research and priority areas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The Special Rapporteur highlights that most international leprosy organizations have committed to financial accountability. For instance, in its 2023 annual report, the Leprosy Research Initiative publicly disclosed the budget allocated for research projects. Similar practices are observed by other organizations, including the Fontilles Foundation, Fundación Anesvad, the Sasakawa Health Foundation and the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, demonstrating their strong commitment to budget transparency, which enables the public to understand how organizational revenues are collected, allocated and spent. These actions build trust among future donors and set an example, positioning international cooperation on leprosy as a benchmark for transparency.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Transparency and financial accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Over the past decade, international funding for leprosy has been allocated to several key areas, ranging from large-scale initiatives to smaller-scale projects:\n(a) Early detection and treatment – enhancing diagnosis, treatment and public awareness to prevent transmission and disabilities, in collaboration with national health systems;\n(b) Scientific research – investing in research to improve understanding and management of the disease;\n(c) Disability prevention and rehabilitation – supporting early detection, rehabilitation and assistive devices to reduce disabilities;\n(d) Stigma reduction and empowerment – strengthening organizations of people affected by leprosy, promoting policy participation and supporting education.\n(e) Social and economic inclusion – advancing livelihood programmes, education and vocational training for affected individuals and families;\n(f) Awareness and advocacy – conducting campaigns to combat stigma and misinformation;\n(g) Preserving leprosy history – documenting life stories, archiving materials, and researching lessons learned;\n(h) Human rights and anti-discrimination – advocating for rights, repealing discriminatory laws and engaging global stakeholders;\n(i) Intersectional issues – addressing gender, violence, climate change, disability, neglected tropical diseases, mental health and social justice as interconnected challenges.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Funding distribution across key areas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "According to grassroot organizations, most funding has traditionally gone towards medical research, treatment and control programmes, which are seen as being substantial and measurable. This is one of the most successful examples of international cooperation in global health, which has certainly significantly reduced the global burden of leprosy. Historically, governments, pharmaceutical companies and research institutions have invested in leprosy research, particularly during the mid-twentieth century when the disease was more prevalent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Funding distribution across key areas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "Increased investment has been made in awareness campaigns, education and collaborative, all of which are crucial for combating discrimination and promoting early diagnosis. NGOs, religious groups and international agencies fund such efforts, while grassroots organizations play a key role in community outreach. However, many people affected by leprosy, who feel that such campaigns still present them as objects of pity rather than as people with agency, attribute this portrayal to outdated, uncreative messaging that fails to prioritize their participation as meaningful.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Funding distribution across key areas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "Prevention and long-term solutions are increasingly seen as areas of collaboration, although they are still underfunded. Although there are more efforts to prevent leprosy, including through post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP),[[fn:15]] it is reported that community engagement and integration with other health programmes are often overlooked or, when implemented, lack follow-up strategies.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "Post-exposure prophylaxis is a preventive treatment, usually a single dose of rifampicin, given to close contacts of affected persons to reduce their risk of developing the disease."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Challenges in funding allocation and drug distribution"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "The limited funding available for follow-up systems for cases of leprosy reactions, relapses and chronic conditions resulting from treatment is seen as an important issue. Although leprosy is rarely fatal when diagnosed early and treated properly with multidrug therapy, severe reactions, especially erythema nodosum leprosum and other inflammatory complications, can be life-threatening if not promptly and effectively managed.[[fn:16]] Historical case reports and medical studies have documented deaths related to such severe reactions and reported that additional deaths from treatable conditions may occur among leprosy-affected persons, particularly in settings with limited access to advanced healthcare or where treatment is delayed.[[fn:17]] Additional funding is needed for research, training and surveillance to prevent fatalities. A human rights-based approach to leprosy requires integrating field reports into the global agenda.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See A/79/152."}, {"n": 17, "text": "C.R. Butlin, “Excess of deaths of leprosy-affected people”, Leprosy Review, vol. 91. No. 2 (2020), pp. 220–223."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Challenges in funding allocation and drug distribution"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Multilateral partnerships are essential for comprehensive disease monitoring and timely information sharing, both of which are critical for early intervention and outbreak prevention. They also play a key role in ensuring the efficient distribution of leprosy drugs, a challenge frequently reported in endemic countries. The COVID-19 pandemic has intensified those issues by draining funding and human resources, which, in turn, has disrupted regular drug distribution processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Challenges in funding allocation and drug distribution"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "In 2024, Nigeria experienced a major crisis in leprosy drug distribution. For 11 months, the supply of multidrug therapy, the essential life-saving treatment for leprosy, was severely disrupted due to bureaucratic bottlenecks and regulatory hurdles.[[fn:18]] The delay has left over 3,000 patients, including around 800 children, without timely treatment, increasing the risk of irreversible disabilities and jeopardizing progress toward eliminating the disease.[[fn:19]] While the immediate impact may have been contained, experts warn that long-term effects will emerge if distribution challenges are not addressed.[[fn:20]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "The leprosy medicines arrived in Abuja on 9 March 2025. While undergoing customs clearance before distribution, the National Tuberculosis, Leprosy and Buruli Ulcer Control Programme stated that efforts were coordinated to ensure timely distribution based on State-provided data."}, {"n": 19, "text": "See the Leprosy Mission and Parliamentarian call for the immediate delivery of leprosy drugs to Nigeria (2025), available at https://www.leprosymission.org.uk/latest-news/parliamentarian-call-for-immediate-delivery-drugs-nigeria/."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Information was gathered through ongoing communication with organizations of persons affected by leprosy in Nigeria, as well as meetings with their representatives, government officials and WHO representatives. In addition, news reports from various outlets highlighted the human impact of the delay and international and national leprosy organizations called on the Nigerian Government and WHO to intervene urgently to resolve the crisis and ensure the rapid delivery of the needed medication. See: https://dailytrust.com/leprosy-fg-tasked-on-life-saving-drugs-for-over-3000-patients/ and https://www.arise.tv/human-rights-group-raises-alarm-over-3000-leprosy-patients-left-without-access-to-drugs/."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Challenges in funding allocation and drug distribution"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The Special Rapporteur observes that, despite the progresses made, social and structural issues remain underrepresented in the funding landscape. Critical areas, including disability care, mental health, relapse and post-treatment challenges, distribution of leprosy drugs and the social and economic determinants of the disease, receive limited funding, despite their vital role in addressing the comprehensive impact of leprosy. In some instances, reductions in international funding have forced local organizations to prioritize between implementation areas, often focusing on reducing case numbers rather than adopting a multisectoral approach. In general, investing in more integrated attention to neglected tropical diseases, in general, has proven that, in addition to producing beneficial health effects, there are significant gains in education, agricultural productivity and poverty reduction. It has been estimated that for every dollar invested in the control of neglected tropical diseases, economic productivity will increase 50-fold.[[fn:21]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "S.L. Reed and J.H. McKerrow, “Why funding for neglected tropical diseases should be a global priority”, Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol. 67, No. 3 (2018), pp. 323–326."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Need for a comprehensive, human rights-based approach"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "With the recent changes in the approach of the Government of the United States of America to international aid and human rights, shifts in institutional policies are expected.[[fn:22]] These shifts could significantly undermine the already limited progress in integrating leprosy into international cooperation frameworks. Furthermore, they may impede timely detection, case follow-up, investment in livelihood projects, disability prevention and the protection of the human rights of those affected by leprosy and their families. Overall, these shifts are in opposition to the stance of multilateral organizations such as the Pan American Health 17 C.R. Butlin, “Excess of deaths of leprosy-affected people”, Leprosy Review, vol. 91. No. 2 (2020), pp. 220–223. 18 The leprosy medicines arrived in Abuja on 9 March 2025. While undergoing customs clearance before distribution, the National Tuberculosis, Leprosy and Buruli Ulcer Control Programme stated that efforts were coordinated to ensure timely distribution based on State-provided data. 19 See the Leprosy Mission and Parliamentarian call for the immediate delivery of leprosy drugs to Nigeria (2025), available at https://www.leprosymission.org.uk/latest-news/parliamentarian-call-forimmediate-delivery-drugs-nigeria/. 20 Information was gathered through ongoing communication with organizations of persons affected by leprosy in Nigeria, as well as meetings with their representatives, government officials and WHO representatives. In addition, news reports from various outlets highlighted the human impact of the delay and international and national leprosy organizations called on the Nigerian Government and WHO to intervene urgently to resolve the crisis and ensure the rapid delivery of the needed medication. See: https://dailytrust.com/leprosy-fg-tasked-on-life-saving-drugs-for-over-3000-patients/ and https://www.arise.tv/human-rights-group-raises-alarm-over-3000-leprosy-patients-left-withoutaccess-to-drugs/. 21 S.L. Reed and J.H. McKerrow, “Why funding for neglected tropical diseases should be a global priority”, Clinical Infectious Diseases, vol. 67, No. 3 (2018), pp. 323–326. 22 UN News, “US funding pause leaves millions ‘in jeopardy’, insist UN humanitarians”, available at https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/02/1159746. GE.25-05250 Organization (PAHO), which emphasizes that addressing neglected tropical diseases, including leprosy, requires systematic and collaborative international efforts.[[fn:23]] Voices from the field: “Adhi was just 22 when he passed away. He had finished leprosy treatment two years earlier, but ongoing pain and other symptoms were never properly diagnosed or treated at his local clinic. Sadly, he’s not the only one. Others in my country have died because there aren’t enough trained healthcare workers, proper follow-up or accessible care after one has finished treatment.”[[fn:24]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "UN News, “US funding pause leaves millions ‘in jeopardy’, insist UN humanitarians”, available at https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/02/1159746."}, {"n": 23, "text": "Pan-American Health Organization (PAHO ) “PAHO calls for intensified efforts to address leprosy and other neglected tropical diseases” (2025), available athttps://www.paho.org/en/news/24-1-2025-paho-calls-intensified-efforts-address-leprosy-and-other-neglected-tropical-diseases."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Person affected by leprosy from Indonesia interviewed in August 2024."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Need for a comprehensive, human rights-based approach"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "Valuable practice: while the reliance of international leprosy organizations on government support and private donors remains an urgent challenge, the ANESVAD Foundation, a Spanish-based NGO, offers a viable alternative. It has adopted a diversified funding approach, combining private donations, government funding and a responsible asset management strategy. A portion of its assets is allocated to impact investments, ensuring long-term sustainability. In 2022, 31.5 per cent of its asset management was dedicated to 23 impact funds, supporting projects aligned with its mission to combat neglected tropical diseases and to promote sustainable development. This strategic approach strengthens the ability of the organization to sustain initiatives that improve health outcomes in marginalized communities.[[fn:25]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "Information gathered through interviews and discussions with representatives of various leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.anesvad.org/ (in Spanish)."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "A. Policy and financial support", "Voices from the field:"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Bilateral donors and multilateral agencies involved in neglected tropical diseases are taking steps to strengthen organizational capacity on human rights. This is primarily achieved through the development and implementation of strategies aimed at promoting non-discriminatory practices and ensuring equitable access to national healthcare and social services for all, including those affected by leprosy. An example is the aforementioned WHO global leprosy (Hansen’s disease) strategy 2021–2030, Towards zero leprosy, which emphasizes strengthening health systems to provide early diagnosis and treatment; empowering persons affected by leprosy to participate in decision-making processes; and combating stigma and discrimination through awareness-raising campaigns and education. This wider strategy calls for sustained financing in areas such as diagnostic research, surveillance and policy development. Similarly, the WHO global neglected tropical diseases road map 2021–2030[[fn:26]] outlines a human rights-based approach to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Key actions comprise prioritizing marginalized populations, including women and children to ensure that no one is left behind; empowering affected communities to participate in decision-making and programme implementation; and addressing stigma and discrimination associated with neglected tropical diseases through education and awareness-raising campaigns.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "WHO, Ending the Neglect to Attain the Sustainable Development Goals: A Road Map for Neglected Tropical Diseases 2021–2030 (2020), available at https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240010352."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "B. Funding national strategies and capacity building", "Strengthening organizational capacity through human rights-based approaches"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "The World Bank has not implemented a policy on leprosy inclusion, although it has addressed leprosy at certain periods, for example in support of national control programmes in India and in different countries in Africa through efforts to strengthen broader health systems and social inclusion programmes. The Nippon Foundation, a Japanese philanthropic organization, has been a leading advocate for leprosy-related human rights. Initiatives include support for the Global Appeal to End Stigma and Discrimination against Persons Affected 23 Pan-American Health Organization (PAHO ) “PAHO calls for intensified efforts to address leprosy and other neglected tropical diseases” (2025), available athttps://www.paho.org/en/news/24-1-2025paho-calls-intensified-efforts-address-leprosy-and-other-neglected-tropical-diseases. 24 Person affected by leprosy from Indonesia interviewed in August 2024. 25 Information gathered through interviews and discussions with representatives of various leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.anesvad.org/ (in Spanish). 26 WHO, Ending the Neglect to Attain the Sustainable Development Goals: A Road Map for Neglected Tropical Diseases 2021–2030 (2020), available at https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240010352. GE.25-05250 by Leprosy27 and funding for research, advocacy and community programmes to promote the rights of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "B. Funding national strategies and capacity building", "Strengthening organizational capacity through human rights-based approaches"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "Leprosy training initiatives by bilateral and multilateral cooperation organizations are critical for building the capacity of healthcare workers, policymakers and communities to effectively address leprosy. These initiatives focus on early diagnosis, treatment, stigma reduction and the integration of human rights principles into leprosy-related programmes. WHO provides training through its global and regional programmes and organizes regional training workshops on integrated control of neglected tropical diseases.[[fn:28]] Japanese organizations have been key players in leprosy training and capacity-building. Their initiatives include the Global Health Innovative Technology Fund, which provides training on the use of new diagnostic tools and treatments for neglected tropical diseases, including leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "See https://www.who.int/about/who-academy."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "B. Funding national strategies and capacity building", "Strengthening organizational capacity through human rights-based approaches"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "In collaboration with WHO and the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, regional training programmes in Africa, Asia and Latin America receive supported. The Japan International Cooperation Agency is also involved in building capacity for leprosy organizations, including the provision of support through collaboration with organizations such as Leprosy Mission International. USAID has supported leprosy training as part of its broader health and development programmes, including funding for training programmes for healthcare workers in countries where neglected tropical diseases are endemic. Training is focused on integrated control of neglected tropical diseases and the education of community health workers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "B. Funding national strategies and capacity building", "Strengthening organizational capacity through human rights-based approaches"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "In the area of capacity-building, the improvement of national leprosy control programme has been a key priority for organizations dedicated to reducing transmission and eliminating the disease. Ministries of Health, WHO and international NGOs have supported such programmes, contributing to a significant global decline in leprosy cases. Many countries have developed national strategic plans for leprosy control, often aligned with the WHO global leprosy strategy (2021–2030). Collaborative training programmes and knowledge exchanges have helped to enhance the skills of healthcare professionals in early detection, diagnosis and treatment. However, national programmes have reported challenges, including:\n(a) Insufficient training and expertise: leprosy is often excluded from medical training as it is mistakenly believed to have been eliminated. As a result, healthcare providers lack expertise in diagnosis and treatment, leading to delayed detection and poor case management. With leprosy hospitals closing, experienced doctors are reassigned, further reducing specialized care. This leaves communities with limited access to proper treatment, often requiring travel to distant facilities;\n(b) Resource and infrastructure limitations: chronic shortages of funding, staff and specialized facilities hinder outreach, diagnosis and care in endemic regions, especially marginalized communities. The situation has worsened since the COVID-19 pandemic, even in non-endemic countries, potentially leading to more cases, untreated patients and increased levels of disability. Grassroots organizations in Latin America report that untreated cases in non-endemic rural areas often go unnoticed by governments, despite efforts by unpaid health volunteers.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "B. Funding national strategies and capacity building", "Challenges in national leprosy control programmes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Limited government funding is a common issue, with many countries relying on international donors to cover budget gaps. Analysis indicates that endemic countries, particularly in Africa, are largely donor-dependent, with limited funding for their national control programmes, whereas countries such as Bangladesh and India having some structured 27 The Initiative is a strategic alliance that links together the WHO Goodwill Ambassador for Leprosy Elimination, the Sasakawa Health Foundation and the Nippon Foundation for achieving leprosy elimination, available at https://gasasakawa.org/. 28 See https://www.who.int/about/who-academy. GE.25-05250 government funding. Timor-Leste reports a lack of resources as leprosy is considered to have been eliminated in the country. In Brazil and Nigeria, the Governments report their active participation in global funding initiatives. Voices from the field: “I can tell you many stories about how delays in leprosy treatment are affecting people in Nigeria. Children are becoming disabled because, months after diagnosis, they still haven’t received treatment. Their lives will be forever changed, facing discrimination and daily challenges. Governments and organizations do not see the true impact of these failures.”[[fn:29]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "Person affected by leprosy from Nigeria interviewed in January 2025."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "B. Funding national strategies and capacity building", "Funding constraints and reliance on international support"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "Valuable practice: the Ethiopian National Association of Persons Affected by Leprosy primarily relies on international support, notably from the Sasakawa Health Foundation. This support has facilitated the construction of a five-story headquarters in Addis Ababa, built on land donated by the Ethiopian Government. The building, which is the central office of the Association, generates income through leased spaces, thus contributing to overall financial sustainability. The financial security enables the Association to focus on key initiatives, including rehabilitation, stigma reduction and the promotion of equal opportunities for its members.[[fn:30]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "Information gathered through interviews and discussions with various representatives of leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.leprosy-information.org/organization/enapal-ethiopian-national-association-persons-affected-leprosy."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "B. Funding national strategies and capacity building", "Voices from the field:"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Many leprosy-endemic countries have developed country-specific training programmes with international support that is shared beyond national borders. For example, the National Leprosy Eradication Programme of India regularly trains healthcare workers, both national and international, at all levels, including staff at primary health centres as well as accredited social health activists. In Brazil, the Ministry of Health, in collaboration with WHO and PAHO, trains healthcare workers in leprosy diagnosis and management, stigma reduction and community engagement, offering access to its educational programmes to countries in Latin America and in other continents. Similarly, the Indonesian Government reports that, with the support of the Japan International Cooperation Agency and the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, it organizes training programmes to raise leprosy awareness for healthcare workers in remote areas and for community volunteers.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Expanding training and knowledge exchange"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "However, despite the above initiatives, grassroots organizations report that efforts have not been sufficient. One of the challenges reported is that knowledge is often dispersed across different organizations, research institutions and NGOs, with limited coordination. This fragmentation can lead to duplication of efforts, inconsistencies in guidelines and difficulties in accessing the latest evidence-based practices. Another issue raised is linked to the digital divide and technology access. In many endemic areas, affected persons and families, as well as healthcare workers, have limited Internet connectivity or access to digital platforms where knowledge is shared. This creates a barrier to online training, webinars and digital resources, including digital health solutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Expanding training and knowledge exchange"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Building international networks has become a key strategy for countries to share knowledge and establish meaningful collaborations. Conferences like the International Leprosy Congress, widely recognized as the foremost academic and scientific forum on leprosy, serve as important platforms for exchange. Nevertheless, persons affected by leprosy have often been excluded owing to language barriers and limited opportunities for direct participation. The structure and focus of the International Leprosy Congress are primarily academic and clinical, prioritizing contributions from researchers and healthcare 29 Person affected by leprosy from Nigeria interviewed in January 2025. 30 Information gathered through interviews and discussions with various representatives of leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.leprosy-information.org/organization/enapalethiopian-national-association-persons-affected-leprosy. GE.25-05250 professionals. This often leaves little room for direct input from persons with lived experience of the disease. Affected persons may also face financial, travel or stigma-related barriers that hinder their ability to attend or engage fully at such international forums.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Strengthening international networks"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "A notable aspect of collaboration and international cooperation in the field of leprosy is the establishment of platforms through agreements between various international organizations. The platforms facilitate the exchange of knowledge and enhance the effectiveness of funding allocation. The International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations is a network of international NGOs dedicated to eliminating leprosy and combating discrimination. It supports national leprosy programmes, provides funding and promotes rights-based approaches. Members include organizations based in Canada, Germany, Japan, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Spain, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States. The Global Partnership for Zero Leprosy was established to foster collaboration among international leprosy organizations and individuals and to mobilize funding to achieve three main goals: zero transmission; zero disability; and zero stigma and discrimination. It conducts training workshops for stakeholders in leprosy-endemic countries, focusing on best practices for leprosy control and the integration of human rights into leprosy programmes towards the elimination of the disease.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Strengthening international networks"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "The Special Rapporteur highlights the progress achieved through the above platforms, particularly the methodologies implemented in their work. The model of working through pillar groups, incorporating both scientific research and the perspectives and demands of persons affected by leprosy, is highly valuable. However, further efforts are needed to ensure that persons affected by leprosy and their organizations are well-informed about the progress and findings emerging from these platforms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Strengthening international networks"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "Despite progress, greater collaboration is needed. Many international organizations work independently, leading to duplicated efforts, especially in case detection, awareness and post-treatment follow-up. Better coordination could significantly improve outcomes. For instance, it was reported that in addressing issues like leprosy drug distribution, in addition to the matter of government monitoring gaps, stronger collaboration between local and international organizations is essential to establish a dialogue with national and local authorities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Improving coordination, funding stability and ensuring meaningful participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "In addition, the challenges of working as a network are compounded by the financial uncertainties faced by international leprosy organizations, which remain highly dependent on private donors and government funding. With more governments from the global North, including the governments of Belgium, France, Germany, the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Switzerland and the United Kingdom,[[fn:31]] announcing reductions in international aid that has supported marginalized communities, international leprosy organizations working in the global South may face significant challenges in the coming years. This will have a tremendous impact on grassroot organizations that struggle to survive.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "Forbes (2025) “Foreign aid is shrinking—what happens next?” (2025), available at https://www.forbes.com/sites/globalcitizen/2025/02/25/foreign-aid-is-shrinking-what-happens-next/."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Improving coordination, funding stability and ensuring meaningful participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "The Special Rapporteur has also identified ongoing challenges in ensuring the meaningful participation of persons affected by leprosy in decision-making processes related to funding priorities and allocation. Representatives of grassroots organizations emphasized that establishing organizational policies that guarantee the active presence of persons affected by leprosy in boards or decision-making committees could significantly impact how international cooperation is perceived and implemented. Although organizations like International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations and the Global Partnership for Zero Leprosy actively promote such practices, challenges related to representation and language continue to hinder the meaningful participation of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Improving coordination, funding stability and ensuring meaningful participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "Regarding cross-border collaboration, most countries lack specific policies on cross-border leprosy treatment or care. However, Uganda reports having memorandums of understanding with neighbouring nations, including the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya and South Sudan, to ensure coordination of control of neglected tropical diseases. Togo has implemented a cross-border policy with Benin. In Brazil, the Comoros, Ecuador, Nepal and India, foreigners receive treatment for leprosy, and their information is shared with their home countries, when needed. India is exploring treatment methods that involve tracking migrants receiving care within the country. In 2019, the Ugandan Ministry of Health launched a national strategic plan for cross-border activities for control of neglected tropical diseases and elimination. Brazil, India, Indonesia and Nigeria offer training to professionals from other nations.[[fn:32]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "Information gathered from the responses of Member States to the questionnaire sent by the Special Rapporteur."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Improving coordination, funding stability and ensuring meaningful participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "South-south cooperation has been vital in leprosy elimination, health system strengthening and social inclusion. Key initiatives include the Brazil-India Partnership, which exchanges best practices in early detection, social protection and healthcare integration; the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) collaboration (Indonesia, Myanmar, the Philippines and Thailand) to standardize diagnosis, integrate services for neglected tropical diseases and combat stigma; Africa-Asia training initiatives, through which India supports Ethiopia, Mozambique and Nigeria by training health workers, including in multidrug therapy management; Latin American research networks (Brazil, Colombia and Cuba) focusing on vaccine research, rehabilitation and data-sharing; and African regional advocacy, involving collaboration between Ethiopia, Nigeria and Mozambique on community-based rehabilitation and policy reform at the African Union level. A project supported by the Sasakawa Leprosy Initiative is under way to train young leaders from the leprosy-affected community and to facilitate knowledge exchange between Colombia and Indonesia. Voices from the field “We need better strategies to connect with others affected by leprosy. When an international organization funds a project, only those leading it are informed, leaving us, the rest, without opportunities to meet other people facing similar challenges. We need a dedicated platform, like a “Facebook” for persons affected, where languages can be translated to advance global connection and support.”[[fn:33]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "Person affected by leprosy from Nepal interviewed in November 2024."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Improving coordination, funding stability and ensuring meaningful participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "Valuable practice: the Global Forum of People’s Organizations on Hansen’s Disease is a key event that brings together representatives from organizations of persons affected by leprosy along with major stakeholders. Strategically held just before the International Leprosy Congress, the forum serves as a platform for dialogue, capacity-building and amplifying the voices of those directly impacted by the disease. Organized by the Sasakawa Health Foundation and the Nippon Foundation, it was first held in 2019, bringing together participants from over 15 countries, more than 100 persons affected by leprosy and over 20 grassroots organizations. The next forum will take place in Bali, Indonesia, in July 2025.[[fn:34]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "Information gathered through interviews and discussions with representatives of various leprosy organizations. For more information see https://ilcbali2025.com/about-ila."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "C. Knowledge sharing and collaboration", "Voices from the field"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "The Leprosy Research Initiative resulted from a joint venture of multiple international organizations that recognize leprosy research and innovation as crucial components in eliminating the disease and improving the lives of persons affected by it. Its research priorities include diagnostic tests, disability, operational research, stigma and discrimination and transmission. The initiative has supported multi-countries initiatives and the exchange of knowledge between researchers from different countries and experiences. In 1931, before the creation of the initiative, the International Leprosy Association was established as a professional society comprising physicians, scientists and organizations dedicated to advancing research and addressing the challenges associated with leprosy. The two major means of accomplishing that vital work have been the publication of the International Journal of Leprosy and the organization of the International Leprosy Congress every 3 to 4 years. Due to rising costs and lack of funding, the publication of the journal became financially unviable, and publication ceased after volume 73 in 2005.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "D. Research and innovation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "These initiatives, which enhance understanding and management of the disease, are crucial for improving the living conditions of persons affected by leprosy and their families. The reduction in funding, particularly for disseminating scientific research findings, poses a significant setback in the field. Additionally, grassroots organizations have expressed concerns that, despite changes in research approaches, persons affected by leprosy still feel utilized rather than actively involved in research at all levels. The Special Rapporteur has also observed the need to make research findings accessible to affected persons, including through easy-to-read formats. Moreover, there is a lack of organizational policies that recognize the right of persons affected to be informed and updated about research related to the disease and to their lives. This includes the development and dissemination of annual reports, evaluation reports and research findings.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "D. Research and innovation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "International donors and bilateral cooperation have supported scientific and medical research in leprosy control. The post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) programme has piloted single-dose rifampicin integration in multiple countries, proving its feasibility, while the “Ready4PEP” project is expanding its implementation in Mozambique and Nigeria to curb transmission. Despite its potential, challenges remain. Confidentiality and community education are crucial to prevent discrimination. Successful implementation requires efficient contact tracing, trained healthcare workers and a steady supply of rifampicin, which can be difficult in resource-limited areas. Additionally, effectiveness varies by exposure level, requiring alternative preventive measures for high-risk contacts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "D. Research and innovation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "International organizations have played a key role in enhancing the availability of digital platforms, social media and specialized applications, significantly improving various aspects of leprosy management, including awareness, early diagnosis, treatment adherence and peer support. Social media platforms such as Facebook and Instagram have been instrumental in disseminating information, combating stigma and promoting early detection, with awareness campaigns leveraging these tools to enhance community engagement. For example, in countries like Mozambique, the implementation of the text message-based leprosy case management system has strengthened case monitoring and management.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "D. Research and innovation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "Along the same lines, a project on leprosy mapping and data collection is under way that aims to collect and analyse case data to identify clusters of leprosy cases, allowing for more targeted interventions. The project has involved partnerships between different international organizations, including international universities, as well as multilateral cooperation. This project is being implemented in Nepal but is part of a broader regional effort, with similar projects in Myanmar and the United Republic of Tanzania.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "D. Research and innovation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "Countries like India, Senegal and Togo have reported leading in innovative approaches, including the use of artificial intelligence,[[fn:35]] for diagnosis, active screening, research on chemoprophylaxis, the production of multidrug therapy and vaccine development. Further, WHO has introduced a mobile application that leverages artificial intelligence to assist in diagnosing neglected tropical diseases, including leprosy. The WHO mobile application is particularly beneficial in resource-limited settings, offering support to healthcare workers by providing diagnostic assistance and educational resources.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights general comment No. 25 (2020), which focuses on the right to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress in relation to economic, social, and cultural rights under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. It provides guidance on how States should implement article 15 (1) (b) of the International Covenant, which recognizes this right."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "D. Research and innovation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "The Special Rapporteur highlights the challenges faced by projects using artificial intelligence, as reported from the field. Artificial intelligence models require diverse and high-quality datasets, yet collecting sufficient standardized images is difficult because of leprosy’s varied manifestations and declining prevalence. In addition, artificial intelligence tools must integrate skin image analysis with patient history and symptoms for accurate diagnosis, a process that remains complex. Privacy concerns, data security, informed consent and regulatory approvals present significant barriers, particularly in communities with 35 See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights general comment No. 25 (2020), which focuses on the right to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress in relation to economic, social, and cultural rights under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. It provides guidance on how States should implement article 15 (1) (b) of the International Covenant, which recognizes this right. GE.25-05250 limited awareness of the implications of sharing information. Furthermore, many endemic regions face challenges such as unreliable Internet access, inadequate healthcare infrastructure and a shortage of trained personnel, all of which hinder the effective adoption of artificial intelligence technologies. Voices from the field: “The areas I visit face two main issues: undiagnosed new cases and a lack of medical services. The government is trying to implement digital healthcare, allowing doctors from other regions to diagnose patients via Zoom or similar platforms. However, these areas lack Internet access, among other services. I hope the government addresses both the communication and healthcare challenges.”[[fn:36]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "Leprosy volunteer health worker from Colombia interviewed in September 2024."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "D. Research and innovation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "Valuable practice: The AI4Leprosy Diagnostic Tool has been developed in Brazil through a collaboration between the Oswaldo Cruz Institute, AI for Health developed by Microsoft Research, and the Novartis Foundation. It is an artificial intelligence-enabled diagnostic assistant designed to identify suspected leprosy lesions. By analysing images of skin lesions alongside patient symptoms, the tool has demonstrated over 90 per cent accuracy in detecting leprosy. The tool is being used to accelerate diagnosis, thereby facilitating prompt treatment and reducing transmission rates.[[fn:37]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "Information gathered through interviews and discussions with representatives of various leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.ioc.fiocruz.br/en/noticias/fiocruz-microsoft-e-novartis-criam-inteligencia-artificial-para-acelerar-o-diagnostico-da."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "D. Research and innovation", "Voices from the field:"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "Several international organizations are actively engaged in community inclusive development and leprosy eradication. Shifting from a community-based rehabilitation model into an inclusive development one has also helped organizations to reflect more on a social model of leprosy that emphasizes human rights, social participation, livelihoods and dignity. Community inclusive development approaches promote economic empowerment, education and community participation for persons affected by leprosy, incorporating a human rights framework. In addition, in community inclusive development frameworks, the importance of promoting collaboration between the leprosy sector and other neglected tropical diseases is highlighted. The experience and progress of the leprosy rights movement can inform the development of a human rights-based approach to other neglected tropical diseases. On the other hand, valuable insights from the broader field of neglected tropical diseases, particularly diseases of the skin, can enhance strategies for addressing leprosy-related challenges, creating opportunities for mutual learning and knowledge exchange.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "E. Human rights and inclusive development"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "Notably, most international organizations focused on leprosy have already integrated one or more neglected tropical diseases into their workplans. As the global crisis in international aid persists, this trend is likely to intensify, driving organizations toward a more integrated, cross-sectoral approach to enhance impact, optimize resources and ensure the sustainability of their efforts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "E. Human rights and inclusive development"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "Leprosy-related discrimination is deeply connected to broader global inequalities, disproportionately affecting marginalized communities facing poverty, disability and limited access to healthcare. Addressing leprosy through a human rights lens requires integrating it into global discussions on economic justice, disability rights and gender and inclusive development", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "E. Human rights and inclusive development"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "While many international leprosy organizations have adopted a human rights approach, more work is needed to establish independent national organizations that balance power between the global North and the global South. Some have taken steps by transitioning local offices into autonomous NGOs, such as the LEPRA Society in India and Anandaban Leprosy Hospital in Nepal, a previous Leprosy Mission project, which now operate independently while collaborating with former affiliates. NLR (until No Leprosy Remains) 36 Leprosy volunteer health worker from Colombia interviewed in September 2024. 37 Information gathered through interviews and discussions with representatives of various leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.ioc.fiocruz.br/en/noticias/fiocruz-microsoft-enovartis-criam-inteligencia-artificial-para-acelerar-o-diagnostico-da. GE.25-05250 has also converted branch offices into national NGOs to strengthen local leadership. However, local NGOs still rely on international funding, highlighting the need for sustainable strategies. Voices from the field: “Helping an office achieve financial independence and sustainability is challenging, as power dynamics remain. Both international and national offices must learn to weight their strengths. In international development, a balance between bottom-up and top-down approaches is essential, even for local organizations.”[[fn:38]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Representative of a disability and leprosy international organization interviewed in October 2024."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "E. Human rights and inclusive development"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "Valuable practice: In Senegal, the Association Sénégalaise de Lutte Contre la Lèpre et les Maladies Tropicales Négligées plays a pivotal role in advocating for the rights and well-being of persons affected by leprosy and other neglected tropical diseases neglected tropical diseases. The organization emphasizes community-based strategies, fostering understanding and solidarity to combat stigma and discrimination. A notable achievement of the association is its successful advocacy for the repeal of Law No. 76-03 in 2023, which mandated the isolation of persons affected by leprosy in designated villages. This was made possible with the collaboration between the organization, the German Leprosy and Tuberculosis Relief Association and the Association Sénégalaise.[[fn:39]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "Information gathered through interviews and discussions with representatives of various leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.facebook.com/p/Association-S%C3%A9n%C3%A9galaise-de-Lutte-Contre-la-L%C3%A8pre-et-les-MTN-100066970336476/."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "E. Human rights and inclusive development", "Voices from the field:"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "Solidarity in the context of leprosy extends beyond immediate humanitarian assistance. It is manifested in various forms, including political advocacy, community empowerment, international cooperation and ethical commitment. During the COVID-19 pandemic, which disproportionately impacted marginalized communities, including persons affected by leprosy, expressions of solidarity were expressed in the more traditional way. Despite the immense challenges, various expressions of solidarity emerged globally, driven by grassroots organizations, international NGOs and governments. Self-help groups and leprosy-affected networks mobilized resources. Organizations such as the Association of People Affected by Leprosy-India and the Ethiopian Association of Persons Affected by Leprosy distributed food, hygiene kits and essential medicines. Community kitchens were set up in former leprosy colonies in Brazil, India and Indonesia.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "F. Practices of solidarity"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "Since the COVID-19 pandemic, one practice that has become regular is the use of social media and text messaging as a form of digital solidarity to provide mental health support and to share information. The digital space has become a common place to exchanges ideas and have discussions about issues faced by persons affected in different parts of the world.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "F. Practices of solidarity"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "Training in compassion has played a crucial role in addressing neglected tropical diseases, such as leprosy, lymphatic filariasis, schistosomiasis, trachoma and onchocerciasis (river blindness).[[fn:40]] For example, training healthcare workers in patient-centred care with a compassionate approach has been shown to reduce bias and discrimination against persons affected by neglected tropical diseases, foster empathetic communication, strengthen patient trust and promote dignified, patient-centred care — leading to better treatment. In Ethiopia, training programmes for nurses and community health workers emphasized compassionate, non-judgmental care for people with leprosy and related diseases, improving both patient outcomes and healthcare accessibility.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "D.G. Addiss, Y. Kienast and J.V. Lavery, “Ethical dimensions of neglected tropical disease programming”, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, vol. 115, No. 2 (2021), pp. 190–195."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "F. Practices of solidarity"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "In many African countries, traditional healers and religious figures play a significant role in healthcare. Training them in compassion and medical knowledge about neglected tropical diseases has proven effective in several ways: it reduces harmful traditional practices 38 Representative of a disability and leprosy international organization interviewed in October 2024. 39 Information gathered through interviews and discussions with representatives of various leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.facebook.com/p/AssociationS%C3%A9n%C3%A9galaise-de-Lutte-Contre-la-L%C3%A8pre-et-les-MTN-100066970336476/. 40 D.G. Addiss, Y. Kienast and J.V. Lavery, “Ethical dimensions of neglected tropical disease programming”, Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, vol. 115, No. 2 (2021), pp. 190–195. GE.25-05250 that exacerbate neglected tropical diseases (for example, the isolation of affected persons), bridges the gap between modern medicine and religious beliefs and fosters greater community acceptance of treatment and rehabilitation services. In Nigeria, training traditional healers in compassion and awareness of neglected tropical diseases led to early referrals for leprosy and related diseases, significantly improving health outcomes Voices from the field: “Compassion and ethical solidarity, either within self-help groups or international leprosy organizations, must shift from charity-based models to human rights-centred frameworks. Upholding the ethics of solidarity and compassion ensures that persons affected by leprosy are not merely recipients of aid but active participants in shaping policies and making financial and programming decisions that impact their lives.”[[fn:41]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "Representative of an international health organization interviewed in December 2024."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "F. Practices of solidarity"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "Valuable practice: the International Association for Integration, Dignity and Economic Advancement promotes peer mentorship, leadership training and self-advocacy. Many self-help organizations led by persons affected by leprosy provide both emotional and financial support. The Association operates on the principles of dignity, integration and self-empowerment, with a particular focus on adopting peer support and solidarity among persons affected by leprosy. Unlike traditional leprosy organizations that primarily focus on medical interventions, it emphasizes the voices, experiences and leadership of those directly affected.[[fn:42]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "Information gathered through interviews and discussions with representatives of various leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.ideaadvocates.org/index.html."}], "section": ["IV. Current progress and challenges to a human rights-based inclusive international cooperation framework in leprosy", "F. Practices of solidarity", "Voices from the field:"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 82, "n": 82, "text": "At a time when international aid for social and health initiatives is facing unprecedented cuts, persons affected by leprosy and their families find themselves in an increasingly vulnerable position. The historical underfunding of leprosy programmes, coupled with shifting global priorities, threatens to reverse the progress achieved in reducing transmission, ensuring early detection and eliminating discrimination. This regression would not only violate fundamental human rights but would also undermine the commitments made by States and international organizations to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and leaving no one behind.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 83, "n": 83, "text": "The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that leprosy is not merely a medical condition; it is a social justice and human rights issue. The persistence of exclusion of affected persons from decision-making processes and the lack of sustainable funding mechanisms expose the deep structural inequalities that continue to define the global response to leprosy. Despite these challenges, grassroots movements, South-South cooperation, collaboration between the leprosy sector and other neglected tropical diseases, and innovative financing models demonstrate that a rights-based, solidarity-driven approach to leprosy is both possible and necessary.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 84, "n": 84, "text": "As outlined in the present report, international cooperation on leprosy must move beyond charity-based models toward frameworks rooted in dignity, inclusion and justice. Strengthening partnerships, securing sustainable funding and ensuring the meaningful participation of affected persons in decision-making are crucial steps in safeguarding the rights of those affected. The current funding crisis calls for urgent collective action: without it, the global community risks failing in its commitment to eliminate leprosy-related discrimination and exclusion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 85, "n": 85, "text": "To ensure that leprosy is integrated within the international cooperation agenda, the Special Rapporteur makes the following recommendations: 41 Representative of an international health organization interviewed in December 2024. 42 Information gathered through interviews and discussions with representatives of various leprosy organizations. For more information see https://www.ideaadvocates.org/index.html. GE.25-05250 Strengthening international cooperation and funding (a) Urgent reinvestment in international cooperation for leprosy: States and multilateral agencies should commit to increasing financial support for leprosy-related initiatives, integrating them into broader aid frameworks for neglected tropical diseases, disability rights and social inclusion: international donors should expand funding mechanisms beyond medical interventions to include social, economic and human rights-based programmes, ensuring a comprehensive response to leprosy; (b) Strengthening a human rights-based approach: States should align their national strategies with the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their families and integrate human rights protections into their legal frameworks: bilateral and multilateral donors should incorporate human rights criteria into their funding allocation, prioritizing programmes that empower affected communities rather than reinforcing dependency models; Embedding a human rights-based approach (c) Securing sustainable funding mechanisms: international financial institutions, including the World Bank and regional development banks, should establish dedicated funding streams for leprosy-related programmes, particularly in endemic countries; (d) Bilateral and multilateral donors should implement transparent reporting mechanisms, ensuring that funding commitments for leprosy are trackable, publicly disclosed and sustained over the long term; Advancing research and innovation for equity (e) Public-private partnerships should be leveraged to create long-term financing solutions, following models such as impact investment funds that ensure sustainability beyond short-term aid cycles: governments should commit a percentage of their international development budgets to neglected tropical diseases, ensuring leprosy is not overlooked within broader global health strategies; (f) Centring persons affected by leprosy in decision-making: international organizations and national programmes must guarantee that persons affected by leprosy are meaningfully represented in decision-making bodies, advisory boards and funding allocation committees: global platforms, such as the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, the Leprosy Research Initiative and the Global Partnership for Zero Leprosy should ensure that affected persons are fully informed of research developments, policy changes and funding priorities in accessible formats; Enhancing global coordination and inclusion (g) Advancing research and innovation with equality: increased investment is needed in research on new diagnostics, prevention strategies and post-treatment complications, ensuring that innovations reach affected communities rather than remaining confined to academic settings; research institutions should adopt ethical guidelines that ensure that persons affected by leprosy are active participants in shaping study objectives and methodologies; (h) Strengthen international cooperation to combat gender-specific discrimination and stigma: governments should collaborate to address gender-based discrimination and stigma related to leprosy through shared best practices and gender-sensitive policies that include women’s empowerment programmes; (i) Enhancing global coordination and cross-sectoral collaboration: governments, donors and international organizations should strengthen South-South and triangular cooperation, facilitating knowledge exchange, training programmes, and shared policy solutions between endemic countries: global health and human rights organizations should integrate leprosy within broader discussions on disability, mental GE.25-05250 health, care and support services and social justice, ensuring a multisectoral response to its social and economic consequences; (j) Support local programmes to integrate leprosy into universal health coverage frameworks: governments should incorporate leprosy services into universal health coverage through international collaboration, ensuring accessible and inclusive healthcare; (k) Ensure access to essential medicines and treatment through international cooperation: governments and international organizations must work together to secure the continuous availability and equitable distribution of leprosy medicines and treatment; Integrating leprosy into global development agendas (l) Expanding practices of solidarity and ethical cooperation: the international community should recognize that solidarity with persons affected by leprosy must extend beyond emergency aid towards sustainable, rights-based partnerships that empower affected persons: international organizations and donors should support grassroots movements and self-advocacy groups, ensuring they have the financial and technical resources needed to strengthen their leadership and organizational sustainability; (m) Integrating leprosy into global health and development agendas: the United Nations and its agencies should ensure that leprosy is explicitly included in global health, disability and human rights frameworks, preventing its continued marginalization in international policy discussions: the Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goal 3 (good health and well-being) and Goal 10 (reduced inequalities), should be operationalized to ensure that persons affected by leprosy benefit from development initiatives.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-55-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-59-55", "idx": 86, "n": 86, "text": "The protection of the rights of persons affected by leprosy depends on daring action now. Without urgent investment and systemic change, the global community risks failing millions of people who continue to face discrimination, exclusion and preventable disabilities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendations", "Integrating leprosy into global development agendas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is submitted pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 53/8, in which the Council extended the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members. In this report, the Special Rapporteur, Beatriz Miranda-Galarza, examines the consequences of neglecting the history of leprosy and the impact that such neglect has had on the lives of persons affected and their families and will continue to have if it is not addressed in accordance with principles of justice and human rights. She argues that, beyond the ruined, abandoned and partially or even fully preserved former leprosaria and leprosy colonies and settlements, there lies a deeper failure of States and society to recognize past rights violations and the persistence of discriminatory practices. Presenting these sites as merely historical medical facilities obscures their true function as legally sanctioned, administratively organized and socially normalized systems of forced segregation. These systems produced intergenerational harm and entailed violations of the fundamental rights of persons affected by leprosy and their families, the consequences of which continue to be felt today.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "Despite the work carried out over the past two decades by grass-roots organizations and international organizations working in this field and the Special Rapporteurs on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members, State recognition of and reparation for the rights violations experienced by persons affected by leprosy and their families, including violations that persist, remain limited and uneven across jurisdictions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "Several factors help explain States’ reluctance to recognize such violations. Policies that constituted rights violations are often framed as legitimate public health measures of the past, despite their continuing consequences. Although the international human rights framework was not fully developed during the early implementation of leprosy segregation policies, post-war international law made clear that public health measures must respect human dignity, equality and non-discrimination.[[fn:1]] Concerns about financial liability, institutional responsibility and limited documentation, together with the long-standing marginalization of persons affected by leprosy and fears of further stigmatization, have hindered recognition. These violations should also be understood as continuing violations under international human rights law, given their ongoing impact on survivors and their descendants.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See Charter of the United Nations, preamble and arts. 1 (3) and 55 (c); and Universal Declaration of Human Rights, arts. 1–3, 13 and 16."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "In this report, the Special Rapporteur argues that the historical segregation of persons affected by leprosy constitutes a system of structural injustice that may be analysed alongside other forms of institutionalized discrimination recognized in international human rights law and that addressing its consequences requires the application of a human rights framework based on truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantees of non-recurrence. These principles are reflected in international human rights law, including the Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members and other relevant international standards related to cultural rights and the right to truth. Historical systems of segregation frequently resulted in arbitrary detention, forced family separation, restrictions on marriage and reproduction and violations of bodily autonomy. In many cases, such measures may also amount to arbitrary detention under international human rights law.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "According to a survey done for this report and other available information, it is important to note that countries such as Brazil, Japan and the Republic of Korea have adopted measures focusing on certain principles, including the judicial recognition of violations, compensation schemes and official apologies.[[fn:2]] However, such measures remain exceptional, and comprehensive approaches encompassing the five principles of truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantees of non‑recurrence are largely absent at the global level. This demonstrates that there is still no consistent global practice of recognition, remedy and institutional reform in this area.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See A/HRC/44/46/Add.1; A/HRC/44/46/Add.2; and Celeste L. Arrington, “Leprosy, legal mobilization, and the public sphere in Japan and South Korea”, Law & Society Review, vol. 48, No. 3 (2014), pp. 563-593."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "In preparing the report, the Special Rapporteur analysed the responses to a questionnaire sent to Member States, reviewed information obtained through individual interviews with representatives of international organizations and experts on the topic and gathered insights from representatives of grass-roots organizations from various countries. In addition, the Special Rapporteur wishes to thank the Special Rapporteur on the promotion of truth, justice, reparation and guarantees of non-recurrence and those working with the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights for their valuable insights on the topic. Owing to the lack of financial support, the Special Rapporteur was unable to conduct an expert group consultation that could have provided additional perspectives and information to enrich the report. She also regrets that several leprosy-endemic countries did not respond to the questionnaire, which made it difficult to include official information on the issues raised.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "As the decision on the renewal of the mandate will be taken by the Council at its sixty-second session, the Special Rapporteur seeks to raise awareness of the critical importance of preserving the independence and continuity of the mandate. The rights violations historically experienced by persons affected by leprosy have not yet been repaired, as evidenced in this and previous reports, and they have yet to find justice. As emphasized in numerous reports and public presentations, this mandate represents the only dedicated space within the United Nations human rights system where persons affected and their organizations can bring their concerns and demands before such bodies as the Human Rights Council and the General Assembly. The Special Rapporteur urges Member States to continue supporting the mandate as a means of addressing the centuries of neglect and exclusion faced by persons affected by leprosy. The mandate must remain in place until discrimination no longer endangers their lives and dignity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Leprosaria and leprosy colonies were not spontaneous communities. In most cases, they were established through legislation, administrative decisions, religious initiatives and social pressure, varying according to historical period and regional context. In medieval Europe, institutions functioning as hospitals or places of isolation were often established under the administration of religious congregations. At that time, however, modern germ theory did not exist and there was no scientific evidence regarding the transmission of the disease; forced segregation measures were therefore precautionary and rooted in fear, religious interpretation and social exclusion rather than evidence-based public health policy. By the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, leprosy colonies were formally institutionalized around the world through public health legislation mandating compulsory isolation, frequently on remote islands or in rural areas, while colonial administrations often imposed stricter segregation regimes in colonized territories. Their legal assessment under international human rights law arises more in relation to the later persistence and institutionalization of such systems in the twentieth century.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. An evolution of structural injustice: a brief overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "It was during the International Leprosy Congress held in Berlin in 1897 that recommendations for the isolation of persons affected by leprosy, the establishment of special institutions or colonies, the registration of patients and State supervision were strongly promoted, with isolation and segregation presented as the most effective method for controlling the disease. Although not legally binding, these recommendations heavily influenced domestic segregation laws and administrative practices around the world. The Congress, and those that followed, brought together physicians, public health officials, colonial administrators and scientists from different countries, while largely ignoring the voices of persons affected.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. An evolution of structural injustice: a brief overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "It should be noted that Mycobacterium leprae, the bacterium that causes the disease, was identified in 1873 by Gerhard Armauer Hansen and subsequent research established that leprosy transmission is relatively difficult, typically requiring prolonged close contact and that most individuals exposed do not develop the disease. Compared with other infectious diseases, such as tuberculosis, leprosy has low infectivity. The World Health Organization has long clarified that isolation is not required for treatment or prevention where appropriate multidrug therapy is available. Scientific knowledge did not demonstrate that lifelong or mass segregation was necessary. Although many such systems remained in place into the later twentieth century, restrictions on liberty and movement were required under international human rights law to satisfy the standards of legality, necessity and proportionality.[[fn:3]] Despite this, many States enacted and maintained strict segregation laws in the early and mid-twentieth century, resulting in policies that were far more restrictive than the available scientific evidence justified, raising serious questions as to their necessity and proportionality under international human rights law.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 4 and 12; Human Rights Committee, general comments No. 27 (1999) on freedom of movement, para. 14, and No. 29 (2001) on derogations from provisions of the Covenant during a state of emergency, paras. 4 and 13–16; and Siracusa Principles on the Limitation and Derogation Provisions in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, E/CN.4/1985/4, annex."}], "section": ["II. An evolution of structural injustice: a brief overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "As explained in previous reports presented under the present mandate,[[fn:4]] leprosy colonies were inhabited by persons of all ages who were subjected to seclusion, often for life. Such seclusion practices can also be understood as forms of long-term institutionalization. Until the 1970s, and in some cases the 1980s, residents were generally not permitted to leave the colonies, which reinforced their physical and social separation from the broader community, and many died there. They were frequently buried in separate cemeteries. In numerous contexts, identity documents were withdrawn or invalidated, families were separated and fundamental rights were severely restricted, including the rights to marry and to found a family. Practices of forced or coerced sterilization were reported in many settings and children were separated from their parents and placed in institutions or adoption systems. In some instances, neglect and inadequate living conditions resulted in the preventable suffering and deaths of children. Research and survivor testimony indicate that medical experimentation occurred in certain institutions without adequate safeguards or informed consent being in place. Although not systematically documented through formal State investigations, survivor testimonies and archival material from some sites suggest that sexual and physical violence occurred. In some cases, many leprosy colonies included prison facilities used to punish those who violated the rules established within the colony. Such practices may infringe upon, among others, the rights to liberty, family life, bodily autonomy and freedom from cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "A/79/152, A/HRC/56/59, A/HRC/44/46 and A/HRC/38/42."}], "section": ["II. An evolution of structural injustice: a brief overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The dismantling of leprosy segregation systems began, at least formally, between the 1940s and the 1960s and accelerated between the 1970s and the 1980s. There were at least three main turning points: (a) sulfone antibiotic therapy (especially with dapsone) became available in the 1940s; (b) the World Health Organization started promoting outpatient treatment, community-based care and the integration of treatment into general health services between the 1960s and the 1980s; and (c) the World Health Organization officially recommended multidrug therapy in 1981, which was a global main turning point.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. An evolution of structural injustice: a brief overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "However, laws were not immediately changed. Instead, Governments implemented incremental administrative adjustments, while leprosaria continued to operate as long-term residential institutions for former patients who had no families to which they could return or who chose to remain after building their lives and those of their families there. In each country, the pace and nature of changes and the processes of deinstitutionalization were shaped by the political context, institutional interests, social movements, leadership and the availability of acceptable alternatives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. An evolution of structural injustice: a brief overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Following this logic, many former settlements, particularly in endemic countries, continue to be home to persons affected by leprosy and their relatives. Residents commonly face multiple challenges, including limited or inadequate access to basic services, such as water, electricity and sanitation, the denial of land and property rights and ongoing discrimination from surrounding communities. These conditions result in barriers to employment, exclusion from education, inadequate housing and persistent obstacles to accessing health services and treatment, thereby giving rise to violations of a range of economic, social and cultural rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. An evolution of structural injustice: a brief overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Furthermore, discriminatory legal frameworks persist to this day, with approximately 139 discriminatory laws remaining in force across some 24 countries, even where certain provisions are no longer actively enforced.[[fn:5]] These laws impose restrictions on marriage and divorce, immigration and residency, employment, access to public spaces and transportation, public health measures and voting and other civil rights, often disproportionately affecting women. Even where they are no longer actively enforced, they continue to reinforce stigma and perpetuate structural discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members. Their continued existence is incompatible with States’ obligations to eliminate discrimination in law and in practice.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See A/76/148 and International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, “Updated list of discriminatory laws affecting”, available at https://ilepfederation.org/updated-list-of-discriminatory-laws."}], "section": ["II. An evolution of structural injustice: a brief overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Understanding the historical development of leprosy segregation is essential to recognizing the need for a normative framework capable of addressing the long-term consequences of that segregation. The call to apply a human rights-based framework – grounded in the principles of truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantees of non-recurrence – in addressing historical leprosy-related rights violations finds its basis in international human rights law and is reflected in United Nations normative frameworks. For the purposes of the present report, those principles may be understood through a “normative triangle” composed of three interrelated obligations: the guarantee of the right to an effective remedy; the duty to ensure substantive equality and eliminate structural discrimination; and the obligation to uphold human dignity and meaningful participation. Together, these three obligations provide a coherent human rights framework for addressing structural justice, within which the interrelated principles of truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantees of non-recurrence may be understood.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. A normative framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "The right to an effective remedy, which addresses the procedural dimension of accountability, is grounded in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, particularly article 2 (3), which obliges States to ensure access to effective remedies determined by competent authorities and enforced when granted. This obligation is further elaborated in the Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation, which provide a framework for addressing structural injustice and systemic discrimination through victim-centred approaches. These standards require equal access to justice, adequate and prompt reparation and information on violations and define the forms of reparation, including restitution, compensation, rehabilitation, satisfaction and guarantees of non-repetition. In the context of leprosy, they support the recognition that violations are systemic and require not only individual remedies but also structural measures, such as legal reform, the removal of institutional barriers, public acknowledgement and preservation of memory. However, as noted above, these principles have rarely been implemented, leaving persons affected by leprosy in conditions of prolonged invisibility and neglect.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. A normative framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The duty to ensure substantive equality and eliminate structural discrimination reflects the transformative nature of this framework and is grounded in key international conventions. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is particularly relevant where persons affected by leprosy experience disability or disability-based discrimination, as it requires States to eliminate discrimination, ensure accessibility, promote awareness, combat stigma, guarantee participation, support independent living and provide rehabilitation. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women reinforces this approach by requiring States to address discrimination in law and practice and to transform social and cultural norms. It strengthens the obligation to address the intersecting discrimination across family life, health, education and employment that affects women affected by leprosy, who often face heightened stigma and exclusion. Similarly, the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination requires States to review and amend laws and policies with discriminatory effects, which is particularly relevant in contexts where persons affected by leprosy belong to marginalized ethnic or social groups. Together, these instruments provide a normative basis for addressing the structural inequalities that continue to shape the lives of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. A normative framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "The normative foundation of dignity and participation reflects the recognition and inclusion dimension of this framework. It is grounded in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, particularly articles 13 (education), 11 (adequate standard of living) and 15 (participation in cultural life), which are directly affected in the context of leprosy. The Covenant requires States to take deliberate, concrete and targeted steps to realize these rights and eliminate discrimination and use the maximum available resources to do so. Forced separation, poverty, social marginalization and limited access to treatment illustrate how discrimination related to leprosy produces structural injustice rather than isolated harm. Complementing this, the independent expert in the field of cultural rights, in a report to the Human Rights Council,[[fn:6]] affirms that cultural heritage is integral to human rights, linking identity, dignity and participation. That affirmation reinforces the right of persons affected by leprosy to take part in how their histories are documented, preserved and remembered, ensuring that memory processes uphold dignity and counter historical erasure.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "A/HRC/17/38 and A/HRC/17/38/Corr.1."}], "section": ["III. A normative framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "In this context, the Special Rapporteur on the promotion of truth, justice, reparation and guarantees of non-recurrence has emphasized that violations of economic, social and cultural rights, including the lack of access to health, housing, work, education and cultural resources, are often both root causes and consequences of systemic abuse.[[fn:7]] He, therefore, argues that a “holistic, rights-based” approach to addressing such abuses should integrate concerns related to economic, social and cultural rights across the five pillars of transitional justice. The present report builds on that recommendation by examining the violations of economic, social and cultural rights historically experienced by persons affected by leprosy and their families, including those related to land rights, housing, electricity, water and sanitation and access to treatment, as well as their links to reparation and social redress.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See A/80/175."}], "section": ["III. A normative framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "In addition to the normative triangle described above, the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members provide a clear normative basis that aligns with the five-pillar framework adopted in the present report. This alignment is consistent with United Nations practice, as many of their provisions operationalize these principles in the specific context of leprosy. The principles and guidelines support truth through awareness-raising, the dissemination of scientific knowledge and the elimination of myths; justice through the repeal of discriminatory laws and equal access to rights; reparation through rehabilitation, reintegration and restoration of rights; memorialization through public recognition and efforts to combat stigma; and guarantees of non-recurrence through legal reform, policy change and the meaningful participation of persons affected in decision-making processes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. A normative framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "While the five normative principles on which the human rights framework to address historical violations of the rights of persons affected by leprosy is based have traditionally been associated with the five pillars of transitional justice, the principles have increasingly informed scholarly and advocacy-based human rights approaches to addressing historical and structural injustices in societies beyond those emerging from conflict or authoritarian rule. 6 A/HRC/17/38 and A/HRC/17/38/Corr.1. 7 See A/80/175. GE.26-04739 In some cases, practices contrary to these principles have been recognized as constituting gross human rights violations under international law. Scholars, researchers and human rights advocates have argued that these principles can address deep structural injustices, including disability-based institutionalization,[[fn:8]] 8 psychiatric confinement,[[fn:9]] 9 the forced assimilation of Indigenous children,[[fn:10]] racial segregation and apartheid,[[fn:11]] the forced sterilization of women[[fn:12]] and violence against LGBTQIA+ persons.[[fn:13]] 13 They have also been operationalized in situations of institutional abuse and colonial legacies, including in public health contexts, where State policies resulted in long-term discrimination and social exclusion.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Linda Steele, “Truth commissions on disability institutions: towards a disability truth and repair framework”, Human Rights Law Review, vol. 25, No. 2 (2024)."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Helen Spandler and Mick McKeown, “Exploring the case for truth and reconciliation in mental health services”, Mental Health Review Journal, vol. 22, No. 2 (2017), pp. 83–94."}, {"n": 10, "text": "Natasha Chandok and Eric M. Yoshida, “Demanding truth, reconciliation, and justice for Canada’s Indigenous Peoples: now and forever”, Canadian Liver Journal, vol. 4, No. 3 (2021), pp. 255–256; and A/72/186."}, {"n": 11, "text": "Annah Moyo, Maxine Rubin and Hugo van der Merwe, “Reparations for apartheid-era victims in South Africa: the unfinished business of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission”, in Reparations for Victims of Genocide, War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity, Carla Ferstman and Mariana Goetz, eds. (Brill Nijhoff, 2020)."}, {"n": 12, "text": "Jocelyn E. Getgen, “Untold truths: the exclusion of enforced sterilizations from the Peruvian Truth Commission’s final report”, Boston College Third World Law Journal, vol. 29, No. 1 (2009); and Linda Steele, “Sites of conscience redressing disability institutional violence”, Incarceration, vol. 3, No. 2 (2022)."}, {"n": 13, "text": "Emily Jones, “Gender and reparations: seeking transformative justice”, in Reparations for Victims of Genocide, War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The Special Rapporteur highlights that, although the framework presented here may provide general guidance, its application in local contexts must take into consideration the needs of affected communities, as well as the relationship between addressing the past and building reconciliation for the future. In this context, affected communities involve all members of those communities, including victims, survivors, their families and other relevant actors concerned, with these historical processes.[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "Wendy Lambourne, “Transformative justice, reconciliation and peacebuilding”, in Transitional Justice Theories, Susanne Buckly-Zistel and others, eds. (Routledge, 2013)."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Within this framework, the recognition of victims becomes a central element for addressing injustices. For guidance, the Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation define victims as any “persons who individually or collectively suffered harm, including physical or mental injury, emotional suffering, economic loss or substantial impairment of their fundamental rights, through acts or omissions that constitute gross violations of international human rights law or serious violations of international humanitarian law”.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "Cited in A/80/175."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "In conversations that the Special Rapporteur has had with grass-roots organizations of persons affected by leprosy, it has become evident that enduring stigma has often prevented those persons from recognizing themselves as victims of historical and structural rights violations. This situation has been reinforced by approaches that frame segregation policies solely as outdated public health measures rather than as violations of human rights, thereby limiting the realization of the rights of persons affected and their families to truth, reparation and guarantees of non-recurrence. The application of the five-pillar framework makes such recognition possible.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "Héctor was 10 years old when the police threatened his parents and ordered that he be sent to the leprosy colony located kilometres from their home. His parents tried to hide him at the back of the house, but the police entered with dogs and found him. Hours later, his parents were forced to hand him over to a woman who made him walk away until he disappeared from their sight. Héctor died in the leprosy colony a few years later. His parents could not afford to visit him and were informed only of his death. His body was buried in the leprosy cemetery in a grave marked with a numbered cross, as his surname had been changed when he entered the institution. This took place in 1935 in a South American country. In 2010, the site of the colony was auctioned off by the Government and demolished. Today, among the rubble and few remaining ruins, there is a parking lot. Neither the Government nor civil society have taken measures seeking to implement reparatory measures for the persons affected and their families.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "A. Truth-seeking and truth-telling"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The story of Héctor was recounted as a distant memory by one of the last remaining former patients who had lived in that leprosarium and who remembered many episodes from life in that place, including the forced sterilization of women, babies being separated from their parents, sexual violence and other abuses.[[fn:16]] Some of the descendants of these former patients have organized themselves and are calling on the Government to deliver justice. However, as one person affected by leprosy said, “justice could only be served when the truth is brought into the open”.[[fn:17]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Personal communication with a person affected by leprosy on 15 December 2025."}, {"n": 17, "text": "Personal communication with a person affected by leprosy on 4 March 2026."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "A. Truth-seeking and truth-telling"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Truth-seeking, including in relation to gross human rights violations and enforced disappearance, refers to the processes through which societies investigate, document and publicly acknowledge past human rights violations, their causes and consequences and the experiences of victims, and identify institutional responsibilities with the purpose of restoring dignity, preserving memory and preventing recurrence. It has been recognized by the Human Rights Council, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights and the Working Group on Enforced Disappearances.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "A. Truth-seeking and truth-telling"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "In his 2013 report,[[fn:18]] the Special Rapporteur on the promotion of truth, justice, reparation and guarantees of non-recurrence highlighted the importance attributed by the inter-American human rights system to the obligations of States not only towards direct victims but also towards their families. He noted that the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights had observed that “every society has the inalienable right to know the truth about past events, as well as the motives and circumstances in which aberrant crimes came to be committed, in order to prevent repetition of such acts in the future” and that the Court had stressed that “the next of kin of the victims and society as a whole must be informed of everything that has happened in connection with the said violations”.[[fn:19]] While developed in another context, this reasoning is instructive for understanding the claims of persons affected by leprosy and their families to truth, acknowledgement and access to information.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "A/HRC/24/42."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Ibid., para. 19."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "A. Truth-seeking and truth-telling"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "Whereas some scholars have documented the history of well-known leprosaria, such as Molokai in Hawaii (United States), Agua de Dios in Colombia and Culion in the Philippines, much of the available information around the world comes from personal testimonies published by former leprosy patients or from initiatives promoted by local or international organizations,[[fn:20]] which have recorded accounts of forced institutionalization, restriction on movement and marriage, forced sterilization and abortions, medical experimentation, and stigma and discrimination. Despite these efforts, government-led investigations into the abuses associated with these systems of segregation remain extremely limited.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "The International Leprosy Association’s Global Project on the History of Leprosy is one of the main initiatives addressing the global history of leprosy (see https://leprosyhistory.org/). Based at the University of Oxford and funded by the Nippon Foundation and the Sasakawa Health Foundation, it is a comprehensive initiative mapping global archives, records and personal testimonies related to leprosy dating from 1847 onwards."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "A. Truth-seeking and truth-telling"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Systems of forced institutionalization were frequently implemented through public health legislation authorizing the isolation and confinement of persons affected by leprosy. In some contexts, quarantine regimes established specialized settlements where individuals were required to live under strict surveillance. One example is the United States, where federal legislation adopted in 1917 under the United States Quarantine Acts authorized the detention of persons affected by leprosy in national institutions, such as the National Leprosarium in Carville, Louisiana. Regulations adopted in 1922 further formalized these policies by allowing involuntary admission, restricting movement and communication and imposing strict discharge procedures. The history of the National Leprosarium in Carville has been partly documented by the National Hansen’s Disease Program, while the archives of the patient newsletter The Star Newsletter[[fn:21]] provide valuable accounts of the experiences of persons who lived in the institution.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "The Star Newsletter was a bimonthly publication by the patients of the United States Public Health Service Hospital, Carville, Louisiana, between 1941 and 2001."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "A. Truth-seeking and truth-telling"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "Medical and cultural interpretations of leprosy have often been shaped by racialized and sexualized stereotypes, associating the disease with race and ethnicity, morality, hygiene and sexual behaviour. In colonial contexts, segregation policies were also closely intertwined with systems of racial hierarchy and labour control. In Suriname, for instance, the historical research available suggests that segregation laws introduced as early as 1728 were linked to the management of enslaved labour and to efforts to protect the plantation economy during Dutch colonial rule, reinforcing colonial hierarchies and helping legitimize the segregation and surveillance of enslaved persons and other marginalized populations. Even after the abolition of slavery and with the arrival of indentured labourers from China, India and Indonesia, compulsory isolation remained a central element of leprosy policy well into the twentieth century.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "A. Truth-seeking and truth-telling"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "Gendered dimensions to these policies can also be observed in several countries. Forced sterilization was practised in many leprosy colonies and hospitals around the world. In Argentina, for example, the historical research available suggests that some policies were influenced by eugenic ideas from the early twentieth century that framed disease in terms of heredity, social order and racial degeneration. Although leprosy was not explicitly included in legislation permitting abortion, concerns about the living conditions of women affected and the fate of their children contributed to the widespread acceptance of such practices as abortion and sterilization, particularly among poor women. Women affected by leprosy were often encouraged to undergo sterilization if they formed relationships, while men, in most cases, retained their reproductive rights. In leprosy colonies, especially from the 1960s onwards, some women underwent sterilization, sometimes at their own request, to avoid the pain of separation from their children or the risk to their lives posed by abortions. Infants born in these colonies were routinely removed from their mothers and placed in institutions, such as the “Mi Esperanza” colony, creating lasting experiences of loss and suffering.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "A. Truth-seeking and truth-telling"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The experiences described above illustrate how systems of segregation generated widespread violations, the truth of which has rarely been officially investigated, leaving the historical record largely dependent on the efforts of survivors, researchers and civil society. In most countries, States do not appear to have conducted formal truth commissions or comprehensive national investigations into the history and consequences of leprosy segregation and its continuing impact on survivors and their descendants. This lack of investigation reflects broader failures of accountability at the State level.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "A. Truth-seeking and truth-telling"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "While truth-seeking processes are essential for documenting historical injustices and restoring dignity to victims, they must also be accompanied by measures that ensure justice and accountability. International human rights law recognizes access to justice and accountability as essential elements of remedy and redress.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "B. Justice and accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Justice, in the context of the historical segregation of persons affected by leprosy, requires that States recognize the violations committed, remove existing legal barriers and ensure access to effective remedies for survivors and their families. Without such measures, the harm produced by systems of segregation risk remaining unaddressed and the rights of those affected insufficiently protected. Measures should include both judicial and administrative avenues, depending on the context and survivors’ needs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "B. Justice and accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "The right to justice and accountability is recognized as a core component of the Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for victims of human rights violations. The Basic Principles and Guidelines support the proposition that victims must have equal and effective access to justice and that States have an obligation to investigate violations and ensure accountability for acts or omissions that resulted in harm. This obligation applies not only for recent violations but also for historical injustices whose consequences continue to affect individuals and communities. In this regard, the work of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion of truth, justice, reparation and guarantees of non-recurrence has emphasized that justice mechanisms play a crucial role in recognizing victims, establishing responsibility and contributing to the restoration of dignity and public trust.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "B. Justice and accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "Despite these normative standards, judicial recognition of the violations experienced by persons affected by leprosy remains extremely limited. In many contexts, this reflects systemic barriers to accessing justice. In most countries, survivors have faced significant barriers in seeking justice, including the passage of time, a lack of documentation, persistent stigma and limited access to legal assistance. In addition, the framing of segregation policies as legitimate public health measures has often obscured their human rights implications and hindered efforts to hold institutions accountable.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "B. Justice and accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "One of the most significant examples of judicial accountability occurred in Japan. In 2001, former patients filed lawsuits against the Government challenging the constitutionality of the country’s long-standing segregation policy. In a landmark ruling, Kumamoto District Court determined that the leprosy prevention law was unconstitutional and that the Government had failed to abolish the law in a timely manner despite scientific evidence demonstrating that compulsory isolation was unnecessary. The Court concluded that the prolonged institutionalization of persons affected by leprosy had violated their fundamental rights and that the State bore responsibility for the physical and psychological suffering, social discrimination and deprivation of liberty experienced by former patients.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "B. Justice and accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "Importantly, the Government of Japan accepted the judgment and chose not to appeal the decision. This recognition of responsibility marked a turning point, paving the way for the adoption of legislation providing financial compensation to former patients and contributing to broader public acknowledgement of the injustices produced by segregation policies. The case demonstrates one important pathway through which domestic courts can recognize historical wrongs and open the way to reparative measures and broader social recognition.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "B. Justice and accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "In other countries, efforts to advance justice have also taken the form of legal advocacy aimed at eliminating discriminatory legislation and promoting equal protection under the law. Civil society organizations and networks of persons affected by leprosy have played an important role in challenging legal provisions that continue to restrict civil rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "B. Justice and accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "These examples demonstrate that justice and accountability can take multiple forms, including judicial decisions, legal reforms and the recognition of State responsibility. However, the limited number of such initiatives worldwide highlights the need for greater efforts to ensure that persons affected by leprosy and their families are able to access justice and obtain recognition for the violations they have endured.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "B. Justice and accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "Reparation seeks to address the harm caused by discriminatory policies and practices and restore, as far as possible, the rights and dignity of victims. In the context of leprosy segregation, reparation must respond to the harm produced by decades of legally enforced isolation and enable survivors and their families to rebuild their lives. Beyond compensation, reparation also acknowledges wrongdoing and contributes to transforming the conditions that allowed violations to occur.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "C. Reparation and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "Brazil is one of the few countries where State policies of leprosy segregation have been explicitly recognized as human rights violations requiring reparative measures.[[fn:22]] From the early twentieth century until the 1980s, compulsory isolation policies required institutionalization in more than 30 leprosy colonies across the country. Many people remained confined for decades, while children born to affected parents were frequently separated and placed in institutions known as preventórios (preventative care centres). These policies produced long-term physical, social, economic and psychological harm, affecting both survivors and their descendants.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See A/76/148."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "C. Reparation and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "The reparation process in Brazil was largely driven by civil society advocacy, particularly by Morhan (Movimento de Reintegração das Pessoas Atingidas pela Hanseníase), which documented abuses, mobilized survivors and advocated legal recognition and reparation. A major milestone was the adoption of Law No. 11.520 in 2007, establishing a special pension for persons subjected to compulsory isolation. The measure provides monthly financial compensation and formally recognizes the injustice of past segregation policies, illustrating how compensation, satisfaction and guarantees of non-repetition can be implemented in practice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "C. Reparation and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "In 2023, Law No. 14.736 extended reparatory benefits to children who had been separated from their parents as a result of isolation or compulsory hospitalization. This measure reflects protections recognized in the Convention on the Rights of the Child, including of the rights to family life, identity and from unjustified separation. The measures taken illustrate important reparative steps, while not necessarily exhausting the broader requirements of redress, equality and non-discrimination.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "C. Reparation and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "Restitution seeks to restore rights and opportunities denied to victims. For persons affected by leprosy, this may include, where appropriate, the recognition of land rights, access to identity documents and the restoration of family relationships and freedom of movement. In consultations with the Special Rapporteur, persons affected repeatedly emphasized land rights and security of tenure as central concerns. The relevance of these issues is evident in, for example, India, where approximately 2,000 settlements inhabited by persons affected by leprosy still exist and residents often lack landownership, adequate housing and basic services.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "C. Reparation and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "Similar situations are reported in some former leprosy colonies in Brazil and in settlements in Indonesia, where around 58 such communities remain. Many houses were built decades ago and are now in poor condition. Residents frequently face discrimination in education and employment, while disability and social exclusion push some individuals into begging or pursuing other precarious livelihoods. These conditions demonstrate how the legacy of segregation continues to shape patterns of poverty and spatial marginalization.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "C. Reparation and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The Special Rapporteur emphasizes that reparation can contribute significantly to healing and to combating stigma. In conversations with the mandate holders, persons affected by leprosy have stressed that public acknowledgement of historical injustices and official apologies would restore their sense of citizenship and affirm that they had done nothing wrong. As one resident of a former leprosy colony expressed:\nBeing owners of this land would mean acknowledging that this is where we were forced to live, but also where we decided to make the most of our lives. Even one public apology from the President for what we have endured for centuries would bring peace to our souls and help others understand that it was not our fault to have leprosy and it was not our choice to be sent away from the world.[[fn:23]]\nThese experiences demonstrate that reparation is not only about financial compensation but also about restoring dignity, acknowledging historical injustice and transforming the conditions that continue to marginalize persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Interview of a person affected by leprosy from an endemic country on 13 January 2026."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "C. Reparation and healing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "Systems of segregation produce social invisibility and exclusion from national narratives. Memory therefore plays a crucial role in restoring dignity and visibility to persons whose experiences have been historically silenced. The confinement of the history of persons affected by leprosy to medical records reflects a broader process of historical erasure. Memorialization contributes to restoring citizenship by recognizing that sites, cemeteries, archives, documents and other materials form part of a historical record marked by structural injustice. It also helps transform survivors from subjects of study and charity into historical actors whose dignity and cultural rights have long been denied.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "D. Memorialization as symbolic reparation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Memorialization is recognized in international human rights law as a form of symbolic reparation. The Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation identify “satisfaction” as a form of reparation, including the public acknowledgement of violations, commemorations, memorials and the preservation of historical truth. These measures are closely linked to cultural rights, including the right of individuals and communities to participate in cultural life and to preserve and transmit their histories. In the context of leprosy segregation, symbolic reparation is particularly important in addressing the stigma and social exclusion associated with the disease.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "D. Memorialization as symbolic reparation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "In some contexts, former leprosy settlements are increasingly being recognized as sites of historical memory. Memorial initiatives have sought to transform these places into spaces of remembrance, education and recognition that affirm the dignity of those who lived under systems of segregation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "D. Memorialization as symbolic reparation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Several former leprosy settlements, originally established under colonial or segregation regimes, are gradually being recognized as sites of conscience through the efforts of persons affected by leprosy, their descendants and allies. These initiatives respond to long-standing demands for truth, recognition and dignity, while contributing to civic trust and social solidarity between survivors and broader society.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "D. Memorialization as symbolic reparation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "The Sungai Buloh, or “Valley of Hope”, settlement in Malaysia, established in 1930 and once one of the largest leprosy communities in the world, has increasingly been recognized for its historical significance. Originally created under colonial segregation policies, the settlement evolved into a complex community where thousands of persons affected by leprosy lived for decades. Grass-roots movements resisted demolition beginning in 2007, and the site was later recognized by the National Heritage Department. In 2019 it was included on the tentative list of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),[[fn:24]] which reflects the growing recognition of its cultural, architectural and historical significance, while remaining distinct from inscription on the World Heritage List.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "See https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6388/."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "D. Memorialization as symbolic reparation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Other former leprosy colonies, such as Fontilles in Spain, have followed a preservation approach that combines memory, research and continued community life. That site has become an international centre for research and advocacy on Hansen’s disease and neglected tropical diseases. Such initiatives as the digitization of its historical archives, now available through the Miguel de Cervantes Digital Library,[[fn:25]] illustrate how preserving archives and documenting patients’ histories can transform a former colony into a site of memory, research and education.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See https://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obras/materia/fontilles-34495."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "D. Memorialization as symbolic reparation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "Although neither of these States has issued formal public acknowledgements of past violations or implemented economic reparations, these initiatives may be understood as contributing to forms of symbolic reparation. Such measures are non-pecuniary forms of redress, which may include memorials, museums, commemorative sites, public apologies, rituals or other acts of remembrance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "D. Memorialization as symbolic reparation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "Efforts to preserve the history of leprosy segregation have also relied on technological tools and international documentation initiatives. One example is the Global Project on the History of Leprosy.[[fn:26]] By compiling archival materials, publications and oral testimonies, the project contributes to preserving historical memory and documenting the global impact of segregation policies and serves as an important documentation and educational resource.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See footnote 20 above."}], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "D. Memorialization as symbolic reparation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "Despite these initiatives, many former leprosaria have been left in ruins due to the lack of State commitment to preserving historical memory. Interviews conducted by the Special Rapporteur indicate that former leprosy colonies in, among other countries, the Plurinational 24 See https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6388/. 25 See https://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obras/materia/fontilles-34495. 26 See footnote 20 above. GE.26-04739 State of Bolivia, Brazil, China, Colombia, Ecuador, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria, Peru and the United Republic of Tanzania, are deteriorating or at risk of abandonment, particularly where preservation policies are absent. Concerns are especially great in sites that are no longer used for medical purposes or where Governments fail to involve current residents in decisions about their future.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "D. Memorialization as symbolic reparation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "Guarantees of non-recurrence aim to transform the structural conditions that allowed violations to occur and to prevent their repetition. The updated set of principles for the protection and promotion of human rights through action to combat impunity identifies four core obligations of States in response to serious human rights violations: the prosecution of perpetrators, reparation for victims, truth-seeking and guarantees of non-recurrence. Although the latter remains the least developed dimension, several normative frameworks provide guidance thereon, including the updated set of principles and the Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation, which emphasize the obligation of States to adopt legal, institutional and social reforms to prevent the recurrence of violations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "E. Guarantees of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "In the context of leprosy, guarantees of non-recurrence require addressing the structural discrimination that historically justified segregation and continues to affect persons affected by leprosy and their families. Key measures include repealing discriminatory legislation, adopting anti-discrimination policies, promoting public education to combat stigma and ensuring the participation of persons affected by leprosy in decision-making processes. These measures should be framed as present legal obligations, not matters of charity or historical discretion.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "E. Guarantees of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "Repealing discriminatory laws remains one of the most direct guarantees of non-recurrence. As noted in chapter II above, several countries still maintain legal provisions restricting the rights of persons affected by leprosy, including marriage restrictions, immigration limitations or provisions permitting segregation. Advocacy efforts in Nepal illustrate how civil society and organizations of persons affected by leprosy have mobilized to repeal discriminatory provisions in the 2017 Civil Code.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "E. Guarantees of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "In some countries, guarantees of non-recurrence have included the judicial recognition of past violations and the abolition of segregation laws, as in Japan, as well as reparatory legislation and public awareness policies, as in Brazil. India has also undertaken legislative reforms, including the adoption of the 2018 Personal Laws (Amendment) Act removing leprosy as grounds for divorce, while such proposals as the Eliminating Discrimination Against Persons Affected by Leprosy Bill have sought to repeal remaining discriminatory provisions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "E. Guarantees of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "Judicial decisions have also contributed to recognizing abuses committed in leprosy institutions. In the Republic of Korea, cases concerning Sorokdo Island revealed forced labour, forced sterilization, medical experimentation and severe restrictions on freedom of movement. Court rulings in the 2010s acknowledged State responsibility and led to compensation measures for victims.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "E. Guarantees of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "Efforts to prevent the recurrence of discrimination have also included public education and stigma reduction initiatives. In Japan, museums and educational programmes in former sanatoriums contribute to raising awareness of past injustices. In India, the Sparsh Leprosy Awareness Campaign promotes reliable information to reduce stigma. In such countries as Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Indonesia and Senegal, community-based initiatives have sought to empower persons affected by leprosy and promote their participation in public life.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "E. Guarantees of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "Guarantees of non-recurrence also require strengthening access to health services, social protection and equal participation in community life, ensuring that segregation and compulsory isolation are never again used as responses to leprosy. Addressing both legal and social dimensions of discrimination is essential to prevent the repetition of past injustices and to build societies grounded in equality and human dignity.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "E. Guarantees of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "All such measures must ensure the meaningful participation of persons affected by leprosy. Their involvement in designing and implementing policies is a key safeguard against the re-emergence of discriminatory practices. In such countries as Argentina and Peru, organizations formed by children of persons affected by leprosy are working with activists to ensure recognition of past violations and their right to reparation and healing.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. The five-pillar framework: truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantee of non-recurrence", "E. Guarantees of non-recurrence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "Leprosy segregation must be framed as a historical and ongoing condition of structural injustice, in a manner that invites comparison with other historical injustices, such as the forced institutionalization of persons with disabilities, the forced assimilation of Indigenous children and racial segregation regimes, whose consequences extend across generations. These systems frequently involved forced segregation, institutionalization and severe restrictions on liberty.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "Segregation policies constituted State-sanctioned systems of discrimination shaped by broader regimes of power, including racism, gender bias and migration control, and were adopted despite the fact that scientific evidence did not support segregation as a necessary and proportionate public health measure. These policies were also driven by prejudice, fear and, in many contexts, eugenic ideologies that influenced institutional and political approaches to leprosy around the world.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "Despite the formal closure of leprosy colonies, their consequences persist. Many people continue to live in former colonies and settlements where violations of their rights remain evident, including limited access to treatment, inadequate housing and lack of basic services.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "The consequences for survivors and their descendants are not only material but also psychological. Family relationships were broken as children were separated from their parents. Many parents endured years of isolation and, in some cases, the preventable deaths of their children, often without knowing where those children had been taken.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "Taken together, the principles of truth, justice, reparation, memorialization and guarantees of non-recurrence provide a useful and coherent framework for addressing the historical and structural injustice experienced by persons affected by leprosy and their families. These principles are not isolated measures but mutually reinforcing processes that enable societies to acknowledge past violations, restore dignity to survivors and transform the conditions that allowed discrimination to persist for generations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "Applying this human rights-based framework to the history of leprosy segregation enables States and societies to move beyond viewing these experiences as mere public health measures, recognizing them instead as serious human rights violations, the ongoing effects of which require acknowledgement, redress and institutional reform. It also allows persons affected by leprosy to see themselves as rights holders and victims of violations, rather than only as patients who endured a disease.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "There is an urgent need to implement such a framework, as States have largely failed to act. This inaction continues to perpetuate stigma and discrimination against persons affected by leprosy, survivors of leprosy colonies and their descendants.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 74, "n": 74, "text": "The framework must be person-centred, ensuring that persons affected by leprosy lead discussions on how to address the legacy of segregation, the forms of reparation they consider appropriate and the ways in which these measures should be implemented. Such an approach safeguards their dignity and restores the recognition of their citizenship, which segregation sought to deny.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 75, "n": 75, "text": "Addressing the legacy of leprosy segregation is not solely a matter of reflecting on history. It is also a present human rights obligation, particularly in relation to non-discrimination, access to remedies, social protection, participation and the repeal of discriminatory laws. Recognizing past injustices and repairing their consequences is essential to restoring dignity to persons affected by leprosy and to building societies grounded in equity, memory and justice.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 76, "n": 76, "text": "The mandate must be renewed, as there is still significant progress to be made to ensure that the rights of persons affected by leprosy are fully protected and that justice is achieved. This report demonstrates that, as victims of structural injustice, persons affected by leprosy continue to need their voices to be heard in such international forums as the United Nations and that their demands must be recognized as human rights claims. The mandate therefore remains essential.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 77, "n": 77, "text": "The Special Rapporteur respectfully urges Member States to:\n(a) Conduct independent national investigations or historical inquiries into the history and consequences of leprosy segregation, including through commissions, expert panels or other mechanisms tasked with documenting violations, identifying institutional responsibilities and recognizing the experiences of persons affected and their families;\n(b) Ensure the preservation, accessibility and digitization of historical archives relating to leprosy policies and institutions and support research and documentation initiatives, including oral history projects, that record the testimonies of survivors and their families and contribute to the public understanding of this history, subject to safeguards relating to privacy, dignity, free and informed consent and the protection of sensitive personal data;\n(c) Establish accessible judicial and administrative mechanisms through which persons affected by leprosy and their family members can seek recognition of past violations and obtain effective remedies, including legal assistance and victim-centred procedures adapted to the needs of older persons and persons with disabilities;\n(d) Review and remove legal and procedural barriers that prevent access to justice for victims of historical discrimination, including the removal or suspension of statutes of limitation where necessary and evidentiary barriers that may impede the investigation and adjudication of past violations;\n(e) Develop and implement comprehensive reparation programmes that address the harm caused by segregation policies, including financial compensation, social protection measures, access to healthcare and rehabilitation, the recognition of land and housing rights in former settlements and specific support for descendants who were separated from their families or otherwise affected by these policies;\n(f) Recognize and protect former leprosy colonies, settlements and institutions and cemeteries as sites of historical memory, ensuring that their preservation respects the dignity of those who lived there and that decisions regarding their future involve the participation of affected communities;\n(g) Support initiatives aimed at preserving and transmitting the history of leprosy segregation, including the strengthening of museums, archives, documentation centres, memorials and educational programmes that contribute to public awareness and the reduction of stigma. The preservation of these sites should be considered in the light of the evolving understanding of culture, heritage and its changing social contexts;\n(h) Repeal or amend all remaining discriminatory laws and regulations and administrative provisions that restrict the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, including provisions related to marriage, divorce, employment, immigration, voting rights and access to public spaces;\n(i) Take appropriate legal, policy and institutional measures to prohibit, prevent and redress discrimination on the basis of present or past experience with leprosy and ensure equal protection of the law, access to services and full participation in social, economic and political life;\n(j) Ensure the meaningful, safe and effective participation of persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations in the design, implementation and monitoring of laws, policies and programmes that affect their lives, in accordance with the principles of dignity, equality and inclusion.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 78, "n": 78, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that relevant international organizations, in particular the World Health Organization, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, UNESCO and the United Nations Development Programme:\n(a) Support initiatives aimed at documenting the history and lived experiences of persons affected by leprosy, including research projects, oral history initiatives and the preservation and digitization of archival materials, in collaboration with academic institutions and organizations of persons affected by leprosy;\n(b) Provide technical assistance and policy guidance to Member States in the design and implementation of comprehensive reparation programmes addressing the consequences of historical segregation policies, including measures related to compensation, social protection, rehabilitation and community development;\n(c) Promote the identification, preservation and protection of former leprosy colonies, settlements and institutions as sites of historical memory and cultural heritage, including through heritage protection frameworks and international cooperation mechanisms, while recognizing that inclusion on national registers or UNESCO tentative lists does not in itself resolve questions of reparation, participation or the rights of current residents;\n(d) Integrate the issues of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members into relevant international human rights monitoring, development and public health frameworks, including through data collection, reporting mechanisms and guidance aimed at supporting States in eliminating stigma and structural discrimination: this should include stronger coordination across disability, health, equality and cultural rights frameworks.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 79, "n": 79, "text": "The Special Rapporteur recommends that civil society and grass-roots organizations:\n(a) Continue documenting and preserving the testimonies and lived experiences of persons affected by leprosy and their family members, including through oral history initiatives, community archives and research collaborations, in order to ensure that their histories are recognized and transmitted to future generations;\n(b) Support legal advocacy and strategic litigation aimed at challenging discriminatory laws and practices, promoting accountability for historical violations and strengthening the protection of the rights of persons affected by leprosy and their family members;\n(c) Promote public education and awareness campaigns to combat stigma and discrimination related to leprosy, including initiatives that disseminate accurate scientific information about the disease and highlight the dignity, rights and contributions of persons affected by leprosy;\n(d) Strengthen networks of organizations of persons affected by leprosy so that they can lead dialogue with Governments and institutions in the design and implementation of programmes and initiatives aimed at advancing reparation, including through sustained funding, leadership development and support for intergenerational participation;\n(e) Promote alliances with disability, human rights and social justice movements in order to foster mutual learning and support actions aimed at advancing broader societal transformation.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 80, "n": 80, "text": "The Special Rapporteur respectfully calls upon the Human Rights Council to:\n(a) Continue supporting the mandate, recognizing its unique role within the United Nations human rights system in bringing visibility to the situation of persons affected by leprosy and advancing efforts to eliminate discrimination;\n(b) Ensure that the mandate is provided with adequate financial and institutional support to effectively carry out its functions, including research, engagement with affected communities, country visits and cooperation with Member States and relevant stakeholders;\n(c) Encourage Member States to cooperate fully with the work of the mandate, including by responding to communications and questionnaires, facilitating country visits and engaging constructively with the recommendations issued by the Special Rapporteur;\n(d) Encourage greater integration of the human rights of persons affected by leprosy within the work of the Human Rights Council and its mechanisms, including through dialogue, cooperation and the sharing of good practices among Member States.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-40-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-62-40", "idx": 81, "n": 81, "text": "Lastly, the Special Rapporteur proposes that States and stakeholders could usefully consider a strategic recommendation aimed at strengthening alliances between the leprosy and human rights communities, Governments and local and international organizations on the establishment of a global initiative on truth, justice and reparations for persons affected by leprosy, which could include:\n(a) The updating and continued maintenance of the existing international digital documentation project on the history of leprosy developed by the International Leprosy Association and hosted by the University of Oxford, paying attention to long-term accessibility, multilingual availability and ethical standards concerning consent and privacy;\n(b) The mapping of former leprosy colonies and settlements worldwide, including those that have become invisible or forgotten, particularly in countries where leprosy is no longer endemic: this effort should make use of innovative technological and creative strategies to document, preserve and make accessible these historical sites;\n(c) Support for the development and implementation of reparation programmes, including the establishment of partnerships with local, regional and international human rights and legal associations to provide training and support to persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations;\n(d) The preservation of the history and heritage of leprosy segregation while taking into account the present and future of persons affected by leprosy and their communities. In this regard, the use of digital technologies, artistic initiatives and participatory approaches could contribute to building shared understanding and consensus among all actors involved in the preservation and interpretation of this heritage, provided that such efforts are guided by the dignity, priorities and free and informed participation of affected communities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusions and recommendation", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0001", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is submitted in accordance with Human Rights Council resolution 53/8, in which the Council renewed the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy (Hansen’s disease) and their family members, Beatriz Miranda-Galarza. In the report, the Special Rapporteur explores how delays in the distribution of leprosy medicines have an impact on the physical, mental, social and economic well-being of those affected. She outlines the various underlying causes of these delays and highlights the strategies developed by affected individuals and organizations to overcome them. Through personal testimonies, she illustrates the urgent need to approach access to treatment and medicines as a human rights issue.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0002", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The discussion about access to medicines as a right has been addressed at various moments by the United Nations. In September 2016, the Secretary-General established a high-level panel to discuss and propose solutions for addressing the gaps between the right to health, the technological and scientific progress made in the field of health, and the unjust and inequitable circumstances in which most of the population in the world lives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0003", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "In July 2019, the Human Rights Council, in resolution 41/10 on access to medicines and vaccines, affirmed that availability, accessibility, acceptability and affordability are essential to the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health. Based on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and other core international treaties, the resolution stresses the responsibility of States to ensure access for all, without discrimination, to medicines and vaccines, in particular essential medicines, that are affordable, safe, effective and of quality.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0004", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "In 1981, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended multidrug therapy – a combination of dapsone, rifampicin and clofazimine – as the standard cure for leprosy. Despite its effectiveness, access remains unequal, especially in remote or conflict-affected areas. Recent challenges include supply chain delays, logistical bottlenecks and reliance on a single manufacturer of multidrug therapy blister packs. While efforts are under way to develop new drugs and improve distribution, multidrug therapy remains the cornerstone of treatment. Leprosy reactions (type 1 and type 2) are major causes of nerve damage and disability, often requiring long-term corticosteroids or immunosuppressive drugs with significant side effects. Access to these treatments is limited by cost, supply issues and a lack of trained health workers, leading to delays and poorer outcomes.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0005", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "In early 2024, organizations in Nigeria reported a year-long shortage of WHO-provided multidrug therapy due to new domestic testing rules and bureaucratic delays, affecting around 3,000 patients, including 800 children. A shipment from India arrived in March 2025, allowing treatment to resume, but challenges in reaching patients in remote areas persist, leading to growing concerns about the impact on affected individuals, their families and communities.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0006", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "Persons affected by leprosy in various countries, particularly those experiencing conflict, political instability or the effects of climate change, have also expressed concern about recurring delays in access to medication. While none have reported delays as prolonged as those in Nigeria, their testimonies reveal significant challenges within national supply systems. In many cases, medicines are available at the national level but fail to reach marginalized or hard-to-reach areas due to distribution bottlenecks and weak internal logistics.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0007", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The consequences of delays can be irreversible and sometimes fatal, not only for persons affected by leprosy but also for families, communities and States. Individuals may suffer from health deterioration, disabilities and economic hardship. At the State level, consequences include public health setbacks as the patient stops transmitting the disease upon initiation of treatment, increased costs, human rights violations and growing demands for accountability and reform.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0008", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "In the present report, the Special Rapporteur urges Member States and international and local actors to recognize access to leprosy drugs as a human rights issue requiring shared responsibility. Violations of this right must lead to accountability and redress for affected individuals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0009", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "The Special Rapporteur offers recommendations to States and international actors to develop leprosy-inclusive policies, partnerships and initiatives to improve access to medicines. These actions should support the broader goal of eliminating leprosy, backed by an efficient, rights-based drug distribution system.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0010", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "In preparing the report, the Special Rapporteur analysed responses from Member States and interviews with experts and stakeholders, including international organizations, pharmaceutical companies, human rights institutions, civil society and grass-roots representatives. Due to a lack of funding, it was not possible to hold an expert consultation, which would have enriched the report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0011", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "As the renewal of the mandate approaches, the Special Rapporteur emphasizes the importance of its independence and continuity. The rights of persons affected by leprosy remain at risk, and the mandate provides their only platform within the United Nations system. The Special Rapporteur urges Member States to uphold the mandate in recognition of the centuries of neglect and exclusion that persons affected by leprosy have endured. Their rights remain at risk, as evidenced by this and previous reports.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0012", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "In this context, the Special Rapporteur welcomes discussions on country visits, as they offer opportunities to better understand the situation of affected persons and the progress made by States in protecting their rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0013", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The introduction of multidrug therapy marked a major turning point in leprosy treatment. Before its development, treatments were largely based on traditional or spiritual beliefs, ranging from herbal remedies such as chaulmoogra oil and bloodletting to pilgrimages. Many individuals treated may not have had leprosy at all, due to frequent confusion with other conditions such as psoriasis or syphilis.[[fn:1]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Hubert Sansarricq, “Multidrug therapy against leprosy: development and implementation over the past 25 years” (World Health Organization (WHO), 2004)."}], "section": ["II. From chaulmoogra oil to multidrug therapy and post-exposure prophylaxis with a single dose of rifampicin: a road towards cure and rights"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0014", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The first breakthrough in leprosy treatment came with Alice Ball’s method to make chaulmoogra oil injectable,[[fn:2]] and in the 1940s sulfone antibiotics such as promin and dapsone were introduced. However, decades of monotherapy led to widespread resistance. In the 1960s and 1970s, new drugs such as rifampicin and clofazimine were tested, and by 1982 WHO had officially recommended multidrug therapy, a combination of these three drugs, to prevent resistance and improve cure rates. Although various multidrug regimens had been in use before, their inconsistency highlighted the need for standardized global protocols.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Suji Udayakumar, “Alice Augusta Ball: the unrecognized chemist behind a breakthrough leprosy treatment”, 29 February 2024. Available at https://epic.utoronto.ca/alice-augusta-ball-the-unrecognized-chemist-behind-a-breakthrough-leprosy-treatment."}], "section": ["II. From chaulmoogra oil to multidrug therapy and post-exposure prophylaxis with a single dose of rifampicin: a road towards cure and rights"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0015", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "The roll-out of multidrug therapy was supported by WHO and key partners such as the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations, the Nippon Foundation and Novartis, which has donated over 70 million multidrug therapy blister packs since 2000, contributing, together with other factors, to a 95 per cent reduction in global leprosy prevalence.[[fn:3]] By the early 2000s, more than 12 million people had been cured.[[fn:4]] WHO defined leprosy elimination as a public health problem, with fewer than 1 case per 10,000 people,[[fn:5]] and promoted colour-coded multidrug therapy blister packs, available free of charge, for standardized treatment. These must always be used in combination to avoid drug resistance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Novartis, “Novartis renews WHO medicine donation pledge with aim of ending leprosy”, 29 January 2021. Available at www.novartis.com/news/media-releases/novartis-renews-who-medicine-donation-pledge-aim-ending-leprosy."}, {"n": 4, "text": "WHO, leprosy fact sheet. Available at www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leprosy."}, {"n": 5, "text": "The term “elimination” has often been confused with “eradication”, leading to misunderstanding. Under the WHO 2021–2030 strategy, it now means “interruption of transmission” (no new local cases). However, the outdated definition still misleads many, contributing to a reduction in funding, political attention, health worker training and care for those affected."}], "section": ["II. From chaulmoogra oil to multidrug therapy and post-exposure prophylaxis with a single dose of rifampicin: a road towards cure and rights"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0016", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Isolated resistance to dapsone and rifampicin has been reported, especially in patients receiving irregular treatment. Rifampicin resistance is a major concern due to its key bactericidal role, with cases reported in Bangladesh, Brazil, India, Indonesia and Myanmar. No significant resistance to clofazimine has emerged, though it is less bactericidal and not routinely tested.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. From chaulmoogra oil to multidrug therapy and post-exposure prophylaxis with a single dose of rifampicin: a road towards cure and rights"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0017", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "A major advance came with the Contact Transmission and Chemoprophylaxis in Leprosy (COLEP) study in Bangladesh (2003–2012), which showed that a single dose of rifampicin reduced the risk of leprosy by 57 per cent in contacts. The Leprosy Post-exposure Prophylaxis (LPEP) study (2015–2019) confirmed the safety and feasibility of post-exposure prophylaxis with a single dose of rifampicin in several countries.[[fn:6]] Based on these findings, WHO endorsed such treatment in 2018 and included it in its 2021–2030 strategy. Countries such as India, Indonesia, Nepal and Nigeria have since integrated it into their leprosy control programmes, often with support from the International Federation of Anti-Leprosy Associations and the Global Partnership for Zero Leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Jan Hendrik Richardus and others, “Leprosy post‑exposure prophylaxis with single‑dose rifampicin (LPEP): an international feasibility programme”, The Lancet Global Health, vol. 9, No. 1 (2021), pp. e81–e90. Available at www.thelancet.com/journals/langlo/article/PIIS2214-109X(20)30396-X/fulltext."}], "section": ["II. From chaulmoogra oil to multidrug therapy and post-exposure prophylaxis with a single dose of rifampicin: a road towards cure and rights"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0018", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "Concerns remain about stigma, rifampicin resistance in tuberculosis-endemic areas, limited effectiveness of post-exposure prophylaxis for household contacts of multibacillary cases and ethical issues surrounding mass prophylaxis potentially diverting focus from early diagnosis, multidrug access and community empowerment.[[fn:7]] 7 Some studies, however, show that the implementation of postexposure prophylaxis has strengthened leprosy control by boosting screening, training and awareness, as seen in LPEP, READY4PEP, PEP4LEP and blanket campaigns in Indonesia.8 3 Novartis, “Novartis renews WHO medicine donation pledge with aim of ending leprosy”, 29 January 2021. Available at www.novartis.com/news/media-releases/novartis-renews-whomedicine-donation-pledge-aim-ending-leprosy. 4 WHO, leprosy fact sheet. Available at www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/leprosy. 5 The term “elimination” has often been confused with “eradication”, leading to misunderstanding. Under the WHO 2021–2030 strategy, it now means “interruption of transmission” (no new local cases). However, the outdated definition still misleads many, contributing to a reduction in funding, political attention, health worker training and care for those affected. 6 Jan Hendrik Richardus and others, “Leprosy post‑exposure prophylaxis with single‑dose rifampicin (LPEP): an international feasibility programme”, The Lancet Global Health, vol. 9, No. 1 (2021), pp. e81–e90. Available at www.thelancet.com/journals/langlo/article/PIIS2214109X(20)30396-X/fulltext. 7 David G. Addiss, “Evidence, opportunity, ethics, and the allure of zero leprosy”, Leprosy Review, vol. 89, No. 2 (2018), pp. 90–101. 8 Fleur ter Ellen and others, “Implementation approaches for leprosy prevention with single-dose rifampicin: a support tool for decision making”, PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, vol. 16, No. 10, p. e0010792. Available at https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0010792. 6/23", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["II. From chaulmoogra oil to multidrug therapy and post-exposure prophylaxis with a single dose of rifampicin: a road towards cure and rights"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "David G. Addiss, “Evidence, opportunity, ethics, and the allure of zero leprosy”, Leprosy Review, vol. 89, No. 2 (2018), pp. 90–101."}]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0019", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "The Special Rapporteur notes that rising drug resistance is a serious concern, especially with disrupted supplies of multidrug therapy and poor adherence. Ethical issues also persist from the historical testing of leprosy drugs, such as sulfone trials in the 1940s, often conducted on institutionalized patients with limited autonomy and without proper informed consent, particularly in Africa, Asia and Latin America.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. From chaulmoogra oil to multidrug therapy and post-exposure prophylaxis with a single dose of rifampicin: a road towards cure and rights"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0020", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Until very recently, persons affected by leprosy were rarely included in the design or decision-making processes related to clinical trials or treatment strategies. Similar concerns have been raised about the use of post-exposure prophylaxis with a single dose of rifampicin, particularly when it is offered to healthy contacts, including children. Questions persist about the level of informed consent, the potential for misunderstanding and the risk of exposing families to discrimination or even social exclusion.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. From chaulmoogra oil to multidrug therapy and post-exposure prophylaxis with a single dose of rifampicin: a road towards cure and rights"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0021", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Leprosy research holds a dual legacy. It has led to major scientific advances, including effective treatments and the hope for shorter, stronger regimens using antibiotics developed for tuberculosis, which have fewer side effects. However, it is also marked by human rights violations, such as drug testing on affected persons, often without consent or proper information, particularly in institutional settings in the past.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. From chaulmoogra oil to multidrug therapy and post-exposure prophylaxis with a single dose of rifampicin: a road towards cure and rights"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0022", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "The Special Rapporteur also emphasizes the need to frame the leprosy drug supply chain as a process that extends beyond mere access to medicines and medical treatment. The full complexity of what “access to medicines” entails is often overlooked in the design, implementation and evaluation of programmes and projects, limiting their effectiveness and their alignment with human rights principles.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. From chaulmoogra oil to multidrug therapy and post-exposure prophylaxis with a single dose of rifampicin: a road towards cure and rights"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0023", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The Special Rapporteur calls for recognition of access to medicines and treatment as a fundamental human right also embedded in the practice of care and support (see A/HRC/56/59). This perspective shifts the discourse from one of charity or goodwill to one of legal entitlement. Persons affected by leprosy have both a legal and an ethical right to timely and adequate treatment. A human rights-based approach links access to medicines with broader State obligations to eliminate discrimination, marginalization and health inequities. It promotes sustainable and long-term commitments, including domestic resource allocation, integration into national health plans and prioritization in procurement systems, moving away from emergency responses or donor-dependent models.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Framing access to leprosy drugs within a human rights approach"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0024", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "This human rights-based approach is consistent with global health standards. WHO includes multidrug therapy for leprosy on its Model List of Essential Medicines for adults and children, recognizing it as a priority treatment based on public health relevance, safety, efficacy and cost-effectiveness. The Model List, updated every two years, guides national procurement and prioritization of essential drugs.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Framing access to leprosy drugs within a human rights approach"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0025", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Access to essential medicines, according to WHO, requires continuous availability, affordability, appropriate dosage, quality assurance and rational use, principles that align with the framework of availability, accessibility, acceptability and quality endorsed by United Nations human rights bodies to ensure accountability under the right to health.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Framing access to leprosy drugs within a human rights approach"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0026", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "International frameworks, including International Labour Organization Convention No. 169, also stress the importance of culturally appropriate care, recognizing traditional and Indigenous medical practices as part of comprehensive, inclusive health systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Framing access to leprosy drugs within a human rights approach"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0027", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "States must guarantee access to leprosy medicines in line with international health and human rights standards. The Alma-Ata Declaration and the Declaration of Lisbon on the Rights of the Patient affirm health as a fundamental right and emphasize State responsibility, especially for marginalized populations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Framing access to leprosy drugs within a human rights approach", "A. International legal obligations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0028", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "General comment No. 14 on the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights requires States to apply the availability, accessibility, acceptability and quality framework to essential medicines and fulfil core obligations, such as access to treatment, immediately, regardless of resource constraints. International cooperation is also recognized as essential to realizing the right to health.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Framing access to leprosy drugs within a human rights approach", "A. International legal obligations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0029", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "National laws must align with global human rights instruments. Article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights affirms the right to medical care, making delays in leprosy treatment a violation requiring accountability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Framing access to leprosy drugs within a human rights approach", "A. International legal obligations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0030", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "The Doha Declaration on the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights and Public Health further reinforces access to medicines as a human right, offering legal tools for States to challenge patent barriers and ensure affordability in the public interest.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Framing access to leprosy drugs within a human rights approach", "A. International legal obligations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0031", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "At the regional level, the European Social Charter, the Additional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the Area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Protocol of San Salvador) and the additional protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (Banjul Charter) all address health rights. Regional treaties also address related issues, such as violence against women, which is perhaps the representative example of social structures and relations steering health impacts.[[fn:9]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Organization of American States, Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence against Women (Convention of Belem do Para), 9 June 1994; and Council of Europe, Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (Istanbul Convention), November 2014."}], "section": ["III. Framing access to leprosy drugs within a human rights approach", "A. International legal obligations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0032", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "Since delays in leprosy medicine supply disproportionately affect marginalized populations, particularly those who develop disabilities, access must be reinforced through binding frameworks such as the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which obligates States to ensure equality, healthcare and dignified living conditions for persons with disabilities, including those affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Framing access to leprosy drugs within a human rights approach", "B. Intersectional and group-specific obligations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0033", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "Past reports have highlighted the gendered and generational impacts of access failures. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Convention on the Rights of the Child affirm the right to health for women and children, requiring States to address the specific needs of these groups. The lack of paediatric or adapted formulations violates principles of non-discrimination and the right to age-appropriate care.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Framing access to leprosy drugs within a human rights approach", "B. Intersectional and group-specific obligations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0034", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The Sustainable Development Goals, particularly Goals 3 and 10, promote health and equality for all. However, the exclusion of leprosy from universal health coverage undermines these Goals, reinforcing discrimination and inequality instead of addressing them.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Framing access to leprosy drugs within a human rights approach", "C. Global frameworks and specific guidelines"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0035", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members affirm the right to health (principle 9) and participation in decision-making (principle 10). They call on States and international actors to remove structural barriers and ensure the inclusion of affected communities in shaping policies that have an impact on their lives.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Framing access to leprosy drugs within a human rights approach", "C. Global frameworks and specific guidelines"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0036", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Courts in many countries have interpreted access to medicines as an enforceable human right, often grounded in constitutional provisions on health, life or dignity. In India, the Supreme Court has ruled that the right to life (art. 21 of the Constitution) includes access to health services and medicines. Similarly, in Paschim Banga Khet Mazdoor Samity v. State of West Bengal (1996), the Court held that the Government must provide adequate medical services, including essential drugs. Indian courts have also upheld the use of compulsory licences to make medicines more affordable, especially for life-saving treatments.[[fn:10]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "Paschim Banga Khet Mazdoor Samity v. State of West Bengal, (1996) 4 SCC 37; Novartis AG v. Union of India & Others (2013), Civil Appeal No. 2706-2716; and Natco Pharma Ltd. v. Bayer Corporation (2011), CL No. 1."}], "section": ["III. Framing access to leprosy drugs within a human rights approach", "D. Access to medicines in international and domestic jurisprudence: making Governments accountable"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0037", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "In South Africa, in Minister of Health v. Treatment Action Campaign (2002), the Constitutional Court ordered the Government to provide the antiretroviral drug nevirapine to prevent mother-to-child HIV transmission, affirming that the right to health includes access to medicines.[[fn:11]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Minister of Health v. Treatment Action Campaign, (2002) ZACC 15; 2002 (5) SA 721 (CC)."}], "section": ["III. Framing access to leprosy drugs within a human rights approach", "D. Access to medicines in international and domestic jurisprudence: making Governments accountable"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0038", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The Constitutional Court of Colombia has recognized access to essential medicines as part of the right to health and life and regularly issues tutelas[[fn:12]] (legal protection orders) compelling the Government to provide medicines to individuals in need.[[fn:13]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Rodrigo Uprimny and Laura Durán, “La tutela y el derecho a la salud: impacto y tensiones”, DeJusticia (2007)."}, {"n": 13, "text": "Constitutional Court of Colombia (2008), T-760/2008 (sentence T-760)."}], "section": ["III. Framing access to leprosy drugs within a human rights approach", "D. Access to medicines in international and domestic jurisprudence: making Governments accountable"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0039", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "In Brazil, the courts have frequently ruled in favour of individuals seeking access to high-cost or unavailable medicines, considering it part of the constitutional right to health and dignity (arts. 6 and 196 of the Constitution).[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "João Biehl and Adriana Petryna, When People Come First: Critical Studies in Global Health (Princeton University Press, 2013)."}], "section": ["III. Framing access to leprosy drugs within a human rights approach", "D. Access to medicines in international and domestic jurisprudence: making Governments accountable"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0040", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "However, experts recommend being cautious about examining whether a legal right to access medicines reinforces inequities in health systems by allowing wealthier persons to access expensive medicines, for instance, or whether the health system can universalize such access for all.15 10 Paschim Banga Khet Mazdoor Samity v. State of West Bengal, (1996) 4 SCC 37; Novartis AG v. Union of India & Others (2013), Civil Appeal No. 2706-2716; and Natco Pharma Ltd. v. Bayer Corporation (2011), CL No. 1. 11 Minister of Health v. Treatment Action Campaign, (2002) ZACC 15; 2002 (5) SA 721 (CC). 12 Rodrigo Uprimny and Laura Durán, “La tutela y el derecho a la salud: impacto y tensiones”, DeJusticia (2007). 13 Constitutional Court of Colombia (2008), T-760/2008 (sentence T-760). 14 João Biehl and Adriana Petryna, When People Come First: Critical Studies in Global Health (Princeton University Press, 2013). 15 Alicia Ely Yamin, “Access to medicines and the right to health: a brief introduction for students and advocates”, Journal du droit de la santé et de l’assurance-maladie, vol. 35, No. 5 (2022), pp. 10–14. Available at https://doi.org/10.3917/jdsam.225.0010.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["III. Framing access to leprosy drugs within a human rights approach", "D. Access to medicines in international and domestic jurisprudence: making Governments accountable"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0041", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Before multidrug therapy reaches patients, it undergoes a multi-stage and complex process involving various social and political actors and systems. Each stage follows its own procedures and logic, yet the entire process and most obstacles remain largely unknown to most persons affected by the disease and even to the actors involved at the local level (health workers, care providers and local health authorities). When asked how he perceived the leprosy drug supply chain, a gentleman from India offered a powerful analogy: “Thinking about treatment reaching our hands is like believing in God. We can’t see him, but at some point, we know we will meet him. It’s the same with treatment, we don’t see the process it follows, we don’t even know how it’s made, how it gets to us, or who are involved in the production, but we try to believe it will arrive eventually”.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Person interviewed from India, January 2025."}], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0042", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "As multidrug therapy is an essential medicine not commercially available like other drugs, it is crucial for national and local authorities, as well as persons affected by leprosy, to understand the stages of its supply chain and the barriers involved. This awareness is key to better understanding the reasons behind supply delays and to effectively demanding accountability and identifying responsible actors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0043", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "Each drug in multidrug therapy contains active pharmaceutical ingredients, now outsourced by Novartis to manufacturers in China and India. The ingredients are formulated into blister packs for adults and children and for both paucibacillary and multibacillary cases. Recently, packs have become standardized, differing only in treatment duration (6 or 12 months), which would simplify supply and distribution.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "A. Manufacturing and production"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0044", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "Multidrug therapy must meet WHO pre-qualification and comply with good manufacturing practices. However, some countries add national import requirements such as product registration (e.g. the National Agency for Food and Drugs Administration and Control of Nigeria, or the Central Drugs Standard Control Organization of India), import licences and stability testing. Producers pre-qualified by WHO include Sandoz, Lupin and Olon, while clofazimine is mainly produced in India by Novartis and Sangrose, though in limited quantities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "A. Manufacturing and production"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0045", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "Good manufacturing practice standards cover training, hygiene, equipment, documentation, quality control and traceability. WHO pre-qualification involves dossier reviews, good manufacturing practice inspections and independent quality testing, as well as assessments of active pharmaceutical ingredient consistency, impurity profiles and synthesis methods. WHO also promotes good distribution practices to ensure safe storage and transport.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "A. Manufacturing and production"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0046", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Import requirements from some countries may include local language labelling, temperature trackers, batch numbers and specific packaging standards such as childproof containers or colour-coding. Countries may also require batch testing, quality certificates, pre-shipment inspections and extensive documentation such as a certificate of pharmaceutical product, certificate of analysis, certificate of origin, 16 For each of the stages described in the present section, the bottlenecks reported are based on group interviews with persons affected by leprosy from different countries between January and April 2025, and information from the field is based on responses submitted by 20 countries to a call for inputs made by the Special Rapporteur (see www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/2025/callinputs-thematic-report-80th-session-general-assembly-2025). 17 Person interviewed from India, January 2025. 10/23 invoices and legalized papers. Some also demand ethical clearance for new formulations, emergency permissions or coordination with local partners, especially in decentralized systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "A. Manufacturing and production"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0047", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 47, "n": 1, "text": "Bottlenecks reported Single-source dependency", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "A. Manufacturing and production"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0048", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 48, "n": 47, "text": "Since the 1980s, Novartis has been the sole global supplier of multidrug therapy packs, which are provided by donation and not sold commercially. This eliminates market incentives for other manufacturers, especially as leprosy primarily affects low-income, marginalized populations and demand remains low and unpredictable. Few companies can meet the technical and regulatory standards for multidrug therapy production, particularly for clofazimine. National leprosy control programmes do not procure multidrug therapy packs independently, and most endemic countries lack the resources to do so. As a neglected tropical disease, leprosy receives little investment in research and development or supply reform, leaving the multidrug therapy supply chain fragile and donor-dependent.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "A. Manufacturing and production", "Single-source dependency"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0049", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 49, "n": 48, "text": "Production disruptions often result from shortages of active pharmaceutical ingredients, especially rifampicin and clofazimine, which are difficult to produce and are sourced from few suppliers. Additional delays arise from factory shutdowns, capacity limits or good manufacturing practice issues, particularly in facilities also producing high-demand drugs such as those for tuberculosis or the coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Increased outsourcing by Novartis to subcontractors in China and India adds further complexity and vulnerability to the supply chain. In addition, changes in contract partners or delays in coordination between active pharmaceutical ingredient and finished product suppliers may occur. Registering loose rifampicin (i.e. tablets that are not part of a multidrug therapy blister pack) for leprosy prevention at the national level can ease import and scale-up but often faces bureaucratic delays.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "A. Manufacturing and production", "Production disruptions"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0050", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 50, "n": 49, "text": "Child-friendly multidrug therapy is often unavailable or inconsistently supplied due to low global demand, which makes production less attractive for manufacturers. The small market size, combined with the technical challenges of producing age-appropriate doses, leads to irregular manufacturing schedules. In addition, limited funding and a lack of prioritization for paediatric leprosy treatment in procurement plans further contribute to inconsistent availability.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "A. Manufacturing and production", "Limited paediatric formulations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0051", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 51, "n": 50, "text": "Some countries have reported that multidrug therapy blister packs have been rejected or delayed because labelling did not match local language requirements or lacked specific regulatory identifiers. Delays in Congo and the Sudan have occurred when local laboratories lacked the capacity to test drug batches or when shipment documents were incomplete or not compliant with import standards.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "A. Manufacturing and production", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0052", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 52, "n": 51, "text": "In 2023–2024, delays in drug shipments to Nigeria and Togo stemmed from manufacturer-side issues, including production and export complications.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "A. Manufacturing and production", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0053", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 53, "n": 52, "text": "Ironically, in some cases free donations face more scrutiny than commercial imports. Some countries have delayed clearance due to the lack of customs value declarations or suspicion of unregistered products. This could be because some customs authorities fail to classify multidrug therapy as an essential medicine for neglected tropical diseases and label it as a general pharmaceutical product, or due to problems with the application of import duties or taxes. Similarly, countries have faced difficulties due to holding shipments under non-priority clearance procedures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "A. Manufacturing and production", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0054", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 54, "n": 53, "text": "Indonesia reports that it has faced issues with small batches and non-blister drug availability, reflecting inconsistencies in production formats.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "A. Manufacturing and production", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0055", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 55, "n": 54, "text": "Countries have reported that product registration with national regulatory authorities such as the National Agency for Food and Drugs Administration and Control of Nigeria or the Central Drugs Standard Control Organization of India can take weeks to months. Batch testing by national laboratories before clearance can result in long delays, especially in countries with limited laboratory capacity. The legalization of documents such as invoices and certificates of origin may lead to short to moderate delays, depending on embassy or consulate processing times. Customs coding issues, such as misclassifying multidrug therapy medicines, can cause long delays in release and clearance. Ethical or political clearances, particularly for paediatric multidrug therapy or emergency use, can introduce additional delays, often undefined but potentially significant.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "A. Manufacturing and production", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0056", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 56, "n": 55, "text": "Forecasting and procurement planning for multidrug therapy is a centralized, donation-based process led by WHO and dependent on timely, accurate inputs from national health authorities. Countries estimate their needs 12–24 months in advance based on case projections or previous years’ data, treatment plans, stock levels and outreach activities, though weak surveillance often leads to overestimation or underestimation. Emergency requests can be made, but it could take months before new multidrug therapy packs arrive at the health centre.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "B. Forecasting and procurement planning"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0057", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 57, "n": 56, "text": "National leprosy control programmes submit annual forecasts and requisition forms to WHO, detailing quantities, formulations and stock status. These are reviewed with ministries of health and donors using standardized tools. Once validated, WHO consolidates global requests and coordinates with Novartis to initiate production, which can take 6–12 months, especially for paediatric multidrug therapy and rifampicin.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "B. Forecasting and procurement planning"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0058", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 58, "n": 1, "text": "Bottlenecks reported Weak surveillance systems", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "B. Forecasting and procurement planning"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0059", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 59, "n": 57, "text": "Outdated or inaccurate case detection data also suggest that countries’ planning systems may lack real-time stock monitoring tools or have weak coordination between national and subnational levels and inadequate digital systems for inventory control. Furthermore, passive surveillance, limited laboratory confirmation and underreporting, especially in remote or conflict-affected areas, result in unreliable data that form the basis for forecasting. This can distort national estimates and affect global planning, often leading to reactive rather than proactive supply management.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "B. Forecasting and procurement planning", "Weak surveillance systems"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0060", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 60, "n": 58, "text": "Poor forecasting leads to overstocking, understocking or misaligned shipment schedules. When countries overestimate their needs, drugs may expire in storage due to low turnover or limited shelf life. Conversely, underestimation creates shortages that disrupt treatment continuity and increase the risk of disability or relapse. Poorly aligned shipment schedules caused by unrealistic assumptions or late submissions can also delay deliveries, especially when customs clearance or in-country logistics are weak.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "B. Forecasting and procurement planning", "Poor forecasting"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0061", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 61, "n": 59, "text": "Staff turnover and a lack of training reduce understanding of WHO ordering mechanisms. Some health staff lack familiarity with WHO ordering tools and procedures, which can be complex and not always suited to local literacy levels or digital access. WHO has received feedback that its forecasting tools and guidelines require simplification or adaptation to varying levels of education and experience among programme staff, particularly in countries where leprosy programmes are underfunded or integrated into broader health systems with limited support.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "B. Forecasting and procurement planning", "Limited country capacity"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0062", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 62, "n": 60, "text": "The duration of four-to-six months required for international drug orders is often underestimated. This includes manufacturing time (especially for paediatric multidrug therapy and rifampicin), quality assurance, international shipping and customs clearance. When countries delay submitting their requests or fail to account for this lead time in planning, medicines may arrive late, causing treatment interruptions or stockouts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "B. Forecasting and procurement planning", "Long lead times"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0063", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 63, "n": 61, "text": "Countries engaged in active case-finding often underestimate drug needs or fail to update data, resulting in delayed or inadequate shipments. For instance, Nigeria cited poor forecasting and reporting gaps as a reason for a long delay. This has also been reported by Mozambique and Myanmar, where poor forecasting led to undersupply or oversupply.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "B. Forecasting and procurement planning", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0064", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 64, "n": 62, "text": "Despite having relatively strong health infrastructure and being high-burden countries, Brazil and India reported gaps in their stock data, such as missing information on current stock balances at the national or regional levels, stock expiration dates or incomplete distribution tracking from central to local health units.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "B. Forecasting and procurement planning", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0065", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 65, "n": 63, "text": "No countries other than Brazil reported the routine use of robust forecasting tools or real-time inventory management.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "B. Forecasting and procurement planning", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0066", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 66, "n": 64, "text": "Customs and import planning were flagged in Ecuador or Indonesia, where shipment in small batches complicated forecasts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "B. Forecasting and procurement planning", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0067", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 67, "n": 65, "text": "Once countries submit their validated forecasts, WHO consolidates global needs and coordinates with Novartis to plan production, prioritize supply and align delivery schedules. Acting as the intermediary, WHO also manages logistics, oversees shipments, addresses delays or emergency requests and ensures quality control. It regularly reports to Novartis on stock levels, country feedback and overall system performance.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "C. Donor coordination and international procurement"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0068", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 68, "n": 1, "text": "Bottlenecks reported Burdensome procedures", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "C. Donor coordination and international procurement"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0069", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 69, "n": 66, "text": "Ordering multidrug therapy involves multiple layers of documentation, coordination and approval. The need for multiple legal and regulatory documents often delays shipments, especially in countries with strict import rules or inefficient customs systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "C. Donor coordination and international procurement", "Burdensome procedures"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0070", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 70, "n": 67, "text": "Delays in official letters or request forms can postpone shipping. In some cases, missing signatures, slow internal clearances or a lack of digital communication systems cause avoidable hold-ups in initiating production, shipping or entering countries.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "C. Donor coordination and international procurement", "Slow communication"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0071", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 71, "n": 68, "text": "No back-up procurement options exist due to exclusive reliance on donations. There is limited or no emergency buffer stock at the global level, making it difficult to respond quickly to urgent or unexpected needs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "C. Donor coordination and international procurement", "Lack of contingency plans"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0072", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 72, "n": 69, "text": "Multidrug therapy donation is voluntary, with no binding international agreement ensuring continuous supply. Since the system is donation-based and centrally managed, countries have little control over timelines and must fully depend on coordination between WHO and Novartis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "C. Donor coordination and international procurement", "No legal obligation"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0073", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 73, "n": 70, "text": "Many countries lack dedicated staff to track shipment progress or respond to documentation issues, which can lead to delays in customs clearance and last-mile delivery.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "C. Donor coordination and international procurement", "Insufficient country follow-up capacity"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0074", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 74, "n": 71, "text": "During the COVID-19 pandemic, international disruptions halted the delivery of multidrug therapy. Many countries had no stockpiles or emergency plans to maintain treatment access.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "C. Donor coordination and international procurement", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0075", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 75, "n": 72, "text": "No emergency procurement buffers were in place outside Brazil, exposing countries to severe disruption risks. The Democratic Republic of the Congo, India and Indonesia, among other countries, reported having no contingency plans and limited stock monitoring systems, which are either manual, outdated or non-existent. This weakens the ability to detect shortages early or to respond quickly.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "C. Donor coordination and international procurement", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0076", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 76, "n": 73, "text": "All countries reported requiring external support to deal with supply chain management, showing frail domestic control and structural weaknesses in health governance, particularly in integrating leprosy treatment into broader national health systems. Delays due to documentation and customs clearance were highlighted in Ecuador, Indonesia and Mozambique.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "C. Donor coordination and international procurement", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0077", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 77, "n": 74, "text": "The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia and the Niger, among other countries, lack sufficient legal frameworks to streamline donor-supported procurement, which also weakens accountability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "C. Donor coordination and international procurement", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0078", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 78, "n": 75, "text": "Once production is complete, WHO prepares the shipment by gathering the required documentation, including the invoice, packing list, certificate of analysis, certificate of pharmaceutical product, customs codes and authorization letters, if required. Medicines are dispatched from Novartis warehouses to the receiving country, usually by air freight, coordinated by WHO logistics partners. National customs authorities and WHO logistics teams are the main actors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "D. International shipping and customs clearance"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0079", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 79, "n": 76, "text": "Upon arrival at the destination airport or port, the national health authority or designated agent clears the shipment through customs. Customs officials review the documents for compliance with local regulations, including product registration, labelling and documentation authenticity. Delays occur if documents are missing or incorrect or if special permissions such as political or ethical clearance are required. Once cleared, the shipment is transported to the national warehouse or central medical store, where it is logged, stored and prepared for national distribution.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "D. International shipping and customs clearance"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0080", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 80, "n": 1, "text": "Bottlenecks reported Customs delays", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "D. International shipping and customs clearance"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0081", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 81, "n": 77, "text": "Multidrug therapy shipments are often misclassified as general or non-essential goods, delaying clearance, as essential medicines usually qualify for fast-track processing. In some cases, customs officials are unaware of leprosy-specific drugs or the WHO donation programme, leading to low prioritization or extra inspections. Some countries report weak coordination or decentralized customs systems, as well as unofficial payments being required or additional charges applied for the warehouse when medication is kept at customs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "D. International shipping and customs clearance", "Customs delays"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0082", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 82, "n": 78, "text": "It is reported that some countries impose additional regulatory hurdles such as pre-shipment approval, product registration or local batch testing, even for WHO-approved medicines. These requirements are time-consuming and costly and may not be adapted to donation-based models. In some cases, delays have occurred simply because health authorities are unfamiliar with the necessary documentation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "D. International shipping and customs clearance", "Regulatory bottlenecks"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0083", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 83, "n": 79, "text": "Conflict zones or fragile States struggle with inaccessible or unsafe entry points. The Sudan and South Sudan, for example, and parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Ethiopia, as well as airports, seaports or roads, may be inaccessible or unsafe, making it difficult to deliver multidrug therapy packs. Even when shipments arrive in-country, ongoing violence, shifting control of territories or collapsed infrastructure can prevent safe and timely transport to treatment centres. Humanitarian exemptions or diplomatic negotiations may be required, but these take time and require coordination.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "D. International shipping and customs clearance", "Geopolitical instability"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0084", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 84, "n": 80, "text": "Extreme weather events, such as floods, droughts and cyclones, lead to population displacement, reduced access to healthcare, poor sanitation and undernutrition, all of which heighten vulnerability to diseases and disrupt supply chains. Climate-induced migration as in Australia, Bangladesh, Brazil, Mozambique or India may force movement into overcrowded areas with limited logistics, complicating consistent medicine distribution.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "D. International shipping and customs clearance", "Climate change factors"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0085", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 85, "n": 81, "text": "Political or economic disruptions inflate costs and slow delivery. Political unrest, fuel price spikes or trade restrictions often lead to increased freight costs and the rerouting of shipments. For example, a disrupted trade route or the closure of key ports as during the COVID-19 pandemic or the Red Sea crisis have forced WHO and logistics providers to use longer or more expensive routes, delaying deliveries by weeks or even months. Since multidrug therapy is donated, these cost increases can strain limited logistical budgets and may lead to postponed shipments. It has also been reported that, due to high shipping costs, sometimes exceeding the value of the medicines themselves, multidrug therapy shipments have remained stuck in customs storage.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "D. International shipping and customs clearance", "High freight costs and rerouting"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0086", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 86, "n": 82, "text": "In 2022, multidrug therapy shipped to Brazil was held in customs for over a month because it was not properly labelled as an essential medicine.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "D. International shipping and customs clearance", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0087", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 87, "n": 83, "text": "Customs delays are a major bottleneck in Indonesia, Mozambique and Nigeria, often caused by misclassification or limited clearance capacity. Brazil and India also report customs and international shipping issues as key disruptions. In Trinidad and Tobago, rifampicin stock remains in customs due to unusually complex import requirements and paperwork, possibly linked to laboratory report demands.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "D. International shipping and customs clearance", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0088", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 88, "n": 84, "text": "Somalia relies heavily on mobile outreach (skin camps) due to infrastructure collapse and restricted access, leading to significant challenges in delivering multidrug therapy to affected populations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "D. International shipping and customs clearance", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0089", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 89, "n": 85, "text": "Customs facilitation was specifically requested as an international support need in Ecuador and Indonesia.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "D. International shipping and customs clearance", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0090", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 90, "n": 86, "text": "Once multidrug therapy shipments clear customs, they are transferred to national central medical stores or designated warehouses managed by the ministry of health or the national leprosy control programme. This marks the beginning of the in-country supply chain, which includes storage, handling and last-mile delivery to treatment centres. The main actors involved in this stage are ministries of health, national disease control programmes and central medical stores.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "E. National warehousing and internal distribution"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0091", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 91, "n": 87, "text": "Multidrug therapy is received, logged and stored under controlled conditions to ensure quality and track expiry dates. Proper storage infrastructure is essential, especially in hot or humid climates, where poor facilities can lead to spoilage or degradation. Inventory management systems may be manual, paper-based or semi-digital, depending on the country’s resources.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "E. National warehousing and internal distribution"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0092", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 92, "n": 88, "text": "Effective systems are needed to monitor current stock levels, expiry dates and regional distribution needs. In many countries, tracking is inconsistent, leading to stock imbalances, with overstocking in some areas and shortages in others.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "E. National warehousing and internal distribution"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0093", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 93, "n": 89, "text": "From the central warehouse, multidrug therapy is distributed to regional and local health centres through public or donor-supported supply chains, either on a regular schedule or based on demand. Health facilities need proper storage and trained staff, but many lack systems for stock tracking, patient monitoring and managing unused or expired medicines.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "E. National warehousing and internal distribution"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0094", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 94, "n": 1, "text": "Bottlenecks reported Poor infrastructure", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "E. National warehousing and internal distribution"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0095", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 95, "n": 90, "text": "Many endemic countries reported problems regarding road access, transport mechanisms or adequate storage, including limited or non-functional storage facilities that lack proper shelving, ventilation or temperature control. Rural or remote clinics may be difficult to reach due to poor road conditions, a lack of bridges, seasonal flooding or mountainous terrain. In addition, many health systems lack reliable transport mechanisms, such as dedicated vehicles or fuel budgets, for timely medicine delivery from central to peripheral levels.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "E. National warehousing and internal distribution", "Poor infrastructure"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0096", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 96, "n": 91, "text": "Most national leprosy programmes operate with very low administrative budgets and without real-time inventory tracking, relying instead on manual or paper-based records that are prone to error or delay. This hampers the visibility of stock levels across regions, making it difficult to detect shortages or redistribute medicines effectively. In some cases, delayed reporting and slow internal communication lead to inefficient resupply or stockouts at the point of care.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "E. National warehousing and internal distribution", "Weak logistics systems"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0097", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 97, "n": 92, "text": "Multidrug therapy shipments often remain in national warehouses without being delivered to rural clinics due to weak distribution systems or unclear allocation procedures. Without strong last-mile logistics, medicines may fail to reach rural or peripheral clinics, especially those in high-burden areas. As a result, patients in remote communities may be unable to access treatment, even when national stocks are sufficient. This undermines disease control efforts and increases the risk of disability or continued transmission.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "E. National warehousing and internal distribution", "Centralized stock"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0098", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 98, "n": 93, "text": "In northern India, multidrug therapy shipments were available in district warehouses, but remote clinics reported stockouts due to a lack of transport and poor coordination. Last-mile delivery is a recurrent gap despite decentralized planning. Losses and expiry due to poor warehousing were reported in Myanmar and Nigeria.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "E. National warehousing and internal distribution", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0099", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 99, "n": 94, "text": "The Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mozambique and Nigeria reported that drugs remained in central or provincial stores due to a lack of partners in marginal or rural areas as well as weak infrastructure at subnational levels.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "E. National warehousing and internal distribution", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0100", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 100, "n": 95, "text": "El Salvador and Nepal faced geographic and security-related barriers such as remote terrain and post-disaster road access, which make the distribution of medicines difficult. Some countries report disparities in internal distribution, disproportionately affecting rural, Indigenous and poor communities.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "E. National warehousing and internal distribution", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0101", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 101, "n": 96, "text": "No real-time digital stock tracking systems are reported except in Brazil; most countries relied on manual or partial methods.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "E. National warehousing and internal distribution", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0102", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 102, "n": 97, "text": "Last-mile delivery refers to the final step in the supply chain, transporting multidrug therapy medicines from regional or local warehouses to health facilities, outreach workers and ultimately to persons affected by leprosy. This stage is critical because, even if medicines are available at the national or regional levels, failures directly prevent patients from receiving timely treatment. The main actors in this stage are local clinics, community health workers, grass-roots organizations, international leprosy organizations and persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "F. Last-mile delivery and patient access"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0103", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 103, "n": 98, "text": "Local clinics must be equipped to store and dispense multidrug therapy packs safely, which requires basic infrastructure (dry, secure, ventilated space), trained staff and supply management tools. Many affected persons live in remote, rural or hard-to-reach communities; in some regions community health workers or mobile outreach teams are therefore used to bring multidrug therapy directly to patients. In most cases, these services depend on external funding.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "F. Last-mile delivery and patient access"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0104", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 104, "n": 99, "text": "Regular follow-up is essential to ensure treatment adherence and completion, especially for multibacillary leprosy, which requires a longer treatment course.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "F. Last-mile delivery and patient access"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0105", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 105, "n": 1, "text": "Bottlenecks reported Lack of transport and staff", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "F. Last-mile delivery and patient access"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0106", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 106, "n": 100, "text": "Clinics in remote areas often lack vehicles, fuel or trained personnel. Poor road infrastructure and a lack of dedicated transport vehicles often delay or block the delivery of multidrug therapy medicines to local clinics, and personnel are not always reliable or consistent. In many cases, staff are not adequately trained in handling leprosy medications, documenting patient progress or managing stock levels. This can lead to mismanagement, expired drugs or interrupted treatment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "F. Last-mile delivery and patient access", "Lack of transport and staff"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0107", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 107, "n": 101, "text": "Health workers may flee or be unable to reach rural areas, leading to invisible epidemics. Facilities may be destroyed or underresourced, which result in supply chains often being rerouted or blocked entirely.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "F. Last-mile delivery and patient access", "War and conflict disruptions"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0108", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 108, "n": 102, "text": "Natural disasters, seasonal weather disruptions and infrastructure collapse due to floods, landslides and droughts can disrupt roads and warehouses, delaying drug shipments and access to care.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "F. Last-mile delivery and patient access", "Climate change and environmental disruption"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0109", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 109, "n": 103, "text": "Climate, violence or economic-induced migration may sever access to regular health services, especially for nomadic, fishing or rural farming communities. The lack of patient tracking systems makes it difficult to continue treatment for people who are displaced.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "F. Last-mile delivery and patient access", "Displacement and loss of continuity of care"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0110", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 110, "n": 104, "text": "Leprosy is deprioritized in some areas, limiting follow-up care and adherence. Persons affected by leprosy may avoid seeking treatment due to stigma, fear or misinformation, particularly in areas where community awareness is low.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "F. Last-mile delivery and patient access", "Neglect and discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0111", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 111, "n": 105, "text": "Multidrug therapy is not consistently available at the primary healthcare level. However, many health systems lack the human resources or information systems needed to track patient outcomes, provide reminders or manage side effects, resulting in treatment dropouts and an increased risk of resistance or relapse.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "F. Last-mile delivery and patient access", "No decentralized care model"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0112", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 112, "n": 106, "text": "Affected communities are often uninformed about delays or alternatives. Language barriers, cultural beliefs and past negative experiences with healthcare services can further discourage patients from accessing available treatment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "F. Last-mile delivery and patient access", "Poor communication"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0113", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 113, "n": 107, "text": "Women, children, older persons and persons with disabilities often face additional access barriers, such as the absence of paediatric multidrug therapy, limited mobility or gender-based discrimination, that further hinder treatment access. A similar situation is faced by persons living in remote areas without financial support for transportation or access to health services.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "F. Last-mile delivery and patient access", "Barriers for groups in vulnerable situations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0114", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 114, "n": 108, "text": "Last-mile challenges were reported as being widespread, especially in El Salvador, India, Nepal and the Niger, where distance, security and transport issues prevent consistent supply to clinics.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "F. Last-mile delivery and patient access", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0115", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 115, "n": 109, "text": "In several countries in Africa and South-east Asia, grass-roots groups only learned of stockouts when treatment stopped months after delays had begun. Seasonal flooding in South Asia or tropical cyclones in East Africa have left entire regions cut off, which also affects communication and access to care.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "F. Last-mile delivery and patient access", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0116", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 116, "n": 110, "text": "Most of the countries report that affected persons do not participate in the process of local distribution. The Governments assume that it is due to a high level of stigma and a lack of community health worker integration.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "F. Last-mile delivery and patient access", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0117", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 117, "n": 111, "text": "Countries including the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the Niger report a lack of partners in remote regions, compounding the issue. In addition, Ethiopia and the Niger admitted limited attention to delivery gaps at the patient level.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Overview of the leprosy drug supply chain and the bottlenecks at every stage", "F. Last-mile delivery and patient access", "2. From the field"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0118", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 118, "n": 112, "text": "Leprosy affects the peripheral nerves, leading to a loss of sensation in the hands, feet and face. Without timely treatment, repeated unnoticed injuries cause ulcers, infections and deformities such as foot drop, blindness and hand and facial paralysis. Chronic wounds may become hard to heal, and once disability sets in it is often irreversible, even if treatment begins later.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "A. Health consequences and disability"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0119", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 119, "n": 113, "text": "Leprosy reactions affect 30 to 50 per cent of patients and can cause lasting nerve damage if untreated. Type 1 reactions involve nerve inflammation; type 2 reactions (erythema nodosum leprosum), common in multibacillary cases, cause systemic symptoms and often recur. Treatment requires steroids, thalidomide (restricted in many countries) and advanced immunosuppressants – often unavailable in endemic areas. These drugs are poorly prioritized, excluded from essential medicine lists and face regulatory, funding, storage and distribution challenges. Limited data and a lack of trained health workers further hinder effective diagnosis and treatment.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "A. Health consequences and disability"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0120", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 120, "n": 114, "text": "Women face unique challenges in accessing leprosy medication. Limited autonomy and access to healthcare further hinder adherence, increasing the risk of disability and exclusion. Concerns are raised about pregnancy, breastfeeding and side effects such as skin discolouration, which lead to delayed or interrupted treatment.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "A. Health consequences and disability"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0121", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 121, "n": 115, "text": "In children, early nerve damage can interfere with growth and development, leading to lifelong impairment. Delays heighten the risk of leprosy reactions (acute immune responses) that can cause rapid deterioration if not managed promptly.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "A. Health consequences and disability"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0122", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 122, "n": 116, "text": "Older persons may already have comorbidities such as diabetes, arthritis or high blood pressure, making them more vulnerable to the compounded effects of untreated leprosy, such as poor wound healing, limited mobility or increased dependency. They depend more on public services, and the experience of mobility and sensory limitations could make it harder to travel long distances in search of available drugs.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "A. Health consequences and disability"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0123", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 123, "n": 117, "text": "Delays prolong visible symptoms, deepening shame and self-isolation, particularly in women. Anxiety, depression and suicidal ideation are common among persons facing uncertainty about treatment or living with worsening disability. For older persons, this may mean abandonment or institutionalization. Patients in Nigeria reported signs of depression and even suicidal thoughts due to uncertainty about the arrival of medicines.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "B. Mental health and emotional impact"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0124", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 124, "n": 118, "text": "Women have less access to information, transport and medical decision-making power, which amplifies the harm of supply disruptions. They may be divorced or abandoned by their spouses if symptoms become visible, especially in communities where leprosy is still viewed as a curse or punishment. Disability can also lead to social exclusion, rejection as potential brides and loss of educational and employment opportunities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "B. Mental health and emotional impact"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0125", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 125, "n": 119, "text": "Men also report facing cultural burdens, particularly in conservative societies where they are expected to be providers. Visible symptoms and impairments can lead to job loss, rejection as potential grooms and even abandonment by their wives. These issues often trigger episodes of anxiety and distress, which are rarely discussed openly due to gender-related taboos.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "B. Mental health and emotional impact"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0126", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 126, "n": 120, "text": "Families also suffer. Children and siblings of persons affected by leprosy report being discriminated against in social and extended family life. Furthermore, in most of the endemic countries, family members, especially women and children, carry out the role of caregivers. Children may internalize fear or shame if a parent or sibling shows visible symptoms.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "B. Mental health and emotional impact"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0127", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 127, "n": 121, "text": "Loss of income from delayed treatment can push entire families into poverty. Persons with disabilities due to untreated leprosy are often excluded from labour markets.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "C. Economic and livelihood effects"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0128", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 128, "n": 122, "text": "Women and older caregivers may be forced to reduce economic activity to support affected family members, worsening intergenerational poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "C. Economic and livelihood effects"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0129", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 129, "n": 123, "text": "Affected families often face loss of income, especially if the main breadwinner is ill, high out-of-pocket expenses for transport, wound care, assistive devices or private treatment, and interruption of children’s education if they are needed at home to help.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "C. Economic and livelihood effects"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0130", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 130, "n": 124, "text": "In areas such as Ethiopia and the Sudan, or parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, insecurity limits transportation, makes health services inaccessible and obstructs the delivery of multidrug therapy. Individuals also experience deep distress, as they report facing an uncertain future with no clear solutions in sight.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "D. Impact in conflict zones and humanitarian crises"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0131", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 131, "n": 125, "text": "People in camps or displacement settings often lack access to diagnosis, and treatment starts late or never.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "D. Impact in conflict zones and humanitarian crises"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0132", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 132, "n": 126, "text": "Delays in treatment allow infectious individuals to continue spreading the bacterium, especially in crowded or poor settings. This undermines leprosy control efforts and puts vulnerable groups such as children at greater risk.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "E. Public, social and health systems-level consequences"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0133", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 133, "n": 127, "text": "Without timely treatment, leprosy progresses to disability, requiring surgery, assistive devices and long-term care. This increases health system costs and burdens already limited services, especially in low-resource settings. More people require surgery, assistive devices or long-term care, which burdens the system.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "E. Public, social and health systems-level consequences"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0134", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 134, "n": 128, "text": "When essential medicines are unavailable, communities lose confidence in public health systems. This reduces care-seeking, fuels misinformation and weakens participation in leprosy programmes and other health services.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "E. Public, social and health systems-level consequences"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0135", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 135, "n": 129, "text": "Delays lead to more advanced cases needing surgery, rehabilitation and long-term care, which are far costlier than early treatment with multidrug therapy. States may therefore face greater demand for disability benefits, welfare support and rehabilitation services.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "E. Public, social and health systems-level consequences"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0136", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 136, "n": 130, "text": "Disability from untreated leprosy reduces the ability to work, while family members, often women or children, miss work or school to provide care.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "E. Public, social and health systems-level consequences"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0137", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 137, "n": 131, "text": "Medicine shortages erode trust in health systems, requiring costly public campaigns to restore confidence and re-engage affected communities.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "E. Public, social and health systems-level consequences"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0138", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 138, "n": 132, "text": "Ongoing transmission and disability undermine efforts towards poverty reduction, universal healthcare and Sustainable Development Goal targets.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Impact on the daily life of persons affected by leprosy", "E. Public, social and health systems-level consequences"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0139", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 139, "n": 133, "text": "Brazil reports the implementation of digital tracking systems and peer networks within a decentralized model, which has improved logistics. In addition, the Movement for the Reintegration of Persons Affected by Hansen’s Disease has established an observatory managed by persons affected by leprosy aimed at monitoring patients’ access to leprosy medicines across the country.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Good practices"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0140", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 140, "n": 134, "text": "India and Indonesia have implemented phone counselling and established agreements with non-governmental organizations to help the authorities to improve logistics. India has also implemented the use of mobile clinics to reach marginal sectors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Good practices"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0141", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 141, "n": 135, "text": "Ecuador reports implementing telementoring for health workers and doctors who live in hard-to-reach areas.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Good practices"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0142", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 142, "n": 136, "text": "The Democratic Republic of the Congo reports implementing an accompagnée model, albeit with minimal infrastructure, partnering with local organizations, peer networks and health workers to integrate medical treatment with psychosocial support and rehabilitation across endemic districts. Indonesia, meanwhile, has been organizing peer-reviewed stock checks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Good practices"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0143", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 143, "n": 137, "text": "Access to leprosy medicines is a relevant component of the broader and complex process of care. It should therefore be fully integrated into discussions on care and support systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0144", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 144, "n": 138, "text": "Access to leprosy treatment is a human rights issue. Delays in drug supply violate the right to health and dignity. Access to medicines must be seen as a legal and ethical obligation of States and international actors.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0145", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 145, "n": 139, "text": "The drug supply chain is fragile and donor-dependent, creating structural vulnerability, especially in crisis situations. 18 Responses submitted by 20 countries to a call for inputs made by the Special Rapporteur.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0146", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 146, "n": 140, "text": "Bottlenecks exist at every stage, from production and import regulations to national warehousing and last-mile delivery, and delays occur due to weak infrastructure, limited forecasting, poor coordination and rigid bureaucracy.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0147", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 147, "n": 141, "text": "Delays have life-altering consequences. Individuals suffer irreversible disability, discrimination and mental health impacts. Families experience economic hardship, social exclusion and disrupted education or caregiving burdens.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0148", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 148, "n": 142, "text": "Conflict, climate change and marginalization worsen access. Persons in conflict-affected, climate-vulnerable or remote areas face the greatest barriers, with limited delivery capacity, health worker shortages and inadequate emergency planning.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0149", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 149, "n": 143, "text": "Women, children and older persons are disproportionately affected. Gender, age and disability intersect with discrimination, limiting access to treatment, information and support. The absence of paediatric multidrug therapy is a major gap.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0150", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 150, "n": 144, "text": "States lack control and preparedness. Most endemic countries depend on coordination by WHO, lack emergency stocks and have a limited ability to forecast, procure or track medicines independently.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0151", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 151, "n": 145, "text": "Public trust is eroding. Repeated shortages and poor communication undermine trust in public health systems, leading to reduced care-seeking and weakened disease control efforts.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0152", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 152, "n": 146, "text": "Good practices exist but remain fragmented. Initiatives in Brazil, India, Indonesia and Nigeria show promise but require greater support, scale-up and integration.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0153", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 153, "n": 147, "text": "The Special Rapporteur’s mandate remains essential as it is the only dedicated United Nations mechanism addressing the rights of persons affected by leprosy. Its renewal is critical to continue promoting accountability, visibility and reform.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-80-139-0154", "docId": "a-80-139", "idx": 154, "n": 148, "text": "Based on these conclusions, the Special Rapporteur makes the following recommendations to Member States, local authorities, international organizations and grass-roots organizations:\n(a) Ensure predictable and timely supply of leprosy medicines by:\n(i) Establishing long-term procurement agreements with manufacturers to avoid supply disruptions;\n(ii) Maintaining emergency buffer stocks at the national and regional levels to absorb temporary shocks;\n(iii) Supporting the regional production or licensing of essential medicines, including paediatric multidrug therapy;\n(b) Strengthen forecasting and procurement systems by:\n(i) Improving data collection and analysis to ensure accurate forecasting based on real-time consumption;\n(ii) Integrating leprosy medicine forecasting into national essential medicines systems to avoid parallel, siloed processes;\n(iii) Involving persons affected by leprosy and front-line workers in forecasting and reporting to reflect actual local needs;\n(iv) Ensuring that WHO provides regular training to national authorities on forecasting tools, ordering procedures and supply chain coordination, using creative and people-centred tools;\n(v) Promoting innovative tools such as www.ntdeliver.com, as well as making information and education materials on the existence and usage of these tools available in the field of leprosy;\n(vi) Learning from and collaborating with other disease programmes (e.g. other neglected tropical diseases, tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS);\n(c) Address regulatory and customs delays by:\n(i) Simplifying and fast-tracking registration, labelling, batch testing and customs procedures for essential leprosy medicines;\n(ii) Building regulatory capacity in countries with weak national regulatory agencies and providing technical support through South-South cooperation;\n(iii) Encouraging regional harmonization of import standards for multidrug therapy and related supplies;\n(d) Improve last-mile delivery and storage by:\n(i) Investing in infrastructure, transport and storage systems, particularly in underserved and remote areas;\n(ii) Training health workers in drug handling, record-keeping and patient tracking to reduce wastage and stockouts;\n(iii) Using digital tools to monitor stock levels in real time and enable rapid redistribution;\n(e) Integrate human rights perspectives by:\n(i) Guaranteeing equitable access to treatment for women, children, older persons and displaced populations;\n(ii) Including mental health support in leprosy services, especially in communities experiencing delays or conflict;\n(iii) Promoting training on the implementation of the principles and guidelines for the elimination of discrimination against persons affected by leprosy and their family members, as well as other key human rights instruments;\n(f) Protect access in conflict and climate-affected settings by:\n(i) Including multidrug therapy in emergency health kits and pre-positioning supplies in high-risk or disaster-prone zones;\n(ii) Supporting mobile clinics, community health workers and cross-border partnerships in fragile contexts;\n(iii) Integrating leprosy services into disaster risk reduction and climate adaptation strategies;\n(g) Strengthen participation and accountability by:\n(i) Involving persons affected by leprosy and their representative organizations in planning, monitoring and evaluating supply chains;\n(ii) Creating community-level complaint and feedback mechanisms to report shortages and raise concerns without fear of reprisal;\n(iii) Promoting transparency and public reporting of procurement processes, budgets and delivery timelines;\n(h) Provide redress and compensation by:\n(i) Ensuring that States develop mechanisms to provide compensation, support or remedial measures for persons affected when treatment is delayed or interrupted due to systemic failures;\n(ii) Ensuring that compensation is guided by principles of reparative justice, particularly for those who develop avoidable disabilities or suffer long-term impacts from drug delays;\n(i) Reduce donor dependency and promote sustainable national ownership by:\n(i) Encouraging domestic resource allocation for leprosy programmes to reduce reliance on external donors;\n(ii) Integrating leprosy medicines into national essential drug lists and health insurance schemes where available;\n(iii) Developing transition plans for countries phasing out donor aid, ensuring continuity of supply through public procurement;\n(iv) Advocating for shared international responsibility, where donor support complements, not replaces, State obligations;\n(j) Advocate for sustained global commitment by:\n(i) Calling on donors, WHO and international partners to maintain strong funding and technical support for multidrug therapy access and logistics;\n(ii) Including leprosy explicitly in universal health coverage, neglected tropical disease strategies and Sustainable Development Goal 3 frameworks;\n(iii) Advocating for the renewal and strengthening of the Special Rapporteur’s mandate as the only dedicated mechanism to uphold the rights of persons affected by leprosy.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "SR Leprosy", "committees": ["SR Leprosy"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusions and recommendations"]}] \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/docs/sp/shards/sp_WG_Discrimination_against_Women_and_Girls.json b/docs/sp/shards/sp_WG_Discrimination_against_Women_and_Girls.json index da9eda3c..77375842 100644 --- a/docs/sp/shards/sp_WG_Discrimination_against_Women_and_Girls.json +++ b/docs/sp/shards/sp_WG_Discrimination_against_Women_and_Girls.json @@ -1 +1 @@ -[{"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice was established by the Human Rights Council in its resolution 15/23, in which the Council acknowledged that women everywhere are still subject to significant disadvantage as the result of discriminatory laws and practices, and that de jure and de facto equality has not been achieved in any country in the world. Accordingly, the Council mandated the Working Group:\n(a) To develop a dialogue with States, the relevant United Nations entities, national human rights institutions, experts on different legal systems, and civil society organizations to identify, promote and exchange views on best practices related to the elimination of laws that discriminate against women or are discriminatory to women in terms of implementation or impact and, in that regard, to prepare a compendium of best practices;\n(b) To undertake a study, in cooperation with and reflecting the views of States and relevant United Nations entities, national human rights institutions and civil society organizations, on the ways and means in which the Working Group can cooperate with States to fulfil their commitments to eliminate discrimination against women in law and in practice;\n(c) To make recommendations on the improvement of legislation and the implementation of the law, to contribute to the realization of the Millennium Development Goals, in particular goal 3 on the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "In carrying out its mandate, the Working Group is requested to work in close coordination with other special procedures and subsidiary organs of the Human Rights Council, relevant United Nations entities, including the Commission on the Status of Women and the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women) and, in particular, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and other treaty bodies, with a view to avoiding unnecessary duplication; to take into account the views of other stakeholders, including relevant regional human rights mechanisms, national human rights institutions and civil society organizations; and to submit an annual report to the Council, starting at its twentieth session, on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice, and on good practices in eliminating such discrimination, drawing upon the findings of the United Nations human rights machinery and the broader United Nations system.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "Five independent experts from different geographical regions were appointed as members of the Working Group for a period of three years by the Human Right Council in March 2011. They assumed their functions on 1 May 2011 and have held three sessions in Geneva: from 6 to 10 June 2011, 24 to 28 October 2011, and 27 February to 2 March 2012. They are Emna Aouij, Mercedes Barquet, Kamala Chandrakirana, Frances Raday and Eleonora Zielińska. During its first session, the Working Group elected Ms. Chandrakirana as Chairperson-Rapporteur. The members wish to gratefully acknowledge the trust that has been placed in them by the Human Rights Council.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "In this first report to the Council, the Working Group provides preliminary views on how the members intend to carry out their mandate. The report contains seven sections, the first of which is the present introduction. Section II contains a brief historical overview relating to the creation of the mandate of the Working Group. Section III spells out a conceptual framework that the Working Group has elaborated to guide its analyses of issues relating to equality and non-discrimination on the grounds of sex and to inform its dialogue with States and other stakeholders in implementing its mandate. Section IV contains an overview of the thematic priorities identified by the Working Group for the biennium 2012-2013. Section V introduces the methods of work agreed upon by the Working Group, including how the Working Group has engaged and further intends to engage with all stakeholders in the discharge of its mandate. Section VI provides an overview of activities carried out by the Working Group since its inception. Section VII concludes the report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "In September 1995, at the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, participating Governments adopted the Beijing Declaration, by which they reaffirmed their fundamental commitment to “the equal rights and inherent human dignity of women and men” (para. 8) and stated unequivocally that “women’s rights are human rights” (para. 14). They also adopted the Beijing Platform for Action, in which they pledged to ensure equality and non-discrimination under the law and in practice (strategic objective I.1), and, more specifically, to “revoke any remaining laws that discriminate on the basis of sex and remove gender bias in the administration of justice” (para. 232 (d)). In 2000, during the five-year review and appraisal of the implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action by the General Assembly at its twenty-third special session, Governments committed to reviewing legislation with a view to striving to remove discriminatory provisions against women, preferably by 2005.[[fn:1]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "General Assembly resolution S-23/3, para. 68 (b)."}], "section": ["II. Historical overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "In 2005, during the 10-year review and appraisal of the implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action and the outcome of the twenty-third special session of the General Assembly by the Commission on the Status of Women, concern was expressed that legislative and regulatory gaps, as well as lack of implementation and enforcement of legislation and regulations, perpetuated de jure and de facto inequality and discrimination and that, in a few cases, new laws discriminating against women had been introduced. The Commission therefore decided, in its resolution 49/3, to consider the advisability of the appointment of a special rapporteur on laws that discriminate against women, bearing in mind the existing mechanisms with a view to avoiding duplication. It requested the Secretary-General to report to the Commission on the implications of the creation of such a mandate and to include in his report the views of Member States and relevant United Nations bodies, including the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). The Secretary-General subsequently produced two reports, in 2006 (E/CN.6/2006/8) and 2007 (E/CN.6/2007/8).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Historical overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "In its resolution 12/17 of 2 October 2009, the Human Rights Council requested the High Commissioner for Human Rights to prepare a thematic study on discrimination against women in law and in practice and on how the issue was being addressed throughout the United Nations human rights system. The request represented a continuation of the commitment made during the World Conference on Human Rights, held in Vienna in 1993, to integrate women’s human rights into the overall human rights system. The report (A/HRC/15/40) was presented to the Council at its fifteenth session in September 2010 and discussed during an interactive plenary panel debate. In the report, the High Commissioner concluded that, notwithstanding the work undertaken by United Nations human rights mechanisms, further measures were required to eliminate de jure and de facto inequalities (para. 63). One of the proposed measures was the establishment of a new special procedure of the Human Rights Council that would focus on laws and practices that discriminate against women (para. 57).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Historical overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The Human Rights Council adopted, without a vote, resolution 15/23, which established the mandate of the Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice during its fifteenth session, on 1 October 2010. It is the second special procedure of the Human Rights Council dedicated to addressing women’s human rights, complementing the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, which was established in 1994 immediately following the World Conference on Human Rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Historical overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Effective elimination of discrimination against women requires the consistent political will of States, with broad-based consensus of whole societies, to formulate and implement laws that promote equality between men and women, prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex, and prevent and provide redress for violence against women, along with policies and measures that create a conducive environment for women’s empowerment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "In more than two decades of democratization projects worldwide, beginning with the breakdown of Latin American authoritarian regimes and the fall of the Berlin Wall up to the Arab Spring in the Middle East and North Africa today, a wide range of efforts by States, citizens and organizations to address discrimination against women have been made as integral parts of bold and historic processes of the renewal of whole nations and regions. In other contexts, breakthroughs in law and practice occur as part of the responsiveness and accountability of States to an active citizenry committed to equality, non-discrimination and human rights for all women and men. The success or failure of efforts to effectively eliminate discrimination against women depends on how securely they are located within genuine processes of social and political transformation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The political will to revise or repeal discriminatory laws can arise voluntarily as part of an overall renegotiation of the social contract, and as an act of astute policymaking compelled by social economic developments that have brought about undeniable and irreversible changes in women’s roles in practice. The growing participation of women in political, economic, social and cultural life has contributed to the introduction of gender-responsive changes in laws and policies on protection in the workplace, security in the home and community, and entitlements in property ownership and electoral processes.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Progress is not linear, however, and new political openings can bring about backlash, reverse advances and produce new forms of discriminatory laws and practices. Complex national reforms can result in contradictory laws and policies, between national/federal and subnational/local levels, across different regions of the country, and among sectors of social and economic life. Good practices in eliminating discrimination against women in law and in practice include the ability to overcome backlash or backsliding and establish grounds for the sustainability of achievements in substantive equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "For legal guarantees of gender equality to benefit all women, implementation frameworks and strategies must be responsive to the intersections of sex-based discrimination with other grounds of discrimination, such as race, ethnicity, religion or belief, language, political affiliation, health, status, age, class, caste, national or social origin, property, birth, and sexual orientation and gender identity. Legal guarantees and implementation frameworks and strategies must also integrate special measures to reach women who face multiple forms of discrimination, such as rural and indigenous women, women with disabilities, women living in poverty and women facing other forms of marginalization. This requires a comprehensive and coherent human rights-based approach that ensures that women are at the centre of efforts to hold principally States accountable for implementing international standards guaranteeing civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights. National, regional and international human rights mechanisms play critical roles in ensuring the full enjoyment by women of their human rights.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "At the same time, no effective implementation of equality guarantees for women can be sustained without the genuine empowerment of women in all fields. This can only be achieved on the solid foundation of women’s equal access to fundamental freedoms and rights, including the rights to security of person, to privacy, to freedom of expression, to freedom of association, and to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, in the context of the broader array of civil and political rights. Women’s enjoyment of those freedoms and rights, in turn, can be attained only if they are able to benefit from their economic, social and cultural rights, including equal rights to property, occupation and employment, social protection and participation in cultural life, as well as from effective protection against violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "To achieve substantive equality in all fields, women initiate, lead and sustain long-term negotiations in formal political and legal institutions as well as in social and cultural organizations and communities. Women take action to end all forms of discrimination and human rights violations, independently as individuals and/or collectively as part of groups, organizations, coalitions and movements. Unprecedented levels of global migration, persistent poverty and inequalities, long-standing unresolved disputes and wars have compelled women to address the human rights of non-citizens and stateless persons, particularly the gendered implications of violations of their human rights. By claiming their place as full and equal citizens of nations and of the global community, women have become crucial agents of change in eliminating discrimination against women in law and in practice. Good practices in sustaining achievements in equality and non-discrimination involve the active agency of women themselves.", "labels": ["Non-citizens and stateless", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "The Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice will incorporate this conceptual framework in developing its dialogue with States and other stakeholders on eliminating discriminatory laws, on implementing and improving existing legislation on equality and human rights, and on ways and means to achieve greater progress on gender equality and women’s empowerment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "The Working Group has decided to address the elimination of discrimination against women in law and in practice in all fields and from the perspective of States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil women’s human rights. In view of the work being carried out by international and regional human rights bodies and other special procedure mandate holders, the Working Group agreed that it would build on existing standards and initiatives, as well as on the available knowledge and tools produced to date by States, United Nations bodies, and civil society on the subject. Pursuant to paragraph 18 (d) of Human Rights Council resolution 15/23, the Working Group aims to draw on and reinforce the work of the Commission on the Status of Women, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and other United Nations bodies on the issue of eliminating all forms of discrimination against women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The Working Group will use the term of “good” or “promising” practices rather than “best” practices to take into account the complex contextual framework of practices located in the wide spectrum of bad to good practices. This builds on existing work on this issue by other special procedure mandate holders, which includes the preference towards using the terminology of “good practices”. The Working Group seeks to look at good practices that have been transformative in relation to eliminating discrimination against women in law and in practice in different contexts and in the light of the different realities that women face.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "The Working Group intends to identify practices that have strengthened States’ efforts to achieve equality and to respect, protect and fulfil women’s human rights. The Working Group will examine:\n(a) The extent to which States have met the obligation to respect women’s rights to equality and to the exercise and fulfilment by women of human rights and fundamental freedoms. This will involve surveying existing and newly introduced discriminatory laws and practices. The Working Group will pay special attention to the direct or indirect inclusion of discriminatory provisions in legislation or case law that apply discriminatory interpretations of statutory, customary, religious or deontological regulations. The Working Group will compile good practices in the elimination of laws and regulations that are both directly and indirectly discriminatory to women. The examination of good practices for this purpose would include constitutional amendments, judicial review, legislative reform, litigation and case law, policy and institutional reform, independent human rights monitoring, political action, and religious or cultural hermeneutic projects;\n(b) The extent to which States have met the obligation to protect women from any act by private persons or entities which would impair women’s rights to equality and to the exercise and fulfilment of human rights and fundamental freedoms. This will involve identifying the success or failure of States with respect to eliminating all social, cultural, economic and political practices that constitute discrimination against women, including by establishing accessible and effective gender-responsive justice systems and human rights complaint mechanisms that ensure women’s equal benefit and protection of the law. Where courts based on customary or religious law are recognized, special attention will be given to the steps taken by States to ensure compliance with international human rights standards, including on fair trial. This will also involve identifying steps taken by States to enact required equality guarantees in their constitutions and required equality provisions in legislation or other appropriate measures, including but not limited to equal-employment-opportunity laws, prohibitions on trafficking, family laws, and sexual and domestic violence legislation. An examination of good practices for this purpose would highlight the processes which led to the effective protection of women’s human rights and basic freedoms on an equal basis with men;\n(c) The extent to which States have met the obligation to fulfil women’s rights to equality and to the exercise and fulfilment by women of human rights and fundamental freedoms. This will involve the identification of the variety of measures and steps taken by States to implement equality laws and to prevent the application of gender-neutral laws in a way that has a discriminatory impact on women. Special attention will be given to programmatic and institutional frameworks aimed at fulfilling the specific needs of women, including through specialized national mechanisms and machineries on women’s human rights, and through the thorough and consistent compilation of sex-disaggregated data. The examination of good practices for this purpose would include temporary special measures, measures for the accommodation of maternity, and measures to prevent, prosecute, punish, and provide redress in relation to violations of women’s human rights, including through transitional justice processes.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "The Working Group will review these core obligations as binding on States parties to relevant international human rights treaties, covering all branches of the State (executive, legislative and judicial) and other public or governmental authorities, at all levels (national, regional and local).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "In view of the broad thematic scope of its mandate, covering discrimination against women in law and in practice, the Working Group has identified four thematic areas of focus, namely, political and public life; economic and social life; family and cultural life; and health and safety. The Working Group regards violence against women and the intersection of various grounds of discrimination as cross-cutting in all of its work. It is paying particular attention to specific groups of women, including but not limited to women living in poverty, migrant women, women with disabilities, women belonging to minorities, rural and indigenous women, older women, girls, including adolescents, women in conflict and post-conflict situations, refugee women, internally displaced women and stateless women.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons", "Migrants", "Non-citizens and stateless", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "During the biennium 2012-2013, the Working Group decided to focus on two of the four thematic areas identified, namely, discrimination in political and public life, with a focus on political transition, and economic and social life, with a focus on economic crisis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "In 2012 and 2013, the Working Group will address the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice in the context of political and public life, with a focus on times of political transition. The Working Group’s research on this topic will inform its annual report to the Human Rights Council in 2013 and the compendium of good practices that it is expected to complete by the end of its three-year mandate.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "A. Political and public life, with a focus on political transition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "The Working Group will address this issue from the point of view of States’ obligations to eliminate discrimination against women in political and public life, to fulfil women’s civil and political rights in their interrelatedness and interdependence with other human rights, and to provide equal opportunity and ways and means for the empowerment of women in these areas, in accordance with international human rights law. Its approach is based on the recognition of women’s right to substantive equality in all aspects of political and public life as a human right essential to women’s human dignity. The Working Group intends to articulate, in its 2013 thematic report, the most current understanding of discrimination against women in political and public life, including the intersection of multiple grounds of discrimination, with a keen eye on the differential impacts on women of efforts to eliminate discriminatory laws.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "A. Political and public life, with a focus on political transition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "The Working Group is guided by articles 4, 7, 8 and 9 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, as well as the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women’s general recommendation No. 23 (1997), in which the Committee states:\nThe political and public life of a country is a broad concept. It refers to the exercise of political power, in particular the exercise of legislative, judicial, executive and administrative powers. The term covers all aspects of public administration and the formulation and implementation of policy at the international, national, regional and local levels. The concept also includes many aspects of civil society, including public boards and local councils and the activities of organizations such as political parties, trade unions, professional or industry associations, women’s organizations, community-based organizations and other organizations concerned with public and political life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "A. Political and public life, with a focus on political transition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The Working Group will further refer, in particular, to articles 2, 3 and 25 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and Human Rights Committee general comments No. 28 (2000) on the equality of rights between men and women and No. 25 (1996) on the right to participate in public affairs, voting rights and the right of equal access to public service. With regard to the obligation of States to modify cultural patterns of conduct inhibiting the advancement of women’s human rights, the Working Group also refers to Human Rights Committee general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "A. Political and public life, with a focus on political transition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "In relation to its focus on times of political transition, the Working Group will look at countries that are presently going through processes of political transition,[[fn:2]] as well as countries with lessons learned from past political transitions, particularly since the entry into force of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women in 1981. The Working Group is attentive to the fact that while political transitions provide a unique opportunity to improve respect for women’s civil and political rights, including their participation in the political system, and women’s status in the legal and social systems, there is also a danger of regression on women’s human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "The Working Group understands political transition in the widest sense of the term, including transitions that involve fundamental change of the political regime and/or of the legal system."}], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "A. Political and public life, with a focus on political transition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The Working Group will also incorporate into its review the fact that women participating in political change and public life are often exposed to violence. The Working Group takes note of reports that women defenders are more at risk than men of suffering from certain forms of violence and other violations, due to the perception that they are challenging accepted sociocultural norms, traditions, perceptions and stereotypes about femininity, sexual orientation, the family and the role and status of women in society.[[fn:3]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See the report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders (A/HRC/16/44 and Corr.1)."}], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "A. Political and public life, with a focus on political transition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "The Working Group intends to examine measures taken by States in political transition to improve women’s constitutional and political position and their status in society and protect them from all forms of violence. It recognizes the agency of women, including as conducted through international and regional institutions and networks, in influencing positive change at the national level. Recommendations will be made on improving legislation and the implementation of laws to empower women and to secure women’s right to a full and equal political and public life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "A. Political and public life, with a focus on political transition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "In order to develop its research on this thematic priority, the Working Group sent letters to all States Members of the United Nations on 8 December 2011 seeking information on: constitutional and other legislative initiatives and reforms put in place to promote women’s rights and gender equality; the framework of State institutions, machineries and mechanisms to implement actions in order to fight against all forms of discrimination and violence against women; women’s political participation, on equal terms with men, in the transitional and post-transitional process at all levels of decision-making; and women’s access to justice, including transitional justice mechanisms. The Working Group takes this opportunity to thank the 40 States that had responded to the call for information at the time of submission of the document.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "A. Political and public life, with a focus on political transition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Working Group also posted a call for submissions on its web page for information on good practices, lessons learned and promising experiences in the field of political and public life both in general terms and/or with particular reference to times of political transition.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "A. Political and public life, with a focus on political transition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "Between 2013 and 2014, the Working Group intends to address the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice in economic and social life, including in times of economic crisis. The research undertaken on this topic will inform the annual report of the Working Group to the Human Rights Council in 2014 as well as the compendium of good practices.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "B. Economic and social life, with a focus on economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The Working Group will examine this issue from the normative perspective of the obligations of States to eliminate discrimination against women in economic and social life and to provide equal opportunity and ways and means for the empowerment of women in these areas in accordance with international human rights law. The conceptual context of the study is the recognition of women’s right to substantive equality in access to economic and social resources, as a human right, essential to women’s human dignity.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "B. Economic and social life, with a focus on economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "In addition, the Working Group will pay specific attention to the way in which current and past economic crises have affected women’s access to economic and social resources, as well as policies that effectively protect women’s social and economic status during and after economic crisis", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "B. Economic and social life, with a focus on economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The Working Group will carry out its work on this theme in accordance with its working methods and, in this regard, has initiated cooperation with the International Labour Organization (ILO), the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) and academic experts and institutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "B. Economic and social life, with a focus on economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "The Working Group will hold three sessions per year, each covering five working days. Two sessions will be held in Geneva and one in New York so as to be able to engage with the widest possible range of stakeholders. The sessions are expected to follow approximately the same calendar, namely one session towards the end of February, another in July in New York to coincide with the session of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, and the last, around October. During its first session, the Working Group initiated discussions on its methods of work. It concluded those discussions at its second session and agreed on its methods of work,[[fn:4]] which respond to the specific features of its mandate as contained in resolution 15/23. The Working Group will continue to refine its methods of work as it carries out its mandate. At its third session, the Working Group began identifying ways and means to fulfil its mandate, incorporating regional and global expertise.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Available from www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/MethodsOfWork.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "The Working Group decided to nominate a Chairperson-Rapporteur for a one-year term on a rotational basis. The next rotation will take place in October 2012, at the fifth session of the Working Group.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "B. Functioning of the Working Group"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The Working Group agreed to conduct two to three country visits each year. The members see such visits as an opportunity to deepen dialogue with Member States and to collect first-hand information on laws and practices that discriminate against women. In addition, such visits offer the opportunity to identify good practices in eliminating discriminatory laws and to better understand the contexts in which they occur and flourish.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "C. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "The Working Group decided that country visits would be undertaken, to the extent possible, by the Chairperson-Rapporteur together with another member of the Working Group from the region where the country visit takes place. Members of the Working Group seek to avoid conducting official visits in their country of origin. As per standard practice, the final composition of the delegation will be communicated to the Government concerned prior to the visit.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "C. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "The Group will use communications with Governments and other actors in a spirit of soliciting dialogue on issues falling within its mandate. Relevant information may be submitted to the Working Group by a State, State organ, intergovernmental or non-governmental organization (NGO), or any other organization or individual. The Working Group will review the information with a view to taking appropriate action. It intends to develop a form to facilitate the submission by anyone of information related to cases or situations of discrimination against women in law and in practice.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "D. Communications"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "The Working Group intends to develop and maintain a constructive dialogue with States and will seek full engagement of States from all regions on issues relevant to its mandate. This dialogue will take the form of consultations, letters soliciting information on good practices in thematic areas it has identified, and the dissemination of questionnaires on specific issues of concern.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "E. Engagement with stakeholders", "1. Member States"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 42, "n": 2, "text": "United Nations and other international organizations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Methods of work", "E. Engagement with stakeholders", "1. Member States"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 43, "n": 42, "text": "The Working Group aims to build constructive partnerships with United Nations and other international organizations. At its first session, the members heard briefings from a range of United Nations entities and other international organizations, including the ILO, the Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Sexual Violence in Conflict, the Economic Commission for Europe, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations Development Programme, the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the World Health Organization, as well as the International Organization for Migration and the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), and engaged in preliminary discussions in relation to possible areas of focus for the Working Group. The Working Group also had the opportunity to meet informally with the Executive Director of UN-Women to discuss potential areas of cooperation and support by UN-Women. At its second and third sessions, the Working Group again engaged in dialogue with the ILO, IPU and UNRISD on its 2012 theme of political and public life and its 2013 theme of economic and social life. At its third session, it held a meeting with UNHCR on the issue of gender discrimination, nationality and statelessness.", "labels": ["Children", "Non-citizens and stateless", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "E. Engagement with stakeholders", "2. United Nations and other international organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 44, "n": 43, "text": "The Working Group subscribes to the absolute importance given by the Human Rights Council in its resolution 15/23 to coordination with other United Nations human rights mechanisms. In this regard, two members of the Working Group met with the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in October 2011 to discuss modes of cooperation. The Working Group also held an exchange of views with the Chair of the Committee on the Rights of the Child during its second session and with a member of the Human Rights Committee during its third session. The Working Group is expected to meet with the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women during its fourth session in New York (23-27 July 2012).", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "E. Engagement with stakeholders", "3. Human rights mechanisms"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 45, "n": 44, "text": "The Working Group has engaged with other special procedure mandate holders. Informal meetings were held with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, and a joint statement on the importance of women’s voices during times of transitions and reform was issued on 8 December 2011 on the occasion of the 16 Days of Activism against Gender Violence.[[fn:5]] The Working Group has also contacted the newly established Working Group on the issue of human rights and transnational corporations and other business enterprises to explore possible areas of collaboration. It has provided inputs to the draft guiding principles on foreign debt and human rights being elaborated by the Independent Expert on the effects of foreign debt and other related international financial obligations of States on the full enjoyment of all human rights, particularly economic, social and cultural rights. On 19 March 2012, the Working Group, along with 21 other special procedures mandate holders, co-sponsored an open letter calling on States to, inter alia, incorporate universally agreed international human rights norms and standards, including relating to gender equality, into the process leading up to the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20 Conference) and into the outcome document of the conference.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=11700&LangID=E."}], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "E. Engagement with stakeholders", "3. Human rights mechanisms"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 46, "n": 45, "text": "Representing the Working Group, Mercedes Barquet attended the fourth session of the Forum on Minority Issues, held in Geneva on 29 and 30 November 2011, and side events on empowering minority women to claim their rights and violence against minority women and their access to justice. She delivered a statement on minority women and their effective participation in political life. The Forum was of particular interest to the Working Group, as it addressed the complex layers and interplay of various forms of discrimination that many women face because they are women and members of a minority group. It was also an opportunity to engage with NGOs and other stakeholders, and to inform them of the mandate, priorities and methods of work of the Working Group.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "E. Engagement with stakeholders", "3. Human rights mechanisms"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 47, "n": 46, "text": "The Working Group places high priority on learning the views, issues and concerns of different regions, and is seeking to reflect regional diversity in its work, including by drawing on and centralizing the knowledge and resources of a range of stakeholders. The Working Group also intends to explore cooperation with regional human rights mechanisms, including the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, in particular its Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Women in Africa, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, the European Union, the Council of Europe, the Inter-Governmental Commission on Human Rights of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the ASEAN Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Women and Children.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "E. Engagement with stakeholders", "3. Human rights mechanisms"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 48, "n": 47, "text": "The Working Group believes that partnerships with civil society organizations are essential to the fulfilment of its mandate. Civil society organizations are providing useful inputs into the mandated work of the Working Group. The Working Group has already met with a large number of Geneva-based NGOs working on relevant issues and has received inputs from other NGOs in various regions. It is also engaging with academics.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "E. Engagement with stakeholders", "4. Other stakeholders"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 49, "n": 48, "text": "The Working Group has issued calls for submissions to stakeholders to solicit information, documentation and material relating to its thematic priorities. It will consider additional means to collect relevant information, including through consultations and expert meetings.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "E. Engagement with stakeholders", "4. Other stakeholders"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 50, "n": 49, "text": "As indicated above, the Working Group held three sessions during the reporting period. At its third session, from 27 February to 2 March 2012, the Working Group discussed, inter alia, its first country mission to Morocco, its participation in the session of the Commission on the Status of Women, and its statement on International Women’s Day. It held day-long discussions on its 2012 and 2013 priority themes with United Nations entities, NGOs and expert researchers, and agreed on a plan of action for carrying out its research agendas. As regards the latter, the Working Group is finalizing detailed questionnaires to gather inputs on the issues of discrimination against women in law and in practice in political and public life, and in economic and social life. It has conducted a mapping of resources on economic and social life and is currently conducting a mapping of resources on political and public life. The Working Group intends to contract experts to gather region-specific information, and will discuss and vet this information during its upcoming sessions and in the context of consultations and expert group meetings. Data and analyses will serve as the basis for the Working Group’s upcoming annual reports to the Human Rights Council and the compendium of good practices it is expected to produce.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Activities of the Working Group"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 51, "n": 50, "text": "The Chairperson-Rapporteur of the Working Group participated in the eighteenth annual meeting of special procedure mandate holders, which was held in Geneva from 27 June to 1 July 2011. She was elected as a member of the Coordination Committee of Special Procedures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Activities of the Working Group"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 52, "n": 51, "text": "The Working Group, represented by its Chairperson-Rapporteur and Emna Aouij, undertook its first country visit to Morocco from 13 to 20 February 2012 at the invitation of the Government. The report on the country visit is available as an addendum to the present report (see A/HRC/20/28/Add.1). The Working Group thanks other States who have responded positively to its request for invitations to visit, namely, the Republic of Moldova, Tunisia and South Sudan, and encourages other States to consider extending invitations. The Working Group is expected to undertake its second country visit—to the Republic of Moldova—from 21 to 30 May 2012.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Activities of the Working Group"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 53, "n": 52, "text": "On 5 March 2012, the Chairperson-Rapporteur delivered a statement to the Commission on the Status of Women at its fifty-sixth session (27 February–9 March 2012). She took the opportunity of her first address to introduce the mandate of the Working Group and inform the Commission of its 2012-2013 priorities. The Working Group sees the Commission as an important body through which the Working Group can engage with stakeholders, notably States and women’s civil society organizations, on equality and women’s human rights issues. Its participation in the sessions of the Commission on the Status of Women contributes to coordination with the Human Rights Council and a coherent approach to addressing the remaining obstacles to full equality and women’s human rights by the various bodies and mechanisms of the United Nations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Activities of the Working Group"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 54, "n": 53, "text": "The Working Group took the opportunity of International Women’s Day 2012 to remind States of their obligations to promote equality and women’s human rights in political transitions and to protect women from violence. The Working Group also encouraged States to ensure that women do not bear the brunt of the current economic and financial crises, and to put in place special protective measures. Member Frances Raday participated in an NGO event on International Women’s Day (8 March 2012) on the issue of “Women in the Arab Spring”.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Activities of the Working Group"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 55, "n": 54, "text": "During the reporting period, the Working Group sent, itself or jointly with other mandate holders, a total of six communications in relation to issues falling within its mandate. Some of these communications raised gaps and concerns the Working Group had found in anti-discrimination legislation. Others aimed at drawing the attention of the Government concerned to discriminatory provisions based on sex in nationality legislation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Activities of the Working Group"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 56, "n": 55, "text": "The above activities cover the period from the inception of the Working Group to the submission date of the present report, namely, 23 March 2012. The Working Group is expected to participate in several events before the consideration of the report by the Human Rights Council at its twentieth session, including an expert meeting on the gendered impacts of enforced disappearances, to be held in Addis Ababa from 17 to 19 April 2012, and the commemoration of the thirtieth anniversary of the establishment of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in July 2012. These activities will be reflected in the 2013 annual report to the Human Rights Council.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Activities of the Working Group"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 57, "n": 56, "text": "The five members of the Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice assumed their functions on 1 May 2011. The Working Group has held three sessions since then and conducted one country visit, namely, to Morocco. At the time of drafting the present report, the Working Group was engaged in dialogue with the Government of the Republic of Moldova on conducting a visit to that country from 21 to 30 May 2012. It will report on its visit to the Republic of Moldova during the twenty-third session of the Human Rights Council. It has pursued active engagement with a range of stakeholders, including States, United Nations organizations and intergovernmental bodies, human rights mechanisms, civil society organizations and academic experts, and has participated in a number of activities of relevance to its mandate, including by contributing inputs on equality and non-discrimination, and protection and promotion of women’s human rights, to various initiatives undertaken by others, including other special procedure mandate holders.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusion"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 58, "n": 57, "text": "In its one year of existence, the Working Group has developed and refined its methods of work, articulated its substantive priorities and developed a plan for implementing its tasks. Given the breadth of its mandate, covering discrimination against women in law and in practice in all fields, the Working Group is focusing on two priority themes in 2012 and 2013, namely, discrimination against women in law and in practice in the contexts of political and public life and of economic and social life. The Working Group is looking at the impact of political transitions and the economic crisis on the enjoyment by women of their human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusion"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 59, "n": 58, "text": "The Working Group is aiming to respond to the expectations placed on it by numerous individuals and organizations in relation to issues of discrimination against women. It is communicating with Governments on various issues within its mandate and is undertaking outreach and partnerships with a range of stakeholders to both inform and support its own work and ensure that its outputs catalyse further actions by stakeholders. It looks forward to continuing this engagement with all stakeholders and to responding to issues addressed to it on discrimination against women in law and in practice.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusion"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is submitted pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 15/23. In section II, the Working Group summarizes its activities since its last report to the Human Rights Council up until 26 March 2012. In section III it addresses the topic of eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "For the preparation of this report, the Working Group has availed itself of a wealth of information elicited through various means. In December 2011, it circulated a questionnaire to Governments requesting information highlighting legislative and policy reforms for the advancement of women’s rights and gender equality in times of political transition, and received 57 replies. It received inputs from various stakeholders, including the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), non-governmental organizations and academic experts. Five regional background papers and a global summary were commissioned to further help inform the report. The Working Group wishes to express gratitude to States and other stakeholders for the information provided and will make the materials publically available on its website (www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/WGWomenIndex.aspx).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "On the basis of this information, the Working Group has identified good practices that will contribute to the compendium of good practices mandated in paragraph 18 (b) of Human Rights Council resolution 15/23.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "The Working Group held three sessions during the reporting period. At its fourth session (23–27 July 2012), it engaged with a number of stakeholders, including UN-Women, relevant parts of the United Nations Secretariat and other experts on various issues related to women in public and political life. It also exchanged views with the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women on, inter alia, ways to ensure close coordination, avoid duplication and strengthen information exchange between the two mechanisms. At its fifth session (1–5 October 2012), the Working Group continued to exchange views with experts, focusing on region-specific information. It also met with Member States to seek views on different legal systems and their integration into its work. At its sixth session (14–18 January 2013), the Working Group consolidated the regional and global information gathered to inform the present report.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "During the period under review, the Working Group requested invitations to visit Chile, China, Peru and Spain. An earlier request was also reiterated to the Government of South Sudan.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The Working Group visited the Republic of Moldova from 20 to 31 May 2012 (see A/HRC/23/50/Add.1) and Tunisia from 7 to 11 January 2013 (see A/HRC/23/50/Add.2). It would like to thank these Governments for having responded positively to its requests for a visit and urges those Governments that have not yet done so to provide a favourable response.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Communications sent to Governments during the reporting period, either individually or jointly with other mandates, concerned a wide array of issues falling within its mandate.[[fn:1]] These included, for example, allegations of violence against women in the context of protests, cases of women sentenced to death by stoning for adultery, and cases of women and girls allegedly victim of forced religious conversion and forced marriage. The Working Group also sent communications in relation to draft constitutions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See A/HRC/21/49 and A/HRC/22/67, Corrs. 1 and 2."}], "section": ["II. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The Working Group issued press statements, either individually or jointly with other mandate holders, on, inter alia, gender equality provisions in draft constitutions, on the criminalization of adultery whose enforcement leads to discrimination and violence against women, and at various occasions, such as for the first International Day of the Girl Child and for International Women’s Day.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "On 11 March 2013, the Vice-Chairperson of the Working Group addressed the Commission on the Status of Women at its fifty-seventh session, during an interactive dialogue between the Commission and special procedures mandate holders. Her statement focused on violence against women as a cross-cutting issue in the four thematic areas the Working Group has established as its conceptual framework.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "D. Commission on the Status of Women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "From 17 to 19 April 2012, the Chairperson of the Working Group attended a meeting in Addis Ababa on gender and enforced disappearances convened to inform a draft general comment by the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "E. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The Chairperson participated in a regional consultation (Kathmandu, 19–20 September 2012) focusing on women’s public and political life in Asia and the Pacific, followed by a one-day national consultation on the same subject matter. She also took part in a regional expert group meeting (Seoul, 4–5 December 2012) on women, gender equality and political transitions and lessons learned from Asia. On 17 and 18 January 2013, the Working Group collaborated with the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief on a preliminary discussion on the issue of gender equality and freedom of religion or belief. These activities were aimed at informing the present report.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "E. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "On 18 February 2013, the Vice-Chairperson participated in a discussion organized by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to inform its process of elaborating a general recommendation on access to justice. Her address focused on the impact of discriminatory legal frameworks, and in particular constitutions, on women’s access to justice.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "E. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Various members of the Working Group also participated in numerous conferences and meetings, including the workshop organized by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on enhancing cooperation between the United Nations and regional mechanisms (Geneva, 12-14 December 2012), the eleventh biennial conference of the International Coordinating Committee of National Institutions for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights on the role of national human rights institutions in the protection of women’s and girls’ human rights (Amman, 4–7 November 2012), and side events during the fifty-seventh session of the Commission on the Status of Women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "E. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "In 1981, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (the Convention) entered into force. Article 7 of the Convention articulates women’s right to equal participation in political and public life as encompassing the right to vote in all elections and public referenda and to be eligible for election to all publicly elected bodies; to participate in the formulation of government policy and the implementation thereof and to hold public office and perform all public functions at all levels of government; and to participate in non-governmental organizations and associations concerned with the public and political life of the country. Article 8, in addition, refers to State obligations to take all appropriate measures to ensure to women, on equal terms with men and without any discrimination, the opportunity to represent their Governments at the international level and to participate in the work of international organizations. The Convention thus specified and expanded the State obligations set out under articles 2, 3 and 25 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which require a guarantee of the equal right to take part in the conduct of public affairs, including direct participation as well as participation through freely chosen representatives.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "A. International and regional context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Since the introduction of the Convention, the world’s political landscape has gone through substantial changes. These have been marked, variously in different regions and States, by the dismantling of long-standing totalitarian regimes, democratization and the emergence of new forms of authoritarianism. This period has also witnessed armed conflicts both between and within States, the creation of refugee populations and international involvement in conflict resolution and peacebuilding. Technological leaps in the field of information and communications, particularly the Internet, have created a new public and political space, with revolutionary impact on the development and the exercise of human rights, allowing new forms of political expression and mobilization, and facilitating political communication and organization for men and women globally.[[fn:2]]", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See Human Rights Council resolution 20/8 and A/HRC/17/27, para. 19."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "A. International and regional context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "At the same time, international commitment to fulfilling women’s equal right to political participation has grown substantially. The 1993 World Conference on Human Rights and its outcome document, the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, whose twentieth anniversary is being commemorated in 2013, gave recognition to women’s rights as human rights. In 1995, the Fourth World Conference on Women and its outcome document, the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, became the catalyst for governments around the world to introduce special measures, such as quotas for women’s political representation, and propelled the doubling of the global average of such representation in less than two decades.[[fn:3]] Further, the Security Council made an historic breakthrough in 2000 when it adopted its resolution 1325 (2000), with a view to enhancing the role of women and the gender perspective in conflict resolution and peacebuilding.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) statistical archive of women in parliament. Available from www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif-arc.htm."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "A. International and regional context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Yet, despite decades of efforts, the Working Group notes that, in 2012, the General Assembly expressed its concern at the reality that women in every part of the world continued to be largely marginalized from the political sphere and saw it necessary to again dedicate a resolution to promote women’s political participation.[[fn:4]] In 2012, the Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality of the European Parliament indicated its alarm at the underrepresentation of women in the European Union legislative council and leadership positions, and at the stagnation of women’s representation at one third or less in parliaments across the region.[[fn:5]] In 2011, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) reported on the “inequitable and sluggish” progress made in women’s political representation at different levels of government in the Americas.[[fn:6]] In 2012, the World Bank found that in the Asia-Pacific region, rapid growth and economic development, with the highest female labour force participation rate in the developing world, have not been enough to attain gender equality, including in the area of political agency and representation.[[fn:7]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "General Assembly resolution 66/130."}, {"n": 5, "text": "Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality, report on women in political decision-making – quantity and quality (A7-0029/2012), pp. 5-6."}, {"n": 6, "text": "IACHR, The Road to Substantive Democracy: Women’s Political Participation in the Americas (2011), para. 11."}, {"n": 7, "text": "World Bank, Toward Gender Equality in East Asia and the Pacific: A Companion to the World Development Report, Conference Edition (2012), pp. ix and 13."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "A. International and regional context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "General recommendation No. 23 (1997) of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women refers to political and public life as encompassing the exercise of legislative, judicial, executive and administrative powers; covering all aspects of public administration and the formulation and implementation of policy at the international, national, regional and local levels; and including civil society, such as public boards and local councils and the activities of organizations such as political parties, trade unions, professional or industry associations, women’s organizations, community-based organizations and other organizations concerned with public and political life (para. 5). The Beijing Platform for Action, in its paragraph 182, referred to the scant progress made towards achieving by 1995 the 30 per cent target for women in decision-making positions. Global progress in achieving the goals for women’s political representation set by the international community continues to be excruciatingly slow and is far from being met 18 years after the target date.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "In the legislative branch, the current global average of women in national parliaments is 20 per cent.[[fn:8]] While this achievement marks a first in history, the climb has been slow, revealing a global average increase of less than 1 per cent per year.[[fn:9]] Only 33 countries out of 149 have national parliaments where women constitute 30 per cent or more of the members.[[fn:10]] With parity as the ultimate measure of equality, then a mere two countries have reached this point. Furthermore, there are wide divergences among States, with women accounting for less than 10 per cent of representatives in 45 States.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "IPU archive, world average (footnote Error: Reference source not found)."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Department for International Development (DFID) and International Development Research Centre (IDRC), summary of discussions at the expert meeting on “Women’s Political Empowerment: The State of Evidence and Future Research”, London, 11-12 September 2012, p. 3."}, {"n": 10, "text": "IPU archive (footnote Error: Reference source not found)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "The right to representation in the legislative branch includes the right to vote in all elections and public referenda. This condition has gradually been fulfilled during the course of the twentieth century and is now almost universally implemented. Nevertheless there remain some discriminatory laws and practices, such as kinship voting practices. In one State, women have still have not been granted the right to vote.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "In the executive branch, only 17 women are Heads of State/Government.[[fn:11]] Women’s representation in Governments is far lower than their representation in parliaments. Good practice where women occupy more than 40 per cent of Government positions were found in only a small number of States: six in the region of Western European and other States, two in sub-Saharan Africa and three in Latin America and the Caribbean. The Working Group notes that the obligation of States to secure women’s equal representation includes the executive branch, and draws attention to the good practice in different regions which has demonstrated the feasibility of female-headed States and gender-balanced Governments.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "IPU, Women in Politics: 2012, map. Available from www.ipu.org/pdf/publications/wmnmap12_en.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "In the judicial branch, women account for only 27 per cent of judges worldwide.[[fn:12]] There is wide divergence among States as regards the numbers of women in the judiciary, with some States in the Eastern European region having a majority of women judges. Even in countries that have a higher representation of women in the judiciary, the numbers of women decrease at higher levels. There are few women in the highest courts, including supreme courts, and rarely are the presidents women. In most religious courts women are excluded from holding office. There is, however, good practice in the Asia-Pacific region: in one country, women judges have been part of the religious courts since the institution was created in the 1950s, reaching a participation rate of 20 per cent in 2011;[[fn:13]] in another, female judges were appointed to the Sharia court pursuant to the removal of its reservation to article 7 (b) of the Convention.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "UN-Women, Progress of the World’s Women: In Pursuit of Justice (2012), p. 59."}, {"n": 13, "text": "2011 Annual Report of the Supreme Court of Indonesia, www.badilag.net/lakip-dan-laptah/465-laptah/10211-laporan-tahunan-2011.html (Indonesian only)."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Background global report prepared for the Working Group, p. 48."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "In other public bodies there is no systematic data regarding women’s representation which covers the whole spectrum of political and public life as defined by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women: public administration, local government, political parties, trade unions, professional or industry associations, women’s organizations, community-based organizations and other organizations concerned with public and political life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Within the United Nations system, the Secretary-General set a target, endorsed in the Beijing Platform for Action, of 50 per cent of managerial and decision-making positions for women by 2000. Gender parity was achieved at the lowest two levels (P1 and P2) in 2011; the percentage of women at the professional levels was 40.7; but only 27.4 to 30.2 per cent at the highest decision-making levels (D-1, D-2 and Under-Secretary-General).[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "UN-Women, The Status of Women in the United Nations System, available from www.un.org/womenwatch/uncoordination/documents/overview/unsystem/unsystem-factsheet.pdf, and Representation of Women in the United Nations System, available from www.un.org/womenwatch/uncoordination/documents/overview/unsystem/unsystem-infographic.pdf. The category of Under-Secretary-General also includes Assistant Secretary-General positions."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "In peacebuilding processes, studies made a decade after the adoption of Security Council resolution 1325 (2000) show that only 16 per cent of 585 peace agreements referenced women.[[fn:16]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Christine Bell and Catherine O’Rourke, “Opinion: UN Security Council 1325 and peace negotiations and agreements” (Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, March 2011), p. 7."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The focus of the Working Group on political transition has been carried out through its communications, country visits and regional and global expert input. Experience in countries in transition has varied greatly. In the Russian Federation and Eastern Europe during the 1990s, as in some of the recent political transitions in the Middle East and North Africa, there was backsliding on key gains for gender equality and/or the numerical representation of women was reduced. In contrast, in some political transitions in various countries in many regions, the introduction of quotas facilitated a significant rise in representation of women, producing, for instance in sub-Saharan Africa, some of the highest percentages of women members of parliament. Good practice in these States included the active engagement with the international community in the peacebuilding process and an emphasis on democracy, human rights and women’s rights as human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The Working Group observes that the impact of political transitions on gender equality in public and political life is inherently related not only to the nature of regime change but also to the political will of the incoming Government to guarantee women’s human rights, including the right to equal representation, and requires a responsive political leadership with respect to gender equality concerns, including as raised by autonomous women’s movements. The Working Group notes the urgency for women’s equal and full participation in peace negotiations and in decision-making in all transitional authorities, mechanisms and processes.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The Working Group is concerned that the knowledge gap remains on the whole spectrum of women’s participation in political and public life. This undermines the capacity to move to gender-responsive inclusive democracy, development and peace. Most available data is not sufficiently disaggregated to allow the understanding of the intersectionality of gender with other grounds of discrimination, in the light of Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women general recommendation No. 28 (2010) according to which “discrimination against women based on sex and gender is inextricably linked with other factors that affect women, such as race, ethnicity, religion or belief, health, status, age, class, caste and sexual orientation and gender identity” (para. 18). Evidence-based knowledge is weak on the extent of violence against women in political and public life and its impact on women’s capacity to exercise their right to political participation.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Democracy and human rights are mutually reinforcing. Women’s rights are human rights and hence are an integral element of the democracy and human rights axis. The General Assembly, in its resolution 59/201 (para. 1), declared the “essential elements of democracy” to consist of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, inter alia, freedom of association and peaceful assembly and of expression and opinion; the right to take part in the conduct of public affairs, directly or through freely chosen representatives; to vote and to be a candidate in free elections by universal and equal suffrage; a pluralistic system of political parties and organizations; respect for the rule of law; the separation of powers; the independence of the judiciary; transparency and accountability in public administration; and free, independent and pluralistic media.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "These essential elements of democracy are a necessary condition for women’s substantive equality in public and political life. The Working Group would like to emphasize that there can be no true democracy without women’s full and equal participation in all its institutions and that women’s substantive equality in political and public life can be fully realized only in conditions of democracy.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "There is growing recognition of the Internet as a key means by which individuals can exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression (A/HRC/17/27, para. 20). Through initiatives on e-government and e-democracy and the innovative use of information and communications technologies (ICTs) by civil society, there is also a rising awareness of the Internet’s role in expanding the concept of citizenship online. The Working Group welcomes the work by the International Telecommunication Union, the World Bank and civil society organizations, and encourages them to continue such work so as to deepen the knowledge on gender differences in the use of the Internet and other ICTs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "Political transitions present an opportunity for States to democratize and to advance women’s equal representation in the reformed State institutions. However, they can also pose a danger of undermining or reversing human rights and women’s gains in public and political life achieved under the previous regime. In some political transitions, women who had been pro-democracy activists have been excluded from formal political processes negotiating the new division of power.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The conflict and post-conflict experience leads to an increased awareness of the different conditions of States, including weak, fragile, failed and/or hybrid States, and an increasing focus on State-building processes. State-building is understood as “purposeful action to develop the capacity, institutions and legitimacy of the state in relation to an effective political process for negotiating the mutual demands between state and societal groups”.[[fn:17]] Such processes reveal the complex and critical roles and relations of State and non-State actors in the renegotiation of the balance of power, the allocation of resources and entitlements, and the formation of the identity of whole nations. Contestations over national identity are heightened during times of political change and present new vulnerabilities for those women whose values, roles and behaviours do not fit the power elite’s idealized imagery of womanhood. Where identity politics are predominant, women’s movements defending universal standards of gender equality risk marginalization and stigmatization, especially when such standards are characterized as unwanted external influence and a source of threat.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, “Concepts and dilemmas of State building in fragile situations: from fragility to resilience,” Journal on Development, vol. 9, No. 3 (2008), offprint, p. 14."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 34, "n": 1, "text": "Women’s equal enjoyment of fundamental freedoms and human rights", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 35, "n": 34, "text": "For women to have the capacity to participate in political and public life on equal footing with men, including to build autonomous movements for their own empowerment, they must be able to exercise their rights to freedom of thought, conscience, religion, expression, movement and association. It is imperative to recognize and secure these rights as individual rights for women’s effective participation in political and public life, in the light of the complex tensions between collective rights and women’s rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "1. Women’s equal enjoyment of fundamental freedoms and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 36, "n": 35, "text": "Women’s right to enjoy their cultural rights as equals is an integral part of their right to participation in political and public life. In the light of the persistent use of cultural and traditional values to justify resistance to women’s political and public roles, women’s capacity for equal participation depends on their autonomous agency regarding cultural life. As articulated by the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights, this involves:\nThe freedom to create new communities of shared cultural values around any markers of identity they want to privilege, new cultural meanings and practices without fear of punitive actions, including any form of violence. This means that women must be able to embrace or reject particular cultural practices and identities as well as to revise and (re)negotiate existing traditions, values or practices, regardless of their provenance. Active engagement in the cultural sphere … helps to build central traits of democratic citizenship.[[fn:18]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "A/67/287, para. 28."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "1. Women’s equal enjoyment of fundamental freedoms and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 37, "n": 36, "text": "In times of political transition when political life is highly volatile and polarized, women’s equal and full participation in political and public life depends on the effective protection of their fundamental freedoms and human rights, particularly those mentioned above. National human rights institutions (NHRIs) and other independent monitoring bodies play a particularly crucial role for women during these times.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "1. Women’s equal enjoyment of fundamental freedoms and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 38, "n": 2, "text": "Integration of women in public and political institutions", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "1. Women’s equal enjoyment of fundamental freedoms and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 39, "n": 37, "text": "The participation of women in public and political institutions is crucial for their equality in citizenship and for empowering them to have an impact on and integrate a gender perspective into policy and decision-making.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "2. Integration of women in public and political institutions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 40, "n": 38, "text": "Special measures, including quotas for women and other temporary measures, as required under article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention and general recommendations No. 23 (1997) and No. 25 (2004) of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, are necessary to achieve equality between men and women in political and public life, in order to contend with the underlying structural disadvantaging of women. The most significant increase in the numbers of women in national parliaments over the years has occurred in countries where special measures, such as gender quotas, have been effectively constructed and implemented. The use of quotas to advance women’s political representation and participation has increased in the past three decades and produced significant results when properly adapted to specific electoral and political systems.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "2. Integration of women in public and political institutions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 41, "n": 39, "text": "Many of the quota systems were adopted as part of the rebuilding of political systems and institutions after years of conflict and/or authoritarianism.[[fn:19]] Quotas work best when accompanied by sanctions and closely monitored by gender-responsive independent bodies, including national electoral bodies and human rights institutions. Research has shown that, in general, women’s chances of winning seats in parliamentary elections increase in proportional representation systems.[[fn:20]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "According to the Global Programme for Electoral Cycle Support, a United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) initiative, one third of the countries that have achieved percentages of 33 per cent or higher in women’s representation in national parliaments are considered countries in transition (see DFID and IDRC, summary (footnote Error: Reference source not found), p. 3)."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Leslie A. Schwindt-Bayer, “Making quotas work: the effect of gender quota laws on the election of women,” Legislative Studies Quarterly, vol. 34, No. 1 (February 2009), p. 15."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "2. Integration of women in public and political institutions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 42, "n": 40, "text": "Quotas introduced at the local level are rare but important for equality outcomes on the ground. In one country in South Asia, for example, a constitutional amendment mandated the representation of women, reserving one third of the seats within each council and women taking one third of the leadership positions as head.[[fn:21]] Research has shown that after a decade of implementation, women are more likely to stand for, and win, elected positions in councils.[[fn:22]] The requirement of female leadership changes voter attitudes and improves perceptions of female leadership effectiveness.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "Lori Beaman et al., “Women as agents of change: evidence from the grassroots”, presentation to the Working Group, 25 July 2012."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Lori Beaman et al., “Powerful women: does exposure reduce bias?” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 124, No. 4 (2009), p. 1497."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "2. Integration of women in public and political institutions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 43, "n": 41, "text": "Effective political participation of women requires not only admission to political institutions but also integration into their decision-making forums. Women’s full participation requires concerted action to overcome the de facto segregation of women’s political participation in sectors which are stereotypically associated with women’s gender roles. It requires that women be integrated into positions with decision-making power across the spectrum of issues dealt with by the institutions to which they have been elected or appointed. During political transitions, the same applies to all transitional authorities and mechanisms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "2. Integration of women in public and political institutions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 44, "n": 42, "text": "The Working Group welcomes a general trend in recent years to extend special measures or positive action to other areas of public life beyond legislative bodies. Positive action encompasses actions to promote women’s participation in public life by such tools as media campaigns and training opportunities, which are not legally binding quotas, and new generation transformative measures setting out an overriding objective of equal power of women and men to shape society and their own lives.[[fn:23]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See, for example, the background report on Western European and North America prepared for the Working Group (2012), p. 43."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "2. Integration of women in public and political institutions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 45, "n": 43, "text": "The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), in its 2013 Plan of Action for Gender-sensitive Parliaments, has drawn attention to the need for gender sensitivity in the composition, structures, operations, methods and work of parliaments. In the plan, it noted that “gender-sensitive parliaments remove the barriers to women’s full participation and offer a positive example or model to society at large” (p. 8). The Working Group considers the IPU plan of action to be adaptable for other public and political institutions in which women’s equal representation must be secured.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "2. Integration of women in public and political institutions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 46, "n": 44, "text": "The election and appointment of women to public and political office is a necessary condition for equality in public and political life, but the number of women in office is insufficient for advancing gender equality in society. Evidence shows that women who are appointed or elected to public office do not necessarily promote gender-equality agendas. Policy outcomes that advance substantive equality between men and women involve larger processes of public debate, alliance-building across political divides, and activism by autonomous women’s movements based on universal standards of equality, non-discrimination, human rights and inclusive democracy.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "2. Integration of women in public and political institutions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 47, "n": 3, "text": "Women’s agency and autonomous movements", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "2. Integration of women in public and political institutions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 48, "n": 45, "text": "The whole spectrum of women’s engagement and activism in political and public life, through all State institutions, the wide range of organizations in civil society and the diversity of public discourse, is integral to democracy, development and peace.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "3. Women’s agency and autonomous movements"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 49, "n": 46, "text": "Women’s participation in political and public life remains dynamic, multifaceted, and resilient, including in gaining access to power through alternative structures, as recognized in the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action. Even as the glass ceiling in formal political institutions stays mostly intact, women actively open new spaces for discourse, build networks across long-standing divides and create new communities of engagement. Through the autonomous movements they build at the local to global levels, women’s political engagements develop across formal administrative boundaries and are transnational in reach based on the universality of women’s right to equality, challenging unequal power relations, demanding accountability, defending rights and achievements, and advocating for systemic and cultural change in societies, institutions and States. Women’s autonomous civil society organizations are crucial to women’s participation in public and political life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "3. Women’s agency and autonomous movements"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 50, "n": 47, "text": "Women’s rights advocates engage actively in different normative regimes, including religious communities and indigenous or customary groups. They do so, among others, by initiating hermeneutic projects within their respective religions. In their cultural communities, women express their opinions on politics also through the arts, including writings, music and plays, and their works have been attacked, criminalized and condemned by State and non-State actors. In certain contexts, economically independent women playing leadership roles are stigmatized and attacked as witches.[[fn:24]] Lesbian, bisexual and transgender women who defend their human rights are vulnerable to attacks on their civil rights and personhood[[fn:25]] where there is a climate of intolerance arising from their perceived challenge to established norms of gender identity, gender roles and sexuality.[[fn:26]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "See Partners for Law in Development, Targeting of Women as Witches: Trends, Prevalence and the Law in Northern, Western, Eastern and Northeastern Regions of India (2013)."}, {"n": 25, "text": "See A/HRC/19/41."}, {"n": 26, "text": "Women Human Rights Defenders International Coalition, Global Report on the Situation of Women Human Rights Defenders (2012), p. 89."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "3. Women’s agency and autonomous movements"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 51, "n": 48, "text": "The new space and opportunities created by revolutionary developments in ICTs have enabled women to initiate or enhance their participation in political and public life. Women who are confined in private homes have used ICTs as a means to break out of their isolation and take part in collective action. Women who live under threat of attack because of their sexual orientation have found safety in the anonymity of the Internet, which allows them to freely speak out, establish virtual communities and participate in public debates. During moments of political unrest, women have utilized SMS, micro-blogging and social networking to provide “bodyguard” protection to each other on the ground.[[fn:27]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "Association for Progressive Communications (APC) submission to the Working Group, January 2012, second page."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "3. Women’s agency and autonomous movements"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 52, "n": 49, "text": "In the negotiation of political settlements during political transitions or in law reform, the inclusion of women’s civil society organizations and women leaders or spokespersons from sectoral or minority communities is crucial to ensure the equal benefit of reform to all citizens. As political transitions do not always lead to inclusive democracy, the empowerment of autonomous women’s movements is of equal priority to the process of state-building and the reform of political institutions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "3. Women’s agency and autonomous movements"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 53, "n": 50, "text": "The democratic deficit undermines women’s substantive participation in political and public life. Patronage politics, corruption, and undemocratic local government reduce women’s effectiveness in the political arena, as they prevent transparency and accountability in decision-making and in the distribution of resources. Gender discriminatory policies and regulations have been applied by autonomous local governments even when national or federal laws mandate gender equality. Empowering women’s participation in political and public life from the community level up helps build a culture of accountability, as it broadens the constituency for democratic decision-making, and is crucial to the effective application of good governance at all levels.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "4. Democratic deficit"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 54, "n": 51, "text": "The delegation of political or public power to religious institutions or indigenous communities that are exempt from the requirement to include women in their leadership and decision-making bodies cancels women‟s right to participate in significant aspects of 24 See Partners for Law in Development, Targeting of Women as Witches: Trends, Prevalence and the Law in Northern, Western, Eastern and Northeastern Regions of India (2013). 25 See A/HRC/19/41. 26 Women Human Rights Defenders International Coalition, Global Report on the Situation of Women Human Rights Defenders (2012), p. 89. 27 Association for Progressive Communications (APC) submission to the Working Group, January 2012, second page. public and political life; in such cases, the boundaries of women‟s rights are defined unilaterally by decision-makers of patriarchal social orders.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "4. Democratic deficit"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 55, "n": 52, "text": "The democratic deficit also expresses itself in the lack of capacity by States to address perpetual insecurity in all its different dimensions, including militarism and the culture of violence, especially, but not only, in situations of conflict and transition, in which women are primary victims.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "4. Democratic deficit"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 56, "n": 53, "text": "Guarantees of women’s rights to education, decent employment and access to economic resources are preconditions for women’s equal and effective participation in political and public life. A coherent set of gender-responsive social and economic policies is necessary to overcome the multifaceted structural barriers that women face.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 57, "n": 54, "text": "Poverty and social exclusion, including women’s high levels of illiteracy and poor health, lock women into a persistent state of dependence and deprivation and often make long-term participation in political and public life an unviable option. Programmes addressing poverty and social exclusion and containing strong empowerment components for marginalized women, including those who face multiple discrimination, enhance the opportunity and capacity for these particular women to participate meaningfully in political and public life.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 58, "n": 55, "text": "Political will of States is the key element to ensure gender equality outcomes, combined with persistent support, pressure and scrutiny by women’s movements, whose autonomy should be protected by the State", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 59, "n": 56, "text": "While women are situated in different locations, each with distinct vulnerabilities and assets, their participation in political and public life is commonly constrained by structural and societal discrimination in the family, in caregiving responsibilities, in violence against women, and marginalization by political parties and other non-State public institutions. The obligation of States to remove these barriers is clearly mandated in article 2 (f) of the Convention and has been repeatedly advocated by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 60, "n": 57, "text": "The institution of family is one of the foundations of whole political systems, and family law is core to women’s citizenship and public life. Women’s right to equality in the family shapes opportunities and constraints for women’s agency and autonomy and also regulates access to land, income, education and health, including reproductive health, thereby determining a woman’s capacity to fully engage in all aspects of life.[[fn:28]] The right of women to equality in the family was established in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and elaborated in articles 2 and 16 of the Convention.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Mala Htun and Laurel Weldon, “Religion, the State, and women’s rights: comparative analysis of sex equality in family law”, University of New Mexico and Purdue University, May 2012, pp. 2-7."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "1. Discriminatory family status"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 61, "n": 58, "text": "Patriarchal and discriminatory family law or practice may limit women’s freedom of occupation and freedom of movement in the public space. In some countries, men are still regarded by law as the head of household, barring women from representing their families in official decision-making processes on public affairs, including on development projects and issues of good governance, which have an impact on women and their families. The system of heads of household has been abrogated in many countries’ legal systems.[[fn:29]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See Soo Yeon Lee, “Political Transitions in the 1990s and its impact on legislation of gender equality laws: the South Korean case”, paper submitted for the regional expert group meeting on political transitions and gender equality, Seoul, December 2012."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "1. Discriminatory family status"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 62, "n": 59, "text": "Women belonging to minority groups are often victims of dual discrimination, as they must address discrimination against minorities and within their own communities. Providing special measures of education, leadership training and economic assistance for women and awareness-raising for men in patriarchal communities are some of the good practices by which States can address such multiple discrimination.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "1. Discriminatory family status"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 63, "n": 60, "text": "Many States have entered reservations to articles 2 and 16 of the Convention, on equality in the family, almost all in deference to religious family law, and in so doing perpetuate the structural impediment of inequality in the family to women’s full and effective participation in political and public life.[[fn:30]] The Working Group regards the elimination of discrimination in the family as central to women’s capacity to participate in political and public life on equal terms with men and the withdrawal of these reservations as imperative.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "See, inter alia, Musawah, CEDAW and Muslim Family Laws: In Search of Common Ground (Sisters in Islam, 2011)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "1. Discriminatory family status"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 64, "n": 61, "text": "Reform of family laws provides a firm basis to overcome structural and cultural impediments to women’s equal and full participation in political and public life. Family laws have been the focus of reform throughout history, as part of whole movements of States and societies towards modernity. In most cases, religious hermeneutic projects, particularly when initiated as part of broader reforms during times of political transition, have been an integral part of making these changes possible, with a prominent role played by women’s rights movements, as in the case of Morocco, which achieved significant reform on many fronts in the family code (Moudawana),[[fn:31]] and by reform-minded religious institutions. The political will for these reforms, in State-sponsored modernization projects and social engineering agendas, has existed in diverse contexts of colonial power, the post-colonial State and communist regimes.[[fn:32]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "See A/HRC/20/28/Add.1."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See Mala Htun and Laurel Weldon, “Sex equality in family law: historical legacies, feminist activism and religious power in 70 countries” (2011)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "1. Discriminatory family status"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 65, "n": 2, "text": "Unequal caregiving responsibilities", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "1. Discriminatory family status"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 66, "n": 62, "text": "Caregiving responsibilities in the family are disproportionately in the hands of women. Both the reality and the a priori belief that this is the way it should be put women at a structural disadvantage in entering and participating sustainably in political and public life. The long hours of work and heavy travel demands make it difficult for women with caregiving responsibilities to maintain consistent engagement in political and public life without adequate support for the caring responsibilities. At the same time, women who carry out full-time engagement in politics and public affairs are often harassed and stigmatized, as they are perceived to undermine traditional family values.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "2. Unequal caregiving responsibilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 67, "n": 63, "text": "Good practice regarding the work-life balance for public and political participation includes both childcare support and institutional family-friendly scheduling. The highest performing countries in terms of proportion of women in public office have the most generous entitlements for maternal and parental leave. This reflects States’ effectiveness in creating better options for women to reconcile the balance between work and family life, promoting a better balance of responsibilities between men and women in the home and encouraging a higher percentage of fathers to take parental leave. This demonstrates a significant cultural change in society’s views of gender roles, which is itself a culmination of decades of responsive social policies.[[fn:33]] Good practices regarding gender-sensitive parliaments are found in some Western European and other States that have changed the scheduling of parliamentary session to allow a work-life balance for Members of Parliament who have parental responsibilities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See the background report on Western Europe and North America (footnote Error: Reference source not found)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "2. Unequal caregiving responsibilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 68, "n": 64, "text": "Violence against women in all its forms, whether in the private or the public space, undermines women’s capacity to effectively engage in political and public life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "3. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 69, "n": 65, "text": "Stigmatization, harassment and outright attacks have been used to silence and discredit women who are outspoken as leaders, community workers, human rights defenders and politicians. Sexual harassment against female political candidates has been reported as a tactic to discourage women from exercising their right to vote and run for elections.[[fn:34]] Women defenders are often the target of gender-specific violence, such as verbal abuse based on their sex, sexual abuse or rape; they may experience intimidation, attacks, death threats and even murder by community members. Violence against women defenders is sometimes condoned or perpetrated by State actors, including through police harassment of female demonstrators.[[fn:35]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "IACHR, Road to Substantive Democracy (footnote Error: Reference source not found), paras. 110-111, 125."}, {"n": 35, "text": "See A/HRC/16/44."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "3. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 70, "n": 66, "text": "The Internet has become a site of diverse forms of violence against women, in the form of pornography, sexist games and breaches of privacy. For women who engage in public debate through the Internet, the risk of harassment is experienced online, for example, an anonymous negative campaign calling for the gang rape of a woman human rights defender, with racist abuse posted in her Wikipedia profile.[[fn:36]] Female ICT users have publicly protested about sexist attacks.[[fn:37]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "APC submission (footnote Error: Reference source not found), seventh page."}, {"n": 37, "text": "See, among others, Vanessa Thorpe and Richard Rogers, “Women bloggers call for a stop to ‘hateful’ trolling by misogynist men”, The Observer, 6 November 2011. Available from www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/nov/05/women-bloggers-hateful-trolling."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "3. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 71, "n": 67, "text": "Domestic violence is public as well as private in its debilitating impact on women. It can also be used directly as a form of punishment by resentful husbands or other family members against wives or female relatives who become leaders in their community.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "3. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 72, "n": 68, "text": "In 2012, recognizing the importance of eliminating violence against women in public and political life, the General Assembly, in its resolution 66/130, called for an environment of zero tolerance for violence against women elected officials and candidates for public office. In the Latin American and Caribbean region, the Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence against Women explicitly recognizes the right of women to be free from violence in both the public and the private spheres and the impact that violence can have on civil, political and economic, social and cultural rights.[[fn:38]] In this region, there are examples of legislation prohibiting gender-based harassment and violence against a woman candidate as well as pressure on a female candidate’s family.[[fn:39]] In the African region, the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights recently issued a decision on the failure of States in protecting women during acts of political protest, including in a case concerning violence against women journalists.[[fn:40]] In an environment where sexual violence continues to go unpunished, this decision makes a valuable contribution towards ensuring that States are held to account when they fail to protect women from violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Elizabeth Abi-Mershed, “What does the [IACHR] system have to offer as a whole?”, presentation to the Working Group."}, {"n": 39, "text": "Elizabeth Salguero Carrillo, “Political violence against women”, The World of Parliaments Quarterly Review, No. 36 (2009)."}, {"n": 40, "text": "Communication No. 323/2006, Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights and Interights v. Egypt. Available from http://eipr.org/sites/default/files/pressreleases/pdf/text_of_the_afriocan_commission_ decision-english.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "3. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 73, "n": 69, "text": "Stereotypes[[fn:41]] of women’s capacities and roles that negatively affect women’s effective participation in political and public life persist around the world. Despite evidence of women’s important contributions in other fields of life, including in the labour market, stereotypes of female inadequacy in politics continue to be used as a basis for their marginalization and segregation in decision-making positions, with care and distributive tasks such as health and social welfare allocated to women, while men are assigned to economic and defence affairs, distorting the power structure and resource allocation.[[fn:42]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See Rebecca J. Cook and Simone Cusack, Gender Stereotyping: Transnational Legal Perspectives (2010); and Cusack, Stereotyping and Law, available from http://stereotypingandlaw.wordpress.com/."}, {"n": 42, "text": "Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality, report (footnote Error: Reference source not found), p. 7."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "4. Stereotypes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 74, "n": 70, "text": "Women who belong to vulnerable groups, based on race, class, ethnicity, religion or belief, health, status, age, class, caste and sexual orientation and gender identity, are effectively barred from political and public life based on multiple stereotyping. In its concluding observations, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has expressed concern about stereotyped media portrayals of women’s roles within the family and society.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "4. Stereotypes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 75, "n": 71, "text": "The Working Group notes that negotiation by international, regional and State agencies with sectoral or minority groups is negatively influenced by gender stereotyping when conducted solely with the male community leadership, thereby making women’s leadership effectively invisible and further marginalizing women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "4. Stereotypes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 76, "n": 72, "text": "Particularly during times of political transitions, in highly polarized discourse regarding national identity, gender stereotypes can be magnified and undermine progress in eliminating discrimination against women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "4. Stereotypes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 77, "n": 5, "text": "Marginalization by political parties", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "4. Stereotypes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 78, "n": 73, "text": "Political parties are key determinants of women’s political empowerment and women’s participation in politics, as political parties recruit and select candidates for elections.[[fn:43]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "See UNDP and National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (NDI), Empowering Women for Stronger Political Parties: A Good Practices Guide to Promote Women’s Political Participation (2011)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "5. Marginalization by political parties"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 79, "n": 74, "text": "Political parties, which function as gatekeepers in political decision-making, tend to be exclusionary towards women. Women also frequently lack access to political party funding and financial resources for their election bids and campaigns. Some political parties exclude women on religious ideological grounds. Both a national court and the European Court of Human Rights found that a confessional political party’s exclusion of women from its parliamentary candidate list, because “differences in nature, talents and place in society means that, although women are not inferior to men as human beings, they should not be eligible for public office”, was in violation of the State’s Constitution and article 7 of the Convention.[[fn:44]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "See European Court of Human Rights, SGP v. Netherlands, Application No. 58369/10, decision of 10 July 2012."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "5. Marginalization by political parties"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 80, "n": 75, "text": "The most effective strategies for women’s political empowerment involve reforms to incorporate rules that guarantee women’s representation within political parties.[[fn:45]] Some 50 countries have adopted legislation on electoral quotas in order to ensure that a certain proportion of candidates for political office are women. Hundreds of political parties in another 20 countries have voluntarily adopted their own gender quotas.[[fn:46]] In some countries the quota system is established by the constitution. One constitution in the Latin American and Caribbean region includes the principle of parity in all policymaking mechanisms, including elections, ministries, the justice system and political parties, and stipulates that political parties’ “organization, structure and functioning shall be democratic and shall guarantee the rotation of power, accountability, and parity membership between women and men on their governing boards”.[[fn:47]] In the Maghreb, one new constitution mandates the establishment of a mechanism for parity (see A/HRC/20/28/Add.1). Women’s movements were intensely involved in these constitutional processes, illustrating the importance of activism to exert pressure for the creation of a constitutional framework that supports women’s right to representation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "See UNDP and NDI, Empowering."}, {"n": 46, "text": "Ibid., p. 22."}, {"n": 47, "text": "Constitution of Ecuador (2008), art. 8. See also articles 65, 116, 176, and 434 of the Constitution, as cited in the background paper on Latin America and the Caribbean prepared for the Working Group."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "5. Marginalization by political parties"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 81, "n": 76, "text": "The Working Group notes that good practices of States include a legislative, and preferably constitutional, requirement that political parties place women in realistic positions for election, apply quotas, guarantee the rotation of power, accountability and parity membership between women and men on their governing boards and condition the funding of political parties on their integration of women in realistic positions on their candidate lists.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "5. Marginalization by political parties"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 82, "n": 77, "text": "The obligation of States to advance women’s equality and empower women in public and political life requires legal measures at all levels: constitutional, legislative and judicial.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 83, "n": 78, "text": "National constitutions define the framework for eliminating discrimination against women in law and practice and articulate the principles and ways by which historical power asymmetries are redressed.[[fn:48]] Constitutions provide important clarity on the relationship between distinct normative regimes which are adhered to and practiced de facto by different sections of society. A constitutional guarantee of equality for women, in line with international standards, most especially the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, and regional standards, is essential in order to establish a universal imperative of equality for women on which the entire chain of justice within the State will rest. Increasingly, in different regions, women’s rights and non-discrimination clauses have been incorporated into new constitutions or are part of constitutional reform efforts.[[fn:49]] This transnational constitutional pattern can be attributed to ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the concluding observations of the Committee, together with campaigning by women’s activists.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "See Helen Irving, “Where have all the women gone? Gender and the literature on constitutional design”, Sidney Law School Legal Studies Research Paper No. 10/50, May 2010."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Martha Morgan, “How constitution-making, interpretation, and implementation can contribute to protecting and promoting women’s rights”, remarks to the Working Group, October 2012."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "1. Constitutional guarantees"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 84, "n": 79, "text": "In order to ensure effective access to justice for women, the constitutional requirements for gender equality should be specific.[[fn:50]] Research on constitutional provisions that specifically grant or protect the rights of women has shown that while women’s protection clauses cannot be shown to be the exclusive cause of improved legal protection of women, they are associated with gains in women’s rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "See Laura E. Lucas, “Does gender specificity in constitutions matter?” Duke Journal of Comparative & International Law, vol. 20 (2009)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "1. Constitutional guarantees"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 85, "n": 80, "text": "Model examples of constitutional design can be found in recent constitutions in different regions. Since 1981, in many countries in the Western region, constitutions have been amended to include provisions permitting the use of temporary special measures to promote the participation of women in political and public life. One recently established constitution in the Maghreb confers systematically, throughout its provisions, constitutional rights expressly on women as well as men, and seeks to ensure parity between them; in Latin America and the Caribbean there is a constitution which contains approximately 34 references to the rights of women, including the right to political participation.[[fn:51]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "See the keynote address of the Vice-Chairperson of the Working Group at the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women general discussion on access to justice, held on 18 February 2013 in Geneva. Available from www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/OthersActivities.aspx."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "1. Constitutional guarantees"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 86, "n": 81, "text": "The inclusion of any clause in the constitution that derogates from the guarantee of gender equality, by deferring to contradictory precepts in other orders of justice such as traditional and religious principles, undermines the equality standards of international human rights law. Similarly, constitutions that have an override clause, which excludes plural legal systems, religious or customary courts or alternative dispute settlement procedures from the obligation to respect the gender equality guarantee, violate the equality standards of the Convention. Many of the countries that have derogation or exclusion clauses in their constitutions have entered reservations to the human rights treaties, and these reservations have been addressed within the concluding observations of the treaty bodies, which have required their removal.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "1. Constitutional guarantees"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 87, "n": 82, "text": "Effective constitutions for gender equality and non-discrimination provide clarity in a hierarchy of competing laws, legal provisions which establish compliance with universal standards of human rights, and coherence throughout national legal frameworks. There are good practices to be found in different regions, where recognition of the autonomy of customary or indigenous communities is nevertheless subject to the requirement that they respect women’s human rights. For instance, in the sub-Saharan region, one constitutional provision mandates that “laws, cultures, customs and traditions which are against the dignity, welfare or interest of women or any other marginalised group … or which undermine their status, are prohibited by this Constitution”, and in Latin America and the Caribbean one constitution provides far-reaching recognition of both gender equality and indigenous rights, guaranteeing women’s participation and decision-making in indigenous governance and justice systems.[[fn:52]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "1. Constitutional guarantees"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 88, "n": 83, "text": "Constitutional guarantees of gender equality will be operative only if there is provision for effective judicial review of legislative and governmental action and women are empowered to process their claim for equality through the courts. Beyond State courts, the possibility of recourse to international and regional mechanisms opens access to interpretation of the constitutional provisions in line with the international and regional State obligation to respect, protect and fulfil women’s right to equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "1. Constitutional guarantees"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 89, "n": 84, "text": "Elimination of discrimination against women in political and public life necessitates reform of nationality laws. Women’s capacity to participate in political and public life is defined by their citizenship and nationality, but nationality laws often discriminate against women, particularly when they require a single nationality in a family and the wife’s nationality is treated as dependent on her husband’s. In effect, women lose their nationality upon marriage with a foreign husband, particularly if both countries of the spouses follow the principle of dependent nationality. If the country of the husband does not follow this principle, then the wife is at risk of becoming stateless, denying her the right to legitimately participate in the political and public life of any country.[[fn:53]] Laws which require women to seek permission from their husbands, or other family members traditionally defined as their guardians, in acquiring passports and other identity documents also potentially undermine women’s capacity to equal participation in political and public life, including through limited freedom of movement.", "labels": ["Non-citizens and stateless", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "See A/HRC/23/23, paras. 19–20."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "2. Nationality laws"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 90, "n": 85, "text": "In recent years, many countries have repealed or amended discriminatory nationality provisions to allow women to transfer nationality to their children, and, albeit to a lesser extent, to foreign husbands, or to reduce the occurrence of statelessness. Some countries have lifted their reservations to article 9 of the Convention, mostly in relation to women passing on nationality to children (art. 9, para. 2). Nationality laws which discriminate against women have been challenged in the courts of many countries and in international human rights mechanisms, resulting in a number of positive court decisions.[[fn:54]]", "labels": ["Children", "Non-citizens and stateless", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "2. Nationality laws"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 91, "n": 86, "text": "Women and girls belonging to minority communities, rural and indigenous women, migrant women, refugee women and those seeking asylum, and poor women face discriminatory practices in the implementation of laws on nationality and citizenship. They face prejudicial attitudes as well as structural obstacles which limit access to formal registration of births, marriage, residence and other citizenship documents as well as to relevant information on their rights as citizens. Women who are de facto heads of households, including those who have been abandoned by their husbands, whose divorce is not legally registered, or whose husbands have been forcibly disappeared and do not have death certificates for their husbands[[fn:55]], are denied recognition of their status in official documents. Without such access, women from these communities become disproportionately vulnerable in exercising their full and equal rights as citizens.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "See, for example, Association of Parents of Disappeared Persons, Half Widow, Half Wife? Responding to Gendered Violence in Kashmir (2011)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "2. Nationality laws"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 92, "n": 3, "text": "Preventing violence against women", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "2. Nationality laws"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 93, "n": 87, "text": "For all women to have the capacity to exercise their right to equal and full participation in political and public life, States must provide a comprehensive legal framework to eliminate all forms of violence against women, including domestic violence, gender-based violence in conflict situations and under current or past dictatorships, and violence directed at women who speak out and play leadership roles during times of war and peace. As articulated in the agreed conclusions of the fifty-seventh session of the Commission for the Status of Women, these laws must provide for multidisciplinary and gender-sensitive preventive and protective measures, such as emergency barring orders and protection orders; the investigation, submission for prosecution and appropriate punishment of perpetrators to end impunity; and support services that empower victims and survivors, as well as access to appropriate civil remedies and redress.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "3. Preventing violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 94, "n": 88, "text": "Transitional justice mechanisms should provide accountability for gross violations of human rights affecting women, a comprehensive analysis of gender-based violence and abuse by past regimes, the means for transformative reparations for women victims, and the foundation for a gender-responsive reform of the political and legal institutions as part of the guarantee of non-recurrence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "3. Preventing violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 95, "n": 4, "text": "Implementation and enforcement of law", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "3. Preventing violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 96, "n": 89, "text": "Effective elimination of discrimination against women in political and public life relies on the capacity to implement legal guarantees of equality between men and women in this field. National women’s machineries set up within the executive bodies of States have been consistently underresourced and are therefore disadvantaged in carrying out their functions. Autonomous women’s movements which promote universal standards of equality and non-discrimination are key players, both for maintaining the continued existence of these national machineries as well as for promoting their effectiveness. The equal participation of women from minority, indigenous and other marginalized communities in decision-making positions is the measure of a full implementation of legal guarantees and measures.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "4. Implementation and enforcement of law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 97, "n": 90, "text": "NHRIs play a crucial role in providing human rights protection and access to redress for politically active women at risk. Given the complex obstacles deeply rooted in structural inequalities and multiple intersections of social-cultural exclusion, women’s effective participation in political and public life can be achieved only when they have equal and full access to all mechanisms of independent human rights monitoring and redress, particularly in contexts where the risks are high. Gender responsiveness and gender balance in NHRIs and other human rights institutions at the regional and international levels are imperative.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "4. Implementation and enforcement of law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 98, "n": 91, "text": "However, there are no international standards for NHRIs to integrate gender and women’s rights into their work, resulting in the uneven responsiveness of NHRIs to the specific protection needs of women in political and public life, including women human rights defenders and female politicians at the local level. Specialized NHRIs on women’s human rights exist in some countries, but no mechanism guarantees coordination between specialized and the main national human rights bodies, resulting in serious gaps and the risk of fragmented national human rights systems.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "4. Implementation and enforcement of law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 99, "n": 92, "text": "Making justice systems work for women, whether by catalysing legal reform, or supporting legal aid, one-stop shops and training for judges, is key to the sustainability of women’s political participation. This area requires investment. Recognizing the importance of strengthening the rule of law, Governments spend a significant amount on legal and judicial development and human rights. However, targeted funding for gender equality remains low, and gender budgeting initiatives are primarily focused on providing financial resources within State institutions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "4. Implementation and enforcement of law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 100, "n": 93, "text": "Civil society organizations have supported ground-breaking cases on women’s rights generally and as they relate to participation in public and political life. This underlines the importance of securing the capacity of civil society organizations to sustainably fund their critical work, including in the areas of litigation for violations of women’s rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "4. Implementation and enforcement of law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 101, "n": 94, "text": "For women’s participation in political and public life to be meaningful it must be on equal footing with that of men, covering all aspects of political and public life, and effective in achieving substantive outcomes on equality between men and women in all fields of life. Women’s economic independence and the economic viability of their enterprises and collective actions are crucial, and the conditions necessary for this to be achievable is distinct for differently located women, defined by the unique intersections of multiple forms of discrimination experienced by them. Political transitions do not always lead to inclusive democracy and long-lasting peace, and require the effectiveness of autonomous women’s movements to ground universal standards of human rights in political and public life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 102, "n": 95, "text": "Women’s capacity for equal participation in all aspects of political and public life depends on a coherent set of social and economic policies directed at the family, workplace and marketplace. It also requires their capacity to engage in complex issues such as peace and security, state-building, and extreme poverty and all forms of social exclusion. Positive action is needed to empower women to produce knowledge and engage actively and creatively in these fields. As women act collectively to overcome the structural barriers they face, sustainable access of these groups or communities to adequate resources, including financial, is critical.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 103, "n": 96, "text": "The right mix of special measures, both temporary and permanent, is required to address reported stagnation in the rise in women’s participation in public office. Partial and selective application of gender quotas and other temporary special measures must be replaced by a comprehensive system-wide approach, in permanent as well as ad hoc institutions of governance, peace, development and human rights, at the local, national and global levels. The emerging framework for global governance of information and communications technologies (ICTs) is particularly important, considering the crucial role that ICTs are playing in the political and public life of women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 104, "n": 97, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\nTake concrete steps towards achieving parity in political decision-making and leadership at all levels through a multifaceted approach that is responsive to the different obstacles faced by women, including in dealing with multiple discrimination. States should:\n(i) Strengthen the legislative foundation towards parity, including through constitutional provisions and other legislative measures for positive action, such as quotas, to overcome structural barriers to women’s political participation;\n(ii) Provide effective policy measures to increase women’s electability for public office and in key institutions of political and public life, including political parties;\n(iii) Address any indication of stagnation and segregation in the progress towards parity by designing and implementing innovative strategies to overcome specific barriers;\n(iv) Develop strategies to support capacity development for women in public office, including through national and international cooperation among peers;\n(v) Enhance the capacity to consistently and regularly monitor progress at all levels of decision-making across the whole spectrum of institutions of public and political life;\nCreate the enabling conditions for public recognition and acceptance for women in positions of leadership and decision-making through public campaigns and educational programmes which are responsive to multicultural settings, including by:\nGiving recognition to the diversity of women’s engagements in political and public life;\nProviding a positive image of diverse women, including minority women, indigenous women, women with disabilities, and other historically marginalized women, in leadership and decision-making positions;\nProviding youth and children with a wide range of relevant role models and career paths for women, including through mentoring programmes for young women’s participation in political and public life;\nDevelop a bottom-up approach to building democratic and accountable relations between State and society, including in local governance and governance in the sectoral fields, with the active participation of institutions and organizations in which women’s leadership is located and growing;\nSupport and ensure women’s equal participation in and benefit from all areas of political decision-making during times of political transition. States should:\n(i) Apply special measures to ensure the equal and full participation of women in all transitional authorities and mechanisms;\n(ii) Ensure, including through constitutional provisions, a coherent system-wide framework for equality between men and women in all fields of life;\n(iii) Engage women in meaningful and sustainable ways in the development and implementation of policies to achieve lasting peace and security, including by promoting a culture of peace through formal and informal education in a multicultural setting;\nEnsure women’s effective participation in all initiatives to secure accountability for past abuses, including transitional justice processes, and ensure that the guarantee for non-recurrence incorporates overcoming the root causes of gender-based violations in everyday life and institutions;\nCreate a coherent institutional architecture for women’s human rights and gender equality, including by:\n(i) Securing the gender balance and gender-responsive capacity of national human rights institutions (NHRIs) and other independent monitoring bodies;\n(ii) Institutionalizing gender responsiveness as part of the international standards for effective NHRIs;\n(iii) Establishing well-resourced specialized national mechanisms for women’s rights and gender equality;\nSupport the sustainability and growth of autonomous women’s movements in their multifaceted efforts to ground universal standards of equality and human rights in diverse contexts, including by providing non-binding funding at the national and international levels and by supporting the development of independent women’s funds;\nOvercome the knowledge gap regarding women’s participation in political and public life, at the national and global levels, by generating robust sex-disaggregated statistics and multidisciplinary research reflecting the whole spectrum of women’s engagements, including through innovative documentation produced by the women themselves;\nSupport women’s equal participation in political and public life through ICTs, including by:\n(i) Increasing women’s digital literacy, particularly among marginalized women;\n(ii) Ensuring gender-responsiveness in the promotion and protection of human rights on the Internet;\n(iii) Improving women’s access to the global governance of ICTs;\nAccelerate efforts to eliminate all forms of violence against women, including through a comprehensive legal framework to combat impunity, in order to fulfil women’s human rights and to improve the enabling conditions for women’s participation in political and public life;\nGuarantee women’s equal access to decision-making positions and processes in all institutions of global governance, including the United Nations.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is submitted pursuant to Human Rights Council resolutions 15/23 and 23/7. In section II, the Working Group summarizes its activities since its last report to the Human Rights Council up until 18 March 2014. In section III, it addresses the topic of eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis, the priority theme for 2013–2014.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "Frances Raday took up her function as Chairperson-Rapporteur of the Working Group and and Emna Aouij her function as Vice-Chairperson following the presentation, in June 2013, at the twenty-third session of the Human Rights Council, of the Working Group’s thematic report on eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition (A/HRC/23/50).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "The Working Group held three sessions during the reporting period. At its seventh session (1–5 July 2013), it engaged with a number of stakeholders, including UN-Women, relevant parts of the United Nations Secretariat and other experts on various issues related to women in economic and social life. At its eighth session (30 September–4 October 2013), the Working Group continued to exchange views with experts on its priority theme, and held a workshop on business and gender.[[fn:1]] It also convened for the first time a meeting with representatives from regional human rights mechanism from the Americas, Europe, Africa, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. At its ninth session (20–24 January 2014), the Working Group consolidated the information it had gathered to inform the present report and started consulting stakeholders on its next thematic priority for 2014–2015: discrimination against women in family and cultural life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See the background paper and outcome document from the workshop at www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Discriminationagainstwomenineconomicandsociallifeafocusoneconomiccrisis.aspx."}], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "The Working Group visited Iceland from 16 to 23 May 2013 (see A/HRC/26/39/Add.1) and China from 12 to 19 December 2013 (see A/HRC/26/39/Add.2). It would like to thank these States for their cooperation prior and during the visits. It would also like to thank those States that extended invitations for country visits, and urges other States to follow suit.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The Working Group continued sending communications to Governments during the reporting period, either individually or jointly with other mandates, concerning a wide array of issues falling within its mandate. It also issued a number of press statements, either 1 See the background paper and outcome document from the workshop at www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Discriminationagainstwomenineconomicandso ciallifeafocusoneconomiccrisis.aspx. individually or jointly with other mandate holders, human rights treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["II. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "On 10 March 2014, Frances Raday, the Chairperson of the Working Group, took part in a high-level round table on the priority theme of the fifty-eighth session of the Commission on the Status of Women. She also met with a number of stakeholders, including UN-Women and the Secretary-General’s Special Adviser on Post-2015 Development Planning. She also participated in a side event on “Beyond 2015: Due Diligence Framework to End Violence against Women”.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "D. Commission on the Status of Women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "On 24–25 June, Frances Raday took part in the Annual Meeting of Special Procedures and was elected to the Coordination Committee of Special Procedures. From 27 to 28 June 2013, she participated in an International Expert Conference entitled “Vienna+20: Advancing the Protection of Human Rights”. On 7 October 2013, Emna Aouij, Vice-Chairperson, participated in a discussion organized by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to inform a general recommendation on rural women. She also participated in a regional consultation on discrimination against women in the Middle East and North Africa region with a special focus on family and cultural life (Tunis, 18–19 December 2013). From 27 to 29 October 2013, Kamala Chandrakirana took part in a regional consultation with women’s rights organizations in the Asia Pacific region, organized by the Asia Pacific Forum on Women, Law and Development, focusing on economic and social life. Eleonora Zielinksa took part in an international symposium on “Women in Prison and the Bangkok Rules” in Hong Kong, China from 23 to 27 February 2014.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "E. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "This report focuses on the gender aspects of economic and social rights.[[fn:2]] These rights have particular significance for women, who are disproportionately affected by economic and social marginalization and poverty. Women’s right to equality in economic and social rights is substantive, immediate and enforceable. It concerns the division of existing resources, not the development of resources, and therefore the principle of progressive realization does not apply. The State has an obligation of due diligence to prevent discrimination against women in economic and social life by private persons or entities. Furthermore, temporary special measures may be required to accelerate the achievement of de facto equality. In preparing this report, the Working Group availed itself of a wealth of information gathered through a survey that elicited 70 Governments’ replies and other stakeholders’ inputs, and global and specialized background papers. All this information is available on the Working Group’s web page.[[fn:3]] The Working Group also endeavoured to identify good practices that will inform the compendium of good practices mandated in paragraph 18 (b) of Human Rights Council resolution 15/23.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "This report has minimal footnotes due to word limit restrictions. A version of the report with full references and a bibliography for each section is available at www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Discriminationagainstwomenineconomicandsociallifeafocusoneconomiccrisis.aspx."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "International human rights law, including regional instruments, guarantees economic and social rights and women’s right to equality in their enjoyment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "A. The international legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "International human rights law establishes the obligation of States to ensure the exercise of women’s economic and social rights under conditions of equality and free from discrimination. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights are the key human rights instruments guaranteeing these rights. Articles 2 and 3 of the Convention establish a comprehensive obligation to eliminate discrimination in all its forms. Article 4 encourages the use of temporary special measures, while other provisions explicitly guarantee various aspects of women’s economic and social rights, including articles 10 (education), 11 (employment), 13 (financial and cultural life), 14 (rural women) and 15 (equality before the law). Articles 2 and 3 of the Covenant prohibit discrimination based on sex and guarantee “the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all economic, social and cultural rights set forth in the present Covenant”. The Covenant recognizes the right to: work; just and favourable conditions of work; social security; an adequate standard of living; education; and to form trade unions. The international human rights framework is complemented by key International Labour Organization (ILO) gender equality Conventions, such as Conventions No. 100 (equal remuneration), 111 (discrimination in employment and occupation), 156 (workers with family responsibilities), 183 (maternity protection) and 189 (domestic workers).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "A. The international legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Various other international and regional human rights treaties also protect women’s and girls’ social and economic rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "A. The international legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action of the Fourth World Conference on Women identified, as critical policy priorities in the global economy, the persistent burden of poverty on women, and inequalities in education, training, economic structures and policies, productive activities and access to resources.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "A. The international legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Most countries guarantee equality in their constitutions, many of them expressly requiring gender equality. Furthermore, several constitutions in different regions expressly guarantee gender equality in economic and social life and, in some cases, also specifically in working life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "1. Constitutional guarantees"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 14, "n": 2, "text": "Remaining discriminatory legislation", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "1. Constitutional guarantees"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 15, "n": 14, "text": "In a significant number of countries, discriminatory legislation, often through application of personal law systems, continues to create an almost impassable barrier to women’s equal economic and social opportunity. These include laws that limit women’s 4 This section draws upon the background papers by Sandra Fredman and Mayra Gomez. See also the bibliography for this section. access to education, legal capacity, freedom of movement, ownership or enjoyment of property. Discrimination is also found with regard to access to credit, equal retirement age and social security rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "2. Remaining discriminatory legislation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 16, "n": 3, "text": "Anti-discrimination legislation", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "1. Constitutional guarantees"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 17, "n": 15, "text": "There are widespread prohibitions of discrimination against women in education and employment. However, these laws have not led to effective implementation, accountability and de facto equality. Furthermore, in some countries, equal opportunity legislation is restricted to the public sector and has not been applied to the private sector.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "3. Anti-discrimination legislation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 18, "n": 4, "text": "Cultural and structural barriers", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "3. Anti-discrimination legislation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 19, "n": 16, "text": "Women are disadvantaged economically as a result of social and cultural parameters, including stereotyping, discrimination and violence. A structural barrier to women’s economic empowerment is the disparate feminization of unpaid care responsibilities. These cultural and structural barriers appear throughout girls’ and women’s life cycle and, indeed, women’s economic situation varies throughout their life cycle more than men’s.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "4. Cultural and structural barriers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 20, "n": 17, "text": "The Working Group notes that while constitutional guarantees, elimination of discriminatory laws and the establishment of anti-discrimination legislative framework are vital, they are not sufficient to produce equality in the sphere of economic and social life. In order to achieve women’s full and equal participation in economic and social life, it is essential to adopt a transformative agenda that eliminates the cultural and structural barriers to women’s equal opportunity.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "5. Transformative equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 21, "n": 18, "text": "Economic governance is generated not only de jure by political decision-making, but also de facto by the activities of economic and financial institutions, enterprises and corporations at international, transnational and national levels. The International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, regional development banks and the World Trade Organization (WTO) constrain national economic policies. In the year 2000, the top 200 companies surpassed the economies of 182 countries; they exercise significant power in determining policy. The private sector creates and defines jobs, produces growth, sets parameters of income distribution and affects the social and environmental conditions of the communities in which they function.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "6. Economic empowerment"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 22, "n": 19, "text": "There are barriers to women’s access to leadership and decision-making positions in these economic and financial institutions, which generate policies that determine the quality of life of women, men, children and communities. Furthermore, in the emerging area of corporate responsibility, the gendered harm to women resulting from transnational business and trade policies has been largely invisible. There is a need to address these issues and develop tools for gender responsiveness in economic leadership and corporate responsibility.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "6. Economic empowerment"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 23, "n": 20, "text": "Effective elimination of discrimination against women in economic and social life requires gender-responsive and effective accountability systems. Although there are some judicial decisions on discrimination against women in economic and social life at the international, regional and national levels, their number is disturbingly low. The enhancement of women’s legal literacy, including poor and rural women, is necessary to ensure women’s equal access to judicial remedies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "7. Accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 24, "n": 21, "text": "The gender-specific application of emerging international standards of the state obligation to provide mechanisms of accountability for violations of economic and social rights, including courts and quasi-judicial bodies, still requires grounded elaboration. Promising developments exist. With regard to the state obligation of due diligence for human rights violations by corporations, the Guidelines for multinational enterprises of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development apply corporate conduct standards requiring non-discrimination in the selection, promotion and dismissal of women. The extraterritorial obligations of States, articulated in the Maastricht Principles adopted in 2011 by a group of experts in international law and human rights, have been applied by General Recommendation No. 30 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to women’s rights in conflict prevention, conflict and post-conflict situations.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "7. Accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 25, "n": 22, "text": "National human rights institutions can play an important role in ensuring accountability for violations of women’s rights in economic and social life. However, there is little evidence of this occurring in practice, and no mechanism to review the gender-responsiveness of these institutions is in place.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "7. Accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 26, "n": 23, "text": "Accountability for States’ fulfilment of women’s economic and social rights is carried out in some countries through gender budgeting and gender-mainstreaming state budgetary allocations. The effectiveness of review and monitoring requires governmental transparency and meaningful access to decision-making processes on national and local budgets.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "7. Accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 27, "n": 24, "text": "Although women at all economic levels, in high-, middle- and low-income countries, suffer from discrimination, they have primary responsibility for the provision of care and are victims of violence. Women are not a homogenous group, and their experience varies greatly between regions, countries, socioeconomic classes within countries and their identities as members of minorities, migrants, girl children, older women, or on account of single parenthood, disabilities or sexual identity, among others.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "8. Intersectionality and poverty"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 28, "n": 25, "text": "A crosscutting issue in women’s life cycles is their vulnerability to poverty, especially when they are from minority communities. As recommended by the ILO and the Report of the Social Protection Floor Advisory Group chaired by Michelle Bachelet, social protection floors are vital tools to reduce women’s poverty and improve women’s level of economic empowerment.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "8. Intersectionality and poverty"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 29, "n": 26, "text": "The correlation between income and development and gender equality is well established. Both theory and empirical evidence indicate that empowering women means a more efficient use of a nation’s human capital endowment and that reducing gender inequality enhances productivity and economic growth.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "C. Macroeconomic policy, economic crisis, austerity measures and the post-2015 agenda"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 30, "n": 27, "text": "The 2013 World Economic Forum Global Gender Gap Report shows that, although globally almost 93 per cent of the gap in educational attainment has been closed, the gender gap in economic participation and political empowerment remains wide, with only 60 per cent of the economic outcomes gap and only 21 per cent of the political outcomes gap closed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "C. Macroeconomic policy, economic crisis, austerity measures and the post-2015 agenda"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 31, "n": 28, "text": "Vulnerability and economic disadvantage for women are exacerbated by macroeconomic policies that increase inequalities and reduce social protection floors. This is clearly visible in periods of economic crisis, particularly where governments adopt austerity measures. Although the specific effects of the crisis differ by context, the overall picture is one of disparate impact on women, with deepening economic insecurity, an increase in precarious employment and a heavier burden of unpaid care work. Nonetheless, economic crisis merely accentuates existing structural economic disadvantages for women. Therefore, addressing the crisis provides an opportunity to tackle patterns of gender inequality and discrimination entrenched in the economic status quo and shape new gender equality policy responses.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "C. Macroeconomic policy, economic crisis, austerity measures and the post-2015 agenda"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 32, "n": 29, "text": "Research suggests that in general men have more economic security to weather an economic crisis, having higher paying jobs with benefits such as health care and pensions, unemployment insurance coverage, and owning more property. Furthermore, in many crisis countries, women are disparately made redundant by a reduction in public service jobs. In times of financial crisis, social security guarantees are often undermined by austerity measures. The reduction of budgets for care facilities, unemployment benefits, income maintenance and pensions all disparately impact women, who are usually responsible for unpaid care functions and who constitute a majority of the poor. The Bachelet Report and reports by the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights emphasize the role of social protection in cushioning the impact of the economic crisis, particularly for women.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "C. Macroeconomic policy, economic crisis, austerity measures and the post-2015 agenda"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 33, "n": 30, "text": "Alternatives to austerity have been applied successfully in some countries. Counter-cyclical approaches in general have helped reduce the depth and duration of the impact and leverage a more rapid recovery. The Swedish recovery programme focused on avoiding labour market exclusion, particularly for women, and maintaining paid parental leave and day-care subsidies, recognized as particularly beneficial to women workers. Iceland stands out as a pioneer in adopting policies to protect women in the recent crisis, mainstreaming gender in its recovery measures, and appointing a working group to evaluate the impact of the economic crisis from a gender perspective and ensure that gender equality principles are reflected in State-led initiatives to restore the economy.[[fn:6]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See A/HRC/26/39/Add.1."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "C. Macroeconomic policy, economic crisis, austerity measures and the post-2015 agenda"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 34, "n": 31, "text": "The lessons learned from the economic crisis and the impact of macroeconomic policies on women’s economic opportunities can and should inform the post-2015 agenda. Grounding development priorities in women’s human rights is not only a legal and moral imperative, but can also enhance effectiveness and accountability. In accordance with the proposal of UN-Women that gender equality must both be mainstreamed into all development goals and also remain a stand-alone goal, the Working Group recommends that transformative structural change as regards unpaid care functions be duly taken into account in a stand-alone goal of gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "C. Macroeconomic policy, economic crisis, austerity measures and the post-2015 agenda"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 35, "n": 32, "text": "No country has succeeded in closing the gender gap in all aspects of economic and social life. From her first days to her last, a woman’s experiences will inevitably be marked by the expectations, beliefs, stereotypes, values, opportunities, roles and responsibilities associated with being female in her culture. While every girl is unique and every woman’s life is different, in all societies they share certain aspects of quality of life as a result of living in a gendered and patriarchal reality. Gender discrimination and inequality manifest themselves at all stages of women’s life cycle.\nA. The girl child[[fn:7]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "This section draws upon the background paper by Mayra Gomez. See also the bibliography for this section."}], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 36, "n": 33, "text": "Education of girls is key to quality of life for girls, adult women, families and communities. Education has a multiplier effect, increasing labour force participation and reducing child and maternal mortality. A country’s progress depends, among other things, on the enhancement of its female human capital. Above all, education is a basic human right that must, at all levels, be made equally available to girls.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 37, "n": 34, "text": "The gender gap in education is not as stark as it once was: today, female enrolment is rising at greater rate than among males, and data show the achievement of gender parity at primary and/or secondary levels in two thirds of countries. In 2013, 25 countries had fully closed the gap in educational attainment at all levels (5 more than in 2012) with, in some cases, even disparities in favour of girls.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 38, "n": 35, "text": "Despite this significant progress, there are still social and cultural barriers preventing girls’ access to school in some countries, as resonantly evidenced by Malala Yousafzai, the young Pakistani schoolgirl who was the victim of an assassination attempt by Taliban gunmen in 2012 and has since been a vocal advocate for girls’ right to education.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 39, "n": 36, "text": "Most countries only track enrolment and not completion rates, yet enrolment is an inherently flawed measure of girls’ access to education. Attendance is a better measure, as girls’ attendance may be cut short due to domestic responsibilities such as cooking, fetching water and firewood, and childcare; lack of adequate sanitation in schools to meet the needs of menstruating girls; early marriage or pregnancy; and gender-based violence and harassment, including in schools. In situations of economic contraction, as households cope with declining household income, girls are more vulnerable to being pulled out of school, with girls experiencing a 29 per cent decrease in primary school completion rates versus 22 per cent for boys.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 40, "n": 37, "text": "Ensuring girls’ education may require protecting their families against economic shocks and incentivizing parents to keep their girls in school. Cash transfer programmes, for example, have assisted families in return for committing to keeping their girls and boys in school and attending regular health checks, or by providing a stipend to girls who agree to delay marriage until they complete secondary education. Such programmes have been successful in decreasing girls’ dropout rates.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 41, "n": 38, "text": "While educational gender parity shows signs of improvement, it is often not reflected in parallel gains in economic and political participation. Amongst countries that have invested in girls’ education, some see returns in terms of women’s economic and political participation, but others do not. These countries have an untapped educated talent pool and would have much to gain through women’s greater participation in the economy.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 42, "n": 39, "text": "Gender diversification in academic disciplines and professional training are necessary. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization points out that quality reforms include those that address the content or mode of provision of particular educational inputs, such as revising curricula and textbooks, or improving teachers’ skills in gender-aware teaching and learning methods.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 43, "n": 40, "text": "Women’s adult lives both reflect the quality of their girlhood and predict the quality of their older age. Their adult lives are the period of their economic activity and productive capacity, which are characterized by duality. Women function in the cash economy (as employees, self-employed, entrepreneurs or decision makers in economic and financial institutions) and also as the primary unpaid carers (for dependent family members, including children and elderly parents).", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "B. Adulthood"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 44, "n": 1, "text": "Discrimination in employment, formal and informal[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "This section draws upon the background papers by Sandra Fredman and Mayra Gómez. See also the bibliography for this section."}], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "B. Adulthood"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 45, "n": 41, "text": "Participation rates of women in the global labour force continue to be lower than men’s, hovering steadily from 1990 to 2010 at around 52 per cent.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 46, "n": 42, "text": "Gender inequality in economic participation and opportunity remains a pressing problem.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 47, "n": 43, "text": "In many countries, a high percentage of employed women are in formal employment. However, in many low-income countries, formal employment is scarce and the only economic resource, especially for women, is informal work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 48, "n": 44, "text": "In some States, discriminatory legislation persists, including through the delegation of authority to religious personal law systems, obstructing women’s participation in the labour market. However, in many countries, discriminatory legislation has been eliminated and equal employment opportunity laws have been enacted: 101 countries have laws prohibiting employment discrimination and 117 have equal pay laws.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "The formal labour market"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 49, "n": 45, "text": "Nevertheless, there is not full equality of results in any labour market. Discrimination in hiring, promotion, conditions and wages and dismissal exists in all countries. In many high- and middle-income countries, gender gaps in unemployment have worsened since the economic crisis. Furthermore, cultural and structural barriers close opportunities for women in the labour force. Maternity is a focus for discrimination for women in most countries. Women’s hours of workforce participation are, generally, reduced by motherhood, while men’s are increased by fatherhood.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "The formal labour market"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 50, "n": 46, "text": "The gender wage gap persists: women’s wages represent between 70–90 per cent of men’s wages in most countries. Research shows that differences in women’s working hours, which are lower than men’s, cannot justify the wage gap, and the wage gap cannot be attributed solely to a motherhood penalty. Furthermore, wage gaps remain substantial despite women’ gains in education. Indeed, wage gaps are usually wider between men and women with tertiary education. 8 This section draws upon the background papers by Sandra Fredman and Mayra Gómez. See also the bibliography for this section.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "The formal labour market"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 51, "n": 47, "text": "There is a related problem of segregation in the formal labour market, with women clustered in “pink collar”, largely service sector, jobs with inferior working conditions, less job security and lower pay. In high-income countries, more than 85 per cent of employed women work in the service sector, primarily in education and health. In order to address wage gaps resulting from occupational segregation, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and ILO Conventions require equal pay for equal work or for work of equal value, comparable in skill, responsibility, effort and working conditions. The ILO guide to gender-neutral job evaluation[[fn:9]] provides an objective evaluation system. The ILO also recommends that policies to combat occupational segregation also encourage men to enter occupations traditionally associated with women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "ILO, Promoting Equity: Gender-neutral Job Evaluation for Equal Pay: a Step-by-Step Guide (Geneva, 2008)."}], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "The formal labour market"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 52, "n": 48, "text": "Women are concentrated in higher numbers than men in informal work, not recognized, recorded, protected or regulated by the public authorities, and overrepresented in precarious, atypical and vulnerable work or employment. There are extreme examples in which 93 per cent of women workers are in informal work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Informal work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 53, "n": 49, "text": "The informal sector includes casual and seasonal workers, part-time workers, temporary and agency workers, home workers, domestic workers, unpaid family workers and also some forms of self-employment, such as street hawkers. Informal employment is growing in both developing and developed countries: the workforce is becoming increasingly “flexibilized” as employers attempt to avoid regulation and cut labour costs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Informal work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 54, "n": 50, "text": "Women in the informal economy have, furthermore, been deeply affected by economic crisis. There is an “added worker” effect, whereby women enter the labour force to provide additional income security to the household, often forcing them into precarious work, migrant labour overseas or exposing them to trafficking. According to Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing, nearly 40 per cent of street vendors interviewed in developing countries in 2009 had experienced an overall deterioration of employment and income levels, and 84 per cent of own-account home-based workers reported reduced monthly incomes.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Informal work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 55, "n": 51, "text": "Domestic workers caring for children, the disabled and ageing people, are a highly vulnerable category of employees, often in the informal sector. About 83 per cent are women or girls, and many are migrant workers. Domestic workers often encounter deplorable working conditions; labour exploitation; extortionate recruitment fees resulting in debt; confiscation of passports; long, unregulated hours of work; lack of privacy; exposure to physical and sexual abuse; and separation from their own families and children. The ILO Domestic Workers Convention (No. 189) calls for States to guarantee decent work for domestic workers, and thus several countries have introduced new protections.", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Domestic and migrant workers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 56, "n": 52, "text": "Women migrant workers face exploitation and abuse, often finding themselves in precarious employment without effective legal protections, particularly if they have irregular or undocumented legal status. About half of the world’s migrant workers are women, most of them finding work in traditionally female-dominated occupations such as domestic work or in the garment and textile industries. General Recommendation No. 26 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, on women migrant workers, emphasizes that all categories of women migrants must be protected against discrimination. The ILO Migrant Workers Convention (No. 143) and the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families also provide important protections.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Domestic and migrant workers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 57, "n": 53, "text": "General Recommendation No. 26 highlights that discrimination against women migrant workers may be especially acute in relation to pregnancy. However, there are some instances of good practice where, for example, the deportation of pregnant migrant workers was expressly prohibited by a High Court decision.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Domestic and migrant workers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 58, "n": 54, "text": "In order to secure decent work for women, the damaging impact of informal work must be addressed. This requires reduction and reconstruction of informal work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reduction and reconstruction of informal work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 59, "n": 55, "text": "Reducing informal work for women means increasing women’s opportunities to work in the formal labour market. States, in different regions and at different income levels, have invested in the reskilling or professionalization of unemployed persons, with targeted benefits for women, such as retraining for jobs, especially for those with family responsibilities, or in setting quotas for women in employment guarantee programmes targeted at the poorest households. In the 2008 economic crisis, some States engaged in good practice specifically preserving women’s jobs, and four countries in different regions increased their public works programmes with focus on female participation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reduction and reconstruction of informal work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 60, "n": 56, "text": "Reconstructing informal employment is often possible through legal interpretation or law enforcement. Legal factors that exclude informal workers from the coverage of protective labour laws include narrow definitions of the employment relationship, recognition of contracting out, specific exclusions and lack of enforcement. There is some judicial good practice to void the use of “flexibilized” patterns of employment by employers seeking to avoid their labour law obligations; of extending anti-discrimination legislation to leased employees; and of applying a pro rata system to employment conditions of part-time, temporary or leased workers. Reconstructing the informal labour in order to guarantee decent work for women also requires extending all social security rights, including maternity and care rights, to informal sector employees.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reduction and reconstruction of informal work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 61, "n": 2, "text": "Women as business leaders, entrepreneurs and economic decision-makers[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "This section draws upon the background papers by Ama Marston and Efrat Herzberg. See also the bibliography for this section."}], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reduction and reconstruction of informal work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 62, "n": 57, "text": "Women make important contributions to business around the world as business owners and entrepreneurs, with 224 million women globally operating businesses. Women tend to be concentrated in small and medium enterprises (SMEs), which account for a significant share of employment generation and economic growth potential, with full or partial female ownership representing 31–38 per cent of SMEs in emerging markets. Women informal traders contribute significantly to national gross domestic product, accounting for between 40 and 65 per cent of value added in trade in some African countries. Research shows that companies with female board membership and diversity outperform others in return on sales, invested capital and equity. Furthermore, during the financial crisis, companies with women in the leadership had a better record of financial and employment sustainability.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reduction and reconstruction of informal work", "2. Women as business leaders, entrepreneurs and economic decision-makers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 63, "n": 58, "text": "Nevertheless, there is a significant gender gap in top leadership in decision-making bodies in business, finance and trade, including in international institutions such as the IMF and the WTO. Out of the world’s 2,000 top performing companies, just 29, or 1.5 per cent, 10 This section draws upon the background papers by Ama Marston and Efrat Herzberg. See also the bibliography for this section. had female chief executive officers in 2009. Women account for 4 per cent of chief executive officers in Fortune 500 companies and 4 per cent in information technology and telecommunications companies. In 2012, women had only 16.6 per cent of Fortune 500 Board seats, of which only 0.6 per cent were women of colour. Only 17 out of 177 governors of central banks were women in 2012 (less than 10 per cent). Women are also greatly underrepresented in the leadership of cooperatives and trade unions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reduction and reconstruction of informal work", "2. Women as business leaders, entrepreneurs and economic decision-makers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 64, "n": 59, "text": "However, reports suggest that rates of women in senior management are slowly increasing globally, currently reaching 24 per cent. The economies of the Group of Seven are at the bottom of the list, with just 21 per cent of senior roles occupied by women, and with only 7 per cent in one of these countries. This compares to 28 per cent in the BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and China) economies, 32 per cent in South East Asia and 40 per cent in the Baltic States, while in China, 51 per cent of senior management positions are currently held by women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reduction and reconstruction of informal work", "2. Women as business leaders, entrepreneurs and economic decision-makers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 65, "n": 60, "text": "States have a due diligence obligation, under international human rights law and in accordance with article 2 (e) of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, to prevent discrimination by corporate, financial or trade institutions, whether national or transnational, which fall under their jurisdiction.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Discrimination in law and practice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 66, "n": 61, "text": "In many economies, there are discriminatory laws, often emanating from personal law systems, that create barriers to women operating in business. Examples include restrictions on registering a business, travelling outside of a country, owning land and other productive assets, opening a bank account, inheriting family property and taking a job without a husband’s permission. In many countries, the legal regulation of cooperatives allows membership for male heads of household only.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Discrimination in law and practice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 67, "n": 62, "text": "Additional limiting factors include gender stereotypes, lack of mentoring by senior male business leaders and lack of connection to chambers of commerce to identify business and trade opportunities. Underinvestment in women entrepreneurs is a worldwide phenomenon. Research shows that from 1997 to 2000, women-led businesses in the United States received only 5 per cent of venture capital money invested each year. Venture funds led by women constitute just 10–15 per cent of the investment sector and so, although they put 70 per cent of investment in women entrepreneurs, their impact is limited. In Africa, female-owned companies in the formal sector in urban areas have two and a half times less start-up capital than male-owned equivalents. In addition, due to their concentration in small businesses, women are more vulnerable to economic fluctuations and financial crisis. Furthermore, the gender pay gap widens as women reach senior positions. For example, in one West European country, women’s average bonuses are half those of men’s.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Discrimination in law and practice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 68, "n": 63, "text": "A number of countries have adopted temporary special measures specifically directed at accelerating de facto equality for women in corporate leadership, entrepreneurship and trade. Legislation with gender quotas for membership of corporate boards has been adopted in 13 countries. Most of the countries with quota requirements belong to the Western European and other States Group, but some are in Africa and Asia. The quota requirements, varying between a minimum of 1 and 40 per cent, apply to government companies and publicly listed companies. In some States, failing to fulfil quota requirements results in sanctions. Quotas have also been applied by local government to boards of directors of cooperatives. On the evidence, it seems that mandatory and not voluntary quotas are the most effective way to get women onto boards.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Empowerment measures for women, including quotas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 69, "n": 64, "text": "Preliminary good practices for promotion of women’s entrepreneurship include the ILO Job Creation in Small and Medium Sized Enterprises Recommendation 1998 (No. 189) and Women’s Entrepreneurship Development and Gender Equality programme, the Canadian Business Women in International Trade programme and the Malaysia External Trade Development Corporation special programme for women exporters. The International Trade Centre has encouraged States to devise gender-sensitive national export strategies. Two countries also focused on female entrepreneurs, in response to the economic crisis, cutting interest rates on loans to micro- and small enterprises targeted at women-headed households or introducing special credit lines for female artisans.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Empowerment measures for women, including quotas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 70, "n": 65, "text": "Training, information and provision of credit and saving facilities are all essential for entrepreneurship. Multilateral initiatives to support women’s entrepreneurship and facilitate their access to financial resources include the ILO Women’s Entrepreneurship Development and Gender Equality programme, the Global Banking Alliance for Women and the Mann Deshi Mahila Sahakari Bank, founded in 1997, one of the first legally recognized women’s cooperative banks.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Empowerment measures for women, including quotas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 71, "n": 66, "text": "Procurement policies that target women can be a tool to advance women’s businesses. In developing countries, governments are the largest buyer of goods and services, accounting for 15–20 per cent of gross domestic product, and yet spend only 1 per cent on sourcing from women-owned businesses. Some countries have begun to tackle the issue. One country from the Western European and other States Group set a mandatory goal of 5 per cent of federal contract spending on women-owned small businesses. An African country put in place Public Procurement and Disposal (Preference and Reservations) Regulations to ensure access to government contracts by enterprises owned by women, youth and persons with disabilities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Empowerment measures for women, including quotas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 72, "n": 3, "text": "Gender analysis of corporate responsibility[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "This section draws upon the background paper by Ama Marston. See also the bibliography for this section."}], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Empowerment measures for women, including quotas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 73, "n": 67, "text": "Since the 1980s, transnational corporate activity and economic and trade policies, although creating economic opportunities for women, have also exposed them to severe disadvantages and, in some cases, human rights violations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Empowerment measures for women, including quotas", "3. Gender analysis of corporate responsibility"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 74, "n": 68, "text": "There is an emerging business and human rights agenda focusing on corporate responsibility for human rights violations. The Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights[[fn:12]] establish three pillars of corporate responsibility: the duty of the State to protect against human rights abuses by private actors; corporate responsibility to respect human rights; and the duty of both to provide remedies for rights violations. While the Principles acknowledge that guidance to business should take into account gender considerations, there is significant work to be done to elaborate upon this and address the gendered impact of corporate activities on women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "A/HRC/17/31, annex."}], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Empowerment measures for women, including quotas", "3. Gender analysis of corporate responsibility"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 75, "n": 69, "text": "Corporate governance has produced a dramatic increase in resources and income inequalities, with harsh implications for women, given their concentration lower on the value chain and in poverty. Furthermore, the increased mobility of corporations and free trade agreements have resulted in the amassing of political power vis-à-vis host States and can contribute to a lack of accountability and insurmountable barriers for women to access justice. The move of production by transnational corporations to export processing zones, the reliance on home and sweatshop sectors, and land dispossession by extractives 11 This section draws upon the background paper by Ama Marston. See also the bibliography for this section. 12 A/HRC/17/31, annex. industries are a locus for corporate abuse and violation of human rights, and most of the victims are women.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Harm to women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 76, "n": 70, "text": "Export processing zones are delineated industrial estates with special incentives set up to attract foreign business and trade. They are feminized work enclaves in which women make up the majority of workers, up to 100 per cent in some cases. Women workers face particularly harsh employment conditions. Normal labour laws are usually not applied. Whether de jure or de facto, there is a lack of union organization and, typically, women’s wages are 20–50 per cent lower than men’s. Furthermore, these zones are a health hazard for women, with overextended working hours, rights violations relating to pregnancy protection, maternity leave or childcare, and sexual harassment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Harm to women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 77, "n": 71, "text": "Sweatshop and home work sectors exploit cheap, informal labour, largely from female workers. Businesses subcontract more than 300 million home workers in developing countries, hired to work at home in textiles, electronics, packaging and processing, for a piece rate without labour rights protections. A cut of earnings is also taken by middlemen. Women make up 85–90 per cent of sweatshop workers. Employers often force them to take pregnancy tests to avoid supporting maternity leave. Thousands of women work in garment factories, with the constant threat of fatal sweatshop fires largely because of corporate cost-saving decisions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Harm to women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 78, "n": 72, "text": "Extractive industries, as well as, increasingly, biofuel, agribusiness and real estate projects, are land intensive, and land dispossession has disproportionately displaced women. Women, who make up 70–80 per cent of the world’s small-scale farmers, lose their livelihood, often do not receive compensation paid to landowners, who are male, and are the last in line for formal employment in the industries. As primary carers, they are deprived of shelter and the ability to feed their families. The arrival of a transient, largely male workforce also increases prostitution, sexual violence and sexually transmitted disease. Mismanagement of extractive projects can also lead to severe violations of human rights that are manifested in unique ways for women, including murder, torture, rape and sexual violence at the hands of security forces brought in to impose order.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Harm to women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 79, "n": 73, "text": "There are some initial efforts, although sporadic and preliminary, to gendermainstream corporate responsibility.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 80, "n": 74, "text": "The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has, for instance, held States responsible for denying equal access for women to private health providers. One binational trade agreement, supported by the ILO, linked access to markets in importing countries with improved labour conditions for the largely female garment workers in the exporting country. There are examples of corporate initiatives to provide childcare, career development and training for female workers in overseas garment industries, or to prevent use of ultrasound equipment, which may be used to increase sex-selective abortion.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 81, "n": 75, "text": "Additionally, civil society and women workers have been important agents for change. They have, for example, created drop-in centres where young women garment workers learn about their labour rights, and they have organized and achieved widespread change in conditions of agricultural workers, previously similar to slavery practices.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 82, "n": 76, "text": "Civil society representatives have joined a handful of business leaders to form the Business and Human Rights Reference Group, which has begun to elaborate how gender fits into the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 83, "n": 77, "text": "Secure rights over resources, including property, land, housing, food, water and sanitation, are essential to women’s equality and well-being, and to their economic independence and autonomy.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility", "3. Access to resources"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 84, "n": 78, "text": "In some countries, discriminatory legislation or implementation of legislation results in the negation of women’s rights to land and other productive resources. These issues have been examined by a UN-Women/OHCHR expert group meeting, in which a member of the Working Group participated, and have been documented in an in-depth report.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility", "3. Access to resources"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 85, "n": 79, "text": "Furthermore, failure to provide access to housing, food and water has disproportionately burdened women as vulnerable members of communities, as childbearers and as primary carers. These issues have been gender-mainstreamed in reports by, for example, the Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living, and on the right to non-discrimination in this context; the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights; the Special Rapporteur on the right to food; the Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation; and Independent Expert on the effects of foreign debt and other related international financial obligations of States on the full enjoyment of all human rights, particularly economic, social and cultural rights.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility", "3. Access to resources"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 86, "n": 80, "text": "These issues, though flagged as crucial, will not be dealt with in this report, due to space limitations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility", "3. Access to resources"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 87, "n": 4, "text": "The impact of parenthood and care functions[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "This section draws upon the background paper by Sharon Offenberger. See also the bibliography for this section."}], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility", "3. Access to resources"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 88, "n": 81, "text": "Reproduction and care functions are the very basis of human life and society. These functions, whether paid or unpaid, are performed either solely or largely by women. The fact that these functions are performed by women creates a major barrier to women’s equality of opportunity in the labour market or in business, finance and entrepreneurship. Women’s maternity rights have been widely recognized in formal employment, but not extended to either other spheres of economic activity or care functions. There has been a systemic failure to properly integrate the biological function of reproduction and the gendered function of unpaid caring into macroeconomic policy in a holistic, effective and coherent way, to ensure that reproduction and caring go hand-in-hand with the overall economic empowerment of women. This policy failure in effect endorses a major structural barrier to the equality of economic opportunity for women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility", "4. The impact of parenthood and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 89, "n": 82, "text": "It is crucial to recognize both the right to maternity benefits and also the right to an equal and fair distribution of care functions as fully-fledged economic and social rights. These rights are a prerequisite for the equal right of women to the enjoyment of all economic social and cultural rights and, in particular: the right to work; the enjoyment of just and favourable conditions of work; an adequate standard of living; freedom from hunger; enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health; and the right to take part in cultural life.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility", "4. The impact of parenthood and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 90, "n": 83, "text": "Barriers to women’s economic opportunities resulting from reproduction and care functions must be removed in order to permit choice by women and men as to how they allocate economic and caring duties. Three possible patterns of allocation have been 13 For more information, see the background paper by Mayra Gomez. See also UN–Women and OHCHR, Realizing Women’s Rights to Land and Other Productive Resources (2013). 14 This section draws upon the background paper by Sharon Offenberger. See also the bibliography for this section. identified: both parents as full-time workers; one full-time and one part-time worker, where the part-time worker is usually the woman; or the male breadwinner model. There is also the single parent pattern, which is usually a woman.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility", "4. The impact of parenthood and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 91, "n": 84, "text": "Patterns of allocation are often not the result of choice, but rather of stereotyping and discrimination. There is evidence, in most countries, of discrimination in hiring, firing and workplace treatment of pregnant women; imposition of a disproportionate share of unpaid care responsibilities on women; and negative stereotyping of mothers and also fathers who are taking care of children. Cultural assumptions of the motherhood role appear to exist in tension with the conception of the ideal worker. Nevertheless, in a cross-regional comparison of selected countries, it was found that motherhood does not uniformly reduce labour force participation or occupational success and, indeed, it increases these in some countries as compared to women without children. However, it does reduce the number of hours worked and, even more, it increases, disproportionately and beyond any difference that might be explained by the reduction of work hours, the gap between mothers’ wages and fathers’ wages.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility", "4. The impact of parenthood and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 92, "n": 85, "text": "Women’s reproductive functions include pregnancy, birth and breastfeeding. These are the biological functions of maternity. In accordance with the normative framework created by the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the ILO Conventions, in some States, there are provisions, statutory or judicial, prohibiting discrimination during pregnancy and protecting women against dismissal for a period of months or even years after they give birth. Nevertheless, there has been a rise in complaints of pregnancy discrimination in a number of countries, and effective measures are required to guarantee women’s employment security during pregnancy and after birth.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 93, "n": 86, "text": "The frameworks of the ILO and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women impose an obligation on States parties to provide paid maternity leave to employed women, set by the ILO at a minimum of 14 weeks with a recommended 18 weeks, and daily breaks for breastfeeding. The provision of maternity leave has become almost universal: 51 per cent of countries provide maternity leave of at least 14 weeks; 20 per cent of 18 weeks or more; 35 per cent of 12–13 weeks of leave. Only 14 per cent of countries provide less than 12 weeks.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 94, "n": 87, "text": "State obligation under the Convention and ILO Conventions is to provide paid leave. Maternity leave policies without adequate compensation can lead to financial stress, and research suggests that women who return to work without taking their full maternity leave entitlement usually do so for financial reasons. Good practice for payment of maternity leave is through social insurance or public funds so as not to increase discrimination against women by employers seeking to avoid the burden of paid maternity leave.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 95, "n": 88, "text": "Despite efforts to extend the reach of ILO Conventions to women in precarious employment, many women still do not have the basic rights set out above. The informal economy, on which overwhelming numbers of women depend for their livelihood, remains beyond the reach of labour regulation and maternity rights. The extension of paid maternity leave to women entrepreneurs or self-employed women is a good practice found in some countries. Under European Union Directives, there is a requirement to provide paid maternity leave for self-employed women, calculated on the basis of average loss of income or profit (subject to ceiling) or a national allowances level such as minimum wage. Leave is not compulsory, however, and the conditions on which is it paid often differ from those for women in formal employment. The Working Group welcomes in that regard a decision by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (Communication No. 36/2012) in which it considered that the abolition of an initially existing public maternity leave scheme, without establishing an adequate alternative maternity leave scheme to cover loss of income during maternity immediately available to self-employed women, constituted a breach of article 11 (2) (b) of the Convention.\nCare functions", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 96, "n": 89, "text": "A disproportionate amount of unpaid care work falls on women, limiting women’s capacity to engage in paid work. This is evidenced in empirical studies which show that women, whether or not they are in paid employment, spend between twice to four times the amount of hours on care functions than do men. Up to 90 per cent of home care due to illness is performed by women and girls.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 97, "n": 90, "text": "Unlike women’s reproductive function, care functions do not necessarily have to fall on women. All forms of care, including childcare, are amenable to social reconstruction, and indeed in the Nordic countries, which have long pursued a policy of gender equality in the division of work and childcare functions, the distribution of care work comes close to parity. Good practice regarding the allocation of care responsibilities, pioneered in the Nordic countries, encourages men to enter traditionally women’s worlds, both in the family and in the workplace, thus allowing women to participate and advance in the labour market.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 98, "n": 91, "text": "The Working Group considers that the three “Rs” of unpaid care work – recognition, reduction and redistribution – should be integrated into macroeconomic policy in order to fulfil women’s right to care services and to facilitate the women’s economic empowerment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 99, "n": 92, "text": "Recognition of unpaid care work entails the imposition, on the international and constitutional levels, of a state obligation to guarantee an equal distribution of care functions as a fully-fledged economic and social right. It also signifies the recognition of care expenses as part of the gross national product, thus requiring integration of the care economy into the macroeconomy. It necessitates the prohibition of direct or indirect discrimination on grounds of care functions, as established by the ILO and the European Court of Justice. Furthermore, it justifies the good practice of recognizing care expenses as deductible for income tax purposes, since provision of care for dependents is a necessary expenditure to allow an unpaid caretaker to generate income.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 100, "n": 93, "text": "Reducing care work may, especially in developing countries and rural areas, be achieved by improving the basic infrastructure, including water, sanitation and transportation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 101, "n": 94, "text": "Redistributing care work involves restructuring the design, funding and delivery of care by households, markets, the State and civil society so that a disproportionate burden of unpaid care does not fall on women. The equal sharing of care amongst different actors requires, on one hand, the sharing of care responsibilities by men as well as women in households and, on the other, the provision by the State of affordable and accessible care facilities, including childcare, adequate hospital care and recuperation periods, and facilities for the care of the disabled and the elderly.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 102, "n": 95, "text": "Sharing of care responsibilities within the household should remain a matter of choice for women and men. For any real choice to be possible, paid care leave must be available to both parents. The Nordic countries were the first to introduce an independent paternity leave in order to overcome stereotypes and barriers to men sharing childcare functions. Such provisions are becoming more common around the world, with increased awareness of men’s parenting roles and their need to reconcile work and family life. Paternity leave is usually much shorter than maternity leave and more often unpaid. Some countries have introduced more gender-neutral parental leave options, and recent best practice in one Nordic country provides symmetry in childcare leave, with five months for each parent individually and two months that can be allocated according to parental choice.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See A/HRC/26/39/Add.1."}], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 103, "n": 96, "text": "Need for care continues for toddlers and older children after the period of parental leave and also exists for the elderly and disabled. Responsibility for this needs to be redistributed through care services. At present, international minimum state obligations for provision of childcare services or for elderly and disabled services are lacking.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 104, "n": 97, "text": "As regards childcare, the Working Group supports the call of UN-Women for States to guarantee quality and accessible childcare as a social protection floor. This both serves the obligation to achieve de facto equality for women in economic and social life and enables parents to reconcile work and family life. The Working Group suggests that the provision of childcare may also be engineered as an economic efficiency measure, with the right to fully subsidized care services linked to the parent’s participation in economic activity. In addition, good practice includes State support for community, trade union and corporate initiatives to provide care services. Furthermore, after children start school, it is good practice to synchronize children’s school hours and holidays with adults’ work schedules.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 105, "n": 98, "text": "Women’s poverty and quality of life in older age derives from the culmination of the earlier phases in their life cycle and bears their imprint: stereotyping in education and girlhood; precarious jobs; informal labour; the costs of caring; interrupted career patterns; and the motherhood penalty in labour force participation. Hence women’s situation in retirement can be regarded as a litmus test for the quality of women’s economic and social life.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "C. Older women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 106, "n": 99, "text": "There is a gender pension gap both in wealth accumulation and income. The balance of pension entitlements within multipillar systems has a direct impact on the gender pension gap. Social (World Bank “zero pillar”) schemes, which give basic flat rate citizens’ pensions, are non-contributory and do not, as such, differentiate between men’s and women’s pension entitlement, thus producing equality. Therefore, the trend to diversify pension systems to include contributory first and second pillar systems, which base a substantial element of pension entitlement on working life contributions, impacts women adversely, increasing the gender pension gap, as women’s contribution to these funded pension schemes is lower because of the structural factors in their labour market and care work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "C. Older women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 107, "n": 100, "text": "Discriminatory laws and practice prevail in most countries. Some such laws are self-evident, such as mandatory early retirement for women. Some are what has been called “statistical discrimination”, such as separate annuity tables for women and men based on women’s greater longevity. Others are the result of the sociology of the family and of legislative policy endorsing and perpetuating the economic dependence of women on a husband’s income and pension entitlement.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "C. Older women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0108", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 108, "n": 101, "text": "Good practices include gender-specific compensatory measures such as continuing pension contributions during maternity and childcare leaves, unisex calculation of benefits, equalizing mandatory retirement age and mandatory joint annuities. All these measures, with quite wide margins of difference in the extent of their generosity and with some 15 See A/HRC/26/39/Add.1. 16 This section draws upon the background paper by Frances Raday. See also Estelle James et al., “The gender impact of pension reform – a cross-country analysis”, Policy Research Working Paper (World Bank, 2003). caveats as to the categories of women who do not benefit from each of these measures, have some marginal impact in reducing the pension gap. Of these gender-specific measures, the only one that almost closes the gender pension gap is mandatory joint annuities. This suggests that the way to rectify women’s relative poverty in old age is through mandating joint annuities with their husbands. However, this does not solve the problem for single or divorced women. Furthermore, it leaves the problem of engineering a system that is equitable for traditional dependent marriages and yet can still incentivize economically independent women. V. Violence against women[[fn:17]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "This section draws upon the background paper by Frances Raday and Shai Oksenberg in collaboration with the Lowenstein Institute. See also R.K.B. v. Turkey (Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women Communication No. 28/2010)."}], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "C. Older women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0109", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 109, "n": 102, "text": "Gender-based violence against women, including state violation of women’s bodily integrity and autonomy, violence in the public arena, violence in workplaces and educational institutions, and domestic violence and economic violence by intimate partners, can severely impact and restrict women’s economic and social potential throughout their life cycle, including their access to education, freedom of movement and employment. In economic and social institutions, women are exposed to sexual harassment, including unwelcome sexual behaviour, remarks, and pornographic images and demands, whether by words or actions. Such conduct is threatening and humiliating.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0110", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 110, "n": 103, "text": "Many countries prohibit sexual harassment in the workplace, whether it is quid pro quo (extorting sexual cooperation by threat of job-related consequences) or creating a hostile environment, and impose accountability on the employer. Out of 100 countries surveyed, 78 have laws addressing sexual harassment in the workplace, and of these, 52 criminalize such conduct. The legal prohibition of sexual harassment has been based, variously, on the concepts of discrimination against women and of violation of women’s human dignity, and good practice is to apply a “double approach” involving both concepts.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0111", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 111, "n": 104, "text": "In addition, women are exposed to sexual harassment in the public arena, including service institutions, public transport, “street harassment,” cyberbullying and pornographic advertising, producing a fear factor that severely curtails their freedom of movement and occupation. However, only 8 out of 100 States have enacted laws prohibiting sexual harassment in public places. Good practice includes prohibition of sexual harassment in the provision of services. It entails municipal responsibility for policing, lighting and introducing surveillance cameras in public spaces.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0112", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 112, "n": 105, "text": "School-related gender-based violence takes different forms, with girls in some countries violently targeted for attending school, while in other countries, they are subject in school to sexual violence or harassment, including by teachers. Such violence results in trauma, stigmatization and sometimes pregnancy, and severely curtails girls’ educational opportunities. In many States, sexual intercourse with a minor is considered rape, as minors are not capable of consent, but only 32 out of 100 States have specific provisions on sexual harassment at schools. Examples of good practices by some States include introducing confidential school reporting mechanisms, capacity-building for police, child-friendly courts, a public register of sexual offenders and barring sexual offenders from teaching. 17 This section draws upon the background paper by Frances Raday and Shai Oksenberg in collaboration with the Lowenstein Institute. See also R.K.B. v. Turkey (Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women Communication No. 28/2010).", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0113", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 113, "n": 106, "text": "Women are also highly vulnerable to trafficking for sexual or work exploitation. This form of gender-based violence will be addressed by the Working Group in its report on health and safety.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0114", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 114, "n": 107, "text": "The Working Group calls on States to ratify the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and all relevant international human rights treaties and ILO Conventions which guarantee women’s economic and social rights. It calls upon them to implement the obligations therein, including by ratifying the Optional Protocols of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, by introducing the required constitutional and legislative guarantees, and by adopting a transformative agenda which will produce an outcome of de facto equality for women in their economic and social lives.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0115", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 115, "n": 108, "text": "The Working Group additionally recommends the adoption of concrete measures based on the good practices which inform this thematic report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0116", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 116, "n": 109, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0117", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 117, "n": 110, "text": "Eliminate discriminatory laws which create barriers to women’s formal or informal employment and to their enjoyment of economic and social rights; expressly guarantee women’s right to equality in economic and social life in the private as well as public sector, with immediate effect, and with special measures to accelerate de facto equality;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "A. General"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0118", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 118, "n": 111, "text": "Ensure women’s access to judicial redress and remedies for discrimination in economic and social life, accountability being an essential part of the fulfilment of women’s right to equality and entailing affordable access to justice and adequate remedies;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "A. General"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0119", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 119, "n": 112, "text": "Recognize that vulnerability and economic disadvantage for women are exacerbated by macroeconomic policies which increase inequalities and reduce social protection floors;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "A. General"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0120", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 120, "n": 113, "text": "Recognize the disparate impact of austerity measures on women in response to economic crisis and adopt gender-sensitive strategies that avoid labour market exclusion, loss of social protection floors and reduction of social services.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "A. General"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0121", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 121, "n": 114, "text": "Eliminate all discriminatory laws and practices which prevent girls from completing their education, including child marriage;", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "B. The girl child"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0122", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 122, "n": 115, "text": "Ensure all girls’ de facto access to education, including mandatory, free primary education and access to secondary and tertiary education, free of discrimination;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "B. The girl child"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0123", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 123, "n": 116, "text": "Adopt good practices to combat non-attendance by girls, such as providing financial resources to parents to keep their girls in school, preventing violence against girls in schools, providing proper sanitary facilities and making provision for pregnant girls and school-age mothers;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "B. The girl child"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0124", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 124, "n": 117, "text": "Ensure equality for girls in the quality of education at all levels, including breaking down gender stereotypes in school curricula, teacher training programmes, textbooks and teaching materials; and encourage girls’ engagement in non-traditional vocational skill areas and academic disciplines, such as mathematics, science and technology;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "B. The girl child"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0125", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 125, "n": 118, "text": "Introduce a universal core syllabus which will inform boys and girls of their human rights, including women’s human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "B. The girl child"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0126", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 126, "n": 1, "text": "Working relationships, formal and informal", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "B. The girl child"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0127", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 127, "n": 119, "text": "Ensure that prohibition of discrimination on grounds of sex, pregnancy or parenthood, are enforced for all women in work;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "1. Working relationships, formal and informal"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0128", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 128, "n": 120, "text": "Impose on employers the obligation to pay equal pay for equal work or work of equal value through the use a variety of means, including by objective job evaluation with participation by stakeholders and social partners, and by desegregation of professions;", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "1. Working relationships, formal and informal"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0129", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 129, "n": 121, "text": "Take measures to reduce and reconstruct informal work; to reduce informal work, States should increase job opportunities for women in formal employment, especially in the public sector, and with targeted programmes for women’s training, professionalization reskilling and unemployment programmes. To reconstruct, they should redefine the scope of protective labour law, introduce pro rata pay and social security benefits for part-time or casual work, and extend paid maternity leave and care rights to workers in both the formal and informal sectors;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "1. Working relationships, formal and informal"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0130", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 130, "n": 122, "text": "Provide protection against discrimination and abuse of migrant workers and domestic workers, and ratify and implement the ILO Domestic Workers Convention (No. 189).", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "1. Working relationships, formal and informal"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0131", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 131, "n": 123, "text": "Eliminate laws, including personal laws, that discriminate against women as business leaders or entrepreneurs, particularly regarding registering a business; freedom of movement; land and property rights; savings, credit and inheritance rights; and membership in cooperatives;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "2. Women and business"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0132", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 132, "n": 124, "text": "Take positive measures to accelerate de facto equality for women in leadership positions in corporate, financial and trade institutions and enterprises, including by the introduction of quotas for corporate boards;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "2. Women and business"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0133", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 133, "n": 125, "text": "Advance women’s entrepreneurship opportunities through provision of training, information, credit and saving facilities and government procurement policies that target women’s businesses;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "2. Women and business"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0134", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 134, "n": 126, "text": "Gender-mainstream the principles of corporate responsibility, identifying, preventing and remedying the harm caused by corporate activities to women, as workers, consumers and community members, especially with regard to export processing zones; sweatshops and home working; the garment industry; and land dispossession by extractive, biofuel, agribusiness and real estate projects;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "2. Women and business"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0135", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 135, "n": 127, "text": "International institutions and States should include women in senior positions in economic, financial and trade governance, and should gender-mainstream policymaking, including mitigation of dramatic increases in inequality of resources and income and the feminization of poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "2. Women and business"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0136", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 136, "n": 3, "text": "Reproduction and care functions", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "2. Women and business"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0137", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 137, "n": 128, "text": "It is incumbent upon States and economic decision-makers to integrate the care economy as an integral part of macroeconomic policy and recognize the right to care as an economic and social right which requires a social protection floor;", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "3. Reproduction and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0138", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 138, "n": 129, "text": "States should recognize, reduce and redistribute unpaid care work for children and other disabled or elderly dependents, by including unpaid care work in gross national product; allowing deduction of care expenses for tax purposes; improving the environmental and service infrastructure to reduce private care burdens; and synchronizing school time with working time;", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "3. Reproduction and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0139", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 139, "n": 130, "text": "Paid care leave should be provided on an equal basis to mothers and fathers;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "3. Reproduction and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0140", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 140, "n": 131, "text": "Childcare should be guaranteed as a social protection floor and, in addition, States should encourage community, cooperative, trade union and corporate initiatives to provide care services;", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "3. Reproduction and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0141", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 141, "n": 132, "text": "States must prohibit discrimination on grounds of maternity or of care functions, whether performed by women or men;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "3. Reproduction and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0142", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 142, "n": 133, "text": "States must provide paid maternity leave of at least 14 weeks, 6 of which are mandatory. Such leave should be fully paid and should be funded by social insurance or public funds. Maternity leave should be provided for women in the informal sector as well as the formal sector, entrepreneurship, trade and corporate boards.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "3. Reproduction and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0143", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 143, "n": 134, "text": "Provide adequate non-contributory pensions, on an equal basis with men, as a core social and economic right;", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "D. Older women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0144", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 144, "n": 135, "text": "Ensure that women are not forced into early retirement; that women who have been economically active have access to adequate occupational pensions, including by introducing gender-specific compensatory measures such as accumulation of pension rights during maternity and childcare absences; unisex calculation of benefits; equalizing of mandatory retirement age and mandatory joint annuities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "D. Older women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0145", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 145, "n": 136, "text": "Eliminate all laws which discriminate against women by punishment of behaviours which are not punished when performed by men or by prescribing invasion of women’s physical integrity and autonomy;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "E. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0146", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 146, "n": 137, "text": "Take preventive measures, deter and severely punish all forms of gender-based violence and sexual harassment against women in the public arena, including public transport and services, workplaces, educational institutions, streets and cyberspace, whether it is perpetrated by state agents or by private persons;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "E. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0147", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 147, "n": 138, "text": "Take special measures to prohibit and prevent gender-based violence, including punishing intercourse with minors as rape, introduction of confidential school reporting mechanisms, capacity-building for police, child-friendly courts and barring sexual offenders from teaching.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "E. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is submitted pursuant to Human Rights Council resolutions 15/23 and 26/5. In chapter II, the Working Group summarizes its activities from the submission of its last report to the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/26/39) until March 2015. In chapter III, it addresses discrimination against women in cultural and family life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The roles of Chairperson-Rapporteur and Vice-Chairperson of the Working Group were carried out by Frances Raday and Emna Aouij, respectively, until January 2015, and then by Emna Aouij and Eleonora Zielinska, respectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "The Working Group held three sessions during the period under review. At its tenth session, held from 5 to 9 May 2014 in Geneva, it discussed various issues relating to women in cultural and family life with a number of stakeholders, relevant parts of the United Nations Secretariat and other experts. At its eleventh session, held from 10 to 16 October 2014 in Geneva, the Working Group continued its consultations with several stakeholders, including the International Labour Organization and departments of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. By way of follow-up to the first meeting it organized in 2013, the Working Group held a seminar on the priority theme of cultural and family life, bringing together several representatives of the regional human rights mechanisms of America, Europe and Africa. At its twelfth session, held from 19 to 23 January 2015 in New York, the Working Group continued its cooperation with its partners, including the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), and with several Member States regarding the establishment of a legal framework for the implementation of the post-2015 development agenda and Beijing + 20. The Working Group consulted experts, academics and NGOs on the next priority theme it will address, namely discrimination against women in the areas of health and safety. It consolidated the information it had gathered to inform the present report.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "The Working Group visited Chile from 1 to 9 September 2014 (A/HRC/29/40/Add.1), Peru from 10 to 19 September 2014 (A/HRC/29/40/Add.2) and Spain from 9 to 19 December 2014 (A/HRC/29/40/Add.3). It wishes to thank the Governments of these countries for their cooperation before and during the visits and thanks Senegal, Hungary, the United States of America and Maldives for responding positively to its requests to visit.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "During the period under review, the Working Group addressed communications to Governments, individually or jointly with other special procedures mandate holders of the Human Rights Council. Those communications concerned a wide range of subjects falling within its mandate, including discriminatory legislation on nationality, and the legal minimum age for marriage, allegations of forced and/or early marriage, and sexual and reproductive health (A/HRC/27/72, A/HRC/28/85 and A/HRC/29/50). The Working Group also issued press releases, individually or jointly with other mandate holders, treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "Alda Facio acted as moderator of a discussion on the realization of the rights of marginalized and disadvantaged women and girls, on 18 March 2015, and participated in other events at the fifty-ninth session of the Commission on the Status of Women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "D. Commission on the Status of Women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "On 1 September 2014, Frances Raday, the Chairperson of the Working Group, wrote to the President of the Human Rights Council regarding the lack of a reference to gender equality within the family in Human Rights Council resolution 26/11 on the protection of the family. On 3 October 2014, she presented a draft statement on the issue, which was adopted by the Coordination Committee of Special Procedures. On 2 December 2014, she participated in a discussion on national action plans on business and human rights at the United Nations Forum on Business and Human Rights. On 2 and 3 December 2014, Emna Aouij and Kamala Chandrakirana participated in a meeting of experts organized by the Due Diligence Project on the role of the State and the due diligence principle in relation to discrimination against women in cultural and family life. During the period under review, members of the Working Group participated in different activities relating to the Working Group’s mandate in their respective regions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "E. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The legal rights of women and girls to equality and non-discrimination in cultural and family life, established in 1948 by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and by international human rights law, are often restricted in national laws and in practice, including in cultural practice. The Working Group emphasizes that, in accordance with international human rights law, States have an obligation to adopt appropriate measures with a view to eliminating all forms of discrimination against women and girls in laws, cultural practices and the family, whether perpetrated by State agents or private actors.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "In order to prepare this report, the Working Group used responses to a questionnaire received from 32 Member States, as well as studies and research by United Nations programmes and bodies, international human rights mechanisms and other stakeholders that were transmitted to it directly or have been carried out recently on the subject.[[fn:1]] The Working Group also identified good practices in respect of equality in the family and in cultural life, as required by Human Rights Council resolution 15/23.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/en/issues/women/wgwomen/pages/wgwomenindex.aspx."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Culture is a broad concept encompassing all forms of conduct, organization and human behaviour within society,[[fn:2]] including family, language, religion, philosophy, law, government, art and sport.[[fn:3]] Cultural diversity occurs when culture is expressed and develops in different contexts in society. Culture is not a static or unchanging concept, although some States tend to present it as such in order to justify inequality between men and women. This living, dynamic and evolving process[[fn:4]] permeates all human activities and institutions, including legal systems, in all societies across the world.[[fn:5]] Viewing culture and beliefs as immutable hinders the realization and development of all human rights, including those of women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 21, para. 11."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Culture is understood here as a macro concept of human behaviour. The issue of women’s participation in cultural activities will not be analysed. The Working Group refers to the work of the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights and fully supports the implementation of her recommendations (see A/67/287)."}, {"n": 4, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 21, para. 11."}, {"n": 5, "text": "A/67/287, para. 2."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The Working Group has taken as its basis the legal framework established by the human rights community regarding the right of women to participate, on an equal footing with men, in creating, contesting and recreating their cultures and in all aspects of cultural life. The equal right of all persons to participate in, access and contribute to cultural life is guaranteed by international human rights law, particularly articles 5 and 13, subparagraph (c), of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, article 27, paragraph 1, of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 15 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The construction of gender is deeply embedded in culture. In its general recommendation No. 28, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women indicates that “the term ‘gender’ refers to socially constructed identities, attributes and roles for women and men and society’s social and cultural meaning for these biological differences resulting in hierarchical relationships between women and men and in the distribution of power and rights favouring men and disadvantaging women. This social positioning of women and men is affected by political, economic, cultural, social, religious, ideological and environmental factors and can be changed by culture, society and community.”[[fn:6]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 28, para. 5."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The cultural construction of gender is conducive to generalized discrimination against women in all cultures. Discrimination against women and girls cannot, therefore, be considered an essentialist element, present in certain cultures and not in others. Since cultures are neither homogeneous nor unchanging, there are very significant differences between them concerning their stages of development and the extent to which the patriarchy, misogyny and practices that are harmful to women and girls exist within them.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Culture, when understood as a macro concept, also includes religion. Religion constitutes an institutionalized aspect of culture, with its own sources of authority that regulate social behaviour. It is often based on the concept of transcendental authority, and most religions have codified normative systems. Change must be wrought within the religious hierarchy of the community and must conform to the religious dogma of the written sources. As a consequence, religions are often a haven against social and cultural change. In all religions, there are movements that resist any change to the patriarchy and the status of women and girls in the family.[[fn:7]] Conversely, non-gender-based discriminatory practices, including some previously defended in the name of culture and religion, such as slavery, have been delegitimized or abandoned as values and ethics have evolved.[[fn:8]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Frances Raday, “Culture, religion and gender”, International Journal of Constitutional Law, vol. 1, No. 4, Oxford University Press and New York University School of Law, 2003, p. 668."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Due Diligence Project, “The Due Diligence Principle and the Role of the State: Discrimination against Women in Family and Cultural Life”, January 2015, p. 6."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "The Working Group notes the vital importance of article 5 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, which requires States to modify the social and cultural patterns of conduct of men and women, with a view to achieving the elimination of prejudices and customary practices that are based on the idea of the inferiority or the superiority of either of the sexes or on stereotyped roles for men and women. This provision establishes a legal basis for the primacy of women’s right to equality over discriminatory cultural patterns of conduct, including those stemming from religious edicts.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Culture and religion are often invoked to justify discrimination and violent practices against women and girls. Women have often been viewed as objects rather than as equal participants with men in the creation and manifestation of cultural principles. Indeed, when culture and religion are invoked to justify different forms of discrimination against women, women are seen not as victims or survivors of such discrimination, but as persons who “violate” cultural rules and norms.[[fn:9]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Ibid., p. 5."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Several United Nations human rights experts, special procedures mandate holders,[[fn:10]] treaty bodies[[fn:11]] and the Secretary-General of the United Nations have established that neither cultural diversity nor freedom of religion may justify discrimination against women. Discriminatory, repressive and violent practices against women should be eliminated, whatever their origins, including those founded in culture or religion.[[fn:12]] The Working Group is convinced that this opinion is crucial to securing women’s enjoyment of their right to equality in all aspects of life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See A/68/290, para. 30, A/67/287, para. 3, and A/HRC/26/22, para. 13."}, {"n": 11, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 28, para. 21; Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 21, paras. 18 and 64."}, {"n": 12, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 21, para. 19."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and the Committee on the Rights of the Child have noted that harmful practices affecting women and girls are deeply rooted in social attitudes according to which women and girls are regarded as inferior to men and boys based on stereotyped roles.[[fn:13]] They highlight the gender dimension to violence and indicate that sex- and gender-based attitudes and stereotypes, power imbalances, inequalities and discrimination perpetuate the widespread existence of practices that often involve violence or coercion. They maintain that the nature and prevalence of these practices vary according to region and culture. These practices cause serious harm to every aspect of the lives of the women and girls who fall victim to them and include incest, female genital mutilation, early and/or forced marriage, so-called “honour crimes”, dowry-related violence, neglect of girls, extreme dietary restrictions, virginity tests, servitude, stoning, violent initiation rites, widowhood practices and female infanticide.[[fn:14]] The obligations set out in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Convention on the Rights of the Child form the basis for the elaboration of a global strategy to eliminate harmful practices,[[fn:15]] which should be well defined, rights-based, have local relevance and comprise legal, economic and social support measures combined with proportional political engagement and State responsibility at all levels.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Joint general recommendation No. 31 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women/general comment No. 18 of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on harmful practices, para. 6."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Ibid., paras. 7 and 9."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Ibid., para. 33."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "In many contexts, States fail to establish and enforce a clear legal hierarchy based on the guarantees of equality and non-discrimination set forth in international human rights law and national legislation, thus helping to maintain patriarchal modes of organization and behaviours.[[fn:16]] Even when the law is independent of any religious source, it may be strongly influenced by culture, deriving from dominant ideologies linked to religion, traditional attitudes and social norms. Some States adopt national laws and regulations that restrict the rights, power and mobility of women on the basis of essentialist points of view belonging to a particular culture or religion. Conservative religious extremist movements impose strict modesty codes in order to subjugate women and girls in the name of religion, particularly in situations of political transition or conflict. For example, some branches of Islam have reintroduced forced and/or early marriage and some branches of Christianity prevent women from having access to therapeutic abortion. Religious extremism limits women’s rights, including their right to health and economic activity, and they are generally subject to harsh sanctions for crimes committed against the patriarchy, such as adultery. At the international level, many States justify their reservations to articles of several human rights conventions, including the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, in the name of preserving their cultures and religions. Human Rights Council resolutions 16/3 on promoting human rights and fundamental freedoms through a better understanding of traditional values of humankind and 26/11 on the protection of the family threaten to undermine international achievements in the field of human rights in the name of cultural and religious diversity.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See A/67/287, para. 3."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "The Working Group is concerned about the considerable increase in laws and public policies developed to protect culture and religion that threaten the universally established standards on the rights of women. Gender-based stereotypes, often strengthened and legitimized in national constitutions, laws and policies, are justified in the name of cultural norms or religious beliefs. Failure to eliminate these stereotypes leads to the generalization of practices that are harmful to women and girls. The sexist stereotypes present in the media, on the Internet, in audiovisual productions and in video games contribute to the perpetuation of a culture of discrimination and violence against women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Women who do not conform to the gender stereotypes that predominate in some cultures and those who openly contest them, including within their own cultural or religious communities, are particularly vulnerable to discrimination, violence and criminalization. They include, among others, single women, widows, female heads of family, lesbians, bisexual and transgender women, sex workers and women human rights defenders. The Working Group emphasizes that the obligation of States to protect cultural diversity applies to diversity within cultures as well as between them.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "While gender stereotypes pervade all aspects of human existence, women’s rights are at particular risk in the family, which is a locus for the perpetuation of traditional values. The family is a product of patriarchal culture and a vital institution for upholding the patriarchy. The Working Group emphasizes that women’s equal rights in the family are closely linked to their rights in all areas of life, including public and political life and social, economic and cultural life. 16 See A/67/287, para. 3. GE.15-07003 B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 23, "n": 1, "text": "Redefining the family by incorporating a gender perspective", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 24, "n": 23, "text": "The family exists in various forms. The expression “diverse families” encompasses, for example, single-parent families; families headed by women; intergenerational families including, among others, grandparents; families headed by children, such as orphans or street children; families comprising lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex (LGBTI) persons; extended families; self-created and self-defined families; families without children; families of divorced persons; polygamous families; and non-traditional families resulting from interreligious, intercommunity or inter-caste marriages. Self-created and self-defined families include, in particular, families formed in marginalized communities. In all these different forms of family, women tend to be subject to legal sanctions and to experience difficult social and economic situations. Indigenous and minority women and women living in strict patriarchal, religious, traditional or caste systems are more likely to be found in these forms of family and are especially vulnerable to early and/or forced marriage, while men may have multiple households or second families with their de facto spouses or partners.", "labels": ["Children", "Children in alternative care", "LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "1. Redefining the family by incorporating a gender perspective"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 25, "n": 24, "text": "The different forms of family and their recognition by the State are influenced by a multitude of normative factors, such as culture, religion and caste, and behavioural factors, such as livelihoods, sexuality and social status. Although several international forums recognize family diversity, including “in different cultural, political and social systems”,[[fn:17]] many of the aforementioned non-traditional forms of family are not recognized by all States. The family is often defined by legal systems as a unit founded on marriage between a man and a woman, affecting rights relating to, for example, inheritance, property, child custody, pensions, tax relief and social service provision. Laws and public institutions in some States require a male family member or male guardian to initiate or conclude official transactions, thus placing families headed by women or consisting solely of women at a disadvantage. Families headed by women, like those headed by children, are more seriously affected by poverty because of the discrimination they suffer. Given that State recognition is often a condition for families to receive services and benefits, such as accommodation and protection provided by the State and/or non-State actors, lack of recognition leads to the marginalization of these families.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, 4–15 September 1995 (A/CONF.177/20/Rev.1), Beijing Platform for Action, para. 29; Panel on the protection of the family, 15 September 2014, twenty-seventh session of the Human Rights Council."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "1. Redefining the family by incorporating a gender perspective"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 26, "n": 25, "text": "It is the opinion of the Working Group that the understanding and legal definition of the family in national legislation should be extended to recognize different forms of family. The recognition of same-sex couples, for both women and men, and other forms of family is an example of good practice that a number of States have already implemented. In this regard, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights has confirmed that mothers who are lesbians should not be deprived of custodial rights over their children.[[fn:18]]", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Atala Riffo and daughters v. Chile, judgement of 24 February 2012 (Merits, Reparations and Costs)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "1. Redefining the family by incorporating a gender perspective"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 27, "n": 26, "text": "However, not all forms of marriage deserve recognition. The Working Group calls for the non-recognition of those forms that discriminate against women and/or fail to ensure equality and justice for women, whatever the legal system, religion, custom or tradition. This refers to, among others, early and/or forced marriage, temporary marriage and polygamy. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and the Human Rights Committee[[fn:19]] have recommended that States should prohibit polygamy on the grounds that it contravenes women’s right to equality with men and can have serious emotional and financial consequences for women and their dependants.[[fn:20]] However, there are national civil codes that legalize polygamous marriage, early and/or forced marriage and temporary marriage. The Working Group advocates the repeal of these codes. Among the countries that deem such marriages to discriminate against women and girls, some consider them void and others merely voidable. In all cases, the legal solution must protect the rights of women and girls, who remain the victims of these harmful marriages. Their rights to subsistence, to property, including land and inheritance, to a place of residence, to custody of children and to remarry must be guaranteed.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 28, para. 24."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 21, para. 14."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "1. Redefining the family by incorporating a gender perspective"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 28, "n": 27, "text": "The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has recommended the prohibition and annulment of these marriages, which violate the dignity of women, and calls for safeguards and guarantees to protect the rights of women and girls living in such families.[[fn:21]] Invalidating an early marriage protects the minor spouses by restoring their single status so that they are deemed never to have been married, rather than divorced, and by cancelling all financial or property transactions linked to the marriage.[[fn:22]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 21, paras. 14, 16 and 36–39."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Marsha A. Freeman, Christine Chinkin, Beate Rudolf, The UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: A Commentary, Article 16, 2012, p. 437."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "1. Redefining the family by incorporating a gender perspective"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 29, "n": 2, "text": "Women’s right to equality in the family", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "1. Redefining the family by incorporating a gender perspective"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 30, "n": 28, "text": "All legal definitions of the family should include the right to equality, de jure and de facto, of women and girls within the family. Full equality between women and men, and girls and boys, is a requirement of international human rights law and constitutes a right of women that is vital for the well-being of the family and for society as a whole.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "2. Women’s right to equality in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 31, "n": 29, "text": "International human rights law guarantees gender equality in the family, including when marriage is entered into, during marriage and at its dissolution, as set out in article 16 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 23 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Article 16 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women establishes the obligation of States to ensure gender equality in all matters relating to marriage and family relations, including in respect of the decision whether to marry, the free choice of spouse, rights and responsibilities as parents, the decision on the number and spacing of children, and personal rights as husband and wife. Similarly, articles 1 to 3 of the 1962 Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages require States to ensure gender equality regarding consent to marriage, to specify a legal minimum age for marriage and to register marriages.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "2. Women’s right to equality in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 32, "n": 30, "text": "When the rules governing family relations discriminate against women, they violate international human rights law. Furthermore, considerations linked to protecting and strengthening the family may not be invoked to justify forms of family that do not meet the requirement for equality between men and women and girls and boys. The lack of equality in these forms of marriage leads women and girls to experience discrimination, making them vulnerable to domestic violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "2. Women’s right to equality in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 33, "n": 31, "text": "The family is the basic unit of society and, as such, should be strengthened. It is entitled to receive comprehensive protection and support.[[fn:23]] The family plays a key role in social development and in the growth and well-being of children, including girls. Women and girls’ ability to act and participate in the different aspects of life in society derives mainly from respect for their right to equality with men and boys in the family. In this context, the Working Group deems it essential for families to be formed in such a way that women and girls’ right to equality is fully recognized, respected, protected, fulfilled and promoted.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, 4–15 September 1995 (A/CONF.177/20/Rev.1), Beijing Platform for Action, para. 29."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "2. Women’s right to equality in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 34, "n": 32, "text": "The Human Rights Council, however, in its resolution 26/11 on the protection of the family, did not reaffirm the right of women to equality in the family. In October 2014, the special procedures mandate holders issued a statement calling on the Council to ensure that the right to equality between women and men, and girls and boys, was included in all future resolutions concerning the family.[[fn:24]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "A/HRC/28/41, annex x."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "2. Women’s right to equality in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 35, "n": 33, "text": "Several States, in the name of culture or religion, have entered reservations to article 16 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, which requires gender equality in marriage and the family. Withdrawal of reservations to article 16 of the Convention, and also to articles 2 and 5, represents good practice and a vital step towards the establishment of an effective legal framework to protect the rights of women in the family and in cultural life. Morocco and Tunisia have thus recently withdrawn reservations to the Convention, including to article 16. The Working Group shares the opinion of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to the effect that reservations to articles 2 and 16 are incompatible with the object and purpose of the Convention, and it reiterates the importance of States’ withdrawing their reservations to these articles, and to article 5, so as to ensure gender equality in cultural and family life. It is the responsibility of States to respect their international commitments and the clear choices they have made regarding the primacy of international legal standards on gender equality over national secular, religious or customary legal standards.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "2. Women’s right to equality in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 36, "n": 3, "text": "Manifestations of discrimination against women in the family", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "2. Women’s right to equality in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 37, "n": 34, "text": "The role of women in the family has generally been under patriarchal control in cultures and religions that subject women and girls to forced and/or early marriage and discrimination in a number of areas of family life, such as consent to enter into marriage, dowry obligations, the right to possess and manage property, sexual relations, requirements regarding modesty and freedom of movement, guardianship and custody of children, divorce and division of matrimonial assets, the punishment of adultery, the right to remarry following dissolution of the marriage or death of the husband, the status of widows and inheritance. In addition, women and girls are generally not treated equally in families with regard to the division of rights and responsibilities. Discrimination against women and girls in the family and in marriage affects all aspects of their lives.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "3. Manifestations of discrimination against women in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 38, "n": 35, "text": "In many cultures and religions, wives have a duty of obedience, and husbands have the right to punish their wives, including physically. The provision of sexual services by wives is deemed part of their duty to obey their husbands,[[fn:25]] and marital rape is not prohibited.[[fn:26]] The Working Group welcomes the introduction of laws criminalizing domestic violence in around 130 countries but finds it regrettable that only 52 countries explicitly criminalize marital rape.[[fn:27]] Domestic violence has a considerable impact on women, causing more deaths than civil wars and entailing much higher economic costs than those linked to homicides or civil wars.[[fn:28]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "E/CN.4/2002/73/Add.2, para. 124."}, {"n": 26, "text": "In some religions, such as Judaism, marital rape is forbidden."}, {"n": 27, "text": "UN-Women, 2011–2012 Progress of the World’s Women: In Pursuit of Justice, 2011, pp. 32–34, available from: http://progress.unwomen.org/pdfs/EN_Report-Progress.pdf."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Anke Hoeffler and James Fearon, “Conflict and Violence Assessment Paper”, Copenhagen Consensus Center, 2014."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "3. Manifestations of discrimination against women in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 39, "n": 36, "text": "In some countries, legislative provisions strengthen patriarchal family structures, as well as the concomitant discrimination and violence against women. This is particularly true of provisions allowing rapists to marry their victims in order to escape legal proceedings and laws that exclude marital rape from the prohibition of rape under criminal law. In some contexts, only men are able to transmit their nationality to their foreign spouses and their children. This de jure inequality has considerable effects on women and their children because the State protection granted by citizenship is refused them de facto.[[fn:29]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See A/HRC/23/50, paras. 84–86."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "3. Manifestations of discrimination against women in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 40, "n": 37, "text": "Family law may derive from various legal sources in a State, such as constitutions, laws, judicial decisions, and religious and customary codes. However, States are required, under international human rights law, to respect, protect and realize women’s right to equality in the family, regardless of the source of family law.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 41, "n": 38, "text": "National constitutions are generally the supreme law in most States and form the foundation of the State’s institutional and legal structures. They also provide the framework for the elimination of discrimination against women. An explicit constitutional guarantee of gender equality is fundamental to combating discrimination against women and girls in law and in practice. Many countries have already recognized and enshrined this principle of equality in their constitutional laws, and it is essential that it apply in all areas of law, including family law.[[fn:30]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "UN-Women, 2011–2012 Progress of the World’s Women: In Pursuit of Justice, p. 24."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 42, "n": 39, "text": "Family law primarily addresses personal status and relations between family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 43, "n": 40, "text": "In addition, secondary family law covers such areas as taxation, social security, retirement benefits, survivors’ benefits and the right to family reunification.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 44, "n": 41, "text": "The three main systems of family law are secular law systems, religious law systems and plural systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 45, "n": 42, "text": "In most countries, family law is regulated by secular codes that have been established by the State, under civil or common law systems, and have no basis in religious or customary norms. Secular family law was originally patriarchal. The very being or legal existence of the woman was “suspended during the marriage, or at least [was] incorporated and consolidated into that of the husband”.[[fn:31]] Married women had no capacity to conclude contracts or own property and were discriminated against as regards inheritance, divorce, and guardianship and custody of children. Moreover, women had to pledge obedience to their husbands, and marital rape and corporal punishment were permitted.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "William Blackstone, Commentaires sur les lois anglaises (Commentaries on the Laws of England), 1765, vol. II, translated from the English by N.M. Chompré, Paris, Bossange, Rey et Gravier, et Aillaud, 1822, p. 215."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "1. Secular family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 46, "n": 43, "text": "Reforming family codes is essential to establishing, in national legislation, women’s equal status in marriage and the family structure. Two types of process can be observed with regard to the promotion of gender equality in family law.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "1. Secular family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 47, "n": 44, "text": "The first process is the elimination of discriminatory laws on the family and the promotion of gender equality within secular law systems. This sort of legal reform took place in some of these systems from the end of the nineteenth century, when many States reformed their laws on the family by separating religion from the State and introducing measures to promote women’s equality within marriage and the family, including the right of married women to conclude contracts, own property, inherit, divorce, and have guardianship and custody of children, on an equal basis with men. Secular family law systems thus moved from being patriarchal to adopting a more egalitarian approach, which now represents good practice in ensuring gender equality in the family. A recent example is the Marriage Law in China, as amended in 2001, which nullified all bigamous marriages and all marriages in which one of the parties had not reached the legal minimum age for marriage, repealing traditionalist patriarchal laws on the family and affirming gender equality in the family.[[fn:32]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "See A/HRC/26/39/Add.2, para. 17."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "1. Secular family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 48, "n": 45, "text": "The second process is the transition from patriarchal religious family law to a secular family law system that provides for gender equality in the family. Several States where family law was based on patriarchal religious codes have introduced equality for women in the family by revoking religious laws and regulating family affairs under secular codes. In many European countries, family law was based on religious, primarily Christian, laws, and all marriages were thus placed under religious jurisdiction. At the end of the nineteenth century, all matters relating to family were placed under the secular jurisdiction of the State, thereby removing the religious hegemony in this area.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "1. Secular family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 49, "n": 46, "text": "In some secular family law systems, elements of discrimination remain, for example a lower legal minimum age for marriage for girls and discriminatory provisions on inheritance rights, divorce and recognition of same-sex couples.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "1. Secular family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 50, "n": 47, "text": "Moreover, some secular family law systems allow family matters to be decided in parallel religious or customary law systems, whether formal or informal. The implications for women’s right to equality of such systems are discussed in the sections on plural legal systems.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "1. Secular family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 51, "n": 2, "text": "State-enforced religious family law systems", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "1. Secular family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 52, "n": 48, "text": "Several States have no secular family code and regulate personal status either by integrating religious laws on the family into constitutional or legislative provisions or by granting religious authorities or religious tribunals jurisdiction over personal status so that they may apply the family codes derived from the sacred texts. Currently, a large number of States that have Islam as their State religion, such as the Islamic and Arab republics, regulate the personal status of all citizens by applying Islamic law from the Koran and the Sunna. Although the notion of the equality of men and women before the law is often incorporated in their constitutions, some States maintain that this equality does not apply in the case of laws on the family and on marital or personal status. Some States that recognize the legal competence of a majority religion in the State also grant non-majority religions jurisdiction over their own communities of faithful, such as Lebanon (Muslim majority), India (Hindu majority) and Israel (Jewish majority).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "2. State-enforced religious family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 53, "n": 49, "text": "Some States that apply religious or customary law to regulate personal status have reinforced the traditional prohibitions on adultery by criminalizing it. Adultery, which is defined as any sexual relation outside marriage, is severely punished and may even result in a sentence of death by stoning in some States that apply Islamic law. The sanctions are generally imposed on the women rather than the men. Interventions by foreign Governments, civil society and special procedures mandate holders have sometimes led to judgements that imposed stoning to be overturned. In some states in the United States of America, adultery between married persons is a crime, but these provisions have not been implemented in the last thirty years. The Working Group issued a statement calling for the decriminalization of adultery[[fn:33]] and wishes to recall that criminalization of sexual relations between consenting adults is a violation of their right to privacy and an infringement of article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "Statement by the Working Group, “Adultery as a criminal offence violates women’s human rights”, 2012, available from www.ohchr.org/ EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=12672&LangID=E."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "2. State-enforced religious family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 54, "n": 50, "text": "Reforms to introduce a measure of equality for women in family law have come about in two different ways in countries where family law was based solely on religious law. The first involves reform based on religious interpretation (hermeneutics). The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has argued, in several of its concluding observations, that evolving customs and the variety of possible interpretations of religious law offer potential for progress towards equality, while at the same time encouraging States parties to move in that direction.[[fn:34]] Reforms of religious family codes, based on interpretations of sacred texts that favour equality, have taken place in some Muslim-majority countries, which have carried out legislative reforms founded on progressive interpretations of sharia. For example, Tunisia was one of the first countries with Islam as the State religion to enact a progressive Personal Status Code guaranteeing gender equality;[[fn:35]] in 2004, Morocco embarked on a far-reaching reform of its family law, paving the way for significant progress towards gender equality;[[fn:36]] Tunisia, Turkey[[fn:37]] and Benin have adopted legislation against polygamy; in Indonesia, Islamic tribunals institutionalized the appointment of women judges in religious tribunals in 1989, thus encouraging more gender-sensitive rulings.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "See Marsha A. Freeman, Christine Chinkin and Beate Rudolf, The UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: A Commentary, 2012, p. 439."}, {"n": 35, "text": "See A/HRC/23/50/Add.2, paras. 7–8."}, {"n": 36, "text": "See A/HRC/20/28/Add.1, paras. 18–22."}, {"n": 37, "text": "Turkish Civil Code (1926)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "2. State-enforced religious family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 55, "n": 51, "text": "The second way to reform patriarchal religious family law involves the replacement of religious family law with secular law. In traditionally Christian States, such as Italy in 1970 and Greece in 1982, civil family codes were introduced to replace religious personal laws.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "2. State-enforced religious family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 56, "n": 52, "text": "Plural legal systems are systems in which various laws coexist. They may include various combinations of codified civil law, religious law systems, indigenous or customary legal codes, community arbitration or other dispute settlement procedures. Plural legal systems may be formal or informal. They most often affect personal status law and family law. In States with plural legal systems, the State legal system, which is generally civil and codified, and the State courts address matters relating to the public sphere.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 57, "n": 53, "text": "Several States have adopted this type of legal system as a way of acknowledging cultural diversity. However, legal pluralism is also used by some actors to promote political and ideological interests. Approximately 80 per cent of claims or disputes are resolved by parallel justice systems, signifying that most women in developing countries access justice in a plural legal environment.[[fn:38]] The existence of social, economic, institutional and cultural barriers and the lack of confidence in formal systems may explain the widespread use of these parallel systems. Poverty and a lack of information on accessing formal justice and education are the main factors that lead women to use parallel justice systems.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "International Development Law Organization, Accessing Justice: Models, Strategies and Best Practices on Women’s Empowerment, 2013, p. 12."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 58, "n": 54, "text": "Parallel justice systems apply religious, customary or indigenous laws, which, as shown above, are patriarchal. These systems are mostly dominated by men and therefore tend to perpetuate inequalities and patriarchal interpretations of culture, resulting in discrimination against women. Regardless of whether the law is religious or customary, its provisions are often interpreted differently for men and women. The rulings and procedures of these legal mechanisms generally discriminate against women. Moreover, gender-based violence is seldom punished and is sometimes downplayed by religious or customary law courts.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 59, "n": 55, "text": "Legal pluralism is formal when the State, through its constitution, laws or judicial decisions, has granted authority to a religious, indigenous or customary court, tribunal or arbitrator to exercise jurisdiction over personal status matters for women. Such systems are generally recognized in State legislation and some are regulated by the State, which may establish appeals procedures, ensure compliance with State legislation or even provide financial or material support.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems", "Formal legal pluralism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 60, "n": 56, "text": "Good practice in protecting women’s right to equality in formal plural legal systems takes several forms. The adoption of constitutional laws that require autonomous courts, tribunals or arbitrators to respect women’s right to equality in terms of both women’s representation in justice systems and the formulation and application of procedural and substantive rules is a good practice implemented in several States. Since the 1980s, 11 Latin American States have formally recognized indigenous laws and courts in their constitutional laws, requiring the legal systems of indigenous communities to respect and enforce women’s rights.[[fn:39]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "Ibid., p. 68."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems", "Formal legal pluralism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 61, "n": 57, "text": "The right to appeal, before the State courts, discriminatory decisions of indigenous courts, tribunals or arbitrators is another good practice. The commitment of indigenous women in some countries, such as Mexico and Ecuador,[[fn:40]] to securing State recognition of parallel systems has enabled them to challenge, in the State system, the discrimination they suffered in indigenous legal systems. Women’s participation as legal arbitrators, and also as lawmakers, is needed to draw attention to discrimination and to sensitive subjects such as rape or domestic violence, most victims of which are women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "Ibid., p. 77."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems", "Formal legal pluralism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 62, "n": 58, "text": "Affirming the primacy of international human rights law and constitutional laws over religious, customary and indigenous laws is a key step towards ensuring women’s emancipation and autonomy. Customary, religious and indigenous laws and provisions on family affairs must be consistent with the constitutional norms on equality. To ensure more effective application of the principle of equality, State monitoring and oversight bodies must be put in place, as has been done in Canada, Colombia and South Africa.41 38 International Development Law Organization, Accessing Justice: Models, Strategies and Best Practices on Women’s Empowerment, 2013, p. 12. 39 Ibid., p. 68. 40 Ibid., p. 77. 41 Ibid., p. 25. GE.15-07003 Informal legal pluralism", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems", "Formal legal pluralism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 63, "n": 59, "text": "Jurisdiction is exercised informally when jurisdictional powers are not the result of an express grant of judicial authority by the State. Such jurisdiction is generally not recognized by the State. Such situations may arise when religious, indigenous or customary authority is exercised by judges, arbitrators or other alternative dispute settlement procedures that are not authorized or tolerated by the State and/or of which the State is unaware. These systems operate without oversight by the State, and, while some may have been recognized previously in law, often under former colonial systems, they are now beyond State control.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems", "Informal legal pluralism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 64, "n": 60, "text": "When the State becomes aware of such informal systems, it must put in place oversight mechanisms and procedures for appeals to the State justice system to quash decisions that discriminate against women. The State must make an effort to provide alternatives to these informal legal systems, for example, by rendering the formal State system more accessible.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems", "Informal legal pluralism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 65, "n": 61, "text": "Plural legal systems create complex and confusing legal situations. Various United Nations treaty bodies have sought to show how these systems limit women’s enjoyment of the right to equality in their private and public lives, while acknowledging the richness of cultural diversity.[[fn:42]] Even if there is no special recognition by the State of informal legal systems or formal delegation of functions by the State to traditional chiefs, the State should extend its protection, as referred to in article 2 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendations Nos. 21, para. 13, and 29, paras. 13–14."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems", "Informal legal pluralism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 66, "n": 62, "text": "The State has an obligation to respect women’s right to equality within the family and should eliminate any laws, including customary or religious laws,[[fn:43]] that discriminate against women and any discriminatory acts carried out by State authorities. The obligation not to discriminate against women is direct and absolute. A State will be in violation of this obligation if it has a law that discriminates against women, regardless of whether its family law system is secular, religious or plural.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 21, para. 44."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "D. The role of the State in ensuring respect for women and girls’ right to equality in cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 67, "n": 63, "text": "The State has a direct obligation to protect and respect women’s right to equality in all the forms of family law considered above. It is held responsible for any breach of its obligations, including in cases where it has, through its constitution, laws or judicial decisions, assigned jurisdiction over family law matters to a religious, indigenous or customary court, tribunal or authority. Moreover, the State has an obligation to exercise due diligence to guarantee and protect women’s right to equality in informal plural legal systems.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "D. The role of the State in ensuring respect for women and girls’ right to equality in cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 68, "n": 64, "text": "The State must refrain from adopting laws, policies, measures or regulations that discriminate directly or indirectly against women and girls and must ensure that its officials, and private actors, respect this obligation in all contexts, including those situations where women are most vulnerable (as refugees, migrants or stateless persons, for example).", "labels": ["Non-citizens and stateless", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "D. The role of the State in ensuring respect for women and girls’ right to equality in cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 69, "n": 65, "text": "The obligation of the State to protect women and girls’ right to equality in the family compels the authorities to prevent discrimination by private actors. Due diligence as a principle of State action should result in a global model of prevention, protection, prosecution, punishment and redress for acts of discrimination and violence against women in cultural and family life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "D. The role of the State in ensuring respect for women and girls’ right to equality in cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 70, "n": 66, "text": "To prevent any violation in cultural and family life, the State must challenge cultural discourse and cultural norms that discriminate against women and perpetuate structural discrimination, taboos or stereotypes based on gender. Attitudes and behaviours towards women must be changed, and women’s access to employment, education and finance, as well as the safety of their homes and children, must be ensured by the State in order to reduce gender inequalities.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "D. The role of the State in ensuring respect for women and girls’ right to equality in cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 71, "n": 67, "text": "In terms of protection, the State must set up effective services that respond to women’s needs in the short, medium and long term. Risks and factors that may lead to discrimination against women must be identified proactively so that effective interventions may be staged before violations are committed.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "D. The role of the State in ensuring respect for women and girls’ right to equality in cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 72, "n": 68, "text": "In the event of violations and discrimination against women, the State has an obligation to investigate and prosecute. The State must take measures to guarantee privacy, confidentiality and safety of victims, and to address women’s needs and fears, while ensuring that they are not subject to stigmatization, social ostracism or reprisals. The State must be able to foster confidence in the police and the judicial process, including within plural legal systems. To this end, it must ensure that State bodies and courts systematically apply the principle of equality when interpreting and enforcing the law and that they do so in conformity with international standards. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has pointed out that, where this is not possible, the State is still liable and must take appropriate action.[[fn:44]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 28, paras. 12–33."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "D. The role of the State in ensuring respect for women and girls’ right to equality in cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 73, "n": 69, "text": "The State has an obligation to punish and to put an end to impunity and excuses or justification that perpetuate gender-based discrimination in cultural and family life. The State also has an obligation to afford redress for the harm suffered by women, including by providing for compensation, restitution, guarantees of non-repetition and even preventive measures.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "D. The role of the State in ensuring respect for women and girls’ right to equality in cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 74, "n": 70, "text": "Ensuring access to justice for women and girls who have suffered discrimination within the family or in cultural life is part of the State obligation to protect and respect their right to equality. This access must be guaranteed at the legislative and institutional levels. This means, for example, revising all additional laws that affect family and personal status matters, a process in which women must be involved. Also concerned are auxiliary regulations, including special measures adopted, where necessary, in such areas as taxation, social security, retirement benefits, survivors’ benefits, rights relating to nationality and the right to family reunification, to ensure women and girls’ de facto equality in the various types of family. Women must take part in the formulation and interpretation of national laws, including those relating to family affairs. At the institutional level, they must be involved, on an equal footing, in policy development and judicial bodies so as to ensure that the principle of equality is effectively applied and that decisions handed down demonstrate respect for gender equality. Improving access to justice for women also requires gender-equality training for State authorities and non-State officials responsible for law enforcement, social services and education and for medical and forensic personnel.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "D. The role of the State in ensuring respect for women and girls’ right to equality in cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 75, "n": 71, "text": "The cultural construction of gender makes women’s subjection to gender-based discrimination and violence appear to be inherent and immutable. The patriarchal family is the product of this construction and the most important social mechanism for its perpetuation. Women and girls’ human potential is restricted in families. The recognition that women’s rights are human rights and that they are universal and indivisible has laid bare the adverse impact of this gender construction on women and girls in families and communities. The need for a paradigm shift has been clearly set out in international human rights law, which, since 1948, has established women’s right to equality in all spheres of life, in culture and in the family. As Eleanor Roosevelt said as far back as 1958: “Where, after all, do universal human rights begin? In small places, close to home – so close and so small that they cannot be seen on any maps of the world. […] Such are the places where every man, woman, and child seeks equal justice, equal opportunity, equal dignity without discrimination. Unless these rights have meaning there, they have little meaning anywhere.”[[fn:45]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "Eleanor Roosevelt, “In Our Hands” (speech delivered on 27 March 1958 on the tenth anniversary of the proclamation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights) in ABC: Teaching Human Rights – Practical activities for primary and secondary schools, United Nations, New York and Geneva, 2004, p. 11."}], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 76, "n": 72, "text": "The State must act as an agent of change as regards women’s place in cultural and family life, by fostering and creating a culture free of all forms of discrimination against women.[[fn:46]] A transformative approach to women and girls’ status in the family is crucial. There needs to be awareness that, in the past, a patriarchal concept of family pervaded all secular, religious, customary and indigenous laws and institutions and that some States and groups are now trying, in a retrograde manner, to subject women to the most oppressive forms of patriarchy, particularly in the context of religious fanaticism. It should also be understood that the transition towards equality between women and men, and girls and boys, in the culture and in the family is a prerequisite for a decent society.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "A/67/287, para. 5."}], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 77, "n": 73, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Establish a national legal framework recognizing gender equality in cultural and family life, in accordance with regional and international standards:\n(i) Recognize and enshrine, in their constitutions and laws, the right to equality, which should apply in all areas of life and have primacy over all religious, customary and indigenous laws, norms, codes and rules, with no possibility of exemption, waiver or circumvention;\n(ii) Promote access to, participation in and contributions by women to all aspects of cultural life, including the definition, creation and interpretation of cultural and religious norms and practices, by providing equal resources, adopting special measures and policies, and facilitating women’s access to decision-making positions and policymaking processes, at all levels;\n(iii) Develop national strategies to eradicate cultural practices that discriminate against women and girls, as well as gender stereotypes, through awareness-raising campaigns, educational and informational programmes and stakeholder mobilization. Engage men, as appropriate, in prevention and protection efforts in respect of gender-based discrimination and violence;\n(iv) Develop effective mechanisms to combat the multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination suffered by all marginalized women, including minority women, women living in poverty, women with disabilities, refugee and displaced women, migrant and immigrant women, rural women, indigenous women, older women and single women;\n(b) Promote a culture free of discrimination:\n(i) Establish an executive body that applies the due diligence framework (prevention, protection, prosecution, punishment and redress), addressing all forms of discrimination against women in cultural and family life, including by non-State actors;\n(ii) Reject any cultural or religious practice that violates human rights and the principle of equality or prevents the establishment of an egalitarian society free of gender-based discrimination;\n(iii) Punish institutions, State officials and non-State actors whose actions threaten women’s rights, even where the grounds for such actions are the preservation of culture and religion;\n(c) Guarantee women’s de jure and de facto right to equality in family diversity:\n(i) Recognize and protect, in their constitutions and laws, all forms of family, and affirm and protect women and girls’ right to equality in family diversity, by adopting and implementing appropriate measures to protect women from exploitation and discrimination in diverse families, particularly women living in vulnerable situations;\n(ii) Eliminate in law and in practice all forms of marriage that restrict and/or deny women and girls’ rights, well-being and dignity, including early and/or forced marriage, polygamous marriage and temporary marriage;\n(iii) Establish appropriate solutions, remedies and redress to ensure respect for the rights and well-being of women and girls living in the forms of marriage referred to above, including the possibility for them to leave such marriages with their share of the matrimonial assets, custody of their children and the right to remarry;\n(iv) Eliminate all laws or practices that restrict the rights and opportunities of widows or divorced women, but not widowers or divorced men, to remarry, work, have guardianship or custody of their children, and own the family home, assets and land;\n(v) Repeal all laws that support the patriarchal oppression of women in families, such as laws that exclude marital rape from the crime of rape, laws that grant pardon to rapists who marry their victims and laws that criminalize adultery;\n(vi) Prohibit and punish domestic violence, including incest and marital rape, and provide measures to protect women and girls who are victims of such violence, such as protection orders and shelters;\n(vii) Respect, protect, fulfil and promote the right to gender equality in the family in the various types of legal system – secular family law systems, State-enforced religious family law systems and plural legal systems. The adoption of a family code or personal status laws free of any reference to culture or religion is encouraged;\n(viii) In countries where several legal systems coexist, establish and implement national mechanisms to ensure the effective implementation of guarantees of equality and non-discrimination between men and women in all areas and at all levels, offering women, especially rural and indigenous women, the possibility of removing themselves from the arbitral authority and jurisdiction of customary institutions. Bring parallel customary, religious and indigenous law systems into line with international human rights law, particularly in respect of gender equality, while acknowledging the importance of the wealth and diversity of culture and traditions. Grant women the right to appeal, in State courts, decisions of religious, customary or indigenous authorities, whether formal or informal, that have violated their right to equality;\n(ix) Make the formal State legal system accessible to all women, regardless of their social status, and address the shortcomings of the formal system. Formal justice should be preferred to informal justice for the settlement of all family matters, including those relating to sexual violence and domestic violence;\n(x) Set up gender-awareness training for all State civil servants involved in education, health, social services, law enforcement and judicial decision-making. Include women, on an equal basis, in all bodies that interpret and apply family law;\n(d) According to general recommendation No. 29 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, the family is a social and legal construct and, in various countries, a religious construct. It also is an economic construct. The Working Group recommends that States:\n(i) Take measures to ensure that families allow girls to access education on an equal basis with boys, by raising awareness in the community and providing families with financial incentives to allow girls to finish their studies;\n(ii) Ensure that women are free to participate in economic activities outside the house or village, without the supervision of male relatives;\n(iii) Ensure that women, on an equal footing with men, and girls, on an equal footing with boys, have the right to at least half the family property and inheritance in the event of divorce or widowhood. Facilitate the invalidation of any waiver of these rights obtained from a woman as a result of pressure from her family or community;\n(iv) Recognize the right of women living in polygamous marriages to end their marriage when their husband takes another wife and grant them a share of the family property, including the value of the house or land;\n(v) Recognize women as heads of family on an equal basis with men so that they may enjoy the same financial or social benefits;\n(vi) Assess, quantify and take account of the impact of women and girls’ status in the family in all poverty-reduction policies.", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 78, "n": 74, "text": "The Working Group recommends that international and regional human rights mechanisms:\n(a) Develop standards, principles and guidelines to combat all forms of gender stereotype, in accordance with the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women;\n(b) Conduct empirical studies on family diversity and the strategic implications of protecting human rights for the family and for all its members, on an equal basis;\n(c) Explore the establishment of an essential framework of minimum legal protection for all types of family, including self-created or self-defined families, that would guarantee women’s fundamental rights in the family, in accordance with international law.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report covers the activities of the Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice undertaken since the submission of its previous report (A/HRC/29/40) until March 2016. It focuses on an analysis by the Working Group of discrimination against women with regard to health and safety.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The roles of Chair-Rapporteur and Vice-Chair of the Working Group were carried out by Emna Aouij and Eleonora Zielinska, respectively, until June 2015, and at the time of writing are held by Eleonora Zielinska and Alda Facio, respectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "The Working Group held three sessions in Geneva during the period under review. At its thirteenth session (4-8 May 2015), it held consultations on women’s health and safety, including their rights to reproductive and sexual health, with a number of stakeholders and experts, including representatives from the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Population Fund, the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development , the Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health and civil society organizations as well as expert staff of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At its fourteenth session (12-16 October 2015), the Working Group continued its consultations on the issue of women’s health and safety, including with experts from the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), the Inter-Parliamentary Union, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the secretariats of OHCHR treaty monitoring bodies, the Special Rapporteur on the rights of persons with disabilities and members of civil society organizations. The Working Group exchanged views with Member States on its work and held a meeting with the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "At its fifteenth session (25-29 January 2016), the Working Group held a meeting with the Permanent Representative of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation to the United Nations Office at Geneva. It began its consultation on the development of a compendium of good practices and held a briefing with civil society organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The Working Group visited Senegal from 7 to 17 April 2015 (A/HRC/32/44/Add.1) and the United States of America from 30 November to 11 December 2015 (A/HRC/32/44/Add.2). It wishes to thank the Governments of these countries for their cooperation before and during the visits. It thanks the Governments of Hungary and Kuwait for responding positively to requests for visits, which will take place from 17 to 27 May 2016 and from 6 to 15 December 2016, respectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "During the period under review, the Working Group addressed communications to Governments, individually or jointly with other mandate holders. The communications concerned a wide range of subjects falling within its mandate, including discriminatory legislation and practices with regard to marital status, nationality, allegations of abuses of women human rights defenders and violations of their rights, gender-based violence and rights to reproductive and sexual health (see A/HRC/30/27, A/HRC/31/79 and A/HRC/32/53). The Working Group also issued press releases, individually or jointly with other mandate holders, treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "On 15 June 2015, a member of the Working Group participated in a panel discussion on making social policy work for women at a workshop titled “Substantive equality for women: connecting human rights and public policy” organized by the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), the United Nations Institute for Social Development and OHCHR.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "The Working Group, jointly with several special procedures, sent an open letter to the President of the Human Rights Council on 3 July 2015, in which it emphasized the importance of placing women’s right to equality at the centre of discussions in the Council on the protection of the family.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "A member of the Working Group participated as a panellist in an OHCHR global seminar on the human rights of migrant domestic workers in an irregular situation, titled “Behind closed doors”, held on 28 and 29 September 2015 in Bangkok.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "A member of the Working Group gave a presentation at the expert consultation on gender perspectives on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment organized on 5 and 6 November 2015 by the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The present report aims to clarify the meaning of equality in the area of health and safety, identify discriminatory practices, expose the instrumentalization of women’s bodies in violation of their human dignity and reveal the barriers to women’s autonomous, effective and affordable access to health care. Instrumentalization is defined as the subjection of women’s natural biological functions to a politicized patriarchal agenda, which aims at maintaining and perpetrating certain ideas of femininity versus masculinity or of women’s subordinate role in society. 1 The analysis contained in the present report has a minimal number of footnotes owing to word limit restrictions. A version of the report with full references can be found at www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/WGWomenIndex.aspx. The report relies on WHO and UNAIDS sources for health data and draws upon the work of OHCHR and international human rights mechanisms, including the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and the special procedures mandates on health, persons with disabilities, food, older persons, water and sanitation, and indigenous peoples.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Women’s rights to equality and to the highest attainable standards of health, to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress and to health-care services, including those related to reproductive and sexual health, are enshrined in international and regional human rights instruments, reaffirmed in consensus agreements, including the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women and the outcome documents of the review and appraisal conferences, and recognized by international, regional and national mechanisms and jurisprudence. The International Conference on Population and Development, held in 1994, recognized women’s rights to reproductive and sexual health as being key to women’s health. Discrimination against women in the area of health and safety and denial of their right to control their own bodies severely violate their human dignity, which, along with equality, is recognized in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "States are obliged to secure women’s rights to the highest attainable standard of health and safety, including their underlying determinants, and women’s equal access to health-care services, including those related to family planning, as well as their rights to privacy, information and bodily integrity. The obligation to respect, protect and fulfil women’s right to equal access to health-care services and to eliminate all forms of discrimination against women with regard to their health and safety is violated by neglecting women’s health needs, failing to make gender-sensitive health interventions, depriving women of autonomous decision-making capacity and criminalizing or denying them access to health services that only women require. In some situations, failure to protect women’s rights to health and safety may amount to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment or torture, or even a violation of their right to life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "WHO defines health as not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, but as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. In the present report the Working Group addresses women’s safety as an integral aspect of their health. Women’s exposure to gender-based violence in both the public and private spheres, including in conflict situations, is a major component of women’s physical and mental ill health and the destruction of their well-being, and constitutes a violation of their human rights.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Substantive equality in the area of health and safety requires differential treatment. Throughout their life cycle from childhood to old age, women have health needs and vulnerabilities that are distinctively different from those of men. Women have specific biological functions, are exposed to health problems that affect only women, are victims of pervasive gender-based violence and, statistically speaking, live longer than men, resulting in their greater need to access health services frequently and into older age. Hence, women and girls experience the negative effects of insufficiencies in health-care services more intensively than men.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Women face a disproportionate risk of being subjected to humiliating and degrading treatment in health-care facilities, especially during pregnancy, childbirth and the post-partum period. Furthermore, they are especially vulnerable to degrading treatment in situations where they are deprived of liberty, including in migrant detention facilities or mental institutions. They are subjected to humiliating treatment within the health-care system because of their gender identity and sexual orientation, sometimes expressly in the name of morality or religion, as a way of punishing what is considered “immoral” behaviour.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "Women’s bodies are instrumentalized for cultural, political and economic purposes rooted in patriarchal traditions. Instrumentalization occurs within and beyond the health sector and is deeply embedded in multiple forms of social and political control over women. It aims at perpetuating taboos and stigmas concerning women’s bodies and their traditional roles in society, especially in relation to their sexuality and to reproduction. As a result, women face continuous challenges in accessing health care and in maintaining autonomous control in decision-making about their own bodies. Understanding and eliminating the instrumentalization of women’s bodies, which is based on harmful cultural norms and stereotypes, and its detrimental impact on women’s health, is critical for change to occur.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "A wide range of actors, both public and private, play a role that affects women’s health and access to health care and each of the actors bears responsibility for its actions or inactions. In particular, the significant role of the principles enshrined in the deontological codes of different medical professionals and in the rules governing the corporate social responsibility of the pharmaceutical industry are an essential locus for establishing gender-sensitive research, medicines and treatments.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "The State is accountable for fulfilling its international human rights obligation to ensure that women are provided with gender-responsive scientific research, medicines and health interventions and for providing appropriate and adequate gender-based resources and a system of effective monitoring, budgeting, remedies and redress. It is also obligated to provide women with autonomous, effective and affordable access to health care. The State has a responsibility to ensure that barriers to women’s enjoyment of the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health are dismantled, including by exercising due diligence.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "A number of other factors and developments which have serious implications for women’s health and safety are not tackled in the present report owing to space restrictions. These include climate change and other environmental catastrophes and degradation and gender-based violence in armed conflicts.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "In the area of health, the distinctly different biological and reproductive functions of women and men necessitate differential treatment and proper algorithms are required to make sure that women have equal access to and enjoy the highest achievable level of health treatment. An identical approach to treatment, medication, budgeting and accessibility would in fact constitute discrimination.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "B. Meaning of equality in women’s health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Central among women’s and girls’ health needs are those relating to their reproductive and sexual health. Substantive equality requires that States attend to the risk factors that predominantly affect women. For instance, since only women can become pregnant, a lack of access to contraceptives is bound to affect their health disproportionately. Equality in reproductive health requires access, without discrimination, to affordable, quality contraception; maternal health care, including during childbirth and the post-partum period; access to safe termination of pregnancy; access to effective screening and early treatment for breast and cervical cancer; and special attention to the high rate of HIV infections among young women and treatment to prevent mother-to-infant transmission.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "B. Meaning of equality in women’s health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Equality also requires health policy to be based solely on women’s health needs and not to be influenced by instrumentalization and politicization. Political contestation around rights to reproductive and sexual health remains a global challenge, resulting in women paying a high price in terms of their health and lives. In adopting the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, States committed to ensuring universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services, including for family planning, information and education, and the integration of reproductive health into national strategies and programmes. A strong commitment to women’s sexual and reproductive rights in international and national law, policies and programmes is crucial for achieving gender equality and ensuring women’s and girl’s right to health and well-being.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "B. Meaning of equality in women’s health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Many drug therapy protocols and other medical treatments and interventions administered to women are based on research conducted on the male of the species without any investigation and adjustment for biological and gender differences. Equality requires the conduct of medical research on the basis of women’s experience and biological differences. It also requires adequate attention to be paid to the particular health risks to which women are disproportionately exposed, such as depression and suicide, and proper gender-sensitive treatment of diseases which tend to be considered, inaccurately, as typically masculine, such as cardiovascular diseases.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "B. Meaning of equality in women’s health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "Women’s specific health and safety needs require protection against gender-based violence that affects their physical integrity and mental health, including in health-care settings.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "B. Meaning of equality in women’s health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The social, religious and cultural factors that disregard the dignity of girls and women must be tackled to achieve women’s right to equality in health and safety.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "B. Meaning of equality in women’s health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Discriminatory practices in the area of health and safety occur at all stages of women’s life cycle. Multiple discrimination merits particular consideration and remedies. Denying women access to services which only they require and failing to address their specific health and safety, including their reproductive and sexual health needs, are inherently discriminatory and prevent women from exercising control over their own bodies and lives. Gender-based discrimination in the administration of medical services also violates women’s human rights and dignity.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Denial of access to essential health services with respect to termination of pregnancy, contraception, treatment for sexually transmitted diseases and infertility treatment has particularly serious consequences for women’s health and lives. Women may be denied such services through criminalization, reduction of availability, stigmatization, deterrence or derogatory attitudes of health-care professionals. In reality, denial of access drives service provision underground into the hands of unqualified practitioners. This exacerbates the risks to the health and safety of the affected women. Persistently high maternal mortality rates often reflect a lack of investment in and underprioritization of services required only by women", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "Discrimination is sometimes manifested in humiliating treatment women that may face in facilities that are dedicated exclusively to them, such as birthing facilities where, as repeatedly stressed by United Nations human rights mechanisms and WHO, they are too often subjected to degrading and sometimes violent treatment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Discrimination against women is also manifest in the unequal provision of health services required by both women and men. This has been especially severe in countries where women have been excluded from receiving medical treatment by male doctors on the grounds of “modesty”.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "Discriminatory laws and practices have contributed to a deplorable global situation with respect to women’s health and safety which calls for urgent, immediate and effective actions. According to WHO, an estimated 225 million women are deprived of access to essential modern contraception. Pregnancy and childbirth-related complications resulted in the deaths of almost 300,000 women worldwide in 2013. About 22 million unsafe abortions take place annually and an estimated 47,000 women die from complications resulting from unsafe abortion each year. Breast and cervical cancer remain the leading cancers among women aged 20-59 years, resulting in 1 million deaths, the majority in low- and middle-income countries where screening, prevention and treatment are almost non-existent. Young women bear the brunt of new HIV infections. One in three women under 50 has experienced physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate partner or family member. At least 200 million women and girls have been subjected to female genital mutilation.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 33, "n": 1, "text": "Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 34, "n": 33, "text": "The Working Group notes with concern that issues relating to women’s health are not addressed in a holistic manner on political and health agendas at the national and international levels. Policies regarding women’s health services are often limited to questions of “maternal health”. Despite the importance of prioritizing this issue, such a restrictive focus fails to recognize the full spectrum of women’s rights to sexual and reproductive health at all stages of their life cycle and contributes to the instrumentalization of women’s bodies, viewing them mainly as a means of reproduction.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 35, "n": 34, "text": "Many girls are exposed to a wide variety of practices which are harmful to their health and well-being, such as female genital mutilation, discrimination in food allocation resulting in malnutrition and discrimination in access to professional health care. Furthermore, early marriage and adolescent pregnancy have a long-lasting impact on girls’ physical integrity and mental health. Pregnancy and childbirth are together the second leading cause of death among 15- to 19-year-old girls globally, putting them at the highest risk of dying or suffering serious lifelong injuries as a result of pregnancy. For example, up to 65 per cent of women with obstetric fistula, which is a severely disabling condition and often results in social exclusion, develop this condition as adolescents.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 36, "n": 35, "text": "Adolescent girls are particularly exposed to gender-based violence in the family and on their way to or at school, with extremely harmful impacts on their physical and mental health. In its resolution 70/137 the General Assembly called upon all States to improve the safety of girls on the way to and from school, taking steps to ensure that all schools are accessible, safe, secure and free from violence and providing separate and adequate sanitation facilities that provide privacy and dignity.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 37, "n": 36, "text": "In some countries, adolescent girls are deterred from accessing information and services for family planning and termination of pregnancy that are needed to protect their health and safety and prevent unwanted high-risk pregnancies, including the requirement of third party authorization.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 38, "n": 37, "text": "During pregnancy, many women are vulnerable to malnutrition owing to discrimination in the allocation of food. This can result in a serious and irreversible deterioration of women’s general health and increase the risk of premature delivery, low birth weight and birth defects. After childbirth, such discrimination can continue to affect women’s health, including in connection with breastfeeding. Furthermore, as stated by the Special Rapporteur on the right to food, structural violence is an underexamined barrier to women’s right to adequate food and nutrition. Gender-based violence, which is a primary form of discrimination, can impede women from accessing adequate food and nutrition.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 39, "n": 38, "text": "Delays in seeking appropriate medical care, in reaching an appropriate health facility and in receiving appropriate care once at a facility, along with the lack of accessible maternal health care, are the main reasons behind high rates of maternal mortality and morbidity. A human rights-based approach that provides a functioning health system with adequate supplies, equipment and infrastructure as well as an efficient system of communication, referral and transport are therefore essential to eliminate these preventable deaths and to ensure women’s rights to health and life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 40, "n": 39, "text": "Women’s mental health during pregnancy, childbirth and the post-partum period requires both stability in their environment and emotional support. Reports of disrespect and ill treatment during childbirth in health facilities in many countries provide a deeply distressing picture of the extent of women’s exposure to degrading treatment, lack of privacy, and even verbal and physical violence. Pregnant women are sometimes refused pain relief during labour or anaesthesia during a termination of pregnancy by curettage. The use in some countries of custodial or punitive rather than educative measures to prevent injury to the fetus as result of drug or alcohol consumption by addicted pregnant women is another manifestation of gender discrimination.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 41, "n": 40, "text": "Women have a longer life expectancy and are particularly exposed to neglect and abuse in older age, including in health-care settings, and higher risks of diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease and other forms of dementia. A gender- and age-sensitive approach needs to take into account the specific needs for care and protection of older women, including those widowed, living alone or displaced, those with dementia or other disability, those in need of palliative and geriatric care and those in emergency situations; these women are most at risk of multiple forms of discrimination, violence and poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 42, "n": 41, "text": "In addition, problems associated with ageing affect women disproportionally as a result of the cumulative effect of discriminatory practices women face over the course of their lives, as the Working Group described in its report on discrimination against women in economic and social life (A/HRC/26/39). Women are more likely to take care of men and to be left without spousal support. At the same time, they are more likely to suffer economic disadvantages, exacerbated by discriminatory pension systems that fail to produce equal outcomes for women, and to be excluded from social security and health insurance schemes. They are thus at greater risk of living in poverty. The mere recognition of equal rights for all, without distinction, is thus insufficient to ensure in practice the enjoyment by older women of all human rights, including the right to health.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 43, "n": 2, "text": "Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 44, "n": 42, "text": "Recognizing and addressing the nature and consequences of multiple and intersectional discrimination against women in national laws and practices is essential for protecting women’s health and safety. Factors such as socioeconomic, minority and ethnic status, religion, race, sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, disability and bodily diversity exacerbate the discrimination that women face and infringe upon their ability to protect their health and safety.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 45, "n": 43, "text": "The Working Group is particularly concerned about the discrimination experienced by women because of their economic status. It has witnessed first-hand during its country visits that women living in poverty are disparately affected in their access to health services, particularly reproductive and sexual health and preventive health care.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women and poverty"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 46, "n": 44, "text": "There is growing concern about the feminization of poverty and the disparate impact of global economic crises, austerity measures and climate change on women’s health and safety. Gender inequality persists in all regions, and women and girls continue to be overrepresented among the world’s population living in poverty. Women and girls, particularly those living in the global South, are disproportionately burdened by the costs of these rapid changes, to the detriment of their personal health and well-being.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women and poverty"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 47, "n": 45, "text": "Women with disabilities face particular barriers in accessing health care for reasons of cost, distance, discriminatory attitudes, and lack of physical access or information. This seriously limits their access to immunization, reproductive health care and cancer screening. In some settings women with disabilities, particularly intellectual disabilities, are subjected to forced sterilization or termination of pregnancy or to long-term contraception, with relatives or doctors taking decisions on their behalf without their informed consent, in violation of their right to exercise legal capacity guaranteed under the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women with disabilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 48, "n": 46, "text": "Women with disabilities are disproportionately subject to intimate-partner violence, owing to the mutually reinforcing dynamics of gender and disability.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women with disabilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 49, "n": 47, "text": "The Special Rapporteur on the rights of persons with disabilities has called on States to guarantee women with disabilities safe participation in matters affecting their lives, especially in relation to sexual and reproductive rights and gender-based violence, including sexual violence, matters which are cited in a recent study as high-priority concerns for women and girls with disabilities.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women with disabilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 50, "n": 48, "text": "Women are disproportionately vulnerable to HIV/AIDS owing to various factors, including gender-based violence and lack of autonomy to negotiate safe and responsible sexual practices and make informed health-related decisions. Even when women living with HIV/AIDS are able to access health services, they often face stigma and discrimination on the part of health-care professionals, ranging from abuse to denial of services. Laws, policies and practices that prevent women living with HIV from bearing children through, for example, forced termination of pregnancy and forced sterilization constitute an extreme form of discrimination.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women and HIV/AIDS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 51, "n": 49, "text": "Women migrants are often at great risk of being subjected by public authorities or private individuals to all manner of violence, exploitation, trafficking and slavery while in transit or in detention. These practices can amount to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or torture.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women migrants"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 52, "n": 50, "text": "Women migrant workers, especially those in irregular situations, have greater difficulty in accessing almost all forms of health care, including maternal care, emergency care and treatment for chronic diseases and mental health problems, because they are often denied these rights legally and/or they fear arrest and deportation. In some countries, while legal access to health care for migrant women has been expanded, they still do not receive needed medical services because health-care providers often refuse treat them.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women migrants"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 53, "n": 51, "text": "Even where they are entitled to emergency health care, women migrant domestic workers are often excluded from preventive reproductive and sexual health services, as well as gynaecological and obstetric care, because of their status and lack of access to insurance or national health schemes.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women migrants"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 54, "n": 52, "text": "The pattern of physical, sexual and psychological abuse of migrant domestic workers is widespread. These women are often exposed to health and safety risks without being provided with proper information or adequate protection. Furthermore, the working and living conditions of many undocumented domestic workers, which are tantamount to slavery, and the separation from family members cause serious health, particularly mental health, problems.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women migrants"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 55, "n": 53, "text": "Migrant women may be subject to mandatory pregnancy tests upon arrival in some countries; if the test is positive, they are dismissed and/or deported. Furthermore, pregnancy tests can be imposed on migrant domestic workers during the course of their employment, leading to pregnant women losing their jobs and/or seeking termination of the pregnancy, sometimes by means of unsafe practices, especially in countries that criminalize induced termination. Migrant women have been charged with “illegal sexual relationships” when they become pregnant, including following rape. They are held in detention centres in deplorable conditions pending their deportation, or face severe punishment, including the death penalty in countries where sexual relationships outside marriage are criminalized.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women migrants"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 56, "n": 54, "text": "Indigenous women experience a complex spectrum of mutually reinforcing human rights abuses which is influenced by intersecting forms of discrimination and marginalization, reinforced by patriarchal power structures and past and present forms of violations of the right to self-determination and control of resources. These intersecting forms of discrimination have profound health consequences for indigenous women, especially for their reproductive and sexual health. The Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples has reported (see A/HRC/30/41) about the barriers to reproductive and sexual health services encountered by indigenous women as well as past and recurrent human rights violations in relation to their sexual and reproductive rights. For example, indigenous women experience disproportionately higher levels of maternal mortality, indigenous girls are overrepresented among pregnant teenagers and indigenous women have lower rates of contraceptive use and higher rates of sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS. Historically, there have also been instances of serious violations of indigenous women’s rights to reproductive health in the context of the denial of the rights of indigenous peoples to self-determination and cultural autonomy. Those violations include forced sterilization of indigenous women and attempts to force them to have children with non-indigenous men as part of policies of cultural assimilation. Indigenous women may also face barriers to preventive care services that support their right to health, such as screening for ovarian and breast cancer.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Indigenous women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 57, "n": 55, "text": "The deplorable health outcomes for indigenous women are linked to decades of oppression and human rights violations against indigenous peoples, and against indigenous women in particular. Furthermore, non-indigenous health systems generally do not take into account the indigenous concept of health and health care, thereby creating barriers to access by indigenous women. Data usually fail to capture information on indigenous communities, rendering them “invisible”. Even when such information exists, it is generally not disaggregated by sex. Additionally, indigenous women are disproportionately affected by illness owing to reduced coping capacity caused by the denial of other human rights and by extreme poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Indigenous women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 58, "n": 56, "text": "Rural women are particularly affected by patriarchal gender stereotypes and roles and are extremely vulnerable to harmful practices such as early or forced marriage and female genital mutilation, as well as to violence and poverty. These practices have a negative impact on their right to health. Rural women are usually particularly disadvantaged in accessing health-care services, including reproductive and sexual health services.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Rural women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 59, "n": 57, "text": "As highlighted by the Special Rapporteur on minority issues (A/HRC/31/56), minority women, including women affected by discrimination based on caste, are particularly vulnerable to violations of their right to health, including reproductive and sexual health. Women members of “lower caste” groups present the worst health outcomes, especially in terms of life expectancy, access to maternal care, nutrition and incidence of infections. Roma women are the subjects of degrading stereotypes, depicted as “fertile” and “promiscuous”; this increases their vulnerability to gender-based violence and forced sterilization.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Minority women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 60, "n": 58, "text": "In many settings, especially where same-sex consensual sexual behaviour is prohibited, lesbian, bisexual and transgender persons are deterred from seeking health services out of fear of being arrested and prosecuted. Even in countries where same-sex sexual orientation is not criminalized, lesbians are often discriminated against and mistreated by medical providers, which deters them from seeking health services. In some settings, they are subjected to coercive, inhumane and degrading practices such as “corrective” or punitive rape. Transgender persons are often subjected in law and practice to compulsory medical interventions without being given an opportunity for informed decision-making and choice. Their gender identity is pathologized in many countries and they are often subjected to mental and physical examinations and treatments and forced to undergo “conversion therapies”. Transgender persons’ biological needs, such as transition-related medical services, screening for cervical cancer, termination of pregnancy and contraception, are often refused by service providers.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women’s sexual orientation and gender identity"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 61, "n": 59, "text": "Women in detention have specific health needs, particularly in terms of mental and reproductive health care, that are often neglected. Preventive services related to cervical and breast cancer are often unavailable and antiretroviral therapy, even for pregnant women living with HIV/AIDS, is completely absent in some facilities. The lack of adequate access to hygiene facilities and products for women prisoners is a typical and crucial concern in all regions of the world, jeopardizing the dignity and health of women prisoners. Practices such as shackling pregnant inmates during labour still occur in some countries. Detained women also face violence, including sexual violence from other prisoners or by staff.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women deprived of liberty"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 62, "n": 60, "text": "Women prisoners show high rates of mental health problems owing to violence and trauma to which they had been exposed and which are exacerbated by imprisonment. Concerns about their children also have a significant impact on the mental health of women prisoners, especially when they are breastfeeding; separation from their children creates anxiety and guilt, resulting in great suffering. Women are more likely to harm themselves or attempt suicide while in detention than men. Extensive reliance on preventive use of psychotropic medication for “safety” reasons in such situations is an example of overmedicalization.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women deprived of liberty"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 63, "n": 61, "text": "Throughout their life cycle, women’s bodies are instrumentalized and their biological functions and needs are stigmatized and subjected to a politicized patriarchal agenda. States have also often treated women instrumentally as tools with which to implement population programmes and policies. This is sometimes carried out through the use of criminal sanctions and often under the guise of protecting women’s health and safety and with cultural or religious justifications.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 64, "n": 62, "text": "Much of the discrimination in access to health services and the resulting preventable ill health of women, including maternal mortality and morbidity and infertility, can be attributed to the instrumentalization of women’s bodies for political, cultural, religious and economic purposes.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 65, "n": 63, "text": "The instrumentalization of women’s bodies may result in conditioning women’s access to medical assistance on the consent of a spouse or male guardian, causing withholding or delay of treatment, curtailment of women’s autonomy and denial of respect for privacy and obstructing their access to health care, particularly reproductive and sexual health care. Patriarchal negation of women’s autonomy in decision-making leads to violation of women’s rights to health, privacy, reproductive and sexual self-determination, physical integrity and even to life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "1. Negation of autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 66, "n": 64, "text": "In patriarchal cultures, the preference for sons leads to the prioritization of boys’ and men’s health before that of women and girls, resulting in discriminatory practices such as female infanticide. This is evident in cultural customs relating to food which cause girls and women, including pregnant and nursing women, to suffer disproportionately from malnutrition.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "2. Effects of son preference"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 67, "n": 3, "text": "Harmful gender stereotypes Objectification of women", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "2. Effects of son preference"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 68, "n": 65, "text": "The instrumentalization of women’s bodies as objects to serve sexual and other purposes leads to practices such as invasive cosmetic procedures. Unhealthy dieting, particularly among adolescent girls, can have disastrous health consequences, including eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "3. Harmful gender stereotypes", "Objectification of women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 69, "n": 66, "text": "According to WHO, a body mass index under 16 represents severe thinness. Setting minimum standards of weight for fashion models in line with health guidance via national legislation and policies and/or regulations by modelling agencies as well as advertising campaigns embracing the diversity of female forms are good practices. The development of new models of dolls with body proportions corresponding to those of healthy women is another.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "3. Harmful gender stereotypes", "Objectification of women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 70, "n": 67, "text": "Stigma is a deeply entrenched social and cultural phenomenon which lies at the root of many human rights violations and results in entire population groups being disadvantaged and excluded, as the Special Rapporteur on the right to water and sanitation has noted (A/HRC/30/39). Women are exposed to harmful gender stereotypes or taboos regarding natural and biological functions such as menstruation, breastfeeding and menopause. Diagnosis of mental illnesses in women is biased so as to stigmatize them and has been used as a justification for institutionalizing women unnecessarily against their will.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "3. Harmful gender stereotypes", "Stigmatization of women’s health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 71, "n": 68, "text": "Menstruation is surrounded by stigma, resulting in the ostracism of and discrimination against women and girls. In some cultures menstruating women and girls are considered to be contaminated and impure and restrictions and interdictions during menstruation are imposed on them. Women and girls may continue to harbour internalized stigma and are embarrassed to discuss menstruation even where there are no restrictions. They live with a lack of privacy for cleaning and washing, a fear of staining and smelling and a lack of hygiene in school toilets or separate sanitation facilities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "3. Harmful gender stereotypes", "Stigmatization of women’s health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 72, "n": 69, "text": "Furthermore, many girls do not receive sexuality education, including knowledge about the functioning of their bodies, and hygienic materials for menstruation are either unavailable or too costly. They are forced to use improvised, unhygienic materials that may lead to leaking and infections.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "3. Harmful gender stereotypes", "Stigmatization of women’s health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 73, "n": 70, "text": "The stigma and shame generated by stereotypes around menstruation have severe impacts on all aspects of women’s and girls’ lives, on their dignity and well-being as well as on their right to education and to employment, as they may feel obliged to stay home from school or work every month because of appropriate facilities and hygienic items are not available. Characterizing women’s menstrual pain as “neurotic” tends to make women reluctant to seek help, which can delay diagnosis of, for example, the severely disabling disease of endometriosis, in which tissue that normally grows inside the uterus grows in an abnormal anatomical location.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "3. Harmful gender stereotypes", "Stigmatization of women’s health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 74, "n": 71, "text": "Prejudices surrounding menopause may affect women’s confidence in professional and public life, owing to age-based discrimination in the workplace. In some societies, this question is poorly addressed and understood, if at all. Medicalization through hormone replacement therapy, and pressure on active women to use it, even where there are health contraindications, can have a detrimental effect on women’s mental health.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "3. Harmful gender stereotypes", "Stigmatization of women’s health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 75, "n": 72, "text": "Similarly, instrumentalization and stigmatization are at work regarding breastfeeding in public spaces and at workplaces. Aside from the fact that breastfeeding is often promoted or discouraged for economic reasons, it may be viewed as inappropriate even in countries where the practice is legally protected, exposing women to unnecessary stress and pressure from intimidation and harassment. According to the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the majority of the approximately 830 million women workers worldwide do not enjoy workplace policies that support nursing mothers.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "3. Harmful gender stereotypes", "Stigmatization of women’s health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 76, "n": 4, "text": "Pathologization and overmedicalization of women", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "3. Harmful gender stereotypes", "Stigmatization of women’s health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 77, "n": 73, "text": "Viewing women’s behaviour and biological physiology, in particular their reproductive functions and sexuality, as symptomatic of medical problems reflects a history of gendered pathologization. Historically, pathologization, unnecessary medicalization and institutionalization in mental care facilities have functioned as forms of social control exercised by patriarchal establishments to preserve the gender roles of women. Pathologization of women’s behaviour has been evidenced in psychiatric diagnoses, which often directly target perceived immoral activity such as unconventional sexual activity or intellectual independence as a source of mental illness or disorder.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "4. Pathologization and overmedicalization of women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 78, "n": 74, "text": "The Working Group is concerned that many national laws and policies provide for overmedicalization of certain services that women need to preserve their health without a justified medical reason. These include requirements that only doctors can perform certain services, such as pharmaceutical termination of pregnancy or obstetric care. In many countries, women are not given a free choice between different ways of giving birth. Caesarian sections, when medically justified, can be crucial in preventing maternal and perinatal mortality and morbidity. However, studies conducted by WHO demonstrated that performing caesarian sections on more than 10 per cent of women does not lead to improvement in mortality rates. Caesarean section rates of 30 per cent in some countries demonstrate overmedicalization of childbirth, with the risks of obstetrical complications and health problems.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "4. Pathologization and overmedicalization of women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 79, "n": 75, "text": "Overmedicalization may result in reduced access to or affordability of services needed by women and a barrier to developing adequate alternative services which can be competently provided by nurses, midwives or auxiliary nurses, either at clinics or at home. Such “task shifting”, particularly in places where there are few qualified doctors, would make services more accessible. Similarly, restricting authorization for the use of contraceptives to a medical practitioner is a barrier to access. Allowing pharmacists to provide contraceptives, including emergency contraceptives, over the counter is essential for effective availability, especially for economically disadvantaged women or adolescent girls.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "4. Pathologization and overmedicalization of women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 80, "n": 5, "text": "Discriminatory use of the criminal law", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "4. Pathologization and overmedicalization of women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 81, "n": 76, "text": "The discriminatory use of criminal law, punitive sanctions and legal restrictions to regulate women’s control over their own bodies is a severe and unjustified form of State control. This can include punitive provisions in criminal, civil and administrative laws and regulations governing extramarital consensual sex, same-sex consensual adult relations, gender non-conforming expressions, provision of reproductive and sexual education and information, termination of pregnancy and prostitution/sex work. The enforcement of such provisions generates stigma and discrimination and violates women’s human rights. It infringes women’s dignity and bodily integrity by restricting their autonomy to make decisions about their own lives and health.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 82, "n": 77, "text": "States also violate women’s right to health and safety where women are penalized for sexual or reproductive conduct that should not be criminally prohibited, such as adultery, prostitution or termination of pregnancy; States also violate the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment where they impose penalties such as stoning and lashing.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 83, "n": 78, "text": "Criminalization of behaviour that is attributed only to women is discriminatory per se and generates and perpetuates stigma. The threat of criminal punishment restricts women’s access to sexual and reproductive health-care services and information and acts as a deterrent to health-care professionals, thus barring women’s and girls’ access to health-care services.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 84, "n": 79, "text": "Criminalization of termination of pregnancy is one of the most damaging ways of instrumentalizing and politicizing women’s bodies and lives, subjecting them to risks to their lives or health in order to preserve their function as reproductive agents and depriving them of autonomy in decision-making about their own bodies. Restrictive laws apply to 40 per cent of women worldwide. In some countries, as a result of retrogressive anti-abortion laws, women are imprisoned for having had a miscarriage, imposing an intolerable cost on the women, their families and their societies.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law", "Criminalizing and restricting the provision of and access to safe, legal services for termination of pregnancy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 85, "n": 80, "text": "As demonstrated by WHO data, criminalizing termination of pregnancy does not reduce the need for it. Rather, it is likely to increase the number of women seeking clandestine and unsafe solutions. Countries in Northern Europe, where women gained the right to termination of pregnancy in the 1970s or 1980s and are provided with access to information and to all methods of contraception, have the lowest rates of termination of pregnancy. Ultimately, criminalization does grave harm to women’s health and human rights by stigmatizing a safe and needed medical procedure. In countries where induced termination of pregnancy is restricted by law and/or otherwise unavailable, safe termination of pregnancy is a privilege of the rich, while women with limited resources have little choice but to resort to unsafe providers and practices. This results in severe discrimination against economically disadvantaged women, which the Working Group has highlighted during its country visits.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law", "Criminalizing and restricting the provision of and access to safe, legal services for termination of pregnancy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 86, "n": 81, "text": "It is important to recall that the use of effective contraception can result in lowering the incidence of unintended pregnancy. However, contraception cannot eliminate women’s need for access to termination of pregnancy, for example in the case of rape. In addition, no method of contraception is 100 per cent effective in preventing pregnancy.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law", "Criminalizing and restricting the provision of and access to safe, legal services for termination of pregnancy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 87, "n": 82, "text": "In addition, restrictions on access to information on termination of pregnancy and services can deter women from seeking professional medical attention, with detrimental consequences for their health and safety. Examples of restrictions include criminalization of medical practitioners who provide these services; prohibiting access to information on legal termination of pregnancy; requiring third-party authorization from one or more medical professionals, a hospital committee, a parent, guardian or spouse; conscientious objection by health practitioners without provision of an alternative; requiring compulsory waiting periods; and excluding coverage for termination of pregnancy services under health insurance. None of these requirements is justified on health grounds.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law", "Criminalizing and restricting the provision of and access to safe, legal services for termination of pregnancy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 88, "n": 83, "text": "International and regional human rights bodies have called on States to decriminalize access to termination of pregnancy and to liberalize laws and policies in order to guarantee women’s access to safe services. Treaty bodies, including the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, have requested States, through their jurisprudence, their general comments/recommendations and their concluding observations, to review national legislation with a view to decriminalizing termination of pregnancy and to ensure a woman’s right to termination of pregnancy where there is a threat to her life or health, or where the pregnancy is the result of rape or incest. The Committee against Torture and the Human Rights Committee have determined that, in some cases, being forced to carry an unwanted pregnancy to term amounts to cruel and inhuman treatment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law", "Criminalizing and restricting the provision of and access to safe, legal services for termination of pregnancy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 89, "n": 84, "text": "Criminal laws and other punitive regulations have imposed custodial sentences on women involved in prostitution/sex work in a manner that has been shown to harm rather than protect them. The Working Group considers that the criminalization of women in prostitution/sex work places them in a situation of injustice, vulnerability and stigma and is contrary to international human rights law. It notes that the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women calls for prohibition of the exploitation of prostitution and not for punishment of the women in prostitution/sex work themselves; the well-established position of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women that women should not be criminalized for prostitution; and the stipulation in the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (Palermo Protocol) that efforts should be made to discourage the demand that fosters all forms of exploitation of women, including trafficking for sexual exploitation.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law", "Criminalization of women who engage in prostitution/sex work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 90, "n": 85, "text": "International organizations and human rights bodies have called on States to ensure, at a minimum, that women in prostitution/sex workers have the right to access sexual health services; are free from violence or discrimination, whether committed by State agents or private persons; and have access to equal protection of the law. In particular, States should also ensure that law enforcement officials serve a protective function, as opposed to engaging in or perpetuating violence against women in prostitution/sex workers. A number of States have introduced regulations that cover health and safety issues, including access to health services, medical insurance and social security benefits that have had a positive impact on women engaged in prostitution/sex work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law", "Criminalization of women who engage in prostitution/sex work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 91, "n": 86, "text": "Autonomous access to health care means ensuring a woman’s right to make decisions concerning her health, fertility and sexuality free of coercion and violence. Key to this is the notion of choice. The rights to informed consent and confidentiality are crucial to ensuring that women can make decisions freely. These rights impose corresponding duties upon health-care providers, who are bound to disclose information about proposed treatments and alternatives in order to aid informed consent and to respect the right to refuse treatment; likewise, they are bound to maintain confidentiality to allow women to make private decisions without the interference of others whom they have not chosen to consult and who might not have their best interests at heart. Autonomy means that a woman seeking services in relation to her health, fertility or sexuality is entitled to be treated as an individual in her own right, the sole beneficiary of the service provided by the health-care practitioner and fully competent to make decisions concerning her own health. This is a matter of, among other things, a woman’s right to equality before the law.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "1. Autonomous access"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 92, "n": 87, "text": "Even where significant resources are being put in place to provide universal health care, women continue to have unequal access to good-quality health-care services in many countries. This is often because the health services that only women need are excluded from insurance coverage and are not affordable.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "2. Affordable health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 93, "n": 88, "text": "Economically disadvantaged women who do not have the means to access private health care and services are disparately affected by barriers created by unaffordability. It is therefore important for States to ensure that all health care is affordable and to remove legal restrictions that in effect discriminate against women who are economically disadvantaged.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "2. Affordable health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 94, "n": 89, "text": "Health care is often unaffordable owing to discriminatory health insurance coverage. Some health insurance policies and programmes exclude various aspects of reproductive health care, including modern forms of contraception, termination of pregnancy and maternal care. Alternatively, some private health insurance schemes insure women’s reproductive health needs but add a surcharge to the premiums paid by women. Good practice includes measures that discourage insurance companies from charging women more for health insurance than men because of perceived higher costs associated with women’s reproductive health needs.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "2. Affordable health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 95, "n": 90, "text": "Public funding is necessary to subsidize primary health-care services, including medications, contraceptives, legal termination of pregnancy and treatment of sexually transmitted infections. Such services should be affordable and, in the case of economically disadvantaged women, provided free of charge. User or “informal” fees for health-care services increase the risk that these women will either forgo services or resort to substandard services, perhaps from unqualified providers.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "2. Affordable health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 96, "n": 91, "text": "Good practices include listing as essential medicines all those recommended as necessary for women’s health in the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, public subsidization of the cost of women’s health-related services for everyone and subsidies to women of a given age or income.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "2. Affordable health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 97, "n": 92, "text": "Unaffordability of medicines is also closely linked to intellectual property laws, many of which provide exclusive patents for new medicines for long periods. However, intellectual property laws that fail to address the medical needs of women obstruct access to medicines by pushing up the price and by impeding the production and distribution of low-cost generic drugs. The right to health requires States to ensure that the pharmaceutical companies that hold a patent on essential medicines and medical devices make use of all the arrangements at their disposal to render the medicines accessible to all.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "2. Affordable health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 98, "n": 3, "text": "Effective access Conscientious objection to providing health services", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "2. Affordable health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 99, "n": 93, "text": "Inadequately regulated conscientious objection may constitute a barrier for women when exercising their right to have access to reproductive and sexual health services. The jurisprudence of human rights treaty bodies states that where conscientious objection is permitted, States still have an obligation to ensure that women’s access to reproductive health services is not limited and that conscientious objection is a personal, not an institutional, practice.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "3. Effective access", "Conscientious objection to providing health services"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 100, "n": 94, "text": "A number of countries have legal guarantees that protect women in the case of conscience-based refusal of care. They include the requirement of referral to non-objecting providers, registration/written notice to the employer and/or a government body, disclosure of information to patients about the provider’s status as a conscientious objector, provision of services in cases of emergency, and restriction of the right to conscientious objection to the individuals directly involved in the medical intervention and not institutions or those indirectly involved, such as pharmacists. The Working Group reiterates that the enjoyment of the right to freedom of religion or belief cannot be used to justify gender discrimination and therefore should not be regarded as a justification for hindering the realization of women’s right to the highest attainable standard of health.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "3. Effective access", "Conscientious objection to providing health services"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 101, "n": 95, "text": "Restrictions in many countries on girls’ and women’s access to unbiased, quality education, including evidence-based comprehensive sexuality education, and information about where and how to obtain essential health services prevent women from making free and informed decisions about their health and safety and hence obstruct proper, informed access to health care. This is particularly true for adolescents and marginalized women facing multiple and intersectional forms of discrimination. Such restrictions are manifestations of censorship that limit women’s and girls’ choices.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "3. Effective access", "Education and information"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 102, "n": 96, "text": "States have an obligation to provide education, one of whose aims is to facilitate access to scientific and technical knowledge. This is of crucial importance with respect to questions of sexuality, reproduction and health education. States have an obligation to allow information about health matters to flow freely, without State interference on moral or other grounds. It also encompasses the possibility for non-State actors to disseminate information, including in relation to sexuality and sexual and reproductive health services. However, States also have an obligation to address and eliminate harmful and wrongful gender stereotypes that contribute to the violation of women’s right to health and safety.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "3. Effective access", "Education and information"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 103, "n": 97, "text": "A growing number of States worldwide have confirmed their commitment to comprehensive sexuality education as an essential priority for achieving national development, health and education goals. In its resolution 70/137, the General Assembly called upon all States to develop and implement educational programmes and teaching materials, as well as teacher education and training programmes for both formal and non-formal education, including comprehensive evidence-based education on human sexuality, based on full and accurate information, for all adolescents and youth; to modify the social and cultural patterns of conduct of men and women of all ages; to eliminate prejudices; and to promote and build decision-making, communication and risk reduction skills for the development of respectful relationships based on gender equality and human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "3. Effective access", "Education and information"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 104, "n": 98, "text": "In the context of women’s and girls’ health and safety, equality means the provision of differential services, treatment and medicines in accordance with their specific biological needs, throughout their life cycle. In many countries there is discriminatory exclusion and neglect of women in providing the highest attainable standard of health for women. Discrimination is particularly evident regarding women’s right to reproductive and sexual health. It is exacerbated in the case of women members of marginalized groups. Discrimination against women and girls leading to the violation of their right to health and safety denies their right to human dignity.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 105, "n": 99, "text": "The Working Group found that instrumentalization and politicization of women’s biological functions in many countries subjects legislation and policies regarding women’s and girls’ health and safety to patriarchal agendas, especially regarding reproductive and sexual health and mental health. The Working Group found manifestations in all regions of instrumentalization, taboos regarding menstruation and breastfeeding and stereotypes which result in harmful practices such as female genital mutilation or which have a negative impact on women’s body image, leading to their seeking invasive cosmetic procedures.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 106, "n": 100, "text": "Women’s access to health services in many countries is not autonomous, affordable and effective, elements which are essential for States to respect, protect and fulfil women’s and girls’ rights to life, health, privacy, equality and human dignity. A major barrier is lack of affordability as a result of exclusion from insurance for treatments specifically needed by women and girls or exclusion of groups of women such as migrants. Non-affordability severely discriminates against women living in poverty. Barriers also include restrictive legislative requirements, biased and stigmatized provision of services and conscientious objection to providing services.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 107, "n": 101, "text": "Health services are provided by various actors, State and non-State. All actors have some form of responsibility for providing equal access for women to the highest attainable standard of health, including with regard to their reproductive and sexual health. The State has a due diligence obligation to ensure that private actors do not discriminate against women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0108", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 108, "n": 102, "text": "The result of the various forms of discrimination against women in the provision of health services is the costly and tragic phenomenon of women’s preventable ill health.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0109", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 109, "n": 103, "text": "The Working Group calls upon the Human Rights Council to urge States to take all necessary measures to respect, protect and fulfil women’s right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standards of health worldwide, including regarding their reproductive and sexual health, and to dedicate priority attention to a thorough stocktaking, including by convening an appropriate forum to tackle this crucial issue.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. General recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0110", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 110, "n": 104, "text": "The Working Group calls upon all Member States to reaffirm and respect the commitments they made in Beijing and in Cairo and in the Sustainable Development Goals to implement the comprehensive provisions concerning women’s health in the agreements they adopted and to develop national laws, policies and programmes within the framework of international human rights standards.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. General recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0111", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 111, "n": 105, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Apply human rights standards and principles of equality, non-discrimination and empowerment of women as the framework for all interventions regarding women’s health and safety;\n(b) Be guided by an understanding of women’s right to equality, which requires differential treatment in health, including and beyond their sexual and reproductive health, in designing policy measures and resource allocations;\n(c) Take into account the impact of women’s safety on their physical and mental health and protect women and girls from violence at home, on their way to or at school and in other public spaces and in health facilities;\n(d) Adopt a holistic approach towards women’s health and safety by looking at their full life cycle from childhood to old age as interconnected phases with distinct considerations and needs, and in this regard:\n(i) Take effective measures to prevent child marriage and adolescent pregnancies and provide girls with comprehensive education based on scientific evidence on matters of health, including sexuality;\n(ii) Address the gender discrimination that exists in some cultures in the provision of food to the girl child, including through the empowerment of women and girls;\n(iii) Allow pregnant girls and adolescents to terminate unwanted pregnancies, as a measure of equality and health, so that they can complete their school education and protect them from the high risk to life and health, including from obstetric fistula, in continuing to bring a pregnancy to term;\n(iv) Reduce maternal mortality and morbidity by ensuring proper prenatal, birthing and post-natal care, including, where necessary, safe termination of pregnancy.\n(v) Reduce the high incidence of maternal mortality among women with HIV/AIDS, both by preventing infection, particularly of women in prostitution/sex workers, and by free and secure provision of condoms and of antiretroviral treatment for pregnant women;\n(vi) Provide adequate nutrition and free services for pregnant and lactating women, as required by the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women;\n(vii) Ensure that laws, policies and practices mandate respect for women’s autonomy in their decision-making, especially regarding pregnancy, birthing and postnatal care;\n(viii) Provide gender- and age-sensitive health-care services for older women, taking cognizance of their heightened health and safety vulnerability;\n(e) Provide special protection and support services to women facing multiple forms of discrimination, and in this regard:\n(i) Ensure that health services, including reproductive and sexual health, for women with disabilities are available and accessible on an equal basis with others and that their autonomy and decision-making, including in relation to their sexuality and reproduction, are guaranteed in accordance with the principles of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities;\n(ii) Provide health-care coverage for migrant women and domestic workers, whose sexual and reproductive health, preventive health care and protection against gender-based violence are otherwise prejudiced;\n(iii) Ensure social and health-care benefits, entitlements and protection to lesbians and bisexual and transgender persons without discrimination;\n(iv) Provide access to preventive and remedial health services for women in prison, including in relation to cervical and breast cancer, contraception, antiretroviral therapy and gender transition, and take all necessary measures to protect them from violence;\n(v) Allow non-custodial sentences for pregnant women and women with dependent children in accordance with the United Nations Rules for the Treatment of Women Prisoners and Non-custodial Measures for Women Offenders (the Bangkok Rules).", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "LGBTI+", "Migrants", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Equality and non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0112", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 112, "n": 106, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Take measures to combat and eliminate, in legislation and policies, cultural practices and social stereotypes, all forms of instrumentalization of women’s bodies and biological functions;\n(b) Eliminate harmful gender stereotypes, which could lead to anorexia and bulimia and invasive cosmetic procedures;\n(c) Prevent exclusion from the public space during menstruation or breastfeeding and prevent discrimination in relation to menopause in the workplace;\n(d) Take and implement strong and efficient measures to prevent female genital mutilation and other harmful practices;\n(e) Decriminalize sexual and reproductive behaviours that are attributed exclusively or mainly to women, including adultery and prostitution, and termination of pregnancy;\n(f) Combat stereotyping and empower girls to take care of their own health and safety from a young age, both at school and at home, and inform and empower women regarding their own bodies at all stages of their lives;\n(g) Regulate birthing facilities to ensure respect for women’s autonomy and privacy and human dignity, including respect for women’s choice regarding home deliveries provided there are no specific medical contraindications;\n(h) Prevent instrumentalization of women in the birthing process and ensure that penalties are incurred for gynaecological or obstetrical violence, including performing abusive caesarean sections, refusing to give women pain relief during birth or surgical termination of pregnancy and performing unnecessary episiotomies;\n(i) Use educational and social work alternatives instead of custodial or punitive measures to prevent injury to the fetus as a result of drug or alcohol consumption by addicted pregnant women;\n(j) Monitor and prevent the use of mental health to institutionalize women unnecessarily as a social control mechanism.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0113", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 113, "n": 107, "text": "In relation to reproductive and sexual health care, the Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Abolish bans on contraception, including emergency contraceptives, and provide access to affordable modern contraceptives;\n(b) Repeal restrictive laws and policies in relation to termination of pregnancy, especially in cases of risk to the life or health, including the mental health, of the pregnant woman, rape, incest and fatal impairment of the fetus, recognizing that such laws and policies in any case primarily affect women living in poverty in a highly discriminatory way;\n(c) Recognize women's right to be free from unwanted pregnancies and ensure access to affordable and effective family planning measures. Noting that many countries where women have the right to abortion on request supported by affordable and effective family planning measures have the lowest abortion rates in the world, States should allow women to terminate a pregnancy on request during the first trimester or later in the specific cases listed above;\n(d) Discontinue the use of criminal law to punish woman for ending a pregnancy and provide women and girls with medical treatment for miscarriage and complications of unsafe termination of pregnancy;\n(e) Eliminate discriminatory barriers to access to legal termination of pregnancy that not based on medical needs, such as waiting periods for implementation of the decision to terminate a pregnancy, authorization requirements for reproductive health clinics and staff, and unduly restrictive interpretations of legal grounds for termination of pregnancy.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0114", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 114, "n": 108, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Ensure that access to health care is autonomous, affordable and effective;\n(b) Address underlying factors which negate women’s autonomy in decision-making regarding their own lives, health or bodies, through education, provision of information and monitoring mechanisms to ensure that their autonomy is respected at all levels of the health-care system;\n(c) Invalidate conditioning of women’s and girls’ access to health care on third-party authorization;\n(d) Provide training to health providers, including on gender equality and non-discrimination, respect for women’s rights and dignity and recognition of alternative medicine;\n(e) Provide non-discriminatory health insurance coverage for women, without surcharges for coverage of their reproductive and sexual health;\n(f) Include contraception of choice, preventive care and treatment for cervical and breast cancer, termination of pregnancy and maternity care in universal health care or subsidize provision of these treatments and medicines to ensure that they are affordable;\n(g) Restrict conscientious objection to the direct provider of the medical intervention and allow conscientious objection only where an alternative can be found for the patient to access treatment within the time needed for performance of the procedure;\n(h) Exercise due diligence to ensure that the diverse actors and corporate and individual health providers who provide health services or produce medications do so in a non-discriminatory way and establish guidelines for the equal treatment of women patients under their codes of conduct;\n(i) Provide age-appropriate, comprehensive and inclusive sexuality education based on scientific evidence and human rights, for girls and boys, as part of the mandatory school programmes. Sexuality education should give particular attention to gender equality, sexuality, relationships, gender identity, including non-conforming gender identities, and responsible parenthood and sexual behaviour to prevent early pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections;\n(j) Ensure that the standards contained in the present recommendations are observed and enforced by all health-care providers, public or private, and engage both women and men, as appropriate, in efforts to prevent discrimination, stereotyping and instrumentalization of women’s bodies and biological functions.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report covers the activities of the Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice undertaken since the submission of its previous report (A/HRC/32/44) until March 2017.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["` I. Activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The Working Group held two sessions in New York and one in Geneva during the period under review.[[fn:1]] The roles of Chair-Rapporteur and Vice-Chair of the Working Group were carried out by Alda Facio and Kamala Chandrakirana, respectively. At its sixteenth session (18-22 July 2016), the Group held consultations on good practices with various stakeholders, including States, civil society organizations and relevant United Nations entities. It also met, inter alia, with the office of the Special Rapporteur on Women’s Rights of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "During the previous cycle, two sessions had been held in Geneva and one in New York."}], "section": ["` I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "At its seventeenth session (10-14 October 2016), the Working Group continued its consultations on good practices. It held meetings with members of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Special Rapporteur on the right to education, the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of migrants, the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights and the Inter-Parliamentary Union. It also held consultations with various concerned stakeholders on the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["` I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At its eighteenth session (23-27 January 2017), the Working Group completed its work on the compendium of good practices. It chaired a round-table discussion on women migrant workers, organized by the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), with the participation of members from the Committee on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, as well as State and civil society representatives. It also met with concerned United Nations entities, including UN-Women and UNFPA, on the indicators of the Sustainable Development Goals.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["` I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The experts visited Hungary from 17 to 27 May 2016 (A/HRC/35/29/Add.1) and Kuwait from 6 to 15 December 2016 (A/HRC/35/29/Add.2). They wish to thank the Governments of those countries for their cooperation before and during the visits. It also thanks the Governments of Chad and Samoa for having invited the Working Group to conduct official visits in 2017.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["` I. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "During the period under review, the Working Group addressed communications to Governments, individually or jointly with other mandate holders. The communications concerned a wide range of subjects falling within its mandate, including discriminatory legislation and practices, allegations of abuses of women human rights defenders and violations of their rights, gender-based violence and rights to reproductive and sexual health (see A/HRC/33/32, A/HRC/34/75 and A/HRC/35/44). The Working Group also issued press releases, individually or jointly with other mandate holders and treaty bodies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["` I. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "A member of the Working Group attended the sixty-first session of the Commission on the Status of Women, held in New York from 13 to 17 March. She participated, inter alia, in a high-level interactive dialogue on accelerating the implementation of commitments contained in the agreed conclusions for gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls, in an event on strengthened cooperation between the international and regional human rights mechanisms on women’s rights and participated in several consultations. She met with the Secretary General together with a group of women’s rights experts.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["` I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "A member of the Working Group participated in the 2016 Forum on Business and Human Rights, where she spoke on 14 November in a panel discussion on embedding gender in the business and human rights agenda.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["` I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "In September 2016, the Chair participated in the thirteenth annual forum of the Association for Women’s Rights in Development, on the theme “Feminist futures: building collective power for rights and justice”, attended by more than 2,000 activists from all regions of the world.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["` I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "In May 2016, a member of the Working Group attended the Symbolic Tribunal on Maternal Mortality and Obstetric Violence, held in Mexico and co-organized by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights OHCHR.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["` I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The present report focuses on good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women in law and practice and women’s empowerment pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 15/23, in which the Council established the mandate of the Working Group, including the collection of best practices in the area of the mandate and the development of a compendium of best practices.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The Working Group, in establishing its conceptual framework and working methods (A/HRC/20/28), decided to use the term of “good” or “promising” practices rather than “best” practices, taking into account the complex contextual framework of the wide spectrum of good to bad practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The present report builds on the Working Group’s first six years of work, of which investigating good practices was a core undertaking. It is the fruit of a long-term process of inquiry and consultation undertaken with States, United Nations agencies and civil society. It is informed by the Group’s 4 thematic reports and 12 country visits, as well as data gathered through research and consultations held specifically for the present report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The Working Group wishes to express gratitude for the information submitted by diverse stakeholders in response to its questionnaire.[[fn:2]] In order to ensure diverse inputs, the Group also benefitted from the support of a team of researchers based in all regions of the world, coordinated by the Women’s Human Rights Education Institute. It also held consultations with States, civil society organizations and United Nations entities when support was available. The enormous amount of data received goes well beyond the bounds of the present report and is available on the Group’s website.3 2 See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/CompendiumGoodPractices.aspx. 3 Ibid.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/CompendiumGoodPractices.aspx."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "The Working Group appreciates that significant work has been done by other human rights mechanisms and United Nations agencies to gather good practices in the context of their work. It notes that there is no harmonized understanding of how to identify and investigate good practices, particularly in the context of the elimination of discrimination against women. Building on existing work in this area, the Group seeks to articulate its experience and expertise to further the conversation on methodological understandings of “good practices” and/or “promising practices” in the context of ending discrimination against women, to identify and share examples of good practices that serve as creative inspiration for the implementation of women’s human rights in multiple contexts, and to open an ongoing engagement process of collective knowledge-building in this area.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "The purpose of the compendium, an exercise that extends beyond merely compiling a series of good laws or legal amendments, is to explore good practices that promote the elimination of discrimination against women, supporting both de jure and de facto realization of rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "The law is an essential mechanism for women’s enjoyment of human rights. Law is both informed by and the creator of norms in society. Laws determine the values and operating principles by which actions and behaviours are deemed acceptable, or criminalized and stigmatized, and can have an enabling or chilling effect on women’s human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The Working Group considers that laws may at times constitute good practices in and of themselves, but that more often they function as a component in the development of good practices. Constitutional amendments, laws or legal reforms, court decisions and the full range of ways in which laws are crafted and codified in diverse societies form an important piece of the “good practices” puzzle, and can have an immediate impact on de facto equality. A law can be “promising” or “good” in its crafting and articulation, and a court decision can be good, but for it to be considered a good practice, a wider context must be considered than can be found simply through analysis of a legal text. The Group is of the view that a good law usually becomes a good practice in conjunction with ancillary factors, such as the process by which it comes into being and is disseminated, operationalized and implemented. This is not to understate the importance of the law itself, but rather to emphasize that considerations of good practices cannot be based wholly on the legal texts themselves, but must be analysed in context, including tangible outcomes in lived reality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Consideration of good practices in a global context requires an expansive approach to looking at the law and its implementation, to allow for inclusion of diverse practices reflective of varied political and legal systems and to support the identification of creative methods of supporting rights-fulfilment. Therefore, the present report includes not only all those constitutional, legislative and other rules and norms that are considered law in different legal systems, but also judicial review, legislative reform, litigation and case law, policy but also institutional reform, human rights monitoring, religious or cultural hermeneutic projects, partnership agreements between State and non-State actors, local, national and regional legal frameworks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Significant progress in legal and policy frameworks for women’s rights has been made in the past decades. Nevertheless, while many countries have undertaken to repeal discriminatory laws, such laws persist in many parts of the world. Severely discriminatory laws and practices remain in particular areas of women’s human rights that continue to be contested, such as sexual and reproductive rights and equal rights in the family. Discriminatory laws also exist where the law is used punitively against women to maintain patriarchal values or to criminalize women’s struggles for their rights. In all contexts, there are ongoing challenges to the inclusion of an intersectoral approach to women’s full equality. Even in areas where the legal framework has advanced, or in societies with extensive and robust gender equality laws and policies, the test lies in the ability to implement progressive laws in practice. Innumerable barriers remain on many levels, not least of which is the male-controlled and discriminatory environment within which laws are operationalized. A good law requires a fully ameliorating environment in which it can be meaningfully implemented. No matter how strongly the law is drafted, it is filtered through the biases and limitations of the individuals and institutions, public and private, responsible for grounding it in reality, compounded by a social environment that disadvantages women through the perpetuation of historical discrimination, the patriarchal construction of gender and the perpetuation of stereotypes and prejudices. These factors must be considered closely when identifying which laws have become good practices.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The question of how to identify good practices in ending discrimination against women is particularly poignant at this historical juncture, where a profound backlash against hard-won progress is occurring in all spheres. The continuing rise of fundamentalisms of all kinds and openly misogynistic, racist, xenophobic and populist voices, including Governments, is of grave concern to the Working Group. Efforts to re-entrench patriarchal understandings of sex, gender and family into the law point to important questions about sustaining progress and ensuring that good practices continue to be possible in fraught contexts. Ongoing attacks on autonomous women’s movements, civil society organizations, independent academia, public interest lawyers and women’s human rights defenders by State and non-State actors alike underscore the importance of not only protecting and supporting the crucial role of women human rights defenders, but also identifying those good practices which uphold human rights gains.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Naming a “good practice” is a complex process. The purpose of investigating and sharing good practices is to help build collective knowledge and public recognition of the steps and processes States must undertake to fulfil their obligations under international human rights law. States’ duty to respect, protect and fulfil women’s human rights are requirements of human rights law. Good practices illustrate the ways and means to implement human rights most effectively in diverse contexts. When good practices are viewed in isolation from the breadth of actions and actors involved in processes of social change, they can lose their power as a source of learning and fail to enhance collective knowledge of what it takes to bring human rights principles into reality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The Working Group stresses that human rights are universal while recognizing that good practices must reflect the multiple contexts of diverse stakeholders. Frameworks of analysis thus require flexibility and creativity to capture the full complexity of any practice, including both its successes and shortcomings. This emphasis on context also requires a robust consideration of current challenges to human rights implementation on a global, regional, national and local scale. This contextualized consideration of challenges and search for good practices in no way derogates from the assertion in the Vienna Declaration that women’s rights are human rights and “all human rights are universal, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated”.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "The Working Group found that many examples cited as good practices in law did not show the process by which they were established, or the many factors and diverse actors that enabled the practice to come into being. In the present report, the Group undertakes to focus on the process of developing the ways and means to implement women’s right to equality. To understand what is required to support gender equality from a holistic approach, both quantitative and qualitative data are equally necessary, and, given the long-term process of social change, an historical perspective is important.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Given these complexities, the Working Group proposes a methodology for identifying good practices by investigating partial and substantial victories in the realization of women’s human rights with a view to decoding the full breadth of actors, initiatives and milestones required to fully implement State obligations under international human rights law. Rather than making generalizations about indicators of good practice, the Group’s research process focused on investigating and documenting promising and good practices in all regions of the world by applying a living-law approach.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The living-law approach looks at laws beyond the text of a legislation or judicial decision, including the dynamic processes by which that law comes into being, is implemented meaningfully and contributes to real and sustainable outcomes for women’s de facto enjoyment of human rights. Thus, a living-law approach involves understanding laws in the context of dynamic and sustained processes situated in local social, political, historical and legal realities and in relation to the acts of a diversity of duty and rights holders alike. As such, the living-law approach is inherently grounded in particular contexts and moments in time. This methodology thus requires examining a multitude of ways and means States have used to achieve successful outcomes in terms of fulfilling their obligations regarding women’s human rights, along with a robust consideration of processes and actors in play, including those that overcome and perpetuate barriers to substantive achievement. This exploration process has not focused on identifying or ranking “best practices”, but rather has examined the ways and means through which States can promote substantive equality, recognizing that progress is not always linear and that de facto change requires multiple strategies; effective responses to lessons learned from mistakes made; context-specific interventions; and sustained time and resources.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, which has been ratified almost universally and is considered by many jurists to be part of customary international law, determines that States have the obligation to respect, protect and fulfil women’s right to non-discrimination and to the enjoyment of equality in all fields. Those rights are also enshrined in other international and regional human rights conventions. The scope of the Convention includes and goes beyond de jure discrimination, requiring nothing less than substantive equality, or women’s full de facto enjoyment of their rights. National legal frameworks must be developed, adopted and implemented from a holistic rights-based approach that addresses the fullness of State obligation, including: (a) respecting rights by repealing and eliminating laws or any other State action that directly or indirectly discriminate against women; (b) protecting rights by acting with due diligence to ensure that neither State or non-State actors violate women’s rights and ensuring redress for violations; and (c) fulfilling rights by ensuring that laws and attendant policies contain comprehensive measures to guarantee their meaningful implementation and impact on women’s empowerment. The scope of State obligation under the Convention requires active measures to combat patriarchal attitudes and stereotypes that shape an environment in which discrimination against women is tolerated and normalized, both in the law and in the application of the law. The Convention demands multi-pronged strategies to promote social change, not only isolated actions to improve women’s access to existing systems. States are obliged to establish a strong legal infrastructure to support women’s de jure and de facto equality as an important step in the cultivation of good practices.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework", "International human rights framework and good practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The case studies offer both practical and conceptual insights into good practices and have the potential to serve as road maps. Some are promising practices that have not fully come into fruition or that have been derailed but are nevertheless illustrative and important for understanding what is required to develop and sustain good practices in the elimination of discrimination. Although contexts vary, core principles that create ameliorating environments for women’s human rights are transferable, even when a practice is not directly replicable.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "The cases are organized under the themes of the Working Group’s reports to date, with a fifth section highlighting a salient theme that emerged from the research process: the role of autonomous women’s organizing. Owing to space limitations, each case is offered in summary format; more detailed renderings are included in an appendix to the report available on the Group’s website.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "The right to participate in all areas of political and public life is an essential prerequisite for the fulfilment of many other rights. Despite progress in many States, women’s representation in elected office — especially at the senior level, the judiciary, civil service or in entities such as unions, national human rights institutions or international agencies, including the United Nations — falls short of the good practice standard of equal representation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Good practice requires: (a) the removal of barriers, whether cultural, economic, institutional or religious, preventing women from having an equal opportunity to gain access to positions of power at all levels; (b) the elimination of disempowering stereotypes, misogyny and violence against women in public and private spheres; (c) parity for women in decision-making forums; (d) and gender-sensitive mainstreaming of policymaking processes, including budgeting.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The following case study was from the Asia region. Despite strong constitutional guarantees for “equal status of opportunity” and non-discrimination on multiple grounds, discrimination against women remained deeply entrenched. This resulted in women’s exclusion from political and public life, particularly in rural areas and among ethnic minorities and marginalized groups of women. In 1993, in an effort to address structural barriers to women’s participation in political and public life, the State had adopted a constitutional amendment mandating one-third reservations for women — including women from historically disenfranchised groups — in village and district councils throughout the country. Consequently, the 1994 elections had brought nearly 1 million elected women representatives into local governance bodies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life", "Quotas and supportive measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "As the law had been enacted quickly and without supportive measures, many challenges arose. This included the placing of women as proxy candidates for male politicians; patriarchal and ethnic divisions that led to active exclusion of elected women representatives; a lack of appropriate support and skills development to address widespread illiteracy among rural women; a democratic deficit due to the history of exclusion from public life; women’s lack of self-perception as leaders; and a backlash in the form of harassment, social exclusion and gender-based violence. It was also found that many elected women representatives were unlikely to contest elections more than once.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life", "Quotas and supportive measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "In response, civil society organizations, government and international agencies introduced initiatives to support women’s participation. Pre-election voter awareness campaigns were undertaken to counteract the perception that the one-third reservation signified the maximum number of seats available for women. A range of programmes were also undertaken in ensuing years, including longer-term capacity-building efforts led by civil society organizations with elected women representatives, in which women representatives received both ongoing training to strengthen their leadership and advocacy skills and education on gender issues of concern in the community.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life", "Quotas and supportive measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "Women were also mobilized through the establishment of an ongoing meeting platform for elected female representatives at the village level designed to support them in preparation for making policy recommendations at the main village council meetings. Given their success, these meeting platforms have been legally mandated since 2012, requiring all local governments to hold such meetings in advance of general village meetings. Additionally, the legal framework was further fortified through State-level laws entrenching or boosting the quota from one-third to 50 per cent, including leadership positions. A draft constitutional amendment in 2009 sought to raise the requirement to parity within all elected positions nationwide, but the bill lapsed.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life", "Quotas and supportive measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Research overwhelmingly indicated that the presence of women in rural governance has had positive impacts on key gendered concerns, including the improvement of health services, water and sanitation facilities, and microcredit schemes for women. Issues related to discrimination and violence against women were also being addressed by women representatives. Additional research showed significant impacts on attitudinal changes and in the elimination of gender stereotypes, demonstrated in shifts in the organization of labour in households, women’s self-perception and increased societal support for girls’ education and future aspirations. These correlations increased in villages where women chairs had been elected a second time.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life", "Quotas and supportive measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "The introduction of quotas provided a strong and unassailable legal prerogative for women’s inclusion in local-level political bodies. However, the legal framework on its own was insufficient to ensure the meaningful political participation of women until the introduction of complementary measures, integrally involving civil society organizations, that addressed the patriarchal context and women’s historical disenfranchisement and ongoing discrimination.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life", "Quotas and supportive measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "While this good practice has enabled the participation of more than 10 million rural women in local politics, it has not led to greater political participation of women at higher levels of governance. Indeed, the Government has yet to be successful in adopting quotas or parity laws for women at higher levels of government, raising questions regarding the limits and sustainability of continued growth in women’s political participation and access to power.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life", "Quotas and supportive measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "The adoption of parity laws or quotas for women is a good practice to combat the manifold barriers to women’s political participation and to ensure immediate representation of women in political bodies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "Policies must be implemented in tandem with quotas to mitigate the effects of historical discrimination and to support women’s success and impact in politics, including capacity-building performed in tandem with autonomous women’s organizations as well as regional or international partners.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Women’s right to equality in economic and social life as enshrined in multiple human rights treaties is substantive, immediate and enforceable. States are obliged to act with due diligence to prevent discrimination of those rights by any actors and to ensure their fulfilment. Yet women continue to experience discrimination in all areas of economic and social life. The feminization of poverty, particularly in contexts of crisis and austerity, is a well-documented phenomenon. Gender stereotypes perpetuate women’s economic and social marginalization, exclude them from the labour market and place a disproportionate burden on them for unpaid, low paid or informal work. Intersectional discrimination on the grounds of ethnicity, age, disability, sexual identity or orientation, among others, disproportionately marginalizes particular groups of women.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "Good practice in promoting women’s equality and empowerment in economic and social life requires measures that support equal opportunity, accommodation for gender-specific needs and equal enjoyment of benefits. In accordance with international standards, equal opportunities, equal pay for work of equal value, paid maternity leave in accordance with international standards and parental leave for both men and women must be legally mandated in both formal and informal employment sectors. Women must be fully integrated into economic policymaking both at the State level and in financial institutions that determine economic policy in practice.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The following case study originated in a country in the Western region with a strong commitment to gender equality, owing in large part to a history of organization by women’s that contributed to a wide acceptance of feminism in society and shaped progressive government policies. Nevertheless, inequality included a persistent gender wage gap; high gender segregation of the labour market, including women’s low leadership levels in the private sector; and prevalent gender-based violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life", "Women and economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "Nonetheless, social awareness of women’s issues in the country was uniquely strong, creating an ameliorating environment for mobilization around feminist analyses of social, political and economic issues. This was evidenced in 2008 when the complete collapse of the country’s banking system led to a major financial crisis. Widespread protests precipitated a change in Government and led to the election of a feminist Government headed by a woman, who appointed women to most cabinet roles, including the Ministries of the Economy and Finance. The new administration commissioned an analysis of the banking crisis to build upon existing feminist critiques of the masculinist financial culture of unfettered risk and neoliberal policies as major causative factors. The research confirmed those critiques and highlighted the effects of increasing privatization of political power among predominantly male, private-sector elites, whose actions had precipitated the crisis.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life", "Women and economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "A somewhat unconventional approach to the economic crisis was thus grounded in a gender analysis that focused on maintaining gains in equality as part of the economic recovery process. It combined temporary policy and executive decisions aimed at preventing disproportionate effects on women and vulnerable sectors of the population with mechanisms and measures for ongoing monitoring and data collection to ascertain impact. Simultaneously, the Government prioritized the implementation of long-term legal and policy measures to strengthen gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life", "Women and economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Between 2009 and 2013, the Government introduced temporary measures to counter the shifting effects of the crisis on women and men. As a result of pressure to cover the foreign debt that had been accumulated by national banks, the Government made cuts in infrastructure such as health care and primary education, as well as in family benefits such as parental leave. However, the resulting funds were strategically used to provide nominal increases in basic unemployment benefits, social protection allowances and disability pensions to shelter individuals most affected by the resource cuts. Elderly women and women with disabilities were the major beneficiaries, and women made up almost two-thirds of unemployment benefits claimants. In addition, measures to tackle household debt by sheltering low-income and single-parent households from losing their disposable earnings benefitted women, as they were likely to feature more prominently in both categories.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life", "Women and economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "Concurrently, the Government maintained a focus on long-term measures to promote gender equality, including the introduction of gender-responsive budgeting, the appointment of gender equality experts within different ministries, the adoption of quotas on the boards of corporations and plans of action for gender equality and violence prevention. The Government also established monitoring mechanisms, such as a gender equality watch and a welfare watch. The welfare watch — which initially operated from 2009 to 2013 under the Ministry of Welfare and a steering committee of experts from Government, labour groups, academia, the financial sector, teachers’ unions, civil society organizations and stakeholders — was in charge of assessing the most pressing welfare issues to be addressed and proposing gender-responsive measures. The model was recognized as innovative and effective.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life", "Women and economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "While assessment of the impact of such measures was not uniform, and questions remained about whether the gendered analysis and approach to the crisis had deep impacts on the reconstruction of the economy, it can be said that the gender-sensitive response of the Government pre-empted a regression in welfare and women’s rights that had usually accompanied austerity measures. In addition, knowledge of the gendered and intersectional dimensions of crises and the effectiveness of the responses was enhanced through monitoring and data collection. The policies undertaken in response to the crisis demonstrated not only an uncompromising commitment to gender equality but also an acknowledgment of its centrality to a healthy, robust and resilient society.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life", "Women and economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The integration of gender responsive measures and protection of social welfare systems during economic crises can protect women’s human rights gains and, at the same time, support healthy recovery.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "Efforts to sensitize society to women’s human rights issues and feminist analysis, and their inclusion in Government research and policy, create an ameliorating environment for progressive legal and policy development and implementation, in contrast to a masculinist financial culture of unfettered risk and neoliberal policies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Cultural rights are central to the realization of women’s human rights. Culture is neither homogenous nor immutable but is often presented as being so, and hence as creating an irrevocable barrier to equality rights for women. States have obligations to recognize and actively combat the deep entrenchment of patriarchal culture based on gender stereotypes in legal, political, religious, social and cultural institutions. While this obligation applies to all aspects of life, patriarchal gender stereotypes are often firmly entrenched in laws and social norms governing family, and often reinforced by religious authorities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "Good practices in cultural and family life require a guarantee of women’s right to equality in autonomy and self-determination and the legal and social recognition of women as agents of cultural change. Legal and cultural norms that subjugate women to male control must be actively challenged and eradicated. States must endeavour to repeal all discriminatory provisions in the law, particularly those governing marriage and divorce, child-rearing, inheritance, freedom of movement, access to capital, credit and income-generating activities. In addition to the elimination of direct discrimination, good practices in this area require that States take active measures to support substantive equality through the law and long-term awareness-raising initiatives directed towards the eradication of patriarchal stereotypes and attitudes.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "The following case study originated in Eastern Europe, in a State that had undertaken a lengthy legislative and institutional reform process since gaining independence in 1991. In a predominantly patriarchal context, attempts to introduce and support legal and policy frameworks for gender equality had faced significant opposition. Subsequent to a review in 2009 by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, the Government adopted a gender policy concept paper and strategic action plan for the period 2011-2015, including provisions for gender sensitization of teachers and educational curriculum.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Challenging discrimination: gender sensitive education for cultural change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "In 2013, Parliament passed a law on the equal rights and equal opportunities of women and men. The law reiterated the constitutional guarantee of gender equality, defined gender discrimination and contained provisions against direct and indirect discrimination. However, the law generated a great deal of social controversy and backlash because of the perception that it represented an attack on “family values”. Women’s civil society organizations became targets of harassment and protests erupted, with demonstrators calling the law “national treason”.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Challenging discrimination: gender sensitive education for cultural change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "The Government had achieved little progress in implementing the gender policy strategic action plan, owing in part to the public backlash and lack of resource allocation. A civil society organization from the women’s rights movement secured funds to launch a three-year project on gender sensitive education to address a social and cultural environment characterized by profound resistance to the concept of gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Challenging discrimination: gender sensitive education for cultural change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "That civil society organization navigated the challenging context by building strategic partnerships with experts and Government. Together with educational experts, they developed a theoretical and practical educational guidebook entitled “Women and Men: Different but Equal”, which was subsequently approved for use by the Ministry of Education and Science. It supported the incorporation of gender curricula into mandatory courses, such as social studies, and included discussion of gender, reproductive rights and violence prevention.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Challenging discrimination: gender sensitive education for cultural change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "In order to institutionalize gender-sensitive teacher training, advocates from civil society organizations convened meetings with government ministries, other such organizations, educators and experts to develop a training module on gender equality and gender violence in partnership with the National Institute of Education, the authority in charge of teacher training. Despite some school directors’ resistance, thousands of social science teachers were trained and the Institute is committed to institutionalizing the training.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Challenging discrimination: gender sensitive education for cultural change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "According to evaluations, despite its short duration, the project’s focus on education is a promising practice for a number of reasons. First, what started as a civil society organization initiative attracted the institutional support of the National Institute of Education and the Ministry of Education and Science in the dissemination of the educational guidebook in schools, the development of the teacher training module and the roll-out of training sessions. In addition, the undertaking created a political space for civil society organizations and public authorities to take action in a challenging context, allowing meaningful steps towards fulfilling the objectives of the strategic action plan.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Challenging discrimination: gender sensitive education for cultural change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "While these measures alone will not achieve substantive equality, intervention in the education system is projected to bear fruit in terms of creating a positive environment for social discussion of and support for gender equality issues. Preliminary outcome studies of training programmes in two regions of the country demonstrated shifts in attitudes towards gender equality and violence against women, but the curriculum and training policies have not yet been applied uniformly across the country, limiting systemic impact.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Challenging discrimination: gender sensitive education for cultural change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Project evaluation shows a need for further focus on planning, as well as measurable objectives and outcomes for the training. Resource allocation is also an issue. Currently, the teacher training has been institutionalized only as a one-hour module, despite calls for more comprehensive training. A greater investment of time is warranted to support attitudinal and behavioural changes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Challenging discrimination: gender sensitive education for cultural change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "The gender-sensitive education initiative is a promising practice in a fraught context, but is not a stand-alone measure. The case study demonstrates that gender equality cannot be fully achieved through sectorial approaches, but instead requires the creation of an enabling environment animated by comprehensive long-term measures emphasizing the interconnectedness of women’s rights in order to yield both legal and social change.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Challenging discrimination: gender sensitive education for cultural change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "The partnership of autonomous women’s organizations and independent experts with expertise in women’s rights with public authorities is a key element of progressive policy implementation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "Public education and teacher training are a crucial entry point for addressing systemic discrimination and promoting a culture of human rights, undertaken in tandem with complementary measures for systemic change.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "Health is defined by the World Health Organization as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being”. Women’s rights to equality and to the highest attainable standards of health, including those related to reproductive and sexual health, and the interconnected right to a life free of violence are enshrined in international and regional human rights instruments and reaffirmed in international consensus agreements, yet remain among the most contested and violated women’s human rights standards. Gender-based violence and the instrumentalization and politicization of women’s bodies and women’s health agenda continue to undermine the fulfilment of women’s human rights throughout the world. These violations, fed by patriarchal ideologies and stereotypes that reduce women to means of reproduction or sexual objects, undermine women’s autonomy and self-determination, affecting the fulfilment of their human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "Good practices in this area require a differentiated approach in order to meet women’s particular needs, influenced by biological functions and social constructions of gender alike. The instrumentalization of women’s bodies, particularly as regarding sexual and reproductive health, and the ongoing normalization of violence against women must be combatted through rights-based measures that put women’s right to dignity, autonomy and self-determination at the core of legal and policy undertakings.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "The following case study from the African region elucidates the myriad factors required to develop and maintain a good practice in addressing violence against girls, as well as the attendant impacts on the right to health, safety and access to justice, among others. The background to the case begins with a constitutional reform process undertaken with high levels of public engagement, resulting in 2010 in a robust new constitution that included strong equality provisions, the incorporation of international and regional human rights treaties and the creation of an ameliorating environment for public interest litigation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety", "Mobilizing the law for social change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "In 2011, a social worker who founded a local shelter for girl survivors of sexual violence and an international human rights lawyer initiated a coalition with local, regional and international civil society organizations, feminist lawyers and the national human rights commission to file a case seeking to hold the police accountable for failure to address rampant sexual violence against girls. The 160 Girls case was brought to the High Court in 2012. With the support of the shelter, 11 applicants were chosen from more than 160 victims of child rape who had been denied access to justice. The remaining victims were represented by the twelfth applicant, which was the rape shelter itself. It was the first case brought to the High Court under the equality provisions laid out in the 2010 Constitution. The decision was instrumental in establishing the failure of the police to meet national and international standards to conduct prompt, effective, proper and professional investigations into complaints, thereby preventing access to justice. With the use of relevant international human rights instruments and progressive interpretation of constitutional rights and State obligation, the jurisprudence was precedent-setting. The seminal contribution of the decision lay in establishing the rights of the child and the delineation of the scope of State obligation in protecting children from violence, and the duty to investigate and apply existing rape laws.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety", "Mobilizing the law for social change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "In its decision, the Court recognized that the girls’ constitutional rights had been violated and that the police had failed to act with due diligence as agents of the State. The police force was ordered to implement article 244 of the Constitution, requiring them to train staff to the highest possible standards of competence and integrity and to respect human rights and fundamental freedoms and dignity. Police officers were ordered to investigate the perpetrators of the 11 applicants and to ensure effective investigations in all child rape claims. As at early 2016, 80 per cent of such cases had resulted in convictions, while others were pending before courts and additional investigations had been initiated. The judgment has been referenced in other cases, including an important class action suit by victims of post-election violence, and the high courts have issued further progressive decisions on related grounds.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety", "Mobilizing the law for social change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "What makes this case study a uniquely good practice is that, rather than ending with a court decision, the coalition of organizations involved continued to work together to expand that decision into a comprehensive movement for change. The 160 Girls Project developed as a result of the case centres on training and education programmes involving police, shelters, social workers and community members to ensure a multi-level long-term impact. A rape investigation training programme for police was developed that included a peer-to-peer train-the-trainers element with international police officers and ongoing training from equality lawyers and the national human rights commission. Research has shown positive impacts, including documented attitudinal changes and increased professionalism in the handling of child rape cases. Furthermore, training programmes have been developed for shelter workers on documenting sexual violence cases and the rights of victims.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety", "Mobilizing the law for social change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "Community education programmes are a key component of the implementation strategy. In this case, a robust pilot project on public legal education included community training on the decision and the related girls’ rights and police obligations; awareness-raising events including drama/theatre and panel discussions; rights-training for children; a smartphone application giving details on the steps to take in rape investigations; and public awareness materials, including billboards, radio and television programmes, social media outreach and short videos on the Internet. These measures have been replicated in other parts of the country.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety", "Mobilizing the law for social change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "While the ongoing efforts of project partners have ensured sustained impacts, the context of endemic sexualized violence against girls and women continues to be an issue. Those regions of the country that face heightened security issues present challenges, and it remains to be demonstrated whether there can be shifts in public sentiment regarding rape of women. A highly active civil society ensures that courts continue to be used to push for progress on the implementation of girls’ rights and on State responsibility for protecting children against sexual violence. However, it is unclear whether civil society organizations bear a disproportionate burden vis-à-vis the State, and whether the enabling context for such organizations will be maintained. Challenges include ensuring ongoing sources of funding for the project and decreasing reliance on overseas funding.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety", "Mobilizing the law for social change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "A strong human rights-based constitutional framework for equality, a progressive judiciary, an active autonomous civil society and an environment conducive to public interest litigation are important complementary factors in the development of good practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "Impact is attained through follow-up measures and sustained action, by both State and non-State actors. Progressive court decisions must be widely disseminated and popularized among duty holders and rights holders alike to have broader structural impact.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 74, "n": 5, "text": "Civil society and autonomous women’s organizing", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 75, "n": 74, "text": "Women’s participation and self-determination in the development and application of the laws that shape the parameters of their lives is a human right. Supporting the existence of and collaborative engagement with autonomous women’s movements is a core component of State obligation to end discrimination against women. The case studies investigated for the present report demonstrate the centrality of an active citizenry, autonomous women’s movements and civil society organizations with progressive frameworks that align with women’s human rights standards as key factors in achieving positive changes in the development and application of the law.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "5. Civil society and autonomous women’s organizing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 76, "n": 75, "text": "The Working Group considers that the study of the ways and means by which those movements engage with processes of change involving the law merits in-depth consideration. Such investigation will reveal specific ways that States can create an ameliorating environment for and work collaboratively with autonomous women’s movements towards eliminating discrimination against women in law and in practice.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "5. Civil society and autonomous women’s organizing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 77, "n": 76, "text": "The three case studies below exemplify the crucial role of women’s autonomous organizing in the interrelated developmental processes of good practices as articulated in the living-law approach of the present report.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "5. Civil society and autonomous women’s organizing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 78, "n": 77, "text": "The following case study, originating in a country of the Middle East and North Africa Region, highlights the central role of women’s autonomous organizing in promoting political and legal changes to eradicate discrimination against women and to promote substantive equality. The country had a long history of Government-led reform promoting gender equality in the law. This included broad legal reforms granting women autonomy and self-determination in public and family life, with progressive provisions in terms of sexual and reproductive rights. Women’s organizations had previously existed, but the political climate did not support autonomy. Growing authoritarianism in the regime and the prevalence of discriminatory attitudes had diminished the transformation of women’s traditional roles and the attainment of substantive equality. In 2011, a political revolution led by social movements brought about the downfall of the Government and led to the democratization of the State.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(a) Political and constitutional reform", "Women’s participation in democratic movements and constitution-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 79, "n": 78, "text": "Women’s organizations played an important role in achieving the goals of the revolution and continued to play an active role in the emergence of a new vision for gender equality. The post-revolution period generated significant public debate during the drafting of a new constitution. Women’s movements worked to keep women on the agenda, introducing a draft feminist constitution early in 2012 that they were invited to present to the National Constituent Assembly. They continued to advocate and mobilize society to oppose regressive elements, maintaining pressure for strong gender equality provisions. In 2012, women successfully organized against article 2.28 of the draft constitution, which had established the complementarity of men and women, rather than the right to equality. The women’s movements, with the assistance of the Working Group through its communications and a country visit, brought about a revision of the draft constitution. That victory was a key factor in the development of a rights-based constitutional framework for gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(a) Political and constitutional reform", "Women’s participation in democratic movements and constitution-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 80, "n": 79, "text": "The new Constitution, adopted in 2014, enshrined the equality of the sexes before the law without discrimination and committed the State to protecting and strengthening gains in women’s rights, guaranteeing the equality of opportunities in all domains and protecting against legal regression. Another progressive measure was the inclusion of the principle of parity in elected assemblies and a clear statement that men and women alike could run for president. The progressive framework of the constitution was protected in article 49, which affirmed that no amendment could undermine the human rights and freedoms guaranteed in the Constitution.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(a) Political and constitutional reform", "Women’s participation in democratic movements and constitution-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 81, "n": 80, "text": "Women’s rights advocates pointed to some areas of concern in the constitutional framework that were illustrative of the ongoing political and cultural struggle between the protection and contestation of conservative gender roles. While a single State religion was recognized and protected in the Constitution, it also includes provisions reiterating that the country was a civil State based on the primacy of law that promoted moderation and tolerance. How those potentially conflicting interests would work out in practice remained to be seen, particularly given that the constitutional courts were not yet in place.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(a) Political and constitutional reform", "Women’s participation in democratic movements and constitution-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 82, "n": 81, "text": "While insufficient time has elapsed since adoption of the 2014 Constitution to fully assess its impacts, the crucial importance of this broad legal umbrella for women’s equality cannot be overstated. Translating constitutional protections into reality will require the ongoing harmonized efforts of the Government and civil society. Some constitutional provisions have yet to be entrenched in the law, such as the stalled adoption of a law on violence against women, which was being discussed in Parliament at the time of writing. In the area of political participation, a 2016 amendment to the electoral law implanted the constitutional principle of political parity into law. Applying to municipal and regional elections, the law included “vertical and horizontal gender parity”, guaranteeing a 50/50 split and alternation to ensure leadership positions for women. Elections scheduled to be held in 2017 thus open the way for a massive entry of women into local politics, creating huge potential for social transformation if well supported and sustained.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(a) Political and constitutional reform", "Women’s participation in democratic movements and constitution-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 83, "n": 82, "text": "The active participation of citizens and women’s organizations in the process of democratization and constitution drafting are key to the adoption of a progressive, rights-based constitutional framework that creates an enabling legal environment for women’s human rights implementation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(a) Political and constitutional reform", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 84, "n": 83, "text": "Robust and detailed constitutional gender equality protections based on international human rights standards are essential for a strong and enforceable domestic legal framework, and the active intervention of human rights organizations at the request of civil society can contribute to achieving the gender equality goal.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(a) Political and constitutional reform", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 85, "n": 84, "text": "Longstanding internal armed conflict in one country in the Latin America Region has displaced more than 6 million people internally. Half of those are women, who have suffered a traumatic change in gender roles, family structure and socioeconomic and cultural standing, deepening gender and social inequalities and increasing risk of violence and gender-based discrimination. While many challenges persist, the situation faced by displaced women has improved over the past decade, largely owing to three ground-breaking decisions of the Constitutional Court, shaped by widespread citizen and civil society organization mobilization and implementation efforts.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(b) Progressive and participatory application of the law", "Conflict, displacement and women’s human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 86, "n": 85, "text": "For many years, internally displaced people and civil society organizations had demanded protection measures from the Government without receiving an appropriate response. This had prompted hundreds of displaced persons to invoke the protection of the judiciary through the judicial remedy known as a tutela: a constitutionally established judicial action that citizens can bring before any judge to ensure the effective exercise of their human rights. By 2004, tribunals had received tutelas submitted by 1,150 displaced families, accumulated in a dossier by the Constitutional Court that led to a judgment declaring that the humanitarian emergency caused by forced displacement had created an unconstitutional state of affairs characterized by massive human rights violations associated with systemic failures in State assistance to displaced persons. Accordingly, the Court ordered the Government to adopt structural measures, a measure that has spawned a lengthy implementation process.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(b) Progressive and participatory application of the law", "Conflict, displacement and women’s human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 87, "n": 86, "text": "The Constitutional Court used its power to assess implementation of its own judgment, issuing two further orders on the rights of displaced women. In 2008, the Court handed down a decision that was considered a global pioneer in the treatment of sexual violence during internal armed conflict. It identified 10 risks that forcibly displaced women faced, including extreme risk of sexual violence, and 18 gender facets of displacement, including patterns of discrimination and violence. Accordingly, the Court ordered the Government to create and implement 13 programmes with a gender-sensitive approach, including violence prevention, the right to health and education and access to land, justice and reparations. The Court also took an intersectoral approach, highlighting heightened risks faced by girls, indigenous, black and community women leaders, and women with disabilities. The Court ordered the allocation of sufficient resources to guarantee implementation of the programmes, refusing to recognize lack of budget as valid justification for non-compliance.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(b) Progressive and participatory application of the law", "Conflict, displacement and women’s human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 88, "n": 87, "text": "In 2015, the Court issued an order declaring the persistence of failures in the assistance, protection and access to justice for women victims of sexual violence. That decision consolidated the constitutional framework to address the gendered impact of armed conflict on the forced displacement of women in the country. That protection framework — effectively transforming a government response to forced displacement using a gender perspective — is a pioneering example globally. That extraordinary achievement was partly due to the longstanding efforts by Latin American women’s movements to strengthen the capacities of the constitutional courts in the field of women’s rights.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(b) Progressive and participatory application of the law", "Conflict, displacement and women’s human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 89, "n": 88, "text": "The active involvement of internally displaced women and civil society organizations was essential throughout the process. Displaced women brought hundreds of tutelas before tribunals to demand their rights and participated in public hearings convened by the Constitutional Court or civil society organizations sharing their experiences and perspectives. The Court’s decisions were informed by formal submissions by such organizations, presenting experiences of women and girls forcibly displaced around the country.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(b) Progressive and participatory application of the law", "Conflict, displacement and women’s human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 90, "n": 89, "text": "Women and civil society organizations responded to the Constitutional Court’s request to participate in the design and implementation of the decisions. This resulted in the collective development of indicators to monitor the 2004 order and the establishment of a working group to monitor compliance with the orders, which was essential in assessing the implementation of the decisions and in providing technical assistance for the implementation of government programmes. Civil society organizations also operated numerous programmes that provided humanitarian, legal and psychosocial support to displaced women and their families. Those organizations also used international human rights mechanisms to keep a spotlight on displaced women, and carried the topic into recent peace negotiation processes. The 2016 peace agreement addressed many of the demands in the three decisions, contributing to their sustainability.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(b) Progressive and participatory application of the law", "Conflict, displacement and women’s human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 91, "n": 90, "text": "Despite this extraordinary protection framework, implementation has faced challenges. Women victims of sexual violence still faced barriers to filing reports and receiving adequate care and protection, particularly in remote areas. There was still heightened violence against displaced women linked to the illegal exploitation of mining resources or on the basis of their sexual orientation. Continued efforts were needed to ensure ongoing progress in a complex and dynamic context.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(b) Progressive and participatory application of the law", "Conflict, displacement and women’s human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 92, "n": 91, "text": "The presence of a solid constitutional court and an effective judicial remedy that enables citizens to demand their constitutional rights without undue cost or burden creates an enabling legal environment for addressing women’s human rights violations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(b) Progressive and participatory application of the law", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 93, "n": 92, "text": "Active participation of women rights holders and autonomous women’s organizations in the development, monitoring, assessment and implementation of judicial decisions and public policies is essential to ensuring responsivity and impact.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(b) Progressive and participatory application of the law", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 94, "n": 93, "text": "In one State in the Western Europe and others group, indigenous women and girls continued to be the target of racially motivated sexual and gender-based violence that began with colonization, as affirmed in a 2015 inquiry report by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, in which the Committee noted grave and systemic violations of indigenous women’s rights, exacerbated by entrenched discrimination that impeded access to justice. In a rural, predominantly indigenous region of the State, a series of high-profile cases, including the acquittal of federal police officers for sexual assault and the death of an indigenous man in police custody, had led to the mobilization of civil society organizations and public outcry, precipitating a government review of the police force in 2010. Local women’s organizations lobbied for inclusion in order to push for an improved response by the justice system to violence against women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(c) Together for justice protocol"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 95, "n": 94, "text": "In that context, an indigenous women’s organization in a small community initiated a protocol with the local federal police force that mandated: ongoing engagement, including police training and capacity-building, to address the interrelated phenomena of violence directed towards indigenous women and lack of due diligence in investigating crimes; open dialogue sessions to promote cultural awareness; and community-police feedback and knowledge-sharing sessions, during which information on the justice system and community rights would be offered.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(c) Together for justice protocol"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 96, "n": 95, "text": "Project reviews and research have showed a profound impact on police-community relations, with open dialogue and collaboration promoting enhanced understanding and cooperation on issues of concern. The civil society organization has reported attitudinal and behavioural shifts that have exceeded their expectations. The police have developed a better understanding of the physical security issues that women in the community face, and have helped to increase access to relevant domestic violence and sexual assault resources, including shelters.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(c) Together for justice protocol"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 97, "n": 96, "text": "The protocol is reviewed and adjusted annually by both parties to take into account challenges and shifting needs, ensuring ongoing responsivity to community concerns. Successes of the project have been shared with other women’s organizations, and a similar protocol has been subsequently adopted with the federal police force in the largest city in the region. Discussions are under way in other indigenous communities to press for similar protocols.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(c) Together for justice protocol"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 98, "n": 97, "text": "The bottom-up approach of the practice, which was developed at the impetus of women’s organizations — while demonstrative of the innovative means used by the community to address the structural reality of the situation of violence and discrimination in which they live — has raised the question as to why grave and well-documented human rights violations have not been addressed on a systematic or institutional level within the federal police and Government. Political will to support, expand and institutionalize this good practice is required for its replication and sustainability. In all post- and ongoing colonial contexts, the disproportionate and intersectional discrimination faced by indigenous women, often aided and abetted by legal systems, must be systematically addressed by State duty holders.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(c) Together for justice protocol"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 99, "n": 98, "text": "Legal frameworks and partnership protocols that formalize the collaboration and participation of citizen or civil society organizations or autonomous women’s rights organizations in developing, monitoring and implementing the law, can help to address power imbalances on the basis of historical discrimination and can lead to meaningful change.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(c) Together for justice protocol", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 100, "n": 99, "text": "Measures involving groups of women who experience intersectional discrimination, such as indigenous women, must be developed in accordance with an intersectional, gender-sensitive human rights perspective and engage with women as stakeholders.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(c) Together for justice protocol", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 101, "n": 100, "text": "Financial and institutional support for promising and good practices must be maintained to ensure ongoing impact of results.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(c) Together for justice protocol", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 102, "n": 101, "text": "Good practices in the eradication of discrimination against women in law and practice comprise a complex, multifaceted endeavour involving a wide range of interconnected rights. A good practice cannot be understood in isolation from its context and other complementary measures undertaken to promote substantive equality. The living-law approach renders visible the wide range of factors and actors involved in the process of good practice development. Each good practice case study explored in the present report has contributed to key lessons learned that are both specific to the case and that contain transferable principles that inform the present conclusions. These lessons learned also reinforce the conclusions reached by the Working Group on the basis of regional and global research in its thematic reports and various country visits.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 103, "n": 102, "text": "The Working Group’s assessment of good practices in eliminating discrimination against women reaffirms the imperative that international human rights standards must be incorporated into national law and laws that contradict those principles must be repealed or modified, without exceptions based on cultural grounds, including cultural and customary grounds. Constitutional provisions that support gender equality create the foundation from which women’s rights can most comprehensively be supported throughout the legal system. States must also take measures to ensure that international and constitutional standards for women’s equality are infused at all levels of the legal framework, especially in federated and pluralistic legal systems.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 104, "n": 103, "text": "To ensure that laws facilitate good practices in the elimination of discrimination and women’s empowerment, a systematic gender analysis of the law and its potential impacts, as well as outcomes, is imperative. Gender analysis of existing and draft laws through the input of diverse stakeholders and the sharing of good practices must be undertaken comprehensively and regularly. This requires capacity-building on a rights-based gender analysis for duty holders in all spheres and meaningful collaboration with an autonomous civil society that includes women’s organizations and legal experts on women’s rights. In addition, it requires ongoing independent monitoring and research by national human rights institutions, treaty bodies, special procedure mandate holders, scholars and other experts.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 105, "n": 104, "text": "Changing the law to meet the State obligation to respect and protect women’s human rights are key steps, but investigations show that fulfilling rights remains the most challenging facet of this triad. The fulfilment of women’s human rights requires substantive shifts in deeply entrenched social and cultural norms that reinforce gender stereotypes and perpetuate women’s subordination. As the Working Group has emphasized, the State must act as an agent of change as regards to women’s place in cultural and family life. The fulfilment of progressive legal frameworks requires strong political will, supported by appropriate resources, and attendant measures focused on attitudinal and behavioural change that cultivate an environment in which good practices can thrive. Change must be transferred from the normative level into all sectors of society so that duty and rights holders alike are able to internalize the shifts required to support human rights implementation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 106, "n": 105, "text": "Among the key challenges in eliminating discrimination against women in law and practice is the question of sustainability in the efforts and impacts of changing laws. Local and global political and ideological landscapes are ever-shifting and resources are limited and insecure.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 107, "n": 106, "text": "The developmental process of a good practice over longer periods of time means that political shifts in national or international governance can adversely affect sustainability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0108", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 108, "n": 107, "text": "A key area of concern to the Working Group is the profound level of backlash against women’s human rights gains, which is on the rise both within States and in international spheres. In a climate of rising populism, xenophobia and fundamentalisms, long-established women’s human rights norms are being undermined, heightening the fragility of good practices in this context. In addition, a concurrent attack on women’s organizations, women’s human rights defenders and civil society movements — including feminist, environmental and human rights movements — creates an atmosphere in which these key actors are criminalized, de-funded and even killed, making the question of good practices moot. The Working Group emphasizes the importance of maintaining the autonomy of local and national movements and other civil society actors — including national human rights institutions, public interest lawyers and scholars — as an essential means of protecting and sustaining good practices. Backlashes within intergovernmental forums, as well as at the national level, must be challenged head-on by the international community.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0109", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 109, "n": 108, "text": "Resource allocation to support the progressive implementation of women’s human rights is part of State obligation. States must undertake a process of gender budgeting to ensure that their legal and policy commitments bear results. Key limiting factors of the good practices identified were insufficient funds, disproportionate burden of implementation on non-government actors and dependence on large-scale or single donor international funding resources. While involvement of autonomous women’s organizations has been seen as essential in the implementation of rights, the relationship between State and non-State actors should involve complementary efforts. Even States with limited resources make key decisions that support the implementation of rights when political will is present to do so. Budget allocation, whether originating from the State or a donor, must take into account the longitudinal nature of change to ensure that promising practices are not arrested before they can fully come into fruition.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0110", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 110, "n": 109, "text": "There are multiple entry points to change the law and ensure effective implementation of laws guaranteeing women’s right to equality, including through the initiative of women rights holders and autonomous women’s organizations in civil society. The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Take every measure to ratify the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women and its Optional Protocol, withdraw reservations thereto, incorporate its provisions into national constitutions and all hierarchies of domestic law, and actively seek to implement recommendations made by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, the Working Group and other relevant human rights mechanisms in view of improving the realization of women’s human rights;\n(b) Repeal all laws that directly discriminate against women, and review all new and existing legislation through a rights-based, gender-sensitive lens, involving independent experts, including autonomous women’s organizations;\n(c) Improve the knowledge-base on good practices by providing the ways and means to support initiatives that apply a living-law approach to evaluating outcomes and impact of laws, and record detailed results for the sharing of promising and good practices.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0111", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 111, "n": 2, "text": "Specific recommendations Social change", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0112", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 112, "n": 110, "text": "The cultivation of a culture of human rights is needed for social change and requires specific measures that draw from the richness and complexity of particular contexts and histories, and that involve all sectors of society, including autonomous women’s movements. As exemplified by the cases in the present report, good practices result from sustained processes that benefit from the dynamic interaction brought by a diverse range of actors and involve responsivity to changing situations in order to ensure ongoing fulfilment of equal rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Specific recommendations", "Social change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0113", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 113, "n": 111, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Invest in long-term and multi-dimensional strategies to promote social change, including extensive training, educational and awareness-raising measures to promote a culture of human rights among right and duty holders alike;\n(b) Ensure the active participation of women of all sectors of society in monitoring and implementing human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Specific recommendations", "Social change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0114", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 114, "n": 112, "text": "It is essential to ensure that a robust constitutional and legal framework is in place to support long-term rights implementation and to weather challenges that may come from regressive political or ideological forces that threaten to undermine progress. The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Recognize the crucial role of autonomous women’s organizing in the development of good practices, and endeavour to create a legal, policy and budgetary framework to support autonomous civil society organizations, women’s movements, and citizen participation in legal development, reform and implementation;\n(b) Apply the good practices framework for the creation and maintenance of a safe and enabling environment for civil society developed in the report of the High Commissioner (A/HRC/32/20), with a gender-sensitive lens that takes into account the unique position and challenges faced by women’s human rights defenders;\n(c) Prioritize the allocation of funds, both internationally and domestically, to support active and sustained measures to promote good practices in the eradication of discrimination and the promotion of women’s empowerment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Specific recommendations", "Sustainability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report covers the activities of the Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice, from the submission of its previous report (A/HRC/35/29) to April 2018.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The Working Group held three sessions in Geneva during the period under review. At its nineteenth session (15–19 May 2017), it held meetings with other special procedure mandate holders, a member of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, a member of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), representatives of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and representatives of several civil society organizations. The Working Group also started organizing the handover to the new members and discussed possible future thematic priorities. Jointly with civil society organizations and the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders, it organized a well-attended public event on strengthening protection networks for women human rights defenders to combat discrimination.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "At its twentieth session (9–13 October 2017), the experts completed the handover to their successors. The experts met with the new Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Sexual Violence in Conflict, organized an informal brainstorming session on the issue of surrogacy with the participation of the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), OHCHR and the Special Rapporteur on the sale and sexual exploitation of children, including child prostitution, child pornography and other child sexual abuse material (see A/HRC/37/60). The Working Group also organized a well-attended meeting with Member States.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At its twenty-first session (22–26 January 2018), the Working Group, including the four experts whose terms had begun on 1 November 2017, reviewed its working methods and elaborated the vision for the mandate in the coming years. It met with a former Working Group member, members of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, representatives of UN-Women, WHO and UNFPA and OHCHR staff. The Working Group also organized a meeting with Member States and Geneva-based civil society organizations. On 25 January, the International Gender Champions organized an event introducing the new experts to the Geneva international community.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The experts visited Samoa from 8 to 18 August 2017 (A/HRC/38/46/Add.1) and Chad from 4 to 14 December 2017 (A/HRC/38/46/Add.2). The Working Group thanks the Governments of those countries for their cooperation before and during the visits. It also thanks the Government of Poland for having invited it to conduct an official visit in 2018. The Working Group currently has 32 pending requests for visits and encourages States to respond positively to those requests.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "During the period under review, the Working Group addressed communications to Governments, individually or jointly with other mandate holders. The communications concern a wide range of subjects falling within its mandate, including discriminatory legislation and practices, allegations of abuse of women human rights defenders and violations of their rights, gender-based violence and violations of the right to sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:1]] The Working Group also issued press releases, individually or jointly with other mandate holders, treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.[[fn:2]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Communications.aspx."}, {"n": 2, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/NewsSearch.aspx?MID=WG_Women."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Since its previous report to the Human Rights Council, the experts have undertaken numerous activities in their capacity as members of the Working Group (see annex).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "In the present report, the Working Group takes stock of the first six years of its mandate and analyses the lessons learned. It is grateful for the responses to the questionnaire it sent out in July 2017 to all Permanent Missions in Geneva and other stakeholders, seeking information on lessons learned, key challenges and opportunities relating to the work of the mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "The Working Group, in establishing its conceptual framework and working methods, stressed that the elimination of discrimination against women in law and in practice required a comprehensive and coherent human rights-based approach that ensured that women were at the centre of efforts to hold principally States accountable for implementing international standards guaranteeing civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights (see A/HRC/20/28). The Working Group addressed the elimination of discrimination against women in law and in practice in all fields from the perspective of States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil women’s human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "It emphasized that national, regional and international human rights mechanisms, as well as grass-roots activists, played critical roles in ensuring the full enjoyment by women of their human rights. For legal guarantees to benefit all women, implementation frameworks and strategies must be responsive to the intersections of gender-based discrimination with other grounds of discrimination.[[fn:3]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 28 (2010) on the core obligations of States parties under article 2 of the Convention, para. 18."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Indeed, the work of the Working Group has covered all women, acknowledging that women are not a uniform group. Nearly 40 years of reporting to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women have proven that there are multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination against women around the world and within countries that reinforce and sustain each other. All women, in their diversity and many different circumstances, are affected differently by discriminatory laws and practices. Nevertheless, there are shared aspects of discrimination against women that persist in all cultures, although with differing levels of intensity and differing impacts.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Furthermore, throughout the first six years of the mandate, there has been a need to constantly reiterate, even within the human rights system, that women are not just another vulnerable group, as they are often treated by some. They are half of the world population and often the majority of each of the vulnerable groups, hence eliminating the persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights should be addressed both as a stand-alone goal and as a mainstreaming issue.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The Working Group has observed how concepts such as “complementarity”, “equity” and “protection of the family” have been used to undermine women’s rights by challenging universal human rights to equality and non-discrimination. Such concepts are also employed to justify State and non-State violations of these rights, and non-compliance with State obligations to eliminate discriminatory practices based on stereotyped roles for men or women (see A/HRC/29/40).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "In recent years, the Working Group has observed how the concept of gender itself has been challenged, misunderstood and misused to further undermine the struggle towards the elimination of discrimination against women and towards gender equality. In this regard, the hostilities against so-called gender ideology, particularly vehement in Latin America and Eastern Europe, exemplify the growing challenges in the quest for equality. Conservative lobbies advocating against gender ideology, presented as a threat to “traditional values”, wrongly see efforts to advance gender equality as the imposition of ideas and beliefs that seek to destroy such institutions as the family, marriage and religious freedom. This movement has been particularly vocal in opposing policies or even debates on issues of scientifically based comprehensive sexuality education in schools, women’s sexual and reproductive rights, marriage equality and gender-based violence. The term “gender” has, for instance, been challenged by the movement against the ratification of the Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (the Istanbul Convention) on the grounds that it imposes gender ideology. These conservative groups argue that international law prohibits only sex discrimination, denying that the term “gender” has been used in international norms and standards since the 1970s. The Working Group recalls that, in its general recommendation No. 28, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women interpreted the prohibition of sex discrimination, as contained in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, as including gender-based discrimination. Attacks against gender ideology are used by conservative actors to oppose the universal applicability of human rights standards on the basis of non-discrimination and to undermine achievements made in the recognition of women’s human rights and in the implementation of gender equality.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "In the past six years, the Working Group has documented the gains made over decades of global advocacy. It has also drawn attention to the remaining gaps and the obstacles to achieve gender equality, particularly due to the rise of movements opposing the universality of women’s rights, contributing to fragmenting and weakening the human rights system. This calls for all actors to unite in an effort to protect, promote and fulfil women’s rights, while fighting against retrogressions. Yet, rising authoritarianism in political governance, economic crises and rocketing inequality and politicization of traditionalist religions have posed considerable challenges to the human rights system. The corrosion of women’s human rights is a litmus test for the human rights standards of the whole of society.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction", "2. A new sense of urgency"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Nearly 40 years after the adoption by the General Assembly of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, no country in the world has successfully eliminated discrimination against women or achieved full equality. This should no longer be tolerated or normalized. Today, there is a need to protect the gains from the past and to urgently advance women’s substantive equality, which is crucial for the indivisibility of human rights and for the human development of families, communities and countries. This new sense of urgency has led the Working Group to shed light on issues subjected to particular resistance and to reflect on ways to further strengthen women’s human rights machinery in a collective struggle to eliminate discrimination against women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction", "2. A new sense of urgency"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 17, "n": 1, "text": "Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction", "2. A new sense of urgency"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 18, "n": 17, "text": "Throughout its work, the Working Group has documented achievements, good practices and the main challenges in the quest for the elimination of discrimination against women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "1. Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 19, "n": 18, "text": "International commitment to fulfilling women’s right to political participation has grown substantially. Over the course of the twentieth century, women’s right to vote has been almost universally implemented. In fewer than two decades after the Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development and Peace, held in Beijing, the global average for women’s political representation has doubled.[[fn:4]] The introduction of quotas in some countries that were undergoing political transition resulted in significant increases in women’s parliamentary representation. Positive trends have also been seen in terms of extending special measures and affirmative action to other areas of public life beyond parliamentary representation (see A/HRC/23/50).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif-arc.htm."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "1. Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 20, "n": 19, "text": "In recent years, women demanding dignity and rights have marched worldwide and have increasingly used social media to take action. Technology has enabled new forms of women’s political expression and engagement. Movements denouncing gender-based violence against women, such as #NiUnaMenos and #MeToo, have swept much of the globe, following decades of advocacy from women’s rights movements demanding an end to violence against women in environments that normalize discrimination against women. Gender-based violence is one of the worst manifestations of such discrimination.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=22759&LangID=E."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "1. Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 21, "n": 20, "text": "Significant progress has been made in closing the gender gap in education, and women have increasingly participated in the cultural and scientific lives of their communities and nations.[[fn:6]] Women’s labour force participation has increased significantly and women entrepreneurs in small and medium-sized enterprises have made considerable contributions as crucial economic actors. Initial efforts have been made by some countries to increase women’s participation in economic and financial leadership by imposing gender quota requirements for corporate boards. Moreover, in times of crisis, some countries have chosen alternatives to austerity measures to ensure women’s continued economic inclusion (see A/HRC/26/39).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See A/72/155 and www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/priority-areas/gender-and-science/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "1. Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 22, "n": 21, "text": "The right of women and girls to equality in the family has been recognized in international human rights law and guaranteed in most modern legal regimes, which have reformed family law systems to enshrine gender equality. In some countries, progress has been made in challenging gender stereotypes and the unequal roles and responsibilities attributed to women and men in the family. A considerable number of countries have developed laws criminalizing domestic violence and providing protection for victims (see A/HRC/29/40).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "1. Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 23, "n": 22, "text": "Efforts to combat negative stereotypical messages regarding women’s bodies have been deployed by civil society organizations and international entities and have been incorporated in national policy by many Governments (see A/HRC/32/44). Women’s sexual and reproductive rights have been increasingly recognized in international standards. Maternal mortality has been almost halved over the past 20 years.[[fn:7]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/9789241507226_eng.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "1. Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 24, "n": 23, "text": "An impressive body of regional and international human rights standards has been developed over the past few decades, in which recognition and protection of women’s right to equality has been central and prioritized. Considerable progress has been made in the number of national constitutions guaranteeing gender equality and laws enacted to prohibit sex discrimination and gender-based violence. In 1995, the Fourth World Conference on Women consolidated the hard-fought progress and achievements by agreeing on a comprehensive plan to advance women’s right to equality: the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action. In 2010, the Human Rights Council decided to establish the Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice as part of its independent fact-finding and monitoring mechanisms. While the founding of the Working Group is undoubtedly a success in terms of strengthening the women’s rights machinery, it also reflects the recognition by the international community of the persistent discrimination against women worldwide.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "1. Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 25, "n": 24, "text": "Despite these achievements made over long years of struggle, discrimination against women and impunity for the violation of women’s rights persist in both the private and public spheres, in times of conflict as in times of peace, and in all regions of the world. Not only is the advancement of women’s rights and full equality too slow, uneven and far from a global reality (see E/CN.6/2015/3), but women’s hard-fought achievements now risk being reversed. An unprecedented pushback has been progressing across regions by an alliance of conservative political ideologies and religious fundamentalisms. Retrogressions have been occurring, often in the name of culture, religion and traditions, and threaten the hard-fought progress in achieving women’s equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "1. Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 26, "n": 2, "text": "Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes Family and culture", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "1. Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 27, "n": 25, "text": "In its reports, the Working Group has demonstrated the persistence of a global discriminatory cultural construction of gender, often tied to religion, and the continued reliance of States on cultural justifications for adopting discriminatory laws or for failing to respect international human rights law and standards. It has particularly emphasized that failure to ensure the equality of women and girls within the family undermines any attempt to ensure their equality in all areas of society (see A/HRC/29/40).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Family and culture"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 28, "n": 26, "text": "Throughout its work, the Working Group has shown that discrimination against women and girls and the backlash against their rights all too often start in the family where, for example, women and girls are undervalued, may be limited to certain roles, experience harmful practices and patriarchal oppression, and suffer other human rights abuses, including domestic violence and sexual abuse. As indicated by the Working Group, although discriminatory laws governing family life have been repealed in most countries, such laws are still in force in a few others (ibid.). In some countries, women are deprived of their fundamental rights due to, inter alia, a lower minimum age of marriage for girls, guardianship systems, forced marriage, polygamous marriage, discrimination in nationality rights, divorce rights and unequal rights to custody, inheritance and access to property and land. In the name of perceived honour, purity and tradition, girls and women are subject to “honour” killing, child marriage,[[fn:8]] widowhood rites and female genital mutilation,[[fn:9]] among other violations of their rights. In some regions, there has been no progress at all towards eliminating child marriage.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "See www.girlsnotbrides.org/what-is-the-impact/."}, {"n": 9, "text": "See www.unfpa.org/female-genital-mutilation."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See www.unicef.org/media/media_102783.html."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Family and culture"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 29, "n": 27, "text": "Within the United Nations system, the Working Group has observed that States have misused references to culture, religion and family in an effort to dilute their international obligations to fulfil women’s rights and achieve gender equality. One extremely revealing fact is the high number of reservations to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, particularly to article 16 on equality in the family,[[fn:11]] in which States deny women’s and girls’ right to equality in deference to religious norms, and refute their accountability for the universal applicability of human rights (see A/HRC/29/40). This also shows that equality in the private domain — the family — remains one of the biggest hurdles to achieving gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See www.universal-rights.org/urg-policy-reports/march-universality-religion-based-reservations-core-un-human-rights-treaties-tell-us-human-rights-religion-universality-21st-century/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Family and culture"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 30, "n": 28, "text": "Under the guise of protecting the family, some States are taking initiatives aimed at further diluting human rights. While recognizing that the family is the fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection, the Working Group insists on the need to reassert women’s right to equality in all aspects of family life and to recognize that diverse forms of family exist. Protection of the family cannot be used as a justification for laws, policies or practices that would deny women and girls their full and equal human rights (ibid.). The advancement of women and girls depends on the recognition in law and in practice of their right to equality as members of communities and families.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Family and culture"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 31, "n": 29, "text": "As the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights has highlighted, diverse religious fundamentalists often work together tactically at the international level to thwart advances in women’s human rights. She has also observed that enabling women’s enjoyment 8 See www.girlsnotbrides.org/what-is-the-impact/. 9 See www.unfpa.org/female-genital-mutilation. 10 See www.unicef.org/media/media_102783.html. 11 See www.universal-rights.org/urg-policy-reports/march-universality-religion-based-reservationscore-un-human-rights-treaties-tell-us-human-rights-religion-universality-21st-century/. of all human rights, including cultural rights, is an essential component in the fight against extremism, fundamentalism and terrorism (see A/HRC/34/56).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Family and culture"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 32, "n": 30, "text": "While the Working Group is committed to the principle of upholding freedom of religion or belief as human rights to be protected, it regrets the increasing challenges to gender equality in the name of religion. It joins other international human rights expert mechanisms in reiterating that freedom of religion or belief should never be used to justify discrimination against women (see A/HRC/29/40).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Family and culture"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 33, "n": 31, "text": "It is in this context of rising fundamentalisms and backlashes against women’s rights that the current discourse on women’s sexual and reproductive rights is taking place at the international level. Too many women are being deprived of their sexual and reproductive health and rights. While the maternal mortality rate has declined, over 800 women still die every day from preventable causes related to pregnancy and childbirth, with the lives of the most marginalized women at the highest risk.[[fn:12]] An estimated 225 million women are deprived of access to essential modern contraception,[[fn:13]] often leading to unplanned pregnancies. For girls, pregnancy and childbirth is one of the most common causes of death in developing countries, with girls under 15 years of age facing five times the danger. As a result of unsafe abortions, each year some 47,000 women die,[[fn:14]] and a further 5 million suffer temporary or permanent disability.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "See www.unfpa.org/maternal-health."}, {"n": 13, "text": "See www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/family_planning/human-rights-contraception/en/."}, {"n": 14, "text": "See www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/unsafe_abortion/9789241548434/en/."}, {"n": 15, "text": "See http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPRH/Resources/376374-1261312056980/RHAP_Pub_8-23-10web.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Women’s autonomy and sexual and reproductive rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 34, "n": 32, "text": "In some countries, women still live with the threat of criminal punishment for sexual or reproductive conduct such as adultery, prostitution/sex work or termination of pregnancy. In others, women are even accused of murder if they have a miscarriage or obstetric complication (see A/HRC/32/44). Criminalization of behaviour that is attributed only to women is inherently discriminatory.[[fn:16]] So is denying women’s autonomous decision-making and access to services that only women require and failing to address their specific health and safety, including their reproductive and sexual health needs.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Ibid. See also www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2018/03/un-body-politics-explainer/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Women’s autonomy and sexual and reproductive rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 35, "n": 33, "text": "Some 25 per cent of the world’s population lives in countries with highly restrictive abortion laws. The Working Group has documented how politicized religious conservative movements in numerous countries have influenced decision-making to either halt or roll back progress, making concerted efforts in various regions to retain or even introduce prohibitions on termination of pregnancy. In a few countries, there have been attempts made to have a total ban, even where the pregnancy threatens the life of the pregnant woman. There have also been moves to further restrict funding of contraceptives. The commitment to upholding women’s human rights regarding termination of pregnancy, as evident in some pioneering high court decisions, has not been upheld by all the highest courts in different regions.[[fn:17]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/WomensAutonomyEqualityReproductive Health.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Women’s autonomy and sexual and reproductive rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 36, "n": 34, "text": "The Special Rapporteur on cultural rights has shown how fundamentalist and extremist abuses of cultural rights aim to limit the enjoyment of women’s human rights and restrict the sexual and reproductive rights of all (see A/HRC/34/56). In this regard, the Working Group reaffirms that health-care providers’ conscientious objections to reproductive health care cannot be accommodated if such objections would put women’s health or lives in danger.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Women’s autonomy and sexual and reproductive rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 37, "n": 35, "text": "The right of a woman or girl to make autonomous decisions about her own body and reproductive functions is at the very core of her fundamental right to equality and privacy, involving intimate matters of physical and psychological integrity, and is a precondition for the enjoyment of other rights.[[fn:18]] Countries where women have the right to termination of pregnancy and are provided with access to information and to all methods of contraception have the lowest rates of termination of pregnancy. In countries where induced termination of pregnancy is restricted by law and/or otherwise unavailable, safe termination of pregnancy is a privilege of the rich, while women with limited resources have little choice but to resort to unsafe providers and practices. WHO data has clearly demonstrated that criminalizing termination of pregnancy does not reduce the number of women who resort to abortion procedures. Rather, it is likely to increase the number of women seeking clandestine and unsafe solutions. Indeed, 25 million unsafe abortions are still performed each year.[[fn:19]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 3 and 17."}, {"n": 19, "text": "See www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/unsafe_abortion/9789241548434/en/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Women’s autonomy and sexual and reproductive rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 38, "n": 36, "text": "In the current discourse, the need to put women’s human rights at the centre of policy considerations regarding termination of their pregnancy is being obfuscated by the rhetoric and political power behind the argument that there is a symmetrical balance between the rights of two entities: the woman and the fetus. However, there is no such contestation in international human rights law. It was well established in the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and upheld in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights that the human rights accorded under international human rights law are accorded to those who have been born. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration provides that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. Those who believe that personhood commences at the time of conception have the freedom to act in accordance with their beliefs, but not to impose their beliefs on others through the legal system.[[fn:20]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/WomensAutonomyEqualityReproductive Health.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Women’s autonomy and sexual and reproductive rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 39, "n": 37, "text": "The Working Group reiterates that much of the discrimination women face in terms of their right to access health services relating to their pregnancy and their resulting preventable ill-health, as well as maternal mortality and morbidity, can be attributed to the instrumentalization and politicization of women’s bodies and health (see A/HRC/32/44). Criminalizing termination of pregnancy is one of the most damaging manifestations of that instrumentalization, subjecting women to risks to their lives or health and depriving them of autonomy in decision-making. The lack of universal access to comprehensive sexuality education and contraceptive information and services, particularly for adolescents and girls, and the practice of child marriage, lead to teenage pregnancy and the exclusion of girls from education and employment, hence limiting their enjoyment of many other rights.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Women’s autonomy and sexual and reproductive rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 40, "n": 38, "text": "In its reports, the Working Group has demonstrated how women still face structural disadvantages and discrimination in the economic and social spheres throughout their life cycle. Social and cultural barriers still prevent many girls from completing their education, and legal discrimination, entrenched inequalities in wages and labour force participation and caring responsibilities prevent women from participating equally in economic and social life. Women do 2.6 times more unpaid care and domestic work than men.[[fn:21]] Older women suffer from a gender pension gap, making them particularly vulnerable to poverty, and all women face the persistent risk of sexual harassment and other forms of gender-based violence in schools, workplaces and other public places, in addition to the home (see A/HRC/26/39).", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "See www.unwomen.org/-/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2018/sdg-report-gender-equality-in-the-2030-agenda-for-sustainable-development-2018-en.pdf?la=en&vs=5653."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Economic and social participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 41, "n": 39, "text": "Indeed, women continue to be paid less than men for work of equal value and are severely underrepresented in top leadership in decision-making bodies in business, finance and trade, including in international institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Trade Organization, and in cooperatives and trade unions. Furthermore, women have been grossly underrepresented in the formulation of the macroeconomic policies that have led to rocketing inequality, austerity measures and the undermining of care services on which women are more dependent than men. Today, there are more girls in schools than ever before, but one out of five adolescent girls is still out of school.[[fn:22]] Moreover, women’s higher educational achievements worldwide have not always translated into corresponding leadership positions or even equality in the economic field. While more women have entered the workforce, they still represent only 49 per cent of working age women,[[fn:23]] against 75 per cent of working age men.[[fn:24]] Globally, the gender pay gap still stands at 23 per cent.[[fn:25]] Women often have access only to vulnerable forms of employment; the majority of women in developing countries are employed in the informal sector or in family businesses, and do not always receive wages directly. In countries where women’s income mainly comes from agricultural activities, they generally have very limited ownership of land.[[fn:26]]", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/fs48-one-five-children-adolescents-youth-out-school-2018-en.pdf."}, {"n": 23, "text": "See https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.FE.NE.ZS?view=chart."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.MA.NE.ZS?view=chart."}, {"n": 25, "text": "See http://interactive.unwomen.org/multimedia/infographic/changingworldofwork/en/index.html."}, {"n": 26, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/Womenslandright.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Economic and social participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 42, "n": 40, "text": "While women’s economic empowerment has proven to be among the least controversial issues relating to gender equality, the underlying cultural, social and political causes of economic inequality have not been successfully and fundamentally tackled. Women’s economic and social rights will never be fulfilled if the necessary infrastructure for care services, enforcement of equal pay for work of equal value, and regulation of women’s labour rights in the informal sector, in which many women are employed globally, are not put in place.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Economic and social participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 43, "n": 41, "text": "Throughout its work, the Working Group has showed that globally, women remain underrepresented in all branches and at all levels of government. The percentage of women parliamentarians around the world still stands at only 23 per cent and only 17 per cent of Heads of State or Government are women.[[fn:27]] Women are also underrepresented in international and regional entities,[[fn:28]] and their voices and concerns are often omitted from peace agreements and rebuilding strategies. The Working Group has recognized that democratic deficits, poverty and social exclusion, inequality in the family, violence and stereotyping are all persistent barriers to women’s full enjoyment of their rights to political participation (see A/HRC/23/50).", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "See www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2017/4/women-in-politics-2017-map."}, {"n": 28, "text": "See www.gqualcampaign.org/home/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Political and public participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 44, "n": 42, "text": "The Working Group has also expressed growing concern regarding the unique challenges faced by women human rights defenders around the world, driven by deep-rooted discrimination against women and stereotypes about which roles are “appropriate” for women in society. Today’s rising fundamentalisms of all kinds, coupled with political populism, unchecked authoritarian rule and disproportionate focus on corporate profits over human rights, have altogether intensified the obstacles defenders face. For instance, those working on rights contested by fundamentalist groups (women’s sexual and reproductive rights) and those denouncing the actions of extractive industries and businesses face a heightened risk of violence, including murder.[[fn:29]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/WomenHumanRightsDefenders Gender.aspx."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Political and public participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 45, "n": 43, "text": "During the first six years of the mandate, the experts have identified the fact that, of the many obstacles to gender equality that women face throughout their life cycle, the areas of family, culture and sexual and reproductive rights remain the most significant challenges and are those in which there has been a backlash against gains in women’s equality. The Working Group regrets that women’s economic empowerment and political participation are too often tackled as isolated issues. The interdependence of human rights cannot be overlooked: persistent discrimination in family, cultural and sexual and reproductive rights have a debilitating impact on women’s capacity to claim equal standing in all aspects of life. This selective approach towards discrimination against women is an unfortunate practice by States and within the United Nations system, and is a core problem affecting the way gender equality is addressed and a major obstacle to sustainable progress. Without eliminating discrimination in family, cultural and sexual and reproductive rights, there will be no lasting progress in the other fields.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Taking stock"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 46, "n": 3, "text": "Strengthening the system to better promote and protect women’s rights in a comprehensive manner", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Taking stock"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 47, "n": 44, "text": "In its resolution 35/18, the Human Rights Council expressed profound concern about the backlash against the progress made by civil society to fulfil women’s human rights. Throughout its mandate, the Working Group has witnessed the resurgence of a very conservative and retrogressive narrative in international forums and at the national level, and attempts to reinstate policies or legislation that are harmful to women. Such laws or policies particularly affect women’s enjoyment of their right to equality in the family and their rights to health and autonomous decision-making.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "3. Strengthening the system to better promote and protect women’s rights in a comprehensive manner"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 48, "n": 45, "text": "As reported in a study on the impact of conservative actors in the international arena, there have been concerted efforts to water down existing agreements and commitments and to introduce regressive language in international human rights documents. There have also been attempts to undermine United Nations agencies, treaty monitoring bodies and special procedures. Anti-rights actors’ discourses and strategies have led to deadlock in negotiations and had a substantive impact on the human rights framework and the progressive interpretation of human rights standards, especially those relating to gender equality and sexuality.[[fn:30]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "See www.awid.org/ours-report."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "3. Strengthening the system to better promote and protect women’s rights in a comprehensive manner"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 49, "n": 46, "text": "Furthermore, the Working Group has observed that the women’s human rights agenda is significantly fragmented. The selective prioritization of the less controversial issues means that gender equality is not addressed in a comprehensive manner, neglecting the interdependence and indivisibility of women’s human rights. The Working Group recognizes the considerable progress made in terms of mainstreaming gender within the United Nations system. However, the impact of such efforts will remain insufficient as long as the United Nations system shies away from addressing the nuclei of resistance that are negatively affecting women’s rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "3. Strengthening the system to better promote and protect women’s rights in a comprehensive manner"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 50, "n": 47, "text": "The Working Group concurs with the Special Rapporteur on cultural rights, who emphasized that all such anti-rights trends, whether on the part of States or non-State actors, at the international or national levels, must be met with a vigorous international human rights-based challenge, which must centre women’s human rights (see A/72/155, para. 3). In this context of backlashes, devoting adequate resources to mechanisms working to achieve women’s human rights is crucial. So too is enhancing communication and collaboration between all stakeholders and avoiding any inconsistency within the system.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "3. Strengthening the system to better promote and protect women’s rights in a comprehensive manner"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 51, "n": 48, "text": "At a time when the world should be moving relentlessly forward towards ever greater equality and the elimination of discrimination, women’s rights activists find themselves far too often confronted by those who would use the specious justifications of tradition, culture, religion or State sovereignty to keep women from taking their rightful place in society and family as equals, or from exercising full control over their bodies and their personhood. Despite the principle, upheld in the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, that human rights are universal, indivisible and interdependent, the Working Group has observed efforts by conservative actors and fundamentalist groups to undermine the foundation on which the whole human rights system is based. The Working Group insists that global leadership, including international human rights bodies, States, United Nations entities and civil society, needs to guard against the backlash, to ensure that the human rights legal framework is not undermined. The Working Group considers that the time has come to review with a critical lens the unfulfilled commitments made to women and to take corrective action.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "3. Strengthening the system to better promote and protect women’s rights in a comprehensive manner"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 52, "n": 49, "text": "In the face of this backlash, the Working Group has consistently reiterated its call for the elimination of any laws, policies or practices that have a discriminatory effect on women and girls, and has committed to denouncing any anti-rights rhetoric and actions that hinder the upholding of human rights standards, particularly regarding gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 53, "n": 50, "text": "The Working Group has deployed considerable efforts to contribute to the advancement of substantive equality and the development of progressive standards in a number of thematic areas. It has challenged the status quo and addressed topics where norms are contested or fragile but where protection of women’s human rights is essential to the achievement of equality and the elimination of discrimination against women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 54, "n": 51, "text": "Since its establishment in 2010, the Working Group has sought to organize its work in the manner that best serves the mandate given to it by the Human Rights Council and that best advances the elimination of discrimination against women (see A/HRC/20/28). The Working Group has sought to assist States and other stakeholders to find and maintain the political will necessary to fulfil their obligations under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and to create an environment that is conducive to achieving gender equality and empowering all women and girls, in accordance with Goal 5 of the Sustainable Development Goals, but also the cross-cutting principle of leaving no one behind.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 55, "n": 52, "text": "In view of the work being carried out by international and regional human rights bodies and other special procedure mandate holders, the Working Group agreed that it would build on existing standards and initiatives, and on the available knowledge and tools produced to date by States, United Nations bodies, national human rights institutions and civil society organizations. In accordance with the mandate provided by the Human Rights Council in resolution 15/23, the Working Group has sought to draw upon the findings of the United Nations human rights machinery and the broader United Nations system.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 56, "n": 53, "text": "Like many special procedure mandates that share areas of thematic focus with treaty bodies and United Nations bodies, the Working Group has worked to take advantage of its complementarity with the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, UN-Women, the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, and other mandate holders to ensure that its actions are mutually reinforcing with those of others dedicated to the colossal task of eliminating the discrimination that still has a daily impact on the lives of half the world’s population. In its resolution 23/7, the Human Rights Council recognized the constructive approach of the Working Group.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 57, "n": 54, "text": "The Working Group has sought to maximize the impact and utility of the tools that are available to special procedures. It has also sought to make the best possible use of its convening capacity as a Working Group, through its annual sessions in Geneva and New York.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 58, "n": 55, "text": "Additionally, it has taken advantage of new opportunities to advance the elimination of discrimination against women, including by contributing to global processes such as the Sustainable Development Goals and the Commission on the Status of Women, submitting amicus briefs in relevant court cases and developing position papers on particular women’s human rights issues that needed further clarification. In accordance with its mandate, the Working Group has based its work on international human rights laws and standards, but also compiled good practices going beyond these standards.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 59, "n": 56, "text": "In order to better fulfil its mandate, the Working Group has systemized its analysis in five thematic areas: political and public (A/HRC/23/50), economic and social (A/HRC/26/39), family and culture (A/HRC/29/40), health and safety (A/HRC/32/44) and good practices (A/HRC/35/29). The Working Group has managed to embrace all areas affecting women’s lives and give a broad and comprehensive overview of the persistent and global discrimination against women and girls, in a concise and timely manner.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Thematic reports"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 60, "n": 57, "text": "In its reports, the Working Group has striven to provide practical tools for States and other stakeholders to address the major causes of and trends in discrimination against women. While a plethora of literature exists on these topics, in its reports, the Working Group has condensed the available information in order to enhance its practical utility, and has sought to consistently advance progressive standards at the international level.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Thematic reports"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 61, "n": 58, "text": "In their responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire, States agreed that despite polarization and the sometimes contested nature of women’s human rights within the Human Rights Council, the reports of the Working Group have influenced the language of Council resolutions. For instance, in its resolution 35/18, the Council included progressive language directly derived from the Working Group’s reports with regard to the right to bodily autonomy, the naming of patriarchal norms, the existence of a democratic deficit due to barriers to women’s political participation and recognition of the important role of feminists and women human rights defenders. Language from the Working Group’s reports was successfully incorporated in previous Council resolutions on discrimination against women,[[fn:31]] with some exceptions, particularly regarding issues relating to social protection floors, equality in the family and safe access to termination of pregnancy.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "See http://ap.ohchr.org/documents/dpage_e.aspx?m=188."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Thematic reports"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 62, "n": 59, "text": "In its response to the questionnaire, one State reported that the Working Group’s work had inspired its national human rights institution to make recommendations focusing on discrimination in cultural and family life. Another State indicated that the Working Group’s reports had had an impact at the national level, including by being referred to by the parliament in the framework of legislative initiatives. Another State reported that the Working Group’s reports had proven particularly useful as a reference in the process of drafting a national action plan on human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Thematic reports"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 63, "n": 60, "text": "Through its country visits,[[fn:32]] the Working Group has worked with States and other stakeholders to identify and promote good practices and exchange views on challenges relating to the elimination of discriminatory laws and practices and has made recommendations on the improvement of legislation and implementation of the law in a manner that contributes to the empowerment of women. In preparing for country visits, the Working Group works with United Nations country teams, including UN-Women, when present. Its preparation includes following up on recommendations of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and those of other special procedures. While in the country, the Working Group systematically meets with all stakeholders at the national and local levels, engages with communities, individual women, women’s organizations, and traditional and religious leaders. It has striven to prepare comprehensive end-of-mission statements that can build on the momentum of the visit to have maximum impact and provide a preliminary road map to the elimination of laws and practices that discriminate against women. The Working Group has also been able to visit a State that has not ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and is thus not subject to review by the Committee.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/CountryVisits.aspx."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 64, "n": 61, "text": "Some of the country visits have been valuable in bringing about changes to law and practice. Following one country visit, a State approved a series of amendments to its legislation on gender equality, including, as recommended by the Working Group, adopting quotas for a minimum of 40 per cent for both sexes in government positions and on political party electoral lists. The same State reported that the Working Group’s visit had been useful for the establishment of its national human rights institution. Another State re-established the practice of distributing emergency contraception following a recommendation from the Working Group, and another set up a committee to reform discriminatory provisions in its Family Code. Further to a Working Group recommendation, one State halted plans for the reinstatement of corporal punishment in schools, and another considered for the first time in its parliament a law to combat gender-based violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 65, "n": 62, "text": "The Working Group has also sought to implement effective follow-up to its country visits, within the limits of the resources available, by sending follow-up letters and making them and the responses publically available. It is regrettable that only one State has responded thus far to the follow-up letters.[[fn:33]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/CountryVisits.aspx."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 66, "n": 63, "text": "In its communications to States,[[fn:34]] the Working Group has sought to collaborate with other mandate holders, sending mainly joint communications on cases that involved cross-cutting human rights issues. It has also used this tool to initiate a dialogue on selected widespread discriminatory laws and policies, such as discrimination against women in nationality laws, marital status and criminalization of adultery. Between 1 January 2011 and 31 March 2018, the Working Group sent 259 communications, 165 of which were sent jointly with other mandate holders. Unfortunately, of all the communications sent, only 83 substantive replies were received from States.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Communications.aspx."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Communications"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 67, "n": 64, "text": "Communications sent by the Working Group, independently and jointly with other mandate holders, have contributed to reforming discriminatory laws and policies. For example, States have amended nationality laws that denied women the right to confer citizenship on their children on an equal basis with men, and marriage laws that provided different minimum ages of marriage for boys and girls. Additionally, following one communication by the Working Group, a national law society removed from its website a note about discriminatory practice in terms of succession rules. The communications have also supported action for the release or acquittal of women imprisoned or prosecuted under discriminatory laws, including women who were imprisoned and threatened with flogging for charges including apostasy, adultery, “indecent dressing”, a woman imprisoned for having suffered a miscarriage and a migrant woman who was accused of killing her employer after he threatened at knifepoint to rape her. In responding to the Working Group’s questionnaire, one State acknowledged that it had instituted new protocols and new training methods for State employees as a result of a communication from the Working Group.", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Communications"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 68, "n": 65, "text": "The Working Group holds three one-week sessions every year. It has used the sessions as an opportunity to meet with States and civil society organizations, and to engage in dialogue and exchange views in order to make progress in the elimination of discrimination against women. It has also viewed the sessions as an opportunity to improve its collaboration with other mechanisms working on women’s human rights and other stakeholders, systematically organizing meetings with other special procedures, treaty body experts, United Nations entities, intergovernmental organizations, States and civil society from all regions. In meeting with stakeholders, the Working Group has sought their contributions to the preparation of its thematic reports, and aimed to enable each entity to benefit from one another’s expertise, as well as trying to create new synergies and ensure consistency within the system. These goals also underlie the Working Group’s use of its sessions to convene two joint meetings with regional women’s human rights mechanisms.[[fn:35]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/HRMechanismsWomens_Conceptnote.pdf and www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/outcome_document.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Working Group sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 69, "n": 66, "text": "The Working Group has used amicus briefs, submitted independently or jointly with other mandate holders, to offer national courts expert advice on issues of domestic law that are directly related to States’ international human rights obligations to eliminate discrimination against women.[[fn:36]] The expertise of the Working Group is also reflected in the position papers it has issued, which seek to provide conceptual clarity on selected areas affecting the enjoyment of women’s rights where there may be widespread misunderstanding, misconception, misperception or underdeveloped interpretation of standards. Thus far, position papers have covered issues such as discrimination against women in nationality,[[fn:37]] criminalization of adultery,[[fn:38]] women’s land rights,[[fn:39]] and women’s autonomy, equality and reproductive health.[[fn:40]] These papers are particularly valuable given the limited space available to focus on thematic areas, especially since the Working Group does not report to the General Assembly.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/AmicusCuriae.aspx."}, {"n": 37, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/DiscriminationAgainstWomenNationality.pdf."}, {"n": 38, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/AdulteryasaCriminalOffenceViolatesWomenHR.pdf."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/Womenslandright.pdf."}, {"n": 40, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/WomensAutonomyEqualityReproductiveHealth.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 70, "n": 67, "text": "The Working Group has brought its expertise in the area of women’s human rights to bear in relevant global processes in order to ensure that a rights-based perspective is incorporated in global efforts to achieve equality and eliminate discrimination. Independently and jointly with other mechanisms, it has contributed to the processes of development and achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals.[[fn:41]] It has also led the special procedures in an ongoing effort to ensure that Human Rights Council resolutions on protection of the family are grounded in the understanding that discrimination against women within the family is barred by international human rights law, and that true equality for women and girls can never be achieved if they are treated unequally within their own homes.[[fn:42]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WRGS/WGcontributions_to_Post2015DevelopmentAgenda.pdf."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WRGS/JointLetterPresidentHRCProtectionFamily.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 71, "n": 68, "text": "The Working Group has sought to cooperate with other special procedure mandate holders in order to mainstream a gender perspective and to reinforce their shared goal of advancing women’s human rights. For instance, the Working Group has engaged in a productive and sustained collaboration with the Special Rapporteur on human rights defenders, in order to address the specific issues faced by women human rights defenders. It has also contributed to the reports of a number of other special procedure mandate holders and submitted its views to treaty bodies in the process of drafting general recommendations and general comments.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 72, "n": 69, "text": "The Working Group has regularly contributed to the dialogue held by States at the Commission on the Status of Women on the achievement of equality by women and girls and the empowerment of women, and for the first time in 2018 contributed formally to the Commission’s general discussion. The Working Group has persisted in its effort to contribute to the work of the Commission, despite not yet having been allocated a formal role under the Commission’s methods of work, such as that granted to the Special Rapporteur on violence against women and the Chair of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 73, "n": 2, "text": "Lessons learned and opportunities for improvement", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 74, "n": 70, "text": "The Working Group has identified a number of steps that could be taken in order to enhance the institutional effectiveness of the international system in eliminating discrimination against women and promoting gender equality, as detailed in the conclusions and recommendations contained in the present report.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "2. Lessons learned and opportunities for improvement"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 75, "n": 71, "text": "Formal involvement of the Working Group in the Commission on the Status of Women, instituted for the first time in 2018, further to the request of the Human Rights Council in its resolution 35/18, is an important step in bringing the Working Group’s expertise on women’s human rights to the principal global intergovernmental body dedicated to the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "2. Lessons learned and opportunities for improvement"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 76, "n": 72, "text": "Furthermore, the responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire revealed that several States were unaware of all the work undertaken by the Working Group and the efforts 37 See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/DiscriminationAgainstWomenNationality.pdf. 38 See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/AdulteryasaCriminalOffenceViolates WomenHR.pdf. 39 See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/Womenslandright.pdf. 40 See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/WomensAutonomyEqualityReproductive Health.pdf. 41 See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WRGS/WGcontributions_to_Post2015Development Agenda.pdf. 42 See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WRGS/JointLetterPresidentHRCProtection Family.pdf. deployed to engage with all stakeholders. One of the aims of the present report was to comply with States’ requests in their responses to give its work and activities more visibility and to seek additional ways of improving its outreach. Unfortunately, due to limited resources, the Working Group has experienced challenges in sustaining meaningful cooperation strategies with all stakeholders, particularly with regional human rights mechanisms, or any outreach strategy ensuring that its work is duly disseminated.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "2. Lessons learned and opportunities for improvement"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 77, "n": 73, "text": "Despite considerable achievements in advancing women’s rights, overall progress towards an equal and just society where women are free from discrimination has been slow and uneven across the globe. Marginalized groups of women remain left behind, while political conflict and natural disasters have created new populations of women in situations of vulnerability. The recent resurgence of populism, xenophobia, religious fundamentalism and sexism pose complex challenges for women who continue to battle on many fronts for their rights and dignity (see A/HRC/35/29).", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 78, "n": 74, "text": "The extraordinarily challenging current context highlights the need to reassert the human rights of women so that every woman and girl can aspire to equality and live a life of dignity and respect. Achieving this vision requires a renewed focus on maintaining and building upon the gains already made, and preventing rollback. This means taking stock of the fulfilment of women’s rights globally, celebrating and learning from the progress that has been made, shining a light on areas where women’s rights remain fragile and under attack. Research from 70 countries over four decades has recognized the role of autonomous feminist organizations in advancing women’s rights as the most critical factor in the implementation of gender equality policies.[[fn:43]] As such, creating enabling environments for women’s human rights defenders and women’s organizations is vital for advancing gender equality, and sustaining positive change is a priority.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "S. Laurel Weldon and Mala Htun, “Feminist mobilisation and progressive policy change: why governments take action to combat violence against women”, Gender & Development, vol. 21, No. 2 (July 2013)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 79, "n": 75, "text": "The Working Group will be guided by an overarching framework of preventing rollback and reasserting equality, and will focus on the areas outlined below in its annual thematic reports.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 80, "n": 1, "text": "Women left behind: the causes and consequences of cumulative, multiple and intersecting discrimination against women, with a case study on women deprived of liberty", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 81, "n": 76, "text": "In the context of growing inequalities, the Working Group will explore the causes and consequences of multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination against women, examining the social, economic and political factors that push particular groups of women to the margins. It will also examine the causes and consequences of multiple deprivations experienced by some groups of women, which include a lack of access to basic services, economic insecurity, the lack of a voice in decision-making, vulnerability to violence and poor access to justice. To illuminate the causes and consequences of multiple deprivations experienced by women, the Working Group will present a case study on how the failure of States to protect the human rights of the most marginalized women results in the deprivation of their liberty through detention and imprisonment and other forms of confinement in the private and social context.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 82, "n": 2, "text": "Protecting and realizing women’s rights in the changing world of work", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 83, "n": 77, "text": "The Working Group will examine women’s rights in the world of work in the context of the rapidly changing nature of work, including informal work, increasing automation, digital platforms, the so-called gig economy and job insecurity. While in recent decades, increasing numbers of women have been engaging in paid work across the world, this progress has not been matched with improving pay, conditions and the security of women’s work. In developing nations, many women work in informal and vulnerable forms of employment and the issue of unpaid care work remains a major challenge globally. Systemic discrimination continues to pose a barrier worldwide to women’s enjoyment of their right to work, including their lack of access to decent work and workplace entitlements, and the increasing recognition of sexual harassment in the workplace. With the nature of work changing rapidly, there are both opportunities and risks for women’s economic rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate", "2. Protecting and realizing women’s rights in the changing world of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 84, "n": 3, "text": "Ensuring the prioritization of sexual and reproductive health and rights in situations of crisis and insecurity", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate", "2. Protecting and realizing women’s rights in the changing world of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 85, "n": 78, "text": "The Working Group will examine how women’s sexual and reproductive health and rights can be better protected in times of crisis. There is growing evidence that in times of crisis and insecurity — whether stemming from natural disasters, conflict or other emergencies — women’s and girl’s sexual and reproductive health and rights are particularly at risk and not adequately recognized, leading to a higher risk of unplanned pregnancy and death during childbirth. In such situations, child, early and forced marriage are known to increase and women are more vulnerable to sexual and other forms of violence and exploitation. The Working Group will examine the factors that put women’s sexual and reproductive health at risk in conflict and emergency settings and will attempt to set out the standards and good practices needed to protect women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health and rights in a crisis-prone world.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate", "3. Ensuring the prioritization of sexual and reproductive health and rights in situations of crisis and insecurity"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 86, "n": 4, "text": "Realizing the rights of girl children and adolescent girls", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate", "3. Ensuring the prioritization of sexual and reproductive health and rights in situations of crisis and insecurity"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 87, "n": 79, "text": "The Working Group will examine the situation of girl children, which has not yet been given the comprehensive attention it deserves. Girl children and adolescent girls face unique challenges from multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination, which are often neglected. Families and communities perpetuate gender stereotypes that undervalue girls and deprive them of agency and opportunities. For example, families may not invest in girls’ education as they do for boys, and girls are often forced into early marriage. Early marriage and the instrumentalization of girls’ bodies often result in teenage pregnancy, with irremediable consequences for girls’ health and opportunities. The report will also be an opportunity to address the gaps in national and international policies and strategies to tackle the specific obstacles faced by girl children and adolescent girls. Uncovering the human rights violations faced by girls is key to understanding the life cycle of women’s inequality, while their empowerment is a sine qua non for just societies and achievement of gender equality. The Working Group will identify abuses and risks faced by girls during childhood and adolescence worldwide, and restate and progressively develop the standards in this area.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate", "4. Realizing the rights of girl children and adolescent girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 88, "n": 5, "text": "A rapidly shifting world: emerging issues and strategies for the realization of women’s rights", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate", "4. Realizing the rights of girl children and adolescent girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 89, "n": 80, "text": "The Working Group will take stock of emerging issues in the global context and their impact on the realization of women’s and girls’ human rights. Specifically, the Working Group will look at broader economic, environmental and social trends such as the climate crisis, rapid environmental degradation, growing inequalities, technological disruption and demographic change, through the lens of women’s human rights. It will also examine emerging strategies for advancing women’s right to equality, such as the increasing use of technology to mobilize and connect women’s movements and the accountability of men and other actors for women’s rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate", "5. A rapidly shifting world: emerging issues and strategies for the realization of women’s rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 90, "n": 81, "text": "Beyond this thematic approach, the Working Group intends to ensure continuity with regard to the methods of work and the vision of the previous members of the Working Group, including by strengthening cooperation and alliances with international and regional human rights bodies, working more closely with regional and grass-roots organizations and continuing its efforts to improve its outreach to all stakeholders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate", "5. A rapidly shifting world: emerging issues and strategies for the realization of women’s rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 91, "n": 82, "text": "The road to gender equality and the full realization of women’s and girls’ human right remains long and challenging. Women are scarcely represented in national and global political and economic decision-making bodies and are too often overrepresented in vulnerable employment and paid less than men, impeding their economic independence. They face pervasive violence, lack control over their bodies and lack autonomy, and are too often seen as sexualized objects. In all spheres of life, power and entitlement are still concentrated in the hands of men. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination experience inequality even more acutely. The continuing existence of direct and indirect discrimination, both visible and invisible, is the reason why women lag behind in nearly all human progress indicators.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 92, "n": 83, "text": "Equality between women and men is humanity’s struggle. In the face of discrimination against women and one of its worst manifestations, gender-based violence, everyone has a duty to act. The international community must move forward on setting and implementing standards on gender equality to counter the alarming trends towards undermining human rights principles and jeopardizing the gains made in women’s rights. Solidarity and unity among the whole human rights movement is crucial. While acknowledging that there is great diversity within the feminist movement, and that experiences, perspectives and objectives vary, differences need to be overcome and objectives reconciled to unite against fundamentalists who oppose gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 93, "n": 84, "text": "Efforts to mainstream gender have constituted a positive step, but they will remain insufficient as long as the United Nations system shies away from addressing nuclei of resistance and maintains its fragmented policies. Recognition of the interdependence of equality in all fields of women’s life is key to achieving full and lasting equality. Isolated or sectoral measures focused on the least controversial fields are inappropriate to address root causes of persistent discrimination. There is an urgent need to improve the coherence of international mechanisms aimed at eliminating discrimination against women and a need for global leadership and partnerships.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 94, "n": 85, "text": "International human rights bodies and United Nations entities need to guard against the current backlash in order to ensure that the human rights legal framework is not undermined. The human rights community should make every effort to block any position in international human rights spaces that endorses patriarchal and discriminatory norms, misusing culture, religion and State sovereignty as fallacious justifications. Women’s human rights are fundamental rights that cannot be subordinated to cultural, religious or political considerations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 95, "n": 86, "text": "Freedom of religion should not be opposed to gender equality, and human rights-based education should be used as the main catalyst for change. The Working Group reiterates that there should be no compromise or tolerance for human rights violations or rollback of international human rights standards.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 96, "n": 87, "text": "States have legal obligations to fulfil women’s right to equality. It is therefore essential to apply the existing human rights obligations of Member States, making sure that there is both awareness of and accountability for elimination of discrimination against women and empowerment of women within this framework. States have a duty to respect women’s human rights and to exercise due diligence to ensure that those rights are not violated by the State, its agents, private corporations, armed groups or individuals. Equality in law and in practice, which enables women to participate fully in political, public, economic and social life, is also a crucial factor for the success of sustainable development. The costs of discriminatory practices in terms of health, education and economic development are a barrier to sustainable development. The goals, targets and indicators of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development should be interpreted through the lenses of human rights obligations. The Sustainable Development Goals should be seen as an opportunity to make progress on the elimination of discrimination against women and gender equality, not to dilute States’ human rights obligations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 97, "n": 88, "text": "Today, the human rights community needs more than ever to unite forces to preserve the democratic space. The fight against all forms of discrimination against women must continue until women everywhere obtain full equality in public, political, economic, social, family, cultural and religious life and in health. Practices such as polygamy, child marriage, female genital mutilation and “honour” killings have no place in any democratic society. The voices of women human rights defenders must not be silenced.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 98, "n": 89, "text": "It has been 70 years since women’s right to equality was enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, nearly 40 years since the ground-breaking Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women came into existence and 25 years since the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action established that women’s rights are an indivisible part of human rights. The Working Group calls for immediate action: waiting for the next century to achieve equality is intolerable, as is rolling back hard-fought gains. There is no acceptable justification for waiting for the elimination of discrimination against women; it is a long overdue political commitment that must be fulfilled without delay.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 99, "n": 90, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Give the issue of women’s right to equality high visibility and top political priority;\n(b) Systematically integrate into legislation and policy the recommendations contained in the Working Group’s thematic and country reports and its communications in order to ensure that obligations to eliminate discrimination against women are met;\n(c) Repeal all discriminatory laws and practices, including those that discriminate against women on traditional, cultural or religious grounds and laws that exclusively or disproportionately criminalize action or behaviour by women and girls, taking into account the multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination faced by many women and girls;\n(d) Give priority to establishing, strengthening and investing in institutions devoted to the advancement of women’s rights and gender equality;\n(e) Create an enabling, supportive environment for civil society and other stakeholders to combat the backlash against women’s human rights and to resist all anti-rights trends and movements with a definitive response grounded in binding human rights obligations, with women’s and girls’ rights at the centre;\n(f) Counter the narratives around gender ideology used by conservative lobbies to misinform societies and undermine the advancement of women’s rights and gender equality;\n(g) Promote recognition of the fact that cultural, religious and family values are not incompatible with women’s and girls’ human rights, and recognize the equality of women and girls as a fundamental tenet of international human rights law that must be protected, respected and fulfilled in all States and at all levels of society, including within the family;\n(h) Continue promoting and protecting the fundamental principle that all rights are universal, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated;\n(i) Ensure respect for women’s rights to make decisions about their own bodies and to receive comprehensive sexuality education so they can enjoy their right to sexual and reproductive health, including safe, legal and affordable access to contraception and termination of pregnancy;\n(j) Establish parity, including through temporary special measures, to ensure equal representation of women in public, political and economic decision-making and leadership;\n(k) Develop strategies to increase women’s access to decent work and achieve equal pay;\n(l) Ensure social protection floors for care work, which would facilitate the participation of women equally with men in economic and social activities;\n(m) Institute measures to combat discriminatory social norms and harmful stereotypes about women’s and girls’ bodies, roles and capabilities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 100, "n": 91, "text": "The Working Group recommends that the Human Rights Council enable it to implement its mandate with the support it requires in terms of resources and cooperation with other entities, including regional mechanisms, national human rights institutions and local women’s rights organizations, and assistance to increase its visibility and outreach to grass-roots actors who might not have access to the international system.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 101, "n": 92, "text": "The Working Group recommends that the United Nations system:\n(a) Maintain existing international law guarantees of women’s human rights, their right to equality in all fields of life and their right not to be discriminated against, and resist all attempts to derogate from them, including by conservative or religious lobbies;\n(b) Reassert the validity of the terminology relating to gender issues and counter its misuse;\n(c) Develop an integrated policy framework that reflects the indivisibility of all rights and the interdependency of ending discrimination in all fields of women’s life;\n(d) Ensure that women human rights defenders and grass-roots organizations have effective protection and proper access to United Nations forums in the context of shrinking space for civil society;\n(e) Strengthen cooperation and synergies and identify system breakdowns, and recommend how to overcome them, within the context of the current United Nations reform processes, inviting all concerned entities to participate in a self-questioning and accountability exercise on how to best serve the cause of women’s rights;\n(f) Continue working towards gender parity at the United Nations and make commitments to mainstream gender a reality;\n(g) Ensure that the Working Group can contribute meaningfully to the work of the Commission on the Status of Women, including by institutionalizing the Working Group’s formal reporting before the Commission and by participating in the Expert Group Meeting that precedes each Commission session;\n(h) Ensure that the special procedures genuinely mainstream women’s rights, while recognizing that a growing number of mandate holders have devoted full reports to the situation of women’s rights in relation to their mandate;\n(i) Further institutionalize communication and collaboration between the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and the Working Group, recognizing current efforts to have at least one of their annual sessions overlap, thus enabling more meaningful and systematic exchanges;\n(j) Convene a formal, high-level meeting gathering all mechanisms and entities working on women’s rights at the international and regional levels to explore further ideas for collaboration and for the effective promotion of women’s human rights and the elimination of discrimination against women and girls. Such a meeting could be convened by UN-Women, with the support of OHCHR.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 102, "n": 93, "text": "The Working Group recommends that civil society find synergies between the progressive movements defending women’s rights and strive to reconcile diverse objectives with a view to advancing common priorities and strategically challenging those fundamentalist actors who oppose gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 103, "n": 94, "text": "The Working Group recommends that national human rights institutions leverage their unique position in the national human rights machinery and act as a bridge between Members States and international human rights mechanisms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 104, "n": 1, "text": "The Working Group submitted an amicus brief[[fn:1]] regarding the criminalization of termination of pregnancy in Northern Ireland to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, which was presented before the Court on 26 October 2017.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/AmicusCuriae.aspx."}], "section": ["Activities undertaken by the experts as Working Group members since its last report to the Council"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 105, "n": 2, "text": "On 3 November 2017, the Chair of the Working Group held a discussion with the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in a plenary session. She briefed the Committee on the highlights of the Working Group’s recent work and emphasized the need to further strengthen cooperation, collaboration and coordination, especially in the context of the backlash against the gains in women’s rights. The meeting agreed to further explore ways for effective collaboration, including through the holding of an annual joint session.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Activities undertaken by the experts as Working Group members since its last report to the Council"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 106, "n": 3, "text": "On the occasion of International Women’s Day on 8 March 2018, a member of the Working Group participated in a Facebook Live event on women human rights defenders.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Activities undertaken by the experts as Working Group members since its last report to the Council"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 107, "n": 4, "text": "Two members of the Working Group attended the sixty-second session of the Commission on the Status of Women. For the first time, the Working Group formally reported to the Commission’s general discussion, as newly mandated by the Human Rights Council.[[fn:2]] The Working Group also addressed the Commission’s interactive dialogue on accelerating the implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action and achieving concrete results by 2020. The members of the Working Group participated in a number of other events, including a consultation organized by the Victims’ Rights Advocate, a “meet and greet” for Working Group members hosted by civil society, an Expert Group Meeting, a side event on violence against women in politics, a consultation on strengthened cooperation between global and regional women’s rights mechanisms, and side events on achieving gender parity in United Nations human rights bodies, men’s accountability for change, and women’s human rights advocacy in a time of backlash. Along with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, the Chair of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and representatives of regional women’s rights mechanisms, the experts also met with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See Human Rights Council resolution 35/18."}], "section": ["Activities undertaken by the experts as Working Group members since its last report to the Council"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0108", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 108, "n": 5, "text": "A member of the Working Group participated in the US Human Rights Network National Convening on Advancing Human Rights, held in December 2017 in Atlanta. She participated in a panel discussion on Gender and Poverty Strategy, in February 2018 at New York University, to discuss the preliminary findings of the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights from his country visit to the United States of America. She was part of a joint thematic dialogue on sexual orientation, gender identity and intersex between the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, and United Nations human rights mechanisms, held in Washington D.C. on 26–28 March 2018. She also participated in a conference on Challenging Criminalization Globally: Inter-disciplinary and intersectional dialogue on un-policing identity, morality, sexuality and bodily autonomy, organized by CREA and Global Health Justice Partnership at Yale University on 17–18 April 2018.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Activities undertaken by the experts as Working Group members since its last report to the Council"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0109", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 109, "n": 6, "text": "A member of the Working Group participated in a regional consultation organized by the Special Rapporteur on the right to development in Addis Ababa on 27 and 28 March 2018 and participated in a regional consultation organized by the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights on human rights in conflict situations in Africa held on 5 and 6 April 2018 in Addis Ababa.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Activities undertaken by the experts as Working Group members since its last report to the Council"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0110", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 110, "n": 7, "text": "A member of the Working Group participated in a briefing on special procedures, with a focus on the mandate of the Working Group, together with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women. The meeting was organized in Zagreb on 12 April 2018.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Activities undertaken by the experts as Working Group members since its last report to the Council"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report covers the activities of the Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice from the submission of its previous report (A/HRC/38/46) in May 2018 to April 2019, and also contains a thematic report on women deprived of liberty.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "In the thematic report, the Working Group analyses the causes of women’s deprivation of liberty from a gender perspective.[[fn:1]] In preparing the report, the Working Group analysed responses to a questionnaire sent out to Member States and other stakeholders and inputs from experts.[[fn:2]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Owing to word limit restrictions, the present report does not contain full references. A version of the report with full references and a bibliography for each section is available at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/WomenDeprivedLiberty.aspx."}, {"n": 2, "text": "Responses to the questionnaire are available on the website of the Working Group."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "During the period under review, the Working Group held one session in Geneva and two sessions in New York. At its twenty-second session in New York (23–27 July 2018), the Working Group met with the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on sexual violence in conflict, representatives of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), the United Nations Population Fund and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). It benefited from expert consultations on the issue of women deprived of liberty and met with experts on surrogacy. It also held a meeting with Member States and New York-based civil society organizations, as well as a public event: “20 years after the Declaration on Human Rights Defenders: States’ responsibility towards the protection of women human rights defenders”, organized jointly with civil society organizations and the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At its twenty-third session in Geneva (22–26 October 2018), the Working Group held meetings with other special procedures mandate holders, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and representatives of UN-Women, the International Labour Organization and OHCHR. It also met with the Rapporteur on persons deprived of liberty from the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and other experts on the issue of women deprived of liberty.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "At its twenty-fourth session in New York (28 January–1 February 2019), the Working Group met with representatives of UN-Women, OHCHR and civil society. It held a discussion with the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance. It also held a meeting with Member States and had consultations with experts on women deprived of liberty.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The experts visited Honduras from 1 to 14 November 2018 (A/HRC/41/33/Add.1) and Poland from 3 to 14 December 2018 (A/HRC/41/33/Add.2). The Working Group thanks the Governments of those countries for their excellent cooperation before and during the visits. It also thanks the Government of Greece for the invitation to conduct an official visit from 1 to 12 April 2019 (the report of the visit will be presented to the forty-fourth session of the Human Rights Council). The Working Group currently has 35 pending requests for visits and encourages States to respond positively to those requests.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "During the period under review, the Working Group addressed communications to Governments, individually or jointly with other mandate holders. The communications concerned a wide range of issues falling within its mandate, including discriminatory legislation and practices, allegations of attacks against women human rights defenders, gender-based violence and violations of the right to sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:3]] The Working Group also issued press releases, individually or jointly with other mandate holders, treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.[[fn:4]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Communications.aspx."}, {"n": 4, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/NewsSearch.aspx?MID=WG_Women."}], "section": ["II. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Members of the Working Group addressed the sixty-third session of the Commission on the Status of Women and participated in its interactive dialogue on the theme of “Accelerating implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action: exchange of best practices in preparation for the Beijing+25 review and appraisal”. The Working Group organized a side event on the theme of “Current challenges and opportunities for women human rights defenders: how can the international community better support their work?” and participated in a number of other events.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "D. Commission on the Status of Women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Since its previous report to the Human Rights Council, members of the Working Group have undertaken numerous activities, including participation in regional consultations and expert meetings and engagement with stakeholders, descriptions of which can be found on its website.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "E. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "While the Working Group recognizes that there is a wide spectrum of practices that can be understood as depriving women of their liberty through a variety of autonomy constraints, for the purposes of the present report, deprivation of liberty is understood as confinement of the body.[[fn:6]] Within that definition, however, the Working Group takes a comprehensive approach, examining multiple forms of restrictions on women’s liberty by both State and non-State actors. It analyses the underlying causes for which women can be deprived of liberty in detention facilities, but also in other public and private institutions, in private homes or community spaces, and in situations of conflict and crisis.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 35 (2014) on liberty and security of person, para. 3."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "A. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The right to liberty is a fundamental right widely recognized in international instruments. It is enshrined in articles 4, 9 and 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in articles 8, 9, 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, among other instruments. Deprivation of liberty also concerns other fundamental rights, including the rights to freedom of movement, personal integrity, privacy, health, work, education, and freedom of assembly, association, expression and religion or belief. Moreover, the rights to equality and freedom from discrimination and the equal rights of women and men, as guaranteed by article 2 of the Declaration and article 3 of the Covenant, as well as articles 2 and 3 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of 3 See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Communications.aspx. 4 See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/NewsSearch.aspx?MID=WG_Women. 5 Throughout the report, unless otherwise specified, the term “women” should be understood to include girls and women of all ages. 6 See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 35 (2014) on liberty and security of person, para. 3. Discrimination against Women, also come into play. All these rights are inextricably interrelated.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "A. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Women’s deprivation of liberty is a significant concern around the world and severely infringes their human rights. Against the backdrop of unequal power dynamics and systemic discrimination, women are deprived of their liberty, mostly arbitrarily and in a discriminatory fashion, as a practice in violation of the law and human rights standards, and this is often characterized by impunity. Depriving women of liberty also imposes great costs on society: not just the monetary costs of maintaining structures or institutions of confinement, but more importantly the human costs of missed opportunities and contributions and often intergenerational harm and negative impacts on families and communities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "A. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Not only the causes but also the consequences of deprivation of liberty for women are gendered, because they experience their confinement in specific ways and are often at risk of heightened gender-based discrimination, stigma and violence. How women experience this deprivation will also differ, not only as a result of gender dynamics but also because of characteristics, such as age, (dis)ability, race or ethnicity or socioeconomic status, that combine to produce distinct forms of discrimination and vulnerability.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "A. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Discrimination against women with regard to the conditions of deprivation of liberty is a topic of great importance and one that has been carefully studied by several other special procedures mandate holders.[[fn:7]] In order to build on that work, in the present report the Working Group focuses on the underlying causes that lead to confinement occurring, rather than the conditions in which women are confined or the consequences thereof.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See, for example, A/68/340, A/HRC/30/36 and A/HRC/40/54."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "A. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "In examining the various contexts of deprivation of liberty, it emerged that there were common underlying causes or themes that were relevant in all situations in which women are found in forced confinement. Those causes are gendered social norms and stereotypes, economic deprivation and experiences of violence and conflict. The rest of the report is organized in a manner that illustrates each of those underlying causes. It must be noted, however, that they are interrelated and depict the intertwined and reinforcing manifestations of the discrimination that women face across the life cycle.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "A. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "The causes of deprivation of liberty do not affect all women or all groups of women equally. Within every society and in every State, there are certain groups of women who experience multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination, many of whom are subject to particularly damaging stereotypes and/or are more likely to be confronted with violence or conflict, poverty and economic marginalization, and who are thus at higher risk of being deprived of their liberty. In the report, due consideration is given to those factors in relation to the different themes and contexts discussed.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "A. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Whereas under article 5 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, States have clear obligations to commit to the elimination of prejudices and all practices which are based on stereotyped notions of the proper roles and places for men and women, such prejudices and stereotypes persist around the world and are all too frequently enshrined in law and in practice. As illustrated by the Working Group in previous reports, gender stereotyping undermines the equality of women and the realization of their human rights in all aspects of their lives.[[fn:8]] It thus comes as no surprise that such stereotyping also plays an important role in depriving women of their liberty in a disproportionate or discriminatory manner.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "See, for example, A/HRC/23/50, A/HRC/26/39/Add.2, A/HRC/29/40, A/HRC/32/44 and A/HRC/35/29/Add.1"}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The persistence of gender stereotypes and patriarchal norms is visible in the underrepresentation of women in decision-making positions around the world, including in the organs of State that play a role in women’s deprivation of liberty. Legislatures, the judiciary, police or security forces and administrative agencies still tend in most States to be dominated by men (see A/HRC/23/50). Similarly, the medical profession, psychiatry in particular, remains dominated by men, while playing an important role in decisions concerning the confinement of women. That presents a challenge in ensuring that women’s perspectives are adequately incorporated and often results in gender discrimination and overreliance on gender stereotypes.[[fn:9]] The confinement of women in a private context also occurs in overly patriarchal social and family structures.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See Andrea Huber, “Women in criminal justice systems and the added value of the UN Bangkok Rules,” in Women and Children as Victims and Offenders: Background, Prevention, Reintegration, vol. 2, Helmut Kury, Sławomir Redo and Evelyn Shea, eds. (Springer International Publishing, 2016)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Three main forms of gender stereotypes may lead to and justify women’s confinement: stereotypes related to women’s roles in the home and in public, stereotypes related to women’s “moral” or sexual behaviour and stereotypes that portray women as weak or in need of protection. All three are deeply entrenched in patriarchal norms and mutually reinforcing, and commonly operate to benefit or privilege certain groups of men.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 20, "n": 1, "text": "Policing of women’s public and private roles", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 21, "n": 20, "text": "In many parts of the world, the myth that women are inferior and “should be seen and not heard” continues to permeate society, influencing both law and cultural practice (see A/HRC/29/40). That stereotype dictates the way women are expected to behave in both the private and public spheres.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 22, "n": 21, "text": "Within the home, women are expected in many societies and by many ideologies to be governed by men. That expectation is underpinned by notions of “sex difference” or “complementarity” that assign men the role of the (dominant) provider and women the role of the (subordinate) caretaker.[[fn:10]] That dichotomy often undervalues women’s contributions, leading to an understanding of women, and particularly girls, as an economic burden on the household rather than rightfully equal members.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See Gila Stopler, “Countenancing the oppression of women: how liberals tolerate religious and cultural practices that discriminate against women,” Columbia Journal of Gender and Law, vol. 12, No. 1 (2003)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 23, "n": 22, "text": "Understanding of women as subordinate within the family may be built into the law in a manner that reinforces male control and restricts women’s agency and mobility, and can lead to their confinement. That is demonstrated in several States that maintain legal codes requiring married women to obtain their husband’s permission to leave the house, or requiring all women to obtain the permission of a male “guardian” to engage in public activity, sometimes at the risk of confinement by the State if they do not comply with their guardian’s wishes.[[fn:11]] Gender stereotyping also plays a role in stripping women of legal capacity, which may result in decisions leading to their confinement.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See Samar El-Masri, “Challenges facing CEDAW in the Middle East and North Africa”, International Journal of Human Rights, vol. 16, No. 7 (2012)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 24, "n": 23, "text": "Even where the formal legal system does not dictate that women are subordinate to men, women’s failure to demonstrate adequate compliance and submission can result in their incarceration or institutionalization. Women who display “unfeminine” behaviour (for example, being violent or drinking alcohol) may be more at risk of arrest or aggravated charges.[[fn:12]] Research among girls, in particular, has shown that behaviour that is perceived in girls as being “violent” and worthy of institutionalization, in boys might be understood as minor or legitimate self-defence.[[fn:13]] Women who refuse to conform to their families’ commands or expectations risk being labelled as “crazy” and subjected to involuntary institutionalization.[[fn:14]] That is also often the case with girls who demonstrate different sexual or gender expressions.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "See Suzanne Young, “Policing ‘uncontrollable banshees’: factors influencing arrest decision making,” Safer Communities, vol. 14, No. 4 (2015)."}, {"n": 13, "text": "See Meda Chesney-Lind and Randall G. Shelden, Girls, Delinquency and Juvenile Justice, 4th edition, (Chichester, West Sussex, John Wiley and Sons, 2014)."}, {"n": 14, "text": "See, for example, Human Rights Watch, “Treated Worse than Animals”: Abuses against Women and Girls with Psychosocial or Intellectual Disabilities in Institutions in India, (2014)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 25, "n": 24, "text": "Stereotyped notions about women’s roles within the family also underlie a number of cultural practices that lead to the deprivation of liberty. They include removing girls from school and confining them to the home to perform domestic labour[[fn:15]] and subjecting them to child, early and forced marriages, where they are often confined to the marital home. The abduction of girls may even be condoned by communities when followed by betrothal or marriage. In some cases, such practices also have the force of law, as in States that have not outlawed child marriage or where those who are accused of kidnapping or sexually assaulting a woman or girl may be exonerated if they take their victim as wife.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See Save the Children and King Hussein Foundation, Information and Research Center, “Homebound girls in Jordan” (2013)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 26, "n": 25, "text": "Stereotypes about a woman’s “proper” role dictate not only how she should (not) behave within the home but also in public, and defying those standards in public may put women at risk of deprivation of liberty. Women who seek to participate in political, economic, social or cultural leadership in their communities or nations may be acting in defiance of stereotypes obliging women to stay quiet and invisible and defer to male governance. They may thus be stigmatized, or even criminalized or confined, to prevent them from speaking out or taking action (see A/73/301). For example, violence or confinement may be used to stifle and punish women politicians, or those who have an active voice in public, for transgressing traditional gender norms. Women human rights defenders, perceived as challenging traditional notions of family and gender roles in society, (A/HRC/40/60, para. 28), are increasingly at risk of facing criminalization and detention as a result of their legitimate public activism (see A/HRC/16/44 and Corr.1). In a number of States, women who work specifically to combat gender stereotypes and advance women’s rights are most likely to be targets for criminal persecution and imprisonment. Certain laws, including “complicity” laws, and “public order” laws[[fn:16]] or even anti-terrorism laws, may be particularly instrumentalized to target women human rights defenders. In some countries, forms of public expression dominated by women, such as religious observances (for example, how they are dressed) related to “disfavoured” or minority faiths, are criminalized or are grounds for restricting access to essential services.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See Strategic Initiative for Women in the Horn of Africa and the Redress Trust, “Criminalisation of women in Sudan: a need for fundamental reform” (2017)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 27, "n": 26, "text": "Discrimination and stereotyping may also lead to the denial of the asylum claims of migrant women and thus increase their risk of migration-related detention or incarceration for immigration-related offences. For example, certain legal systems require that asylum claims be submitted through a male head of household rather than allowing women to claim asylum as individuals, while immigration judges may apply stricter standards to women owing to gender bias.[[fn:17]] Gender stereotypes in immigration administration also manifest in legal frameworks that exclude consideration of women’s experiences of violence, in particular domestic violence, for granting asylum.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See Kimberlé W. Crenshaw, “From private violence to mass incarceration: thinking intersectionally about women, race and social control,” UCLA Law Review, vol. 59, No. 6 (2012)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 28, "n": 27, "text": "The heightened policing of certain populations, owing to racial and ethnic biases intersecting with gender, poses risks for some women. Women from racial and ethnic minorities and indigenous women face specific and deeply damaging stereotypes and are disproportionately targeted for control. They may be scapegoated as lazy, criminal and deviant in order to reinforce the political and social power of the dominant group and justify the perpetuation of structures of exploitation,[[fn:18]] leading to perceptions of them as a “social problem” or a dangerous threat, to be met with punishment rather than compassion or justice. Those stereotypes may lead to the kind of bias that allows, for example, women from a racial minority in the United States of America to be more than twice as likely as women from the majority group to receive a sentence of incarceration for drug-related crimes. Indigenous women in Australia are also notably overrepresented in prisons; they make up only 2.2 per cent of the population of women, but around 34 per cent of women in prison. In Canada, a disproportionate number of indigenous women are to be found in solitary confinement.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "See George Lipsitz, “‘In an avalanche every snowflake pleads not guilty’: the collateral consequences of mass incarceration and impediments to women’s fair housing rights,” UCLA Law Review, vol. 59, No. 6 (2012)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 29, "n": 28, "text": "Negative stereotypes about female ageing mean that elderly women are perceived as dangerous and in need of control in some societies. In certain communities, these women may experience non-judicial confinement and banishment from their homes because of accusations of witchcraft.[[fn:19]] Superstitions linked to elderly women and witchcraft are common in particular regions, such as Africa and the Asia-Pacific region, and gendered control of power and space heightens the risk of persecution for those who are vulnerable within family power dynamics.[[fn:20]] Due to extreme fear of witch-hunting or reprisal attacks, those labelled as “witches” will be exiled to the margins of their communities and forced to remain confined in “safe” spaces, living in deplorable conditions and experiencing the worst forms of exclusion. Older women with disabilities are also at particular risk of confinement in homes or institutions, owing to prejudices based on both age and disability (see A/HRC/40/54).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See, for example, Marie-Antoinette Sossou and Joseph A. Yogtiba “Abuse, neglect, and violence against elderly women in Ghana: implications for social justice and human rights”, Journal of Elder Abuse and Neglect, vol. 27, Nos. 4–5 (2015)."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Shelagh Roxburgh. “Witchcraft and space: a theoretical analysis of unseen political spaces in Ghana and Cameroon.” Canadian Journal of African Studies/Revue canadienne des études africaines, vol. 51, No. 1 (2017)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 30, "n": 29, "text": "Owing to patriarchal norms that embody stereotypes about women’s bodies being “impure” (for example, during menstruation) and bringing a “curse”, women may be subjected to seclusion amounting to deprivation of liberty. For example, this has manifested in the practice of cheupadi in Nepal, a punishable act, which involves isolating and confining women during their menstruation period, depriving them of the right to move freely and access basic needs and services.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 31, "n": 2, "text": "Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 32, "n": 30, "text": "Further to expectations to be submissive and deferential to the commands of men, women are also expected to be morally and sexually “pure”. At the same time, owing to discriminatory social ideologies, they are sometimes seen as morally weak and with a tendency to be “sexually misguided”, warranting constant policing of their moral and sexual behaviour by men. Moreover, owing to gender norms and assumptions, women are mostly valued for their reproductive role and often regulated accordingly. Those stereotypes are transcribed into the law or sanctioned by religious and social norms in several States and, in practice, women who fail to conform to those expectations may be subject to harsh judgments and face confinement aimed at punishing, regulating or changing their behaviour.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 33, "n": 31, "text": "Typically, patriarchal ideas of women’s “morality” and associated expectations concerning their public and private behaviour have detrimental effects for women in the justice system, as they may be subjected to moral judgments founded more on social expectations than on the crimes they may have committed. Studies show that girls are far more likely than boys to be arrested for “status offences” (such as truancy or running away from home), based on social behaviour rather than actual illegal activity, and are more likely to be sentenced to incarceration for such offences.[[fn:21]] The expectation that women should be “better behaved” than men may also lead to heavier penalties for women than men for the same crimes. Judicial gender bias often subjects women to disproportionate sentencing for non-conformity with gender stereotypes. In some cases, the penalties may even surpass aggravated imprisonment and attract the death penalty.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "See Meda Chesney-Lind and Randall G. Shelden, Girls, Delinquency and Juvenile Justice."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 34, "n": 32, "text": "Stereotyped standards of women’s “moral” conduct also plays a role in disproportionate female incarceration for drug-related crimes, as women are judged more strictly. They are more likely to be incarcerated for drug-related crimes than men: in 2018, approximately 35 per cent of women in prison worldwide had been convicted of drug crimes, compared to 19 per cent of men. An increasingly punitive approach to the drug problem, adopted by many States with policies of administrative detention of drug users and taking a harsh approach to pretrial detention and post-conviction sentencing of those accused of drug crimes, has been found to have a discriminatory and disproportionate impact on women (A/HRC/30/36, para. 58). Women tend to be engaged at the lower levels of criminal networks, but may receive disproportionate sentences under regimes that do not take the level of involvement into account. They may also have fewer opportunities to negotiate for reduced sentences or plea bargains owing to their lowly status within criminal networks, combined with their subservient role in a patriarchal system. In some jurisdictions, the roles that women typically play in such networks, such as transporting drugs, are subject to longer sentences than other roles.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 35, "n": 33, "text": "A number of laws and practices legitimize efforts to control women’s sexual and reproductive behaviour. The Working Group has previously condemned the instrumentalization of women’s bodies for political, cultural, religious and economic purposes, and particularly the manner in which that instrumentalization leads to criminalization of women’s sexual and reproductive decisions (see A/HRC/32/44). The Working Group has also noted that legislation criminalizing consensual adult sexual activity often discriminates against women, either explicitly in the law itself or in practice in the manner in which it is enforced.[[fn:22]] Furthermore, in some States women’s involvement in extramarital sexual behaviour is criminalized even when it is not consensual, such that women may be jailed for having been raped.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice, “Adultery as a criminal offence violates women’s human rights”, available at www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/ Women/WG/AdulteryasaCriminalOffenceViolatesWomenHR.pdf"}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 36, "n": 34, "text": "Sexual and gender non-conforming women are disproportionately targeted for social control based on their perceived challenge to or “transgression of” established norms of gender roles and sexuality (A/HRC/23/50, para. 47). As a result, they face increased vulnerability to criminalization and deprivation of liberty. Even in cases where such women are not expressly criminalized based on their sexual orientation or gender identities, they may face a heightened risk of encountering the criminal justice system. For example, transgender women are arbitrarily profiled and targeted for prostitution/sex work.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 37, "n": 35, "text": "Women’s sexuality is often dubbed “promiscuity”. When women express their sexuality in a manner that is considered to be outside social norms, even if not against the law, they may risk being institutionalized in mental health facilities or other care facilities. In some States, teenage pregnancy or sexual “promiscuity” can constitute a basis for confining adolescents in group homes.[[fn:23]] In others, expressions of female sexuality can be labelled “hypersexual” and considered a sign of mental impairment, justifying civil commitment.[[fn:24]] Moreover, in some families such sexual behaviour may indicate that a woman or girl, especially one with a disability, is too “difficult” to care for or control and thus better off in an institution.[[fn:25]] Furthermore, overmedicalization is used as a form of social control, as some women perceived to be “difficult” are controlled through prescriptions of very strong psychiatric drugs that effectively “detain” them in home or care centres. This is also true of women whose sexuality is considered non-conforming. Such women are likely to undergo involuntary “treatments”, so-called “conversion therapies”, or forced medical incarceration in psychiatric institutions and specialized camps, as well as in homes or places of worship, in order to attempt to force them to renounce their sexuality (see A/73/152).", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See Carolina Överlien, Girls on the Verge of Exploding? Voices on Sexual Abuse, Agency and Sexuality at a Youth Detention Home (Linköping, Sweden, Linköping University, 2004)."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See Maribel Morey, “The civil commitment of State-dependent minors: resonating discourses that leave her heterosexuality and his homosexuality vulnerable to scrutiny” New York University Law Review, vol. 81, No. 6 (2006)."}, {"n": 25, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 38, "n": 36, "text": "Women in prostitution/sex work are likely to face deprivation of liberty because of laws and social attitudes that seek to control women’s morality and sexuality. In States where prostitution/sex work is criminalized, women are disproportionately affected and targeted by law enforcement agents. Even in countries where sex work itself is not a criminal offence, women who engage in it have high rates of interaction with the police and may be prosecuted and incarcerated for other offences, including loitering, vagrancy and public indecency, and for migration-related infractions. Short of incarceration, women in sex work/prostitution may, in some States, be confined to “re-education” institutions, designed to “cure” them of “deviant behaviour”.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 39, "n": 37, "text": "Stereotypes regarding women’s sexual and moral behaviour are often linked with valuing women primarily for their reproductive capacity and requiring them to live up to certain ideals of motherhood. That comes with detrimental consequences for women’s liberty. In many cases where women are perceived as unable to fulfil the stereotyped expectations for reproduction and motherhood, as is frequently the case for women with disabilities, they may be viewed as “burdens”, be less valued by their families and communities, and therefore more susceptible to involuntary institutionalization (see A/HRC/40/54).[[fn:26]] There is also a linkage between the persecution and confinement of older women and the stereotyped notion that women beyond childbearing age have less social value (see para. 28 above).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See also Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 3 (2016) on women and girls with disabilities."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 40, "n": 38, "text": "Women may face deprivation of liberty when they do not conform to stereotyped notions of what constitutes good motherhood. Such stereotypes manifest particularly in the criminalization, detention and confinement of pregnant women who use, or are suspected of using, drugs. They frequently risk imprisonment for attempted abortion, miscarriage or harming the baby when using drugs during pregnancy. In addition, defying the dominant norms of motherhood may generally be taken as an aggravating circumstance in sentencing, while being a father may mostly constitute a mitigating circumstance.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 41, "n": 39, "text": "Outside the justice system, pregnant women suspected of drug or alcohol use can also be involuntarily detained and forced to undergo medical treatment, often without sound medical evidence that they have a drug dependency or that the foetus is at risk. The Working Group on Arbitrary Detention has noted that special laws designed to detain pregnant women suspected of drug use are “gendered and discriminatory … as pregnancy, combined with the presumption of drug or other substance abuse, is the determining factor for involuntary treatment” (A/HRC/36/37/Add.2, para. 74). There have also been cases of women being detained by hospitals simply to prevent them from choosing a home birth.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 42, "n": 40, "text": "In States where abortion is criminalized, women risk incarceration for the decision to terminate a pregnancy, in some cases even when their own safety is at risk or when the foetus is not viable. In some countries, women are criminalized and incarcerated even when the termination was not their decision, as in cases of miscarriage. At times, public prosecutors have targeted women who have had abortions (whether spontaneous or induced) to enforce the harshest possible punishment, leading to longer incarceration.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 43, "n": 41, "text": "Adolescent girls may be particularly exposed to deprivation of liberty for breaking social norms related to sexual and reproductive behaviour. In some States, they may be harshly punished for early or extramarital pregnancies, be excluded or expelled from school and confined at home or in an institution during pregnancy, while in many States they run a high risk of incarceration through seeking an illegal abortion. Furthermore, there exist hospitals and State institutions for detaining adolescent girls to prevent them terminating a pregnancy.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 44, "n": 3, "text": "Perceptions of women as weak, incapable, or in need of care or protection", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 45, "n": 42, "text": "Other stereotypes that lead to women’s deprivation of liberty are those that label women as weak, helpless, incapable or in need of care or protection. Those stereotypes are interconnected with those described above, as ideas of the frailty or incapability of women are tied to expectations that they should assume a submissive role in the household and in society, and it is often their moral virtue and sexual purity that are seen as most in need of preservation. Sometimes women are seen as easily falling prey to “vice” so that men and society have to “look after” them.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "3. Perceptions of women as weak, incapable, or in need of care or protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 46, "n": 43, "text": "Those stereotypes are particularly likely to lead to detention in the family home and other private forms of detention, as family members may see it as their duty to “protect” women by keeping them within a “safe” space. That perception has permeated different forms of “protective” custody that can easily be translated into repressive control by male family members or unsupportive families or communities, resulting in the exclusion of women from certain areas of society and confinement in others.[[fn:27]] For example, there are reports that capture the experiences of women trapped in a guardian system that restricts them from moving freely and making decisions on their own.[[fn:28]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "See Johannes Jütting and Christian Morrisson, “Changing social institutions to improve the status of women in developing countries”, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Centre, policy brief No. 27 (2005)."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Human Rights Watch Boxed in: Women and Saudi Arabia’s Male Guardianship System (2016)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "3. Perceptions of women as weak, incapable, or in need of care or protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 47, "n": 44, "text": "Women with disabilities in particular are seen as weak or in need of protection, causing families to determine that they are better off confined in institutions. In many cases, the State may orchestrate such acts of deprivation of liberty by allowing women with disabilities to be stripped of legal capacity, without adequate support structures or recognition of their autonomy. As a result, they may end up being placed under guardianship and have their decision-making ability relegated to a third party. Home confinement is another challenge for this group. Women with disabilities are in several cases confined at home owing to cultural stereotypes or a lack of services and support systems. Girls with disabilities are more likely to experience confinement in the family context, associated with fears that they might be prone to sexual abuse, combined with panic about girls’ sexuality.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "3. Perceptions of women as weak, incapable, or in need of care or protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 48, "n": 45, "text": "Women’s actual or perceived vulnerability to gender-based violence has led some States to institute forms of protective/administrative detention for women who are at risk. In some such shelters, harsh curfews are applied for the sake of protection. Protective detention is also used to “protect” girls with disabilities or adolescent girls from violence and/or “unwanted” pregnancies. Although such institutions are intended to provide safety to women, sometimes they are, or may become, sites of deprivation of liberty, where women may be confined according to the dictates of the State or of their family members (see A/HRC/35/40 and Corr. 1). There have been reports of protective custody being used solely to “safeguard” or prevent women from deviance from societal norms and expectations, which has been identified as a form of arbitrary detention contrary to international human rights law (A/HRC/27/48 paras. 78–79).", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "3. Perceptions of women as weak, incapable, or in need of care or protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 49, "n": 46, "text": "The belief that women need protection has an impact in crisis situations, where families may be displaced and destabilized and face heightened risks, including, as has been extensively documented, that of gender-based violence for women. The Working Group has received reports of severe restrictions of liberty for women, and particularly girls, in humanitarian settings, where family members may force them to remain in their homes or shelters rather than risk moving about. As a result, camps for internally displaced persons and refugees sometimes become sites of confinement for women, from where they are unable to leave to access resources or services. On the other hand, detrimental stereotypes also influence responses to migration. In States that are seeking to stem migration flows, there is a tendency to believe that because women are viewed as weak and in need of protection, subjecting them to migration detention will be viewed as more shocking and thus have a greater deterrent effect.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "3. Perceptions of women as weak, incapable, or in need of care or protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 50, "n": 47, "text": "Mandated treatment programmes designed for care and cure are occasionally used to deprive women of their liberty. Studies show that women are confined in the penal systems in some States based on the idea that they need treatment for addiction, trauma, and/or “disorders” without any real evidence that these conditions exist. Sometimes confinement is in prisons, but more often in community correctional facilities. The ideology justifying mandated treatment for women is based on stereotypes that some women, especially women from certain racial groups, or those living in poverty, are dependent, “disordered”, “sexually deviant” or “bad mothers”. This is a trend that has the potential to increase the number of women in detention, prolong their custody under correctional supervision and even to make their detention more restrictive.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "3. Perceptions of women as weak, incapable, or in need of care or protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 51, "n": 48, "text": "Widowhood, at any age, may be extremely gendered, with rites crafted against women and carried out through confinement, isolation, defacement and disinheritance. Confinement during the mourning period, supposedly to grieve over the bereavement or to protect them from potentially violent practices influenced by superstitious beliefs about the “inauspicious” presence of widows, may involve prohibiting them from leaving the home and participating in economic and public activities or performing important household tasks. Those restrictions could be further aggravated to the extent of exiling them and confining them in marginalized areas (see para. 28 above). In addition to the intersection of gender and marital status, widows without children or an adult male relative to provide them with leverage within the extended family are more vulnerable to persecution and confinement.", "labels": ["Children", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "3. Perceptions of women as weak, incapable, or in need of care or protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 52, "n": 49, "text": "The feminization of poverty is widely recognized and documented. Worldwide, women are more likely than men to live in poverty and on average earn 23 per cent less than men, perpetuating a considerable lifetime income and welfare gap between them.[[fn:29]] The Working Group has highlighted the stereotypes about women’s role in society that have a substantial impact on their participation in the labour market (A/HRC/35/29/Add. 1, para. 69). Almost 80 countries maintain restrictions on the types of work that women are permitted to undertake, while in 18 countries, husbands can legally prevent their wives from working. Accordingly, women are more likely than men to be unemployed and currently only 50 per cent of women are in the labour force compared to more than 75 per cent of men (see A/HRC/38/46). Women are also less likely to have access to assets within the household, as there are often inequalities in the distribution of resources and entitlements. In a number of countries, women and girls still have different or limited ownership and inheritance rights from men and boys, meaning that a large number of poor women may be living in households that are not categorized as poor.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See UN-Women, Turning Promises into Action: Gender Equality in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (2018) available at www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/sdg-report."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 53, "n": 50, "text": "When poverty is understood to be a factor not purely of income or wealth, but also as measured by the choices, opportunities and resources available to a person over the course of their lifetime, women’s poverty appears even starker.[[fn:30]] Time poverty owing to women’s disproportionate responsibility for unpaid care and domestic work limits their ability to engage in income-earning activities. Their financial dependence on their partners and other family members increases their vulnerability to poverty and reduces their voice and bargaining power within the household. Unequal access to and control over resources, power, opportunities and services underpin women’s poverty, which can lead to their deprivation of liberty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "See Sakiko Fukuda-Parr, “What does feminization of poverty mean? It isn’t just lack of income”, Feminist Economics, vol. 5, No. 2 (1999)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 54, "n": 1, "text": "Lack of access to resources and services", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 55, "n": 51, "text": "Stakeholders have identified material poverty as a key factor in women’s deprivation of liberty and especially their incarceration. Laws that penalize and criminalize those living in poverty have been extensively documented (see, for example, A/66/265). Links between economic and social inequalities and the criminal justice system can lead to trapping people in vicious cycles of poverty and criminalization.[[fn:31]] Those cycles are aggravated in times of austerity, when social services are cut, and women are particularly affected because, owing to the feminization of economic deprivation, they rely more than men on Governments for legal, social, health and other services. Women’s access to services has also been reduced as a result of a rise in the negative stereotyping of poor people, and especially poor and racialized women, as attempting to “cheat the system” (ibid.).[[fn:32]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "Vanita Gupta, “Keynote remarks,” Michigan Journal of Race and Law, vol. 21, No. 2 (2016)."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See also Kaaryn Gustafson, “The criminalization of poverty,” The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, vol. 99, No. 3 (2009)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "1. Lack of access to resources and services"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 56, "n": 52, "text": "Women are often imprisoned for crimes related to poverty, including theft and fraud, but also for infractions related to homelessness, poor living conditions, or to the struggle to earn a living, such as begging or street vending. In several States, women may also be at risk of civil conviction for their inability to pay their debts. In many jurisdictions, indigenous and racial minority women are not only more likely to be poorer than other women owing to intergenerational cycles of systemic oppression, but are also more likely to experience detention for issues such as the inability to pay off debts or petty offences such as theft.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons in street situations", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "1. Lack of access to resources and services"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 57, "n": 53, "text": "Poverty shapes not only the crimes of which women are accused, but also their interactions with the criminal justice system, which also have an effect on the likelihood of their incarceration and its length. In particular, lack of income and wealth limits women’s access to quality legal representation, negatively impacting their ability to obtain favourable outcomes in the court system. It also limits their ability to post bail, which not only subjects them to pretrial detention, but has also been found to dramatically increase the likelihood of their eventual conviction (ibid., para. 66). Furthermore, once convicted and incarcerated, women often have less access than men to rehabilitation and reintegration services, owing to a scarcity of gender-responsive custodial services designed for women inmates and a paucity of alternative services outside prison. That sometimes leads to worse outcomes upon release, increases the risk of recidivism and may leave women in a cycle of incarceration.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "1. Lack of access to resources and services"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 58, "n": 54, "text": "Women’s lack of access to resources and services is also a factor in other forms of deprivation of liberty. Poverty may be a driver of family decisions to accept child, early and forced marriages when girls are viewed as an economic burden to be “offloaded” to another family. That understanding, and a lack of access to adequate community-based support services, may also contribute to family decisions to confine women and girls with disabilities to institutions. There have also been troubling trends of “medical detention” of women who lack the ability to pay for health services in hospitals, mostly after giving birth, which has become part of hospital policies and/or practice in some jurisdictions, as documented in several African and Asian countries, including Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, India and Indonesia.[[fn:33]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See Robert Yates, Tom Brookes and Eloise Whitaker, “Hospital detentions for non-payment of fees. A denial of rights and dignity”, Royal Institute of International Affairs (2017)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "1. Lack of access to resources and services"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 59, "n": 55, "text": "Older women without resources or livelihoods are often neglected by their families and find themselves involuntarily isolated in the home or in a care facility. Care facilities have been known to abuse or neglect residents through denying them the ability to move about freely, denying them contact with the outside world and withholding basic necessities such as food, health services, and recreational activities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "1. Lack of access to resources and services"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 60, "n": 2, "text": "Lack of opportunity and choice", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "1. Lack of access to resources and services"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 61, "n": 56, "text": "Poverty for women is not only a matter of material wealth and social services, but fundamentally a question of the choices they are able to make for their lives. Women have less access to decent work, may be restricted as to which fields they can work in and how high they can rise within those fields, while being responsible for a disproportionate share of unpaid care and domestic work. The gender opportunity gap starts early, with discrimination in the family and in education that springs from or embodies the different stereotypes, which subsequently contributes to limiting their potential to exercise their capabilities and pursue the career and life choices available to them.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "2. Lack of opportunity and choice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 62, "n": 57, "text": "The constraints on women’s choices and opportunities are a product of structural inequalities and discriminatory policies and institutions that fail to tackle adequately the injustices produced through globalized macroeconomic and political factors, including the privatization of public goods and the shrinking of the welfare state. Those factors further reinforce, and are perpetuated by, localized and particular discriminatory cultural and social norms that also engender different systems of oppression for different groups of women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "2. Lack of opportunity and choice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 63, "n": 58, "text": "Discrimination, stereotyping, unpaid care work and lack of education limit the jobs that women can do, pushing them towards low-skilled positions and the informal job sector with exploitative workplace conditions. The overwhelming majority of women’s jobs are in the informal sector and therefore lack basic entitlements and protections. Thus, women’s employment may in some cases constitute a form of deprivation of liberty. That may be the case when women who work in industry or in agriculture are provided with housing under restrictive circumstances or subject to forced or bonded labour (see A/73/139 and Corr. 1). Likewise, there are home-based productions for global supply chains where the “employer” may in fact be a husband or other male relative who demands a certain amount of production in exploitative conditions amounting to deprivation of liberty. Such working conditions are also of particular concern for domestic workers, the majority of whom are women, who may find themselves unable to leave their place of employment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "2. Lack of opportunity and choice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 64, "n": 59, "text": "Migrant women face particular risks, being largely pushed into unskilled, undervalued and lower-paid labour sectors in unregulated spaces, such as private homes. Women migrant domestic workers may be deprived of support networks and services and may face confiscation of their passports by their employers. Immigration laws that require working for a specific employer, such as the kafalah system in some countries in the Middle East, have been grounds of abuse and have incurred criminal penalties.[[fn:34]] Owing to limited pathways for regular migration opportunities for women, irregular status becomes a contributing factor to deprivation of liberty of migrant women. Restrictions related to “protective” stereotypes that aim to prevent women from legally migrating, on the grounds that they may become victims of trafficking or forced prostitution, push women to seek alternative (irregular) migration channels and consequently increase their vulnerability to forced or bonded labour, confinement and other human rights violations.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "See, for example, A/HRC/26/35/Add.1, A/HRC/35/29/Add.2 and A/HRC/39/52."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "2. Lack of opportunity and choice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 65, "n": 60, "text": "Lack of choice and opportunities push women into the realm of human trafficking, contemporary forms of slavery and exploitative surrogacy arrangements that may result in varied forms of confinement, exploitation and violence. In certain countries women are kept in camps or so called “baby factories” for surrogacy purposes or forced impregnation, while in many more countries women are smuggled into brothels that they are not at liberty to leave.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "2. Lack of opportunity and choice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 66, "n": 61, "text": "Reduced job opportunities, coupled with a lack of social protection, may be a factor in women’s criminalization and eventual imprisonment. Several stakeholders pointed to the lack of decent work opportunities as one of the major reasons for women’s involvement in drug trafficking, certain forms of prostitution/sex work and other irregular businesses, resulting in them coming into conflict with the criminal justice system. Women who are incarcerated for their involvement in illicit economic ventures identify such activities as being the only opportunities available to them to provide for their families, given their financial constraints and family responsibilities. In several States, transgender women disproportionately engage in prostitution/sex work, owing to the limited opportunities available to them because of discrimination, and face criminalization or other types of restriction of liberty as a result of such activities.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "2. Lack of opportunity and choice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 67, "n": 62, "text": "Deeply embedded systemic racism leads to racial minority women being subjected to socioeconomic exclusion and poverty (see A/HRC/35/10), with a heightened risk of incarceration, including, inter alia, for increased involvement in drug trafficking, mostly at the lower levels of drug networks. Similarly, the legacy of colonization and systemic marginalization, ensuing high levels of poverty, dire financial and social stress, and significant gaps in opportunities and well-being between indigenous and non-indigenous women, leading to exposure to alcohol and drug use, aggravates the disproportionate incarceration of indigenous women. Disproportionate criminalization of indigenous women and those from racial minorities remains a significant problem.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "2. Lack of opportunity and choice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 68, "n": 63, "text": "Women’s economic subordination exposes them to being associated with or blamed for criminal acts committed by family members, in particular their male partners or spouses (see A/68/340). For example, many women are incarcerated for having dangerous arms, drugs or other illegal items in their homes when the owner is really their partner. However, because of their subordinate role in the household, they cannot stop their partners from bringing into or keeping such items in the home. As a result, they end up incarcerated, at times with a heavier sentence than is justified.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "2. Lack of opportunity and choice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 69, "n": 64, "text": "Women’s lives and liberty are also shaped by their exposure to violence and conflict, which puts them at risk of non-judicial confinement and can lead to their incarceration in a number of ways.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 70, "n": 1, "text": "Violence in the home and the community", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 71, "n": 65, "text": "Many women experience violence at the hands of family members, caregivers, partners, friends and acquaintances. Domestic and community violence often manifests in the form of home confinement, in which women are prohibited from leaving the home or coerced to remain in a certain location. Kidnapping or abduction also result in severe restriction of their freedom of movement. Sexual violence and sexual harassment are sometimes used as a tool to intimidate and restrict women’s access to public spaces and pressure them to stay confined in private/family contexts. In many cases, there is a linkage between women’s exposure to violence and their experience of confinement. For example, vulnerability to violence has been a pathway to the indefinite administrative detention of hundreds of women in Jordan in the form of “protective” custody.[[fn:35]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See Human Rights Watch, “Guests of the governor: administrative detention undermines the rule of law in Jordan” (2009)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "1. Violence in the home and the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 72, "n": 66, "text": "The presence of violence in women’s lives profoundly shapes them and increases their chances of institutionalization or incarceration. For example, more than 50 per cent of incarcerated women report childhood experiences of emotional, physical or sexual abuse, while such experiences are only reported by about 25 per cent of incarcerated men. Moreover, many girls may be removed from parental care and end up in institutions because of family violence, including psychological, physical and sexual violence.[[fn:36]] Fear of family or community violence against older or widowed women accused of superstitious practices is also the main driver for those women fleeing to the margins and staying confined in “camps” (see paras. 28 and 48 above).", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "Family violence is one of the leading causes of children being removed from their families and placed in institutions. See Paulo Sergio Pinheiro, World Report on Violence against Children (2006)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "1. Violence in the home and the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 73, "n": 67, "text": "Minority women may face higher rates of violence and greater exposure to incarceration. Similarly, violence has been found to play a significant role in the lives of indigenous women, contributing to the likelihood of their involvement with the criminal justice system.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "1. Violence in the home and the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 74, "n": 68, "text": "Exposure to violence may increase women’s contact with the police and thus increase their risk of criminalization. The Working Group has received reports of women calling the police to complain about domestic violence, only to be subsequently arrested and incarcerated on charges such as disorderly conduct, violation of public peace and order, immigration status or miscarriage. Women who face violence may often be reluctant to contact law enforcement agents for fear of further violence or discrimination against them, and remain in a cycle of oppression. That may be particularly true for women identified as “criminals” in the first place, such as those who use drugs, are involved in minor aspects of drug trafficking or prostitution/sex work, or are irregular migrants.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "1. Violence in the home and the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 75, "n": 69, "text": "Violence may also be used as a tool to coerce women to engage in criminal activity for which they are then imprisoned (see A/68/340). For example, in the drug trade, violence is frequently used to coerce women to become involved in drug trafficking networks, where they are used as mules and treated as dispensable by the ringleaders. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights has documented cases in many countries in the region it covers, where girls exposed to violence, gangs, trafficking and sexual exploitation are also at high risk of interacting with the criminal justice system, leading to their incarceration.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "1. Violence in the home and the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 76, "n": 70, "text": "Women may also be subject to criminalization and deprivation of liberty when they respond to the violence that they experience by taking forceful measures of self-defence. When they are accused of crimes following violent altercations, their ability to argue self-defence may be impacted by gender stereotypes that paint men as those who have the right to stand and fight, while women are expected to retreat.[[fn:37]] A review of nine diverse legal systems around the world found that most included no legislative provisions allowing women’s exposure to violence to be considered as a ground of self-defence or a mitigating factor in their convictions or sentencing when they were accused of killing their abusers.[[fn:38]] Furthermore, the assessment of proportionality and immediacy in self-defence does not take into account the difference in physical strength between women and men, and the altered perception of immediate harm in the context of long-term domestic violence. Several stakeholders reported to the Working Group that in some States domestic violence against women might be met with impunity, while women who fought back were treated harshly by the justice system.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See Mary Anne Franks, “Real men advance, real women retreat: stand your ground, battered women’s syndrome, and violence as male privilege”, University of Miami Law Review, vol. 68, No. 4 (2014)."}, {"n": 38, "text": "See Penal Reform International and Linklaters LLP, “Women who kill in response to domestic violence: how do criminal justice systems respond?” (2016)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "1. Violence in the home and the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 77, "n": 2, "text": "The instrumentalization of women’s deprivation of liberty in times of conflict", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "1. Violence in the home and the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 78, "n": 71, "text": "Just as interpersonal and private violence have differential and discriminatory effects on women’s lives and liberty, so do broader societal violence and armed conflict. Recent armed conflicts have seen both State and non-State actors using women’s deprivation of liberty as a tool to further their ends.[[fn:39]] In situations of conflict, women’s liberty and bodies are instrumentalized in multiple ways leading to deprivation of liberty.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "For example, between 2015 and 2017 a number of women and girls were detained by armed groups or government forces in Iraq, Libya, Myanmar, Nigeria, South Sudan and the Syrian Arab Republic for reasons ranging from charges on grounds of national security, counter-terrorism and association of family members with insurgent groups to investigation/intelligence and sexual exploitation."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "2. The instrumentalization of women’s deprivation of liberty in times of conflict"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 79, "n": 72, "text": "Non-State armed groups have engaged in high-profile abductions or detention of women, who have then been subjected to forced marriage or sexual slavery and forced recruitment for combatant or support roles in conflicts (see A/HRC/32/32/Add.2). Such kidnappings and detention are often in part motivated by attempts to impose a social order based on strict gender roles and the subjugation of women.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "2. The instrumentalization of women’s deprivation of liberty in times of conflict"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 80, "n": 73, "text": "State authorities responding to conflict may detain and confine women in the service of their own cause. Women who are able to escape from non-State armed groups or who are simply suspected of having been involved with them have been held by the military and other State actors in camps, prisons and other detention sites, rather than receiving the services they need. Measures to combat terrorism and corresponding national security measures sometimes profile and target women, in particular those from certain groups, and sometimes even women human rights defenders. Women and girls may also be targeted and detained based on their religion, ethnicity, tribal identity or place of origin. For example, thousands of Yazidi women and girls from northern Iraq were abducted and detained by the forces of Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL),[[fn:40]] while women who escaped areas held by ISIL have been detained in camps in Iraq and the Syrian Arab Republic on suspicion of involvement with or support for ISIL. The Working Group also notes the blanket imprisonment of women in Chad and Nigeria suspected of having ties with Boko Haram owing to area of origin or perceived exposure. Despite the fact that in many cases the women themselves are not suspected of any wrongdoing, they are placed in detention facilities or other forms of confinement for the alleged involvement of family members with opposing forces.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "See Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, “Detention in the Syrian Arab Republic: a way forward”, (March 2018), para. 19."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "2. The instrumentalization of women’s deprivation of liberty in times of conflict"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 81, "n": 74, "text": "Deprivation of liberty involves human rights violations and has devastating consequences for women’s lives, putting them at risk of torture, violence and abuse, unsafe and unsanitary conditions, lack of access to health services and further marginalization. It cuts women off from educational and economic opportunities, from their families and friends, and from the possibility of making their own choices and directing the course of their lives as they see fit.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 82, "n": 75, "text": "Around the world, women are deprived of their liberty in many places and contexts. They are confined in prisons and detention facilities, in hospitals and psychiatric institutions and care homes, in workplaces, in private homes and in conflict and humanitarian settings. They are deprived of their liberty by the State, but also by community members, members of their own families, intimate partners, caregivers, employers and criminal or armed groups.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 83, "n": 76, "text": "Deprivation of liberty is deeply gendered. While there are many forms, they are all tied to causes rooted in discrimination against women. Many forms of deprivation of women’s liberty spring from harmful stereotypes that seek to trap women in subjugation or silence, to punish them for perceived moral or sexual deviancy, or to smother them with overprotection. Those stereotypes are far too often enshrined in national laws.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 84, "n": 77, "text": "Women’s deprivation of liberty is also frequently tied up with violence and conflict, and with poverty, be it through lack of resources or lack of opportunity. Such circumstances trap women, depriving them of choice and often putting them in situations that lead to their confinement.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 85, "n": 78, "text": "Those risks are heightened for women who experience intersectional forms of discrimination, such as women with disabilities, indigenous, migrant or older women, women from racial, ethnic, sexual or gender minorities and other marginalized women, all of whom face additional layers of harmful and debilitating stereotypes. They are more exposed to violence, conflict, and economic “unfreedom” than other women.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 86, "n": 79, "text": "Addressing women’s deprivation of liberty is thus not a simple matter of reducing incarceration or institutionalization, or outlawing forced confinement in domestic settings. Those steps are necessary, but they are not sufficient. Ensuring that women enjoy liberty to the full extent and in equal measure with men will require the transformation of societies to root out harmful stereotypes and economic and social inequities.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 87, "n": 80, "text": "International human rights law has long required that States take appropriate action to modify social and cultural practices based on ideas of the inferiority or superiority of either sex or on stereotyped gender roles. In order to ensure that such stereotypes are not embodied in law, policy and practice or institutionalized, resulting in women’s deprivation of liberty, States should:\n(a) Modify or eliminate all laws based on stereotyped gender roles, in alignment with international human rights standards, including any laws giving men and society control over women’s decisions, mobility and morality;\n(b) Put in place mechanisms to provide opportunities for support to all women to exercise their autonomy and agency, eliminate laws that allow women to be arbitrarily stripped of legal capacity and/or placed under guardianship and guarantee respect for their informed consent at all times;\n(c) Ban laws and practices policing, targeting, punishing or confining women in relation to consensual sexual or reproductive behaviour or decisions, including sex work/prostitution, termination of pregnancy or expressions of sexuality;\n(d) Put an end to practices of protective institutionalization of survivors or those at risk of gender-based violence and women with disabilities;\n(e) Promulgate and implement laws prohibiting harmful traditional, cultural, social or religious practices that lead to the confinement of women and girls, including child and forced marriages and the seclusion of menstruating women and widows;\n(f) Provide mandatory, recurrent and effective capacity-building, education and training on the elimination of gender bias and the obligations of States regarding international standards for justice and law enforcement officers, medical personnel, legislators and any other actors who may be involved in decision-making regarding women’s deprivation of liberty;\n(g) Ensure that educational curricula throughout all levels and types of schooling include training on women’s human rights norms as the basis for gender-sensitive education;\n(h) Promote and support the implementation of awareness programmes to combat gender stereotypes in the family, community and social and formal institutions;\n(i) Support and protect women’s engagement in public and political life, including the work of women human rights defenders, and eliminate any laws or policy measures designed to criminalize the public roles of women. Put in place quotas or similar measures for the meaningful participation of women in the political and public sphere.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 88, "n": 81, "text": "Women’s lack of access to economic opportunities, resources and services constricts their choices and creates economic insecurity, and often results in their confinement. In order to minimize deprivation of liberty resulting from women’s poverty, States should:\n(a) Provide universal adequate, accessible and affordable education, health, legal and social services, and expand social protection systems in a manner that does not discriminate on the basis of gender and incorporates an intersectional and a women’s human rights perspective;\n(b) Eliminate laws and practices that perpetuate discrimination within the family and the community, and institute and intensify efforts to ensure the awareness and accountability of family and community members, including traditional and religious leaders;\n(c) Eliminate discriminatory laws that create barriers to women’s formal or informal employment and to their enjoyment of economic and social rights. Expressly guarantee women’s right to equality in economic and social life in the private and public sectors, with immediate effect and with special measures to accelerate de facto equality;\n(d) Eliminate measures that tend to disproportionately penalize or detain those living in poverty, including cash bail systems and debt-related civil convictions;\n(e) Promulgate and enforce regulations governing labour conditions, including in situations of domestic work, to ensure that they do not amount to situations of captivity, and take measures to “formalize” all economic sectors and ensure adequate inspection and social security entitlements for workers;\n(f) Incorporate laws, policies and effective programmes that will enhance protection from trafficking in persons, irregular migration and contemporary forms of slavery, and establish regular migration channels.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 89, "n": 82, "text": "Violence and conflict deeply shape women’s lives, often contributing to their deprivation of liberty. In order to counteract those effects, States should take legislative, policy and practical steps to ensure an understanding of the forced confinement of women as a form of gender-based violence that must be eliminated at all levels of government and society. States should therefore:\n(a) Pass legislation taking into account the experience of gender-based violence as a defence against criminal charges and a mitigation factor in sentencing;\n(b) Ensure that measures addressing conflict, crisis, terrorism and national security incorporate a women’s human rights focus and do not instrumentalize women’s deprivation of liberty for the purposes of pursuing government aims;\n(c) Provide effective protection for women and girls from abduction and detention by non-State criminal or armed groups, guarantee non-recurrence and provide gender-sensitive and comprehensive services and adequate restitution to those who have been held captive by such groups.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 90, "n": 83, "text": "Numerous international human rights law instruments have long placed obligations on States to eliminate discrimination, but multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination persist in trapping women around the world. In order to combat the disproportionate deprivation of liberty of women in situations of marginalization, States should:\n(a) Re-evaluate and reform laws and practices that tend to disproportionately or differently target, police and criminalize any particular group of women, and create accountability mechanisms to prevent, mitigate and remedy the discriminatory application of the law;\n(b) Provide targeted, adequate and accessible legal and social services (social protection, education, health, rehabilitation) to groups of women who are disproportionately vulnerable to criminalization or institutionalization;\n(c) Initiate targeted policy measures and programmes to tackle the disproportionate criminalization and incarceration of racial, indigenous or other marginalized groups;\n(d) Institute systems of community support to break the cycle of incarceration or institutionalization of women with intellectual disabilities and mental health concerns;\n(e) Incorporate effective approaches in laws, policies and programmes to address multiple and intersectional forms of discrimination;\n(f) Incorporate an understanding of intersectional discrimination in any anti-gender bias training conducted for State officials.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 91, "n": 84, "text": "In addition, in order to address women’s deprivation of liberty with all of its root causes, States and other stakeholders should:\n(a) Make available effective gender-specific interventions that aim primarily to divert women away from the criminal justice system, integrate into the national system the standards provided in the United Nations Rules for the Treatment of Women Prisoners and Non-custodial Measures for Women Offenders (the Bangkok Rules), and address the underlying factors leading to women coming into contact with the criminal justice system;\n(b) Ensure the availability of effective community-based support, services and opportunities for all women, including in rural areas, particularly those related to health, housing, employment, education, childcare and social security, and guarantee the meaningful participation of women in the community;\n(c) Develop alternatives to institutionalization for the support and protection of vulnerable women, in particular community-based and family-based alternatives, and repeal all laws allowing involuntary placements and treatments;\n(d) Put in place and enhance social services and support systems for women through appropriate investment and technical capacity, monitor non-State providers of services and facilities, including detention and care facilities, for compliance with obligations relating to women’s human rights;\n(e) Introduce and implement innovative measures to fight gender stereotypes of all forms and at all levels;\n(f) Reform drug-related policies, laws and practices in line with international human rights standards and take steps to integrate the International Guidelines on Human Rights and Drug Policy into policies that are relevant to women;\n(g) Design appropriate due diligence measures, in line with human rights obligations, to tackle deprivation of liberty by private parties through law reform, legal redress, the institutional framework and other methods.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report covers the activities of the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls from the submission of its previous report (A/HRC/41/33) in May 2019 to March 2020, and also contains a thematic analysis on women in the changing world of work, which is undergoing rapid and deep transformations. The Working Group analyses how such changes present new challenges to and opportunities for women’s enjoyment of their rights to work and at work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "During the period under review, the Working Group held sessions in Geneva, Addis Ababa and New York. At its twenty-fifth session in Geneva (10–14 June 2019), the Working Group met with representatives of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and the Independent Expert on the effects of foreign debt and other related international financial obligations of States on the full enjoyment of all human rights, particularly economic, social and cultural rights, and the Independent Expert on protection against violence and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. It benefited from expert consultations on surrogacy, on the human rights situation of Roma women and girls, and on women’s rights in the changing world of work. It also met with Member States.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "At its twenty-sixth session in Addis Ababa (21–25 October 2019), its first meeting in the Africa region, the Working Group met with representatives of regional United Nations entities and member States and institutions of the African Union. It benefited from consultations with women human rights defenders from Africa on sexual and reproductive health rights, the rights of girls and the changing world of work. The Working Group also engaged with Ethiopian human rights organizations and independent human rights institutions and met with the President of Ethiopia, Sahle-Work Zewde.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At its twenty-seventh session in New York (27–31 January 2020), the Working Group met with representatives of UN-Women and OHCHR, including the Assistant Secretary-General for Human Rights, and the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence against Children, and held a videoconference with the Independent Expert on protection against violence and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. The Working Group also benefited from expert consultations on girls’ participation and on sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis situations.", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The Working Group visited Greece from 1 to 12 April 2019 (A/HRC/44/51/Add.1) and Romania from 24 February to 6 March 2020 (the report of the visit will be presented to the Human Rights Council in June 2021). It thanks the Governments of these countries for their excellent cooperation and encourages other States to respond positively to its requests for visits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "During the period under review, the Working Group addressed communications to Governments, individually or jointly with other mandate holders. The communications concerned issues falling within the Working Group’s mandate, including discriminatory legislation and practices, allegations of attacks against women human rights defenders, gender-based violence and violations of the right to sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:1]] The Working Group also issued press releases and statements, individually or jointly with other mandate holders and regional mechanisms.[[fn:2]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Communications.aspx."}, {"n": 2, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/NewsSearch.aspx?MID=WG_Women."}], "section": ["II. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Since its previous report to the Human Rights Council, the Working Group has carried out numerous other activities, including participation in regional consultations and expert meetings and engagement with stakeholders. As a member of the Platform of Independent Expert Mechanisms on Discrimination and Violence against Women, it contributed actively to enhancing cooperation between global and regional women’s rights mechanisms, including through joint statements and the publication, 25 Years in Review of the Beijing Platform for Action. Detailed information can be found on the website of the Working Group.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Over the past few years, international organizations and experts have increasingly turned attention to how trends such as technological change, demographic change, accelerated globalization, environmental degradation and the shift towards sustainable jobs will impact the world of work. There has been limited analysis on the gender dimensions of such trends, which present significant challenges to and opportunities for women’s human rights. The present report focuses on women’s rights to work and at work, setting out a vision for a world of work that starts with women’s human rights, taking into account the current context and the changing trends. Transforming the current economic model to one that realizes women’s human rights through the redistribution of power and resources is central to realizing this vision.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "The present report is being finalized during the rapidly evolving coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, which will have significant implications for women’s work. Globally, women make up 70 per cent of frontline workers in the health and social sector across a range of occupations. At the same time, women already bear a disproportionate responsibility for the care of children, the elderly and people with disabilities. The pandemic is further intensifying and increasing levels of violence against women, women’s unpaid care and domestic workloads, while the economic impact will place women’s livelihoods and economic security at significant risk. Women in the most vulnerable forms of informal work will be the most harshly affected.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "The present report is based on a wealth of information elicited through various means, including regional expert consultations and responses to a questionnaire sent to Governments and other stakeholders. The Working Group wishes to express gratitude to all stakeholders for their contributions.[[fn:3]]\nBox 1 Key definitions\nThis report takes an expansive view of the world of work, including formal and informal work, public and private spaces of work, the commute to and from work, work taking place online or work enabled through information and communications technology (ICT), and work-related trips and events.\nWomen’s rights to work and at work are established by international human rights law. In particular, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights contain specific provisions guaranteeing the right to work, just and favourable conditions of work, freedom to form trade unions and the prohibition of discrimination based on sex. Furthermore, there are several International Labour Organization (ILO) conventions covering a range of areas in relation to work, such as equal remuneration and domestic workers, including, most recently, a convention on eliminating violence and harassment at work.\nDrawing on international norms and standards, realizing women’s rights to work includes removing legal and sociocultural barriers that prevent women from working, for example legal discrimination, harmful gender stereotypes and discriminatory social norms, and women’s disproportionate responsibility for unpaid care and domestic work. Realizing women’s rights to work also entails ensuring public policy support for care and the availability of decent work. It also includes securing decent conditions at work, including equal access to workplace entitlements and equal pay for work of equal value, dismantling the barriers to women’s equal progression and access to leadership positions, freedom from violence, discrimination and harassment, and enabling conditions for women’s collective organizing and voice in decision-making.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Owing to word limit restrictions, the present report does not contain full references. A version of the report with full references, replies to the questionnaire and other relevant information is available from www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/WomenChangingWorldofWork.aspx."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Women’s access to decent work and an independent income lifts them and their families out of poverty, improves their decision-making power in the household and society and ensures their economic independence, including in the event of a violent and abusive relationship. Yet, women’s experience in the world of work for many is marked by persistent and widespread discrimination, leading to stark inequalities in employment outcomes, pervasive harassment and violence, and exploitation. In 2018, less than half (48 per cent) of working age women globally were participating in the labour market, compared with 75 per cent of men, resulting in a gender gap of 27 per cent.[[fn:4]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_670542.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "B. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Globally, women remain concentrated in the lowest paid jobs, in vulnerable forms of employment, including in the informal sector. In low-income countries, 92 per cent of women are employed informally (as compared with 87.5 per cent of men), with little access to the raft of employment and social protection rights conferred on workers who have a formal employment contract.[[fn:5]] Particularly stark gender gaps can be seen in the proportion of those informally employed who work without any direct pay or remuneration, such as unpaid family workers in family farms and enterprises (28.1 per cent of women versus 8.7 per cent of men).[[fn:6]] The lack of investment by governments in time-saving infrastructure and public services, and persistent funding cuts (including due to the conditionalities imposed by international financial institutions), often have the harshest impacts on informal women workers.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "ILO, Women and Men in the Informal Economy: A Statistical Picture, 3rd ed. (Geneva, 2018)."}, {"n": 6, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "B. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Structural discrimination, including the persistence of gender stereotypes and gendered expectations, norms and attitudes, remains a significant barrier. Pregnancy discrimination remains a common experience for many women, in which they are either dismissed, moved into lower paid roles or denied advancement opportunities. Furthermore, the lack of access to sexual and reproductive rights and services deny women the opportunity to make autonomous decisions about pregnancy and childbearing, which has an impact on their employment outcomes and their unpaid care work responsibility. Globally, women do three times as much unpaid care and domestic work as men, reflecting discriminatory stereotypes based on sex and gender that feminize this work. Across the world, 606 million working-age women (21.7 per cent) perform unpaid care work on a full-time basis, compared with 41 million men (1.5 per cent).[[fn:7]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "ILO, A Quantum Leap for Gender Equality: For A Better Future of Work for All (Geneva, 2019)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "B. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Despite increased female education, occupational and sectoral segregation remains deeply entrenched globally, with women remaining clustered in low paid jobs and sectors, with limited prospects for career progression. The global gender pay gap stands at an unwavering 20 per cent and is wider for women who experience multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination. Systemic disadvantage experienced by mothers in the workplace contributes to a larger pay gap and dramatically lower retirement savings or pension contributions, known as the “motherhood penalty”. Globally, only 27.1 per cent of managers are women, a figure that has changed very little over the past 27 years.[[fn:8]] Such data not only reflects the persistent barriers women face, but also the low societal value ascribed to the work that women do.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "B. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Gender-based violence and harassment in the workplace persist at shocking levels. In recent years an unprecedented number of women have spoken out about sexual violence and harassment against women and the systems of power and domination that have silenced them for so long. While recent global data is limited, a 2014 European Union-wide study found that every second woman (55 per cent) has experienced sexual harassment at least once since the age of 15. Among those, 32 per cent identified somebody from the employment context – such as a colleague, a boss or a customer – as the perpetrator.[[fn:9]] Women in vulnerable forms of informal work, such as domestic workers, market vendors and waste-pickers, are particularly vulnerable to harassment and violence in the course of their work.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, Violence against Women: an EU-wide survey – Main results (Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2014)."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See https://www.wiego.org/sites/default/files/migrated/publications/files/ILC_WIEGO_Briefing%20Note%20Violence%20in%20the%20workplace%20EN%20for%20web.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "B. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Discriminatory laws that restrict women’s rights persist in many parts of the world and progress in introducing laws to advance gender equality in work is slow. Ninety countries still have at least one legal restriction on the jobs women can hold.[[fn:11]] Less than half of the 190 countries studied by the World Bank have legislation mandating equal remuneration for work of equal value.[[fn:12]] Discriminatory family and personal status laws in some countries continue to have a negative impact on women’s ability to engage in paid work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/32639/9781464815324.pdf?sequence=6&isAllowed=y."}, {"n": 12, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "B. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "In order to fully understand the nature and scope of discrimination against women in the world of work, it is important to take an intersectional approach, given that there are multiple forms of discrimination at play that result in very specific vulnerabilities and differences in employment outcomes. For example, for Roma women in many parts of Europe the lack of access to education, coupled with residential segregation and discrimination, exclude them from the formal labour market, forcing them to take up precarious and low paid work, creating a poverty trap.[[fn:13]] According to information received by the Working Group, Dalit women disproportionately experience discrimination at work, even in urban settings and in skilled work. Dalit women earn half the average daily wage earned by non-Dalit castes.[[fn:14]] Transgender women experience disproportionate levels of poverty and economic insecurity because of the discrimination they face in accessing employment.[[fn:15]] Young women with disabilities are much more likely to be excluded from education and employment, as compared with both men with disabilities and women without disabilities (E/CN.6/2020/3, paras. 55 and 322).", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "See https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra-2014-roma-survey-employment_en.pdf."}, {"n": 14, "text": "See response of International Dalit Solidarity Network to the questionnaire"}, {"n": 15, "text": "See response of Lambda Legal to the questionnaire."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "B. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "An increasing backlash against and resistance to women’s human rights is also creating new challenges to women’s equal participation in economic life. The growing political influence of conservative forces in some regions has led to regressive policy and legal reforms, such as new restrictions on sexual and reproductive rights and violence against women laws, with significant implications for women’s equal participation in economic life. At the same time, the rise of anti-democratic forces and “strongman politics”, grounded in misogyny and xenophobia, is amplifying discriminatory and patriarchal voices and limiting the scope for feminist action to make progress. Women’s human rights defenders, including labour rights activists, are at increasing risk of harassment, violence and even murder, with perpetrators enjoying impunity (A/HRC/38/46, para. 38).", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "B. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "In recent years there has been a growing focus on the future of work, with increasing attention to technological change, demographic change, accelerated globalization and the shift to sustainable economies. Important efforts have been made to reorient the future of work as a human-centred agenda that is based on investing in people’s capabilities, institutions of work and decent and sustainable work.[[fn:16]] At the same time, there has also been further deregulation to enable non-standard forms of work, such as temporary or contract work, or new arrangements such as zero-hour contracts.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_663006/lang--en/index.htm."}, {"n": 17, "text": "See www.worldbank.org/en/publication/wdr2019."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Although there have been some attempts to include a gender perspective, what has been missing is a focus on the systemic disadvantage already faced by women in all facets of their life, which places them at greater risk of further discrimination. The following sections identify the major shifts in the world of work and provide an overview of the opportunities for and challenges to women’s human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Technological advances, including artificial intelligence and machine learning, the Internet of things, big data, automation and robotics, are expected to create massive changes across all spheres of life.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Technological change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "There are some opportunities to harness technology to advance gender equality and women’s rights to work and at work. The proliferation of digital platforms and other changes associated with the digital revolution may create new possibilities to support women’s employment, including more flexible work arrangements, distance learning and networking, which will better enable them to balance paid work with unpaid care work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Technological change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "ICTs and specifically smartphones, have an important role to play in enhancing the conditions and productivity of work among women in the informal economy by providing access to information and networks, especially in the most insecure and poorly paid forms of informal work. In addition to economic inclusion, ICTs are also increasingly important for collective organizing to strengthen the political voice of women workers. Technological advances have created new spaces for mobilization and connection between women across national borders and interest groups.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Technological change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "However, the impact of digitalization on the quality of work has received less attention. Where opportunities become available to women through the gig economy, there is also a risk that this may deepen structural discrimination by reinforcing gender stereotypes and the expectation that women should only undertake paid work within the confines of the home. The online economy is not automatically going to be more inclusive of women than the offline economy. Women represent only one out of every three crowdworkers on digital platforms, with the gender balance being particularly skewed in developing countries.[[fn:18]] Furthermore, rather than being a source of decent work, the growth of digital platforms, including the gig economy, will likely contribute to increasing women’s economic inequality by increasing the informalization of women’s work due to gaps in existing labour regulations and a lack of access to social protection. In fact, the gig economy is an expansion of the kind of informal work which women have traditionally undertaken, for example women piece workers, but without the technology platform. As such, online platforms risk substituting the traditional “sweatshop” for a digital one.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "ILO, Digital Labour Platforms and the Future of Work: Towards Decent Work in the Online World (Geneva, 2018)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Technological change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Automation is likely to contribute to greater economic inequality for women, with the most vulnerable groups of women being most affected. Workers who perform more routine tasks are at greater risk of potential replacement by robots and artificial intelligence, and the data for the global North shows that women have a 13 per cent higher chance than men of being in occupations and sectors that involve more routine tasks. Workers with a lower level of education have the highest chance (40 per cent) of seeing their activities being automated, while only 5 per cent of workers with a tertiary degree face the same risk.[[fn:19]] Given that labour markets are continuously transformed by technological innovation, automation is also likely to contribute to growing polarization in the job market, with women in richer countries having a comparative advantage over women in poorer countries because of their higher levels of education and digital literacy.[[fn:20]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Jacques Charmes, “The human rights of women informal workers in the changing world of work: impact of technological changes”, background paper, October 2019. Available from www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/WomenChangingWorldofWork.aspx."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Technological change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "A major challenge for women’s employment in the context of technological change is the underrepresentation of women in science, technology, engineering and mathematics education and employment. Deeply entrenched stereotypes and discrimination in education limit girls’ aspirations for careers in these areas, and masculinist workplace cultures in related organizations exclude and discriminate against women, often pushing them to leave science, technology, engineering and mathematics jobs at a higher rate than men. The poor representation of women in technology also means that technology is designed to entrench a male-dominated world view, rather than being designed to be inclusive of women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Technological change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "Much of the discussion regarding technology and work also assumes that technological developments benefit all countries equally and are equally accessed by women and men. However, the gender digital divide persists across several regions and in many parts of the world men still control women’s access to ICT.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Technological change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Technological developments have also created new risks and challenges related to inclusion, safety, privacy, accountability and transparency, including the heightened exposure of women and girls to the risk of violence and abuse in technology-enabled spaces. Increasing monitoring, surveillance and data collection from workers using new technologies risks exacerbating discrimination against women, as algorithmic management use a one-size-fits-all model, without attention to gender dynamics and discrimination in the workplace.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Technological change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Major demographic trends, such as population ageing and migration, have significant implications for gender equality. By 2050, 16 per cent of the world’s population will be over the age of 65, up from 9 per cent in 2019. Long-term care of the elderly is still carried out largely by women. One opportunity presented by this trend is the expansion of jobs in the care sector, which can free up women’s time and provide new employment opportunities. However, there is a danger of entrenching the gender pay gap and structural discrimination unless paid care work is properly valued, with significant investments in decent work conditions. A major risk for women’s rights to work in the context of population ageing is the failure to invest in affordable and high-quality care services. This will limit women’s ability to engage in paid employment as their unpaid caring responsibilities increase with demographic change.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Demographic change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "Recent decades have also seen increasing numbers of women migrating as workers, a trend that is likely to continue. In particular, there has been a growing demand for migrant domestic and care workers due to complex factors, including the increasing participation of women in paid work in wealthy countries and high-income groups, the demand for cheap care labour and the lack of investment in care services. This has created a phenomenon known as the “global care chain”. There are 11.5 million migrant domestic workers globally and, of these, 73.4 per cent are women.[[fn:21]] There will likely be an increased demand for migrant domestic and care workers in the context of population ageing.[[fn:22]] However, migrant workers are often denied human rights, such as access to health care and social protection, in their country of work. Migrant domestic workers are often doubly marginalized, as migrants working in the informal sector, where they exist in precarity with heightened risks of wage theft, violence, harassment and abuse. For migrant domestic and care workers, gender-based discrimination is compounded by further discrimination, among other things, based on their legal status, ethnicity, race, class or caste identities. Migrant domestic and care workers are also vulnerable to human rights violations in their country of origin, for example exploitation by brokers.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "ILO, A Quantum Leap for Gender Equality."}, {"n": 22, "text": "See www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_534204.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Demographic change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Rapid urbanization, combined with the growth of urban poverty and the absence of basic infrastructure and services, also has significant implications for women’s work. The lack of decent work opportunities and lack of access to resources, such as land, for women in rural areas often pushes them to migrate to cities in the hope of securing better quality work. However, the lack of decent work opportunities in urban areas often relegates women to precarious and informal work. Furthermore, the growing trend of large-scale urban development and renewal projects encourages an increasing use of evictions, confiscations and demolitions that negatively impact women who work in public spaces or run small-scale enterprises, thereby increasing their economic insecurity.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Demographic change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "Another aspect of demographic change is the “youth bulge”. In most of sub-Saharan Africa, and in parts of Asia and the Pacific and Latin America and the Caribbean, recent reductions in fertility rates have caused the working age population (25–64 years) to grow faster than other age groups, creating the opportunity for a demographic dividend (E/CN.6/2020/3, para. 22). Women’s and girls’ increasing educational attainment is a significant opportunity for increasing young women’s access to work. However, the systematic and patriarchally rooted denial of reproductive autonomy and lack of access to sexual and reproductive health services, along with harmful and discriminatory practices, such as child marriage, continue to hamper young women’s access to education and employment. Even where women’s educational achievements have significantly improved, the transition from school to decent work remains a challenge due to the lack of access to decent work and persistent discriminatory social norms and practices.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Demographic change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "Globalization is characterized by increasing human, financial, economic and technological transactions and communications across countries and regions. Recent decades have seen the rapid growth of globalized neoliberal capitalist economic regimes and structures with the promise of more jobs and growth. However, the reality has been increasing inequality and economic disparity, often at the expense of decent work and the protection of the environment. Furthermore, neoliberal globalization has also weakened several State functions that are important for gender equality, such as the provision of quality care services, which are increasingly privatized or non-existent.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Accelerated globalization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The specific impacts of globalization on women’s access to employment opportunities have been mixed. In some contexts, increasing numbers of women have gained access to export-oriented manufacturing employment. ILO estimates that the number of jobs in global supply chains in 40 countries increased from 295 million in 1995 to 453 million in 2013.[[fn:23]] More than one fifth of the global workforce have a job in a global supply chain. The share of women employed in global supply chains in emerging economies tends to be higher than their share in total employment.[[fn:24]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---inst/documents/publication/wcms_723274.pdf."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Accelerated globalization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "Low prices paid to suppliers exert pressure down the supply chain to reduce costs, leading to downward pressure on wages. As a result, women’s employment in global supply chains is often insecure, with poor working conditions and with labour and human rights violations and human trafficking presenting a significant concern. Moreover, some Governments have sought to relax their labour and environmental regulations in an effort to attract investments from multinational corporations that engage in a “race to the bottom” – in search of countries where the requirements to ensure safe, fair and decent conditions of work are less stringent. Mass land acquisitions for global supply chains also result in the loss of work and income for rural women in the global South, and forced displacement in some contexts. Sexual harassment is rampant in many parts of the supply chains where the workers are predominantly female, such as the garment sector.[[fn:25]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/supporting_resources/brochure_combatting_sexual_harassment_garment.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Accelerated globalization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Globalization is also creating new vulnerabilities for women’s work due to fissuring of the workplace through increased global supply chains, subcontracting and the use of flexible forms of labour. Research conducted by the International Trade Union Confederation found that the world’s 50 largest companies only employ 6 per cent of people in a direct employment relationship and rely on a hidden workforce of 94 per cent.[[fn:26]] Increasing subcontracting and fissuring of the workplace creates significant challenges for collective organizing through trade unions and cooperatives, which is critical for securing better pay and working conditions for women workers.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See www.ituc-csi.org/frontlines-report-2016-scandal."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Accelerated globalization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "New robotic and automation technologies are further transforming global supply chains and production processes, putting at risk many jobs typically held by women, such as sewing machine operators, hand sewers and assembly workers. Evidence shows that, as countries upgrade their industries through technological advances, women’s employment generally declines, a phenomenon referred to as “defeminization”. Moreover, technological advances have spurred further offshoring of production from the global North to the global South, particularly in services. Rather than increasing access to decent work in the global South, the reality is that these jobs are disaggregated into microtasks performed by contractors on platforms in low-income countries, who have no labour contracts or workplace protections and are often underpaid. As such, digitalization risks perpetuating old forms of discrimination, exploitation and informal work for women in the global South.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Accelerated globalization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The shift to sustainable economies and just transitions has also featured as a critical element of the changing world of work. The focus on the green economy and sustainable jobs holds potential opportunities for women’s employment. For example, it is estimated that the number of jobs in the renewable energy sector could increase from 10.3 million in 2017 to nearly 29 million in 2050.[[fn:27]] Available data indicates that women are more likely to work in the renewable energy sector, as compared with fossil fuels, signalling potential for new opportunities for women. However, the data also shows that women tend to occupy lower status and lower-paid positions, as they are more likely to be in administrative roles, rather than roles requiring science, technology, engineering and mathematics skills.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "See www.irena.org/publications/2019/Jan/Renewable-Energy-A-Gender-Perspective."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Increased focus on sustainability and just transitions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "Beyond the growth of green jobs, the rapid acceleration and intensification of environmental crises is creating a growing sense of urgency around a new economic model based on environmental sustainability. A just transition is about ensuring that the transition from an extractive to an environmentally sustainable and regenerative economy does not create hardships for workers. Yet there has been little discussion of the gender dimensions of a just transition to date, and there has been a marked increase in reprisals against those who speak out against these crises and hardships. Marginalized women, particularly those in poor countries, are most affected by environmental degradation due to underlying structural discrimination, including women’s unequal access to land and natural resources, sustainable infrastructure and public services, which jeopardizes their income and food security, health, and livelihoods. Declining access to natural resources in the context of climate change will increase already intense and heavy unpaid care and domestic workloads for the poorest women and girls.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Increased focus on sustainability and just transitions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "At the same time, women often play an important role, particularly in developing countries, in the conservation of the natural environment. Women’s participation makes forest conservation and climate interventions more effective and leads to a more equal sharing of benefits. In agriculture, women workers are already playing an important role in natural resource management, which is critical to adaptation to climate change. However, they frequently face exclusion from decision-making and lack access to decent work, and their expertise in local and traditional knowledge is often not recognized. In developing countries, women are already highly concentrated in informal work in waste collection and recycling. Their work collecting recyclables from city streets and keeping public spaces clean presents a minimal cost to public budgets, yet accounts for a significant portion of solid waste management, recycling and disposal. However, they are highly stigmatized as workers and suffer from harassment and poor wages and conditions. Furthermore, the increasing formalization of waste collection and recycling, including through the introduction of new technologies such as incinerators, is placing women’s work at risk if there are no available upskilling opportunities or strategies to integrate women waste pickers within formalized systems.[[fn:28]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "See www.worldurbancampaign.org/wiego-four-strategies-integrate-waste-pickers-future-cities."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Increased focus on sustainability and just transitions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Unless structural and systemic discrimination is specifically addressed, there is a significant risk that future work trends will deepen existing inequalities for women. The approach to date of adding women into the masculinist structure of work and the economy has failed in realizing women’s human rights and will continue to do so in the changing world of work. Creating a world of work where women benefit and contribute on an equal basis with men requires reimagining the structure of work and the economy, with women’s human rights placed at the centre. Looking into the future, women have strong expectations of job security, equal pay, decent work conditions, respect and freedom from violence and harassment in the workplace, access to the right skills and training, and support for their caring responsibilities.[[fn:29]] A world of work that realizes women’s human rights will not only benefit women but will lift all.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See www.sydney.edu.au/content/dam/corporate/documents/business-school/research/women-work-leadership/women-and-the-future-of-work.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "Ensuring that the future trends affecting the world of work do not exacerbate discrimination against women requires targeted action in five areas, as detailed below. 28 See www.worldurbancampaign.org/wiego-four-strategies-integrate-waste-pickers-future-cities. 29 See www.sydney.edu.au/content/dam/corporate/documents/business-school/research/women-workleadership/women-and-the-future-of-work.pdf. Ensuring freedom from violence and harassment", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "International standards recognize sexual harassment as a form of discrimination against women and a violation of human rights. New challenges stemming from technological change and continued globalization make it more urgent than ever to ensure women’s safety at work. In this respect, the adoption in 2019 of the ILO Violence and Harassment Convention, 2019 (No. 190), marks a significant advancement towards creating a world of safe and decent work for all, with a particular focus on addressing women’s experiences of violence and harassment. Discrimination based on other factors, such as pregnancy, age, race, social origin, migration status, disability, maternity, family responsibilities, sexual orientation and gender identity, may also influence how, and in what ways, women are more vulnerable to violence and harassment. Furthermore, the criminalization of women in prostitution or sex work increases their vulnerability to violence and compounds their exclusion from essential services.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Ensuring freedom from violence and harassment"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "There are a growing number of laws addressing sexual harassment, but they are often limited in their coverage and application. Women do not report sexual harassment for many reasons, including fear of reprisal, or concern that the matter will be dealt with ineffectively at best or, at worst, ignored or covered up. This has resulted in a culture of impunity for perpetrators. As the world of work changes, it is critical that women in non-standard forms of work and informal work are covered under legislation addressing sexual harassment and other forms of violence in the workplace, and that all women workers have access to remedies and justice should they experience sexual harassment, regardless of their contract type. Regulatory frameworks should ensure employers have an obligation to take all measures to prevent and respond to sexual harassment, in line with international standards. In the context of increased fissuring of the workplace and subcontracting, there is a need to strengthen action and accountability for sexual harassment across global supply chains. New and emerging forms of ICT-facilitated violence and harassment against women in the workplace also requires regulation and accountability measures (see A/HRC/38/47).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Ensuring freedom from violence and harassment"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "A significant innovation of the ILO Violence and Harassment Convention, 2019 (No. 190), is its recognition that both employers and workers’ organizations have a role to play in responding to domestic violence as another form of violence impacting women in the workplace. This is an important shift in perspective, as domestic violence has historically been viewed as a private matter that impacts people in their homes rather than at work. The Convention provides that workers who are experiencing domestic violence have a right to support and protection in employment, that they should not be discriminated against on the basis of being a victim of domestic violence and that employers should provide flexible work, protection and leave for victims of domestic violence. Paid domestic violence leave is emerging as a promising practice among a number of Governments and employers. However, as an increasing number of women work in the gig economy and outside formal workplace arrangements, they are increasingly dislocated from such workplace support. Furthermore, with technological advances, new forms of technology-facilitated abuse, for example monitoring and tracking women through their devices, affects women’s capacity to work and their experience of work.\nBox 2 Promising practices\nAddressing sexual harassment in global supply chains\nThrough the investment of global clothing brands, some garment factories in South Asia have conducted training on the prevention of violence and harassment against women and men and have established workplace harassment committees. Consequently, there has been a decrease in the number of workers who report having experienced verbal harassment, psychological abuse and physical abuse, and an increase in the number of reports of sexual abuse, attributed to an increased willingness to discuss sexual abuse and growing trust in the process.\nCovering non-standard workers under sexual harassment laws\nRecently, some companies that engage people in work through a digital platform have commenced granting full employee status to their workers, ensuring workers receive higher wages, pension contributions, sickness benefits and protection under labour laws, including protection from sexual harassment. Meanwhile other gig companies have ended the practice of forced arbitration agreements in situations where workers make sexual harassment claims against the company.\nCovering gig economy workers under domestic violence policies\nUnions in some countries are pushing for legislative amendments to broaden the definition of employee so as to capture gig economy workers and ensure that they have full access to workplace protections, including the provision of paid domestic and family violence leave provided under employment guarantees.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Ensuring freedom from violence and harassment"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Recognizing the social and economic value of unpaid care and domestic work and reducing the time burden and redistributing it more equally between women and men and between households and society through public investments in infrastructure and services are critical for the achievement of substantive equality. Ensuring all workers have access to a comprehensive system of paid maternity, paternity and parental leave, in line with international standards, is also essential, as is providing accessible, affordable and quality care services.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Recognizing, reducing and redistributing unpaid care and domestic work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "In the context of the changing world of work, there is a need for policy reform to ensure that women engaged in non-standard forms of work, including informal work, have access to maternity and parental leave provisions, in line with international standards. The provision of care services with flexible start and finish times, intermittent care provision and drop-in care services is an important enabler of women’s work. This is particularly pertinent as the world faces climate change and increasing health pandemics, for example the current COVID-19 crisis, which will significantly increase women’s unpaid care workloads. Flexible working time arrangements also play an important role in supporting workers (both men and women) to balance paid work and caring responsibilities and can be facilitated through technological advances. While new forms of work offered by digital platforms often provide greater flexibility, it is important that flexibility goes hand in hand with job security and decent pay and conditions. The rapidly ageing populations in many parts of the world not only requires Governments to invest in affordable and quality aged care services, but also to provide for paid carers leave and flexibility provisions that recognize the diverse caring responsibilities that women have over their lifetime, and to put in place measures to ensure men take up more unpaid care work.\nBox 3 Promising practices\nExtending maternity leave to informal workers\nAn Asia-Pacific country offers universal maternity protection coverage, including for workers in the informal economy. While compulsory for formal employees (who receive a replacement rate of 100 per cent of their covered wage for four months), herders, self-employed persons and workers in the informal economy can join the social insurance scheme on a voluntary basis and receive maternity cash benefits for four months at a replacement rate of 70 per cent of their selected reference wage after 12 months of contributions. In addition, maternity cash benefits under the social insurance scheme are provided to all pregnant women and mothers of infants, regardless of their contribution to the scheme, their status in employment or nationality. Maternity care is provided through the universal (tax-funded) health-care system.\nProviding care services for garment factory workers and waste pickers\nIn some South Asian countries, the law requires ready-made garment factories to provide on-site childcare services for children up to the age of 6. As a next step, the need to focus on implementation and the quality of services has been recognized. In other countries, cooperative childcare services established and run by workers in the informal economy are meeting women workers’ care needs, while also helping protect their labour rights.\nIn a country in Latin America a cooperative of waste pickers identified their need for quality childcare services so that they could work a full day and not have to take their children with them to the recycling plants. They established a community childcare service through a combination of local government, non-governmental and philanthropic support, with opening hours reflecting the working hours of waste pickers, from 7 a.m. to 10 p.m.\nRedistributing unpaid care work between men and women\nNordic countries offer some of the most generous parental leave policies in the world – between 40 and 69 weeks, at a remuneration rate of 70 to 100 per cent of pay. Some countries earmark some of those weeks for fathers (the so-called daddy quota), which is specifically designed to redistribute caring responsibilities between women and men. Studies have shown that “use it or lose it” leave provisions are more effective in increasing the proportion of fathers taking parental leave.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Recognizing, reducing and redistributing unpaid care and domestic work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "While the growth of new sectors, such as the technology and renewable energy sectors, provides an opportunity to increase women’s employment in male-dominated areas, increased participation in the labour force does not automatically guarantee a level playing field for women. The persistence of occupational segregation can be explained by gender differences in education, training and experience; discrimination; deeply ingrained social norms; and the unequal distribution of unpaid care and domestic work. Stereotypes about gender roles and perceived differences in aptitudes also contribute to occupational segregation. Predominantly female occupations, which tend to be those with lower status and pay, have remained feminized or become more so.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Disrupting patterns of “women’s” and “men’s” work: value and roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "Without targeted intervention, existing patterns of segregation will be replicated in newly emerging sectors. Targeted interventions include temporary special measures to increase women’s representation in high-growth sectors; the provision of education, skills development, on-the-job and lifelong learning for women to transition from jobs that are at risk of automation to high-growth areas; and incentives and interventions to increase women’s representation in education and employment in the areas of science, technology, engineering and mathematics. Policy and regulatory frameworks can play an important role in creating obligations for employers to report on the gender composition of their enterprises or organizations by occupation, gender pay gap and women’s representation in leadership. The potential growth of the care sector, in the context of population ageing, must entail paid care work being properly valued both economically and socially through decent wages and conditions. Given the overrepresentation of women in low-paying jobs, minimum wage legislation, alongside laws that ensure a right to equal remuneration for work of equal value, can also make a significant contribution towards reducing gender pay gaps. To disrupt occupational segregation, it is equally important to introduce incentives and measures to encourage men to take up jobs in female-dominated sectors, such as education and paid care work.\nBox 4 Promising practices\nIncreasing women’s representation in renewable energy\nInternationally, women represent only 32 per cent of the renewable energy workforce. In recognition that the successful transition to a low-carbon future will depend on the ability to harness all possible talent, a group of public and private sector organizations formed a campaign to work towards equal pay, equal leadership and equal opportunities for women in the clean energy sector by 2030. The campaign asks companies and governments to endorse principles and take concrete actions to help close the gender gap, including the setting of targets and quotas.\nValuing paid care and domestic work\nAfter a finding of historic gender-based undervaluation of the sector and following sustained campaigning by unions, workers and community organizations, wages were increased in the care sector, setting new minimum rates of pay for workers. The decision resulted in wage increases of between 19 and 41 per cent for care workers.\nSpurred by the ratification of the ILO Domestic Workers Convention, 2011 (No. 189), by 11 countries in Latin America, efforts have been made to ensure that domestic workers are covered under minimum wage provisions equalizing domestic worker pay with other workers. Some countries in the region are also encouraging collective bargaining in the sector to improve pay and conditions.\nA number of member States of the European Union have introduced incentives to encourage the formal employment of domestic workers by using income tax deductions and tax credits along with a strong regulatory framework to increase the levels of formal employment in domestic work.\nIncreasing men’s participation in female-dominated areas\nNon-profit organizations in a country in Western Europe are working to recruit men into the social care industry, particularly in housing, care for the elderly and social work with vulnerable families, through a recruitment campaign in schools and colleges, as well as targeting veterans.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Disrupting patterns of “women’s” and “men’s” work: value and roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "A key concern for women’s enjoyment of human rights in the changing world of work is the growth of non-standard forms of employment, through increased subcontracting and use of on-demand labour, platform work, temporary contracts, self-employment, variable hour contracts, zero-hour contracts and other casual work.[[fn:30]] While new forms of work may provide women a route out of more vulnerable and arduous forms of informal work, such as family work in agriculture or street vending, job insecurity, low pay and lack of access to social protection will continue to entrench economic insecurity and structural discrimination at work for many women. Work undertaken by women at the bottom of the supply chain, for example as agricultural workers in plantations, is often hazardous, and exposes them to harmful chemicals and poor conditions. Much of this work, particularly microtask work done by women, is also often hidden and invisible, increasing the risk of exploitation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), OECD Employment Outlook 2019: The Future of Work (Paris, 2019)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Ensuring all women workers can enjoy their rights, without discrimination, including informal workers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Realizing women’s human rights in the changing world of work requires workers in new forms of work to have access to human rights. There is an urgent need to extend rights and entitlements to all workers, with a focus on women informal workers, including paid sick leave, annual leave, working time limits and rights to health and safety at work. In some contexts, access to menstrual leave is an important enabler of women’s access to decent work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Ensuring all women workers can enjoy their rights, without discrimination, including informal workers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "Paid domestic work is a very important and expanding source of wage employment for women, but the majority of it is informal and poor quality, with high risks of abuse and violence. Similarly, waste picking is an important source of income for women in some countries and contributes to environmental sustainability. However, women workers who engage in these forms of work are too often denied basic labour rights and are vulnerable to discrimination, stigma, harassment and violence. Furthermore, ensuring the rights of women informal workers in agriculture, including equal ownership of and control over land and equal access to credit and agricultural technologies, is critical as the sector changes and grows in the context of environmental change.\nBox 5 Promising practices\nExtending social protection to women workers in the gig or platform economy\nIn a country in Europe artists and writers can join an insurance scheme that is funded by employee social security contributions, a public subsidy and a levy upon customers of artistic services (such as publishers, theatres, libraries or private companies) proportional to their use of artists’ and writers’ services.\nIn some Nordic countries, the unemployment system gives unemployed workers approximately 80 per cent wage replacement coupled with extensive labour market stimulation measures that require unemployed workers to undergo training to upgrade their skills. The system also provides workers with job opportunities and pays for education, training, relocation and other job-related expenses. As a result, workers change jobs more frequently than elsewhere in Europe, and companies are able to automate and change workplace practices without engendering opposition from workers.\nIn a country in Europe, independent contractors are required to pay social security contributions, in the same way as standard employees, guaranteeing them unemployment insurance.\nEnsuring the rights of domestic workers\nA country in Central America passed legislation in 2019 recognizing domestic workers as formal employees with benefits and protections. Under the new law, children under 15 are prohibited from working, and teenagers over the age of 15 cannot work for more than six hours a day. The employer of a domestic worker is now required to formalize the employment with a contract and to offer the same rights as other employers, including a salary based on at least minimum wage, registration for social security and health care, holiday bonuses, days off, maternity leave and guaranteed rest periods.\nImproving access to technology and resources for women in agriculture\nIn some countries in Africa, access by women working in agriculture to ICT has been increased to enhance productivity. For example, in one country in Africa, a non-governmental organization initiated a project to improve access to information through the use of ICTs by rural women in one part of the country. Women accessed required information on markets and improved farming methods through the use of smartphones, the Internet and radios. In another country in Africa, women have been provided with smartphones to access weather-related information. This information allows them to know when to sow their seeds and when to harvest – especially with a yield that needs to be dried.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Ensuring all women workers can enjoy their rights, without discrimination, including informal workers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Strong union coverage and collective bargaining is linked with lower gender pay gaps, increased access to maternity leave and the promotion of family-friendly working arrangements. However, historically, trade unions have had strong masculinist cultures, have often excluded women’s voices and have not always prioritized women’s rights issues. Collective bargaining agreements often do not adequately reflect women’s concerns. Furthermore, where there’s a gendered power imbalance within a union, women workers face discrimination and violence. In addition, recent decades have seen growing challenges for collective organizing, particularly in the context of globalization and economic liberalization. The expected growth of non-standard forms of employment and increasing fissuring of the workplace in the context of continued globalization, along with the rise of work associated with digital platforms, exacerbates these challenges. As part of the broader trends of shrinking civil society space, there are also increasing government restrictions on unions and collective organizing. In this context, there is a need for new approaches and strategies for collective action and organizing.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Supporting women’s collective action and organizing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "For women in informal work, collective action through cooperatives has helped women to pool resources, realize economies of scale and access markets. Savings and self-help groups have been shown to support women’s livelihoods and strengthen their agency, voice and participation in households and communities more broadly. Making work decent and more remunerative, overcoming discrimination and redefining negative social norms are among the common goals that organizations of informal workers seek to achieve through collective organizing.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Supporting women’s collective action and organizing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Important lessons can be drawn from existing women’s cooperatives, which have often formed to bring women workers together to address basic and practical needs and then shifted to focus on identifying collective priorities and strategies for change. Technological advances also provide new opportunities to organize women workers across issues, sectors and borders. The complex challenge of achieving a just transition, with gender equality as a priority, also requires cross-movement solidarity between women’s, labour, environmental and indigenous movements. Strategies to increase women’s participation and leadership within trade unions is critical both as a matter of equality and to ensure that gender-specific concerns are prioritized in collective bargaining agreements and in the culture of spaces where workers unionize. Supporting women’s collective action in the changing world of work, including ensuring their freedom of association, free from violence and intimidation, is critical to realizing women’s rights to work and at work.\nBox 6 Promising practices\nUsing technology to organize women workers\nIn a country in Latin America with a large domestic worker population, an app was created to empower domestic workers. The app includes salary and benefit calculators, as well as information on the rights of domestic workers and help locating the nearest union.\nThe #MeToo movement saw countless women share their experiences of sexual harassment in the workplace, collectively organize for change and hold perpetrators to account. The movement was facilitated through social media and technology, which allowed women to connect around the globe.\nOrganizing women in informal work\nA trade union for poor women workers in the informal sector was founded over four decades ago in a South Asian country, organizing members across a range of jobs to focus on work security, income security, food security and social security – in addition to improving their organizational strength, collective bargaining and leadership skills. It brought together unions, the women’s movement and women’s collectives. Today the movement has spread across several countries in South Asia with members owning and managing their own institutions.\nBuilding alliances across social movements\nA movement in Latin America advancing the rights of women peasants is simultaneously focused on promoting a vision of small-scale peasant farming based on ecological conservation and food sovereignty while also calling for women’s equal access to and control over land, agricultural inputs and natural resources.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Supporting women’s collective action and organizing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "Realizing women’s human rights in the changing world of work requires a fundamental transformation of the structure of work and the economy. Recent decades have seen increasing labour market deregulation, increased outsourcing across global supply chains, the proliferation of short-term contracts and the growth of “just in time” management. Such trends in the structure of work have placed downward pressure on wages and conditions, thus increasing inequalities and the vulnerability of women workers. Furthermore, in many parts of the world, labour market deregulation has led to rising non-standard forms of work among women and undermined their ability to organize collectively to improve pay and conditions.[[fn:31]] The failure of Governments to hold corporations to account for labour, human rights and environmental standards, and the ability of firms to move to other countries undermines the bargaining position of women workers, thus contributing to women being stuck in low-wage, low-skill occupations. Marginalized women are the most affected, and expected changes driven by technology and globalization present the risk that such trends will become further entrenched.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "See www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_534115.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "E. Reimagining the structure of work and the economy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "While there has been increasing efforts by Governments and the private sector to improve the transparency of wages and conditions within global supply chains, often due to consumer demand, the reliance on voluntary codes and agreements has done little to shift the underlying business model, which drives the poor wages and conditions of the most marginalized women workers. For example, in the aftermath of the Rana Plaza disaster in Bangladesh, women workers reported an increasing focus on safety in the workplace but little progress on wages and other conditions of work. In a context where the labour market is increasingly globalized and fissured, in addition to compliance with existing global norms there is also a need for a legally binding global instrument that can help ensure accountability for workers’ rights in global supply chains. Indeed, some Governments are moving towards a more systematic disclosure and transparency of data related to environmental, social and governance issues. This enables monitoring of corporate performance on sustainability and social outcomes, including indicators of women’s rights at work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "E. Reimagining the structure of work and the economy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "A narrow focus on economic growth and profitability in dominant economic models, at the expense of human well-being, decent work and environmental sustainability, is at odds with the realization of women’s human rights. Women who experience multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination are particularly marginalized. Current economic models exploit and thrive on women’s unpaid care and domestic work. Such work undergirds the entire economy yet remains undervalued and invisible, while depleting women’s time and economic security (A/74/111, para. 228). Yet, there are policy alternatives, which require reimagining the economy to focus on redistributing power and resources, generating decent work and placing value on the well-being and care of people and the planet. Some Governments are moving in this direction by prioritizing human well-being and care in their economic policies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "E. Reimagining the structure of work and the economy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "An enabling economic policy framework for women’s human rights would centre on the realization of human rights, rather than focus narrowly on gross domestic product; prioritize equitable redistribution over wealth accumulation; facilitate investments in public services and infrastructure, increase pensions and social security and raise minimum wages, instead of providing tax cuts for corporations and the wealthy; and combat the proliferation of insecure informal work by offering incentives to business to spark economic growth to generate work with decent wages and conditions. Reimagining the economy for women’s human rights would involve adequately recognizing and prioritizing women’s specific needs, ensuring reproductive autonomy, eliminating all discrimination and valuing and investing in care work, paid and unpaid, as a central pillar. Such investments can both stimulate employment for women and build much needed physical and social infrastructure that benefits all workers.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "E. Reimagining the structure of work and the economy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Without urgent attention, there is a significant danger that current gender inequalities and discrimination against women will not only be replicated but will be exacerbated in the changing world of work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "The Working Group calls on all States to ratify and ensure full compliance with the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and all relevant international human rights treaties and ILO conventions that guarantee women’s rights to work and at work, as well as the optional protocols to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "The Working Group additionally recommends the adoption of concrete measures based on its analysis and taking into account promising practices identified in the present report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "Among general recommendations, the Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Review and eliminate all discriminatory laws that create barriers to women’s formal or informal employment;\n(b) Ensure that the prohibition of discrimination on grounds of sex, pregnancy or parenthood and caring responsibilities is extended and enforced for women in all forms of work, including non-standard employment;\n(c) Strengthen legislation, regulations and accountability frameworks to ensure transparency, including through sex-disaggregated data, on wages and conditions, throughout global supply chains;\n(d) Recast economic policies and frameworks, including national budgets and tax policies, to focus on human well-being, and prioritize the redistribution of power and resources, the realization of human rights, environmental sustainability and the generation of decent work for all.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Recommendations", "A. General"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "To address violence and harassment, the Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Ratify and ensure full implementation of the ILO Violence and Harassment Convention, 2019 (No. 190);\n(b) Introduce and strengthen legal frameworks to prevent and effectively respond to sexual harassment, ensuring coverage for all types of workers, particularly workers in non-standard employment, and application to all workplaces, including public spaces, transport, online and digital work platforms;\n(c) Introduce and strengthen labour legislation and regulations to address intimate partner violence and domestic violence, including through the provision of paid domestic violence leave;\n(d) Introduce regulations requiring employers to regularly report on their efforts towards and progress made in preventing and responding to violence and harassment of workers, and making transparent their data on sexual harassment complaints and outcomes;\n(e) Strengthen regulatory frameworks for technology providers to ensure they prevent and eliminate all forms of violence against women and girls online.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Recommendations", "B. Freedom from violence and harassment in the changing world of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "With regard to unpaid care and domestic work, the Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Ensure universal access to paid maternity, paternity and parental leave for all workers, including those in non-standard employment and informal work;\n(b) Enable the equal sharing of paid and unpaid care work between women and men by providing universal paid parental leave for all parents and through specific interventions to increase men’s uptake of parental leave, including “use it or lose it” provisions;\n(c) Increase investments to ensure universal access to affordable and high quality childcare, disability and aged care services, ensuring access for both informal workers and those in non-standard forms of employment;\n(d) Ensure universal access to a full range of sexual and reproductive health services and information to all women and adolescent girls to enable them to exercise autonomy in decision-making about pregnancy and parenthood;\n(e) Increase investments in basic infrastructure and services in urban and rural areas to free up women’s time to engage in paid work;\n(f) Ensure that care work is a central pillar of macroeconomic policies, in order to generate resources for and investments in care services, paid parental leave and social protection, with the aim of redistributing unpaid care and domestic work between the State and families and between women and men.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Recommendations", "C. Recognize, reduce and redistribute unpaid care and domestic work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "In order to disrupt structural patterns of “women’s” and “men’s” work, the Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Establish temporary special measures (quotas and targets) to ensure that women benefit from employment in high-growth areas (such as renewable energy and technology), with specific measures to ensure that women are equally represented in technical and leadership roles;\n(b) Establish temporary special measures (quotas and targets) to increase women and girls’ participation in education in the areas of science, technology, engineering and mathematics;\n(c) Establish targeted programmes for women’s training and reskilling for occupations and industries that are at risk of automation;\n(d) Ensure equal access to ICTs for women;\n(e) Strengthen legal frameworks to introduce minimum wages for all workers and the legal obligation of equal pay for equal work or work of equal value;\n(f) Introduce regulations requiring employers to regularly report on their efforts towards and progress made in closing the gender pay gap, with disaggregated data on multiple grounds, including race, ethnicity and age, and on women’s representation in different roles and levels of leadership;\n(g) Introduce specific measures, including education and training programmes and access to a full range of sexual and reproductive health services and information, to ensure that young women transition from school to decent work opportunities and maintain their attachment to the workforce;\n(h) Introduce specific measures to increase men’s participation in female-dominated sectors and women’s participation in male-dominated areas.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Recommendations", "D. Disrupt structural patterns of “women’s” and “men’s” work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "To ensure that all women workers can enjoy their rights without discrimination, the Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Ensure informal and non-standard workers have access to workplace rights and entitlements, including access to social protection, health care, paid leave and occupational health and safety provisions, in particular providing protection in the context of economic and environmental shocks;\n(b) Ratify and implement the ILO Domestic Workers Convention, 2011 (No. 189), and the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families to ensure that migrant workers and domestic workers are protected against discrimination and abuse, and have access to rights and entitlements, including social protection, health care, paid leave and occupational health and safety provisions;\n(c) Remove all discrimination against migrant women workers, including in migration policies and laws, including employment laws, and introduce legal safeguards against their exploitation;\n(d) Ensure women’s equal rights to own, control and access land, credit and other productive resources and the enjoyment without discrimination by peasant women and other women working in rural areas of all the human rights and fundamental freedoms set out in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and other People Working in Rural Areas, including decent employment, equal remuneration and social protection benefits, access to income-generating activities and freedom from all forms of violence.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Recommendations", "E. Ensure all women workers can enjoy their rights, without discrimination, including informal workers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "With a view to creating enabling conditions for women’s collective action and organizing, the Working Group recommends that:\n(a) Trade unions introduce specific measures to ensure women’s equal representation in decision-making and the incorporation of women’s specific concerns in organizing priorities and collective agreements, and establish policies to prevent and eliminate violence and harassment within unions;\n(b) States ensure enabling conditions for women’s collective action, including securing the right to freedom of association for all workers, not excluding those in non-standard and informal forms of work, guaranteeing protection for those organizing and claiming their rights, in accordance with the ILO Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention, 1948 (No. 87)", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Recommendations", "F. Create enabling conditions for women’s collective action and organizing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report covers the activities of the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, from the time of submission of its previous report (A/HRC/44/51) to April 2021.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "In the context of the restrictions due to the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, the Working Group held three sessions virtually during the period under review. At its twenty-eighth session, from 6 to 10 July 2020, it held meetings with representatives of civil society organizations, discussed future position papers and methodological matters and focused on the present thematic analysis.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "At the twenty-ninth session, held from 12 to 16 October 2020, the experts met with the then newly appointed Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health and the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders. They also met with the main sponsor of the mandate of the Working Group and organized a farewell gathering for the outgoing member from the Latin America and Caribbean region and an introductory session for the new member of the Working Group.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At its thirtieth session, held on 19 and from 22 to 25 January 2021, the Working Group held meetings with civil society organizations, organized a well-attended meeting with Member States and worked on its thematic report. The Working Group also discussed possible future thematic priorities.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The Working Group visited Romania from 24 February to 6 March 2020.[[fn:1]] It thanks the Government for its cooperation and encourages other States to respond positively to its requests for visits, which will resume as soon as the global public health context allows.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See A/HRC/47/38/Add.1."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The Working Group addressed communications to Governments, individually or jointly with other mandate holders. The communications concerned a wide range of subjects falling within its mandate, including discriminatory legislation and practices and allegations of the violations of the rights of women human rights defenders, gender-based violence and violations of the right to sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:2]] The Working Group also issued press releases, individually or jointly with other mandate holders, treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.[[fn:3]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Communications.aspx."}, {"n": 3, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/NewsSearch.aspx?MID=WG_Women."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The experts also undertook numerous activities in their capacity as members of the Working Group.[[fn:4]] In particular, the chair of the Working Group addressed the sixty-fifth session of the Commission on the Status of Women and presented an oral report on its work to the General Assembly. The Working Group organized a side event on the theme “Girls’ activism: accomplishments, challenges and opportunity for social change”, with girl activists from various regions of the world during the session of the Commission and members of the Working Group participated in a number of other side events. The Working Group also organized an event on the 10-year anniversary of the establishment of its mandate.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Activities.aspx."}, {"n": 5, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/SRWomen/Pages/UN_WGDAW_10_years_anniversary.aspx."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The full enjoyment of sexual and reproductive health rights is indispensable to the ability of women and girls to exercise all other human rights and for the achievement of gender equality. Access to sexual and reproductive health services, goods and information is essential at all times, especially in situations of crisis. Crises exact a disparate and heavy toll on the sexual and reproductive health of women and girls, compounding and further deepening the systemic disadvantages and discrimination that they face.[[fn:6]] The COVID-19 pandemic has brought global economic strife and triggered multiple local and individual crises, against a backdrop of countless pre-existing crises, including political, social, economic, public health and environmental crises. Women and girls have been disproportionately affected by them all.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See A/HRC/26/39; A/HRC/32/44; and the Working Group’s statements, of 20 April 2020, entitled “Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic must not discount women and girls”, and, of 14 July 2020, entitled “COVID-19 and increase in gender-based violence and discrimination against women”."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "In the present report, the Working Group draws attention to the widespread failure of States to adequately recognize, respect, protect and fulfil the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls, both before and during times of crisis, as marked by specific events, and formulates a set of recommendations to address crucial gaps. The Working Group wishes to express its gratitude to all stakeholders for their contributions made to the preparation of the report, including by responding to a questionnaire and participating in consultations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Crises are often defined as an event or a series of events representing a critical threat to the health, safety, security and/or well-being of a community or other large group of people.[[fn:7]] They are understood to be times of great difficulty and danger or threatening situations, requiring urgent action,[[fn:8]] and range broadly among various scenarios, from armed conflict and natural disasters to political instability and socioeconomic strife, as well as pandemics, to name a few.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See A/HRC/28/76."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Paul Shrivastava, “Crisis theory/practice: towards a sustainable future”, Industrial and Environmental Crisis Quarterly vol. 7, No. 1. See also International Fund for Agricultural Development, “Guidelines for disaster early recovery”, 2011."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "1. Understanding crises from the perspective of the rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The Working Group considers that the focus on the “event” in the understanding of a situation of crisis may divert attention from key underlying factors that make a given situation “critical” for various populations, especially women and girls, and may thereby affect the formulation of effective preventive measures and policy responses. If the focus is strictly placed on a sudden event or a series of events as the defining element of a crisis, the gendered impact experienced by women and girls and the underlying determinants of the crisis which affect them in very specific ways are at risk of not being fully addressed.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "1. Understanding crises from the perspective of the rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Gender inequality, manifesting in systemic disadvantages for women throughout their life cycle and gender-based violence, is viewed by many women around the world as a crisis in itself, one that has been normalized by centuries of patriarchal, colonial and racialized legal and policy frameworks and institutions and deepened by the non-implementation of legal protections and political commitments. Many crises experienced individually by women and girls, such as unplanned pregnancy and sexual violence, infringe on their dignity, restrict their freedoms and are tied to their sexual and reproductive status. They are linked to structural discrimination and fostered by the patriarchal oppression, pervasive gender stereotypes, stigma and taboos that drive gender inequality. Such crises are not officially recognized and continue to be ignored, notwithstanding their systemic nature and the grave consequences for women and girls.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "1. Understanding crises from the perspective of the rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The widespread occurrence of forced and early pregnancy caused by sexual abuse, lack of comprehensive sexuality education or harmful practices,[[fn:9]] such as child marriage, as well as gang violence, have been identified by women and girls as seriously neglected crises. Many sexual and reproductive health concerns involve mental health aspects, which are also neglected and intensify in situations of crisis. The toxification of the planet is a less visible crisis, which has devastating consequences for the sexual and reproductive health of women and girls, contributing to infertility, miscarriages, premature births, early menstruation and menopause, cancers of the reproductive system and decreased lactation, among other things.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See joint general recommendation No. 31 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women/general comment No. 18 of the Committee on the Rights of the Child (2019)."}, {"n": 10, "text": "E/C.19/2013/9, para. 21. See also Donatella Caserta and others, “Environment and women’s reproductive health”, Human Reproduction Update, vol. 17, No. 3."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "1. Understanding crises from the perspective of the rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "A radical shift in the approach to identifying and addressing situations of crisis is needed, one that is gender responsive, intersectional and acknowledges the hidden, yet deep, trauma associated with the non-fulfilment of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls, as well as the life-long and intergenerational impact thereof. Many situations of crisis are predetermined by cumulative layers of pre-existing inequalities and discrimination, which may be starkly exposed and deeply exacerbated by a specific event.[[fn:11]] As recalled by the Human Rights Council Advisory Committee, patterns of human rights violations provide an early indication of a potential or emerging crisis.[[fn:12]] During the COVID-19 pandemic crisis, women indeed highlighted that for them “the crisis already existed”.[[fn:13]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See Jane McAdam, “The concept of crisis migration”, Forced Migration Review vol. 45, No. 10."}, {"n": 12, "text": "A/HRC/28/76, paras. 42–43."}, {"n": 13, "text": "Views expressed during the regional consultations held by the Working Group."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "1. Understanding crises from the perspective of the rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "No country in the world has successfully eliminated discrimination against women and girls or achieved full gender equality.[[fn:14]] Laws and policies that deny women and girls their sexual and reproductive health rights are inherently discriminatory. States cannot be truly prepared for or recover from a crisis, if structural inequalities and gaps persist that deny women and girls the full range of sexual and reproductive health services and goods, undermine their autonomy and neglect the underlying determinants of health.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See A/HRC/38/46."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "1. Understanding crises from the perspective of the rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "The current non-enjoyment of sexual and reproductive health rights by women and girls is a significant challenge to gender equality and reveals deep inequities. An estimated 810 maternal deaths occur each day globally,[[fn:15]] and 25 million unsafe abortions take place annually,[[fn:16]] resulting in approximately 47,000 deaths every year,[[fn:17]] primarily in developing countries and among members of socioeconomically disadvantaged and marginalized populations. Every 16 seconds there is a stillbirth.[[fn:18]] More than 200 million women who want to avoid pregnancy are not using modern contraception, due to a range of barriers.[[fn:19]] Millions of women and girls are denied the ability to manage their monthly menstrual cycle safely and with dignity.[[fn:20]] Those outcomes and barriers increase significantly in times of crisis.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "World Health Organization (WHO), “Maternal mortality”, evidence brief, 2019."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Ann M. Starrs and others, “Accelerate progress – sexual and reproductive health and rights for all: report of the Guttmacher-Lancet Commission”, The Lancet, vol. 391, No. 10140."}, {"n": 17, "text": "WHO, “Safe abortion: technical and policy guidance for health systems”, 2012."}, {"n": 18, "text": "United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), “A neglected tragedy: the global burden of stillbirths”, 2020."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Ann M. Starrs and others, “Accelerate progress”."}, {"n": 20, "text": "UNICEF, “Guidance on menstrual health and hygiene”, 2019."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "2. Sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "In a context of rising fundamentalisms, backlash against gains in women’s equality have too often targeted sexual and reproductive health rights.[[fn:21]] Much of the discrimination that women and girls face in relation to their sexual and reproductive health rights can be ascribed to the instrumentalization and politicization of their bodies.[[fn:22]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "See A/HRC/35/29; and A/HRC/38/46."}, {"n": 22, "text": "See A/HRC/32/44."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "2. Sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The Working Group recalls that sexual and reproductive health rights are clearly established under international law. They are an integral part of a number of civil and political rights that underpin the physical and mental integrity of individuals and their autonomy, such as the rights to life, liberty and security of person, freedom from torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, privacy and respect for family life, as well as economic, social and cultural rights, such as the rights to health, education and work and the right to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress, and the cross-cutting rights of non-discrimination and equality.[[fn:23]] A woman’s right to control her fertility is central to the realization of those rights and to her autonomy and agency.[[fn:24]] States are obligated to ensure that sexual and reproductive health services are available, accessible, affordable, acceptable and of good quality.[[fn:25]] The distinct sexual and reproductive health needs of women and girls must be addressed to ensure substantive equality.", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Among others: International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (art. 12); Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (art. 12); Convention on the Rights of the Child (arts. 17, 23–25 and 27); International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (art. 5 (e) (iv)); International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (arts. 28, 43 (1) (e), 45 (1) (c) and 70); and Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (arts. 23 and 25). See also Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000), general comment No. 21 (2009) and general comment No. 22 (2016); and Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999)."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (art. 16 (e))."}, {"n": 25, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 22 (2016), paras. 11–21."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "2. Sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Eliminating discrimination and ensuring sexual and reproductive health rights is a core and immediate obligation of States.[[fn:26]] The Working Group has repeatedly drawn attention to the fact that equality in the area of health requires a differential approach with regard to women and men, in accordance with their biological needs.[[fn:27]] It is discriminatory for a State to refuse to legally provide certain reproductive health services for women.[[fn:28]] Intersecting forms of discrimination that compound violations of the sexual and reproductive health of women and girls rights fall within the scope of States’ core obligation to eliminate discrimination.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 3 (1990),general comment No. 14 (2000), general comment No. 16 (2005) and general comment No. 22 (2016); and Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999) and general recommendation No. 28 (2010)."}, {"n": 27, "text": "Working Group, “Women’s autonomy, equality and reproductive health in international human rights: between recognition, backlash and regressive trends”, position paper, 2017; and A/HRC/32/44."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999), para. 11."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "2. Sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "International human rights standards concerning sexual and reproductive health continue to apply during situations of crisis.[[fn:29]] States have the duty to continue to meet their core obligations when crisis strikes, which include the obligations to provide access to family planning services, including emergency contraception, maternal health services, safe abortion services and post-abortion care and counselling for those in need, to prevent and treat HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections, to ensure access to comprehensive education and information on sexual and reproductive health and to ensure that survivors of gender-based violence have access to comprehensive medical treatment, mental health care and psychosocial support, among other services.[[fn:30]] International human rights obligations concerning sexual and reproductive health rights are complementary to those in international humanitarian, refugee and criminal law.[[fn:31]] The Working Group recalls that non-State actors, such as armed groups, are also obliged to respect international human rights.[[fn:32]]", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000) and general comment No. 22 (2016); and Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 28 (2010), general recommendation No. 30 (2013) and general recommendation No. 37 (2018)."}, {"n": 30, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000) and general comment No. 22 (2016); Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999) and general recommendation No. 30 (2013); Inter-Agency Working Group on Reproductive Health in Crisis, “Field manual on reproductive health in humanitarian settings”, 2018; A/HRC/32/44; and Working Group, position paper, “Women’s autonomy”."}, {"n": 31, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 30 (2013), para. 19."}, {"n": 32, "text": "Ibid. See also www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26797&LangID=E."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "2. Sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development, the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development include commitments to achieve gender equality by ensuring a range of sexual and reproductive health rights for women and girls. The importance of ensuring access to the full range of sexual and reproductive health services during and after a conflict has been highlighted by the Security Council, in its resolution 2122 (2013) on women and peace and security. More recently, in its resolutions 75/156 and 75/157, the General Assembly called for the allocation of resources to ensure the continuation of universal access to health-care services, including sexual and reproductive health-care services, within the responses to COVID-19. The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2015–2030, encompasses social safety net mechanisms that integrate sexual and reproductive health (para. 30 (j)). In the Granada Consensus on sexual and reproductive health in protracted crises and recovery, participants called for the prioritization of sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:33]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See www.who.int/hac/techguidance/pht/reproductive_health_protracted_crises_and_recovery.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "2. Sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Denial of access to various forms of reproductive health care, such as maternal health care, including emergency obstetric care, and the criminalization of abortion is a profound failure to meet the obligation to guarantee equality in the area of sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:34]] The denial of access to a full range of contraceptive information and services, as well as the failure to remove barriers to access, including stereotypes portraying women’s “natural role” as mothers to justify such denial, constitutes a form of discrimination against women and girls, which puts their well-being at risk.[[fn:35]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 22 (2016); A/HRC/21/22; Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, Da Silva Pimentel v. Brazil (CEDAW/C/49/D/17/2008); CEDAW/C/OP.8/PHL/1; and A/HRC/32/44. See also Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999) and general recommendations No. 33 (2015)."}, {"n": 35, "text": "CEDAW/C/OP.8/PHL/1, paras. 33, 36 and 43; and Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 22 (2016), para. 28."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "1. Discriminatory laws, policies and practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Violations of sexual and reproductive health rights are linked to structural discrimination. Such violations take many forms, including forced sterilization, forced abortion, forced pregnancy, as well as the criminalization of abortion, denial or delay of safe abortion and/or post-abortion care, the forced continuation of pregnancy and the abuse and mistreatment of women and girls seeking sexual and reproductive health information, goods and services, which have been recognized as forms of gender-based violence, and which may amount to torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment.[[fn:36]] The prosecution and imprisonment of women and girls for miscarriages and stillbirths is discriminatory and violates a broad range of human rights.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 35 (2017). See also A/74/137."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "1. Discriminatory laws, policies and practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Legal safeguards and protocols that ensure privacy, confidentiality and free and informed consent and decision-making, without coercion, discrimination or fear of violence, are necessary to guarantee the equal enjoyment of sexual and reproductive health rights for women and girls.[[fn:37]] The stigma often assigned to sexual and reproductive health conditions, such as obstetric fistula, menstruation, abortion, adolescent pregnancy and sexually transmissible infections, is rooted in discriminatory gender stereotypes and patriarchal norms that must be dismantled through appropriate policies and interventions.[[fn:38]]", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 22 (2016); and Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999)."}, {"n": 38, "text": "See A/HRC/32/44."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "1. Discriminatory laws, policies and practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "States are consistently failing to comply with the full scope of their human rights obligations in relation to sexual and reproductive health rights before and during situations of crisis. The Working Group is deeply concerned that, of the countries reporting on the 2020 review and appraisal of the implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, only 20 per cent indicated that they had provided women and girls, including refugees, in humanitarian settings with access to sexual and reproductive health services.[[fn:39]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "See E/CN.6/2020/3."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "2. Failure by States to prioritize sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "Responses to crisis too often lack a gender perspective and do not adequately meet the distinct needs of women and girls. The life-saving value of many vital sexual and reproductive health services are not recognized, and services are deprioritized or not provided at all.[[fn:40]] Discrimination against women underpins the lack of prioritization of those services, “reflecting societal hierarchies about who matters and who does not”.[[fn:41]] Measures adopted by States during a crisis, such as the diversion of financial and human resources away from sexual and reproductive health care and the imposition of restrictions on services, thereby deeming them non-essential, amount in practice to a retrogression, which is incompatible with States’ human rights obligations.[[fn:42]] Such restrictions often continue to undermine access to sexual and reproductive health care after a crisis ends,[[fn:43]] and, in the majority of cases, reconstruction programmes and recovery plans fail to prioritize sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:44]] During the COVID-19 pandemic, delivery of a broad range of essential sexual and reproductive health services and goods has been suspended or postponed, including: contraceptive information and services; safe abortion services and post-abortion care; mammograms, cervical cancer detection and testing and treatment for HIV and other sexually transmitted infections; support services for women and girls subjected to female genital mutilation; and fertility treatments.[[fn:45]] Treatments for gender dysphoria have also been disrupted, with serious psychological consequences for those concerned.[[fn:46]]", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "A/HRC/42/24, para. 53."}, {"n": 41, "text": "A/HRC/39/26, para. 47."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000) and general comment No. 22 (2016)."}, {"n": 43, "text": "Submission by the Feminist Alliance for Rights about the experience during the Ebola virus disease crisis."}, {"n": 44, "text": "See Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), “Handbook for the protection of women and girls”, 2008."}, {"n": 45, "text": "See submissions by Danish Institute for Human Rights; Finland; El Salvador; Slovenia; Global Respectful Maternity Care Council; End FGM European Network; Marie Stopes International; and Comunidad de Derechos Humanos."}, {"n": 46, "text": "See submissions by Finland and CHOICE for Youth and Sexuality."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "2. Failure by States to prioritize sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The Working Group emphasizes the crucial role of various actors in the provision of sexual and reproductive health care. All sectors of society – individuals, including health professionals, families, local communities, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, civil society organizations, as well as the private business sector – have responsibilities regarding the realization of the right to health.[[fn:47]] The State, besides exercising the obligations of due diligence over the actions of private individuals and non-State actors that might impair the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls, must provide an enabling environment that facilitates the discharge of those responsibilities and promotes respect for those rights. Health service providers should be subject to regulations to avoid violations of sexual and reproductive health rights, for example, by obstructing access to goods and services, engaging in misinformation[[fn:48]] or refusing care based on conscience or religion. Their conduct must be consistent with human rights standards and their ethical obligations as health-care professionals.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 12 (1999)."}, {"n": 48, "text": "See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 24 (2017); and Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "2. Failure by States to prioritize sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The Working Group recognizes as a promising practice the constitutional recognition of sexual and/or reproductive rights by some States and the integration of human rights standards into national legislation and policy. The formal recognition of sexual and reproductive health services as essential is also a promising practice, which, in some countries, has been achieved through national courts[[fn:49]] and, in others, through the explicit inclusion of those services in emergency-related responses. In cases in which sexual and reproductive health services have been declared as essential only after the onset of a crisis, implementation has suffered, in the absence of a coherent and comprehensive response and the institutional mechanisms needed to support the design and implementation of such measures with the participation of women.[[fn:50]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "See www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Nepal-Right-to-health-Advocacy-analysis-brief-2020-ENG.pdf."}, {"n": 50, "text": "See submissions by ASEAN Disability Forum and the Defensor del Pueblo of Argentina."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "2. Failure by States to prioritize sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "WHO has called for the relaxation of certain requirements and the reduction of barriers during COVID-19 in order to avoid delays in acquiring access to certain essential sexual and reproductive health goods and services, including contraceptives and safe abortion and post-abortion care.[[fn:51]] A promising practice by some States has been the expansion of access to self-managed medical abortion, including through telemedicine.[[fn:52]] The Working Group notes that community-based midwifery can play a crucial role in responding to sexual and reproductive health needs during a crisis, supplementing scarce human resources and ensuring service coverage, in particular in remote areas, while allowing for an intercultural approach to care, which is a crucial component of acceptable and good quality care in certain communities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "WHO, “Maintaining essential health services: operational guidance for the COVID-19 context”, 2020."}, {"n": 52, "text": "Submission by Centro de Estudios Legales y Sociales. See also Church et al, “Reproductive health under COVID-19 – challenges of responding in a global crisis”, Sexual and Reproductive Health Matters, vol. 28, No. 1."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "2. Failure by States to prioritize sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "States’ failure to adequately prioritize the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls is reflected in the lack of gender budgeting and financial investment in that area, including in foreign aid, and it is further exacerbated by austerity and neoliberal measures encompassing the privatization of public services.[[fn:53]] Government spending on sexual and reproductive health could double, at least in lower middle-income countries, if countries were to increasingly prioritize health within their own budgets.[[fn:54]] Many States have shown a lack of capacity or willingness to commit adequate resources to sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:55]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "See submission by AIDS and Rights Alliance for Southern Africa."}, {"n": 54, "text": "Partnership for Maternal, Newborn and Child Health and others, “Funding for sexual and reproductive health and rights in low- and middle-income countries: threats, outlook and opportunities”, 2019."}, {"n": 55, "text": "See A/HRC/39/26."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "3. Lack of investment in sexual and reproductive health-care services and shortcomings in foreign aid"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Working Group is concerned about structural barriers linked to mismanagement and corruption, ranging from bottlenecks that impede the flow of resources within States to tax evasion and illicit financial flows that limit the resources of States to deliver public services, including sexual and reproductive health services for women and girls.[[fn:56]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "See A/HRC/28/73; and www.euro.who.int/en/data-and-evidence/evidence-informed-policy-making/publications/hen-summaries-of-network-members-reports/how-does-corruption-affect-health-care-systems,-and-how-can-regulation-tackle-it#:~:text=There%20is%20growing%20evidence%20that,the%20most%20vulnerable%20population%20groups."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "3. Lack of investment in sexual and reproductive health-care services and shortcomings in foreign aid"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "States are required under international human rights law to allocate adequate budgetary, human and administrative resources to ensure the sexual and reproductive health of women and girls without discrimination.[[fn:57]] They have an immediate obligation to take deliberate, concrete and targeted steps towards the realization of the right of women and girls to sexual and reproductive health care and to act as expeditiously and effectively as possible, by mobilizing domestic resources and, if needed, seeking international cooperation.[[fn:58]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999); and Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000) and general comment No. 22 (2016)."}, {"n": 58, "text": "See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "3. Lack of investment in sexual and reproductive health-care services and shortcomings in foreign aid"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The Working Group notes with concern that the priorities of donors often drive interventions in situations of humanitarian crisis,[[fn:59]] and gender equality is not always one of them. Seven of the 11 top Government donors reportedly allocated only 2 per cent of funds to targeted gender equality programming, although women and girls represent around 50 per cent of the population in humanitarian settings.[[fn:60]] Sexual and reproductive health services are typically not considered essential or urgent, despite the specific risks and vulnerabilities faced by women and girls. Contraception, abortion and adolescent health are often not prioritized.[[fn:61]] Menstrual health and pain management is barely addressed. In some cases, even maternity care is reportedly not adequately funded or prioritized because it is not perceived as a “humanitarian” concern.[[fn:62]] Survivors of violence are frequently left without access to crucial goods and services, including emergency contraception, post-exposure prophylaxis, safe abortion services and psychological counselling.[[fn:63]]", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 59, "text": "Neha Singh and others, “Delivering health interventions to women, children, and adolescents in conflict settings: what have we learned from ten country case studies?”, The Lancet, vol. 397, No. 10273."}, {"n": 60, "text": "CARE, “Time for a better bargain: how the aid system shortchanges women and girls in crisis”, 2021."}, {"n": 61, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 62, "text": "See A/HRC/42/24."}, {"n": 63, "text": "See CEDAW/C/CAF/CO/1-5."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "3. Lack of investment in sexual and reproductive health-care services and shortcomings in foreign aid"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The “global gag rule” is a harmful policy instituted by a major donor country, which has been applied on and off to international aid. It has produced catastrophic consequences for women and girls and health systems in many developing countries, including an increase in unplanned pregnancy and unsafe abortion, in addition to stigmatizing abortion, inhibiting information about safe and legal abortion and stifling advocacy for law reform where restrictions exist.[[fn:64]] Donor States and international actors have an obligation to comply with human rights standards pertaining to sexual and reproductive health and must not exert their influence to impose restrictions on information and services.[[fn:65]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 64, "text": "See submission by Global Justice Center; and Terry McGovern and Anand Tamang “Exporting bad policy: an introduction to the special issue on the GGR’s impact”, Sexual and Reproductive Health Matters, vol. 28, No. 3."}, {"n": 65, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000) and general comment No. 22 (2016)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "3. Lack of investment in sexual and reproductive health-care services and shortcomings in foreign aid"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The Working Group is deeply concerned about the widespread impunity for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls. While some progress has been made in investigating and prosecuting crimes of sexual violence in situations of conflict,[[fn:66]] many violations of sexual and reproductive health rights continue to be either neglected or tolerated and occur with impunity.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "See Kim Thuy Seelinger, “Close to home: a short history, and rough typology, of national courts prosecuting wartime sexual violence”, Journal of International Criminal Justice, vol. 18, No. 2; and Daniela Kravetz, “Accountability for sexual and gender-based violence during mass repression and in conflict the experiences of Argentina and Guatemala”, Journal of International Criminal Justice vol. 18, No. 2."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "4. Lack of accountability for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Reliable data concerning the accessibility, availability and quality of sexual and reproductive health services, disaggregated by sex, gender, age and other grounds, remain scarce in general and in particular in humanitarian settings.[[fn:67]] States continue to lag behind in the provision of those services based on precise plans, indicators, benchmarks and regular reviews, despite it being an integral component of States’ human rights obligations and crucial to ensuring accountability.[[fn:68]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "See A/HRC/39/26."}, {"n": 68, "text": "See Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999); and Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "4. Lack of accountability for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "The Working Group emphasizes that accountability is needed at multiple levels and may take various forms, including administrative, social, political and legal. The implementation of a “circle of accountability” is a promising practice, as envisioned in the United Nations technical guidance on the application of a human right-based approach to the implementation of policies and programmes to reduce preventable maternal morbidity and mortality.[[fn:69]] It brings together local communities and governmental and other actors in a community-led monitoring effort to ensure accountability for sexual and reproductive health rights.[[fn:70]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 69, "text": "See A/HRC/21/22."}, {"n": 70, "text": "See the submission by CARE and the Center for Reproductive Rights."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "4. Lack of accountability for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The Working Group notes as a promising practice the interventions by national human rights institutions and courts aimed at protecting sexual and reproductive health rights during situations of crisis, including during the COVID-19 pandemic, by drawing attention to shortcomings in the design and/or implementation of crisis responses.[[fn:71]] Another promising practice is the conduct of independent investigations by national and specially appointed international commissions that have exposed wide-ranging violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls in various situations of crisis and offered clear guidance on reparations and structural reforms.[[fn:72]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "See submissions by Procuraduría para la Defensa de los Derechos Humanos of El Salvador and National Human Rights Commission of India."}, {"n": 72, "text": "See “Sexual and gender-based violence in Myanmar and the gendered impact of its ethnic conflicts”, conference room paper; A/HRC/41/18; https://reliefweb.int/report/south-sudan/access-health-survivors-conflict-related-sexual-violence-south-sudan-may-2020; and www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/final-report/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "4. Lack of accountability for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "Women and girls are entitled to receive adequate reparations, including restitution, compensation, satisfaction, rehabilitation and guarantees of non-repetition, for violations of their sexual and reproductive health rights, and States have a core obligation to ensure access to effective and transparent reparations.[[fn:73]] However, women and girls continue to face a variety of barriers to access to justice in situations of crisis,[[fn:74]] from the lack of recognition of the harm caused to them as being a violation of human rights to the absence of procedures and formal mechanisms. The Working Group welcomes the judicial recognition of the harms caused by sexual and reproductive violence during conflict and the provision of reparations.[[fn:75]] States have been held responsible for failing to protect the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls in cases concerning access to therapeutic abortion,[[fn:76]] non-discriminatory and timely access to maternal health care,[[fn:77]] mistreatment during childbirth[[fn:78]] and access to contraceptive information and services.[[fn:79]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000) and general comment No. 22 (2016)."}, {"n": 74, "text": "Among many others, see submissions by Argentina, Colombia, Greece and Mali and State of Palestine."}, {"n": 75, "text": "Constitutional Court of Colombia, decision SU-599/19 of 11 December 2019."}, {"n": 76, "text": "See L.C. v. Peru (CEDAW/C/50/D/22/2009)."}, {"n": 77, "text": "See Da Silva Pimentel v. Brazil; and S.F.M. v. Spain (CEDAW/C/75/D/138/2018)."}, {"n": 78, "text": "See CEDAW/C/IRL/CO/6-7."}, {"n": 79, "text": "See CEDAW/C/OP.8/PHL/1."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "4. Lack of accountability for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "The Working Group denounces in the strongest terms the prosecution and criminalization of women and girls accused of having abortions, including in situations of miscarriages and stillbirths. The Working Group condemns reporting requirements that contribute to a “hospital to prison pipeline” for women who have had or who are suspected of having abortions and the criminalization of involvement in the performance of abortions, which affects health-care workers, including midwives, especially in times of crisis when institutional health services are not readily available.[[fn:80]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=25385; https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=25560; www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/tramite/manuela_y_otros.pdf; A/66/254; and A/HRC/41/33."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "4. Lack of accountability for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 41, "n": 5, "text": "Lack of support for feminist and women’s rights organizations and violence against human rights defenders working in the area of sexual and reproductive health rights", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "4. Lack of accountability for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 42, "n": 41, "text": "Feminist and women’s rights organizations working at the community level play a vital role in ensuring the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls, especially during a crisis. Many are directly involved in the provision of sexual and reproductive health services and information, stepping in where public goods and services are no longer unavailable.[[fn:81]] States are required under international law to ensure that such groups are supported in discharging their role and involved in the planning, implementation and monitoring of crisis responses.[[fn:82]] The Working Group notes however that their expertise and knowledge is often not taken into consideration.[[fn:83]] Feminist leaders and organizations working on the front lines are not systematically included in decision-making processes. In addition, a recent assessment has revealed that, in situations of crisis, funding for women’s rights is among the first things to be reduced.[[fn:84]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "See submission by Maat for Peace Development and Human Rights – Somalia and Ipas Pakistan."}, {"n": 82, "text": "See also Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999)."}, {"n": 83, "text": "CARE, “Time for a better bargain”; African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, “Study on transitional justice and human and peoples’ rights in Africa”, 2019; and submission by Pathways for Women’s Empowerment and Development."}, {"n": 84, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "4. Lack of accountability for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 43, "n": 42, "text": "The Working Group is deeply concerned that women human rights defenders are targeted for violence and subjected to intimidation and retaliation because of their efforts to ensure women’s sexual and reproductive health rights and for their demanding accountability for pervasive sexual violence and feminicides.[[fn:85]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 85, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=25833; https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=25447; https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=25372; and A/HRC/41/33."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "4. Lack of accountability for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 44, "n": 43, "text": "Without autonomy and control over their reproductive functions and roles, women and girls continue to be subjugated in every sphere of life and are unable to realize their full potential. They are effectively denied the ability to participate in public life and to provide leadership. Legal restrictions on women’s and girls’ autonomy and their exclusion from decision-making processes are compounded by the tendency during a crisis to promote a certain image of women as mothers only and to essentialize their role through the use of harmful and discriminatory stereotypes, which leads to the further exclusion of their concerns and perspectives from the public policy discourse.[[fn:86]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 86, "text": "Views expressed during the regional consultations; and submission by Latsi Nu Women Agency."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "6. Exclusion of women and girls from decision-making"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 45, "n": 44, "text": "Cultural and traditional values are persistently invoked to justify resistance to women’s political and public roles, and similar ideology is used to deny women and girls their sexual and reproductive health rights. It is imperative that States ensure the participation of women and girls in political and public life on an equal basis with men and boys, as well as the integration of women and girls into decision-making processes relating to crisis prevention, management and recovery,[[fn:87]] encompassing the formulation of laws and policies, monitoring, implementation and accountability.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "A/HRC/23/50, paras. 36 and 41."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "6. Exclusion of women and girls from decision-making"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 46, "n": 45, "text": "Men hold a disproportionate level of decision-making authority in the public and private spheres. In times of crisis, the lack of male support for prioritizing the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls is a major obstacle.[[fn:88]] States have an obligation to direct a cultural shift to change patriarchal mindsets and attitudes by reinforcing men’s accountability for gender equality and engaging them as allies in prioritizing gender equality in decision-making, including in relation to sexual and reproductive health rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 88, "text": "Submission by Somali Gender Justice."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "7. Lack of engagement and accountability of men and male allies"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 47, "n": 46, "text": "States must also take steps to address toxic masculinity.[[fn:89]] That can be done by eliminating sexism and misogyny in the public discourse and violence against women and girls. Social norms and gender stereotypes around toxic masculinity promote risky sexual behaviours and discourage boys and men from seeking access to sexual and reproductive health-care services. Moreover, many men consider sexual and reproductive health to be the exclusive responsibility of women and fail to recognize when their partners and their families are in urgent need of sexual and reproductive health care.[[fn:90]] The Working Group notes as a promising practice the efforts of some male parliamentarians and activists in promoting positive messages on how men and boys can be active participants in fostering non-violent masculinities and encouraging positive behaviours among men in times of crisis, as has been done during the COVID-19 related lockdown measures.[[fn:91]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "See A/75/289."}, {"n": 90, "text": "Submission by MenEngage Alliance."}, {"n": 91, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "7. Lack of engagement and accountability of men and male allies"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 48, "n": 47, "text": "Religious fundamentalists and their political allies have led an organized and well-funded global political backlash against gender equality by invoking religious freedom and traditional values.[[fn:92]] The backlash has been particularly visible since consensus was achieved among Governments to promote and advance women’s reproductive rights at the International Conference on Population and Development, and it has increased since sexual rights were recognized at the Fourth World Conference on Women. The Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief has noted the increased use of religion or belief by certain actors in all regions of the world to advocate for the imposition of laws and policies that are directly or indirectly discriminatory against women and girls.[[fn:93]] The Working Group reiterates that arguments framed in terms of cultural diversity and freedom of religion cannot be invoked to justify discrimination against women. Discriminatory, repressive and violent practices against women must be eliminated, whatever their origins, including those founded in certain interpretations of culture or religion.[[fn:94]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 92, "text": "See A/HRC/38/46. See also Working Group, “Women’s autonomy”; and Working Group, “Gender equality and gender backlash”, position paper, 2020."}, {"n": 93, "text": "See A/HRC/43/48."}, {"n": 94, "text": "See A/HRC/29/40."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "8. Ideological and religious opposition to sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 49, "n": 48, "text": "In recent years, the backlash has been propelled by some Governments, including at the Human Rights Council, by challenging the universality of human rights.[[fn:95]] That development is central to the Working Group’s concerns about the neglect and deprioritization of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls in all situations, including in times of crisis. A core strategy of the organized opposition has been to undermine women’s sexual and reproductive health rights as a whole by using their ideological opposition to abortion as a lynchpin. The sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls, including the options to prevent and safely terminate an unwanted pregnancy, must be fully recognized and supported at all times in order to guard against profound violations of their bodily integrity and autonomy.[[fn:96]] More recently, some States have misleadingly alleged that proponents of gender equality are advancing a harmful “gender ideology”, to deepen and instrumentalize the ideological divide and undermine legally guaranteed protections.[[fn:97]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 95, "text": "See A/HRC/29/40."}, {"n": 96, "text": "See also Working Group, “Women’s autonomy”."}, {"n": 97, "text": "Working Group, “Gender equality and gender backlash”."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "8. Ideological and religious opposition to sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 50, "n": 49, "text": "The adoption of the so-called “Geneva consensus declaration on promoting women’s health and strengthening the family” in 2020 is an example of the harmful mobilization of States with conservative and anti-women’s rights agendas to undermine the well-established and globally recognized human rights of women and girls.[[fn:98]] The Working Group welcomes the sustained commitment of many States to upholding the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls through joint diplomatic statements.[[fn:99]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 98, "text": "See https://geneva.usmission.gov/wp-content/uploads/sites/290/GenevaDeclaration.pdf. The new Administration of the United States of America has distanced itself from the declaration."}, {"n": 99, "text": "See www.government.nl/documents/diplomatic-statements/2019/09/23/joint-statement-on-srhr-in-uhc."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "8. Ideological and religious opposition to sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 51, "n": 50, "text": "Crises bring additional challenges to health systems that are already deficient in the provision of essential sexual and reproductive health services, including the collapse of or reduction in the functioning of health infrastructure, public transportation, water, sanitation, waste management and other underlying determinants of access to health care.[[fn:100]] Breakdowns in health systems that reduce availability and access can give rise to a loss of privacy in health-care settings and deter women and girls from seeking sexual and reproductive health care.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 100, "text": "Submissions by Ipas Pakistan and ECKO Greece."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "9. Additional challenges in times of crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 52, "n": 51, "text": "The availability of services is often disrupted by the inability of health-care workers to provide services due the breakdown of the health system and violence that may be directed towards them. Combined with sudden disruptions in the supply chain, the poor management of barriers and gaps considerably deepens the impact of a crisis on the sexual and reproductive health of women and girls.[[fn:101]] A militarized response to a crisis, such as by handing over the management of a natural disaster to the armed forces, can lead to increased threats and acts of violence against women and girls.[[fn:102]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "See submissions by Ipas Pakistan and Refugee Commission."}, {"n": 102, "text": "See submissions by Latsi Nu Women Agency and Global Justice Center."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "9. Additional challenges in times of crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 53, "n": 52, "text": "Measures imposed during a crisis often set back crucial progress made on the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls. It has been estimated that, due to COVID-19 containment measures, 2 million cases of female genital mutilation, which would otherwise have been averted, are likely to occur over the next decade, and an additional 13 million child marriages could take place by 2030.[[fn:103]] Unplanned pregnancies are projected to increase by several million.[[fn:104]] A one-third reduction in progress towards ending gender-based violence by 2030 is expected.[[fn:105]] An increase in disrespectful maternity care and cases of obstetric violence has been observed, alongside a reduction in antenatal and childbirth services.[[fn:106]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 103, "text": "United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), “Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on family planning and ending gender-based violence, female genital mutilation and child marriage”, 2020."}, {"n": 104, "text": "See https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/04/1062742."}, {"n": 105, "text": "UNFPA, “Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic”."}, {"n": 106, "text": "See Working Group’s statement of 20 April 2020; and submission by Global Respectful Maternity Care Council."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "9. Additional challenges in times of crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 54, "n": 53, "text": "Situations of crisis may be exploited to restrict access for women and girls to certain reproductive health services. During the COVID-19 pandemic, a number of countries restricted access to abortion services and suspended the operations of mobile outreach teams providing contraceptive services to rural and marginalized communities, by deeming them non-essential, and further rollbacks of existing laws and policies have been attempted.[[fn:107]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 107, "text": "Colleen Marcoux, “Sexual and reproductive health during the COVID-19 crisis”, International Women’s Health Coalition, 2020; Center for Reproductive Rights, “Sexual and reproductive rights during COVID-19 response and beyond: standards from the United Nations”, 2020; submission by Marie Stopes International; and www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26290&LangID=E."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "9. Additional challenges in times of crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 55, "n": 54, "text": "Certain groups of women and girls are at increased risk of violations of their sexual and reproductive health rights, and their situation is worsened in times of crisis, due to multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination. The impact of a crisis is exacerbated by the pre-existing inequalities and discrimination in their socioeconomic status combined with gaps in legal and policy frameworks and crisis responses.[[fn:108]] Some groups have been historically subjected to a “persistent state of crisis” on racial and ethnic grounds. The Working Group takes note of a selected few cases below.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 108, "text": "See submissions by Mexico, ASEAN Disability Forum, Women Enabled International, Global Interfaith Network, Latsi Nu Women Agency and Choice for Youth and Sexuality."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 56, "n": 55, "text": "Girls and adolescent girls are at increased risk of sexual violence, early and unplanned pregnancy, coerced sex and harmful practices in general and in particular in situations of crisis.[[fn:109]] Those risks are driven by lack of access to information, goods and services,[[fn:110]] combined with pervasive stereotyping and taboos. School closures and lockdown measures during the COVID-19 crisis have led to a crucial loss of access to sexual and reproductive health information and missed opportunities to detect and report cases of violence.[[fn:111]]", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 109, "text": "UNFPA, “Adolescent girls in disaster and conflict”, 2016; UNHCR, “Handbook”; and Plan International, “Adolescent girls in crisis: voices from the Sahel”, 2020."}, {"n": 110, "text": "See submission by Choice for Youth and Sexuality."}, {"n": 111, "text": "See submissions by Kenya and Finland; and Colleen Marcoux, “Sexual and reproductive health”."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "1. Girls and adolescent girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 57, "n": 56, "text": "During the Ebola virus disease outbreak, adolescent girls in crisis-stricken communities became pregnant at twice the rate of those in communities that were less affected.[[fn:112]] During a crisis, arranged and forced marriages increase, driven by harmful traditional practices in the context of aggravated poverty.[[fn:113]] Married-off girls face a higher risk of pregnancy-related mortality and obstetric fistula, a preventable and devastating pregnancy-related injury which causes incontinence and can lead to stigma, abandonment and social exclusion.[[fn:114]] Nevertheless, child marriage and adolescent girls’ sexual and reproductive health needs remain largely unaddressed in humanitarian settings.[[fn:115]]", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 112, "text": "World Bank, “Empowering adolescent girls in a crisis context: lessons from Sierra Leone in the time of Ebola”, policy brief No. 34, 2019."}, {"n": 113, "text": "See CRC/C/SYR/CO/5; joint general recommendation No. 31 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women/general comment No. 18 of the Committee on the Rights of the Child (2019); and submissions by the Feminist Alliance for Rights and Mali."}, {"n": 114, "text": "See www.who.int/news-room/facts-in-pictures/detail/10-facts-on-obstetric-fistula."}, {"n": 115, "text": "See submission by Plan international."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "1. Girls and adolescent girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 58, "n": 57, "text": "Rural areas are generally underserved, leaving rural women and girls even more exposed to violations of their sexual and reproductive health rights when crises arise. Contraceptive access is low,[[fn:116]] and maternal mortality and morbidities, such as obstetric fistula and uterine prolapse, are high among rural women and girls.[[fn:117]] There is a higher incidence of stillbirths.[[fn:118]] Barriers commonly faced by rural women and girls include long distances from health centres, cost, lack of trained providers, long wait times, lack of information and confidentiality and the constraints of a heavy workload.[[fn:119]] Many of those barriers come into play more acutely in situations of crisis.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 116, "text": "See www.choiceforyouth.org/assets/Docs/198f89dc19/PositionPaper_CSW_DEF.pdf."}, {"n": 117, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 34 (2016)."}, {"n": 118, "text": "See https://data.unicef.org/resources/a-neglected-tragedy-stillbirth-estimates-report/."}, {"n": 119, "text": "See www.choiceforyouth.org/assets/Docs/198f89dc19/PositionPaper_CSW_DEF.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "2. Rural women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 59, "n": 58, "text": "Land-grabbing and the operations of extractive industries in the rural territories of indigenous peoples and other communities are experienced by women and girls as a crisis,[[fn:120]] threatening their very survival. They are often targeted for sexual violence, including in the form of sexual exploitation and trafficking, which has been linked to higher incidences of sexually transmitted infections and HIV.[[fn:121]]", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 120, "text": "Views expressed during the regional consultations. See also submission by Pathways for Women’s Empowerment and Development."}, {"n": 121, "text": "See Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, “Indigenous and tribal peoples of the pan-Amazon region”, 2019; A/HRC/36/46/Add.1; A/HRC/39/17/Add.3; and E/C.19/2013/9."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "2. Rural women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 60, "n": 59, "text": "In crisis responses, the needs of women and girls with disabilities, for example, through reasonable accommodations, such as the installation of ramps and the provision of portable beds and wheelchairs, to ensure their access to sexual and reproductive health goods and services, are often not specifically taken into account.[[fn:122]] Information is often not available in accessible formats, which leads to difficulties in seeking services and communicating with staff.[[fn:123]] Women and girls with disabilities face a higher risk of abuse and violence as result of the breakdown of support systems to which they may previously have had access.[[fn:124]] Negative stereotypes linked to their sexual and reproductive health status can lead to the further marginalization of their needs and concerns in situations of crisis.[[fn:125]] The sexual and reproductive health needs of women and girls who develop disabilities due to physical and emotional injuries from violence and armed conflict are widely neglected.[[fn:126]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 122, "text": "See submission by ASEAN Disability Forum."}, {"n": 123, "text": "See submission by Kenya."}, {"n": 124, "text": "See submission by Finland."}, {"n": 125, "text": "Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 3 (2016); and submission by the Castan Centre for Human Rights Law."}, {"n": 126, "text": "Views expressed during the regional consultations."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "3. Women and girls with disabilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 61, "n": 60, "text": "Migrant, refugee and internally displaced women and girls often arrive carrying the traumas of violence, persecution, conflict and poverty. Reception structures and arrangements are often lacking the capacity to respond to their heightened need for sexual and reproductive health services.[[fn:127]] Many live in camps under a persistent threat of violence, including from intimate partners,[[fn:128]] while sexual and reproductive health is typically deemed a taboo topic.[[fn:129]] Cultural and linguistic barriers impede the flow of crucial information.[[fn:130]] Some have recounted traumatic experiences with unplanned and forced pregnancies as “triggering a crisis” in the precarious and dire circumstances of the camps.[[fn:131]]", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons", "Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 127, "text": "See submissions by Greece, Pathways for Women’s Empowerment and Development and EKO."}, {"n": 128, "text": "See submission by the Feminist Alliance for Rights."}, {"n": 129, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 130, "text": "See submissions by Greece, Pathways for Women’s Empowerment and Development and EKO."}, {"n": 131, "text": "Views expressed during the regional consultations."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "4. Migrant, refugee and internally displaced women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 62, "n": 61, "text": "Many rely on “transactional sex” to secure their basic material needs, and sex may be demanded of those fleeing a crisis while in transit,[[fn:132]] increasing the likelihood of unplanned pregnancies and other reproductive health risks for which services are lacking. In some destination countries, migrant women have been put in detention centres, denied basic reproductive health goods and services and subjected to non-consensual and medically unnecessary reproductive health procedures.[[fn:133]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 132, "text": "See www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/26410397.2020.1822493?src=recsys."}, {"n": 133, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=25835."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "4. Migrant, refugee and internally displaced women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 63, "n": 62, "text": "Relief programmes often do not take into account the specific needs of women and girls, including routine menstrual hygiene and pain management,[[fn:134]] which has physical and emotional consequences for women, who have pointed out that the “[United Nations] provides good health services for pre- and post-natal care, but, after that, there is nothing”.[[fn:135]]", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 134, "text": "See https://plan-international.org/because-i-am-a-girl/menstrual-hygiene-matters-refugee-girls."}, {"n": 135, "text": "See submission by the Feminist Alliance for Rights."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "4. Migrant, refugee and internally displaced women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 64, "n": 63, "text": "There are communities of women and girls whose lives have been shaped by histories of oppression, enslavement, exclusion, racial discrimination, forced assimilation and apartheid, linked to conquest and colonization, as well as systematic violence and disregard for their culture, spirituality and traditions, and, as a result, have been subjected to a “persistent state of crisis”. Many have been systematically subjected to reproductive violence, including forced pregnancy and sterilization, while others have been separated from their children. Certain groups are highlighted below, although there are women belonging to other ethnic and minority groups in a state of deep crisis, including Dalit, Rohingya, Yazidi and Uighur women.[[fn:136]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 136, "text": "See A/HRC/32/18; https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=19319; https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=22468; and https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=25780."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "5. Women and girls in a “persistent state of crisis”"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 65, "n": 64, "text": "Indigenous women and girls are a diverse community, bound by their histories of being subjected to conquest, colonization, forced assimilation and the continuing dispossession of their peoples’ lands, and many have also been subjected to acomplex spectrum of human rights abuses[[fn:137]] involving discriminatory and coercive practices, such as eugenically imposed birth control, forced sterilization and systemic sexual abuse and rape.[[fn:138]] Pregnancy-related morbidity and mortality rates are relatively higher among indigenous women and girls.[[fn:139]] The absence of health services that specifically incorporate indigenous knowledge, their worldview and an intercultural approach contributes to language and cultural barriers, cost barriers and poorer reproductive health outcomes.[[fn:140]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 137, "text": "A/HRC/30/41, para. 5."}, {"n": 138, "text": "See submission by the Castan Centre."}, {"n": 139, "text": "See E/2019/43; www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/2014/press/shrr.pdf; www.paho.org/hq/dmdocuments/2011/gdr-gender-equity-and-indigenous-women-health-americas.pdf; and submissions by the Castan Centre and Native Women’s Association of Canada."}, {"n": 140, "text": "See www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/UNFPA_PUB_2018_EN_human_rights_report.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "(a) Indigenous women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 66, "n": 65, "text": "In urban areas, indigenous women and girls may have greater access to facilities than their rural counterparts, but they often “suffer from invisibility and discrimination” based on their indigenous identity.[[fn:141]] In many cases, the criminalization of indigenous midwifery and the denial of the opportunity to give birth on the land of their ancestors, which in many traditions breaks the spiritual connection of the newborn with the community, also contributes to the overall feeling of insecurity and the distress of pregnant women during childbirth.[[fn:142]] For indigenous women, the connection to ancestral lands and the environment is fundamental to their health status.[[fn:143]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 141, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 142, "text": "See submissions by the Castan Centre and Native Women’s Association of Canada."}, {"n": 143, "text": "See www.paho.org/hq/dmdocuments/2011/gdr-gender-equity-and-indigenous-women-health-americas.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "(a) Indigenous women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 67, "n": 66, "text": "The legacies of slavery, systemic racism, structural discrimination and coercive practices against women of African descent are reflected in contemporary situations of socioeconomic disadvantage and profound inequalities.[[fn:144]] The disparities are starkly visible in the poor sexual and reproductive health status of, and the range of human rights violations perpetrated against, women and girls of African descent, including the mistreatment of pregnant women in health-care settings and significantly higher rates of maternal mortality.[[fn:145]] Racial stereotyping by health-care providers against women of African descent that leads to negligent and deliberate delays in care is one of the factors underlying the high incidence of preventable maternal deaths.[[fn:146]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 144, "text": "See Durban Declaration and Programme of Action; Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, general recommendation No. 34 (2011); Arachu Castro and others, “Assessing equitable care for Indigenous and Afrodescendant women in Latin America”, Rev Panam Salud Publica, vol. 38, No. 2; Cynthia Prather and others, “Racism, African American Women and their sexual and reproductive health: a review of historical and contemporary evidence and implications for health equity”, Health Equity, vol. 2, No. 1."}, {"n": 145, "text": "See submission from Birth Justice."}, {"n": 146, "text": "See Da Silva Pimentel v. Brazil."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "(b) Women and girls of African descent"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 68, "n": 67, "text": "Racism within the health system can be intensified by widespread State policing and surveillance and mandatory reporting requirements in relation to suspicions of drug use and child abuse or neglect, which often deters pregnant women from seeking reproductive health care and undermines their trust in health service providers.[[fn:147]] Such norms and practices exist against the backdrop of a harmful narrative about “Black maternal unfitness”,[[fn:148]] which has been used to legitimize State-sanctioned violence against Black women in the form of coerced sterilization[[fn:149]] and the separation of mothers from their children.[[fn:150]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 147, "text": "See submission from Birth Justice."}, {"n": 148, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 149, "text": "See submission Her Rights Initiative South Africa."}, {"n": 150, "text": "See submission from Birth Justice."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "(b) Women and girls of African descent"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 69, "n": 68, "text": "As a promising practice, drawing on human rights and, more specifically, in response to their experiences, some Black activist women have developed their own advocacy framework, known as the “reproductive and birth justice framework”, which recognizes three interconnected components of reproductive justice, namely, the right to have a child, the right to not have a child and the right to parent children in a safe and healthy environment.[[fn:151]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 151, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "(b) Women and girls of African descent"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 70, "n": 69, "text": "Historically, Roma women and girls across Europe have been subjected to anti-Gypsyism and have faced egregious violations of their sexual and reproductive health rights. The forced sterilization of Roma women was widespread in some European countries until the 1990s,[[fn:152]] creating a legacy of institutionalized abusive practices and mistrust in the health system. The ethnic segregation of Roma women in maternal health facilities in which basic standards of hygiene and safety are not ensured is a discriminatory practice. Health professionals may refuse their services entirely, due to the perceived inability of Roma to pay,[[fn:153]] or avoid treating them based on harmful stereotypes,[[fn:154]] leading to low quality of care and deliberate delays in the provision of services.[[fn:155]]", "labels": ["Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 152, "text": "See www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0015/330090/4-Advancing-womens-sexual-reproductive-rights-in-Europe.pdf?ua=1."}, {"n": 153, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 154, "text": "Nadia Rusi, “Discrimination of Roma women regarding their access to reproductive health services in Albania”, European Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, vol. 2, No. 1."}, {"n": 155, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "(c) Roma women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 71, "n": 70, "text": "There are disproportionately high teenage pregnancy rates among Roma girls, in part due to high rates of early or child marriage.[[fn:156]] They have a higher unmet need for contraceptive information and services and face an increased risk of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV,[[fn:157]] and period poverty. Discriminatory assumptions about their fitness to become mothers are frequently employed by the authorities to take away their children.[[fn:158]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 156, "text": "See https://eeca.unfpa.org/en/publications/inequities-roma-womens-health?page=4%2C0%2C4."}, {"n": 157, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 158, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=23724."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "(c) Roma women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 72, "n": 71, "text": "The sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls are systematically neglected, not because of a lack of resources or technical knowledge but because of the widespread disregard for women’s dignity, bodily integrity and autonomy. Sexual and reproductive health matters are intrinsic to every woman and girl and tied to their ability to live with dignity and exercise their agency. The failure to ensure the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls is discriminatory and constitutes a major crisis in itself.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 73, "n": 72, "text": "Crisis events cannot always be prevented, but States can be better prepared. They must rapidly establish safeguards to mitigate and address the harm experienced by women and girls to their sexual and reproductive health: it is their foremost duty. Crisis responses must be gendered and require a combination of emergency and long-term measures, specifically in relation to sexual and reproductive health. They must be developed and implemented with the active participation of women and girls, taking into account their urgent medical needs and the pervasive structural discrimination against them, while protecting individual autonomy and freedoms, through a coordinated and holistic approach.[[fn:159]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 159, "text": "See A/HRC/23/50; A/HRC/26/39; A/HRC/29/40; and A/HRC/32/44."}], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 74, "n": 73, "text": "The COVID-19 pandemic has struck a planet that was already torn by many crises. As the world strives to recover from the combined effects of multiple crises and many States face the prospect of austerity measures – another foreseeable crisis that will disproportionately affect women and girls in relation to their sexual and reproductive health[[fn:160]] – the question of how to ensure that the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls are fully recognized and guaranteed must be at the fore. The management and recovery phases of a crisis provide a unique opportunity for reform, innovative thinking and transformation. The status quo, with millions of women and girls around the world highly exposed to gendered risks to their sexual and reproductive health, is unacceptable. The risks and harms that women and girls face in relation to their sexual and reproductive health must not be treated as unavoidable tragedies or collateral damage, but recognized as the outcomes of policy failures and as indicative of serious human rights violations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 160, "text": "See A/HRC/26/39."}], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 75, "n": 74, "text": "Unless women and girls are able to fully enjoy their sexual and reproductive health rights, they will not be able to make progress in other fields. The sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls can and must be realized through coherent laws and policies that affirm those rights and stronger accountability and immediate implementation of existing human rights obligations and political commitments, which unfortunately continue to be ignored with impunity.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 76, "n": 75, "text": "There are five interrelated sets of actions which can ensure progress towards securing the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls at all times, especially in situations of crisis.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 77, "n": 76, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Recognize the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls as essential and fully integrate them into crisis prevention, response, assessment, management, recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction plans;\n(b) Adhere to the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, at a minimum, and ensure timely access to life-saving medicines and interventions;\n(c) Address the unmet need for reliable sexual and reproductive health information, goods and services in situations of crisis, including through temporary special measures, and tackle misinformation to ensure informed and autonomous decision-making;\n(d) Ensure the safety and decent working conditions of health-care workers in local communities, including midwives, at all times and especially in situations of crisis, while promoting midwifery and other forms of community-based care and support;\n(e) Expand the availability of sexual and reproductive health services, including through telemedicine and mobile clinics, to reach diverse populations, including women and girls with disabilities, those living in rural areas and adolescent girls;\n(f) Invest in and build the resilience of physical infrastructure, including water and sanitation, public transportation and telecommunications, and health systems, to ensure the continued availability of sexual and reproductive health services for all women and girls, taking a gender-responsive approach;\n(g) Leverage existing institutional arrangements, networks and facilities to ensure the distribution of sexual and reproductive health commodities and information in local communities, including through transportation services, the postal services and libraries;\n(h) Increase public funding for community-based organizations focusing on the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls and on meeting the increased demand for services;\n(i) Meet the threshold of 0.7 per cent gross national income for official development assistance and cooperation, without harmful restrictions on sexual and reproductive health rights, and make the provision of comprehensive sexual and reproductive health goods and services a core component of humanitarian aid programmes.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Prioritize sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 78, "n": 77, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Ensure access to a full range of contraceptive information and services for women and girls, including emergency contraceptives, and increase their availability in situations of crisis;\n(b) Decriminalize abortion, expand access to safe abortion services, including medical abortion and post abortion care, and remove legal barriers to abortion in situations of crisis;\n(c) Ensure timely access to maternal health services and emergency obstetric care, including treatment for pregnancy-related morbidities, without surveillance and reporting requirements that violate individual privacy, and establish safeguards to prevent and redress obstetric violence;\n(d) Conduct a national audit to assess the sexual and reproductive health needs of women and girls, including neglected issues linked to violence and period poverty, and develop a coherent and gender-responsive legal and policy framework, accompanied by gender budgeting and financial investment, to ensure access to and the affordability of sexual and reproductive health services;\n(e) Make women’s and girls’ agency, autonomy, privacy and informed consent central to all sexual and reproductive health laws and policies and ensure access to accurate information thereon, remove requirements that result in delays or denials of sexual and reproductive health care and undermine women’s and girls’ autonomy, such as third-party consent requirements and approvals by medical boards, and regulate refusals of care based on conscience or religion;\n(f) Address the overmedicalization and paternalistic approach to sexual and reproductive health services for women and girls in policy and practice and reorient them around norms and procedures aimed at safeguarding their bodily integrity, autonomy and agency;\n(g) Ensure access to respectful and non-coercive sexual and reproductive health services for all women and girls and take additional steps to build trust with communities that have been historically subjected to discrimination, coercion and/or violence;\n(h) Adopt an intercultural and participatory approach to sexual and reproductive health to ensure that indigenous and ethnic and other minority women and girls are actively involved in shaping and implementing the sexual and reproductive health programmes offered to them, including through their own institutions and communities;\n(i) Develop policies and commit additional resources to address the multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination that contribute to reproductive health disparities and the specific risks faced by adolescent girls, women and girls with disabilities and migrant, refugee and displaced women and girls, among others;\n(j) Eliminate discriminatory stereotypes of women and girls and the stigma and taboos associated with sexual and reproductive health in law, policy and practice.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Eliminate discriminatory laws, policies and practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 79, "n": 78, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Adopt and enforce clear and coherent legal and policy frameworks to guide the provision of services, in accordance with human rights obligations, and simultaneously address social norms and discriminatory stereotypes that obstruct implementation, including by establishing clear channels for reparations and accountability;\n(b) Compile data, disaggregated by sex, gender, race, ethnicity and other factors, to determine the sexual and reproductive health rights status and needs of the diverse populations of women, throughout their life cycles, for the purpose of developing, monitoring and strengthening the implementation of sexual and reproductive health laws and policies, while protecting personal data and preventing misuse;\n(c) Legally recognize and implement a broad set of reparations for violations of sexual and reproductive health rights, including through structural measures, such as guarantees of non-repetition;\n(d) Take effective measures to end violence and harassment against human rights defenders advocating for sexual and reproductive health rights and ensure accountability for perpetrators of such acts;\n(e) Fully implement the recommendations of the international human rights mechanisms and the legal decisions of regional and national bodies and courts that recognize the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls;\n(f) Take steps to ensure that health service providers undertake their professional duties in accordance with human rights and comply with their ethical obligations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "3. Institutionalize and strengthen monitoring and accountability for sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 80, "n": 79, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Increase the representation and effective participation of women and girls in decision-making processes at all levels and ensure gender parity, including in crisis prevention, management and recovery processes;\n(b) Systematically engage diverse women’s rights organizations and feminist organizations in the development, implementation, monitoring, evaluation and continual improvement of law, policy and practice relating to sexual and reproductive health and in the identification and removal of barriers;\n(c) Build participatory processes that are empowering, inclusive, accessible and non-discriminatory, with special attention given to women and girls who have been disproportionately affected by crisis, including in disenfranchised and marginalized populations, such as migrants, refugees and internally displaced persons;\n(d) Integrate gender, age, disability and intercultural perspectives into all policies and practices and promote leadership by women and young people;\n(e) Promote male engagement and accountability to address pervasive sexism, misogyny, violence and toxic masculinity and to promote the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Internally displaced persons", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "4. Ensure the participation of women and girls and promote male accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 81, "n": 80, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Actively push back against conservative religious and racialized political ideologies that undermine gender equality;\n(b) Oppose misinformation and religious positions that subvert the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls;\n(c) Ensure that international aid and assistance, including humanitarian assistance, is provided and operationalized in accordance with human rights standards and prioritizes respect for the human rights of women and girls, without harmful restrictions;\n(d) Support the United Nations system in countering religious ideologies opposing the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls and ensure that all United Nations processes are coordinated and conducted with full respect for those rights;\n(e) Refrain from using political and financial influence with States and non-State actors to undermine and retrogress the rights of women and girls by leading or supporting ideological agendas that are antithetical to human rights norms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "5. Push back against conservative and anti-human rights ideologies and misinformation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report covers the main activities of the Working Group, from the time of submission of its previous report[[fn:1]] up to April 2022 and also includes a thematic analysis of the activism of girls and women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A/HRC/44/51."}], "section": ["I. Activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "In the context of the restrictions related to the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, the Working Group held three sessions virtually during the period under review. At its thirty-first session, held from 25 to 28 May 2021, the Working Group held meetings with civil society organizations working on girls’ rights, discussed future position papers and focused on the present thematic analysis. The experts also met with the main sponsor of the mandate to discuss the priorities for the upcoming year.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "At the thirty-second session, held from 11 to 15 October 2021, the experts met with the then newly appointed Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences to exchange views on her vision for the mandate and seek further avenues of cooperation. In the context of the preparation of the present thematic report, the Working Group also convened meetings with the Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression, the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association, and the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders. The experts also consulted several United Nations entities on the topic of girls’ activism, including the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence against Children, the Chair of the Child Rights Committee, representatives of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), the United Nations Population Fund, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the Women’s Rights and Gender Section of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR).", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At its thirty-third session, held from 31 January to 4 February 2022, the Working Group held meetings with representatives of civil society organizations, the UN-Women liaison office in Geneva, the OHCHR Women’s Rights and Gender Section and the secretariat of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to exchange views on priority areas and potential synergies. The Working Group also met with representatives of regional human rights mechanisms from the African and Inter-American systems to benefit from their expertise in the area of the activism of girls and young women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The Working Group visited Kyrgyzstan from 4 to 15 April 2022 and thanks the Government for its cooperation. It also thanks the Government of Maldives for its invitation to conduct a visit from 1 to 12 August 2022 and encourages other States to respond positively to its requests for visits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The Working Group addressed a number of communications to governments, individually or jointly with other mandates. The communications concerned a wide range of subjects, including discriminatory legislation and practices, allegations of the violations of the rights of women human rights defenders, gender-based violence and violations of the right to sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:2]] The Working Group also issued press releases, individually and jointly with other mandate holders, treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.[[fn:3]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Communications.aspx."}, {"n": 3, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/latest?field_content_category_target_id%5B158%5D=158&field_content_category_target_id%5B162%5D=162&field_content_category_target_id%5B161%5D=161&field_content_category_target_id%5B159%5D=159&field_entity_target_id%5B1314%5D=1314."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The experts also undertook numerous activities in their capacity as Working Group members.[[fn:4]] In particular, the Chair addressed the sixty-sixth session of the Commission on the Status of Women and presented an oral report to the seventy-sixth session of the General Assembly. In relation to the preparation of the present thematic report, the Working Group organized a series of virtual regional consultations focusing on girls’ activism with over 150 young activists across all regions of the world.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Activities.aspx."}, {"n": 5, "text": "Africa, the Asia-Pacific region, South West Asia and North Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean, and from minority communities such as Roma and indigenous girls."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Girls and young women are mobilizing worldwide to demand and catalyse change on critical global issues. They are at the forefront of initiatives aimed at transforming societies towards social justice, gender equality and sustainability. This is occurring despite, and frequently in reaction to, the barriers that they continue to face in participating in public and political life, as a result of persistent gender-based discrimination and violence within families, communities and society at large.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "A. Contextual and conceptual framework", "Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Girls and young women experience unique challenges to their activism, rooted in the intersection of gender and age, exacerbated by factors including, but not limited to, economic insecurity; lack of access to education; restrictions on access to sexual and reproductive health goods, services and information; unequal access to quality education; narrowing civic spaces, both online and offline; rising fundamentalism in many countries; armed conflict; environmental disasters; and health crises.[[fn:6]] Disability, race, ethnic origin, gender identity, refugee status, early pregnancy and motherhood place some girls in a particularly disadvantaged situation. Conservative narratives that perpetuate discriminatory gender and age-related stereotypes suggesting that women’s and girls’ role should be limited to the private sphere, family and procreation also affect their participation in public life,[[fn:7]] silence their voices and render their contributions invisible.[[fn:8]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See A/HRC/38/46 and A/75/184."}, {"n": 7, "text": "See A/HRC/40/60 and A/HRC/47/38."}, {"n": 8, "text": "See A/75/184."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "A. Contextual and conceptual framework", "Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "The empowerment of girls and young women through the respect, protection and fulfilment of their fundamental human rights is an indispensable precondition for just, inclusive, peaceful and sustainable societies and the achievement of gender equality.[[fn:9]] While in recent years their participation has increasingly been promoted, major gaps persist. The girls and young women the Working Group met identified the critical challenges they have been facing at many levels. Despite the importance of their participation, research on girls in 2 See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Communications.aspx. 3 See https://www.ohchr.org/en/latest?field_content_category_target_id%5B158%5D=158&field_content_ category_target_id%5B162%5D=162&field_content_category_target_id%5B161%5D=161&field_co ntent_category_target_id%5B159%5D=159&field_entity_target_id%5B1314%5D=1314. 4 www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Activities.aspx. 5 Africa, the Asia-Pacific region, South West Asia and North Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean, and from minority communities such as Roma and indigenous girls. 6 See A/HRC/38/46 and A/75/184. 7 See A/HRC/40/60 and A/HRC/47/38. 8 See A/75/184. 9 See A/HRC/38/46. public and political life is scarce and has not predominantly focused on their civic space and activism.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See A/HRC/38/46."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See Emily Bent, “The boundaries of girls’ political participation: a critical exploration of girls’ experiences as delegates to the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women”, Global Studies of Childhood, vol. 3, No. 2 (2013)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "A. Contextual and conceptual framework", "Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The experts of the Working Group express their gratitude to all stakeholders for their contributions to the preparation of the report. In particular, they acknowledge the unique and remarkable inputs from the girl and young women activists, from all regions and backgrounds, who participated in 10 dedicated consultations. Some of them operate in extremely oppressive contexts, especially those living in occupied territories or countries facing armed conflict, and have taken considerable risks by choosing to share their experiences with the Working Group.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "A. Contextual and conceptual framework", "Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "In line with international standards, the Working Group recognized girl children as individuals under the age of 18.[[fn:11]] United Nations agencies, States and other actors use varying age ranges to define young women. For the preparation of the present report, the Working Group engaged with girls and young women aged between 12 and 30, who identified themselves as girl or young women activists. Many of them indicated that they started their activism as a child.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Convention on the Rights of the Child, art. 1."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "A. Contextual and conceptual framework", "Concepts"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The Working Group uses the term “activism” as an umbrella concept to capture the broad variety of forms and processes, both formal and informal, online and offline, through which girls and young women engage in political and public life.[[fn:12]] It encompasses participation in the civic space and the conduct of public affairs, including engagement in formal processes related to the exercise of legislative, judicial and executive powers, which are most often established and led by adults, as well as the bottom-up initiatives led by girls and young women themselves. Activism also comprises organizing, mobilizing (including through peaceful protests), campaigning, undertaking collective and individual advocacy and action, and other informal initiatives at grass-roots level, through which girls and young women use their voices to bring about changes to their communities.[[fn:13]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "See Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 23 (1997) and A/HRC/23/50."}, {"n": 13, "text": "See Roger A. Hart, “Children’s participation: from tokenism to citizenship”, UNICEF (1992)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "A. Contextual and conceptual framework", "Concepts"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "When girl and young women activists take action to advance human rights, they fall within the definition of human rights defenders, as enshrined in the Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (Declaration on Human Rights Defenders), and should be recognized as such. However, they may not always identify themselves as human rights defenders, often due to the stigma and risks related to acting as one, may not be aware of the term, or may not be considered as such by adults. Regardless of how they identify themselves or are perceived by others, the Working Group recognizes girl and young women activists who engage in the promotion and defence of human rights, in all their diversity, as human rights defenders who are entitled to all related legal protections, including those outlined in the Declaration on Human Rights Defenders, relevant Human Rights Council and General Assembly resolutions and other international standards.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "A. Contextual and conceptual framework", "Concepts"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "The Working Group recalls that every individual, whether adult or minor, is entitled to enjoy all human rights, which are interrelated and interdependent, without discrimination of any kind.[[fn:14]] Girls are entitled to special measures of protection in consideration of their age, gender and other characteristics, encompassing those aimed at empowering and enabling them to enjoy the full range of human rights, including to form and express their views and be heard on matters affecting them in accordance with their age and maturity and best interests.[[fn:15]] There is no minimum age for acting to protect, promote and fulfil human rights.[[fn:16]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "The right to vote may be subject to a minimum age limit. Any restrictions on the right to stand for election, such as minimum age, must be justifiable on objective and reasonable criteria. See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 25 (1996), para. 15."}, {"n": 15, "text": "See Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 20 (2016); A/HRC/19/55; Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Hacia la Garantía Efectiva de los Derechos de Niñas, Niños y Adolescentes: Sistemas Nacionales de Protección (in Spanish only); and Council of Europe recommendation CM/Rec(2012)2 on the participation of children and young people under the age of 18."}, {"n": 16, "text": "See Committee on the Rights of the Child, “Protecting and empowering children as human rights defenders”, day of general discussion outcome report (September 2018)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "B. International human rights legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Girls’ and young women’s full enjoyment of the rights to participate in public life, to freedom of opinion and expression, to freedom of thought and to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association are essential conditions for their full personal development, the exercise of their autonomy, their participation in shaping society and, ultimately, the achievement of gender equality and the realization of free, just and democratic societies. Those rights cover, for example, the expression and dissemination of ideas online and offline and participation in non-violent gatherings, including demonstrations, protests, meetings, marches or online assemblies, for a purpose such as expressing oneself, conveying a position on a particular issue or exchanging ideas[[fn:17]] and they are enshrined in international and regional human rights instruments.[[fn:18]] The realization of girls’ and young women’s human right to participate in public and political life, including organizing and engaging actively with a variety of State and non-State actors, is essential for the protection of their human rights.[[fn:19]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comments No. 21 (1992), No. 34 (2011) and No. 37 (2020)."}, {"n": 18, "text": "See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 18, 19 and 21–22; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, art. 7; Convention on the Rights of the Child, arts. 13–15; American Convention on Human Rights, arts. 13 and 15–16; African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, arts. 9–11; African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, arts. 7–9; Arab Charter on Human Rights, arts. 24 and 32; European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, arts. 10–11; and European Convention on the Exercise of Children’s Rights, art. 3."}, {"n": 19, "text": "See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 2, 3 and 25; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, arts. 5, 7 and 14 (2); Convention on the Rights of the Child, arts. 2 and 12; American Convention on Human Rights, arts. 1 and 23; African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, arts. 2, 13 and 18; Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa, art. 9; European Convention on the Exercise of Children’s Rights, art. 3; and Council of Europe Recommendation CM/Rec(2012)2."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "B. International human rights legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "States must ensure that mechanisms are in place to solicit the views of girls in all matters of public interest affecting them directly or indirectly and to give due weight to those views.[[fn:20]] As emphasized by the Committee on the Rights of the Child, States cannot assume that children are incapable of expressing their own views; on the contrary, they should encourage children to form a freely held view and should provide a safe environment that enables them to exercise their right to be heard.[[fn:21]] The Committee has indicated that States need to invest in proactive measures to promote the empowerment of girls and challenge patriarchal and other harmful gender norms and stereotyping, in cooperation with all stakeholders, including civil society, women and men, traditional and religious leaders and girls themselves, in order to ensure the full realization of their right to participation.[[fn:22]] It has also indicated that children need to be supported and encouraged to form their own organizations and initiatives and to pursue networking among their organizations in order to increase opportunities for shared learning and platforms for collective advocacy.[[fn:23]] That includes removing all barriers (namely costly administrative procedures, minimum age restrictions and so on) to children forming their own organizations or associations.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See Convention on the Rights of the Child, art. 12, and Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 12 (2009)."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 12; and Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Hacia la Garantía Efectiva de los Derechos de Niñas, Niños y Adolescentes."}, {"n": 22, "text": "See Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 20 (2016)."}, {"n": 23, "text": "Ibid. and general comment No. 12 (2009)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "B. International human rights legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "16 See Committee on the Rights of the Child, “Protecting and empowering children as human rights defenders”, day of general discussion outcome report (September 2018). 17 See Human Rights Committee, general comments No. 21 (1992), No. 34 (2011) and No. 37 (2020). 18 See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 18, 19 and 21–22; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, art. 7; Convention on the Rights of the Child, arts. 13–15; American Convention on Human Rights, arts. 13 and 15–16; African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, arts. 9–11; African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, arts. 7–9; Arab Charter on Human Rights, arts. 24 and 32; European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, arts. 10–11; and European Convention on the Exercise of Children’s Rights, art. 3. 19 See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 2, 3 and 25; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, arts. 5, 7 and 14 (2); Convention on the Rights of the Child, arts. 2 and 12; American Convention on Human Rights, arts. 1 and 23; African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, arts. 2, 13 and 18; Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa, art. 9; European Convention on the Exercise of Children’s Rights, art. 3; and Council of Europe Recommendation CM/Rec(2012)2. 20 See Convention on the Rights of the Child, art. 12, and Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 12 (2009). 21 See Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 12; and Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Hacia la Garantía Efectiva de los Derechos de Niñas, Niños y Adolescentes. 22 See Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 20 (2016). 23 Ibid. and general comment No. 12 (2009).", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "B. International human rights legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 19, "n": 18, "text": "Article 5 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women obliges States to take all appropriate measures with a view to eliminating prejudices and customary and all other practices that are based on the idea of the inferiority or the superiority of either of the sexes or on stereotyped roles for men and women. Further, in resolution 41/6, the Human Rights Council urged States to remove barriers, whether political, legal, practical, structural, cultural, economic, institutional or resulting from the misuse of religion, that prevent the full, equal, effective and meaningful participation of women and girls in all fields.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "B. International human rights legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 20, "n": 19, "text": "The Working Group emphasizes that whereas the obligation to implement girls’ and young women’s rights rests on States, in practice the roles and responsibilities of a number of different actors are involved, including parents and extended families, local communities, faith groups, non-State services, intergovernmental organizations, civil society organizations, the private sector and young women and girls themselves.[[fn:24]] Ensuring that girls and young women can be active participants in their own lives and in public affairs requires an integrated approach that takes into account the roles and responsibilities of all those actors and is also mindful of the interconnection between all human rights of girls and young women. In that regard, the Working Group reasserts the interdependence of all human rights.[[fn:25]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "See Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 5 (2005) and Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000), para. 42."}, {"n": 25, "text": "See A/HRC/38/46."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "B. International human rights legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 21, "n": 20, "text": "Girl and young women activists engage in a wide and varied array of topics. These encompass, among others, gender equality, gender-based violence, harmful practices, children’s rights, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer and intersex rights, sexual and reproductive health and rights, climate justice, social and economic inequalities, inclusive development, racial justice, good governance, defence of territories, land and resources, and peace-building and conflict resolution. They often mobilize on more than one topic, drawing attention to intersectional oppression and the complex dynamics at play in their activism. They organize across movements because, as the Working Group heard during the consultations it held, “there is no justice for one issue without justice for all”.", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "C. Features of girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 22, "n": 21, "text": "The initiatives of girl and young women activists are often aimed at bringing about transformative changes in the local, national and international contexts. For example, owing to their mobilization, some of the activists who participated in the Working Group’s consultations had obtained the distribution of free sanitary items for menstrual hygiene at school or essential products in refugee centres. Others had helped girls from their communities escape female genital mutilation or assisted in the rescue of girls and women who were victims/survivors of human trafficking. Yet others had achieved the inclusion of classes on human rights in school curricula and the development of age-adapted media materials to raise awareness of gender equality and human rights within their communities. In one country, they had launched campaigns to destigmatize testing for sexually transmitted infections among youth and in another they had succeeded in drawing national attention to the problem of sexual harassment in the schoolyard. They also stood at the forefront of the defence of nature and climate in several countries.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "C. Features of girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 23, "n": 22, "text": "Personal development, self-awareness and empowerment are also major components of their activism. As one young activist noted, “I was living as a young woman in oppression without noticing it. I viewed it as normal before learning more about the topic”. Activism increases girls’ and young women’s confidence and helps them build a sense of agency in their own lives, provides the power to shape their communities and societies, become leaders and agents for change or make career choices that have traditionally been dominated by men.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "C. Features of girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 24, "n": 23, "text": "Their activism is in many cases triggered by personal experience of discrimination, violence and human rights violations, or arises as a need to respond to perceived injustice. For many activists with whom the Working Group spoke, becoming an activist “was not so much an inspiration as a response to a need”. Some had started engaging during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, as they witnessed existing inequalities being exposed and exacerbated. In some cases, inspiration came from role models and women’s mobilization in their own communities, countries or abroad for the defence of their rights (such as the mobilization of women during the Arab Spring and the #MeToo campaign) or by actions taken by members of local and international movements on, for example, protecting the environment and the climate.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "C. Features of girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 25, "n": 24, "text": "Girls’ and young women’s activism unfolds at all levels, online and offline, local and international, although it is more common at local and community levels. Their activism often begins at school and in girl-led groups, mostly through involvement in student organizations within post-secondary and tertiary education institutions. They engage with different actors, including State authorities, diplomats and political parties; independent institutions, such as ombudspersons and national human rights institutions; civil society organizations and movements, including feminist activists and organizations; community-based, religious and cultural institutions; and the media. Their engagement with the United Nations and international and regional human rights mechanisms, although increasing, is still limited, owing to a variety of factors.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "C. Features of girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 26, "n": 25, "text": "While some girls and young activists operate through formal structures, others organize informally and receive financial and other support through host organizations or umbrella structures. In some cases, informality is a choice, aimed at avoiding being subject to control by third parties and the imposition of external agendas. In other cases, it is the result of legal, administrative and financial barriers.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "C. Features of girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 27, "n": 26, "text": "Frequently confronted with exclusion from formal decision-making processes, girl and young women activists tend to utilize alternative ways of engaging in public life, making use of decentralized initiatives, digital tools, radio talk shows, public demonstrations, informal protests and innovative campaigns, including artistic expressions. One example is the performance created by a feminist youth group, entitled “La culpa no era mía” (it was not my fault), that denounced sexual violence, which has inspired many other similar initiatives across the globe. The young activists sometimes use in-person advocacy tactics, including with parliamentarians, and invest in research and fund-raising in order to build evidence and promote public reflection around certain topics. They increasingly use online spaces; social media platforms are used to organize, mobilize, network, campaign and advocate. As one girl said: “We ourselves have been opening spaces and we have not waited for others to come and give us the opportunity.”", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "C. Features of girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 28, "n": 1, "text": "Structural gender- and age-based discrimination", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "C. Features of girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 29, "n": 27, "text": "Girls and young women face specific barriers that encompass different types of obstacles, including those derived from structural discrimination based on sex, gender and age, rooted in discriminatory social norms and harmful stereotypes. The Working Group has already demonstrated the persistence of a global discriminatory cultural construction of gender, often based on religious interpretation, and the continued cultural justifications for discriminatory laws and practices among States and other stakeholders. It has particularly emphasized that failure to eliminate discrimination within the family undermines any attempt to ensure gender equality in all areas of society.[[fn:26]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See A/HRC/29/40 and A/HRC/38/46."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "1. Structural gender- and age-based discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 30, "n": 28, "text": "In general, children and young people are confronted with adult-centrist and paternalistic attitudes. They are often treated as incapable of making decisions about their lives because of a perceived lack of maturity or experience, or are considered “trouble-makers”, unable to constructively contribute to public debates and thus addressed with hostility.[[fn:27]] As explained by activists: “our societies take as a joke what we say about gender equality” or “they take us as if we don’t know what we want, but we do: they just don’t believe us”. Girls face additional challenges, as they are often discouraged from speaking their minds and engaging outside the domestic sphere. Many girl activists stressed that their chances to engage in activism were considerably limited if they were told from the youngest age that their place was at home and if parents gave priority to their sons’ education. Furthermore, they frequently had very limited time available to devote to activism, given the disproportionate household and care duties they shouldered.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "See Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 20 (2016), A/HRC/19/55 and A/76/222."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "1. Structural gender- and age-based discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 31, "n": 29, "text": "Parental authority and overprotective approaches are often exercised to limit the freedom and space of engagement of children and young people. In the case of girls and young women, these barriers are dramatically compounded by predominant gender stereotypes and patriarchal social norms. As one of the activists explained, girls “are not decision makers even in matters, like leaving school and getting married, that have a massive impact on their lives”. As noted by the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association, the significant barriers to women’s and girls’ enjoyment of the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association “are deeply rooted at home, in the family and in the community, where women and girls continue to live under patriarchal control and experience wrongful stereotyping, both of which prevent and punish participation in public life”.[[fn:28]] That resonates with the experiences of girl and young women activists, who are often portrayed as destroyers of family values and national traditions. The perception of young activists as challenging established sociocultural gender norms may lead to aggression, including threats and violence, or lack of recognition and support from their families, communities and the general population, as well as the authorities.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "A/75/184, para. 40."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "1. Structural gender- and age-based discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 32, "n": 30, "text": "Girls and young women may face restrictions on their mobility and lack access to information and resources, including digital devices and the financial resources needed to pay transport costs to attend gatherings or cover the membership fees required to join an organization or association. Access to education, especially at secondary and tertiary levels, professional training, productive resources and economic opportunities continue to be limited for many girls and young women across the globe, particularly those living in rural or precarious settings. Often, they are not sufficiently aware of or duly informed about their rights, which is a fundamental precondition for their activism.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "1. Structural gender- and age-based discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 33, "n": 31, "text": "Early and forced marriages as well as forced, unwanted or child pregnancies, female genital mutilation, sexual violence, including rape, often with curtailed access to sexual and reproductive health services, information and goods, including those related to menstrual health, contraception and abortion care, accompanied by denial of their autonomy in relation to these matters, are also major human rights barriers to girls’ and young women’s activism. These stem from deeply rooted gendered norms aimed at limiting their autonomy and considerably constraining their opportunities to participate fully and equally in political and public life.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "1. Structural gender- and age-based discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 34, "n": 2, "text": "Marginalization and exclusion from public spaces and intersectional forms of discrimination", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "1. Structural gender- and age-based discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 35, "n": 32, "text": "Civil society organizations and movements, including those advancing human rights, are usually led by adults who may therefore frequently be unresponsive to the views, experiences, space and needs of girls and young women. Even child rights and women’s rights organizations are often blind to the diverse realities and experiences of girls and young women and often perpetuate discrimination within the movement. Girl-led organizations are often not part of or connected to the mainstream women’s rights movement and not equally recognized, funded or supported. In some cases, the agendas of international partners and donors drive young women’s and girls’ activism, instead of genuinely empowering them and giving them the space and power to set the agenda, lead decision-making and determine their own priorities.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "2. Marginalization and exclusion from public spaces and intersectional forms of discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 36, "n": 33, "text": "International human rights mechanisms are not easily accessible to girl and young women activists. Girls generally lack information about United Nations mechanisms and bodies, their functions and the age requirements for accreditation within the system, owing to a dearth of child-friendly and age-sensitive information developed by the United Nations. They may also be unable to obtain visas to travel to participate in international forums. Paternalistic approaches and a lack of trained staff, coupled with a lack of dedicated mechanisms and procedures to engage with children, are often used to justify excluding children, including girls, from discussions and activities of intergovernmental bodies, including at the United Nations and at national, regional and global level. Girls’ and young women’s activism within the United Nations is often reserved for a certain elite, while the most marginalized girls and young women, in particular those living in disadvantaged or remote communities, in practice do not have access to United Nations spaces. Moreover, girls and young women are not genuinely included as co-creators and co-designers of solutions. They are not empowered to set the agenda, their inputs are often not properly reflected and there is often no sustained engagement after meetings. They are generally pigeonholed in discussions concerning “girls’ issues”, rather than being associated with other important processes, such as peace and security, the Sustainable Development Goals and COVID-19 recovery. Furthermore, a developed capacity and specific framework for child and youth participation and safeguarding, in order to involve girls and young women in a safe, empowering and effective manner, are generally lacking. Some girls and young women reported feeling unprotected and exposed to retaliation and intimidation by their national authorities and non-State actors for engaging with the United Nations system, including human rights mechanisms, without receiving any tangible support from the United Nations.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "2. Marginalization and exclusion from public spaces and intersectional forms of discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 37, "n": 34, "text": "Certain groups of girls and young women may be further marginalized in public spaces because of multiple and intersecting grounds of discrimination. Girls and young women belonging to disadvantaged groups, including, for example, poor, rural, Roma and indigenous youth, migrants and those in street situations, are still not sufficiently heard. Testimonies from girls and young women with disabilities demonstrated that they are often left out of larger networks, movements and initiatives because of the lack of accommodation of their needs, including, for example, the use of sign language. Digital illiteracy and unaffordable technical solutions and devices, such as screen reading, voice software, braille writers or video magnifiers, represent further challenges. Moreover, some feminist movements lack a disability perspective, as much as some disability rights movements lack a feminist perspective, with the consequence that specific issues affecting girls and young women at the intersection of both are overlooked.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "2. Marginalization and exclusion from public spaces and intersectional forms of discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 38, "n": 35, "text": "While the lack of language adapted to girls and young women is a general challenge, language barriers often pose additional constraints on the activism of girls and young women, in particular of those belonging to indigenous peoples and minorities, depriving them also of the opportunity to network and engage with other organizations and movements. Some testimonies also disclosed that distinctions along ethnic lines, including tribal affiliations, might render difficult the work of activists that were perceived as “strangers” and thus as not legitimate to discuss certain issues at the local or national level.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "2. Marginalization and exclusion from public spaces and intersectional forms of discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 39, "n": 3, "text": "Offline and online harassment and violence", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "2. Marginalization and exclusion from public spaces and intersectional forms of discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 40, "n": 36, "text": "The lack of safety and security are major barriers to girls’ and young women’s activism. The frequent occurrence of attacks, harassment and violence in the street and on public transport, including in the form of unwanted sexual remarks, unwelcome sexual behaviour and threats of rape and stalking, deter and limit girls’ and young women’s activities and travel outside their home, which impedes their access to and use of spaces for activism. Such risks increase during protests and demonstrations and in conflict, disaster and other crisis situations.[[fn:29]] Moreover, widespread sexual harassment and abuse is reported within political movements and organizations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See A/75/184."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "3. Offline and online harassment and violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 41, "n": 37, "text": "Some girls and young women reported threats and violence, including bullying, which often also targeted their families and friends and were aimed at silencing their voices. One of them explained that “sometimes we cannot engage on issues we are passionate about because they are too dangerous”. Some girls and young women also reported a lack of protection by the State, which in some cases perpetuated the threats or violence through its security forces. Episodes of violence included inappropriate touching, exposing underwear during arrest, humiliating and unnecessary strip searches, threats of rape, forced nudity and gendered and sexist insults by law enforcement and detention personnel, especially during the unjustified repression of peaceful mobilization.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "3. Offline and online harassment and violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 42, "n": 38, "text": "In the context of backlashes against gender equality, girls and young women face increased risks of harassment and violence when engaging on themes related to gender equality, particularly sexual and reproductive rights, equality in marriage and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer+ issues. In addition, girls and young women may face domestic violence, including sexual violence, as a reprisal for their activism or may be separated from their children by their partners and family as a form of punishment.[[fn:30]] In some cases, they have to choose between pursuing their activism or keeping family ties. Moreover, many girls lack the means to support themselves independently and the loss of family support due to their activism can have devastating consequences.[[fn:31]] Others are forced to abandon their activism to ensure the economic survival of their families.[[fn:32]]", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "Ibid. and A/HRC/40/60."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See A/HRC/40/60."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence against Children, “Children as agents of positive change. A mapping of children’s initiatives across regions, towards an inclusive and healthy world free from violence” (2021)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "3. Offline and online harassment and violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 43, "n": 39, "text": "Digital gender-based violence and harassment add a further layer of challenges to girls’ and young women’s activism.[[fn:33]] Digital technologies may be used to blackmail, control, surveil, coerce, harass, humiliate or objectify girl and young women activists, including by resorting to “deep-fake” pornographic content and death threats. As a result, many victims of these practices limit their online activities, leading to self-censorship, endure stigma in their families and communities, or flee online spaces altogether. The majority of the young women and girls consulted had experienced some form of targeted and gendered online abuse, including threatening messages, sexual harassment and the sharing of private images without their consent.[[fn:34]] Attacks against girl and young women activists are often orchestrated with the aim of discrediting and delegitimizing them and exposing them to ridicule, contempt or defamation. In some cases, their families may prohibit them from continuing their activism because of the reputational damage that may follow. In certain countries, their very presence on social media may constitute a great risk to girls’ and young women’s personal integrity. Large-scale data collection and algorithm-driven analysis targeting sensitive information creates new threats for activists, particularly those from lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer+ communities. As one activist explained: “when doing online campaigns, sometimes we are afraid to speak openly because we know that there is digital surveillance from the government”.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See A/HRC/38/47."}, {"n": 34, "text": "See https://webfoundation.org/2020/03/the-online-crisis-facing-women-and-girls-threatens-global-progress-on-gender-equality/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "3. Offline and online harassment and violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 44, "n": 40, "text": "Girls are affected by different forms of abuse from adults, including physical punishment by family members, stigmatization in their communities or reprisals from their educational institutions, including by preventing them from taking their exams. During the consultations, girls voiced their experience of punishment by teachers and school authorities, as well as a more general lack of support to help them reconcile school attendance with their activism.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "3. Offline and online harassment and violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 45, "n": 41, "text": "Some of the activists with whom the Working Group met mentioned experience of arbitrary arrests, intimidation, threats of killings, kidnappings, being tracked and spied on, as well as abusive use of anti-terrorist legislation to further shrink the civic space and restrict their activities. In some countries, “home arrest”, accompanied by occasional attacks at the house, threats to family members and sexual abuse, is used as a method to control and restrict activists’ work. Some also reported that, given the overall environment of intimidation they faced, feminist groups and protection networks might be difficult to access for younger activists, as these groups tended to limit the entry of or engagement with external actors, for fear of reprisals. As one activist emphasized: “It is important to make people understand that we do not want to create conflicts; we only want to address and solve certain problems affecting us and defend our human rights.” Campaigns of defamation and attacks on honour and reputation were also mentioned, whereby activists were portrayed as lacking so-called “morals”, values and ethics, and undermining culture and tradition. As the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders has noted, girl human rights defenders can be stigmatized and ostracized by community leaders, faith-based groups, families, neighbours and communities in the belief that they and their actions are a threat to religion, honour, culture or ways of life.[[fn:35]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See A/HRC/40/60."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "4. Hostile environments"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 46, "n": 42, "text": "Additionally, girl and young women activists are subject to various types of surveillance that pose further challenges to their activism. They continue to face excessive policing by their families, especially their male relatives, with respect to public affairs, including their Internet use and access to digital devices, which greatly affects their opportunities to engage freely in the public and political life of their communities and societies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "4. Hostile environments"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 47, "n": 43, "text": "In addition, mental health problems, such as burn-out and post-traumatic stress disorder, were mentioned by many activists as the consequences of the threats and risks they faced. They identified the importance of self-care and collective care, which needed to be recognized institutionally by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and donors. The lack of psychological support was identified as one of the obstacles to supportive environments.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "4. Hostile environments"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 48, "n": 5, "text": "Legal and administrative obstacles and lack of access to justice", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "4. Hostile environments"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 49, "n": 44, "text": "Many girls organize informally because of the obstacles they face in registering their organizations. The registration process may be too costly; there may be minimum age requirements for registration; or a requirement to have a bank account.[[fn:36]] That limits the ability of young activists to seek and receive funding for their work, which has been identified as one of the major obstacles to girls’ and young women’s activism.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "See http://nostraightlines.youngfeministfund.org/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "5. Legal and administrative obstacles and lack of access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 50, "n": 45, "text": "In some cases, girls face legal barriers to the exercise of their right to freedom of assembly, owing to blanket bans on children participating in public assemblies.[[fn:37]] Furthermore, in the case of girls and young women with disabilities, additional barriers often reside in the deprivation of legal capacity. However, even when they are not formally denied their legal capacity, discriminatory attitudes, including infantilization and dependency on others, particularly family members, constrain their autonomy and opportunities to engage in public and political life.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See A/HRC/26/29."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "5. Legal and administrative obstacles and lack of access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 51, "n": 46, "text": "A distinct set of obstacles consists in the legal barriers to freedom of expression on sexual orientation and gender identity that have been introduced in various countries across the world. At the end of 2020, legal barriers to freedom of expression on issues related to sexual and gender diversity existed in at least 42 Member States, including in the form of bans on the dissemination of so-called gender ideology.[[fn:38]] Furthermore, laws criminalizing lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer+ persons, pose formidable threats to the activism of girls and young women belonging to that community, forcing many of them to remain silent or impeding them from creating their own organizations and movements.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "See ILGA World, State-sponsored Homophobia. Global Legislation Overview Update (2020)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "5. Legal and administrative obstacles and lack of access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 52, "n": 47, "text": "Different types of legal barriers concern the lack of legal recognition of undocumented migrant, refugee and stateless women and girls. Similarly, the lack of recognition of indigenous peoples’ rights in certain countries make the participation of indigenous girls and young women in public life nearly impossible and laws banning face coverings in public spaces may prevent young women and girls of Muslim background from engaging in public and political life.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Non-citizens and stateless", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "5. Legal and administrative obstacles and lack of access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 53, "n": 48, "text": "Girls and young women also face great obstacles to accessing information about their human rights and the mechanisms available to them to seek protection against violations of their rights and reparations in cases of violations, sometimes including a lack of specific forms of reparation, such as for online harassment and violence. There is a lack of effective, age- and gender-sensitive procedures, information, advice, legal and other assistance, and 35 See A/HRC/40/60. 36 See http://nostraightlines.youngfeministfund.org/. 37 See A/HRC/26/29. 38 See ILGA World, State-sponsored Homophobia. Global Legislation Overview Update (2020). access to independent complaints procedures, including in the courts. This often leads to a situation of pervasive impunity, where very few cases are brought to the attention of the judicial and other competent authorities. Where State actors are the perpetrators of such violations, there is a feeling of distrust vis-à-vis the State, which further impedes girls and young women from seeking justice and forces some of them to considerably limit or renounce their activism.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "5. Legal and administrative obstacles and lack of access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 54, "n": 6, "text": "Insufficient, inadequate and inflexible funding", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "5. Legal and administrative obstacles and lack of access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 55, "n": 49, "text": "Globally, women’s organizations and programming relating to women and girls are disproportionately underfunded.[[fn:39]] There has been a significant reduction in funding for women’s rights in recent years and, in situations of crisis, funding for women’s rights is among the first things to be reduced, despite the dire need for emergency protection funding for young women and girls.[[fn:40]] Girls and young women face additional barriers to accessing funding for their activism, such as the lack of registration of their organizations; the lack of flexible, sustained and core funding specifically targeted at them; constraints on funding unregistered girl- and youth-led groups; the impossibility of opening bank accounts to receive funds if they are under age; and their limited organizational capacity and lack of the specific skills, time and support needed to develop proposals and comply with donor requirements. Moreover, according to a survey conducted among young feminist organizations, there is a lack of alignment between funders and their priority issues.[[fn:41]] The funding mechanisms available are too rigid; they do not recognize and support the intersectional approaches taken by many girls’ and young women’s movements and rather follow a “siloed” approach to human rights issues. In some cases, young feminist organizations and movements may not fall under the category of “women’s rights organizations” used by donors to allocate funding for gender equality.[[fn:42]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "See A/75/184."}, {"n": 40, "text": "See A/HRC/40/60 and A/HRC/47/38."}, {"n": 41, "text": "See FRIDA ǀ The Young Feminist Fund, “Brave, creative, resilient: the global state of young feminist organizing” (2017)."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See https://www.awid.org/news-and-analysis/new-brief-where-money-feminist-organizing and https://plan-international.org/blog/2021/06/09/weve-had-enough-young-activists-call-for-education-funding-and-real-partnerships/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "6. Insufficient, inadequate and inflexible funding"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 56, "n": 50, "text": "As a result, some girls’ and young women’s organizations draw their resources from self-generated activities or the collection of membership fees, which becomes a barrier to participation for those who cannot afford them. In other cases, they access resources through umbrella organizations, although this mechanism may limit the autonomy of their work, given the unequal power relations between organizations, with the larger organizations in some cases imposing their agendas. Girl and young women activists thus often rely on mutual aid and non-financial resources generated between their networks.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "6. Insufficient, inadequate and inflexible funding"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 57, "n": 51, "text": "States have an obligation not only to respect activism as an exercise of the rights to participate in public life, to freedom of opinion and expression and to freedom of assembly and of association, but also to proactively remove the structural and systemic barriers that impede girls’ and young women’s activism and the full enjoyment of the human rights that entails. That translates into the obligations of States and other actors to ensure an enabling environment for girls’ and young women’s activism and create the necessary frameworks and policies to promote and guarantee their inclusion and participation in decision-making processes, particularly those that affect them directly.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 58, "n": 1, "text": "Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 59, "n": 52, "text": "A number of factors contribute to creating a safe and enabling environment in which girls’ and young women’s activism can flourish. They include favourable socioeconomic conditions; dedicated and flexible funding; the existence of opportunities and co-creation of spaces for collaboration and networking; building solidarity with other activists, organizations and movements on equal terms; support in the form of two-way exchanges, mentorship and skills development; family and community support; equal access to the Internet; equal enjoyment of the right to quality education; respect for sexual and reproductive health and rights; and direct and meaningful participation through appropriate normative and institutional frameworks that have been developed with the participation of young women and girls.[[fn:43]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "See Plan International, “Engaging girls, boys and youth as active citizens” (March 2020)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 60, "n": 53, "text": "Girls and young women often consider collaboration with and support from other actors and movements particularly important for starting, pursuing and strengthening their activism and amplifying their voices. As expressed by one of the participants during the consultations: “when we unite from a basis of respect, harmony and attention to human rights, we achieve amazing things”. International and local NGOs play a key role in providing platforms for networking, experience-sharing among peers, solidarity and holistic protection, care and well-being, and engagement with decision makers, as well as opportunities for awareness-raising and capacity-building, including leadership programmes. For some girls and young women, involvement in the work of international NGOs was useful in securing more protection against intimidation and harassment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "Facilitating collaboration and building solidarity within and across movements, organizations and generations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 61, "n": 54, "text": "Participation in awareness-raising and other activities organized by civil society organizations or the encouragement received from teachers and parents also play an important role in promoting and sustaining girls’ and young women’s activism. In addition, the opportunity to engage with other young activists to share their experiences, strategies, challenges and struggles, to support each other and to be involved in broader networks, including feminist organizations, networks and movements, were referred to as fundamental aspects in the development of their activism. As one activist noted: “What helped me was knowing that I was not alone.”", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "Facilitating collaboration and building solidarity within and across movements, organizations and generations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 62, "n": 55, "text": "Intergenerational dialogue and mentorship schemes based on mutual respect are considered critical for strengthening girls’ and young women’s motivation to engage in public and political life as they turn to adults to learn more about the issues they are interested in and look for role models.[[fn:44]] In the Asia-Pacific region, for instance, a platform for intergenerational dialogue has been established through a women’s forum and a young women’s forum, which has led to the creation of an intergenerational women’s leadership programme. In some contexts, however, the lack of intergenerational dialogue remains a major challenge. Some girls noted that women in their communities often did not have time to engage with them to pass on knowledge and experience. Some others also considered that, in some contexts, women might be more reluctant than younger generations to defy patriarchal norms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "See Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence against Children, “Children as agents of positive change. A mapping of children’s initiatives across regions, towards an inclusive and healthy world free from violence”."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "Facilitating collaboration and building solidarity within and across movements, organizations and generations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 63, "n": 56, "text": "Engagement with and support from national human rights institutions also plays a vital role in sustaining girls’ and young women’s activism, especially when they face threats, reprisals or other violations of their human rights. Unfortunately, in many cases girls and young women have limited knowledge of the existence of such mechanisms and their working methods. Specific channels facilitating engagement with those mechanisms for young women and girls are often absent.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "Facilitating collaboration and building solidarity within and across movements, organizations and generations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 64, "n": 57, "text": "The encouragement and support of parents, family and caregivers are what make engagement in public and political life possible for many girls and young women. Adult understanding and awareness of the human rights of girls and young women, including their right to participate in public and political life, is vital. As stressed by the Committee on the Rights of the Child: “Support is needed to enable adults to become mentors and facilitators so that adolescents can take greater responsibility for their own lives and the lives of those around them.” Children have the right to receive guidance aimed at empowering them, including on how to exercise their rights and protect themselves from harm.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "Promoting family and community support"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 65, "n": 58, "text": "Families and communities often need support in their roles, which may need to encompass also interventions aimed at addressing shortcomings in the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights, such as the rights to an adequate standard of living, work, social security, the enjoyment of just and favourable conditions of work and the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health. Personal access to resources, wealth and privilege often acts in practice as a watershed between those who are able to engage in activism and those who are left out. Girls and young women belonging to disadvantaged and marginalized groups are often not sufficiently heard. During the consultations held by the Working Group, many activists referred to the importance of having received scholarships, support from individual sponsors or professional positions within NGOs.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "Promoting family and community support"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 66, "n": 59, "text": "As demonstrated above, girls and young women are increasingly using the Internet and social media for their activism, which provide them with crucial opportunities to make their voices heard. Ensuring access to technology for all girls and young women, without discrimination, is thus a key enabler of their activism. However, many girls and young women, especially in rural, underprivileged areas, lack access to it (both physically to devices or reception and in terms of knowing how to go online) or do not have sufficient digital literacy, including on digital safety and security. Generally, more men globally are using the Internet than women.[[fn:45]] The digital divide, together with socioeconomic disparities and their disproportionate gendered impact, were deepened during the COVID-19 pandemic, which has restricted online activism for girls and young women with limited facilities at home. States are expected to promote awareness of, and access to, digital means for girls and young women to express their views and offer them training and support.[[fn:46]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "See International Telecommunication Union, “Measuring digital development: facts and figures 2021”."}, {"n": 46, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general comment No. 36 (2017) and Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 25 (2021)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "Bridging the gender-related digital divide"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 67, "n": 60, "text": "Equal access to inclusive, culturally appropriate and quality education is pivotal to enable girls’ and young women’s activism.[[fn:47]] School curricula that include teaching on human rights, promote understanding of the harmful impact of gendered social norms and discriminatory stereotypes, and support the development of critical thinking skills, personal empowerment and solidarity, are crucial. As noted above, educational institutions are often the first environment where girls and young women can engage in decision-making processes and collective actions, develop leadership and public-speaking skills and gain self-confidence. However, in many cases children, especially girls, are expected to be passive recipients and their engagement in public life in schools is not supported.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 13 (1999) and Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 36 (2017)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "Ensuring enjoyment of the equal right to quality education"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 68, "n": 2, "text": "Building gender- and age-sensitive normative and institutional frameworks National level", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "Ensuring enjoyment of the equal right to quality education"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 69, "n": 61, "text": "In some regions, various frameworks have been established to promote and ensure the engagement of children and youth, including girls and young women, in public and political life and sustain their activism. Some States have adopted specific legislation that expressly contemplates the right of children and young people to participate in decision-making processes concerning them and provides for the adoption of special measures to encourage their participation. These include a law in one country in Eastern Europe that provides for the allocation of funds and space for youth activities and projects, and a law in a Latin American country that stipulates that political parties shall include at least 25 per cent of youth aged between 18 and 29 in their electoral lists. Some laws lay down the obligation to set up permanent mechanisms for the participation of children and adolescents that offer opportunities for the participation of girls and young women.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "2. Building gender- and age-sensitive normative and institutional frameworks", "National level"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 70, "n": 62, "text": "In other cases, dedicated programmes, policies and strategies have been adopted to promote the participation of children and young people in decision-making, such as a strategy in one country of Western Europe that sets out the objective of ensuring that children and young people have a voice in decisions concerning them and contemplates the creation of a supportive environment for their participation, including by providing the necessary skills training. A dedicated institutional framework accompanies the strategy and includes, for example, youth councils and youth parliaments, although these measures often do not have a specific focus on gender and girls and young women.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "2. Building gender- and age-sensitive normative and institutional frameworks", "National level"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 71, "n": 63, "text": "A study by the European Commission found that children’s and youth councils are among the most prevalent mechanisms directly involving children in political life.[[fn:48]] For example, in one Western European country it is mandatory for all municipalities to have a youth council, which must have a representation of at least 40 per cent of girls and young women. Youth councils have also been established in African and Asia-Pacific countries.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "See European Commission, Study on Child Participation in EU Political and Democratic Life, (2021)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "2. Building gender- and age-sensitive normative and institutional frameworks", "National level"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 72, "n": 64, "text": "A number of initiatives have also been taken to promote and support the engagement of children and young people, including girls, with State independent human rights mechanisms. For example, a National Human Rights Commission in one Latin American country has amended its internal regulations to allow children and adolescents to submit complaints directly about violations of their rights and has launched programmes for consultation and awareness-raising.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "2. Building gender- and age-sensitive normative and institutional frameworks", "National level"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 73, "n": 65, "text": "Among the frameworks put in place to promote girls’ and young women’s activism are also grant schemes and leadership and capacity-building programmes. For example, in one African country a number of ministries implement leadership skills development programmes for girls, which are aimed at encouraging their involvement in the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of public policies on gender equality and women’s and girls’ rights. In one Eastern Europe country, a programme led by role models, called “Future Heroes”, was implemented to foster leadership and entrepreneurship skills for girls aged 14 to 17. Some countries have also set up grant schemes to support youth organizations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "2. Building gender- and age-sensitive normative and institutional frameworks", "National level"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 74, "n": 66, "text": "International human rights bodies are also increasingly involving children. The Committee on the Rights of the Child may now receive communications from children regarding violations of their human rights and encourages their participation in various aspects of its work.[[fn:49]] The Committee has also adopted a child safeguarding procedure to ensure a safe and child-friendly environment for the children with whom it interacts. Similarly, at the regional level, the Inter-American human rights system involves girls and young women in public hearings and field visits and arranges special meetings with them. In the African system, the discussions that take place on the Day of the African Child offer a platform for engaging with girls and young activists. The Working Group has also been meeting with girls and young women during its country visits.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CRC/Pages/ChildParticipation.aspx."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "2. Building gender- and age-sensitive normative and institutional frameworks", "International level"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 75, "n": 67, "text": "The participation of children and young people, including girls and young women, at the international level is also promoted through other mechanisms. For example, in Geneva, some permanent missions to the United Nations involve girls and young women in the drafting of reports or consult them before making recommendations to other States during the universal periodic review. Some countries in Eastern and Western Europe include young people in their delegations to the United Nations or the European Union. In one Latin American country, the National Council for Intergenerational Equality (Consejo Nacional para la Igualdad Intergeneracional) promotes the participation of children’s representatives in regional institutions, such as the Pan-American Child Congress.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "2. Building gender- and age-sensitive normative and institutional frameworks", "International level"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 76, "n": 68, "text": "Girls and young women around the world play crucial roles as human rights defenders and agents of change. Many of them are at the forefront of initiatives aimed at transforming societies, while others are striving to mobilize effectively and find a place of influence. They are an integral part of the struggle for more democratic and fairer societies and their activism has brought about unique contributions to the advancement of gender equality and human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 77, "n": 69, "text": "The right of girls and young women to participate in political and public life is guaranteed under international human rights law. That gives rise to binding legal obligations for States to enable their activism and to remove the structural barriers that inhibit or endanger their participation. Girls and young women are also entitled to special measures to ensure the realization of their rights in consideration of their age, gender and other characteristics.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 78, "n": 70, "text": "Girl activists face particular challenges owing to common misperceptions around children’s right to participation in political and public life, restrictions on their autonomy, disregard for their best interests, paternalistic control and superficial, tokenistic involvement in diverse processes. Additional barriers include deep-rooted structural gender- and age-based discrimination, which is frequently exacerbated by other forms of discrimination including, but not limited to, race, ethnicity, health status, sexual orientation, gender identity and disability, combined with marginalization and exclusion, poverty, lack of access to education, lack of safety and security, hostile environments in the private and public spheres and a lack of resources.", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 79, "n": 71, "text": "Beyond the devastating effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, ongoing crises caused by conflict and displacement, climate change, natural disasters, sharp socioeconomic inequalities, political instability and rampant digitalization have had a considerable impact on the possibilities for girls and young women to exert their activism. However. that environment has created new opportunities as well as new challenges.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 80, "n": 72, "text": "Girls’ and young women’s equal rights and opportunities in all areas, namely family and cultural life, economic and social life, political and public life, safety and health, including sexual and reproductive health, are the basis for creating an enabling and just environment for their activism. The dignity and agency of all girls and young women must be recognized and actively promoted, supported and protected, while ensuring safeguards against threats, violence and reprisals, and undertaking concrete steps to remove the structural barriers and the systemic disadvantages that they face. They should be duly informed about their human rights from the youngest age and empowered to be active participants in their own lives and in public affairs, engaging creatively in all fields.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 81, "n": 73, "text": "Sustained access to adequate technical and financial resources, supportive networks, freedom from violence, opportunities for self-care and collective care, and protection from reprisals remain fundamental for girls’ and young women’s activism to thrive. Their capacity to participate in the civic space depends on a coherent and integrated set of social and economic policies directed at the family, community, school and workplace, combined with safeguards to ensure their rights to freedom of expression, assembly and association. Their physical and mental health and the economic viability of their individual and collective actions are essential for their development and ability to thrive.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 82, "n": 74, "text": "The root causes of the numerous barriers faced by girls and young women in their attempts to contribute to transformative actions should be tackled through targeted measures by States and all stakeholders concerned. The adoption of a comprehensive human rights-based approach that is child rights-centred, while being gender-responsive and intersectional is crucial to ensuring a sustainable environment for girls’ and young women’s activism. As told to the Working Group during the consultations it held: “Authorities should support the voices of young activists more; instead of silencing or minimizing them, they should be used as platforms to empower, generate a change.”", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 83, "n": 75, "text": "States should take all appropriate measures to create safe and enabling spaces for girl and young women activists, where they can exercise their activism and express their views freely, equally, fully and meaningfully on all matters of relevance to them. In order to achieve this, States should:\n(a) Put in place effective protection systems to safeguard girl and young women activists against any form of discrimination, intimidation or reprisal, whether in private or public life, and ensure that protection measures are not used to diminish the scope of their activism;\n(b) Encourage and provide support and training to the families, caregivers, communities, educators and educational institutions of girl and young women activists, as well as the judiciary, government officials and other relevant professionals, so that they can fulfil their role in promoting, protecting and empowering all girls and young activists to exercise their autonomy and agency and exercise their civil and political rights safely;\n(c) Support movement-building led by girl and young women activists and allow them to pursue and strengthen their activism by investing in the formation of girl-led and young feminist networks and associations, and by creating participatory structures and mechanisms whereby they can influence policy and norm-making processes;\n(d) Ensure that the national legal framework recognizes and enables girl and young women activists to act freely and safely without discrimination. That in particular includes:\n(i) Eliminating laws and practices that perpetuate discrimination within the family, the community and institutions, to enable girl and young women activists to exercise their autonomy and agency, respecting their age and maturity;\n(ii) Removing age-based discriminatory legal barriers for girls and young women to the exercise of their civil and political rights, ensuring that any restrictions are in conformity with international human rights law and considering lowering the age for registration of associations and for opening bank accounts;\n(iii) Adopting comprehensive national laws and policies that respect, protect and fulfil girls’ and young women’s rights to participate in public and political life, to freedom of expression, association and assembly, and to access to information, integrating gender- and age-sensitive and intersectional approaches that address all their diversity;\n(iv) Adopting and implementing laws and policies that particularly target removing the inherent obstacles to their activism, including eliminating harmful practices and stereotypes, gender-based violence, barriers to access to quality education, taboos and restrictions on sexual and reproductive health information, goods and services, including contraception and abortion care, and lifting the disproportionate burden of domestic responsibilities;\n(v) Introducing and ensuring the effective implementation of legislation and policies especially aimed at promoting the activism of girl and young women activists by allocating human, technical and financial resources;\n(vi) Incorporating effective approaches in laws, policies and programmes to address multiple and intersectional forms of discrimination against girl and young activists and remove the structural barriers they face;\n(e) Create and enhance platforms, processes and structures within which the views of girl and young women activists are given due consideration, including formal mechanisms and institutions, such as children’s parliaments and other possible mechanisms for child participation, in a gender- and age-responsive and inclusive manner, and ensure that such views are taken into account when adopting, implementing and reviewing laws and policies;\n(f) Ensure that girl and young women activists have accessible and effective remedies through;\n(i) Intensifying efforts to ensure the accountability of State agents, family and community members, including traditional and religious leaders who violate the rights of girl and young women activists;\n(ii) Securing access to multiple, safe, age-, disability- and gender-responsive mechanisms to report reprisals, violence and abuse related to their activism and receive support and care for physical and psychological abuse;\n(iii) Facilitating child-friendly and gender-responsive complaint mechanisms to address human rights violations from an intersectional perspective and facilitate access to international complaint procedures by ratifying the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on a communications procedure;\n(g) Provide all girls and young women with comprehensive, free, accessible and age-, disability- and gender-sensitive information including language-accessible and culturally sensitive measures to enable them to cultivate and exercise their activism.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 84, "n": 76, "text": "States, private companies and all stakeholders concerned should take appropriate measures to ensure online access and safety by:\n(a) Facilitating safe and inclusive online platforms for girls’ and young women’s activism and ensure the accountability of service providers for facilitating accessibility;\n(b) Expanding the accessibility and affordability of digital technology to all girl and young women activists by investing in programmes tackling the gender-related digital divide and the digital exclusion of certain groups of girl and young women activists;\n(c) Taking measures to foster a safe online environment for girls and young women, in particular by creating effective regulatory frameworks, including for content moderation and reporting mechanisms, sanctioning perpetrators and providing reliable information to address online gender- and age-related discrimination and violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 85, "n": 77, "text": "Civil society organizations should foster girls’ and young women’s activism and promote their collaboration, based on mutual respect, solidarity and diversity. In particular, they should:\n(a) Facilitate spaces for girls’ and young women’s groups to operate in diverse forms and an inclusive manner, including by supporting their initiatives and evolving leadership;\n(b) Support dialogue and collaboration between adult and younger activists, including providing them with relevant role models of women in activism and creating mentoring programmes;\n(c) Facilitate access for girl and young women activists to decision makers, funding, resources, training, networking and self-care programmes through the design and implementation of empowering partnerships;\n(d) Foster community support systems and raise awareness of girls’ and young women’s activism, including by developing training programmes for families, communities and teachers on how to support and empower girls and young women in exercising their rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 86, "n": 78, "text": "National human rights institutions, including children’s ombudspersons, should fulfil the following responsibilities towards the promotion, protection and empowerment of girl and young women activists;\n(a) Disseminate information about their institutional mandate and work, and support girl and young women activists in training and human rights education;\n(b) Promote the work of girl and young human rights defenders and educate the public, authorities and stakeholders about their positive role in society;\n(c) Work closely with girl and young women activists through child, youth and gender-centred approaches;\n(d) Facilitate access to reporting and seeking redress for human rights violations.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 87, "n": 79, "text": "Donors should adopt measures that empower and support girl and young women activists in all their diversity. Specific measures should include:\n(a) Investing in girls and youth networks by streamlining dedicated funding to provide financial and non-financial resources directly or indirectly to girl-led and youth-led grass-roots organizations and movements while respecting their organizational autonomy;\n(b) Instituting flexible funding packages and grant application and reporting processes for groups led by girls and young women and for unregistered grass-roots networks, including the opportunity to co-apply for shared grants and funding for self- and collective care;\n(c) Putting in place processes for integrating the views, interests and decision-making roles of girl and young women activists in the planning and implementation of making grants and other activities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 88, "n": 80, "text": "The United Nations should promote girls’ and young women’s activism in the following ways:\n(a) The human rights bodies should prioritize:\n(i) Mainstreaming gender-, child rights- and youth-sensitive approaches throughout their work and ensuring adequate resourcing for that work;\n(ii) Instituting and enhancing child- and youth-friendly platforms and processes that ensure girl and young women activists are regularly, meaningfully and inclusively engaged in deliberations and decision-making and that their engagement is sustained and not tokenistic;\n(iii) Using language that is responsive to girls and young women, avoiding jargon and introducing communication that is clear and accessible to all girls and young women;\n(iv) Making available age-appropriate, accessible and timely information on the human rights system to enable girl and young women activists to effectively engage with its mechanisms;\n(b) United Nations agencies must ensure that girl and young women activists have access to United Nations mechanisms and spaces, with the necessary safeguards and without discrimination, by building internal capacity and allocating the necessary technical and financial resources, directly or indirectly, to girl-led and youth-led grass roots in a flexible and inclusive manner.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 89, "n": 81, "text": "Parents, family and community members should promote, empower and actively support girls’ and young women’s activism. They should seek information about their obligations and exercise their parental or supervisory authority in a manner that recognizes, respects and fosters the agency, contributions and capacities of girls and young women in a way that nurtures space for their views and participation in the public sphere.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report covers the main activities of the Working Group from the time of submission of its previous report[[fn:1]] up until March 2023, and includes a thematic analysis on the gendered inequalities of poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A/HRC/50/25."}], "section": ["I. Activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "At its thirty-fourth session, held in New York from 9 to 13 May 2022, the Working Group held meetings with civil society organizations, discussed future position papers and focused on the present thematic analysis. It also met with representatives of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), the Independent Expert on the enjoyment of all human rights by older persons, the Independent Expert on the effects of foreign debt and other related international financial obligations of States on the full enjoyment of all human rights, particularly economic, social and cultural rights, the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, the Envoy of the Secretary-General on Youth, and representatives of Member States.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "At its thirty-fifth session, held in Geneva from 10 to 14 October 2022, the Working Group met with representatives of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, the International Labour Organization (ILO), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) Gender and Women’s Rights and Sustainable Development Goals Sections. The experts also met with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Special Rapporteur on the right to education. The Working Group held virtual consultations with activists and academics from various regions to benefit from their experiences and expertise on the issue of women and girls in poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At its thirty-sixth session, held in Geneva from 16 to 20 January 2023, the Working Group held virtual consultations with activists from various regions, including girl and young women activists, and with representatives from regional human rights mechanisms focusing on women and girls in poverty. It met with representatives from the Human Security Unit, with the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development gender focal points, and with representatives of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. It benefited from discussions with the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women Task Force on Afghanistan and the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan, in view of the joint report mandated by the Human Rights Council in its resolution 51/20. It also met with the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights and the Independent Expert on protection against violence and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. Finally, the Working Group met with the Deputy United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and with representatives of Member States.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The Working Group visited Kyrgyzstan from 4 to 15 April 2022 and Maldives from 11 to 22 September 2022 and thanks both Governments for their cooperation. The Working Group encourages States to respond positively to its requests for visits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The Working Group addressed several communications to Governments and other stakeholders, individually or jointly with other mandate holders. The communications concerned a wide range of subjects, including discriminatory legislation and practices, allegations of violations of the rights of women human rights defenders, gender-based violence and violations of the right to sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:2]] The Working Group also issued press releases, individually, and jointly with other mandate holders, treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.[[fn:3]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Communications.aspx."}, {"n": 3, "text": "See https://rb.gy/7add."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The Working Group held a regional meeting in Bangkok from 18 to 22 July 2022. The experts’ presence in the region represented a unique occasion to strengthen their networks in South-East Asia, including through consultations on the present report. The Working Group met with representatives of regional United Nations entities, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, members of the Asia Pacific Forum and representatives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Social Development and Human Security of Thailand. It benefited from consultations with civil society organizations on the main challenges faced by women and girls in the region.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The experts also undertook numerous other activities, including participation in regional consultations and expert meetings, and engagement with stakeholders in their capacity as Working Group members.[[fn:4]] In particular, the Chair presented an oral report to the General Assembly at its seventy-seventh session and addressed the Commission on the Status of Women at its sixty-seventh session. The Working Group began chairing the Platform of Independent Expert Mechanisms on the Elimination of Discrimination and Violence against Women,[[fn:5]] starting from 1 February 2023, and is actively contributing to enhancing cooperation between global and regional women’s rights mechanisms, including through joint statements and capacity-building for civil society organizations from various regions.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Activities.aspx."}, {"n": 5, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/wg-women-and-girls/edvaw-platform."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "The Working Group expresses its gratitude to all stakeholders for their vital contributions to the preparation of the present report – which included responding to a questionnaire, submitting supporting documentation and participating in regional and thematic consultations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Poverty is more than the outcome of a lack of income or wealth. It is the result of a blatant systemic failure leading to a vicious cycle of exclusion and discrimination that violates the civil, cultural, economic, environmental, political and social rights of both present and future generations.[[fn:6]] Women and girls, 49.7 per cent of the global population in 2022,[[fn:7]] are disproportionately represented among the world’s poor. Global projections show that an estimated 388 million women and girls were living in extreme poverty in 2022 (compared with 372 million men and boys), and 83.7 per cent of these women and girls were located in two regions: sub-Saharan Africa (62.8 per cent) and Central and South Asia (20.9 per cent).[[fn:8]] Extreme inequality has also deepened and, since 2020, the richest 1 per cent of the world has seized nearly two thirds of all new wealth, almost twice as much money as the bottom 99 per cent of the world’s population.[[fn:9]] The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic and the global food, energy and care crises, which are in turn connected to other crises, including armed conflict, occupation and forced displacement, have resulted in the first rise in inter-country income inequality in a generation,[[fn:10]] with women and girls being particularly affected in many countries and regions.[[fn:11]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "E/C.12/2001/10, para. 8."}, {"n": 7, "text": "World Population Prospects 2022: Summary of Results (United Nations publication, 2022), p. 6."}, {"n": 8, "text": "UN-Women, UNDP and Pardee Center for International Futures, “Poverty deepens for women and girls, according to latest projections”, 1 February 2023."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Oxfam International, Survival of the Richest: How We Must Tax the Super-Rich Now to Fight Inequality (2023)."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal10."}, {"n": 11, "text": "See A/HRC/38/46; https://data.unwomen.org/; UN-Women, “Global gendered impacts of the Ukraine crisis on energy access and food security and nutrition” (2022); A/HRC/26/39; A/HRC/32/44; Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, “Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic must not discount women and girls”, 20 April 2020; and Platform of Independent Expert Mechanisms on the Elimination of Discrimination and Violence against Women, “COVID-19 and increase in gender-based violence and discrimination against women”, 14 July 2020."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "A. Contextual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Women’s and girls’ inequality and poverty are the result of historical and continuing economic policy choices at the global, regional and national levels. These policy priorities are not gender-neutral, as they have been developed within patriarchal political, legal and socioeconomic systems and institutions that ignore the specific experiences and rights of girls and women while privileging the dominant forms of male and corporate power that perpetuate existing hierarchies.[[fn:12]] Poverty and inequalities are structural phenomena that negatively affect the sustainable development of people, communities and nations and that impede effective responses to the existential threat posed by climate change and ecological collapse as well as other global challenges, including public health emergencies, armed conflicts, economic recessions, and migration, food and care crises.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Frances Raday, Economic Woman: Gendering Inequality in the Age of Capital (Routledge, 2019)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "A. Contextual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The strengthened neoliberal turn of the past forty years, reflected in the policies of international economic institutions and national Governments, has demonstrably increased poverty and inequality both between and within nations.[[fn:13]] These inequalities, underpinned by patriarchy, slavery, racism, colonialism, militarism and environmental destruction, have been exacerbated by orthodox macroeconomic prescriptions, including structural adjustment and austerity measures[[fn:14]] designed to offset crippling national debts,[[fn:15]] the liberalization of global trade and investment and the financialization of capital markets,[[fn:16]] and the resulting monetary and fiscal regimes,[[fn:17]] the privatization and commodification of public goods and the retreat of the welfare state.[[fn:18]] While it is beyond the scope of the present report to analyse these phenomena, it is important to note that rampant global socioeconomic inequality, characterized by the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few people (mostly men), corporations in a limited number of countries, and developed States, has diminished the resources available for policies, services and programmes to advance women’s rights and gender equality.[[fn:19]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Jason Hickel, The Divide: A Brief Guide to Global Inequality and its Solutions (London, Penguin Random House, 2018); see also E/C.12/2001/10."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Oxfam International and Nawi-Afrifem Macroeconomics Collective, “The assault of austerity: how prevailing economic policy choices are a form of gender-based violence” (2022)."}, {"n": 15, "text": "See A/77/169."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Gender and Development Network, “Briefing: making trade work for gender equality” (July 2017); and Alicia Ely Yamin, When Misfortune Becomes Injustice: Evolving Human Rights Struggles for Health and Social Equality (Stanford University Press, 2020)."}, {"n": 17, "text": "Oxfam International, Survival of the Richest."}, {"n": 18, "text": "See A/HRC/44/51."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Focus 2030, “Overview of data resources on gender equality across the world”, 3 March 2023."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "A. Contextual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Poverty is a gendered phenomenon that is deeply imbricated with other forms of inequality and discrimination. Women’s and girls’ experiences of poverty intersect with their race, ethnicity, migratory status, age, disability, religion, geographical location, sexual orientation and gender identity to produce distinct forms of discrimination and inequality that vary over time and from place to place. The persistence of discriminatory norms and harmful gender stereotypes affecting women and girls across every area of life, from the family to the community, in businesses and in all branches of public power, contributes to maintaining and deepening these inequalities.[[fn:20]] Recent attacks and backlash against the principle of gender equality underline the urgent need to reassert the centrality of the human rights framework 10 See https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal10. 11 See A/HRC/38/46; https://data.unwomen.org/; UN-Women, “Global gendered impacts of the Ukraine crisis on energy access and food security and nutrition” (2022); A/HRC/26/39; A/HRC/32/44; Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, “Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic must not discount women and girls”, 20 April 2020; and Platform of Independent Expert Mechanisms on the Elimination of Discrimination and Violence against Women, “COVID-19 and increase in gender-based violence and discrimination against women”, 14 July 2020. 12 Frances Raday, Economic Woman: Gendering Inequality in the Age of Capital (Routledge, 2019). 13 Jason Hickel, The Divide: A Brief Guide to Global Inequality and its Solutions (London, Penguin Random House, 2018); see also E/C.12/2001/10. 14 Oxfam International and Nawi-Afrifem Macroeconomics Collective, “The assault of austerity: how prevailing economic policy choices are a form of gender-based violence” (2022). 15 See A/77/169. 16 Gender and Development Network, “Briefing: making trade work for gender equality” (July 2017); and Alicia Ely Yamin, When Misfortune Becomes Injustice: Evolving Human Rights Struggles for Health and Social Equality (Stanford University Press, 2020). 17 Oxfam International, Survival of the Richest. 18 See A/HRC/44/51. 19 Focus 2030, “Overview of data resources on gender equality across the world”, 3 March 2023. 20 OHCHR, “Ending violence against women and girls key to tackling global crises and achieving prosperity”, 24 November 2022. GE.23-06173 and intersectional feminist approaches to tackling poverty and the inequalities that it perpetuates and entrenches.[[fn:21]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "OHCHR, “Ending violence against women and girls key to tackling global crises and achieving prosperity”, 24 November 2022."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See A/HRC/38/46; and Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, “Gender equality and gender backlash” (2020)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "A. Contextual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "For too long, the focus of most international and national economic policies has been on how to integrate women and girls more effectively into existing, unequal economic systems, rather than on challenging and remaking those systems so that they promote and protect the full range of human rights for everyone.[[fn:22]] As a result, many interventions that address the feminization of poverty use a narrow concept of poverty as a simple lack of economic resources, and they have also tended to view women as a homogenous group.[[fn:23]] Rather than challenging and transforming intersectional forms of inequality, mainstream poverty-reduction strategies may be further entrenching essentialist gender stereotypes and the structural inequalities that flow from them.[[fn:24]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations."}, {"n": 23, "text": "Naila Kabeer, “Gender equality, the MDGs and the SDGs: achievements, lessons and concerns”, London School of Economics, 6 October 2015."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Sylvia Chant, “Women, girls, and world poverty: empowerment, equality or essentialism?” International Development Planning Review, vol. 38, No. 1, pp. 1–24."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "A. Contextual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Dominant approaches to security in times of crises, including economic crises, have also been narrow in scope – human rights being set aside, disproportionately affecting women and girls. Understanding security integrally as grounded in human rights law[[fn:25]] would prioritize preventing and addressing aggravated risks of poverty and inequality for women and girls. In this respect, alongside its role in exacerbating existing inequalities, the COVID-19 crisis has also prompted a re-evaluation of mainstream economic ideologies, including recognition of the central role of care in our societies, as called for by feminists for years, as well as revaluing the State’s position (vis-à-vis the market) as an actor in defining and resourcing public policies. The current moment, therefore, presents an opportunity to revisit concepts of unlimited economic growth, often based on deeply embedded forms of structural discrimination, transnational economic inequality, failure to fulfil international solidarity obligations of assistance and cooperation, and non-existent or insufficient networks of social protection and public services to guarantee universally recognized human rights such as health, water, housing, food and nutrition, education, a clean and healthy environment and access to justice.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See, for example, General Assembly resolution 66/290, para. 3."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "A. Contextual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Crucially, poverty and inequality are not inevitable. They are the result of structural discrimination that is reflected in the design of laws and policies which have facilitated present and historical injustices.[[fn:26]] Social movements advocating for transformative change from the perspective of feminist political economy and human rights, particularly economic, social, environmental and cultural rights, have highlighted the feedback loops between global poverty and inequalities, and they have drawn attention to the existence of alternatives to unjust economic and social policies and institutions.[[fn:27]] These rights-based feminist approaches to inequality and poverty provide key insights, tools, accountability measures and remedies that would enable the structural determinants of poverty and inequality to be identified, challenged and overcome.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "UNRISD, Crises of Inequality: Shifting Power for a New Eco-Social Contract (2022)."}, {"n": 27, "text": "Lucie E. White and Jeremy Perelman, eds., Stones of Hope: How African Activists Reclaim Human Rights to Challenge Global Poverty (Stanford University Press, 2011); see also reports by the Center for Economic and Social Rights, the Global Initiative for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the International Network for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "A. Contextual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Conceptually, the feminist approaches to women’s poverty and inequality, as used in the present report, are based on the reaffirmation of substantive equality for women in the legal, social, economic, cultural, environmental and political arenas and in all spheres of life. While gender equality is a human right in itself, and as such feminism is connected to the human rights framework, the feminist approach adds a critical analysis of the ways in which patriarchal institutions and structures contribute to maintaining discrimination against women and girls.[[fn:28]] A human rights-based approach to poverty and inequality emphasizes that participation, accountability, non-discrimination and equality, empowerment and the implementation of equitable normative frameworks are core principles that must be respected, protected and fulfilled by States and other duty bearers in order to guarantee the full enjoyment of all human rights for all people at all times.[[fn:29]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "See, for example, Oxfam, “A feminist approach to the multidimensional inequality framework” (2021)."}, {"n": 29, "text": "See the Guiding Principles on Extreme Poverty and Human Rights; and E/C.12/2001/10."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "B. Feminist and human rights-based approaches to women’s poverty and inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "Most mainstream approaches to gender and poverty focus on a small number of economic rights associated with work, financial inclusion and women’s entrepreneurship, and ignore the broader contexts that condition the realization of the many other interrelated and interdependent human rights that are essential to achieving substantive gender equality and to sustainably eradicating poverty.[[fn:30]] Feminist political economists and civil society movements have emphasized that this one-sided approach to poverty eradication obscures the role of the institutions and structures that benefit from the exploitation of women, girls and marginalized social groups, as well as the natural environment.[[fn:31]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "Josephine A. Odera and Judy Mulusa, “SDGs, gender equality and women’s empowerment: what prospects for delivery?”, in Sustainable Development Goals and Human Rights, Markus Kaltenborn, Markus Krajewski and Heike Kuhn, eds. (Springer, 2020), pp. 95–118."}, {"n": 31, "text": "Submission from SRI, IWRAW AP and AWID to the Working Group; and UNRISD, Crises of Inequality."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "B. Feminist and human rights-based approaches to women’s poverty and inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Standardized measures of poverty and inequality in global and national development frameworks which focus on household-level data fail to adequately capture sex- and gender-based inequalities in the generation, distribution and consumption of resources.[[fn:32]] Many of the submissions received by the Working Group highlighted the absence of reliable, multidimensional and multisectoral disaggregated data on poverty and inequalities.[[fn:33]] The lived experiences and voices of women and girls in poverty are often absent from research, law and policy in the field.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "See A/HRC/44/40."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Submission from the Danish Institute for Human Rights; Open Space Association Deep Poverty Network Turkey; Ginette Azcona and Antra Bhatt, “Inequality, gender, and sustainable development: measuring feminist progress”, Gender & Development, vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 337–355."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "B. Feminist and human rights-based approaches to women’s poverty and inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "In addition to their gender-insensitivity and unawareness, most global poverty indicators are geared towards measuring relative improvements in the situation of those in the bottom 10 per cent of wealth and income scales, rather than looking at the enormous share of income and wealth held by the richest 1 per cent of the population.[[fn:34]] Common methods for measuring absolute inequalities, such as the Gini coefficient, percentile ratios, the Palma ratio, the World Income Inequality Database and measures of functional income distribution, focus attention on the need for effective policies to redistribute wealth and income both within and between countries.[[fn:35]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "UNRISD, Crises of Inequality."}, {"n": 35, "text": "UNU-WIDER, World Income Inequality Database (30 June 2022)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "B. Feminist and human rights-based approaches to women’s poverty and inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Many predominant approaches to women’s poverty concentrate on increasing the economic productivity of individual women, rather than analysing the systems of power that generate and reproduce unequal gender relations within families, communities, institutions and markets. These dominant models fail to recognize and value women’s unpaid care, domestic and agricultural work which undergirds the economy. They ignore the vital issues of women’s time poverty and “depletion” through their role as care providers,[[fn:36]] as well as the draining of care resources from poorer nations, such as migrant domestic or health workers, through globalized care chains.[[fn:37]] They also do not consider the rights of women and girls to receive gender-responsive care or to exercise self-care and collective care.[[fn:38]] Neoliberal policy choices and market-driven “solutions”, including those promoted by multilateral economic institutions, have often co-opted or dismantled transformative economic agendas and have had a devastating impact on the human rights of diverse groups of women and girls around the world.[[fn:39]] As one of the women in the consultations observed, “we are not poor, we are being impoverished”.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "Beth Goldblatt and Shirin M. Rai, “Remedying depletion through social reproduction: a critical engagement with the United Nations’ business and human rights framework”, European Journal of Politics and Gender, March 2020."}, {"n": 37, "text": "Rosalba Todaro and Irma Arriagada, “Global Care Chains”, in Companion to Women’s and Gender Studies, Nancy A. Naples, ed. (Wiley, 2020)."}, {"n": 38, "text": "ECLAC, Buenos Aires Commitment (LC/CRM.15/6); and ECLAC, The Care Society (LC/CRM.15/3)."}, {"n": 39, "text": "Association for Women’s Rights in Development, “Gender impact investing and the rise of false solutions: an analysis for feminist movements” (2023)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "B. Feminist and human rights-based approaches to women’s poverty and inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Feminist proposals for economic, social and environmental justice call for the implementation of processes and principles that are grounded in human rights and in an integrated concept of ecological and social sustainability, as alternatives to economic growth-based models of development.[[fn:40]] These visions for a more equal world promote inclusive democratic participation in global economic governance, substantive equality and intersectional approaches through their support for feminist and cross-movement alliance-building with diverse social groups. They also focus on the redistribution of wealth and resources for all and a shift away from excessive consumption, production and extraction towards an equitable global trade order, tax and debt justice, corporate accountability, and the realization of the right to development.[[fn:41]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "Civil Society and Indigenous Peoples’ Mechanism for relations with the Committee on World Food Security, “Voices from the ground 2: transformative solutions to the global systemic food crises” (2022); and Susan Paulson, “Degrowth and feminisms ally to forge care-full paths beyond the pandemic”, Interface, vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 232–246."}, {"n": 41, "text": "Global Alliance for Tax Justice and others, Framing Feminist Taxation (2021)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "B. Feminist and human rights-based approaches to women’s poverty and inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Several social movements are championing a feminist and decolonial Global Green New Deal which would entail a redistribution and revalidation of labour, and investments in the care sector, as well as reimagining global public commons and goods so that they are used equitably and sustainably.[[fn:42]] Feminist workers’ alliances are also engaged in the development of alternative economic policies that would promote climate-friendly jobs, including those in social care, fundamental rights at work that emphasize adequate wages and maximum hours of work, universal social protection with a global social protection solidarity fund, an emphasis on substantive gender, race and socioeconomic equality and an inclusive agenda for peace and sustainable development.[[fn:43]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "Feminist Economic Justice for People and Planet Action Nexus, “A feminist and decolonial Global Green New Deal” (2021)."}, {"n": 43, "text": "Juan Pablo Bohoslavsky and Francisco Cantamutto, eds., The IMF and Human Rights: Interviews (2021)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "B. Feminist and human rights-based approaches to women’s poverty and inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "The right to live free from poverty and inequality must be examined as a multidimensional civil, political, social, environmental and cultural right and not only in terms of economic deprivation.[[fn:44]] During its consultations, the Working Group heard from numerous stakeholders about the cross-cutting ways in which gender-based and other intersectional inequalities shape and reinforce women’s and girls’ diverse experiences of poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 36 (2019); A/77/157; and Jackie Dugard and others, eds., Research Handbook on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights as Human Rights (Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2020)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Poverty is created, enabled and perpetuated by acts and omissions of States and other economic actors, and failures to address structural and systemic inequalities through coherent and targeted policies further entrench poverty.[[fn:45]] Since 2013, jurisprudence derived from the individual complaints mechanism developed by the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights under the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, 38 ECLAC, Buenos Aires Commitment (LC/CRM.15/6); and ECLAC, The Care Society (LC/CRM.15/3). 39 Association for Women’s Rights in Development, “Gender impact investing and the rise of false solutions: an analysis for feminist movements” (2023). 40 Civil Society and Indigenous Peoples’ Mechanism for relations with the Committee on World Food Security, “Voices from the ground 2: transformative solutions to the global systemic food crises” (2022); and Susan Paulson, “Degrowth and feminisms ally to forge care-full paths beyond the pandemic”, Interface, vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 232–246. 41 Global Alliance for Tax Justice and others, Framing Feminist Taxation (2021). 42 Feminist Economic Justice for People and Planet Action Nexus, “A feminist and decolonial Global Green New Deal” (2021). 43 Juan Pablo Bohoslavsky and Francisco Cantamutto, eds., The IMF and Human Rights: Interviews (2021). 44 Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 36 (2019); A/77/157; and Jackie Dugard and others, eds., Research Handbook on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights as Human Rights (Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2020). 45 A/HRC/21/39, para. 5. GE.23-06173 Social and Cultural Rights has highlighted individual rights violations while also drawing attention to the systemic discrimination and stigmatization of those who live in poverty.[[fn:46]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "A/HRC/21/39, para. 5."}, {"n": 46, "text": "López Albán v. Spain (E/C.12/66/D/37/2018), para. 10.1."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "Regional human rights mechanisms have also advanced normative framings of the rights to be free from poverty and from inequalities. Significant contributions from regional bodies include: the adoption of an integrated concept of “economic, social, cultural and environmental rights” and the “right to a life with dignity”, the definition of discrimination based on poverty and vulnerable socioeconomic status as a violation of the right to equal protection by the law, the determination of direct violations of socioeconomic rights,[[fn:47]] the right to protection from (the risk of) poverty and social exclusion, the recognition of discriminatory working conditions and poverty arising from gender segregation in the labour market,[[fn:48]] and mechanisms for the justiciability of all economic, social and cultural rights, including the rights of women to food security, a healthy environment and sustainable development.[[fn:49]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "See, for example, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Report on Poverty and Human Rights in the Americas (2017); Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Special Rapporteurship on Economic, Social, Cultural and Environmental Rights; Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Business and Human Rights: Inter-American Standards (2019); Inter-American Court of Human Rights case law, especially in 2017–2022; and ECLAC, Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean (2018)."}, {"n": 48, "text": "See Council of Europe, European Social Charter (revised) (1996), art. 30; Aoife Nolan, Protecting the Child from Poverty: the Role of Rights in the Council of Europe (2019); and Council of Europe, “UWE decisions: factsheet” (2019)."}, {"n": 49, "text": "African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights; and Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (2003), arts. 15, 18 and 19."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "Through their interpretation of human rights as indivisible and interdependent, human rights mechanisms have developed enlarged understandings of poverty and inequalities as abuses of multiple human rights and as forms of structural violence that undermine human dignity.[[fn:50]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Views expressed during consultations. See also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 36 (2019); A/77/157; A/HRC/35/29; A/HRC/44/51; A/77/136; and A/HRC/50/28."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Article 28 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides that everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which their rights and freedoms can be fully realized. The human right to equal protection before and under the law entails positive obligations for duty bearers to reduce socioeconomic inequalities at the level of individual right holders as well as within and between countries.[[fn:51]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "Gillian MacNaughton, “Is economic inequality a violation of human rights?”, in Research Handbook on Human Rights and Poverty, Martha F. Davis, Morten Kjaerum and Amanda Lyons, eds. (Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2021)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to equality and non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "All of the core multilateral human rights treaties and most national constitutions guarantee the fundamental right of everyone to equality and non-discrimination. This is a principle that also permeates the interpretation and implementation of all human rights. The right to equality and non-discrimination includes the right not to experience any kind of distinction on prohibited grounds, including sex, gender, socioeconomic condition, or other status.[[fn:52]] 52 Human rights law recognizes that discrimination, including intersectional and multiple forms of discrimination, is both a cause and a consequence of poverty and inequalities.53 46 López Albán v. Spain (E/C.12/66/D/37/2018), para. 10.1. 47 See, for example, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Report on Poverty and Human Rights in the Americas (2017); Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Special Rapporteurship on Economic, Social, Cultural and Environmental Rights; Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Business and Human Rights: Inter-American Standards (2019); Inter-American Court of Human Rights case law, especially in 2017–2022; and ECLAC, Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean (2018). 48 See Council of Europe, European Social Charter (revised) (1996), art. 30; Aoife Nolan, Protecting the Child from Poverty: the Role of Rights in the Council of Europe (2019); and Council of Europe, “UWE decisions: factsheet” (2019). 49 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights; and Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (2003), arts. 15, 18 and 19. 50 Views expressed during consultations. See also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 36 (2019); A/77/157; A/HRC/35/29; A/HRC/44/51; A/77/136; and A/HRC/50/28. 51 Gillian MacNaughton, “Is economic inequality a violation of human rights?”, in Research Handbook on Human Rights and Poverty, Martha F. Davis, Morten Kjaerum and Amanda Lyons, eds. (Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2021). 52 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 2; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art. 2 (2); International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 2 (1); Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, arts. 1 and 2; Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 20 (2009); and Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 6 (2018), para. 11. 53 A/HRC/21/11. GE.23-06173", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 2; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art. 2 (2); International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 2 (1); Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, arts. 1 and 2; Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 20 (2009); and Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 6 (2018), para. 11."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to equality and non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women contains multiple provisions on the right to substantive gender equality. These include a broad definition of discrimination against women, temporary special measures to accelerate equality of opportunities and treatment, obligations to ensure women’s full development, their participation in political and public life, and their enjoyment of specific socioeconomic rights.[[fn:54]] Article 5 (a) of the Convention stipulates that States must adopt specific measures to combat harmful gender stereotypes.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "Arts. 1, 3, 4, 7, 8 and 11–14."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to equality and non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "During the Working Group’s consultations, participants – several of them women and girls living or having grown up in poverty themselves – described the stigma and intersecting discrimination experienced by women and girls in poverty. Women and girls from ethnic minority groups, such as Roma and Indigenous women, women and girls with disabilities, girls and young women in poverty, illiterate women and girls, women and girls of African descent, internally displaced, migrant (especially undocumented), stateless, asylum-seeking and refugee women, women living in situations of conflict and occupation, rural women, older women, self-employed women, women domestic workers, and women waste pickers and street vendors, described the distinct ways in which poverty and inequalities shaped their lives. Many participants powerfully attested to the stress occasioned by the need to provide an adequate standard of living for their families, with limited resources, along with feelings of guilt due to having to leave their children to work long hours in poorly paid, informal and precarious employment.[[fn:55]] It was also emphasized that social welfare paradigms that targeted families living in poverty, often directed at Indigenous and minority groups, such as Roma families, for placement of their children into care or non-consensual adoptions were discriminatory and violated the human rights to family protection and assistance.[[fn:56]]", "labels": ["Children", "Internally displaced persons", "Migrants", "Non-citizens and stateless", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "Submission from ATD Fourth World."}, {"n": 56, "text": "Submission from End Child Poverty Coalition and Youth Voices."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to equality and non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "In many jurisdictions, criminal laws are disproportionately applied to women and girls because of their economic or social status, and due to the costs of accessing the formal justice system. Those particularly affected are women and girls living in poverty seeking reproductive health care and services, including abortion, Indigenous, migrant and ethnic minority women and girls, women and girls who are experiencing homelessness, women and girl street vendors, sex workers, those who use drugs or are associated with trade in drugs, women in the informal economy, informal and cross-border traders, women and girls environmental and human rights defenders, and members of LGBTIQ+ communities.[[fn:57]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons in street situations", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "Submissions from Penal Reform International and ATD Fourth World; and fortifyrights.org."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to equality and non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The security of tenure of land or housing and the accessibility of legal and justice systems are also severely limited for women and girls living in poverty, who frequently have no effective means to assert their rights to be free from violence, to contest or to receive compensation for illegal or unfair evictions, displacement due to development projects, land grabbing and environmental destruction, or to access or claim adequate housing, decent working conditions or social security entitlements.[[fn:58]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 58, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to equality and non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "Economic, social and cultural rights are recognized in numerous international, regional and national human rights instruments. The right to an adequate standard of living, as guaranteed in article 25 (1) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 11 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, article 27 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and article 14 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, constitutes a key entitlement through which the rights of women and girls to live in dignity may be guaranteed. In its general comment No. 12 (1999), the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights noted that an “adequate” standard of living was “to a large extent determined by prevailing social, economic, cultural, climatic, ecological and other conditions”, and this cannot be reduced to a simple, universal monetary threshold. The right to an adequate standard of living encompasses food and nutrition, housing, electricity, water and sanitation. The right to rest and leisure protected in 54 Arts. 1, 3, 4, 7, 8 and 11–14. 55 Submission from ATD Fourth World. 56 Submission from End Child Poverty Coalition and Youth Voices. 57 Submissions from Penal Reform International and ATD Fourth World; and fortifyrights.org. 58 Ibid. GE.23-06173 article 24 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 30 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child is also central for women and girls, who are often severely affected by time poverty. States have obligations to immediately take steps to eliminate discrimination and ensure that everyone enjoys the “minimum core” of all human rights under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and to observe the principle of progressive realization, which entails the implementation of reliable systems to measure advancement towards the achievement of the full realization of these rights for all people.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Poverty and inequality: violations of women’s economic, social and cultural rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "There are specific and mutually reinforcing mechanisms through which poverty and inequality affect the rights of women and girls to fully enjoy an adequate standard of living and other interrelated economic, social and cultural rights. For example, the gender gap in food and nutrition insecurity has continued to grow in recent years, with 31.9 per cent of women and girls in the world being moderately or severely food insecure, compared with 27.6 per cent of men.[[fn:59]] Gender inequality in access to food and nutrition is linked to discrimination in the allocation of rights to productive land, with women making up fewer than 15 per cent of agricultural land owners globally.[[fn:60]] Gender discrimination is also manifest in laws, policies, social norms and stereotypes that restrict women’s rights to seeds and other natural resources, agricultural inputs and labour and that privilege men’s nutritional needs over those of women and girls.[[fn:61]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 59, "text": "FAO and others, The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World: Repurposing Food and Agricultural Policies to Make Healthy Diets More Affordable (Rome, 2022)."}, {"n": 60, "text": "FAO, “The gender gap in land rights” (2018)."}, {"n": 61, "text": "Global Network for the Right to Food and Nutrition, Right to Food and Nutrition Watch: Women’s Power in Food Struggles (2019); and Civil Society and Indigenous Peoples Mechanism, “Voices from the ground 2”."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Poverty and inequality: violations of women’s economic, social and cultural rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "In relation to the right to adequate housing, women and girls experiencing homelessness are more likely to be victims of sexual and other forms of violence, while domestic violence is one of the leading factors that pushes women and girls into homelessness.[[fn:62]] There is a lack of global data on women’s homelessness, but in some regions there has been a sharp increase in the number of homeless women between the ages of 18 and 29 and those aged over 64.[[fn:63]] Inadequate housing is also a gendered phenomenon, with women-headed households being more likely to live in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions and unable to afford water, electricity and gas, and often public transportation. This situation is particularly acute for migrant women.[[fn:64]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons in street situations", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "A/HRC/43/43."}, {"n": 63, "text": "Submission from the Legal Clinic of University of Murcia, with Cepaim."}, {"n": 64, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Poverty and inequality: violations of women’s economic, social and cultural rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "Menstrual poverty, which constitutes a violation of the rights to water and sanitation, remains a significant concern for large numbers of women and girls around the world, and the situation is particularly serious for those women and girls who are homeless. In submissions and consultations, it was noted that in certain countries, most women and girls are not able to afford sanitary pads and other period products – some engaging in “survival sex” to obtain them – and this menstrual poverty is heightened by policies that apply consumer and value-added taxes to period products.[[fn:65]]", "labels": ["Persons in street situations", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "Submission from the Open Space Association Deep Poverty Network Turkey."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Poverty and inequality: violations of women’s economic, social and cultural rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "Many of the core elements of the right to health, recognized in article 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, including sexual and reproductive health and the right to a healthy environment, are also routinely violated for women and girls living in poverty. Global data on maternal mortality rates show dramatic regional and inter-country inequalities, with poor women and girls from low-income countries being 70 per cent more likely than women in high-income countries to die as a result of preventable complications arising from pregnancy, childbirth and unsafe abortion.[[fn:66]] Women and girls living in poverty – in particular those with disabilities and those who are migrants or from ethnic minorities – are less likely to access routine cancer-screening services for breast and cervical cancer and they frequently cannot afford essential medications.[[fn:67]] These forms of direct and indirect discrimination within health-care systems constitute gender- and poverty-based violations of the right to health.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "WHO, Trends in Maternal Mortality 2000 to 2020: Estimates by WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, World Bank Group and UNDESA/Population Division."}, {"n": 67, "text": "Submission from the Legal Clinic of University of Murcia, with Cepaim."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Poverty and inequality: violations of women’s economic, social and cultural rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "The right to work – guaranteed in article 23 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, articles 6–8 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and article 11 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women – incorporates the right to equal remuneration for work of equal value and decent working conditions. The right to work can enable women to enjoy freedom from poverty, improve their decision-making power within households and society and enable them to exercise greater autonomy over many aspects of their lives.[[fn:68]] It was reiterated during the Working Group’s consultations that women and girls continued to experience structural gender discrimination in both formal and informal employment on the grounds of pregnancy and caring responsibilities.[[fn:69]] It was also highlighted that unequal and inadequate remuneration, precarious employment, lack of union representation, and violence and harassment in the workplace are all factors that increase sex- and gender-based inequalities and entrench poverty for women and girls. Submissions to the Working Group stressed the persistence of situations akin to slavery or indentured servitude among local and migrant domestic workers, and the ways in which these practices contribute to maintaining women and girls in situations of poverty and exploitation. Many of the other inputs received by the Working Group focused on the exploitative, precarious and gender-segregated nature of jobs in special economic and export-processing zones, where transnational corporations benefit from tax advantages while failing to adequately respect and protect the human rights of workers, the majority of whom are young women.[[fn:70]] Studies documenting the detrimental impact of the pandemic on women’s rights highlight the large numbers of jobs, primarily those held by workers “at the bottom of the pyramid whose class disadvantage was exacerbated by their marginalized social identity”, that were lost in the manufacturing sector as a result of the crisis.[[fn:71]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 68, "text": "A/HRC/44/51."}, {"n": 69, "text": "Shirin M. Rai, Benjamin D. Brown and Kanchana N. Ruwanpura, “SDG 8: decent work and economic growth: a gendered analysis”, World Development, vol. 113, January 2019, pp. 368–380."}, {"n": 70, "text": "Submission from APFWLD, “Situation of women workers in SEZ in Asia and the Pacific”."}, {"n": 71, "text": "UNRISD, Crises of Inequality, p. 180."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Poverty and inequality: violations of women’s economic, social and cultural rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "There are also significant gender inequalities within and between countries and regions in relation to access to finance, assets and digital networks. Data show that women are 9 per cent less likely than men to have a bank account and that they are also discriminated against in the areas of savings, credit, insurance and other financial services. In low- and middle-income countries, 300 million fewer women than men have access to the mobile Internet.[[fn:72]] These inequalities have important implications for women as business owners, particularly in the e-commerce sector, and on their ability to receive wages and social security payments.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 72, "text": "World Bank, “The World Bank in Gender”, 6 April 2023."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Poverty and inequality: violations of women’s economic, social and cultural rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "The right to bodily autonomy, recognized in the Beijing Declaration of 1995, as including sexual and reproductive rights and freedoms and the right to live free from violence, is crucial to ensuring that women and girls are equally able to exercise the right to live free from poverty.[[fn:73]] The absence of effective protection against violence and denials of sexual and reproductive autonomy not only deprive women living in poverty of their right to personal integrity, they also impede their right to equal participation in public life, education and employment, and impede the creation of businesses and other income-earning activities.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "See A/HRC/47/38."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Rights to bodily autonomy and integrity and to live free from all forms of violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "There are many aspects of the rights to bodily autonomy and integrity that are compromised for women and girls living in poverty. While progress has been made in ensuring the accessibility of contraceptive goods and services, there are still 164 million women globally who have an unmet need for family planning; most of these women and girls live in sub-Saharan Africa.[[fn:74]] The privatization of reproductive health services and products renders them unaffordable for low-income women and girls, which perpetuates inter-generational poverty.[[fn:75]] In addition, as noted above, the criminalization of women and girls seeking contraceptive goods and services or abortion care disproportionately affects those without the means to travel to other jurisdictions to access those services.[[fn:76]] The practice of coerced sterilization, particularly of ethnic minority and Indigenous women, including those deprived of their liberty, as well as of women with disabilities, is also an outcome of the intersectional discrimination and violence experienced by women and girls living in poverty. The gender inequalities and poverty being exacerbated as a result of conflict, occupation, climate change and disasters have increased school dropout, sexual violence and exploitation, forced and child marriage, early and unwanted pregnancies and trafficking in women and girls.[[fn:77]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 74, "text": "World Family Planning 2022: Meeting the Changing Needs for Family Planning – Contraceptive Use by Age and Method (United Nations publication, 2022)."}, {"n": 75, "text": "Open Space Association Deep Poverty Network Turkey."}, {"n": 76, "text": "Views expressed during consultations."}, {"n": 77, "text": "Submissions from the Bureau des Avocats Internationaux and the World Muslim Congress."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Rights to bodily autonomy and integrity and to live free from all forms of violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "Poverty and gender-based violence, including sexual violence and denials of bodily autonomy, therefore interact in a vicious, mutually reinforcing cycle. Women and girls facing sexual harassment at work, violence at home or violence on the streets are unable to participate on an equal basis in the labour market, and this in turn means that they are also discriminated against in connection with contributory social security benefits and are more likely to experience poverty, violence and homelessness in old age.[[fn:78]] When women and girls cannot access sexual and reproductive health education, information and goods and services, and family planning services, including abortion, gender-based inequalities and poverty are further entrenched and may be transmitted to future generations.[[fn:79]]", "labels": ["Persons in street situations", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 78, "text": "Submission from Legal Clinic of University of Murcia, with Cepaim."}, {"n": 79, "text": "Submissions from the World Muslim Congress and the Bureau des Avocats Internationaux."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Rights to bodily autonomy and integrity and to live free from all forms of violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "The right to social protection, guaranteed in article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 9 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights as well as in several ILO conventions, plays a crucial role in combating poverty by enabling all people to access an adequate standard of living that includes the rights to food and nutrition, housing, water and sanitation, and energy, as well as health and education. The right to social protection incorporates the right to “access and maintain benefits, whether in cash or in kind, without discrimination in order to secure protection” from a lack of work-related income, unaffordable health care, and insufficient family support.[[fn:80]] Target 5.4 of the Sustainable Development Goals, and the Global Alliance for Care, call upon all countries to recognize, value, reduce and redistribute unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services and social protection, and through redistributive policies, as key mechanisms to achieve gender equality. ILO conventions and recommendations on maternity protection and workers with family responsibilities, and the ILO Domestic Workers Convention, 2011 (No. 189), are useful advancements. Globally, however, there are enormous gaps in social protection, and an estimated 4.1 billion people worldwide are not covered by any benefits, the majority of those who are unprotected being older women in the African region.[[fn:81]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 19 (2008)."}, {"n": 81, "text": "ILO, World Social Protection Report 2020–2022: Social Protection at the Crossroads – in Pursuit of a Better Future (2021)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to social protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "While there have been improvements in social protection over recent decades and the COVID-19 crisis demonstrated that it was possible in many countries to rapidly implement benefits schemes, most social security systems continue to be gender-insensitive. The lack of gender-responsiveness in most social protection schemes is apparent in their exclusion of sexual and reproductive health services and conditions, failure to provide for leave and benefits for domestic violence-related harms, absence of support for women and girls in their roles as carers or as care-receivers throughout their life cycle, and making benefits contingent 74 World Family Planning 2022: Meeting the Changing Needs for Family Planning – Contraceptive Use by Age and Method (United Nations publication, 2022). 75 Open Space Association Deep Poverty Network Turkey. 76 Views expressed during consultations. 77 Submissions from the Bureau des Avocats Internationaux and the World Muslim Congress. 78 Submission from Legal Clinic of University of Murcia, with Cepaim. 79 Submissions from the World Muslim Congress and the Bureau des Avocats Internationaux. 80 Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 19 (2008). 81 ILO, World Social Protection Report 2020–2022: Social Protection at the Crossroads – in Pursuit of a Better Future (2021). GE.23-06173 on the rights holders’ marital and formal employment status, or on specific documentation that is inaccessible to women.[[fn:82]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 82, "text": "Views expressed during consultations."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to social protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "States and other duty bearers are required under international human rights law, and have made commitments in the Sustainable Development Goals, to establish equitable and sustainable systems to finance public spending on gender-responsive social protection systems.[[fn:83]] These funds should come through adopting progressive income and wealth taxes, along with a minimum corporate tax threshold; debt restructuring; undertaking gender- and child-responsive budgeting exercises; and lobbying for expanded development assistance and transfers.[[fn:84]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 83, "text": "Isabel Ortiz, Matthew Cummins and Kalaivani Karunanethy, “Fiscal space for social protection and the Sustainable Development Goals: options to expand social investment in 187 countries”, Extension of Social Security Series, No. 48."}, {"n": 84, "text": "World Bank Group, The 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda and the World Bank Group: Closing the SDGs Financing Gap (2019)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to social protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "Many of the participants in the Working Group’s consultations raised the issue of the gender- and poverty-based discrimination associated with receiving social security entitlements.[[fn:85]] Women and girls with disabilities, migrants, refugees and those from ethnic minority and Indigenous communities are frequently the targets of intersectional forms of “welfare stigma”, which can reinforce inequalities and deter eligible recipients from claiming their entitlements.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 85, "text": "Submissions from ATD Fourth World."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to social protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "The right to be free from poverty cannot be realized in isolation from individual and collective rights to substantive equality.[[fn:86]] The meaningful participation of diverse groups of women and girls in conceptualizing, implementing and monitoring socioeconomic policies, norms and strategies is a core part of this process. The challenge is to move from non-discrimination as a vehicle for the protection of individual rights towards the realization of the relational and redistributive obligations that are also an integral but, as yet largely unrealized, part of international human rights law.[[fn:87]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 86, "text": "Morten Kjaerum, Martha F. Davis and Amanda Lyons, eds., COVID-19 and Human Rights (Routledge, 2021)."}, {"n": 87, "text": "UNRISD, Crises of Inequality."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The right to substantive equality requires resource mobilization and redistribution within and between countries. The obligations incumbent on States under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, particularly its article 2, and other human rights guarantees to realize economic, social and cultural rights “to the maximum of their available resources” incorporates positive duties to progressively achieve the implementation of human rights and to seek external resources for that purpose.[[fn:88]] The current moment of overlapping crises provides an opportunity to examine the human rights impacts of prevailing systems of global economic governance. The commitments made by States under articles 1 (1) and (2), 5 (1), 22 and 23 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, under the Declaration on the Right to Development and within the framework of Sustainable Development Goal 10 require wealthy countries to assist low-income countries in the realization of economic, social and cultural rights for everyone without discrimination and to cooperate to reduce inequalities between and within nations.[[fn:89]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 88, "text": "Margot E. Salomon, “Why should it matter that others have more? Poverty, inequality and the potential of international human rights law”, LSE Law, Society and Economy Working Papers, No. 15."}, {"n": 89, "text": "International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art. 2 (1); and Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 3 (1990), para. 13."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 50, "n": 15, "text": "89 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art. 2 (1); and Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 3 (1990), para. 13. GE.23-06173 Tax justice", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 51, "n": 50, "text": "As noted above, to fulfil their human rights obligations to reduce gender inequality and poverty, States must direct adequate public resources to comprehensive social protection systems and services. A key mechanism for the redistribution of resources is through proportional and progressive taxation. One of the hallmarks of neoliberal economic policies over the past few decades has been a decline in the fiscal contributions being made by large corporations and high-income earners, while indirect taxes with regressive distributional impacts, such as value-added tax, have expanded.[[fn:90]] In addition to lower direct taxes, illicit financial flows by multinational corporations are depriving countries in the global South of up to $200 billion a year in lost fiscal revenues, and failures to effectively curb tax evasion, trade misinvoicing, corruption and money-laundering mean that there are fewer public resources available for equitable social and climate spending.[[fn:91]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 90, "text": "Bohoslavsky and Cantamutto, eds., The IMF and Human Rights: Interviews."}, {"n": 91, "text": "See A/77/169."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice", "Tax justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 52, "n": 51, "text": "Regressive taxation frameworks and illicit financial flows both have a particularly pernicious impact on women and girls, who account for a greater proportion of those living in poverty as a result of structural discrimination, and who are more likely than men to be responsible for caring for other family members, or to be care-receivers, and are therefore in greater need of social protection and public services.[[fn:92]] Tax justice, both nationally and globally, is a crucial mechanism for realizing human rights and for tackling socioeconomic inequalities and poverty, as Governments require fiscal revenue to sustainably finance investments in public services, social protection and gender-responsive infrastructure.[[fn:93]] Feminist methodologies for fiscal reform emphasize the need for transparent, gender-responsive taxation frameworks that recognize women’s indispensable labour in the economy and equitably redistribute resources from the wealthiest corporations and individuals to fund public provisioning.[[fn:94]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 92, "text": "Global Alliance for Tax Justice and others, Framing Feminist Taxation."}, {"n": 93, "text": "A/HRC/29/31 and A/HRC/26/28. See also Radhika Balakrishnan, James Heintz and Diane Elson, Rethinking Economic Policy for Social Justice: The Radical Potential of Human Rights."}, {"n": 94, "text": "Akina Mama wa Afrika and Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, “A feminist tax justice handbook for women in the informal economy” (2021)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice", "Tax justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 53, "n": 52, "text": "Debt cancellation is a prerequisite for just and human rights-based redistributive public policies. In 2021, in low-income countries, debt repayments represented 171 per cent of all spending on health care, education and social protection combined and, in 2022, debt servicing among low-income countries globally was estimated at $43 billion.[[fn:95]] If left unchecked, widespread, lasting debt crises in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic have the potential to set the achievement of global development goals back by at least a decade.[[fn:96]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 95, "text": "Oxfam, “First crisis, then catastrophe” (2022)."}, {"n": 96, "text": "See A/75/164."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice", "Debt cancellation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 54, "n": 53, "text": "There are alternative models to indebtedness that would not result in increased inequalities through the adoption of austerity and fiscal consolidation measures that lead to reduced social expenditure and that have been shown to undermine the human rights of women and girls living in poverty. In recent years, more than 60 countries have successfully renegotiated debts, and over 20 have defaulted on or repudiated public debt, preferring to invest debt service savings in social programmes.[[fn:97]] Since the COVID-19 pandemic, the G20’s Debt Service Suspension Initiative and the International Monetary Fund’s Catastrophe Containment and Relief Trust have provided some debt service relief to highly indebted poor countries. Additionally, in some country settings, it has been possible for data on the negative impact of austerity measures on the sexual and reproductive health and other rights of women and girls to be put forward to maintain programmes and budgets to guarantee those essential human rights.[[fn:98]] Those interventions have opened space for dialogue on the human rights impacts of debt and fiscal consolidation in specific countries, and in particular sectors such as education, health and nutrition, but more could be done with respect to cancelling debt and 90 Bohoslavsky and Cantamutto, eds., The IMF and Human Rights: Interviews. 91 See A/77/169. 92 Global Alliance for Tax Justice and others, Framing Feminist Taxation. 93 A/HRC/29/31 and A/HRC/26/28. See also Radhika Balakrishnan, James Heintz and Diane Elson, Rethinking Economic Policy for Social Justice: The Radical Potential of Human Rights. 94 Akina Mama wa Afrika and Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, “A feminist tax justice handbook for women in the informal economy” (2021). 95 Oxfam, “First crisis, then catastrophe” (2022). 96 See A/75/164. 97 Bohoslavsky and Cantamutto, The IMF and Human Rights: Interviews. 98 Views expressed during consultations. GE.23-06173 adopting systematic gender-responsive budgeting and financial processes which would allow Governments to reclaim space for the development of feminist and human rights-based economic policies.[[fn:99]] Equitable and transparent trade and investment systems", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 97, "text": "Bohoslavsky and Cantamutto, The IMF and Human Rights: Interviews."}, {"n": 98, "text": "Views expressed during consultations."}, {"n": 99, "text": "Ilene Grabel, “Global financial governance and progressive feminist agendas”, International Journal of Political Economy, vol. 51, No. 4 (2022), pp. 331–345; and IMF, “IMF strategy toward mainstreaming gender” (2022)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice", "Debt cancellation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 55, "n": 54, "text": "The extent to which trade liberalization has contributed to deepening sex- and gender-related inequalities and poverty is still unclear. There are some attempts being made within global and regional trade regimes to bring a “gender lens” to poverty and inequality. However, it is apparent that these processes need to do more than address women in their roles as entrepreneurs and small-business owners and instead take a more critical approach to analysing the human rights impacts of trade and investment agreements and disaggregate them by sex and gender and other axes of discrimination.[[fn:100]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 100, "text": "Views expressed during consultations."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice", "Equitable and transparent trade and investment systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 56, "n": 55, "text": "Many recent regional trade and investment agreements contain preambular commitments to gender equality and to improving the situation of women living in poverty, and in some cases specific chapters on gender equality; however, due to a lack of data, it is not known whether these commitments have resulted in material improvements in women’s lives.[[fn:101]] Regional trade integration has led to more employment opportunities for women in Africa, Asia and Latin America, but many of the jobs that have been created are poorly remunerated and precarious and do not provide scope for women to develop empowering careers.[[fn:102]] Gender equality provisions often do not cover e-commerce and digital trade or trade in special economic zones, and do not include accountability and dispute-settlement mechanisms for violation of such provisions.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "UNCTAD, “Making trade agreements work for gender equality: data and statistics”, Policy Brief, No. 81 (2020)."}, {"n": 102, "text": "UNCTAD, “Looking at the trade and gender nexus from a development perspective: a brief overview” (2022)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice", "Equitable and transparent trade and investment systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 57, "n": 56, "text": "Climate reparations are being discussed as part of the feminist Global Green New Deal that would attribute responsibility and define payments to be made by colonial powers for historical and ongoing extraction and contributions to global emissions.[[fn:103]] Funds established through these processes could be used to develop innovative and inclusive social and environmental policies. More generally, reparations should follow the human rights standards of providing restitution, compensation, satisfaction, rehabilitation and guarantees of non-repetition,[[fn:104]] and be gender-transformative, in line with international human rights law.[[fn:105]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 103, "text": "Feminist Economic Justice for People and Planet Action Nexus, “A feminist and decolonial Global Green New Deal”."}, {"n": 104, "text": "Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law."}, {"n": 105, "text": "See Ruth Rubio-Marin, “The gender of reparations in transitional societies”, in The Gender of Reparations: Unsettling Sexual Hierarchies while Redressing Human Rights Violations, Ruth Rubio-Marin, ed. (New York, Cambridge University Press, 2009)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice", "Reparations for climate change and other racial and social inequalities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 58, "n": 57, "text": "While Governments are the primary holders of obligations to ensure that all human rights are respected, protected and fulfilled, corporate actors also have responsibilities to respect and protect human rights and to provide adequate remedies for human rights harms that arise from their activities.[[fn:106]] Businesses have a key role to play in reducing poverty and inequalities globally and nationally, by upholding standards on human rights, environmental protection, labour relations and fiscal accountability.[[fn:107]] Several recent guidance documents have been developed to highlight the responsibilities of businesses to ensure that their activities advance the right to substantive gender equality.[[fn:108]] In practice, participants in the Working Group’s consultations noted that businesses were routinely failing to pay living or equal wages, or to offer social security, including paid maternity or carers’ leave, that many were not taking adequate steps to guarantee sexual and reproductive health and other rights of workers to bodily autonomy and freedom from violence, or to ensure women’s rights to collective bargaining and freedom of association. It was also emphasized that corporate due diligence procedures and grievance mechanisms for business-related human rights abuse were not gender-sensitive, let alone gender-transformative, and, as a result, were largely ineffective in changing discriminatory norms and practices.[[fn:109]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 106, "text": "See A/HRC/8/5."}, {"n": 107, "text": "ESCAP, “Business initiatives to reduce poverty and inequality: strengthening the evidence base to leave no one behind” (2021)."}, {"n": 108, "text": "A/HRC/41/49; A/HRC/41/43; and OHCHR, “Tackling discrimination against lesbian, gay, bi, trans & intersex people: standards of conduct for business”, November 2017."}, {"n": 109, "text": "See A/HRC/41/43."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice", "Corporate accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 59, "n": 58, "text": "Too little attention has been paid to the reduction of socioeconomic inequalities as a prerequisite for effective action to combat poverty. The international human rights framework provides tools to measure and understand how the rights of women and girls to live free from poverty and inequality are being systematically violated by particular political, social, cultural and economic norms and institutions. Human rights instruments also contain important redistributive and solidarity obligations that, if fully implemented, would enable States as well as other duty bearers to create sustainable, feminist and human rights-based economies.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 60, "n": 59, "text": "A feminist and human rights-based approach to poverty and inequality is based on the assertion that the role of the economy is to support human dignity, well-being and human rights. A feminist human rights framework focusing on women’s human rights, especially their economic, social and cultural rights and their right to participate in all spheres of life, allows specific forms of structural discrimination to be redressed. This entails examining wealth and income distribution, intra-household dynamics, access to and control over assets, including those that are held in common, environmental protection, time allocation, care and well-being, and the right to rest and leisure of women and girls, as pivotal elements of gender equality and sustainable development. This approach also draws attention to the responsibilities of States and other actors to take targeted steps to address inequalities in the distribution of power, resources and entitlements and to advance collective and individual human rights, including the right to development. The adoption of human rights-based and feminist perspectives by States and international organizations to enable the creation of progressive, redistributive global financial governance frameworks is essential for addressing both inequalities and poverty in a comprehensive and effective manner.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 61, "n": 60, "text": "The right to live free from poverty and not to be discriminated against on the basis of socioeconomic condition should be further developed as key human rights, and appropriate systems should be established to collect disaggregated data on the multiple dimensions of inequalities and poverty. Identifying and effectively responding to intersecting and multiple forms of inequality on the grounds of poverty, sex and gender, race, ethnicity, age, ability, religion, geographical location, migration status, sexual orientation, gender identity and other conditions must be a priority for participatory and targeted policies and strategies at the local, national, regional and international levels.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 62, "n": 61, "text": "It is imperative to analyse the ways in which overlapping inequalities drive and amplify ecological, social, political and economic crises and to ensure that poverty-eradication policies are directed towards the transformation of unequal power relations through the negotiation of a new human rights-based feminist eco-social consensus. Given the rapidly approaching deadline for the achievement of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, and noting the slow rate of progress on Sustainable Development Goals 1, 5 and 10, it is essential to reiterate the centrality of women’s and girls’ human rights and gender equality to processes of poverty eradication and to combating inequalities both within and between nations.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 63, "n": 62, "text": "States should take positive measures for the realization of the full range of internationally recognized human rights of women and girls, to eliminate poverty and achieve substantive equality, inter alia by:\n(a) Grounding all laws and policies, especially in the economic and social arenas, in the core human rights principles of equality and non-discrimination, the meaningful participation of women and girls, accountability and the progressive realization and non-retrogression of economic, social and cultural rights, in line with applicable human rights norms and standards for each specific right;\n(b) Guaranteeing universal, accessible, adequate, available, gender-responsive and comprehensive social protection, adhering to and applying relevant ILO conventions, and ensuring that gender-responsive social protection is granted throughout the life cycle of women and girls as part of the right to an adequate standard of living, regardless of marital status, employment or participation in the “formal” labour market;\n(c) Ensuring equal rights to land, housing and property, realizing the rights to food and nutrition, water and sanitation, health, free or affordable quality and accessible education, childcare, health care and elder care, and decent work and rights at work, including freedom of association and collective bargaining, as well as women’s and girls’ right to participate in all areas of political, social, cultural and economic life;\n(d) Taking steps to prevent and respond to intersectional discrimination against women and girls who are beneficiaries of social protection;\n(e) Recognizing and developing comprehensive and gender-responsive regulatory frameworks, policies and programmes to realize the right to care, which encompasses the right to provide and to receive care and to exercise self-care and collective care, based on the principles of State, social and gender-shared responsibility, equality, universality and autonomy;\n(f) Realizing women’s and girls’ rights to bodily autonomy and freedom from violence, ensuring the availability, affordability and accessibility of sexual and reproductive health rights, information, and services and goods, including to address menstrual poverty, as well as all necessary measures to prevent and respond to gender-based discrimination and violence, through adequately funded public services, welfare systems, and the implementation of economic rights;\n(g) Carrying out gender-responsive resource redistribution through the recognition of the value of the care economy, fair fiscal policies (including proportional and progressive taxation for high-income earners and corporations), equitable trade and investment policies, debt cancellation or debt relief in case of State insolvency, and corporate accountability;\n(h) Ensuring the realization of cross-cutting rights, such as access to justice, including for violations of socioeconomic rights, the right to development and the right to a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment;\n(i) Identifying the ways in which crises, compounded forms of structural discrimination and legal and policy frameworks place women and girls at aggravated risk of poverty and inequality and result in further human rights violations, and preventing, mitigating and addressing such risks;\n(j) Adopting a feminist and human rights-based approach to the measurement of intersecting forms of discrimination to ensure a gender, equality-centred and sustainable development approach to poverty, with enhanced attention to the groups of women and girls identified in the present report as being in heightened conditions of marginalization and exclusion;\n(k) Repealing or modifying laws that criminalize acts associated with poverty and life-sustaining activities, the exercise of sexual and reproductive autonomy rights, including abortion, and other status offences that disproportionately affect poor and marginalized women and girls;\n(l) Guaranteeing equal representation and voice in labour unions and collective bargaining for women workers and creating independent and transparent grievance mechanisms to protect and fulfil women’s rights to decent work and to enable women to enjoy these rights and to receive gender-transformative remedies in the event of violations;\n(m) Ensuring that trade and investment negotiations and positions are transparent, participatory and aimed at eliminating gender, affluence and other biases, and are consistent with and promote international human rights obligations as well as the 2030 Agenda. This includes gender parity in representation and participation of women in all their diversity in the development of trade and investment agreements and policies. Gender and human rights impact assessments should be carried out prior to concluding bilateral, regional and multilateral trade and investment agreements and the findings of those assessments should be implemented and a dispute-settlement mechanism should be set forth in relation to the gender equality and human rights provisions of such agreements;\n(n) Complying with the immediate obligations to eliminate discrimination, and guarantee the minimum core of all economic, social and cultural rights and their progressive realization; dedicating maximum available resources to the realization, availability and accessibility of such rights for all women and girls; and creating and promoting mechanisms for their full legal recognition and justiciability, including by ratifying the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, as well as their Optional Protocols;\n(o) Fulfilling, particularly in the case of economically developed and wealthy States, the obligations of international assistance and cooperation under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, applying a gender- and human rights-based approach under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and applicable standards, and promoting the adoption of a binding international instrument on the right to development, as crucial redistributive mechanisms;\n(p) Reinvigorating the global commitments made under the Sustainable Development Goals through the use of creative, feminist and human rights-based strategies – such as those outlined in section II, subsection B, of the present report – and through national indicators that focus on the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals 1, 5 and 10 in particular.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 64, "n": 63, "text": "International and regional economic, financial and monetary institutions and their member States should:\n(a) Take concerted steps to move away from growth-centred and neoliberal paradigms that foster inequalities, by adopting feminist and human rights-based approaches which prioritize the elimination of poverty and of gendered socioeconomic inequality;\n(b) Design, construct and implement gender-responsive budgets to realize women’s and girls’ human rights and gender equality, increase financing in ordinary budgets, use gender-budgeting tools, adopt measures such as subsidies, aid, development cooperation and gender-sensitive loans and financing and create mechanisms for budget accountability;\n(c) Adopt inclusive feminist approaches and methodologies by ensuring the participation and consultation of diverse groups of women and girls in the design, preparation and implementation of economic and social laws and policies at the national, regional and international levels, ensuring gender parity in decision-making bodies and listening to and valuing alternative forms of knowledge, including in the economic arena, with the goal of transforming unequal socioeconomic structures and institutions;\n(d) Regularly collect and publicly disseminate disaggregated data across all key metrics, especially those related to the Sustainable Development Goals that focus on poverty and inequalities (in particular Goals 1, 5 and 10), and direct special attention to gender-based discrimination and violence against women and girls, including the targeting of women and girl human and environmental rights defenders. Ensure that effective and compatible methodologies are used to enable aggregation and analysis. To the extent possible, further disaggregate data based on intersecting identities that can drive further marginalization;\n(e) Identify and modify implicit and explicit fiscal biases against women and girls, specific groups and countries through the allocation of budgets to reduce intersectional socioeconomic inequalities, the adoption of tax justice measures and the identification and combating of tax avoidance and evasion by corporate actors, as well as corruption. Gender and human rights impact assessments must be fully integrated into national budgets and economic policies with a view to eliminating poverty and inequality. The value of the care economy must be recognized, and fiscal policy must be used to reduce and redistribute workloads through gender-responsive taxation systems that ensure adequate investments in policies that promote women’s and girls’ rights and gender equality;\n(f) Adopt holistic, gender-responsive measurements of poverty and inequality that capture diverse experiences and go beyond commonly used thresholds of relative inequalities and the situation of those in the bottom 10 per cent of wealth and income metrics, and integrally address the income and wealth held by the richest segment of the population. Such measurements should be intersectional and gender-sensitive and highlight the realization of the various economic, social, cultural and civil and political rights that relate to the right to an adequate standard of living of women and girls in a given context;\n(g) Develop and mainstream gender-responsive and human rights-based macroeconomic policy prescriptions on structural adjustment and national debt repayments in the light of significant evidence of their inequitable impacts on the human rights of women and girls. Debt sustainability analysis and impact assessments of economic reforms should consider the human rights obligations of both debtor States and their creditors towards the borrowers’ populations, including the prohibition of implementing or promoting debt and macroeconomic policies with disproportionate effects on women.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 65, "n": 64, "text": "Corporations, and the States and international and regional organizations exercising jurisdiction and control over them, should:\n(a) Contribute to the realization of the rights of all women and girls, implement participatory gender and human rights impact and due diligence processes, in compliance with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, and ensure that grievance mechanisms and remedies for business-related abuses are accessible, effective and gender-transformative;\n(b) Ensure corporate accountability and tax justice, particularly for transnational and high-profit corporations, through compliance with human rights and fiscal commitments and obligations, and implement the gender guidance to the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. States should mainstream a feminist and human rights-based approach into their national action plans and other national follow-up mechanisms on business and human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report covers the main activities of the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls from the time of submission of its previous report[[fn:1]] until March 2024, and includes its stocktaking and vision-setting for the future.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A/HRC/53/39."}], "section": ["I. Activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "At its thirty-seventh session, held in New York from 8 to 12 May 2023, the Working Group met with civil society organizations, debriefed States members of the Security Council on its mission to Afghanistan, conducted jointly with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan, and held consultations on its future guidance documents. It also met with representatives of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women) and the Department of Economic and Social Affairs, the Special Rapporteurs on the right to development and on the rights of Indigenous Peoples and Member State representatives.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "At its thirty-eighth session, held in Geneva from 9 to 13 October 2023, the Working Group met with representatives of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Committee on the Rights of the Child, UN-Women and the World Food Programme. It also met with the Independent Expert on protection against violence and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity and the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights, held hybrid consultations with activists and academics on discrimination against women and girls and launched its guidance documents on eliminating discrimination against sex workers and on men’s accountability for gender equality.[[fn:2]]", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/wg-women-and-girls/resources."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At its thirty-ninth session, held in Geneva from 15 to 19 January 2024, the Working Group held meetings with representatives of Member States, the United Nations Deputy High Commissioner for Human Rights, representatives of civil society organizations based in Geneva, the Special Rapporteur on Afghanistan and the Independent Expert on protection against violence and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity, among others. It also held four virtual regional consultations with civil society and one consultation with girl activists.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The Working Group visited Afghanistan from 27 April to 4 May 2023, jointly with the Special Rapporteur on Afghanistan. It also visited Malta from 26 June to 7 July 2023 and Mauritania from 25 September to 6 October 2023. It thanks the Governments of Afghanistan, Malta and Mauritania for their cooperation and encourages States to respond positively to its requests for visits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The Working Group addressed several communications to Governments and other stakeholders, individually or jointly with other mandate holders. The communications concerned a wide range of subjects, including discriminatory laws and practices, allegations of violations of the rights of women human rights defenders, journalists and lawyers, women deprived of liberty and migrant, refugee, asylum-seeking and stateless women and girls, as well as trafficking in women and girls, gender-based violence and violations of sexual and 1 A/HRC/53/39. 2 See https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/wg-women-and-girls/resources. GE.24-07559 reproductive health rights.[[fn:3]] The Working Group issued press releases, both individually and jointly with other mandate holders, the human rights treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.[[fn:4]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Non-citizens and stateless", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "All communications are available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TmSearch/TMDocuments."}, {"n": 4, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/latest?field_content_category_target_id%5b162%5d=162&field_entity_target_id%5b1314%5d=1314&field_published_date_value%5bmin%5d=&field_published_date_value%5bmax%5d=&sort_bef_combine=field_published_date_value_DESC."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The members of the Working Group undertook numerous other activities in their official capacity, including participation in regional consultations and expert meetings and engagements with stakeholders. In particular, the Chair presented an oral report to the General Assembly at its seventy-eighth session and addressed the Commission on the Status of Women at its sixty-eighth session, for the first time during the opening segment. Moreover, members of the Working Group contributed to the seventy-seventh ordinary session of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, the Gender Apartheid Inquiry conducted by a parliamentary panel in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Human Rights Institute of the International Bar Association, several discussions on advancing gender equality, organized by UN-Women, and a high-level panel discussion on gender apartheid in Afghanistan, organized by the Malala Fund for Girls’ Right to Education, the International Peace Institute and the Atlantic Council. The Working Group continued to chair the Platform of Independent Expert Mechanisms on the Elimination of Discrimination and Violence against Women until 29 February and convened various meetings of the Platform during its sessions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "In the present report, the Working Group takes stock of its past work, focusing on the past six years, and analyses the main lessons learned. In addition, it presents its vision for the future. It is grateful for the responses to the questionnaire that it sent to all the Permanent Missions of Member States to the United Nations and other international organizations in Geneva and to other stakeholders on lessons learned, challenges and opportunities relating to the work of the mandate. Similarly, it wishes to thank all participants in the consultations held in connection with the preparation of the present report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "In fulfilling its mandate, the Working Group has consistently addressed the elimination of discrimination against women and girls in all fields – civil, political, economic, social and cultural – from the perspective of States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil women’s and girls’ human rights. Mindful of the fact that women and girls are not uniform but diverse and distinct in many ways, the Working Group has considered and addressed the intersection of sex- and gender-based discrimination with other grounds of discrimination. At the same time, it has emphasized that there are shared aspects of discrimination against women and girls that persist in all cultures, albeit with differing levels of intensity and impact.[[fn:5]] It has reaffirmed and prioritized the obligation of States to remove obstacles to and proactively ensure substantive gender equality in all human rights, as recognized under international human rights law.[[fn:6]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "A/HRC/38/46, para. 11."}, {"n": 6, "text": "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 2 and 3; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, arts. 2 and 3; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, arts. 2–5; Convention on the Rights of the Child, art. 2; African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, art. 18 (3); Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa; American Convention on Human Rights, art. 1; Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence Against Women; Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (European Convention on Human Rights), art. 14; and Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Since its establishment in 2010, the Working Group has underlined that progress in advancing gender equality has not been linear and has noted both positive reforms and regressions.[[fn:7]] In 2018, on the basis of what it was able to observe and document during its first six years of work, the Working Group warned about the resurgence of a conservative and retrogressive narrative in international forums and at the national level, accompanied by attempts to reinstate policies or legislation that are harmful to women and girls, especially in the areas of family life and bodily autonomy.[[fn:8]] Six years later, it is with the greatest concern that the Working Group observes that the backlash against women’s and girls’ human rights is intensifying and has reached extreme proportions in certain countries.[[fn:9]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "A/HRC/20/28, para. 12."}, {"n": 8, "text": "See A/HRC/38/46."}, {"n": 9, "text": "See, for example, A/HRC/53/21; and OHCHR, “Iran’s proposed hijab law could amount to ‘gender apartheid’: UN experts”, press release, 1 September 2023."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The Working Group defines gender backlash as denial of the recognition, enforcement and realization of women’s and girls’ rights or retrogression in that regard. It emphasizes that the gender backlash not only destabilizes and undermines the foundation of the human rights system by denying equal rights to half of the world’s population, but also makes impossible any prospect of just, inclusive, peaceful and sustainable societies. The need to reaffirm and recommit to the universality of women’s and girls’ rights, as well as the inalienable, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated nature of all human rights, is paramount and requires coherent, systematic, comprehensive and coordinated efforts by all.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 12, "n": 2, "text": "Reversing rollbacks of human rights and reaffirming the universality thereof", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 13, "n": 12, "text": "Retrogressive movements are jeopardizing women’s and girls’ human rights, as well as the progress achieved in advancing gender equality in all regions of the world. Active resistance to gender equality has been identified as among the key factors explaining the slow progress and, in some cases, reversals of gains made in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, with no indicator under Goal 5 on gender equality having reached the “target met or almost met” level globally.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "UN-Women and Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “Progress on the Sustainable Development Goals: the gender snapshot 2023” (New York, 2023)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "2. Reversing rollbacks of human rights and reaffirming the universality thereof"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 14, "n": 13, "text": "In their responses to the questionnaire circulated by the Working Group, States indicated that constitutional amendments, legislation and policies directed at eliminating discrimination against women and girls have continued to be adopted in a number of countries, including in areas such as sexual and reproductive health rights, prevention of gender-based violence, labour inclusion, economic empowerment, public and political participation and the valuation and redistribution of unpaid care and domestic work. The institutional framework to oversee the implementation of such measures has been strengthened in some countries. The Working Group notes that, in the past decade alone, more than 40 countries have amended and rewritten their constitutions to incorporate provisions advancing women’s and girls’ rights.[[fn:11]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See Claudia Flores, “The long road ahead: the first period of a gender-responsive Constitution in Zimbabwe”, in From Parchment to Practice: Implementing New Constitutions, Tom Ginsburg and Aziz Z. Huq, eds. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2020)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "2. Reversing rollbacks of human rights and reaffirming the universality thereof"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 15, "n": 14, "text": "However, also acknowledged in the responses were the growth of anti-rights movements, attacks on women’s and girls’ equal rights and the persistent challenge of political violence against women. Some countries face obstacles in adopting, regulating and disseminating laws to advance gender equality, as well as gaps in both the adoption and the implementation of relevant public policies, including due to the non-allocation of the necessary funds. The Working Group has similarly observed that, even when progressive language to advance women’s and girls’ rights is introduced into national constitutions and legislation, including the prohibition of harmful practices, implementation often remains a challenge, as women’s and girls’ issues continue to be sidelined or minimized, and the social transformation required to remedy gender inequalities is frequently met with strong resistance.[[fn:12]] In some cases, such resistance has fuelled attempts to withdraw existing guarantees, including the prohibition of harmful practices.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "2. Reversing rollbacks of human rights and reaffirming the universality thereof"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 16, "n": 15, "text": "The gender backlash has been driven by nationalist, fundamentalist and conservative political, cultural and religious movements, encompassing governmental, religious and civil society actors. These movements have formed various national and transnational alliances aimed at promoting stereotypical attitudes about the roles of women and men in the family and society that restrict women’s and girls’ choices and potential in many aspects of their lives.[[fn:13]] They have attacked the term “gender”, seeing it as a tool of “ideological colonization” that aims to destroy the “traditional family” and “family values”.[[fn:14]] These alliances have succeeded in influencing legislation, policy and practice, as well as, in some cases, in altering public opinion. As a result, the world is witnessing a growing backlash against sexual and reproductive health rights, including comprehensive education on sexual and reproductive health, ever-present misogynistic statements in the media and the rise of anti-gender discourse in the public domain, even by high-ranking politicians, as well as attacks on women and girl human rights defenders.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "See Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, “Gender equality and gender backlash”, position paper, available at https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/Gender-equality-and-gender-backlash.pdf. See also Haley McEwen and Lata Narayanaswamy, “The international anti-gender movement: understanding the rise of anti-gender discourses in the context of development, human rights and social protection”, United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (May 2023)."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, “Gender equality and gender backlash”, p. 7. See also A/HRC/38/46 and A/HRC/43/48."}, {"n": 15, "text": "See, for example, A/76/258, A/78/288, A/HRC/40/60, A/HRC/43/48, A/HRC/47/38, CEDAW/C/BGR/CO/8, CEDAW/C/HUN/CO/9 and CEDAW/C/SRB/CO/4. More generally, see Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, “Gender equality and gender backlash”."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "2. Reversing rollbacks of human rights and reaffirming the universality thereof"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 17, "n": 16, "text": "The backlash has been propelled by some Governments, which have challenged the universality of human rights, using religious and cultural justifications.[[fn:16]] The Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief has referred to considerable evidence that, in all regions of the world, actors citing religious justifications for their actions have advocated to Governments and to the broader public for the preservation or imposition of laws and policies that directly or indirectly discriminate against women, girls and lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT+) persons.[[fn:17]] The Working Group emphasizes that arguments framed in terms of cultural diversity and freedom of religion cannot be invoked to justify denial of rights and discrimination against women and girls.[[fn:18]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, para. 48."}, {"n": 17, "text": "A/HRC/43/48, para. 7."}, {"n": 18, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, para. 47. See also A/HRC/29/40."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "2. Reversing rollbacks of human rights and reaffirming the universality thereof"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 18, "n": 17, "text": "Various types of crises, such as political, social, economic, public health, environmental and humanitarian crises, not only have a disproportionate impact in themselves on women and girls, but are also used to erode their rights.[[fn:19]] The Working Group has noted that rising authoritarianism and crises, uncontrolled greed for profit and skyrocketing socioeconomic inequality, which have been exacerbated since the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, as well as the instrumentalization of religion, have contributed to the pushback against women’s and girls’ rights in all areas.[[fn:20]] At the same time, anti-gender discourses and attacks on women’s and girls’ rights appear to be “crisis management” strategies: they serve to maintain, assert or revive certain social hierarchies, which are at once gendered, classed and racialized, in the face of the systemic crisis of transnational neoliberal economics and neocolonial geopolitics, which have been thriving on the “depletion” of women and nature.[[fn:21]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See A/HRC/47/38."}, {"n": 20, "text": "See A/HRC/38/46; A/HRC/53/39; and Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, “Gender equality and gender backlash”."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See, for example, Jerker Edström, Alan Greig and Chloe Skinner, “Patriarchal (dis)orders: backlash as crisis management”, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, vol. 49, No. 2 (2023)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "2. Reversing rollbacks of human rights and reaffirming the universality thereof"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 19, "n": 18, "text": "In some contexts, the gender backlash has not been immediately evident. As noted in the responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire, in many cases, it takes subtle forms, such as impasses in the implementation of relevant policies, a lack of or reductions in budget allocations or the dismantling or defunding of gender-equality bodies.[[fn:22]] It can take forms that promote progress in one area but involve a hidden cost or disproportionate burden on women and girls in another.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See also Conny Roggeband and Andrea Krizsán, “Democratic backsliding and the backlash against women’s rights: understanding the current challenges for feminist politics”, Discussion Paper No. 35 (UN-Women, 2020)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "2. Reversing rollbacks of human rights and reaffirming the universality thereof"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 20, "n": 19, "text": "The backlash has become evident in extreme manifestations of gender inequality that fail to generate a proportionate response from the global community. A devastating expression of the rollback of gender equality is gender apartheid, understood as inhumane acts committed in the context of an institutionalized regime of systematic discrimination, oppression and domination by one group against another group or groups, based on gender, and committed with the intention of maintaining that regime.[[fn:23]] The Working Group considers that the case of Afghanistan, and the predominantly muted State reaction, is a concerning example of gender backlash. The pattern of large-scale systematic violations of women’s and girls’ fundamental rights in Afghanistan by the discriminatory and misogynistic edicts, policies and harsh enforcement methods of the Taliban, all in the service of the political goals of an extremist regime, constitutes an institutionalized framework of apartheid based on gender, and merits an unequivocal response.[[fn:24]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See A/HRC/53/21 and A/HRC/WG.11/40/1."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See A/HRC/53/21."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "2. Reversing rollbacks of human rights and reaffirming the universality thereof"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 21, "n": 20, "text": "Over the past six years, the Working Group has strived to identify progress towards achieving gender equality and promising practices, in a global context marked by a mounting gender backlash. It has continued to document the main challenges to eliminating discrimination against women and girls in all their diversity.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 22, "n": 21, "text": "There has been some progress, but gender equality is not nearly a reality. Even when legal and policy advancements are achieved, implementation gaps are often alarmingly wide, impeding substantive progress, and they do not benefit all women and girls equally. Thus, women and girls continue to face discrimination in all spheres of their lives, frequently starting within their families and communities, while the gender backlash undermines current achievements and prospects for further progress.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 23, "n": 22, "text": "In the following sections of the present report, the Working Group outlines the progress and regressions identified in its thematic reports, which were devoted to the five themes that it identified as priorities in 2018, when it set out its vision for its second six-year mandate:[[fn:25]] women deprived of liberty;[[fn:26]] women’s human rights in the changing world of work;[[fn:27]] women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis;[[fn:28]] girls’ and young women’s activism;[[fn:29]] and feminist and human rights-based approaches to gendered inequalities of poverty.[[fn:30]] The sections are organized around four main areas – political and public life, economic and social life, family and cultural life, and health and safety – which the Working Group has used to guide its work since its inception in an effort to address discrimination in all aspects of women’s and girls’ lives.[[fn:31]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "A/HRC/38/46, paras. 73–81."}, {"n": 26, "text": "A/HRC/41/33."}, {"n": 27, "text": "A/HRC/44/51."}, {"n": 28, "text": "A/HRC/47/38."}, {"n": 29, "text": "A/HRC/50/25."}, {"n": 30, "text": "A/HRC/53/39."}, {"n": 31, "text": "A/HRC/20/28, para. 21."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 24, "n": 23, "text": "In its report on girls’ and young women’s activism, the Working Group noted that girls and young women were at the forefront of initiatives aimed at transforming societies towards social justice, gender equality and sustainability, despite, and frequently in reaction to, the barriers that they continued to face in participating in public and political life. Some States had adopted specific legislation that expressly contemplated the right of children and young people to participate in decision-making processes concerning them and provided for the adoption of special measures to encourage their participation. In some other States, dedicated programmes, policies and strategies had been adopted to promote the participation of children and young people in decision-making. A number of initiatives had been introduced to promote and support the engagement of children and young people, including girls, with independent national human rights mechanisms. In addition, international human rights bodies were increasingly involving children.[[fn:32]] The Working Group has incorporated a girls’ rights approach into its work, has been meeting with girls and young women during its country visits and has carried out specific consultations with them for its thematic reports.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "A/HRC/50/25, paras. 8, 61, 62, 64 and 66."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "1. Advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 25, "n": 24, "text": "In its report on women’s human rights in the changing world of work, the Working Group noted that important trends, including technological change, demographic change, accelerated globalization and the shift to sustainable economies, were affecting the world of work and would shape its future. Those trends provided some opportunities to advance gender equality and women’s rights in the world of work, provided that structural and systemic discrimination against women and girls was addressed. In this respect, the Working Group welcomed the adoption of the International Labour Organization (ILO) Violence and Harassment Convention, 2019 (No. 190), which marked a significant advancement towards creating a world of safe and decent work for all, with a particular focus on addressing women’s experiences of violence and harassment.[[fn:33]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See A/HRC/44/51."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "1. Advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 26, "n": 25, "text": "More generally, regarding strategies to address the poverty and socioeconomic inequality faced by women and girls, in its report on gendered inequalities of poverty, the Working Group highlighted the contribution of social movements advocating for transformative change from the perspective of feminist political economy and human rights, which had drawn attention to the existence of alternatives to unjust economic and social policies and institutions. Several social movements were championing a feminist and decolonial Global Green New Deal, which would entail a redistribution and revalidation of labour, and investments in the care sector, as well as a reimagining of the global public commons and goods so that they were used equitably and sustainably. It was highlighted in the report that poverty and inequality were not inevitable. Poverty was a gendered phenomenon that resulted from specific policy choices and structures that urgently needed transformation with a feminist and human rights-based approach.[[fn:34]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "A/HRC/53/39, paras. 13, 16 and 23."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "1. Advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 27, "n": 26, "text": "In its report on women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis, the Working Group noted that some States had enshrined women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in their constitutions. Moreover, sexual and reproductive health services had been formally recognized as essential in certain States. The Working Group highlighted the interventions, in some States, of national human rights institutions and courts aimed at protecting sexual and reproductive health rights during situations of crisis, including during the COVID-19 pandemic, by drawing attention to shortcomings in the design and/or implementation of crisis responses.[[fn:35]] 35 Furthermore, States had been held responsible for failing to protect the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls in cases 31 A/HRC/20/28, para. 21. 32 A/HRC/50/25, paras. 8, 61, 62, 64 and 66. 33 See A/HRC/44/51. 34 A/HRC/53/39, paras. 13, 16 and 23. 35 A/HRC/47/38, paras. 28 and 38. GE.24-07559 concerning access to therapeutic abortion,[[fn:36]] non-discriminatory and timely access to maternal health care,[[fn:37]] mistreatment during childbirth[[fn:38]] and access to contraceptive information and services.[[fn:39]] The Working Group welcomed the judicial recognition of the harms caused by sexual and reproductive violence during conflict and the provision of reparations.[[fn:40]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, paras. 28 and 38."}, {"n": 36, "text": "See Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, L.C. v. Peru (CEDAW/C/50/D/22/2009)."}, {"n": 37, "text": "See Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, Da Silva Pimentel v. Brazil (CEDAW/C/49/D/17/2008) and S.F.M. v. Spain (CEDAW/C/75/D/138/2018)."}, {"n": 38, "text": "See CEDAW/C/IRL/CO/6-7."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See CEDAW/C/OP.8/PHL/1."}, {"n": 40, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, para. 39."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "1. Advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 28, "n": 2, "text": "Facing and countering setbacks (a) Political and public life", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "1. Advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 29, "n": 27, "text": "The Working Group has devoted particular attention to the political and public participation of girls and young women. It has noted that common misperceptions around children’s right to participation in political and public life, restrictions on their autonomy, disregard for their best interests, paternalistic control and superficial, tokenistic efforts to involve them in diverse processes limit the freedom and space of engagement of children and young people in general. In the case of girls and young women, these barriers are dramatically compounded by predominant gender stereotypes and patriarchal social norms.[[fn:41]]", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "A/HRC/50/25, paras. 29 and 70."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(a) Political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 30, "n": 28, "text": "Lack of safety and security is a major barrier to the activism of girls and young women, who are often exposed to attacks, harassment and violence, including sexual violence. They may face domestic violence as a reprisal for their activism or may be separated from their children by their partners and family as a form of punishment. In addition, some of the activists with whom the Working Group met mentioned their experience of arbitrary arrests, intimidation, threats of killings, kidnappings, being tracked and spied on and the abuse of anti-terrorist legislation to further shrink the civic space and restrict their activities. Digital gender-based violence and harassment add a further layer of challenges to girls’ and young women’s activism.[[fn:42]] In the context of the backlash against gender equality, girls and women face increased risks of harassment and violence when engaging on themes related to gender equality.[[fn:43]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "Ibid., paras. 36, 38, 39 and 41."}, {"n": 43, "text": "See Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, “Gender equality and gender backlash”."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(a) Political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 31, "n": 29, "text": "The Working Group recognizes girl and young women activists who take action to advance human rights as human rights defenders, regardless of how they identify themselves or are perceived by others, and they are thus entitled to all related legal protections.[[fn:44]] It has underscored that girls’ and young women’s equal rights and opportunities in all areas are the basis for creating an enabling and just environment for their activism. The dignity and agency of all girls and young women must be recognized and actively promoted, supported and protected, while ensuring safeguards against threats, violence and reprisals, including offline and online harassment and violence, and undertaking concrete steps to remove the structural barriers and the systemic disadvantages that they face.[[fn:45]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "A/HRC/50/25, para. 14."}, {"n": 45, "text": "Ibid., para. 72."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(a) Political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 32, "n": 30, "text": "Women and girls are disproportionately represented among the world’s poor. Global projections show that an estimated 388 million women and girls were living in extreme poverty in 2022 (compared with 372 million men and boys).[[fn:46]] The current situation is the result of historical and continuing economic policy choices that have been developed within 36 See Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, L.C. v. Peru (CEDAW/C/50/D/22/2009). 37 See Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, Da Silva Pimentel v. Brazil (CEDAW/C/49/D/17/2008) and S.F.M. v. Spain (CEDAW/C/75/D/138/2018). 38 See CEDAW/C/IRL/CO/6-7. 39 See CEDAW/C/OP.8/PHL/1. 40 A/HRC/47/38, para. 39. 41 A/HRC/50/25, paras. 29 and 70. 42 Ibid., paras. 36, 38, 39 and 41. 43 See Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, “Gender equality and gender backlash”. 44 A/HRC/50/25, para. 14. 45 Ibid., para. 72. 46 UN-Women, “Poverty deepens for women and girls, according to latest projections”, 1 February 2022, available at https://data.unwomen.org/features/poverty-deepens-women-and-girls-accordinglatest-projections. GE.24-07559 patriarchal political, legal and socioeconomic systems and institutions, ignoring the specific experiences and rights of girls and women. Predominant approaches to women’s poverty concentrate on increasing the economic productivity of individual women, rather than analysing the systems of power that generate and reproduce unequal gender relations within families, communities, institutions and markets.[[fn:47]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "UN-Women, “Poverty deepens for women and girls, according to latest projections”, 1 February 2022, available at https://data.unwomen.org/features/poverty-deepens-women-and-girls-according-latest-projections."}, {"n": 47, "text": "A/HRC/53/39, paras. 11 and 21."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(b) Economic and social life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 33, "n": 31, "text": "The Working Group has highlighted that the meaningful participation of diverse groups of women and girls in conceptualizing, implementing and monitoring socioeconomic policies, norms and strategies, including by international economic institutions, is vital to realizing the right to be free from poverty, because this right cannot be achieved in isolation from individual and collective rights to substantive equality. The challenge is to move away from non-discrimination as a vehicle for the protection of individual rights towards the implementation of the relational and redistributive obligations that are an integral but, as yet, largely unrealized part of international human rights law.[[fn:48]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Ibid., para. 48."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(b) Economic and social life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 34, "n": 32, "text": "The Working Group has dedicated special attention to the world of work. Globally, women’s labour force participation rate stood at 47.4 per cent in 2022, compared with 72.3 per cent for men.[[fn:49]] Women remain concentrated in the lowest-paid jobs and in vulnerable forms of employment, including in the informal sector. The global gender pay gap stands at 20 per cent and is even wider for women who experience multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination. Mothers face a larger pay gap and dramatically lower retirement savings or pension contributions (the “motherhood penalty”). Furthermore, despite the growing number of laws addressing it, sexual harassment at work continues to be pervasive and dramatically unreported.[[fn:50]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "ILO, World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2023 (Geneva, 2023), p. 12."}, {"n": 50, "text": "A/HRC/44/51, paras. 12, 14 and 44."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(b) Economic and social life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 35, "n": 33, "text": "The major trends affecting the world of work and shaping its future risk aggravating gender inequality and exacerbating the labour discrimination that women currently face, unless a gender perspective is adopted when examining and addressing them. Realizing women’s human rights in the changing world of work requires a fundamental transformation of the structure of work and the economy: current economic models exploit and thrive on women’s unpaid care and domestic work, while depleting their time and economic security. However, there are policy alternatives, which require reimagining the economy to focus on redistributing power and resources, generating decent work and placing value on the well-being and care of people and the planet.[[fn:51]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "Ibid., para. 58."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(b) Economic and social life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 36, "n": 34, "text": "The Working Group has noted the persistence of discriminatory prejudices and stereotypes that affect and constrain women’s and girls’ choices and opportunities throughout the life cycle.[[fn:52]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "See A/HRC/41/33."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(c) Family and cultural life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 37, "n": 35, "text": "Within the home, many societies and ideologies expect women and girls to be governed by men. Several States maintain legal codes requiring married women to obtain their husband’s permission to leave the house or requiring all women to obtain the permission of a male “guardian” to engage in public activity.[[fn:53]] Legal provisions and social practices that restrict women’s agency and mobility on the basis of requirements of male guardianship are inherently discriminatory, humiliating and derogatory. They are blatant violations of women’s and girls’ right to equality and rights to freedom of movement, education, work, access to justice, and privacy and family life. The Working Group has recommended that States repeal all laws that support the patriarchal oppression of women in families. It has also recommended that States ensure that the right to equality has primacy over all religious and 47 A/HRC/53/39, paras. 11 and 21. 48 Ibid., para. 48. 49 ILO, World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2023 (Geneva, 2023), p. 12. 50 A/HRC/44/51, paras. 12, 14 and 44. 51 Ibid., para. 58. 52 See A/HRC/41/33. 53 Ibid., paras. 21 and 22. GE.24-07559 customary norms, codes and rules, with no possibility of exemption, waiver or circumvention.[[fn:54]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "Ibid., paras. 21 and 22."}, {"n": 54, "text": "A/HRC/29/40, para. 73 (a) (i) and (c) (v)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(c) Family and cultural life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 38, "n": 36, "text": "Stereotyped notions about gender roles within the family underlie a number of cultural and religious practices limiting girls’ opportunities to pursue education and self-determined life paths. Some of these practices lead to girls being removed from school to perform domestic labour or being subjected to child and forced marriages.[[fn:55]] Furthermore, predominant gender stereotypes and patriarchal social norms limit the freedom and space of engagement of girls and young women, who are often portrayed as destroyers of family values and national traditions and confronted with threats and violence, when engaging in activism.[[fn:56]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "A/HRC/41/33, para. 24."}, {"n": 56, "text": "A/HRC/50/25, para. 29."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(c) Family and cultural life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 39, "n": 37, "text": "An estimated 810 maternal deaths occur each day globally, and 25 million unsafe abortions take place annually, resulting in approximately 47,000 deaths, primarily in developing countries and among members of socioeconomically disadvantaged and marginalized populations. Every 16 seconds, there is a stillbirth. More than 200 million women who want to avoid pregnancy are not using modern contraception, due to a range of barriers. Millions of women and girls are denied the ability to manage their monthly menstrual cycle safely and with dignity. Those outcomes and barriers increase significantly in times of crisis.[[fn:57]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, para. 16."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(d) Health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 40, "n": 38, "text": "The Working Group has drawn attention to the failure of States to adequately recognize, respect, protect and fulfil the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls, both before and during times of crisis. It has also highlighted the frequent lack of attention to the key underlying factors that make a given situation “critical” for various populations, especially women and girls. Many situations of crisis are predetermined by cumulative layers of pre-existing inequalities and discrimination, which may be starkly exposed and deeply exacerbated by a specific event.[[fn:58]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 58, "text": "Ibid., paras. 9, 11 and 14."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(d) Health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 41, "n": 39, "text": "During crises, States often divert financial and human resources from sexual and reproductive health care and impose restrictions on services, thereby deeming them non-essential, which amounts in practice to a retrogression incompatible with States’ human rights obligations. Such restrictions often continue to undermine access to sexual and reproductive health care after a crisis has ended, and, in the majority of cases, reconstruction programmes and recovery plans fail to prioritize sexual and reproductive health. Furthermore, gender equality does not always figure among the priorities of donors, which often drive interventions in situations of humanitarian crisis. Sexual and reproductive health services are typically not considered essential or urgent, despite the specific risks and vulnerabilities faced by women and girls. In some cases, even maternity care is reportedly not adequately funded or prioritized because it is not perceived as a “humanitarian” concern.[[fn:59]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 59, "text": "Ibid., paras. 26 and 33."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(d) Health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 42, "n": 3, "text": "Challenges to gender equality for specific groups of women and girls", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(d) Health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 43, "n": 40, "text": "In its thematic reports, the Working Group has identified specific challenges faced by distinct groups of women and girls who, because of multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination, experience compounded inequality in all aspects of their lives. Some of these challenges, which are related to the themes covered by the Working Group’s reports over the past six years, are outlined below.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "3. Challenges to gender equality for specific groups of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 44, "n": 41, "text": "The Working Group has emphasized that there are communities of women and girls that have been subjected to a “persistent state of crisis”, such as Indigenous and Roma women 54 A/HRC/29/40, para. 73 (a) (i) and (c) (v). 55 A/HRC/41/33, para. 24. 56 A/HRC/50/25, para. 29. 57 A/HRC/47/38, para. 16. 58 Ibid., paras. 9, 11 and 14. 59 Ibid., paras. 26 and 33. GE.24-07559 and girls and women and girls of African descent, whose lives have been shaped by histories of oppression, enslavement, exclusion, racial discrimination, forced assimilation and apartheid, linked to conquest and colonization, as well as systematic violence and disregard for their culture, spirituality and traditions. Many have been systematically subjected to reproductive violence, including forced pregnancy and sterilization, and have been separated from their children.[[fn:60]]", "labels": ["Children", "Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 60, "text": "Ibid., para. 63."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(a) Women and girls belonging to racial or ethnic minorities or Indigenous Peoples"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 45, "n": 42, "text": "Compounded discrimination also affects their experience of the world of work. For example, for Roma women in many parts of Europe, lack of access to education, coupled with residential segregation and discrimination, exclude them from the formal labour market, forcing them to engage in precarious and low paid work, creating a poverty trap.[[fn:61]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 61, "text": "A/HRC/44/51, para. 17."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(a) Women and girls belonging to racial or ethnic minorities or Indigenous Peoples"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 46, "n": 43, "text": "The Working Group finds that women with disabilities are often seen as weak or in need of protection. Consequently, they may be confined in institutions or their homes and may be deprived of legal capacity. Girls with disabilities are more likely to experience confinement in the family context, associated with fears that they might be prone to sexual abuse, combined with panic about girls’ sexuality.[[fn:62]] They are also more likely to be excluded from education and employment, as compared with both men with disabilities and women without disabilities.[[fn:63]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "A/HRC/41/33, para. 44."}, {"n": 63, "text": "A/HRC/44/51, para. 17."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(b) Women and girls with disabilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 47, "n": 44, "text": "Furthermore, in crisis responses, the needs of women and girls with disabilities, for example, the need for reasonable accommodations, such as the installation of ramps and the provision of portable beds and wheelchairs, are often not specifically taken into account. Information is usually not available in accessible formats, which leads to difficulties in seeking services and communicating with staff. Negative stereotypes linked to their sexual and reproductive health status can lead to the further marginalization of their needs and concerns in situations of crisis.[[fn:64]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 64, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, para. 59."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(b) Women and girls with disabilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 48, "n": 45, "text": "The Working Group has highlighted that poverty and inequality influence the lives of older women, who are perceived in some societies as dangerous and in need of control. In certain communities, these women may experience non-judicial confinement and banishment from their homes because of accusations of witchcraft. Moreover, older women without resources or livelihoods may find themselves involuntarily isolated in the home or in a care facility.[[fn:65]]", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "A/HRC/41/33, paras. 28 and 55. See also A/HRC/53/39."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(c) Older women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 49, "n": 46, "text": "The Working Group has highlighted that girls and adolescent girls are at increased risk of sexual violence, child, adolescent and unplanned pregnancy, coerced sex and harmful practices because of, inter alia, lack of access to sexual and reproductive information, goods and services, combined with pervasive stereotyping and taboos. During crises, arranged and forced marriages increase in frequency, driven by harmful traditional practices in the context of aggravated poverty. Nevertheless, child marriage and adolescent girls’ sexual and reproductive health needs remain largely unaddressed in humanitarian settings.[[fn:66]] Girls and adolescent girls also face barriers in participating in public and political life, an issue to which the Working Group devoted one of its thematic reports.67 60 Ibid., para. 63. 61 A/HRC/44/51, para. 17. 62 A/HRC/41/33, para. 44. 63 A/HRC/44/51, para. 17. 64 A/HRC/47/38, para. 59. 65 A/HRC/41/33, paras. 28 and 55. See also A/HRC/53/39. 66 A/HRC/47/38, paras. 55 and 56. 67 A/HRC/50/25. GE.24-07559 (e) Rural women and girls", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, paras. 55 and 56."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(d) Girls and adolescent girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 50, "n": 47, "text": "The Working Group has highlighted that women face discrimination in the allocation of rights to productive land, making up fewer than 15 per cent of owners of agricultural land globally. Laws, policies, social norms and stereotypes may also restrict their rights to seeds and other natural resources, agricultural inputs and labour.[[fn:68]] Land-grabbing and the operations of extractive industries in the territories of Indigenous Peoples and other communities are experienced by women and girls as a crisis, threatening their very survival.[[fn:69]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 68, "text": "A/HRC/53/39, para. 35."}, {"n": 69, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, para. 58."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(e) Rural women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 51, "n": 48, "text": "In addition, rural women and girls face specific challenges in fully enjoying their sexual and reproductive health rights. Contraceptive access is low, and maternal mortality and morbidities, such as obstetric fistula and uterine prolapse, are high among them. There is also a higher incidence of stillbirths. Barriers commonly faced by rural women and girls include long distances from health centres, cost, lack of trained providers, long waiting times, lack of information and confidentiality and the constraints of a heavy workload.[[fn:70]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 70, "text": "Ibid., para. 57."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(e) Rural women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 52, "n": 49, "text": "The Working Group has emphasized that women and girls living in poverty experience stigma and intersecting discrimination. In many jurisdictions, the criminal law is disproportionately applied to them because of their economic or social status. The security of land tenure or housing and the accessibility of legal and justice systems are also severely limited for women and girls living in poverty, who frequently have no effective means to assert their rights to be free from violence, to contest or to receive compensation for illegal or unfair evictions, displacement due to development projects, land-grabbing and environmental destruction, or to access or claim adequate housing, decent working conditions or social security entitlements.[[fn:71]]", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons", "Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "A/HRC/53/39, paras. 31–33."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(f) Women and girls in poverty"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 53, "n": 50, "text": "Reception structures and arrangements often lack the capacity to respond to the needs of migrant, refugee and internally displaced women and girls, who frequently arrive carrying the traumas of violence, persecution, conflict and poverty. Many women and girls live in camps under a persistent threat of violence, including from intimate partners, while sexual and reproductive health is typically deemed a taboo topic. Moreover, their specific needs, including routine menstrual hygiene and pain management, are often not taken into account in relief programmes.[[fn:72]] Gender stereotypes in immigration administration result in a lack of consideration of women’s experiences of violence, in particular domestic violence, for the purpose of granting asylum. Moreover, certain legal systems require that asylum claims be submitted through a male head of household rather than allowing women to submit an individual asylum claim.[[fn:73]]", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons", "Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 72, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, paras. 60 and 62."}, {"n": 73, "text": "A/HRC/41/33, para. 26."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(g) Migrant, asylum-seeking, refugee and internally displaced women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 54, "n": 51, "text": "The Working Group has highlighted the persistence of situations akin to slavery or indentured servitude among local and migrant domestic workers.[[fn:74]] Conversely, restrictions that aim to prevent women from legally migrating, on the grounds that they may become victims of trafficking or forced prostitution, push women to seek alternative (irregular) migration channels and consequently increase their vulnerability to forced or bonded labour, confinement and other human rights violations.[[fn:75]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 74, "text": "A/HRC/53/39, para. 39."}, {"n": 75, "text": "A/HRC/41/33, para. 59."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(g) Migrant, asylum-seeking, refugee and internally displaced women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 55, "n": 52, "text": "Sexual and gender-nonconforming women are disproportionately targeted for social control based on their perceived challenge to or “transgression” of established norms of 68 A/HRC/53/39, para. 35. 69 A/HRC/47/38, para. 58. 70 Ibid., para. 57. 71 A/HRC/53/39, paras. 31–33. 72 A/HRC/47/38, paras. 60 and 62. 73 A/HRC/41/33, para. 26. 74 A/HRC/53/39, para. 39. 75 A/HRC/41/33, para. 59. GE.24-07559 gender roles and sexuality. As a result, they face increased vulnerability to criminalization and deprivation of liberty. Even in cases in which they are not expressly criminalized on the basis of their sexual orientation or gender identity, they may face a heightened risk of encountering the criminal justice system. For example, transgender women are arbitrarily profiled and targeted for sex work.[[fn:76]] The Working Group has noted that transgender women experience disproportionate levels of poverty and economic insecurity because of the discrimination that they face in accessing employment.[[fn:77]] (i) Women who use drugs", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "Ibid., para. 34."}, {"n": 77, "text": "A/HRC/44/51, para. 17."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(h) LBTQI+ women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 56, "n": 53, "text": "The Working Group has highlighted the discriminatory and disproportionate impact on women of punitive approaches to the drug problem. Women may receive disproportionate sentences under regimes that do not take level of involvement into account and may have fewer opportunities to negotiate reduced sentences or plea bargains owing to their lowly status within criminal networks. Furthermore, pregnant women suspected of drug use can be involuntarily detained and forced to undergo medical treatment, often without sound medical evidence that they have a drug dependency or that the fetus is at risk.[[fn:78]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 78, "text": "A/HRC/41/33, paras. 32 and 39."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(i) Women who use drugs"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 57, "n": 54, "text": "Women in sex work are likely to face deprivation of liberty because of laws and social attitudes that seek to control women’s morality and sexuality. In States in which sex work is criminalized, women are disproportionately affected and targeted by law enforcement agents. When sex work is not criminalized, they may be prosecuted and incarcerated for other offences, including loitering, vagrancy and public indecency, and for migration-related infractions. In some States, they may be confined to “re-education” institutions, designed to “cure” them of “deviant behaviour”.[[fn:79]] Criminalization of women sex workers increases their vulnerability to violence and compounds their exclusion from essential services.[[fn:80]] The Working Group recommended that States ban laws and practices policing, targeting, punishing or confining women in relation to sex work.[[fn:81]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 79, "text": "Ibid., para. 36."}, {"n": 80, "text": "A/HRC/44/51, para. 43."}, {"n": 81, "text": "A/HRC/41/33, para. 80 (c). See also A/HRC/WG.11/39/1."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(j) Sex workers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 58, "n": 1, "text": "Impact and main contributions to the advancement of gender equality (a) Thematic reports", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(j) Sex workers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 59, "n": 55, "text": "In its thematic analysis, the Working Group has endeavoured to spotlight the principal root causes of discrimination against women and girls, while also identifying encouraging practices and providing guidance to States and other stakeholders on how to make further progress towards achieving gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(a) Thematic reports"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 60, "n": 56, "text": "The responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire indicate that its reports have continued to influence the language of resolutions adopted by the Human Rights Council. For instance, one State indicated that the thematic reports had served as a basis for the preparation of the Council’s annual resolution on the elimination of discrimination against women and girls. In addition, the Working Group’s reports have been referenced by some regional human rights mechanisms. Moreover, they have been used by United Nations agencies and have informed the 2023 report by the Secretary-General to the Commission on the Status of Women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(a) Thematic reports"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 61, "n": 57, "text": "In addition, the reports have been used to inform the development of national public strategies, policies and programmes. For example, in one country, the analysis and recommendations contained in the Working Group’s thematic report on gendered inequalities of poverty have contributed to the debate and development of a public strategy on care. In another country, the recommendations contained in the Working Group’s report on women’s human rights in the changing world of work have been used to elaborate a national labour policy, as well as to design targeted actions in support of the economic empowerment of women and girls from marginalized communities. In the same country, other reports by the Working Group have inspired sensitization campaigns on “new masculinities” and the implementation of a programme for the development and dissemination of comprehensive sex education.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(a) Thematic reports"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 62, "n": 58, "text": "Lastly, one State indicated that certain judicial decisions, including one decriminalizing abortion, had been inspired by the Working Group’s reports.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(a) Thematic reports"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 63, "n": 59, "text": "The Working Group assessed the situation of women’s and girls’ human rights in Poland, Greece, Romania, Kyrgyzstan, Maldives, Afghanistan, Malta and Mauritania, in collaboration with the States concerned and other stakeholders, noting achievements, challenges and pathways to progress and putting forward recommendations for further advancement towards the elimination of discrimination against women and girls. It met with representatives of central and local authorities and women’s and girls’ rights organizations and with women and girls themselves. In the preparation phase, it engaged with United Nations country teams, including UN-Women, when present, and built on the recommendations made by international and regional human rights mechanisms. Furthermore, in 2023, the Working Group undertook its first-ever joint country visit, together with the Special Rapporteur on Afghanistan.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(b) Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 64, "n": 60, "text": "Some of these country visits contributed to triggering important changes. For example, in the light of the concerns raised and the recommendations formulated by the Working Group, one State amended its legislation to recognize that sex without consent is rape. Another State started developing an implementation plan based on the Working Group’s recommendations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(b) Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 65, "n": 61, "text": "The Working Group has tried to ensure a follow-up to its country visits, within the limits of the resources available. In 2023, it sent follow-up letters to the States visited and looks forward to their cooperation. It thanks the six States that have responded, as well as the civil society organizations that have provided inputs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(b) Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 66, "n": 62, "text": "In its communications, the Working Group has continued to collaborate with other mandate holders, sending joint communications whenever relevant in the light of the cross-cutting human rights issues involved. It has maintained its practice of using such communications as a tool to start a dialogue with concerned actors on widespread discriminatory legal approaches and practices, such as restrictions on women’s mobility due to requirements of “male guardianship”. Between 1 April 2018 and 21 October 2023, the Working Group sent 498 communications, 487 of them jointly with other mandate holders. In total, 251 substantive replies were received.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(c) Communications"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 67, "n": 63, "text": "The communications have contributed to bringing about positive changes in national legislation and practices. For example, one State reported that the Working Group’s communications had been important in drawing attention to certain legislative provisions and practices that discriminate, directly or indirectly, against women and girls and that they had consequently informed national efforts to change those provisions and practices, including in areas such as establishing the minimum age for marriage. They had also contributed to counteracting regressions in family law. In another State, the Working Group’s communications contributed to the adoption of a piece of legislation providing for safe, legal and affordable access to abortion. In yet another, a communication sent by the Working Group helped to bring about the distribution of free sanitary pads to underprivileged primary and secondary school students, women in vulnerable situations and prisoners.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(c) Communications"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 68, "n": 64, "text": "The responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire highlight that the urgent appeals that the Working Group has sent jointly with other mandate holders have helped to raise awareness about the restrictions faced by women human rights defenders and have even achieved the release of at least two of them from prison.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(c) Communications"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 69, "n": 65, "text": "The Working Group has continued to use its sessions as an opportunity to engage with States, civil society organizations and other mechanisms working on women’s and girls’ human rights in an effort to strengthen collaboration, establish synergies and seek their contribution to the preparation of its thematic reports.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(d) Working Group’s sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 70, "n": 66, "text": "To facilitate access to its sessions for stakeholders outside Geneva, the Working Group has increasingly used online tools and held two sessions at the regional level, in Addis Ababa and Bangkok. It has also created a microsite that includes graphic, summarized and user-friendly versions of its thematic reports.[[fn:82]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 82, "text": "See https://unworkinggroupwomenandgirls.org/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(d) Working Group’s sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 71, "n": 67, "text": "The Working Group has used public statements to sustain efforts at the international, regional and national levels directed at strengthening women’s and girls’ human rights. It has continued to make use of amicus briefs to offer national courts expert advice on issues of domestic law that are directly related to States’ international human rights obligations to eliminate discrimination against women and girls. The responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire testify to the usefulness and impact of interventions of this kind. In one country, the Working Group’s intervention contributed to the decriminalization of abortion; in another, it contributed to the reinsertion into formal education of girls who had been expelled from school due to pregnancy; in yet another, it contributed to ensuring justice for women who had been arbitrarily detained because of their sex work.[[fn:83]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 83, "text": "The Working Group’s submissions to national courts are available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/wg-women-and-girls/submissions-courts."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(e) Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 72, "n": 68, "text": "The Working Group has continued to develop guidance documents, formerly known as position papers, on certain themes, with a view to promoting greater conceptual clarity and filling any protection gaps left by underdeveloped interpretation of standards. Over the past six years of work, the Working Group has issued a position paper on gender equality and gender backlash and guidance documents on men’s accountability for gender equality, on eliminating discrimination against sex workers and, earlier in 2024, on the draft articles on prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity, which included the recommendation that gender apartheid be included as a crime against humanity.[[fn:84]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 84, "text": "All position papers and guidance documents can be accessed, respectively, from https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/wg-women-and-girls and https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/wg-women-and-girls/resources."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(e) Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 73, "n": 69, "text": "Furthermore, the Working Group has contributed to various international and regional processes by providing written and/or oral inputs, including, for example, on the ILO Violence and Harassment Convention, 2019 (No. 190), draft general recommendation No. 40 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, the Committee on World Food Security Voluntary Guidelines on Gender Equality and Women’s and Girls’ Empowerment in the context of Food Security and Nutrition and the draft directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on violence against women and domestic violence, and by participating in trainings and consultations with a broad range of actors.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(e) Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 74, "n": 70, "text": "The Working Group has continued to contribute to the dialogue among States within the framework of the Commission on the Status of Women by contributing formally to the Commission’s general discussions. Moreover, the Working Group is a member of the Platform of Independent Expert Mechanisms on the Elimination of Discrimination and Violence against Women[[fn:85]] and chaired the Platform in 2023. Within that framework, it joins forces with the other United Nations and regional independent expert mechanisms that have a mandate related to women’s and girls’ human rights to curb rollbacks and advance gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 85, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/edvaw."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(e) Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 75, "n": 2, "text": "Lessons learned and opportunities for enhanced action", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(e) Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 76, "n": 71, "text": "The Working Group faces a challenge in ensuring a systematic follow-up to its work, including its communications and country visits, due to the limited resources available and, to a certain extent, to the limited degree of engagement of the States concerned, a challenge that is shared by other mandates. The responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire suggest that, despite its efforts, the visibility and dissemination of its work are limited. New strategies to reach out to women and girls from marginalized communities and facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination should be explored, in collaboration with national and local actors. Similarly, current engagement with girl activists should be institutionalized and a methodology for engagement with them should be devised.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "2. Lessons learned and opportunities for enhanced action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 77, "n": 72, "text": "The Working Group considers that regional human rights mechanisms and national human rights institutions are key allies in its work. A strategy to facilitate their regular cooperation, as well as their involvement in the follow-up and dissemination of the Working Group’s work, would be desirable. Moreover, the Working Group believes that it is crucial to intensify collaboration with other special procedures, as was done, inter alia, to address the situation of women’s and girls’ rights in Afghanistan and Gaza and to call for an independent investigation into allegations of sexual violence in Israel and Palestine.[[fn:86]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 86, "text": "See, for example, A/HRC/53/21; OHCHR, “Gaza: UN experts call for prioritisation of gender-responsive humanitarian interventions”, press release, 21 February 2024; OHCHR, “Israel/oPt: UN experts appalled by reported human rights violations against Palestinian women and girls”, press release, 19 February 2024; OHCHR, “Occupied Palestinian territory and Israel: UN experts call for permanent ceasefire to protect rights and futures of women and girls”, press release, 14 December 2023; and OHCHR, “UN experts urge States to unite for peace and push for ceasefire in Gaza”, press release, 8 December 2023."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "2. Lessons learned and opportunities for enhanced action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 78, "n": 1, "text": "Committing to substantive gender equality", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "2. Lessons learned and opportunities for enhanced action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 79, "n": 73, "text": "As the Working Group embarks on a new six-year mandate, it will continue to focus on counteracting the escalating gender backlash through all its working methods. At the same time, as an overarching framework, it will develop an understanding of substantive equality for women and girls and the concrete implications that it holds for States and other actors in the face of contemporary challenges. Substantive equality requires not only ensuring de facto equality between women and men and girls and boys, but also committing to a conception of transformative equality, in other words, the transformation of elements of society, culture, politics and the economy that create barriers to equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "1. Committing to substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 80, "n": 74, "text": "The principle of substantive equality is central to the international human rights framework and human dignity. It involves ensuring equality of opportunity, as well as equality of results. It requires addressing discrimination in laws, policies and practices; redressing disadvantage; addressing stigma; providing reasonable accommodations for the particular needs of women and girls; combating harmful stereotypes, prejudice and violence; adopting positive measures, when necessary; and making the structural changes necessary for women and girls to fully participate in all areas of life.[[fn:87]] Substantive equality involves an affirmative ideological commitment to human dignity for all and a further practical commitment on the part of States and other actors to engage in the sometimes difficult and intensive work of achieving it.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "See Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, arts. 1–5 and 24; Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 25 (2004); and A/43/38. See also A/HRC/53/39; and Sandra Fredman, Discrimination Law, 3rd ed. (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2022)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "1. Committing to substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 81, "n": 75, "text": "On the basis of that framework, the Working Group will devote its annual thematic reports and other analyses to identifying and addressing the specific challenges to the advancement of substantive gender equality in all spheres of life. It will do so with renewed 86 See, for example, A/HRC/53/21; OHCHR, “Gaza: UN experts call for prioritisation of genderresponsive humanitarian interventions”, press release, 21 February 2024; OHCHR, “Israel/oPt: UN experts appalled by reported human rights violations against Palestinian women and girls”, press release, 19 February 2024; OHCHR, “Occupied Palestinian territory and Israel: UN experts call for permanent ceasefire to protect rights and futures of women and girls”, press release, 14 December 2023; and OHCHR, “UN experts urge States to unite for peace and push for ceasefire in Gaza”, press release, 8 December 2023. 87 See Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, arts. 1–5 and 24; Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 25 (2004); and A/43/38. See also A/HRC/53/39; and Sandra Fredman, Discrimination Law, 3rd ed. (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2022). GE.24-07559 dedication and a focused recognition of the various intersectional identities of women and girls.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "1. Committing to substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 82, "n": 2, "text": "Challenging the challenges to substantive gender equality", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "1. Committing to substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 83, "n": 76, "text": "The responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire and the inputs gathered through the regional consultations provide a comprehensive overview of the many challenges that globally impede full delivery on the world’s commitments to end discrimination against women and girls, beyond those stemming from the gender backlash described above.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "2. Challenging the challenges to substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 84, "n": 77, "text": "Patriarchal power structures continue to perpetuate discrimination and inequality in all aspects of women’s and girls’ lives, often intersecting with other grounds of discrimination and power relations, including on a racial, ethnic or caste basis. Where advancements have taken place, including in areas such as political representation, education and the legal recognition of sexual and reproductive health rights, implementation gaps – often caused by a mix of lack of political will, non-harmonization of national frameworks with relevant international standards, insufficiently allocated resources and capacity, lack of support measures and the promotion of restrictive or regressive interpretations of existing legal guarantees, among other factors – hamper progress in practice and are frequently compounded by limited accountability for violations of women’s and girls’ rights. Attitudinal barriers, notably on the part of enforcement authorities, adversely affect access to justice and contribute to impunity and the normalization of discrimination and violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "2. Challenging the challenges to substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 85, "n": 78, "text": "States and other stakeholders pointed out further obstacles to advancing gender equality, ranging from the disparate and disproportionate impact of climate change and environmental degradation on women and girls to the gender bias and discrimination inherent in artificial intelligence algorithms and technology design, the digital divide and online violence and harassment, among others. They emphasized the urgent need to invest in social protection measures to address, inter alia, gender gaps in employment, remuneration and pensions and the lack of universal access to early childhood education or childcare and their cost, alongside overarching concerns about the gendered dimensions of the care economy. More broadly, they pointed to the need for integrated approaches to tackle the root causes of inequalities and for a focus on collective rights, including the right to food sovereignty, the right to development and rights to territories, lands and resources.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "2. Challenging the challenges to substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 86, "n": 79, "text": "In addition, they highlighted the situation of particular groups of women and girls, such as those living in conflict and post-conflict situations or under occupation, rural and Indigenous women and girls, refugees, displaced and migrant women and girls, Dalit women and girls, older women, and women and girls with disabilities, stressing the need for targeted attention. They furthermore shed light on the marginalization, abuse and criminalization of women using drugs and sex workers.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "2. Challenging the challenges to substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 87, "n": 80, "text": "Taking into account the above, the Working Group sets out, as a starting point, to focus its next annual reports on the thematic areas outlined below. These are subject to change depending on the social or political momentum concerning women’s and girls’ rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "2. Challenging the challenges to substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 88, "n": 81, "text": "Across the world, women perform three quarters of unpaid care work.[[fn:88]] This outsized responsibility for care is due to the prevalence of traditional gender norms and stereotypes about women’s role in the family and society and is compounded by the absence of adequate normative and policy frameworks to promote and ensure the recognition, reduction and redistribution of unpaid care work. The life opportunities and choices of women and girls are consequently deeply constrained, and their enjoyment of a wide range of human rights, including the rights to work, social security, education, health, rest and leisure, is adversely affected. At the same time, paid care workers – the majority of whom are women and many of whom are migrant workers – often face precarious working conditions, rights violations and exploitation as a result of an overall lack of reward for care work and limited representation, social dialogue and collective bargaining.[[fn:89]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 88, "text": "ILO, Care Work and Care Jobs for the Future of Decent Work (Geneva, 2018)."}, {"n": 89, "text": "ILO, “From global care crisis to quality care at home: the case for including domestic workers in care policies and ensuring their rights at work”, policy brief (March 2024). See also https://globalallianceforcare.org/en/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "(a) Care and its gendered dimensions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 89, "n": 82, "text": "The Working Group has previously highlighted that the dominant economic growth-based models of development thrive on women’s and girls’ “depletion”, through their filling of care gaps, and the draining of care resources from poorer nations, through globalized care chains.[[fn:90]] As the world faces increasing demands for care owing to changes in family structures, ageing societies and an increase in women’s employment in certain countries, as well as the impacts of climate change,[[fn:91]] the Working Group will examine more closely current challenges and policy approaches to the global care crisis with a view to promoting a human rights-based, feminist, intersectional approach to care, one that is conducive to greater gender equality and protective of the socioeconomic rights of workers. In so doing, it will take into account women’s and girls’ role as “carers for the planet”.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 90, "text": "See, for example, A/HRC/53/39."}, {"n": 91, "text": "ILO, Care Work and Care Jobs for the Future of Decent Work; ILO, Care at Work: Investing in Care Leave and Services for a More Gender Equal World of Work (Geneva, 2022); and UN-Women, “The climate-care nexus: addressing the linkages between climate change and women’s and girls’ unpaid care, domestic and communal work”, working paper (New York, 2023)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "(a) Care and its gendered dimensions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 90, "n": 83, "text": "Digital technologies are rapidly and increasingly transforming lives and societies, bringing about both opportunities and challenges with regard to the advancement of gender equality.[[fn:92]] In its previous reports, the Working Group has highlighted the gender-related digital divide, restrictions on access to digital devices faced by women and girls and online violence and harassment, as well as the challenges and opportunities created by technology for women’s employment, political participation and privacy, inter alia.[[fn:93]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 92, "text": "See, for example, E/CN.6/2023/3."}, {"n": 93, "text": "See A/HRC/44/51, A/HRC/50/25 and A/HRC/53/39."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "(b) Gender equality in our digital lives"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 91, "n": 84, "text": "As the use of digital technologies, as well as their design and technical content, are affected by social, economic and political factors, it is crucial to recognize and address the distinct effects of digitalization on women and girls and pursue an intentionally gender-responsive approach to the design and implementation of digital technology, including in the development of artificial intelligence.[[fn:94]] Otherwise, discriminatory social norms and stereotypes will be reinforced and inequalities will be amplified and perpetuated through biased digital platforms and algorithmic tools.[[fn:95]] In one of its future reports, the Working Group will thus explore discrimination against women and girls in the digital sphere and the impact of current and future developments on their rights, well-being and potential.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 94, "text": "See E/CN.6/2023/3."}, {"n": 95, "text": "See UN-Women, “Placing gender equality at the heart of the Global Digital Compact” (New York, 2024)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "(b) Gender equality in our digital lives"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 92, "n": 85, "text": "In 2022, an estimated 614 million women and girls were living in conflict-affected countries.[[fn:96]] The Secretary-General has underscored that post-conflict reconstruction and recovery efforts significantly underfund women’s priorities.[[fn:97]] Women and girls also continue to be sidelined in peace processes, despite the fact that they are the primary victims and contrary to the call made by the Security Council in resolution 1325 (2000) on women and peace and security.[[fn:98]] In 2022, of 18 peace agreements reached, only one was signed or witnessed by a representative of a women’s group or organization.[[fn:99]] However, a gendered analysis of post-conflict needs is crucial to defining interventions – including in areas such as access to education, health care and equal work opportunities – that ensure the sustainability of peacebuilding and reconstruction efforts, while addressing the structural conditions that make women vulnerable to violence and other human rights violations during conflicts.[[fn:100]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 96, "text": "S/2023/725, para. 2."}, {"n": 97, "text": "Ibid., para. 58."}, {"n": 98, "text": "See African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Study on Transitional Justice and Human and Peoples’ Rights in Africa (2019)."}, {"n": 99, "text": "S/2023/725, para. 8."}, {"n": 100, "text": "See African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Study on Transitional Justice and Human and Peoples’ Rights in Africa."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "(c) Gender justice in post-conflict situations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 93, "n": 86, "text": "Impunity for atrocities committed against women and girls is still prevalent.[[fn:101]] In one of its previous reports, the Working Group noted that, while some progress had been made in investigating and prosecuting crimes of sexual violence in situations of conflict, many violations of sexual and reproductive health rights continued to be either neglected or tolerated and to occur with impunity.[[fn:102]] More generally, the collapse of the law in post-conflict situations risks resulting in the masculinization of the law.[[fn:103]] Against this overall background, the Working Group will examine women’s and girls’ access to substantive justice in transitional phases.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "S/2023/725, para. 1."}, {"n": 102, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, para. 35."}, {"n": 103, "text": "See https://www.ungeneva.org/en/news-media/meeting-summary/2013/02/committee-elimination-discrimination-against-women-discusses-0."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "(c) Gender justice in post-conflict situations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 94, "n": 87, "text": "Despite some advancements, no country has achieved gender equality. Humanity is in the midst of a backlash aimed at curtailing the equal enjoyment by women and girls of their rights in all major areas of life. The backlash is escalating and undermining current achievements and prospects for further progress, reaching extreme proportions in certain countries, including the regime of gender apartheid imposed by the Taliban in Afghanistan. However, the Working Group cannot overemphasize the transformative force of millions of women and girls worldwide and of their movements and allies that strive to advance women’s and girls’ rights, resist pushbacks and build just, inclusive, peaceful and sustainable societies for all, despite, and often in reaction to, the many barriers that they continue to face. They are an inspiration to everyone and the main reason for hope and optimism for the future.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 95, "n": 88, "text": "The status quo that denies half of the world’s population their human rights and fundamental freedoms is unacceptable. States must be held accountable for failures to respect, protect and fulfil women’s and girls’ rights to substantive gender equality. States must also be held accountable for failing to cooperate and contribute to the equality of women and girls outside their borders. They must ensure the equal recognition, enjoyment and exercise of all human rights and fundamental freedoms and work together to build substantive gender equality, as required under international human rights law. Other actors, such as those in the private sector, should support these efforts and respect and protect women’s and girls’ rights. The realization of substantive gender equality cannot be further delayed.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 96, "n": 89, "text": "International, regional and national human rights mechanisms should develop coherent, systematic, comprehensive and coordinated efforts to reaffirm the universality of women’s and girls’ rights, as well as the inalienable, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated nature of all human rights, with a view to pushing back on denials and retrogressions with regard to women’s and girls’ rights and misinformation campaigns. 100 See African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Study on Transitional Justice and Human and Peoples’ Rights in Africa. 101 S/2023/725, para. 1. 102 A/HRC/47/38, para. 35. 103 See https://www.ungeneva.org/en/news-media/meeting-summary/2013/02/committee-eliminationdiscrimination-against-women-discusses-0. GE.24-07559", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Counter the gender backlash"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 97, "n": 90, "text": "States and international and regional organizations should uphold an integrated approach to the advancement of gender equality, encompassing the elimination of discrimination against women and girls in the family, culture, the economy and sexual and reproductive health rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Counter the gender backlash"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 98, "n": 91, "text": "States should:\n(a) Consider recognizing gender apartheid as a crime against humanity in the draft convention on prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity;\n(b) Leverage feminist foreign policies to promote gender equality in all forums;\n(c) Address the specific impacts of business activities on women and girls, incorporate a gender perspective into all measures to regulate business activities and seek business cooperation and support to implement women’s and girls’ rights;\n(d) Ensure that the situation of human rights of women and girls in other countries is central to their policy decisions and engagement with those countries;\n(e) Promote and pursue international cooperation to ensure women’s and girls’ rights, including through institutional capacity-building.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Counter the gender backlash"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 99, "n": 2, "text": "Eliminate discrimination and commit to achieving substantive gender equality", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Counter the gender backlash"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 100, "n": 92, "text": "States should eliminate discriminatory laws, policies and practices, including those that discriminate against women and girls on the grounds of tradition, culture or religion, and should take proactive measures to achieve substantive gender equality, including by:\n(a) Identifying and addressing, with the full and meaningful participation of the women and girls concerned, the specific challenges faced by distinct groups of women and girls who, because of multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination, experience compounded inequality;\n(b) Recognizing the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls as essential, fully integrating them into crisis prevention, response, assessment, management, recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction plans and providing comprehensive sexuality education;\n(c) Recognizing, reducing and redistributing unpaid care and domestic work, while ensuring decent work, representation, social dialogue and collective bargaining for paid care workers;\n(d) Guaranteeing universal, accessible, adequate, available, gender-responsive and comprehensive social protection;\n(e) Providing effective remedies, including in situations of conflict and other crises, and ensuring accountability for violations of women’s and girls’ rights;\n(f) Establishing appropriate participatory monitoring and evaluation mechanisms and disaggregated intersectional data collection to oversee the implementation of relevant programmes and policies, assess their impacts and adopt any corrective measures needed, including with regard to sufficient fund allocation and gender budgeting;\n(g) Embarking on a feminist, human rights-based review of socioeconomic policies and strategies with a view to designing and implementing the necessary reforms towards realizing substantive equality;\n(h) Regulating private service providers, including education and health-care providers, to ensure that the services that they provide are accessible to all, are adequate and are regularly assessed in order to meet the needs of women and girls;\n(i) Establishing parity, including through temporary special measures, to ensure the equal representation of women in public, political and economic decision-making and leadership and adopting the support measures required to make their participation effective;\n(j) Addressing discrimination against women and girls in the digital world and ensuring that technology responds to the needs of women and girls, including by protecting their rights to expression, participation and privacy;\n(k) Creating an enabling, supportive environment in which civil society, women’s and girls’ movements and other stakeholders can advance gender equality and ensuring protection for human rights defenders, access to effective remedies and prompt and impartial investigations into alleged violations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Eliminate discrimination and commit to achieving substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report consists of thematic analysis and recommendations on the gendered dimensions of care and support systems. In the annex, an update is provided on the main activities of the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls from the time of the submission of its previous report[[fn:1]] until April 2025.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A/HRC/56/51."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The Working Group expresses its gratitude to all stakeholders for their valuable contributions to the preparation of the present report, which included responding to a questionnaire, submitting supporting documentation and participating in regional and thematic consultations.[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Inputs from States, civil society organizations and national human rights institutions are available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/2024/call-inputs-mandate-working-group-discrimination-against-women-and-girls."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "Research has long demonstrated that care and support work is vital to the economy and to society.[[fn:3]] However, due to entrenched gender stereotypes and patriarchal social norms,[[fn:4]] care responsibilities fall disproportionately on women. Often, care and support work is not recognized as work, and when it is, it remains undervalued, underpaid and underrepresented.[[fn:5]] Women perform 76.2 per cent of all unpaid care work. They also comprise over 70 per cent of workers in the health sector, one of the major areas of the care economy.[[fn:6]] This both reflects and reproduces the gender division of labour.[[fn:7]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Silvia Federici, Wages Against Housework (Power of Women Collective and Falling Wall Press, 1974); Marilyn Waring, If Women Counted (Harpercollins, 1988); Arlie Hochschild, The Second Shift (Viking, 1990); and Diane Elson, Value: The Representation of Labour in Capitalism (Verso, 2015)."}, {"n": 4, "text": "See A/HRC/56/51."}, {"n": 5, "text": "International Labour Organization (ILO), Decent Work and the Care Economy (Geneva, 2024), p. 23."}, {"n": 6, "text": "Healthcare workers make up a significant portion of paid care workers, but not the whole portion. There are also paid domestic workers, social workers and education workers who are not included in these statistics. See ILO, Decent Work and the Care Economy."}, {"n": 7, "text": "See A/HRC/53/39."}], "section": ["II. Contextual and conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "Care is understood as “the act of caring for oneself, for others and for the planet, and which includes providing support and assistance to those who require it to enable their participation in society with dignity and autonomy”.[[fn:8]] Support is understood as “the act of providing help or assistance to someone who requires it to carry out daily activities and participate in society,” in a way that such assistance meets recipients’ basic needs while also enabling their participation in society with dignity and autonomy.[[fn:9]] Care work includes “direct” or “relational” care, such as care of children, the sick, older persons, and persons with disabilities, as well as “indirect care”[[fn:10]] occurring within and outside the home.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "United Nations, “Transforming care systems in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals and Our Common Agenda”, United Nations system policy paper (2024), p. 4."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Ibid., p. 4; A/HRC/58/43, para. 5; and A/HRC/34/58, paras. 13 and 16."}, {"n": 10, "text": "International Labour Organization (ILO), Decent Work and the Care Economy, p. 19."}], "section": ["II. Contextual and conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Households, market-based, public sector and community-based/non-profit organizations are the main institutions that provide care and support. When States and markets transfer the responsibility and cost of care and support onto families, this increases the workload for women and girls. The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic exposed this most starkly.[[fn:11]] Nevertheless, conventional accounts of the economy neglect the importance of care work to the functioning of States and markets.[[fn:12]] The Working Group has proposed a model of a feminist human rights-based economy as key to achieving gender equality and sustainable development.[[fn:13]] The present report builds on this past work, calling for public investment in gender-responsive, human rights-based transformation of care and support systems. As populations age, many countries are facing labour shortages in the care sector, with Africa most acutely affected.[[fn:14]] Consequently, there is a growing interest in artificial intelligence to automate care work.[[fn:15]] However, because artificial intelligence relies on “big data” which often reflects and reinforces social inequalities, it risks perpetuating gender, race, class and other inequalities.[[fn:16]] Moreover, artificial intelligence cannot replace direct care and support work which involves human relations and emotions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/Library/Publications/2020/Policy-brief-COVID-19-and-the-care-economy-en.pdf; and Soraya Seedat and Marta Rondon, “Women’s well-being and the burden of unpaid work”, BMJ, vol. 374, No. 1972 (August 2021)."}, {"n": 12, "text": "See A/HRC/44/51."}, {"n": 13, "text": "A/HRC/53/39, para. 59."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Mathieu Boniol et al., “The global health workforce stock and distribution in 2020 and 2030: a threat to equity and ‘universal’ health coverage?”, BMJ Global Health, vol. 7, issue 6 (June 2022). In European countries, nursing professionals and home-based care workers are among the 19 occupations with high-magnitude shortages – see https://www.ela.europa.eu/sites/default/files/2023-12/2021_Labour_shortages_surpluses_report.pdf, p. 9."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Jennifer Rhee, “From ELIZA to Alexa: automated care labour and the otherwise of radical care”, in Feminist AI, Jude Browne et al., eds. (Oxford University Press, 2023), p. 155."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Sharla Alegria and Catherine Yeh, “Machine learning and the reproduction of inequality”, Contexts, vol. 22, issue 4 (November 2023), pp. 34–39. The Working Group’s 2026 thematic report will be devoted to gender equality in our digital lives, including how artificial intelligence can be used to care for communities rather than to exploit them."}], "section": ["II. Contextual and conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "War is the ultimate violation of human rights and poses a direct threat to building care and support systems.[[fn:17]] With 120 conflicts raging around the world today, the Working Group is deeply concerned that some States and non-State actors have deliberately destroyed the civilian care and support infrastructure, including hospitals, schools and housing, and have used starvation and other methods in ways that may amount to war crimes, crimes against humanity and/or genocide, and that this increases women’s and girls’ care and support work amidst massive displacement and hardship, particularly in the Occupied Palestinian Territory and the Sudan.[[fn:18]] The substantive protection of women and children has often been neglected, particularly affecting pregnant women and newborn babies, who do not receive appropriate care.[[fn:19]] The widespread use of rape as a weapon of war, and kidnappings,[[fn:20]] have a disproportionate impact on women and girls, while their care responsibilities intensify amidst armed conflict, displacement, poverty, unemployment,[[fn:21]] food insecurity, drastic reductions in international aid, and increasing restrictions on their movement.[[fn:22]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements-and-speeches/2025/03/turbulence-and-unpredictability-amid-growing-conflict-and-divided."}, {"n": 18, "text": "See https://www.un.org/unispal/document/gaza-un-human-rights-experts-condemn-israeli-decision-to-re-open-gates-of-hell-and-unilaterally-change-conditions-of-truce-deal/ and https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2025/05/horrors-sudan-know-no-bounds-warns-turk-urging-end-conflict."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Fourth Geneva Convention, art. 91. See also https://www.justsecurity.org/92562/a-zone-of-silence-obstetric-violence-in-gaza-and-beyond/."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Hannah Davis, “Sectarian violence simmers in Homs”, New Lines Magazine, 10 March 2025. See also https://euaa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/publications/easo-coi-report-syria-situation-women.pdf."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/press-release/2025/02/three-years-of-full-scale-war-in-ukraine-roll-back-decades-of-progress-for-womens-rights-safety-and-economic-opportunities."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations with civil society organizations from Africa and the Middle East. See also Human Rights Watch, “Yemen: warring parties restrict women’s movement”, 4 March 2024."}], "section": ["II. Contextual and conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The demographic changes underlying the care crisis are accompanied by epidemiological and climatic changes and all of these must be tackled together.[[fn:23]] 23 The countries most at risk of climate change are also those where women and girls are in greatest danger of maternal deaths, child marriage, adolescent pregnancies and gender-based violence.[[fn:24]] Public investments in care and support are needed in order to 13 A/HRC/53/39, para. 59. 14 Mathieu Boniol et al., “The global health workforce stock and distribution in 2020 and 2030: a threat to equity and ‘universal’ health coverage?”, BMJ Global Health, vol. 7, issue 6 (June 2022). In European countries, nursing professionals and home-based care workers are among the 19 occupations with high-magnitude shortages – see https://www.ela.europa.eu/sites/default/files/202312/2021_Labour_shortages_surpluses_report.pdf, p. 9. 15 Jennifer Rhee, “From ELIZA to Alexa: automated care labour and the otherwise of radical care”, in Feminist AI, Jude Browne et al., eds. (Oxford University Press, 2023), p. 155. 16 Sharla Alegria and Catherine Yeh, “Machine learning and the reproduction of inequality”, Contexts, vol. 22, issue 4 (November 2023), pp. 34–39. The Working Group’s 2026 thematic report will be devoted to gender equality in our digital lives, including how artificial intelligence can be used to care for communities rather than to exploit them. 17 See https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements-and-speeches/2025/03/turbulence-and-unpredictabilityamid-growing-conflict-and-divided. 18 See https://www.un.org/unispal/document/gaza-un-human-rights-experts-condemn-israeli-decisionto-re-open-gates-of-hell-and-unilaterally-change-conditions-of-truce-deal/ and https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2025/05/horrors-sudan-know-no-bounds-warns-turk-urgingend-conflict. 19 Fourth Geneva Convention, art. 91. See also https://www.justsecurity.org/92562/a-zone-of-silenceobstetric-violence-in-gaza-and-beyond/. 20 Hannah Davis, “Sectarian violence simmers in Homs”, New Lines Magazine, 10 March 2025. See also https://euaa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/publications/easo-coi-report-syria-situation-women.pdf. 21 See https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/press-release/2025/02/three-years-of-full-scale-warin-ukraine-roll-back-decades-of-progress-for-womens-rights-safety-and-economic-opportunities. 22 Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations with civil society organizations from Africa and the Middle East. See also Human Rights Watch, “Yemen: warring parties restrict women’s movement”, 4 March 2024. 23 Bruce Barrett, Joel W. Charles and Jonathan L. Temte, “Climate change, human health, and epidemiological transition”, Preventative Medicine, vol. 70 (2015), pp. 69–75. 24 See https://www.unfpa.org/press/global-climate-crisis-putting-women-and-girls-extreme-dangerunfpa-warns-new-data. GE.25-07091 address these problems rooted in gender inequality. At the same time, care and support policies are critical to building alternatives to current extractive and exploitative models of economic development.[[fn:25]] Public investments in quality healthcare and childcare and other care and support services have economic multiplier effects and benefit green economies through the creation of low-carbon care jobs.[[fn:26]]", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Bruce Barrett, Joel W. Charles and Jonathan L. Temte, “Climate change, human health, and epidemiological transition”, Preventative Medicine, vol. 70 (2015), pp. 69–75."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See https://www.unfpa.org/press/global-climate-crisis-putting-women-and-girls-extreme-danger-unfpa-warns-new-data."}, {"n": 25, "text": "United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), The climate-care nexus: addressing the linkages between climate change and women’s and girls’ unpaid care, domestic and communal work (New York, November 2023)."}, {"n": 26, "text": "Amanda Novello, “Building narratives for a caring green economy” (Feminist Green New Deal Coalition, 2021); and United Nations, “Transforming care systems in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals and Our Common Agenda”, p. 7."}], "section": ["II. Contextual and conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Ensuring the autonomy and dignity of both those providing and those requiring care and support is key to the fulfilment of human rights. Women’s and girls’ identities, experiences and challenges are shaped not only by gender, but also by disabilities, age, class, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and immigration status, among other factors.[[fn:27]] The Working Group approaches care and support systems from an intersectional feminist perspective that aims to eliminate gender discrimination and advance gender equality as a precondition for all human rights.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "A/HRC/38/46, para. 11."}], "section": ["II. Contextual and conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Advancing gender equality in care and support systems is more urgent than ever in the context of an escalating backlash against gender equality.[[fn:28]] With aging populations and declining birth rates, many governments today promote pronatalist and “family-oriented” policies.[[fn:29]] However, tasking women with “reproducing the nation” threatens their hard-won rights, including in the areas of sexual and reproductive rights and efforts to combat gender-based violence.[[fn:30]] Achieving substantive equality involves transforming cultural norms separating care responsibilities from gender roles. Policies to ensure an egalitarian redistribution of care work are needed for a transformative change in States that uphold care and support as organizing principles. The Working Group notes that holistic approaches are necessary to ensure that care and support systems are economically, socially and environmentally sustainable. The Working Group refers specifically to the CREATE framework that it set forth in its recent Guidance Document on Substantive Gender Equality, which provides a comprehensive and actionable road map for achieving transformative substantive gender equality. Each letter in the name “CREATE” represents a pillar of action that States and other stakeholders are called upon to undertake in order: (a) to counter harmful social norms, discrimination, and violence; (b) to redress socioeconomic inequalities; (c) to eliminate legal and structural barriers; (d) to adopt proactive laws and policies; (e) to transform institutionalized patriarchal power structures; and (f) to enhance the participation and agency of women and girls.[[fn:31]] The present report builds on the momentum created by Human Rights Council resolution 54/6 and the subsequent report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the human rights-based approach to care and support, which defines key terms and analyses the relevant international human rights standards.[[fn:32]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "See A/HRC/56/51."}, {"n": 29, "text": "Yakın Ertürk, “Care crisis, anti-gender authoritarianism and feminist possibilities”, Feminist Dissent (forthcoming)."}, {"n": 30, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/03/turkey-withdrawal-istanbul-convention-pushback-against-womens-rights-say."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See A/HRC/WG.11/42/1."}, {"n": 32, "text": "A/HRC/58/43, paras. 6 and 33."}], "section": ["II. Contextual and conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Caring for others is intrinsically valuable, yet it remains largely unrewarded in material terms. Daily, women contribute an estimated 12.5 billion hours of unpaid care work, adding at least US$10.8 trillion in value to the global economy. If paid, unpaid 25 United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), The climate-care nexus: addressing the linkages between climate change and women’s and girls’ unpaid care, domestic and communal work (New York, November 2023). 26 Amanda Novello, “Building narratives for a caring green economy” (Feminist Green New Deal Coalition, 2021); and United Nations, “Transforming care systems in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals and Our Common Agenda”, p. 7. 27 A/HRC/38/46, para. 11. 28 See A/HRC/56/51. 29 Yakın Ertürk, “Care crisis, anti-gender authoritarianism and feminist possibilities”, Feminist Dissent (forthcoming). 30 See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/03/turkey-withdrawal-istanbul-conventionpushback-against-womens-rights-say. 31 See A/HRC/WG.11/42/1. 32 A/HRC/58/43, paras. 6 and 33. childcare and housework would equal 9 per cent of global gross domestic product (GDP).[[fn:33]] If a minimum wage were paid, the total value of unpaid care work would be three times the financial value of the global tech industry.[[fn:34]] While this represents a significant contribution, the disproportionate share of unpaid physical, mental and emotional care and support work by women and girls undermines their ability to fully realize their human rights.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "ILO, Care Work and Care Jobs for the Future of Decent Work (Geneva, 2018)."}, {"n": 34, "text": "Clare Coffey et al., “Time to care” (January 2020), cited in Oxfam, Takers not Makers (January 2025), p. 40."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Care work’s invisibility, undervaluation and relegation to the private or family sphere, and the weak recognition of the centrality of unpaid care work to the overall economy, result in a lack of public investment, and an increase in women’s unpaid care labour. Described as both the root cause and the consequence of gender discrimination,[[fn:35]] gender stereotypes portray girls and women as primarily responsible for serving and nurturing others. This shapes the gendered division of labour, with consequences of gender discrimination in the provision and receipt of care and support.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, arts. 3, 11, 13 and 14 for the relationship between the care economy and rural women, employment and social benefits. See also https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2Fhrbodies%2Fcedaw%2Factivities%2FGeneral-Recommendation-41-gender-stereotypes.docx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights", "A. Right to equality and non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "When care work is regarded as “women’s work”, women are seen as more likely to need leave to take care of families and thus less attractive to employers. Men who want or need to provide care work face challenges such as workplace policies and gender stereotypes.[[fn:36]] The transformation of sexist stereotypes and “the recognition of the common responsibility of men and women in the upbringing and development of their children”[[fn:37]] are thus key to ensuring that women and girls can enjoy their human rights. Gender equality can be transformational for men through their greater participation in care and support, more holistic experiences of fatherhood, and more equal and fulfilling intimate partner relations, and through a closer relationship with dependents.[[fn:38]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "Brigid Schulte, Providing Care Changes Men, 4 February 2021."}, {"n": 37, "text": "Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, art. 5. See also the introduction to and art. 10 of the Convention."}, {"n": 38, "text": "See A/HRC/WG.11/37/1."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights", "A. Right to equality and non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "While the right to education is a human right respected in most countries,[[fn:39]] girls too often interrupt their education to take care of household chores or of family members, or have to struggle to “balance” these different responsibilities, depriving them of their time for play and leisure.[[fn:40]] Poverty and child labour, including paid and unpaid care labour, drive high dropout and out-of-school rates for girls.[[fn:41]] The lived experiences shared during the Working Group’s consultation with girls (aged from 14 to 18) highlighted the persistent links between poverty, displacement, child marriage and excessive care work, which also have negative impacts on the girls’ mental health and on their ability to stay and/or succeed in school. 33 ILO, Care Work and Care Jobs for the Future of Decent Work (Geneva, 2018). 34 Clare Coffey et al., “Time to care” (January 2020), cited in Oxfam, Takers not Makers (January 2025), p. 40. 35 See Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, arts. 3, 11, 13 and 14 for the relationship between the care economy and rural women, employment and social benefits. See also https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2Fsites%2Fd efault%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2Fhrbodies%2Fcedaw%2Factivities%2FGeneral-Recommendation41-gender-stereotypes.docx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK. 36 Brigid Schulte, Providing Care Changes Men, 4 February 2021. 37 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, art. 5. See also the introduction to and art. 10 of the Convention. 38 See A/HRC/WG.11/37/1. 39 For exceptions, see, for example, A/HRC/53/21. 40 Views expressed during the consultation with girls from Asia, Africa and the Middle East. See also Plan International, Real Choices, Real Lives – Out of Time: The Gendered Care Divide and its Impact on Girls (2024). 41 Kelly Yotebieng, What we know (and do not know) about persistent social norms that serve as barriers to girls’ access, participation and achievement in education in eight sub-Saharan African countries (New York, United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative, 2021), p. 9; and African Union Strategy for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment 2018–2028, p. 24. GE.25-07091", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "For exceptions, see, for example, A/HRC/53/21."}, {"n": 40, "text": "Views expressed during the consultation with girls from Asia, Africa and the Middle East. See also Plan International, Real Choices, Real Lives – Out of Time: The Gendered Care Divide and its Impact on Girls (2024)."}, {"n": 41, "text": "Kelly Yotebieng, What we know (and do not know) about persistent social norms that serve as barriers to girls’ access, participation and achievement in education in eight sub-Saharan African countries (New York, United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative, 2021), p. 9; and African Union Strategy for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment 2018–2028, p. 24."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights", "B. Right to education"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Unpaid care and support work leads to women’s concentration in informal, part-time, low-wage and often non-union employment, negatively impacting their overall earnings.[[fn:42]] Unpaid care work is the primary reason for women being outside of the labour market,[[fn:43]] with men more likely to cite other reasons, such as education and health. Of the 748 million people not participating in the global labour force due to care responsibilities in 2023, 708 million were women.[[fn:44]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "See A/HRC/44/51."}, {"n": 43, "text": "See https://www.ilo.org/resource/news/unpaid-care-work-prevents-708-million-women-participating-labour-market; and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Joining Forces for Gender Equality: What is Holding us Back? (Paris, 2023)."}, {"n": 44, "text": "ILO, The impact of care responsibilities on women’s labour force participation, statistical brief, 29 October 2024, p. 1."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights", "C. Right to employment and economic participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "The lack of public investment in affordable and high-quality childcare, including especially for children with disabilities, was a recurring issue brought up during the regional consultations. Women’s disproportionate share of unpaid care work, which causes time poverty, exhaustion, and caregiver burnout, accounts also for the pay gap between men and women, which is higher for women of colour and Indigenous women.[[fn:45]] Current trends suggest that the pay gap will not close for another 134 years.[[fn:46]] Once women and girls become mothers, their unpaid care work and financial and care needs increase, but their earnings decrease due to the motherhood penalty.[[fn:47]] By contrast, men benefit from a “fatherhood bonus”.[[fn:48]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "American Association of University Women, The not so simple truth about the gender pay gap, 2025 update."}, {"n": 46, "text": "World Economic Forum, Global Gender Gap Report 2024 (Geneva, 2024)."}, {"n": 47, "text": "See A/HRC/53/39."}, {"n": 48, "text": "YoonKyung Chung et al., The parental gender earnings gap in the United States (United States Census Bureau, November 2017); and A/HRC/44/51."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights", "C. Right to employment and economic participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Women’s ability to enjoy their right to health depends on a complex set of factors, including their levels of unpaid care work. The kinds of care work performed, and their repetitive or menial nature, vary not only between caregivers in high- and low-income countries, but also among different income groups within countries.[[fn:49]] While direct unpaid care work, such as playing with children, may be stress-reducing and fulfilling, women who lack the financial means to outsource are burdened with indirect care, such as time-consuming and physically demanding domestic tasks, leading to fatigue and stress. Women who perceive household tasks and childcare as highly stressful have higher cortisol levels and slower recovery to normal cortisol levels than women who report low stress from this kind of unpaid work,[[fn:50]] partially explaining adverse mental health outcomes, including depression. Moreover, cognitive and emotional involvement, along with a lack of leisure, self-care, and communication with family and friends, can lead to distress, depression and anxiety.[[fn:51]] Single parents, including those who are single mothers by choice, and homosexual couples, may experience added pressures and not discuss their needs as pregnant people and parents.[[fn:52]]", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "UN-Women, “Caring families, caring societies”, in Progress of the World’s Women 2019–2020: Families in a Changing World, pp. 140–173."}, {"n": 50, "text": "A. Sjörs, T. Ljung and I.H. Jonsdottir, cited in Soraya Seedat and Marta Rondon, “Women’s wellbeing and the burden of unpaid work”, BMJ, vol. 374, No. 1972 (August 2021)."}, {"n": 51, "text": "Bruce S. McEwen, “Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: understanding the protective and damaging effects of stress and stress mediators”, European Journal of Pharmacology, vol. 583 (April 2008), cited in Soraya Seedat and Marta Rondon, “Women’s well-being and the burden of unpaid work”."}, {"n": 52, "text": "Views expressed during regional consultations. See Elia Psouni, Julia Berg and Hanna Persson, “Solo mothers’ by choice experiences during pregnancy and early parenthood: thoughts and feelings related to maternal health services”, Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare, vol. 33 (September 2022)."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights", "D. Right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "During health and environmental crises, an excess share of unpaid care and support work further undermines women and girls’ meeting of their own health needs and leads to an increased risk of gender-based violence. The COVID-19 pandemic revealed how women and girls suffered from excessive unpaid care, social isolation, decreased access to health and social services, and intensification of gender-based violence.[[fn:53]] Women and girls face exacerbated stigma, discrimination and social marginalization as caregivers for persons living with illness and ill-health, including HIV and rare diseases, while they may also be living with such illnesses themselves.[[fn:54]] Such stigma and discrimination undermine their access to healthcare services. When water becomes depleted and polluted, due to environmental degradation caused by extractive industries, women and girls, who are typically responsible for collecting water, must travel longer distances. Polluted water sources can also lead to illnesses among family members, further increasing care work.[[fn:55]] Such increases in unpaid care work may exacerbate physical and mental exhaustion and time poverty of women and girls.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "UN-Women, Measuring the Shadow Pandemic: Violence against Women During COVID-19 (2021)."}, {"n": 54, "text": "See https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/hiv-and-aids."}, {"n": 55, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights", "D. Right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "Social security requires high-quality public services, which are indispensable to care and support systems.[[fn:56]] To ensure an equal sharing of unpaid care and support work, and gender equality, it is necessary to combine maternity, paternity, parental and family benefits with access to quality childcare services. Norwegian policies, combining specific incentives for both fathers and mothers to take paternity leave and ensuring that no household pays more than “6 per cent of total taxable income for a place in kindergarten”, exemplify how institutional change can lead to a more egalitarian distribution of care work.[[fn:57]] Similarly, availability of rights-based rehabilitation and long-term care and support services, assistive devices, and accessible housing and infrastructure are important supplements to disability benefits and old-age pensions to promote the autonomy of persons with disabilities and older persons and their independent living, and thus to alleviate unpaid care and support needs for caregivers.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "A/HRC/53/39, paras. 44–47. See also Sustainable Development Goals, target 5.4."}, {"n": 57, "text": "Written contribution from Norway."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights", "E. Right to social security"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Women’s care work also has an impact on their underrepresentation in politics. In 2024, women worldwide held only 27 per cent of seats in national parliaments and 35.5 per cent of seats in local governments. A total of 107 countries have never had a woman Head of State.[[fn:58]] Unpaid care work consumes time and energy, preventing women from engaging in public life. In turn, women’s underrepresentation leads to a lack of attention and resources for issues that directly impact them: including high-quality childcare and long-term care and support, sexual and reproductive health and gender-based violence, and migrant labour policies. 52 Views expressed during regional consultations. See Elia Psouni, Julia Berg and Hanna Persson, “Solo mothers’ by choice experiences during pregnancy and early parenthood: thoughts and feelings related to maternal health services”, Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare, vol. 33 (September 2022). 53 UN-Women, Measuring the Shadow Pandemic: Violence against Women During COVID-19 (2021). 54 See https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/hiv-and-aids. 55 Ibid. 56 A/HRC/53/39, paras. 44–47. See also Sustainable Development Goals, target 5.4. 57 Written contribution from Norway. 58 See https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/explainer/2024/09/five-actions-to-boost-womenspolitical-participation. GE.25-07091", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 58, "text": "See https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/explainer/2024/09/five-actions-to-boost-womens-political-participation."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights", "F. Right to participate in political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Due largely to gender stereotypes, women are overrepresented in the care sector, which is often seen as a natural extension of women’s unpaid care work and thus undervalued by association.[[fn:59]] This has implications for wages, job quality, career advancement, pensions and retirement savings.[[fn:60]] Women are overrepresented among paid care and support workers, including in healthcare (as nurses, nurses’ aides and home health aides), childcare (as preschool teachers, teacher’s assistants and daycare workers), care for older persons, disability support (as assisted living facility staff, home care providers and professional personal assistants), social work (as social workers, counsellors and case managers) and domestic work (as nannies, cooks and cleaners). Women in paid care, especially healthcare workers and domestic workers, including migrant women, are at higher risk of gender-based discrimination and violence in their workplaces.[[fn:61]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 59, "text": "In the current context of inflation and rising food prices, mentioned by participants during the regional consultations, women’s lower earnings pose serious problems."}, {"n": 60, "text": "A/HRC/44/51, para. 14."}, {"n": 61, "text": "UN-Women policy brief, From evidence to action: tackling gender-based violence against migrant women and girls (2021); and May-Elizabeth Pere-ere Ajuwa et al., “Workplace violence against female healthcare workers: a systematic review and meta-analysis”, BMJ Open, vol. 14, No. 8 (August 2024)."}], "section": ["IV. Gender inequalities in paid care and support work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Sixty-seven per cent of workers in the health and care sector worldwide are women. Average earnings in the sector are lower than in other sectors.[[fn:62]] Women comprise 70 per cent of the global health workforce yet occupy only 25 per cent of senior roles in healthcare.[[fn:63]] Female health workers are clustered into lower-status and lower-paid roles, and are further disadvantaged by horizontal occupational segregation driven by gender stereotypes branding some jobs suitable for women (e.g. nursing) or men (e.g. surgery). Vertical and horizontal occupational segregation and women’s concentration in lower-paid roles within the healthcare sector explain much of the gender pay gap (25 to 26 per cent) in the sector.[[fn:64]] Different titles and types of healthcare and nursing professionals serve to create precarity, extending social protection to some and denying it to others, such as in the case of “nurses that are not technically nurses”.[[fn:65]] In Asia and Southern Africa, women, as the majority of community health workers, provide essential services under tremendous resource constraints, but are not paid. Even those who are paid (e.g. in India) do not usually have social security benefits.[[fn:66]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "ILO and World Health Organization, The Gender Pay Gap in the Health and Care Sector: A Global Analysis in the Time of COVID-19 (2022)."}, {"n": 63, "text": "WHO, Delivered by Women, Led by Men: A Gender and Equity Analysis of the Global Health and Social Workforce (2019)."}, {"n": 64, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 65, "text": "Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations."}, {"n": 66, "text": "Working Group’s consultations in Asia and the Pacific and in Africa. See also Madeleine Ballard et al., “Payment of community health workers”, The Lancet Global Health, vol. 10, issue 9 (September 2022)."}], "section": ["IV. Gender inequalities in paid care and support work", "A. Healthcare work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Women are often “at the front lines” in hospitals, where they experience harassment and violence.[[fn:67]] 67 Research from different countries demonstrates an association between being a female healthcare worker and an increased risk of workplace violence, with younger women being at higher risk. While patients, patients’ relatives, colleagues and supervisors are the main perpetrators of workplace violence, sexual harassment against nurses tends to be perpetrated by physicians.68 59 In the current context of inflation and rising food prices, mentioned by participants during the regional consultations, women’s lower earnings pose serious problems. 60 A/HRC/44/51, para. 14. 61 UN-Women policy brief, From evidence to action: tackling gender-based violence against migrant women and girls (2021); and May-Elizabeth Pere-ere Ajuwa et al., “Workplace violence against female healthcare workers: a systematic review and meta-analysis”, BMJ Open, vol. 14, No. 8 (August 2024). 62 ILO and World Health Organization, The Gender Pay Gap in the Health and Care Sector: A Global Analysis in the Time of COVID-19 (2022). 63 WHO, Delivered by Women, Led by Men: A Gender and Equity Analysis of the Global Health and Social Workforce (2019). 64 Ibid. 65 Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations. 66 Working Group’s consultations in Asia and the Pacific and in Africa. See also Madeleine Ballard et al., “Payment of community health workers”, The Lancet Global Health, vol. 10, issue 9 (September 2022). 67 May-Elizabeth Pere-ere Ajuwa et al., “Workplace violence against female healthcare workers: a systematic review and meta-analysis”. 68 Ibid., pp. 5–7.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "May-Elizabeth Pere-ere Ajuwa et al., “Workplace violence against female healthcare workers: a systematic review and meta-analysis”."}], "section": ["IV. Gender inequalities in paid care and support work", "A. Healthcare work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The care crisis is currently “managed” by a transnational and racialized gendered division of care labour taking place in the context of racism, xenophobia and anti-immigrant discourse and policies. Eighty per cent of the 67 million domestic workers in the world are women, and one out of five are migrants, the vast majority of whom are from the global South.[[fn:69]] Domestic work comprises 2.3 per cent of global employment, and 4.5 per cent of female employment worldwide.[[fn:70]] Migrant domestic workers face widespread human rights violations due to their isolation and dependent structural position in labour markets, and to stereotypes related to their national, religious and ethnic backgrounds. Women migrant domestic workers experience long working hours, sexual and gender-based violence, confiscation of passports, forced labour and wage theft. When they are victims of crimes, the law is often not enforced in their favour, and the rates of prosecution and the fines are too low to deter violators.[[fn:71]] As reported during the Working Group’s Asia-Pacific consultation: “We have a variety of very good laws that simply are not implemented.”", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 69, "text": "See https://www.iom.int/news/iom-releases-guidelines-labour-recruiters-migrant-domestic-workers."}, {"n": 70, "text": "Charlotte Junghus and Anna Olsen, Making Decent Work a Reality for Domestic Workers: Progress and Prospects in Asia and the Pacific Ten Years After the Adoption of the Domestic Workers Convention, 2011 (No. 189) (ILO, Bangkok, 2021)."}, {"n": 71, "text": "Views expressed during the Working Group’s Middle East and North Africa and Asia-Pacific consultations."}], "section": ["IV. Gender inequalities in paid care and support work", "B. Domestic work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Risks and vulnerabilities are further aggravated for migrant domestic workers in an irregular situation, not least because they often risk deportation if they contact State authorities to seek protection from an abusive employer. Access to justice is a major challenge for migrant domestic workers who live with their employers, as is in some instances required by law, and who may lack the relevant language skills and other resources. In many countries, the existing minimum wage laws do not apply to migrant workers, and migrant domestic workers suffer from hunger and lack of proper sleeping quarters and privacy. Participants in the regional consultations also reported an exclusion of domestic workers in general, and migrant domestic workers in particular, from labour laws, including in relation to the minimum wage and to social security. Additionally, during armed conflicts and natural disasters, migrant domestic workers are excluded from shelters.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Gender inequalities in paid care and support work", "B. Domestic work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Some forms of agricultural work, such as growing, harvesting and processing food for one’s family, and caring for animals and crops, can be considered care work. In the global South, rural women make up at least half of the agricultural workforce, working on family and community plots, in formal and informal employment.[[fn:72]] Despite their key roles in fishing or growing food for family consumption and income,[[fn:73]] women are undervalued, underpaid and underrepresented.[[fn:74]] The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates that female-headed households suffer significantly more income declines due to heat stress and floods compared to male-headed households.[[fn:75]] By the middle of this century, climate change could drive up to 158 million additional women and girls into poverty, exceeding the total number of men and boys affected by a figure of 16 million.[[fn:76]] Men’s migration to urban areas for employment often leaves women as the sole or primary managers of the family’s subsistence and cash-crop farms. When land is unavailable for farming and foraging, food security and livelihoods are threatened. When soil is depleted, and water is polluted, women tend to work harder, longer, or further from home to make a living.[[fn:77]] Women’s displacement from agricultural jobs pushes them into seeking highly precarious forms of daily domestic work.[[fn:78]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 72, "text": "Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), The Status of Women in Agrifood Systems (Rome, 2023)."}, {"n": 73, "text": "Oxfam International, Position paper on gender justice and the extractive industries (March 2017), p. 6."}, {"n": 74, "text": "Shalmali Guttal, Food systems transformation through feminist climate justice, Feminist Climate Justice Think Pieces No. 4 (New York, UN-Women, 2024)."}, {"n": 75, "text": "FAO, The Unjust Climate: Measuring the Impacts of Climate Change on Rural Poor, Women and Youth (Rome, 2024)."}, {"n": 76, "text": "Laura Turquet et al., Feminist Climate Justice: A Framework for Action (New York, UN-Women, 2023)."}, {"n": 77, "text": "Oxfam International, Position paper on gender justice and the extractive industries, pp. 6 and 7."}, {"n": 78, "text": "Input from Women’s Action Network (Sri Lanka)."}], "section": ["IV. Gender inequalities in paid care and support work", "C. Agricultural work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "Despite providing most of the unpaid and paid care work, women and girls do not receive the care and support they need, due to poverty, social isolation, multiple forms of discrimination, poor access to housing, healthcare and social services, violence, and lack of opportunities to contribute to and participate actively in society.[[fn:79]] Colonial legacies, decades of neoliberal policies and the privatization of healthcare have left large numbers of people who cannot afford healthcare behind, increasing women’s time spent taking care of sick people, and negatively impacting women’s opportunities for decent jobs[[fn:80]] and their ability to receive needed care.[[fn:81]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 79, "text": "Women with Disabilities Australia, “The status of women and girls with disability in Australia”, position paper (November 2019)."}, {"n": 80, "text": "A/HRC/53/39, para. 21. See also Lourdes Benería, Günseli Berik and Maria S. Floro, “Paid and unpaid work: meanings and debates”, in Gender, Development and Globalization: Economics as if All People Mattered (New York, Routledge, 2016)."}, {"n": 81, "text": "African Union Strategy for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment 2018–2028, p. 25."}], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "These challenges are compounded for women with disabilities who provide care and support. In addition, they face unique gender-specific challenges as both providers and receivers of care and support. Societal attitudes often perpetuate stereotypes that view women and girls with disabilities either as a burden or solely as caregivers, neglecting their dignity, autonomy, agency and social inclusion. Moreover, their perspectives and rights are often not represented by either the gender or disability movements, leaving them with no voice in shaping the policies that directly affect their lives, including on care and support systems. Girls with disabilities are at risk of harmful practices, which are often justified by sociocultural and religious customs.[[fn:82]] The marriage of girls with disabilities, especially intellectual disabilities, is often justified under the pretext of providing future security, care and financing.[[fn:83]] Girls with disabilities experience social isolation, and segregation and exploitation inside the family, including being excluded from family activities, prevented from leaving home and attending school, and forced to perform housework. Despite advocacy by women with disabilities, disability policies and insurance continue to neglect gender issues.[[fn:84]] For instance, in Australia, only 37 per cent of participants in the National Disability Insurance Scheme,[[fn:85]] an otherwise progressive policy that serves 600,000 persons with disabilities, are women and girls.[[fn:86]] The gender gap in accessing disability services is compounded for those living in rural areas.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 82, "text": "These include “mercy killings”, infanticide, accusations of “spirit possessions”, and feeding and nutrition restrictions. See Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 3 (2016), para. 36."}, {"n": 83, "text": "Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 3 (2016), para. 36."}, {"n": 84, "text": "Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations."}, {"n": 85, "text": "See https://www.ndis.gov.au/understanding/what-ndis."}, {"n": 86, "text": "See https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/disability/people-with-disability-in-australia/contents/people-with-disability/prevalence-of-disability."}], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support", "A. Women and girls with disabilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Gender bias in identifying support needs for women and girls with disabilities creates barriers to accessing support.[[fn:87]] Lack of gender-disaggregated data hampers efforts to identify and address gender-specific needs and outcomes. For example, an estimated 80 per cent of autistic girls remain undiagnosed by the age of 18.[[fn:88]] Autistic individuals, especially women and gender-diverse people, face significant barriers to healthcare, compounded by gender bias within the system.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 88, "text": "Robert McCrossin, “Finding the true number of females with autistic spectrum disorder by estimating the biases in initial recognition and clinical diagnosis”, Children, vol. 9, No. 2 (February 2022), p. 272."}], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support", "A. Women and girls with disabilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Placing care and support responsibilities solely on women undermines the rights of persons with disabilities who require care and support. Depriving caregivers of rest and time for self-care undermines not only the health and well-being of caregivers but also the quality of care and support they can provide. It may lead to neglect or abuse of persons with disabilities whom they support. Depriving caregivers of opportunities for employment and a livelihood may also lead to destitution of the household. This may be further exacerbated when caretakers themselves are persons with disabilities. Additionally, persons with disabilities and those providing care and support for them are often stigmatized and ostracized. Disability rights advocates emphasized that the needs and rights of persons with disabilities as caregivers and the needs of family caregivers of persons with disabilities often “fall between the cracks of both the disability movement and the women’s rights movement”.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support", "A. Women and girls with disabilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "Many older women who need care and support often also provide care for others.[[fn:89]] In many countries, grandmothers are the primary care providers for grandchildren.[[fn:90]] In parts of Africa where public services are severely lacking, older women often care for orphaned and/or sick family members and those with HIV.[[fn:91]] Yet, older women face challenges in accessing care and support for themselves. The gender gap in earnings results in a gap in pensions and savings and increased poverty among older women.[[fn:92]] In many countries, publicly provided long-term care is not available to all and/or is not of good quality.[[fn:93]] Older women without resources or livelihoods may find themselves involuntarily isolated in the home or a substandard care facility.[[fn:94]] Responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire indicate that lack of regulation of employment conditions in care homes, high costs and low quality of care are common problems.[[fn:95]] Even in countries that invest in research and policy on long-term care, the gendered dimensions of long-term care needs are neglected.[[fn:96]] In addition, older LBTQI+ women experience distinct challenges and discrimination in accessing institutional care.[[fn:97]]", "labels": ["Children", "Children in alternative care", "Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations. See also Cong Zhang et al., “The rise of maternal grandmother childcare in urban Chinese families”, Journal of Marriage and Family, vol. 81, No. 5 (2019), pp. 1174–1191."}, {"n": 90, "text": "State responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire indicate that some States (e.g. Singapore) provide tax relief for “working mothers who engage the help of their parents, grandparents, parentsin-law or grandparents-in-law to take care of their children”."}, {"n": 91, "text": "Input from Scalabrini Centre (South Africa). See also UN-Women, Landscape of care work in Uganda (2024)."}, {"n": 92, "text": "Marta Roig and Daisuke Maruichi, Economic well-being at older ages: prospects for the future (policy brief), Department of Economic and Social Affairs, January 2023."}, {"n": 93, "text": "Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations. See also the written contribution from Uganda."}, {"n": 94, "text": "A/HRC/41/33, paras. 28 and 55. See also A/HRC/53/39."}, {"n": 95, "text": "Mimi Alphonsus, “Calls grow to regulate elders’ homes as Lanka’s elderly population increases”, The Sunday Times, 28 January 2024."}, {"n": 96, "text": "Kristina Chelberg and Linda Steele, “Hidden in plain sight: women and gendered dementia dynamics in the Australian Aged Care Royal Commission”, Journal of Aging Studies, vol. 71 (December 2024)."}, {"n": 97, "text": "Input by Kaos GL (Türkiye). See also https://www.17mayis.org/images/publish/pdf/yaslaniyoruz-lubunya-anket-gorusmeler-ve-calisma-raporu-16-05-2022.pdf; and A/75/258, para. 12."}], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support", "B. Older women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Dominant economic growth-based development models thrive on women’s and girls’ “depletion” and the draining of care resources from poorer to richer nations through a “global care chain”.[[fn:98]] As poverty, unemployment, climate change and armed conflict “push” many to migrate, the demands for care and support owing to changes in family structures, aging societies, and an increase in women’s employment in middle- and high-income countries “pull” women into the care sector in these countries. In their responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire and the consultations, migrant women from all regions reported a lack of social protection, including a lack of access to hospitals, to maternity benefits and to retirement/pension benefits. For undocumented migrant women and girls, these problems are compounded, in the context of rising anti-immigrant and xenophobic rhetoric and policies, which increase their risk of experiencing human rights violations.[[fn:99]] Policies that purport to “protect” women, such as restrictions on women migrating for work, violate their human rights.[[fn:100]] Despite such bans, women migrate, for economic reasons and to escape human rights violations, including gender-based violence. However, irregular migration increases their vulnerability and their risk of exploitation and human trafficking.[[fn:101]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 98, "text": "See A/HRC/44/51."}, {"n": 99, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/07/racism-and-xenophobia-put-human-rights-human-trafficking-victims-risk-un."}, {"n": 100, "text": "See https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/%40asia/%40ro-bangkok/%40ilo-kathmandu/documents/publication/wcms_792239.pdf."}, {"n": 101, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/07/racism-and-xenophobia-put-human-rights-human-trafficking-victims-risk-un."}], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support", "C. Migrant women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The lack of gender-responsiveness in most social protection schemes is apparent in their exclusion of sexual and reproductive health services and health conditions, failure to provide for leave and benefits for domestic violence-related harms, and absence of support for women and girls in their roles as carers or as care-receivers throughout their life cycle, and in making benefits contingent on the rights holders’ marital and formal employment status or on specific documentation that is inaccessible to women.[[fn:102]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 102, "text": "See A/HRC/53/39."}], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support", "C. Migrant women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "Women of colour, Indigenous women and migrant women are at increased risk of institutionalization, incarceration and detention. In addition to having distinct needs in prison and detention systems, including for arrangements to be made for the care of their children,[[fn:103]] women and girls are also impacted when they visit, deliver food, and advocate for the well-being of incarcerated family members and their children. Women provide their relatives deprived of liberty with the necessary goods for subsistence, which the State should guarantee.[[fn:104]] They often face discrimination, and experience health problems due to high levels of stress, anxiety and anguish, undue financial burdens imposed on family 96 Kristina Chelberg and Linda Steele, “Hidden in plain sight: women and gendered dementia dynamics in the Australian Aged Care Royal Commission”, Journal of Aging Studies, vol. 71 (December 2024). 97 Input by Kaos GL (Türkiye). See also https://www.17mayis.org/images/publish/pdf/yaslaniyoruzlubunya-anket-gorusmeler-ve-calisma-raporu-16-05-2022.pdf; and A/75/258, para. 12. 98 See A/HRC/44/51. 99 See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/07/racism-and-xenophobia-put-human-rightshuman-trafficking-victims-risk-un. 100 See https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/%40asia/%40ro-bangkok/%40ilokathmandu/documents/publication/wcms_792239.pdf. 101 See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/07/racism-and-xenophobia-put-human-rightshuman-trafficking-victims-risk-un. 102 See A/HRC/53/39. 103 See the United Nations Rules for the Treatment of Women Prisoners and Non-custodial Measures for Women Offenders (the Bangkok Rules). 104 Ibid. members, such as specific health examinations at entry and exit, and problems with regular visits in safe and dignified conditions.[[fn:105]]", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 103, "text": "See the United Nations Rules for the Treatment of Women Prisoners and Non-custodial Measures for Women Offenders (the Bangkok Rules)."}, {"n": 104, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 105, "text": "Principles and Good Practices on the Protection of the Rights of Women Relatives of Persons Deprived of their Liberty (Bogotá Principles), International Network of Women Relatives of Persons Deprived of their Liberty, October 2022."}], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support", "D. People deprived of liberty and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "Due to gender inequality, discriminatory development, and legacies of colonialism, slavery, racism and environmental destruction, women in rural areas have been excluded from meaningful health, education and employment opportunities.[[fn:106]] Rural areas often lack doctors, meaning that women’s and girls’ basic healthcare needs are underserved, while their excessive unpaid care and support work increases. Rural women and girls also face challenges in realizing their sexual and reproductive health rights. For girls aged from 15 to 19, maternal conditions are among the top causes of disability.[[fn:107]] Fertility rates are higher, and more teenage births occur, in rural areas than in urban areas.[[fn:108]] Access to contraceptives is low, while maternal mortality and morbidities, such as obstetric fistula and uterine prolapse, are high.[[fn:109]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 106, "text": "See A/HRC/53/39."}, {"n": 107, "text": "World Health Organization, Global Health Estimates 2020: Deaths by Cause, Age, Sex, by Country and by Region, 2000–2019 (Geneva, 2020)."}, {"n": 108, "text": "Mathias Lerch, “Regional variations in the rural-urban fertility gradient in the global South”, PLOS One, vol. 14, No. 7 (2019). See also https://www.choiceforyouth.org/assets/Docs/198f89dc19/PositionPaper_CSW_DEF.pdf and https://www.apa.org/pubs/reports/rural-women-summary.pdf."}, {"n": 109, "text": "See A/HRC/47/38 and https://www.choiceforyouth.org/assets/Docs/198f89dc19/PositionPaper_CSW_DEF.pdf."}], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support", "E. Rural women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "Older women face distinct challenges in accessing basic healthcare in rural areas as their children tend to live in urban areas for jobs.[[fn:110]] People living in rural areas tend to suffer more from home and farm accidents and resulting disabilities, as they lack insurance and access to healthcare. Worldwide, millions of women work as agricultural workers, sometimes in dangerous conditions involving machinery, rugged terrain and transportation infrastructure-related challenges.[[fn:111]] The dangers include exposure to pesticides, and heat stress, which increases the risk of certain gendered harms, especially for menstruating and pregnant women.[[fn:112]] The rate of labour informality in agriculture is 93.6 per cent, and agricultural workers tend to be excluded from existing legal provisions and social protections.[[fn:113]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 110, "text": "Kevin Kinsella, “Urban and rural dimensions of global population aging: an overview”, The Journal of Rural Health, (2001) vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 314–322."}, {"n": 111, "text": "Views expressed in the Working Group’s Middle East and North Africa consultation. See also ILO and FAO, Extending Social Protection to Rural Populations: Perspectives for a Common FAO and ILO Approach (Geneva, 2021)."}, {"n": 112, "text": "European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, “Reproductive effects caused by chemical and biological agents”, 23 November 2012."}, {"n": 113, "text": "ILO, Women and Men in the Informal Economy: A Statistical Picture, third edition (Geneva, 2018)."}], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support", "E. Rural women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "The World Health Organization defines self-care as the ability of individuals, families and communities to promote their own health, prevent disease, maintain health, and cope with illness – with or without the support of a health or care worker.[[fn:114]] Although self-care is not explicitly codified in human rights documents, it has been a vital theme in feminist scholarship and advocacy.[[fn:115]] Self-care is a crucial dimension of the rights to health, bodily autonomy, and rest and leisure, and thus is indispensable for achieving gender equality in care and support systems. Unequal care responsibility significantly compromises women’s ability to care for themselves. When caregivers – whether paid or unpaid – are unable to maintain their own health and well-being, the quality of care they provide inevitably suffers. When women and girls are cared for and supported by others, it is also important that they have space and autonomy to exercise self-care of their choice, including through peer support. Ensuring time, space and resources for self-care is thus not a luxury, but a necessary precondition for dignified care relationships and for the fulfilment of human rights.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 114, "text": "See https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/self-care-health-interventions."}, {"n": 115, "text": "Laura Pautassi, “El cuidado como cuestión social desde un enfoque de derechos” (Care as a social issue from a rights-based perspective), Serie Mujer y Desarrollo, No. 87 (Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, October 2007), cited in Laura Pautassi, “The right to care: from recognition to its effective exercise” (Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, March 2023)."}], "section": ["VI. Self-care and collective care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "Systematic violations of bodily autonomy and sexual and reproductive health rights, as well as restrictions on movement outside the home, limit women and girls in their ability to self-care. Nearly half of the women in 57 developing countries are denied the right to decide whether to have sex with their partners, to use contraception or to seek healthcare.[[fn:116]] The autonomy of women and girls with disabilities is often further denied.[[fn:117]] Nearly half of all pregnancies, totalling 121 million each year globally, are unintended, with over 60 per cent of these ending in abortion. An estimated 45 per cent of all abortions are unsafe, causing 5 to 13 per cent of all maternal deaths. More than 30 countries restrict women’s right to mobility outside the home.[[fn:118]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 116, "text": "United Nations Population Fund, State of World Population 2021 – My Body Is My Own: Claiming the Right to Autonomy and Self-Determination."}, {"n": 117, "text": "Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 3 (2016)."}, {"n": 118, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["VI. Self-care and collective care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The right to leisure, essential for ensuring self-care, is a human right that recognizes the risks of working excessive hours without adequate rest, not only for individuals but also for their families.[[fn:119]] Time poverty is a pervasive social condition that disproportionately impacts women, and girls, largely due to their unpaid care responsibilities,[[fn:120]] with significant consequences for health and well-being, contributing to negative physical and mental outcomes.[[fn:121]] Time poverty also affects communities, as individuals’ lack of time weakens social ties and limits opportunities to connect and to support and care for one another.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 119, "text": "Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 24."}, {"n": 120, "text": "Plan International, Real Choices, Real Lives – Out of Time: The Gendered Care Divide and its Impact on Girls; and Make Mothers Matter, “Time poverty and the motherhood penalty”, 9 July 2024."}, {"n": 121, "text": "Elizabeth Hyde, Margaret E. Greene and Gary L. Darmstadt, “Time poverty: obstacle to women’s human rights, health and sustainable development”, Journal of Global Health, vol. 10, No. 2 (November 2020)."}], "section": ["VI. Self-care and collective care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "One example of collective care was developed by women activists who offered each other emotional grounding as well as advice on how to eat and live well during the AIDS epidemic in Africa in the 1990s.[[fn:122]] This model of collective care as essential to self-care is also reflected in the work of human rights defenders such as the Mesoamerican Initiative of Women Human Rights Defenders, who offer collectivist alternatives for the protection, self-care and safety of women.[[fn:123]] This approach extends to care for the planet. When vital resources such as air, water and land become scarcer and polluted, everyone’s health deteriorates, and women’s unpaid care work increases.[[fn:124]] Self-care and collective care are possible through the preservation of vital natural resources and the creation of a social and physical infrastructure of care that enables people to exercise rights that are directly relevant to self-care: the rights to rest and leisure, and the rights to bodily autonomy, and health, including sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:125]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 122, "text": "Written contribution from the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS)."}, {"n": 123, "text": "See https://im-defensoras.org/en/2022/12/protecci%C3%B3n-integral-feminista/."}, {"n": 124, "text": "Oxfam International, Position paper on gender justice and the extractive industries, p. 1."}, {"n": 125, "text": "See A/HRC/47/38."}], "section": ["VI. Self-care and collective care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "There are some promising developments and good practices for the recognition, reduction and redistribution of unpaid care work, and for rewarding more fairly and representing in decision-making those in paid care work.[[fn:126]] Since 2008, Ecuador has recognized care done in the home as productive work and committed to “provide services for childcare, care for persons with disabilities, and other services as needed for workers to be able to perform their labour activities”, referring to “the joint responsibility and reciprocity of men and women in domestic work and family obligations”.[[fn:127]] Since the 2020 reform of its Social Security Act (art. 201), Mexico allows both male and female caregivers who are rights holders of contributory schemes to enrol their children in childcare services.[[fn:128]] The Government of Canada passed a law in 2024 that enshrines a right to care for all children, implementing this with the “$10-a-day childcare”.[[fn:129]] The Canadian policy also focuses on the rights of Indigenous communities and children to high-quality, affordable and accessible childcare.[[fn:130]] In Tunisia, Law No. 37, adopted in 2021, regulates domestic work, extends social security to those providing unpaid care in the home, and prohibits child employment.[[fn:131]] In China, article 1088 of the Civil Code (2020) provides financial compensation for the spouse providing more childcare or care for older persons in the family in a divorce situation.[[fn:132]] At the municipal level, promising models include the Manzanas del Cuidado in Bogotá, where women spend time in job training, sports or studying, while staff take care of their family members, with these services offered free of charge; in addition to the expansion of affordable childcare facilities.[[fn:133]] Civil society campaigns, such as Men Care, function across different regions to transform cultural norms to encourage a more equal distribution between men and women in caring for children.[[fn:134]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 126, "text": "For other promising practices, see A/HRC/58/43 and A/HRC/55/34."}, {"n": 127, "text": "Art. 333 of the Constitution of Ecuador, cited in UN-Women, Global Gender Equality Constitutional Database. See also arts. 325 and 329."}, {"n": 128, "text": "Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations. See also https://www.unicef.org/innocenti/media/10246/file/UNICEF-Innocenti-GRASSP-MexicoReport-December-2024.pdf, p. 28."}, {"n": 129, "text": "Views expressed in the Working Group’s consultations. See also Government of Canada, Toward $10-a-day: early learning and childcare, available at https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/campaigns/child-care.html; and https://globalnews.ca/news/10328712/national-child-care-system-legislation/."}, {"n": 130, "text": "Working Group’s consultations."}, {"n": 131, "text": "Working Group’s consultations. See also Avocats sans frontières, “Towards stronger protection for domestic workers in Tunisia: challenges and recommendations”, policy brief, 22 June 2023."}, {"n": 132, "text": "See https://en.humanrights.cn/2024/04/17/2412743810154240a2937e9f3f510b47.html."}, {"n": 133, "text": "Working Group’s consultations with participants from Latin America and Spain, and from Eastern Europe and Western Asia. See also the written contribution from the Colombian Ombudsman’s Office, and the National Care Strategy of Colombia."}, {"n": 134, "text": "See A/HRC/WG.11/37/1, and https://www.mencare.org."}], "section": ["VII. Promising practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "There are also some promising models of publicly provided non-institutional long-term care and support services, including home-based primary care and geriatric evaluation for veterans, and respite care benefits for caregivers, in the United States of America and Norway. While home care services and nursing homes often remain too expensive for most older people, many governments acknowledge the need for home-based care, and some (e.g. Estonia) have reformed their welfare policies to allow older people to “age in place”.[[fn:135]] Responses to the Working Group’s survey show that government policies including national-level direct compensation such as allowances and payments, and indirect compensation such as tax relief and tax credit policies, may help family caregivers. In Ethiopia, where formal social safety nets are lacking, Indigenous community-led initiatives increasingly engage in care and support.[[fn:136]] In Asia, there is a trend towards developing 126 For other promising practices, see A/HRC/58/43 and A/HRC/55/34. 127 Art. 333 of the Constitution of Ecuador, cited in UN-Women, Global Gender Equality Constitutional Database. See also arts. 325 and 329. 128 Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations. See also https://www.unicef.org/innocenti/media/10246/file/UNICEF-Innocenti-GRASSP-MexicoReportDecember-2024.pdf, p. 28. 129 Views expressed in the Working Group’s consultations. See also Government of Canada, Toward $10-a-day: early learning and childcare, available at https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-socialdevelopment/campaigns/child-care.html; and https://globalnews.ca/news/10328712/national-childcare-system-legislation/. 130 Working Group’s consultations. 131 Working Group’s consultations. See also Avocats sans frontières, “Towards stronger protection for domestic workers in Tunisia: challenges and recommendations”, policy brief, 22 June 2023. 132 See https://en.humanrights.cn/2024/04/17/2412743810154240a2937e9f3f510b47.html. 133 Working Group’s consultations with participants from Latin America and Spain, and from Eastern Europe and Western Asia. See also the written contribution from the Colombian Ombudsman’s Office, and the National Care Strategy of Colombia. 134 See A/HRC/WG.11/37/1, and https://www.mencare.org. 135 Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations, and written contributions received from civil society organizations. See also the document of the National Audit Office of Estonia available at https://www.riigikontroll.ee/DesktopModules/DigiDetail/FileDownloader.aspx?FileId=19686&AuditI d=6596. 136 Written contribution from the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission. GE.25-07091 community-based social care that is provided through collaboration between formal care institutions and informal care, which plays a critical role in caring for older persons at home in their own community.[[fn:137]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 135, "text": "Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations, and written contributions received from civil society organizations. See also the document of the National Audit Office of Estonia available at https://www.riigikontroll.ee/DesktopModules/DigiDetail/FileDownloader.aspx?FileId=19686&AuditId=6596."}, {"n": 136, "text": "Written contribution from the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission."}, {"n": 137, "text": "Sasakawa Peace Foundation, Community-based Care for Older Persons (2019)."}], "section": ["VII. Promising practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "The fact that migrant workers are increasingly visible and organized,[[fn:138]] and the efforts to provide skills training for them, are also promising developments.[[fn:139]] Migrant domestic workers participating in the Asia-Pacific consultation pointed to ongoing efforts, and the need, to create fair and ethical recruitment systems to protect migrant domestic workers, giving the example of a system implemented in Jordan that involves migrant women’s advocacy as a good practice. “One-stop service centres” in many national healthcare institutions in Sri Lanka offer a good practice for care and support of survivors of gender-based violence.[[fn:140]] There are also promising models of community-based care and support for survivors of gender-based violence, such as SASA! in Uganda and Oxfam Novib’s programme in Mozambique, which work with community activists to conduct culturally appropriate awareness-raising on gender inequality and violence to challenge gender stereotypes and transform gender roles.[[fn:141]] Feminist legal scholarship that is aimed at centring care in international law is also a promising exploration of the connections between self-care and collective care.[[fn:142]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 138, "text": "See https://medium.com/iom-development-fund-newsletter/raising-the-voices-of-migrant-domestic-workers-in-jordan-a-project-by-migrants-for-migrants-51c143269b21."}, {"n": 139, "text": "These specific projects were mentioned in the Asia-Pacific consultations. See https://thailand.iom.int/promise-programme."}, {"n": 140, "text": "Written contribution from Women’s Action Network (Sri Lanka)."}, {"n": 141, "text": "Michau (2008), cited in Kelly Yotebieng, What we know (and do not know) about persistent social norms that serve as barriers to girls’ access, participation and achievement in education in eight sub-Saharan African countries, p. 9."}, {"n": 142, "text": "See https://www.durham.ac.uk/news-events/latest-news/2024/12/new-project-puts-care-at-the-centre-of-international-law-research/."}], "section": ["VII. Promising practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "Transforming care and support systems is essential for eliminating discrimination against women and girls and achieving substantive gender equality. Existing care and support policies are inadequate and services are often inaccessible and/or unaffordable, preventing many women and girls from enjoying their basic human rights. This structural deficit stems from the absence of universal social protection and assistance amidst persistent poverty, deepening inequality, armed conflict, militarization, and recurring economic, ecological and health crises. While the consequences of these failures affect everyone, women and girls – who provide three quarters of all unpaid care globally – are disproportionately affected by the deficit in care and support provision.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "Emerging demographic and political trends, including aging populations, intensifying gender backlash, and the resurgence of pronatalist and “family-oriented” policies, are likely to further increase the unequal share of unpaid care and support and human rights violations for women and girls, especially those experiencing poverty and marginalization, including women and girls with disabilities, older women, rural and minority women and girls, and women migrant domestic workers.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "Colonial legacies and violence, along with discrimination based on race, colour, gender, descent, and national or ethnic origin, continue to compound the structural care deficit. These factors shape global care chains sustained by migrant women’s labour. In order to build care and support systems that work for all, these historical and structural injustices and inequalities must be addressed through appropriate remedies and reparations. The current extractive, profit-driven economic system must 137 Sasakawa Peace Foundation, Community-based Care for Older Persons (2019). 138 See https://medium.com/iom-development-fund-newsletter/raising-the-voices-of-migrant-domesticworkers-in-jordan-a-project-by-migrants-for-migrants-51c143269b21. 139 These specific projects were mentioned in the Asia-Pacific consultations. See https://thailand.iom.int/promise-programme. 140 Written contribution from Women’s Action Network (Sri Lanka). 141 Michau (2008), cited in Kelly Yotebieng, What we know (and do not know) about persistent social norms that serve as barriers to girls’ access, participation and achievement in education in eight subSaharan African countries, p. 9. 142 See https://www.durham.ac.uk/news-events/latest-news/2024/12/new-project-puts-care-at-the-centreof-international-law-research/. be transformed and a social system centred on care for people and the planet should be promoted.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Care and support are provided through four main institutions: the family, the market, the public sector and community-based/non-profit organizations. In the context of care and support, any transfer of responsibility and cost from the State and the market onto families means an increased workload for women and girls. Conversely, strengthened public investment by States in gender-responsive, inclusive and human rights-based care and support systems is essential for States to meet their obligations under international human rights law.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "The COVID-19 pandemic exposed the persistence and depth of structural and gendered inequalities in the existing care and support systems, and the vital nature of care to the well-being of societies. However, the world is still off track to achieve gender equality by 2030, especially regarding unpaid care and domestic work, decision-making regarding sexual and reproductive health, and gender-responsive budgeting. Women’s health services continue to be poorly funded. Women, as unpaid and paid care and support workers and as those requiring care and support, remain woefully underrepresented in decision-making. This situation is unsustainable and undermines both gender equality and the well-being of societies. The international community, and States, must urgently address these obstacles to equality, and eliminate all forms of discrimination to ensure that all people requiring care and support and all people who provided these can enjoy their human rights. It is vital to invest in an enabling social care infrastructure, including but not limited to paid care leave, in-home support services, respite care and community resource centres, along with the public provision of high-quality care and support services, and to ensure that caregivers and those requiring care and support find the time, energy and resources to exercise self-care and collective care.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "Advancing gender equality and building more robust care and support systems are intricately linked and are critical to other goals such as reducing poverty, and promoting the health, education, social protection and well-being of all people. An intersectional feminist and human rights-based approach to care and support is needed to achieve these goals and to close the structural care deficit. This approach is premised on the idea that care is vital to the functioning of society, including the economy, which itself should support human dignity, human rights and the well-being of all people. Harmful gender stereotypes and cultural norms must be transformed, and caring for others must be promoted as a foundational value decoupled from gender. Policies must engage men and boys in caregiving roles and foster shared responsibility for care within households and communities.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "Given the relationship between existing gender inequalities and women’s and girls’ disproportionate care work as detailed in the present report, equal treatment before the law is not enough to meet the critical needs of people who need and provide care. International and regional human rights mechanisms must be strengthened to hold States accountable for their obligations to eliminate discrimination and build gender-responsive and inclusive care systems. Holistic approaches are necessary to ensure that care and support systems are economically, socially and environmentally sustainable. The above-mentioned CREATE framework[[fn:143]] can serve as a comprehensive and actionable road map for States in this regard.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 143, "text": "A/HRC/WG.11/42/1."}], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "States should take measures to build gender-responsive, inclusive, human rights-based and sustainable care and support systems to realize human rights for all people and to achieve gender equality, inter alia by:\n(a) Recognizing care and support as vital to the sustainability of societies, economies and the planet, and essential to both the achievement of gender equality and the enjoyment of all other internationally recognized human rights;\n(b) Respecting, protecting and fulfilling the rights of those providing and requiring care and support and fully recognizing their dignity, autonomy and agency, and ensuring substantive gender equality in care and support systems in compliance with all relevant international human rights and labour standards applicable to each country;\n(c) Making care and support work visible and valued as a central pillar of the overall economy, and meeting the needs of women and girls as providers and recipients of care, as well as their needs for self-care;\n(d) Taking appropriate measures to implement the 5R framework of recognizing the value of care and support work and the rights of those providing and requiring care and support; reducing unpaid care and support work, without compromising care and support for those requiring them; redistributing unpaid care and support work between households and the State, business and the community, and between genders; rewarding paid care and support workers; and ensuring the representation and participation of those providing and requiring care and support and their organizations;\n(e) Transforming harmful gender stereotypes that reinforce restrictive roles and contribute to discrimination against women and girls;\n(f) Promoting the equal participation of boys and men in unpaid and paid care and support;\n(g) Recognizing the distinct care and support needs of different groups, including girls, older women, women and girls with disabilities and those with rare diseases, and ensuring their dignity, autonomy and agency;\n(h) Ensuring the participation of women and girls facing intersecting forms of discrimination – especially those with disabilities, rural women, older women and migrant and refugee women – in the design, implementation and monitoring of care and support systems, and continuous data collection and research on care and support needs.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "States should strengthen legal, labour and economic protections for paid and unpaid care and support workers, inter alia by:\n(a) Guaranteeing the rights of paid care workers, including decent wages, safe working conditions, social protection and collective bargaining, in conformity with all international human rights and labour standards applicable to each country;\n(b) Ensuring the representation and participation of care worker organizations, including those of domestic workers, community health and care workers, and migrant workers, in policymaking, and ensuring their equal treatment and protection in line with international human rights and labour standards;\n(c) Promoting gender-responsive employment and macroeconomic policies that create decent jobs, including through the formalization of informal care jobs and enterprises, and the prevention of informalization of formal ones.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "States should provide gender-responsive and universal basic care and support, including healthcare, education and social protection, for their populations, inter alia by:\n(a) Enabling women to make pregnancy-related decisions that will enhance their life choices and ability to enjoy their rights;\n(b) Guaranteeing universal and gender-responsive social protection, including universal child, maternity/paternity/parental and pension benefits; and taking into consideration disability-related extra costs and expanding the coverage to informal and migrant workers;\n(c) Supporting the care responsibilities and needs of rural women, including those in agricultural sectors, by investing in rural infrastructure, transportation, childcare and health services to alleviate poverty and ensure access to education and decent work opportunities;\n(d) Involving community and women’s organizations in gender-responsive budgeting for public services, infrastructure and social protection.", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "States should actively work for systemic change to develop a care-centred administration, economy and community, inter alia by:\n(a) Upholding international humanitarian law to ensure that civilians are not harmed, and that healthcare and humanitarian workers and civilian care infrastructure are not targeted in armed conflict;\n(b) Shifting public resources away from militarization and towards building societies rooted in human rights and ecological sustainability;\n(c) Taking a holistic and systemic perspective that links social reproduction, economic production and ecological regeneration;\n(d) Supporting self-care and collective care initiatives through legislation and public services that enable those providing and requiring care and support to enjoy their rights to leisure, rest, health, community inclusion and equal participation in public, social and cultural life;\n(e) Protecting human rights defenders, including women’s rights defenders and environmentalists whose work involves care for people and the planet;\n(f) Reforming public budgets and taxation to fund care and support systems that are economically, ecologically and socially sustainable, focusing on distributive justice and fair fiscal policies, including proportional and progressive taxation for high-income earners and corporations;\n(g) Integrating care and support into national sustainable development and climate strategies;\n(h) Collecting and disseminating data on care and support work that is disaggregated by income, sex, age, race, ethnicity, migration, Indigenous and minority status, disability, geographical location and other relevant characteristics in order to measure the scope and value of, and the need for, paid and unpaid care and support to inform policy and legal design.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "The international community, including international financial institutions, should:\n(a) Advance equitable trade and investment policies, and debt cancellation or debt relief, to prioritize gender-responsive resource redistribution, human rights and well-being;\n(b) Ensure corporate accountability for environmental pollution and tax evasion, inter alia.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 55, "n": 56, "text": "Corporations and the States and regional and international organizations exercising jurisdiction and control over them should:\n(a) Implement the 2024 International Labour Organization (ILO) resolution concerning decent work and the care economy to ensure the realization of human rights, including by actively working to end discrimination against women and girls;\n(b) Create workplace cultures and practices, including remote and hybrid work, and shorter work weeks, that balance work and home lives, with the recognition that “flexible working time” arrangements do not necessarily benefit women workers or gender equality, but must be designed intentionally for these outcomes;\n(c) Recognize the value of the skills developed through care and support work in recruitment policies;\n(d) Collaborate with other employers and local governments to develop care and support services for workers, families and communities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 56, "n": 1, "text": "At its fortieth session, held in New York from 29 April to 3 May 2024, the Working Group met with the UN Secretary-General, the Assistant Secretary-General for Human Rights, academics, civil society organizations, and the private sector. It also met with representatives of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), the Expert Mechanism on the Right to Development (EMRTD), and Member States. The third annual session of the Working Group in 2024 was cancelled due to the UN liquidity crisis.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 57, "n": 2, "text": "From 14 to 18 October 2024, the Working Group held a regional convening for Southern Africa. During the convening, it met with judges, academics, civil society representatives, and girls’ organizations, as well as representatives of the South African Commission for Gender Equality, the UN Resident Coordinator’s Offices in Southern Africa, and African regional institutions. The Working Group also held a hybrid discussion with Afghan women human rights defenders on the codification of gender apartheid.[[fn:1]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A/HRC/WG.11/40/1."}], "section": ["I. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 58, "n": 3, "text": "At its forty-first session, held in Geneva from 13 to 17 January 2025, the Working Group held meetings with Member States, the High Commissioner for Human Rights, the President of the Human Rights Council (HRC), the Committee on the Rights of the Child, civil society organizations, and girls from various regions. It also organized a launch event for its guidance document on conscientious objection to abortion,[[fn:2]] as well as consultations on care and support with UN agencies and OHCHR representatives. On this occasion it also published a guidance document on gender equality and gender backlash.[[fn:3]] In April 2025, it further published a guidance document on substantive gender equality, which introduces the CREATE Framework – a comprehensive and actionable road map to guide States and other relevant actors, including international economic institutions and business enterprises, in achieving transformative substantive gender equality.[[fn:4]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "A/HRC/WG.11/41/1."}, {"n": 3, "text": "A/HRC/WG.11/41/2."}, {"n": 4, "text": "A/HRC/WG.11/42/1."}], "section": ["I. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 59, "n": 4, "text": "The Working Group visited the Dominican Republic from 22 to 31 July 2024 and Thailand from 2 to 13 December 2024. It thanks the Governments for their cooperation and encourages States to respond positively to its requests for visits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 60, "n": 5, "text": "The Working Group addressed several communications to Governments and other stakeholders, individually or jointly with other mandate holders. The communications concerned discriminatory laws and practices; the rights of women human rights defenders; women deprived of liberty; women and girls affected by armed conflict; gender-based violence, both online and off-line; violations of sexual and reproductive health rights; and gendered impact of fiscal policies mandated by international financial institutions, among others. The Working Group issued press releases, both individually and jointly with other mandate holders, the human rights treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "All communications are available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TmSearch/TMDocuments, and press releases at Latest | OHCHR."}], "section": ["III. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 61, "n": 6, "text": "Members of the Working Group undertook numerous other activities in their official capacity. In particular, the Chair presented an oral report to the General Assembly at its seventy-ninth session, addressed the Commission on the Status of Women at its sixty-ninth session and participated in a panel discussion on violence against children at the forty-fifth ordinary session of the African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (ACERWG). Moreover, members of the Working Group participated in meetings of the HRC President’s Advisory Board on Gender Equality, the High-Level Political Forum 2025 Expert Group Meeting on SDG 5, meetings organized by the United Nations Convention Against Corruption (UNCAC) Coalition, an expert meeting on the situation of Afghan women and girls convened by UN-Women Afghanistan, and the HRC Panel discussion on States’ obligations concerning the role of the family in supporting the human rights of its members. The Working Group continued to actively participate in the Platform of Independent Expert Mechanisms on the Elimination of Discrimination and Violence against Women.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Other activities"]}] \ No newline at end of file +[{"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice was established by the Human Rights Council in its resolution 15/23, in which the Council acknowledged that women everywhere are still subject to significant disadvantage as the result of discriminatory laws and practices, and that de jure and de facto equality has not been achieved in any country in the world. Accordingly, the Council mandated the Working Group:\n(a) To develop a dialogue with States, the relevant United Nations entities, national human rights institutions, experts on different legal systems, and civil society organizations to identify, promote and exchange views on best practices related to the elimination of laws that discriminate against women or are discriminatory to women in terms of implementation or impact and, in that regard, to prepare a compendium of best practices;\n(b) To undertake a study, in cooperation with and reflecting the views of States and relevant United Nations entities, national human rights institutions and civil society organizations, on the ways and means in which the Working Group can cooperate with States to fulfil their commitments to eliminate discrimination against women in law and in practice;\n(c) To make recommendations on the improvement of legislation and the implementation of the law, to contribute to the realization of the Millennium Development Goals, in particular goal 3 on the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "In carrying out its mandate, the Working Group is requested to work in close coordination with other special procedures and subsidiary organs of the Human Rights Council, relevant United Nations entities, including the Commission on the Status of Women and the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women) and, in particular, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and other treaty bodies, with a view to avoiding unnecessary duplication; to take into account the views of other stakeholders, including relevant regional human rights mechanisms, national human rights institutions and civil society organizations; and to submit an annual report to the Council, starting at its twentieth session, on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice, and on good practices in eliminating such discrimination, drawing upon the findings of the United Nations human rights machinery and the broader United Nations system.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "Five independent experts from different geographical regions were appointed as members of the Working Group for a period of three years by the Human Right Council in March 2011. They assumed their functions on 1 May 2011 and have held three sessions in Geneva: from 6 to 10 June 2011, 24 to 28 October 2011, and 27 February to 2 March 2012. They are Emna Aouij, Mercedes Barquet, Kamala Chandrakirana, Frances Raday and Eleonora Zielińska. During its first session, the Working Group elected Ms. Chandrakirana as Chairperson-Rapporteur. The members wish to gratefully acknowledge the trust that has been placed in them by the Human Rights Council.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "In this first report to the Council, the Working Group provides preliminary views on how the members intend to carry out their mandate. The report contains seven sections, the first of which is the present introduction. Section II contains a brief historical overview relating to the creation of the mandate of the Working Group. Section III spells out a conceptual framework that the Working Group has elaborated to guide its analyses of issues relating to equality and non-discrimination on the grounds of sex and to inform its dialogue with States and other stakeholders in implementing its mandate. Section IV contains an overview of the thematic priorities identified by the Working Group for the biennium 2012-2013. Section V introduces the methods of work agreed upon by the Working Group, including how the Working Group has engaged and further intends to engage with all stakeholders in the discharge of its mandate. Section VI provides an overview of activities carried out by the Working Group since its inception. Section VII concludes the report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "In September 1995, at the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, participating Governments adopted the Beijing Declaration, by which they reaffirmed their fundamental commitment to “the equal rights and inherent human dignity of women and men” (para. 8) and stated unequivocally that “women’s rights are human rights” (para. 14). They also adopted the Beijing Platform for Action, in which they pledged to ensure equality and non-discrimination under the law and in practice (strategic objective I.1), and, more specifically, to “revoke any remaining laws that discriminate on the basis of sex and remove gender bias in the administration of justice” (para. 232 (d)). In 2000, during the five-year review and appraisal of the implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action by the General Assembly at its twenty-third special session, Governments committed to reviewing legislation with a view to striving to remove discriminatory provisions against women, preferably by 2005.[[fn:1]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "General Assembly resolution S-23/3, para. 68 (b)."}], "section": ["II. Historical overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "In 2005, during the 10-year review and appraisal of the implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action and the outcome of the twenty-third special session of the General Assembly by the Commission on the Status of Women, concern was expressed that legislative and regulatory gaps, as well as lack of implementation and enforcement of legislation and regulations, perpetuated de jure and de facto inequality and discrimination and that, in a few cases, new laws discriminating against women had been introduced. The Commission therefore decided, in its resolution 49/3, to consider the advisability of the appointment of a special rapporteur on laws that discriminate against women, bearing in mind the existing mechanisms with a view to avoiding duplication. It requested the Secretary-General to report to the Commission on the implications of the creation of such a mandate and to include in his report the views of Member States and relevant United Nations bodies, including the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). The Secretary-General subsequently produced two reports, in 2006 (E/CN.6/2006/8) and 2007 (E/CN.6/2007/8).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Historical overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "In its resolution 12/17 of 2 October 2009, the Human Rights Council requested the High Commissioner for Human Rights to prepare a thematic study on discrimination against women in law and in practice and on how the issue was being addressed throughout the United Nations human rights system. The request represented a continuation of the commitment made during the World Conference on Human Rights, held in Vienna in 1993, to integrate women’s human rights into the overall human rights system. The report (A/HRC/15/40) was presented to the Council at its fifteenth session in September 2010 and discussed during an interactive plenary panel debate. In the report, the High Commissioner concluded that, notwithstanding the work undertaken by United Nations human rights mechanisms, further measures were required to eliminate de jure and de facto inequalities (para. 63). One of the proposed measures was the establishment of a new special procedure of the Human Rights Council that would focus on laws and practices that discriminate against women (para. 57).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Historical overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The Human Rights Council adopted, without a vote, resolution 15/23, which established the mandate of the Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice during its fifteenth session, on 1 October 2010. It is the second special procedure of the Human Rights Council dedicated to addressing women’s human rights, complementing the mandate of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, which was established in 1994 immediately following the World Conference on Human Rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Historical overview"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Effective elimination of discrimination against women requires the consistent political will of States, with broad-based consensus of whole societies, to formulate and implement laws that promote equality between men and women, prohibit discrimination on the basis of sex, and prevent and provide redress for violence against women, along with policies and measures that create a conducive environment for women’s empowerment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "In more than two decades of democratization projects worldwide, beginning with the breakdown of Latin American authoritarian regimes and the fall of the Berlin Wall up to the Arab Spring in the Middle East and North Africa today, a wide range of efforts by States, citizens and organizations to address discrimination against women have been made as integral parts of bold and historic processes of the renewal of whole nations and regions. In other contexts, breakthroughs in law and practice occur as part of the responsiveness and accountability of States to an active citizenry committed to equality, non-discrimination and human rights for all women and men. The success or failure of efforts to effectively eliminate discrimination against women depends on how securely they are located within genuine processes of social and political transformation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The political will to revise or repeal discriminatory laws can arise voluntarily as part of an overall renegotiation of the social contract, and as an act of astute policymaking compelled by social economic developments that have brought about undeniable and irreversible changes in women’s roles in practice. The growing participation of women in political, economic, social and cultural life has contributed to the introduction of gender-responsive changes in laws and policies on protection in the workplace, security in the home and community, and entitlements in property ownership and electoral processes.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Progress is not linear, however, and new political openings can bring about backlash, reverse advances and produce new forms of discriminatory laws and practices. Complex national reforms can result in contradictory laws and policies, between national/federal and subnational/local levels, across different regions of the country, and among sectors of social and economic life. Good practices in eliminating discrimination against women in law and in practice include the ability to overcome backlash or backsliding and establish grounds for the sustainability of achievements in substantive equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "For legal guarantees of gender equality to benefit all women, implementation frameworks and strategies must be responsive to the intersections of sex-based discrimination with other grounds of discrimination, such as race, ethnicity, religion or belief, language, political affiliation, health, status, age, class, caste, national or social origin, property, birth, and sexual orientation and gender identity. Legal guarantees and implementation frameworks and strategies must also integrate special measures to reach women who face multiple forms of discrimination, such as rural and indigenous women, women with disabilities, women living in poverty and women facing other forms of marginalization. This requires a comprehensive and coherent human rights-based approach that ensures that women are at the centre of efforts to hold principally States accountable for implementing international standards guaranteeing civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights. National, regional and international human rights mechanisms play critical roles in ensuring the full enjoyment by women of their human rights.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "At the same time, no effective implementation of equality guarantees for women can be sustained without the genuine empowerment of women in all fields. This can only be achieved on the solid foundation of women’s equal access to fundamental freedoms and rights, including the rights to security of person, to privacy, to freedom of expression, to freedom of association, and to freedom of thought, conscience and religion, in the context of the broader array of civil and political rights. Women’s enjoyment of those freedoms and rights, in turn, can be attained only if they are able to benefit from their economic, social and cultural rights, including equal rights to property, occupation and employment, social protection and participation in cultural life, as well as from effective protection against violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "To achieve substantive equality in all fields, women initiate, lead and sustain long-term negotiations in formal political and legal institutions as well as in social and cultural organizations and communities. Women take action to end all forms of discrimination and human rights violations, independently as individuals and/or collectively as part of groups, organizations, coalitions and movements. Unprecedented levels of global migration, persistent poverty and inequalities, long-standing unresolved disputes and wars have compelled women to address the human rights of non-citizens and stateless persons, particularly the gendered implications of violations of their human rights. By claiming their place as full and equal citizens of nations and of the global community, women have become crucial agents of change in eliminating discrimination against women in law and in practice. Good practices in sustaining achievements in equality and non-discrimination involve the active agency of women themselves.", "labels": ["Non-citizens and stateless", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "The Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice will incorporate this conceptual framework in developing its dialogue with States and other stakeholders on eliminating discriminatory laws, on implementing and improving existing legislation on equality and human rights, and on ways and means to achieve greater progress on gender equality and women’s empowerment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "The Working Group has decided to address the elimination of discrimination against women in law and in practice in all fields and from the perspective of States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil women’s human rights. In view of the work being carried out by international and regional human rights bodies and other special procedure mandate holders, the Working Group agreed that it would build on existing standards and initiatives, as well as on the available knowledge and tools produced to date by States, United Nations bodies, and civil society on the subject. Pursuant to paragraph 18 (d) of Human Rights Council resolution 15/23, the Working Group aims to draw on and reinforce the work of the Commission on the Status of Women, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and other United Nations bodies on the issue of eliminating all forms of discrimination against women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The Working Group will use the term of “good” or “promising” practices rather than “best” practices to take into account the complex contextual framework of practices located in the wide spectrum of bad to good practices. This builds on existing work on this issue by other special procedure mandate holders, which includes the preference towards using the terminology of “good practices”. The Working Group seeks to look at good practices that have been transformative in relation to eliminating discrimination against women in law and in practice in different contexts and in the light of the different realities that women face.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "The Working Group intends to identify practices that have strengthened States’ efforts to achieve equality and to respect, protect and fulfil women’s human rights. The Working Group will examine:\n(a) The extent to which States have met the obligation to respect women’s rights to equality and to the exercise and fulfilment by women of human rights and fundamental freedoms. This will involve surveying existing and newly introduced discriminatory laws and practices. The Working Group will pay special attention to the direct or indirect inclusion of discriminatory provisions in legislation or case law that apply discriminatory interpretations of statutory, customary, religious or deontological regulations. The Working Group will compile good practices in the elimination of laws and regulations that are both directly and indirectly discriminatory to women. The examination of good practices for this purpose would include constitutional amendments, judicial review, legislative reform, litigation and case law, policy and institutional reform, independent human rights monitoring, political action, and religious or cultural hermeneutic projects;\n(b) The extent to which States have met the obligation to protect women from any act by private persons or entities which would impair women’s rights to equality and to the exercise and fulfilment of human rights and fundamental freedoms. This will involve identifying the success or failure of States with respect to eliminating all social, cultural, economic and political practices that constitute discrimination against women, including by establishing accessible and effective gender-responsive justice systems and human rights complaint mechanisms that ensure women’s equal benefit and protection of the law. Where courts based on customary or religious law are recognized, special attention will be given to the steps taken by States to ensure compliance with international human rights standards, including on fair trial. This will also involve identifying steps taken by States to enact required equality guarantees in their constitutions and required equality provisions in legislation or other appropriate measures, including but not limited to equal-employment-opportunity laws, prohibitions on trafficking, family laws, and sexual and domestic violence legislation. An examination of good practices for this purpose would highlight the processes which led to the effective protection of women’s human rights and basic freedoms on an equal basis with men;\n(c) The extent to which States have met the obligation to fulfil women’s rights to equality and to the exercise and fulfilment by women of human rights and fundamental freedoms. This will involve the identification of the variety of measures and steps taken by States to implement equality laws and to prevent the application of gender-neutral laws in a way that has a discriminatory impact on women. Special attention will be given to programmatic and institutional frameworks aimed at fulfilling the specific needs of women, including through specialized national mechanisms and machineries on women’s human rights, and through the thorough and consistent compilation of sex-disaggregated data. The examination of good practices for this purpose would include temporary special measures, measures for the accommodation of maternity, and measures to prevent, prosecute, punish, and provide redress in relation to violations of women’s human rights, including through transitional justice processes.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "The Working Group will review these core obligations as binding on States parties to relevant international human rights treaties, covering all branches of the State (executive, legislative and judicial) and other public or governmental authorities, at all levels (national, regional and local).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "In view of the broad thematic scope of its mandate, covering discrimination against women in law and in practice, the Working Group has identified four thematic areas of focus, namely, political and public life; economic and social life; family and cultural life; and health and safety. The Working Group regards violence against women and the intersection of various grounds of discrimination as cross-cutting in all of its work. It is paying particular attention to specific groups of women, including but not limited to women living in poverty, migrant women, women with disabilities, women belonging to minorities, rural and indigenous women, older women, girls, including adolescents, women in conflict and post-conflict situations, refugee women, internally displaced women and stateless women.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons", "Migrants", "Non-citizens and stateless", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "During the biennium 2012-2013, the Working Group decided to focus on two of the four thematic areas identified, namely, discrimination in political and public life, with a focus on political transition, and economic and social life, with a focus on economic crisis.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "In 2012 and 2013, the Working Group will address the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice in the context of political and public life, with a focus on times of political transition. The Working Group’s research on this topic will inform its annual report to the Human Rights Council in 2013 and the compendium of good practices that it is expected to complete by the end of its three-year mandate.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "A. Political and public life, with a focus on political transition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "The Working Group will address this issue from the point of view of States’ obligations to eliminate discrimination against women in political and public life, to fulfil women’s civil and political rights in their interrelatedness and interdependence with other human rights, and to provide equal opportunity and ways and means for the empowerment of women in these areas, in accordance with international human rights law. Its approach is based on the recognition of women’s right to substantive equality in all aspects of political and public life as a human right essential to women’s human dignity. The Working Group intends to articulate, in its 2013 thematic report, the most current understanding of discrimination against women in political and public life, including the intersection of multiple grounds of discrimination, with a keen eye on the differential impacts on women of efforts to eliminate discriminatory laws.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "A. Political and public life, with a focus on political transition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "The Working Group is guided by articles 4, 7, 8 and 9 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, as well as the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women’s general recommendation No. 23 (1997), in which the Committee states:\nThe political and public life of a country is a broad concept. It refers to the exercise of political power, in particular the exercise of legislative, judicial, executive and administrative powers. The term covers all aspects of public administration and the formulation and implementation of policy at the international, national, regional and local levels. The concept also includes many aspects of civil society, including public boards and local councils and the activities of organizations such as political parties, trade unions, professional or industry associations, women’s organizations, community-based organizations and other organizations concerned with public and political life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "A. Political and public life, with a focus on political transition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The Working Group will further refer, in particular, to articles 2, 3 and 25 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and Human Rights Committee general comments No. 28 (2000) on the equality of rights between men and women and No. 25 (1996) on the right to participate in public affairs, voting rights and the right of equal access to public service. With regard to the obligation of States to modify cultural patterns of conduct inhibiting the advancement of women’s human rights, the Working Group also refers to Human Rights Committee general comment No. 34 (2011) on the freedoms of opinion and expression.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "A. Political and public life, with a focus on political transition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "In relation to its focus on times of political transition, the Working Group will look at countries that are presently going through processes of political transition,[[fn:2]] as well as countries with lessons learned from past political transitions, particularly since the entry into force of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women in 1981. The Working Group is attentive to the fact that while political transitions provide a unique opportunity to improve respect for women’s civil and political rights, including their participation in the political system, and women’s status in the legal and social systems, there is also a danger of regression on women’s human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "The Working Group understands political transition in the widest sense of the term, including transitions that involve fundamental change of the political regime and/or of the legal system."}], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "A. Political and public life, with a focus on political transition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The Working Group will also incorporate into its review the fact that women participating in political change and public life are often exposed to violence. The Working Group takes note of reports that women defenders are more at risk than men of suffering from certain forms of violence and other violations, due to the perception that they are challenging accepted sociocultural norms, traditions, perceptions and stereotypes about femininity, sexual orientation, the family and the role and status of women in society.[[fn:3]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See the report of the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders (A/HRC/16/44 and Corr.1)."}], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "A. Political and public life, with a focus on political transition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "The Working Group intends to examine measures taken by States in political transition to improve women’s constitutional and political position and their status in society and protect them from all forms of violence. It recognizes the agency of women, including as conducted through international and regional institutions and networks, in influencing positive change at the national level. Recommendations will be made on improving legislation and the implementation of laws to empower women and to secure women’s right to a full and equal political and public life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "A. Political and public life, with a focus on political transition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "In order to develop its research on this thematic priority, the Working Group sent letters to all States Members of the United Nations on 8 December 2011 seeking information on: constitutional and other legislative initiatives and reforms put in place to promote women’s rights and gender equality; the framework of State institutions, machineries and mechanisms to implement actions in order to fight against all forms of discrimination and violence against women; women’s political participation, on equal terms with men, in the transitional and post-transitional process at all levels of decision-making; and women’s access to justice, including transitional justice mechanisms. The Working Group takes this opportunity to thank the 40 States that had responded to the call for information at the time of submission of the document.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "A. Political and public life, with a focus on political transition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Working Group also posted a call for submissions on its web page for information on good practices, lessons learned and promising experiences in the field of political and public life both in general terms and/or with particular reference to times of political transition.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "A. Political and public life, with a focus on political transition"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "Between 2013 and 2014, the Working Group intends to address the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice in economic and social life, including in times of economic crisis. The research undertaken on this topic will inform the annual report of the Working Group to the Human Rights Council in 2014 as well as the compendium of good practices.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "B. Economic and social life, with a focus on economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The Working Group will examine this issue from the normative perspective of the obligations of States to eliminate discrimination against women in economic and social life and to provide equal opportunity and ways and means for the empowerment of women in these areas in accordance with international human rights law. The conceptual context of the study is the recognition of women’s right to substantive equality in access to economic and social resources, as a human right, essential to women’s human dignity.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "B. Economic and social life, with a focus on economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "In addition, the Working Group will pay specific attention to the way in which current and past economic crises have affected women’s access to economic and social resources, as well as policies that effectively protect women’s social and economic status during and after economic crisis", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "B. Economic and social life, with a focus on economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The Working Group will carry out its work on this theme in accordance with its working methods and, in this regard, has initiated cooperation with the International Labour Organization (ILO), the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) and academic experts and institutions.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Thematic priorities", "B. Economic and social life, with a focus on economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "The Working Group will hold three sessions per year, each covering five working days. Two sessions will be held in Geneva and one in New York so as to be able to engage with the widest possible range of stakeholders. The sessions are expected to follow approximately the same calendar, namely one session towards the end of February, another in July in New York to coincide with the session of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, and the last, around October. During its first session, the Working Group initiated discussions on its methods of work. It concluded those discussions at its second session and agreed on its methods of work,[[fn:4]] which respond to the specific features of its mandate as contained in resolution 15/23. The Working Group will continue to refine its methods of work as it carries out its mandate. At its third session, the Working Group began identifying ways and means to fulfil its mandate, incorporating regional and global expertise.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "Available from www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/MethodsOfWork.aspx."}], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "The Working Group decided to nominate a Chairperson-Rapporteur for a one-year term on a rotational basis. The next rotation will take place in October 2012, at the fifth session of the Working Group.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "B. Functioning of the Working Group"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The Working Group agreed to conduct two to three country visits each year. The members see such visits as an opportunity to deepen dialogue with Member States and to collect first-hand information on laws and practices that discriminate against women. In addition, such visits offer the opportunity to identify good practices in eliminating discriminatory laws and to better understand the contexts in which they occur and flourish.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "C. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "The Working Group decided that country visits would be undertaken, to the extent possible, by the Chairperson-Rapporteur together with another member of the Working Group from the region where the country visit takes place. Members of the Working Group seek to avoid conducting official visits in their country of origin. As per standard practice, the final composition of the delegation will be communicated to the Government concerned prior to the visit.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "C. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "The Group will use communications with Governments and other actors in a spirit of soliciting dialogue on issues falling within its mandate. Relevant information may be submitted to the Working Group by a State, State organ, intergovernmental or non-governmental organization (NGO), or any other organization or individual. The Working Group will review the information with a view to taking appropriate action. It intends to develop a form to facilitate the submission by anyone of information related to cases or situations of discrimination against women in law and in practice.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "D. Communications"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "The Working Group intends to develop and maintain a constructive dialogue with States and will seek full engagement of States from all regions on issues relevant to its mandate. This dialogue will take the form of consultations, letters soliciting information on good practices in thematic areas it has identified, and the dissemination of questionnaires on specific issues of concern.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "E. Engagement with stakeholders", "1. Member States"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 42, "n": 2, "text": "United Nations and other international organizations", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "section": ["V. Methods of work", "E. Engagement with stakeholders", "1. Member States"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 43, "n": 42, "text": "The Working Group aims to build constructive partnerships with United Nations and other international organizations. At its first session, the members heard briefings from a range of United Nations entities and other international organizations, including the ILO, the Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Sexual Violence in Conflict, the Economic Commission for Europe, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations Development Programme, the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the World Health Organization, as well as the International Organization for Migration and the Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), and engaged in preliminary discussions in relation to possible areas of focus for the Working Group. The Working Group also had the opportunity to meet informally with the Executive Director of UN-Women to discuss potential areas of cooperation and support by UN-Women. At its second and third sessions, the Working Group again engaged in dialogue with the ILO, IPU and UNRISD on its 2012 theme of political and public life and its 2013 theme of economic and social life. At its third session, it held a meeting with UNHCR on the issue of gender discrimination, nationality and statelessness.", "labels": ["Children", "Non-citizens and stateless", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "E. Engagement with stakeholders", "2. United Nations and other international organizations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 44, "n": 43, "text": "The Working Group subscribes to the absolute importance given by the Human Rights Council in its resolution 15/23 to coordination with other United Nations human rights mechanisms. In this regard, two members of the Working Group met with the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in October 2011 to discuss modes of cooperation. The Working Group also held an exchange of views with the Chair of the Committee on the Rights of the Child during its second session and with a member of the Human Rights Committee during its third session. The Working Group is expected to meet with the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women during its fourth session in New York (23-27 July 2012).", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "E. Engagement with stakeholders", "3. Human rights mechanisms"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 45, "n": 44, "text": "The Working Group has engaged with other special procedure mandate holders. Informal meetings were held with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, and a joint statement on the importance of women’s voices during times of transitions and reform was issued on 8 December 2011 on the occasion of the 16 Days of Activism against Gender Violence.[[fn:5]] The Working Group has also contacted the newly established Working Group on the issue of human rights and transnational corporations and other business enterprises to explore possible areas of collaboration. It has provided inputs to the draft guiding principles on foreign debt and human rights being elaborated by the Independent Expert on the effects of foreign debt and other related international financial obligations of States on the full enjoyment of all human rights, particularly economic, social and cultural rights. On 19 March 2012, the Working Group, along with 21 other special procedures mandate holders, co-sponsored an open letter calling on States to, inter alia, incorporate universally agreed international human rights norms and standards, including relating to gender equality, into the process leading up to the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20 Conference) and into the outcome document of the conference.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=11700&LangID=E."}], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "E. Engagement with stakeholders", "3. Human rights mechanisms"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 46, "n": 45, "text": "Representing the Working Group, Mercedes Barquet attended the fourth session of the Forum on Minority Issues, held in Geneva on 29 and 30 November 2011, and side events on empowering minority women to claim their rights and violence against minority women and their access to justice. She delivered a statement on minority women and their effective participation in political life. The Forum was of particular interest to the Working Group, as it addressed the complex layers and interplay of various forms of discrimination that many women face because they are women and members of a minority group. It was also an opportunity to engage with NGOs and other stakeholders, and to inform them of the mandate, priorities and methods of work of the Working Group.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "E. Engagement with stakeholders", "3. Human rights mechanisms"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 47, "n": 46, "text": "The Working Group places high priority on learning the views, issues and concerns of different regions, and is seeking to reflect regional diversity in its work, including by drawing on and centralizing the knowledge and resources of a range of stakeholders. The Working Group also intends to explore cooperation with regional human rights mechanisms, including the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, in particular its Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Women in Africa, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, the European Union, the Council of Europe, the Inter-Governmental Commission on Human Rights of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the ASEAN Commission for the Promotion and Protection of the Rights of Women and Children.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "E. Engagement with stakeholders", "3. Human rights mechanisms"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 48, "n": 47, "text": "The Working Group believes that partnerships with civil society organizations are essential to the fulfilment of its mandate. Civil society organizations are providing useful inputs into the mandated work of the Working Group. The Working Group has already met with a large number of Geneva-based NGOs working on relevant issues and has received inputs from other NGOs in various regions. It is also engaging with academics.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "E. Engagement with stakeholders", "4. Other stakeholders"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 49, "n": 48, "text": "The Working Group has issued calls for submissions to stakeholders to solicit information, documentation and material relating to its thematic priorities. It will consider additional means to collect relevant information, including through consultations and expert meetings.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Methods of work", "E. Engagement with stakeholders", "4. Other stakeholders"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 50, "n": 49, "text": "As indicated above, the Working Group held three sessions during the reporting period. At its third session, from 27 February to 2 March 2012, the Working Group discussed, inter alia, its first country mission to Morocco, its participation in the session of the Commission on the Status of Women, and its statement on International Women’s Day. It held day-long discussions on its 2012 and 2013 priority themes with United Nations entities, NGOs and expert researchers, and agreed on a plan of action for carrying out its research agendas. As regards the latter, the Working Group is finalizing detailed questionnaires to gather inputs on the issues of discrimination against women in law and in practice in political and public life, and in economic and social life. It has conducted a mapping of resources on economic and social life and is currently conducting a mapping of resources on political and public life. The Working Group intends to contract experts to gather region-specific information, and will discuss and vet this information during its upcoming sessions and in the context of consultations and expert group meetings. Data and analyses will serve as the basis for the Working Group’s upcoming annual reports to the Human Rights Council and the compendium of good practices it is expected to produce.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Activities of the Working Group"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 51, "n": 50, "text": "The Chairperson-Rapporteur of the Working Group participated in the eighteenth annual meeting of special procedure mandate holders, which was held in Geneva from 27 June to 1 July 2011. She was elected as a member of the Coordination Committee of Special Procedures.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Activities of the Working Group"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 52, "n": 51, "text": "The Working Group, represented by its Chairperson-Rapporteur and Emna Aouij, undertook its first country visit to Morocco from 13 to 20 February 2012 at the invitation of the Government. The report on the country visit is available as an addendum to the present report (see A/HRC/20/28/Add.1). The Working Group thanks other States who have responded positively to its request for invitations to visit, namely, the Republic of Moldova, Tunisia and South Sudan, and encourages other States to consider extending invitations. The Working Group is expected to undertake its second country visit—to the Republic of Moldova—from 21 to 30 May 2012.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Activities of the Working Group"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 53, "n": 52, "text": "On 5 March 2012, the Chairperson-Rapporteur delivered a statement to the Commission on the Status of Women at its fifty-sixth session (27 February–9 March 2012). She took the opportunity of her first address to introduce the mandate of the Working Group and inform the Commission of its 2012-2013 priorities. The Working Group sees the Commission as an important body through which the Working Group can engage with stakeholders, notably States and women’s civil society organizations, on equality and women’s human rights issues. Its participation in the sessions of the Commission on the Status of Women contributes to coordination with the Human Rights Council and a coherent approach to addressing the remaining obstacles to full equality and women’s human rights by the various bodies and mechanisms of the United Nations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Activities of the Working Group"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 54, "n": 53, "text": "The Working Group took the opportunity of International Women’s Day 2012 to remind States of their obligations to promote equality and women’s human rights in political transitions and to protect women from violence. The Working Group also encouraged States to ensure that women do not bear the brunt of the current economic and financial crises, and to put in place special protective measures. Member Frances Raday participated in an NGO event on International Women’s Day (8 March 2012) on the issue of “Women in the Arab Spring”.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Activities of the Working Group"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 55, "n": 54, "text": "During the reporting period, the Working Group sent, itself or jointly with other mandate holders, a total of six communications in relation to issues falling within its mandate. Some of these communications raised gaps and concerns the Working Group had found in anti-discrimination legislation. Others aimed at drawing the attention of the Government concerned to discriminatory provisions based on sex in nationality legislation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Activities of the Working Group"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 56, "n": 55, "text": "The above activities cover the period from the inception of the Working Group to the submission date of the present report, namely, 23 March 2012. The Working Group is expected to participate in several events before the consideration of the report by the Human Rights Council at its twentieth session, including an expert meeting on the gendered impacts of enforced disappearances, to be held in Addis Ababa from 17 to 19 April 2012, and the commemoration of the thirtieth anniversary of the establishment of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in July 2012. These activities will be reflected in the 2013 annual report to the Human Rights Council.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Activities of the Working Group"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 57, "n": 56, "text": "The five members of the Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice assumed their functions on 1 May 2011. The Working Group has held three sessions since then and conducted one country visit, namely, to Morocco. At the time of drafting the present report, the Working Group was engaged in dialogue with the Government of the Republic of Moldova on conducting a visit to that country from 21 to 30 May 2012. It will report on its visit to the Republic of Moldova during the twenty-third session of the Human Rights Council. It has pursued active engagement with a range of stakeholders, including States, United Nations organizations and intergovernmental bodies, human rights mechanisms, civil society organizations and academic experts, and has participated in a number of activities of relevance to its mandate, including by contributing inputs on equality and non-discrimination, and protection and promotion of women’s human rights, to various initiatives undertaken by others, including other special procedure mandate holders.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusion"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 58, "n": 57, "text": "In its one year of existence, the Working Group has developed and refined its methods of work, articulated its substantive priorities and developed a plan for implementing its tasks. Given the breadth of its mandate, covering discrimination against women in law and in practice in all fields, the Working Group is focusing on two priority themes in 2012 and 2013, namely, discrimination against women in law and in practice in the contexts of political and public life and of economic and social life. The Working Group is looking at the impact of political transitions and the economic crisis on the enjoyment by women of their human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusion"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-20-28-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-20-28", "idx": 59, "n": 58, "text": "The Working Group is aiming to respond to the expectations placed on it by numerous individuals and organizations in relation to issues of discrimination against women. It is communicating with Governments on various issues within its mandate and is undertaking outreach and partnerships with a range of stakeholders to both inform and support its own work and ensure that its outputs catalyse further actions by stakeholders. It looks forward to continuing this engagement with all stakeholders and to responding to issues addressed to it on discrimination against women in law and in practice.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2012, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VII. Conclusion"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is submitted pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 15/23. In section II, the Working Group summarizes its activities since its last report to the Human Rights Council up until 26 March 2012. In section III it addresses the topic of eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "For the preparation of this report, the Working Group has availed itself of a wealth of information elicited through various means. In December 2011, it circulated a questionnaire to Governments requesting information highlighting legislative and policy reforms for the advancement of women’s rights and gender equality in times of political transition, and received 57 replies. It received inputs from various stakeholders, including the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), non-governmental organizations and academic experts. Five regional background papers and a global summary were commissioned to further help inform the report. The Working Group wishes to express gratitude to States and other stakeholders for the information provided and will make the materials publically available on its website (www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/WGWomenIndex.aspx).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "On the basis of this information, the Working Group has identified good practices that will contribute to the compendium of good practices mandated in paragraph 18 (b) of Human Rights Council resolution 15/23.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "The Working Group held three sessions during the reporting period. At its fourth session (23–27 July 2012), it engaged with a number of stakeholders, including UN-Women, relevant parts of the United Nations Secretariat and other experts on various issues related to women in public and political life. It also exchanged views with the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women on, inter alia, ways to ensure close coordination, avoid duplication and strengthen information exchange between the two mechanisms. At its fifth session (1–5 October 2012), the Working Group continued to exchange views with experts, focusing on region-specific information. It also met with Member States to seek views on different legal systems and their integration into its work. At its sixth session (14–18 January 2013), the Working Group consolidated the regional and global information gathered to inform the present report.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "During the period under review, the Working Group requested invitations to visit Chile, China, Peru and Spain. An earlier request was also reiterated to the Government of South Sudan.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The Working Group visited the Republic of Moldova from 20 to 31 May 2012 (see A/HRC/23/50/Add.1) and Tunisia from 7 to 11 January 2013 (see A/HRC/23/50/Add.2). It would like to thank these Governments for having responded positively to its requests for a visit and urges those Governments that have not yet done so to provide a favourable response.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Communications sent to Governments during the reporting period, either individually or jointly with other mandates, concerned a wide array of issues falling within its mandate.[[fn:1]] These included, for example, allegations of violence against women in the context of protests, cases of women sentenced to death by stoning for adultery, and cases of women and girls allegedly victim of forced religious conversion and forced marriage. The Working Group also sent communications in relation to draft constitutions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See A/HRC/21/49 and A/HRC/22/67, Corrs. 1 and 2."}], "section": ["II. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The Working Group issued press statements, either individually or jointly with other mandate holders, on, inter alia, gender equality provisions in draft constitutions, on the criminalization of adultery whose enforcement leads to discrimination and violence against women, and at various occasions, such as for the first International Day of the Girl Child and for International Women’s Day.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "On 11 March 2013, the Vice-Chairperson of the Working Group addressed the Commission on the Status of Women at its fifty-seventh session, during an interactive dialogue between the Commission and special procedures mandate holders. Her statement focused on violence against women as a cross-cutting issue in the four thematic areas the Working Group has established as its conceptual framework.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "D. Commission on the Status of Women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "From 17 to 19 April 2012, the Chairperson of the Working Group attended a meeting in Addis Ababa on gender and enforced disappearances convened to inform a draft general comment by the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "E. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The Chairperson participated in a regional consultation (Kathmandu, 19–20 September 2012) focusing on women’s public and political life in Asia and the Pacific, followed by a one-day national consultation on the same subject matter. She also took part in a regional expert group meeting (Seoul, 4–5 December 2012) on women, gender equality and political transitions and lessons learned from Asia. On 17 and 18 January 2013, the Working Group collaborated with the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief on a preliminary discussion on the issue of gender equality and freedom of religion or belief. These activities were aimed at informing the present report.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "E. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "On 18 February 2013, the Vice-Chairperson participated in a discussion organized by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to inform its process of elaborating a general recommendation on access to justice. Her address focused on the impact of discriminatory legal frameworks, and in particular constitutions, on women’s access to justice.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "E. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Various members of the Working Group also participated in numerous conferences and meetings, including the workshop organized by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on enhancing cooperation between the United Nations and regional mechanisms (Geneva, 12-14 December 2012), the eleventh biennial conference of the International Coordinating Committee of National Institutions for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights on the role of national human rights institutions in the protection of women’s and girls’ human rights (Amman, 4–7 November 2012), and side events during the fifty-seventh session of the Commission on the Status of Women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "E. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "In 1981, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (the Convention) entered into force. Article 7 of the Convention articulates women’s right to equal participation in political and public life as encompassing the right to vote in all elections and public referenda and to be eligible for election to all publicly elected bodies; to participate in the formulation of government policy and the implementation thereof and to hold public office and perform all public functions at all levels of government; and to participate in non-governmental organizations and associations concerned with the public and political life of the country. Article 8, in addition, refers to State obligations to take all appropriate measures to ensure to women, on equal terms with men and without any discrimination, the opportunity to represent their Governments at the international level and to participate in the work of international organizations. The Convention thus specified and expanded the State obligations set out under articles 2, 3 and 25 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which require a guarantee of the equal right to take part in the conduct of public affairs, including direct participation as well as participation through freely chosen representatives.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "A. International and regional context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Since the introduction of the Convention, the world’s political landscape has gone through substantial changes. These have been marked, variously in different regions and States, by the dismantling of long-standing totalitarian regimes, democratization and the emergence of new forms of authoritarianism. This period has also witnessed armed conflicts both between and within States, the creation of refugee populations and international involvement in conflict resolution and peacebuilding. Technological leaps in the field of information and communications, particularly the Internet, have created a new public and political space, with revolutionary impact on the development and the exercise of human rights, allowing new forms of political expression and mobilization, and facilitating political communication and organization for men and women globally.[[fn:2]]", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See Human Rights Council resolution 20/8 and A/HRC/17/27, para. 19."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "A. International and regional context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "At the same time, international commitment to fulfilling women’s equal right to political participation has grown substantially. The 1993 World Conference on Human Rights and its outcome document, the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, whose twentieth anniversary is being commemorated in 2013, gave recognition to women’s rights as human rights. In 1995, the Fourth World Conference on Women and its outcome document, the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, became the catalyst for governments around the world to introduce special measures, such as quotas for women’s political representation, and propelled the doubling of the global average of such representation in less than two decades.[[fn:3]] Further, the Security Council made an historic breakthrough in 2000 when it adopted its resolution 1325 (2000), with a view to enhancing the role of women and the gender perspective in conflict resolution and peacebuilding.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU) statistical archive of women in parliament. Available from www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif-arc.htm."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "A. International and regional context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Yet, despite decades of efforts, the Working Group notes that, in 2012, the General Assembly expressed its concern at the reality that women in every part of the world continued to be largely marginalized from the political sphere and saw it necessary to again dedicate a resolution to promote women’s political participation.[[fn:4]] In 2012, the Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality of the European Parliament indicated its alarm at the underrepresentation of women in the European Union legislative council and leadership positions, and at the stagnation of women’s representation at one third or less in parliaments across the region.[[fn:5]] In 2011, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR) reported on the “inequitable and sluggish” progress made in women’s political representation at different levels of government in the Americas.[[fn:6]] In 2012, the World Bank found that in the Asia-Pacific region, rapid growth and economic development, with the highest female labour force participation rate in the developing world, have not been enough to attain gender equality, including in the area of political agency and representation.[[fn:7]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "General Assembly resolution 66/130."}, {"n": 5, "text": "Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality, report on women in political decision-making – quantity and quality (A7-0029/2012), pp. 5-6."}, {"n": 6, "text": "IACHR, The Road to Substantive Democracy: Women’s Political Participation in the Americas (2011), para. 11."}, {"n": 7, "text": "World Bank, Toward Gender Equality in East Asia and the Pacific: A Companion to the World Development Report, Conference Edition (2012), pp. ix and 13."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "A. International and regional context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "General recommendation No. 23 (1997) of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women refers to political and public life as encompassing the exercise of legislative, judicial, executive and administrative powers; covering all aspects of public administration and the formulation and implementation of policy at the international, national, regional and local levels; and including civil society, such as public boards and local councils and the activities of organizations such as political parties, trade unions, professional or industry associations, women’s organizations, community-based organizations and other organizations concerned with public and political life (para. 5). The Beijing Platform for Action, in its paragraph 182, referred to the scant progress made towards achieving by 1995 the 30 per cent target for women in decision-making positions. Global progress in achieving the goals for women’s political representation set by the international community continues to be excruciatingly slow and is far from being met 18 years after the target date.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "In the legislative branch, the current global average of women in national parliaments is 20 per cent.[[fn:8]] While this achievement marks a first in history, the climb has been slow, revealing a global average increase of less than 1 per cent per year.[[fn:9]] Only 33 countries out of 149 have national parliaments where women constitute 30 per cent or more of the members.[[fn:10]] With parity as the ultimate measure of equality, then a mere two countries have reached this point. Furthermore, there are wide divergences among States, with women accounting for less than 10 per cent of representatives in 45 States.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "IPU archive, world average (footnote Error: Reference source not found)."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Department for International Development (DFID) and International Development Research Centre (IDRC), summary of discussions at the expert meeting on “Women’s Political Empowerment: The State of Evidence and Future Research”, London, 11-12 September 2012, p. 3."}, {"n": 10, "text": "IPU archive (footnote Error: Reference source not found)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "The right to representation in the legislative branch includes the right to vote in all elections and public referenda. This condition has gradually been fulfilled during the course of the twentieth century and is now almost universally implemented. Nevertheless there remain some discriminatory laws and practices, such as kinship voting practices. In one State, women have still have not been granted the right to vote.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "In the executive branch, only 17 women are Heads of State/Government.[[fn:11]] Women’s representation in Governments is far lower than their representation in parliaments. Good practice where women occupy more than 40 per cent of Government positions were found in only a small number of States: six in the region of Western European and other States, two in sub-Saharan Africa and three in Latin America and the Caribbean. The Working Group notes that the obligation of States to secure women’s equal representation includes the executive branch, and draws attention to the good practice in different regions which has demonstrated the feasibility of female-headed States and gender-balanced Governments.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "IPU, Women in Politics: 2012, map. Available from www.ipu.org/pdf/publications/wmnmap12_en.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "In the judicial branch, women account for only 27 per cent of judges worldwide.[[fn:12]] There is wide divergence among States as regards the numbers of women in the judiciary, with some States in the Eastern European region having a majority of women judges. Even in countries that have a higher representation of women in the judiciary, the numbers of women decrease at higher levels. There are few women in the highest courts, including supreme courts, and rarely are the presidents women. In most religious courts women are excluded from holding office. There is, however, good practice in the Asia-Pacific region: in one country, women judges have been part of the religious courts since the institution was created in the 1950s, reaching a participation rate of 20 per cent in 2011;[[fn:13]] in another, female judges were appointed to the Sharia court pursuant to the removal of its reservation to article 7 (b) of the Convention.[[fn:14]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "UN-Women, Progress of the World’s Women: In Pursuit of Justice (2012), p. 59."}, {"n": 13, "text": "2011 Annual Report of the Supreme Court of Indonesia, www.badilag.net/lakip-dan-laptah/465-laptah/10211-laporan-tahunan-2011.html (Indonesian only)."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Background global report prepared for the Working Group, p. 48."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "In other public bodies there is no systematic data regarding women’s representation which covers the whole spectrum of political and public life as defined by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women: public administration, local government, political parties, trade unions, professional or industry associations, women’s organizations, community-based organizations and other organizations concerned with public and political life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Within the United Nations system, the Secretary-General set a target, endorsed in the Beijing Platform for Action, of 50 per cent of managerial and decision-making positions for women by 2000. Gender parity was achieved at the lowest two levels (P1 and P2) in 2011; the percentage of women at the professional levels was 40.7; but only 27.4 to 30.2 per cent at the highest decision-making levels (D-1, D-2 and Under-Secretary-General).[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "UN-Women, The Status of Women in the United Nations System, available from www.un.org/womenwatch/uncoordination/documents/overview/unsystem/unsystem-factsheet.pdf, and Representation of Women in the United Nations System, available from www.un.org/womenwatch/uncoordination/documents/overview/unsystem/unsystem-infographic.pdf. The category of Under-Secretary-General also includes Assistant Secretary-General positions."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "In peacebuilding processes, studies made a decade after the adoption of Security Council resolution 1325 (2000) show that only 16 per cent of 585 peace agreements referenced women.[[fn:16]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Christine Bell and Catherine O’Rourke, “Opinion: UN Security Council 1325 and peace negotiations and agreements” (Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, March 2011), p. 7."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The focus of the Working Group on political transition has been carried out through its communications, country visits and regional and global expert input. Experience in countries in transition has varied greatly. In the Russian Federation and Eastern Europe during the 1990s, as in some of the recent political transitions in the Middle East and North Africa, there was backsliding on key gains for gender equality and/or the numerical representation of women was reduced. In contrast, in some political transitions in various countries in many regions, the introduction of quotas facilitated a significant rise in representation of women, producing, for instance in sub-Saharan Africa, some of the highest percentages of women members of parliament. Good practice in these States included the active engagement with the international community in the peacebuilding process and an emphasis on democracy, human rights and women’s rights as human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The Working Group observes that the impact of political transitions on gender equality in public and political life is inherently related not only to the nature of regime change but also to the political will of the incoming Government to guarantee women’s human rights, including the right to equal representation, and requires a responsive political leadership with respect to gender equality concerns, including as raised by autonomous women’s movements. The Working Group notes the urgency for women’s equal and full participation in peace negotiations and in decision-making in all transitional authorities, mechanisms and processes.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The Working Group is concerned that the knowledge gap remains on the whole spectrum of women’s participation in political and public life. This undermines the capacity to move to gender-responsive inclusive democracy, development and peace. Most available data is not sufficiently disaggregated to allow the understanding of the intersectionality of gender with other grounds of discrimination, in the light of Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women general recommendation No. 28 (2010) according to which “discrimination against women based on sex and gender is inextricably linked with other factors that affect women, such as race, ethnicity, religion or belief, health, status, age, class, caste and sexual orientation and gender identity” (para. 18). Evidence-based knowledge is weak on the extent of violence against women in political and public life and its impact on women’s capacity to exercise their right to political participation.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "B. Targets and achievements in women’s representation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Democracy and human rights are mutually reinforcing. Women’s rights are human rights and hence are an integral element of the democracy and human rights axis. The General Assembly, in its resolution 59/201 (para. 1), declared the “essential elements of democracy” to consist of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms, inter alia, freedom of association and peaceful assembly and of expression and opinion; the right to take part in the conduct of public affairs, directly or through freely chosen representatives; to vote and to be a candidate in free elections by universal and equal suffrage; a pluralistic system of political parties and organizations; respect for the rule of law; the separation of powers; the independence of the judiciary; transparency and accountability in public administration; and free, independent and pluralistic media.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "These essential elements of democracy are a necessary condition for women’s substantive equality in public and political life. The Working Group would like to emphasize that there can be no true democracy without women’s full and equal participation in all its institutions and that women’s substantive equality in political and public life can be fully realized only in conditions of democracy.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "There is growing recognition of the Internet as a key means by which individuals can exercise their right to freedom of opinion and expression (A/HRC/17/27, para. 20). Through initiatives on e-government and e-democracy and the innovative use of information and communications technologies (ICTs) by civil society, there is also a rising awareness of the Internet’s role in expanding the concept of citizenship online. The Working Group welcomes the work by the International Telecommunication Union, the World Bank and civil society organizations, and encourages them to continue such work so as to deepen the knowledge on gender differences in the use of the Internet and other ICTs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "Political transitions present an opportunity for States to democratize and to advance women’s equal representation in the reformed State institutions. However, they can also pose a danger of undermining or reversing human rights and women’s gains in public and political life achieved under the previous regime. In some political transitions, women who had been pro-democracy activists have been excluded from formal political processes negotiating the new division of power.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The conflict and post-conflict experience leads to an increased awareness of the different conditions of States, including weak, fragile, failed and/or hybrid States, and an increasing focus on State-building processes. State-building is understood as “purposeful action to develop the capacity, institutions and legitimacy of the state in relation to an effective political process for negotiating the mutual demands between state and societal groups”.[[fn:17]] Such processes reveal the complex and critical roles and relations of State and non-State actors in the renegotiation of the balance of power, the allocation of resources and entitlements, and the formation of the identity of whole nations. Contestations over national identity are heightened during times of political change and present new vulnerabilities for those women whose values, roles and behaviours do not fit the power elite’s idealized imagery of womanhood. Where identity politics are predominant, women’s movements defending universal standards of gender equality risk marginalization and stigmatization, especially when such standards are characterized as unwanted external influence and a source of threat.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, “Concepts and dilemmas of State building in fragile situations: from fragility to resilience,” Journal on Development, vol. 9, No. 3 (2008), offprint, p. 14."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 34, "n": 1, "text": "Women’s equal enjoyment of fundamental freedoms and human rights", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 35, "n": 34, "text": "For women to have the capacity to participate in political and public life on equal footing with men, including to build autonomous movements for their own empowerment, they must be able to exercise their rights to freedom of thought, conscience, religion, expression, movement and association. It is imperative to recognize and secure these rights as individual rights for women’s effective participation in political and public life, in the light of the complex tensions between collective rights and women’s rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "1. Women’s equal enjoyment of fundamental freedoms and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 36, "n": 35, "text": "Women’s right to enjoy their cultural rights as equals is an integral part of their right to participation in political and public life. In the light of the persistent use of cultural and traditional values to justify resistance to women’s political and public roles, women’s capacity for equal participation depends on their autonomous agency regarding cultural life. As articulated by the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights, this involves:\nThe freedom to create new communities of shared cultural values around any markers of identity they want to privilege, new cultural meanings and practices without fear of punitive actions, including any form of violence. This means that women must be able to embrace or reject particular cultural practices and identities as well as to revise and (re)negotiate existing traditions, values or practices, regardless of their provenance. Active engagement in the cultural sphere … helps to build central traits of democratic citizenship.[[fn:18]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "A/67/287, para. 28."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "1. Women’s equal enjoyment of fundamental freedoms and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 37, "n": 36, "text": "In times of political transition when political life is highly volatile and polarized, women’s equal and full participation in political and public life depends on the effective protection of their fundamental freedoms and human rights, particularly those mentioned above. National human rights institutions (NHRIs) and other independent monitoring bodies play a particularly crucial role for women during these times.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "1. Women’s equal enjoyment of fundamental freedoms and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 38, "n": 2, "text": "Integration of women in public and political institutions", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "1. Women’s equal enjoyment of fundamental freedoms and human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 39, "n": 37, "text": "The participation of women in public and political institutions is crucial for their equality in citizenship and for empowering them to have an impact on and integrate a gender perspective into policy and decision-making.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "2. Integration of women in public and political institutions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 40, "n": 38, "text": "Special measures, including quotas for women and other temporary measures, as required under article 4, paragraph 1, of the Convention and general recommendations No. 23 (1997) and No. 25 (2004) of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, are necessary to achieve equality between men and women in political and public life, in order to contend with the underlying structural disadvantaging of women. The most significant increase in the numbers of women in national parliaments over the years has occurred in countries where special measures, such as gender quotas, have been effectively constructed and implemented. The use of quotas to advance women’s political representation and participation has increased in the past three decades and produced significant results when properly adapted to specific electoral and political systems.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "2. Integration of women in public and political institutions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 41, "n": 39, "text": "Many of the quota systems were adopted as part of the rebuilding of political systems and institutions after years of conflict and/or authoritarianism.[[fn:19]] Quotas work best when accompanied by sanctions and closely monitored by gender-responsive independent bodies, including national electoral bodies and human rights institutions. Research has shown that, in general, women’s chances of winning seats in parliamentary elections increase in proportional representation systems.[[fn:20]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "According to the Global Programme for Electoral Cycle Support, a United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) initiative, one third of the countries that have achieved percentages of 33 per cent or higher in women’s representation in national parliaments are considered countries in transition (see DFID and IDRC, summary (footnote Error: Reference source not found), p. 3)."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Leslie A. Schwindt-Bayer, “Making quotas work: the effect of gender quota laws on the election of women,” Legislative Studies Quarterly, vol. 34, No. 1 (February 2009), p. 15."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "2. Integration of women in public and political institutions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 42, "n": 40, "text": "Quotas introduced at the local level are rare but important for equality outcomes on the ground. In one country in South Asia, for example, a constitutional amendment mandated the representation of women, reserving one third of the seats within each council and women taking one third of the leadership positions as head.[[fn:21]] Research has shown that after a decade of implementation, women are more likely to stand for, and win, elected positions in councils.[[fn:22]] The requirement of female leadership changes voter attitudes and improves perceptions of female leadership effectiveness.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "Lori Beaman et al., “Women as agents of change: evidence from the grassroots”, presentation to the Working Group, 25 July 2012."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Lori Beaman et al., “Powerful women: does exposure reduce bias?” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 124, No. 4 (2009), p. 1497."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "2. Integration of women in public and political institutions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 43, "n": 41, "text": "Effective political participation of women requires not only admission to political institutions but also integration into their decision-making forums. Women’s full participation requires concerted action to overcome the de facto segregation of women’s political participation in sectors which are stereotypically associated with women’s gender roles. It requires that women be integrated into positions with decision-making power across the spectrum of issues dealt with by the institutions to which they have been elected or appointed. During political transitions, the same applies to all transitional authorities and mechanisms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "2. Integration of women in public and political institutions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 44, "n": 42, "text": "The Working Group welcomes a general trend in recent years to extend special measures or positive action to other areas of public life beyond legislative bodies. Positive action encompasses actions to promote women’s participation in public life by such tools as media campaigns and training opportunities, which are not legally binding quotas, and new generation transformative measures setting out an overriding objective of equal power of women and men to shape society and their own lives.[[fn:23]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See, for example, the background report on Western European and North America prepared for the Working Group (2012), p. 43."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "2. Integration of women in public and political institutions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 45, "n": 43, "text": "The Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU), in its 2013 Plan of Action for Gender-sensitive Parliaments, has drawn attention to the need for gender sensitivity in the composition, structures, operations, methods and work of parliaments. In the plan, it noted that “gender-sensitive parliaments remove the barriers to women’s full participation and offer a positive example or model to society at large” (p. 8). The Working Group considers the IPU plan of action to be adaptable for other public and political institutions in which women’s equal representation must be secured.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "2. Integration of women in public and political institutions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 46, "n": 44, "text": "The election and appointment of women to public and political office is a necessary condition for equality in public and political life, but the number of women in office is insufficient for advancing gender equality in society. Evidence shows that women who are appointed or elected to public office do not necessarily promote gender-equality agendas. Policy outcomes that advance substantive equality between men and women involve larger processes of public debate, alliance-building across political divides, and activism by autonomous women’s movements based on universal standards of equality, non-discrimination, human rights and inclusive democracy.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "2. Integration of women in public and political institutions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 47, "n": 3, "text": "Women’s agency and autonomous movements", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "2. Integration of women in public and political institutions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 48, "n": 45, "text": "The whole spectrum of women’s engagement and activism in political and public life, through all State institutions, the wide range of organizations in civil society and the diversity of public discourse, is integral to democracy, development and peace.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "3. Women’s agency and autonomous movements"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 49, "n": 46, "text": "Women’s participation in political and public life remains dynamic, multifaceted, and resilient, including in gaining access to power through alternative structures, as recognized in the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action. Even as the glass ceiling in formal political institutions stays mostly intact, women actively open new spaces for discourse, build networks across long-standing divides and create new communities of engagement. Through the autonomous movements they build at the local to global levels, women’s political engagements develop across formal administrative boundaries and are transnational in reach based on the universality of women’s right to equality, challenging unequal power relations, demanding accountability, defending rights and achievements, and advocating for systemic and cultural change in societies, institutions and States. Women’s autonomous civil society organizations are crucial to women’s participation in public and political life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "3. Women’s agency and autonomous movements"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 50, "n": 47, "text": "Women’s rights advocates engage actively in different normative regimes, including religious communities and indigenous or customary groups. They do so, among others, by initiating hermeneutic projects within their respective religions. In their cultural communities, women express their opinions on politics also through the arts, including writings, music and plays, and their works have been attacked, criminalized and condemned by State and non-State actors. In certain contexts, economically independent women playing leadership roles are stigmatized and attacked as witches.[[fn:24]] Lesbian, bisexual and transgender women who defend their human rights are vulnerable to attacks on their civil rights and personhood[[fn:25]] where there is a climate of intolerance arising from their perceived challenge to established norms of gender identity, gender roles and sexuality.[[fn:26]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "See Partners for Law in Development, Targeting of Women as Witches: Trends, Prevalence and the Law in Northern, Western, Eastern and Northeastern Regions of India (2013)."}, {"n": 25, "text": "See A/HRC/19/41."}, {"n": 26, "text": "Women Human Rights Defenders International Coalition, Global Report on the Situation of Women Human Rights Defenders (2012), p. 89."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "3. Women’s agency and autonomous movements"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 51, "n": 48, "text": "The new space and opportunities created by revolutionary developments in ICTs have enabled women to initiate or enhance their participation in political and public life. Women who are confined in private homes have used ICTs as a means to break out of their isolation and take part in collective action. Women who live under threat of attack because of their sexual orientation have found safety in the anonymity of the Internet, which allows them to freely speak out, establish virtual communities and participate in public debates. During moments of political unrest, women have utilized SMS, micro-blogging and social networking to provide “bodyguard” protection to each other on the ground.[[fn:27]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "Association for Progressive Communications (APC) submission to the Working Group, January 2012, second page."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "3. Women’s agency and autonomous movements"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 52, "n": 49, "text": "In the negotiation of political settlements during political transitions or in law reform, the inclusion of women’s civil society organizations and women leaders or spokespersons from sectoral or minority communities is crucial to ensure the equal benefit of reform to all citizens. As political transitions do not always lead to inclusive democracy, the empowerment of autonomous women’s movements is of equal priority to the process of state-building and the reform of political institutions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "3. Women’s agency and autonomous movements"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 53, "n": 50, "text": "The democratic deficit undermines women’s substantive participation in political and public life. Patronage politics, corruption, and undemocratic local government reduce women’s effectiveness in the political arena, as they prevent transparency and accountability in decision-making and in the distribution of resources. Gender discriminatory policies and regulations have been applied by autonomous local governments even when national or federal laws mandate gender equality. Empowering women’s participation in political and public life from the community level up helps build a culture of accountability, as it broadens the constituency for democratic decision-making, and is crucial to the effective application of good governance at all levels.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "4. Democratic deficit"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 54, "n": 51, "text": "The delegation of political or public power to religious institutions or indigenous communities that are exempt from the requirement to include women in their leadership and decision-making bodies cancels women‟s right to participate in significant aspects of 24 See Partners for Law in Development, Targeting of Women as Witches: Trends, Prevalence and the Law in Northern, Western, Eastern and Northeastern Regions of India (2013). 25 See A/HRC/19/41. 26 Women Human Rights Defenders International Coalition, Global Report on the Situation of Women Human Rights Defenders (2012), p. 89. 27 Association for Progressive Communications (APC) submission to the Working Group, January 2012, second page. public and political life; in such cases, the boundaries of women‟s rights are defined unilaterally by decision-makers of patriarchal social orders.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "4. Democratic deficit"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 55, "n": 52, "text": "The democratic deficit also expresses itself in the lack of capacity by States to address perpetual insecurity in all its different dimensions, including militarism and the culture of violence, especially, but not only, in situations of conflict and transition, in which women are primary victims.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "C. Women’s political participation, democracy and human rights", "4. Democratic deficit"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 56, "n": 53, "text": "Guarantees of women’s rights to education, decent employment and access to economic resources are preconditions for women’s equal and effective participation in political and public life. A coherent set of gender-responsive social and economic policies is necessary to overcome the multifaceted structural barriers that women face.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 57, "n": 54, "text": "Poverty and social exclusion, including women’s high levels of illiteracy and poor health, lock women into a persistent state of dependence and deprivation and often make long-term participation in political and public life an unviable option. Programmes addressing poverty and social exclusion and containing strong empowerment components for marginalized women, including those who face multiple discrimination, enhance the opportunity and capacity for these particular women to participate meaningfully in political and public life.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 58, "n": 55, "text": "Political will of States is the key element to ensure gender equality outcomes, combined with persistent support, pressure and scrutiny by women’s movements, whose autonomy should be protected by the State", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 59, "n": 56, "text": "While women are situated in different locations, each with distinct vulnerabilities and assets, their participation in political and public life is commonly constrained by structural and societal discrimination in the family, in caregiving responsibilities, in violence against women, and marginalization by political parties and other non-State public institutions. The obligation of States to remove these barriers is clearly mandated in article 2 (f) of the Convention and has been repeatedly advocated by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 60, "n": 57, "text": "The institution of family is one of the foundations of whole political systems, and family law is core to women’s citizenship and public life. Women’s right to equality in the family shapes opportunities and constraints for women’s agency and autonomy and also regulates access to land, income, education and health, including reproductive health, thereby determining a woman’s capacity to fully engage in all aspects of life.[[fn:28]] The right of women to equality in the family was established in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and elaborated in articles 2 and 16 of the Convention.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "Mala Htun and Laurel Weldon, “Religion, the State, and women’s rights: comparative analysis of sex equality in family law”, University of New Mexico and Purdue University, May 2012, pp. 2-7."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "1. Discriminatory family status"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 61, "n": 58, "text": "Patriarchal and discriminatory family law or practice may limit women’s freedom of occupation and freedom of movement in the public space. In some countries, men are still regarded by law as the head of household, barring women from representing their families in official decision-making processes on public affairs, including on development projects and issues of good governance, which have an impact on women and their families. The system of heads of household has been abrogated in many countries’ legal systems.[[fn:29]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See Soo Yeon Lee, “Political Transitions in the 1990s and its impact on legislation of gender equality laws: the South Korean case”, paper submitted for the regional expert group meeting on political transitions and gender equality, Seoul, December 2012."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "1. Discriminatory family status"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 62, "n": 59, "text": "Women belonging to minority groups are often victims of dual discrimination, as they must address discrimination against minorities and within their own communities. Providing special measures of education, leadership training and economic assistance for women and awareness-raising for men in patriarchal communities are some of the good practices by which States can address such multiple discrimination.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "1. Discriminatory family status"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 63, "n": 60, "text": "Many States have entered reservations to articles 2 and 16 of the Convention, on equality in the family, almost all in deference to religious family law, and in so doing perpetuate the structural impediment of inequality in the family to women’s full and effective participation in political and public life.[[fn:30]] The Working Group regards the elimination of discrimination in the family as central to women’s capacity to participate in political and public life on equal terms with men and the withdrawal of these reservations as imperative.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "See, inter alia, Musawah, CEDAW and Muslim Family Laws: In Search of Common Ground (Sisters in Islam, 2011)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "1. Discriminatory family status"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 64, "n": 61, "text": "Reform of family laws provides a firm basis to overcome structural and cultural impediments to women’s equal and full participation in political and public life. Family laws have been the focus of reform throughout history, as part of whole movements of States and societies towards modernity. In most cases, religious hermeneutic projects, particularly when initiated as part of broader reforms during times of political transition, have been an integral part of making these changes possible, with a prominent role played by women’s rights movements, as in the case of Morocco, which achieved significant reform on many fronts in the family code (Moudawana),[[fn:31]] and by reform-minded religious institutions. The political will for these reforms, in State-sponsored modernization projects and social engineering agendas, has existed in diverse contexts of colonial power, the post-colonial State and communist regimes.[[fn:32]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "See A/HRC/20/28/Add.1."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See Mala Htun and Laurel Weldon, “Sex equality in family law: historical legacies, feminist activism and religious power in 70 countries” (2011)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "1. Discriminatory family status"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 65, "n": 2, "text": "Unequal caregiving responsibilities", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "1. Discriminatory family status"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 66, "n": 62, "text": "Caregiving responsibilities in the family are disproportionately in the hands of women. Both the reality and the a priori belief that this is the way it should be put women at a structural disadvantage in entering and participating sustainably in political and public life. The long hours of work and heavy travel demands make it difficult for women with caregiving responsibilities to maintain consistent engagement in political and public life without adequate support for the caring responsibilities. At the same time, women who carry out full-time engagement in politics and public affairs are often harassed and stigmatized, as they are perceived to undermine traditional family values.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "2. Unequal caregiving responsibilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 67, "n": 63, "text": "Good practice regarding the work-life balance for public and political participation includes both childcare support and institutional family-friendly scheduling. The highest performing countries in terms of proportion of women in public office have the most generous entitlements for maternal and parental leave. This reflects States’ effectiveness in creating better options for women to reconcile the balance between work and family life, promoting a better balance of responsibilities between men and women in the home and encouraging a higher percentage of fathers to take parental leave. This demonstrates a significant cultural change in society’s views of gender roles, which is itself a culmination of decades of responsive social policies.[[fn:33]] Good practices regarding gender-sensitive parliaments are found in some Western European and other States that have changed the scheduling of parliamentary session to allow a work-life balance for Members of Parliament who have parental responsibilities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See the background report on Western Europe and North America (footnote Error: Reference source not found)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "2. Unequal caregiving responsibilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 68, "n": 64, "text": "Violence against women in all its forms, whether in the private or the public space, undermines women’s capacity to effectively engage in political and public life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "3. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 69, "n": 65, "text": "Stigmatization, harassment and outright attacks have been used to silence and discredit women who are outspoken as leaders, community workers, human rights defenders and politicians. Sexual harassment against female political candidates has been reported as a tactic to discourage women from exercising their right to vote and run for elections.[[fn:34]] Women defenders are often the target of gender-specific violence, such as verbal abuse based on their sex, sexual abuse or rape; they may experience intimidation, attacks, death threats and even murder by community members. Violence against women defenders is sometimes condoned or perpetrated by State actors, including through police harassment of female demonstrators.[[fn:35]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "IACHR, Road to Substantive Democracy (footnote Error: Reference source not found), paras. 110-111, 125."}, {"n": 35, "text": "See A/HRC/16/44."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "3. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 70, "n": 66, "text": "The Internet has become a site of diverse forms of violence against women, in the form of pornography, sexist games and breaches of privacy. For women who engage in public debate through the Internet, the risk of harassment is experienced online, for example, an anonymous negative campaign calling for the gang rape of a woman human rights defender, with racist abuse posted in her Wikipedia profile.[[fn:36]] Female ICT users have publicly protested about sexist attacks.[[fn:37]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "APC submission (footnote Error: Reference source not found), seventh page."}, {"n": 37, "text": "See, among others, Vanessa Thorpe and Richard Rogers, “Women bloggers call for a stop to ‘hateful’ trolling by misogynist men”, The Observer, 6 November 2011. Available from www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/nov/05/women-bloggers-hateful-trolling."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "3. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 71, "n": 67, "text": "Domestic violence is public as well as private in its debilitating impact on women. It can also be used directly as a form of punishment by resentful husbands or other family members against wives or female relatives who become leaders in their community.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "3. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 72, "n": 68, "text": "In 2012, recognizing the importance of eliminating violence against women in public and political life, the General Assembly, in its resolution 66/130, called for an environment of zero tolerance for violence against women elected officials and candidates for public office. In the Latin American and Caribbean region, the Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence against Women explicitly recognizes the right of women to be free from violence in both the public and the private spheres and the impact that violence can have on civil, political and economic, social and cultural rights.[[fn:38]] In this region, there are examples of legislation prohibiting gender-based harassment and violence against a woman candidate as well as pressure on a female candidate’s family.[[fn:39]] In the African region, the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights recently issued a decision on the failure of States in protecting women during acts of political protest, including in a case concerning violence against women journalists.[[fn:40]] In an environment where sexual violence continues to go unpunished, this decision makes a valuable contribution towards ensuring that States are held to account when they fail to protect women from violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "Elizabeth Abi-Mershed, “What does the [IACHR] system have to offer as a whole?”, presentation to the Working Group."}, {"n": 39, "text": "Elizabeth Salguero Carrillo, “Political violence against women”, The World of Parliaments Quarterly Review, No. 36 (2009)."}, {"n": 40, "text": "Communication No. 323/2006, Egyptian Initiative for Personal Rights and Interights v. Egypt. Available from http://eipr.org/sites/default/files/pressreleases/pdf/text_of_the_afriocan_commission_ decision-english.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "3. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 73, "n": 69, "text": "Stereotypes[[fn:41]] of women’s capacities and roles that negatively affect women’s effective participation in political and public life persist around the world. Despite evidence of women’s important contributions in other fields of life, including in the labour market, stereotypes of female inadequacy in politics continue to be used as a basis for their marginalization and segregation in decision-making positions, with care and distributive tasks such as health and social welfare allocated to women, while men are assigned to economic and defence affairs, distorting the power structure and resource allocation.[[fn:42]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See Rebecca J. Cook and Simone Cusack, Gender Stereotyping: Transnational Legal Perspectives (2010); and Cusack, Stereotyping and Law, available from http://stereotypingandlaw.wordpress.com/."}, {"n": 42, "text": "Committee on Women’s Rights and Gender Equality, report (footnote Error: Reference source not found), p. 7."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "4. Stereotypes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 74, "n": 70, "text": "Women who belong to vulnerable groups, based on race, class, ethnicity, religion or belief, health, status, age, class, caste and sexual orientation and gender identity, are effectively barred from political and public life based on multiple stereotyping. In its concluding observations, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has expressed concern about stereotyped media portrayals of women’s roles within the family and society.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "4. Stereotypes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 75, "n": 71, "text": "The Working Group notes that negotiation by international, regional and State agencies with sectoral or minority groups is negatively influenced by gender stereotyping when conducted solely with the male community leadership, thereby making women’s leadership effectively invisible and further marginalizing women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "4. Stereotypes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 76, "n": 72, "text": "Particularly during times of political transitions, in highly polarized discourse regarding national identity, gender stereotypes can be magnified and undermine progress in eliminating discrimination against women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "4. Stereotypes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 77, "n": 5, "text": "Marginalization by political parties", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "4. Stereotypes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 78, "n": 73, "text": "Political parties are key determinants of women’s political empowerment and women’s participation in politics, as political parties recruit and select candidates for elections.[[fn:43]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "See UNDP and National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (NDI), Empowering Women for Stronger Political Parties: A Good Practices Guide to Promote Women’s Political Participation (2011)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "5. Marginalization by political parties"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 79, "n": 74, "text": "Political parties, which function as gatekeepers in political decision-making, tend to be exclusionary towards women. Women also frequently lack access to political party funding and financial resources for their election bids and campaigns. Some political parties exclude women on religious ideological grounds. Both a national court and the European Court of Human Rights found that a confessional political party’s exclusion of women from its parliamentary candidate list, because “differences in nature, talents and place in society means that, although women are not inferior to men as human beings, they should not be eligible for public office”, was in violation of the State’s Constitution and article 7 of the Convention.[[fn:44]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "See European Court of Human Rights, SGP v. Netherlands, Application No. 58369/10, decision of 10 July 2012."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "5. Marginalization by political parties"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 80, "n": 75, "text": "The most effective strategies for women’s political empowerment involve reforms to incorporate rules that guarantee women’s representation within political parties.[[fn:45]] Some 50 countries have adopted legislation on electoral quotas in order to ensure that a certain proportion of candidates for political office are women. Hundreds of political parties in another 20 countries have voluntarily adopted their own gender quotas.[[fn:46]] In some countries the quota system is established by the constitution. One constitution in the Latin American and Caribbean region includes the principle of parity in all policymaking mechanisms, including elections, ministries, the justice system and political parties, and stipulates that political parties’ “organization, structure and functioning shall be democratic and shall guarantee the rotation of power, accountability, and parity membership between women and men on their governing boards”.[[fn:47]] In the Maghreb, one new constitution mandates the establishment of a mechanism for parity (see A/HRC/20/28/Add.1). Women’s movements were intensely involved in these constitutional processes, illustrating the importance of activism to exert pressure for the creation of a constitutional framework that supports women’s right to representation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "See UNDP and NDI, Empowering."}, {"n": 46, "text": "Ibid., p. 22."}, {"n": 47, "text": "Constitution of Ecuador (2008), art. 8. See also articles 65, 116, 176, and 434 of the Constitution, as cited in the background paper on Latin America and the Caribbean prepared for the Working Group."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "5. Marginalization by political parties"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 81, "n": 76, "text": "The Working Group notes that good practices of States include a legislative, and preferably constitutional, requirement that political parties place women in realistic positions for election, apply quotas, guarantee the rotation of power, accountability and parity membership between women and men on their governing boards and condition the funding of political parties on their integration of women in realistic positions on their candidate lists.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "D. Eliminating structural and societal discrimination against women in political and public life", "5. Marginalization by political parties"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 82, "n": 77, "text": "The obligation of States to advance women’s equality and empower women in public and political life requires legal measures at all levels: constitutional, legislative and judicial.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 83, "n": 78, "text": "National constitutions define the framework for eliminating discrimination against women in law and practice and articulate the principles and ways by which historical power asymmetries are redressed.[[fn:48]] Constitutions provide important clarity on the relationship between distinct normative regimes which are adhered to and practiced de facto by different sections of society. A constitutional guarantee of equality for women, in line with international standards, most especially the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, and regional standards, is essential in order to establish a universal imperative of equality for women on which the entire chain of justice within the State will rest. Increasingly, in different regions, women’s rights and non-discrimination clauses have been incorporated into new constitutions or are part of constitutional reform efforts.[[fn:49]] This transnational constitutional pattern can be attributed to ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the concluding observations of the Committee, together with campaigning by women’s activists.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "See Helen Irving, “Where have all the women gone? Gender and the literature on constitutional design”, Sidney Law School Legal Studies Research Paper No. 10/50, May 2010."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Martha Morgan, “How constitution-making, interpretation, and implementation can contribute to protecting and promoting women’s rights”, remarks to the Working Group, October 2012."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "1. Constitutional guarantees"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 84, "n": 79, "text": "In order to ensure effective access to justice for women, the constitutional requirements for gender equality should be specific.[[fn:50]] Research on constitutional provisions that specifically grant or protect the rights of women has shown that while women’s protection clauses cannot be shown to be the exclusive cause of improved legal protection of women, they are associated with gains in women’s rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "See Laura E. Lucas, “Does gender specificity in constitutions matter?” Duke Journal of Comparative & International Law, vol. 20 (2009)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "1. Constitutional guarantees"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 85, "n": 80, "text": "Model examples of constitutional design can be found in recent constitutions in different regions. Since 1981, in many countries in the Western region, constitutions have been amended to include provisions permitting the use of temporary special measures to promote the participation of women in political and public life. One recently established constitution in the Maghreb confers systematically, throughout its provisions, constitutional rights expressly on women as well as men, and seeks to ensure parity between them; in Latin America and the Caribbean there is a constitution which contains approximately 34 references to the rights of women, including the right to political participation.[[fn:51]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "See the keynote address of the Vice-Chairperson of the Working Group at the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women general discussion on access to justice, held on 18 February 2013 in Geneva. Available from www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/OthersActivities.aspx."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "1. Constitutional guarantees"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 86, "n": 81, "text": "The inclusion of any clause in the constitution that derogates from the guarantee of gender equality, by deferring to contradictory precepts in other orders of justice such as traditional and religious principles, undermines the equality standards of international human rights law. Similarly, constitutions that have an override clause, which excludes plural legal systems, religious or customary courts or alternative dispute settlement procedures from the obligation to respect the gender equality guarantee, violate the equality standards of the Convention. Many of the countries that have derogation or exclusion clauses in their constitutions have entered reservations to the human rights treaties, and these reservations have been addressed within the concluding observations of the treaty bodies, which have required their removal.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "1. Constitutional guarantees"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 87, "n": 82, "text": "Effective constitutions for gender equality and non-discrimination provide clarity in a hierarchy of competing laws, legal provisions which establish compliance with universal standards of human rights, and coherence throughout national legal frameworks. There are good practices to be found in different regions, where recognition of the autonomy of customary or indigenous communities is nevertheless subject to the requirement that they respect women’s human rights. For instance, in the sub-Saharan region, one constitutional provision mandates that “laws, cultures, customs and traditions which are against the dignity, welfare or interest of women or any other marginalised group … or which undermine their status, are prohibited by this Constitution”, and in Latin America and the Caribbean one constitution provides far-reaching recognition of both gender equality and indigenous rights, guaranteeing women’s participation and decision-making in indigenous governance and justice systems.[[fn:52]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "1. Constitutional guarantees"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 88, "n": 83, "text": "Constitutional guarantees of gender equality will be operative only if there is provision for effective judicial review of legislative and governmental action and women are empowered to process their claim for equality through the courts. Beyond State courts, the possibility of recourse to international and regional mechanisms opens access to interpretation of the constitutional provisions in line with the international and regional State obligation to respect, protect and fulfil women’s right to equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "1. Constitutional guarantees"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 89, "n": 84, "text": "Elimination of discrimination against women in political and public life necessitates reform of nationality laws. Women’s capacity to participate in political and public life is defined by their citizenship and nationality, but nationality laws often discriminate against women, particularly when they require a single nationality in a family and the wife’s nationality is treated as dependent on her husband’s. In effect, women lose their nationality upon marriage with a foreign husband, particularly if both countries of the spouses follow the principle of dependent nationality. If the country of the husband does not follow this principle, then the wife is at risk of becoming stateless, denying her the right to legitimately participate in the political and public life of any country.[[fn:53]] Laws which require women to seek permission from their husbands, or other family members traditionally defined as their guardians, in acquiring passports and other identity documents also potentially undermine women’s capacity to equal participation in political and public life, including through limited freedom of movement.", "labels": ["Non-citizens and stateless", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "See A/HRC/23/23, paras. 19–20."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "2. Nationality laws"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 90, "n": 85, "text": "In recent years, many countries have repealed or amended discriminatory nationality provisions to allow women to transfer nationality to their children, and, albeit to a lesser extent, to foreign husbands, or to reduce the occurrence of statelessness. Some countries have lifted their reservations to article 9 of the Convention, mostly in relation to women passing on nationality to children (art. 9, para. 2). Nationality laws which discriminate against women have been challenged in the courts of many countries and in international human rights mechanisms, resulting in a number of positive court decisions.[[fn:54]]", "labels": ["Children", "Non-citizens and stateless", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "2. Nationality laws"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 91, "n": 86, "text": "Women and girls belonging to minority communities, rural and indigenous women, migrant women, refugee women and those seeking asylum, and poor women face discriminatory practices in the implementation of laws on nationality and citizenship. They face prejudicial attitudes as well as structural obstacles which limit access to formal registration of births, marriage, residence and other citizenship documents as well as to relevant information on their rights as citizens. Women who are de facto heads of households, including those who have been abandoned by their husbands, whose divorce is not legally registered, or whose husbands have been forcibly disappeared and do not have death certificates for their husbands[[fn:55]], are denied recognition of their status in official documents. Without such access, women from these communities become disproportionately vulnerable in exercising their full and equal rights as citizens.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "See, for example, Association of Parents of Disappeared Persons, Half Widow, Half Wife? Responding to Gendered Violence in Kashmir (2011)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "2. Nationality laws"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 92, "n": 3, "text": "Preventing violence against women", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "2. Nationality laws"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 93, "n": 87, "text": "For all women to have the capacity to exercise their right to equal and full participation in political and public life, States must provide a comprehensive legal framework to eliminate all forms of violence against women, including domestic violence, gender-based violence in conflict situations and under current or past dictatorships, and violence directed at women who speak out and play leadership roles during times of war and peace. As articulated in the agreed conclusions of the fifty-seventh session of the Commission for the Status of Women, these laws must provide for multidisciplinary and gender-sensitive preventive and protective measures, such as emergency barring orders and protection orders; the investigation, submission for prosecution and appropriate punishment of perpetrators to end impunity; and support services that empower victims and survivors, as well as access to appropriate civil remedies and redress.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "3. Preventing violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 94, "n": 88, "text": "Transitional justice mechanisms should provide accountability for gross violations of human rights affecting women, a comprehensive analysis of gender-based violence and abuse by past regimes, the means for transformative reparations for women victims, and the foundation for a gender-responsive reform of the political and legal institutions as part of the guarantee of non-recurrence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "3. Preventing violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 95, "n": 4, "text": "Implementation and enforcement of law", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "3. Preventing violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 96, "n": 89, "text": "Effective elimination of discrimination against women in political and public life relies on the capacity to implement legal guarantees of equality between men and women in this field. National women’s machineries set up within the executive bodies of States have been consistently underresourced and are therefore disadvantaged in carrying out their functions. Autonomous women’s movements which promote universal standards of equality and non-discrimination are key players, both for maintaining the continued existence of these national machineries as well as for promoting their effectiveness. The equal participation of women from minority, indigenous and other marginalized communities in decision-making positions is the measure of a full implementation of legal guarantees and measures.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "4. Implementation and enforcement of law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 97, "n": 90, "text": "NHRIs play a crucial role in providing human rights protection and access to redress for politically active women at risk. Given the complex obstacles deeply rooted in structural inequalities and multiple intersections of social-cultural exclusion, women’s effective participation in political and public life can be achieved only when they have equal and full access to all mechanisms of independent human rights monitoring and redress, particularly in contexts where the risks are high. Gender responsiveness and gender balance in NHRIs and other human rights institutions at the regional and international levels are imperative.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "4. Implementation and enforcement of law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 98, "n": 91, "text": "However, there are no international standards for NHRIs to integrate gender and women’s rights into their work, resulting in the uneven responsiveness of NHRIs to the specific protection needs of women in political and public life, including women human rights defenders and female politicians at the local level. Specialized NHRIs on women’s human rights exist in some countries, but no mechanism guarantees coordination between specialized and the main national human rights bodies, resulting in serious gaps and the risk of fragmented national human rights systems.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "4. Implementation and enforcement of law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 99, "n": 92, "text": "Making justice systems work for women, whether by catalysing legal reform, or supporting legal aid, one-stop shops and training for judges, is key to the sustainability of women’s political participation. This area requires investment. Recognizing the importance of strengthening the rule of law, Governments spend a significant amount on legal and judicial development and human rights. However, targeted funding for gender equality remains low, and gender budgeting initiatives are primarily focused on providing financial resources within State institutions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "4. Implementation and enforcement of law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 100, "n": 93, "text": "Civil society organizations have supported ground-breaking cases on women’s rights generally and as they relate to participation in public and political life. This underlines the importance of securing the capacity of civil society organizations to sustainably fund their critical work, including in the areas of litigation for violations of women’s rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition", "E. Eliminating discrimination in law", "4. Implementation and enforcement of law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 101, "n": 94, "text": "For women’s participation in political and public life to be meaningful it must be on equal footing with that of men, covering all aspects of political and public life, and effective in achieving substantive outcomes on equality between men and women in all fields of life. Women’s economic independence and the economic viability of their enterprises and collective actions are crucial, and the conditions necessary for this to be achievable is distinct for differently located women, defined by the unique intersections of multiple forms of discrimination experienced by them. Political transitions do not always lead to inclusive democracy and long-lasting peace, and require the effectiveness of autonomous women’s movements to ground universal standards of human rights in political and public life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 102, "n": 95, "text": "Women’s capacity for equal participation in all aspects of political and public life depends on a coherent set of social and economic policies directed at the family, workplace and marketplace. It also requires their capacity to engage in complex issues such as peace and security, state-building, and extreme poverty and all forms of social exclusion. Positive action is needed to empower women to produce knowledge and engage actively and creatively in these fields. As women act collectively to overcome the structural barriers they face, sustainable access of these groups or communities to adequate resources, including financial, is critical.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 103, "n": 96, "text": "The right mix of special measures, both temporary and permanent, is required to address reported stagnation in the rise in women’s participation in public office. Partial and selective application of gender quotas and other temporary special measures must be replaced by a comprehensive system-wide approach, in permanent as well as ad hoc institutions of governance, peace, development and human rights, at the local, national and global levels. The emerging framework for global governance of information and communications technologies (ICTs) is particularly important, considering the crucial role that ICTs are playing in the political and public life of women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-23-50-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-23-50", "idx": 104, "n": 97, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\nTake concrete steps towards achieving parity in political decision-making and leadership at all levels through a multifaceted approach that is responsive to the different obstacles faced by women, including in dealing with multiple discrimination. States should:\n(i) Strengthen the legislative foundation towards parity, including through constitutional provisions and other legislative measures for positive action, such as quotas, to overcome structural barriers to women’s political participation;\n(ii) Provide effective policy measures to increase women’s electability for public office and in key institutions of political and public life, including political parties;\n(iii) Address any indication of stagnation and segregation in the progress towards parity by designing and implementing innovative strategies to overcome specific barriers;\n(iv) Develop strategies to support capacity development for women in public office, including through national and international cooperation among peers;\n(v) Enhance the capacity to consistently and regularly monitor progress at all levels of decision-making across the whole spectrum of institutions of public and political life;\nCreate the enabling conditions for public recognition and acceptance for women in positions of leadership and decision-making through public campaigns and educational programmes which are responsive to multicultural settings, including by:\nGiving recognition to the diversity of women’s engagements in political and public life;\nProviding a positive image of diverse women, including minority women, indigenous women, women with disabilities, and other historically marginalized women, in leadership and decision-making positions;\nProviding youth and children with a wide range of relevant role models and career paths for women, including through mentoring programmes for young women’s participation in political and public life;\nDevelop a bottom-up approach to building democratic and accountable relations between State and society, including in local governance and governance in the sectoral fields, with the active participation of institutions and organizations in which women’s leadership is located and growing;\nSupport and ensure women’s equal participation in and benefit from all areas of political decision-making during times of political transition. States should:\n(i) Apply special measures to ensure the equal and full participation of women in all transitional authorities and mechanisms;\n(ii) Ensure, including through constitutional provisions, a coherent system-wide framework for equality between men and women in all fields of life;\n(iii) Engage women in meaningful and sustainable ways in the development and implementation of policies to achieve lasting peace and security, including by promoting a culture of peace through formal and informal education in a multicultural setting;\nEnsure women’s effective participation in all initiatives to secure accountability for past abuses, including transitional justice processes, and ensure that the guarantee for non-recurrence incorporates overcoming the root causes of gender-based violations in everyday life and institutions;\nCreate a coherent institutional architecture for women’s human rights and gender equality, including by:\n(i) Securing the gender balance and gender-responsive capacity of national human rights institutions (NHRIs) and other independent monitoring bodies;\n(ii) Institutionalizing gender responsiveness as part of the international standards for effective NHRIs;\n(iii) Establishing well-resourced specialized national mechanisms for women’s rights and gender equality;\nSupport the sustainability and growth of autonomous women’s movements in their multifaceted efforts to ground universal standards of equality and human rights in diverse contexts, including by providing non-binding funding at the national and international levels and by supporting the development of independent women’s funds;\nOvercome the knowledge gap regarding women’s participation in political and public life, at the national and global levels, by generating robust sex-disaggregated statistics and multidisciplinary research reflecting the whole spectrum of women’s engagements, including through innovative documentation produced by the women themselves;\nSupport women’s equal participation in political and public life through ICTs, including by:\n(i) Increasing women’s digital literacy, particularly among marginalized women;\n(ii) Ensuring gender-responsiveness in the promotion and protection of human rights on the Internet;\n(iii) Improving women’s access to the global governance of ICTs;\nAccelerate efforts to eliminate all forms of violence against women, including through a comprehensive legal framework to combat impunity, in order to fulfil women’s human rights and to improve the enabling conditions for women’s participation in political and public life;\nGuarantee women’s equal access to decision-making positions and processes in all institutions of global governance, including the United Nations.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2013, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is submitted pursuant to Human Rights Council resolutions 15/23 and 23/7. In section II, the Working Group summarizes its activities since its last report to the Human Rights Council up until 18 March 2014. In section III, it addresses the topic of eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis, the priority theme for 2013–2014.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "Frances Raday took up her function as Chairperson-Rapporteur of the Working Group and and Emna Aouij her function as Vice-Chairperson following the presentation, in June 2013, at the twenty-third session of the Human Rights Council, of the Working Group’s thematic report on eliminating discrimination against women in political and public life with a focus on political transition (A/HRC/23/50).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "The Working Group held three sessions during the reporting period. At its seventh session (1–5 July 2013), it engaged with a number of stakeholders, including UN-Women, relevant parts of the United Nations Secretariat and other experts on various issues related to women in economic and social life. At its eighth session (30 September–4 October 2013), the Working Group continued to exchange views with experts on its priority theme, and held a workshop on business and gender.[[fn:1]] It also convened for the first time a meeting with representatives from regional human rights mechanism from the Americas, Europe, Africa, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. At its ninth session (20–24 January 2014), the Working Group consolidated the information it had gathered to inform the present report and started consulting stakeholders on its next thematic priority for 2014–2015: discrimination against women in family and cultural life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See the background paper and outcome document from the workshop at www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Discriminationagainstwomenineconomicandsociallifeafocusoneconomiccrisis.aspx."}], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "The Working Group visited Iceland from 16 to 23 May 2013 (see A/HRC/26/39/Add.1) and China from 12 to 19 December 2013 (see A/HRC/26/39/Add.2). It would like to thank these States for their cooperation prior and during the visits. It would also like to thank those States that extended invitations for country visits, and urges other States to follow suit.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The Working Group continued sending communications to Governments during the reporting period, either individually or jointly with other mandates, concerning a wide array of issues falling within its mandate. It also issued a number of press statements, either 1 See the background paper and outcome document from the workshop at www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Discriminationagainstwomenineconomicandso ciallifeafocusoneconomiccrisis.aspx. individually or jointly with other mandate holders, human rights treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["II. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "On 10 March 2014, Frances Raday, the Chairperson of the Working Group, took part in a high-level round table on the priority theme of the fifty-eighth session of the Commission on the Status of Women. She also met with a number of stakeholders, including UN-Women and the Secretary-General’s Special Adviser on Post-2015 Development Planning. She also participated in a side event on “Beyond 2015: Due Diligence Framework to End Violence against Women”.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "D. Commission on the Status of Women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "On 24–25 June, Frances Raday took part in the Annual Meeting of Special Procedures and was elected to the Coordination Committee of Special Procedures. From 27 to 28 June 2013, she participated in an International Expert Conference entitled “Vienna+20: Advancing the Protection of Human Rights”. On 7 October 2013, Emna Aouij, Vice-Chairperson, participated in a discussion organized by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to inform a general recommendation on rural women. She also participated in a regional consultation on discrimination against women in the Middle East and North Africa region with a special focus on family and cultural life (Tunis, 18–19 December 2013). From 27 to 29 October 2013, Kamala Chandrakirana took part in a regional consultation with women’s rights organizations in the Asia Pacific region, organized by the Asia Pacific Forum on Women, Law and Development, focusing on economic and social life. Eleonora Zielinksa took part in an international symposium on “Women in Prison and the Bangkok Rules” in Hong Kong, China from 23 to 27 February 2014.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "E. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "This report focuses on the gender aspects of economic and social rights.[[fn:2]] These rights have particular significance for women, who are disproportionately affected by economic and social marginalization and poverty. Women’s right to equality in economic and social rights is substantive, immediate and enforceable. It concerns the division of existing resources, not the development of resources, and therefore the principle of progressive realization does not apply. The State has an obligation of due diligence to prevent discrimination against women in economic and social life by private persons or entities. Furthermore, temporary special measures may be required to accelerate the achievement of de facto equality. In preparing this report, the Working Group availed itself of a wealth of information gathered through a survey that elicited 70 Governments’ replies and other stakeholders’ inputs, and global and specialized background papers. All this information is available on the Working Group’s web page.[[fn:3]] The Working Group also endeavoured to identify good practices that will inform the compendium of good practices mandated in paragraph 18 (b) of Human Rights Council resolution 15/23.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "This report has minimal footnotes due to word limit restrictions. A version of the report with full references and a bibliography for each section is available at www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Discriminationagainstwomenineconomicandsociallifeafocusoneconomiccrisis.aspx."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "International human rights law, including regional instruments, guarantees economic and social rights and women’s right to equality in their enjoyment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "A. The international legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "International human rights law establishes the obligation of States to ensure the exercise of women’s economic and social rights under conditions of equality and free from discrimination. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights are the key human rights instruments guaranteeing these rights. Articles 2 and 3 of the Convention establish a comprehensive obligation to eliminate discrimination in all its forms. Article 4 encourages the use of temporary special measures, while other provisions explicitly guarantee various aspects of women’s economic and social rights, including articles 10 (education), 11 (employment), 13 (financial and cultural life), 14 (rural women) and 15 (equality before the law). Articles 2 and 3 of the Covenant prohibit discrimination based on sex and guarantee “the equal right of men and women to the enjoyment of all economic, social and cultural rights set forth in the present Covenant”. The Covenant recognizes the right to: work; just and favourable conditions of work; social security; an adequate standard of living; education; and to form trade unions. The international human rights framework is complemented by key International Labour Organization (ILO) gender equality Conventions, such as Conventions No. 100 (equal remuneration), 111 (discrimination in employment and occupation), 156 (workers with family responsibilities), 183 (maternity protection) and 189 (domestic workers).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "A. The international legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Various other international and regional human rights treaties also protect women’s and girls’ social and economic rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "A. The international legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action of the Fourth World Conference on Women identified, as critical policy priorities in the global economy, the persistent burden of poverty on women, and inequalities in education, training, economic structures and policies, productive activities and access to resources.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "A. The international legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Most countries guarantee equality in their constitutions, many of them expressly requiring gender equality. Furthermore, several constitutions in different regions expressly guarantee gender equality in economic and social life and, in some cases, also specifically in working life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "1. Constitutional guarantees"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 14, "n": 2, "text": "Remaining discriminatory legislation", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "1. Constitutional guarantees"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 15, "n": 14, "text": "In a significant number of countries, discriminatory legislation, often through application of personal law systems, continues to create an almost impassable barrier to women’s equal economic and social opportunity. These include laws that limit women’s 4 This section draws upon the background papers by Sandra Fredman and Mayra Gomez. See also the bibliography for this section. access to education, legal capacity, freedom of movement, ownership or enjoyment of property. Discrimination is also found with regard to access to credit, equal retirement age and social security rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "2. Remaining discriminatory legislation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 16, "n": 3, "text": "Anti-discrimination legislation", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "1. Constitutional guarantees"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 17, "n": 15, "text": "There are widespread prohibitions of discrimination against women in education and employment. However, these laws have not led to effective implementation, accountability and de facto equality. Furthermore, in some countries, equal opportunity legislation is restricted to the public sector and has not been applied to the private sector.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "3. Anti-discrimination legislation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 18, "n": 4, "text": "Cultural and structural barriers", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "3. Anti-discrimination legislation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 19, "n": 16, "text": "Women are disadvantaged economically as a result of social and cultural parameters, including stereotyping, discrimination and violence. A structural barrier to women’s economic empowerment is the disparate feminization of unpaid care responsibilities. These cultural and structural barriers appear throughout girls’ and women’s life cycle and, indeed, women’s economic situation varies throughout their life cycle more than men’s.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "4. Cultural and structural barriers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 20, "n": 17, "text": "The Working Group notes that while constitutional guarantees, elimination of discriminatory laws and the establishment of anti-discrimination legislative framework are vital, they are not sufficient to produce equality in the sphere of economic and social life. In order to achieve women’s full and equal participation in economic and social life, it is essential to adopt a transformative agenda that eliminates the cultural and structural barriers to women’s equal opportunity.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "5. Transformative equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 21, "n": 18, "text": "Economic governance is generated not only de jure by political decision-making, but also de facto by the activities of economic and financial institutions, enterprises and corporations at international, transnational and national levels. The International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, regional development banks and the World Trade Organization (WTO) constrain national economic policies. In the year 2000, the top 200 companies surpassed the economies of 182 countries; they exercise significant power in determining policy. The private sector creates and defines jobs, produces growth, sets parameters of income distribution and affects the social and environmental conditions of the communities in which they function.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "6. Economic empowerment"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 22, "n": 19, "text": "There are barriers to women’s access to leadership and decision-making positions in these economic and financial institutions, which generate policies that determine the quality of life of women, men, children and communities. Furthermore, in the emerging area of corporate responsibility, the gendered harm to women resulting from transnational business and trade policies has been largely invisible. There is a need to address these issues and develop tools for gender responsiveness in economic leadership and corporate responsibility.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "6. Economic empowerment"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 23, "n": 20, "text": "Effective elimination of discrimination against women in economic and social life requires gender-responsive and effective accountability systems. Although there are some judicial decisions on discrimination against women in economic and social life at the international, regional and national levels, their number is disturbingly low. The enhancement of women’s legal literacy, including poor and rural women, is necessary to ensure women’s equal access to judicial remedies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "7. Accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 24, "n": 21, "text": "The gender-specific application of emerging international standards of the state obligation to provide mechanisms of accountability for violations of economic and social rights, including courts and quasi-judicial bodies, still requires grounded elaboration. Promising developments exist. With regard to the state obligation of due diligence for human rights violations by corporations, the Guidelines for multinational enterprises of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development apply corporate conduct standards requiring non-discrimination in the selection, promotion and dismissal of women. The extraterritorial obligations of States, articulated in the Maastricht Principles adopted in 2011 by a group of experts in international law and human rights, have been applied by General Recommendation No. 30 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to women’s rights in conflict prevention, conflict and post-conflict situations.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "7. Accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 25, "n": 22, "text": "National human rights institutions can play an important role in ensuring accountability for violations of women’s rights in economic and social life. However, there is little evidence of this occurring in practice, and no mechanism to review the gender-responsiveness of these institutions is in place.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "7. Accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 26, "n": 23, "text": "Accountability for States’ fulfilment of women’s economic and social rights is carried out in some countries through gender budgeting and gender-mainstreaming state budgetary allocations. The effectiveness of review and monitoring requires governmental transparency and meaningful access to decision-making processes on national and local budgets.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "7. Accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 27, "n": 24, "text": "Although women at all economic levels, in high-, middle- and low-income countries, suffer from discrimination, they have primary responsibility for the provision of care and are victims of violence. Women are not a homogenous group, and their experience varies greatly between regions, countries, socioeconomic classes within countries and their identities as members of minorities, migrants, girl children, older women, or on account of single parenthood, disabilities or sexual identity, among others.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "8. Intersectionality and poverty"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 28, "n": 25, "text": "A crosscutting issue in women’s life cycles is their vulnerability to poverty, especially when they are from minority communities. As recommended by the ILO and the Report of the Social Protection Floor Advisory Group chaired by Michelle Bachelet, social protection floors are vital tools to reduce women’s poverty and improve women’s level of economic empowerment.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "B. Current state of legislation, structural and cultural barriers and accountability", "8. Intersectionality and poverty"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 29, "n": 26, "text": "The correlation between income and development and gender equality is well established. Both theory and empirical evidence indicate that empowering women means a more efficient use of a nation’s human capital endowment and that reducing gender inequality enhances productivity and economic growth.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "C. Macroeconomic policy, economic crisis, austerity measures and the post-2015 agenda"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 30, "n": 27, "text": "The 2013 World Economic Forum Global Gender Gap Report shows that, although globally almost 93 per cent of the gap in educational attainment has been closed, the gender gap in economic participation and political empowerment remains wide, with only 60 per cent of the economic outcomes gap and only 21 per cent of the political outcomes gap closed.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "C. Macroeconomic policy, economic crisis, austerity measures and the post-2015 agenda"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 31, "n": 28, "text": "Vulnerability and economic disadvantage for women are exacerbated by macroeconomic policies that increase inequalities and reduce social protection floors. This is clearly visible in periods of economic crisis, particularly where governments adopt austerity measures. Although the specific effects of the crisis differ by context, the overall picture is one of disparate impact on women, with deepening economic insecurity, an increase in precarious employment and a heavier burden of unpaid care work. Nonetheless, economic crisis merely accentuates existing structural economic disadvantages for women. Therefore, addressing the crisis provides an opportunity to tackle patterns of gender inequality and discrimination entrenched in the economic status quo and shape new gender equality policy responses.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "C. Macroeconomic policy, economic crisis, austerity measures and the post-2015 agenda"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 32, "n": 29, "text": "Research suggests that in general men have more economic security to weather an economic crisis, having higher paying jobs with benefits such as health care and pensions, unemployment insurance coverage, and owning more property. Furthermore, in many crisis countries, women are disparately made redundant by a reduction in public service jobs. In times of financial crisis, social security guarantees are often undermined by austerity measures. The reduction of budgets for care facilities, unemployment benefits, income maintenance and pensions all disparately impact women, who are usually responsible for unpaid care functions and who constitute a majority of the poor. The Bachelet Report and reports by the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights emphasize the role of social protection in cushioning the impact of the economic crisis, particularly for women.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "C. Macroeconomic policy, economic crisis, austerity measures and the post-2015 agenda"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 33, "n": 30, "text": "Alternatives to austerity have been applied successfully in some countries. Counter-cyclical approaches in general have helped reduce the depth and duration of the impact and leverage a more rapid recovery. The Swedish recovery programme focused on avoiding labour market exclusion, particularly for women, and maintaining paid parental leave and day-care subsidies, recognized as particularly beneficial to women workers. Iceland stands out as a pioneer in adopting policies to protect women in the recent crisis, mainstreaming gender in its recovery measures, and appointing a working group to evaluate the impact of the economic crisis from a gender perspective and ensure that gender equality principles are reflected in State-led initiatives to restore the economy.[[fn:6]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See A/HRC/26/39/Add.1."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "C. Macroeconomic policy, economic crisis, austerity measures and the post-2015 agenda"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 34, "n": 31, "text": "The lessons learned from the economic crisis and the impact of macroeconomic policies on women’s economic opportunities can and should inform the post-2015 agenda. Grounding development priorities in women’s human rights is not only a legal and moral imperative, but can also enhance effectiveness and accountability. In accordance with the proposal of UN-Women that gender equality must both be mainstreamed into all development goals and also remain a stand-alone goal, the Working Group recommends that transformative structural change as regards unpaid care functions be duly taken into account in a stand-alone goal of gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in economic and social life with a focus on economic crisis", "C. Macroeconomic policy, economic crisis, austerity measures and the post-2015 agenda"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 35, "n": 32, "text": "No country has succeeded in closing the gender gap in all aspects of economic and social life. From her first days to her last, a woman’s experiences will inevitably be marked by the expectations, beliefs, stereotypes, values, opportunities, roles and responsibilities associated with being female in her culture. While every girl is unique and every woman’s life is different, in all societies they share certain aspects of quality of life as a result of living in a gendered and patriarchal reality. Gender discrimination and inequality manifest themselves at all stages of women’s life cycle.\nA. The girl child[[fn:7]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "This section draws upon the background paper by Mayra Gomez. See also the bibliography for this section."}], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 36, "n": 33, "text": "Education of girls is key to quality of life for girls, adult women, families and communities. Education has a multiplier effect, increasing labour force participation and reducing child and maternal mortality. A country’s progress depends, among other things, on the enhancement of its female human capital. Above all, education is a basic human right that must, at all levels, be made equally available to girls.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 37, "n": 34, "text": "The gender gap in education is not as stark as it once was: today, female enrolment is rising at greater rate than among males, and data show the achievement of gender parity at primary and/or secondary levels in two thirds of countries. In 2013, 25 countries had fully closed the gap in educational attainment at all levels (5 more than in 2012) with, in some cases, even disparities in favour of girls.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 38, "n": 35, "text": "Despite this significant progress, there are still social and cultural barriers preventing girls’ access to school in some countries, as resonantly evidenced by Malala Yousafzai, the young Pakistani schoolgirl who was the victim of an assassination attempt by Taliban gunmen in 2012 and has since been a vocal advocate for girls’ right to education.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 39, "n": 36, "text": "Most countries only track enrolment and not completion rates, yet enrolment is an inherently flawed measure of girls’ access to education. Attendance is a better measure, as girls’ attendance may be cut short due to domestic responsibilities such as cooking, fetching water and firewood, and childcare; lack of adequate sanitation in schools to meet the needs of menstruating girls; early marriage or pregnancy; and gender-based violence and harassment, including in schools. In situations of economic contraction, as households cope with declining household income, girls are more vulnerable to being pulled out of school, with girls experiencing a 29 per cent decrease in primary school completion rates versus 22 per cent for boys.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 40, "n": 37, "text": "Ensuring girls’ education may require protecting their families against economic shocks and incentivizing parents to keep their girls in school. Cash transfer programmes, for example, have assisted families in return for committing to keeping their girls and boys in school and attending regular health checks, or by providing a stipend to girls who agree to delay marriage until they complete secondary education. Such programmes have been successful in decreasing girls’ dropout rates.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 41, "n": 38, "text": "While educational gender parity shows signs of improvement, it is often not reflected in parallel gains in economic and political participation. Amongst countries that have invested in girls’ education, some see returns in terms of women’s economic and political participation, but others do not. These countries have an untapped educated talent pool and would have much to gain through women’s greater participation in the economy.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 42, "n": 39, "text": "Gender diversification in academic disciplines and professional training are necessary. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization points out that quality reforms include those that address the content or mode of provision of particular educational inputs, such as revising curricula and textbooks, or improving teachers’ skills in gender-aware teaching and learning methods.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 43, "n": 40, "text": "Women’s adult lives both reflect the quality of their girlhood and predict the quality of their older age. Their adult lives are the period of their economic activity and productive capacity, which are characterized by duality. Women function in the cash economy (as employees, self-employed, entrepreneurs or decision makers in economic and financial institutions) and also as the primary unpaid carers (for dependent family members, including children and elderly parents).", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "B. Adulthood"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 44, "n": 1, "text": "Discrimination in employment, formal and informal[[fn:8]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "This section draws upon the background papers by Sandra Fredman and Mayra Gómez. See also the bibliography for this section."}], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "B. Adulthood"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 45, "n": 41, "text": "Participation rates of women in the global labour force continue to be lower than men’s, hovering steadily from 1990 to 2010 at around 52 per cent.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 46, "n": 42, "text": "Gender inequality in economic participation and opportunity remains a pressing problem.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 47, "n": 43, "text": "In many countries, a high percentage of employed women are in formal employment. However, in many low-income countries, formal employment is scarce and the only economic resource, especially for women, is informal work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 48, "n": 44, "text": "In some States, discriminatory legislation persists, including through the delegation of authority to religious personal law systems, obstructing women’s participation in the labour market. However, in many countries, discriminatory legislation has been eliminated and equal employment opportunity laws have been enacted: 101 countries have laws prohibiting employment discrimination and 117 have equal pay laws.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "The formal labour market"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 49, "n": 45, "text": "Nevertheless, there is not full equality of results in any labour market. Discrimination in hiring, promotion, conditions and wages and dismissal exists in all countries. In many high- and middle-income countries, gender gaps in unemployment have worsened since the economic crisis. Furthermore, cultural and structural barriers close opportunities for women in the labour force. Maternity is a focus for discrimination for women in most countries. Women’s hours of workforce participation are, generally, reduced by motherhood, while men’s are increased by fatherhood.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "The formal labour market"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 50, "n": 46, "text": "The gender wage gap persists: women’s wages represent between 70–90 per cent of men’s wages in most countries. Research shows that differences in women’s working hours, which are lower than men’s, cannot justify the wage gap, and the wage gap cannot be attributed solely to a motherhood penalty. Furthermore, wage gaps remain substantial despite women’ gains in education. Indeed, wage gaps are usually wider between men and women with tertiary education. 8 This section draws upon the background papers by Sandra Fredman and Mayra Gómez. See also the bibliography for this section.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "The formal labour market"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 51, "n": 47, "text": "There is a related problem of segregation in the formal labour market, with women clustered in “pink collar”, largely service sector, jobs with inferior working conditions, less job security and lower pay. In high-income countries, more than 85 per cent of employed women work in the service sector, primarily in education and health. In order to address wage gaps resulting from occupational segregation, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and ILO Conventions require equal pay for equal work or for work of equal value, comparable in skill, responsibility, effort and working conditions. The ILO guide to gender-neutral job evaluation[[fn:9]] provides an objective evaluation system. The ILO also recommends that policies to combat occupational segregation also encourage men to enter occupations traditionally associated with women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "ILO, Promoting Equity: Gender-neutral Job Evaluation for Equal Pay: a Step-by-Step Guide (Geneva, 2008)."}], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "The formal labour market"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 52, "n": 48, "text": "Women are concentrated in higher numbers than men in informal work, not recognized, recorded, protected or regulated by the public authorities, and overrepresented in precarious, atypical and vulnerable work or employment. There are extreme examples in which 93 per cent of women workers are in informal work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Informal work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 53, "n": 49, "text": "The informal sector includes casual and seasonal workers, part-time workers, temporary and agency workers, home workers, domestic workers, unpaid family workers and also some forms of self-employment, such as street hawkers. Informal employment is growing in both developing and developed countries: the workforce is becoming increasingly “flexibilized” as employers attempt to avoid regulation and cut labour costs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Informal work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 54, "n": 50, "text": "Women in the informal economy have, furthermore, been deeply affected by economic crisis. There is an “added worker” effect, whereby women enter the labour force to provide additional income security to the household, often forcing them into precarious work, migrant labour overseas or exposing them to trafficking. According to Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing, nearly 40 per cent of street vendors interviewed in developing countries in 2009 had experienced an overall deterioration of employment and income levels, and 84 per cent of own-account home-based workers reported reduced monthly incomes.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Informal work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 55, "n": 51, "text": "Domestic workers caring for children, the disabled and ageing people, are a highly vulnerable category of employees, often in the informal sector. About 83 per cent are women or girls, and many are migrant workers. Domestic workers often encounter deplorable working conditions; labour exploitation; extortionate recruitment fees resulting in debt; confiscation of passports; long, unregulated hours of work; lack of privacy; exposure to physical and sexual abuse; and separation from their own families and children. The ILO Domestic Workers Convention (No. 189) calls for States to guarantee decent work for domestic workers, and thus several countries have introduced new protections.", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Domestic and migrant workers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 56, "n": 52, "text": "Women migrant workers face exploitation and abuse, often finding themselves in precarious employment without effective legal protections, particularly if they have irregular or undocumented legal status. About half of the world’s migrant workers are women, most of them finding work in traditionally female-dominated occupations such as domestic work or in the garment and textile industries. General Recommendation No. 26 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, on women migrant workers, emphasizes that all categories of women migrants must be protected against discrimination. The ILO Migrant Workers Convention (No. 143) and the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families also provide important protections.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Domestic and migrant workers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 57, "n": 53, "text": "General Recommendation No. 26 highlights that discrimination against women migrant workers may be especially acute in relation to pregnancy. However, there are some instances of good practice where, for example, the deportation of pregnant migrant workers was expressly prohibited by a High Court decision.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Domestic and migrant workers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 58, "n": 54, "text": "In order to secure decent work for women, the damaging impact of informal work must be addressed. This requires reduction and reconstruction of informal work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reduction and reconstruction of informal work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 59, "n": 55, "text": "Reducing informal work for women means increasing women’s opportunities to work in the formal labour market. States, in different regions and at different income levels, have invested in the reskilling or professionalization of unemployed persons, with targeted benefits for women, such as retraining for jobs, especially for those with family responsibilities, or in setting quotas for women in employment guarantee programmes targeted at the poorest households. In the 2008 economic crisis, some States engaged in good practice specifically preserving women’s jobs, and four countries in different regions increased their public works programmes with focus on female participation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reduction and reconstruction of informal work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 60, "n": 56, "text": "Reconstructing informal employment is often possible through legal interpretation or law enforcement. Legal factors that exclude informal workers from the coverage of protective labour laws include narrow definitions of the employment relationship, recognition of contracting out, specific exclusions and lack of enforcement. There is some judicial good practice to void the use of “flexibilized” patterns of employment by employers seeking to avoid their labour law obligations; of extending anti-discrimination legislation to leased employees; and of applying a pro rata system to employment conditions of part-time, temporary or leased workers. Reconstructing the informal labour in order to guarantee decent work for women also requires extending all social security rights, including maternity and care rights, to informal sector employees.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reduction and reconstruction of informal work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 61, "n": 2, "text": "Women as business leaders, entrepreneurs and economic decision-makers[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "This section draws upon the background papers by Ama Marston and Efrat Herzberg. See also the bibliography for this section."}], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reduction and reconstruction of informal work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 62, "n": 57, "text": "Women make important contributions to business around the world as business owners and entrepreneurs, with 224 million women globally operating businesses. Women tend to be concentrated in small and medium enterprises (SMEs), which account for a significant share of employment generation and economic growth potential, with full or partial female ownership representing 31–38 per cent of SMEs in emerging markets. Women informal traders contribute significantly to national gross domestic product, accounting for between 40 and 65 per cent of value added in trade in some African countries. Research shows that companies with female board membership and diversity outperform others in return on sales, invested capital and equity. Furthermore, during the financial crisis, companies with women in the leadership had a better record of financial and employment sustainability.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reduction and reconstruction of informal work", "2. Women as business leaders, entrepreneurs and economic decision-makers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 63, "n": 58, "text": "Nevertheless, there is a significant gender gap in top leadership in decision-making bodies in business, finance and trade, including in international institutions such as the IMF and the WTO. Out of the world’s 2,000 top performing companies, just 29, or 1.5 per cent, 10 This section draws upon the background papers by Ama Marston and Efrat Herzberg. See also the bibliography for this section. had female chief executive officers in 2009. Women account for 4 per cent of chief executive officers in Fortune 500 companies and 4 per cent in information technology and telecommunications companies. In 2012, women had only 16.6 per cent of Fortune 500 Board seats, of which only 0.6 per cent were women of colour. Only 17 out of 177 governors of central banks were women in 2012 (less than 10 per cent). Women are also greatly underrepresented in the leadership of cooperatives and trade unions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reduction and reconstruction of informal work", "2. Women as business leaders, entrepreneurs and economic decision-makers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 64, "n": 59, "text": "However, reports suggest that rates of women in senior management are slowly increasing globally, currently reaching 24 per cent. The economies of the Group of Seven are at the bottom of the list, with just 21 per cent of senior roles occupied by women, and with only 7 per cent in one of these countries. This compares to 28 per cent in the BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and China) economies, 32 per cent in South East Asia and 40 per cent in the Baltic States, while in China, 51 per cent of senior management positions are currently held by women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reduction and reconstruction of informal work", "2. Women as business leaders, entrepreneurs and economic decision-makers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 65, "n": 60, "text": "States have a due diligence obligation, under international human rights law and in accordance with article 2 (e) of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, to prevent discrimination by corporate, financial or trade institutions, whether national or transnational, which fall under their jurisdiction.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Discrimination in law and practice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 66, "n": 61, "text": "In many economies, there are discriminatory laws, often emanating from personal law systems, that create barriers to women operating in business. Examples include restrictions on registering a business, travelling outside of a country, owning land and other productive assets, opening a bank account, inheriting family property and taking a job without a husband’s permission. In many countries, the legal regulation of cooperatives allows membership for male heads of household only.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Discrimination in law and practice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 67, "n": 62, "text": "Additional limiting factors include gender stereotypes, lack of mentoring by senior male business leaders and lack of connection to chambers of commerce to identify business and trade opportunities. Underinvestment in women entrepreneurs is a worldwide phenomenon. Research shows that from 1997 to 2000, women-led businesses in the United States received only 5 per cent of venture capital money invested each year. Venture funds led by women constitute just 10–15 per cent of the investment sector and so, although they put 70 per cent of investment in women entrepreneurs, their impact is limited. In Africa, female-owned companies in the formal sector in urban areas have two and a half times less start-up capital than male-owned equivalents. In addition, due to their concentration in small businesses, women are more vulnerable to economic fluctuations and financial crisis. Furthermore, the gender pay gap widens as women reach senior positions. For example, in one West European country, women’s average bonuses are half those of men’s.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Discrimination in law and practice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 68, "n": 63, "text": "A number of countries have adopted temporary special measures specifically directed at accelerating de facto equality for women in corporate leadership, entrepreneurship and trade. Legislation with gender quotas for membership of corporate boards has been adopted in 13 countries. Most of the countries with quota requirements belong to the Western European and other States Group, but some are in Africa and Asia. The quota requirements, varying between a minimum of 1 and 40 per cent, apply to government companies and publicly listed companies. In some States, failing to fulfil quota requirements results in sanctions. Quotas have also been applied by local government to boards of directors of cooperatives. On the evidence, it seems that mandatory and not voluntary quotas are the most effective way to get women onto boards.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Empowerment measures for women, including quotas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 69, "n": 64, "text": "Preliminary good practices for promotion of women’s entrepreneurship include the ILO Job Creation in Small and Medium Sized Enterprises Recommendation 1998 (No. 189) and Women’s Entrepreneurship Development and Gender Equality programme, the Canadian Business Women in International Trade programme and the Malaysia External Trade Development Corporation special programme for women exporters. The International Trade Centre has encouraged States to devise gender-sensitive national export strategies. Two countries also focused on female entrepreneurs, in response to the economic crisis, cutting interest rates on loans to micro- and small enterprises targeted at women-headed households or introducing special credit lines for female artisans.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Empowerment measures for women, including quotas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 70, "n": 65, "text": "Training, information and provision of credit and saving facilities are all essential for entrepreneurship. Multilateral initiatives to support women’s entrepreneurship and facilitate their access to financial resources include the ILO Women’s Entrepreneurship Development and Gender Equality programme, the Global Banking Alliance for Women and the Mann Deshi Mahila Sahakari Bank, founded in 1997, one of the first legally recognized women’s cooperative banks.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Empowerment measures for women, including quotas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 71, "n": 66, "text": "Procurement policies that target women can be a tool to advance women’s businesses. In developing countries, governments are the largest buyer of goods and services, accounting for 15–20 per cent of gross domestic product, and yet spend only 1 per cent on sourcing from women-owned businesses. Some countries have begun to tackle the issue. One country from the Western European and other States Group set a mandatory goal of 5 per cent of federal contract spending on women-owned small businesses. An African country put in place Public Procurement and Disposal (Preference and Reservations) Regulations to ensure access to government contracts by enterprises owned by women, youth and persons with disabilities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Empowerment measures for women, including quotas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 72, "n": 3, "text": "Gender analysis of corporate responsibility[[fn:11]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "This section draws upon the background paper by Ama Marston. See also the bibliography for this section."}], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Empowerment measures for women, including quotas"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 73, "n": 67, "text": "Since the 1980s, transnational corporate activity and economic and trade policies, although creating economic opportunities for women, have also exposed them to severe disadvantages and, in some cases, human rights violations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Empowerment measures for women, including quotas", "3. Gender analysis of corporate responsibility"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 74, "n": 68, "text": "There is an emerging business and human rights agenda focusing on corporate responsibility for human rights violations. The Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights[[fn:12]] establish three pillars of corporate responsibility: the duty of the State to protect against human rights abuses by private actors; corporate responsibility to respect human rights; and the duty of both to provide remedies for rights violations. While the Principles acknowledge that guidance to business should take into account gender considerations, there is significant work to be done to elaborate upon this and address the gendered impact of corporate activities on women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "A/HRC/17/31, annex."}], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Empowerment measures for women, including quotas", "3. Gender analysis of corporate responsibility"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 75, "n": 69, "text": "Corporate governance has produced a dramatic increase in resources and income inequalities, with harsh implications for women, given their concentration lower on the value chain and in poverty. Furthermore, the increased mobility of corporations and free trade agreements have resulted in the amassing of political power vis-à-vis host States and can contribute to a lack of accountability and insurmountable barriers for women to access justice. The move of production by transnational corporations to export processing zones, the reliance on home and sweatshop sectors, and land dispossession by extractives 11 This section draws upon the background paper by Ama Marston. See also the bibliography for this section. 12 A/HRC/17/31, annex. industries are a locus for corporate abuse and violation of human rights, and most of the victims are women.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Harm to women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 76, "n": 70, "text": "Export processing zones are delineated industrial estates with special incentives set up to attract foreign business and trade. They are feminized work enclaves in which women make up the majority of workers, up to 100 per cent in some cases. Women workers face particularly harsh employment conditions. Normal labour laws are usually not applied. Whether de jure or de facto, there is a lack of union organization and, typically, women’s wages are 20–50 per cent lower than men’s. Furthermore, these zones are a health hazard for women, with overextended working hours, rights violations relating to pregnancy protection, maternity leave or childcare, and sexual harassment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Harm to women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 77, "n": 71, "text": "Sweatshop and home work sectors exploit cheap, informal labour, largely from female workers. Businesses subcontract more than 300 million home workers in developing countries, hired to work at home in textiles, electronics, packaging and processing, for a piece rate without labour rights protections. A cut of earnings is also taken by middlemen. Women make up 85–90 per cent of sweatshop workers. Employers often force them to take pregnancy tests to avoid supporting maternity leave. Thousands of women work in garment factories, with the constant threat of fatal sweatshop fires largely because of corporate cost-saving decisions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Harm to women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 78, "n": 72, "text": "Extractive industries, as well as, increasingly, biofuel, agribusiness and real estate projects, are land intensive, and land dispossession has disproportionately displaced women. Women, who make up 70–80 per cent of the world’s small-scale farmers, lose their livelihood, often do not receive compensation paid to landowners, who are male, and are the last in line for formal employment in the industries. As primary carers, they are deprived of shelter and the ability to feed their families. The arrival of a transient, largely male workforce also increases prostitution, sexual violence and sexually transmitted disease. Mismanagement of extractive projects can also lead to severe violations of human rights that are manifested in unique ways for women, including murder, torture, rape and sexual violence at the hands of security forces brought in to impose order.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Harm to women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 79, "n": 73, "text": "There are some initial efforts, although sporadic and preliminary, to gendermainstream corporate responsibility.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 80, "n": 74, "text": "The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has, for instance, held States responsible for denying equal access for women to private health providers. One binational trade agreement, supported by the ILO, linked access to markets in importing countries with improved labour conditions for the largely female garment workers in the exporting country. There are examples of corporate initiatives to provide childcare, career development and training for female workers in overseas garment industries, or to prevent use of ultrasound equipment, which may be used to increase sex-selective abortion.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 81, "n": 75, "text": "Additionally, civil society and women workers have been important agents for change. They have, for example, created drop-in centres where young women garment workers learn about their labour rights, and they have organized and achieved widespread change in conditions of agricultural workers, previously similar to slavery practices.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 82, "n": 76, "text": "Civil society representatives have joined a handful of business leaders to form the Business and Human Rights Reference Group, which has begun to elaborate how gender fits into the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 83, "n": 77, "text": "Secure rights over resources, including property, land, housing, food, water and sanitation, are essential to women’s equality and well-being, and to their economic independence and autonomy.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility", "3. Access to resources"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 84, "n": 78, "text": "In some countries, discriminatory legislation or implementation of legislation results in the negation of women’s rights to land and other productive resources. These issues have been examined by a UN-Women/OHCHR expert group meeting, in which a member of the Working Group participated, and have been documented in an in-depth report.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility", "3. Access to resources"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 85, "n": 79, "text": "Furthermore, failure to provide access to housing, food and water has disproportionately burdened women as vulnerable members of communities, as childbearers and as primary carers. These issues have been gender-mainstreamed in reports by, for example, the Special Rapporteur on adequate housing as a component of the right to an adequate standard of living, and on the right to non-discrimination in this context; the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights; the Special Rapporteur on the right to food; the Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation; and Independent Expert on the effects of foreign debt and other related international financial obligations of States on the full enjoyment of all human rights, particularly economic, social and cultural rights.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility", "3. Access to resources"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 86, "n": 80, "text": "These issues, though flagged as crucial, will not be dealt with in this report, due to space limitations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility", "3. Access to resources"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 87, "n": 4, "text": "The impact of parenthood and care functions[[fn:14]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "This section draws upon the background paper by Sharon Offenberger. See also the bibliography for this section."}], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility", "3. Access to resources"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 88, "n": 81, "text": "Reproduction and care functions are the very basis of human life and society. These functions, whether paid or unpaid, are performed either solely or largely by women. The fact that these functions are performed by women creates a major barrier to women’s equality of opportunity in the labour market or in business, finance and entrepreneurship. Women’s maternity rights have been widely recognized in formal employment, but not extended to either other spheres of economic activity or care functions. There has been a systemic failure to properly integrate the biological function of reproduction and the gendered function of unpaid caring into macroeconomic policy in a holistic, effective and coherent way, to ensure that reproduction and caring go hand-in-hand with the overall economic empowerment of women. This policy failure in effect endorses a major structural barrier to the equality of economic opportunity for women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility", "4. The impact of parenthood and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 89, "n": 82, "text": "It is crucial to recognize both the right to maternity benefits and also the right to an equal and fair distribution of care functions as fully-fledged economic and social rights. These rights are a prerequisite for the equal right of women to the enjoyment of all economic social and cultural rights and, in particular: the right to work; the enjoyment of just and favourable conditions of work; an adequate standard of living; freedom from hunger; enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health; and the right to take part in cultural life.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility", "4. The impact of parenthood and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 90, "n": 83, "text": "Barriers to women’s economic opportunities resulting from reproduction and care functions must be removed in order to permit choice by women and men as to how they allocate economic and caring duties. Three possible patterns of allocation have been 13 For more information, see the background paper by Mayra Gomez. See also UN–Women and OHCHR, Realizing Women’s Rights to Land and Other Productive Resources (2013). 14 This section draws upon the background paper by Sharon Offenberger. See also the bibliography for this section. identified: both parents as full-time workers; one full-time and one part-time worker, where the part-time worker is usually the woman; or the male breadwinner model. There is also the single parent pattern, which is usually a woman.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility", "4. The impact of parenthood and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 91, "n": 84, "text": "Patterns of allocation are often not the result of choice, but rather of stereotyping and discrimination. There is evidence, in most countries, of discrimination in hiring, firing and workplace treatment of pregnant women; imposition of a disproportionate share of unpaid care responsibilities on women; and negative stereotyping of mothers and also fathers who are taking care of children. Cultural assumptions of the motherhood role appear to exist in tension with the conception of the ideal worker. Nevertheless, in a cross-regional comparison of selected countries, it was found that motherhood does not uniformly reduce labour force participation or occupational success and, indeed, it increases these in some countries as compared to women without children. However, it does reduce the number of hours worked and, even more, it increases, disproportionately and beyond any difference that might be explained by the reduction of work hours, the gap between mothers’ wages and fathers’ wages.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Gender-mainstreaming corporate responsibility", "4. The impact of parenthood and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 92, "n": 85, "text": "Women’s reproductive functions include pregnancy, birth and breastfeeding. These are the biological functions of maternity. In accordance with the normative framework created by the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the ILO Conventions, in some States, there are provisions, statutory or judicial, prohibiting discrimination during pregnancy and protecting women against dismissal for a period of months or even years after they give birth. Nevertheless, there has been a rise in complaints of pregnancy discrimination in a number of countries, and effective measures are required to guarantee women’s employment security during pregnancy and after birth.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 93, "n": 86, "text": "The frameworks of the ILO and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women impose an obligation on States parties to provide paid maternity leave to employed women, set by the ILO at a minimum of 14 weeks with a recommended 18 weeks, and daily breaks for breastfeeding. The provision of maternity leave has become almost universal: 51 per cent of countries provide maternity leave of at least 14 weeks; 20 per cent of 18 weeks or more; 35 per cent of 12–13 weeks of leave. Only 14 per cent of countries provide less than 12 weeks.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 94, "n": 87, "text": "State obligation under the Convention and ILO Conventions is to provide paid leave. Maternity leave policies without adequate compensation can lead to financial stress, and research suggests that women who return to work without taking their full maternity leave entitlement usually do so for financial reasons. Good practice for payment of maternity leave is through social insurance or public funds so as not to increase discrimination against women by employers seeking to avoid the burden of paid maternity leave.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 95, "n": 88, "text": "Despite efforts to extend the reach of ILO Conventions to women in precarious employment, many women still do not have the basic rights set out above. The informal economy, on which overwhelming numbers of women depend for their livelihood, remains beyond the reach of labour regulation and maternity rights. The extension of paid maternity leave to women entrepreneurs or self-employed women is a good practice found in some countries. Under European Union Directives, there is a requirement to provide paid maternity leave for self-employed women, calculated on the basis of average loss of income or profit (subject to ceiling) or a national allowances level such as minimum wage. Leave is not compulsory, however, and the conditions on which is it paid often differ from those for women in formal employment. The Working Group welcomes in that regard a decision by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (Communication No. 36/2012) in which it considered that the abolition of an initially existing public maternity leave scheme, without establishing an adequate alternative maternity leave scheme to cover loss of income during maternity immediately available to self-employed women, constituted a breach of article 11 (2) (b) of the Convention.\nCare functions", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 96, "n": 89, "text": "A disproportionate amount of unpaid care work falls on women, limiting women’s capacity to engage in paid work. This is evidenced in empirical studies which show that women, whether or not they are in paid employment, spend between twice to four times the amount of hours on care functions than do men. Up to 90 per cent of home care due to illness is performed by women and girls.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 97, "n": 90, "text": "Unlike women’s reproductive function, care functions do not necessarily have to fall on women. All forms of care, including childcare, are amenable to social reconstruction, and indeed in the Nordic countries, which have long pursued a policy of gender equality in the division of work and childcare functions, the distribution of care work comes close to parity. Good practice regarding the allocation of care responsibilities, pioneered in the Nordic countries, encourages men to enter traditionally women’s worlds, both in the family and in the workplace, thus allowing women to participate and advance in the labour market.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 98, "n": 91, "text": "The Working Group considers that the three “Rs” of unpaid care work – recognition, reduction and redistribution – should be integrated into macroeconomic policy in order to fulfil women’s right to care services and to facilitate the women’s economic empowerment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 99, "n": 92, "text": "Recognition of unpaid care work entails the imposition, on the international and constitutional levels, of a state obligation to guarantee an equal distribution of care functions as a fully-fledged economic and social right. It also signifies the recognition of care expenses as part of the gross national product, thus requiring integration of the care economy into the macroeconomy. It necessitates the prohibition of direct or indirect discrimination on grounds of care functions, as established by the ILO and the European Court of Justice. Furthermore, it justifies the good practice of recognizing care expenses as deductible for income tax purposes, since provision of care for dependents is a necessary expenditure to allow an unpaid caretaker to generate income.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 100, "n": 93, "text": "Reducing care work may, especially in developing countries and rural areas, be achieved by improving the basic infrastructure, including water, sanitation and transportation.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 101, "n": 94, "text": "Redistributing care work involves restructuring the design, funding and delivery of care by households, markets, the State and civil society so that a disproportionate burden of unpaid care does not fall on women. The equal sharing of care amongst different actors requires, on one hand, the sharing of care responsibilities by men as well as women in households and, on the other, the provision by the State of affordable and accessible care facilities, including childcare, adequate hospital care and recuperation periods, and facilities for the care of the disabled and the elderly.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 102, "n": 95, "text": "Sharing of care responsibilities within the household should remain a matter of choice for women and men. For any real choice to be possible, paid care leave must be available to both parents. The Nordic countries were the first to introduce an independent paternity leave in order to overcome stereotypes and barriers to men sharing childcare functions. Such provisions are becoming more common around the world, with increased awareness of men’s parenting roles and their need to reconcile work and family life. Paternity leave is usually much shorter than maternity leave and more often unpaid. Some countries have introduced more gender-neutral parental leave options, and recent best practice in one Nordic country provides symmetry in childcare leave, with five months for each parent individually and two months that can be allocated according to parental choice.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See A/HRC/26/39/Add.1."}], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 103, "n": 96, "text": "Need for care continues for toddlers and older children after the period of parental leave and also exists for the elderly and disabled. Responsibility for this needs to be redistributed through care services. At present, international minimum state obligations for provision of childcare services or for elderly and disabled services are lacking.", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 104, "n": 97, "text": "As regards childcare, the Working Group supports the call of UN-Women for States to guarantee quality and accessible childcare as a social protection floor. This both serves the obligation to achieve de facto equality for women in economic and social life and enables parents to reconcile work and family life. The Working Group suggests that the provision of childcare may also be engineered as an economic efficiency measure, with the right to fully subsidized care services linked to the parent’s participation in economic activity. In addition, good practice includes State support for community, trade union and corporate initiatives to provide care services. Furthermore, after children start school, it is good practice to synchronize children’s school hours and holidays with adults’ work schedules.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "1. Discrimination in employment, formal and informal", "Reproductive functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 105, "n": 98, "text": "Women’s poverty and quality of life in older age derives from the culmination of the earlier phases in their life cycle and bears their imprint: stereotyping in education and girlhood; precarious jobs; informal labour; the costs of caring; interrupted career patterns; and the motherhood penalty in labour force participation. Hence women’s situation in retirement can be regarded as a litmus test for the quality of women’s economic and social life.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "C. Older women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 106, "n": 99, "text": "There is a gender pension gap both in wealth accumulation and income. The balance of pension entitlements within multipillar systems has a direct impact on the gender pension gap. Social (World Bank “zero pillar”) schemes, which give basic flat rate citizens’ pensions, are non-contributory and do not, as such, differentiate between men’s and women’s pension entitlement, thus producing equality. Therefore, the trend to diversify pension systems to include contributory first and second pillar systems, which base a substantial element of pension entitlement on working life contributions, impacts women adversely, increasing the gender pension gap, as women’s contribution to these funded pension schemes is lower because of the structural factors in their labour market and care work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "C. Older women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 107, "n": 100, "text": "Discriminatory laws and practice prevail in most countries. Some such laws are self-evident, such as mandatory early retirement for women. Some are what has been called “statistical discrimination”, such as separate annuity tables for women and men based on women’s greater longevity. Others are the result of the sociology of the family and of legislative policy endorsing and perpetuating the economic dependence of women on a husband’s income and pension entitlement.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "C. Older women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0108", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 108, "n": 101, "text": "Good practices include gender-specific compensatory measures such as continuing pension contributions during maternity and childcare leaves, unisex calculation of benefits, equalizing mandatory retirement age and mandatory joint annuities. All these measures, with quite wide margins of difference in the extent of their generosity and with some 15 See A/HRC/26/39/Add.1. 16 This section draws upon the background paper by Frances Raday. See also Estelle James et al., “The gender impact of pension reform – a cross-country analysis”, Policy Research Working Paper (World Bank, 2003). caveats as to the categories of women who do not benefit from each of these measures, have some marginal impact in reducing the pension gap. Of these gender-specific measures, the only one that almost closes the gender pension gap is mandatory joint annuities. This suggests that the way to rectify women’s relative poverty in old age is through mandating joint annuities with their husbands. However, this does not solve the problem for single or divorced women. Furthermore, it leaves the problem of engineering a system that is equitable for traditional dependent marriages and yet can still incentivize economically independent women. V. Violence against women[[fn:17]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "This section draws upon the background paper by Frances Raday and Shai Oksenberg in collaboration with the Lowenstein Institute. See also R.K.B. v. Turkey (Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women Communication No. 28/2010)."}], "section": ["IV. Structural disadvantage and discrimination throughout women’s life cycle", "C. Older women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0109", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 109, "n": 102, "text": "Gender-based violence against women, including state violation of women’s bodily integrity and autonomy, violence in the public arena, violence in workplaces and educational institutions, and domestic violence and economic violence by intimate partners, can severely impact and restrict women’s economic and social potential throughout their life cycle, including their access to education, freedom of movement and employment. In economic and social institutions, women are exposed to sexual harassment, including unwelcome sexual behaviour, remarks, and pornographic images and demands, whether by words or actions. Such conduct is threatening and humiliating.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0110", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 110, "n": 103, "text": "Many countries prohibit sexual harassment in the workplace, whether it is quid pro quo (extorting sexual cooperation by threat of job-related consequences) or creating a hostile environment, and impose accountability on the employer. Out of 100 countries surveyed, 78 have laws addressing sexual harassment in the workplace, and of these, 52 criminalize such conduct. The legal prohibition of sexual harassment has been based, variously, on the concepts of discrimination against women and of violation of women’s human dignity, and good practice is to apply a “double approach” involving both concepts.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0111", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 111, "n": 104, "text": "In addition, women are exposed to sexual harassment in the public arena, including service institutions, public transport, “street harassment,” cyberbullying and pornographic advertising, producing a fear factor that severely curtails their freedom of movement and occupation. However, only 8 out of 100 States have enacted laws prohibiting sexual harassment in public places. Good practice includes prohibition of sexual harassment in the provision of services. It entails municipal responsibility for policing, lighting and introducing surveillance cameras in public spaces.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0112", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 112, "n": 105, "text": "School-related gender-based violence takes different forms, with girls in some countries violently targeted for attending school, while in other countries, they are subject in school to sexual violence or harassment, including by teachers. Such violence results in trauma, stigmatization and sometimes pregnancy, and severely curtails girls’ educational opportunities. In many States, sexual intercourse with a minor is considered rape, as minors are not capable of consent, but only 32 out of 100 States have specific provisions on sexual harassment at schools. Examples of good practices by some States include introducing confidential school reporting mechanisms, capacity-building for police, child-friendly courts, a public register of sexual offenders and barring sexual offenders from teaching. 17 This section draws upon the background paper by Frances Raday and Shai Oksenberg in collaboration with the Lowenstein Institute. See also R.K.B. v. Turkey (Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women Communication No. 28/2010).", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["V. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0113", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 113, "n": 106, "text": "Women are also highly vulnerable to trafficking for sexual or work exploitation. This form of gender-based violence will be addressed by the Working Group in its report on health and safety.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0114", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 114, "n": 107, "text": "The Working Group calls on States to ratify the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and all relevant international human rights treaties and ILO Conventions which guarantee women’s economic and social rights. It calls upon them to implement the obligations therein, including by ratifying the Optional Protocols of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, by introducing the required constitutional and legislative guarantees, and by adopting a transformative agenda which will produce an outcome of de facto equality for women in their economic and social lives.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0115", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 115, "n": 108, "text": "The Working Group additionally recommends the adoption of concrete measures based on the good practices which inform this thematic report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0116", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 116, "n": 109, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0117", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 117, "n": 110, "text": "Eliminate discriminatory laws which create barriers to women’s formal or informal employment and to their enjoyment of economic and social rights; expressly guarantee women’s right to equality in economic and social life in the private as well as public sector, with immediate effect, and with special measures to accelerate de facto equality;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "A. General"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0118", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 118, "n": 111, "text": "Ensure women’s access to judicial redress and remedies for discrimination in economic and social life, accountability being an essential part of the fulfilment of women’s right to equality and entailing affordable access to justice and adequate remedies;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "A. General"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0119", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 119, "n": 112, "text": "Recognize that vulnerability and economic disadvantage for women are exacerbated by macroeconomic policies which increase inequalities and reduce social protection floors;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "A. General"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0120", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 120, "n": 113, "text": "Recognize the disparate impact of austerity measures on women in response to economic crisis and adopt gender-sensitive strategies that avoid labour market exclusion, loss of social protection floors and reduction of social services.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "A. General"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0121", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 121, "n": 114, "text": "Eliminate all discriminatory laws and practices which prevent girls from completing their education, including child marriage;", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "B. The girl child"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0122", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 122, "n": 115, "text": "Ensure all girls’ de facto access to education, including mandatory, free primary education and access to secondary and tertiary education, free of discrimination;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "B. The girl child"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0123", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 123, "n": 116, "text": "Adopt good practices to combat non-attendance by girls, such as providing financial resources to parents to keep their girls in school, preventing violence against girls in schools, providing proper sanitary facilities and making provision for pregnant girls and school-age mothers;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "B. The girl child"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0124", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 124, "n": 117, "text": "Ensure equality for girls in the quality of education at all levels, including breaking down gender stereotypes in school curricula, teacher training programmes, textbooks and teaching materials; and encourage girls’ engagement in non-traditional vocational skill areas and academic disciplines, such as mathematics, science and technology;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "B. The girl child"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0125", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 125, "n": 118, "text": "Introduce a universal core syllabus which will inform boys and girls of their human rights, including women’s human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "B. The girl child"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0126", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 126, "n": 1, "text": "Working relationships, formal and informal", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "B. The girl child"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0127", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 127, "n": 119, "text": "Ensure that prohibition of discrimination on grounds of sex, pregnancy or parenthood, are enforced for all women in work;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "1. Working relationships, formal and informal"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0128", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 128, "n": 120, "text": "Impose on employers the obligation to pay equal pay for equal work or work of equal value through the use a variety of means, including by objective job evaluation with participation by stakeholders and social partners, and by desegregation of professions;", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "1. Working relationships, formal and informal"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0129", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 129, "n": 121, "text": "Take measures to reduce and reconstruct informal work; to reduce informal work, States should increase job opportunities for women in formal employment, especially in the public sector, and with targeted programmes for women’s training, professionalization reskilling and unemployment programmes. To reconstruct, they should redefine the scope of protective labour law, introduce pro rata pay and social security benefits for part-time or casual work, and extend paid maternity leave and care rights to workers in both the formal and informal sectors;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "1. Working relationships, formal and informal"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0130", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 130, "n": 122, "text": "Provide protection against discrimination and abuse of migrant workers and domestic workers, and ratify and implement the ILO Domestic Workers Convention (No. 189).", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "1. Working relationships, formal and informal"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0131", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 131, "n": 123, "text": "Eliminate laws, including personal laws, that discriminate against women as business leaders or entrepreneurs, particularly regarding registering a business; freedom of movement; land and property rights; savings, credit and inheritance rights; and membership in cooperatives;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "2. Women and business"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0132", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 132, "n": 124, "text": "Take positive measures to accelerate de facto equality for women in leadership positions in corporate, financial and trade institutions and enterprises, including by the introduction of quotas for corporate boards;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "2. Women and business"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0133", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 133, "n": 125, "text": "Advance women’s entrepreneurship opportunities through provision of training, information, credit and saving facilities and government procurement policies that target women’s businesses;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "2. Women and business"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0134", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 134, "n": 126, "text": "Gender-mainstream the principles of corporate responsibility, identifying, preventing and remedying the harm caused by corporate activities to women, as workers, consumers and community members, especially with regard to export processing zones; sweatshops and home working; the garment industry; and land dispossession by extractive, biofuel, agribusiness and real estate projects;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "2. Women and business"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0135", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 135, "n": 127, "text": "International institutions and States should include women in senior positions in economic, financial and trade governance, and should gender-mainstream policymaking, including mitigation of dramatic increases in inequality of resources and income and the feminization of poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "2. Women and business"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0136", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 136, "n": 3, "text": "Reproduction and care functions", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "2. Women and business"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0137", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 137, "n": 128, "text": "It is incumbent upon States and economic decision-makers to integrate the care economy as an integral part of macroeconomic policy and recognize the right to care as an economic and social right which requires a social protection floor;", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "3. Reproduction and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0138", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 138, "n": 129, "text": "States should recognize, reduce and redistribute unpaid care work for children and other disabled or elderly dependents, by including unpaid care work in gross national product; allowing deduction of care expenses for tax purposes; improving the environmental and service infrastructure to reduce private care burdens; and synchronizing school time with working time;", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "3. Reproduction and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0139", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 139, "n": 130, "text": "Paid care leave should be provided on an equal basis to mothers and fathers;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "3. Reproduction and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0140", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 140, "n": 131, "text": "Childcare should be guaranteed as a social protection floor and, in addition, States should encourage community, cooperative, trade union and corporate initiatives to provide care services;", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "3. Reproduction and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0141", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 141, "n": 132, "text": "States must prohibit discrimination on grounds of maternity or of care functions, whether performed by women or men;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "3. Reproduction and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0142", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 142, "n": 133, "text": "States must provide paid maternity leave of at least 14 weeks, 6 of which are mandatory. Such leave should be fully paid and should be funded by social insurance or public funds. Maternity leave should be provided for women in the informal sector as well as the formal sector, entrepreneurship, trade and corporate boards.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "C. Adulthood", "3. Reproduction and care functions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0143", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 143, "n": 134, "text": "Provide adequate non-contributory pensions, on an equal basis with men, as a core social and economic right;", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "D. Older women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0144", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 144, "n": 135, "text": "Ensure that women are not forced into early retirement; that women who have been economically active have access to adequate occupational pensions, including by introducing gender-specific compensatory measures such as accumulation of pension rights during maternity and childcare absences; unisex calculation of benefits; equalizing of mandatory retirement age and mandatory joint annuities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "D. Older women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0145", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 145, "n": 136, "text": "Eliminate all laws which discriminate against women by punishment of behaviours which are not punished when performed by men or by prescribing invasion of women’s physical integrity and autonomy;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "E. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0146", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 146, "n": 137, "text": "Take preventive measures, deter and severely punish all forms of gender-based violence and sexual harassment against women in the public arena, including public transport and services, workplaces, educational institutions, streets and cyberspace, whether it is perpetrated by state agents or by private persons;", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "E. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-26-39-0147", "docId": "a-hrc-26-39", "idx": 147, "n": 138, "text": "Take special measures to prohibit and prevent gender-based violence, including punishing intercourse with minors as rape, introduction of confidential school reporting mechanisms, capacity-building for police, child-friendly courts and barring sexual offenders from teaching.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2014, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VI. Recommendations", "E. Violence against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report is submitted pursuant to Human Rights Council resolutions 15/23 and 26/5. In chapter II, the Working Group summarizes its activities from the submission of its last report to the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/26/39) until March 2015. In chapter III, it addresses discrimination against women in cultural and family life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The roles of Chairperson-Rapporteur and Vice-Chairperson of the Working Group were carried out by Frances Raday and Emna Aouij, respectively, until January 2015, and then by Emna Aouij and Eleonora Zielinska, respectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "The Working Group held three sessions during the period under review. At its tenth session, held from 5 to 9 May 2014 in Geneva, it discussed various issues relating to women in cultural and family life with a number of stakeholders, relevant parts of the United Nations Secretariat and other experts. At its eleventh session, held from 10 to 16 October 2014 in Geneva, the Working Group continued its consultations with several stakeholders, including the International Labour Organization and departments of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. By way of follow-up to the first meeting it organized in 2013, the Working Group held a seminar on the priority theme of cultural and family life, bringing together several representatives of the regional human rights mechanisms of America, Europe and Africa. At its twelfth session, held from 19 to 23 January 2015 in New York, the Working Group continued its cooperation with its partners, including the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), and with several Member States regarding the establishment of a legal framework for the implementation of the post-2015 development agenda and Beijing + 20. The Working Group consulted experts, academics and NGOs on the next priority theme it will address, namely discrimination against women in the areas of health and safety. It consolidated the information it had gathered to inform the present report.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "The Working Group visited Chile from 1 to 9 September 2014 (A/HRC/29/40/Add.1), Peru from 10 to 19 September 2014 (A/HRC/29/40/Add.2) and Spain from 9 to 19 December 2014 (A/HRC/29/40/Add.3). It wishes to thank the Governments of these countries for their cooperation before and during the visits and thanks Senegal, Hungary, the United States of America and Maldives for responding positively to its requests to visit.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "During the period under review, the Working Group addressed communications to Governments, individually or jointly with other special procedures mandate holders of the Human Rights Council. Those communications concerned a wide range of subjects falling within its mandate, including discriminatory legislation on nationality, and the legal minimum age for marriage, allegations of forced and/or early marriage, and sexual and reproductive health (A/HRC/27/72, A/HRC/28/85 and A/HRC/29/50). The Working Group also issued press releases, individually or jointly with other mandate holders, treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "Alda Facio acted as moderator of a discussion on the realization of the rights of marginalized and disadvantaged women and girls, on 18 March 2015, and participated in other events at the fifty-ninth session of the Commission on the Status of Women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "D. Commission on the Status of Women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "On 1 September 2014, Frances Raday, the Chairperson of the Working Group, wrote to the President of the Human Rights Council regarding the lack of a reference to gender equality within the family in Human Rights Council resolution 26/11 on the protection of the family. On 3 October 2014, she presented a draft statement on the issue, which was adopted by the Coordination Committee of Special Procedures. On 2 December 2014, she participated in a discussion on national action plans on business and human rights at the United Nations Forum on Business and Human Rights. On 2 and 3 December 2014, Emna Aouij and Kamala Chandrakirana participated in a meeting of experts organized by the Due Diligence Project on the role of the State and the due diligence principle in relation to discrimination against women in cultural and family life. During the period under review, members of the Working Group participated in different activities relating to the Working Group’s mandate in their respective regions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "E. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The legal rights of women and girls to equality and non-discrimination in cultural and family life, established in 1948 by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and by international human rights law, are often restricted in national laws and in practice, including in cultural practice. The Working Group emphasizes that, in accordance with international human rights law, States have an obligation to adopt appropriate measures with a view to eliminating all forms of discrimination against women and girls in laws, cultural practices and the family, whether perpetrated by State agents or private actors.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "In order to prepare this report, the Working Group used responses to a questionnaire received from 32 Member States, as well as studies and research by United Nations programmes and bodies, international human rights mechanisms and other stakeholders that were transmitted to it directly or have been carried out recently on the subject.[[fn:1]] The Working Group also identified good practices in respect of equality in the family and in cultural life, as required by Human Rights Council resolution 15/23.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/en/issues/women/wgwomen/pages/wgwomenindex.aspx."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Culture is a broad concept encompassing all forms of conduct, organization and human behaviour within society,[[fn:2]] including family, language, religion, philosophy, law, government, art and sport.[[fn:3]] Cultural diversity occurs when culture is expressed and develops in different contexts in society. Culture is not a static or unchanging concept, although some States tend to present it as such in order to justify inequality between men and women. This living, dynamic and evolving process[[fn:4]] permeates all human activities and institutions, including legal systems, in all societies across the world.[[fn:5]] Viewing culture and beliefs as immutable hinders the realization and development of all human rights, including those of women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 21, para. 11."}, {"n": 3, "text": "Culture is understood here as a macro concept of human behaviour. The issue of women’s participation in cultural activities will not be analysed. The Working Group refers to the work of the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights and fully supports the implementation of her recommendations (see A/67/287)."}, {"n": 4, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 21, para. 11."}, {"n": 5, "text": "A/67/287, para. 2."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The Working Group has taken as its basis the legal framework established by the human rights community regarding the right of women to participate, on an equal footing with men, in creating, contesting and recreating their cultures and in all aspects of cultural life. The equal right of all persons to participate in, access and contribute to cultural life is guaranteed by international human rights law, particularly articles 5 and 13, subparagraph (c), of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, article 27, paragraph 1, of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 15 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The construction of gender is deeply embedded in culture. In its general recommendation No. 28, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women indicates that “the term ‘gender’ refers to socially constructed identities, attributes and roles for women and men and society’s social and cultural meaning for these biological differences resulting in hierarchical relationships between women and men and in the distribution of power and rights favouring men and disadvantaging women. This social positioning of women and men is affected by political, economic, cultural, social, religious, ideological and environmental factors and can be changed by culture, society and community.”[[fn:6]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 28, para. 5."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The cultural construction of gender is conducive to generalized discrimination against women in all cultures. Discrimination against women and girls cannot, therefore, be considered an essentialist element, present in certain cultures and not in others. Since cultures are neither homogeneous nor unchanging, there are very significant differences between them concerning their stages of development and the extent to which the patriarchy, misogyny and practices that are harmful to women and girls exist within them.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Culture, when understood as a macro concept, also includes religion. Religion constitutes an institutionalized aspect of culture, with its own sources of authority that regulate social behaviour. It is often based on the concept of transcendental authority, and most religions have codified normative systems. Change must be wrought within the religious hierarchy of the community and must conform to the religious dogma of the written sources. As a consequence, religions are often a haven against social and cultural change. In all religions, there are movements that resist any change to the patriarchy and the status of women and girls in the family.[[fn:7]] Conversely, non-gender-based discriminatory practices, including some previously defended in the name of culture and religion, such as slavery, have been delegitimized or abandoned as values and ethics have evolved.[[fn:8]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "Frances Raday, “Culture, religion and gender”, International Journal of Constitutional Law, vol. 1, No. 4, Oxford University Press and New York University School of Law, 2003, p. 668."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Due Diligence Project, “The Due Diligence Principle and the Role of the State: Discrimination against Women in Family and Cultural Life”, January 2015, p. 6."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "The Working Group notes the vital importance of article 5 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, which requires States to modify the social and cultural patterns of conduct of men and women, with a view to achieving the elimination of prejudices and customary practices that are based on the idea of the inferiority or the superiority of either of the sexes or on stereotyped roles for men and women. This provision establishes a legal basis for the primacy of women’s right to equality over discriminatory cultural patterns of conduct, including those stemming from religious edicts.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Culture and religion are often invoked to justify discrimination and violent practices against women and girls. Women have often been viewed as objects rather than as equal participants with men in the creation and manifestation of cultural principles. Indeed, when culture and religion are invoked to justify different forms of discrimination against women, women are seen not as victims or survivors of such discrimination, but as persons who “violate” cultural rules and norms.[[fn:9]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Ibid., p. 5."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Several United Nations human rights experts, special procedures mandate holders,[[fn:10]] treaty bodies[[fn:11]] and the Secretary-General of the United Nations have established that neither cultural diversity nor freedom of religion may justify discrimination against women. Discriminatory, repressive and violent practices against women should be eliminated, whatever their origins, including those founded in culture or religion.[[fn:12]] The Working Group is convinced that this opinion is crucial to securing women’s enjoyment of their right to equality in all aspects of life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See A/68/290, para. 30, A/67/287, para. 3, and A/HRC/26/22, para. 13."}, {"n": 11, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 28, para. 21; Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 21, paras. 18 and 64."}, {"n": 12, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 21, para. 19."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and the Committee on the Rights of the Child have noted that harmful practices affecting women and girls are deeply rooted in social attitudes according to which women and girls are regarded as inferior to men and boys based on stereotyped roles.[[fn:13]] They highlight the gender dimension to violence and indicate that sex- and gender-based attitudes and stereotypes, power imbalances, inequalities and discrimination perpetuate the widespread existence of practices that often involve violence or coercion. They maintain that the nature and prevalence of these practices vary according to region and culture. These practices cause serious harm to every aspect of the lives of the women and girls who fall victim to them and include incest, female genital mutilation, early and/or forced marriage, so-called “honour crimes”, dowry-related violence, neglect of girls, extreme dietary restrictions, virginity tests, servitude, stoning, violent initiation rites, widowhood practices and female infanticide.[[fn:14]] The obligations set out in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the Convention on the Rights of the Child form the basis for the elaboration of a global strategy to eliminate harmful practices,[[fn:15]] which should be well defined, rights-based, have local relevance and comprise legal, economic and social support measures combined with proportional political engagement and State responsibility at all levels.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Joint general recommendation No. 31 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women/general comment No. 18 of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on harmful practices, para. 6."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Ibid., paras. 7 and 9."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Ibid., para. 33."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "In many contexts, States fail to establish and enforce a clear legal hierarchy based on the guarantees of equality and non-discrimination set forth in international human rights law and national legislation, thus helping to maintain patriarchal modes of organization and behaviours.[[fn:16]] Even when the law is independent of any religious source, it may be strongly influenced by culture, deriving from dominant ideologies linked to religion, traditional attitudes and social norms. Some States adopt national laws and regulations that restrict the rights, power and mobility of women on the basis of essentialist points of view belonging to a particular culture or religion. Conservative religious extremist movements impose strict modesty codes in order to subjugate women and girls in the name of religion, particularly in situations of political transition or conflict. For example, some branches of Islam have reintroduced forced and/or early marriage and some branches of Christianity prevent women from having access to therapeutic abortion. Religious extremism limits women’s rights, including their right to health and economic activity, and they are generally subject to harsh sanctions for crimes committed against the patriarchy, such as adultery. At the international level, many States justify their reservations to articles of several human rights conventions, including the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, in the name of preserving their cultures and religions. Human Rights Council resolutions 16/3 on promoting human rights and fundamental freedoms through a better understanding of traditional values of humankind and 26/11 on the protection of the family threaten to undermine international achievements in the field of human rights in the name of cultural and religious diversity.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See A/67/287, para. 3."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "The Working Group is concerned about the considerable increase in laws and public policies developed to protect culture and religion that threaten the universally established standards on the rights of women. Gender-based stereotypes, often strengthened and legitimized in national constitutions, laws and policies, are justified in the name of cultural norms or religious beliefs. Failure to eliminate these stereotypes leads to the generalization of practices that are harmful to women and girls. The sexist stereotypes present in the media, on the Internet, in audiovisual productions and in video games contribute to the perpetuation of a culture of discrimination and violence against women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Women who do not conform to the gender stereotypes that predominate in some cultures and those who openly contest them, including within their own cultural or religious communities, are particularly vulnerable to discrimination, violence and criminalization. They include, among others, single women, widows, female heads of family, lesbians, bisexual and transgender women, sex workers and women human rights defenders. The Working Group emphasizes that the obligation of States to protect cultural diversity applies to diversity within cultures as well as between them.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "While gender stereotypes pervade all aspects of human existence, women’s rights are at particular risk in the family, which is a locus for the perpetuation of traditional values. The family is a product of patriarchal culture and a vital institution for upholding the patriarchy. The Working Group emphasizes that women’s equal rights in the family are closely linked to their rights in all areas of life, including public and political life and social, economic and cultural life. 16 See A/67/287, para. 3. GE.15-07003 B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 23, "n": 1, "text": "Redefining the family by incorporating a gender perspective", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "A. The cultural construction of gender"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 24, "n": 23, "text": "The family exists in various forms. The expression “diverse families” encompasses, for example, single-parent families; families headed by women; intergenerational families including, among others, grandparents; families headed by children, such as orphans or street children; families comprising lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex (LGBTI) persons; extended families; self-created and self-defined families; families without children; families of divorced persons; polygamous families; and non-traditional families resulting from interreligious, intercommunity or inter-caste marriages. Self-created and self-defined families include, in particular, families formed in marginalized communities. In all these different forms of family, women tend to be subject to legal sanctions and to experience difficult social and economic situations. Indigenous and minority women and women living in strict patriarchal, religious, traditional or caste systems are more likely to be found in these forms of family and are especially vulnerable to early and/or forced marriage, while men may have multiple households or second families with their de facto spouses or partners.", "labels": ["Children", "Children in alternative care", "LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "1. Redefining the family by incorporating a gender perspective"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 25, "n": 24, "text": "The different forms of family and their recognition by the State are influenced by a multitude of normative factors, such as culture, religion and caste, and behavioural factors, such as livelihoods, sexuality and social status. Although several international forums recognize family diversity, including “in different cultural, political and social systems”,[[fn:17]] many of the aforementioned non-traditional forms of family are not recognized by all States. The family is often defined by legal systems as a unit founded on marriage between a man and a woman, affecting rights relating to, for example, inheritance, property, child custody, pensions, tax relief and social service provision. Laws and public institutions in some States require a male family member or male guardian to initiate or conclude official transactions, thus placing families headed by women or consisting solely of women at a disadvantage. Families headed by women, like those headed by children, are more seriously affected by poverty because of the discrimination they suffer. Given that State recognition is often a condition for families to receive services and benefits, such as accommodation and protection provided by the State and/or non-State actors, lack of recognition leads to the marginalization of these families.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, 4–15 September 1995 (A/CONF.177/20/Rev.1), Beijing Platform for Action, para. 29; Panel on the protection of the family, 15 September 2014, twenty-seventh session of the Human Rights Council."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "1. Redefining the family by incorporating a gender perspective"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 26, "n": 25, "text": "It is the opinion of the Working Group that the understanding and legal definition of the family in national legislation should be extended to recognize different forms of family. The recognition of same-sex couples, for both women and men, and other forms of family is an example of good practice that a number of States have already implemented. In this regard, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights has confirmed that mothers who are lesbians should not be deprived of custodial rights over their children.[[fn:18]]", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Atala Riffo and daughters v. Chile, judgement of 24 February 2012 (Merits, Reparations and Costs)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "1. Redefining the family by incorporating a gender perspective"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 27, "n": 26, "text": "However, not all forms of marriage deserve recognition. The Working Group calls for the non-recognition of those forms that discriminate against women and/or fail to ensure equality and justice for women, whatever the legal system, religion, custom or tradition. This refers to, among others, early and/or forced marriage, temporary marriage and polygamy. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and the Human Rights Committee[[fn:19]] have recommended that States should prohibit polygamy on the grounds that it contravenes women’s right to equality with men and can have serious emotional and financial consequences for women and their dependants.[[fn:20]] However, there are national civil codes that legalize polygamous marriage, early and/or forced marriage and temporary marriage. The Working Group advocates the repeal of these codes. Among the countries that deem such marriages to discriminate against women and girls, some consider them void and others merely voidable. In all cases, the legal solution must protect the rights of women and girls, who remain the victims of these harmful marriages. Their rights to subsistence, to property, including land and inheritance, to a place of residence, to custody of children and to remarry must be guaranteed.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 28, para. 24."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 21, para. 14."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "1. Redefining the family by incorporating a gender perspective"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 28, "n": 27, "text": "The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has recommended the prohibition and annulment of these marriages, which violate the dignity of women, and calls for safeguards and guarantees to protect the rights of women and girls living in such families.[[fn:21]] Invalidating an early marriage protects the minor spouses by restoring their single status so that they are deemed never to have been married, rather than divorced, and by cancelling all financial or property transactions linked to the marriage.[[fn:22]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 21, paras. 14, 16 and 36–39."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Marsha A. Freeman, Christine Chinkin, Beate Rudolf, The UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: A Commentary, Article 16, 2012, p. 437."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "1. Redefining the family by incorporating a gender perspective"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 29, "n": 2, "text": "Women’s right to equality in the family", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "1. Redefining the family by incorporating a gender perspective"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 30, "n": 28, "text": "All legal definitions of the family should include the right to equality, de jure and de facto, of women and girls within the family. Full equality between women and men, and girls and boys, is a requirement of international human rights law and constitutes a right of women that is vital for the well-being of the family and for society as a whole.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "2. Women’s right to equality in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 31, "n": 29, "text": "International human rights law guarantees gender equality in the family, including when marriage is entered into, during marriage and at its dissolution, as set out in article 16 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 23 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. Article 16 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women establishes the obligation of States to ensure gender equality in all matters relating to marriage and family relations, including in respect of the decision whether to marry, the free choice of spouse, rights and responsibilities as parents, the decision on the number and spacing of children, and personal rights as husband and wife. Similarly, articles 1 to 3 of the 1962 Convention on Consent to Marriage, Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration of Marriages require States to ensure gender equality regarding consent to marriage, to specify a legal minimum age for marriage and to register marriages.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "2. Women’s right to equality in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 32, "n": 30, "text": "When the rules governing family relations discriminate against women, they violate international human rights law. Furthermore, considerations linked to protecting and strengthening the family may not be invoked to justify forms of family that do not meet the requirement for equality between men and women and girls and boys. The lack of equality in these forms of marriage leads women and girls to experience discrimination, making them vulnerable to domestic violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "2. Women’s right to equality in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 33, "n": 31, "text": "The family is the basic unit of society and, as such, should be strengthened. It is entitled to receive comprehensive protection and support.[[fn:23]] The family plays a key role in social development and in the growth and well-being of children, including girls. Women and girls’ ability to act and participate in the different aspects of life in society derives mainly from respect for their right to equality with men and boys in the family. In this context, the Working Group deems it essential for families to be formed in such a way that women and girls’ right to equality is fully recognized, respected, protected, fulfilled and promoted.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women, Beijing, 4–15 September 1995 (A/CONF.177/20/Rev.1), Beijing Platform for Action, para. 29."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "2. Women’s right to equality in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 34, "n": 32, "text": "The Human Rights Council, however, in its resolution 26/11 on the protection of the family, did not reaffirm the right of women to equality in the family. In October 2014, the special procedures mandate holders issued a statement calling on the Council to ensure that the right to equality between women and men, and girls and boys, was included in all future resolutions concerning the family.[[fn:24]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "A/HRC/28/41, annex x."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "2. Women’s right to equality in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 35, "n": 33, "text": "Several States, in the name of culture or religion, have entered reservations to article 16 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, which requires gender equality in marriage and the family. Withdrawal of reservations to article 16 of the Convention, and also to articles 2 and 5, represents good practice and a vital step towards the establishment of an effective legal framework to protect the rights of women in the family and in cultural life. Morocco and Tunisia have thus recently withdrawn reservations to the Convention, including to article 16. The Working Group shares the opinion of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to the effect that reservations to articles 2 and 16 are incompatible with the object and purpose of the Convention, and it reiterates the importance of States’ withdrawing their reservations to these articles, and to article 5, so as to ensure gender equality in cultural and family life. It is the responsibility of States to respect their international commitments and the clear choices they have made regarding the primacy of international legal standards on gender equality over national secular, religious or customary legal standards.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "2. Women’s right to equality in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 36, "n": 3, "text": "Manifestations of discrimination against women in the family", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "2. Women’s right to equality in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 37, "n": 34, "text": "The role of women in the family has generally been under patriarchal control in cultures and religions that subject women and girls to forced and/or early marriage and discrimination in a number of areas of family life, such as consent to enter into marriage, dowry obligations, the right to possess and manage property, sexual relations, requirements regarding modesty and freedom of movement, guardianship and custody of children, divorce and division of matrimonial assets, the punishment of adultery, the right to remarry following dissolution of the marriage or death of the husband, the status of widows and inheritance. In addition, women and girls are generally not treated equally in families with regard to the division of rights and responsibilities. Discrimination against women and girls in the family and in marriage affects all aspects of their lives.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "3. Manifestations of discrimination against women in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 38, "n": 35, "text": "In many cultures and religions, wives have a duty of obedience, and husbands have the right to punish their wives, including physically. The provision of sexual services by wives is deemed part of their duty to obey their husbands,[[fn:25]] and marital rape is not prohibited.[[fn:26]] The Working Group welcomes the introduction of laws criminalizing domestic violence in around 130 countries but finds it regrettable that only 52 countries explicitly criminalize marital rape.[[fn:27]] Domestic violence has a considerable impact on women, causing more deaths than civil wars and entailing much higher economic costs than those linked to homicides or civil wars.[[fn:28]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "E/CN.4/2002/73/Add.2, para. 124."}, {"n": 26, "text": "In some religions, such as Judaism, marital rape is forbidden."}, {"n": 27, "text": "UN-Women, 2011–2012 Progress of the World’s Women: In Pursuit of Justice, 2011, pp. 32–34, available from: http://progress.unwomen.org/pdfs/EN_Report-Progress.pdf."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Anke Hoeffler and James Fearon, “Conflict and Violence Assessment Paper”, Copenhagen Consensus Center, 2014."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "3. Manifestations of discrimination against women in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 39, "n": 36, "text": "In some countries, legislative provisions strengthen patriarchal family structures, as well as the concomitant discrimination and violence against women. This is particularly true of provisions allowing rapists to marry their victims in order to escape legal proceedings and laws that exclude marital rape from the prohibition of rape under criminal law. In some contexts, only men are able to transmit their nationality to their foreign spouses and their children. This de jure inequality has considerable effects on women and their children because the State protection granted by citizenship is refused them de facto.[[fn:29]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See A/HRC/23/50, paras. 84–86."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "B. The family: conceptual and sociological aspects", "3. Manifestations of discrimination against women in the family"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 40, "n": 37, "text": "Family law may derive from various legal sources in a State, such as constitutions, laws, judicial decisions, and religious and customary codes. However, States are required, under international human rights law, to respect, protect and realize women’s right to equality in the family, regardless of the source of family law.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 41, "n": 38, "text": "National constitutions are generally the supreme law in most States and form the foundation of the State’s institutional and legal structures. They also provide the framework for the elimination of discrimination against women. An explicit constitutional guarantee of gender equality is fundamental to combating discrimination against women and girls in law and in practice. Many countries have already recognized and enshrined this principle of equality in their constitutional laws, and it is essential that it apply in all areas of law, including family law.[[fn:30]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "UN-Women, 2011–2012 Progress of the World’s Women: In Pursuit of Justice, p. 24."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 42, "n": 39, "text": "Family law primarily addresses personal status and relations between family members.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 43, "n": 40, "text": "In addition, secondary family law covers such areas as taxation, social security, retirement benefits, survivors’ benefits and the right to family reunification.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 44, "n": 41, "text": "The three main systems of family law are secular law systems, religious law systems and plural systems.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 45, "n": 42, "text": "In most countries, family law is regulated by secular codes that have been established by the State, under civil or common law systems, and have no basis in religious or customary norms. Secular family law was originally patriarchal. The very being or legal existence of the woman was “suspended during the marriage, or at least [was] incorporated and consolidated into that of the husband”.[[fn:31]] Married women had no capacity to conclude contracts or own property and were discriminated against as regards inheritance, divorce, and guardianship and custody of children. Moreover, women had to pledge obedience to their husbands, and marital rape and corporal punishment were permitted.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "William Blackstone, Commentaires sur les lois anglaises (Commentaries on the Laws of England), 1765, vol. II, translated from the English by N.M. Chompré, Paris, Bossange, Rey et Gravier, et Aillaud, 1822, p. 215."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "1. Secular family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 46, "n": 43, "text": "Reforming family codes is essential to establishing, in national legislation, women’s equal status in marriage and the family structure. Two types of process can be observed with regard to the promotion of gender equality in family law.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "1. Secular family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 47, "n": 44, "text": "The first process is the elimination of discriminatory laws on the family and the promotion of gender equality within secular law systems. This sort of legal reform took place in some of these systems from the end of the nineteenth century, when many States reformed their laws on the family by separating religion from the State and introducing measures to promote women’s equality within marriage and the family, including the right of married women to conclude contracts, own property, inherit, divorce, and have guardianship and custody of children, on an equal basis with men. Secular family law systems thus moved from being patriarchal to adopting a more egalitarian approach, which now represents good practice in ensuring gender equality in the family. A recent example is the Marriage Law in China, as amended in 2001, which nullified all bigamous marriages and all marriages in which one of the parties had not reached the legal minimum age for marriage, repealing traditionalist patriarchal laws on the family and affirming gender equality in the family.[[fn:32]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "See A/HRC/26/39/Add.2, para. 17."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "1. Secular family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 48, "n": 45, "text": "The second process is the transition from patriarchal religious family law to a secular family law system that provides for gender equality in the family. Several States where family law was based on patriarchal religious codes have introduced equality for women in the family by revoking religious laws and regulating family affairs under secular codes. In many European countries, family law was based on religious, primarily Christian, laws, and all marriages were thus placed under religious jurisdiction. At the end of the nineteenth century, all matters relating to family were placed under the secular jurisdiction of the State, thereby removing the religious hegemony in this area.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "1. Secular family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 49, "n": 46, "text": "In some secular family law systems, elements of discrimination remain, for example a lower legal minimum age for marriage for girls and discriminatory provisions on inheritance rights, divorce and recognition of same-sex couples.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "1. Secular family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 50, "n": 47, "text": "Moreover, some secular family law systems allow family matters to be decided in parallel religious or customary law systems, whether formal or informal. The implications for women’s right to equality of such systems are discussed in the sections on plural legal systems.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "1. Secular family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 51, "n": 2, "text": "State-enforced religious family law systems", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "1. Secular family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 52, "n": 48, "text": "Several States have no secular family code and regulate personal status either by integrating religious laws on the family into constitutional or legislative provisions or by granting religious authorities or religious tribunals jurisdiction over personal status so that they may apply the family codes derived from the sacred texts. Currently, a large number of States that have Islam as their State religion, such as the Islamic and Arab republics, regulate the personal status of all citizens by applying Islamic law from the Koran and the Sunna. Although the notion of the equality of men and women before the law is often incorporated in their constitutions, some States maintain that this equality does not apply in the case of laws on the family and on marital or personal status. Some States that recognize the legal competence of a majority religion in the State also grant non-majority religions jurisdiction over their own communities of faithful, such as Lebanon (Muslim majority), India (Hindu majority) and Israel (Jewish majority).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "2. State-enforced religious family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 53, "n": 49, "text": "Some States that apply religious or customary law to regulate personal status have reinforced the traditional prohibitions on adultery by criminalizing it. Adultery, which is defined as any sexual relation outside marriage, is severely punished and may even result in a sentence of death by stoning in some States that apply Islamic law. The sanctions are generally imposed on the women rather than the men. Interventions by foreign Governments, civil society and special procedures mandate holders have sometimes led to judgements that imposed stoning to be overturned. In some states in the United States of America, adultery between married persons is a crime, but these provisions have not been implemented in the last thirty years. The Working Group issued a statement calling for the decriminalization of adultery[[fn:33]] and wishes to recall that criminalization of sexual relations between consenting adults is a violation of their right to privacy and an infringement of article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "Statement by the Working Group, “Adultery as a criminal offence violates women’s human rights”, 2012, available from www.ohchr.org/ EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=12672&LangID=E."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "2. State-enforced religious family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 54, "n": 50, "text": "Reforms to introduce a measure of equality for women in family law have come about in two different ways in countries where family law was based solely on religious law. The first involves reform based on religious interpretation (hermeneutics). The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has argued, in several of its concluding observations, that evolving customs and the variety of possible interpretations of religious law offer potential for progress towards equality, while at the same time encouraging States parties to move in that direction.[[fn:34]] Reforms of religious family codes, based on interpretations of sacred texts that favour equality, have taken place in some Muslim-majority countries, which have carried out legislative reforms founded on progressive interpretations of sharia. For example, Tunisia was one of the first countries with Islam as the State religion to enact a progressive Personal Status Code guaranteeing gender equality;[[fn:35]] in 2004, Morocco embarked on a far-reaching reform of its family law, paving the way for significant progress towards gender equality;[[fn:36]] Tunisia, Turkey[[fn:37]] and Benin have adopted legislation against polygamy; in Indonesia, Islamic tribunals institutionalized the appointment of women judges in religious tribunals in 1989, thus encouraging more gender-sensitive rulings.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "See Marsha A. Freeman, Christine Chinkin and Beate Rudolf, The UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women: A Commentary, 2012, p. 439."}, {"n": 35, "text": "See A/HRC/23/50/Add.2, paras. 7–8."}, {"n": 36, "text": "See A/HRC/20/28/Add.1, paras. 18–22."}, {"n": 37, "text": "Turkish Civil Code (1926)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "2. State-enforced religious family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 55, "n": 51, "text": "The second way to reform patriarchal religious family law involves the replacement of religious family law with secular law. In traditionally Christian States, such as Italy in 1970 and Greece in 1982, civil family codes were introduced to replace religious personal laws.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "2. State-enforced religious family law systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 56, "n": 52, "text": "Plural legal systems are systems in which various laws coexist. They may include various combinations of codified civil law, religious law systems, indigenous or customary legal codes, community arbitration or other dispute settlement procedures. Plural legal systems may be formal or informal. They most often affect personal status law and family law. In States with plural legal systems, the State legal system, which is generally civil and codified, and the State courts address matters relating to the public sphere.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 57, "n": 53, "text": "Several States have adopted this type of legal system as a way of acknowledging cultural diversity. However, legal pluralism is also used by some actors to promote political and ideological interests. Approximately 80 per cent of claims or disputes are resolved by parallel justice systems, signifying that most women in developing countries access justice in a plural legal environment.[[fn:38]] The existence of social, economic, institutional and cultural barriers and the lack of confidence in formal systems may explain the widespread use of these parallel systems. Poverty and a lack of information on accessing formal justice and education are the main factors that lead women to use parallel justice systems.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "International Development Law Organization, Accessing Justice: Models, Strategies and Best Practices on Women’s Empowerment, 2013, p. 12."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 58, "n": 54, "text": "Parallel justice systems apply religious, customary or indigenous laws, which, as shown above, are patriarchal. These systems are mostly dominated by men and therefore tend to perpetuate inequalities and patriarchal interpretations of culture, resulting in discrimination against women. Regardless of whether the law is religious or customary, its provisions are often interpreted differently for men and women. The rulings and procedures of these legal mechanisms generally discriminate against women. Moreover, gender-based violence is seldom punished and is sometimes downplayed by religious or customary law courts.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 59, "n": 55, "text": "Legal pluralism is formal when the State, through its constitution, laws or judicial decisions, has granted authority to a religious, indigenous or customary court, tribunal or arbitrator to exercise jurisdiction over personal status matters for women. Such systems are generally recognized in State legislation and some are regulated by the State, which may establish appeals procedures, ensure compliance with State legislation or even provide financial or material support.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems", "Formal legal pluralism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 60, "n": 56, "text": "Good practice in protecting women’s right to equality in formal plural legal systems takes several forms. The adoption of constitutional laws that require autonomous courts, tribunals or arbitrators to respect women’s right to equality in terms of both women’s representation in justice systems and the formulation and application of procedural and substantive rules is a good practice implemented in several States. Since the 1980s, 11 Latin American States have formally recognized indigenous laws and courts in their constitutional laws, requiring the legal systems of indigenous communities to respect and enforce women’s rights.[[fn:39]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "Ibid., p. 68."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems", "Formal legal pluralism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 61, "n": 57, "text": "The right to appeal, before the State courts, discriminatory decisions of indigenous courts, tribunals or arbitrators is another good practice. The commitment of indigenous women in some countries, such as Mexico and Ecuador,[[fn:40]] to securing State recognition of parallel systems has enabled them to challenge, in the State system, the discrimination they suffered in indigenous legal systems. Women’s participation as legal arbitrators, and also as lawmakers, is needed to draw attention to discrimination and to sensitive subjects such as rape or domestic violence, most victims of which are women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "Ibid., p. 77."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems", "Formal legal pluralism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 62, "n": 58, "text": "Affirming the primacy of international human rights law and constitutional laws over religious, customary and indigenous laws is a key step towards ensuring women’s emancipation and autonomy. Customary, religious and indigenous laws and provisions on family affairs must be consistent with the constitutional norms on equality. To ensure more effective application of the principle of equality, State monitoring and oversight bodies must be put in place, as has been done in Canada, Colombia and South Africa.41 38 International Development Law Organization, Accessing Justice: Models, Strategies and Best Practices on Women’s Empowerment, 2013, p. 12. 39 Ibid., p. 68. 40 Ibid., p. 77. 41 Ibid., p. 25. GE.15-07003 Informal legal pluralism", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems", "Formal legal pluralism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 63, "n": 59, "text": "Jurisdiction is exercised informally when jurisdictional powers are not the result of an express grant of judicial authority by the State. Such jurisdiction is generally not recognized by the State. Such situations may arise when religious, indigenous or customary authority is exercised by judges, arbitrators or other alternative dispute settlement procedures that are not authorized or tolerated by the State and/or of which the State is unaware. These systems operate without oversight by the State, and, while some may have been recognized previously in law, often under former colonial systems, they are now beyond State control.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems", "Informal legal pluralism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 64, "n": 60, "text": "When the State becomes aware of such informal systems, it must put in place oversight mechanisms and procedures for appeals to the State justice system to quash decisions that discriminate against women. The State must make an effort to provide alternatives to these informal legal systems, for example, by rendering the formal State system more accessible.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems", "Informal legal pluralism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 65, "n": 61, "text": "Plural legal systems create complex and confusing legal situations. Various United Nations treaty bodies have sought to show how these systems limit women’s enjoyment of the right to equality in their private and public lives, while acknowledging the richness of cultural diversity.[[fn:42]] Even if there is no special recognition by the State of informal legal systems or formal delegation of functions by the State to traditional chiefs, the State should extend its protection, as referred to in article 2 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendations Nos. 21, para. 13, and 29, paras. 13–14."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "C. Legal sources of family law", "3. Plural legal systems", "Informal legal pluralism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 66, "n": 62, "text": "The State has an obligation to respect women’s right to equality within the family and should eliminate any laws, including customary or religious laws,[[fn:43]] that discriminate against women and any discriminatory acts carried out by State authorities. The obligation not to discriminate against women is direct and absolute. A State will be in violation of this obligation if it has a law that discriminates against women, regardless of whether its family law system is secular, religious or plural.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 21, para. 44."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "D. The role of the State in ensuring respect for women and girls’ right to equality in cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 67, "n": 63, "text": "The State has a direct obligation to protect and respect women’s right to equality in all the forms of family law considered above. It is held responsible for any breach of its obligations, including in cases where it has, through its constitution, laws or judicial decisions, assigned jurisdiction over family law matters to a religious, indigenous or customary court, tribunal or authority. Moreover, the State has an obligation to exercise due diligence to guarantee and protect women’s right to equality in informal plural legal systems.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "D. The role of the State in ensuring respect for women and girls’ right to equality in cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 68, "n": 64, "text": "The State must refrain from adopting laws, policies, measures or regulations that discriminate directly or indirectly against women and girls and must ensure that its officials, and private actors, respect this obligation in all contexts, including those situations where women are most vulnerable (as refugees, migrants or stateless persons, for example).", "labels": ["Non-citizens and stateless", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "D. The role of the State in ensuring respect for women and girls’ right to equality in cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 69, "n": 65, "text": "The obligation of the State to protect women and girls’ right to equality in the family compels the authorities to prevent discrimination by private actors. Due diligence as a principle of State action should result in a global model of prevention, protection, prosecution, punishment and redress for acts of discrimination and violence against women in cultural and family life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "D. The role of the State in ensuring respect for women and girls’ right to equality in cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 70, "n": 66, "text": "To prevent any violation in cultural and family life, the State must challenge cultural discourse and cultural norms that discriminate against women and perpetuate structural discrimination, taboos or stereotypes based on gender. Attitudes and behaviours towards women must be changed, and women’s access to employment, education and finance, as well as the safety of their homes and children, must be ensured by the State in order to reduce gender inequalities.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "D. The role of the State in ensuring respect for women and girls’ right to equality in cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 71, "n": 67, "text": "In terms of protection, the State must set up effective services that respond to women’s needs in the short, medium and long term. Risks and factors that may lead to discrimination against women must be identified proactively so that effective interventions may be staged before violations are committed.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "D. The role of the State in ensuring respect for women and girls’ right to equality in cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 72, "n": 68, "text": "In the event of violations and discrimination against women, the State has an obligation to investigate and prosecute. The State must take measures to guarantee privacy, confidentiality and safety of victims, and to address women’s needs and fears, while ensuring that they are not subject to stigmatization, social ostracism or reprisals. The State must be able to foster confidence in the police and the judicial process, including within plural legal systems. To this end, it must ensure that State bodies and courts systematically apply the principle of equality when interpreting and enforcing the law and that they do so in conformity with international standards. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women has pointed out that, where this is not possible, the State is still liable and must take appropriate action.[[fn:44]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 28, paras. 12–33."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "D. The role of the State in ensuring respect for women and girls’ right to equality in cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 73, "n": 69, "text": "The State has an obligation to punish and to put an end to impunity and excuses or justification that perpetuate gender-based discrimination in cultural and family life. The State also has an obligation to afford redress for the harm suffered by women, including by providing for compensation, restitution, guarantees of non-repetition and even preventive measures.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "D. The role of the State in ensuring respect for women and girls’ right to equality in cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 74, "n": 70, "text": "Ensuring access to justice for women and girls who have suffered discrimination within the family or in cultural life is part of the State obligation to protect and respect their right to equality. This access must be guaranteed at the legislative and institutional levels. This means, for example, revising all additional laws that affect family and personal status matters, a process in which women must be involved. Also concerned are auxiliary regulations, including special measures adopted, where necessary, in such areas as taxation, social security, retirement benefits, survivors’ benefits, rights relating to nationality and the right to family reunification, to ensure women and girls’ de facto equality in the various types of family. Women must take part in the formulation and interpretation of national laws, including those relating to family affairs. At the institutional level, they must be involved, on an equal footing, in policy development and judicial bodies so as to ensure that the principle of equality is effectively applied and that decisions handed down demonstrate respect for gender equality. Improving access to justice for women also requires gender-equality training for State authorities and non-State officials responsible for law enforcement, social services and education and for medical and forensic personnel.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women in cultural and family life, with a focus on the family as a cultural space", "D. The role of the State in ensuring respect for women and girls’ right to equality in cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 75, "n": 71, "text": "The cultural construction of gender makes women’s subjection to gender-based discrimination and violence appear to be inherent and immutable. The patriarchal family is the product of this construction and the most important social mechanism for its perpetuation. Women and girls’ human potential is restricted in families. The recognition that women’s rights are human rights and that they are universal and indivisible has laid bare the adverse impact of this gender construction on women and girls in families and communities. The need for a paradigm shift has been clearly set out in international human rights law, which, since 1948, has established women’s right to equality in all spheres of life, in culture and in the family. As Eleanor Roosevelt said as far back as 1958: “Where, after all, do universal human rights begin? In small places, close to home – so close and so small that they cannot be seen on any maps of the world. […] Such are the places where every man, woman, and child seeks equal justice, equal opportunity, equal dignity without discrimination. Unless these rights have meaning there, they have little meaning anywhere.”[[fn:45]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "Eleanor Roosevelt, “In Our Hands” (speech delivered on 27 March 1958 on the tenth anniversary of the proclamation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights) in ABC: Teaching Human Rights – Practical activities for primary and secondary schools, United Nations, New York and Geneva, 2004, p. 11."}], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 76, "n": 72, "text": "The State must act as an agent of change as regards women’s place in cultural and family life, by fostering and creating a culture free of all forms of discrimination against women.[[fn:46]] A transformative approach to women and girls’ status in the family is crucial. There needs to be awareness that, in the past, a patriarchal concept of family pervaded all secular, religious, customary and indigenous laws and institutions and that some States and groups are now trying, in a retrograde manner, to subject women to the most oppressive forms of patriarchy, particularly in the context of religious fanaticism. It should also be understood that the transition towards equality between women and men, and girls and boys, in the culture and in the family is a prerequisite for a decent society.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "A/67/287, para. 5."}], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 77, "n": 73, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Establish a national legal framework recognizing gender equality in cultural and family life, in accordance with regional and international standards:\n(i) Recognize and enshrine, in their constitutions and laws, the right to equality, which should apply in all areas of life and have primacy over all religious, customary and indigenous laws, norms, codes and rules, with no possibility of exemption, waiver or circumvention;\n(ii) Promote access to, participation in and contributions by women to all aspects of cultural life, including the definition, creation and interpretation of cultural and religious norms and practices, by providing equal resources, adopting special measures and policies, and facilitating women’s access to decision-making positions and policymaking processes, at all levels;\n(iii) Develop national strategies to eradicate cultural practices that discriminate against women and girls, as well as gender stereotypes, through awareness-raising campaigns, educational and informational programmes and stakeholder mobilization. Engage men, as appropriate, in prevention and protection efforts in respect of gender-based discrimination and violence;\n(iv) Develop effective mechanisms to combat the multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination suffered by all marginalized women, including minority women, women living in poverty, women with disabilities, refugee and displaced women, migrant and immigrant women, rural women, indigenous women, older women and single women;\n(b) Promote a culture free of discrimination:\n(i) Establish an executive body that applies the due diligence framework (prevention, protection, prosecution, punishment and redress), addressing all forms of discrimination against women in cultural and family life, including by non-State actors;\n(ii) Reject any cultural or religious practice that violates human rights and the principle of equality or prevents the establishment of an egalitarian society free of gender-based discrimination;\n(iii) Punish institutions, State officials and non-State actors whose actions threaten women’s rights, even where the grounds for such actions are the preservation of culture and religion;\n(c) Guarantee women’s de jure and de facto right to equality in family diversity:\n(i) Recognize and protect, in their constitutions and laws, all forms of family, and affirm and protect women and girls’ right to equality in family diversity, by adopting and implementing appropriate measures to protect women from exploitation and discrimination in diverse families, particularly women living in vulnerable situations;\n(ii) Eliminate in law and in practice all forms of marriage that restrict and/or deny women and girls’ rights, well-being and dignity, including early and/or forced marriage, polygamous marriage and temporary marriage;\n(iii) Establish appropriate solutions, remedies and redress to ensure respect for the rights and well-being of women and girls living in the forms of marriage referred to above, including the possibility for them to leave such marriages with their share of the matrimonial assets, custody of their children and the right to remarry;\n(iv) Eliminate all laws or practices that restrict the rights and opportunities of widows or divorced women, but not widowers or divorced men, to remarry, work, have guardianship or custody of their children, and own the family home, assets and land;\n(v) Repeal all laws that support the patriarchal oppression of women in families, such as laws that exclude marital rape from the crime of rape, laws that grant pardon to rapists who marry their victims and laws that criminalize adultery;\n(vi) Prohibit and punish domestic violence, including incest and marital rape, and provide measures to protect women and girls who are victims of such violence, such as protection orders and shelters;\n(vii) Respect, protect, fulfil and promote the right to gender equality in the family in the various types of legal system – secular family law systems, State-enforced religious family law systems and plural legal systems. The adoption of a family code or personal status laws free of any reference to culture or religion is encouraged;\n(viii) In countries where several legal systems coexist, establish and implement national mechanisms to ensure the effective implementation of guarantees of equality and non-discrimination between men and women in all areas and at all levels, offering women, especially rural and indigenous women, the possibility of removing themselves from the arbitral authority and jurisdiction of customary institutions. Bring parallel customary, religious and indigenous law systems into line with international human rights law, particularly in respect of gender equality, while acknowledging the importance of the wealth and diversity of culture and traditions. Grant women the right to appeal, in State courts, decisions of religious, customary or indigenous authorities, whether formal or informal, that have violated their right to equality;\n(ix) Make the formal State legal system accessible to all women, regardless of their social status, and address the shortcomings of the formal system. Formal justice should be preferred to informal justice for the settlement of all family matters, including those relating to sexual violence and domestic violence;\n(x) Set up gender-awareness training for all State civil servants involved in education, health, social services, law enforcement and judicial decision-making. Include women, on an equal basis, in all bodies that interpret and apply family law;\n(d) According to general recommendation No. 29 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, the family is a social and legal construct and, in various countries, a religious construct. It also is an economic construct. The Working Group recommends that States:\n(i) Take measures to ensure that families allow girls to access education on an equal basis with boys, by raising awareness in the community and providing families with financial incentives to allow girls to finish their studies;\n(ii) Ensure that women are free to participate in economic activities outside the house or village, without the supervision of male relatives;\n(iii) Ensure that women, on an equal footing with men, and girls, on an equal footing with boys, have the right to at least half the family property and inheritance in the event of divorce or widowhood. Facilitate the invalidation of any waiver of these rights obtained from a woman as a result of pressure from her family or community;\n(iv) Recognize the right of women living in polygamous marriages to end their marriage when their husband takes another wife and grant them a share of the family property, including the value of the house or land;\n(v) Recognize women as heads of family on an equal basis with men so that they may enjoy the same financial or social benefits;\n(vi) Assess, quantify and take account of the impact of women and girls’ status in the family in all poverty-reduction policies.", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-29-40-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-29-40", "idx": 78, "n": 74, "text": "The Working Group recommends that international and regional human rights mechanisms:\n(a) Develop standards, principles and guidelines to combat all forms of gender stereotype, in accordance with the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women;\n(b) Conduct empirical studies on family diversity and the strategic implications of protecting human rights for the family and for all its members, on an equal basis;\n(c) Explore the establishment of an essential framework of minimum legal protection for all types of family, including self-created or self-defined families, that would guarantee women’s fundamental rights in the family, in accordance with international law.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2015, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report covers the activities of the Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice undertaken since the submission of its previous report (A/HRC/29/40) until March 2016. It focuses on an analysis by the Working Group of discrimination against women with regard to health and safety.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The roles of Chair-Rapporteur and Vice-Chair of the Working Group were carried out by Emna Aouij and Eleonora Zielinska, respectively, until June 2015, and at the time of writing are held by Eleonora Zielinska and Alda Facio, respectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "The Working Group held three sessions in Geneva during the period under review. At its thirteenth session (4-8 May 2015), it held consultations on women’s health and safety, including their rights to reproductive and sexual health, with a number of stakeholders and experts, including representatives from the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Population Fund, the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development , the Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health and civil society organizations as well as expert staff of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At its fourteenth session (12-16 October 2015), the Working Group continued its consultations on the issue of women’s health and safety, including with experts from the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), the Inter-Parliamentary Union, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the secretariats of OHCHR treaty monitoring bodies, the Special Rapporteur on the rights of persons with disabilities and members of civil society organizations. The Working Group exchanged views with Member States on its work and held a meeting with the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "At its fifteenth session (25-29 January 2016), the Working Group held a meeting with the Permanent Representative of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation to the United Nations Office at Geneva. It began its consultation on the development of a compendium of good practices and held a briefing with civil society organizations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The Working Group visited Senegal from 7 to 17 April 2015 (A/HRC/32/44/Add.1) and the United States of America from 30 November to 11 December 2015 (A/HRC/32/44/Add.2). It wishes to thank the Governments of these countries for their cooperation before and during the visits. It thanks the Governments of Hungary and Kuwait for responding positively to requests for visits, which will take place from 17 to 27 May 2016 and from 6 to 15 December 2016, respectively.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "During the period under review, the Working Group addressed communications to Governments, individually or jointly with other mandate holders. The communications concerned a wide range of subjects falling within its mandate, including discriminatory legislation and practices with regard to marital status, nationality, allegations of abuses of women human rights defenders and violations of their rights, gender-based violence and rights to reproductive and sexual health (see A/HRC/30/27, A/HRC/31/79 and A/HRC/32/53). The Working Group also issued press releases, individually or jointly with other mandate holders, treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "On 15 June 2015, a member of the Working Group participated in a panel discussion on making social policy work for women at a workshop titled “Substantive equality for women: connecting human rights and public policy” organized by the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), the United Nations Institute for Social Development and OHCHR.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "The Working Group, jointly with several special procedures, sent an open letter to the President of the Human Rights Council on 3 July 2015, in which it emphasized the importance of placing women’s right to equality at the centre of discussions in the Council on the protection of the family.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "A member of the Working Group participated as a panellist in an OHCHR global seminar on the human rights of migrant domestic workers in an irregular situation, titled “Behind closed doors”, held on 28 and 29 September 2015 in Bangkok.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "A member of the Working Group gave a presentation at the expert consultation on gender perspectives on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment organized on 5 and 6 November 2015 by the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The present report aims to clarify the meaning of equality in the area of health and safety, identify discriminatory practices, expose the instrumentalization of women’s bodies in violation of their human dignity and reveal the barriers to women’s autonomous, effective and affordable access to health care. Instrumentalization is defined as the subjection of women’s natural biological functions to a politicized patriarchal agenda, which aims at maintaining and perpetrating certain ideas of femininity versus masculinity or of women’s subordinate role in society. 1 The analysis contained in the present report has a minimal number of footnotes owing to word limit restrictions. A version of the report with full references can be found at www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/WGWomenIndex.aspx. The report relies on WHO and UNAIDS sources for health data and draws upon the work of OHCHR and international human rights mechanisms, including the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and the special procedures mandates on health, persons with disabilities, food, older persons, water and sanitation, and indigenous peoples.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Women’s rights to equality and to the highest attainable standards of health, to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress and to health-care services, including those related to reproductive and sexual health, are enshrined in international and regional human rights instruments, reaffirmed in consensus agreements, including the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform for Action adopted at the Fourth World Conference on Women and the outcome documents of the review and appraisal conferences, and recognized by international, regional and national mechanisms and jurisprudence. The International Conference on Population and Development, held in 1994, recognized women’s rights to reproductive and sexual health as being key to women’s health. Discrimination against women in the area of health and safety and denial of their right to control their own bodies severely violate their human dignity, which, along with equality, is recognized in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights as the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "States are obliged to secure women’s rights to the highest attainable standard of health and safety, including their underlying determinants, and women’s equal access to health-care services, including those related to family planning, as well as their rights to privacy, information and bodily integrity. The obligation to respect, protect and fulfil women’s right to equal access to health-care services and to eliminate all forms of discrimination against women with regard to their health and safety is violated by neglecting women’s health needs, failing to make gender-sensitive health interventions, depriving women of autonomous decision-making capacity and criminalizing or denying them access to health services that only women require. In some situations, failure to protect women’s rights to health and safety may amount to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment or torture, or even a violation of their right to life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "WHO defines health as not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, but as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being. In the present report the Working Group addresses women’s safety as an integral aspect of their health. Women’s exposure to gender-based violence in both the public and private spheres, including in conflict situations, is a major component of women’s physical and mental ill health and the destruction of their well-being, and constitutes a violation of their human rights.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Substantive equality in the area of health and safety requires differential treatment. Throughout their life cycle from childhood to old age, women have health needs and vulnerabilities that are distinctively different from those of men. Women have specific biological functions, are exposed to health problems that affect only women, are victims of pervasive gender-based violence and, statistically speaking, live longer than men, resulting in their greater need to access health services frequently and into older age. Hence, women and girls experience the negative effects of insufficiencies in health-care services more intensively than men.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Women face a disproportionate risk of being subjected to humiliating and degrading treatment in health-care facilities, especially during pregnancy, childbirth and the post-partum period. Furthermore, they are especially vulnerable to degrading treatment in situations where they are deprived of liberty, including in migrant detention facilities or mental institutions. They are subjected to humiliating treatment within the health-care system because of their gender identity and sexual orientation, sometimes expressly in the name of morality or religion, as a way of punishing what is considered “immoral” behaviour.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "Women’s bodies are instrumentalized for cultural, political and economic purposes rooted in patriarchal traditions. Instrumentalization occurs within and beyond the health sector and is deeply embedded in multiple forms of social and political control over women. It aims at perpetuating taboos and stigmas concerning women’s bodies and their traditional roles in society, especially in relation to their sexuality and to reproduction. As a result, women face continuous challenges in accessing health care and in maintaining autonomous control in decision-making about their own bodies. Understanding and eliminating the instrumentalization of women’s bodies, which is based on harmful cultural norms and stereotypes, and its detrimental impact on women’s health, is critical for change to occur.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "A wide range of actors, both public and private, play a role that affects women’s health and access to health care and each of the actors bears responsibility for its actions or inactions. In particular, the significant role of the principles enshrined in the deontological codes of different medical professionals and in the rules governing the corporate social responsibility of the pharmaceutical industry are an essential locus for establishing gender-sensitive research, medicines and treatments.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "The State is accountable for fulfilling its international human rights obligation to ensure that women are provided with gender-responsive scientific research, medicines and health interventions and for providing appropriate and adequate gender-based resources and a system of effective monitoring, budgeting, remedies and redress. It is also obligated to provide women with autonomous, effective and affordable access to health care. The State has a responsibility to ensure that barriers to women’s enjoyment of the right to the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health are dismantled, including by exercising due diligence.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "A number of other factors and developments which have serious implications for women’s health and safety are not tackled in the present report owing to space restrictions. These include climate change and other environmental catastrophes and degradation and gender-based violence in armed conflicts.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "A. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "In the area of health, the distinctly different biological and reproductive functions of women and men necessitate differential treatment and proper algorithms are required to make sure that women have equal access to and enjoy the highest achievable level of health treatment. An identical approach to treatment, medication, budgeting and accessibility would in fact constitute discrimination.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "B. Meaning of equality in women’s health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Central among women’s and girls’ health needs are those relating to their reproductive and sexual health. Substantive equality requires that States attend to the risk factors that predominantly affect women. For instance, since only women can become pregnant, a lack of access to contraceptives is bound to affect their health disproportionately. Equality in reproductive health requires access, without discrimination, to affordable, quality contraception; maternal health care, including during childbirth and the post-partum period; access to safe termination of pregnancy; access to effective screening and early treatment for breast and cervical cancer; and special attention to the high rate of HIV infections among young women and treatment to prevent mother-to-infant transmission.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "B. Meaning of equality in women’s health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Equality also requires health policy to be based solely on women’s health needs and not to be influenced by instrumentalization and politicization. Political contestation around rights to reproductive and sexual health remains a global challenge, resulting in women paying a high price in terms of their health and lives. In adopting the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, States committed to ensuring universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services, including for family planning, information and education, and the integration of reproductive health into national strategies and programmes. A strong commitment to women’s sexual and reproductive rights in international and national law, policies and programmes is crucial for achieving gender equality and ensuring women’s and girl’s right to health and well-being.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "B. Meaning of equality in women’s health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Many drug therapy protocols and other medical treatments and interventions administered to women are based on research conducted on the male of the species without any investigation and adjustment for biological and gender differences. Equality requires the conduct of medical research on the basis of women’s experience and biological differences. It also requires adequate attention to be paid to the particular health risks to which women are disproportionately exposed, such as depression and suicide, and proper gender-sensitive treatment of diseases which tend to be considered, inaccurately, as typically masculine, such as cardiovascular diseases.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "B. Meaning of equality in women’s health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "Women’s specific health and safety needs require protection against gender-based violence that affects their physical integrity and mental health, including in health-care settings.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "B. Meaning of equality in women’s health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The social, religious and cultural factors that disregard the dignity of girls and women must be tackled to achieve women’s right to equality in health and safety.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "B. Meaning of equality in women’s health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Discriminatory practices in the area of health and safety occur at all stages of women’s life cycle. Multiple discrimination merits particular consideration and remedies. Denying women access to services which only they require and failing to address their specific health and safety, including their reproductive and sexual health needs, are inherently discriminatory and prevent women from exercising control over their own bodies and lives. Gender-based discrimination in the administration of medical services also violates women’s human rights and dignity.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Denial of access to essential health services with respect to termination of pregnancy, contraception, treatment for sexually transmitted diseases and infertility treatment has particularly serious consequences for women’s health and lives. Women may be denied such services through criminalization, reduction of availability, stigmatization, deterrence or derogatory attitudes of health-care professionals. In reality, denial of access drives service provision underground into the hands of unqualified practitioners. This exacerbates the risks to the health and safety of the affected women. Persistently high maternal mortality rates often reflect a lack of investment in and underprioritization of services required only by women", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "Discrimination is sometimes manifested in humiliating treatment women that may face in facilities that are dedicated exclusively to them, such as birthing facilities where, as repeatedly stressed by United Nations human rights mechanisms and WHO, they are too often subjected to degrading and sometimes violent treatment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Discrimination against women is also manifest in the unequal provision of health services required by both women and men. This has been especially severe in countries where women have been excluded from receiving medical treatment by male doctors on the grounds of “modesty”.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "Discriminatory laws and practices have contributed to a deplorable global situation with respect to women’s health and safety which calls for urgent, immediate and effective actions. According to WHO, an estimated 225 million women are deprived of access to essential modern contraception. Pregnancy and childbirth-related complications resulted in the deaths of almost 300,000 women worldwide in 2013. About 22 million unsafe abortions take place annually and an estimated 47,000 women die from complications resulting from unsafe abortion each year. Breast and cervical cancer remain the leading cancers among women aged 20-59 years, resulting in 1 million deaths, the majority in low- and middle-income countries where screening, prevention and treatment are almost non-existent. Young women bear the brunt of new HIV infections. One in three women under 50 has experienced physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate partner or family member. At least 200 million women and girls have been subjected to female genital mutilation.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 33, "n": 1, "text": "Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 34, "n": 33, "text": "The Working Group notes with concern that issues relating to women’s health are not addressed in a holistic manner on political and health agendas at the national and international levels. Policies regarding women’s health services are often limited to questions of “maternal health”. Despite the importance of prioritizing this issue, such a restrictive focus fails to recognize the full spectrum of women’s rights to sexual and reproductive health at all stages of their life cycle and contributes to the instrumentalization of women’s bodies, viewing them mainly as a means of reproduction.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 35, "n": 34, "text": "Many girls are exposed to a wide variety of practices which are harmful to their health and well-being, such as female genital mutilation, discrimination in food allocation resulting in malnutrition and discrimination in access to professional health care. Furthermore, early marriage and adolescent pregnancy have a long-lasting impact on girls’ physical integrity and mental health. Pregnancy and childbirth are together the second leading cause of death among 15- to 19-year-old girls globally, putting them at the highest risk of dying or suffering serious lifelong injuries as a result of pregnancy. For example, up to 65 per cent of women with obstetric fistula, which is a severely disabling condition and often results in social exclusion, develop this condition as adolescents.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 36, "n": 35, "text": "Adolescent girls are particularly exposed to gender-based violence in the family and on their way to or at school, with extremely harmful impacts on their physical and mental health. In its resolution 70/137 the General Assembly called upon all States to improve the safety of girls on the way to and from school, taking steps to ensure that all schools are accessible, safe, secure and free from violence and providing separate and adequate sanitation facilities that provide privacy and dignity.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 37, "n": 36, "text": "In some countries, adolescent girls are deterred from accessing information and services for family planning and termination of pregnancy that are needed to protect their health and safety and prevent unwanted high-risk pregnancies, including the requirement of third party authorization.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 38, "n": 37, "text": "During pregnancy, many women are vulnerable to malnutrition owing to discrimination in the allocation of food. This can result in a serious and irreversible deterioration of women’s general health and increase the risk of premature delivery, low birth weight and birth defects. After childbirth, such discrimination can continue to affect women’s health, including in connection with breastfeeding. Furthermore, as stated by the Special Rapporteur on the right to food, structural violence is an underexamined barrier to women’s right to adequate food and nutrition. Gender-based violence, which is a primary form of discrimination, can impede women from accessing adequate food and nutrition.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 39, "n": 38, "text": "Delays in seeking appropriate medical care, in reaching an appropriate health facility and in receiving appropriate care once at a facility, along with the lack of accessible maternal health care, are the main reasons behind high rates of maternal mortality and morbidity. A human rights-based approach that provides a functioning health system with adequate supplies, equipment and infrastructure as well as an efficient system of communication, referral and transport are therefore essential to eliminate these preventable deaths and to ensure women’s rights to health and life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 40, "n": 39, "text": "Women’s mental health during pregnancy, childbirth and the post-partum period requires both stability in their environment and emotional support. Reports of disrespect and ill treatment during childbirth in health facilities in many countries provide a deeply distressing picture of the extent of women’s exposure to degrading treatment, lack of privacy, and even verbal and physical violence. Pregnant women are sometimes refused pain relief during labour or anaesthesia during a termination of pregnancy by curettage. The use in some countries of custodial or punitive rather than educative measures to prevent injury to the fetus as result of drug or alcohol consumption by addicted pregnant women is another manifestation of gender discrimination.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 41, "n": 40, "text": "Women have a longer life expectancy and are particularly exposed to neglect and abuse in older age, including in health-care settings, and higher risks of diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease and other forms of dementia. A gender- and age-sensitive approach needs to take into account the specific needs for care and protection of older women, including those widowed, living alone or displaced, those with dementia or other disability, those in need of palliative and geriatric care and those in emergency situations; these women are most at risk of multiple forms of discrimination, violence and poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 42, "n": 41, "text": "In addition, problems associated with ageing affect women disproportionally as a result of the cumulative effect of discriminatory practices women face over the course of their lives, as the Working Group described in its report on discrimination against women in economic and social life (A/HRC/26/39). Women are more likely to take care of men and to be left without spousal support. At the same time, they are more likely to suffer economic disadvantages, exacerbated by discriminatory pension systems that fail to produce equal outcomes for women, and to be excluded from social security and health insurance schemes. They are thus at greater risk of living in poverty. The mere recognition of equal rights for all, without distinction, is thus insufficient to ensure in practice the enjoyment by older women of all human rights, including the right to health.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 43, "n": 2, "text": "Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "1. Discrimination throughout a woman’s life cycle"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 44, "n": 42, "text": "Recognizing and addressing the nature and consequences of multiple and intersectional discrimination against women in national laws and practices is essential for protecting women’s health and safety. Factors such as socioeconomic, minority and ethnic status, religion, race, sexual orientation, gender identity and expression, disability and bodily diversity exacerbate the discrimination that women face and infringe upon their ability to protect their health and safety.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 45, "n": 43, "text": "The Working Group is particularly concerned about the discrimination experienced by women because of their economic status. It has witnessed first-hand during its country visits that women living in poverty are disparately affected in their access to health services, particularly reproductive and sexual health and preventive health care.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women and poverty"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 46, "n": 44, "text": "There is growing concern about the feminization of poverty and the disparate impact of global economic crises, austerity measures and climate change on women’s health and safety. Gender inequality persists in all regions, and women and girls continue to be overrepresented among the world’s population living in poverty. Women and girls, particularly those living in the global South, are disproportionately burdened by the costs of these rapid changes, to the detriment of their personal health and well-being.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women and poverty"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 47, "n": 45, "text": "Women with disabilities face particular barriers in accessing health care for reasons of cost, distance, discriminatory attitudes, and lack of physical access or information. This seriously limits their access to immunization, reproductive health care and cancer screening. In some settings women with disabilities, particularly intellectual disabilities, are subjected to forced sterilization or termination of pregnancy or to long-term contraception, with relatives or doctors taking decisions on their behalf without their informed consent, in violation of their right to exercise legal capacity guaranteed under the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women with disabilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 48, "n": 46, "text": "Women with disabilities are disproportionately subject to intimate-partner violence, owing to the mutually reinforcing dynamics of gender and disability.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women with disabilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 49, "n": 47, "text": "The Special Rapporteur on the rights of persons with disabilities has called on States to guarantee women with disabilities safe participation in matters affecting their lives, especially in relation to sexual and reproductive rights and gender-based violence, including sexual violence, matters which are cited in a recent study as high-priority concerns for women and girls with disabilities.", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women with disabilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 50, "n": 48, "text": "Women are disproportionately vulnerable to HIV/AIDS owing to various factors, including gender-based violence and lack of autonomy to negotiate safe and responsible sexual practices and make informed health-related decisions. Even when women living with HIV/AIDS are able to access health services, they often face stigma and discrimination on the part of health-care professionals, ranging from abuse to denial of services. Laws, policies and practices that prevent women living with HIV from bearing children through, for example, forced termination of pregnancy and forced sterilization constitute an extreme form of discrimination.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women and HIV/AIDS"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 51, "n": 49, "text": "Women migrants are often at great risk of being subjected by public authorities or private individuals to all manner of violence, exploitation, trafficking and slavery while in transit or in detention. These practices can amount to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or torture.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women migrants"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 52, "n": 50, "text": "Women migrant workers, especially those in irregular situations, have greater difficulty in accessing almost all forms of health care, including maternal care, emergency care and treatment for chronic diseases and mental health problems, because they are often denied these rights legally and/or they fear arrest and deportation. In some countries, while legal access to health care for migrant women has been expanded, they still do not receive needed medical services because health-care providers often refuse treat them.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women migrants"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 53, "n": 51, "text": "Even where they are entitled to emergency health care, women migrant domestic workers are often excluded from preventive reproductive and sexual health services, as well as gynaecological and obstetric care, because of their status and lack of access to insurance or national health schemes.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women migrants"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 54, "n": 52, "text": "The pattern of physical, sexual and psychological abuse of migrant domestic workers is widespread. These women are often exposed to health and safety risks without being provided with proper information or adequate protection. Furthermore, the working and living conditions of many undocumented domestic workers, which are tantamount to slavery, and the separation from family members cause serious health, particularly mental health, problems.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women migrants"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 55, "n": 53, "text": "Migrant women may be subject to mandatory pregnancy tests upon arrival in some countries; if the test is positive, they are dismissed and/or deported. Furthermore, pregnancy tests can be imposed on migrant domestic workers during the course of their employment, leading to pregnant women losing their jobs and/or seeking termination of the pregnancy, sometimes by means of unsafe practices, especially in countries that criminalize induced termination. Migrant women have been charged with “illegal sexual relationships” when they become pregnant, including following rape. They are held in detention centres in deplorable conditions pending their deportation, or face severe punishment, including the death penalty in countries where sexual relationships outside marriage are criminalized.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women migrants"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 56, "n": 54, "text": "Indigenous women experience a complex spectrum of mutually reinforcing human rights abuses which is influenced by intersecting forms of discrimination and marginalization, reinforced by patriarchal power structures and past and present forms of violations of the right to self-determination and control of resources. These intersecting forms of discrimination have profound health consequences for indigenous women, especially for their reproductive and sexual health. The Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples has reported (see A/HRC/30/41) about the barriers to reproductive and sexual health services encountered by indigenous women as well as past and recurrent human rights violations in relation to their sexual and reproductive rights. For example, indigenous women experience disproportionately higher levels of maternal mortality, indigenous girls are overrepresented among pregnant teenagers and indigenous women have lower rates of contraceptive use and higher rates of sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS. Historically, there have also been instances of serious violations of indigenous women’s rights to reproductive health in the context of the denial of the rights of indigenous peoples to self-determination and cultural autonomy. Those violations include forced sterilization of indigenous women and attempts to force them to have children with non-indigenous men as part of policies of cultural assimilation. Indigenous women may also face barriers to preventive care services that support their right to health, such as screening for ovarian and breast cancer.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Indigenous women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 57, "n": 55, "text": "The deplorable health outcomes for indigenous women are linked to decades of oppression and human rights violations against indigenous peoples, and against indigenous women in particular. Furthermore, non-indigenous health systems generally do not take into account the indigenous concept of health and health care, thereby creating barriers to access by indigenous women. Data usually fail to capture information on indigenous communities, rendering them “invisible”. Even when such information exists, it is generally not disaggregated by sex. Additionally, indigenous women are disproportionately affected by illness owing to reduced coping capacity caused by the denial of other human rights and by extreme poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Indigenous women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 58, "n": 56, "text": "Rural women are particularly affected by patriarchal gender stereotypes and roles and are extremely vulnerable to harmful practices such as early or forced marriage and female genital mutilation, as well as to violence and poverty. These practices have a negative impact on their right to health. Rural women are usually particularly disadvantaged in accessing health-care services, including reproductive and sexual health services.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Rural women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 59, "n": 57, "text": "As highlighted by the Special Rapporteur on minority issues (A/HRC/31/56), minority women, including women affected by discrimination based on caste, are particularly vulnerable to violations of their right to health, including reproductive and sexual health. Women members of “lower caste” groups present the worst health outcomes, especially in terms of life expectancy, access to maternal care, nutrition and incidence of infections. Roma women are the subjects of degrading stereotypes, depicted as “fertile” and “promiscuous”; this increases their vulnerability to gender-based violence and forced sterilization.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Minority women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 60, "n": 58, "text": "In many settings, especially where same-sex consensual sexual behaviour is prohibited, lesbian, bisexual and transgender persons are deterred from seeking health services out of fear of being arrested and prosecuted. Even in countries where same-sex sexual orientation is not criminalized, lesbians are often discriminated against and mistreated by medical providers, which deters them from seeking health services. In some settings, they are subjected to coercive, inhumane and degrading practices such as “corrective” or punitive rape. Transgender persons are often subjected in law and practice to compulsory medical interventions without being given an opportunity for informed decision-making and choice. Their gender identity is pathologized in many countries and they are often subjected to mental and physical examinations and treatments and forced to undergo “conversion therapies”. Transgender persons’ biological needs, such as transition-related medical services, screening for cervical cancer, termination of pregnancy and contraception, are often refused by service providers.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women’s sexual orientation and gender identity"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 61, "n": 59, "text": "Women in detention have specific health needs, particularly in terms of mental and reproductive health care, that are often neglected. Preventive services related to cervical and breast cancer are often unavailable and antiretroviral therapy, even for pregnant women living with HIV/AIDS, is completely absent in some facilities. The lack of adequate access to hygiene facilities and products for women prisoners is a typical and crucial concern in all regions of the world, jeopardizing the dignity and health of women prisoners. Practices such as shackling pregnant inmates during labour still occur in some countries. Detained women also face violence, including sexual violence from other prisoners or by staff.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women deprived of liberty"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 62, "n": 60, "text": "Women prisoners show high rates of mental health problems owing to violence and trauma to which they had been exposed and which are exacerbated by imprisonment. Concerns about their children also have a significant impact on the mental health of women prisoners, especially when they are breastfeeding; separation from their children creates anxiety and guilt, resulting in great suffering. Women are more likely to harm themselves or attempt suicide while in detention than men. Extensive reliance on preventive use of psychotropic medication for “safety” reasons in such situations is an example of overmedicalization.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "C. Discriminatory practices", "2. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination", "Women deprived of liberty"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 63, "n": 61, "text": "Throughout their life cycle, women’s bodies are instrumentalized and their biological functions and needs are stigmatized and subjected to a politicized patriarchal agenda. States have also often treated women instrumentally as tools with which to implement population programmes and policies. This is sometimes carried out through the use of criminal sanctions and often under the guise of protecting women’s health and safety and with cultural or religious justifications.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 64, "n": 62, "text": "Much of the discrimination in access to health services and the resulting preventable ill health of women, including maternal mortality and morbidity and infertility, can be attributed to the instrumentalization of women’s bodies for political, cultural, religious and economic purposes.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 65, "n": 63, "text": "The instrumentalization of women’s bodies may result in conditioning women’s access to medical assistance on the consent of a spouse or male guardian, causing withholding or delay of treatment, curtailment of women’s autonomy and denial of respect for privacy and obstructing their access to health care, particularly reproductive and sexual health care. Patriarchal negation of women’s autonomy in decision-making leads to violation of women’s rights to health, privacy, reproductive and sexual self-determination, physical integrity and even to life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "1. Negation of autonomy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 66, "n": 64, "text": "In patriarchal cultures, the preference for sons leads to the prioritization of boys’ and men’s health before that of women and girls, resulting in discriminatory practices such as female infanticide. This is evident in cultural customs relating to food which cause girls and women, including pregnant and nursing women, to suffer disproportionately from malnutrition.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "2. Effects of son preference"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 67, "n": 3, "text": "Harmful gender stereotypes Objectification of women", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "2. Effects of son preference"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 68, "n": 65, "text": "The instrumentalization of women’s bodies as objects to serve sexual and other purposes leads to practices such as invasive cosmetic procedures. Unhealthy dieting, particularly among adolescent girls, can have disastrous health consequences, including eating disorders such as anorexia and bulimia.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "3. Harmful gender stereotypes", "Objectification of women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 69, "n": 66, "text": "According to WHO, a body mass index under 16 represents severe thinness. Setting minimum standards of weight for fashion models in line with health guidance via national legislation and policies and/or regulations by modelling agencies as well as advertising campaigns embracing the diversity of female forms are good practices. The development of new models of dolls with body proportions corresponding to those of healthy women is another.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "3. Harmful gender stereotypes", "Objectification of women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 70, "n": 67, "text": "Stigma is a deeply entrenched social and cultural phenomenon which lies at the root of many human rights violations and results in entire population groups being disadvantaged and excluded, as the Special Rapporteur on the right to water and sanitation has noted (A/HRC/30/39). Women are exposed to harmful gender stereotypes or taboos regarding natural and biological functions such as menstruation, breastfeeding and menopause. Diagnosis of mental illnesses in women is biased so as to stigmatize them and has been used as a justification for institutionalizing women unnecessarily against their will.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "3. Harmful gender stereotypes", "Stigmatization of women’s health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 71, "n": 68, "text": "Menstruation is surrounded by stigma, resulting in the ostracism of and discrimination against women and girls. In some cultures menstruating women and girls are considered to be contaminated and impure and restrictions and interdictions during menstruation are imposed on them. Women and girls may continue to harbour internalized stigma and are embarrassed to discuss menstruation even where there are no restrictions. They live with a lack of privacy for cleaning and washing, a fear of staining and smelling and a lack of hygiene in school toilets or separate sanitation facilities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "3. Harmful gender stereotypes", "Stigmatization of women’s health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 72, "n": 69, "text": "Furthermore, many girls do not receive sexuality education, including knowledge about the functioning of their bodies, and hygienic materials for menstruation are either unavailable or too costly. They are forced to use improvised, unhygienic materials that may lead to leaking and infections.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "3. Harmful gender stereotypes", "Stigmatization of women’s health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 73, "n": 70, "text": "The stigma and shame generated by stereotypes around menstruation have severe impacts on all aspects of women’s and girls’ lives, on their dignity and well-being as well as on their right to education and to employment, as they may feel obliged to stay home from school or work every month because of appropriate facilities and hygienic items are not available. Characterizing women’s menstrual pain as “neurotic” tends to make women reluctant to seek help, which can delay diagnosis of, for example, the severely disabling disease of endometriosis, in which tissue that normally grows inside the uterus grows in an abnormal anatomical location.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "3. Harmful gender stereotypes", "Stigmatization of women’s health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 74, "n": 71, "text": "Prejudices surrounding menopause may affect women’s confidence in professional and public life, owing to age-based discrimination in the workplace. In some societies, this question is poorly addressed and understood, if at all. Medicalization through hormone replacement therapy, and pressure on active women to use it, even where there are health contraindications, can have a detrimental effect on women’s mental health.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "3. Harmful gender stereotypes", "Stigmatization of women’s health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 75, "n": 72, "text": "Similarly, instrumentalization and stigmatization are at work regarding breastfeeding in public spaces and at workplaces. Aside from the fact that breastfeeding is often promoted or discouraged for economic reasons, it may be viewed as inappropriate even in countries where the practice is legally protected, exposing women to unnecessary stress and pressure from intimidation and harassment. According to the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the majority of the approximately 830 million women workers worldwide do not enjoy workplace policies that support nursing mothers.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "3. Harmful gender stereotypes", "Stigmatization of women’s health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 76, "n": 4, "text": "Pathologization and overmedicalization of women", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "3. Harmful gender stereotypes", "Stigmatization of women’s health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 77, "n": 73, "text": "Viewing women’s behaviour and biological physiology, in particular their reproductive functions and sexuality, as symptomatic of medical problems reflects a history of gendered pathologization. Historically, pathologization, unnecessary medicalization and institutionalization in mental care facilities have functioned as forms of social control exercised by patriarchal establishments to preserve the gender roles of women. Pathologization of women’s behaviour has been evidenced in psychiatric diagnoses, which often directly target perceived immoral activity such as unconventional sexual activity or intellectual independence as a source of mental illness or disorder.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "4. Pathologization and overmedicalization of women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 78, "n": 74, "text": "The Working Group is concerned that many national laws and policies provide for overmedicalization of certain services that women need to preserve their health without a justified medical reason. These include requirements that only doctors can perform certain services, such as pharmaceutical termination of pregnancy or obstetric care. In many countries, women are not given a free choice between different ways of giving birth. Caesarian sections, when medically justified, can be crucial in preventing maternal and perinatal mortality and morbidity. However, studies conducted by WHO demonstrated that performing caesarian sections on more than 10 per cent of women does not lead to improvement in mortality rates. Caesarean section rates of 30 per cent in some countries demonstrate overmedicalization of childbirth, with the risks of obstetrical complications and health problems.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "4. Pathologization and overmedicalization of women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 79, "n": 75, "text": "Overmedicalization may result in reduced access to or affordability of services needed by women and a barrier to developing adequate alternative services which can be competently provided by nurses, midwives or auxiliary nurses, either at clinics or at home. Such “task shifting”, particularly in places where there are few qualified doctors, would make services more accessible. Similarly, restricting authorization for the use of contraceptives to a medical practitioner is a barrier to access. Allowing pharmacists to provide contraceptives, including emergency contraceptives, over the counter is essential for effective availability, especially for economically disadvantaged women or adolescent girls.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "4. Pathologization and overmedicalization of women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 80, "n": 5, "text": "Discriminatory use of the criminal law", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "4. Pathologization and overmedicalization of women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 81, "n": 76, "text": "The discriminatory use of criminal law, punitive sanctions and legal restrictions to regulate women’s control over their own bodies is a severe and unjustified form of State control. This can include punitive provisions in criminal, civil and administrative laws and regulations governing extramarital consensual sex, same-sex consensual adult relations, gender non-conforming expressions, provision of reproductive and sexual education and information, termination of pregnancy and prostitution/sex work. The enforcement of such provisions generates stigma and discrimination and violates women’s human rights. It infringes women’s dignity and bodily integrity by restricting their autonomy to make decisions about their own lives and health.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 82, "n": 77, "text": "States also violate women’s right to health and safety where women are penalized for sexual or reproductive conduct that should not be criminally prohibited, such as adultery, prostitution or termination of pregnancy; States also violate the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment where they impose penalties such as stoning and lashing.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 83, "n": 78, "text": "Criminalization of behaviour that is attributed only to women is discriminatory per se and generates and perpetuates stigma. The threat of criminal punishment restricts women’s access to sexual and reproductive health-care services and information and acts as a deterrent to health-care professionals, thus barring women’s and girls’ access to health-care services.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 84, "n": 79, "text": "Criminalization of termination of pregnancy is one of the most damaging ways of instrumentalizing and politicizing women’s bodies and lives, subjecting them to risks to their lives or health in order to preserve their function as reproductive agents and depriving them of autonomy in decision-making about their own bodies. Restrictive laws apply to 40 per cent of women worldwide. In some countries, as a result of retrogressive anti-abortion laws, women are imprisoned for having had a miscarriage, imposing an intolerable cost on the women, their families and their societies.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law", "Criminalizing and restricting the provision of and access to safe, legal services for termination of pregnancy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 85, "n": 80, "text": "As demonstrated by WHO data, criminalizing termination of pregnancy does not reduce the need for it. Rather, it is likely to increase the number of women seeking clandestine and unsafe solutions. Countries in Northern Europe, where women gained the right to termination of pregnancy in the 1970s or 1980s and are provided with access to information and to all methods of contraception, have the lowest rates of termination of pregnancy. Ultimately, criminalization does grave harm to women’s health and human rights by stigmatizing a safe and needed medical procedure. In countries where induced termination of pregnancy is restricted by law and/or otherwise unavailable, safe termination of pregnancy is a privilege of the rich, while women with limited resources have little choice but to resort to unsafe providers and practices. This results in severe discrimination against economically disadvantaged women, which the Working Group has highlighted during its country visits.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law", "Criminalizing and restricting the provision of and access to safe, legal services for termination of pregnancy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 86, "n": 81, "text": "It is important to recall that the use of effective contraception can result in lowering the incidence of unintended pregnancy. However, contraception cannot eliminate women’s need for access to termination of pregnancy, for example in the case of rape. In addition, no method of contraception is 100 per cent effective in preventing pregnancy.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law", "Criminalizing and restricting the provision of and access to safe, legal services for termination of pregnancy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 87, "n": 82, "text": "In addition, restrictions on access to information on termination of pregnancy and services can deter women from seeking professional medical attention, with detrimental consequences for their health and safety. Examples of restrictions include criminalization of medical practitioners who provide these services; prohibiting access to information on legal termination of pregnancy; requiring third-party authorization from one or more medical professionals, a hospital committee, a parent, guardian or spouse; conscientious objection by health practitioners without provision of an alternative; requiring compulsory waiting periods; and excluding coverage for termination of pregnancy services under health insurance. None of these requirements is justified on health grounds.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law", "Criminalizing and restricting the provision of and access to safe, legal services for termination of pregnancy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 88, "n": 83, "text": "International and regional human rights bodies have called on States to decriminalize access to termination of pregnancy and to liberalize laws and policies in order to guarantee women’s access to safe services. Treaty bodies, including the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, have requested States, through their jurisprudence, their general comments/recommendations and their concluding observations, to review national legislation with a view to decriminalizing termination of pregnancy and to ensure a woman’s right to termination of pregnancy where there is a threat to her life or health, or where the pregnancy is the result of rape or incest. The Committee against Torture and the Human Rights Committee have determined that, in some cases, being forced to carry an unwanted pregnancy to term amounts to cruel and inhuman treatment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law", "Criminalizing and restricting the provision of and access to safe, legal services for termination of pregnancy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 89, "n": 84, "text": "Criminal laws and other punitive regulations have imposed custodial sentences on women involved in prostitution/sex work in a manner that has been shown to harm rather than protect them. The Working Group considers that the criminalization of women in prostitution/sex work places them in a situation of injustice, vulnerability and stigma and is contrary to international human rights law. It notes that the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women calls for prohibition of the exploitation of prostitution and not for punishment of the women in prostitution/sex work themselves; the well-established position of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women that women should not be criminalized for prostitution; and the stipulation in the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (Palermo Protocol) that efforts should be made to discourage the demand that fosters all forms of exploitation of women, including trafficking for sexual exploitation.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law", "Criminalization of women who engage in prostitution/sex work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 90, "n": 85, "text": "International organizations and human rights bodies have called on States to ensure, at a minimum, that women in prostitution/sex workers have the right to access sexual health services; are free from violence or discrimination, whether committed by State agents or private persons; and have access to equal protection of the law. In particular, States should also ensure that law enforcement officials serve a protective function, as opposed to engaging in or perpetuating violence against women in prostitution/sex workers. A number of States have introduced regulations that cover health and safety issues, including access to health services, medical insurance and social security benefits that have had a positive impact on women engaged in prostitution/sex work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "D. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies", "5. Discriminatory use of the criminal law", "Criminalization of women who engage in prostitution/sex work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 91, "n": 86, "text": "Autonomous access to health care means ensuring a woman’s right to make decisions concerning her health, fertility and sexuality free of coercion and violence. Key to this is the notion of choice. The rights to informed consent and confidentiality are crucial to ensuring that women can make decisions freely. These rights impose corresponding duties upon health-care providers, who are bound to disclose information about proposed treatments and alternatives in order to aid informed consent and to respect the right to refuse treatment; likewise, they are bound to maintain confidentiality to allow women to make private decisions without the interference of others whom they have not chosen to consult and who might not have their best interests at heart. Autonomy means that a woman seeking services in relation to her health, fertility or sexuality is entitled to be treated as an individual in her own right, the sole beneficiary of the service provided by the health-care practitioner and fully competent to make decisions concerning her own health. This is a matter of, among other things, a woman’s right to equality before the law.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "1. Autonomous access"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 92, "n": 87, "text": "Even where significant resources are being put in place to provide universal health care, women continue to have unequal access to good-quality health-care services in many countries. This is often because the health services that only women need are excluded from insurance coverage and are not affordable.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "2. Affordable health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 93, "n": 88, "text": "Economically disadvantaged women who do not have the means to access private health care and services are disparately affected by barriers created by unaffordability. It is therefore important for States to ensure that all health care is affordable and to remove legal restrictions that in effect discriminate against women who are economically disadvantaged.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "2. Affordable health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 94, "n": 89, "text": "Health care is often unaffordable owing to discriminatory health insurance coverage. Some health insurance policies and programmes exclude various aspects of reproductive health care, including modern forms of contraception, termination of pregnancy and maternal care. Alternatively, some private health insurance schemes insure women’s reproductive health needs but add a surcharge to the premiums paid by women. Good practice includes measures that discourage insurance companies from charging women more for health insurance than men because of perceived higher costs associated with women’s reproductive health needs.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "2. Affordable health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 95, "n": 90, "text": "Public funding is necessary to subsidize primary health-care services, including medications, contraceptives, legal termination of pregnancy and treatment of sexually transmitted infections. Such services should be affordable and, in the case of economically disadvantaged women, provided free of charge. User or “informal” fees for health-care services increase the risk that these women will either forgo services or resort to substandard services, perhaps from unqualified providers.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "2. Affordable health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 96, "n": 91, "text": "Good practices include listing as essential medicines all those recommended as necessary for women’s health in the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, public subsidization of the cost of women’s health-related services for everyone and subsidies to women of a given age or income.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "2. Affordable health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 97, "n": 92, "text": "Unaffordability of medicines is also closely linked to intellectual property laws, many of which provide exclusive patents for new medicines for long periods. However, intellectual property laws that fail to address the medical needs of women obstruct access to medicines by pushing up the price and by impeding the production and distribution of low-cost generic drugs. The right to health requires States to ensure that the pharmaceutical companies that hold a patent on essential medicines and medical devices make use of all the arrangements at their disposal to render the medicines accessible to all.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "2. Affordable health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 98, "n": 3, "text": "Effective access Conscientious objection to providing health services", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "2. Affordable health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 99, "n": 93, "text": "Inadequately regulated conscientious objection may constitute a barrier for women when exercising their right to have access to reproductive and sexual health services. The jurisprudence of human rights treaty bodies states that where conscientious objection is permitted, States still have an obligation to ensure that women’s access to reproductive health services is not limited and that conscientious objection is a personal, not an institutional, practice.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "3. Effective access", "Conscientious objection to providing health services"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 100, "n": 94, "text": "A number of countries have legal guarantees that protect women in the case of conscience-based refusal of care. They include the requirement of referral to non-objecting providers, registration/written notice to the employer and/or a government body, disclosure of information to patients about the provider’s status as a conscientious objector, provision of services in cases of emergency, and restriction of the right to conscientious objection to the individuals directly involved in the medical intervention and not institutions or those indirectly involved, such as pharmacists. The Working Group reiterates that the enjoyment of the right to freedom of religion or belief cannot be used to justify gender discrimination and therefore should not be regarded as a justification for hindering the realization of women’s right to the highest attainable standard of health.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "3. Effective access", "Conscientious objection to providing health services"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 101, "n": 95, "text": "Restrictions in many countries on girls’ and women’s access to unbiased, quality education, including evidence-based comprehensive sexuality education, and information about where and how to obtain essential health services prevent women from making free and informed decisions about their health and safety and hence obstruct proper, informed access to health care. This is particularly true for adolescents and marginalized women facing multiple and intersectional forms of discrimination. Such restrictions are manifestations of censorship that limit women’s and girls’ choices.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "3. Effective access", "Education and information"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 102, "n": 96, "text": "States have an obligation to provide education, one of whose aims is to facilitate access to scientific and technical knowledge. This is of crucial importance with respect to questions of sexuality, reproduction and health education. States have an obligation to allow information about health matters to flow freely, without State interference on moral or other grounds. It also encompasses the possibility for non-State actors to disseminate information, including in relation to sexuality and sexual and reproductive health services. However, States also have an obligation to address and eliminate harmful and wrongful gender stereotypes that contribute to the violation of women’s right to health and safety.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "3. Effective access", "Education and information"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 103, "n": 97, "text": "A growing number of States worldwide have confirmed their commitment to comprehensive sexuality education as an essential priority for achieving national development, health and education goals. In its resolution 70/137, the General Assembly called upon all States to develop and implement educational programmes and teaching materials, as well as teacher education and training programmes for both formal and non-formal education, including comprehensive evidence-based education on human sexuality, based on full and accurate information, for all adolescents and youth; to modify the social and cultural patterns of conduct of men and women of all ages; to eliminate prejudices; and to promote and build decision-making, communication and risk reduction skills for the development of respectful relationships based on gender equality and human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: eliminating discrimination against women with regard to health and safety", "E. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care", "3. Effective access", "Education and information"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 104, "n": 98, "text": "In the context of women’s and girls’ health and safety, equality means the provision of differential services, treatment and medicines in accordance with their specific biological needs, throughout their life cycle. In many countries there is discriminatory exclusion and neglect of women in providing the highest attainable standard of health for women. Discrimination is particularly evident regarding women’s right to reproductive and sexual health. It is exacerbated in the case of women members of marginalized groups. Discrimination against women and girls leading to the violation of their right to health and safety denies their right to human dignity.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 105, "n": 99, "text": "The Working Group found that instrumentalization and politicization of women’s biological functions in many countries subjects legislation and policies regarding women’s and girls’ health and safety to patriarchal agendas, especially regarding reproductive and sexual health and mental health. The Working Group found manifestations in all regions of instrumentalization, taboos regarding menstruation and breastfeeding and stereotypes which result in harmful practices such as female genital mutilation or which have a negative impact on women’s body image, leading to their seeking invasive cosmetic procedures.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 106, "n": 100, "text": "Women’s access to health services in many countries is not autonomous, affordable and effective, elements which are essential for States to respect, protect and fulfil women’s and girls’ rights to life, health, privacy, equality and human dignity. A major barrier is lack of affordability as a result of exclusion from insurance for treatments specifically needed by women and girls or exclusion of groups of women such as migrants. Non-affordability severely discriminates against women living in poverty. Barriers also include restrictive legislative requirements, biased and stigmatized provision of services and conscientious objection to providing services.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 107, "n": 101, "text": "Health services are provided by various actors, State and non-State. All actors have some form of responsibility for providing equal access for women to the highest attainable standard of health, including with regard to their reproductive and sexual health. The State has a due diligence obligation to ensure that private actors do not discriminate against women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0108", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 108, "n": 102, "text": "The result of the various forms of discrimination against women in the provision of health services is the costly and tragic phenomenon of women’s preventable ill health.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0109", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 109, "n": 103, "text": "The Working Group calls upon the Human Rights Council to urge States to take all necessary measures to respect, protect and fulfil women’s right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standards of health worldwide, including regarding their reproductive and sexual health, and to dedicate priority attention to a thorough stocktaking, including by convening an appropriate forum to tackle this crucial issue.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. General recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0110", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 110, "n": 104, "text": "The Working Group calls upon all Member States to reaffirm and respect the commitments they made in Beijing and in Cairo and in the Sustainable Development Goals to implement the comprehensive provisions concerning women’s health in the agreements they adopted and to develop national laws, policies and programmes within the framework of international human rights standards.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. General recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0111", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 111, "n": 105, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Apply human rights standards and principles of equality, non-discrimination and empowerment of women as the framework for all interventions regarding women’s health and safety;\n(b) Be guided by an understanding of women’s right to equality, which requires differential treatment in health, including and beyond their sexual and reproductive health, in designing policy measures and resource allocations;\n(c) Take into account the impact of women’s safety on their physical and mental health and protect women and girls from violence at home, on their way to or at school and in other public spaces and in health facilities;\n(d) Adopt a holistic approach towards women’s health and safety by looking at their full life cycle from childhood to old age as interconnected phases with distinct considerations and needs, and in this regard:\n(i) Take effective measures to prevent child marriage and adolescent pregnancies and provide girls with comprehensive education based on scientific evidence on matters of health, including sexuality;\n(ii) Address the gender discrimination that exists in some cultures in the provision of food to the girl child, including through the empowerment of women and girls;\n(iii) Allow pregnant girls and adolescents to terminate unwanted pregnancies, as a measure of equality and health, so that they can complete their school education and protect them from the high risk to life and health, including from obstetric fistula, in continuing to bring a pregnancy to term;\n(iv) Reduce maternal mortality and morbidity by ensuring proper prenatal, birthing and post-natal care, including, where necessary, safe termination of pregnancy.\n(v) Reduce the high incidence of maternal mortality among women with HIV/AIDS, both by preventing infection, particularly of women in prostitution/sex workers, and by free and secure provision of condoms and of antiretroviral treatment for pregnant women;\n(vi) Provide adequate nutrition and free services for pregnant and lactating women, as required by the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women;\n(vii) Ensure that laws, policies and practices mandate respect for women’s autonomy in their decision-making, especially regarding pregnancy, birthing and postnatal care;\n(viii) Provide gender- and age-sensitive health-care services for older women, taking cognizance of their heightened health and safety vulnerability;\n(e) Provide special protection and support services to women facing multiple forms of discrimination, and in this regard:\n(i) Ensure that health services, including reproductive and sexual health, for women with disabilities are available and accessible on an equal basis with others and that their autonomy and decision-making, including in relation to their sexuality and reproduction, are guaranteed in accordance with the principles of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities;\n(ii) Provide health-care coverage for migrant women and domestic workers, whose sexual and reproductive health, preventive health care and protection against gender-based violence are otherwise prejudiced;\n(iii) Ensure social and health-care benefits, entitlements and protection to lesbians and bisexual and transgender persons without discrimination;\n(iv) Provide access to preventive and remedial health services for women in prison, including in relation to cervical and breast cancer, contraception, antiretroviral therapy and gender transition, and take all necessary measures to protect them from violence;\n(v) Allow non-custodial sentences for pregnant women and women with dependent children in accordance with the United Nations Rules for the Treatment of Women Prisoners and Non-custodial Measures for Women Offenders (the Bangkok Rules).", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "LGBTI+", "Migrants", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Equality and non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0112", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 112, "n": 106, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Take measures to combat and eliminate, in legislation and policies, cultural practices and social stereotypes, all forms of instrumentalization of women’s bodies and biological functions;\n(b) Eliminate harmful gender stereotypes, which could lead to anorexia and bulimia and invasive cosmetic procedures;\n(c) Prevent exclusion from the public space during menstruation or breastfeeding and prevent discrimination in relation to menopause in the workplace;\n(d) Take and implement strong and efficient measures to prevent female genital mutilation and other harmful practices;\n(e) Decriminalize sexual and reproductive behaviours that are attributed exclusively or mainly to women, including adultery and prostitution, and termination of pregnancy;\n(f) Combat stereotyping and empower girls to take care of their own health and safety from a young age, both at school and at home, and inform and empower women regarding their own bodies at all stages of their lives;\n(g) Regulate birthing facilities to ensure respect for women’s autonomy and privacy and human dignity, including respect for women’s choice regarding home deliveries provided there are no specific medical contraindications;\n(h) Prevent instrumentalization of women in the birthing process and ensure that penalties are incurred for gynaecological or obstetrical violence, including performing abusive caesarean sections, refusing to give women pain relief during birth or surgical termination of pregnancy and performing unnecessary episiotomies;\n(i) Use educational and social work alternatives instead of custodial or punitive measures to prevent injury to the fetus as a result of drug or alcohol consumption by addicted pregnant women;\n(j) Monitor and prevent the use of mental health to institutionalize women unnecessarily as a social control mechanism.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0113", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 113, "n": 107, "text": "In relation to reproductive and sexual health care, the Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Abolish bans on contraception, including emergency contraceptives, and provide access to affordable modern contraceptives;\n(b) Repeal restrictive laws and policies in relation to termination of pregnancy, especially in cases of risk to the life or health, including the mental health, of the pregnant woman, rape, incest and fatal impairment of the fetus, recognizing that such laws and policies in any case primarily affect women living in poverty in a highly discriminatory way;\n(c) Recognize women's right to be free from unwanted pregnancies and ensure access to affordable and effective family planning measures. Noting that many countries where women have the right to abortion on request supported by affordable and effective family planning measures have the lowest abortion rates in the world, States should allow women to terminate a pregnancy on request during the first trimester or later in the specific cases listed above;\n(d) Discontinue the use of criminal law to punish woman for ending a pregnancy and provide women and girls with medical treatment for miscarriage and complications of unsafe termination of pregnancy;\n(e) Eliminate discriminatory barriers to access to legal termination of pregnancy that not based on medical needs, such as waiting periods for implementation of the decision to terminate a pregnancy, authorization requirements for reproductive health clinics and staff, and unduly restrictive interpretations of legal grounds for termination of pregnancy.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "C. Instrumentalization of women’s bodies"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-32-44-0114", "docId": "a-hrc-32-44", "idx": 114, "n": 108, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Ensure that access to health care is autonomous, affordable and effective;\n(b) Address underlying factors which negate women’s autonomy in decision-making regarding their own lives, health or bodies, through education, provision of information and monitoring mechanisms to ensure that their autonomy is respected at all levels of the health-care system;\n(c) Invalidate conditioning of women’s and girls’ access to health care on third-party authorization;\n(d) Provide training to health providers, including on gender equality and non-discrimination, respect for women’s rights and dignity and recognition of alternative medicine;\n(e) Provide non-discriminatory health insurance coverage for women, without surcharges for coverage of their reproductive and sexual health;\n(f) Include contraception of choice, preventive care and treatment for cervical and breast cancer, termination of pregnancy and maternity care in universal health care or subsidize provision of these treatments and medicines to ensure that they are affordable;\n(g) Restrict conscientious objection to the direct provider of the medical intervention and allow conscientious objection only where an alternative can be found for the patient to access treatment within the time needed for performance of the procedure;\n(h) Exercise due diligence to ensure that the diverse actors and corporate and individual health providers who provide health services or produce medications do so in a non-discriminatory way and establish guidelines for the equal treatment of women patients under their codes of conduct;\n(i) Provide age-appropriate, comprehensive and inclusive sexuality education based on scientific evidence and human rights, for girls and boys, as part of the mandatory school programmes. Sexuality education should give particular attention to gender equality, sexuality, relationships, gender identity, including non-conforming gender identities, and responsible parenthood and sexual behaviour to prevent early pregnancies and sexually transmitted infections;\n(j) Ensure that the standards contained in the present recommendations are observed and enforced by all health-care providers, public or private, and engage both women and men, as appropriate, in efforts to prevent discrimination, stereotyping and instrumentalization of women’s bodies and biological functions.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2016, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "D. Autonomous, affordable and effective access to health care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report covers the activities of the Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice undertaken since the submission of its previous report (A/HRC/32/44) until March 2017.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["` I. Activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The Working Group held two sessions in New York and one in Geneva during the period under review.[[fn:1]] The roles of Chair-Rapporteur and Vice-Chair of the Working Group were carried out by Alda Facio and Kamala Chandrakirana, respectively. At its sixteenth session (18-22 July 2016), the Group held consultations on good practices with various stakeholders, including States, civil society organizations and relevant United Nations entities. It also met, inter alia, with the office of the Special Rapporteur on Women’s Rights of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "During the previous cycle, two sessions had been held in Geneva and one in New York."}], "section": ["` I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "At its seventeenth session (10-14 October 2016), the Working Group continued its consultations on good practices. It held meetings with members of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Special Rapporteur on the right to education, the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of migrants, the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights and the Inter-Parliamentary Union. It also held consultations with various concerned stakeholders on the implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["` I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At its eighteenth session (23-27 January 2017), the Working Group completed its work on the compendium of good practices. It chaired a round-table discussion on women migrant workers, organized by the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), with the participation of members from the Committee on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families, as well as State and civil society representatives. It also met with concerned United Nations entities, including UN-Women and UNFPA, on the indicators of the Sustainable Development Goals.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["` I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The experts visited Hungary from 17 to 27 May 2016 (A/HRC/35/29/Add.1) and Kuwait from 6 to 15 December 2016 (A/HRC/35/29/Add.2). They wish to thank the Governments of those countries for their cooperation before and during the visits. It also thanks the Governments of Chad and Samoa for having invited the Working Group to conduct official visits in 2017.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["` I. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "During the period under review, the Working Group addressed communications to Governments, individually or jointly with other mandate holders. The communications concerned a wide range of subjects falling within its mandate, including discriminatory legislation and practices, allegations of abuses of women human rights defenders and violations of their rights, gender-based violence and rights to reproductive and sexual health (see A/HRC/33/32, A/HRC/34/75 and A/HRC/35/44). The Working Group also issued press releases, individually or jointly with other mandate holders and treaty bodies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["` I. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "A member of the Working Group attended the sixty-first session of the Commission on the Status of Women, held in New York from 13 to 17 March. She participated, inter alia, in a high-level interactive dialogue on accelerating the implementation of commitments contained in the agreed conclusions for gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls, in an event on strengthened cooperation between the international and regional human rights mechanisms on women’s rights and participated in several consultations. She met with the Secretary General together with a group of women’s rights experts.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["` I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "A member of the Working Group participated in the 2016 Forum on Business and Human Rights, where she spoke on 14 November in a panel discussion on embedding gender in the business and human rights agenda.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["` I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "In September 2016, the Chair participated in the thirteenth annual forum of the Association for Women’s Rights in Development, on the theme “Feminist futures: building collective power for rights and justice”, attended by more than 2,000 activists from all regions of the world.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["` I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "In May 2016, a member of the Working Group attended the Symbolic Tribunal on Maternal Mortality and Obstetric Violence, held in Mexico and co-organized by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights OHCHR.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["` I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The present report focuses on good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women in law and practice and women’s empowerment pursuant to Human Rights Council resolution 15/23, in which the Council established the mandate of the Working Group, including the collection of best practices in the area of the mandate and the development of a compendium of best practices.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The Working Group, in establishing its conceptual framework and working methods (A/HRC/20/28), decided to use the term of “good” or “promising” practices rather than “best” practices, taking into account the complex contextual framework of the wide spectrum of good to bad practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The present report builds on the Working Group’s first six years of work, of which investigating good practices was a core undertaking. It is the fruit of a long-term process of inquiry and consultation undertaken with States, United Nations agencies and civil society. It is informed by the Group’s 4 thematic reports and 12 country visits, as well as data gathered through research and consultations held specifically for the present report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "The Working Group wishes to express gratitude for the information submitted by diverse stakeholders in response to its questionnaire.[[fn:2]] In order to ensure diverse inputs, the Group also benefitted from the support of a team of researchers based in all regions of the world, coordinated by the Women’s Human Rights Education Institute. It also held consultations with States, civil society organizations and United Nations entities when support was available. The enormous amount of data received goes well beyond the bounds of the present report and is available on the Group’s website.3 2 See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/CompendiumGoodPractices.aspx. 3 Ibid.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/CompendiumGoodPractices.aspx."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "The Working Group appreciates that significant work has been done by other human rights mechanisms and United Nations agencies to gather good practices in the context of their work. It notes that there is no harmonized understanding of how to identify and investigate good practices, particularly in the context of the elimination of discrimination against women. Building on existing work in this area, the Group seeks to articulate its experience and expertise to further the conversation on methodological understandings of “good practices” and/or “promising practices” in the context of ending discrimination against women, to identify and share examples of good practices that serve as creative inspiration for the implementation of women’s human rights in multiple contexts, and to open an ongoing engagement process of collective knowledge-building in this area.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "The purpose of the compendium, an exercise that extends beyond merely compiling a series of good laws or legal amendments, is to explore good practices that promote the elimination of discrimination against women, supporting both de jure and de facto realization of rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "The law is an essential mechanism for women’s enjoyment of human rights. Law is both informed by and the creator of norms in society. Laws determine the values and operating principles by which actions and behaviours are deemed acceptable, or criminalized and stigmatized, and can have an enabling or chilling effect on women’s human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The Working Group considers that laws may at times constitute good practices in and of themselves, but that more often they function as a component in the development of good practices. Constitutional amendments, laws or legal reforms, court decisions and the full range of ways in which laws are crafted and codified in diverse societies form an important piece of the “good practices” puzzle, and can have an immediate impact on de facto equality. A law can be “promising” or “good” in its crafting and articulation, and a court decision can be good, but for it to be considered a good practice, a wider context must be considered than can be found simply through analysis of a legal text. The Group is of the view that a good law usually becomes a good practice in conjunction with ancillary factors, such as the process by which it comes into being and is disseminated, operationalized and implemented. This is not to understate the importance of the law itself, but rather to emphasize that considerations of good practices cannot be based wholly on the legal texts themselves, but must be analysed in context, including tangible outcomes in lived reality.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Consideration of good practices in a global context requires an expansive approach to looking at the law and its implementation, to allow for inclusion of diverse practices reflective of varied political and legal systems and to support the identification of creative methods of supporting rights-fulfilment. Therefore, the present report includes not only all those constitutional, legislative and other rules and norms that are considered law in different legal systems, but also judicial review, legislative reform, litigation and case law, policy but also institutional reform, human rights monitoring, religious or cultural hermeneutic projects, partnership agreements between State and non-State actors, local, national and regional legal frameworks.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Significant progress in legal and policy frameworks for women’s rights has been made in the past decades. Nevertheless, while many countries have undertaken to repeal discriminatory laws, such laws persist in many parts of the world. Severely discriminatory laws and practices remain in particular areas of women’s human rights that continue to be contested, such as sexual and reproductive rights and equal rights in the family. Discriminatory laws also exist where the law is used punitively against women to maintain patriarchal values or to criminalize women’s struggles for their rights. In all contexts, there are ongoing challenges to the inclusion of an intersectoral approach to women’s full equality. Even in areas where the legal framework has advanced, or in societies with extensive and robust gender equality laws and policies, the test lies in the ability to implement progressive laws in practice. Innumerable barriers remain on many levels, not least of which is the male-controlled and discriminatory environment within which laws are operationalized. A good law requires a fully ameliorating environment in which it can be meaningfully implemented. No matter how strongly the law is drafted, it is filtered through the biases and limitations of the individuals and institutions, public and private, responsible for grounding it in reality, compounded by a social environment that disadvantages women through the perpetuation of historical discrimination, the patriarchal construction of gender and the perpetuation of stereotypes and prejudices. These factors must be considered closely when identifying which laws have become good practices.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The question of how to identify good practices in ending discrimination against women is particularly poignant at this historical juncture, where a profound backlash against hard-won progress is occurring in all spheres. The continuing rise of fundamentalisms of all kinds and openly misogynistic, racist, xenophobic and populist voices, including Governments, is of grave concern to the Working Group. Efforts to re-entrench patriarchal understandings of sex, gender and family into the law point to important questions about sustaining progress and ensuring that good practices continue to be possible in fraught contexts. Ongoing attacks on autonomous women’s movements, civil society organizations, independent academia, public interest lawyers and women’s human rights defenders by State and non-State actors alike underscore the importance of not only protecting and supporting the crucial role of women human rights defenders, but also identifying those good practices which uphold human rights gains.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Naming a “good practice” is a complex process. The purpose of investigating and sharing good practices is to help build collective knowledge and public recognition of the steps and processes States must undertake to fulfil their obligations under international human rights law. States’ duty to respect, protect and fulfil women’s human rights are requirements of human rights law. Good practices illustrate the ways and means to implement human rights most effectively in diverse contexts. When good practices are viewed in isolation from the breadth of actions and actors involved in processes of social change, they can lose their power as a source of learning and fail to enhance collective knowledge of what it takes to bring human rights principles into reality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The Working Group stresses that human rights are universal while recognizing that good practices must reflect the multiple contexts of diverse stakeholders. Frameworks of analysis thus require flexibility and creativity to capture the full complexity of any practice, including both its successes and shortcomings. This emphasis on context also requires a robust consideration of current challenges to human rights implementation on a global, regional, national and local scale. This contextualized consideration of challenges and search for good practices in no way derogates from the assertion in the Vienna Declaration that women’s rights are human rights and “all human rights are universal, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated”.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "The Working Group found that many examples cited as good practices in law did not show the process by which they were established, or the many factors and diverse actors that enabled the practice to come into being. In the present report, the Group undertakes to focus on the process of developing the ways and means to implement women’s right to equality. To understand what is required to support gender equality from a holistic approach, both quantitative and qualitative data are equally necessary, and, given the long-term process of social change, an historical perspective is important.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Given these complexities, the Working Group proposes a methodology for identifying good practices by investigating partial and substantial victories in the realization of women’s human rights with a view to decoding the full breadth of actors, initiatives and milestones required to fully implement State obligations under international human rights law. Rather than making generalizations about indicators of good practice, the Group’s research process focused on investigating and documenting promising and good practices in all regions of the world by applying a living-law approach.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The living-law approach looks at laws beyond the text of a legislation or judicial decision, including the dynamic processes by which that law comes into being, is implemented meaningfully and contributes to real and sustainable outcomes for women’s de facto enjoyment of human rights. Thus, a living-law approach involves understanding laws in the context of dynamic and sustained processes situated in local social, political, historical and legal realities and in relation to the acts of a diversity of duty and rights holders alike. As such, the living-law approach is inherently grounded in particular contexts and moments in time. This methodology thus requires examining a multitude of ways and means States have used to achieve successful outcomes in terms of fulfilling their obligations regarding women’s human rights, along with a robust consideration of processes and actors in play, including those that overcome and perpetuate barriers to substantive achievement. This exploration process has not focused on identifying or ranking “best practices”, but rather has examined the ways and means through which States can promote substantive equality, recognizing that progress is not always linear and that de facto change requires multiple strategies; effective responses to lessons learned from mistakes made; context-specific interventions; and sustained time and resources.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, which has been ratified almost universally and is considered by many jurists to be part of customary international law, determines that States have the obligation to respect, protect and fulfil women’s right to non-discrimination and to the enjoyment of equality in all fields. Those rights are also enshrined in other international and regional human rights conventions. The scope of the Convention includes and goes beyond de jure discrimination, requiring nothing less than substantive equality, or women’s full de facto enjoyment of their rights. National legal frameworks must be developed, adopted and implemented from a holistic rights-based approach that addresses the fullness of State obligation, including: (a) respecting rights by repealing and eliminating laws or any other State action that directly or indirectly discriminate against women; (b) protecting rights by acting with due diligence to ensure that neither State or non-State actors violate women’s rights and ensuring redress for violations; and (c) fulfilling rights by ensuring that laws and attendant policies contain comprehensive measures to guarantee their meaningful implementation and impact on women’s empowerment. The scope of State obligation under the Convention requires active measures to combat patriarchal attitudes and stereotypes that shape an environment in which discrimination against women is tolerated and normalized, both in the law and in the application of the law. The Convention demands multi-pronged strategies to promote social change, not only isolated actions to improve women’s access to existing systems. States are obliged to establish a strong legal infrastructure to support women’s de jure and de facto equality as an important step in the cultivation of good practices.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "B. Conceptual framework", "International human rights framework and good practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The case studies offer both practical and conceptual insights into good practices and have the potential to serve as road maps. Some are promising practices that have not fully come into fruition or that have been derailed but are nevertheless illustrative and important for understanding what is required to develop and sustain good practices in the elimination of discrimination. Although contexts vary, core principles that create ameliorating environments for women’s human rights are transferable, even when a practice is not directly replicable.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "The cases are organized under the themes of the Working Group’s reports to date, with a fifth section highlighting a salient theme that emerged from the research process: the role of autonomous women’s organizing. Owing to space limitations, each case is offered in summary format; more detailed renderings are included in an appendix to the report available on the Group’s website.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "The right to participate in all areas of political and public life is an essential prerequisite for the fulfilment of many other rights. Despite progress in many States, women’s representation in elected office — especially at the senior level, the judiciary, civil service or in entities such as unions, national human rights institutions or international agencies, including the United Nations — falls short of the good practice standard of equal representation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Good practice requires: (a) the removal of barriers, whether cultural, economic, institutional or religious, preventing women from having an equal opportunity to gain access to positions of power at all levels; (b) the elimination of disempowering stereotypes, misogyny and violence against women in public and private spheres; (c) parity for women in decision-making forums; (d) and gender-sensitive mainstreaming of policymaking processes, including budgeting.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The following case study was from the Asia region. Despite strong constitutional guarantees for “equal status of opportunity” and non-discrimination on multiple grounds, discrimination against women remained deeply entrenched. This resulted in women’s exclusion from political and public life, particularly in rural areas and among ethnic minorities and marginalized groups of women. In 1993, in an effort to address structural barriers to women’s participation in political and public life, the State had adopted a constitutional amendment mandating one-third reservations for women — including women from historically disenfranchised groups — in village and district councils throughout the country. Consequently, the 1994 elections had brought nearly 1 million elected women representatives into local governance bodies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life", "Quotas and supportive measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "As the law had been enacted quickly and without supportive measures, many challenges arose. This included the placing of women as proxy candidates for male politicians; patriarchal and ethnic divisions that led to active exclusion of elected women representatives; a lack of appropriate support and skills development to address widespread illiteracy among rural women; a democratic deficit due to the history of exclusion from public life; women’s lack of self-perception as leaders; and a backlash in the form of harassment, social exclusion and gender-based violence. It was also found that many elected women representatives were unlikely to contest elections more than once.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life", "Quotas and supportive measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "In response, civil society organizations, government and international agencies introduced initiatives to support women’s participation. Pre-election voter awareness campaigns were undertaken to counteract the perception that the one-third reservation signified the maximum number of seats available for women. A range of programmes were also undertaken in ensuing years, including longer-term capacity-building efforts led by civil society organizations with elected women representatives, in which women representatives received both ongoing training to strengthen their leadership and advocacy skills and education on gender issues of concern in the community.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life", "Quotas and supportive measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "Women were also mobilized through the establishment of an ongoing meeting platform for elected female representatives at the village level designed to support them in preparation for making policy recommendations at the main village council meetings. Given their success, these meeting platforms have been legally mandated since 2012, requiring all local governments to hold such meetings in advance of general village meetings. Additionally, the legal framework was further fortified through State-level laws entrenching or boosting the quota from one-third to 50 per cent, including leadership positions. A draft constitutional amendment in 2009 sought to raise the requirement to parity within all elected positions nationwide, but the bill lapsed.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life", "Quotas and supportive measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Research overwhelmingly indicated that the presence of women in rural governance has had positive impacts on key gendered concerns, including the improvement of health services, water and sanitation facilities, and microcredit schemes for women. Issues related to discrimination and violence against women were also being addressed by women representatives. Additional research showed significant impacts on attitudinal changes and in the elimination of gender stereotypes, demonstrated in shifts in the organization of labour in households, women’s self-perception and increased societal support for girls’ education and future aspirations. These correlations increased in villages where women chairs had been elected a second time.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life", "Quotas and supportive measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "The introduction of quotas provided a strong and unassailable legal prerogative for women’s inclusion in local-level political bodies. However, the legal framework on its own was insufficient to ensure the meaningful political participation of women until the introduction of complementary measures, integrally involving civil society organizations, that addressed the patriarchal context and women’s historical disenfranchisement and ongoing discrimination.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life", "Quotas and supportive measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "While this good practice has enabled the participation of more than 10 million rural women in local politics, it has not led to greater political participation of women at higher levels of governance. Indeed, the Government has yet to be successful in adopting quotas or parity laws for women at higher levels of government, raising questions regarding the limits and sustainability of continued growth in women’s political participation and access to power.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life", "Quotas and supportive measures"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "The adoption of parity laws or quotas for women is a good practice to combat the manifold barriers to women’s political participation and to ensure immediate representation of women in political bodies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "Policies must be implemented in tandem with quotas to mitigate the effects of historical discrimination and to support women’s success and impact in politics, including capacity-building performed in tandem with autonomous women’s organizations as well as regional or international partners.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "1. Political and public life", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Women’s right to equality in economic and social life as enshrined in multiple human rights treaties is substantive, immediate and enforceable. States are obliged to act with due diligence to prevent discrimination of those rights by any actors and to ensure their fulfilment. Yet women continue to experience discrimination in all areas of economic and social life. The feminization of poverty, particularly in contexts of crisis and austerity, is a well-documented phenomenon. Gender stereotypes perpetuate women’s economic and social marginalization, exclude them from the labour market and place a disproportionate burden on them for unpaid, low paid or informal work. Intersectional discrimination on the grounds of ethnicity, age, disability, sexual identity or orientation, among others, disproportionately marginalizes particular groups of women.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "Good practice in promoting women’s equality and empowerment in economic and social life requires measures that support equal opportunity, accommodation for gender-specific needs and equal enjoyment of benefits. In accordance with international standards, equal opportunities, equal pay for work of equal value, paid maternity leave in accordance with international standards and parental leave for both men and women must be legally mandated in both formal and informal employment sectors. Women must be fully integrated into economic policymaking both at the State level and in financial institutions that determine economic policy in practice.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "The following case study originated in a country in the Western region with a strong commitment to gender equality, owing in large part to a history of organization by women’s that contributed to a wide acceptance of feminism in society and shaped progressive government policies. Nevertheless, inequality included a persistent gender wage gap; high gender segregation of the labour market, including women’s low leadership levels in the private sector; and prevalent gender-based violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life", "Women and economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "Nonetheless, social awareness of women’s issues in the country was uniquely strong, creating an ameliorating environment for mobilization around feminist analyses of social, political and economic issues. This was evidenced in 2008 when the complete collapse of the country’s banking system led to a major financial crisis. Widespread protests precipitated a change in Government and led to the election of a feminist Government headed by a woman, who appointed women to most cabinet roles, including the Ministries of the Economy and Finance. The new administration commissioned an analysis of the banking crisis to build upon existing feminist critiques of the masculinist financial culture of unfettered risk and neoliberal policies as major causative factors. The research confirmed those critiques and highlighted the effects of increasing privatization of political power among predominantly male, private-sector elites, whose actions had precipitated the crisis.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life", "Women and economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "A somewhat unconventional approach to the economic crisis was thus grounded in a gender analysis that focused on maintaining gains in equality as part of the economic recovery process. It combined temporary policy and executive decisions aimed at preventing disproportionate effects on women and vulnerable sectors of the population with mechanisms and measures for ongoing monitoring and data collection to ascertain impact. Simultaneously, the Government prioritized the implementation of long-term legal and policy measures to strengthen gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life", "Women and economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Between 2009 and 2013, the Government introduced temporary measures to counter the shifting effects of the crisis on women and men. As a result of pressure to cover the foreign debt that had been accumulated by national banks, the Government made cuts in infrastructure such as health care and primary education, as well as in family benefits such as parental leave. However, the resulting funds were strategically used to provide nominal increases in basic unemployment benefits, social protection allowances and disability pensions to shelter individuals most affected by the resource cuts. Elderly women and women with disabilities were the major beneficiaries, and women made up almost two-thirds of unemployment benefits claimants. In addition, measures to tackle household debt by sheltering low-income and single-parent households from losing their disposable earnings benefitted women, as they were likely to feature more prominently in both categories.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life", "Women and economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "Concurrently, the Government maintained a focus on long-term measures to promote gender equality, including the introduction of gender-responsive budgeting, the appointment of gender equality experts within different ministries, the adoption of quotas on the boards of corporations and plans of action for gender equality and violence prevention. The Government also established monitoring mechanisms, such as a gender equality watch and a welfare watch. The welfare watch — which initially operated from 2009 to 2013 under the Ministry of Welfare and a steering committee of experts from Government, labour groups, academia, the financial sector, teachers’ unions, civil society organizations and stakeholders — was in charge of assessing the most pressing welfare issues to be addressed and proposing gender-responsive measures. The model was recognized as innovative and effective.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life", "Women and economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "While assessment of the impact of such measures was not uniform, and questions remained about whether the gendered analysis and approach to the crisis had deep impacts on the reconstruction of the economy, it can be said that the gender-sensitive response of the Government pre-empted a regression in welfare and women’s rights that had usually accompanied austerity measures. In addition, knowledge of the gendered and intersectional dimensions of crises and the effectiveness of the responses was enhanced through monitoring and data collection. The policies undertaken in response to the crisis demonstrated not only an uncompromising commitment to gender equality but also an acknowledgment of its centrality to a healthy, robust and resilient society.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life", "Women and economic crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The integration of gender responsive measures and protection of social welfare systems during economic crises can protect women’s human rights gains and, at the same time, support healthy recovery.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "Efforts to sensitize society to women’s human rights issues and feminist analysis, and their inclusion in Government research and policy, create an ameliorating environment for progressive legal and policy development and implementation, in contrast to a masculinist financial culture of unfettered risk and neoliberal policies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "2. Economic and social life", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Cultural rights are central to the realization of women’s human rights. Culture is neither homogenous nor immutable but is often presented as being so, and hence as creating an irrevocable barrier to equality rights for women. States have obligations to recognize and actively combat the deep entrenchment of patriarchal culture based on gender stereotypes in legal, political, religious, social and cultural institutions. While this obligation applies to all aspects of life, patriarchal gender stereotypes are often firmly entrenched in laws and social norms governing family, and often reinforced by religious authorities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "Good practices in cultural and family life require a guarantee of women’s right to equality in autonomy and self-determination and the legal and social recognition of women as agents of cultural change. Legal and cultural norms that subjugate women to male control must be actively challenged and eradicated. States must endeavour to repeal all discriminatory provisions in the law, particularly those governing marriage and divorce, child-rearing, inheritance, freedom of movement, access to capital, credit and income-generating activities. In addition to the elimination of direct discrimination, good practices in this area require that States take active measures to support substantive equality through the law and long-term awareness-raising initiatives directed towards the eradication of patriarchal stereotypes and attitudes.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "The following case study originated in Eastern Europe, in a State that had undertaken a lengthy legislative and institutional reform process since gaining independence in 1991. In a predominantly patriarchal context, attempts to introduce and support legal and policy frameworks for gender equality had faced significant opposition. Subsequent to a review in 2009 by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, the Government adopted a gender policy concept paper and strategic action plan for the period 2011-2015, including provisions for gender sensitization of teachers and educational curriculum.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Challenging discrimination: gender sensitive education for cultural change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "In 2013, Parliament passed a law on the equal rights and equal opportunities of women and men. The law reiterated the constitutional guarantee of gender equality, defined gender discrimination and contained provisions against direct and indirect discrimination. However, the law generated a great deal of social controversy and backlash because of the perception that it represented an attack on “family values”. Women’s civil society organizations became targets of harassment and protests erupted, with demonstrators calling the law “national treason”.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Challenging discrimination: gender sensitive education for cultural change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "The Government had achieved little progress in implementing the gender policy strategic action plan, owing in part to the public backlash and lack of resource allocation. A civil society organization from the women’s rights movement secured funds to launch a three-year project on gender sensitive education to address a social and cultural environment characterized by profound resistance to the concept of gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Challenging discrimination: gender sensitive education for cultural change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "That civil society organization navigated the challenging context by building strategic partnerships with experts and Government. Together with educational experts, they developed a theoretical and practical educational guidebook entitled “Women and Men: Different but Equal”, which was subsequently approved for use by the Ministry of Education and Science. It supported the incorporation of gender curricula into mandatory courses, such as social studies, and included discussion of gender, reproductive rights and violence prevention.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Challenging discrimination: gender sensitive education for cultural change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "In order to institutionalize gender-sensitive teacher training, advocates from civil society organizations convened meetings with government ministries, other such organizations, educators and experts to develop a training module on gender equality and gender violence in partnership with the National Institute of Education, the authority in charge of teacher training. Despite some school directors’ resistance, thousands of social science teachers were trained and the Institute is committed to institutionalizing the training.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Challenging discrimination: gender sensitive education for cultural change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "According to evaluations, despite its short duration, the project’s focus on education is a promising practice for a number of reasons. First, what started as a civil society organization initiative attracted the institutional support of the National Institute of Education and the Ministry of Education and Science in the dissemination of the educational guidebook in schools, the development of the teacher training module and the roll-out of training sessions. In addition, the undertaking created a political space for civil society organizations and public authorities to take action in a challenging context, allowing meaningful steps towards fulfilling the objectives of the strategic action plan.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Challenging discrimination: gender sensitive education for cultural change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "While these measures alone will not achieve substantive equality, intervention in the education system is projected to bear fruit in terms of creating a positive environment for social discussion of and support for gender equality issues. Preliminary outcome studies of training programmes in two regions of the country demonstrated shifts in attitudes towards gender equality and violence against women, but the curriculum and training policies have not yet been applied uniformly across the country, limiting systemic impact.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Challenging discrimination: gender sensitive education for cultural change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Project evaluation shows a need for further focus on planning, as well as measurable objectives and outcomes for the training. Resource allocation is also an issue. Currently, the teacher training has been institutionalized only as a one-hour module, despite calls for more comprehensive training. A greater investment of time is warranted to support attitudinal and behavioural changes.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Challenging discrimination: gender sensitive education for cultural change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "The gender-sensitive education initiative is a promising practice in a fraught context, but is not a stand-alone measure. The case study demonstrates that gender equality cannot be fully achieved through sectorial approaches, but instead requires the creation of an enabling environment animated by comprehensive long-term measures emphasizing the interconnectedness of women’s rights in order to yield both legal and social change.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Challenging discrimination: gender sensitive education for cultural change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "The partnership of autonomous women’s organizations and independent experts with expertise in women’s rights with public authorities is a key element of progressive policy implementation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "Public education and teacher training are a crucial entry point for addressing systemic discrimination and promoting a culture of human rights, undertaken in tandem with complementary measures for systemic change.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "3. Cultural and family life", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "Health is defined by the World Health Organization as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being”. Women’s rights to equality and to the highest attainable standards of health, including those related to reproductive and sexual health, and the interconnected right to a life free of violence are enshrined in international and regional human rights instruments and reaffirmed in international consensus agreements, yet remain among the most contested and violated women’s human rights standards. Gender-based violence and the instrumentalization and politicization of women’s bodies and women’s health agenda continue to undermine the fulfilment of women’s human rights throughout the world. These violations, fed by patriarchal ideologies and stereotypes that reduce women to means of reproduction or sexual objects, undermine women’s autonomy and self-determination, affecting the fulfilment of their human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "Good practices in this area require a differentiated approach in order to meet women’s particular needs, influenced by biological functions and social constructions of gender alike. The instrumentalization of women’s bodies, particularly as regarding sexual and reproductive health, and the ongoing normalization of violence against women must be combatted through rights-based measures that put women’s right to dignity, autonomy and self-determination at the core of legal and policy undertakings.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "The following case study from the African region elucidates the myriad factors required to develop and maintain a good practice in addressing violence against girls, as well as the attendant impacts on the right to health, safety and access to justice, among others. The background to the case begins with a constitutional reform process undertaken with high levels of public engagement, resulting in 2010 in a robust new constitution that included strong equality provisions, the incorporation of international and regional human rights treaties and the creation of an ameliorating environment for public interest litigation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety", "Mobilizing the law for social change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "In 2011, a social worker who founded a local shelter for girl survivors of sexual violence and an international human rights lawyer initiated a coalition with local, regional and international civil society organizations, feminist lawyers and the national human rights commission to file a case seeking to hold the police accountable for failure to address rampant sexual violence against girls. The 160 Girls case was brought to the High Court in 2012. With the support of the shelter, 11 applicants were chosen from more than 160 victims of child rape who had been denied access to justice. The remaining victims were represented by the twelfth applicant, which was the rape shelter itself. It was the first case brought to the High Court under the equality provisions laid out in the 2010 Constitution. The decision was instrumental in establishing the failure of the police to meet national and international standards to conduct prompt, effective, proper and professional investigations into complaints, thereby preventing access to justice. With the use of relevant international human rights instruments and progressive interpretation of constitutional rights and State obligation, the jurisprudence was precedent-setting. The seminal contribution of the decision lay in establishing the rights of the child and the delineation of the scope of State obligation in protecting children from violence, and the duty to investigate and apply existing rape laws.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety", "Mobilizing the law for social change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "In its decision, the Court recognized that the girls’ constitutional rights had been violated and that the police had failed to act with due diligence as agents of the State. The police force was ordered to implement article 244 of the Constitution, requiring them to train staff to the highest possible standards of competence and integrity and to respect human rights and fundamental freedoms and dignity. Police officers were ordered to investigate the perpetrators of the 11 applicants and to ensure effective investigations in all child rape claims. As at early 2016, 80 per cent of such cases had resulted in convictions, while others were pending before courts and additional investigations had been initiated. The judgment has been referenced in other cases, including an important class action suit by victims of post-election violence, and the high courts have issued further progressive decisions on related grounds.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety", "Mobilizing the law for social change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 69, "n": 69, "text": "What makes this case study a uniquely good practice is that, rather than ending with a court decision, the coalition of organizations involved continued to work together to expand that decision into a comprehensive movement for change. The 160 Girls Project developed as a result of the case centres on training and education programmes involving police, shelters, social workers and community members to ensure a multi-level long-term impact. A rape investigation training programme for police was developed that included a peer-to-peer train-the-trainers element with international police officers and ongoing training from equality lawyers and the national human rights commission. Research has shown positive impacts, including documented attitudinal changes and increased professionalism in the handling of child rape cases. Furthermore, training programmes have been developed for shelter workers on documenting sexual violence cases and the rights of victims.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety", "Mobilizing the law for social change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 70, "n": 70, "text": "Community education programmes are a key component of the implementation strategy. In this case, a robust pilot project on public legal education included community training on the decision and the related girls’ rights and police obligations; awareness-raising events including drama/theatre and panel discussions; rights-training for children; a smartphone application giving details on the steps to take in rape investigations; and public awareness materials, including billboards, radio and television programmes, social media outreach and short videos on the Internet. These measures have been replicated in other parts of the country.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety", "Mobilizing the law for social change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 71, "n": 71, "text": "While the ongoing efforts of project partners have ensured sustained impacts, the context of endemic sexualized violence against girls and women continues to be an issue. Those regions of the country that face heightened security issues present challenges, and it remains to be demonstrated whether there can be shifts in public sentiment regarding rape of women. A highly active civil society ensures that courts continue to be used to push for progress on the implementation of girls’ rights and on State responsibility for protecting children against sexual violence. However, it is unclear whether civil society organizations bear a disproportionate burden vis-à-vis the State, and whether the enabling context for such organizations will be maintained. Challenges include ensuring ongoing sources of funding for the project and decreasing reliance on overseas funding.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety", "Mobilizing the law for social change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 72, "n": 72, "text": "A strong human rights-based constitutional framework for equality, a progressive judiciary, an active autonomous civil society and an environment conducive to public interest litigation are important complementary factors in the development of good practices.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 73, "n": 73, "text": "Impact is attained through follow-up measures and sustained action, by both State and non-State actors. Progressive court decisions must be widely disseminated and popularized among duty holders and rights holders alike to have broader structural impact.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 74, "n": 5, "text": "Civil society and autonomous women’s organizing", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "4. Health and safety", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 75, "n": 74, "text": "Women’s participation and self-determination in the development and application of the laws that shape the parameters of their lives is a human right. Supporting the existence of and collaborative engagement with autonomous women’s movements is a core component of State obligation to end discrimination against women. The case studies investigated for the present report demonstrate the centrality of an active citizenry, autonomous women’s movements and civil society organizations with progressive frameworks that align with women’s human rights standards as key factors in achieving positive changes in the development and application of the law.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "5. Civil society and autonomous women’s organizing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 76, "n": 75, "text": "The Working Group considers that the study of the ways and means by which those movements engage with processes of change involving the law merits in-depth consideration. Such investigation will reveal specific ways that States can create an ameliorating environment for and work collaboratively with autonomous women’s movements towards eliminating discrimination against women in law and in practice.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "5. Civil society and autonomous women’s organizing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 77, "n": 76, "text": "The three case studies below exemplify the crucial role of women’s autonomous organizing in the interrelated developmental processes of good practices as articulated in the living-law approach of the present report.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "5. Civil society and autonomous women’s organizing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 78, "n": 77, "text": "The following case study, originating in a country of the Middle East and North Africa Region, highlights the central role of women’s autonomous organizing in promoting political and legal changes to eradicate discrimination against women and to promote substantive equality. The country had a long history of Government-led reform promoting gender equality in the law. This included broad legal reforms granting women autonomy and self-determination in public and family life, with progressive provisions in terms of sexual and reproductive rights. Women’s organizations had previously existed, but the political climate did not support autonomy. Growing authoritarianism in the regime and the prevalence of discriminatory attitudes had diminished the transformation of women’s traditional roles and the attainment of substantive equality. In 2011, a political revolution led by social movements brought about the downfall of the Government and led to the democratization of the State.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(a) Political and constitutional reform", "Women’s participation in democratic movements and constitution-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 79, "n": 78, "text": "Women’s organizations played an important role in achieving the goals of the revolution and continued to play an active role in the emergence of a new vision for gender equality. The post-revolution period generated significant public debate during the drafting of a new constitution. Women’s movements worked to keep women on the agenda, introducing a draft feminist constitution early in 2012 that they were invited to present to the National Constituent Assembly. They continued to advocate and mobilize society to oppose regressive elements, maintaining pressure for strong gender equality provisions. In 2012, women successfully organized against article 2.28 of the draft constitution, which had established the complementarity of men and women, rather than the right to equality. The women’s movements, with the assistance of the Working Group through its communications and a country visit, brought about a revision of the draft constitution. That victory was a key factor in the development of a rights-based constitutional framework for gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(a) Political and constitutional reform", "Women’s participation in democratic movements and constitution-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 80, "n": 79, "text": "The new Constitution, adopted in 2014, enshrined the equality of the sexes before the law without discrimination and committed the State to protecting and strengthening gains in women’s rights, guaranteeing the equality of opportunities in all domains and protecting against legal regression. Another progressive measure was the inclusion of the principle of parity in elected assemblies and a clear statement that men and women alike could run for president. The progressive framework of the constitution was protected in article 49, which affirmed that no amendment could undermine the human rights and freedoms guaranteed in the Constitution.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(a) Political and constitutional reform", "Women’s participation in democratic movements and constitution-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 81, "n": 80, "text": "Women’s rights advocates pointed to some areas of concern in the constitutional framework that were illustrative of the ongoing political and cultural struggle between the protection and contestation of conservative gender roles. While a single State religion was recognized and protected in the Constitution, it also includes provisions reiterating that the country was a civil State based on the primacy of law that promoted moderation and tolerance. How those potentially conflicting interests would work out in practice remained to be seen, particularly given that the constitutional courts were not yet in place.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(a) Political and constitutional reform", "Women’s participation in democratic movements and constitution-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 82, "n": 81, "text": "While insufficient time has elapsed since adoption of the 2014 Constitution to fully assess its impacts, the crucial importance of this broad legal umbrella for women’s equality cannot be overstated. Translating constitutional protections into reality will require the ongoing harmonized efforts of the Government and civil society. Some constitutional provisions have yet to be entrenched in the law, such as the stalled adoption of a law on violence against women, which was being discussed in Parliament at the time of writing. In the area of political participation, a 2016 amendment to the electoral law implanted the constitutional principle of political parity into law. Applying to municipal and regional elections, the law included “vertical and horizontal gender parity”, guaranteeing a 50/50 split and alternation to ensure leadership positions for women. Elections scheduled to be held in 2017 thus open the way for a massive entry of women into local politics, creating huge potential for social transformation if well supported and sustained.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(a) Political and constitutional reform", "Women’s participation in democratic movements and constitution-building"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 83, "n": 82, "text": "The active participation of citizens and women’s organizations in the process of democratization and constitution drafting are key to the adoption of a progressive, rights-based constitutional framework that creates an enabling legal environment for women’s human rights implementation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(a) Political and constitutional reform", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 84, "n": 83, "text": "Robust and detailed constitutional gender equality protections based on international human rights standards are essential for a strong and enforceable domestic legal framework, and the active intervention of human rights organizations at the request of civil society can contribute to achieving the gender equality goal.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(a) Political and constitutional reform", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 85, "n": 84, "text": "Longstanding internal armed conflict in one country in the Latin America Region has displaced more than 6 million people internally. Half of those are women, who have suffered a traumatic change in gender roles, family structure and socioeconomic and cultural standing, deepening gender and social inequalities and increasing risk of violence and gender-based discrimination. While many challenges persist, the situation faced by displaced women has improved over the past decade, largely owing to three ground-breaking decisions of the Constitutional Court, shaped by widespread citizen and civil society organization mobilization and implementation efforts.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(b) Progressive and participatory application of the law", "Conflict, displacement and women’s human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 86, "n": 85, "text": "For many years, internally displaced people and civil society organizations had demanded protection measures from the Government without receiving an appropriate response. This had prompted hundreds of displaced persons to invoke the protection of the judiciary through the judicial remedy known as a tutela: a constitutionally established judicial action that citizens can bring before any judge to ensure the effective exercise of their human rights. By 2004, tribunals had received tutelas submitted by 1,150 displaced families, accumulated in a dossier by the Constitutional Court that led to a judgment declaring that the humanitarian emergency caused by forced displacement had created an unconstitutional state of affairs characterized by massive human rights violations associated with systemic failures in State assistance to displaced persons. Accordingly, the Court ordered the Government to adopt structural measures, a measure that has spawned a lengthy implementation process.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons", "Persons affected by armed conflict"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(b) Progressive and participatory application of the law", "Conflict, displacement and women’s human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 87, "n": 86, "text": "The Constitutional Court used its power to assess implementation of its own judgment, issuing two further orders on the rights of displaced women. In 2008, the Court handed down a decision that was considered a global pioneer in the treatment of sexual violence during internal armed conflict. It identified 10 risks that forcibly displaced women faced, including extreme risk of sexual violence, and 18 gender facets of displacement, including patterns of discrimination and violence. Accordingly, the Court ordered the Government to create and implement 13 programmes with a gender-sensitive approach, including violence prevention, the right to health and education and access to land, justice and reparations. The Court also took an intersectoral approach, highlighting heightened risks faced by girls, indigenous, black and community women leaders, and women with disabilities. The Court ordered the allocation of sufficient resources to guarantee implementation of the programmes, refusing to recognize lack of budget as valid justification for non-compliance.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(b) Progressive and participatory application of the law", "Conflict, displacement and women’s human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 88, "n": 87, "text": "In 2015, the Court issued an order declaring the persistence of failures in the assistance, protection and access to justice for women victims of sexual violence. That decision consolidated the constitutional framework to address the gendered impact of armed conflict on the forced displacement of women in the country. That protection framework — effectively transforming a government response to forced displacement using a gender perspective — is a pioneering example globally. That extraordinary achievement was partly due to the longstanding efforts by Latin American women’s movements to strengthen the capacities of the constitutional courts in the field of women’s rights.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(b) Progressive and participatory application of the law", "Conflict, displacement and women’s human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 89, "n": 88, "text": "The active involvement of internally displaced women and civil society organizations was essential throughout the process. Displaced women brought hundreds of tutelas before tribunals to demand their rights and participated in public hearings convened by the Constitutional Court or civil society organizations sharing their experiences and perspectives. The Court’s decisions were informed by formal submissions by such organizations, presenting experiences of women and girls forcibly displaced around the country.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(b) Progressive and participatory application of the law", "Conflict, displacement and women’s human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 90, "n": 89, "text": "Women and civil society organizations responded to the Constitutional Court’s request to participate in the design and implementation of the decisions. This resulted in the collective development of indicators to monitor the 2004 order and the establishment of a working group to monitor compliance with the orders, which was essential in assessing the implementation of the decisions and in providing technical assistance for the implementation of government programmes. Civil society organizations also operated numerous programmes that provided humanitarian, legal and psychosocial support to displaced women and their families. Those organizations also used international human rights mechanisms to keep a spotlight on displaced women, and carried the topic into recent peace negotiation processes. The 2016 peace agreement addressed many of the demands in the three decisions, contributing to their sustainability.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(b) Progressive and participatory application of the law", "Conflict, displacement and women’s human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 91, "n": 90, "text": "Despite this extraordinary protection framework, implementation has faced challenges. Women victims of sexual violence still faced barriers to filing reports and receiving adequate care and protection, particularly in remote areas. There was still heightened violence against displaced women linked to the illegal exploitation of mining resources or on the basis of their sexual orientation. Continued efforts were needed to ensure ongoing progress in a complex and dynamic context.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(b) Progressive and participatory application of the law", "Conflict, displacement and women’s human rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 92, "n": 91, "text": "The presence of a solid constitutional court and an effective judicial remedy that enables citizens to demand their constitutional rights without undue cost or burden creates an enabling legal environment for addressing women’s human rights violations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(b) Progressive and participatory application of the law", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 93, "n": 92, "text": "Active participation of women rights holders and autonomous women’s organizations in the development, monitoring, assessment and implementation of judicial decisions and public policies is essential to ensuring responsivity and impact.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(b) Progressive and participatory application of the law", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 94, "n": 93, "text": "In one State in the Western Europe and others group, indigenous women and girls continued to be the target of racially motivated sexual and gender-based violence that began with colonization, as affirmed in a 2015 inquiry report by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, in which the Committee noted grave and systemic violations of indigenous women’s rights, exacerbated by entrenched discrimination that impeded access to justice. In a rural, predominantly indigenous region of the State, a series of high-profile cases, including the acquittal of federal police officers for sexual assault and the death of an indigenous man in police custody, had led to the mobilization of civil society organizations and public outcry, precipitating a government review of the police force in 2010. Local women’s organizations lobbied for inclusion in order to push for an improved response by the justice system to violence against women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(c) Together for justice protocol"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 95, "n": 94, "text": "In that context, an indigenous women’s organization in a small community initiated a protocol with the local federal police force that mandated: ongoing engagement, including police training and capacity-building, to address the interrelated phenomena of violence directed towards indigenous women and lack of due diligence in investigating crimes; open dialogue sessions to promote cultural awareness; and community-police feedback and knowledge-sharing sessions, during which information on the justice system and community rights would be offered.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(c) Together for justice protocol"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 96, "n": 95, "text": "Project reviews and research have showed a profound impact on police-community relations, with open dialogue and collaboration promoting enhanced understanding and cooperation on issues of concern. The civil society organization has reported attitudinal and behavioural shifts that have exceeded their expectations. The police have developed a better understanding of the physical security issues that women in the community face, and have helped to increase access to relevant domestic violence and sexual assault resources, including shelters.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(c) Together for justice protocol"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 97, "n": 96, "text": "The protocol is reviewed and adjusted annually by both parties to take into account challenges and shifting needs, ensuring ongoing responsivity to community concerns. Successes of the project have been shared with other women’s organizations, and a similar protocol has been subsequently adopted with the federal police force in the largest city in the region. Discussions are under way in other indigenous communities to press for similar protocols.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(c) Together for justice protocol"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 98, "n": 97, "text": "The bottom-up approach of the practice, which was developed at the impetus of women’s organizations — while demonstrative of the innovative means used by the community to address the structural reality of the situation of violence and discrimination in which they live — has raised the question as to why grave and well-documented human rights violations have not been addressed on a systematic or institutional level within the federal police and Government. Political will to support, expand and institutionalize this good practice is required for its replication and sustainability. In all post- and ongoing colonial contexts, the disproportionate and intersectional discrimination faced by indigenous women, often aided and abetted by legal systems, must be systematically addressed by State duty holders.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(c) Together for justice protocol"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 99, "n": 98, "text": "Legal frameworks and partnership protocols that formalize the collaboration and participation of citizen or civil society organizations or autonomous women’s rights organizations in developing, monitoring and implementing the law, can help to address power imbalances on the basis of historical discrimination and can lead to meaningful change.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(c) Together for justice protocol", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 100, "n": 99, "text": "Measures involving groups of women who experience intersectional discrimination, such as indigenous women, must be developed in accordance with an intersectional, gender-sensitive human rights perspective and engage with women as stakeholders.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(c) Together for justice protocol", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 101, "n": 100, "text": "Financial and institutional support for promising and good practices must be maintained to ensure ongoing impact of results.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: good practices in the elimination of discrimination against women and women’s empowerment", "C. Selected case studies", "(c) Together for justice protocol", "Key lessons"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 102, "n": 101, "text": "Good practices in the eradication of discrimination against women in law and practice comprise a complex, multifaceted endeavour involving a wide range of interconnected rights. A good practice cannot be understood in isolation from its context and other complementary measures undertaken to promote substantive equality. The living-law approach renders visible the wide range of factors and actors involved in the process of good practice development. Each good practice case study explored in the present report has contributed to key lessons learned that are both specific to the case and that contain transferable principles that inform the present conclusions. These lessons learned also reinforce the conclusions reached by the Working Group on the basis of regional and global research in its thematic reports and various country visits.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 103, "n": 102, "text": "The Working Group’s assessment of good practices in eliminating discrimination against women reaffirms the imperative that international human rights standards must be incorporated into national law and laws that contradict those principles must be repealed or modified, without exceptions based on cultural grounds, including cultural and customary grounds. Constitutional provisions that support gender equality create the foundation from which women’s rights can most comprehensively be supported throughout the legal system. States must also take measures to ensure that international and constitutional standards for women’s equality are infused at all levels of the legal framework, especially in federated and pluralistic legal systems.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 104, "n": 103, "text": "To ensure that laws facilitate good practices in the elimination of discrimination and women’s empowerment, a systematic gender analysis of the law and its potential impacts, as well as outcomes, is imperative. Gender analysis of existing and draft laws through the input of diverse stakeholders and the sharing of good practices must be undertaken comprehensively and regularly. This requires capacity-building on a rights-based gender analysis for duty holders in all spheres and meaningful collaboration with an autonomous civil society that includes women’s organizations and legal experts on women’s rights. In addition, it requires ongoing independent monitoring and research by national human rights institutions, treaty bodies, special procedure mandate holders, scholars and other experts.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 105, "n": 104, "text": "Changing the law to meet the State obligation to respect and protect women’s human rights are key steps, but investigations show that fulfilling rights remains the most challenging facet of this triad. The fulfilment of women’s human rights requires substantive shifts in deeply entrenched social and cultural norms that reinforce gender stereotypes and perpetuate women’s subordination. As the Working Group has emphasized, the State must act as an agent of change as regards to women’s place in cultural and family life. The fulfilment of progressive legal frameworks requires strong political will, supported by appropriate resources, and attendant measures focused on attitudinal and behavioural change that cultivate an environment in which good practices can thrive. Change must be transferred from the normative level into all sectors of society so that duty and rights holders alike are able to internalize the shifts required to support human rights implementation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 106, "n": 105, "text": "Among the key challenges in eliminating discrimination against women in law and practice is the question of sustainability in the efforts and impacts of changing laws. Local and global political and ideological landscapes are ever-shifting and resources are limited and insecure.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 107, "n": 106, "text": "The developmental process of a good practice over longer periods of time means that political shifts in national or international governance can adversely affect sustainability.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0108", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 108, "n": 107, "text": "A key area of concern to the Working Group is the profound level of backlash against women’s human rights gains, which is on the rise both within States and in international spheres. In a climate of rising populism, xenophobia and fundamentalisms, long-established women’s human rights norms are being undermined, heightening the fragility of good practices in this context. In addition, a concurrent attack on women’s organizations, women’s human rights defenders and civil society movements — including feminist, environmental and human rights movements — creates an atmosphere in which these key actors are criminalized, de-funded and even killed, making the question of good practices moot. The Working Group emphasizes the importance of maintaining the autonomy of local and national movements and other civil society actors — including national human rights institutions, public interest lawyers and scholars — as an essential means of protecting and sustaining good practices. Backlashes within intergovernmental forums, as well as at the national level, must be challenged head-on by the international community.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0109", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 109, "n": 108, "text": "Resource allocation to support the progressive implementation of women’s human rights is part of State obligation. States must undertake a process of gender budgeting to ensure that their legal and policy commitments bear results. Key limiting factors of the good practices identified were insufficient funds, disproportionate burden of implementation on non-government actors and dependence on large-scale or single donor international funding resources. While involvement of autonomous women’s organizations has been seen as essential in the implementation of rights, the relationship between State and non-State actors should involve complementary efforts. Even States with limited resources make key decisions that support the implementation of rights when political will is present to do so. Budget allocation, whether originating from the State or a donor, must take into account the longitudinal nature of change to ensure that promising practices are not arrested before they can fully come into fruition.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0110", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 110, "n": 109, "text": "There are multiple entry points to change the law and ensure effective implementation of laws guaranteeing women’s right to equality, including through the initiative of women rights holders and autonomous women’s organizations in civil society. The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Take every measure to ratify the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women and its Optional Protocol, withdraw reservations thereto, incorporate its provisions into national constitutions and all hierarchies of domestic law, and actively seek to implement recommendations made by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, the Working Group and other relevant human rights mechanisms in view of improving the realization of women’s human rights;\n(b) Repeal all laws that directly discriminate against women, and review all new and existing legislation through a rights-based, gender-sensitive lens, involving independent experts, including autonomous women’s organizations;\n(c) Improve the knowledge-base on good practices by providing the ways and means to support initiatives that apply a living-law approach to evaluating outcomes and impact of laws, and record detailed results for the sharing of promising and good practices.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0111", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 111, "n": 2, "text": "Specific recommendations Social change", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. General recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0112", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 112, "n": 110, "text": "The cultivation of a culture of human rights is needed for social change and requires specific measures that draw from the richness and complexity of particular contexts and histories, and that involve all sectors of society, including autonomous women’s movements. As exemplified by the cases in the present report, good practices result from sustained processes that benefit from the dynamic interaction brought by a diverse range of actors and involve responsivity to changing situations in order to ensure ongoing fulfilment of equal rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Specific recommendations", "Social change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0113", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 113, "n": 111, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Invest in long-term and multi-dimensional strategies to promote social change, including extensive training, educational and awareness-raising measures to promote a culture of human rights among right and duty holders alike;\n(b) Ensure the active participation of women of all sectors of society in monitoring and implementing human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Specific recommendations", "Social change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-35-29-0114", "docId": "a-hrc-35-29", "idx": 114, "n": 112, "text": "It is essential to ensure that a robust constitutional and legal framework is in place to support long-term rights implementation and to weather challenges that may come from regressive political or ideological forces that threaten to undermine progress. The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Recognize the crucial role of autonomous women’s organizing in the development of good practices, and endeavour to create a legal, policy and budgetary framework to support autonomous civil society organizations, women’s movements, and citizen participation in legal development, reform and implementation;\n(b) Apply the good practices framework for the creation and maintenance of a safe and enabling environment for civil society developed in the report of the High Commissioner (A/HRC/32/20), with a gender-sensitive lens that takes into account the unique position and challenges faced by women’s human rights defenders;\n(c) Prioritize the allocation of funds, both internationally and domestically, to support active and sustained measures to promote good practices in the eradication of discrimination and the promotion of women’s empowerment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2017, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Specific recommendations", "Sustainability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report covers the activities of the Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice, from the submission of its previous report (A/HRC/35/29) to April 2018.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The Working Group held three sessions in Geneva during the period under review. At its nineteenth session (15–19 May 2017), it held meetings with other special procedure mandate holders, a member of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, a member of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), representatives of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and representatives of several civil society organizations. The Working Group also started organizing the handover to the new members and discussed possible future thematic priorities. Jointly with civil society organizations and the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders, it organized a well-attended public event on strengthening protection networks for women human rights defenders to combat discrimination.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "At its twentieth session (9–13 October 2017), the experts completed the handover to their successors. The experts met with the new Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Sexual Violence in Conflict, organized an informal brainstorming session on the issue of surrogacy with the participation of the World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), OHCHR and the Special Rapporteur on the sale and sexual exploitation of children, including child prostitution, child pornography and other child sexual abuse material (see A/HRC/37/60). The Working Group also organized a well-attended meeting with Member States.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At its twenty-first session (22–26 January 2018), the Working Group, including the four experts whose terms had begun on 1 November 2017, reviewed its working methods and elaborated the vision for the mandate in the coming years. It met with a former Working Group member, members of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, representatives of UN-Women, WHO and UNFPA and OHCHR staff. The Working Group also organized a meeting with Member States and Geneva-based civil society organizations. On 25 January, the International Gender Champions organized an event introducing the new experts to the Geneva international community.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The experts visited Samoa from 8 to 18 August 2017 (A/HRC/38/46/Add.1) and Chad from 4 to 14 December 2017 (A/HRC/38/46/Add.2). The Working Group thanks the Governments of those countries for their cooperation before and during the visits. It also thanks the Government of Poland for having invited it to conduct an official visit in 2018. The Working Group currently has 32 pending requests for visits and encourages States to respond positively to those requests.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "During the period under review, the Working Group addressed communications to Governments, individually or jointly with other mandate holders. The communications concern a wide range of subjects falling within its mandate, including discriminatory legislation and practices, allegations of abuse of women human rights defenders and violations of their rights, gender-based violence and violations of the right to sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:1]] The Working Group also issued press releases, individually or jointly with other mandate holders, treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.[[fn:2]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Communications.aspx."}, {"n": 2, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/NewsSearch.aspx?MID=WG_Women."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Since its previous report to the Human Rights Council, the experts have undertaken numerous activities in their capacity as members of the Working Group (see annex).", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "In the present report, the Working Group takes stock of the first six years of its mandate and analyses the lessons learned. It is grateful for the responses to the questionnaire it sent out in July 2017 to all Permanent Missions in Geneva and other stakeholders, seeking information on lessons learned, key challenges and opportunities relating to the work of the mandate.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "The Working Group, in establishing its conceptual framework and working methods, stressed that the elimination of discrimination against women in law and in practice required a comprehensive and coherent human rights-based approach that ensured that women were at the centre of efforts to hold principally States accountable for implementing international standards guaranteeing civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights (see A/HRC/20/28). The Working Group addressed the elimination of discrimination against women in law and in practice in all fields from the perspective of States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil women’s human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "It emphasized that national, regional and international human rights mechanisms, as well as grass-roots activists, played critical roles in ensuring the full enjoyment by women of their human rights. For legal guarantees to benefit all women, implementation frameworks and strategies must be responsive to the intersections of gender-based discrimination with other grounds of discrimination.[[fn:3]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 28 (2010) on the core obligations of States parties under article 2 of the Convention, para. 18."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Indeed, the work of the Working Group has covered all women, acknowledging that women are not a uniform group. Nearly 40 years of reporting to the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women have proven that there are multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination against women around the world and within countries that reinforce and sustain each other. All women, in their diversity and many different circumstances, are affected differently by discriminatory laws and practices. Nevertheless, there are shared aspects of discrimination against women that persist in all cultures, although with differing levels of intensity and differing impacts.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Furthermore, throughout the first six years of the mandate, there has been a need to constantly reiterate, even within the human rights system, that women are not just another vulnerable group, as they are often treated by some. They are half of the world population and often the majority of each of the vulnerable groups, hence eliminating the persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights should be addressed both as a stand-alone goal and as a mainstreaming issue.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The Working Group has observed how concepts such as “complementarity”, “equity” and “protection of the family” have been used to undermine women’s rights by challenging universal human rights to equality and non-discrimination. Such concepts are also employed to justify State and non-State violations of these rights, and non-compliance with State obligations to eliminate discriminatory practices based on stereotyped roles for men or women (see A/HRC/29/40).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "In recent years, the Working Group has observed how the concept of gender itself has been challenged, misunderstood and misused to further undermine the struggle towards the elimination of discrimination against women and towards gender equality. In this regard, the hostilities against so-called gender ideology, particularly vehement in Latin America and Eastern Europe, exemplify the growing challenges in the quest for equality. Conservative lobbies advocating against gender ideology, presented as a threat to “traditional values”, wrongly see efforts to advance gender equality as the imposition of ideas and beliefs that seek to destroy such institutions as the family, marriage and religious freedom. This movement has been particularly vocal in opposing policies or even debates on issues of scientifically based comprehensive sexuality education in schools, women’s sexual and reproductive rights, marriage equality and gender-based violence. The term “gender” has, for instance, been challenged by the movement against the ratification of the Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (the Istanbul Convention) on the grounds that it imposes gender ideology. These conservative groups argue that international law prohibits only sex discrimination, denying that the term “gender” has been used in international norms and standards since the 1970s. The Working Group recalls that, in its general recommendation No. 28, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women interpreted the prohibition of sex discrimination, as contained in the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, as including gender-based discrimination. Attacks against gender ideology are used by conservative actors to oppose the universal applicability of human rights standards on the basis of non-discrimination and to undermine achievements made in the recognition of women’s human rights and in the implementation of gender equality.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "In the past six years, the Working Group has documented the gains made over decades of global advocacy. It has also drawn attention to the remaining gaps and the obstacles to achieve gender equality, particularly due to the rise of movements opposing the universality of women’s rights, contributing to fragmenting and weakening the human rights system. This calls for all actors to unite in an effort to protect, promote and fulfil women’s rights, while fighting against retrogressions. Yet, rising authoritarianism in political governance, economic crises and rocketing inequality and politicization of traditionalist religions have posed considerable challenges to the human rights system. The corrosion of women’s human rights is a litmus test for the human rights standards of the whole of society.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction", "2. A new sense of urgency"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Nearly 40 years after the adoption by the General Assembly of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, no country in the world has successfully eliminated discrimination against women or achieved full equality. This should no longer be tolerated or normalized. Today, there is a need to protect the gains from the past and to urgently advance women’s substantive equality, which is crucial for the indivisibility of human rights and for the human development of families, communities and countries. This new sense of urgency has led the Working Group to shed light on issues subjected to particular resistance and to reflect on ways to further strengthen women’s human rights machinery in a collective struggle to eliminate discrimination against women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction", "2. A new sense of urgency"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 17, "n": 1, "text": "Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "A. Introduction", "2. A new sense of urgency"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 18, "n": 17, "text": "Throughout its work, the Working Group has documented achievements, good practices and the main challenges in the quest for the elimination of discrimination against women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "1. Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 19, "n": 18, "text": "International commitment to fulfilling women’s right to political participation has grown substantially. Over the course of the twentieth century, women’s right to vote has been almost universally implemented. In fewer than two decades after the Fourth World Conference on Women: Action for Equality, Development and Peace, held in Beijing, the global average for women’s political representation has doubled.[[fn:4]] The introduction of quotas in some countries that were undergoing political transition resulted in significant increases in women’s parliamentary representation. Positive trends have also been seen in terms of extending special measures and affirmative action to other areas of public life beyond parliamentary representation (see A/HRC/23/50).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif-arc.htm."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "1. Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 20, "n": 19, "text": "In recent years, women demanding dignity and rights have marched worldwide and have increasingly used social media to take action. Technology has enabled new forms of women’s political expression and engagement. Movements denouncing gender-based violence against women, such as #NiUnaMenos and #MeToo, have swept much of the globe, following decades of advocacy from women’s rights movements demanding an end to violence against women in environments that normalize discrimination against women. Gender-based violence is one of the worst manifestations of such discrimination.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=22759&LangID=E."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "1. Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 21, "n": 20, "text": "Significant progress has been made in closing the gender gap in education, and women have increasingly participated in the cultural and scientific lives of their communities and nations.[[fn:6]] Women’s labour force participation has increased significantly and women entrepreneurs in small and medium-sized enterprises have made considerable contributions as crucial economic actors. Initial efforts have been made by some countries to increase women’s participation in economic and financial leadership by imposing gender quota requirements for corporate boards. Moreover, in times of crisis, some countries have chosen alternatives to austerity measures to ensure women’s continued economic inclusion (see A/HRC/26/39).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See A/72/155 and www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/priority-areas/gender-and-science/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "1. Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 22, "n": 21, "text": "The right of women and girls to equality in the family has been recognized in international human rights law and guaranteed in most modern legal regimes, which have reformed family law systems to enshrine gender equality. In some countries, progress has been made in challenging gender stereotypes and the unequal roles and responsibilities attributed to women and men in the family. A considerable number of countries have developed laws criminalizing domestic violence and providing protection for victims (see A/HRC/29/40).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "1. Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 23, "n": 22, "text": "Efforts to combat negative stereotypical messages regarding women’s bodies have been deployed by civil society organizations and international entities and have been incorporated in national policy by many Governments (see A/HRC/32/44). Women’s sexual and reproductive rights have been increasingly recognized in international standards. Maternal mortality has been almost halved over the past 20 years.[[fn:7]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/9789241507226_eng.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "1. Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 24, "n": 23, "text": "An impressive body of regional and international human rights standards has been developed over the past few decades, in which recognition and protection of women’s right to equality has been central and prioritized. Considerable progress has been made in the number of national constitutions guaranteeing gender equality and laws enacted to prohibit sex discrimination and gender-based violence. In 1995, the Fourth World Conference on Women consolidated the hard-fought progress and achievements by agreeing on a comprehensive plan to advance women’s right to equality: the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action. In 2010, the Human Rights Council decided to establish the Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice as part of its independent fact-finding and monitoring mechanisms. While the founding of the Working Group is undoubtedly a success in terms of strengthening the women’s rights machinery, it also reflects the recognition by the international community of the persistent discrimination against women worldwide.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "1. Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 25, "n": 24, "text": "Despite these achievements made over long years of struggle, discrimination against women and impunity for the violation of women’s rights persist in both the private and public spheres, in times of conflict as in times of peace, and in all regions of the world. Not only is the advancement of women’s rights and full equality too slow, uneven and far from a global reality (see E/CN.6/2015/3), but women’s hard-fought achievements now risk being reversed. An unprecedented pushback has been progressing across regions by an alliance of conservative political ideologies and religious fundamentalisms. Retrogressions have been occurring, often in the name of culture, religion and traditions, and threaten the hard-fought progress in achieving women’s equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "1. Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 26, "n": 2, "text": "Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes Family and culture", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "1. Acknowledging progress made in advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 27, "n": 25, "text": "In its reports, the Working Group has demonstrated the persistence of a global discriminatory cultural construction of gender, often tied to religion, and the continued reliance of States on cultural justifications for adopting discriminatory laws or for failing to respect international human rights law and standards. It has particularly emphasized that failure to ensure the equality of women and girls within the family undermines any attempt to ensure their equality in all areas of society (see A/HRC/29/40).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Family and culture"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 28, "n": 26, "text": "Throughout its work, the Working Group has shown that discrimination against women and girls and the backlash against their rights all too often start in the family where, for example, women and girls are undervalued, may be limited to certain roles, experience harmful practices and patriarchal oppression, and suffer other human rights abuses, including domestic violence and sexual abuse. As indicated by the Working Group, although discriminatory laws governing family life have been repealed in most countries, such laws are still in force in a few others (ibid.). In some countries, women are deprived of their fundamental rights due to, inter alia, a lower minimum age of marriage for girls, guardianship systems, forced marriage, polygamous marriage, discrimination in nationality rights, divorce rights and unequal rights to custody, inheritance and access to property and land. In the name of perceived honour, purity and tradition, girls and women are subject to “honour” killing, child marriage,[[fn:8]] widowhood rites and female genital mutilation,[[fn:9]] among other violations of their rights. In some regions, there has been no progress at all towards eliminating child marriage.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "See www.girlsnotbrides.org/what-is-the-impact/."}, {"n": 9, "text": "See www.unfpa.org/female-genital-mutilation."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See www.unicef.org/media/media_102783.html."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Family and culture"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 29, "n": 27, "text": "Within the United Nations system, the Working Group has observed that States have misused references to culture, religion and family in an effort to dilute their international obligations to fulfil women’s rights and achieve gender equality. One extremely revealing fact is the high number of reservations to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, particularly to article 16 on equality in the family,[[fn:11]] in which States deny women’s and girls’ right to equality in deference to religious norms, and refute their accountability for the universal applicability of human rights (see A/HRC/29/40). This also shows that equality in the private domain — the family — remains one of the biggest hurdles to achieving gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See www.universal-rights.org/urg-policy-reports/march-universality-religion-based-reservations-core-un-human-rights-treaties-tell-us-human-rights-religion-universality-21st-century/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Family and culture"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 30, "n": 28, "text": "Under the guise of protecting the family, some States are taking initiatives aimed at further diluting human rights. While recognizing that the family is the fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to protection, the Working Group insists on the need to reassert women’s right to equality in all aspects of family life and to recognize that diverse forms of family exist. Protection of the family cannot be used as a justification for laws, policies or practices that would deny women and girls their full and equal human rights (ibid.). The advancement of women and girls depends on the recognition in law and in practice of their right to equality as members of communities and families.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Family and culture"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 31, "n": 29, "text": "As the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights has highlighted, diverse religious fundamentalists often work together tactically at the international level to thwart advances in women’s human rights. She has also observed that enabling women’s enjoyment 8 See www.girlsnotbrides.org/what-is-the-impact/. 9 See www.unfpa.org/female-genital-mutilation. 10 See www.unicef.org/media/media_102783.html. 11 See www.universal-rights.org/urg-policy-reports/march-universality-religion-based-reservationscore-un-human-rights-treaties-tell-us-human-rights-religion-universality-21st-century/. of all human rights, including cultural rights, is an essential component in the fight against extremism, fundamentalism and terrorism (see A/HRC/34/56).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Family and culture"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 32, "n": 30, "text": "While the Working Group is committed to the principle of upholding freedom of religion or belief as human rights to be protected, it regrets the increasing challenges to gender equality in the name of religion. It joins other international human rights expert mechanisms in reiterating that freedom of religion or belief should never be used to justify discrimination against women (see A/HRC/29/40).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Family and culture"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 33, "n": 31, "text": "It is in this context of rising fundamentalisms and backlashes against women’s rights that the current discourse on women’s sexual and reproductive rights is taking place at the international level. Too many women are being deprived of their sexual and reproductive health and rights. While the maternal mortality rate has declined, over 800 women still die every day from preventable causes related to pregnancy and childbirth, with the lives of the most marginalized women at the highest risk.[[fn:12]] An estimated 225 million women are deprived of access to essential modern contraception,[[fn:13]] often leading to unplanned pregnancies. For girls, pregnancy and childbirth is one of the most common causes of death in developing countries, with girls under 15 years of age facing five times the danger. As a result of unsafe abortions, each year some 47,000 women die,[[fn:14]] and a further 5 million suffer temporary or permanent disability.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "See www.unfpa.org/maternal-health."}, {"n": 13, "text": "See www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/family_planning/human-rights-contraception/en/."}, {"n": 14, "text": "See www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/unsafe_abortion/9789241548434/en/."}, {"n": 15, "text": "See http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPRH/Resources/376374-1261312056980/RHAP_Pub_8-23-10web.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Women’s autonomy and sexual and reproductive rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 34, "n": 32, "text": "In some countries, women still live with the threat of criminal punishment for sexual or reproductive conduct such as adultery, prostitution/sex work or termination of pregnancy. In others, women are even accused of murder if they have a miscarriage or obstetric complication (see A/HRC/32/44). Criminalization of behaviour that is attributed only to women is inherently discriminatory.[[fn:16]] So is denying women’s autonomous decision-making and access to services that only women require and failing to address their specific health and safety, including their reproductive and sexual health needs.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "Ibid. See also www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2018/03/un-body-politics-explainer/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Women’s autonomy and sexual and reproductive rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 35, "n": 33, "text": "Some 25 per cent of the world’s population lives in countries with highly restrictive abortion laws. The Working Group has documented how politicized religious conservative movements in numerous countries have influenced decision-making to either halt or roll back progress, making concerted efforts in various regions to retain or even introduce prohibitions on termination of pregnancy. In a few countries, there have been attempts made to have a total ban, even where the pregnancy threatens the life of the pregnant woman. There have also been moves to further restrict funding of contraceptives. The commitment to upholding women’s human rights regarding termination of pregnancy, as evident in some pioneering high court decisions, has not been upheld by all the highest courts in different regions.[[fn:17]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/WomensAutonomyEqualityReproductive Health.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Women’s autonomy and sexual and reproductive rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 36, "n": 34, "text": "The Special Rapporteur on cultural rights has shown how fundamentalist and extremist abuses of cultural rights aim to limit the enjoyment of women’s human rights and restrict the sexual and reproductive rights of all (see A/HRC/34/56). In this regard, the Working Group reaffirms that health-care providers’ conscientious objections to reproductive health care cannot be accommodated if such objections would put women’s health or lives in danger.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Women’s autonomy and sexual and reproductive rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 37, "n": 35, "text": "The right of a woman or girl to make autonomous decisions about her own body and reproductive functions is at the very core of her fundamental right to equality and privacy, involving intimate matters of physical and psychological integrity, and is a precondition for the enjoyment of other rights.[[fn:18]] Countries where women have the right to termination of pregnancy and are provided with access to information and to all methods of contraception have the lowest rates of termination of pregnancy. In countries where induced termination of pregnancy is restricted by law and/or otherwise unavailable, safe termination of pregnancy is a privilege of the rich, while women with limited resources have little choice but to resort to unsafe providers and practices. WHO data has clearly demonstrated that criminalizing termination of pregnancy does not reduce the number of women who resort to abortion procedures. Rather, it is likely to increase the number of women seeking clandestine and unsafe solutions. Indeed, 25 million unsafe abortions are still performed each year.[[fn:19]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 3 and 17."}, {"n": 19, "text": "See www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/unsafe_abortion/9789241548434/en/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Women’s autonomy and sexual and reproductive rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 38, "n": 36, "text": "In the current discourse, the need to put women’s human rights at the centre of policy considerations regarding termination of their pregnancy is being obfuscated by the rhetoric and political power behind the argument that there is a symmetrical balance between the rights of two entities: the woman and the fetus. However, there is no such contestation in international human rights law. It was well established in the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights and upheld in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights that the human rights accorded under international human rights law are accorded to those who have been born. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration provides that all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. Those who believe that personhood commences at the time of conception have the freedom to act in accordance with their beliefs, but not to impose their beliefs on others through the legal system.[[fn:20]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/WomensAutonomyEqualityReproductive Health.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Women’s autonomy and sexual and reproductive rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 39, "n": 37, "text": "The Working Group reiterates that much of the discrimination women face in terms of their right to access health services relating to their pregnancy and their resulting preventable ill-health, as well as maternal mortality and morbidity, can be attributed to the instrumentalization and politicization of women’s bodies and health (see A/HRC/32/44). Criminalizing termination of pregnancy is one of the most damaging manifestations of that instrumentalization, subjecting women to risks to their lives or health and depriving them of autonomy in decision-making. The lack of universal access to comprehensive sexuality education and contraceptive information and services, particularly for adolescents and girls, and the practice of child marriage, lead to teenage pregnancy and the exclusion of girls from education and employment, hence limiting their enjoyment of many other rights.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Women’s autonomy and sexual and reproductive rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 40, "n": 38, "text": "In its reports, the Working Group has demonstrated how women still face structural disadvantages and discrimination in the economic and social spheres throughout their life cycle. Social and cultural barriers still prevent many girls from completing their education, and legal discrimination, entrenched inequalities in wages and labour force participation and caring responsibilities prevent women from participating equally in economic and social life. Women do 2.6 times more unpaid care and domestic work than men.[[fn:21]] Older women suffer from a gender pension gap, making them particularly vulnerable to poverty, and all women face the persistent risk of sexual harassment and other forms of gender-based violence in schools, workplaces and other public places, in addition to the home (see A/HRC/26/39).", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "See www.unwomen.org/-/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2018/sdg-report-gender-equality-in-the-2030-agenda-for-sustainable-development-2018-en.pdf?la=en&vs=5653."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Economic and social participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 41, "n": 39, "text": "Indeed, women continue to be paid less than men for work of equal value and are severely underrepresented in top leadership in decision-making bodies in business, finance and trade, including in international institutions such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Trade Organization, and in cooperatives and trade unions. Furthermore, women have been grossly underrepresented in the formulation of the macroeconomic policies that have led to rocketing inequality, austerity measures and the undermining of care services on which women are more dependent than men. Today, there are more girls in schools than ever before, but one out of five adolescent girls is still out of school.[[fn:22]] Moreover, women’s higher educational achievements worldwide have not always translated into corresponding leadership positions or even equality in the economic field. While more women have entered the workforce, they still represent only 49 per cent of working age women,[[fn:23]] against 75 per cent of working age men.[[fn:24]] Globally, the gender pay gap still stands at 23 per cent.[[fn:25]] Women often have access only to vulnerable forms of employment; the majority of women in developing countries are employed in the informal sector or in family businesses, and do not always receive wages directly. In countries where women’s income mainly comes from agricultural activities, they generally have very limited ownership of land.[[fn:26]]", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/fs48-one-five-children-adolescents-youth-out-school-2018-en.pdf."}, {"n": 23, "text": "See https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.FE.NE.ZS?view=chart."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT.MA.NE.ZS?view=chart."}, {"n": 25, "text": "See http://interactive.unwomen.org/multimedia/infographic/changingworldofwork/en/index.html."}, {"n": 26, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/Womenslandright.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Economic and social participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 42, "n": 40, "text": "While women’s economic empowerment has proven to be among the least controversial issues relating to gender equality, the underlying cultural, social and political causes of economic inequality have not been successfully and fundamentally tackled. Women’s economic and social rights will never be fulfilled if the necessary infrastructure for care services, enforcement of equal pay for work of equal value, and regulation of women’s labour rights in the informal sector, in which many women are employed globally, are not put in place.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Economic and social participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 43, "n": 41, "text": "Throughout its work, the Working Group has showed that globally, women remain underrepresented in all branches and at all levels of government. The percentage of women parliamentarians around the world still stands at only 23 per cent and only 17 per cent of Heads of State or Government are women.[[fn:27]] Women are also underrepresented in international and regional entities,[[fn:28]] and their voices and concerns are often omitted from peace agreements and rebuilding strategies. The Working Group has recognized that democratic deficits, poverty and social exclusion, inequality in the family, violence and stereotyping are all persistent barriers to women’s full enjoyment of their rights to political participation (see A/HRC/23/50).", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "See www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2017/4/women-in-politics-2017-map."}, {"n": 28, "text": "See www.gqualcampaign.org/home/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Political and public participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 44, "n": 42, "text": "The Working Group has also expressed growing concern regarding the unique challenges faced by women human rights defenders around the world, driven by deep-rooted discrimination against women and stereotypes about which roles are “appropriate” for women in society. Today’s rising fundamentalisms of all kinds, coupled with political populism, unchecked authoritarian rule and disproportionate focus on corporate profits over human rights, have altogether intensified the obstacles defenders face. For instance, those working on rights contested by fundamentalist groups (women’s sexual and reproductive rights) and those denouncing the actions of extractive industries and businesses face a heightened risk of violence, including murder.[[fn:29]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/WomenHumanRightsDefenders Gender.aspx."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Political and public participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 45, "n": 43, "text": "During the first six years of the mandate, the experts have identified the fact that, of the many obstacles to gender equality that women face throughout their life cycle, the areas of family, culture and sexual and reproductive rights remain the most significant challenges and are those in which there has been a backlash against gains in women’s equality. The Working Group regrets that women’s economic empowerment and political participation are too often tackled as isolated issues. The interdependence of human rights cannot be overlooked: persistent discrimination in family, cultural and sexual and reproductive rights have a debilitating impact on women’s capacity to claim equal standing in all aspects of life. This selective approach towards discrimination against women is an unfortunate practice by States and within the United Nations system, and is a core problem affecting the way gender equality is addressed and a major obstacle to sustainable progress. Without eliminating discrimination in family, cultural and sexual and reproductive rights, there will be no lasting progress in the other fields.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Taking stock"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 46, "n": 3, "text": "Strengthening the system to better promote and protect women’s rights in a comprehensive manner", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "2. Deadlocks, retrogressions and backlashes", "Taking stock"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 47, "n": 44, "text": "In its resolution 35/18, the Human Rights Council expressed profound concern about the backlash against the progress made by civil society to fulfil women’s human rights. Throughout its mandate, the Working Group has witnessed the resurgence of a very conservative and retrogressive narrative in international forums and at the national level, and attempts to reinstate policies or legislation that are harmful to women. Such laws or policies particularly affect women’s enjoyment of their right to equality in the family and their rights to health and autonomous decision-making.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "3. Strengthening the system to better promote and protect women’s rights in a comprehensive manner"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 48, "n": 45, "text": "As reported in a study on the impact of conservative actors in the international arena, there have been concerted efforts to water down existing agreements and commitments and to introduce regressive language in international human rights documents. There have also been attempts to undermine United Nations agencies, treaty monitoring bodies and special procedures. Anti-rights actors’ discourses and strategies have led to deadlock in negotiations and had a substantive impact on the human rights framework and the progressive interpretation of human rights standards, especially those relating to gender equality and sexuality.[[fn:30]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "See www.awid.org/ours-report."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "3. Strengthening the system to better promote and protect women’s rights in a comprehensive manner"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 49, "n": 46, "text": "Furthermore, the Working Group has observed that the women’s human rights agenda is significantly fragmented. The selective prioritization of the less controversial issues means that gender equality is not addressed in a comprehensive manner, neglecting the interdependence and indivisibility of women’s human rights. The Working Group recognizes the considerable progress made in terms of mainstreaming gender within the United Nations system. However, the impact of such efforts will remain insufficient as long as the United Nations system shies away from addressing the nuclei of resistance that are negatively affecting women’s rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "3. Strengthening the system to better promote and protect women’s rights in a comprehensive manner"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 50, "n": 47, "text": "The Working Group concurs with the Special Rapporteur on cultural rights, who emphasized that all such anti-rights trends, whether on the part of States or non-State actors, at the international or national levels, must be met with a vigorous international human rights-based challenge, which must centre women’s human rights (see A/72/155, para. 3). In this context of backlashes, devoting adequate resources to mechanisms working to achieve women’s human rights is crucial. So too is enhancing communication and collaboration between all stakeholders and avoiding any inconsistency within the system.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "3. Strengthening the system to better promote and protect women’s rights in a comprehensive manner"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 51, "n": 48, "text": "At a time when the world should be moving relentlessly forward towards ever greater equality and the elimination of discrimination, women’s rights activists find themselves far too often confronted by those who would use the specious justifications of tradition, culture, religion or State sovereignty to keep women from taking their rightful place in society and family as equals, or from exercising full control over their bodies and their personhood. Despite the principle, upheld in the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, that human rights are universal, indivisible and interdependent, the Working Group has observed efforts by conservative actors and fundamentalist groups to undermine the foundation on which the whole human rights system is based. The Working Group insists that global leadership, including international human rights bodies, States, United Nations entities and civil society, needs to guard against the backlash, to ensure that the human rights legal framework is not undermined. The Working Group considers that the time has come to review with a critical lens the unfulfilled commitments made to women and to take corrective action.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "B. Global context of persistent discrimination and backlashes against women’s rights and the need to strengthen the protection system", "3. Strengthening the system to better promote and protect women’s rights in a comprehensive manner"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 52, "n": 49, "text": "In the face of this backlash, the Working Group has consistently reiterated its call for the elimination of any laws, policies or practices that have a discriminatory effect on women and girls, and has committed to denouncing any anti-rights rhetoric and actions that hinder the upholding of human rights standards, particularly regarding gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 53, "n": 50, "text": "The Working Group has deployed considerable efforts to contribute to the advancement of substantive equality and the development of progressive standards in a number of thematic areas. It has challenged the status quo and addressed topics where norms are contested or fragile but where protection of women’s human rights is essential to the achievement of equality and the elimination of discrimination against women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 54, "n": 51, "text": "Since its establishment in 2010, the Working Group has sought to organize its work in the manner that best serves the mandate given to it by the Human Rights Council and that best advances the elimination of discrimination against women (see A/HRC/20/28). The Working Group has sought to assist States and other stakeholders to find and maintain the political will necessary to fulfil their obligations under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and to create an environment that is conducive to achieving gender equality and empowering all women and girls, in accordance with Goal 5 of the Sustainable Development Goals, but also the cross-cutting principle of leaving no one behind.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 55, "n": 52, "text": "In view of the work being carried out by international and regional human rights bodies and other special procedure mandate holders, the Working Group agreed that it would build on existing standards and initiatives, and on the available knowledge and tools produced to date by States, United Nations bodies, national human rights institutions and civil society organizations. In accordance with the mandate provided by the Human Rights Council in resolution 15/23, the Working Group has sought to draw upon the findings of the United Nations human rights machinery and the broader United Nations system.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 56, "n": 53, "text": "Like many special procedure mandates that share areas of thematic focus with treaty bodies and United Nations bodies, the Working Group has worked to take advantage of its complementarity with the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, UN-Women, the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, and other mandate holders to ensure that its actions are mutually reinforcing with those of others dedicated to the colossal task of eliminating the discrimination that still has a daily impact on the lives of half the world’s population. In its resolution 23/7, the Human Rights Council recognized the constructive approach of the Working Group.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 57, "n": 54, "text": "The Working Group has sought to maximize the impact and utility of the tools that are available to special procedures. It has also sought to make the best possible use of its convening capacity as a Working Group, through its annual sessions in Geneva and New York.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 58, "n": 55, "text": "Additionally, it has taken advantage of new opportunities to advance the elimination of discrimination against women, including by contributing to global processes such as the Sustainable Development Goals and the Commission on the Status of Women, submitting amicus briefs in relevant court cases and developing position papers on particular women’s human rights issues that needed further clarification. In accordance with its mandate, the Working Group has based its work on international human rights laws and standards, but also compiled good practices going beyond these standards.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 59, "n": 56, "text": "In order to better fulfil its mandate, the Working Group has systemized its analysis in five thematic areas: political and public (A/HRC/23/50), economic and social (A/HRC/26/39), family and culture (A/HRC/29/40), health and safety (A/HRC/32/44) and good practices (A/HRC/35/29). The Working Group has managed to embrace all areas affecting women’s lives and give a broad and comprehensive overview of the persistent and global discrimination against women and girls, in a concise and timely manner.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Thematic reports"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 60, "n": 57, "text": "In its reports, the Working Group has striven to provide practical tools for States and other stakeholders to address the major causes of and trends in discrimination against women. While a plethora of literature exists on these topics, in its reports, the Working Group has condensed the available information in order to enhance its practical utility, and has sought to consistently advance progressive standards at the international level.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Thematic reports"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 61, "n": 58, "text": "In their responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire, States agreed that despite polarization and the sometimes contested nature of women’s human rights within the Human Rights Council, the reports of the Working Group have influenced the language of Council resolutions. For instance, in its resolution 35/18, the Council included progressive language directly derived from the Working Group’s reports with regard to the right to bodily autonomy, the naming of patriarchal norms, the existence of a democratic deficit due to barriers to women’s political participation and recognition of the important role of feminists and women human rights defenders. Language from the Working Group’s reports was successfully incorporated in previous Council resolutions on discrimination against women,[[fn:31]] with some exceptions, particularly regarding issues relating to social protection floors, equality in the family and safe access to termination of pregnancy.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "See http://ap.ohchr.org/documents/dpage_e.aspx?m=188."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Thematic reports"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 62, "n": 59, "text": "In its response to the questionnaire, one State reported that the Working Group’s work had inspired its national human rights institution to make recommendations focusing on discrimination in cultural and family life. Another State indicated that the Working Group’s reports had had an impact at the national level, including by being referred to by the parliament in the framework of legislative initiatives. Another State reported that the Working Group’s reports had proven particularly useful as a reference in the process of drafting a national action plan on human rights.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Thematic reports"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 63, "n": 60, "text": "Through its country visits,[[fn:32]] the Working Group has worked with States and other stakeholders to identify and promote good practices and exchange views on challenges relating to the elimination of discriminatory laws and practices and has made recommendations on the improvement of legislation and implementation of the law in a manner that contributes to the empowerment of women. In preparing for country visits, the Working Group works with United Nations country teams, including UN-Women, when present. Its preparation includes following up on recommendations of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and those of other special procedures. While in the country, the Working Group systematically meets with all stakeholders at the national and local levels, engages with communities, individual women, women’s organizations, and traditional and religious leaders. It has striven to prepare comprehensive end-of-mission statements that can build on the momentum of the visit to have maximum impact and provide a preliminary road map to the elimination of laws and practices that discriminate against women. The Working Group has also been able to visit a State that has not ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and is thus not subject to review by the Committee.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/CountryVisits.aspx."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 64, "n": 61, "text": "Some of the country visits have been valuable in bringing about changes to law and practice. Following one country visit, a State approved a series of amendments to its legislation on gender equality, including, as recommended by the Working Group, adopting quotas for a minimum of 40 per cent for both sexes in government positions and on political party electoral lists. The same State reported that the Working Group’s visit had been useful for the establishment of its national human rights institution. Another State re-established the practice of distributing emergency contraception following a recommendation from the Working Group, and another set up a committee to reform discriminatory provisions in its Family Code. Further to a Working Group recommendation, one State halted plans for the reinstatement of corporal punishment in schools, and another considered for the first time in its parliament a law to combat gender-based violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 65, "n": 62, "text": "The Working Group has also sought to implement effective follow-up to its country visits, within the limits of the resources available, by sending follow-up letters and making them and the responses publically available. It is regrettable that only one State has responded thus far to the follow-up letters.[[fn:33]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/CountryVisits.aspx."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 66, "n": 63, "text": "In its communications to States,[[fn:34]] the Working Group has sought to collaborate with other mandate holders, sending mainly joint communications on cases that involved cross-cutting human rights issues. It has also used this tool to initiate a dialogue on selected widespread discriminatory laws and policies, such as discrimination against women in nationality laws, marital status and criminalization of adultery. Between 1 January 2011 and 31 March 2018, the Working Group sent 259 communications, 165 of which were sent jointly with other mandate holders. Unfortunately, of all the communications sent, only 83 substantive replies were received from States.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Communications.aspx."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Communications"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 67, "n": 64, "text": "Communications sent by the Working Group, independently and jointly with other mandate holders, have contributed to reforming discriminatory laws and policies. For example, States have amended nationality laws that denied women the right to confer citizenship on their children on an equal basis with men, and marriage laws that provided different minimum ages of marriage for boys and girls. Additionally, following one communication by the Working Group, a national law society removed from its website a note about discriminatory practice in terms of succession rules. The communications have also supported action for the release or acquittal of women imprisoned or prosecuted under discriminatory laws, including women who were imprisoned and threatened with flogging for charges including apostasy, adultery, “indecent dressing”, a woman imprisoned for having suffered a miscarriage and a migrant woman who was accused of killing her employer after he threatened at knifepoint to rape her. In responding to the Working Group’s questionnaire, one State acknowledged that it had instituted new protocols and new training methods for State employees as a result of a communication from the Working Group.", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Communications"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 68, "n": 65, "text": "The Working Group holds three one-week sessions every year. It has used the sessions as an opportunity to meet with States and civil society organizations, and to engage in dialogue and exchange views in order to make progress in the elimination of discrimination against women. It has also viewed the sessions as an opportunity to improve its collaboration with other mechanisms working on women’s human rights and other stakeholders, systematically organizing meetings with other special procedures, treaty body experts, United Nations entities, intergovernmental organizations, States and civil society from all regions. In meeting with stakeholders, the Working Group has sought their contributions to the preparation of its thematic reports, and aimed to enable each entity to benefit from one another’s expertise, as well as trying to create new synergies and ensure consistency within the system. These goals also underlie the Working Group’s use of its sessions to convene two joint meetings with regional women’s human rights mechanisms.[[fn:35]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/HRMechanismsWomens_Conceptnote.pdf and www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/outcome_document.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Working Group sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 69, "n": 66, "text": "The Working Group has used amicus briefs, submitted independently or jointly with other mandate holders, to offer national courts expert advice on issues of domestic law that are directly related to States’ international human rights obligations to eliminate discrimination against women.[[fn:36]] The expertise of the Working Group is also reflected in the position papers it has issued, which seek to provide conceptual clarity on selected areas affecting the enjoyment of women’s rights where there may be widespread misunderstanding, misconception, misperception or underdeveloped interpretation of standards. Thus far, position papers have covered issues such as discrimination against women in nationality,[[fn:37]] criminalization of adultery,[[fn:38]] women’s land rights,[[fn:39]] and women’s autonomy, equality and reproductive health.[[fn:40]] These papers are particularly valuable given the limited space available to focus on thematic areas, especially since the Working Group does not report to the General Assembly.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/AmicusCuriae.aspx."}, {"n": 37, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/DiscriminationAgainstWomenNationality.pdf."}, {"n": 38, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/AdulteryasaCriminalOffenceViolatesWomenHR.pdf."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/Womenslandright.pdf."}, {"n": 40, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/WomensAutonomyEqualityReproductiveHealth.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 70, "n": 67, "text": "The Working Group has brought its expertise in the area of women’s human rights to bear in relevant global processes in order to ensure that a rights-based perspective is incorporated in global efforts to achieve equality and eliminate discrimination. Independently and jointly with other mechanisms, it has contributed to the processes of development and achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals.[[fn:41]] It has also led the special procedures in an ongoing effort to ensure that Human Rights Council resolutions on protection of the family are grounded in the understanding that discrimination against women within the family is barred by international human rights law, and that true equality for women and girls can never be achieved if they are treated unequally within their own homes.[[fn:42]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WRGS/WGcontributions_to_Post2015DevelopmentAgenda.pdf."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WRGS/JointLetterPresidentHRCProtectionFamily.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 71, "n": 68, "text": "The Working Group has sought to cooperate with other special procedure mandate holders in order to mainstream a gender perspective and to reinforce their shared goal of advancing women’s human rights. For instance, the Working Group has engaged in a productive and sustained collaboration with the Special Rapporteur on human rights defenders, in order to address the specific issues faced by women human rights defenders. It has also contributed to the reports of a number of other special procedure mandate holders and submitted its views to treaty bodies in the process of drafting general recommendations and general comments.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 72, "n": 69, "text": "The Working Group has regularly contributed to the dialogue held by States at the Commission on the Status of Women on the achievement of equality by women and girls and the empowerment of women, and for the first time in 2018 contributed formally to the Commission’s general discussion. The Working Group has persisted in its effort to contribute to the work of the Commission, despite not yet having been allocated a formal role under the Commission’s methods of work, such as that granted to the Special Rapporteur on violence against women and the Chair of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 73, "n": 2, "text": "Lessons learned and opportunities for improvement", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "1. The Working Group’s work", "Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 74, "n": 70, "text": "The Working Group has identified a number of steps that could be taken in order to enhance the institutional effectiveness of the international system in eliminating discrimination against women and promoting gender equality, as detailed in the conclusions and recommendations contained in the present report.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "2. Lessons learned and opportunities for improvement"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 75, "n": 71, "text": "Formal involvement of the Working Group in the Commission on the Status of Women, instituted for the first time in 2018, further to the request of the Human Rights Council in its resolution 35/18, is an important step in bringing the Working Group’s expertise on women’s human rights to the principal global intergovernmental body dedicated to the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "2. Lessons learned and opportunities for improvement"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 76, "n": 72, "text": "Furthermore, the responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire revealed that several States were unaware of all the work undertaken by the Working Group and the efforts 37 See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/DiscriminationAgainstWomenNationality.pdf. 38 See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/AdulteryasaCriminalOffenceViolates WomenHR.pdf. 39 See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/Womenslandright.pdf. 40 See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/WomensAutonomyEqualityReproductive Health.pdf. 41 See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WRGS/WGcontributions_to_Post2015Development Agenda.pdf. 42 See www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Women/WRGS/JointLetterPresidentHRCProtection Family.pdf. deployed to engage with all stakeholders. One of the aims of the present report was to comply with States’ requests in their responses to give its work and activities more visibility and to seek additional ways of improving its outreach. Unfortunately, due to limited resources, the Working Group has experienced challenges in sustaining meaningful cooperation strategies with all stakeholders, particularly with regional human rights mechanisms, or any outreach strategy ensuring that its work is duly disseminated.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "C. The Working Group’s efforts to contribute to the advancement of the elimination of discrimination against women", "2. Lessons learned and opportunities for improvement"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 77, "n": 73, "text": "Despite considerable achievements in advancing women’s rights, overall progress towards an equal and just society where women are free from discrimination has been slow and uneven across the globe. Marginalized groups of women remain left behind, while political conflict and natural disasters have created new populations of women in situations of vulnerability. The recent resurgence of populism, xenophobia, religious fundamentalism and sexism pose complex challenges for women who continue to battle on many fronts for their rights and dignity (see A/HRC/35/29).", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 78, "n": 74, "text": "The extraordinarily challenging current context highlights the need to reassert the human rights of women so that every woman and girl can aspire to equality and live a life of dignity and respect. Achieving this vision requires a renewed focus on maintaining and building upon the gains already made, and preventing rollback. This means taking stock of the fulfilment of women’s rights globally, celebrating and learning from the progress that has been made, shining a light on areas where women’s rights remain fragile and under attack. Research from 70 countries over four decades has recognized the role of autonomous feminist organizations in advancing women’s rights as the most critical factor in the implementation of gender equality policies.[[fn:43]] As such, creating enabling environments for women’s human rights defenders and women’s organizations is vital for advancing gender equality, and sustaining positive change is a priority.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "S. Laurel Weldon and Mala Htun, “Feminist mobilisation and progressive policy change: why governments take action to combat violence against women”, Gender & Development, vol. 21, No. 2 (July 2013)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 79, "n": 75, "text": "The Working Group will be guided by an overarching framework of preventing rollback and reasserting equality, and will focus on the areas outlined below in its annual thematic reports.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 80, "n": 1, "text": "Women left behind: the causes and consequences of cumulative, multiple and intersecting discrimination against women, with a case study on women deprived of liberty", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 81, "n": 76, "text": "In the context of growing inequalities, the Working Group will explore the causes and consequences of multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination against women, examining the social, economic and political factors that push particular groups of women to the margins. It will also examine the causes and consequences of multiple deprivations experienced by some groups of women, which include a lack of access to basic services, economic insecurity, the lack of a voice in decision-making, vulnerability to violence and poor access to justice. To illuminate the causes and consequences of multiple deprivations experienced by women, the Working Group will present a case study on how the failure of States to protect the human rights of the most marginalized women results in the deprivation of their liberty through detention and imprisonment and other forms of confinement in the private and social context.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 82, "n": 2, "text": "Protecting and realizing women’s rights in the changing world of work", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 83, "n": 77, "text": "The Working Group will examine women’s rights in the world of work in the context of the rapidly changing nature of work, including informal work, increasing automation, digital platforms, the so-called gig economy and job insecurity. While in recent decades, increasing numbers of women have been engaging in paid work across the world, this progress has not been matched with improving pay, conditions and the security of women’s work. In developing nations, many women work in informal and vulnerable forms of employment and the issue of unpaid care work remains a major challenge globally. Systemic discrimination continues to pose a barrier worldwide to women’s enjoyment of their right to work, including their lack of access to decent work and workplace entitlements, and the increasing recognition of sexual harassment in the workplace. With the nature of work changing rapidly, there are both opportunities and risks for women’s economic rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate", "2. Protecting and realizing women’s rights in the changing world of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 84, "n": 3, "text": "Ensuring the prioritization of sexual and reproductive health and rights in situations of crisis and insecurity", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate", "2. Protecting and realizing women’s rights in the changing world of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 85, "n": 78, "text": "The Working Group will examine how women’s sexual and reproductive health and rights can be better protected in times of crisis. There is growing evidence that in times of crisis and insecurity — whether stemming from natural disasters, conflict or other emergencies — women’s and girl’s sexual and reproductive health and rights are particularly at risk and not adequately recognized, leading to a higher risk of unplanned pregnancy and death during childbirth. In such situations, child, early and forced marriage are known to increase and women are more vulnerable to sexual and other forms of violence and exploitation. The Working Group will examine the factors that put women’s sexual and reproductive health at risk in conflict and emergency settings and will attempt to set out the standards and good practices needed to protect women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health and rights in a crisis-prone world.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate", "3. Ensuring the prioritization of sexual and reproductive health and rights in situations of crisis and insecurity"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 86, "n": 4, "text": "Realizing the rights of girl children and adolescent girls", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate", "3. Ensuring the prioritization of sexual and reproductive health and rights in situations of crisis and insecurity"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 87, "n": 79, "text": "The Working Group will examine the situation of girl children, which has not yet been given the comprehensive attention it deserves. Girl children and adolescent girls face unique challenges from multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination, which are often neglected. Families and communities perpetuate gender stereotypes that undervalue girls and deprive them of agency and opportunities. For example, families may not invest in girls’ education as they do for boys, and girls are often forced into early marriage. Early marriage and the instrumentalization of girls’ bodies often result in teenage pregnancy, with irremediable consequences for girls’ health and opportunities. The report will also be an opportunity to address the gaps in national and international policies and strategies to tackle the specific obstacles faced by girl children and adolescent girls. Uncovering the human rights violations faced by girls is key to understanding the life cycle of women’s inequality, while their empowerment is a sine qua non for just societies and achievement of gender equality. The Working Group will identify abuses and risks faced by girls during childhood and adolescence worldwide, and restate and progressively develop the standards in this area.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate", "4. Realizing the rights of girl children and adolescent girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 88, "n": 5, "text": "A rapidly shifting world: emerging issues and strategies for the realization of women’s rights", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate", "4. Realizing the rights of girl children and adolescent girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 89, "n": 80, "text": "The Working Group will take stock of emerging issues in the global context and their impact on the realization of women’s and girls’ human rights. Specifically, the Working Group will look at broader economic, environmental and social trends such as the climate crisis, rapid environmental degradation, growing inequalities, technological disruption and demographic change, through the lens of women’s human rights. It will also examine emerging strategies for advancing women’s right to equality, such as the increasing use of technology to mobilize and connect women’s movements and the accountability of men and other actors for women’s rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate", "5. A rapidly shifting world: emerging issues and strategies for the realization of women’s rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 90, "n": 81, "text": "Beyond this thematic approach, the Working Group intends to ensure continuity with regard to the methods of work and the vision of the previous members of the Working Group, including by strengthening cooperation and alliances with international and regional human rights bodies, working more closely with regional and grass-roots organizations and continuing its efforts to improve its outreach to all stakeholders.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: reasserting equality, countering rollbacks", "D. Setting the vision for the next years of the mandate", "5. A rapidly shifting world: emerging issues and strategies for the realization of women’s rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 91, "n": 82, "text": "The road to gender equality and the full realization of women’s and girls’ human right remains long and challenging. Women are scarcely represented in national and global political and economic decision-making bodies and are too often overrepresented in vulnerable employment and paid less than men, impeding their economic independence. They face pervasive violence, lack control over their bodies and lack autonomy, and are too often seen as sexualized objects. In all spheres of life, power and entitlement are still concentrated in the hands of men. Women facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination experience inequality even more acutely. The continuing existence of direct and indirect discrimination, both visible and invisible, is the reason why women lag behind in nearly all human progress indicators.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 92, "n": 83, "text": "Equality between women and men is humanity’s struggle. In the face of discrimination against women and one of its worst manifestations, gender-based violence, everyone has a duty to act. The international community must move forward on setting and implementing standards on gender equality to counter the alarming trends towards undermining human rights principles and jeopardizing the gains made in women’s rights. Solidarity and unity among the whole human rights movement is crucial. While acknowledging that there is great diversity within the feminist movement, and that experiences, perspectives and objectives vary, differences need to be overcome and objectives reconciled to unite against fundamentalists who oppose gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 93, "n": 84, "text": "Efforts to mainstream gender have constituted a positive step, but they will remain insufficient as long as the United Nations system shies away from addressing nuclei of resistance and maintains its fragmented policies. Recognition of the interdependence of equality in all fields of women’s life is key to achieving full and lasting equality. Isolated or sectoral measures focused on the least controversial fields are inappropriate to address root causes of persistent discrimination. There is an urgent need to improve the coherence of international mechanisms aimed at eliminating discrimination against women and a need for global leadership and partnerships.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 94, "n": 85, "text": "International human rights bodies and United Nations entities need to guard against the current backlash in order to ensure that the human rights legal framework is not undermined. The human rights community should make every effort to block any position in international human rights spaces that endorses patriarchal and discriminatory norms, misusing culture, religion and State sovereignty as fallacious justifications. Women’s human rights are fundamental rights that cannot be subordinated to cultural, religious or political considerations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 95, "n": 86, "text": "Freedom of religion should not be opposed to gender equality, and human rights-based education should be used as the main catalyst for change. The Working Group reiterates that there should be no compromise or tolerance for human rights violations or rollback of international human rights standards.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 96, "n": 87, "text": "States have legal obligations to fulfil women’s right to equality. It is therefore essential to apply the existing human rights obligations of Member States, making sure that there is both awareness of and accountability for elimination of discrimination against women and empowerment of women within this framework. States have a duty to respect women’s human rights and to exercise due diligence to ensure that those rights are not violated by the State, its agents, private corporations, armed groups or individuals. Equality in law and in practice, which enables women to participate fully in political, public, economic and social life, is also a crucial factor for the success of sustainable development. The costs of discriminatory practices in terms of health, education and economic development are a barrier to sustainable development. The goals, targets and indicators of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development should be interpreted through the lenses of human rights obligations. The Sustainable Development Goals should be seen as an opportunity to make progress on the elimination of discrimination against women and gender equality, not to dilute States’ human rights obligations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 97, "n": 88, "text": "Today, the human rights community needs more than ever to unite forces to preserve the democratic space. The fight against all forms of discrimination against women must continue until women everywhere obtain full equality in public, political, economic, social, family, cultural and religious life and in health. Practices such as polygamy, child marriage, female genital mutilation and “honour” killings have no place in any democratic society. The voices of women human rights defenders must not be silenced.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 98, "n": 89, "text": "It has been 70 years since women’s right to equality was enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, nearly 40 years since the ground-breaking Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women came into existence and 25 years since the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action established that women’s rights are an indivisible part of human rights. The Working Group calls for immediate action: waiting for the next century to achieve equality is intolerable, as is rolling back hard-fought gains. There is no acceptable justification for waiting for the elimination of discrimination against women; it is a long overdue political commitment that must be fulfilled without delay.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 99, "n": 90, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Give the issue of women’s right to equality high visibility and top political priority;\n(b) Systematically integrate into legislation and policy the recommendations contained in the Working Group’s thematic and country reports and its communications in order to ensure that obligations to eliminate discrimination against women are met;\n(c) Repeal all discriminatory laws and practices, including those that discriminate against women on traditional, cultural or religious grounds and laws that exclusively or disproportionately criminalize action or behaviour by women and girls, taking into account the multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination faced by many women and girls;\n(d) Give priority to establishing, strengthening and investing in institutions devoted to the advancement of women’s rights and gender equality;\n(e) Create an enabling, supportive environment for civil society and other stakeholders to combat the backlash against women’s human rights and to resist all anti-rights trends and movements with a definitive response grounded in binding human rights obligations, with women’s and girls’ rights at the centre;\n(f) Counter the narratives around gender ideology used by conservative lobbies to misinform societies and undermine the advancement of women’s rights and gender equality;\n(g) Promote recognition of the fact that cultural, religious and family values are not incompatible with women’s and girls’ human rights, and recognize the equality of women and girls as a fundamental tenet of international human rights law that must be protected, respected and fulfilled in all States and at all levels of society, including within the family;\n(h) Continue promoting and protecting the fundamental principle that all rights are universal, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated;\n(i) Ensure respect for women’s rights to make decisions about their own bodies and to receive comprehensive sexuality education so they can enjoy their right to sexual and reproductive health, including safe, legal and affordable access to contraception and termination of pregnancy;\n(j) Establish parity, including through temporary special measures, to ensure equal representation of women in public, political and economic decision-making and leadership;\n(k) Develop strategies to increase women’s access to decent work and achieve equal pay;\n(l) Ensure social protection floors for care work, which would facilitate the participation of women equally with men in economic and social activities;\n(m) Institute measures to combat discriminatory social norms and harmful stereotypes about women’s and girls’ bodies, roles and capabilities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 100, "n": 91, "text": "The Working Group recommends that the Human Rights Council enable it to implement its mandate with the support it requires in terms of resources and cooperation with other entities, including regional mechanisms, national human rights institutions and local women’s rights organizations, and assistance to increase its visibility and outreach to grass-roots actors who might not have access to the international system.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0101", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 101, "n": 92, "text": "The Working Group recommends that the United Nations system:\n(a) Maintain existing international law guarantees of women’s human rights, their right to equality in all fields of life and their right not to be discriminated against, and resist all attempts to derogate from them, including by conservative or religious lobbies;\n(b) Reassert the validity of the terminology relating to gender issues and counter its misuse;\n(c) Develop an integrated policy framework that reflects the indivisibility of all rights and the interdependency of ending discrimination in all fields of women’s life;\n(d) Ensure that women human rights defenders and grass-roots organizations have effective protection and proper access to United Nations forums in the context of shrinking space for civil society;\n(e) Strengthen cooperation and synergies and identify system breakdowns, and recommend how to overcome them, within the context of the current United Nations reform processes, inviting all concerned entities to participate in a self-questioning and accountability exercise on how to best serve the cause of women’s rights;\n(f) Continue working towards gender parity at the United Nations and make commitments to mainstream gender a reality;\n(g) Ensure that the Working Group can contribute meaningfully to the work of the Commission on the Status of Women, including by institutionalizing the Working Group’s formal reporting before the Commission and by participating in the Expert Group Meeting that precedes each Commission session;\n(h) Ensure that the special procedures genuinely mainstream women’s rights, while recognizing that a growing number of mandate holders have devoted full reports to the situation of women’s rights in relation to their mandate;\n(i) Further institutionalize communication and collaboration between the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and the Working Group, recognizing current efforts to have at least one of their annual sessions overlap, thus enabling more meaningful and systematic exchanges;\n(j) Convene a formal, high-level meeting gathering all mechanisms and entities working on women’s rights at the international and regional levels to explore further ideas for collaboration and for the effective promotion of women’s human rights and the elimination of discrimination against women and girls. Such a meeting could be convened by UN-Women, with the support of OHCHR.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0102", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 102, "n": 93, "text": "The Working Group recommends that civil society find synergies between the progressive movements defending women’s rights and strive to reconcile diverse objectives with a view to advancing common priorities and strategically challenging those fundamentalist actors who oppose gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0103", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 103, "n": 94, "text": "The Working Group recommends that national human rights institutions leverage their unique position in the national human rights machinery and act as a bridge between Members States and international human rights mechanisms.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0104", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 104, "n": 1, "text": "The Working Group submitted an amicus brief[[fn:1]] regarding the criminalization of termination of pregnancy in Northern Ireland to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, which was presented before the Court on 26 October 2017.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/AmicusCuriae.aspx."}], "section": ["Activities undertaken by the experts as Working Group members since its last report to the Council"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0105", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 105, "n": 2, "text": "On 3 November 2017, the Chair of the Working Group held a discussion with the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in a plenary session. She briefed the Committee on the highlights of the Working Group’s recent work and emphasized the need to further strengthen cooperation, collaboration and coordination, especially in the context of the backlash against the gains in women’s rights. The meeting agreed to further explore ways for effective collaboration, including through the holding of an annual joint session.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Activities undertaken by the experts as Working Group members since its last report to the Council"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0106", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 106, "n": 3, "text": "On the occasion of International Women’s Day on 8 March 2018, a member of the Working Group participated in a Facebook Live event on women human rights defenders.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Activities undertaken by the experts as Working Group members since its last report to the Council"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0107", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 107, "n": 4, "text": "Two members of the Working Group attended the sixty-second session of the Commission on the Status of Women. For the first time, the Working Group formally reported to the Commission’s general discussion, as newly mandated by the Human Rights Council.[[fn:2]] The Working Group also addressed the Commission’s interactive dialogue on accelerating the implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action and achieving concrete results by 2020. The members of the Working Group participated in a number of other events, including a consultation organized by the Victims’ Rights Advocate, a “meet and greet” for Working Group members hosted by civil society, an Expert Group Meeting, a side event on violence against women in politics, a consultation on strengthened cooperation between global and regional women’s rights mechanisms, and side events on achieving gender parity in United Nations human rights bodies, men’s accountability for change, and women’s human rights advocacy in a time of backlash. Along with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, the Chair of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and representatives of regional women’s rights mechanisms, the experts also met with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See Human Rights Council resolution 35/18."}], "section": ["Activities undertaken by the experts as Working Group members since its last report to the Council"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0108", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 108, "n": 5, "text": "A member of the Working Group participated in the US Human Rights Network National Convening on Advancing Human Rights, held in December 2017 in Atlanta. She participated in a panel discussion on Gender and Poverty Strategy, in February 2018 at New York University, to discuss the preliminary findings of the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights from his country visit to the United States of America. She was part of a joint thematic dialogue on sexual orientation, gender identity and intersex between the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, and United Nations human rights mechanisms, held in Washington D.C. on 26–28 March 2018. She also participated in a conference on Challenging Criminalization Globally: Inter-disciplinary and intersectional dialogue on un-policing identity, morality, sexuality and bodily autonomy, organized by CREA and Global Health Justice Partnership at Yale University on 17–18 April 2018.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Activities undertaken by the experts as Working Group members since its last report to the Council"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0109", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 109, "n": 6, "text": "A member of the Working Group participated in a regional consultation organized by the Special Rapporteur on the right to development in Addis Ababa on 27 and 28 March 2018 and participated in a regional consultation organized by the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights on human rights in conflict situations in Africa held on 5 and 6 April 2018 in Addis Ababa.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Activities undertaken by the experts as Working Group members since its last report to the Council"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-38-46-0110", "docId": "a-hrc-38-46", "idx": 110, "n": 7, "text": "A member of the Working Group participated in a briefing on special procedures, with a focus on the mandate of the Working Group, together with the Special Rapporteur on violence against women. The meeting was organized in Zagreb on 12 April 2018.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2018, "footnotes": [], "section": ["Activities undertaken by the experts as Working Group members since its last report to the Council"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report covers the activities of the Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice from the submission of its previous report (A/HRC/38/46) in May 2018 to April 2019, and also contains a thematic report on women deprived of liberty.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "In the thematic report, the Working Group analyses the causes of women’s deprivation of liberty from a gender perspective.[[fn:1]] In preparing the report, the Working Group analysed responses to a questionnaire sent out to Member States and other stakeholders and inputs from experts.[[fn:2]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "Owing to word limit restrictions, the present report does not contain full references. A version of the report with full references and a bibliography for each section is available at: https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/WomenDeprivedLiberty.aspx."}, {"n": 2, "text": "Responses to the questionnaire are available on the website of the Working Group."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "During the period under review, the Working Group held one session in Geneva and two sessions in New York. At its twenty-second session in New York (23–27 July 2018), the Working Group met with the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on sexual violence in conflict, representatives of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), the United Nations Population Fund and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). It benefited from expert consultations on the issue of women deprived of liberty and met with experts on surrogacy. It also held a meeting with Member States and New York-based civil society organizations, as well as a public event: “20 years after the Declaration on Human Rights Defenders: States’ responsibility towards the protection of women human rights defenders”, organized jointly with civil society organizations and the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At its twenty-third session in Geneva (22–26 October 2018), the Working Group held meetings with other special procedures mandate holders, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and representatives of UN-Women, the International Labour Organization and OHCHR. It also met with the Rapporteur on persons deprived of liberty from the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights and other experts on the issue of women deprived of liberty.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "At its twenty-fourth session in New York (28 January–1 February 2019), the Working Group met with representatives of UN-Women, OHCHR and civil society. It held a discussion with the Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance. It also held a meeting with Member States and had consultations with experts on women deprived of liberty.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The experts visited Honduras from 1 to 14 November 2018 (A/HRC/41/33/Add.1) and Poland from 3 to 14 December 2018 (A/HRC/41/33/Add.2). The Working Group thanks the Governments of those countries for their excellent cooperation before and during the visits. It also thanks the Government of Greece for the invitation to conduct an official visit from 1 to 12 April 2019 (the report of the visit will be presented to the forty-fourth session of the Human Rights Council). The Working Group currently has 35 pending requests for visits and encourages States to respond positively to those requests.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "During the period under review, the Working Group addressed communications to Governments, individually or jointly with other mandate holders. The communications concerned a wide range of issues falling within its mandate, including discriminatory legislation and practices, allegations of attacks against women human rights defenders, gender-based violence and violations of the right to sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:3]] The Working Group also issued press releases, individually or jointly with other mandate holders, treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.[[fn:4]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Communications.aspx."}, {"n": 4, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/NewsSearch.aspx?MID=WG_Women."}], "section": ["II. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Members of the Working Group addressed the sixty-third session of the Commission on the Status of Women and participated in its interactive dialogue on the theme of “Accelerating implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action: exchange of best practices in preparation for the Beijing+25 review and appraisal”. The Working Group organized a side event on the theme of “Current challenges and opportunities for women human rights defenders: how can the international community better support their work?” and participated in a number of other events.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "D. Commission on the Status of Women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Since its previous report to the Human Rights Council, members of the Working Group have undertaken numerous activities, including participation in regional consultations and expert meetings and engagement with stakeholders, descriptions of which can be found on its website.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "E. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "While the Working Group recognizes that there is a wide spectrum of practices that can be understood as depriving women of their liberty through a variety of autonomy constraints, for the purposes of the present report, deprivation of liberty is understood as confinement of the body.[[fn:6]] Within that definition, however, the Working Group takes a comprehensive approach, examining multiple forms of restrictions on women’s liberty by both State and non-State actors. It analyses the underlying causes for which women can be deprived of liberty in detention facilities, but also in other public and private institutions, in private homes or community spaces, and in situations of conflict and crisis.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 35 (2014) on liberty and security of person, para. 3."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "A. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The right to liberty is a fundamental right widely recognized in international instruments. It is enshrined in articles 4, 9 and 12 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in articles 8, 9, 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, among other instruments. Deprivation of liberty also concerns other fundamental rights, including the rights to freedom of movement, personal integrity, privacy, health, work, education, and freedom of assembly, association, expression and religion or belief. Moreover, the rights to equality and freedom from discrimination and the equal rights of women and men, as guaranteed by article 2 of the Declaration and article 3 of the Covenant, as well as articles 2 and 3 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of 3 See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Communications.aspx. 4 See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/NewsSearch.aspx?MID=WG_Women. 5 Throughout the report, unless otherwise specified, the term “women” should be understood to include girls and women of all ages. 6 See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 35 (2014) on liberty and security of person, para. 3. Discrimination against Women, also come into play. All these rights are inextricably interrelated.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "A. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Women’s deprivation of liberty is a significant concern around the world and severely infringes their human rights. Against the backdrop of unequal power dynamics and systemic discrimination, women are deprived of their liberty, mostly arbitrarily and in a discriminatory fashion, as a practice in violation of the law and human rights standards, and this is often characterized by impunity. Depriving women of liberty also imposes great costs on society: not just the monetary costs of maintaining structures or institutions of confinement, but more importantly the human costs of missed opportunities and contributions and often intergenerational harm and negative impacts on families and communities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "A. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Not only the causes but also the consequences of deprivation of liberty for women are gendered, because they experience their confinement in specific ways and are often at risk of heightened gender-based discrimination, stigma and violence. How women experience this deprivation will also differ, not only as a result of gender dynamics but also because of characteristics, such as age, (dis)ability, race or ethnicity or socioeconomic status, that combine to produce distinct forms of discrimination and vulnerability.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "A. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Discrimination against women with regard to the conditions of deprivation of liberty is a topic of great importance and one that has been carefully studied by several other special procedures mandate holders.[[fn:7]] In order to build on that work, in the present report the Working Group focuses on the underlying causes that lead to confinement occurring, rather than the conditions in which women are confined or the consequences thereof.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See, for example, A/68/340, A/HRC/30/36 and A/HRC/40/54."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "A. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "In examining the various contexts of deprivation of liberty, it emerged that there were common underlying causes or themes that were relevant in all situations in which women are found in forced confinement. Those causes are gendered social norms and stereotypes, economic deprivation and experiences of violence and conflict. The rest of the report is organized in a manner that illustrates each of those underlying causes. It must be noted, however, that they are interrelated and depict the intertwined and reinforcing manifestations of the discrimination that women face across the life cycle.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "A. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "The causes of deprivation of liberty do not affect all women or all groups of women equally. Within every society and in every State, there are certain groups of women who experience multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination, many of whom are subject to particularly damaging stereotypes and/or are more likely to be confronted with violence or conflict, poverty and economic marginalization, and who are thus at higher risk of being deprived of their liberty. In the report, due consideration is given to those factors in relation to the different themes and contexts discussed.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "A. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Whereas under article 5 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, States have clear obligations to commit to the elimination of prejudices and all practices which are based on stereotyped notions of the proper roles and places for men and women, such prejudices and stereotypes persist around the world and are all too frequently enshrined in law and in practice. As illustrated by the Working Group in previous reports, gender stereotyping undermines the equality of women and the realization of their human rights in all aspects of their lives.[[fn:8]] It thus comes as no surprise that such stereotyping also plays an important role in depriving women of their liberty in a disproportionate or discriminatory manner.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "See, for example, A/HRC/23/50, A/HRC/26/39/Add.2, A/HRC/29/40, A/HRC/32/44 and A/HRC/35/29/Add.1"}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The persistence of gender stereotypes and patriarchal norms is visible in the underrepresentation of women in decision-making positions around the world, including in the organs of State that play a role in women’s deprivation of liberty. Legislatures, the judiciary, police or security forces and administrative agencies still tend in most States to be dominated by men (see A/HRC/23/50). Similarly, the medical profession, psychiatry in particular, remains dominated by men, while playing an important role in decisions concerning the confinement of women. That presents a challenge in ensuring that women’s perspectives are adequately incorporated and often results in gender discrimination and overreliance on gender stereotypes.[[fn:9]] The confinement of women in a private context also occurs in overly patriarchal social and family structures.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See Andrea Huber, “Women in criminal justice systems and the added value of the UN Bangkok Rules,” in Women and Children as Victims and Offenders: Background, Prevention, Reintegration, vol. 2, Helmut Kury, Sławomir Redo and Evelyn Shea, eds. (Springer International Publishing, 2016)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Three main forms of gender stereotypes may lead to and justify women’s confinement: stereotypes related to women’s roles in the home and in public, stereotypes related to women’s “moral” or sexual behaviour and stereotypes that portray women as weak or in need of protection. All three are deeply entrenched in patriarchal norms and mutually reinforcing, and commonly operate to benefit or privilege certain groups of men.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 20, "n": 1, "text": "Policing of women’s public and private roles", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 21, "n": 20, "text": "In many parts of the world, the myth that women are inferior and “should be seen and not heard” continues to permeate society, influencing both law and cultural practice (see A/HRC/29/40). That stereotype dictates the way women are expected to behave in both the private and public spheres.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 22, "n": 21, "text": "Within the home, women are expected in many societies and by many ideologies to be governed by men. That expectation is underpinned by notions of “sex difference” or “complementarity” that assign men the role of the (dominant) provider and women the role of the (subordinate) caretaker.[[fn:10]] That dichotomy often undervalues women’s contributions, leading to an understanding of women, and particularly girls, as an economic burden on the household rather than rightfully equal members.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "See Gila Stopler, “Countenancing the oppression of women: how liberals tolerate religious and cultural practices that discriminate against women,” Columbia Journal of Gender and Law, vol. 12, No. 1 (2003)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 23, "n": 22, "text": "Understanding of women as subordinate within the family may be built into the law in a manner that reinforces male control and restricts women’s agency and mobility, and can lead to their confinement. That is demonstrated in several States that maintain legal codes requiring married women to obtain their husband’s permission to leave the house, or requiring all women to obtain the permission of a male “guardian” to engage in public activity, sometimes at the risk of confinement by the State if they do not comply with their guardian’s wishes.[[fn:11]] Gender stereotyping also plays a role in stripping women of legal capacity, which may result in decisions leading to their confinement.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See Samar El-Masri, “Challenges facing CEDAW in the Middle East and North Africa”, International Journal of Human Rights, vol. 16, No. 7 (2012)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 24, "n": 23, "text": "Even where the formal legal system does not dictate that women are subordinate to men, women’s failure to demonstrate adequate compliance and submission can result in their incarceration or institutionalization. Women who display “unfeminine” behaviour (for example, being violent or drinking alcohol) may be more at risk of arrest or aggravated charges.[[fn:12]] Research among girls, in particular, has shown that behaviour that is perceived in girls as being “violent” and worthy of institutionalization, in boys might be understood as minor or legitimate self-defence.[[fn:13]] Women who refuse to conform to their families’ commands or expectations risk being labelled as “crazy” and subjected to involuntary institutionalization.[[fn:14]] That is also often the case with girls who demonstrate different sexual or gender expressions.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "See Suzanne Young, “Policing ‘uncontrollable banshees’: factors influencing arrest decision making,” Safer Communities, vol. 14, No. 4 (2015)."}, {"n": 13, "text": "See Meda Chesney-Lind and Randall G. Shelden, Girls, Delinquency and Juvenile Justice, 4th edition, (Chichester, West Sussex, John Wiley and Sons, 2014)."}, {"n": 14, "text": "See, for example, Human Rights Watch, “Treated Worse than Animals”: Abuses against Women and Girls with Psychosocial or Intellectual Disabilities in Institutions in India, (2014)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 25, "n": 24, "text": "Stereotyped notions about women’s roles within the family also underlie a number of cultural practices that lead to the deprivation of liberty. They include removing girls from school and confining them to the home to perform domestic labour[[fn:15]] and subjecting them to child, early and forced marriages, where they are often confined to the marital home. The abduction of girls may even be condoned by communities when followed by betrothal or marriage. In some cases, such practices also have the force of law, as in States that have not outlawed child marriage or where those who are accused of kidnapping or sexually assaulting a woman or girl may be exonerated if they take their victim as wife.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "See Save the Children and King Hussein Foundation, Information and Research Center, “Homebound girls in Jordan” (2013)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 26, "n": 25, "text": "Stereotypes about a woman’s “proper” role dictate not only how she should (not) behave within the home but also in public, and defying those standards in public may put women at risk of deprivation of liberty. Women who seek to participate in political, economic, social or cultural leadership in their communities or nations may be acting in defiance of stereotypes obliging women to stay quiet and invisible and defer to male governance. They may thus be stigmatized, or even criminalized or confined, to prevent them from speaking out or taking action (see A/73/301). For example, violence or confinement may be used to stifle and punish women politicians, or those who have an active voice in public, for transgressing traditional gender norms. Women human rights defenders, perceived as challenging traditional notions of family and gender roles in society, (A/HRC/40/60, para. 28), are increasingly at risk of facing criminalization and detention as a result of their legitimate public activism (see A/HRC/16/44 and Corr.1). In a number of States, women who work specifically to combat gender stereotypes and advance women’s rights are most likely to be targets for criminal persecution and imprisonment. Certain laws, including “complicity” laws, and “public order” laws[[fn:16]] or even anti-terrorism laws, may be particularly instrumentalized to target women human rights defenders. In some countries, forms of public expression dominated by women, such as religious observances (for example, how they are dressed) related to “disfavoured” or minority faiths, are criminalized or are grounds for restricting access to essential services.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See Strategic Initiative for Women in the Horn of Africa and the Redress Trust, “Criminalisation of women in Sudan: a need for fundamental reform” (2017)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 27, "n": 26, "text": "Discrimination and stereotyping may also lead to the denial of the asylum claims of migrant women and thus increase their risk of migration-related detention or incarceration for immigration-related offences. For example, certain legal systems require that asylum claims be submitted through a male head of household rather than allowing women to claim asylum as individuals, while immigration judges may apply stricter standards to women owing to gender bias.[[fn:17]] Gender stereotypes in immigration administration also manifest in legal frameworks that exclude consideration of women’s experiences of violence, in particular domestic violence, for granting asylum.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See Kimberlé W. Crenshaw, “From private violence to mass incarceration: thinking intersectionally about women, race and social control,” UCLA Law Review, vol. 59, No. 6 (2012)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 28, "n": 27, "text": "The heightened policing of certain populations, owing to racial and ethnic biases intersecting with gender, poses risks for some women. Women from racial and ethnic minorities and indigenous women face specific and deeply damaging stereotypes and are disproportionately targeted for control. They may be scapegoated as lazy, criminal and deviant in order to reinforce the political and social power of the dominant group and justify the perpetuation of structures of exploitation,[[fn:18]] leading to perceptions of them as a “social problem” or a dangerous threat, to be met with punishment rather than compassion or justice. Those stereotypes may lead to the kind of bias that allows, for example, women from a racial minority in the United States of America to be more than twice as likely as women from the majority group to receive a sentence of incarceration for drug-related crimes. Indigenous women in Australia are also notably overrepresented in prisons; they make up only 2.2 per cent of the population of women, but around 34 per cent of women in prison. In Canada, a disproportionate number of indigenous women are to be found in solitary confinement.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "See George Lipsitz, “‘In an avalanche every snowflake pleads not guilty’: the collateral consequences of mass incarceration and impediments to women’s fair housing rights,” UCLA Law Review, vol. 59, No. 6 (2012)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 29, "n": 28, "text": "Negative stereotypes about female ageing mean that elderly women are perceived as dangerous and in need of control in some societies. In certain communities, these women may experience non-judicial confinement and banishment from their homes because of accusations of witchcraft.[[fn:19]] Superstitions linked to elderly women and witchcraft are common in particular regions, such as Africa and the Asia-Pacific region, and gendered control of power and space heightens the risk of persecution for those who are vulnerable within family power dynamics.[[fn:20]] Due to extreme fear of witch-hunting or reprisal attacks, those labelled as “witches” will be exiled to the margins of their communities and forced to remain confined in “safe” spaces, living in deplorable conditions and experiencing the worst forms of exclusion. Older women with disabilities are also at particular risk of confinement in homes or institutions, owing to prejudices based on both age and disability (see A/HRC/40/54).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See, for example, Marie-Antoinette Sossou and Joseph A. Yogtiba “Abuse, neglect, and violence against elderly women in Ghana: implications for social justice and human rights”, Journal of Elder Abuse and Neglect, vol. 27, Nos. 4–5 (2015)."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Shelagh Roxburgh. “Witchcraft and space: a theoretical analysis of unseen political spaces in Ghana and Cameroon.” Canadian Journal of African Studies/Revue canadienne des études africaines, vol. 51, No. 1 (2017)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 30, "n": 29, "text": "Owing to patriarchal norms that embody stereotypes about women’s bodies being “impure” (for example, during menstruation) and bringing a “curse”, women may be subjected to seclusion amounting to deprivation of liberty. For example, this has manifested in the practice of cheupadi in Nepal, a punishable act, which involves isolating and confining women during their menstruation period, depriving them of the right to move freely and access basic needs and services.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 31, "n": 2, "text": "Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "1. Policing of women’s public and private roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 32, "n": 30, "text": "Further to expectations to be submissive and deferential to the commands of men, women are also expected to be morally and sexually “pure”. At the same time, owing to discriminatory social ideologies, they are sometimes seen as morally weak and with a tendency to be “sexually misguided”, warranting constant policing of their moral and sexual behaviour by men. Moreover, owing to gender norms and assumptions, women are mostly valued for their reproductive role and often regulated accordingly. Those stereotypes are transcribed into the law or sanctioned by religious and social norms in several States and, in practice, women who fail to conform to those expectations may be subject to harsh judgments and face confinement aimed at punishing, regulating or changing their behaviour.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 33, "n": 31, "text": "Typically, patriarchal ideas of women’s “morality” and associated expectations concerning their public and private behaviour have detrimental effects for women in the justice system, as they may be subjected to moral judgments founded more on social expectations than on the crimes they may have committed. Studies show that girls are far more likely than boys to be arrested for “status offences” (such as truancy or running away from home), based on social behaviour rather than actual illegal activity, and are more likely to be sentenced to incarceration for such offences.[[fn:21]] The expectation that women should be “better behaved” than men may also lead to heavier penalties for women than men for the same crimes. Judicial gender bias often subjects women to disproportionate sentencing for non-conformity with gender stereotypes. In some cases, the penalties may even surpass aggravated imprisonment and attract the death penalty.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "See Meda Chesney-Lind and Randall G. Shelden, Girls, Delinquency and Juvenile Justice."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 34, "n": 32, "text": "Stereotyped standards of women’s “moral” conduct also plays a role in disproportionate female incarceration for drug-related crimes, as women are judged more strictly. They are more likely to be incarcerated for drug-related crimes than men: in 2018, approximately 35 per cent of women in prison worldwide had been convicted of drug crimes, compared to 19 per cent of men. An increasingly punitive approach to the drug problem, adopted by many States with policies of administrative detention of drug users and taking a harsh approach to pretrial detention and post-conviction sentencing of those accused of drug crimes, has been found to have a discriminatory and disproportionate impact on women (A/HRC/30/36, para. 58). Women tend to be engaged at the lower levels of criminal networks, but may receive disproportionate sentences under regimes that do not take the level of involvement into account. They may also have fewer opportunities to negotiate for reduced sentences or plea bargains owing to their lowly status within criminal networks, combined with their subservient role in a patriarchal system. In some jurisdictions, the roles that women typically play in such networks, such as transporting drugs, are subject to longer sentences than other roles.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 35, "n": 33, "text": "A number of laws and practices legitimize efforts to control women’s sexual and reproductive behaviour. The Working Group has previously condemned the instrumentalization of women’s bodies for political, cultural, religious and economic purposes, and particularly the manner in which that instrumentalization leads to criminalization of women’s sexual and reproductive decisions (see A/HRC/32/44). The Working Group has also noted that legislation criminalizing consensual adult sexual activity often discriminates against women, either explicitly in the law itself or in practice in the manner in which it is enforced.[[fn:22]] Furthermore, in some States women’s involvement in extramarital sexual behaviour is criminalized even when it is not consensual, such that women may be jailed for having been raped.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See Working Group on the issue of discrimination against women in law and in practice, “Adultery as a criminal offence violates women’s human rights”, available at www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/ Women/WG/AdulteryasaCriminalOffenceViolatesWomenHR.pdf"}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 36, "n": 34, "text": "Sexual and gender non-conforming women are disproportionately targeted for social control based on their perceived challenge to or “transgression of” established norms of gender roles and sexuality (A/HRC/23/50, para. 47). As a result, they face increased vulnerability to criminalization and deprivation of liberty. Even in cases where such women are not expressly criminalized based on their sexual orientation or gender identities, they may face a heightened risk of encountering the criminal justice system. For example, transgender women are arbitrarily profiled and targeted for prostitution/sex work.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 37, "n": 35, "text": "Women’s sexuality is often dubbed “promiscuity”. When women express their sexuality in a manner that is considered to be outside social norms, even if not against the law, they may risk being institutionalized in mental health facilities or other care facilities. In some States, teenage pregnancy or sexual “promiscuity” can constitute a basis for confining adolescents in group homes.[[fn:23]] In others, expressions of female sexuality can be labelled “hypersexual” and considered a sign of mental impairment, justifying civil commitment.[[fn:24]] Moreover, in some families such sexual behaviour may indicate that a woman or girl, especially one with a disability, is too “difficult” to care for or control and thus better off in an institution.[[fn:25]] Furthermore, overmedicalization is used as a form of social control, as some women perceived to be “difficult” are controlled through prescriptions of very strong psychiatric drugs that effectively “detain” them in home or care centres. This is also true of women whose sexuality is considered non-conforming. Such women are likely to undergo involuntary “treatments”, so-called “conversion therapies”, or forced medical incarceration in psychiatric institutions and specialized camps, as well as in homes or places of worship, in order to attempt to force them to renounce their sexuality (see A/73/152).", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See Carolina Överlien, Girls on the Verge of Exploding? Voices on Sexual Abuse, Agency and Sexuality at a Youth Detention Home (Linköping, Sweden, Linköping University, 2004)."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See Maribel Morey, “The civil commitment of State-dependent minors: resonating discourses that leave her heterosexuality and his homosexuality vulnerable to scrutiny” New York University Law Review, vol. 81, No. 6 (2006)."}, {"n": 25, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 38, "n": 36, "text": "Women in prostitution/sex work are likely to face deprivation of liberty because of laws and social attitudes that seek to control women’s morality and sexuality. In States where prostitution/sex work is criminalized, women are disproportionately affected and targeted by law enforcement agents. Even in countries where sex work itself is not a criminal offence, women who engage in it have high rates of interaction with the police and may be prosecuted and incarcerated for other offences, including loitering, vagrancy and public indecency, and for migration-related infractions. Short of incarceration, women in sex work/prostitution may, in some States, be confined to “re-education” institutions, designed to “cure” them of “deviant behaviour”.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 39, "n": 37, "text": "Stereotypes regarding women’s sexual and moral behaviour are often linked with valuing women primarily for their reproductive capacity and requiring them to live up to certain ideals of motherhood. That comes with detrimental consequences for women’s liberty. In many cases where women are perceived as unable to fulfil the stereotyped expectations for reproduction and motherhood, as is frequently the case for women with disabilities, they may be viewed as “burdens”, be less valued by their families and communities, and therefore more susceptible to involuntary institutionalization (see A/HRC/40/54).[[fn:26]] There is also a linkage between the persecution and confinement of older women and the stereotyped notion that women beyond childbearing age have less social value (see para. 28 above).", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See also Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 3 (2016) on women and girls with disabilities."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 40, "n": 38, "text": "Women may face deprivation of liberty when they do not conform to stereotyped notions of what constitutes good motherhood. Such stereotypes manifest particularly in the criminalization, detention and confinement of pregnant women who use, or are suspected of using, drugs. They frequently risk imprisonment for attempted abortion, miscarriage or harming the baby when using drugs during pregnancy. In addition, defying the dominant norms of motherhood may generally be taken as an aggravating circumstance in sentencing, while being a father may mostly constitute a mitigating circumstance.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 41, "n": 39, "text": "Outside the justice system, pregnant women suspected of drug or alcohol use can also be involuntarily detained and forced to undergo medical treatment, often without sound medical evidence that they have a drug dependency or that the foetus is at risk. The Working Group on Arbitrary Detention has noted that special laws designed to detain pregnant women suspected of drug use are “gendered and discriminatory … as pregnancy, combined with the presumption of drug or other substance abuse, is the determining factor for involuntary treatment” (A/HRC/36/37/Add.2, para. 74). There have also been cases of women being detained by hospitals simply to prevent them from choosing a home birth.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 42, "n": 40, "text": "In States where abortion is criminalized, women risk incarceration for the decision to terminate a pregnancy, in some cases even when their own safety is at risk or when the foetus is not viable. In some countries, women are criminalized and incarcerated even when the termination was not their decision, as in cases of miscarriage. At times, public prosecutors have targeted women who have had abortions (whether spontaneous or induced) to enforce the harshest possible punishment, leading to longer incarceration.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 43, "n": 41, "text": "Adolescent girls may be particularly exposed to deprivation of liberty for breaking social norms related to sexual and reproductive behaviour. In some States, they may be harshly punished for early or extramarital pregnancies, be excluded or expelled from school and confined at home or in an institution during pregnancy, while in many States they run a high risk of incarceration through seeking an illegal abortion. Furthermore, there exist hospitals and State institutions for detaining adolescent girls to prevent them terminating a pregnancy.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 44, "n": 3, "text": "Perceptions of women as weak, incapable, or in need of care or protection", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "2. Policing of women’s “moral”, sexual or reproductive behaviour"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 45, "n": 42, "text": "Other stereotypes that lead to women’s deprivation of liberty are those that label women as weak, helpless, incapable or in need of care or protection. Those stereotypes are interconnected with those described above, as ideas of the frailty or incapability of women are tied to expectations that they should assume a submissive role in the household and in society, and it is often their moral virtue and sexual purity that are seen as most in need of preservation. Sometimes women are seen as easily falling prey to “vice” so that men and society have to “look after” them.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "3. Perceptions of women as weak, incapable, or in need of care or protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 46, "n": 43, "text": "Those stereotypes are particularly likely to lead to detention in the family home and other private forms of detention, as family members may see it as their duty to “protect” women by keeping them within a “safe” space. That perception has permeated different forms of “protective” custody that can easily be translated into repressive control by male family members or unsupportive families or communities, resulting in the exclusion of women from certain areas of society and confinement in others.[[fn:27]] For example, there are reports that capture the experiences of women trapped in a guardian system that restricts them from moving freely and making decisions on their own.[[fn:28]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "See Johannes Jütting and Christian Morrisson, “Changing social institutions to improve the status of women in developing countries”, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development Centre, policy brief No. 27 (2005)."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Human Rights Watch Boxed in: Women and Saudi Arabia’s Male Guardianship System (2016)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "3. Perceptions of women as weak, incapable, or in need of care or protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 47, "n": 44, "text": "Women with disabilities in particular are seen as weak or in need of protection, causing families to determine that they are better off confined in institutions. In many cases, the State may orchestrate such acts of deprivation of liberty by allowing women with disabilities to be stripped of legal capacity, without adequate support structures or recognition of their autonomy. As a result, they may end up being placed under guardianship and have their decision-making ability relegated to a third party. Home confinement is another challenge for this group. Women with disabilities are in several cases confined at home owing to cultural stereotypes or a lack of services and support systems. Girls with disabilities are more likely to experience confinement in the family context, associated with fears that they might be prone to sexual abuse, combined with panic about girls’ sexuality.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "3. Perceptions of women as weak, incapable, or in need of care or protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 48, "n": 45, "text": "Women’s actual or perceived vulnerability to gender-based violence has led some States to institute forms of protective/administrative detention for women who are at risk. In some such shelters, harsh curfews are applied for the sake of protection. Protective detention is also used to “protect” girls with disabilities or adolescent girls from violence and/or “unwanted” pregnancies. Although such institutions are intended to provide safety to women, sometimes they are, or may become, sites of deprivation of liberty, where women may be confined according to the dictates of the State or of their family members (see A/HRC/35/40 and Corr. 1). There have been reports of protective custody being used solely to “safeguard” or prevent women from deviance from societal norms and expectations, which has been identified as a form of arbitrary detention contrary to international human rights law (A/HRC/27/48 paras. 78–79).", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "3. Perceptions of women as weak, incapable, or in need of care or protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 49, "n": 46, "text": "The belief that women need protection has an impact in crisis situations, where families may be displaced and destabilized and face heightened risks, including, as has been extensively documented, that of gender-based violence for women. The Working Group has received reports of severe restrictions of liberty for women, and particularly girls, in humanitarian settings, where family members may force them to remain in their homes or shelters rather than risk moving about. As a result, camps for internally displaced persons and refugees sometimes become sites of confinement for women, from where they are unable to leave to access resources or services. On the other hand, detrimental stereotypes also influence responses to migration. In States that are seeking to stem migration flows, there is a tendency to believe that because women are viewed as weak and in need of protection, subjecting them to migration detention will be viewed as more shocking and thus have a greater deterrent effect.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "3. Perceptions of women as weak, incapable, or in need of care or protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 50, "n": 47, "text": "Mandated treatment programmes designed for care and cure are occasionally used to deprive women of their liberty. Studies show that women are confined in the penal systems in some States based on the idea that they need treatment for addiction, trauma, and/or “disorders” without any real evidence that these conditions exist. Sometimes confinement is in prisons, but more often in community correctional facilities. The ideology justifying mandated treatment for women is based on stereotypes that some women, especially women from certain racial groups, or those living in poverty, are dependent, “disordered”, “sexually deviant” or “bad mothers”. This is a trend that has the potential to increase the number of women in detention, prolong their custody under correctional supervision and even to make their detention more restrictive.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "3. Perceptions of women as weak, incapable, or in need of care or protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 51, "n": 48, "text": "Widowhood, at any age, may be extremely gendered, with rites crafted against women and carried out through confinement, isolation, defacement and disinheritance. Confinement during the mourning period, supposedly to grieve over the bereavement or to protect them from potentially violent practices influenced by superstitious beliefs about the “inauspicious” presence of widows, may involve prohibiting them from leaving the home and participating in economic and public activities or performing important household tasks. Those restrictions could be further aggravated to the extent of exiling them and confining them in marginalized areas (see para. 28 above). In addition to the intersection of gender and marital status, widows without children or an adult male relative to provide them with leverage within the extended family are more vulnerable to persecution and confinement.", "labels": ["Children", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "B. Discriminatory social norms and gender stereotypes", "3. Perceptions of women as weak, incapable, or in need of care or protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 52, "n": 49, "text": "The feminization of poverty is widely recognized and documented. Worldwide, women are more likely than men to live in poverty and on average earn 23 per cent less than men, perpetuating a considerable lifetime income and welfare gap between them.[[fn:29]] The Working Group has highlighted the stereotypes about women’s role in society that have a substantial impact on their participation in the labour market (A/HRC/35/29/Add. 1, para. 69). Almost 80 countries maintain restrictions on the types of work that women are permitted to undertake, while in 18 countries, husbands can legally prevent their wives from working. Accordingly, women are more likely than men to be unemployed and currently only 50 per cent of women are in the labour force compared to more than 75 per cent of men (see A/HRC/38/46). Women are also less likely to have access to assets within the household, as there are often inequalities in the distribution of resources and entitlements. In a number of countries, women and girls still have different or limited ownership and inheritance rights from men and boys, meaning that a large number of poor women may be living in households that are not categorized as poor.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See UN-Women, Turning Promises into Action: Gender Equality in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (2018) available at www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/sdg-report."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 53, "n": 50, "text": "When poverty is understood to be a factor not purely of income or wealth, but also as measured by the choices, opportunities and resources available to a person over the course of their lifetime, women’s poverty appears even starker.[[fn:30]] Time poverty owing to women’s disproportionate responsibility for unpaid care and domestic work limits their ability to engage in income-earning activities. Their financial dependence on their partners and other family members increases their vulnerability to poverty and reduces their voice and bargaining power within the household. Unequal access to and control over resources, power, opportunities and services underpin women’s poverty, which can lead to their deprivation of liberty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "See Sakiko Fukuda-Parr, “What does feminization of poverty mean? It isn’t just lack of income”, Feminist Economics, vol. 5, No. 2 (1999)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 54, "n": 1, "text": "Lack of access to resources and services", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 55, "n": 51, "text": "Stakeholders have identified material poverty as a key factor in women’s deprivation of liberty and especially their incarceration. Laws that penalize and criminalize those living in poverty have been extensively documented (see, for example, A/66/265). Links between economic and social inequalities and the criminal justice system can lead to trapping people in vicious cycles of poverty and criminalization.[[fn:31]] Those cycles are aggravated in times of austerity, when social services are cut, and women are particularly affected because, owing to the feminization of economic deprivation, they rely more than men on Governments for legal, social, health and other services. Women’s access to services has also been reduced as a result of a rise in the negative stereotyping of poor people, and especially poor and racialized women, as attempting to “cheat the system” (ibid.).[[fn:32]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "Vanita Gupta, “Keynote remarks,” Michigan Journal of Race and Law, vol. 21, No. 2 (2016)."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See also Kaaryn Gustafson, “The criminalization of poverty,” The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, vol. 99, No. 3 (2009)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "1. Lack of access to resources and services"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 56, "n": 52, "text": "Women are often imprisoned for crimes related to poverty, including theft and fraud, but also for infractions related to homelessness, poor living conditions, or to the struggle to earn a living, such as begging or street vending. In several States, women may also be at risk of civil conviction for their inability to pay their debts. In many jurisdictions, indigenous and racial minority women are not only more likely to be poorer than other women owing to intergenerational cycles of systemic oppression, but are also more likely to experience detention for issues such as the inability to pay off debts or petty offences such as theft.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons in street situations", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "1. Lack of access to resources and services"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 57, "n": 53, "text": "Poverty shapes not only the crimes of which women are accused, but also their interactions with the criminal justice system, which also have an effect on the likelihood of their incarceration and its length. In particular, lack of income and wealth limits women’s access to quality legal representation, negatively impacting their ability to obtain favourable outcomes in the court system. It also limits their ability to post bail, which not only subjects them to pretrial detention, but has also been found to dramatically increase the likelihood of their eventual conviction (ibid., para. 66). Furthermore, once convicted and incarcerated, women often have less access than men to rehabilitation and reintegration services, owing to a scarcity of gender-responsive custodial services designed for women inmates and a paucity of alternative services outside prison. That sometimes leads to worse outcomes upon release, increases the risk of recidivism and may leave women in a cycle of incarceration.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "1. Lack of access to resources and services"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 58, "n": 54, "text": "Women’s lack of access to resources and services is also a factor in other forms of deprivation of liberty. Poverty may be a driver of family decisions to accept child, early and forced marriages when girls are viewed as an economic burden to be “offloaded” to another family. That understanding, and a lack of access to adequate community-based support services, may also contribute to family decisions to confine women and girls with disabilities to institutions. There have also been troubling trends of “medical detention” of women who lack the ability to pay for health services in hospitals, mostly after giving birth, which has become part of hospital policies and/or practice in some jurisdictions, as documented in several African and Asian countries, including Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, India and Indonesia.[[fn:33]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See Robert Yates, Tom Brookes and Eloise Whitaker, “Hospital detentions for non-payment of fees. A denial of rights and dignity”, Royal Institute of International Affairs (2017)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "1. Lack of access to resources and services"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 59, "n": 55, "text": "Older women without resources or livelihoods are often neglected by their families and find themselves involuntarily isolated in the home or in a care facility. Care facilities have been known to abuse or neglect residents through denying them the ability to move about freely, denying them contact with the outside world and withholding basic necessities such as food, health services, and recreational activities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "1. Lack of access to resources and services"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 60, "n": 2, "text": "Lack of opportunity and choice", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "1. Lack of access to resources and services"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 61, "n": 56, "text": "Poverty for women is not only a matter of material wealth and social services, but fundamentally a question of the choices they are able to make for their lives. Women have less access to decent work, may be restricted as to which fields they can work in and how high they can rise within those fields, while being responsible for a disproportionate share of unpaid care and domestic work. The gender opportunity gap starts early, with discrimination in the family and in education that springs from or embodies the different stereotypes, which subsequently contributes to limiting their potential to exercise their capabilities and pursue the career and life choices available to them.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "2. Lack of opportunity and choice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 62, "n": 57, "text": "The constraints on women’s choices and opportunities are a product of structural inequalities and discriminatory policies and institutions that fail to tackle adequately the injustices produced through globalized macroeconomic and political factors, including the privatization of public goods and the shrinking of the welfare state. Those factors further reinforce, and are perpetuated by, localized and particular discriminatory cultural and social norms that also engender different systems of oppression for different groups of women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "2. Lack of opportunity and choice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 63, "n": 58, "text": "Discrimination, stereotyping, unpaid care work and lack of education limit the jobs that women can do, pushing them towards low-skilled positions and the informal job sector with exploitative workplace conditions. The overwhelming majority of women’s jobs are in the informal sector and therefore lack basic entitlements and protections. Thus, women’s employment may in some cases constitute a form of deprivation of liberty. That may be the case when women who work in industry or in agriculture are provided with housing under restrictive circumstances or subject to forced or bonded labour (see A/73/139 and Corr. 1). Likewise, there are home-based productions for global supply chains where the “employer” may in fact be a husband or other male relative who demands a certain amount of production in exploitative conditions amounting to deprivation of liberty. Such working conditions are also of particular concern for domestic workers, the majority of whom are women, who may find themselves unable to leave their place of employment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "2. Lack of opportunity and choice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 64, "n": 59, "text": "Migrant women face particular risks, being largely pushed into unskilled, undervalued and lower-paid labour sectors in unregulated spaces, such as private homes. Women migrant domestic workers may be deprived of support networks and services and may face confiscation of their passports by their employers. Immigration laws that require working for a specific employer, such as the kafalah system in some countries in the Middle East, have been grounds of abuse and have incurred criminal penalties.[[fn:34]] Owing to limited pathways for regular migration opportunities for women, irregular status becomes a contributing factor to deprivation of liberty of migrant women. Restrictions related to “protective” stereotypes that aim to prevent women from legally migrating, on the grounds that they may become victims of trafficking or forced prostitution, push women to seek alternative (irregular) migration channels and consequently increase their vulnerability to forced or bonded labour, confinement and other human rights violations.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "See, for example, A/HRC/26/35/Add.1, A/HRC/35/29/Add.2 and A/HRC/39/52."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "2. Lack of opportunity and choice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 65, "n": 60, "text": "Lack of choice and opportunities push women into the realm of human trafficking, contemporary forms of slavery and exploitative surrogacy arrangements that may result in varied forms of confinement, exploitation and violence. In certain countries women are kept in camps or so called “baby factories” for surrogacy purposes or forced impregnation, while in many more countries women are smuggled into brothels that they are not at liberty to leave.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "2. Lack of opportunity and choice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 66, "n": 61, "text": "Reduced job opportunities, coupled with a lack of social protection, may be a factor in women’s criminalization and eventual imprisonment. Several stakeholders pointed to the lack of decent work opportunities as one of the major reasons for women’s involvement in drug trafficking, certain forms of prostitution/sex work and other irregular businesses, resulting in them coming into conflict with the criminal justice system. Women who are incarcerated for their involvement in illicit economic ventures identify such activities as being the only opportunities available to them to provide for their families, given their financial constraints and family responsibilities. In several States, transgender women disproportionately engage in prostitution/sex work, owing to the limited opportunities available to them because of discrimination, and face criminalization or other types of restriction of liberty as a result of such activities.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "2. Lack of opportunity and choice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 67, "n": 62, "text": "Deeply embedded systemic racism leads to racial minority women being subjected to socioeconomic exclusion and poverty (see A/HRC/35/10), with a heightened risk of incarceration, including, inter alia, for increased involvement in drug trafficking, mostly at the lower levels of drug networks. Similarly, the legacy of colonization and systemic marginalization, ensuing high levels of poverty, dire financial and social stress, and significant gaps in opportunities and well-being between indigenous and non-indigenous women, leading to exposure to alcohol and drug use, aggravates the disproportionate incarceration of indigenous women. Disproportionate criminalization of indigenous women and those from racial minorities remains a significant problem.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "2. Lack of opportunity and choice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 68, "n": 63, "text": "Women’s economic subordination exposes them to being associated with or blamed for criminal acts committed by family members, in particular their male partners or spouses (see A/68/340). For example, many women are incarcerated for having dangerous arms, drugs or other illegal items in their homes when the owner is really their partner. However, because of their subordinate role in the household, they cannot stop their partners from bringing into or keeping such items in the home. As a result, they end up incarcerated, at times with a heavier sentence than is justified.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "C. Women’s economic “unfreedom”", "2. Lack of opportunity and choice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 69, "n": 64, "text": "Women’s lives and liberty are also shaped by their exposure to violence and conflict, which puts them at risk of non-judicial confinement and can lead to their incarceration in a number of ways.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 70, "n": 1, "text": "Violence in the home and the community", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 71, "n": 65, "text": "Many women experience violence at the hands of family members, caregivers, partners, friends and acquaintances. Domestic and community violence often manifests in the form of home confinement, in which women are prohibited from leaving the home or coerced to remain in a certain location. Kidnapping or abduction also result in severe restriction of their freedom of movement. Sexual violence and sexual harassment are sometimes used as a tool to intimidate and restrict women’s access to public spaces and pressure them to stay confined in private/family contexts. In many cases, there is a linkage between women’s exposure to violence and their experience of confinement. For example, vulnerability to violence has been a pathway to the indefinite administrative detention of hundreds of women in Jordan in the form of “protective” custody.[[fn:35]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See Human Rights Watch, “Guests of the governor: administrative detention undermines the rule of law in Jordan” (2009)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "1. Violence in the home and the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 72, "n": 66, "text": "The presence of violence in women’s lives profoundly shapes them and increases their chances of institutionalization or incarceration. For example, more than 50 per cent of incarcerated women report childhood experiences of emotional, physical or sexual abuse, while such experiences are only reported by about 25 per cent of incarcerated men. Moreover, many girls may be removed from parental care and end up in institutions because of family violence, including psychological, physical and sexual violence.[[fn:36]] Fear of family or community violence against older or widowed women accused of superstitious practices is also the main driver for those women fleeing to the margins and staying confined in “camps” (see paras. 28 and 48 above).", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "Family violence is one of the leading causes of children being removed from their families and placed in institutions. See Paulo Sergio Pinheiro, World Report on Violence against Children (2006)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "1. Violence in the home and the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 73, "n": 67, "text": "Minority women may face higher rates of violence and greater exposure to incarceration. Similarly, violence has been found to play a significant role in the lives of indigenous women, contributing to the likelihood of their involvement with the criminal justice system.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "1. Violence in the home and the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 74, "n": 68, "text": "Exposure to violence may increase women’s contact with the police and thus increase their risk of criminalization. The Working Group has received reports of women calling the police to complain about domestic violence, only to be subsequently arrested and incarcerated on charges such as disorderly conduct, violation of public peace and order, immigration status or miscarriage. Women who face violence may often be reluctant to contact law enforcement agents for fear of further violence or discrimination against them, and remain in a cycle of oppression. That may be particularly true for women identified as “criminals” in the first place, such as those who use drugs, are involved in minor aspects of drug trafficking or prostitution/sex work, or are irregular migrants.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "1. Violence in the home and the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 75, "n": 69, "text": "Violence may also be used as a tool to coerce women to engage in criminal activity for which they are then imprisoned (see A/68/340). For example, in the drug trade, violence is frequently used to coerce women to become involved in drug trafficking networks, where they are used as mules and treated as dispensable by the ringleaders. The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights has documented cases in many countries in the region it covers, where girls exposed to violence, gangs, trafficking and sexual exploitation are also at high risk of interacting with the criminal justice system, leading to their incarceration.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "1. Violence in the home and the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 76, "n": 70, "text": "Women may also be subject to criminalization and deprivation of liberty when they respond to the violence that they experience by taking forceful measures of self-defence. When they are accused of crimes following violent altercations, their ability to argue self-defence may be impacted by gender stereotypes that paint men as those who have the right to stand and fight, while women are expected to retreat.[[fn:37]] A review of nine diverse legal systems around the world found that most included no legislative provisions allowing women’s exposure to violence to be considered as a ground of self-defence or a mitigating factor in their convictions or sentencing when they were accused of killing their abusers.[[fn:38]] Furthermore, the assessment of proportionality and immediacy in self-defence does not take into account the difference in physical strength between women and men, and the altered perception of immediate harm in the context of long-term domestic violence. Several stakeholders reported to the Working Group that in some States domestic violence against women might be met with impunity, while women who fought back were treated harshly by the justice system.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See Mary Anne Franks, “Real men advance, real women retreat: stand your ground, battered women’s syndrome, and violence as male privilege”, University of Miami Law Review, vol. 68, No. 4 (2014)."}, {"n": 38, "text": "See Penal Reform International and Linklaters LLP, “Women who kill in response to domestic violence: how do criminal justice systems respond?” (2016)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "1. Violence in the home and the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 77, "n": 2, "text": "The instrumentalization of women’s deprivation of liberty in times of conflict", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "1. Violence in the home and the community"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 78, "n": 71, "text": "Just as interpersonal and private violence have differential and discriminatory effects on women’s lives and liberty, so do broader societal violence and armed conflict. Recent armed conflicts have seen both State and non-State actors using women’s deprivation of liberty as a tool to further their ends.[[fn:39]] In situations of conflict, women’s liberty and bodies are instrumentalized in multiple ways leading to deprivation of liberty.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "For example, between 2015 and 2017 a number of women and girls were detained by armed groups or government forces in Iraq, Libya, Myanmar, Nigeria, South Sudan and the Syrian Arab Republic for reasons ranging from charges on grounds of national security, counter-terrorism and association of family members with insurgent groups to investigation/intelligence and sexual exploitation."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "2. The instrumentalization of women’s deprivation of liberty in times of conflict"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 79, "n": 72, "text": "Non-State armed groups have engaged in high-profile abductions or detention of women, who have then been subjected to forced marriage or sexual slavery and forced recruitment for combatant or support roles in conflicts (see A/HRC/32/32/Add.2). Such kidnappings and detention are often in part motivated by attempts to impose a social order based on strict gender roles and the subjugation of women.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "2. The instrumentalization of women’s deprivation of liberty in times of conflict"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 80, "n": 73, "text": "State authorities responding to conflict may detain and confine women in the service of their own cause. Women who are able to escape from non-State armed groups or who are simply suspected of having been involved with them have been held by the military and other State actors in camps, prisons and other detention sites, rather than receiving the services they need. Measures to combat terrorism and corresponding national security measures sometimes profile and target women, in particular those from certain groups, and sometimes even women human rights defenders. Women and girls may also be targeted and detained based on their religion, ethnicity, tribal identity or place of origin. For example, thousands of Yazidi women and girls from northern Iraq were abducted and detained by the forces of Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL),[[fn:40]] while women who escaped areas held by ISIL have been detained in camps in Iraq and the Syrian Arab Republic on suspicion of involvement with or support for ISIL. The Working Group also notes the blanket imprisonment of women in Chad and Nigeria suspected of having ties with Boko Haram owing to area of origin or perceived exposure. Despite the fact that in many cases the women themselves are not suspected of any wrongdoing, they are placed in detention facilities or other forms of confinement for the alleged involvement of family members with opposing forces.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "See Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic, “Detention in the Syrian Arab Republic: a way forward”, (March 2018), para. 19."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: causes of women’s deprivation of liberty", "D. Women’s exposure to violence and conflict", "2. The instrumentalization of women’s deprivation of liberty in times of conflict"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 81, "n": 74, "text": "Deprivation of liberty involves human rights violations and has devastating consequences for women’s lives, putting them at risk of torture, violence and abuse, unsafe and unsanitary conditions, lack of access to health services and further marginalization. It cuts women off from educational and economic opportunities, from their families and friends, and from the possibility of making their own choices and directing the course of their lives as they see fit.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 82, "n": 75, "text": "Around the world, women are deprived of their liberty in many places and contexts. They are confined in prisons and detention facilities, in hospitals and psychiatric institutions and care homes, in workplaces, in private homes and in conflict and humanitarian settings. They are deprived of their liberty by the State, but also by community members, members of their own families, intimate partners, caregivers, employers and criminal or armed groups.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 83, "n": 76, "text": "Deprivation of liberty is deeply gendered. While there are many forms, they are all tied to causes rooted in discrimination against women. Many forms of deprivation of women’s liberty spring from harmful stereotypes that seek to trap women in subjugation or silence, to punish them for perceived moral or sexual deviancy, or to smother them with overprotection. Those stereotypes are far too often enshrined in national laws.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 84, "n": 77, "text": "Women’s deprivation of liberty is also frequently tied up with violence and conflict, and with poverty, be it through lack of resources or lack of opportunity. Such circumstances trap women, depriving them of choice and often putting them in situations that lead to their confinement.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 85, "n": 78, "text": "Those risks are heightened for women who experience intersectional forms of discrimination, such as women with disabilities, indigenous, migrant or older women, women from racial, ethnic, sexual or gender minorities and other marginalized women, all of whom face additional layers of harmful and debilitating stereotypes. They are more exposed to violence, conflict, and economic “unfreedom” than other women.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 86, "n": 79, "text": "Addressing women’s deprivation of liberty is thus not a simple matter of reducing incarceration or institutionalization, or outlawing forced confinement in domestic settings. Those steps are necessary, but they are not sufficient. Ensuring that women enjoy liberty to the full extent and in equal measure with men will require the transformation of societies to root out harmful stereotypes and economic and social inequities.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 87, "n": 80, "text": "International human rights law has long required that States take appropriate action to modify social and cultural practices based on ideas of the inferiority or superiority of either sex or on stereotyped gender roles. In order to ensure that such stereotypes are not embodied in law, policy and practice or institutionalized, resulting in women’s deprivation of liberty, States should:\n(a) Modify or eliminate all laws based on stereotyped gender roles, in alignment with international human rights standards, including any laws giving men and society control over women’s decisions, mobility and morality;\n(b) Put in place mechanisms to provide opportunities for support to all women to exercise their autonomy and agency, eliminate laws that allow women to be arbitrarily stripped of legal capacity and/or placed under guardianship and guarantee respect for their informed consent at all times;\n(c) Ban laws and practices policing, targeting, punishing or confining women in relation to consensual sexual or reproductive behaviour or decisions, including sex work/prostitution, termination of pregnancy or expressions of sexuality;\n(d) Put an end to practices of protective institutionalization of survivors or those at risk of gender-based violence and women with disabilities;\n(e) Promulgate and implement laws prohibiting harmful traditional, cultural, social or religious practices that lead to the confinement of women and girls, including child and forced marriages and the seclusion of menstruating women and widows;\n(f) Provide mandatory, recurrent and effective capacity-building, education and training on the elimination of gender bias and the obligations of States regarding international standards for justice and law enforcement officers, medical personnel, legislators and any other actors who may be involved in decision-making regarding women’s deprivation of liberty;\n(g) Ensure that educational curricula throughout all levels and types of schooling include training on women’s human rights norms as the basis for gender-sensitive education;\n(h) Promote and support the implementation of awareness programmes to combat gender stereotypes in the family, community and social and formal institutions;\n(i) Support and protect women’s engagement in public and political life, including the work of women human rights defenders, and eliminate any laws or policy measures designed to criminalize the public roles of women. Put in place quotas or similar measures for the meaningful participation of women in the political and public sphere.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 88, "n": 81, "text": "Women’s lack of access to economic opportunities, resources and services constricts their choices and creates economic insecurity, and often results in their confinement. In order to minimize deprivation of liberty resulting from women’s poverty, States should:\n(a) Provide universal adequate, accessible and affordable education, health, legal and social services, and expand social protection systems in a manner that does not discriminate on the basis of gender and incorporates an intersectional and a women’s human rights perspective;\n(b) Eliminate laws and practices that perpetuate discrimination within the family and the community, and institute and intensify efforts to ensure the awareness and accountability of family and community members, including traditional and religious leaders;\n(c) Eliminate discriminatory laws that create barriers to women’s formal or informal employment and to their enjoyment of economic and social rights. Expressly guarantee women’s right to equality in economic and social life in the private and public sectors, with immediate effect and with special measures to accelerate de facto equality;\n(d) Eliminate measures that tend to disproportionately penalize or detain those living in poverty, including cash bail systems and debt-related civil convictions;\n(e) Promulgate and enforce regulations governing labour conditions, including in situations of domestic work, to ensure that they do not amount to situations of captivity, and take measures to “formalize” all economic sectors and ensure adequate inspection and social security entitlements for workers;\n(f) Incorporate laws, policies and effective programmes that will enhance protection from trafficking in persons, irregular migration and contemporary forms of slavery, and establish regular migration channels.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 89, "n": 82, "text": "Violence and conflict deeply shape women’s lives, often contributing to their deprivation of liberty. In order to counteract those effects, States should take legislative, policy and practical steps to ensure an understanding of the forced confinement of women as a form of gender-based violence that must be eliminated at all levels of government and society. States should therefore:\n(a) Pass legislation taking into account the experience of gender-based violence as a defence against criminal charges and a mitigation factor in sentencing;\n(b) Ensure that measures addressing conflict, crisis, terrorism and national security incorporate a women’s human rights focus and do not instrumentalize women’s deprivation of liberty for the purposes of pursuing government aims;\n(c) Provide effective protection for women and girls from abduction and detention by non-State criminal or armed groups, guarantee non-recurrence and provide gender-sensitive and comprehensive services and adequate restitution to those who have been held captive by such groups.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 90, "n": 83, "text": "Numerous international human rights law instruments have long placed obligations on States to eliminate discrimination, but multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination persist in trapping women around the world. In order to combat the disproportionate deprivation of liberty of women in situations of marginalization, States should:\n(a) Re-evaluate and reform laws and practices that tend to disproportionately or differently target, police and criminalize any particular group of women, and create accountability mechanisms to prevent, mitigate and remedy the discriminatory application of the law;\n(b) Provide targeted, adequate and accessible legal and social services (social protection, education, health, rehabilitation) to groups of women who are disproportionately vulnerable to criminalization or institutionalization;\n(c) Initiate targeted policy measures and programmes to tackle the disproportionate criminalization and incarceration of racial, indigenous or other marginalized groups;\n(d) Institute systems of community support to break the cycle of incarceration or institutionalization of women with intellectual disabilities and mental health concerns;\n(e) Incorporate effective approaches in laws, policies and programmes to address multiple and intersectional forms of discrimination;\n(f) Incorporate an understanding of intersectional discrimination in any anti-gender bias training conducted for State officials.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-41-33-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-41-33", "idx": 91, "n": 84, "text": "In addition, in order to address women’s deprivation of liberty with all of its root causes, States and other stakeholders should:\n(a) Make available effective gender-specific interventions that aim primarily to divert women away from the criminal justice system, integrate into the national system the standards provided in the United Nations Rules for the Treatment of Women Prisoners and Non-custodial Measures for Women Offenders (the Bangkok Rules), and address the underlying factors leading to women coming into contact with the criminal justice system;\n(b) Ensure the availability of effective community-based support, services and opportunities for all women, including in rural areas, particularly those related to health, housing, employment, education, childcare and social security, and guarantee the meaningful participation of women in the community;\n(c) Develop alternatives to institutionalization for the support and protection of vulnerable women, in particular community-based and family-based alternatives, and repeal all laws allowing involuntary placements and treatments;\n(d) Put in place and enhance social services and support systems for women through appropriate investment and technical capacity, monitor non-State providers of services and facilities, including detention and care facilities, for compliance with obligations relating to women’s human rights;\n(e) Introduce and implement innovative measures to fight gender stereotypes of all forms and at all levels;\n(f) Reform drug-related policies, laws and practices in line with international human rights standards and take steps to integrate the International Guidelines on Human Rights and Drug Policy into policies that are relevant to women;\n(g) Design appropriate due diligence measures, in line with human rights obligations, to tackle deprivation of liberty by private parties through law reform, legal redress, the institutional framework and other methods.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2019, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report covers the activities of the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls from the submission of its previous report (A/HRC/41/33) in May 2019 to March 2020, and also contains a thematic analysis on women in the changing world of work, which is undergoing rapid and deep transformations. The Working Group analyses how such changes present new challenges to and opportunities for women’s enjoyment of their rights to work and at work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "During the period under review, the Working Group held sessions in Geneva, Addis Ababa and New York. At its twenty-fifth session in Geneva (10–14 June 2019), the Working Group met with representatives of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and the Independent Expert on the effects of foreign debt and other related international financial obligations of States on the full enjoyment of all human rights, particularly economic, social and cultural rights, and the Independent Expert on protection against violence and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. It benefited from expert consultations on surrogacy, on the human rights situation of Roma women and girls, and on women’s rights in the changing world of work. It also met with Member States.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "At its twenty-sixth session in Addis Ababa (21–25 October 2019), its first meeting in the Africa region, the Working Group met with representatives of regional United Nations entities and member States and institutions of the African Union. It benefited from consultations with women human rights defenders from Africa on sexual and reproductive health rights, the rights of girls and the changing world of work. The Working Group also engaged with Ethiopian human rights organizations and independent human rights institutions and met with the President of Ethiopia, Sahle-Work Zewde.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At its twenty-seventh session in New York (27–31 January 2020), the Working Group met with representatives of UN-Women and OHCHR, including the Assistant Secretary-General for Human Rights, and the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence against Children, and held a videoconference with the Independent Expert on protection against violence and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. The Working Group also benefited from expert consultations on girls’ participation and on sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis situations.", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The Working Group visited Greece from 1 to 12 April 2019 (A/HRC/44/51/Add.1) and Romania from 24 February to 6 March 2020 (the report of the visit will be presented to the Human Rights Council in June 2021). It thanks the Governments of these countries for their excellent cooperation and encourages other States to respond positively to its requests for visits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "During the period under review, the Working Group addressed communications to Governments, individually or jointly with other mandate holders. The communications concerned issues falling within the Working Group’s mandate, including discriminatory legislation and practices, allegations of attacks against women human rights defenders, gender-based violence and violations of the right to sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:1]] The Working Group also issued press releases and statements, individually or jointly with other mandate holders and regional mechanisms.[[fn:2]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Communications.aspx."}, {"n": 2, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/NewsSearch.aspx?MID=WG_Women."}], "section": ["II. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "Since its previous report to the Human Rights Council, the Working Group has carried out numerous other activities, including participation in regional consultations and expert meetings and engagement with stakeholders. As a member of the Platform of Independent Expert Mechanisms on Discrimination and Violence against Women, it contributed actively to enhancing cooperation between global and regional women’s rights mechanisms, including through joint statements and the publication, 25 Years in Review of the Beijing Platform for Action. Detailed information can be found on the website of the Working Group.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Over the past few years, international organizations and experts have increasingly turned attention to how trends such as technological change, demographic change, accelerated globalization, environmental degradation and the shift towards sustainable jobs will impact the world of work. There has been limited analysis on the gender dimensions of such trends, which present significant challenges to and opportunities for women’s human rights. The present report focuses on women’s rights to work and at work, setting out a vision for a world of work that starts with women’s human rights, taking into account the current context and the changing trends. Transforming the current economic model to one that realizes women’s human rights through the redistribution of power and resources is central to realizing this vision.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "The present report is being finalized during the rapidly evolving coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, which will have significant implications for women’s work. Globally, women make up 70 per cent of frontline workers in the health and social sector across a range of occupations. At the same time, women already bear a disproportionate responsibility for the care of children, the elderly and people with disabilities. The pandemic is further intensifying and increasing levels of violence against women, women’s unpaid care and domestic workloads, while the economic impact will place women’s livelihoods and economic security at significant risk. Women in the most vulnerable forms of informal work will be the most harshly affected.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "The present report is based on a wealth of information elicited through various means, including regional expert consultations and responses to a questionnaire sent to Governments and other stakeholders. The Working Group wishes to express gratitude to all stakeholders for their contributions.[[fn:3]]\nBox 1 Key definitions\nThis report takes an expansive view of the world of work, including formal and informal work, public and private spaces of work, the commute to and from work, work taking place online or work enabled through information and communications technology (ICT), and work-related trips and events.\nWomen’s rights to work and at work are established by international human rights law. In particular, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights contain specific provisions guaranteeing the right to work, just and favourable conditions of work, freedom to form trade unions and the prohibition of discrimination based on sex. Furthermore, there are several International Labour Organization (ILO) conventions covering a range of areas in relation to work, such as equal remuneration and domestic workers, including, most recently, a convention on eliminating violence and harassment at work.\nDrawing on international norms and standards, realizing women’s rights to work includes removing legal and sociocultural barriers that prevent women from working, for example legal discrimination, harmful gender stereotypes and discriminatory social norms, and women’s disproportionate responsibility for unpaid care and domestic work. Realizing women’s rights to work also entails ensuring public policy support for care and the availability of decent work. It also includes securing decent conditions at work, including equal access to workplace entitlements and equal pay for work of equal value, dismantling the barriers to women’s equal progression and access to leadership positions, freedom from violence, discrimination and harassment, and enabling conditions for women’s collective organizing and voice in decision-making.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Owing to word limit restrictions, the present report does not contain full references. A version of the report with full references, replies to the questionnaire and other relevant information is available from www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/WomenChangingWorldofWork.aspx."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Women’s access to decent work and an independent income lifts them and their families out of poverty, improves their decision-making power in the household and society and ensures their economic independence, including in the event of a violent and abusive relationship. Yet, women’s experience in the world of work for many is marked by persistent and widespread discrimination, leading to stark inequalities in employment outcomes, pervasive harassment and violence, and exploitation. In 2018, less than half (48 per cent) of working age women globally were participating in the labour market, compared with 75 per cent of men, resulting in a gender gap of 27 per cent.[[fn:4]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/---publ/documents/publication/wcms_670542.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "B. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Globally, women remain concentrated in the lowest paid jobs, in vulnerable forms of employment, including in the informal sector. In low-income countries, 92 per cent of women are employed informally (as compared with 87.5 per cent of men), with little access to the raft of employment and social protection rights conferred on workers who have a formal employment contract.[[fn:5]] Particularly stark gender gaps can be seen in the proportion of those informally employed who work without any direct pay or remuneration, such as unpaid family workers in family farms and enterprises (28.1 per cent of women versus 8.7 per cent of men).[[fn:6]] The lack of investment by governments in time-saving infrastructure and public services, and persistent funding cuts (including due to the conditionalities imposed by international financial institutions), often have the harshest impacts on informal women workers.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "ILO, Women and Men in the Informal Economy: A Statistical Picture, 3rd ed. (Geneva, 2018)."}, {"n": 6, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "B. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Structural discrimination, including the persistence of gender stereotypes and gendered expectations, norms and attitudes, remains a significant barrier. Pregnancy discrimination remains a common experience for many women, in which they are either dismissed, moved into lower paid roles or denied advancement opportunities. Furthermore, the lack of access to sexual and reproductive rights and services deny women the opportunity to make autonomous decisions about pregnancy and childbearing, which has an impact on their employment outcomes and their unpaid care work responsibility. Globally, women do three times as much unpaid care and domestic work as men, reflecting discriminatory stereotypes based on sex and gender that feminize this work. Across the world, 606 million working-age women (21.7 per cent) perform unpaid care work on a full-time basis, compared with 41 million men (1.5 per cent).[[fn:7]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "ILO, A Quantum Leap for Gender Equality: For A Better Future of Work for All (Geneva, 2019)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "B. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Despite increased female education, occupational and sectoral segregation remains deeply entrenched globally, with women remaining clustered in low paid jobs and sectors, with limited prospects for career progression. The global gender pay gap stands at an unwavering 20 per cent and is wider for women who experience multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination. Systemic disadvantage experienced by mothers in the workplace contributes to a larger pay gap and dramatically lower retirement savings or pension contributions, known as the “motherhood penalty”. Globally, only 27.1 per cent of managers are women, a figure that has changed very little over the past 27 years.[[fn:8]] Such data not only reflects the persistent barriers women face, but also the low societal value ascribed to the work that women do.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "B. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Gender-based violence and harassment in the workplace persist at shocking levels. In recent years an unprecedented number of women have spoken out about sexual violence and harassment against women and the systems of power and domination that have silenced them for so long. While recent global data is limited, a 2014 European Union-wide study found that every second woman (55 per cent) has experienced sexual harassment at least once since the age of 15. Among those, 32 per cent identified somebody from the employment context – such as a colleague, a boss or a customer – as the perpetrator.[[fn:9]] Women in vulnerable forms of informal work, such as domestic workers, market vendors and waste-pickers, are particularly vulnerable to harassment and violence in the course of their work.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights, Violence against Women: an EU-wide survey – Main results (Luxembourg, Publications Office of the European Union, 2014)."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See https://www.wiego.org/sites/default/files/migrated/publications/files/ILC_WIEGO_Briefing%20Note%20Violence%20in%20the%20workplace%20EN%20for%20web.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "B. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Discriminatory laws that restrict women’s rights persist in many parts of the world and progress in introducing laws to advance gender equality in work is slow. Ninety countries still have at least one legal restriction on the jobs women can hold.[[fn:11]] Less than half of the 190 countries studied by the World Bank have legislation mandating equal remuneration for work of equal value.[[fn:12]] Discriminatory family and personal status laws in some countries continue to have a negative impact on women’s ability to engage in paid work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/32639/9781464815324.pdf?sequence=6&isAllowed=y."}, {"n": 12, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "B. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "In order to fully understand the nature and scope of discrimination against women in the world of work, it is important to take an intersectional approach, given that there are multiple forms of discrimination at play that result in very specific vulnerabilities and differences in employment outcomes. For example, for Roma women in many parts of Europe the lack of access to education, coupled with residential segregation and discrimination, exclude them from the formal labour market, forcing them to take up precarious and low paid work, creating a poverty trap.[[fn:13]] According to information received by the Working Group, Dalit women disproportionately experience discrimination at work, even in urban settings and in skilled work. Dalit women earn half the average daily wage earned by non-Dalit castes.[[fn:14]] Transgender women experience disproportionate levels of poverty and economic insecurity because of the discrimination they face in accessing employment.[[fn:15]] Young women with disabilities are much more likely to be excluded from education and employment, as compared with both men with disabilities and women without disabilities (E/CN.6/2020/3, paras. 55 and 322).", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "See https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra-2014-roma-survey-employment_en.pdf."}, {"n": 14, "text": "See response of International Dalit Solidarity Network to the questionnaire"}, {"n": 15, "text": "See response of Lambda Legal to the questionnaire."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "B. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "An increasing backlash against and resistance to women’s human rights is also creating new challenges to women’s equal participation in economic life. The growing political influence of conservative forces in some regions has led to regressive policy and legal reforms, such as new restrictions on sexual and reproductive rights and violence against women laws, with significant implications for women’s equal participation in economic life. At the same time, the rise of anti-democratic forces and “strongman politics”, grounded in misogyny and xenophobia, is amplifying discriminatory and patriarchal voices and limiting the scope for feminist action to make progress. Women’s human rights defenders, including labour rights activists, are at increasing risk of harassment, violence and even murder, with perpetrators enjoying impunity (A/HRC/38/46, para. 38).", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "B. Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "In recent years there has been a growing focus on the future of work, with increasing attention to technological change, demographic change, accelerated globalization and the shift to sustainable economies. Important efforts have been made to reorient the future of work as a human-centred agenda that is based on investing in people’s capabilities, institutions of work and decent and sustainable work.[[fn:16]] At the same time, there has also been further deregulation to enable non-standard forms of work, such as temporary or contract work, or new arrangements such as zero-hour contracts.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "See www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/news/WCMS_663006/lang--en/index.htm."}, {"n": 17, "text": "See www.worldbank.org/en/publication/wdr2019."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Although there have been some attempts to include a gender perspective, what has been missing is a focus on the systemic disadvantage already faced by women in all facets of their life, which places them at greater risk of further discrimination. The following sections identify the major shifts in the world of work and provide an overview of the opportunities for and challenges to women’s human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Technological advances, including artificial intelligence and machine learning, the Internet of things, big data, automation and robotics, are expected to create massive changes across all spheres of life.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Technological change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "There are some opportunities to harness technology to advance gender equality and women’s rights to work and at work. The proliferation of digital platforms and other changes associated with the digital revolution may create new possibilities to support women’s employment, including more flexible work arrangements, distance learning and networking, which will better enable them to balance paid work with unpaid care work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Technological change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "ICTs and specifically smartphones, have an important role to play in enhancing the conditions and productivity of work among women in the informal economy by providing access to information and networks, especially in the most insecure and poorly paid forms of informal work. In addition to economic inclusion, ICTs are also increasingly important for collective organizing to strengthen the political voice of women workers. Technological advances have created new spaces for mobilization and connection between women across national borders and interest groups.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Technological change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "However, the impact of digitalization on the quality of work has received less attention. Where opportunities become available to women through the gig economy, there is also a risk that this may deepen structural discrimination by reinforcing gender stereotypes and the expectation that women should only undertake paid work within the confines of the home. The online economy is not automatically going to be more inclusive of women than the offline economy. Women represent only one out of every three crowdworkers on digital platforms, with the gender balance being particularly skewed in developing countries.[[fn:18]] Furthermore, rather than being a source of decent work, the growth of digital platforms, including the gig economy, will likely contribute to increasing women’s economic inequality by increasing the informalization of women’s work due to gaps in existing labour regulations and a lack of access to social protection. In fact, the gig economy is an expansion of the kind of informal work which women have traditionally undertaken, for example women piece workers, but without the technology platform. As such, online platforms risk substituting the traditional “sweatshop” for a digital one.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "ILO, Digital Labour Platforms and the Future of Work: Towards Decent Work in the Online World (Geneva, 2018)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Technological change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Automation is likely to contribute to greater economic inequality for women, with the most vulnerable groups of women being most affected. Workers who perform more routine tasks are at greater risk of potential replacement by robots and artificial intelligence, and the data for the global North shows that women have a 13 per cent higher chance than men of being in occupations and sectors that involve more routine tasks. Workers with a lower level of education have the highest chance (40 per cent) of seeing their activities being automated, while only 5 per cent of workers with a tertiary degree face the same risk.[[fn:19]] Given that labour markets are continuously transformed by technological innovation, automation is also likely to contribute to growing polarization in the job market, with women in richer countries having a comparative advantage over women in poorer countries because of their higher levels of education and digital literacy.[[fn:20]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "Jacques Charmes, “The human rights of women informal workers in the changing world of work: impact of technological changes”, background paper, October 2019. Available from www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/WomenChangingWorldofWork.aspx."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Technological change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "A major challenge for women’s employment in the context of technological change is the underrepresentation of women in science, technology, engineering and mathematics education and employment. Deeply entrenched stereotypes and discrimination in education limit girls’ aspirations for careers in these areas, and masculinist workplace cultures in related organizations exclude and discriminate against women, often pushing them to leave science, technology, engineering and mathematics jobs at a higher rate than men. The poor representation of women in technology also means that technology is designed to entrench a male-dominated world view, rather than being designed to be inclusive of women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Technological change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "Much of the discussion regarding technology and work also assumes that technological developments benefit all countries equally and are equally accessed by women and men. However, the gender digital divide persists across several regions and in many parts of the world men still control women’s access to ICT.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Technological change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Technological developments have also created new risks and challenges related to inclusion, safety, privacy, accountability and transparency, including the heightened exposure of women and girls to the risk of violence and abuse in technology-enabled spaces. Increasing monitoring, surveillance and data collection from workers using new technologies risks exacerbating discrimination against women, as algorithmic management use a one-size-fits-all model, without attention to gender dynamics and discrimination in the workplace.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Technological change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Major demographic trends, such as population ageing and migration, have significant implications for gender equality. By 2050, 16 per cent of the world’s population will be over the age of 65, up from 9 per cent in 2019. Long-term care of the elderly is still carried out largely by women. One opportunity presented by this trend is the expansion of jobs in the care sector, which can free up women’s time and provide new employment opportunities. However, there is a danger of entrenching the gender pay gap and structural discrimination unless paid care work is properly valued, with significant investments in decent work conditions. A major risk for women’s rights to work in the context of population ageing is the failure to invest in affordable and high-quality care services. This will limit women’s ability to engage in paid employment as their unpaid caring responsibilities increase with demographic change.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Demographic change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "Recent decades have also seen increasing numbers of women migrating as workers, a trend that is likely to continue. In particular, there has been a growing demand for migrant domestic and care workers due to complex factors, including the increasing participation of women in paid work in wealthy countries and high-income groups, the demand for cheap care labour and the lack of investment in care services. This has created a phenomenon known as the “global care chain”. There are 11.5 million migrant domestic workers globally and, of these, 73.4 per cent are women.[[fn:21]] There will likely be an increased demand for migrant domestic and care workers in the context of population ageing.[[fn:22]] However, migrant workers are often denied human rights, such as access to health care and social protection, in their country of work. Migrant domestic workers are often doubly marginalized, as migrants working in the informal sector, where they exist in precarity with heightened risks of wage theft, violence, harassment and abuse. For migrant domestic and care workers, gender-based discrimination is compounded by further discrimination, among other things, based on their legal status, ethnicity, race, class or caste identities. Migrant domestic and care workers are also vulnerable to human rights violations in their country of origin, for example exploitation by brokers.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "ILO, A Quantum Leap for Gender Equality."}, {"n": 22, "text": "See www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_534204.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Demographic change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Rapid urbanization, combined with the growth of urban poverty and the absence of basic infrastructure and services, also has significant implications for women’s work. The lack of decent work opportunities and lack of access to resources, such as land, for women in rural areas often pushes them to migrate to cities in the hope of securing better quality work. However, the lack of decent work opportunities in urban areas often relegates women to precarious and informal work. Furthermore, the growing trend of large-scale urban development and renewal projects encourages an increasing use of evictions, confiscations and demolitions that negatively impact women who work in public spaces or run small-scale enterprises, thereby increasing their economic insecurity.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Demographic change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "Another aspect of demographic change is the “youth bulge”. In most of sub-Saharan Africa, and in parts of Asia and the Pacific and Latin America and the Caribbean, recent reductions in fertility rates have caused the working age population (25–64 years) to grow faster than other age groups, creating the opportunity for a demographic dividend (E/CN.6/2020/3, para. 22). Women’s and girls’ increasing educational attainment is a significant opportunity for increasing young women’s access to work. However, the systematic and patriarchally rooted denial of reproductive autonomy and lack of access to sexual and reproductive health services, along with harmful and discriminatory practices, such as child marriage, continue to hamper young women’s access to education and employment. Even where women’s educational achievements have significantly improved, the transition from school to decent work remains a challenge due to the lack of access to decent work and persistent discriminatory social norms and practices.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Demographic change"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "Globalization is characterized by increasing human, financial, economic and technological transactions and communications across countries and regions. Recent decades have seen the rapid growth of globalized neoliberal capitalist economic regimes and structures with the promise of more jobs and growth. However, the reality has been increasing inequality and economic disparity, often at the expense of decent work and the protection of the environment. Furthermore, neoliberal globalization has also weakened several State functions that are important for gender equality, such as the provision of quality care services, which are increasingly privatized or non-existent.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Accelerated globalization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The specific impacts of globalization on women’s access to employment opportunities have been mixed. In some contexts, increasing numbers of women have gained access to export-oriented manufacturing employment. ILO estimates that the number of jobs in global supply chains in 40 countries increased from 295 million in 1995 to 453 million in 2013.[[fn:23]] More than one fifth of the global workforce have a job in a global supply chain. The share of women employed in global supply chains in emerging economies tends to be higher than their share in total employment.[[fn:24]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---inst/documents/publication/wcms_723274.pdf."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Accelerated globalization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "Low prices paid to suppliers exert pressure down the supply chain to reduce costs, leading to downward pressure on wages. As a result, women’s employment in global supply chains is often insecure, with poor working conditions and with labour and human rights violations and human trafficking presenting a significant concern. Moreover, some Governments have sought to relax their labour and environmental regulations in an effort to attract investments from multinational corporations that engage in a “race to the bottom” – in search of countries where the requirements to ensure safe, fair and decent conditions of work are less stringent. Mass land acquisitions for global supply chains also result in the loss of work and income for rural women in the global South, and forced displacement in some contexts. Sexual harassment is rampant in many parts of the supply chains where the workers are predominantly female, such as the garment sector.[[fn:25]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/supporting_resources/brochure_combatting_sexual_harassment_garment.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Accelerated globalization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Globalization is also creating new vulnerabilities for women’s work due to fissuring of the workplace through increased global supply chains, subcontracting and the use of flexible forms of labour. Research conducted by the International Trade Union Confederation found that the world’s 50 largest companies only employ 6 per cent of people in a direct employment relationship and rely on a hidden workforce of 94 per cent.[[fn:26]] Increasing subcontracting and fissuring of the workplace creates significant challenges for collective organizing through trade unions and cooperatives, which is critical for securing better pay and working conditions for women workers.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See www.ituc-csi.org/frontlines-report-2016-scandal."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Accelerated globalization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "New robotic and automation technologies are further transforming global supply chains and production processes, putting at risk many jobs typically held by women, such as sewing machine operators, hand sewers and assembly workers. Evidence shows that, as countries upgrade their industries through technological advances, women’s employment generally declines, a phenomenon referred to as “defeminization”. Moreover, technological advances have spurred further offshoring of production from the global North to the global South, particularly in services. Rather than increasing access to decent work in the global South, the reality is that these jobs are disaggregated into microtasks performed by contractors on platforms in low-income countries, who have no labour contracts or workplace protections and are often underpaid. As such, digitalization risks perpetuating old forms of discrimination, exploitation and informal work for women in the global South.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Accelerated globalization"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The shift to sustainable economies and just transitions has also featured as a critical element of the changing world of work. The focus on the green economy and sustainable jobs holds potential opportunities for women’s employment. For example, it is estimated that the number of jobs in the renewable energy sector could increase from 10.3 million in 2017 to nearly 29 million in 2050.[[fn:27]] Available data indicates that women are more likely to work in the renewable energy sector, as compared with fossil fuels, signalling potential for new opportunities for women. However, the data also shows that women tend to occupy lower status and lower-paid positions, as they are more likely to be in administrative roles, rather than roles requiring science, technology, engineering and mathematics skills.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "See www.irena.org/publications/2019/Jan/Renewable-Energy-A-Gender-Perspective."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Increased focus on sustainability and just transitions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "Beyond the growth of green jobs, the rapid acceleration and intensification of environmental crises is creating a growing sense of urgency around a new economic model based on environmental sustainability. A just transition is about ensuring that the transition from an extractive to an environmentally sustainable and regenerative economy does not create hardships for workers. Yet there has been little discussion of the gender dimensions of a just transition to date, and there has been a marked increase in reprisals against those who speak out against these crises and hardships. Marginalized women, particularly those in poor countries, are most affected by environmental degradation due to underlying structural discrimination, including women’s unequal access to land and natural resources, sustainable infrastructure and public services, which jeopardizes their income and food security, health, and livelihoods. Declining access to natural resources in the context of climate change will increase already intense and heavy unpaid care and domestic workloads for the poorest women and girls.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Increased focus on sustainability and just transitions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "At the same time, women often play an important role, particularly in developing countries, in the conservation of the natural environment. Women’s participation makes forest conservation and climate interventions more effective and leads to a more equal sharing of benefits. In agriculture, women workers are already playing an important role in natural resource management, which is critical to adaptation to climate change. However, they frequently face exclusion from decision-making and lack access to decent work, and their expertise in local and traditional knowledge is often not recognized. In developing countries, women are already highly concentrated in informal work in waste collection and recycling. Their work collecting recyclables from city streets and keeping public spaces clean presents a minimal cost to public budgets, yet accounts for a significant portion of solid waste management, recycling and disposal. However, they are highly stigmatized as workers and suffer from harassment and poor wages and conditions. Furthermore, the increasing formalization of waste collection and recycling, including through the introduction of new technologies such as incinerators, is placing women’s work at risk if there are no available upskilling opportunities or strategies to integrate women waste pickers within formalized systems.[[fn:28]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "See www.worldurbancampaign.org/wiego-four-strategies-integrate-waste-pickers-future-cities."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "C. The changing world of work: women’s human rights opportunities and challenges", "Increased focus on sustainability and just transitions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "Unless structural and systemic discrimination is specifically addressed, there is a significant risk that future work trends will deepen existing inequalities for women. The approach to date of adding women into the masculinist structure of work and the economy has failed in realizing women’s human rights and will continue to do so in the changing world of work. Creating a world of work where women benefit and contribute on an equal basis with men requires reimagining the structure of work and the economy, with women’s human rights placed at the centre. Looking into the future, women have strong expectations of job security, equal pay, decent work conditions, respect and freedom from violence and harassment in the workplace, access to the right skills and training, and support for their caring responsibilities.[[fn:29]] A world of work that realizes women’s human rights will not only benefit women but will lift all.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See www.sydney.edu.au/content/dam/corporate/documents/business-school/research/women-work-leadership/women-and-the-future-of-work.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "Ensuring that the future trends affecting the world of work do not exacerbate discrimination against women requires targeted action in five areas, as detailed below. 28 See www.worldurbancampaign.org/wiego-four-strategies-integrate-waste-pickers-future-cities. 29 See www.sydney.edu.au/content/dam/corporate/documents/business-school/research/women-workleadership/women-and-the-future-of-work.pdf. Ensuring freedom from violence and harassment", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "International standards recognize sexual harassment as a form of discrimination against women and a violation of human rights. New challenges stemming from technological change and continued globalization make it more urgent than ever to ensure women’s safety at work. In this respect, the adoption in 2019 of the ILO Violence and Harassment Convention, 2019 (No. 190), marks a significant advancement towards creating a world of safe and decent work for all, with a particular focus on addressing women’s experiences of violence and harassment. Discrimination based on other factors, such as pregnancy, age, race, social origin, migration status, disability, maternity, family responsibilities, sexual orientation and gender identity, may also influence how, and in what ways, women are more vulnerable to violence and harassment. Furthermore, the criminalization of women in prostitution or sex work increases their vulnerability to violence and compounds their exclusion from essential services.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Ensuring freedom from violence and harassment"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "There are a growing number of laws addressing sexual harassment, but they are often limited in their coverage and application. Women do not report sexual harassment for many reasons, including fear of reprisal, or concern that the matter will be dealt with ineffectively at best or, at worst, ignored or covered up. This has resulted in a culture of impunity for perpetrators. As the world of work changes, it is critical that women in non-standard forms of work and informal work are covered under legislation addressing sexual harassment and other forms of violence in the workplace, and that all women workers have access to remedies and justice should they experience sexual harassment, regardless of their contract type. Regulatory frameworks should ensure employers have an obligation to take all measures to prevent and respond to sexual harassment, in line with international standards. In the context of increased fissuring of the workplace and subcontracting, there is a need to strengthen action and accountability for sexual harassment across global supply chains. New and emerging forms of ICT-facilitated violence and harassment against women in the workplace also requires regulation and accountability measures (see A/HRC/38/47).", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Ensuring freedom from violence and harassment"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "A significant innovation of the ILO Violence and Harassment Convention, 2019 (No. 190), is its recognition that both employers and workers’ organizations have a role to play in responding to domestic violence as another form of violence impacting women in the workplace. This is an important shift in perspective, as domestic violence has historically been viewed as a private matter that impacts people in their homes rather than at work. The Convention provides that workers who are experiencing domestic violence have a right to support and protection in employment, that they should not be discriminated against on the basis of being a victim of domestic violence and that employers should provide flexible work, protection and leave for victims of domestic violence. Paid domestic violence leave is emerging as a promising practice among a number of Governments and employers. However, as an increasing number of women work in the gig economy and outside formal workplace arrangements, they are increasingly dislocated from such workplace support. Furthermore, with technological advances, new forms of technology-facilitated abuse, for example monitoring and tracking women through their devices, affects women’s capacity to work and their experience of work.\nBox 2 Promising practices\nAddressing sexual harassment in global supply chains\nThrough the investment of global clothing brands, some garment factories in South Asia have conducted training on the prevention of violence and harassment against women and men and have established workplace harassment committees. Consequently, there has been a decrease in the number of workers who report having experienced verbal harassment, psychological abuse and physical abuse, and an increase in the number of reports of sexual abuse, attributed to an increased willingness to discuss sexual abuse and growing trust in the process.\nCovering non-standard workers under sexual harassment laws\nRecently, some companies that engage people in work through a digital platform have commenced granting full employee status to their workers, ensuring workers receive higher wages, pension contributions, sickness benefits and protection under labour laws, including protection from sexual harassment. Meanwhile other gig companies have ended the practice of forced arbitration agreements in situations where workers make sexual harassment claims against the company.\nCovering gig economy workers under domestic violence policies\nUnions in some countries are pushing for legislative amendments to broaden the definition of employee so as to capture gig economy workers and ensure that they have full access to workplace protections, including the provision of paid domestic and family violence leave provided under employment guarantees.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Ensuring freedom from violence and harassment"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Recognizing the social and economic value of unpaid care and domestic work and reducing the time burden and redistributing it more equally between women and men and between households and society through public investments in infrastructure and services are critical for the achievement of substantive equality. Ensuring all workers have access to a comprehensive system of paid maternity, paternity and parental leave, in line with international standards, is also essential, as is providing accessible, affordable and quality care services.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Recognizing, reducing and redistributing unpaid care and domestic work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "In the context of the changing world of work, there is a need for policy reform to ensure that women engaged in non-standard forms of work, including informal work, have access to maternity and parental leave provisions, in line with international standards. The provision of care services with flexible start and finish times, intermittent care provision and drop-in care services is an important enabler of women’s work. This is particularly pertinent as the world faces climate change and increasing health pandemics, for example the current COVID-19 crisis, which will significantly increase women’s unpaid care workloads. Flexible working time arrangements also play an important role in supporting workers (both men and women) to balance paid work and caring responsibilities and can be facilitated through technological advances. While new forms of work offered by digital platforms often provide greater flexibility, it is important that flexibility goes hand in hand with job security and decent pay and conditions. The rapidly ageing populations in many parts of the world not only requires Governments to invest in affordable and quality aged care services, but also to provide for paid carers leave and flexibility provisions that recognize the diverse caring responsibilities that women have over their lifetime, and to put in place measures to ensure men take up more unpaid care work.\nBox 3 Promising practices\nExtending maternity leave to informal workers\nAn Asia-Pacific country offers universal maternity protection coverage, including for workers in the informal economy. While compulsory for formal employees (who receive a replacement rate of 100 per cent of their covered wage for four months), herders, self-employed persons and workers in the informal economy can join the social insurance scheme on a voluntary basis and receive maternity cash benefits for four months at a replacement rate of 70 per cent of their selected reference wage after 12 months of contributions. In addition, maternity cash benefits under the social insurance scheme are provided to all pregnant women and mothers of infants, regardless of their contribution to the scheme, their status in employment or nationality. Maternity care is provided through the universal (tax-funded) health-care system.\nProviding care services for garment factory workers and waste pickers\nIn some South Asian countries, the law requires ready-made garment factories to provide on-site childcare services for children up to the age of 6. As a next step, the need to focus on implementation and the quality of services has been recognized. In other countries, cooperative childcare services established and run by workers in the informal economy are meeting women workers’ care needs, while also helping protect their labour rights.\nIn a country in Latin America a cooperative of waste pickers identified their need for quality childcare services so that they could work a full day and not have to take their children with them to the recycling plants. They established a community childcare service through a combination of local government, non-governmental and philanthropic support, with opening hours reflecting the working hours of waste pickers, from 7 a.m. to 10 p.m.\nRedistributing unpaid care work between men and women\nNordic countries offer some of the most generous parental leave policies in the world – between 40 and 69 weeks, at a remuneration rate of 70 to 100 per cent of pay. Some countries earmark some of those weeks for fathers (the so-called daddy quota), which is specifically designed to redistribute caring responsibilities between women and men. Studies have shown that “use it or lose it” leave provisions are more effective in increasing the proportion of fathers taking parental leave.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Recognizing, reducing and redistributing unpaid care and domestic work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "While the growth of new sectors, such as the technology and renewable energy sectors, provides an opportunity to increase women’s employment in male-dominated areas, increased participation in the labour force does not automatically guarantee a level playing field for women. The persistence of occupational segregation can be explained by gender differences in education, training and experience; discrimination; deeply ingrained social norms; and the unequal distribution of unpaid care and domestic work. Stereotypes about gender roles and perceived differences in aptitudes also contribute to occupational segregation. Predominantly female occupations, which tend to be those with lower status and pay, have remained feminized or become more so.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Disrupting patterns of “women’s” and “men’s” work: value and roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "Without targeted intervention, existing patterns of segregation will be replicated in newly emerging sectors. Targeted interventions include temporary special measures to increase women’s representation in high-growth sectors; the provision of education, skills development, on-the-job and lifelong learning for women to transition from jobs that are at risk of automation to high-growth areas; and incentives and interventions to increase women’s representation in education and employment in the areas of science, technology, engineering and mathematics. Policy and regulatory frameworks can play an important role in creating obligations for employers to report on the gender composition of their enterprises or organizations by occupation, gender pay gap and women’s representation in leadership. The potential growth of the care sector, in the context of population ageing, must entail paid care work being properly valued both economically and socially through decent wages and conditions. Given the overrepresentation of women in low-paying jobs, minimum wage legislation, alongside laws that ensure a right to equal remuneration for work of equal value, can also make a significant contribution towards reducing gender pay gaps. To disrupt occupational segregation, it is equally important to introduce incentives and measures to encourage men to take up jobs in female-dominated sectors, such as education and paid care work.\nBox 4 Promising practices\nIncreasing women’s representation in renewable energy\nInternationally, women represent only 32 per cent of the renewable energy workforce. In recognition that the successful transition to a low-carbon future will depend on the ability to harness all possible talent, a group of public and private sector organizations formed a campaign to work towards equal pay, equal leadership and equal opportunities for women in the clean energy sector by 2030. The campaign asks companies and governments to endorse principles and take concrete actions to help close the gender gap, including the setting of targets and quotas.\nValuing paid care and domestic work\nAfter a finding of historic gender-based undervaluation of the sector and following sustained campaigning by unions, workers and community organizations, wages were increased in the care sector, setting new minimum rates of pay for workers. The decision resulted in wage increases of between 19 and 41 per cent for care workers.\nSpurred by the ratification of the ILO Domestic Workers Convention, 2011 (No. 189), by 11 countries in Latin America, efforts have been made to ensure that domestic workers are covered under minimum wage provisions equalizing domestic worker pay with other workers. Some countries in the region are also encouraging collective bargaining in the sector to improve pay and conditions.\nA number of member States of the European Union have introduced incentives to encourage the formal employment of domestic workers by using income tax deductions and tax credits along with a strong regulatory framework to increase the levels of formal employment in domestic work.\nIncreasing men’s participation in female-dominated areas\nNon-profit organizations in a country in Western Europe are working to recruit men into the social care industry, particularly in housing, care for the elderly and social work with vulnerable families, through a recruitment campaign in schools and colleges, as well as targeting veterans.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Disrupting patterns of “women’s” and “men’s” work: value and roles"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "A key concern for women’s enjoyment of human rights in the changing world of work is the growth of non-standard forms of employment, through increased subcontracting and use of on-demand labour, platform work, temporary contracts, self-employment, variable hour contracts, zero-hour contracts and other casual work.[[fn:30]] While new forms of work may provide women a route out of more vulnerable and arduous forms of informal work, such as family work in agriculture or street vending, job insecurity, low pay and lack of access to social protection will continue to entrench economic insecurity and structural discrimination at work for many women. Work undertaken by women at the bottom of the supply chain, for example as agricultural workers in plantations, is often hazardous, and exposes them to harmful chemicals and poor conditions. Much of this work, particularly microtask work done by women, is also often hidden and invisible, increasing the risk of exploitation.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), OECD Employment Outlook 2019: The Future of Work (Paris, 2019)."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Ensuring all women workers can enjoy their rights, without discrimination, including informal workers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Realizing women’s human rights in the changing world of work requires workers in new forms of work to have access to human rights. There is an urgent need to extend rights and entitlements to all workers, with a focus on women informal workers, including paid sick leave, annual leave, working time limits and rights to health and safety at work. In some contexts, access to menstrual leave is an important enabler of women’s access to decent work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Ensuring all women workers can enjoy their rights, without discrimination, including informal workers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "Paid domestic work is a very important and expanding source of wage employment for women, but the majority of it is informal and poor quality, with high risks of abuse and violence. Similarly, waste picking is an important source of income for women in some countries and contributes to environmental sustainability. However, women workers who engage in these forms of work are too often denied basic labour rights and are vulnerable to discrimination, stigma, harassment and violence. Furthermore, ensuring the rights of women informal workers in agriculture, including equal ownership of and control over land and equal access to credit and agricultural technologies, is critical as the sector changes and grows in the context of environmental change.\nBox 5 Promising practices\nExtending social protection to women workers in the gig or platform economy\nIn a country in Europe artists and writers can join an insurance scheme that is funded by employee social security contributions, a public subsidy and a levy upon customers of artistic services (such as publishers, theatres, libraries or private companies) proportional to their use of artists’ and writers’ services.\nIn some Nordic countries, the unemployment system gives unemployed workers approximately 80 per cent wage replacement coupled with extensive labour market stimulation measures that require unemployed workers to undergo training to upgrade their skills. The system also provides workers with job opportunities and pays for education, training, relocation and other job-related expenses. As a result, workers change jobs more frequently than elsewhere in Europe, and companies are able to automate and change workplace practices without engendering opposition from workers.\nIn a country in Europe, independent contractors are required to pay social security contributions, in the same way as standard employees, guaranteeing them unemployment insurance.\nEnsuring the rights of domestic workers\nA country in Central America passed legislation in 2019 recognizing domestic workers as formal employees with benefits and protections. Under the new law, children under 15 are prohibited from working, and teenagers over the age of 15 cannot work for more than six hours a day. The employer of a domestic worker is now required to formalize the employment with a contract and to offer the same rights as other employers, including a salary based on at least minimum wage, registration for social security and health care, holiday bonuses, days off, maternity leave and guaranteed rest periods.\nImproving access to technology and resources for women in agriculture\nIn some countries in Africa, access by women working in agriculture to ICT has been increased to enhance productivity. For example, in one country in Africa, a non-governmental organization initiated a project to improve access to information through the use of ICTs by rural women in one part of the country. Women accessed required information on markets and improved farming methods through the use of smartphones, the Internet and radios. In another country in Africa, women have been provided with smartphones to access weather-related information. This information allows them to know when to sow their seeds and when to harvest – especially with a yield that needs to be dried.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Ensuring all women workers can enjoy their rights, without discrimination, including informal workers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "Strong union coverage and collective bargaining is linked with lower gender pay gaps, increased access to maternity leave and the promotion of family-friendly working arrangements. However, historically, trade unions have had strong masculinist cultures, have often excluded women’s voices and have not always prioritized women’s rights issues. Collective bargaining agreements often do not adequately reflect women’s concerns. Furthermore, where there’s a gendered power imbalance within a union, women workers face discrimination and violence. In addition, recent decades have seen growing challenges for collective organizing, particularly in the context of globalization and economic liberalization. The expected growth of non-standard forms of employment and increasing fissuring of the workplace in the context of continued globalization, along with the rise of work associated with digital platforms, exacerbates these challenges. As part of the broader trends of shrinking civil society space, there are also increasing government restrictions on unions and collective organizing. In this context, there is a need for new approaches and strategies for collective action and organizing.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Supporting women’s collective action and organizing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "For women in informal work, collective action through cooperatives has helped women to pool resources, realize economies of scale and access markets. Savings and self-help groups have been shown to support women’s livelihoods and strengthen their agency, voice and participation in households and communities more broadly. Making work decent and more remunerative, overcoming discrimination and redefining negative social norms are among the common goals that organizations of informal workers seek to achieve through collective organizing.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Supporting women’s collective action and organizing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Important lessons can be drawn from existing women’s cooperatives, which have often formed to bring women workers together to address basic and practical needs and then shifted to focus on identifying collective priorities and strategies for change. Technological advances also provide new opportunities to organize women workers across issues, sectors and borders. The complex challenge of achieving a just transition, with gender equality as a priority, also requires cross-movement solidarity between women’s, labour, environmental and indigenous movements. Strategies to increase women’s participation and leadership within trade unions is critical both as a matter of equality and to ensure that gender-specific concerns are prioritized in collective bargaining agreements and in the culture of spaces where workers unionize. Supporting women’s collective action in the changing world of work, including ensuring their freedom of association, free from violence and intimidation, is critical to realizing women’s rights to work and at work.\nBox 6 Promising practices\nUsing technology to organize women workers\nIn a country in Latin America with a large domestic worker population, an app was created to empower domestic workers. The app includes salary and benefit calculators, as well as information on the rights of domestic workers and help locating the nearest union.\nThe #MeToo movement saw countless women share their experiences of sexual harassment in the workplace, collectively organize for change and hold perpetrators to account. The movement was facilitated through social media and technology, which allowed women to connect around the globe.\nOrganizing women in informal work\nA trade union for poor women workers in the informal sector was founded over four decades ago in a South Asian country, organizing members across a range of jobs to focus on work security, income security, food security and social security – in addition to improving their organizational strength, collective bargaining and leadership skills. It brought together unions, the women’s movement and women’s collectives. Today the movement has spread across several countries in South Asia with members owning and managing their own institutions.\nBuilding alliances across social movements\nA movement in Latin America advancing the rights of women peasants is simultaneously focused on promoting a vision of small-scale peasant farming based on ecological conservation and food sovereignty while also calling for women’s equal access to and control over land, agricultural inputs and natural resources.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "D. Building a world of work that starts with women’s human rights: now and for the future", "Supporting women’s collective action and organizing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "Realizing women’s human rights in the changing world of work requires a fundamental transformation of the structure of work and the economy. Recent decades have seen increasing labour market deregulation, increased outsourcing across global supply chains, the proliferation of short-term contracts and the growth of “just in time” management. Such trends in the structure of work have placed downward pressure on wages and conditions, thus increasing inequalities and the vulnerability of women workers. Furthermore, in many parts of the world, labour market deregulation has led to rising non-standard forms of work among women and undermined their ability to organize collectively to improve pay and conditions.[[fn:31]] The failure of Governments to hold corporations to account for labour, human rights and environmental standards, and the ability of firms to move to other countries undermines the bargaining position of women workers, thus contributing to women being stuck in low-wage, low-skill occupations. Marginalized women are the most affected, and expected changes driven by technology and globalization present the risk that such trends will become further entrenched.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [{"n": 31, "text": "See www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_534115.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "E. Reimagining the structure of work and the economy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "While there has been increasing efforts by Governments and the private sector to improve the transparency of wages and conditions within global supply chains, often due to consumer demand, the reliance on voluntary codes and agreements has done little to shift the underlying business model, which drives the poor wages and conditions of the most marginalized women workers. For example, in the aftermath of the Rana Plaza disaster in Bangladesh, women workers reported an increasing focus on safety in the workplace but little progress on wages and other conditions of work. In a context where the labour market is increasingly globalized and fissured, in addition to compliance with existing global norms there is also a need for a legally binding global instrument that can help ensure accountability for workers’ rights in global supply chains. Indeed, some Governments are moving towards a more systematic disclosure and transparency of data related to environmental, social and governance issues. This enables monitoring of corporate performance on sustainability and social outcomes, including indicators of women’s rights at work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "E. Reimagining the structure of work and the economy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "A narrow focus on economic growth and profitability in dominant economic models, at the expense of human well-being, decent work and environmental sustainability, is at odds with the realization of women’s human rights. Women who experience multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination are particularly marginalized. Current economic models exploit and thrive on women’s unpaid care and domestic work. Such work undergirds the entire economy yet remains undervalued and invisible, while depleting women’s time and economic security (A/74/111, para. 228). Yet, there are policy alternatives, which require reimagining the economy to focus on redistributing power and resources, generating decent work and placing value on the well-being and care of people and the planet. Some Governments are moving in this direction by prioritizing human well-being and care in their economic policies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "E. Reimagining the structure of work and the economy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "An enabling economic policy framework for women’s human rights would centre on the realization of human rights, rather than focus narrowly on gross domestic product; prioritize equitable redistribution over wealth accumulation; facilitate investments in public services and infrastructure, increase pensions and social security and raise minimum wages, instead of providing tax cuts for corporations and the wealthy; and combat the proliferation of insecure informal work by offering incentives to business to spark economic growth to generate work with decent wages and conditions. Reimagining the economy for women’s human rights would involve adequately recognizing and prioritizing women’s specific needs, ensuring reproductive autonomy, eliminating all discrimination and valuing and investing in care work, paid and unpaid, as a central pillar. Such investments can both stimulate employment for women and build much needed physical and social infrastructure that benefits all workers.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Thematic analysis: women’s human rights in the changing world of work", "E. Reimagining the structure of work and the economy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "Without urgent attention, there is a significant danger that current gender inequalities and discrimination against women will not only be replicated but will be exacerbated in the changing world of work.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "The Working Group calls on all States to ratify and ensure full compliance with the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and all relevant international human rights treaties and ILO conventions that guarantee women’s rights to work and at work, as well as the optional protocols to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "The Working Group additionally recommends the adoption of concrete measures based on its analysis and taking into account promising practices identified in the present report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "Among general recommendations, the Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Review and eliminate all discriminatory laws that create barriers to women’s formal or informal employment;\n(b) Ensure that the prohibition of discrimination on grounds of sex, pregnancy or parenthood and caring responsibilities is extended and enforced for women in all forms of work, including non-standard employment;\n(c) Strengthen legislation, regulations and accountability frameworks to ensure transparency, including through sex-disaggregated data, on wages and conditions, throughout global supply chains;\n(d) Recast economic policies and frameworks, including national budgets and tax policies, to focus on human well-being, and prioritize the redistribution of power and resources, the realization of human rights, environmental sustainability and the generation of decent work for all.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Recommendations", "A. General"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 64, "n": 64, "text": "To address violence and harassment, the Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Ratify and ensure full implementation of the ILO Violence and Harassment Convention, 2019 (No. 190);\n(b) Introduce and strengthen legal frameworks to prevent and effectively respond to sexual harassment, ensuring coverage for all types of workers, particularly workers in non-standard employment, and application to all workplaces, including public spaces, transport, online and digital work platforms;\n(c) Introduce and strengthen labour legislation and regulations to address intimate partner violence and domestic violence, including through the provision of paid domestic violence leave;\n(d) Introduce regulations requiring employers to regularly report on their efforts towards and progress made in preventing and responding to violence and harassment of workers, and making transparent their data on sexual harassment complaints and outcomes;\n(e) Strengthen regulatory frameworks for technology providers to ensure they prevent and eliminate all forms of violence against women and girls online.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Recommendations", "B. Freedom from violence and harassment in the changing world of work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 65, "n": 65, "text": "With regard to unpaid care and domestic work, the Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Ensure universal access to paid maternity, paternity and parental leave for all workers, including those in non-standard employment and informal work;\n(b) Enable the equal sharing of paid and unpaid care work between women and men by providing universal paid parental leave for all parents and through specific interventions to increase men’s uptake of parental leave, including “use it or lose it” provisions;\n(c) Increase investments to ensure universal access to affordable and high quality childcare, disability and aged care services, ensuring access for both informal workers and those in non-standard forms of employment;\n(d) Ensure universal access to a full range of sexual and reproductive health services and information to all women and adolescent girls to enable them to exercise autonomy in decision-making about pregnancy and parenthood;\n(e) Increase investments in basic infrastructure and services in urban and rural areas to free up women’s time to engage in paid work;\n(f) Ensure that care work is a central pillar of macroeconomic policies, in order to generate resources for and investments in care services, paid parental leave and social protection, with the aim of redistributing unpaid care and domestic work between the State and families and between women and men.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Recommendations", "C. Recognize, reduce and redistribute unpaid care and domestic work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 66, "n": 66, "text": "In order to disrupt structural patterns of “women’s” and “men’s” work, the Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Establish temporary special measures (quotas and targets) to ensure that women benefit from employment in high-growth areas (such as renewable energy and technology), with specific measures to ensure that women are equally represented in technical and leadership roles;\n(b) Establish temporary special measures (quotas and targets) to increase women and girls’ participation in education in the areas of science, technology, engineering and mathematics;\n(c) Establish targeted programmes for women’s training and reskilling for occupations and industries that are at risk of automation;\n(d) Ensure equal access to ICTs for women;\n(e) Strengthen legal frameworks to introduce minimum wages for all workers and the legal obligation of equal pay for equal work or work of equal value;\n(f) Introduce regulations requiring employers to regularly report on their efforts towards and progress made in closing the gender pay gap, with disaggregated data on multiple grounds, including race, ethnicity and age, and on women’s representation in different roles and levels of leadership;\n(g) Introduce specific measures, including education and training programmes and access to a full range of sexual and reproductive health services and information, to ensure that young women transition from school to decent work opportunities and maintain their attachment to the workforce;\n(h) Introduce specific measures to increase men’s participation in female-dominated sectors and women’s participation in male-dominated areas.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Recommendations", "D. Disrupt structural patterns of “women’s” and “men’s” work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 67, "n": 67, "text": "To ensure that all women workers can enjoy their rights without discrimination, the Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Ensure informal and non-standard workers have access to workplace rights and entitlements, including access to social protection, health care, paid leave and occupational health and safety provisions, in particular providing protection in the context of economic and environmental shocks;\n(b) Ratify and implement the ILO Domestic Workers Convention, 2011 (No. 189), and the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families to ensure that migrant workers and domestic workers are protected against discrimination and abuse, and have access to rights and entitlements, including social protection, health care, paid leave and occupational health and safety provisions;\n(c) Remove all discrimination against migrant women workers, including in migration policies and laws, including employment laws, and introduce legal safeguards against their exploitation;\n(d) Ensure women’s equal rights to own, control and access land, credit and other productive resources and the enjoyment without discrimination by peasant women and other women working in rural areas of all the human rights and fundamental freedoms set out in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and other People Working in Rural Areas, including decent employment, equal remuneration and social protection benefits, access to income-generating activities and freedom from all forms of violence.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Recommendations", "E. Ensure all women workers can enjoy their rights, without discrimination, including informal workers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-44-51-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-44-51", "idx": 68, "n": 68, "text": "With a view to creating enabling conditions for women’s collective action and organizing, the Working Group recommends that:\n(a) Trade unions introduce specific measures to ensure women’s equal representation in decision-making and the incorporation of women’s specific concerns in organizing priorities and collective agreements, and establish policies to prevent and eliminate violence and harassment within unions;\n(b) States ensure enabling conditions for women’s collective action, including securing the right to freedom of association for all workers, not excluding those in non-standard and informal forms of work, guaranteeing protection for those organizing and claiming their rights, in accordance with the ILO Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention, 1948 (No. 87)", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2020, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Recommendations", "F. Create enabling conditions for women’s collective action and organizing"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report covers the activities of the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, from the time of submission of its previous report (A/HRC/44/51) to April 2021.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "In the context of the restrictions due to the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, the Working Group held three sessions virtually during the period under review. At its twenty-eighth session, from 6 to 10 July 2020, it held meetings with representatives of civil society organizations, discussed future position papers and methodological matters and focused on the present thematic analysis.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "At the twenty-ninth session, held from 12 to 16 October 2020, the experts met with the then newly appointed Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health and the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders. They also met with the main sponsor of the mandate of the Working Group and organized a farewell gathering for the outgoing member from the Latin America and Caribbean region and an introductory session for the new member of the Working Group.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At its thirtieth session, held on 19 and from 22 to 25 January 2021, the Working Group held meetings with civil society organizations, organized a well-attended meeting with Member States and worked on its thematic report. The Working Group also discussed possible future thematic priorities.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The Working Group visited Romania from 24 February to 6 March 2020.[[fn:1]] It thanks the Government for its cooperation and encourages other States to respond positively to its requests for visits, which will resume as soon as the global public health context allows.", "labels": [], "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "See A/HRC/47/38/Add.1."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The Working Group addressed communications to Governments, individually or jointly with other mandate holders. The communications concerned a wide range of subjects falling within its mandate, including discriminatory legislation and practices and allegations of the violations of the rights of women human rights defenders, gender-based violence and violations of the right to sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:2]] The Working Group also issued press releases, individually or jointly with other mandate holders, treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.[[fn:3]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Communications.aspx."}, {"n": 3, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/NewsSearch.aspx?MID=WG_Women."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The experts also undertook numerous activities in their capacity as members of the Working Group.[[fn:4]] In particular, the chair of the Working Group addressed the sixty-fifth session of the Commission on the Status of Women and presented an oral report on its work to the General Assembly. The Working Group organized a side event on the theme “Girls’ activism: accomplishments, challenges and opportunity for social change”, with girl activists from various regions of the world during the session of the Commission and members of the Working Group participated in a number of other side events. The Working Group also organized an event on the 10-year anniversary of the establishment of its mandate.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Activities.aspx."}, {"n": 5, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/SRWomen/Pages/UN_WGDAW_10_years_anniversary.aspx."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The full enjoyment of sexual and reproductive health rights is indispensable to the ability of women and girls to exercise all other human rights and for the achievement of gender equality. Access to sexual and reproductive health services, goods and information is essential at all times, especially in situations of crisis. Crises exact a disparate and heavy toll on the sexual and reproductive health of women and girls, compounding and further deepening the systemic disadvantages and discrimination that they face.[[fn:6]] The COVID-19 pandemic has brought global economic strife and triggered multiple local and individual crises, against a backdrop of countless pre-existing crises, including political, social, economic, public health and environmental crises. Women and girls have been disproportionately affected by them all.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See A/HRC/26/39; A/HRC/32/44; and the Working Group’s statements, of 20 April 2020, entitled “Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic must not discount women and girls”, and, of 14 July 2020, entitled “COVID-19 and increase in gender-based violence and discrimination against women”."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "In the present report, the Working Group draws attention to the widespread failure of States to adequately recognize, respect, protect and fulfil the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls, both before and during times of crisis, as marked by specific events, and formulates a set of recommendations to address crucial gaps. The Working Group wishes to express its gratitude to all stakeholders for their contributions made to the preparation of the report, including by responding to a questionnaire and participating in consultations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Crises are often defined as an event or a series of events representing a critical threat to the health, safety, security and/or well-being of a community or other large group of people.[[fn:7]] They are understood to be times of great difficulty and danger or threatening situations, requiring urgent action,[[fn:8]] and range broadly among various scenarios, from armed conflict and natural disasters to political instability and socioeconomic strife, as well as pandemics, to name a few.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict"], "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See A/HRC/28/76."}, {"n": 8, "text": "Paul Shrivastava, “Crisis theory/practice: towards a sustainable future”, Industrial and Environmental Crisis Quarterly vol. 7, No. 1. See also International Fund for Agricultural Development, “Guidelines for disaster early recovery”, 2011."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "1. Understanding crises from the perspective of the rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The Working Group considers that the focus on the “event” in the understanding of a situation of crisis may divert attention from key underlying factors that make a given situation “critical” for various populations, especially women and girls, and may thereby affect the formulation of effective preventive measures and policy responses. If the focus is strictly placed on a sudden event or a series of events as the defining element of a crisis, the gendered impact experienced by women and girls and the underlying determinants of the crisis which affect them in very specific ways are at risk of not being fully addressed.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "1. Understanding crises from the perspective of the rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Gender inequality, manifesting in systemic disadvantages for women throughout their life cycle and gender-based violence, is viewed by many women around the world as a crisis in itself, one that has been normalized by centuries of patriarchal, colonial and racialized legal and policy frameworks and institutions and deepened by the non-implementation of legal protections and political commitments. Many crises experienced individually by women and girls, such as unplanned pregnancy and sexual violence, infringe on their dignity, restrict their freedoms and are tied to their sexual and reproductive status. They are linked to structural discrimination and fostered by the patriarchal oppression, pervasive gender stereotypes, stigma and taboos that drive gender inequality. Such crises are not officially recognized and continue to be ignored, notwithstanding their systemic nature and the grave consequences for women and girls.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "1. Understanding crises from the perspective of the rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The widespread occurrence of forced and early pregnancy caused by sexual abuse, lack of comprehensive sexuality education or harmful practices,[[fn:9]] such as child marriage, as well as gang violence, have been identified by women and girls as seriously neglected crises. Many sexual and reproductive health concerns involve mental health aspects, which are also neglected and intensify in situations of crisis. The toxification of the planet is a less visible crisis, which has devastating consequences for the sexual and reproductive health of women and girls, contributing to infertility, miscarriages, premature births, early menstruation and menopause, cancers of the reproductive system and decreased lactation, among other things.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See joint general recommendation No. 31 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women/general comment No. 18 of the Committee on the Rights of the Child (2019)."}, {"n": 10, "text": "E/C.19/2013/9, para. 21. See also Donatella Caserta and others, “Environment and women’s reproductive health”, Human Reproduction Update, vol. 17, No. 3."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "1. Understanding crises from the perspective of the rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "A radical shift in the approach to identifying and addressing situations of crisis is needed, one that is gender responsive, intersectional and acknowledges the hidden, yet deep, trauma associated with the non-fulfilment of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls, as well as the life-long and intergenerational impact thereof. Many situations of crisis are predetermined by cumulative layers of pre-existing inequalities and discrimination, which may be starkly exposed and deeply exacerbated by a specific event.[[fn:11]] As recalled by the Human Rights Council Advisory Committee, patterns of human rights violations provide an early indication of a potential or emerging crisis.[[fn:12]] During the COVID-19 pandemic crisis, women indeed highlighted that for them “the crisis already existed”.[[fn:13]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See Jane McAdam, “The concept of crisis migration”, Forced Migration Review vol. 45, No. 10."}, {"n": 12, "text": "A/HRC/28/76, paras. 42–43."}, {"n": 13, "text": "Views expressed during the regional consultations held by the Working Group."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "1. Understanding crises from the perspective of the rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "No country in the world has successfully eliminated discrimination against women and girls or achieved full gender equality.[[fn:14]] Laws and policies that deny women and girls their sexual and reproductive health rights are inherently discriminatory. States cannot be truly prepared for or recover from a crisis, if structural inequalities and gaps persist that deny women and girls the full range of sexual and reproductive health services and goods, undermine their autonomy and neglect the underlying determinants of health.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See A/HRC/38/46."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "1. Understanding crises from the perspective of the rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "The current non-enjoyment of sexual and reproductive health rights by women and girls is a significant challenge to gender equality and reveals deep inequities. An estimated 810 maternal deaths occur each day globally,[[fn:15]] and 25 million unsafe abortions take place annually,[[fn:16]] resulting in approximately 47,000 deaths every year,[[fn:17]] primarily in developing countries and among members of socioeconomically disadvantaged and marginalized populations. Every 16 seconds there is a stillbirth.[[fn:18]] More than 200 million women who want to avoid pregnancy are not using modern contraception, due to a range of barriers.[[fn:19]] Millions of women and girls are denied the ability to manage their monthly menstrual cycle safely and with dignity.[[fn:20]] Those outcomes and barriers increase significantly in times of crisis.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 15, "text": "World Health Organization (WHO), “Maternal mortality”, evidence brief, 2019."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Ann M. Starrs and others, “Accelerate progress – sexual and reproductive health and rights for all: report of the Guttmacher-Lancet Commission”, The Lancet, vol. 391, No. 10140."}, {"n": 17, "text": "WHO, “Safe abortion: technical and policy guidance for health systems”, 2012."}, {"n": 18, "text": "United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), “A neglected tragedy: the global burden of stillbirths”, 2020."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Ann M. Starrs and others, “Accelerate progress”."}, {"n": 20, "text": "UNICEF, “Guidance on menstrual health and hygiene”, 2019."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "2. Sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "In a context of rising fundamentalisms, backlash against gains in women’s equality have too often targeted sexual and reproductive health rights.[[fn:21]] Much of the discrimination that women and girls face in relation to their sexual and reproductive health rights can be ascribed to the instrumentalization and politicization of their bodies.[[fn:22]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 21, "text": "See A/HRC/35/29; and A/HRC/38/46."}, {"n": 22, "text": "See A/HRC/32/44."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "2. Sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "The Working Group recalls that sexual and reproductive health rights are clearly established under international law. They are an integral part of a number of civil and political rights that underpin the physical and mental integrity of individuals and their autonomy, such as the rights to life, liberty and security of person, freedom from torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, privacy and respect for family life, as well as economic, social and cultural rights, such as the rights to health, education and work and the right to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress, and the cross-cutting rights of non-discrimination and equality.[[fn:23]] A woman’s right to control her fertility is central to the realization of those rights and to her autonomy and agency.[[fn:24]] States are obligated to ensure that sexual and reproductive health services are available, accessible, affordable, acceptable and of good quality.[[fn:25]] The distinct sexual and reproductive health needs of women and girls must be addressed to ensure substantive equality.", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Among others: International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (art. 12); Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (art. 12); Convention on the Rights of the Child (arts. 17, 23–25 and 27); International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (art. 5 (e) (iv)); International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families (arts. 28, 43 (1) (e), 45 (1) (c) and 70); and Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (arts. 23 and 25). See also Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000), general comment No. 21 (2009) and general comment No. 22 (2016); and Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999)."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (art. 16 (e))."}, {"n": 25, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 22 (2016), paras. 11–21."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "2. Sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Eliminating discrimination and ensuring sexual and reproductive health rights is a core and immediate obligation of States.[[fn:26]] The Working Group has repeatedly drawn attention to the fact that equality in the area of health requires a differential approach with regard to women and men, in accordance with their biological needs.[[fn:27]] It is discriminatory for a State to refuse to legally provide certain reproductive health services for women.[[fn:28]] Intersecting forms of discrimination that compound violations of the sexual and reproductive health of women and girls rights fall within the scope of States’ core obligation to eliminate discrimination.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 3 (1990),general comment No. 14 (2000), general comment No. 16 (2005) and general comment No. 22 (2016); and Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999) and general recommendation No. 28 (2010)."}, {"n": 27, "text": "Working Group, “Women’s autonomy, equality and reproductive health in international human rights: between recognition, backlash and regressive trends”, position paper, 2017; and A/HRC/32/44."}, {"n": 28, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999), para. 11."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "2. Sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "International human rights standards concerning sexual and reproductive health continue to apply during situations of crisis.[[fn:29]] States have the duty to continue to meet their core obligations when crisis strikes, which include the obligations to provide access to family planning services, including emergency contraception, maternal health services, safe abortion services and post-abortion care and counselling for those in need, to prevent and treat HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted infections, to ensure access to comprehensive education and information on sexual and reproductive health and to ensure that survivors of gender-based violence have access to comprehensive medical treatment, mental health care and psychosocial support, among other services.[[fn:30]] International human rights obligations concerning sexual and reproductive health rights are complementary to those in international humanitarian, refugee and criminal law.[[fn:31]] The Working Group recalls that non-State actors, such as armed groups, are also obliged to respect international human rights.[[fn:32]]", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000) and general comment No. 22 (2016); and Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 28 (2010), general recommendation No. 30 (2013) and general recommendation No. 37 (2018)."}, {"n": 30, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000) and general comment No. 22 (2016); Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999) and general recommendation No. 30 (2013); Inter-Agency Working Group on Reproductive Health in Crisis, “Field manual on reproductive health in humanitarian settings”, 2018; A/HRC/32/44; and Working Group, position paper, “Women’s autonomy”."}, {"n": 31, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 30 (2013), para. 19."}, {"n": 32, "text": "Ibid. See also www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26797&LangID=E."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "2. Sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development, the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development include commitments to achieve gender equality by ensuring a range of sexual and reproductive health rights for women and girls. The importance of ensuring access to the full range of sexual and reproductive health services during and after a conflict has been highlighted by the Security Council, in its resolution 2122 (2013) on women and peace and security. More recently, in its resolutions 75/156 and 75/157, the General Assembly called for the allocation of resources to ensure the continuation of universal access to health-care services, including sexual and reproductive health-care services, within the responses to COVID-19. The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, 2015–2030, encompasses social safety net mechanisms that integrate sexual and reproductive health (para. 30 (j)). In the Granada Consensus on sexual and reproductive health in protracted crises and recovery, participants called for the prioritization of sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:33]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See www.who.int/hac/techguidance/pht/reproductive_health_protracted_crises_and_recovery.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "B. Conceptual and legal framework", "2. Sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Denial of access to various forms of reproductive health care, such as maternal health care, including emergency obstetric care, and the criminalization of abortion is a profound failure to meet the obligation to guarantee equality in the area of sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:34]] The denial of access to a full range of contraceptive information and services, as well as the failure to remove barriers to access, including stereotypes portraying women’s “natural role” as mothers to justify such denial, constitutes a form of discrimination against women and girls, which puts their well-being at risk.[[fn:35]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 22 (2016); A/HRC/21/22; Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, Da Silva Pimentel v. Brazil (CEDAW/C/49/D/17/2008); CEDAW/C/OP.8/PHL/1; and A/HRC/32/44. See also Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999) and general recommendations No. 33 (2015)."}, {"n": 35, "text": "CEDAW/C/OP.8/PHL/1, paras. 33, 36 and 43; and Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 22 (2016), para. 28."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "1. Discriminatory laws, policies and practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Violations of sexual and reproductive health rights are linked to structural discrimination. Such violations take many forms, including forced sterilization, forced abortion, forced pregnancy, as well as the criminalization of abortion, denial or delay of safe abortion and/or post-abortion care, the forced continuation of pregnancy and the abuse and mistreatment of women and girls seeking sexual and reproductive health information, goods and services, which have been recognized as forms of gender-based violence, and which may amount to torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment.[[fn:36]] The prosecution and imprisonment of women and girls for miscarriages and stillbirths is discriminatory and violates a broad range of human rights.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 35 (2017). See also A/74/137."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "1. Discriminatory laws, policies and practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Legal safeguards and protocols that ensure privacy, confidentiality and free and informed consent and decision-making, without coercion, discrimination or fear of violence, are necessary to guarantee the equal enjoyment of sexual and reproductive health rights for women and girls.[[fn:37]] The stigma often assigned to sexual and reproductive health conditions, such as obstetric fistula, menstruation, abortion, adolescent pregnancy and sexually transmissible infections, is rooted in discriminatory gender stereotypes and patriarchal norms that must be dismantled through appropriate policies and interventions.[[fn:38]]", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 22 (2016); and Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999)."}, {"n": 38, "text": "See A/HRC/32/44."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "1. Discriminatory laws, policies and practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "States are consistently failing to comply with the full scope of their human rights obligations in relation to sexual and reproductive health rights before and during situations of crisis. The Working Group is deeply concerned that, of the countries reporting on the 2020 review and appraisal of the implementation of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, only 20 per cent indicated that they had provided women and girls, including refugees, in humanitarian settings with access to sexual and reproductive health services.[[fn:39]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "See E/CN.6/2020/3."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "2. Failure by States to prioritize sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "Responses to crisis too often lack a gender perspective and do not adequately meet the distinct needs of women and girls. The life-saving value of many vital sexual and reproductive health services are not recognized, and services are deprioritized or not provided at all.[[fn:40]] Discrimination against women underpins the lack of prioritization of those services, “reflecting societal hierarchies about who matters and who does not”.[[fn:41]] Measures adopted by States during a crisis, such as the diversion of financial and human resources away from sexual and reproductive health care and the imposition of restrictions on services, thereby deeming them non-essential, amount in practice to a retrogression, which is incompatible with States’ human rights obligations.[[fn:42]] Such restrictions often continue to undermine access to sexual and reproductive health care after a crisis ends,[[fn:43]] and, in the majority of cases, reconstruction programmes and recovery plans fail to prioritize sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:44]] During the COVID-19 pandemic, delivery of a broad range of essential sexual and reproductive health services and goods has been suspended or postponed, including: contraceptive information and services; safe abortion services and post-abortion care; mammograms, cervical cancer detection and testing and treatment for HIV and other sexually transmitted infections; support services for women and girls subjected to female genital mutilation; and fertility treatments.[[fn:45]] Treatments for gender dysphoria have also been disrupted, with serious psychological consequences for those concerned.[[fn:46]]", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "A/HRC/42/24, para. 53."}, {"n": 41, "text": "A/HRC/39/26, para. 47."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000) and general comment No. 22 (2016)."}, {"n": 43, "text": "Submission by the Feminist Alliance for Rights about the experience during the Ebola virus disease crisis."}, {"n": 44, "text": "See Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), “Handbook for the protection of women and girls”, 2008."}, {"n": 45, "text": "See submissions by Danish Institute for Human Rights; Finland; El Salvador; Slovenia; Global Respectful Maternity Care Council; End FGM European Network; Marie Stopes International; and Comunidad de Derechos Humanos."}, {"n": 46, "text": "See submissions by Finland and CHOICE for Youth and Sexuality."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "2. Failure by States to prioritize sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "The Working Group emphasizes the crucial role of various actors in the provision of sexual and reproductive health care. All sectors of society – individuals, including health professionals, families, local communities, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations, civil society organizations, as well as the private business sector – have responsibilities regarding the realization of the right to health.[[fn:47]] The State, besides exercising the obligations of due diligence over the actions of private individuals and non-State actors that might impair the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls, must provide an enabling environment that facilitates the discharge of those responsibilities and promotes respect for those rights. Health service providers should be subject to regulations to avoid violations of sexual and reproductive health rights, for example, by obstructing access to goods and services, engaging in misinformation[[fn:48]] or refusing care based on conscience or religion. Their conduct must be consistent with human rights standards and their ethical obligations as health-care professionals.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 12 (1999)."}, {"n": 48, "text": "See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 24 (2017); and Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "2. Failure by States to prioritize sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "The Working Group recognizes as a promising practice the constitutional recognition of sexual and/or reproductive rights by some States and the integration of human rights standards into national legislation and policy. The formal recognition of sexual and reproductive health services as essential is also a promising practice, which, in some countries, has been achieved through national courts[[fn:49]] and, in others, through the explicit inclusion of those services in emergency-related responses. In cases in which sexual and reproductive health services have been declared as essential only after the onset of a crisis, implementation has suffered, in the absence of a coherent and comprehensive response and the institutional mechanisms needed to support the design and implementation of such measures with the participation of women.[[fn:50]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "See www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Nepal-Right-to-health-Advocacy-analysis-brief-2020-ENG.pdf."}, {"n": 50, "text": "See submissions by ASEAN Disability Forum and the Defensor del Pueblo of Argentina."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "2. Failure by States to prioritize sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "WHO has called for the relaxation of certain requirements and the reduction of barriers during COVID-19 in order to avoid delays in acquiring access to certain essential sexual and reproductive health goods and services, including contraceptives and safe abortion and post-abortion care.[[fn:51]] A promising practice by some States has been the expansion of access to self-managed medical abortion, including through telemedicine.[[fn:52]] The Working Group notes that community-based midwifery can play a crucial role in responding to sexual and reproductive health needs during a crisis, supplementing scarce human resources and ensuring service coverage, in particular in remote areas, while allowing for an intercultural approach to care, which is a crucial component of acceptable and good quality care in certain communities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "WHO, “Maintaining essential health services: operational guidance for the COVID-19 context”, 2020."}, {"n": 52, "text": "Submission by Centro de Estudios Legales y Sociales. See also Church et al, “Reproductive health under COVID-19 – challenges of responding in a global crisis”, Sexual and Reproductive Health Matters, vol. 28, No. 1."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "2. Failure by States to prioritize sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "States’ failure to adequately prioritize the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls is reflected in the lack of gender budgeting and financial investment in that area, including in foreign aid, and it is further exacerbated by austerity and neoliberal measures encompassing the privatization of public services.[[fn:53]] Government spending on sexual and reproductive health could double, at least in lower middle-income countries, if countries were to increasingly prioritize health within their own budgets.[[fn:54]] Many States have shown a lack of capacity or willingness to commit adequate resources to sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:55]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "See submission by AIDS and Rights Alliance for Southern Africa."}, {"n": 54, "text": "Partnership for Maternal, Newborn and Child Health and others, “Funding for sexual and reproductive health and rights in low- and middle-income countries: threats, outlook and opportunities”, 2019."}, {"n": 55, "text": "See A/HRC/39/26."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "3. Lack of investment in sexual and reproductive health-care services and shortcomings in foreign aid"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "The Working Group is concerned about structural barriers linked to mismanagement and corruption, ranging from bottlenecks that impede the flow of resources within States to tax evasion and illicit financial flows that limit the resources of States to deliver public services, including sexual and reproductive health services for women and girls.[[fn:56]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "See A/HRC/28/73; and www.euro.who.int/en/data-and-evidence/evidence-informed-policy-making/publications/hen-summaries-of-network-members-reports/how-does-corruption-affect-health-care-systems,-and-how-can-regulation-tackle-it#:~:text=There%20is%20growing%20evidence%20that,the%20most%20vulnerable%20population%20groups."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "3. Lack of investment in sexual and reproductive health-care services and shortcomings in foreign aid"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "States are required under international human rights law to allocate adequate budgetary, human and administrative resources to ensure the sexual and reproductive health of women and girls without discrimination.[[fn:57]] They have an immediate obligation to take deliberate, concrete and targeted steps towards the realization of the right of women and girls to sexual and reproductive health care and to act as expeditiously and effectively as possible, by mobilizing domestic resources and, if needed, seeking international cooperation.[[fn:58]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999); and Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000) and general comment No. 22 (2016)."}, {"n": 58, "text": "See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "3. Lack of investment in sexual and reproductive health-care services and shortcomings in foreign aid"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The Working Group notes with concern that the priorities of donors often drive interventions in situations of humanitarian crisis,[[fn:59]] and gender equality is not always one of them. Seven of the 11 top Government donors reportedly allocated only 2 per cent of funds to targeted gender equality programming, although women and girls represent around 50 per cent of the population in humanitarian settings.[[fn:60]] Sexual and reproductive health services are typically not considered essential or urgent, despite the specific risks and vulnerabilities faced by women and girls. Contraception, abortion and adolescent health are often not prioritized.[[fn:61]] Menstrual health and pain management is barely addressed. In some cases, even maternity care is reportedly not adequately funded or prioritized because it is not perceived as a “humanitarian” concern.[[fn:62]] Survivors of violence are frequently left without access to crucial goods and services, including emergency contraception, post-exposure prophylaxis, safe abortion services and psychological counselling.[[fn:63]]", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 59, "text": "Neha Singh and others, “Delivering health interventions to women, children, and adolescents in conflict settings: what have we learned from ten country case studies?”, The Lancet, vol. 397, No. 10273."}, {"n": 60, "text": "CARE, “Time for a better bargain: how the aid system shortchanges women and girls in crisis”, 2021."}, {"n": 61, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 62, "text": "See A/HRC/42/24."}, {"n": 63, "text": "See CEDAW/C/CAF/CO/1-5."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "3. Lack of investment in sexual and reproductive health-care services and shortcomings in foreign aid"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The “global gag rule” is a harmful policy instituted by a major donor country, which has been applied on and off to international aid. It has produced catastrophic consequences for women and girls and health systems in many developing countries, including an increase in unplanned pregnancy and unsafe abortion, in addition to stigmatizing abortion, inhibiting information about safe and legal abortion and stifling advocacy for law reform where restrictions exist.[[fn:64]] Donor States and international actors have an obligation to comply with human rights standards pertaining to sexual and reproductive health and must not exert their influence to impose restrictions on information and services.[[fn:65]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 64, "text": "See submission by Global Justice Center; and Terry McGovern and Anand Tamang “Exporting bad policy: an introduction to the special issue on the GGR’s impact”, Sexual and Reproductive Health Matters, vol. 28, No. 3."}, {"n": 65, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000) and general comment No. 22 (2016)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "3. Lack of investment in sexual and reproductive health-care services and shortcomings in foreign aid"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "The Working Group is deeply concerned about the widespread impunity for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls. While some progress has been made in investigating and prosecuting crimes of sexual violence in situations of conflict,[[fn:66]] many violations of sexual and reproductive health rights continue to be either neglected or tolerated and occur with impunity.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "See Kim Thuy Seelinger, “Close to home: a short history, and rough typology, of national courts prosecuting wartime sexual violence”, Journal of International Criminal Justice, vol. 18, No. 2; and Daniela Kravetz, “Accountability for sexual and gender-based violence during mass repression and in conflict the experiences of Argentina and Guatemala”, Journal of International Criminal Justice vol. 18, No. 2."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "4. Lack of accountability for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Reliable data concerning the accessibility, availability and quality of sexual and reproductive health services, disaggregated by sex, gender, age and other grounds, remain scarce in general and in particular in humanitarian settings.[[fn:67]] States continue to lag behind in the provision of those services based on precise plans, indicators, benchmarks and regular reviews, despite it being an integral component of States’ human rights obligations and crucial to ensuring accountability.[[fn:68]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "See A/HRC/39/26."}, {"n": 68, "text": "See Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999); and Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "4. Lack of accountability for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "The Working Group emphasizes that accountability is needed at multiple levels and may take various forms, including administrative, social, political and legal. The implementation of a “circle of accountability” is a promising practice, as envisioned in the United Nations technical guidance on the application of a human right-based approach to the implementation of policies and programmes to reduce preventable maternal morbidity and mortality.[[fn:69]] It brings together local communities and governmental and other actors in a community-led monitoring effort to ensure accountability for sexual and reproductive health rights.[[fn:70]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 69, "text": "See A/HRC/21/22."}, {"n": 70, "text": "See the submission by CARE and the Center for Reproductive Rights."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "4. Lack of accountability for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The Working Group notes as a promising practice the interventions by national human rights institutions and courts aimed at protecting sexual and reproductive health rights during situations of crisis, including during the COVID-19 pandemic, by drawing attention to shortcomings in the design and/or implementation of crisis responses.[[fn:71]] Another promising practice is the conduct of independent investigations by national and specially appointed international commissions that have exposed wide-ranging violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls in various situations of crisis and offered clear guidance on reparations and structural reforms.[[fn:72]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "See submissions by Procuraduría para la Defensa de los Derechos Humanos of El Salvador and National Human Rights Commission of India."}, {"n": 72, "text": "See “Sexual and gender-based violence in Myanmar and the gendered impact of its ethnic conflicts”, conference room paper; A/HRC/41/18; https://reliefweb.int/report/south-sudan/access-health-survivors-conflict-related-sexual-violence-south-sudan-may-2020; and www.mmiwg-ffada.ca/final-report/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "4. Lack of accountability for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "Women and girls are entitled to receive adequate reparations, including restitution, compensation, satisfaction, rehabilitation and guarantees of non-repetition, for violations of their sexual and reproductive health rights, and States have a core obligation to ensure access to effective and transparent reparations.[[fn:73]] However, women and girls continue to face a variety of barriers to access to justice in situations of crisis,[[fn:74]] from the lack of recognition of the harm caused to them as being a violation of human rights to the absence of procedures and formal mechanisms. The Working Group welcomes the judicial recognition of the harms caused by sexual and reproductive violence during conflict and the provision of reparations.[[fn:75]] States have been held responsible for failing to protect the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls in cases concerning access to therapeutic abortion,[[fn:76]] non-discriminatory and timely access to maternal health care,[[fn:77]] mistreatment during childbirth[[fn:78]] and access to contraceptive information and services.[[fn:79]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000) and general comment No. 22 (2016)."}, {"n": 74, "text": "Among many others, see submissions by Argentina, Colombia, Greece and Mali and State of Palestine."}, {"n": 75, "text": "Constitutional Court of Colombia, decision SU-599/19 of 11 December 2019."}, {"n": 76, "text": "See L.C. v. Peru (CEDAW/C/50/D/22/2009)."}, {"n": 77, "text": "See Da Silva Pimentel v. Brazil; and S.F.M. v. Spain (CEDAW/C/75/D/138/2018)."}, {"n": 78, "text": "See CEDAW/C/IRL/CO/6-7."}, {"n": 79, "text": "See CEDAW/C/OP.8/PHL/1."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "4. Lack of accountability for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "The Working Group denounces in the strongest terms the prosecution and criminalization of women and girls accused of having abortions, including in situations of miscarriages and stillbirths. The Working Group condemns reporting requirements that contribute to a “hospital to prison pipeline” for women who have had or who are suspected of having abortions and the criminalization of involvement in the performance of abortions, which affects health-care workers, including midwives, especially in times of crisis when institutional health services are not readily available.[[fn:80]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=25385; https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=25560; www.corteidh.or.cr/docs/tramite/manuela_y_otros.pdf; A/66/254; and A/HRC/41/33."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "4. Lack of accountability for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 41, "n": 5, "text": "Lack of support for feminist and women’s rights organizations and violence against human rights defenders working in the area of sexual and reproductive health rights", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "4. Lack of accountability for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 42, "n": 41, "text": "Feminist and women’s rights organizations working at the community level play a vital role in ensuring the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls, especially during a crisis. Many are directly involved in the provision of sexual and reproductive health services and information, stepping in where public goods and services are no longer unavailable.[[fn:81]] States are required under international law to ensure that such groups are supported in discharging their role and involved in the planning, implementation and monitoring of crisis responses.[[fn:82]] The Working Group notes however that their expertise and knowledge is often not taken into consideration.[[fn:83]] Feminist leaders and organizations working on the front lines are not systematically included in decision-making processes. In addition, a recent assessment has revealed that, in situations of crisis, funding for women’s rights is among the first things to be reduced.[[fn:84]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 81, "text": "See submission by Maat for Peace Development and Human Rights – Somalia and Ipas Pakistan."}, {"n": 82, "text": "See also Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 24 (1999)."}, {"n": 83, "text": "CARE, “Time for a better bargain”; African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, “Study on transitional justice and human and peoples’ rights in Africa”, 2019; and submission by Pathways for Women’s Empowerment and Development."}, {"n": 84, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "4. Lack of accountability for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 43, "n": 42, "text": "The Working Group is deeply concerned that women human rights defenders are targeted for violence and subjected to intimidation and retaliation because of their efforts to ensure women’s sexual and reproductive health rights and for their demanding accountability for pervasive sexual violence and feminicides.[[fn:85]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 85, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=25833; https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=25447; https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=25372; and A/HRC/41/33."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "4. Lack of accountability for violations of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 44, "n": 43, "text": "Without autonomy and control over their reproductive functions and roles, women and girls continue to be subjugated in every sphere of life and are unable to realize their full potential. They are effectively denied the ability to participate in public life and to provide leadership. Legal restrictions on women’s and girls’ autonomy and their exclusion from decision-making processes are compounded by the tendency during a crisis to promote a certain image of women as mothers only and to essentialize their role through the use of harmful and discriminatory stereotypes, which leads to the further exclusion of their concerns and perspectives from the public policy discourse.[[fn:86]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 86, "text": "Views expressed during the regional consultations; and submission by Latsi Nu Women Agency."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "6. Exclusion of women and girls from decision-making"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 45, "n": 44, "text": "Cultural and traditional values are persistently invoked to justify resistance to women’s political and public roles, and similar ideology is used to deny women and girls their sexual and reproductive health rights. It is imperative that States ensure the participation of women and girls in political and public life on an equal basis with men and boys, as well as the integration of women and girls into decision-making processes relating to crisis prevention, management and recovery,[[fn:87]] encompassing the formulation of laws and policies, monitoring, implementation and accountability.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "A/HRC/23/50, paras. 36 and 41."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "6. Exclusion of women and girls from decision-making"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 46, "n": 45, "text": "Men hold a disproportionate level of decision-making authority in the public and private spheres. In times of crisis, the lack of male support for prioritizing the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls is a major obstacle.[[fn:88]] States have an obligation to direct a cultural shift to change patriarchal mindsets and attitudes by reinforcing men’s accountability for gender equality and engaging them as allies in prioritizing gender equality in decision-making, including in relation to sexual and reproductive health rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 88, "text": "Submission by Somali Gender Justice."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "7. Lack of engagement and accountability of men and male allies"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 47, "n": 46, "text": "States must also take steps to address toxic masculinity.[[fn:89]] That can be done by eliminating sexism and misogyny in the public discourse and violence against women and girls. Social norms and gender stereotypes around toxic masculinity promote risky sexual behaviours and discourage boys and men from seeking access to sexual and reproductive health-care services. Moreover, many men consider sexual and reproductive health to be the exclusive responsibility of women and fail to recognize when their partners and their families are in urgent need of sexual and reproductive health care.[[fn:90]] The Working Group notes as a promising practice the efforts of some male parliamentarians and activists in promoting positive messages on how men and boys can be active participants in fostering non-violent masculinities and encouraging positive behaviours among men in times of crisis, as has been done during the COVID-19 related lockdown measures.[[fn:91]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "See A/75/289."}, {"n": 90, "text": "Submission by MenEngage Alliance."}, {"n": 91, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "7. Lack of engagement and accountability of men and male allies"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 48, "n": 47, "text": "Religious fundamentalists and their political allies have led an organized and well-funded global political backlash against gender equality by invoking religious freedom and traditional values.[[fn:92]] The backlash has been particularly visible since consensus was achieved among Governments to promote and advance women’s reproductive rights at the International Conference on Population and Development, and it has increased since sexual rights were recognized at the Fourth World Conference on Women. The Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief has noted the increased use of religion or belief by certain actors in all regions of the world to advocate for the imposition of laws and policies that are directly or indirectly discriminatory against women and girls.[[fn:93]] The Working Group reiterates that arguments framed in terms of cultural diversity and freedom of religion cannot be invoked to justify discrimination against women. Discriminatory, repressive and violent practices against women must be eliminated, whatever their origins, including those founded in certain interpretations of culture or religion.[[fn:94]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 92, "text": "See A/HRC/38/46. See also Working Group, “Women’s autonomy”; and Working Group, “Gender equality and gender backlash”, position paper, 2020."}, {"n": 93, "text": "See A/HRC/43/48."}, {"n": 94, "text": "See A/HRC/29/40."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "8. Ideological and religious opposition to sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 49, "n": 48, "text": "In recent years, the backlash has been propelled by some Governments, including at the Human Rights Council, by challenging the universality of human rights.[[fn:95]] That development is central to the Working Group’s concerns about the neglect and deprioritization of the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls in all situations, including in times of crisis. A core strategy of the organized opposition has been to undermine women’s sexual and reproductive health rights as a whole by using their ideological opposition to abortion as a lynchpin. The sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls, including the options to prevent and safely terminate an unwanted pregnancy, must be fully recognized and supported at all times in order to guard against profound violations of their bodily integrity and autonomy.[[fn:96]] More recently, some States have misleadingly alleged that proponents of gender equality are advancing a harmful “gender ideology”, to deepen and instrumentalize the ideological divide and undermine legally guaranteed protections.[[fn:97]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 95, "text": "See A/HRC/29/40."}, {"n": 96, "text": "See also Working Group, “Women’s autonomy”."}, {"n": 97, "text": "Working Group, “Gender equality and gender backlash”."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "8. Ideological and religious opposition to sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 50, "n": 49, "text": "The adoption of the so-called “Geneva consensus declaration on promoting women’s health and strengthening the family” in 2020 is an example of the harmful mobilization of States with conservative and anti-women’s rights agendas to undermine the well-established and globally recognized human rights of women and girls.[[fn:98]] The Working Group welcomes the sustained commitment of many States to upholding the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls through joint diplomatic statements.[[fn:99]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 98, "text": "See https://geneva.usmission.gov/wp-content/uploads/sites/290/GenevaDeclaration.pdf. The new Administration of the United States of America has distanced itself from the declaration."}, {"n": 99, "text": "See www.government.nl/documents/diplomatic-statements/2019/09/23/joint-statement-on-srhr-in-uhc."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "8. Ideological and religious opposition to sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 51, "n": 50, "text": "Crises bring additional challenges to health systems that are already deficient in the provision of essential sexual and reproductive health services, including the collapse of or reduction in the functioning of health infrastructure, public transportation, water, sanitation, waste management and other underlying determinants of access to health care.[[fn:100]] Breakdowns in health systems that reduce availability and access can give rise to a loss of privacy in health-care settings and deter women and girls from seeking sexual and reproductive health care.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 100, "text": "Submissions by Ipas Pakistan and ECKO Greece."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "9. Additional challenges in times of crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 52, "n": 51, "text": "The availability of services is often disrupted by the inability of health-care workers to provide services due the breakdown of the health system and violence that may be directed towards them. Combined with sudden disruptions in the supply chain, the poor management of barriers and gaps considerably deepens the impact of a crisis on the sexual and reproductive health of women and girls.[[fn:101]] A militarized response to a crisis, such as by handing over the management of a natural disaster to the armed forces, can lead to increased threats and acts of violence against women and girls.[[fn:102]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "See submissions by Ipas Pakistan and Refugee Commission."}, {"n": 102, "text": "See submissions by Latsi Nu Women Agency and Global Justice Center."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "9. Additional challenges in times of crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 53, "n": 52, "text": "Measures imposed during a crisis often set back crucial progress made on the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls. It has been estimated that, due to COVID-19 containment measures, 2 million cases of female genital mutilation, which would otherwise have been averted, are likely to occur over the next decade, and an additional 13 million child marriages could take place by 2030.[[fn:103]] Unplanned pregnancies are projected to increase by several million.[[fn:104]] A one-third reduction in progress towards ending gender-based violence by 2030 is expected.[[fn:105]] An increase in disrespectful maternity care and cases of obstetric violence has been observed, alongside a reduction in antenatal and childbirth services.[[fn:106]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 103, "text": "United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), “Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on family planning and ending gender-based violence, female genital mutilation and child marriage”, 2020."}, {"n": 104, "text": "See https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/04/1062742."}, {"n": 105, "text": "UNFPA, “Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic”."}, {"n": 106, "text": "See Working Group’s statement of 20 April 2020; and submission by Global Respectful Maternity Care Council."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "9. Additional challenges in times of crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 54, "n": 53, "text": "Situations of crisis may be exploited to restrict access for women and girls to certain reproductive health services. During the COVID-19 pandemic, a number of countries restricted access to abortion services and suspended the operations of mobile outreach teams providing contraceptive services to rural and marginalized communities, by deeming them non-essential, and further rollbacks of existing laws and policies have been attempted.[[fn:107]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 107, "text": "Colleen Marcoux, “Sexual and reproductive health during the COVID-19 crisis”, International Women’s Health Coalition, 2020; Center for Reproductive Rights, “Sexual and reproductive rights during COVID-19 response and beyond: standards from the United Nations”, 2020; submission by Marie Stopes International; and www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=26290&LangID=E."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "C. Main factors underlying and exacerbating the risks and threats", "9. Additional challenges in times of crisis"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 55, "n": 54, "text": "Certain groups of women and girls are at increased risk of violations of their sexual and reproductive health rights, and their situation is worsened in times of crisis, due to multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination. The impact of a crisis is exacerbated by the pre-existing inequalities and discrimination in their socioeconomic status combined with gaps in legal and policy frameworks and crisis responses.[[fn:108]] Some groups have been historically subjected to a “persistent state of crisis” on racial and ethnic grounds. The Working Group takes note of a selected few cases below.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 108, "text": "See submissions by Mexico, ASEAN Disability Forum, Women Enabled International, Global Interfaith Network, Latsi Nu Women Agency and Choice for Youth and Sexuality."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 56, "n": 55, "text": "Girls and adolescent girls are at increased risk of sexual violence, early and unplanned pregnancy, coerced sex and harmful practices in general and in particular in situations of crisis.[[fn:109]] Those risks are driven by lack of access to information, goods and services,[[fn:110]] combined with pervasive stereotyping and taboos. School closures and lockdown measures during the COVID-19 crisis have led to a crucial loss of access to sexual and reproductive health information and missed opportunities to detect and report cases of violence.[[fn:111]]", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 109, "text": "UNFPA, “Adolescent girls in disaster and conflict”, 2016; UNHCR, “Handbook”; and Plan International, “Adolescent girls in crisis: voices from the Sahel”, 2020."}, {"n": 110, "text": "See submission by Choice for Youth and Sexuality."}, {"n": 111, "text": "See submissions by Kenya and Finland; and Colleen Marcoux, “Sexual and reproductive health”."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "1. Girls and adolescent girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 57, "n": 56, "text": "During the Ebola virus disease outbreak, adolescent girls in crisis-stricken communities became pregnant at twice the rate of those in communities that were less affected.[[fn:112]] During a crisis, arranged and forced marriages increase, driven by harmful traditional practices in the context of aggravated poverty.[[fn:113]] Married-off girls face a higher risk of pregnancy-related mortality and obstetric fistula, a preventable and devastating pregnancy-related injury which causes incontinence and can lead to stigma, abandonment and social exclusion.[[fn:114]] Nevertheless, child marriage and adolescent girls’ sexual and reproductive health needs remain largely unaddressed in humanitarian settings.[[fn:115]]", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 112, "text": "World Bank, “Empowering adolescent girls in a crisis context: lessons from Sierra Leone in the time of Ebola”, policy brief No. 34, 2019."}, {"n": 113, "text": "See CRC/C/SYR/CO/5; joint general recommendation No. 31 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women/general comment No. 18 of the Committee on the Rights of the Child (2019); and submissions by the Feminist Alliance for Rights and Mali."}, {"n": 114, "text": "See www.who.int/news-room/facts-in-pictures/detail/10-facts-on-obstetric-fistula."}, {"n": 115, "text": "See submission by Plan international."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "1. Girls and adolescent girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 58, "n": 57, "text": "Rural areas are generally underserved, leaving rural women and girls even more exposed to violations of their sexual and reproductive health rights when crises arise. Contraceptive access is low,[[fn:116]] and maternal mortality and morbidities, such as obstetric fistula and uterine prolapse, are high among rural women and girls.[[fn:117]] There is a higher incidence of stillbirths.[[fn:118]] Barriers commonly faced by rural women and girls include long distances from health centres, cost, lack of trained providers, long wait times, lack of information and confidentiality and the constraints of a heavy workload.[[fn:119]] Many of those barriers come into play more acutely in situations of crisis.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 116, "text": "See www.choiceforyouth.org/assets/Docs/198f89dc19/PositionPaper_CSW_DEF.pdf."}, {"n": 117, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 34 (2016)."}, {"n": 118, "text": "See https://data.unicef.org/resources/a-neglected-tragedy-stillbirth-estimates-report/."}, {"n": 119, "text": "See www.choiceforyouth.org/assets/Docs/198f89dc19/PositionPaper_CSW_DEF.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "2. Rural women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 59, "n": 58, "text": "Land-grabbing and the operations of extractive industries in the rural territories of indigenous peoples and other communities are experienced by women and girls as a crisis,[[fn:120]] threatening their very survival. They are often targeted for sexual violence, including in the form of sexual exploitation and trafficking, which has been linked to higher incidences of sexually transmitted infections and HIV.[[fn:121]]", "labels": ["Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 120, "text": "Views expressed during the regional consultations. See also submission by Pathways for Women’s Empowerment and Development."}, {"n": 121, "text": "See Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, “Indigenous and tribal peoples of the pan-Amazon region”, 2019; A/HRC/36/46/Add.1; A/HRC/39/17/Add.3; and E/C.19/2013/9."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "2. Rural women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 60, "n": 59, "text": "In crisis responses, the needs of women and girls with disabilities, for example, through reasonable accommodations, such as the installation of ramps and the provision of portable beds and wheelchairs, to ensure their access to sexual and reproductive health goods and services, are often not specifically taken into account.[[fn:122]] Information is often not available in accessible formats, which leads to difficulties in seeking services and communicating with staff.[[fn:123]] Women and girls with disabilities face a higher risk of abuse and violence as result of the breakdown of support systems to which they may previously have had access.[[fn:124]] Negative stereotypes linked to their sexual and reproductive health status can lead to the further marginalization of their needs and concerns in situations of crisis.[[fn:125]] The sexual and reproductive health needs of women and girls who develop disabilities due to physical and emotional injuries from violence and armed conflict are widely neglected.[[fn:126]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 122, "text": "See submission by ASEAN Disability Forum."}, {"n": 123, "text": "See submission by Kenya."}, {"n": 124, "text": "See submission by Finland."}, {"n": 125, "text": "Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 3 (2016); and submission by the Castan Centre for Human Rights Law."}, {"n": 126, "text": "Views expressed during the regional consultations."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "3. Women and girls with disabilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 61, "n": 60, "text": "Migrant, refugee and internally displaced women and girls often arrive carrying the traumas of violence, persecution, conflict and poverty. Reception structures and arrangements are often lacking the capacity to respond to their heightened need for sexual and reproductive health services.[[fn:127]] Many live in camps under a persistent threat of violence, including from intimate partners,[[fn:128]] while sexual and reproductive health is typically deemed a taboo topic.[[fn:129]] Cultural and linguistic barriers impede the flow of crucial information.[[fn:130]] Some have recounted traumatic experiences with unplanned and forced pregnancies as “triggering a crisis” in the precarious and dire circumstances of the camps.[[fn:131]]", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons", "Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 127, "text": "See submissions by Greece, Pathways for Women’s Empowerment and Development and EKO."}, {"n": 128, "text": "See submission by the Feminist Alliance for Rights."}, {"n": 129, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 130, "text": "See submissions by Greece, Pathways for Women’s Empowerment and Development and EKO."}, {"n": 131, "text": "Views expressed during the regional consultations."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "4. Migrant, refugee and internally displaced women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 62, "n": 61, "text": "Many rely on “transactional sex” to secure their basic material needs, and sex may be demanded of those fleeing a crisis while in transit,[[fn:132]] increasing the likelihood of unplanned pregnancies and other reproductive health risks for which services are lacking. In some destination countries, migrant women have been put in detention centres, denied basic reproductive health goods and services and subjected to non-consensual and medically unnecessary reproductive health procedures.[[fn:133]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 132, "text": "See www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/26410397.2020.1822493?src=recsys."}, {"n": 133, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=25835."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "4. Migrant, refugee and internally displaced women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 63, "n": 62, "text": "Relief programmes often do not take into account the specific needs of women and girls, including routine menstrual hygiene and pain management,[[fn:134]] which has physical and emotional consequences for women, who have pointed out that the “[United Nations] provides good health services for pre- and post-natal care, but, after that, there is nothing”.[[fn:135]]", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 134, "text": "See https://plan-international.org/because-i-am-a-girl/menstrual-hygiene-matters-refugee-girls."}, {"n": 135, "text": "See submission by the Feminist Alliance for Rights."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "4. Migrant, refugee and internally displaced women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 64, "n": 63, "text": "There are communities of women and girls whose lives have been shaped by histories of oppression, enslavement, exclusion, racial discrimination, forced assimilation and apartheid, linked to conquest and colonization, as well as systematic violence and disregard for their culture, spirituality and traditions, and, as a result, have been subjected to a “persistent state of crisis”. Many have been systematically subjected to reproductive violence, including forced pregnancy and sterilization, while others have been separated from their children. Certain groups are highlighted below, although there are women belonging to other ethnic and minority groups in a state of deep crisis, including Dalit, Rohingya, Yazidi and Uighur women.[[fn:136]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 136, "text": "See A/HRC/32/18; https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=19319; https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=22468; and https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=25780."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "5. Women and girls in a “persistent state of crisis”"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 65, "n": 64, "text": "Indigenous women and girls are a diverse community, bound by their histories of being subjected to conquest, colonization, forced assimilation and the continuing dispossession of their peoples’ lands, and many have also been subjected to acomplex spectrum of human rights abuses[[fn:137]] involving discriminatory and coercive practices, such as eugenically imposed birth control, forced sterilization and systemic sexual abuse and rape.[[fn:138]] Pregnancy-related morbidity and mortality rates are relatively higher among indigenous women and girls.[[fn:139]] The absence of health services that specifically incorporate indigenous knowledge, their worldview and an intercultural approach contributes to language and cultural barriers, cost barriers and poorer reproductive health outcomes.[[fn:140]]", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 137, "text": "A/HRC/30/41, para. 5."}, {"n": 138, "text": "See submission by the Castan Centre."}, {"n": 139, "text": "See E/2019/43; www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/documents/2014/press/shrr.pdf; www.paho.org/hq/dmdocuments/2011/gdr-gender-equity-and-indigenous-women-health-americas.pdf; and submissions by the Castan Centre and Native Women’s Association of Canada."}, {"n": 140, "text": "See www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/UNFPA_PUB_2018_EN_human_rights_report.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "(a) Indigenous women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 66, "n": 65, "text": "In urban areas, indigenous women and girls may have greater access to facilities than their rural counterparts, but they often “suffer from invisibility and discrimination” based on their indigenous identity.[[fn:141]] In many cases, the criminalization of indigenous midwifery and the denial of the opportunity to give birth on the land of their ancestors, which in many traditions breaks the spiritual connection of the newborn with the community, also contributes to the overall feeling of insecurity and the distress of pregnant women during childbirth.[[fn:142]] For indigenous women, the connection to ancestral lands and the environment is fundamental to their health status.[[fn:143]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 141, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 142, "text": "See submissions by the Castan Centre and Native Women’s Association of Canada."}, {"n": 143, "text": "See www.paho.org/hq/dmdocuments/2011/gdr-gender-equity-and-indigenous-women-health-americas.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "(a) Indigenous women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 67, "n": 66, "text": "The legacies of slavery, systemic racism, structural discrimination and coercive practices against women of African descent are reflected in contemporary situations of socioeconomic disadvantage and profound inequalities.[[fn:144]] The disparities are starkly visible in the poor sexual and reproductive health status of, and the range of human rights violations perpetrated against, women and girls of African descent, including the mistreatment of pregnant women in health-care settings and significantly higher rates of maternal mortality.[[fn:145]] Racial stereotyping by health-care providers against women of African descent that leads to negligent and deliberate delays in care is one of the factors underlying the high incidence of preventable maternal deaths.[[fn:146]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 144, "text": "See Durban Declaration and Programme of Action; Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination, general recommendation No. 34 (2011); Arachu Castro and others, “Assessing equitable care for Indigenous and Afrodescendant women in Latin America”, Rev Panam Salud Publica, vol. 38, No. 2; Cynthia Prather and others, “Racism, African American Women and their sexual and reproductive health: a review of historical and contemporary evidence and implications for health equity”, Health Equity, vol. 2, No. 1."}, {"n": 145, "text": "See submission from Birth Justice."}, {"n": 146, "text": "See Da Silva Pimentel v. Brazil."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "(b) Women and girls of African descent"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 68, "n": 67, "text": "Racism within the health system can be intensified by widespread State policing and surveillance and mandatory reporting requirements in relation to suspicions of drug use and child abuse or neglect, which often deters pregnant women from seeking reproductive health care and undermines their trust in health service providers.[[fn:147]] Such norms and practices exist against the backdrop of a harmful narrative about “Black maternal unfitness”,[[fn:148]] which has been used to legitimize State-sanctioned violence against Black women in the form of coerced sterilization[[fn:149]] and the separation of mothers from their children.[[fn:150]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 147, "text": "See submission from Birth Justice."}, {"n": 148, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 149, "text": "See submission Her Rights Initiative South Africa."}, {"n": 150, "text": "See submission from Birth Justice."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "(b) Women and girls of African descent"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 69, "n": 68, "text": "As a promising practice, drawing on human rights and, more specifically, in response to their experiences, some Black activist women have developed their own advocacy framework, known as the “reproductive and birth justice framework”, which recognizes three interconnected components of reproductive justice, namely, the right to have a child, the right to not have a child and the right to parent children in a safe and healthy environment.[[fn:151]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 151, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "(b) Women and girls of African descent"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 70, "n": 69, "text": "Historically, Roma women and girls across Europe have been subjected to anti-Gypsyism and have faced egregious violations of their sexual and reproductive health rights. The forced sterilization of Roma women was widespread in some European countries until the 1990s,[[fn:152]] creating a legacy of institutionalized abusive practices and mistrust in the health system. The ethnic segregation of Roma women in maternal health facilities in which basic standards of hygiene and safety are not ensured is a discriminatory practice. Health professionals may refuse their services entirely, due to the perceived inability of Roma to pay,[[fn:153]] or avoid treating them based on harmful stereotypes,[[fn:154]] leading to low quality of care and deliberate delays in the provision of services.[[fn:155]]", "labels": ["Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 152, "text": "See www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0015/330090/4-Advancing-womens-sexual-reproductive-rights-in-Europe.pdf?ua=1."}, {"n": 153, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 154, "text": "Nadia Rusi, “Discrimination of Roma women regarding their access to reproductive health services in Albania”, European Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, vol. 2, No. 1."}, {"n": 155, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "(c) Roma women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 71, "n": 70, "text": "There are disproportionately high teenage pregnancy rates among Roma girls, in part due to high rates of early or child marriage.[[fn:156]] They have a higher unmet need for contraceptive information and services and face an increased risk of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV,[[fn:157]] and period poverty. Discriminatory assumptions about their fitness to become mothers are frequently employed by the authorities to take away their children.[[fn:158]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 156, "text": "See https://eeca.unfpa.org/en/publications/inequities-roma-womens-health?page=4%2C0%2C4."}, {"n": 157, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 158, "text": "See https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TMResultsBase/DownLoadPublicCommunicationFile?gId=23724."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis", "D. Women and girls facing compounded barriers and threats", "(c) Roma women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 72, "n": 71, "text": "The sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls are systematically neglected, not because of a lack of resources or technical knowledge but because of the widespread disregard for women’s dignity, bodily integrity and autonomy. Sexual and reproductive health matters are intrinsic to every woman and girl and tied to their ability to live with dignity and exercise their agency. The failure to ensure the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls is discriminatory and constitutes a major crisis in itself.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 73, "n": 72, "text": "Crisis events cannot always be prevented, but States can be better prepared. They must rapidly establish safeguards to mitigate and address the harm experienced by women and girls to their sexual and reproductive health: it is their foremost duty. Crisis responses must be gendered and require a combination of emergency and long-term measures, specifically in relation to sexual and reproductive health. They must be developed and implemented with the active participation of women and girls, taking into account their urgent medical needs and the pervasive structural discrimination against them, while protecting individual autonomy and freedoms, through a coordinated and holistic approach.[[fn:159]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 159, "text": "See A/HRC/23/50; A/HRC/26/39; A/HRC/29/40; and A/HRC/32/44."}], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 74, "n": 73, "text": "The COVID-19 pandemic has struck a planet that was already torn by many crises. As the world strives to recover from the combined effects of multiple crises and many States face the prospect of austerity measures – another foreseeable crisis that will disproportionately affect women and girls in relation to their sexual and reproductive health[[fn:160]] – the question of how to ensure that the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls are fully recognized and guaranteed must be at the fore. The management and recovery phases of a crisis provide a unique opportunity for reform, innovative thinking and transformation. The status quo, with millions of women and girls around the world highly exposed to gendered risks to their sexual and reproductive health, is unacceptable. The risks and harms that women and girls face in relation to their sexual and reproductive health must not be treated as unavoidable tragedies or collateral damage, but recognized as the outcomes of policy failures and as indicative of serious human rights violations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [{"n": 160, "text": "See A/HRC/26/39."}], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 75, "n": 74, "text": "Unless women and girls are able to fully enjoy their sexual and reproductive health rights, they will not be able to make progress in other fields. The sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls can and must be realized through coherent laws and policies that affirm those rights and stronger accountability and immediate implementation of existing human rights obligations and political commitments, which unfortunately continue to be ignored with impunity.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 76, "n": 75, "text": "There are five interrelated sets of actions which can ensure progress towards securing the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls at all times, especially in situations of crisis.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 77, "n": 76, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Recognize the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls as essential and fully integrate them into crisis prevention, response, assessment, management, recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction plans;\n(b) Adhere to the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, at a minimum, and ensure timely access to life-saving medicines and interventions;\n(c) Address the unmet need for reliable sexual and reproductive health information, goods and services in situations of crisis, including through temporary special measures, and tackle misinformation to ensure informed and autonomous decision-making;\n(d) Ensure the safety and decent working conditions of health-care workers in local communities, including midwives, at all times and especially in situations of crisis, while promoting midwifery and other forms of community-based care and support;\n(e) Expand the availability of sexual and reproductive health services, including through telemedicine and mobile clinics, to reach diverse populations, including women and girls with disabilities, those living in rural areas and adolescent girls;\n(f) Invest in and build the resilience of physical infrastructure, including water and sanitation, public transportation and telecommunications, and health systems, to ensure the continued availability of sexual and reproductive health services for all women and girls, taking a gender-responsive approach;\n(g) Leverage existing institutional arrangements, networks and facilities to ensure the distribution of sexual and reproductive health commodities and information in local communities, including through transportation services, the postal services and libraries;\n(h) Increase public funding for community-based organizations focusing on the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls and on meeting the increased demand for services;\n(i) Meet the threshold of 0.7 per cent gross national income for official development assistance and cooperation, without harmful restrictions on sexual and reproductive health rights, and make the provision of comprehensive sexual and reproductive health goods and services a core component of humanitarian aid programmes.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Prioritize sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 78, "n": 77, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Ensure access to a full range of contraceptive information and services for women and girls, including emergency contraceptives, and increase their availability in situations of crisis;\n(b) Decriminalize abortion, expand access to safe abortion services, including medical abortion and post abortion care, and remove legal barriers to abortion in situations of crisis;\n(c) Ensure timely access to maternal health services and emergency obstetric care, including treatment for pregnancy-related morbidities, without surveillance and reporting requirements that violate individual privacy, and establish safeguards to prevent and redress obstetric violence;\n(d) Conduct a national audit to assess the sexual and reproductive health needs of women and girls, including neglected issues linked to violence and period poverty, and develop a coherent and gender-responsive legal and policy framework, accompanied by gender budgeting and financial investment, to ensure access to and the affordability of sexual and reproductive health services;\n(e) Make women’s and girls’ agency, autonomy, privacy and informed consent central to all sexual and reproductive health laws and policies and ensure access to accurate information thereon, remove requirements that result in delays or denials of sexual and reproductive health care and undermine women’s and girls’ autonomy, such as third-party consent requirements and approvals by medical boards, and regulate refusals of care based on conscience or religion;\n(f) Address the overmedicalization and paternalistic approach to sexual and reproductive health services for women and girls in policy and practice and reorient them around norms and procedures aimed at safeguarding their bodily integrity, autonomy and agency;\n(g) Ensure access to respectful and non-coercive sexual and reproductive health services for all women and girls and take additional steps to build trust with communities that have been historically subjected to discrimination, coercion and/or violence;\n(h) Adopt an intercultural and participatory approach to sexual and reproductive health to ensure that indigenous and ethnic and other minority women and girls are actively involved in shaping and implementing the sexual and reproductive health programmes offered to them, including through their own institutions and communities;\n(i) Develop policies and commit additional resources to address the multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination that contribute to reproductive health disparities and the specific risks faced by adolescent girls, women and girls with disabilities and migrant, refugee and displaced women and girls, among others;\n(j) Eliminate discriminatory stereotypes of women and girls and the stigma and taboos associated with sexual and reproductive health in law, policy and practice.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Eliminate discriminatory laws, policies and practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 79, "n": 78, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Adopt and enforce clear and coherent legal and policy frameworks to guide the provision of services, in accordance with human rights obligations, and simultaneously address social norms and discriminatory stereotypes that obstruct implementation, including by establishing clear channels for reparations and accountability;\n(b) Compile data, disaggregated by sex, gender, race, ethnicity and other factors, to determine the sexual and reproductive health rights status and needs of the diverse populations of women, throughout their life cycles, for the purpose of developing, monitoring and strengthening the implementation of sexual and reproductive health laws and policies, while protecting personal data and preventing misuse;\n(c) Legally recognize and implement a broad set of reparations for violations of sexual and reproductive health rights, including through structural measures, such as guarantees of non-repetition;\n(d) Take effective measures to end violence and harassment against human rights defenders advocating for sexual and reproductive health rights and ensure accountability for perpetrators of such acts;\n(e) Fully implement the recommendations of the international human rights mechanisms and the legal decisions of regional and national bodies and courts that recognize the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls;\n(f) Take steps to ensure that health service providers undertake their professional duties in accordance with human rights and comply with their ethical obligations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "3. Institutionalize and strengthen monitoring and accountability for sexual and reproductive health rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 80, "n": 79, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Increase the representation and effective participation of women and girls in decision-making processes at all levels and ensure gender parity, including in crisis prevention, management and recovery processes;\n(b) Systematically engage diverse women’s rights organizations and feminist organizations in the development, implementation, monitoring, evaluation and continual improvement of law, policy and practice relating to sexual and reproductive health and in the identification and removal of barriers;\n(c) Build participatory processes that are empowering, inclusive, accessible and non-discriminatory, with special attention given to women and girls who have been disproportionately affected by crisis, including in disenfranchised and marginalized populations, such as migrants, refugees and internally displaced persons;\n(d) Integrate gender, age, disability and intercultural perspectives into all policies and practices and promote leadership by women and young people;\n(e) Promote male engagement and accountability to address pervasive sexism, misogyny, violence and toxic masculinity and to promote the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Internally displaced persons", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "4. Ensure the participation of women and girls and promote male accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-47-38-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-47-38", "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2021, "idx": 81, "n": 80, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Actively push back against conservative religious and racialized political ideologies that undermine gender equality;\n(b) Oppose misinformation and religious positions that subvert the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls;\n(c) Ensure that international aid and assistance, including humanitarian assistance, is provided and operationalized in accordance with human rights standards and prioritizes respect for the human rights of women and girls, without harmful restrictions;\n(d) Support the United Nations system in countering religious ideologies opposing the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls and ensure that all United Nations processes are coordinated and conducted with full respect for those rights;\n(e) Refrain from using political and financial influence with States and non-State actors to undermine and retrogress the rights of women and girls by leading or supporting ideological agendas that are antithetical to human rights norms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "5. Push back against conservative and anti-human rights ideologies and misinformation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report covers the main activities of the Working Group, from the time of submission of its previous report[[fn:1]] up to April 2022 and also includes a thematic analysis of the activism of girls and women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A/HRC/44/51."}], "section": ["I. Activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "In the context of the restrictions related to the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, the Working Group held three sessions virtually during the period under review. At its thirty-first session, held from 25 to 28 May 2021, the Working Group held meetings with civil society organizations working on girls’ rights, discussed future position papers and focused on the present thematic analysis. The experts also met with the main sponsor of the mandate to discuss the priorities for the upcoming year.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "At the thirty-second session, held from 11 to 15 October 2021, the experts met with the then newly appointed Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences to exchange views on her vision for the mandate and seek further avenues of cooperation. In the context of the preparation of the present thematic report, the Working Group also convened meetings with the Special Rapporteur on freedom of opinion and expression, the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association, and the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders. The experts also consulted several United Nations entities on the topic of girls’ activism, including the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence against Children, the Chair of the Child Rights Committee, representatives of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), the United Nations Population Fund, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and the Women’s Rights and Gender Section of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR).", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At its thirty-third session, held from 31 January to 4 February 2022, the Working Group held meetings with representatives of civil society organizations, the UN-Women liaison office in Geneva, the OHCHR Women’s Rights and Gender Section and the secretariat of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to exchange views on priority areas and potential synergies. The Working Group also met with representatives of regional human rights mechanisms from the African and Inter-American systems to benefit from their expertise in the area of the activism of girls and young women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The Working Group visited Kyrgyzstan from 4 to 15 April 2022 and thanks the Government for its cooperation. It also thanks the Government of Maldives for its invitation to conduct a visit from 1 to 12 August 2022 and encourages other States to respond positively to its requests for visits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The Working Group addressed a number of communications to governments, individually or jointly with other mandates. The communications concerned a wide range of subjects, including discriminatory legislation and practices, allegations of the violations of the rights of women human rights defenders, gender-based violence and violations of the right to sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:2]] The Working Group also issued press releases, individually and jointly with other mandate holders, treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.[[fn:3]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Communications.aspx."}, {"n": 3, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/latest?field_content_category_target_id%5B158%5D=158&field_content_category_target_id%5B162%5D=162&field_content_category_target_id%5B161%5D=161&field_content_category_target_id%5B159%5D=159&field_entity_target_id%5B1314%5D=1314."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The experts also undertook numerous activities in their capacity as Working Group members.[[fn:4]] In particular, the Chair addressed the sixty-sixth session of the Commission on the Status of Women and presented an oral report to the seventy-sixth session of the General Assembly. In relation to the preparation of the present thematic report, the Working Group organized a series of virtual regional consultations focusing on girls’ activism with over 150 young activists across all regions of the world.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Activities.aspx."}, {"n": 5, "text": "Africa, the Asia-Pacific region, South West Asia and North Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean, and from minority communities such as Roma and indigenous girls."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Girls and young women are mobilizing worldwide to demand and catalyse change on critical global issues. They are at the forefront of initiatives aimed at transforming societies towards social justice, gender equality and sustainability. This is occurring despite, and frequently in reaction to, the barriers that they continue to face in participating in public and political life, as a result of persistent gender-based discrimination and violence within families, communities and society at large.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "A. Contextual and conceptual framework", "Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Girls and young women experience unique challenges to their activism, rooted in the intersection of gender and age, exacerbated by factors including, but not limited to, economic insecurity; lack of access to education; restrictions on access to sexual and reproductive health goods, services and information; unequal access to quality education; narrowing civic spaces, both online and offline; rising fundamentalism in many countries; armed conflict; environmental disasters; and health crises.[[fn:6]] Disability, race, ethnic origin, gender identity, refugee status, early pregnancy and motherhood place some girls in a particularly disadvantaged situation. Conservative narratives that perpetuate discriminatory gender and age-related stereotypes suggesting that women’s and girls’ role should be limited to the private sphere, family and procreation also affect their participation in public life,[[fn:7]] silence their voices and render their contributions invisible.[[fn:8]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "See A/HRC/38/46 and A/75/184."}, {"n": 7, "text": "See A/HRC/40/60 and A/HRC/47/38."}, {"n": 8, "text": "See A/75/184."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "A. Contextual and conceptual framework", "Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "The empowerment of girls and young women through the respect, protection and fulfilment of their fundamental human rights is an indispensable precondition for just, inclusive, peaceful and sustainable societies and the achievement of gender equality.[[fn:9]] While in recent years their participation has increasingly been promoted, major gaps persist. The girls and young women the Working Group met identified the critical challenges they have been facing at many levels. Despite the importance of their participation, research on girls in 2 See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Communications.aspx. 3 See https://www.ohchr.org/en/latest?field_content_category_target_id%5B158%5D=158&field_content_ category_target_id%5B162%5D=162&field_content_category_target_id%5B161%5D=161&field_co ntent_category_target_id%5B159%5D=159&field_entity_target_id%5B1314%5D=1314. 4 www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Activities.aspx. 5 Africa, the Asia-Pacific region, South West Asia and North Africa, Latin America, the Caribbean, and from minority communities such as Roma and indigenous girls. 6 See A/HRC/38/46 and A/75/184. 7 See A/HRC/40/60 and A/HRC/47/38. 8 See A/75/184. 9 See A/HRC/38/46. public and political life is scarce and has not predominantly focused on their civic space and activism.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "See A/HRC/38/46."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See Emily Bent, “The boundaries of girls’ political participation: a critical exploration of girls’ experiences as delegates to the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women”, Global Studies of Childhood, vol. 3, No. 2 (2013)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "A. Contextual and conceptual framework", "Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The experts of the Working Group express their gratitude to all stakeholders for their contributions to the preparation of the report. In particular, they acknowledge the unique and remarkable inputs from the girl and young women activists, from all regions and backgrounds, who participated in 10 dedicated consultations. Some of them operate in extremely oppressive contexts, especially those living in occupied territories or countries facing armed conflict, and have taken considerable risks by choosing to share their experiences with the Working Group.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "A. Contextual and conceptual framework", "Context"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "In line with international standards, the Working Group recognized girl children as individuals under the age of 18.[[fn:11]] United Nations agencies, States and other actors use varying age ranges to define young women. For the preparation of the present report, the Working Group engaged with girls and young women aged between 12 and 30, who identified themselves as girl or young women activists. Many of them indicated that they started their activism as a child.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "Convention on the Rights of the Child, art. 1."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "A. Contextual and conceptual framework", "Concepts"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "The Working Group uses the term “activism” as an umbrella concept to capture the broad variety of forms and processes, both formal and informal, online and offline, through which girls and young women engage in political and public life.[[fn:12]] It encompasses participation in the civic space and the conduct of public affairs, including engagement in formal processes related to the exercise of legislative, judicial and executive powers, which are most often established and led by adults, as well as the bottom-up initiatives led by girls and young women themselves. Activism also comprises organizing, mobilizing (including through peaceful protests), campaigning, undertaking collective and individual advocacy and action, and other informal initiatives at grass-roots level, through which girls and young women use their voices to bring about changes to their communities.[[fn:13]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "See Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 23 (1997) and A/HRC/23/50."}, {"n": 13, "text": "See Roger A. Hart, “Children’s participation: from tokenism to citizenship”, UNICEF (1992)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "A. Contextual and conceptual framework", "Concepts"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "When girl and young women activists take action to advance human rights, they fall within the definition of human rights defenders, as enshrined in the Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (Declaration on Human Rights Defenders), and should be recognized as such. However, they may not always identify themselves as human rights defenders, often due to the stigma and risks related to acting as one, may not be aware of the term, or may not be considered as such by adults. Regardless of how they identify themselves or are perceived by others, the Working Group recognizes girl and young women activists who engage in the promotion and defence of human rights, in all their diversity, as human rights defenders who are entitled to all related legal protections, including those outlined in the Declaration on Human Rights Defenders, relevant Human Rights Council and General Assembly resolutions and other international standards.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "A. Contextual and conceptual framework", "Concepts"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "The Working Group recalls that every individual, whether adult or minor, is entitled to enjoy all human rights, which are interrelated and interdependent, without discrimination of any kind.[[fn:14]] Girls are entitled to special measures of protection in consideration of their age, gender and other characteristics, encompassing those aimed at empowering and enabling them to enjoy the full range of human rights, including to form and express their views and be heard on matters affecting them in accordance with their age and maturity and best interests.[[fn:15]] There is no minimum age for acting to protect, promote and fulfil human rights.[[fn:16]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "The right to vote may be subject to a minimum age limit. Any restrictions on the right to stand for election, such as minimum age, must be justifiable on objective and reasonable criteria. See Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 25 (1996), para. 15."}, {"n": 15, "text": "See Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 20 (2016); A/HRC/19/55; Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Hacia la Garantía Efectiva de los Derechos de Niñas, Niños y Adolescentes: Sistemas Nacionales de Protección (in Spanish only); and Council of Europe recommendation CM/Rec(2012)2 on the participation of children and young people under the age of 18."}, {"n": 16, "text": "See Committee on the Rights of the Child, “Protecting and empowering children as human rights defenders”, day of general discussion outcome report (September 2018)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "B. International human rights legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Girls’ and young women’s full enjoyment of the rights to participate in public life, to freedom of opinion and expression, to freedom of thought and to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association are essential conditions for their full personal development, the exercise of their autonomy, their participation in shaping society and, ultimately, the achievement of gender equality and the realization of free, just and democratic societies. Those rights cover, for example, the expression and dissemination of ideas online and offline and participation in non-violent gatherings, including demonstrations, protests, meetings, marches or online assemblies, for a purpose such as expressing oneself, conveying a position on a particular issue or exchanging ideas[[fn:17]] and they are enshrined in international and regional human rights instruments.[[fn:18]] The realization of girls’ and young women’s human right to participate in public and political life, including organizing and engaging actively with a variety of State and non-State actors, is essential for the protection of their human rights.[[fn:19]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See Human Rights Committee, general comments No. 21 (1992), No. 34 (2011) and No. 37 (2020)."}, {"n": 18, "text": "See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 18, 19 and 21–22; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, art. 7; Convention on the Rights of the Child, arts. 13–15; American Convention on Human Rights, arts. 13 and 15–16; African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, arts. 9–11; African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, arts. 7–9; Arab Charter on Human Rights, arts. 24 and 32; European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, arts. 10–11; and European Convention on the Exercise of Children’s Rights, art. 3."}, {"n": 19, "text": "See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 2, 3 and 25; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, arts. 5, 7 and 14 (2); Convention on the Rights of the Child, arts. 2 and 12; American Convention on Human Rights, arts. 1 and 23; African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, arts. 2, 13 and 18; Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa, art. 9; European Convention on the Exercise of Children’s Rights, art. 3; and Council of Europe Recommendation CM/Rec(2012)2."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "B. International human rights legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "States must ensure that mechanisms are in place to solicit the views of girls in all matters of public interest affecting them directly or indirectly and to give due weight to those views.[[fn:20]] As emphasized by the Committee on the Rights of the Child, States cannot assume that children are incapable of expressing their own views; on the contrary, they should encourage children to form a freely held view and should provide a safe environment that enables them to exercise their right to be heard.[[fn:21]] The Committee has indicated that States need to invest in proactive measures to promote the empowerment of girls and challenge patriarchal and other harmful gender norms and stereotyping, in cooperation with all stakeholders, including civil society, women and men, traditional and religious leaders and girls themselves, in order to ensure the full realization of their right to participation.[[fn:22]] It has also indicated that children need to be supported and encouraged to form their own organizations and initiatives and to pursue networking among their organizations in order to increase opportunities for shared learning and platforms for collective advocacy.[[fn:23]] That includes removing all barriers (namely costly administrative procedures, minimum age restrictions and so on) to children forming their own organizations or associations.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "See Convention on the Rights of the Child, art. 12, and Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 12 (2009)."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 12; and Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Hacia la Garantía Efectiva de los Derechos de Niñas, Niños y Adolescentes."}, {"n": 22, "text": "See Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 20 (2016)."}, {"n": 23, "text": "Ibid. and general comment No. 12 (2009)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "B. International human rights legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "16 See Committee on the Rights of the Child, “Protecting and empowering children as human rights defenders”, day of general discussion outcome report (September 2018). 17 See Human Rights Committee, general comments No. 21 (1992), No. 34 (2011) and No. 37 (2020). 18 See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 18, 19 and 21–22; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, art. 7; Convention on the Rights of the Child, arts. 13–15; American Convention on Human Rights, arts. 13 and 15–16; African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, arts. 9–11; African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, arts. 7–9; Arab Charter on Human Rights, arts. 24 and 32; European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, arts. 10–11; and European Convention on the Exercise of Children’s Rights, art. 3. 19 See International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 2, 3 and 25; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, arts. 5, 7 and 14 (2); Convention on the Rights of the Child, arts. 2 and 12; American Convention on Human Rights, arts. 1 and 23; African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, arts. 2, 13 and 18; Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa, art. 9; European Convention on the Exercise of Children’s Rights, art. 3; and Council of Europe Recommendation CM/Rec(2012)2. 20 See Convention on the Rights of the Child, art. 12, and Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 12 (2009). 21 See Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 12; and Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Hacia la Garantía Efectiva de los Derechos de Niñas, Niños y Adolescentes. 22 See Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 20 (2016). 23 Ibid. and general comment No. 12 (2009).", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "B. International human rights legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 19, "n": 18, "text": "Article 5 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women obliges States to take all appropriate measures with a view to eliminating prejudices and customary and all other practices that are based on the idea of the inferiority or the superiority of either of the sexes or on stereotyped roles for men and women. Further, in resolution 41/6, the Human Rights Council urged States to remove barriers, whether political, legal, practical, structural, cultural, economic, institutional or resulting from the misuse of religion, that prevent the full, equal, effective and meaningful participation of women and girls in all fields.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "B. International human rights legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 20, "n": 19, "text": "The Working Group emphasizes that whereas the obligation to implement girls’ and young women’s rights rests on States, in practice the roles and responsibilities of a number of different actors are involved, including parents and extended families, local communities, faith groups, non-State services, intergovernmental organizations, civil society organizations, the private sector and young women and girls themselves.[[fn:24]] Ensuring that girls and young women can be active participants in their own lives and in public affairs requires an integrated approach that takes into account the roles and responsibilities of all those actors and is also mindful of the interconnection between all human rights of girls and young women. In that regard, the Working Group reasserts the interdependence of all human rights.[[fn:25]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 24, "text": "See Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 5 (2005) and Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 14 (2000), para. 42."}, {"n": 25, "text": "See A/HRC/38/46."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "B. International human rights legal framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 21, "n": 20, "text": "Girl and young women activists engage in a wide and varied array of topics. These encompass, among others, gender equality, gender-based violence, harmful practices, children’s rights, lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer and intersex rights, sexual and reproductive health and rights, climate justice, social and economic inequalities, inclusive development, racial justice, good governance, defence of territories, land and resources, and peace-building and conflict resolution. They often mobilize on more than one topic, drawing attention to intersectional oppression and the complex dynamics at play in their activism. They organize across movements because, as the Working Group heard during the consultations it held, “there is no justice for one issue without justice for all”.", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "C. Features of girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 22, "n": 21, "text": "The initiatives of girl and young women activists are often aimed at bringing about transformative changes in the local, national and international contexts. For example, owing to their mobilization, some of the activists who participated in the Working Group’s consultations had obtained the distribution of free sanitary items for menstrual hygiene at school or essential products in refugee centres. Others had helped girls from their communities escape female genital mutilation or assisted in the rescue of girls and women who were victims/survivors of human trafficking. Yet others had achieved the inclusion of classes on human rights in school curricula and the development of age-adapted media materials to raise awareness of gender equality and human rights within their communities. In one country, they had launched campaigns to destigmatize testing for sexually transmitted infections among youth and in another they had succeeded in drawing national attention to the problem of sexual harassment in the schoolyard. They also stood at the forefront of the defence of nature and climate in several countries.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "C. Features of girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 23, "n": 22, "text": "Personal development, self-awareness and empowerment are also major components of their activism. As one young activist noted, “I was living as a young woman in oppression without noticing it. I viewed it as normal before learning more about the topic”. Activism increases girls’ and young women’s confidence and helps them build a sense of agency in their own lives, provides the power to shape their communities and societies, become leaders and agents for change or make career choices that have traditionally been dominated by men.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "C. Features of girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 24, "n": 23, "text": "Their activism is in many cases triggered by personal experience of discrimination, violence and human rights violations, or arises as a need to respond to perceived injustice. For many activists with whom the Working Group spoke, becoming an activist “was not so much an inspiration as a response to a need”. Some had started engaging during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, as they witnessed existing inequalities being exposed and exacerbated. In some cases, inspiration came from role models and women’s mobilization in their own communities, countries or abroad for the defence of their rights (such as the mobilization of women during the Arab Spring and the #MeToo campaign) or by actions taken by members of local and international movements on, for example, protecting the environment and the climate.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "C. Features of girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 25, "n": 24, "text": "Girls’ and young women’s activism unfolds at all levels, online and offline, local and international, although it is more common at local and community levels. Their activism often begins at school and in girl-led groups, mostly through involvement in student organizations within post-secondary and tertiary education institutions. They engage with different actors, including State authorities, diplomats and political parties; independent institutions, such as ombudspersons and national human rights institutions; civil society organizations and movements, including feminist activists and organizations; community-based, religious and cultural institutions; and the media. Their engagement with the United Nations and international and regional human rights mechanisms, although increasing, is still limited, owing to a variety of factors.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "C. Features of girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 26, "n": 25, "text": "While some girls and young activists operate through formal structures, others organize informally and receive financial and other support through host organizations or umbrella structures. In some cases, informality is a choice, aimed at avoiding being subject to control by third parties and the imposition of external agendas. In other cases, it is the result of legal, administrative and financial barriers.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "C. Features of girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 27, "n": 26, "text": "Frequently confronted with exclusion from formal decision-making processes, girl and young women activists tend to utilize alternative ways of engaging in public life, making use of decentralized initiatives, digital tools, radio talk shows, public demonstrations, informal protests and innovative campaigns, including artistic expressions. One example is the performance created by a feminist youth group, entitled “La culpa no era mía” (it was not my fault), that denounced sexual violence, which has inspired many other similar initiatives across the globe. The young activists sometimes use in-person advocacy tactics, including with parliamentarians, and invest in research and fund-raising in order to build evidence and promote public reflection around certain topics. They increasingly use online spaces; social media platforms are used to organize, mobilize, network, campaign and advocate. As one girl said: “We ourselves have been opening spaces and we have not waited for others to come and give us the opportunity.”", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "C. Features of girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 28, "n": 1, "text": "Structural gender- and age-based discrimination", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "C. Features of girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 29, "n": 27, "text": "Girls and young women face specific barriers that encompass different types of obstacles, including those derived from structural discrimination based on sex, gender and age, rooted in discriminatory social norms and harmful stereotypes. The Working Group has already demonstrated the persistence of a global discriminatory cultural construction of gender, often based on religious interpretation, and the continued cultural justifications for discriminatory laws and practices among States and other stakeholders. It has particularly emphasized that failure to eliminate discrimination within the family undermines any attempt to ensure gender equality in all areas of society.[[fn:26]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "See A/HRC/29/40 and A/HRC/38/46."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "1. Structural gender- and age-based discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 30, "n": 28, "text": "In general, children and young people are confronted with adult-centrist and paternalistic attitudes. They are often treated as incapable of making decisions about their lives because of a perceived lack of maturity or experience, or are considered “trouble-makers”, unable to constructively contribute to public debates and thus addressed with hostility.[[fn:27]] As explained by activists: “our societies take as a joke what we say about gender equality” or “they take us as if we don’t know what we want, but we do: they just don’t believe us”. Girls face additional challenges, as they are often discouraged from speaking their minds and engaging outside the domestic sphere. Many girl activists stressed that their chances to engage in activism were considerably limited if they were told from the youngest age that their place was at home and if parents gave priority to their sons’ education. Furthermore, they frequently had very limited time available to devote to activism, given the disproportionate household and care duties they shouldered.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "See Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 20 (2016), A/HRC/19/55 and A/76/222."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "1. Structural gender- and age-based discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 31, "n": 29, "text": "Parental authority and overprotective approaches are often exercised to limit the freedom and space of engagement of children and young people. In the case of girls and young women, these barriers are dramatically compounded by predominant gender stereotypes and patriarchal social norms. As one of the activists explained, girls “are not decision makers even in matters, like leaving school and getting married, that have a massive impact on their lives”. As noted by the Special Rapporteur on the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association, the significant barriers to women’s and girls’ enjoyment of the rights to freedom of peaceful assembly and of association “are deeply rooted at home, in the family and in the community, where women and girls continue to live under patriarchal control and experience wrongful stereotyping, both of which prevent and punish participation in public life”.[[fn:28]] That resonates with the experiences of girl and young women activists, who are often portrayed as destroyers of family values and national traditions. The perception of young activists as challenging established sociocultural gender norms may lead to aggression, including threats and violence, or lack of recognition and support from their families, communities and the general population, as well as the authorities.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "A/75/184, para. 40."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "1. Structural gender- and age-based discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 32, "n": 30, "text": "Girls and young women may face restrictions on their mobility and lack access to information and resources, including digital devices and the financial resources needed to pay transport costs to attend gatherings or cover the membership fees required to join an organization or association. Access to education, especially at secondary and tertiary levels, professional training, productive resources and economic opportunities continue to be limited for many girls and young women across the globe, particularly those living in rural or precarious settings. Often, they are not sufficiently aware of or duly informed about their rights, which is a fundamental precondition for their activism.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "1. Structural gender- and age-based discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 33, "n": 31, "text": "Early and forced marriages as well as forced, unwanted or child pregnancies, female genital mutilation, sexual violence, including rape, often with curtailed access to sexual and reproductive health services, information and goods, including those related to menstrual health, contraception and abortion care, accompanied by denial of their autonomy in relation to these matters, are also major human rights barriers to girls’ and young women’s activism. These stem from deeply rooted gendered norms aimed at limiting their autonomy and considerably constraining their opportunities to participate fully and equally in political and public life.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "1. Structural gender- and age-based discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 34, "n": 2, "text": "Marginalization and exclusion from public spaces and intersectional forms of discrimination", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "1. Structural gender- and age-based discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 35, "n": 32, "text": "Civil society organizations and movements, including those advancing human rights, are usually led by adults who may therefore frequently be unresponsive to the views, experiences, space and needs of girls and young women. Even child rights and women’s rights organizations are often blind to the diverse realities and experiences of girls and young women and often perpetuate discrimination within the movement. Girl-led organizations are often not part of or connected to the mainstream women’s rights movement and not equally recognized, funded or supported. In some cases, the agendas of international partners and donors drive young women’s and girls’ activism, instead of genuinely empowering them and giving them the space and power to set the agenda, lead decision-making and determine their own priorities.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "2. Marginalization and exclusion from public spaces and intersectional forms of discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 36, "n": 33, "text": "International human rights mechanisms are not easily accessible to girl and young women activists. Girls generally lack information about United Nations mechanisms and bodies, their functions and the age requirements for accreditation within the system, owing to a dearth of child-friendly and age-sensitive information developed by the United Nations. They may also be unable to obtain visas to travel to participate in international forums. Paternalistic approaches and a lack of trained staff, coupled with a lack of dedicated mechanisms and procedures to engage with children, are often used to justify excluding children, including girls, from discussions and activities of intergovernmental bodies, including at the United Nations and at national, regional and global level. Girls’ and young women’s activism within the United Nations is often reserved for a certain elite, while the most marginalized girls and young women, in particular those living in disadvantaged or remote communities, in practice do not have access to United Nations spaces. Moreover, girls and young women are not genuinely included as co-creators and co-designers of solutions. They are not empowered to set the agenda, their inputs are often not properly reflected and there is often no sustained engagement after meetings. They are generally pigeonholed in discussions concerning “girls’ issues”, rather than being associated with other important processes, such as peace and security, the Sustainable Development Goals and COVID-19 recovery. Furthermore, a developed capacity and specific framework for child and youth participation and safeguarding, in order to involve girls and young women in a safe, empowering and effective manner, are generally lacking. Some girls and young women reported feeling unprotected and exposed to retaliation and intimidation by their national authorities and non-State actors for engaging with the United Nations system, including human rights mechanisms, without receiving any tangible support from the United Nations.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "2. Marginalization and exclusion from public spaces and intersectional forms of discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 37, "n": 34, "text": "Certain groups of girls and young women may be further marginalized in public spaces because of multiple and intersecting grounds of discrimination. Girls and young women belonging to disadvantaged groups, including, for example, poor, rural, Roma and indigenous youth, migrants and those in street situations, are still not sufficiently heard. Testimonies from girls and young women with disabilities demonstrated that they are often left out of larger networks, movements and initiatives because of the lack of accommodation of their needs, including, for example, the use of sign language. Digital illiteracy and unaffordable technical solutions and devices, such as screen reading, voice software, braille writers or video magnifiers, represent further challenges. Moreover, some feminist movements lack a disability perspective, as much as some disability rights movements lack a feminist perspective, with the consequence that specific issues affecting girls and young women at the intersection of both are overlooked.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "2. Marginalization and exclusion from public spaces and intersectional forms of discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 38, "n": 35, "text": "While the lack of language adapted to girls and young women is a general challenge, language barriers often pose additional constraints on the activism of girls and young women, in particular of those belonging to indigenous peoples and minorities, depriving them also of the opportunity to network and engage with other organizations and movements. Some testimonies also disclosed that distinctions along ethnic lines, including tribal affiliations, might render difficult the work of activists that were perceived as “strangers” and thus as not legitimate to discuss certain issues at the local or national level.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "2. Marginalization and exclusion from public spaces and intersectional forms of discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 39, "n": 3, "text": "Offline and online harassment and violence", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "2. Marginalization and exclusion from public spaces and intersectional forms of discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 40, "n": 36, "text": "The lack of safety and security are major barriers to girls’ and young women’s activism. The frequent occurrence of attacks, harassment and violence in the street and on public transport, including in the form of unwanted sexual remarks, unwelcome sexual behaviour and threats of rape and stalking, deter and limit girls’ and young women’s activities and travel outside their home, which impedes their access to and use of spaces for activism. Such risks increase during protests and demonstrations and in conflict, disaster and other crisis situations.[[fn:29]] Moreover, widespread sexual harassment and abuse is reported within political movements and organizations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 29, "text": "See A/75/184."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "3. Offline and online harassment and violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 41, "n": 37, "text": "Some girls and young women reported threats and violence, including bullying, which often also targeted their families and friends and were aimed at silencing their voices. One of them explained that “sometimes we cannot engage on issues we are passionate about because they are too dangerous”. Some girls and young women also reported a lack of protection by the State, which in some cases perpetuated the threats or violence through its security forces. Episodes of violence included inappropriate touching, exposing underwear during arrest, humiliating and unnecessary strip searches, threats of rape, forced nudity and gendered and sexist insults by law enforcement and detention personnel, especially during the unjustified repression of peaceful mobilization.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "3. Offline and online harassment and violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 42, "n": 38, "text": "In the context of backlashes against gender equality, girls and young women face increased risks of harassment and violence when engaging on themes related to gender equality, particularly sexual and reproductive rights, equality in marriage and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer+ issues. In addition, girls and young women may face domestic violence, including sexual violence, as a reprisal for their activism or may be separated from their children by their partners and family as a form of punishment.[[fn:30]] In some cases, they have to choose between pursuing their activism or keeping family ties. Moreover, many girls lack the means to support themselves independently and the loss of family support due to their activism can have devastating consequences.[[fn:31]] Others are forced to abandon their activism to ensure the economic survival of their families.[[fn:32]]", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "Ibid. and A/HRC/40/60."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See A/HRC/40/60."}, {"n": 32, "text": "See Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence against Children, “Children as agents of positive change. A mapping of children’s initiatives across regions, towards an inclusive and healthy world free from violence” (2021)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "3. Offline and online harassment and violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 43, "n": 39, "text": "Digital gender-based violence and harassment add a further layer of challenges to girls’ and young women’s activism.[[fn:33]] Digital technologies may be used to blackmail, control, surveil, coerce, harass, humiliate or objectify girl and young women activists, including by resorting to “deep-fake” pornographic content and death threats. As a result, many victims of these practices limit their online activities, leading to self-censorship, endure stigma in their families and communities, or flee online spaces altogether. The majority of the young women and girls consulted had experienced some form of targeted and gendered online abuse, including threatening messages, sexual harassment and the sharing of private images without their consent.[[fn:34]] Attacks against girl and young women activists are often orchestrated with the aim of discrediting and delegitimizing them and exposing them to ridicule, contempt or defamation. In some cases, their families may prohibit them from continuing their activism because of the reputational damage that may follow. In certain countries, their very presence on social media may constitute a great risk to girls’ and young women’s personal integrity. Large-scale data collection and algorithm-driven analysis targeting sensitive information creates new threats for activists, particularly those from lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer+ communities. As one activist explained: “when doing online campaigns, sometimes we are afraid to speak openly because we know that there is digital surveillance from the government”.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See A/HRC/38/47."}, {"n": 34, "text": "See https://webfoundation.org/2020/03/the-online-crisis-facing-women-and-girls-threatens-global-progress-on-gender-equality/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "3. Offline and online harassment and violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 44, "n": 40, "text": "Girls are affected by different forms of abuse from adults, including physical punishment by family members, stigmatization in their communities or reprisals from their educational institutions, including by preventing them from taking their exams. During the consultations, girls voiced their experience of punishment by teachers and school authorities, as well as a more general lack of support to help them reconcile school attendance with their activism.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "3. Offline and online harassment and violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 45, "n": 41, "text": "Some of the activists with whom the Working Group met mentioned experience of arbitrary arrests, intimidation, threats of killings, kidnappings, being tracked and spied on, as well as abusive use of anti-terrorist legislation to further shrink the civic space and restrict their activities. In some countries, “home arrest”, accompanied by occasional attacks at the house, threats to family members and sexual abuse, is used as a method to control and restrict activists’ work. Some also reported that, given the overall environment of intimidation they faced, feminist groups and protection networks might be difficult to access for younger activists, as these groups tended to limit the entry of or engagement with external actors, for fear of reprisals. As one activist emphasized: “It is important to make people understand that we do not want to create conflicts; we only want to address and solve certain problems affecting us and defend our human rights.” Campaigns of defamation and attacks on honour and reputation were also mentioned, whereby activists were portrayed as lacking so-called “morals”, values and ethics, and undermining culture and tradition. As the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights defenders has noted, girl human rights defenders can be stigmatized and ostracized by community leaders, faith-based groups, families, neighbours and communities in the belief that they and their actions are a threat to religion, honour, culture or ways of life.[[fn:35]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See A/HRC/40/60."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "4. Hostile environments"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 46, "n": 42, "text": "Additionally, girl and young women activists are subject to various types of surveillance that pose further challenges to their activism. They continue to face excessive policing by their families, especially their male relatives, with respect to public affairs, including their Internet use and access to digital devices, which greatly affects their opportunities to engage freely in the public and political life of their communities and societies.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "4. Hostile environments"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 47, "n": 43, "text": "In addition, mental health problems, such as burn-out and post-traumatic stress disorder, were mentioned by many activists as the consequences of the threats and risks they faced. They identified the importance of self-care and collective care, which needed to be recognized institutionally by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and donors. The lack of psychological support was identified as one of the obstacles to supportive environments.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "4. Hostile environments"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 48, "n": 5, "text": "Legal and administrative obstacles and lack of access to justice", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "4. Hostile environments"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 49, "n": 44, "text": "Many girls organize informally because of the obstacles they face in registering their organizations. The registration process may be too costly; there may be minimum age requirements for registration; or a requirement to have a bank account.[[fn:36]] That limits the ability of young activists to seek and receive funding for their work, which has been identified as one of the major obstacles to girls’ and young women’s activism.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "See http://nostraightlines.youngfeministfund.org/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "5. Legal and administrative obstacles and lack of access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 50, "n": 45, "text": "In some cases, girls face legal barriers to the exercise of their right to freedom of assembly, owing to blanket bans on children participating in public assemblies.[[fn:37]] Furthermore, in the case of girls and young women with disabilities, additional barriers often reside in the deprivation of legal capacity. However, even when they are not formally denied their legal capacity, discriminatory attitudes, including infantilization and dependency on others, particularly family members, constrain their autonomy and opportunities to engage in public and political life.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 37, "text": "See A/HRC/26/29."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "5. Legal and administrative obstacles and lack of access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 51, "n": 46, "text": "A distinct set of obstacles consists in the legal barriers to freedom of expression on sexual orientation and gender identity that have been introduced in various countries across the world. At the end of 2020, legal barriers to freedom of expression on issues related to sexual and gender diversity existed in at least 42 Member States, including in the form of bans on the dissemination of so-called gender ideology.[[fn:38]] Furthermore, laws criminalizing lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer+ persons, pose formidable threats to the activism of girls and young women belonging to that community, forcing many of them to remain silent or impeding them from creating their own organizations and movements.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 38, "text": "See ILGA World, State-sponsored Homophobia. Global Legislation Overview Update (2020)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "5. Legal and administrative obstacles and lack of access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 52, "n": 47, "text": "Different types of legal barriers concern the lack of legal recognition of undocumented migrant, refugee and stateless women and girls. Similarly, the lack of recognition of indigenous peoples’ rights in certain countries make the participation of indigenous girls and young women in public life nearly impossible and laws banning face coverings in public spaces may prevent young women and girls of Muslim background from engaging in public and political life.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Non-citizens and stateless", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "5. Legal and administrative obstacles and lack of access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 53, "n": 48, "text": "Girls and young women also face great obstacles to accessing information about their human rights and the mechanisms available to them to seek protection against violations of their rights and reparations in cases of violations, sometimes including a lack of specific forms of reparation, such as for online harassment and violence. There is a lack of effective, age- and gender-sensitive procedures, information, advice, legal and other assistance, and 35 See A/HRC/40/60. 36 See http://nostraightlines.youngfeministfund.org/. 37 See A/HRC/26/29. 38 See ILGA World, State-sponsored Homophobia. Global Legislation Overview Update (2020). access to independent complaints procedures, including in the courts. This often leads to a situation of pervasive impunity, where very few cases are brought to the attention of the judicial and other competent authorities. Where State actors are the perpetrators of such violations, there is a feeling of distrust vis-à-vis the State, which further impedes girls and young women from seeking justice and forces some of them to considerably limit or renounce their activism.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "5. Legal and administrative obstacles and lack of access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 54, "n": 6, "text": "Insufficient, inadequate and inflexible funding", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "5. Legal and administrative obstacles and lack of access to justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 55, "n": 49, "text": "Globally, women’s organizations and programming relating to women and girls are disproportionately underfunded.[[fn:39]] There has been a significant reduction in funding for women’s rights in recent years and, in situations of crisis, funding for women’s rights is among the first things to be reduced, despite the dire need for emergency protection funding for young women and girls.[[fn:40]] Girls and young women face additional barriers to accessing funding for their activism, such as the lack of registration of their organizations; the lack of flexible, sustained and core funding specifically targeted at them; constraints on funding unregistered girl- and youth-led groups; the impossibility of opening bank accounts to receive funds if they are under age; and their limited organizational capacity and lack of the specific skills, time and support needed to develop proposals and comply with donor requirements. Moreover, according to a survey conducted among young feminist organizations, there is a lack of alignment between funders and their priority issues.[[fn:41]] The funding mechanisms available are too rigid; they do not recognize and support the intersectional approaches taken by many girls’ and young women’s movements and rather follow a “siloed” approach to human rights issues. In some cases, young feminist organizations and movements may not fall under the category of “women’s rights organizations” used by donors to allocate funding for gender equality.[[fn:42]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "See A/75/184."}, {"n": 40, "text": "See A/HRC/40/60 and A/HRC/47/38."}, {"n": 41, "text": "See FRIDA ǀ The Young Feminist Fund, “Brave, creative, resilient: the global state of young feminist organizing” (2017)."}, {"n": 42, "text": "See https://www.awid.org/news-and-analysis/new-brief-where-money-feminist-organizing and https://plan-international.org/blog/2021/06/09/weve-had-enough-young-activists-call-for-education-funding-and-real-partnerships/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "6. Insufficient, inadequate and inflexible funding"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 56, "n": 50, "text": "As a result, some girls’ and young women’s organizations draw their resources from self-generated activities or the collection of membership fees, which becomes a barrier to participation for those who cannot afford them. In other cases, they access resources through umbrella organizations, although this mechanism may limit the autonomy of their work, given the unequal power relations between organizations, with the larger organizations in some cases imposing their agendas. Girl and young women activists thus often rely on mutual aid and non-financial resources generated between their networks.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "D. Challenges and barriers", "6. Insufficient, inadequate and inflexible funding"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 57, "n": 51, "text": "States have an obligation not only to respect activism as an exercise of the rights to participate in public life, to freedom of opinion and expression and to freedom of assembly and of association, but also to proactively remove the structural and systemic barriers that impede girls’ and young women’s activism and the full enjoyment of the human rights that entails. That translates into the obligations of States and other actors to ensure an enabling environment for girls’ and young women’s activism and create the necessary frameworks and policies to promote and guarantee their inclusion and participation in decision-making processes, particularly those that affect them directly.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 58, "n": 1, "text": "Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 59, "n": 52, "text": "A number of factors contribute to creating a safe and enabling environment in which girls’ and young women’s activism can flourish. They include favourable socioeconomic conditions; dedicated and flexible funding; the existence of opportunities and co-creation of spaces for collaboration and networking; building solidarity with other activists, organizations and movements on equal terms; support in the form of two-way exchanges, mentorship and skills development; family and community support; equal access to the Internet; equal enjoyment of the right to quality education; respect for sexual and reproductive health and rights; and direct and meaningful participation through appropriate normative and institutional frameworks that have been developed with the participation of young women and girls.[[fn:43]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "See Plan International, “Engaging girls, boys and youth as active citizens” (March 2020)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 60, "n": 53, "text": "Girls and young women often consider collaboration with and support from other actors and movements particularly important for starting, pursuing and strengthening their activism and amplifying their voices. As expressed by one of the participants during the consultations: “when we unite from a basis of respect, harmony and attention to human rights, we achieve amazing things”. International and local NGOs play a key role in providing platforms for networking, experience-sharing among peers, solidarity and holistic protection, care and well-being, and engagement with decision makers, as well as opportunities for awareness-raising and capacity-building, including leadership programmes. For some girls and young women, involvement in the work of international NGOs was useful in securing more protection against intimidation and harassment.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "Facilitating collaboration and building solidarity within and across movements, organizations and generations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 61, "n": 54, "text": "Participation in awareness-raising and other activities organized by civil society organizations or the encouragement received from teachers and parents also play an important role in promoting and sustaining girls’ and young women’s activism. In addition, the opportunity to engage with other young activists to share their experiences, strategies, challenges and struggles, to support each other and to be involved in broader networks, including feminist organizations, networks and movements, were referred to as fundamental aspects in the development of their activism. As one activist noted: “What helped me was knowing that I was not alone.”", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "Facilitating collaboration and building solidarity within and across movements, organizations and generations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 62, "n": 55, "text": "Intergenerational dialogue and mentorship schemes based on mutual respect are considered critical for strengthening girls’ and young women’s motivation to engage in public and political life as they turn to adults to learn more about the issues they are interested in and look for role models.[[fn:44]] In the Asia-Pacific region, for instance, a platform for intergenerational dialogue has been established through a women’s forum and a young women’s forum, which has led to the creation of an intergenerational women’s leadership programme. In some contexts, however, the lack of intergenerational dialogue remains a major challenge. Some girls noted that women in their communities often did not have time to engage with them to pass on knowledge and experience. Some others also considered that, in some contexts, women might be more reluctant than younger generations to defy patriarchal norms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "See Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence against Children, “Children as agents of positive change. A mapping of children’s initiatives across regions, towards an inclusive and healthy world free from violence”."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "Facilitating collaboration and building solidarity within and across movements, organizations and generations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 63, "n": 56, "text": "Engagement with and support from national human rights institutions also plays a vital role in sustaining girls’ and young women’s activism, especially when they face threats, reprisals or other violations of their human rights. Unfortunately, in many cases girls and young women have limited knowledge of the existence of such mechanisms and their working methods. Specific channels facilitating engagement with those mechanisms for young women and girls are often absent.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "Facilitating collaboration and building solidarity within and across movements, organizations and generations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 64, "n": 57, "text": "The encouragement and support of parents, family and caregivers are what make engagement in public and political life possible for many girls and young women. Adult understanding and awareness of the human rights of girls and young women, including their right to participate in public and political life, is vital. As stressed by the Committee on the Rights of the Child: “Support is needed to enable adults to become mentors and facilitators so that adolescents can take greater responsibility for their own lives and the lives of those around them.” Children have the right to receive guidance aimed at empowering them, including on how to exercise their rights and protect themselves from harm.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "Promoting family and community support"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 65, "n": 58, "text": "Families and communities often need support in their roles, which may need to encompass also interventions aimed at addressing shortcomings in the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights, such as the rights to an adequate standard of living, work, social security, the enjoyment of just and favourable conditions of work and the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health. Personal access to resources, wealth and privilege often acts in practice as a watershed between those who are able to engage in activism and those who are left out. Girls and young women belonging to disadvantaged and marginalized groups are often not sufficiently heard. During the consultations held by the Working Group, many activists referred to the importance of having received scholarships, support from individual sponsors or professional positions within NGOs.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "Promoting family and community support"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 66, "n": 59, "text": "As demonstrated above, girls and young women are increasingly using the Internet and social media for their activism, which provide them with crucial opportunities to make their voices heard. Ensuring access to technology for all girls and young women, without discrimination, is thus a key enabler of their activism. However, many girls and young women, especially in rural, underprivileged areas, lack access to it (both physically to devices or reception and in terms of knowing how to go online) or do not have sufficient digital literacy, including on digital safety and security. Generally, more men globally are using the Internet than women.[[fn:45]] The digital divide, together with socioeconomic disparities and their disproportionate gendered impact, were deepened during the COVID-19 pandemic, which has restricted online activism for girls and young women with limited facilities at home. States are expected to promote awareness of, and access to, digital means for girls and young women to express their views and offer them training and support.[[fn:46]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "See International Telecommunication Union, “Measuring digital development: facts and figures 2021”."}, {"n": 46, "text": "Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general comment No. 36 (2017) and Committee on the Rights of the Child, general comment No. 25 (2021)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "Bridging the gender-related digital divide"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 67, "n": 60, "text": "Equal access to inclusive, culturally appropriate and quality education is pivotal to enable girls’ and young women’s activism.[[fn:47]] School curricula that include teaching on human rights, promote understanding of the harmful impact of gendered social norms and discriminatory stereotypes, and support the development of critical thinking skills, personal empowerment and solidarity, are crucial. As noted above, educational institutions are often the first environment where girls and young women can engage in decision-making processes and collective actions, develop leadership and public-speaking skills and gain self-confidence. However, in many cases children, especially girls, are expected to be passive recipients and their engagement in public life in schools is not supported.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "See Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 13 (1999) and Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 36 (2017)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "Ensuring enjoyment of the equal right to quality education"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 68, "n": 2, "text": "Building gender- and age-sensitive normative and institutional frameworks National level", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "1. Creating and enhancing enabling factors and environments", "Ensuring enjoyment of the equal right to quality education"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 69, "n": 61, "text": "In some regions, various frameworks have been established to promote and ensure the engagement of children and youth, including girls and young women, in public and political life and sustain their activism. Some States have adopted specific legislation that expressly contemplates the right of children and young people to participate in decision-making processes concerning them and provides for the adoption of special measures to encourage their participation. These include a law in one country in Eastern Europe that provides for the allocation of funds and space for youth activities and projects, and a law in a Latin American country that stipulates that political parties shall include at least 25 per cent of youth aged between 18 and 29 in their electoral lists. Some laws lay down the obligation to set up permanent mechanisms for the participation of children and adolescents that offer opportunities for the participation of girls and young women.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "2. Building gender- and age-sensitive normative and institutional frameworks", "National level"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 70, "n": 62, "text": "In other cases, dedicated programmes, policies and strategies have been adopted to promote the participation of children and young people in decision-making, such as a strategy in one country of Western Europe that sets out the objective of ensuring that children and young people have a voice in decisions concerning them and contemplates the creation of a supportive environment for their participation, including by providing the necessary skills training. A dedicated institutional framework accompanies the strategy and includes, for example, youth councils and youth parliaments, although these measures often do not have a specific focus on gender and girls and young women.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "2. Building gender- and age-sensitive normative and institutional frameworks", "National level"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 71, "n": 63, "text": "A study by the European Commission found that children’s and youth councils are among the most prevalent mechanisms directly involving children in political life.[[fn:48]] For example, in one Western European country it is mandatory for all municipalities to have a youth council, which must have a representation of at least 40 per cent of girls and young women. Youth councils have also been established in African and Asia-Pacific countries.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "See European Commission, Study on Child Participation in EU Political and Democratic Life, (2021)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "2. Building gender- and age-sensitive normative and institutional frameworks", "National level"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 72, "n": 64, "text": "A number of initiatives have also been taken to promote and support the engagement of children and young people, including girls, with State independent human rights mechanisms. For example, a National Human Rights Commission in one Latin American country has amended its internal regulations to allow children and adolescents to submit complaints directly about violations of their rights and has launched programmes for consultation and awareness-raising.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "2. Building gender- and age-sensitive normative and institutional frameworks", "National level"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 73, "n": 65, "text": "Among the frameworks put in place to promote girls’ and young women’s activism are also grant schemes and leadership and capacity-building programmes. For example, in one African country a number of ministries implement leadership skills development programmes for girls, which are aimed at encouraging their involvement in the planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of public policies on gender equality and women’s and girls’ rights. In one Eastern Europe country, a programme led by role models, called “Future Heroes”, was implemented to foster leadership and entrepreneurship skills for girls aged 14 to 17. Some countries have also set up grant schemes to support youth organizations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "2. Building gender- and age-sensitive normative and institutional frameworks", "National level"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 74, "n": 66, "text": "International human rights bodies are also increasingly involving children. The Committee on the Rights of the Child may now receive communications from children regarding violations of their human rights and encourages their participation in various aspects of its work.[[fn:49]] The Committee has also adopted a child safeguarding procedure to ensure a safe and child-friendly environment for the children with whom it interacts. Similarly, at the regional level, the Inter-American human rights system involves girls and young women in public hearings and field visits and arranges special meetings with them. In the African system, the discussions that take place on the Day of the African Child offer a platform for engaging with girls and young activists. The Working Group has also been meeting with girls and young women during its country visits.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CRC/Pages/ChildParticipation.aspx."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "2. Building gender- and age-sensitive normative and institutional frameworks", "International level"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 75, "n": 67, "text": "The participation of children and young people, including girls and young women, at the international level is also promoted through other mechanisms. For example, in Geneva, some permanent missions to the United Nations involve girls and young women in the drafting of reports or consult them before making recommendations to other States during the universal periodic review. Some countries in Eastern and Western Europe include young people in their delegations to the United Nations or the European Union. In one Latin American country, the National Council for Intergenerational Equality (Consejo Nacional para la Igualdad Intergeneracional) promotes the participation of children’s representatives in regional institutions, such as the Pan-American Child Congress.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: Girls’ and young women’s activism", "E. Promoting and protecting girls’ and young women’s activism", "2. Building gender- and age-sensitive normative and institutional frameworks", "International level"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 76, "n": 68, "text": "Girls and young women around the world play crucial roles as human rights defenders and agents of change. Many of them are at the forefront of initiatives aimed at transforming societies, while others are striving to mobilize effectively and find a place of influence. They are an integral part of the struggle for more democratic and fairer societies and their activism has brought about unique contributions to the advancement of gender equality and human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 77, "n": 69, "text": "The right of girls and young women to participate in political and public life is guaranteed under international human rights law. That gives rise to binding legal obligations for States to enable their activism and to remove the structural barriers that inhibit or endanger their participation. Girls and young women are also entitled to special measures to ensure the realization of their rights in consideration of their age, gender and other characteristics.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 78, "n": 70, "text": "Girl activists face particular challenges owing to common misperceptions around children’s right to participation in political and public life, restrictions on their autonomy, disregard for their best interests, paternalistic control and superficial, tokenistic involvement in diverse processes. Additional barriers include deep-rooted structural gender- and age-based discrimination, which is frequently exacerbated by other forms of discrimination including, but not limited to, race, ethnicity, health status, sexual orientation, gender identity and disability, combined with marginalization and exclusion, poverty, lack of access to education, lack of safety and security, hostile environments in the private and public spheres and a lack of resources.", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 79, "n": 71, "text": "Beyond the devastating effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, ongoing crises caused by conflict and displacement, climate change, natural disasters, sharp socioeconomic inequalities, political instability and rampant digitalization have had a considerable impact on the possibilities for girls and young women to exert their activism. However. that environment has created new opportunities as well as new challenges.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 80, "n": 72, "text": "Girls’ and young women’s equal rights and opportunities in all areas, namely family and cultural life, economic and social life, political and public life, safety and health, including sexual and reproductive health, are the basis for creating an enabling and just environment for their activism. The dignity and agency of all girls and young women must be recognized and actively promoted, supported and protected, while ensuring safeguards against threats, violence and reprisals, and undertaking concrete steps to remove the structural barriers and the systemic disadvantages that they face. They should be duly informed about their human rights from the youngest age and empowered to be active participants in their own lives and in public affairs, engaging creatively in all fields.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 81, "n": 73, "text": "Sustained access to adequate technical and financial resources, supportive networks, freedom from violence, opportunities for self-care and collective care, and protection from reprisals remain fundamental for girls’ and young women’s activism to thrive. Their capacity to participate in the civic space depends on a coherent and integrated set of social and economic policies directed at the family, community, school and workplace, combined with safeguards to ensure their rights to freedom of expression, assembly and association. Their physical and mental health and the economic viability of their individual and collective actions are essential for their development and ability to thrive.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 82, "n": 74, "text": "The root causes of the numerous barriers faced by girls and young women in their attempts to contribute to transformative actions should be tackled through targeted measures by States and all stakeholders concerned. The adoption of a comprehensive human rights-based approach that is child rights-centred, while being gender-responsive and intersectional is crucial to ensuring a sustainable environment for girls’ and young women’s activism. As told to the Working Group during the consultations it held: “Authorities should support the voices of young activists more; instead of silencing or minimizing them, they should be used as platforms to empower, generate a change.”", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 83, "n": 75, "text": "States should take all appropriate measures to create safe and enabling spaces for girl and young women activists, where they can exercise their activism and express their views freely, equally, fully and meaningfully on all matters of relevance to them. In order to achieve this, States should:\n(a) Put in place effective protection systems to safeguard girl and young women activists against any form of discrimination, intimidation or reprisal, whether in private or public life, and ensure that protection measures are not used to diminish the scope of their activism;\n(b) Encourage and provide support and training to the families, caregivers, communities, educators and educational institutions of girl and young women activists, as well as the judiciary, government officials and other relevant professionals, so that they can fulfil their role in promoting, protecting and empowering all girls and young activists to exercise their autonomy and agency and exercise their civil and political rights safely;\n(c) Support movement-building led by girl and young women activists and allow them to pursue and strengthen their activism by investing in the formation of girl-led and young feminist networks and associations, and by creating participatory structures and mechanisms whereby they can influence policy and norm-making processes;\n(d) Ensure that the national legal framework recognizes and enables girl and young women activists to act freely and safely without discrimination. That in particular includes:\n(i) Eliminating laws and practices that perpetuate discrimination within the family, the community and institutions, to enable girl and young women activists to exercise their autonomy and agency, respecting their age and maturity;\n(ii) Removing age-based discriminatory legal barriers for girls and young women to the exercise of their civil and political rights, ensuring that any restrictions are in conformity with international human rights law and considering lowering the age for registration of associations and for opening bank accounts;\n(iii) Adopting comprehensive national laws and policies that respect, protect and fulfil girls’ and young women’s rights to participate in public and political life, to freedom of expression, association and assembly, and to access to information, integrating gender- and age-sensitive and intersectional approaches that address all their diversity;\n(iv) Adopting and implementing laws and policies that particularly target removing the inherent obstacles to their activism, including eliminating harmful practices and stereotypes, gender-based violence, barriers to access to quality education, taboos and restrictions on sexual and reproductive health information, goods and services, including contraception and abortion care, and lifting the disproportionate burden of domestic responsibilities;\n(v) Introducing and ensuring the effective implementation of legislation and policies especially aimed at promoting the activism of girl and young women activists by allocating human, technical and financial resources;\n(vi) Incorporating effective approaches in laws, policies and programmes to address multiple and intersectional forms of discrimination against girl and young activists and remove the structural barriers they face;\n(e) Create and enhance platforms, processes and structures within which the views of girl and young women activists are given due consideration, including formal mechanisms and institutions, such as children’s parliaments and other possible mechanisms for child participation, in a gender- and age-responsive and inclusive manner, and ensure that such views are taken into account when adopting, implementing and reviewing laws and policies;\n(f) Ensure that girl and young women activists have accessible and effective remedies through;\n(i) Intensifying efforts to ensure the accountability of State agents, family and community members, including traditional and religious leaders who violate the rights of girl and young women activists;\n(ii) Securing access to multiple, safe, age-, disability- and gender-responsive mechanisms to report reprisals, violence and abuse related to their activism and receive support and care for physical and psychological abuse;\n(iii) Facilitating child-friendly and gender-responsive complaint mechanisms to address human rights violations from an intersectional perspective and facilitate access to international complaint procedures by ratifying the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on a communications procedure;\n(g) Provide all girls and young women with comprehensive, free, accessible and age-, disability- and gender-sensitive information including language-accessible and culturally sensitive measures to enable them to cultivate and exercise their activism.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 84, "n": 76, "text": "States, private companies and all stakeholders concerned should take appropriate measures to ensure online access and safety by:\n(a) Facilitating safe and inclusive online platforms for girls’ and young women’s activism and ensure the accountability of service providers for facilitating accessibility;\n(b) Expanding the accessibility and affordability of digital technology to all girl and young women activists by investing in programmes tackling the gender-related digital divide and the digital exclusion of certain groups of girl and young women activists;\n(c) Taking measures to foster a safe online environment for girls and young women, in particular by creating effective regulatory frameworks, including for content moderation and reporting mechanisms, sanctioning perpetrators and providing reliable information to address online gender- and age-related discrimination and violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 85, "n": 77, "text": "Civil society organizations should foster girls’ and young women’s activism and promote their collaboration, based on mutual respect, solidarity and diversity. In particular, they should:\n(a) Facilitate spaces for girls’ and young women’s groups to operate in diverse forms and an inclusive manner, including by supporting their initiatives and evolving leadership;\n(b) Support dialogue and collaboration between adult and younger activists, including providing them with relevant role models of women in activism and creating mentoring programmes;\n(c) Facilitate access for girl and young women activists to decision makers, funding, resources, training, networking and self-care programmes through the design and implementation of empowering partnerships;\n(d) Foster community support systems and raise awareness of girls’ and young women’s activism, including by developing training programmes for families, communities and teachers on how to support and empower girls and young women in exercising their rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 86, "n": 78, "text": "National human rights institutions, including children’s ombudspersons, should fulfil the following responsibilities towards the promotion, protection and empowerment of girl and young women activists;\n(a) Disseminate information about their institutional mandate and work, and support girl and young women activists in training and human rights education;\n(b) Promote the work of girl and young human rights defenders and educate the public, authorities and stakeholders about their positive role in society;\n(c) Work closely with girl and young women activists through child, youth and gender-centred approaches;\n(d) Facilitate access to reporting and seeking redress for human rights violations.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 87, "n": 79, "text": "Donors should adopt measures that empower and support girl and young women activists in all their diversity. Specific measures should include:\n(a) Investing in girls and youth networks by streamlining dedicated funding to provide financial and non-financial resources directly or indirectly to girl-led and youth-led grass-roots organizations and movements while respecting their organizational autonomy;\n(b) Instituting flexible funding packages and grant application and reporting processes for groups led by girls and young women and for unregistered grass-roots networks, including the opportunity to co-apply for shared grants and funding for self- and collective care;\n(c) Putting in place processes for integrating the views, interests and decision-making roles of girl and young women activists in the planning and implementation of making grants and other activities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 88, "n": 80, "text": "The United Nations should promote girls’ and young women’s activism in the following ways:\n(a) The human rights bodies should prioritize:\n(i) Mainstreaming gender-, child rights- and youth-sensitive approaches throughout their work and ensuring adequate resourcing for that work;\n(ii) Instituting and enhancing child- and youth-friendly platforms and processes that ensure girl and young women activists are regularly, meaningfully and inclusively engaged in deliberations and decision-making and that their engagement is sustained and not tokenistic;\n(iii) Using language that is responsive to girls and young women, avoiding jargon and introducing communication that is clear and accessible to all girls and young women;\n(iv) Making available age-appropriate, accessible and timely information on the human rights system to enable girl and young women activists to effectively engage with its mechanisms;\n(b) United Nations agencies must ensure that girl and young women activists have access to United Nations mechanisms and spaces, with the necessary safeguards and without discrimination, by building internal capacity and allocating the necessary technical and financial resources, directly or indirectly, to girl-led and youth-led grass roots in a flexible and inclusive manner.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-50-25-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-50-25", "idx": 89, "n": 81, "text": "Parents, family and community members should promote, empower and actively support girls’ and young women’s activism. They should seek information about their obligations and exercise their parental or supervisory authority in a manner that recognizes, respects and fosters the agency, contributions and capacities of girls and young women in a way that nurtures space for their views and participation in the public sphere.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2022, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report covers the main activities of the Working Group from the time of submission of its previous report[[fn:1]] up until March 2023, and includes a thematic analysis on the gendered inequalities of poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A/HRC/50/25."}], "section": ["I. Activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "At its thirty-fourth session, held in New York from 9 to 13 May 2022, the Working Group held meetings with civil society organizations, discussed future position papers and focused on the present thematic analysis. It also met with representatives of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), the Independent Expert on the enjoyment of all human rights by older persons, the Independent Expert on the effects of foreign debt and other related international financial obligations of States on the full enjoyment of all human rights, particularly economic, social and cultural rights, the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, the Envoy of the Secretary-General on Youth, and representatives of Member States.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "At its thirty-fifth session, held in Geneva from 10 to 14 October 2022, the Working Group met with representatives of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, the International Labour Organization (ILO), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) Gender and Women’s Rights and Sustainable Development Goals Sections. The experts also met with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran and the Special Rapporteur on the right to education. The Working Group held virtual consultations with activists and academics from various regions to benefit from their experiences and expertise on the issue of women and girls in poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At its thirty-sixth session, held in Geneva from 16 to 20 January 2023, the Working Group held virtual consultations with activists from various regions, including girl and young women activists, and with representatives from regional human rights mechanisms focusing on women and girls in poverty. It met with representatives from the Human Security Unit, with the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development gender focal points, and with representatives of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. It benefited from discussions with the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women Task Force on Afghanistan and the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan, in view of the joint report mandated by the Human Rights Council in its resolution 51/20. It also met with the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights and the Independent Expert on protection against violence and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. Finally, the Working Group met with the Deputy United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and with representatives of Member States.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The Working Group visited Kyrgyzstan from 4 to 15 April 2022 and Maldives from 11 to 22 September 2022 and thanks both Governments for their cooperation. The Working Group encourages States to respond positively to its requests for visits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The Working Group addressed several communications to Governments and other stakeholders, individually or jointly with other mandate holders. The communications concerned a wide range of subjects, including discriminatory legislation and practices, allegations of violations of the rights of women human rights defenders, gender-based violence and violations of the right to sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:2]] The Working Group also issued press releases, individually, and jointly with other mandate holders, treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.[[fn:3]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Communications.aspx."}, {"n": 3, "text": "See https://rb.gy/7add."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The Working Group held a regional meeting in Bangkok from 18 to 22 July 2022. The experts’ presence in the region represented a unique occasion to strengthen their networks in South-East Asia, including through consultations on the present report. The Working Group met with representatives of regional United Nations entities, the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, members of the Asia Pacific Forum and representatives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Social Development and Human Security of Thailand. It benefited from consultations with civil society organizations on the main challenges faced by women and girls in the region.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The experts also undertook numerous other activities, including participation in regional consultations and expert meetings, and engagement with stakeholders in their capacity as Working Group members.[[fn:4]] In particular, the Chair presented an oral report to the General Assembly at its seventy-seventh session and addressed the Commission on the Status of Women at its sixty-seventh session. The Working Group began chairing the Platform of Independent Expert Mechanisms on the Elimination of Discrimination and Violence against Women,[[fn:5]] starting from 1 February 2023, and is actively contributing to enhancing cooperation between global and regional women’s rights mechanisms, including through joint statements and capacity-building for civil society organizations from various regions.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Women/WGWomen/Pages/Activities.aspx."}, {"n": 5, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/wg-women-and-girls/edvaw-platform."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "The Working Group expresses its gratitude to all stakeholders for their vital contributions to the preparation of the present report – which included responding to a questionnaire, submitting supporting documentation and participating in regional and thematic consultations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Poverty is more than the outcome of a lack of income or wealth. It is the result of a blatant systemic failure leading to a vicious cycle of exclusion and discrimination that violates the civil, cultural, economic, environmental, political and social rights of both present and future generations.[[fn:6]] Women and girls, 49.7 per cent of the global population in 2022,[[fn:7]] are disproportionately represented among the world’s poor. Global projections show that an estimated 388 million women and girls were living in extreme poverty in 2022 (compared with 372 million men and boys), and 83.7 per cent of these women and girls were located in two regions: sub-Saharan Africa (62.8 per cent) and Central and South Asia (20.9 per cent).[[fn:8]] Extreme inequality has also deepened and, since 2020, the richest 1 per cent of the world has seized nearly two thirds of all new wealth, almost twice as much money as the bottom 99 per cent of the world’s population.[[fn:9]] The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic and the global food, energy and care crises, which are in turn connected to other crises, including armed conflict, occupation and forced displacement, have resulted in the first rise in inter-country income inequality in a generation,[[fn:10]] with women and girls being particularly affected in many countries and regions.[[fn:11]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 6, "text": "E/C.12/2001/10, para. 8."}, {"n": 7, "text": "World Population Prospects 2022: Summary of Results (United Nations publication, 2022), p. 6."}, {"n": 8, "text": "UN-Women, UNDP and Pardee Center for International Futures, “Poverty deepens for women and girls, according to latest projections”, 1 February 2023."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Oxfam International, Survival of the Richest: How We Must Tax the Super-Rich Now to Fight Inequality (2023)."}, {"n": 10, "text": "See https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal10."}, {"n": 11, "text": "See A/HRC/38/46; https://data.unwomen.org/; UN-Women, “Global gendered impacts of the Ukraine crisis on energy access and food security and nutrition” (2022); A/HRC/26/39; A/HRC/32/44; Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, “Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic must not discount women and girls”, 20 April 2020; and Platform of Independent Expert Mechanisms on the Elimination of Discrimination and Violence against Women, “COVID-19 and increase in gender-based violence and discrimination against women”, 14 July 2020."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "A. Contextual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Women’s and girls’ inequality and poverty are the result of historical and continuing economic policy choices at the global, regional and national levels. These policy priorities are not gender-neutral, as they have been developed within patriarchal political, legal and socioeconomic systems and institutions that ignore the specific experiences and rights of girls and women while privileging the dominant forms of male and corporate power that perpetuate existing hierarchies.[[fn:12]] Poverty and inequalities are structural phenomena that negatively affect the sustainable development of people, communities and nations and that impede effective responses to the existential threat posed by climate change and ecological collapse as well as other global challenges, including public health emergencies, armed conflicts, economic recessions, and migration, food and care crises.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Frances Raday, Economic Woman: Gendering Inequality in the Age of Capital (Routledge, 2019)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "A. Contextual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "The strengthened neoliberal turn of the past forty years, reflected in the policies of international economic institutions and national Governments, has demonstrably increased poverty and inequality both between and within nations.[[fn:13]] These inequalities, underpinned by patriarchy, slavery, racism, colonialism, militarism and environmental destruction, have been exacerbated by orthodox macroeconomic prescriptions, including structural adjustment and austerity measures[[fn:14]] designed to offset crippling national debts,[[fn:15]] the liberalization of global trade and investment and the financialization of capital markets,[[fn:16]] and the resulting monetary and fiscal regimes,[[fn:17]] the privatization and commodification of public goods and the retreat of the welfare state.[[fn:18]] While it is beyond the scope of the present report to analyse these phenomena, it is important to note that rampant global socioeconomic inequality, characterized by the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few people (mostly men), corporations in a limited number of countries, and developed States, has diminished the resources available for policies, services and programmes to advance women’s rights and gender equality.[[fn:19]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Jason Hickel, The Divide: A Brief Guide to Global Inequality and its Solutions (London, Penguin Random House, 2018); see also E/C.12/2001/10."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Oxfam International and Nawi-Afrifem Macroeconomics Collective, “The assault of austerity: how prevailing economic policy choices are a form of gender-based violence” (2022)."}, {"n": 15, "text": "See A/77/169."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Gender and Development Network, “Briefing: making trade work for gender equality” (July 2017); and Alicia Ely Yamin, When Misfortune Becomes Injustice: Evolving Human Rights Struggles for Health and Social Equality (Stanford University Press, 2020)."}, {"n": 17, "text": "Oxfam International, Survival of the Richest."}, {"n": 18, "text": "See A/HRC/44/51."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Focus 2030, “Overview of data resources on gender equality across the world”, 3 March 2023."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "A. Contextual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "Poverty is a gendered phenomenon that is deeply imbricated with other forms of inequality and discrimination. Women’s and girls’ experiences of poverty intersect with their race, ethnicity, migratory status, age, disability, religion, geographical location, sexual orientation and gender identity to produce distinct forms of discrimination and inequality that vary over time and from place to place. The persistence of discriminatory norms and harmful gender stereotypes affecting women and girls across every area of life, from the family to the community, in businesses and in all branches of public power, contributes to maintaining and deepening these inequalities.[[fn:20]] Recent attacks and backlash against the principle of gender equality underline the urgent need to reassert the centrality of the human rights framework 10 See https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal10. 11 See A/HRC/38/46; https://data.unwomen.org/; UN-Women, “Global gendered impacts of the Ukraine crisis on energy access and food security and nutrition” (2022); A/HRC/26/39; A/HRC/32/44; Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, “Responses to the COVID-19 pandemic must not discount women and girls”, 20 April 2020; and Platform of Independent Expert Mechanisms on the Elimination of Discrimination and Violence against Women, “COVID-19 and increase in gender-based violence and discrimination against women”, 14 July 2020. 12 Frances Raday, Economic Woman: Gendering Inequality in the Age of Capital (Routledge, 2019). 13 Jason Hickel, The Divide: A Brief Guide to Global Inequality and its Solutions (London, Penguin Random House, 2018); see also E/C.12/2001/10. 14 Oxfam International and Nawi-Afrifem Macroeconomics Collective, “The assault of austerity: how prevailing economic policy choices are a form of gender-based violence” (2022). 15 See A/77/169. 16 Gender and Development Network, “Briefing: making trade work for gender equality” (July 2017); and Alicia Ely Yamin, When Misfortune Becomes Injustice: Evolving Human Rights Struggles for Health and Social Equality (Stanford University Press, 2020). 17 Oxfam International, Survival of the Richest. 18 See A/HRC/44/51. 19 Focus 2030, “Overview of data resources on gender equality across the world”, 3 March 2023. 20 OHCHR, “Ending violence against women and girls key to tackling global crises and achieving prosperity”, 24 November 2022. GE.23-06173 and intersectional feminist approaches to tackling poverty and the inequalities that it perpetuates and entrenches.[[fn:21]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 20, "text": "OHCHR, “Ending violence against women and girls key to tackling global crises and achieving prosperity”, 24 November 2022."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See A/HRC/38/46; and Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, “Gender equality and gender backlash” (2020)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "A. Contextual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "For too long, the focus of most international and national economic policies has been on how to integrate women and girls more effectively into existing, unequal economic systems, rather than on challenging and remaking those systems so that they promote and protect the full range of human rights for everyone.[[fn:22]] As a result, many interventions that address the feminization of poverty use a narrow concept of poverty as a simple lack of economic resources, and they have also tended to view women as a homogenous group.[[fn:23]] Rather than challenging and transforming intersectional forms of inequality, mainstream poverty-reduction strategies may be further entrenching essentialist gender stereotypes and the structural inequalities that flow from them.[[fn:24]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations."}, {"n": 23, "text": "Naila Kabeer, “Gender equality, the MDGs and the SDGs: achievements, lessons and concerns”, London School of Economics, 6 October 2015."}, {"n": 24, "text": "Sylvia Chant, “Women, girls, and world poverty: empowerment, equality or essentialism?” International Development Planning Review, vol. 38, No. 1, pp. 1–24."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "A. Contextual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Dominant approaches to security in times of crises, including economic crises, have also been narrow in scope – human rights being set aside, disproportionately affecting women and girls. Understanding security integrally as grounded in human rights law[[fn:25]] would prioritize preventing and addressing aggravated risks of poverty and inequality for women and girls. In this respect, alongside its role in exacerbating existing inequalities, the COVID-19 crisis has also prompted a re-evaluation of mainstream economic ideologies, including recognition of the central role of care in our societies, as called for by feminists for years, as well as revaluing the State’s position (vis-à-vis the market) as an actor in defining and resourcing public policies. The current moment, therefore, presents an opportunity to revisit concepts of unlimited economic growth, often based on deeply embedded forms of structural discrimination, transnational economic inequality, failure to fulfil international solidarity obligations of assistance and cooperation, and non-existent or insufficient networks of social protection and public services to guarantee universally recognized human rights such as health, water, housing, food and nutrition, education, a clean and healthy environment and access to justice.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See, for example, General Assembly resolution 66/290, para. 3."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "A. Contextual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Crucially, poverty and inequality are not inevitable. They are the result of structural discrimination that is reflected in the design of laws and policies which have facilitated present and historical injustices.[[fn:26]] Social movements advocating for transformative change from the perspective of feminist political economy and human rights, particularly economic, social, environmental and cultural rights, have highlighted the feedback loops between global poverty and inequalities, and they have drawn attention to the existence of alternatives to unjust economic and social policies and institutions.[[fn:27]] These rights-based feminist approaches to inequality and poverty provide key insights, tools, accountability measures and remedies that would enable the structural determinants of poverty and inequality to be identified, challenged and overcome.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 26, "text": "UNRISD, Crises of Inequality: Shifting Power for a New Eco-Social Contract (2022)."}, {"n": 27, "text": "Lucie E. White and Jeremy Perelman, eds., Stones of Hope: How African Activists Reclaim Human Rights to Challenge Global Poverty (Stanford University Press, 2011); see also reports by the Center for Economic and Social Rights, the Global Initiative for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the International Network for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "A. Contextual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Conceptually, the feminist approaches to women’s poverty and inequality, as used in the present report, are based on the reaffirmation of substantive equality for women in the legal, social, economic, cultural, environmental and political arenas and in all spheres of life. While gender equality is a human right in itself, and as such feminism is connected to the human rights framework, the feminist approach adds a critical analysis of the ways in which patriarchal institutions and structures contribute to maintaining discrimination against women and girls.[[fn:28]] A human rights-based approach to poverty and inequality emphasizes that participation, accountability, non-discrimination and equality, empowerment and the implementation of equitable normative frameworks are core principles that must be respected, protected and fulfilled by States and other duty bearers in order to guarantee the full enjoyment of all human rights for all people at all times.[[fn:29]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "See, for example, Oxfam, “A feminist approach to the multidimensional inequality framework” (2021)."}, {"n": 29, "text": "See the Guiding Principles on Extreme Poverty and Human Rights; and E/C.12/2001/10."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "B. Feminist and human rights-based approaches to women’s poverty and inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "Most mainstream approaches to gender and poverty focus on a small number of economic rights associated with work, financial inclusion and women’s entrepreneurship, and ignore the broader contexts that condition the realization of the many other interrelated and interdependent human rights that are essential to achieving substantive gender equality and to sustainably eradicating poverty.[[fn:30]] Feminist political economists and civil society movements have emphasized that this one-sided approach to poverty eradication obscures the role of the institutions and structures that benefit from the exploitation of women, girls and marginalized social groups, as well as the natural environment.[[fn:31]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "Josephine A. Odera and Judy Mulusa, “SDGs, gender equality and women’s empowerment: what prospects for delivery?”, in Sustainable Development Goals and Human Rights, Markus Kaltenborn, Markus Krajewski and Heike Kuhn, eds. (Springer, 2020), pp. 95–118."}, {"n": 31, "text": "Submission from SRI, IWRAW AP and AWID to the Working Group; and UNRISD, Crises of Inequality."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "B. Feminist and human rights-based approaches to women’s poverty and inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Standardized measures of poverty and inequality in global and national development frameworks which focus on household-level data fail to adequately capture sex- and gender-based inequalities in the generation, distribution and consumption of resources.[[fn:32]] Many of the submissions received by the Working Group highlighted the absence of reliable, multidimensional and multisectoral disaggregated data on poverty and inequalities.[[fn:33]] The lived experiences and voices of women and girls in poverty are often absent from research, law and policy in the field.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "See A/HRC/44/40."}, {"n": 33, "text": "Submission from the Danish Institute for Human Rights; Open Space Association Deep Poverty Network Turkey; Ginette Azcona and Antra Bhatt, “Inequality, gender, and sustainable development: measuring feminist progress”, Gender & Development, vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 337–355."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "B. Feminist and human rights-based approaches to women’s poverty and inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "In addition to their gender-insensitivity and unawareness, most global poverty indicators are geared towards measuring relative improvements in the situation of those in the bottom 10 per cent of wealth and income scales, rather than looking at the enormous share of income and wealth held by the richest 1 per cent of the population.[[fn:34]] Common methods for measuring absolute inequalities, such as the Gini coefficient, percentile ratios, the Palma ratio, the World Income Inequality Database and measures of functional income distribution, focus attention on the need for effective policies to redistribute wealth and income both within and between countries.[[fn:35]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "UNRISD, Crises of Inequality."}, {"n": 35, "text": "UNU-WIDER, World Income Inequality Database (30 June 2022)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "B. Feminist and human rights-based approaches to women’s poverty and inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Many predominant approaches to women’s poverty concentrate on increasing the economic productivity of individual women, rather than analysing the systems of power that generate and reproduce unequal gender relations within families, communities, institutions and markets. These dominant models fail to recognize and value women’s unpaid care, domestic and agricultural work which undergirds the economy. They ignore the vital issues of women’s time poverty and “depletion” through their role as care providers,[[fn:36]] as well as the draining of care resources from poorer nations, such as migrant domestic or health workers, through globalized care chains.[[fn:37]] They also do not consider the rights of women and girls to receive gender-responsive care or to exercise self-care and collective care.[[fn:38]] Neoliberal policy choices and market-driven “solutions”, including those promoted by multilateral economic institutions, have often co-opted or dismantled transformative economic agendas and have had a devastating impact on the human rights of diverse groups of women and girls around the world.[[fn:39]] As one of the women in the consultations observed, “we are not poor, we are being impoverished”.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "Beth Goldblatt and Shirin M. Rai, “Remedying depletion through social reproduction: a critical engagement with the United Nations’ business and human rights framework”, European Journal of Politics and Gender, March 2020."}, {"n": 37, "text": "Rosalba Todaro and Irma Arriagada, “Global Care Chains”, in Companion to Women’s and Gender Studies, Nancy A. Naples, ed. (Wiley, 2020)."}, {"n": 38, "text": "ECLAC, Buenos Aires Commitment (LC/CRM.15/6); and ECLAC, The Care Society (LC/CRM.15/3)."}, {"n": 39, "text": "Association for Women’s Rights in Development, “Gender impact investing and the rise of false solutions: an analysis for feminist movements” (2023)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "B. Feminist and human rights-based approaches to women’s poverty and inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Feminist proposals for economic, social and environmental justice call for the implementation of processes and principles that are grounded in human rights and in an integrated concept of ecological and social sustainability, as alternatives to economic growth-based models of development.[[fn:40]] These visions for a more equal world promote inclusive democratic participation in global economic governance, substantive equality and intersectional approaches through their support for feminist and cross-movement alliance-building with diverse social groups. They also focus on the redistribution of wealth and resources for all and a shift away from excessive consumption, production and extraction towards an equitable global trade order, tax and debt justice, corporate accountability, and the realization of the right to development.[[fn:41]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 40, "text": "Civil Society and Indigenous Peoples’ Mechanism for relations with the Committee on World Food Security, “Voices from the ground 2: transformative solutions to the global systemic food crises” (2022); and Susan Paulson, “Degrowth and feminisms ally to forge care-full paths beyond the pandemic”, Interface, vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 232–246."}, {"n": 41, "text": "Global Alliance for Tax Justice and others, Framing Feminist Taxation (2021)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "B. Feminist and human rights-based approaches to women’s poverty and inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "Several social movements are championing a feminist and decolonial Global Green New Deal which would entail a redistribution and revalidation of labour, and investments in the care sector, as well as reimagining global public commons and goods so that they are used equitably and sustainably.[[fn:42]] Feminist workers’ alliances are also engaged in the development of alternative economic policies that would promote climate-friendly jobs, including those in social care, fundamental rights at work that emphasize adequate wages and maximum hours of work, universal social protection with a global social protection solidarity fund, an emphasis on substantive gender, race and socioeconomic equality and an inclusive agenda for peace and sustainable development.[[fn:43]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "Feminist Economic Justice for People and Planet Action Nexus, “A feminist and decolonial Global Green New Deal” (2021)."}, {"n": 43, "text": "Juan Pablo Bohoslavsky and Francisco Cantamutto, eds., The IMF and Human Rights: Interviews (2021)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "B. Feminist and human rights-based approaches to women’s poverty and inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "The right to live free from poverty and inequality must be examined as a multidimensional civil, political, social, environmental and cultural right and not only in terms of economic deprivation.[[fn:44]] During its consultations, the Working Group heard from numerous stakeholders about the cross-cutting ways in which gender-based and other intersectional inequalities shape and reinforce women’s and girls’ diverse experiences of poverty.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 36 (2019); A/77/157; and Jackie Dugard and others, eds., Research Handbook on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights as Human Rights (Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2020)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Poverty is created, enabled and perpetuated by acts and omissions of States and other economic actors, and failures to address structural and systemic inequalities through coherent and targeted policies further entrench poverty.[[fn:45]] Since 2013, jurisprudence derived from the individual complaints mechanism developed by the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights under the Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Economic, 38 ECLAC, Buenos Aires Commitment (LC/CRM.15/6); and ECLAC, The Care Society (LC/CRM.15/3). 39 Association for Women’s Rights in Development, “Gender impact investing and the rise of false solutions: an analysis for feminist movements” (2023). 40 Civil Society and Indigenous Peoples’ Mechanism for relations with the Committee on World Food Security, “Voices from the ground 2: transformative solutions to the global systemic food crises” (2022); and Susan Paulson, “Degrowth and feminisms ally to forge care-full paths beyond the pandemic”, Interface, vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 232–246. 41 Global Alliance for Tax Justice and others, Framing Feminist Taxation (2021). 42 Feminist Economic Justice for People and Planet Action Nexus, “A feminist and decolonial Global Green New Deal” (2021). 43 Juan Pablo Bohoslavsky and Francisco Cantamutto, eds., The IMF and Human Rights: Interviews (2021). 44 Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 36 (2019); A/77/157; and Jackie Dugard and others, eds., Research Handbook on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights as Human Rights (Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2020). 45 A/HRC/21/39, para. 5. GE.23-06173 Social and Cultural Rights has highlighted individual rights violations while also drawing attention to the systemic discrimination and stigmatization of those who live in poverty.[[fn:46]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "A/HRC/21/39, para. 5."}, {"n": 46, "text": "López Albán v. Spain (E/C.12/66/D/37/2018), para. 10.1."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "Regional human rights mechanisms have also advanced normative framings of the rights to be free from poverty and from inequalities. Significant contributions from regional bodies include: the adoption of an integrated concept of “economic, social, cultural and environmental rights” and the “right to a life with dignity”, the definition of discrimination based on poverty and vulnerable socioeconomic status as a violation of the right to equal protection by the law, the determination of direct violations of socioeconomic rights,[[fn:47]] the right to protection from (the risk of) poverty and social exclusion, the recognition of discriminatory working conditions and poverty arising from gender segregation in the labour market,[[fn:48]] and mechanisms for the justiciability of all economic, social and cultural rights, including the rights of women to food security, a healthy environment and sustainable development.[[fn:49]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "See, for example, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Report on Poverty and Human Rights in the Americas (2017); Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Special Rapporteurship on Economic, Social, Cultural and Environmental Rights; Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Business and Human Rights: Inter-American Standards (2019); Inter-American Court of Human Rights case law, especially in 2017–2022; and ECLAC, Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean (2018)."}, {"n": 48, "text": "See Council of Europe, European Social Charter (revised) (1996), art. 30; Aoife Nolan, Protecting the Child from Poverty: the Role of Rights in the Council of Europe (2019); and Council of Europe, “UWE decisions: factsheet” (2019)."}, {"n": 49, "text": "African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights; and Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (2003), arts. 15, 18 and 19."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "Through their interpretation of human rights as indivisible and interdependent, human rights mechanisms have developed enlarged understandings of poverty and inequalities as abuses of multiple human rights and as forms of structural violence that undermine human dignity.[[fn:50]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "Views expressed during consultations. See also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 36 (2019); A/77/157; A/HRC/35/29; A/HRC/44/51; A/77/136; and A/HRC/50/28."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Article 28 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights provides that everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which their rights and freedoms can be fully realized. The human right to equal protection before and under the law entails positive obligations for duty bearers to reduce socioeconomic inequalities at the level of individual right holders as well as within and between countries.[[fn:51]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "Gillian MacNaughton, “Is economic inequality a violation of human rights?”, in Research Handbook on Human Rights and Poverty, Martha F. Davis, Morten Kjaerum and Amanda Lyons, eds. (Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2021)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to equality and non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "All of the core multilateral human rights treaties and most national constitutions guarantee the fundamental right of everyone to equality and non-discrimination. This is a principle that also permeates the interpretation and implementation of all human rights. The right to equality and non-discrimination includes the right not to experience any kind of distinction on prohibited grounds, including sex, gender, socioeconomic condition, or other status.[[fn:52]] 52 Human rights law recognizes that discrimination, including intersectional and multiple forms of discrimination, is both a cause and a consequence of poverty and inequalities.53 46 López Albán v. Spain (E/C.12/66/D/37/2018), para. 10.1. 47 See, for example, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Report on Poverty and Human Rights in the Americas (2017); Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Special Rapporteurship on Economic, Social, Cultural and Environmental Rights; Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Business and Human Rights: Inter-American Standards (2019); Inter-American Court of Human Rights case law, especially in 2017–2022; and ECLAC, Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean (2018). 48 See Council of Europe, European Social Charter (revised) (1996), art. 30; Aoife Nolan, Protecting the Child from Poverty: the Role of Rights in the Council of Europe (2019); and Council of Europe, “UWE decisions: factsheet” (2019). 49 African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights; and Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (2003), arts. 15, 18 and 19. 50 Views expressed during consultations. See also Human Rights Committee, general comment No. 36 (2019); A/77/157; A/HRC/35/29; A/HRC/44/51; A/77/136; and A/HRC/50/28. 51 Gillian MacNaughton, “Is economic inequality a violation of human rights?”, in Research Handbook on Human Rights and Poverty, Martha F. Davis, Morten Kjaerum and Amanda Lyons, eds. (Edward Elgar Publishing Limited, 2021). 52 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 2; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art. 2 (2); International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 2 (1); Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, arts. 1 and 2; Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 20 (2009); and Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 6 (2018), para. 11. 53 A/HRC/21/11. GE.23-06173", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 2; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art. 2 (2); International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, art. 2 (1); Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, arts. 1 and 2; Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 20 (2009); and Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 6 (2018), para. 11."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to equality and non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women contains multiple provisions on the right to substantive gender equality. These include a broad definition of discrimination against women, temporary special measures to accelerate equality of opportunities and treatment, obligations to ensure women’s full development, their participation in political and public life, and their enjoyment of specific socioeconomic rights.[[fn:54]] Article 5 (a) of the Convention stipulates that States must adopt specific measures to combat harmful gender stereotypes.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 54, "text": "Arts. 1, 3, 4, 7, 8 and 11–14."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to equality and non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "During the Working Group’s consultations, participants – several of them women and girls living or having grown up in poverty themselves – described the stigma and intersecting discrimination experienced by women and girls in poverty. Women and girls from ethnic minority groups, such as Roma and Indigenous women, women and girls with disabilities, girls and young women in poverty, illiterate women and girls, women and girls of African descent, internally displaced, migrant (especially undocumented), stateless, asylum-seeking and refugee women, women living in situations of conflict and occupation, rural women, older women, self-employed women, women domestic workers, and women waste pickers and street vendors, described the distinct ways in which poverty and inequalities shaped their lives. Many participants powerfully attested to the stress occasioned by the need to provide an adequate standard of living for their families, with limited resources, along with feelings of guilt due to having to leave their children to work long hours in poorly paid, informal and precarious employment.[[fn:55]] It was also emphasized that social welfare paradigms that targeted families living in poverty, often directed at Indigenous and minority groups, such as Roma families, for placement of their children into care or non-consensual adoptions were discriminatory and violated the human rights to family protection and assistance.[[fn:56]]", "labels": ["Children", "Internally displaced persons", "Migrants", "Non-citizens and stateless", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "Submission from ATD Fourth World."}, {"n": 56, "text": "Submission from End Child Poverty Coalition and Youth Voices."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to equality and non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "In many jurisdictions, criminal laws are disproportionately applied to women and girls because of their economic or social status, and due to the costs of accessing the formal justice system. Those particularly affected are women and girls living in poverty seeking reproductive health care and services, including abortion, Indigenous, migrant and ethnic minority women and girls, women and girls who are experiencing homelessness, women and girl street vendors, sex workers, those who use drugs or are associated with trade in drugs, women in the informal economy, informal and cross-border traders, women and girls environmental and human rights defenders, and members of LGBTIQ+ communities.[[fn:57]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons in street situations", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "Submissions from Penal Reform International and ATD Fourth World; and fortifyrights.org."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to equality and non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "The security of tenure of land or housing and the accessibility of legal and justice systems are also severely limited for women and girls living in poverty, who frequently have no effective means to assert their rights to be free from violence, to contest or to receive compensation for illegal or unfair evictions, displacement due to development projects, land grabbing and environmental destruction, or to access or claim adequate housing, decent working conditions or social security entitlements.[[fn:58]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 58, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to equality and non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "Economic, social and cultural rights are recognized in numerous international, regional and national human rights instruments. The right to an adequate standard of living, as guaranteed in article 25 (1) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, article 11 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, article 27 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child and article 14 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, constitutes a key entitlement through which the rights of women and girls to live in dignity may be guaranteed. In its general comment No. 12 (1999), the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights noted that an “adequate” standard of living was “to a large extent determined by prevailing social, economic, cultural, climatic, ecological and other conditions”, and this cannot be reduced to a simple, universal monetary threshold. The right to an adequate standard of living encompasses food and nutrition, housing, electricity, water and sanitation. The right to rest and leisure protected in 54 Arts. 1, 3, 4, 7, 8 and 11–14. 55 Submission from ATD Fourth World. 56 Submission from End Child Poverty Coalition and Youth Voices. 57 Submissions from Penal Reform International and ATD Fourth World; and fortifyrights.org. 58 Ibid. GE.23-06173 article 24 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 30 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child is also central for women and girls, who are often severely affected by time poverty. States have obligations to immediately take steps to eliminate discrimination and ensure that everyone enjoys the “minimum core” of all human rights under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and to observe the principle of progressive realization, which entails the implementation of reliable systems to measure advancement towards the achievement of the full realization of these rights for all people.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Poverty and inequality: violations of women’s economic, social and cultural rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "There are specific and mutually reinforcing mechanisms through which poverty and inequality affect the rights of women and girls to fully enjoy an adequate standard of living and other interrelated economic, social and cultural rights. For example, the gender gap in food and nutrition insecurity has continued to grow in recent years, with 31.9 per cent of women and girls in the world being moderately or severely food insecure, compared with 27.6 per cent of men.[[fn:59]] Gender inequality in access to food and nutrition is linked to discrimination in the allocation of rights to productive land, with women making up fewer than 15 per cent of agricultural land owners globally.[[fn:60]] Gender discrimination is also manifest in laws, policies, social norms and stereotypes that restrict women’s rights to seeds and other natural resources, agricultural inputs and labour and that privilege men’s nutritional needs over those of women and girls.[[fn:61]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 59, "text": "FAO and others, The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World: Repurposing Food and Agricultural Policies to Make Healthy Diets More Affordable (Rome, 2022)."}, {"n": 60, "text": "FAO, “The gender gap in land rights” (2018)."}, {"n": 61, "text": "Global Network for the Right to Food and Nutrition, Right to Food and Nutrition Watch: Women’s Power in Food Struggles (2019); and Civil Society and Indigenous Peoples Mechanism, “Voices from the ground 2”."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Poverty and inequality: violations of women’s economic, social and cultural rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "In relation to the right to adequate housing, women and girls experiencing homelessness are more likely to be victims of sexual and other forms of violence, while domestic violence is one of the leading factors that pushes women and girls into homelessness.[[fn:62]] There is a lack of global data on women’s homelessness, but in some regions there has been a sharp increase in the number of homeless women between the ages of 18 and 29 and those aged over 64.[[fn:63]] Inadequate housing is also a gendered phenomenon, with women-headed households being more likely to live in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions and unable to afford water, electricity and gas, and often public transportation. This situation is particularly acute for migrant women.[[fn:64]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons in street situations", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "A/HRC/43/43."}, {"n": 63, "text": "Submission from the Legal Clinic of University of Murcia, with Cepaim."}, {"n": 64, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Poverty and inequality: violations of women’s economic, social and cultural rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "Menstrual poverty, which constitutes a violation of the rights to water and sanitation, remains a significant concern for large numbers of women and girls around the world, and the situation is particularly serious for those women and girls who are homeless. In submissions and consultations, it was noted that in certain countries, most women and girls are not able to afford sanitary pads and other period products – some engaging in “survival sex” to obtain them – and this menstrual poverty is heightened by policies that apply consumer and value-added taxes to period products.[[fn:65]]", "labels": ["Persons in street situations", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "Submission from the Open Space Association Deep Poverty Network Turkey."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Poverty and inequality: violations of women’s economic, social and cultural rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "Many of the core elements of the right to health, recognized in article 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, including sexual and reproductive health and the right to a healthy environment, are also routinely violated for women and girls living in poverty. Global data on maternal mortality rates show dramatic regional and inter-country inequalities, with poor women and girls from low-income countries being 70 per cent more likely than women in high-income countries to die as a result of preventable complications arising from pregnancy, childbirth and unsafe abortion.[[fn:66]] Women and girls living in poverty – in particular those with disabilities and those who are migrants or from ethnic minorities – are less likely to access routine cancer-screening services for breast and cervical cancer and they frequently cannot afford essential medications.[[fn:67]] These forms of direct and indirect discrimination within health-care systems constitute gender- and poverty-based violations of the right to health.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "WHO, Trends in Maternal Mortality 2000 to 2020: Estimates by WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, World Bank Group and UNDESA/Population Division."}, {"n": 67, "text": "Submission from the Legal Clinic of University of Murcia, with Cepaim."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Poverty and inequality: violations of women’s economic, social and cultural rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "The right to work – guaranteed in article 23 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, articles 6–8 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and article 11 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women – incorporates the right to equal remuneration for work of equal value and decent working conditions. The right to work can enable women to enjoy freedom from poverty, improve their decision-making power within households and society and enable them to exercise greater autonomy over many aspects of their lives.[[fn:68]] It was reiterated during the Working Group’s consultations that women and girls continued to experience structural gender discrimination in both formal and informal employment on the grounds of pregnancy and caring responsibilities.[[fn:69]] It was also highlighted that unequal and inadequate remuneration, precarious employment, lack of union representation, and violence and harassment in the workplace are all factors that increase sex- and gender-based inequalities and entrench poverty for women and girls. Submissions to the Working Group stressed the persistence of situations akin to slavery or indentured servitude among local and migrant domestic workers, and the ways in which these practices contribute to maintaining women and girls in situations of poverty and exploitation. Many of the other inputs received by the Working Group focused on the exploitative, precarious and gender-segregated nature of jobs in special economic and export-processing zones, where transnational corporations benefit from tax advantages while failing to adequately respect and protect the human rights of workers, the majority of whom are young women.[[fn:70]] Studies documenting the detrimental impact of the pandemic on women’s rights highlight the large numbers of jobs, primarily those held by workers “at the bottom of the pyramid whose class disadvantage was exacerbated by their marginalized social identity”, that were lost in the manufacturing sector as a result of the crisis.[[fn:71]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 68, "text": "A/HRC/44/51."}, {"n": 69, "text": "Shirin M. Rai, Benjamin D. Brown and Kanchana N. Ruwanpura, “SDG 8: decent work and economic growth: a gendered analysis”, World Development, vol. 113, January 2019, pp. 368–380."}, {"n": 70, "text": "Submission from APFWLD, “Situation of women workers in SEZ in Asia and the Pacific”."}, {"n": 71, "text": "UNRISD, Crises of Inequality, p. 180."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Poverty and inequality: violations of women’s economic, social and cultural rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "There are also significant gender inequalities within and between countries and regions in relation to access to finance, assets and digital networks. Data show that women are 9 per cent less likely than men to have a bank account and that they are also discriminated against in the areas of savings, credit, insurance and other financial services. In low- and middle-income countries, 300 million fewer women than men have access to the mobile Internet.[[fn:72]] These inequalities have important implications for women as business owners, particularly in the e-commerce sector, and on their ability to receive wages and social security payments.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 72, "text": "World Bank, “The World Bank in Gender”, 6 April 2023."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Poverty and inequality: violations of women’s economic, social and cultural rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "The right to bodily autonomy, recognized in the Beijing Declaration of 1995, as including sexual and reproductive rights and freedoms and the right to live free from violence, is crucial to ensuring that women and girls are equally able to exercise the right to live free from poverty.[[fn:73]] The absence of effective protection against violence and denials of sexual and reproductive autonomy not only deprive women living in poverty of their right to personal integrity, they also impede their right to equal participation in public life, education and employment, and impede the creation of businesses and other income-earning activities.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 73, "text": "See A/HRC/47/38."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Rights to bodily autonomy and integrity and to live free from all forms of violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "There are many aspects of the rights to bodily autonomy and integrity that are compromised for women and girls living in poverty. While progress has been made in ensuring the accessibility of contraceptive goods and services, there are still 164 million women globally who have an unmet need for family planning; most of these women and girls live in sub-Saharan Africa.[[fn:74]] The privatization of reproductive health services and products renders them unaffordable for low-income women and girls, which perpetuates inter-generational poverty.[[fn:75]] In addition, as noted above, the criminalization of women and girls seeking contraceptive goods and services or abortion care disproportionately affects those without the means to travel to other jurisdictions to access those services.[[fn:76]] The practice of coerced sterilization, particularly of ethnic minority and Indigenous women, including those deprived of their liberty, as well as of women with disabilities, is also an outcome of the intersectional discrimination and violence experienced by women and girls living in poverty. The gender inequalities and poverty being exacerbated as a result of conflict, occupation, climate change and disasters have increased school dropout, sexual violence and exploitation, forced and child marriage, early and unwanted pregnancies and trafficking in women and girls.[[fn:77]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 74, "text": "World Family Planning 2022: Meeting the Changing Needs for Family Planning – Contraceptive Use by Age and Method (United Nations publication, 2022)."}, {"n": 75, "text": "Open Space Association Deep Poverty Network Turkey."}, {"n": 76, "text": "Views expressed during consultations."}, {"n": 77, "text": "Submissions from the Bureau des Avocats Internationaux and the World Muslim Congress."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Rights to bodily autonomy and integrity and to live free from all forms of violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "Poverty and gender-based violence, including sexual violence and denials of bodily autonomy, therefore interact in a vicious, mutually reinforcing cycle. Women and girls facing sexual harassment at work, violence at home or violence on the streets are unable to participate on an equal basis in the labour market, and this in turn means that they are also discriminated against in connection with contributory social security benefits and are more likely to experience poverty, violence and homelessness in old age.[[fn:78]] When women and girls cannot access sexual and reproductive health education, information and goods and services, and family planning services, including abortion, gender-based inequalities and poverty are further entrenched and may be transmitted to future generations.[[fn:79]]", "labels": ["Persons in street situations", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 78, "text": "Submission from Legal Clinic of University of Murcia, with Cepaim."}, {"n": 79, "text": "Submissions from the World Muslim Congress and the Bureau des Avocats Internationaux."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Rights to bodily autonomy and integrity and to live free from all forms of violence"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "The right to social protection, guaranteed in article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and article 9 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights as well as in several ILO conventions, plays a crucial role in combating poverty by enabling all people to access an adequate standard of living that includes the rights to food and nutrition, housing, water and sanitation, and energy, as well as health and education. The right to social protection incorporates the right to “access and maintain benefits, whether in cash or in kind, without discrimination in order to secure protection” from a lack of work-related income, unaffordable health care, and insufficient family support.[[fn:80]] Target 5.4 of the Sustainable Development Goals, and the Global Alliance for Care, call upon all countries to recognize, value, reduce and redistribute unpaid care and domestic work through the provision of public services and social protection, and through redistributive policies, as key mechanisms to achieve gender equality. ILO conventions and recommendations on maternity protection and workers with family responsibilities, and the ILO Domestic Workers Convention, 2011 (No. 189), are useful advancements. Globally, however, there are enormous gaps in social protection, and an estimated 4.1 billion people worldwide are not covered by any benefits, the majority of those who are unprotected being older women in the African region.[[fn:81]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 19 (2008)."}, {"n": 81, "text": "ILO, World Social Protection Report 2020–2022: Social Protection at the Crossroads – in Pursuit of a Better Future (2021)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to social protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "While there have been improvements in social protection over recent decades and the COVID-19 crisis demonstrated that it was possible in many countries to rapidly implement benefits schemes, most social security systems continue to be gender-insensitive. The lack of gender-responsiveness in most social protection schemes is apparent in their exclusion of sexual and reproductive health services and conditions, failure to provide for leave and benefits for domestic violence-related harms, absence of support for women and girls in their roles as carers or as care-receivers throughout their life cycle, and making benefits contingent 74 World Family Planning 2022: Meeting the Changing Needs for Family Planning – Contraceptive Use by Age and Method (United Nations publication, 2022). 75 Open Space Association Deep Poverty Network Turkey. 76 Views expressed during consultations. 77 Submissions from the Bureau des Avocats Internationaux and the World Muslim Congress. 78 Submission from Legal Clinic of University of Murcia, with Cepaim. 79 Submissions from the World Muslim Congress and the Bureau des Avocats Internationaux. 80 Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 19 (2008). 81 ILO, World Social Protection Report 2020–2022: Social Protection at the Crossroads – in Pursuit of a Better Future (2021). GE.23-06173 on the rights holders’ marital and formal employment status, or on specific documentation that is inaccessible to women.[[fn:82]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 82, "text": "Views expressed during consultations."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to social protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "States and other duty bearers are required under international human rights law, and have made commitments in the Sustainable Development Goals, to establish equitable and sustainable systems to finance public spending on gender-responsive social protection systems.[[fn:83]] These funds should come through adopting progressive income and wealth taxes, along with a minimum corporate tax threshold; debt restructuring; undertaking gender- and child-responsive budgeting exercises; and lobbying for expanded development assistance and transfers.[[fn:84]]", "labels": ["Children"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 83, "text": "Isabel Ortiz, Matthew Cummins and Kalaivani Karunanethy, “Fiscal space for social protection and the Sustainable Development Goals: options to expand social investment in 187 countries”, Extension of Social Security Series, No. 48."}, {"n": 84, "text": "World Bank Group, The 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda and the World Bank Group: Closing the SDGs Financing Gap (2019)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to social protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "Many of the participants in the Working Group’s consultations raised the issue of the gender- and poverty-based discrimination associated with receiving social security entitlements.[[fn:85]] Women and girls with disabilities, migrants, refugees and those from ethnic minority and Indigenous communities are frequently the targets of intersectional forms of “welfare stigma”, which can reinforce inequalities and deter eligible recipients from claiming their entitlements.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 85, "text": "Submissions from ATD Fourth World."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "C. Gendered inequalities and international human rights: the right to live free from poverty and socioeconomic inequality", "Right to social protection"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "The right to be free from poverty cannot be realized in isolation from individual and collective rights to substantive equality.[[fn:86]] The meaningful participation of diverse groups of women and girls in conceptualizing, implementing and monitoring socioeconomic policies, norms and strategies is a core part of this process. The challenge is to move from non-discrimination as a vehicle for the protection of individual rights towards the realization of the relational and redistributive obligations that are also an integral but, as yet largely unrealized, part of international human rights law.[[fn:87]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 86, "text": "Morten Kjaerum, Martha F. Davis and Amanda Lyons, eds., COVID-19 and Human Rights (Routledge, 2021)."}, {"n": 87, "text": "UNRISD, Crises of Inequality."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The right to substantive equality requires resource mobilization and redistribution within and between countries. The obligations incumbent on States under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, particularly its article 2, and other human rights guarantees to realize economic, social and cultural rights “to the maximum of their available resources” incorporates positive duties to progressively achieve the implementation of human rights and to seek external resources for that purpose.[[fn:88]] The current moment of overlapping crises provides an opportunity to examine the human rights impacts of prevailing systems of global economic governance. The commitments made by States under articles 1 (1) and (2), 5 (1), 22 and 23 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, under the Declaration on the Right to Development and within the framework of Sustainable Development Goal 10 require wealthy countries to assist low-income countries in the realization of economic, social and cultural rights for everyone without discrimination and to cooperate to reduce inequalities between and within nations.[[fn:89]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 88, "text": "Margot E. Salomon, “Why should it matter that others have more? Poverty, inequality and the potential of international human rights law”, LSE Law, Society and Economy Working Papers, No. 15."}, {"n": 89, "text": "International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art. 2 (1); and Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 3 (1990), para. 13."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 50, "n": 15, "text": "89 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, art. 2 (1); and Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, general comment No. 3 (1990), para. 13. GE.23-06173 Tax justice", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 51, "n": 50, "text": "As noted above, to fulfil their human rights obligations to reduce gender inequality and poverty, States must direct adequate public resources to comprehensive social protection systems and services. A key mechanism for the redistribution of resources is through proportional and progressive taxation. One of the hallmarks of neoliberal economic policies over the past few decades has been a decline in the fiscal contributions being made by large corporations and high-income earners, while indirect taxes with regressive distributional impacts, such as value-added tax, have expanded.[[fn:90]] In addition to lower direct taxes, illicit financial flows by multinational corporations are depriving countries in the global South of up to $200 billion a year in lost fiscal revenues, and failures to effectively curb tax evasion, trade misinvoicing, corruption and money-laundering mean that there are fewer public resources available for equitable social and climate spending.[[fn:91]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 90, "text": "Bohoslavsky and Cantamutto, eds., The IMF and Human Rights: Interviews."}, {"n": 91, "text": "See A/77/169."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice", "Tax justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 52, "n": 51, "text": "Regressive taxation frameworks and illicit financial flows both have a particularly pernicious impact on women and girls, who account for a greater proportion of those living in poverty as a result of structural discrimination, and who are more likely than men to be responsible for caring for other family members, or to be care-receivers, and are therefore in greater need of social protection and public services.[[fn:92]] Tax justice, both nationally and globally, is a crucial mechanism for realizing human rights and for tackling socioeconomic inequalities and poverty, as Governments require fiscal revenue to sustainably finance investments in public services, social protection and gender-responsive infrastructure.[[fn:93]] Feminist methodologies for fiscal reform emphasize the need for transparent, gender-responsive taxation frameworks that recognize women’s indispensable labour in the economy and equitably redistribute resources from the wealthiest corporations and individuals to fund public provisioning.[[fn:94]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 92, "text": "Global Alliance for Tax Justice and others, Framing Feminist Taxation."}, {"n": 93, "text": "A/HRC/29/31 and A/HRC/26/28. See also Radhika Balakrishnan, James Heintz and Diane Elson, Rethinking Economic Policy for Social Justice: The Radical Potential of Human Rights."}, {"n": 94, "text": "Akina Mama wa Afrika and Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, “A feminist tax justice handbook for women in the informal economy” (2021)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice", "Tax justice"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 53, "n": 52, "text": "Debt cancellation is a prerequisite for just and human rights-based redistributive public policies. In 2021, in low-income countries, debt repayments represented 171 per cent of all spending on health care, education and social protection combined and, in 2022, debt servicing among low-income countries globally was estimated at $43 billion.[[fn:95]] If left unchecked, widespread, lasting debt crises in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic have the potential to set the achievement of global development goals back by at least a decade.[[fn:96]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 95, "text": "Oxfam, “First crisis, then catastrophe” (2022)."}, {"n": 96, "text": "See A/75/164."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice", "Debt cancellation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 54, "n": 53, "text": "There are alternative models to indebtedness that would not result in increased inequalities through the adoption of austerity and fiscal consolidation measures that lead to reduced social expenditure and that have been shown to undermine the human rights of women and girls living in poverty. In recent years, more than 60 countries have successfully renegotiated debts, and over 20 have defaulted on or repudiated public debt, preferring to invest debt service savings in social programmes.[[fn:97]] Since the COVID-19 pandemic, the G20’s Debt Service Suspension Initiative and the International Monetary Fund’s Catastrophe Containment and Relief Trust have provided some debt service relief to highly indebted poor countries. Additionally, in some country settings, it has been possible for data on the negative impact of austerity measures on the sexual and reproductive health and other rights of women and girls to be put forward to maintain programmes and budgets to guarantee those essential human rights.[[fn:98]] Those interventions have opened space for dialogue on the human rights impacts of debt and fiscal consolidation in specific countries, and in particular sectors such as education, health and nutrition, but more could be done with respect to cancelling debt and 90 Bohoslavsky and Cantamutto, eds., The IMF and Human Rights: Interviews. 91 See A/77/169. 92 Global Alliance for Tax Justice and others, Framing Feminist Taxation. 93 A/HRC/29/31 and A/HRC/26/28. See also Radhika Balakrishnan, James Heintz and Diane Elson, Rethinking Economic Policy for Social Justice: The Radical Potential of Human Rights. 94 Akina Mama wa Afrika and Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, “A feminist tax justice handbook for women in the informal economy” (2021). 95 Oxfam, “First crisis, then catastrophe” (2022). 96 See A/75/164. 97 Bohoslavsky and Cantamutto, The IMF and Human Rights: Interviews. 98 Views expressed during consultations. GE.23-06173 adopting systematic gender-responsive budgeting and financial processes which would allow Governments to reclaim space for the development of feminist and human rights-based economic policies.[[fn:99]] Equitable and transparent trade and investment systems", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 97, "text": "Bohoslavsky and Cantamutto, The IMF and Human Rights: Interviews."}, {"n": 98, "text": "Views expressed during consultations."}, {"n": 99, "text": "Ilene Grabel, “Global financial governance and progressive feminist agendas”, International Journal of Political Economy, vol. 51, No. 4 (2022), pp. 331–345; and IMF, “IMF strategy toward mainstreaming gender” (2022)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice", "Debt cancellation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 55, "n": 54, "text": "The extent to which trade liberalization has contributed to deepening sex- and gender-related inequalities and poverty is still unclear. There are some attempts being made within global and regional trade regimes to bring a “gender lens” to poverty and inequality. However, it is apparent that these processes need to do more than address women in their roles as entrepreneurs and small-business owners and instead take a more critical approach to analysing the human rights impacts of trade and investment agreements and disaggregate them by sex and gender and other axes of discrimination.[[fn:100]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 100, "text": "Views expressed during consultations."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice", "Equitable and transparent trade and investment systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 56, "n": 55, "text": "Many recent regional trade and investment agreements contain preambular commitments to gender equality and to improving the situation of women living in poverty, and in some cases specific chapters on gender equality; however, due to a lack of data, it is not known whether these commitments have resulted in material improvements in women’s lives.[[fn:101]] Regional trade integration has led to more employment opportunities for women in Africa, Asia and Latin America, but many of the jobs that have been created are poorly remunerated and precarious and do not provide scope for women to develop empowering careers.[[fn:102]] Gender equality provisions often do not cover e-commerce and digital trade or trade in special economic zones, and do not include accountability and dispute-settlement mechanisms for violation of such provisions.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "UNCTAD, “Making trade agreements work for gender equality: data and statistics”, Policy Brief, No. 81 (2020)."}, {"n": 102, "text": "UNCTAD, “Looking at the trade and gender nexus from a development perspective: a brief overview” (2022)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice", "Equitable and transparent trade and investment systems"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 57, "n": 56, "text": "Climate reparations are being discussed as part of the feminist Global Green New Deal that would attribute responsibility and define payments to be made by colonial powers for historical and ongoing extraction and contributions to global emissions.[[fn:103]] Funds established through these processes could be used to develop innovative and inclusive social and environmental policies. More generally, reparations should follow the human rights standards of providing restitution, compensation, satisfaction, rehabilitation and guarantees of non-repetition,[[fn:104]] and be gender-transformative, in line with international human rights law.[[fn:105]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 103, "text": "Feminist Economic Justice for People and Planet Action Nexus, “A feminist and decolonial Global Green New Deal”."}, {"n": 104, "text": "Basic Principles and Guidelines on the Right to a Remedy and Reparation for Victims of Gross Violations of International Human Rights Law and Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law."}, {"n": 105, "text": "See Ruth Rubio-Marin, “The gender of reparations in transitional societies”, in The Gender of Reparations: Unsettling Sexual Hierarchies while Redressing Human Rights Violations, Ruth Rubio-Marin, ed. (New York, Cambridge University Press, 2009)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice", "Reparations for climate change and other racial and social inequalities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 58, "n": 57, "text": "While Governments are the primary holders of obligations to ensure that all human rights are respected, protected and fulfilled, corporate actors also have responsibilities to respect and protect human rights and to provide adequate remedies for human rights harms that arise from their activities.[[fn:106]] Businesses have a key role to play in reducing poverty and inequalities globally and nationally, by upholding standards on human rights, environmental protection, labour relations and fiscal accountability.[[fn:107]] Several recent guidance documents have been developed to highlight the responsibilities of businesses to ensure that their activities advance the right to substantive gender equality.[[fn:108]] In practice, participants in the Working Group’s consultations noted that businesses were routinely failing to pay living or equal wages, or to offer social security, including paid maternity or carers’ leave, that many were not taking adequate steps to guarantee sexual and reproductive health and other rights of workers to bodily autonomy and freedom from violence, or to ensure women’s rights to collective bargaining and freedom of association. It was also emphasized that corporate due diligence procedures and grievance mechanisms for business-related human rights abuse were not gender-sensitive, let alone gender-transformative, and, as a result, were largely ineffective in changing discriminatory norms and practices.[[fn:109]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [{"n": 106, "text": "See A/HRC/8/5."}, {"n": 107, "text": "ESCAP, “Business initiatives to reduce poverty and inequality: strengthening the evidence base to leave no one behind” (2021)."}, {"n": 108, "text": "A/HRC/41/49; A/HRC/41/43; and OHCHR, “Tackling discrimination against lesbian, gay, bi, trans & intersex people: standards of conduct for business”, November 2017."}, {"n": 109, "text": "See A/HRC/41/43."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: gendered inequalities of poverty: feminist and human rights-based approaches", "D. A feminist human rights-based economy: substantive equality, solidarity, and socioeconomic and environmental justice", "Corporate accountability"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 59, "n": 58, "text": "Too little attention has been paid to the reduction of socioeconomic inequalities as a prerequisite for effective action to combat poverty. The international human rights framework provides tools to measure and understand how the rights of women and girls to live free from poverty and inequality are being systematically violated by particular political, social, cultural and economic norms and institutions. Human rights instruments also contain important redistributive and solidarity obligations that, if fully implemented, would enable States as well as other duty bearers to create sustainable, feminist and human rights-based economies.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 60, "n": 59, "text": "A feminist and human rights-based approach to poverty and inequality is based on the assertion that the role of the economy is to support human dignity, well-being and human rights. A feminist human rights framework focusing on women’s human rights, especially their economic, social and cultural rights and their right to participate in all spheres of life, allows specific forms of structural discrimination to be redressed. This entails examining wealth and income distribution, intra-household dynamics, access to and control over assets, including those that are held in common, environmental protection, time allocation, care and well-being, and the right to rest and leisure of women and girls, as pivotal elements of gender equality and sustainable development. This approach also draws attention to the responsibilities of States and other actors to take targeted steps to address inequalities in the distribution of power, resources and entitlements and to advance collective and individual human rights, including the right to development. The adoption of human rights-based and feminist perspectives by States and international organizations to enable the creation of progressive, redistributive global financial governance frameworks is essential for addressing both inequalities and poverty in a comprehensive and effective manner.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 61, "n": 60, "text": "The right to live free from poverty and not to be discriminated against on the basis of socioeconomic condition should be further developed as key human rights, and appropriate systems should be established to collect disaggregated data on the multiple dimensions of inequalities and poverty. Identifying and effectively responding to intersecting and multiple forms of inequality on the grounds of poverty, sex and gender, race, ethnicity, age, ability, religion, geographical location, migration status, sexual orientation, gender identity and other conditions must be a priority for participatory and targeted policies and strategies at the local, national, regional and international levels.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 62, "n": 61, "text": "It is imperative to analyse the ways in which overlapping inequalities drive and amplify ecological, social, political and economic crises and to ensure that poverty-eradication policies are directed towards the transformation of unequal power relations through the negotiation of a new human rights-based feminist eco-social consensus. Given the rapidly approaching deadline for the achievement of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, and noting the slow rate of progress on Sustainable Development Goals 1, 5 and 10, it is essential to reiterate the centrality of women’s and girls’ human rights and gender equality to processes of poverty eradication and to combating inequalities both within and between nations.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 63, "n": 62, "text": "States should take positive measures for the realization of the full range of internationally recognized human rights of women and girls, to eliminate poverty and achieve substantive equality, inter alia by:\n(a) Grounding all laws and policies, especially in the economic and social arenas, in the core human rights principles of equality and non-discrimination, the meaningful participation of women and girls, accountability and the progressive realization and non-retrogression of economic, social and cultural rights, in line with applicable human rights norms and standards for each specific right;\n(b) Guaranteeing universal, accessible, adequate, available, gender-responsive and comprehensive social protection, adhering to and applying relevant ILO conventions, and ensuring that gender-responsive social protection is granted throughout the life cycle of women and girls as part of the right to an adequate standard of living, regardless of marital status, employment or participation in the “formal” labour market;\n(c) Ensuring equal rights to land, housing and property, realizing the rights to food and nutrition, water and sanitation, health, free or affordable quality and accessible education, childcare, health care and elder care, and decent work and rights at work, including freedom of association and collective bargaining, as well as women’s and girls’ right to participate in all areas of political, social, cultural and economic life;\n(d) Taking steps to prevent and respond to intersectional discrimination against women and girls who are beneficiaries of social protection;\n(e) Recognizing and developing comprehensive and gender-responsive regulatory frameworks, policies and programmes to realize the right to care, which encompasses the right to provide and to receive care and to exercise self-care and collective care, based on the principles of State, social and gender-shared responsibility, equality, universality and autonomy;\n(f) Realizing women’s and girls’ rights to bodily autonomy and freedom from violence, ensuring the availability, affordability and accessibility of sexual and reproductive health rights, information, and services and goods, including to address menstrual poverty, as well as all necessary measures to prevent and respond to gender-based discrimination and violence, through adequately funded public services, welfare systems, and the implementation of economic rights;\n(g) Carrying out gender-responsive resource redistribution through the recognition of the value of the care economy, fair fiscal policies (including proportional and progressive taxation for high-income earners and corporations), equitable trade and investment policies, debt cancellation or debt relief in case of State insolvency, and corporate accountability;\n(h) Ensuring the realization of cross-cutting rights, such as access to justice, including for violations of socioeconomic rights, the right to development and the right to a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment;\n(i) Identifying the ways in which crises, compounded forms of structural discrimination and legal and policy frameworks place women and girls at aggravated risk of poverty and inequality and result in further human rights violations, and preventing, mitigating and addressing such risks;\n(j) Adopting a feminist and human rights-based approach to the measurement of intersecting forms of discrimination to ensure a gender, equality-centred and sustainable development approach to poverty, with enhanced attention to the groups of women and girls identified in the present report as being in heightened conditions of marginalization and exclusion;\n(k) Repealing or modifying laws that criminalize acts associated with poverty and life-sustaining activities, the exercise of sexual and reproductive autonomy rights, including abortion, and other status offences that disproportionately affect poor and marginalized women and girls;\n(l) Guaranteeing equal representation and voice in labour unions and collective bargaining for women workers and creating independent and transparent grievance mechanisms to protect and fulfil women’s rights to decent work and to enable women to enjoy these rights and to receive gender-transformative remedies in the event of violations;\n(m) Ensuring that trade and investment negotiations and positions are transparent, participatory and aimed at eliminating gender, affluence and other biases, and are consistent with and promote international human rights obligations as well as the 2030 Agenda. This includes gender parity in representation and participation of women in all their diversity in the development of trade and investment agreements and policies. Gender and human rights impact assessments should be carried out prior to concluding bilateral, regional and multilateral trade and investment agreements and the findings of those assessments should be implemented and a dispute-settlement mechanism should be set forth in relation to the gender equality and human rights provisions of such agreements;\n(n) Complying with the immediate obligations to eliminate discrimination, and guarantee the minimum core of all economic, social and cultural rights and their progressive realization; dedicating maximum available resources to the realization, availability and accessibility of such rights for all women and girls; and creating and promoting mechanisms for their full legal recognition and justiciability, including by ratifying the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, as well as their Optional Protocols;\n(o) Fulfilling, particularly in the case of economically developed and wealthy States, the obligations of international assistance and cooperation under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, applying a gender- and human rights-based approach under the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and applicable standards, and promoting the adoption of a binding international instrument on the right to development, as crucial redistributive mechanisms;\n(p) Reinvigorating the global commitments made under the Sustainable Development Goals through the use of creative, feminist and human rights-based strategies – such as those outlined in section II, subsection B, of the present report – and through national indicators that focus on the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals 1, 5 and 10 in particular.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 64, "n": 63, "text": "International and regional economic, financial and monetary institutions and their member States should:\n(a) Take concerted steps to move away from growth-centred and neoliberal paradigms that foster inequalities, by adopting feminist and human rights-based approaches which prioritize the elimination of poverty and of gendered socioeconomic inequality;\n(b) Design, construct and implement gender-responsive budgets to realize women’s and girls’ human rights and gender equality, increase financing in ordinary budgets, use gender-budgeting tools, adopt measures such as subsidies, aid, development cooperation and gender-sensitive loans and financing and create mechanisms for budget accountability;\n(c) Adopt inclusive feminist approaches and methodologies by ensuring the participation and consultation of diverse groups of women and girls in the design, preparation and implementation of economic and social laws and policies at the national, regional and international levels, ensuring gender parity in decision-making bodies and listening to and valuing alternative forms of knowledge, including in the economic arena, with the goal of transforming unequal socioeconomic structures and institutions;\n(d) Regularly collect and publicly disseminate disaggregated data across all key metrics, especially those related to the Sustainable Development Goals that focus on poverty and inequalities (in particular Goals 1, 5 and 10), and direct special attention to gender-based discrimination and violence against women and girls, including the targeting of women and girl human and environmental rights defenders. Ensure that effective and compatible methodologies are used to enable aggregation and analysis. To the extent possible, further disaggregate data based on intersecting identities that can drive further marginalization;\n(e) Identify and modify implicit and explicit fiscal biases against women and girls, specific groups and countries through the allocation of budgets to reduce intersectional socioeconomic inequalities, the adoption of tax justice measures and the identification and combating of tax avoidance and evasion by corporate actors, as well as corruption. Gender and human rights impact assessments must be fully integrated into national budgets and economic policies with a view to eliminating poverty and inequality. The value of the care economy must be recognized, and fiscal policy must be used to reduce and redistribute workloads through gender-responsive taxation systems that ensure adequate investments in policies that promote women’s and girls’ rights and gender equality;\n(f) Adopt holistic, gender-responsive measurements of poverty and inequality that capture diverse experiences and go beyond commonly used thresholds of relative inequalities and the situation of those in the bottom 10 per cent of wealth and income metrics, and integrally address the income and wealth held by the richest segment of the population. Such measurements should be intersectional and gender-sensitive and highlight the realization of the various economic, social, cultural and civil and political rights that relate to the right to an adequate standard of living of women and girls in a given context;\n(g) Develop and mainstream gender-responsive and human rights-based macroeconomic policy prescriptions on structural adjustment and national debt repayments in the light of significant evidence of their inequitable impacts on the human rights of women and girls. Debt sustainability analysis and impact assessments of economic reforms should consider the human rights obligations of both debtor States and their creditors towards the borrowers’ populations, including the prohibition of implementing or promoting debt and macroeconomic policies with disproportionate effects on women.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-53-39-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-53-39", "idx": 65, "n": 64, "text": "Corporations, and the States and international and regional organizations exercising jurisdiction and control over them, should:\n(a) Contribute to the realization of the rights of all women and girls, implement participatory gender and human rights impact and due diligence processes, in compliance with the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, and ensure that grievance mechanisms and remedies for business-related abuses are accessible, effective and gender-transformative;\n(b) Ensure corporate accountability and tax justice, particularly for transnational and high-profit corporations, through compliance with human rights and fiscal commitments and obligations, and implement the gender guidance to the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights. States should mainstream a feminist and human rights-based approach into their national action plans and other national follow-up mechanisms on business and human rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2023, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report covers the main activities of the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls from the time of submission of its previous report[[fn:1]] until March 2024, and includes its stocktaking and vision-setting for the future.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A/HRC/53/39."}], "section": ["I. Activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "At its thirty-seventh session, held in New York from 8 to 12 May 2023, the Working Group met with civil society organizations, debriefed States members of the Security Council on its mission to Afghanistan, conducted jointly with the Special Rapporteur on the situation of human rights in Afghanistan, and held consultations on its future guidance documents. It also met with representatives of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women) and the Department of Economic and Social Affairs, the Special Rapporteurs on the right to development and on the rights of Indigenous Peoples and Member State representatives.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "At its thirty-eighth session, held in Geneva from 9 to 13 October 2023, the Working Group met with representatives of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Committee on the Rights of the Child, UN-Women and the World Food Programme. It also met with the Independent Expert on protection against violence and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity and the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights, held hybrid consultations with activists and academics on discrimination against women and girls and launched its guidance documents on eliminating discrimination against sex workers and on men’s accountability for gender equality.[[fn:2]]", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/wg-women-and-girls/resources."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "At its thirty-ninth session, held in Geneva from 15 to 19 January 2024, the Working Group held meetings with representatives of Member States, the United Nations Deputy High Commissioner for Human Rights, representatives of civil society organizations based in Geneva, the Special Rapporteur on Afghanistan and the Independent Expert on protection against violence and discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity, among others. It also held four virtual regional consultations with civil society and one consultation with girl activists.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "A. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "The Working Group visited Afghanistan from 27 April to 4 May 2023, jointly with the Special Rapporteur on Afghanistan. It also visited Malta from 26 June to 7 July 2023 and Mauritania from 25 September to 6 October 2023. It thanks the Governments of Afghanistan, Malta and Mauritania for their cooperation and encourages States to respond positively to its requests for visits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "B. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "The Working Group addressed several communications to Governments and other stakeholders, individually or jointly with other mandate holders. The communications concerned a wide range of subjects, including discriminatory laws and practices, allegations of violations of the rights of women human rights defenders, journalists and lawyers, women deprived of liberty and migrant, refugee, asylum-seeking and stateless women and girls, as well as trafficking in women and girls, gender-based violence and violations of sexual and 1 A/HRC/53/39. 2 See https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/wg-women-and-girls/resources. GE.24-07559 reproductive health rights.[[fn:3]] The Working Group issued press releases, both individually and jointly with other mandate holders, the human rights treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.[[fn:4]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Non-citizens and stateless", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "All communications are available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TmSearch/TMDocuments."}, {"n": 4, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/latest?field_content_category_target_id%5b162%5d=162&field_entity_target_id%5b1314%5d=1314&field_published_date_value%5bmin%5d=&field_published_date_value%5bmax%5d=&sort_bef_combine=field_published_date_value_DESC."}], "section": ["I. Activities", "C. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The members of the Working Group undertook numerous other activities in their official capacity, including participation in regional consultations and expert meetings and engagements with stakeholders. In particular, the Chair presented an oral report to the General Assembly at its seventy-eighth session and addressed the Commission on the Status of Women at its sixty-eighth session, for the first time during the opening segment. Moreover, members of the Working Group contributed to the seventy-seventh ordinary session of the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, the Gender Apartheid Inquiry conducted by a parliamentary panel in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Human Rights Institute of the International Bar Association, several discussions on advancing gender equality, organized by UN-Women, and a high-level panel discussion on gender apartheid in Afghanistan, organized by the Malala Fund for Girls’ Right to Education, the International Peace Institute and the Atlantic Council. The Working Group continued to chair the Platform of Independent Expert Mechanisms on the Elimination of Discrimination and Violence against Women until 29 February and convened various meetings of the Platform during its sessions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Activities", "D. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "In the present report, the Working Group takes stock of its past work, focusing on the past six years, and analyses the main lessons learned. In addition, it presents its vision for the future. It is grateful for the responses to the questionnaire that it sent to all the Permanent Missions of Member States to the United Nations and other international organizations in Geneva and to other stakeholders on lessons learned, challenges and opportunities relating to the work of the mandate. Similarly, it wishes to thank all participants in the consultations held in connection with the preparation of the present report.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "In fulfilling its mandate, the Working Group has consistently addressed the elimination of discrimination against women and girls in all fields – civil, political, economic, social and cultural – from the perspective of States’ obligations to respect, protect and fulfil women’s and girls’ human rights. Mindful of the fact that women and girls are not uniform but diverse and distinct in many ways, the Working Group has considered and addressed the intersection of sex- and gender-based discrimination with other grounds of discrimination. At the same time, it has emphasized that there are shared aspects of discrimination against women and girls that persist in all cultures, albeit with differing levels of intensity and impact.[[fn:5]] It has reaffirmed and prioritized the obligation of States to remove obstacles to and proactively ensure substantive gender equality in all human rights, as recognized under international human rights law.[[fn:6]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "A/HRC/38/46, para. 11."}, {"n": 6, "text": "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 2 and 3; International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, arts. 2 and 3; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, arts. 2–5; Convention on the Rights of the Child, art. 2; African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights, art. 18 (3); Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa; American Convention on Human Rights, art. 1; Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence Against Women; Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (European Convention on Human Rights), art. 14; and Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Since its establishment in 2010, the Working Group has underlined that progress in advancing gender equality has not been linear and has noted both positive reforms and regressions.[[fn:7]] In 2018, on the basis of what it was able to observe and document during its first six years of work, the Working Group warned about the resurgence of a conservative and retrogressive narrative in international forums and at the national level, accompanied by attempts to reinstate policies or legislation that are harmful to women and girls, especially in the areas of family life and bodily autonomy.[[fn:8]] Six years later, it is with the greatest concern that the Working Group observes that the backlash against women’s and girls’ human rights is intensifying and has reached extreme proportions in certain countries.[[fn:9]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "A/HRC/20/28, para. 12."}, {"n": 8, "text": "See A/HRC/38/46."}, {"n": 9, "text": "See, for example, A/HRC/53/21; and OHCHR, “Iran’s proposed hijab law could amount to ‘gender apartheid’: UN experts”, press release, 1 September 2023."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "The Working Group defines gender backlash as denial of the recognition, enforcement and realization of women’s and girls’ rights or retrogression in that regard. It emphasizes that the gender backlash not only destabilizes and undermines the foundation of the human rights system by denying equal rights to half of the world’s population, but also makes impossible any prospect of just, inclusive, peaceful and sustainable societies. The need to reaffirm and recommit to the universality of women’s and girls’ rights, as well as the inalienable, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated nature of all human rights, is paramount and requires coherent, systematic, comprehensive and coordinated efforts by all.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 12, "n": 2, "text": "Reversing rollbacks of human rights and reaffirming the universality thereof", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "1. Conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 13, "n": 12, "text": "Retrogressive movements are jeopardizing women’s and girls’ human rights, as well as the progress achieved in advancing gender equality in all regions of the world. Active resistance to gender equality has been identified as among the key factors explaining the slow progress and, in some cases, reversals of gains made in achieving the Sustainable Development Goals, with no indicator under Goal 5 on gender equality having reached the “target met or almost met” level globally.[[fn:10]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 10, "text": "UN-Women and Department of Economic and Social Affairs, “Progress on the Sustainable Development Goals: the gender snapshot 2023” (New York, 2023)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "2. Reversing rollbacks of human rights and reaffirming the universality thereof"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 14, "n": 13, "text": "In their responses to the questionnaire circulated by the Working Group, States indicated that constitutional amendments, legislation and policies directed at eliminating discrimination against women and girls have continued to be adopted in a number of countries, including in areas such as sexual and reproductive health rights, prevention of gender-based violence, labour inclusion, economic empowerment, public and political participation and the valuation and redistribution of unpaid care and domestic work. The institutional framework to oversee the implementation of such measures has been strengthened in some countries. The Working Group notes that, in the past decade alone, more than 40 countries have amended and rewritten their constitutions to incorporate provisions advancing women’s and girls’ rights.[[fn:11]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See Claudia Flores, “The long road ahead: the first period of a gender-responsive Constitution in Zimbabwe”, in From Parchment to Practice: Implementing New Constitutions, Tom Ginsburg and Aziz Z. Huq, eds. (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2020)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "2. Reversing rollbacks of human rights and reaffirming the universality thereof"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 15, "n": 14, "text": "However, also acknowledged in the responses were the growth of anti-rights movements, attacks on women’s and girls’ equal rights and the persistent challenge of political violence against women. Some countries face obstacles in adopting, regulating and disseminating laws to advance gender equality, as well as gaps in both the adoption and the implementation of relevant public policies, including due to the non-allocation of the necessary funds. The Working Group has similarly observed that, even when progressive language to advance women’s and girls’ rights is introduced into national constitutions and legislation, including the prohibition of harmful practices, implementation often remains a challenge, as women’s and girls’ issues continue to be sidelined or minimized, and the social transformation required to remedy gender inequalities is frequently met with strong resistance.[[fn:12]] In some cases, such resistance has fuelled attempts to withdraw existing guarantees, including the prohibition of harmful practices.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 12, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "2. Reversing rollbacks of human rights and reaffirming the universality thereof"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 16, "n": 15, "text": "The gender backlash has been driven by nationalist, fundamentalist and conservative political, cultural and religious movements, encompassing governmental, religious and civil society actors. These movements have formed various national and transnational alliances aimed at promoting stereotypical attitudes about the roles of women and men in the family and society that restrict women’s and girls’ choices and potential in many aspects of their lives.[[fn:13]] They have attacked the term “gender”, seeing it as a tool of “ideological colonization” that aims to destroy the “traditional family” and “family values”.[[fn:14]] These alliances have succeeded in influencing legislation, policy and practice, as well as, in some cases, in altering public opinion. As a result, the world is witnessing a growing backlash against sexual and reproductive health rights, including comprehensive education on sexual and reproductive health, ever-present misogynistic statements in the media and the rise of anti-gender discourse in the public domain, even by high-ranking politicians, as well as attacks on women and girl human rights defenders.[[fn:15]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "See Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, “Gender equality and gender backlash”, position paper, available at https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/Women/WG/Gender-equality-and-gender-backlash.pdf. See also Haley McEwen and Lata Narayanaswamy, “The international anti-gender movement: understanding the rise of anti-gender discourses in the context of development, human rights and social protection”, United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (May 2023)."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, “Gender equality and gender backlash”, p. 7. See also A/HRC/38/46 and A/HRC/43/48."}, {"n": 15, "text": "See, for example, A/76/258, A/78/288, A/HRC/40/60, A/HRC/43/48, A/HRC/47/38, CEDAW/C/BGR/CO/8, CEDAW/C/HUN/CO/9 and CEDAW/C/SRB/CO/4. More generally, see Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, “Gender equality and gender backlash”."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "2. Reversing rollbacks of human rights and reaffirming the universality thereof"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 17, "n": 16, "text": "The backlash has been propelled by some Governments, which have challenged the universality of human rights, using religious and cultural justifications.[[fn:16]] The Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief has referred to considerable evidence that, in all regions of the world, actors citing religious justifications for their actions have advocated to Governments and to the broader public for the preservation or imposition of laws and policies that directly or indirectly discriminate against women, girls and lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT+) persons.[[fn:17]] The Working Group emphasizes that arguments framed in terms of cultural diversity and freedom of religion cannot be invoked to justify denial of rights and discrimination against women and girls.[[fn:18]]", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 16, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, para. 48."}, {"n": 17, "text": "A/HRC/43/48, para. 7."}, {"n": 18, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, para. 47. See also A/HRC/29/40."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "2. Reversing rollbacks of human rights and reaffirming the universality thereof"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 18, "n": 17, "text": "Various types of crises, such as political, social, economic, public health, environmental and humanitarian crises, not only have a disproportionate impact in themselves on women and girls, but are also used to erode their rights.[[fn:19]] The Working Group has noted that rising authoritarianism and crises, uncontrolled greed for profit and skyrocketing socioeconomic inequality, which have been exacerbated since the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, as well as the instrumentalization of religion, have contributed to the pushback against women’s and girls’ rights in all areas.[[fn:20]] At the same time, anti-gender discourses and attacks on women’s and girls’ rights appear to be “crisis management” strategies: they serve to maintain, assert or revive certain social hierarchies, which are at once gendered, classed and racialized, in the face of the systemic crisis of transnational neoliberal economics and neocolonial geopolitics, which have been thriving on the “depletion” of women and nature.[[fn:21]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 19, "text": "See A/HRC/47/38."}, {"n": 20, "text": "See A/HRC/38/46; A/HRC/53/39; and Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, “Gender equality and gender backlash”."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See, for example, Jerker Edström, Alan Greig and Chloe Skinner, “Patriarchal (dis)orders: backlash as crisis management”, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, vol. 49, No. 2 (2023)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "2. Reversing rollbacks of human rights and reaffirming the universality thereof"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 19, "n": 18, "text": "In some contexts, the gender backlash has not been immediately evident. As noted in the responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire, in many cases, it takes subtle forms, such as impasses in the implementation of relevant policies, a lack of or reductions in budget allocations or the dismantling or defunding of gender-equality bodies.[[fn:22]] It can take forms that promote progress in one area but involve a hidden cost or disproportionate burden on women and girls in another.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "See also Conny Roggeband and Andrea Krizsán, “Democratic backsliding and the backlash against women’s rights: understanding the current challenges for feminist politics”, Discussion Paper No. 35 (UN-Women, 2020)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "2. Reversing rollbacks of human rights and reaffirming the universality thereof"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 20, "n": 19, "text": "The backlash has become evident in extreme manifestations of gender inequality that fail to generate a proportionate response from the global community. A devastating expression of the rollback of gender equality is gender apartheid, understood as inhumane acts committed in the context of an institutionalized regime of systematic discrimination, oppression and domination by one group against another group or groups, based on gender, and committed with the intention of maintaining that regime.[[fn:23]] The Working Group considers that the case of Afghanistan, and the predominantly muted State reaction, is a concerning example of gender backlash. The pattern of large-scale systematic violations of women’s and girls’ fundamental rights in Afghanistan by the discriminatory and misogynistic edicts, policies and harsh enforcement methods of the Taliban, all in the service of the political goals of an extremist regime, constitutes an institutionalized framework of apartheid based on gender, and merits an unequivocal response.[[fn:24]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "See A/HRC/53/21 and A/HRC/WG.11/40/1."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See A/HRC/53/21."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "A. Introduction", "2. Reversing rollbacks of human rights and reaffirming the universality thereof"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 21, "n": 20, "text": "Over the past six years, the Working Group has strived to identify progress towards achieving gender equality and promising practices, in a global context marked by a mounting gender backlash. It has continued to document the main challenges to eliminating discrimination against women and girls in all their diversity.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 22, "n": 21, "text": "There has been some progress, but gender equality is not nearly a reality. Even when legal and policy advancements are achieved, implementation gaps are often alarmingly wide, impeding substantive progress, and they do not benefit all women and girls equally. Thus, women and girls continue to face discrimination in all spheres of their lives, frequently starting within their families and communities, while the gender backlash undermines current achievements and prospects for further progress.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 23, "n": 22, "text": "In the following sections of the present report, the Working Group outlines the progress and regressions identified in its thematic reports, which were devoted to the five themes that it identified as priorities in 2018, when it set out its vision for its second six-year mandate:[[fn:25]] women deprived of liberty;[[fn:26]] women’s human rights in the changing world of work;[[fn:27]] women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis;[[fn:28]] girls’ and young women’s activism;[[fn:29]] and feminist and human rights-based approaches to gendered inequalities of poverty.[[fn:30]] The sections are organized around four main areas – political and public life, economic and social life, family and cultural life, and health and safety – which the Working Group has used to guide its work since its inception in an effort to address discrimination in all aspects of women’s and girls’ lives.[[fn:31]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "A/HRC/38/46, paras. 73–81."}, {"n": 26, "text": "A/HRC/41/33."}, {"n": 27, "text": "A/HRC/44/51."}, {"n": 28, "text": "A/HRC/47/38."}, {"n": 29, "text": "A/HRC/50/25."}, {"n": 30, "text": "A/HRC/53/39."}, {"n": 31, "text": "A/HRC/20/28, para. 21."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 24, "n": 23, "text": "In its report on girls’ and young women’s activism, the Working Group noted that girls and young women were at the forefront of initiatives aimed at transforming societies towards social justice, gender equality and sustainability, despite, and frequently in reaction to, the barriers that they continued to face in participating in public and political life. Some States had adopted specific legislation that expressly contemplated the right of children and young people to participate in decision-making processes concerning them and provided for the adoption of special measures to encourage their participation. In some other States, dedicated programmes, policies and strategies had been adopted to promote the participation of children and young people in decision-making. A number of initiatives had been introduced to promote and support the engagement of children and young people, including girls, with independent national human rights mechanisms. In addition, international human rights bodies were increasingly involving children.[[fn:32]] The Working Group has incorporated a girls’ rights approach into its work, has been meeting with girls and young women during its country visits and has carried out specific consultations with them for its thematic reports.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "A/HRC/50/25, paras. 8, 61, 62, 64 and 66."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "1. Advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 25, "n": 24, "text": "In its report on women’s human rights in the changing world of work, the Working Group noted that important trends, including technological change, demographic change, accelerated globalization and the shift to sustainable economies, were affecting the world of work and would shape its future. Those trends provided some opportunities to advance gender equality and women’s rights in the world of work, provided that structural and systemic discrimination against women and girls was addressed. In this respect, the Working Group welcomed the adoption of the International Labour Organization (ILO) Violence and Harassment Convention, 2019 (No. 190), which marked a significant advancement towards creating a world of safe and decent work for all, with a particular focus on addressing women’s experiences of violence and harassment.[[fn:33]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "See A/HRC/44/51."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "1. Advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 26, "n": 25, "text": "More generally, regarding strategies to address the poverty and socioeconomic inequality faced by women and girls, in its report on gendered inequalities of poverty, the Working Group highlighted the contribution of social movements advocating for transformative change from the perspective of feminist political economy and human rights, which had drawn attention to the existence of alternatives to unjust economic and social policies and institutions. Several social movements were championing a feminist and decolonial Global Green New Deal, which would entail a redistribution and revalidation of labour, and investments in the care sector, as well as a reimagining of the global public commons and goods so that they were used equitably and sustainably. It was highlighted in the report that poverty and inequality were not inevitable. Poverty was a gendered phenomenon that resulted from specific policy choices and structures that urgently needed transformation with a feminist and human rights-based approach.[[fn:34]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 34, "text": "A/HRC/53/39, paras. 13, 16 and 23."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "1. Advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 27, "n": 26, "text": "In its report on women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in crisis, the Working Group noted that some States had enshrined women’s and girls’ sexual and reproductive health rights in their constitutions. Moreover, sexual and reproductive health services had been formally recognized as essential in certain States. The Working Group highlighted the interventions, in some States, of national human rights institutions and courts aimed at protecting sexual and reproductive health rights during situations of crisis, including during the COVID-19 pandemic, by drawing attention to shortcomings in the design and/or implementation of crisis responses.[[fn:35]] 35 Furthermore, States had been held responsible for failing to protect the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls in cases 31 A/HRC/20/28, para. 21. 32 A/HRC/50/25, paras. 8, 61, 62, 64 and 66. 33 See A/HRC/44/51. 34 A/HRC/53/39, paras. 13, 16 and 23. 35 A/HRC/47/38, paras. 28 and 38. GE.24-07559 concerning access to therapeutic abortion,[[fn:36]] non-discriminatory and timely access to maternal health care,[[fn:37]] mistreatment during childbirth[[fn:38]] and access to contraceptive information and services.[[fn:39]] The Working Group welcomed the judicial recognition of the harms caused by sexual and reproductive violence during conflict and the provision of reparations.[[fn:40]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, paras. 28 and 38."}, {"n": 36, "text": "See Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, L.C. v. Peru (CEDAW/C/50/D/22/2009)."}, {"n": 37, "text": "See Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, Da Silva Pimentel v. Brazil (CEDAW/C/49/D/17/2008) and S.F.M. v. Spain (CEDAW/C/75/D/138/2018)."}, {"n": 38, "text": "See CEDAW/C/IRL/CO/6-7."}, {"n": 39, "text": "See CEDAW/C/OP.8/PHL/1."}, {"n": 40, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, para. 39."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "1. Advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 28, "n": 2, "text": "Facing and countering setbacks (a) Political and public life", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "1. Advancing gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 29, "n": 27, "text": "The Working Group has devoted particular attention to the political and public participation of girls and young women. It has noted that common misperceptions around children’s right to participation in political and public life, restrictions on their autonomy, disregard for their best interests, paternalistic control and superficial, tokenistic efforts to involve them in diverse processes limit the freedom and space of engagement of children and young people in general. In the case of girls and young women, these barriers are dramatically compounded by predominant gender stereotypes and patriarchal social norms.[[fn:41]]", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "A/HRC/50/25, paras. 29 and 70."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(a) Political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 30, "n": 28, "text": "Lack of safety and security is a major barrier to the activism of girls and young women, who are often exposed to attacks, harassment and violence, including sexual violence. They may face domestic violence as a reprisal for their activism or may be separated from their children by their partners and family as a form of punishment. In addition, some of the activists with whom the Working Group met mentioned their experience of arbitrary arrests, intimidation, threats of killings, kidnappings, being tracked and spied on and the abuse of anti-terrorist legislation to further shrink the civic space and restrict their activities. Digital gender-based violence and harassment add a further layer of challenges to girls’ and young women’s activism.[[fn:42]] In the context of the backlash against gender equality, girls and women face increased risks of harassment and violence when engaging on themes related to gender equality.[[fn:43]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "Ibid., paras. 36, 38, 39 and 41."}, {"n": 43, "text": "See Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, “Gender equality and gender backlash”."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(a) Political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 31, "n": 29, "text": "The Working Group recognizes girl and young women activists who take action to advance human rights as human rights defenders, regardless of how they identify themselves or are perceived by others, and they are thus entitled to all related legal protections.[[fn:44]] It has underscored that girls’ and young women’s equal rights and opportunities in all areas are the basis for creating an enabling and just environment for their activism. The dignity and agency of all girls and young women must be recognized and actively promoted, supported and protected, while ensuring safeguards against threats, violence and reprisals, including offline and online harassment and violence, and undertaking concrete steps to remove the structural barriers and the systemic disadvantages that they face.[[fn:45]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 44, "text": "A/HRC/50/25, para. 14."}, {"n": 45, "text": "Ibid., para. 72."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(a) Political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 32, "n": 30, "text": "Women and girls are disproportionately represented among the world’s poor. Global projections show that an estimated 388 million women and girls were living in extreme poverty in 2022 (compared with 372 million men and boys).[[fn:46]] The current situation is the result of historical and continuing economic policy choices that have been developed within 36 See Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, L.C. v. Peru (CEDAW/C/50/D/22/2009). 37 See Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, Da Silva Pimentel v. Brazil (CEDAW/C/49/D/17/2008) and S.F.M. v. Spain (CEDAW/C/75/D/138/2018). 38 See CEDAW/C/IRL/CO/6-7. 39 See CEDAW/C/OP.8/PHL/1. 40 A/HRC/47/38, para. 39. 41 A/HRC/50/25, paras. 29 and 70. 42 Ibid., paras. 36, 38, 39 and 41. 43 See Working Group on discrimination against women and girls, “Gender equality and gender backlash”. 44 A/HRC/50/25, para. 14. 45 Ibid., para. 72. 46 UN-Women, “Poverty deepens for women and girls, according to latest projections”, 1 February 2022, available at https://data.unwomen.org/features/poverty-deepens-women-and-girls-accordinglatest-projections. GE.24-07559 patriarchal political, legal and socioeconomic systems and institutions, ignoring the specific experiences and rights of girls and women. Predominant approaches to women’s poverty concentrate on increasing the economic productivity of individual women, rather than analysing the systems of power that generate and reproduce unequal gender relations within families, communities, institutions and markets.[[fn:47]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 46, "text": "UN-Women, “Poverty deepens for women and girls, according to latest projections”, 1 February 2022, available at https://data.unwomen.org/features/poverty-deepens-women-and-girls-according-latest-projections."}, {"n": 47, "text": "A/HRC/53/39, paras. 11 and 21."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(b) Economic and social life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 33, "n": 31, "text": "The Working Group has highlighted that the meaningful participation of diverse groups of women and girls in conceptualizing, implementing and monitoring socioeconomic policies, norms and strategies, including by international economic institutions, is vital to realizing the right to be free from poverty, because this right cannot be achieved in isolation from individual and collective rights to substantive equality. The challenge is to move away from non-discrimination as a vehicle for the protection of individual rights towards the implementation of the relational and redistributive obligations that are an integral but, as yet, largely unrealized part of international human rights law.[[fn:48]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 48, "text": "Ibid., para. 48."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(b) Economic and social life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 34, "n": 32, "text": "The Working Group has dedicated special attention to the world of work. Globally, women’s labour force participation rate stood at 47.4 per cent in 2022, compared with 72.3 per cent for men.[[fn:49]] Women remain concentrated in the lowest-paid jobs and in vulnerable forms of employment, including in the informal sector. The global gender pay gap stands at 20 per cent and is even wider for women who experience multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination. Mothers face a larger pay gap and dramatically lower retirement savings or pension contributions (the “motherhood penalty”). Furthermore, despite the growing number of laws addressing it, sexual harassment at work continues to be pervasive and dramatically unreported.[[fn:50]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "ILO, World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2023 (Geneva, 2023), p. 12."}, {"n": 50, "text": "A/HRC/44/51, paras. 12, 14 and 44."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(b) Economic and social life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 35, "n": 33, "text": "The major trends affecting the world of work and shaping its future risk aggravating gender inequality and exacerbating the labour discrimination that women currently face, unless a gender perspective is adopted when examining and addressing them. Realizing women’s human rights in the changing world of work requires a fundamental transformation of the structure of work and the economy: current economic models exploit and thrive on women’s unpaid care and domestic work, while depleting their time and economic security. However, there are policy alternatives, which require reimagining the economy to focus on redistributing power and resources, generating decent work and placing value on the well-being and care of people and the planet.[[fn:51]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 51, "text": "Ibid., para. 58."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(b) Economic and social life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 36, "n": 34, "text": "The Working Group has noted the persistence of discriminatory prejudices and stereotypes that affect and constrain women’s and girls’ choices and opportunities throughout the life cycle.[[fn:52]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 52, "text": "See A/HRC/41/33."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(c) Family and cultural life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 37, "n": 35, "text": "Within the home, many societies and ideologies expect women and girls to be governed by men. Several States maintain legal codes requiring married women to obtain their husband’s permission to leave the house or requiring all women to obtain the permission of a male “guardian” to engage in public activity.[[fn:53]] Legal provisions and social practices that restrict women’s agency and mobility on the basis of requirements of male guardianship are inherently discriminatory, humiliating and derogatory. They are blatant violations of women’s and girls’ right to equality and rights to freedom of movement, education, work, access to justice, and privacy and family life. The Working Group has recommended that States repeal all laws that support the patriarchal oppression of women in families. It has also recommended that States ensure that the right to equality has primacy over all religious and 47 A/HRC/53/39, paras. 11 and 21. 48 Ibid., para. 48. 49 ILO, World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2023 (Geneva, 2023), p. 12. 50 A/HRC/44/51, paras. 12, 14 and 44. 51 Ibid., para. 58. 52 See A/HRC/41/33. 53 Ibid., paras. 21 and 22. GE.24-07559 customary norms, codes and rules, with no possibility of exemption, waiver or circumvention.[[fn:54]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "Ibid., paras. 21 and 22."}, {"n": 54, "text": "A/HRC/29/40, para. 73 (a) (i) and (c) (v)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(c) Family and cultural life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 38, "n": 36, "text": "Stereotyped notions about gender roles within the family underlie a number of cultural and religious practices limiting girls’ opportunities to pursue education and self-determined life paths. Some of these practices lead to girls being removed from school to perform domestic labour or being subjected to child and forced marriages.[[fn:55]] Furthermore, predominant gender stereotypes and patriarchal social norms limit the freedom and space of engagement of girls and young women, who are often portrayed as destroyers of family values and national traditions and confronted with threats and violence, when engaging in activism.[[fn:56]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 55, "text": "A/HRC/41/33, para. 24."}, {"n": 56, "text": "A/HRC/50/25, para. 29."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(c) Family and cultural life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 39, "n": 37, "text": "An estimated 810 maternal deaths occur each day globally, and 25 million unsafe abortions take place annually, resulting in approximately 47,000 deaths, primarily in developing countries and among members of socioeconomically disadvantaged and marginalized populations. Every 16 seconds, there is a stillbirth. More than 200 million women who want to avoid pregnancy are not using modern contraception, due to a range of barriers. Millions of women and girls are denied the ability to manage their monthly menstrual cycle safely and with dignity. Those outcomes and barriers increase significantly in times of crisis.[[fn:57]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 57, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, para. 16."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(d) Health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 40, "n": 38, "text": "The Working Group has drawn attention to the failure of States to adequately recognize, respect, protect and fulfil the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls, both before and during times of crisis. It has also highlighted the frequent lack of attention to the key underlying factors that make a given situation “critical” for various populations, especially women and girls. Many situations of crisis are predetermined by cumulative layers of pre-existing inequalities and discrimination, which may be starkly exposed and deeply exacerbated by a specific event.[[fn:58]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 58, "text": "Ibid., paras. 9, 11 and 14."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(d) Health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 41, "n": 39, "text": "During crises, States often divert financial and human resources from sexual and reproductive health care and impose restrictions on services, thereby deeming them non-essential, which amounts in practice to a retrogression incompatible with States’ human rights obligations. Such restrictions often continue to undermine access to sexual and reproductive health care after a crisis has ended, and, in the majority of cases, reconstruction programmes and recovery plans fail to prioritize sexual and reproductive health. Furthermore, gender equality does not always figure among the priorities of donors, which often drive interventions in situations of humanitarian crisis. Sexual and reproductive health services are typically not considered essential or urgent, despite the specific risks and vulnerabilities faced by women and girls. In some cases, even maternity care is reportedly not adequately funded or prioritized because it is not perceived as a “humanitarian” concern.[[fn:59]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 59, "text": "Ibid., paras. 26 and 33."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(d) Health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 42, "n": 3, "text": "Challenges to gender equality for specific groups of women and girls", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(d) Health and safety"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 43, "n": 40, "text": "In its thematic reports, the Working Group has identified specific challenges faced by distinct groups of women and girls who, because of multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination, experience compounded inequality in all aspects of their lives. Some of these challenges, which are related to the themes covered by the Working Group’s reports over the past six years, are outlined below.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "3. Challenges to gender equality for specific groups of women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 44, "n": 41, "text": "The Working Group has emphasized that there are communities of women and girls that have been subjected to a “persistent state of crisis”, such as Indigenous and Roma women 54 A/HRC/29/40, para. 73 (a) (i) and (c) (v). 55 A/HRC/41/33, para. 24. 56 A/HRC/50/25, para. 29. 57 A/HRC/47/38, para. 16. 58 Ibid., paras. 9, 11 and 14. 59 Ibid., paras. 26 and 33. GE.24-07559 and girls and women and girls of African descent, whose lives have been shaped by histories of oppression, enslavement, exclusion, racial discrimination, forced assimilation and apartheid, linked to conquest and colonization, as well as systematic violence and disregard for their culture, spirituality and traditions. Many have been systematically subjected to reproductive violence, including forced pregnancy and sterilization, and have been separated from their children.[[fn:60]]", "labels": ["Children", "Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 60, "text": "Ibid., para. 63."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(a) Women and girls belonging to racial or ethnic minorities or Indigenous Peoples"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 45, "n": 42, "text": "Compounded discrimination also affects their experience of the world of work. For example, for Roma women in many parts of Europe, lack of access to education, coupled with residential segregation and discrimination, exclude them from the formal labour market, forcing them to engage in precarious and low paid work, creating a poverty trap.[[fn:61]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Roma, Gypsies, Sinti and Travellers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 61, "text": "A/HRC/44/51, para. 17."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(a) Women and girls belonging to racial or ethnic minorities or Indigenous Peoples"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 46, "n": 43, "text": "The Working Group finds that women with disabilities are often seen as weak or in need of protection. Consequently, they may be confined in institutions or their homes and may be deprived of legal capacity. Girls with disabilities are more likely to experience confinement in the family context, associated with fears that they might be prone to sexual abuse, combined with panic about girls’ sexuality.[[fn:62]] They are also more likely to be excluded from education and employment, as compared with both men with disabilities and women without disabilities.[[fn:63]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "A/HRC/41/33, para. 44."}, {"n": 63, "text": "A/HRC/44/51, para. 17."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(b) Women and girls with disabilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 47, "n": 44, "text": "Furthermore, in crisis responses, the needs of women and girls with disabilities, for example, the need for reasonable accommodations, such as the installation of ramps and the provision of portable beds and wheelchairs, are often not specifically taken into account. Information is usually not available in accessible formats, which leads to difficulties in seeking services and communicating with staff. Negative stereotypes linked to their sexual and reproductive health status can lead to the further marginalization of their needs and concerns in situations of crisis.[[fn:64]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 64, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, para. 59."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(b) Women and girls with disabilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 48, "n": 45, "text": "The Working Group has highlighted that poverty and inequality influence the lives of older women, who are perceived in some societies as dangerous and in need of control. In certain communities, these women may experience non-judicial confinement and banishment from their homes because of accusations of witchcraft. Moreover, older women without resources or livelihoods may find themselves involuntarily isolated in the home or in a care facility.[[fn:65]]", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 65, "text": "A/HRC/41/33, paras. 28 and 55. See also A/HRC/53/39."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(c) Older women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 49, "n": 46, "text": "The Working Group has highlighted that girls and adolescent girls are at increased risk of sexual violence, child, adolescent and unplanned pregnancy, coerced sex and harmful practices because of, inter alia, lack of access to sexual and reproductive information, goods and services, combined with pervasive stereotyping and taboos. During crises, arranged and forced marriages increase in frequency, driven by harmful traditional practices in the context of aggravated poverty. Nevertheless, child marriage and adolescent girls’ sexual and reproductive health needs remain largely unaddressed in humanitarian settings.[[fn:66]] Girls and adolescent girls also face barriers in participating in public and political life, an issue to which the Working Group devoted one of its thematic reports.67 60 Ibid., para. 63. 61 A/HRC/44/51, para. 17. 62 A/HRC/41/33, para. 44. 63 A/HRC/44/51, para. 17. 64 A/HRC/47/38, para. 59. 65 A/HRC/41/33, paras. 28 and 55. See also A/HRC/53/39. 66 A/HRC/47/38, paras. 55 and 56. 67 A/HRC/50/25. GE.24-07559 (e) Rural women and girls", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 66, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, paras. 55 and 56."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(d) Girls and adolescent girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 50, "n": 47, "text": "The Working Group has highlighted that women face discrimination in the allocation of rights to productive land, making up fewer than 15 per cent of owners of agricultural land globally. Laws, policies, social norms and stereotypes may also restrict their rights to seeds and other natural resources, agricultural inputs and labour.[[fn:68]] Land-grabbing and the operations of extractive industries in the territories of Indigenous Peoples and other communities are experienced by women and girls as a crisis, threatening their very survival.[[fn:69]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 68, "text": "A/HRC/53/39, para. 35."}, {"n": 69, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, para. 58."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(e) Rural women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 51, "n": 48, "text": "In addition, rural women and girls face specific challenges in fully enjoying their sexual and reproductive health rights. Contraceptive access is low, and maternal mortality and morbidities, such as obstetric fistula and uterine prolapse, are high among them. There is also a higher incidence of stillbirths. Barriers commonly faced by rural women and girls include long distances from health centres, cost, lack of trained providers, long waiting times, lack of information and confidentiality and the constraints of a heavy workload.[[fn:70]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 70, "text": "Ibid., para. 57."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(e) Rural women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 52, "n": 49, "text": "The Working Group has emphasized that women and girls living in poverty experience stigma and intersecting discrimination. In many jurisdictions, the criminal law is disproportionately applied to them because of their economic or social status. The security of land tenure or housing and the accessibility of legal and justice systems are also severely limited for women and girls living in poverty, who frequently have no effective means to assert their rights to be free from violence, to contest or to receive compensation for illegal or unfair evictions, displacement due to development projects, land-grabbing and environmental destruction, or to access or claim adequate housing, decent working conditions or social security entitlements.[[fn:71]]", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons", "Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "A/HRC/53/39, paras. 31–33."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(f) Women and girls in poverty"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 53, "n": 50, "text": "Reception structures and arrangements often lack the capacity to respond to the needs of migrant, refugee and internally displaced women and girls, who frequently arrive carrying the traumas of violence, persecution, conflict and poverty. Many women and girls live in camps under a persistent threat of violence, including from intimate partners, while sexual and reproductive health is typically deemed a taboo topic. Moreover, their specific needs, including routine menstrual hygiene and pain management, are often not taken into account in relief programmes.[[fn:72]] Gender stereotypes in immigration administration result in a lack of consideration of women’s experiences of violence, in particular domestic violence, for the purpose of granting asylum. Moreover, certain legal systems require that asylum claims be submitted through a male head of household rather than allowing women to submit an individual asylum claim.[[fn:73]]", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons", "Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 72, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, paras. 60 and 62."}, {"n": 73, "text": "A/HRC/41/33, para. 26."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(g) Migrant, asylum-seeking, refugee and internally displaced women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 54, "n": 51, "text": "The Working Group has highlighted the persistence of situations akin to slavery or indentured servitude among local and migrant domestic workers.[[fn:74]] Conversely, restrictions that aim to prevent women from legally migrating, on the grounds that they may become victims of trafficking or forced prostitution, push women to seek alternative (irregular) migration channels and consequently increase their vulnerability to forced or bonded labour, confinement and other human rights violations.[[fn:75]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 74, "text": "A/HRC/53/39, para. 39."}, {"n": 75, "text": "A/HRC/41/33, para. 59."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(g) Migrant, asylum-seeking, refugee and internally displaced women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 55, "n": 52, "text": "Sexual and gender-nonconforming women are disproportionately targeted for social control based on their perceived challenge to or “transgression” of established norms of 68 A/HRC/53/39, para. 35. 69 A/HRC/47/38, para. 58. 70 Ibid., para. 57. 71 A/HRC/53/39, paras. 31–33. 72 A/HRC/47/38, paras. 60 and 62. 73 A/HRC/41/33, para. 26. 74 A/HRC/53/39, para. 39. 75 A/HRC/41/33, para. 59. GE.24-07559 gender roles and sexuality. As a result, they face increased vulnerability to criminalization and deprivation of liberty. Even in cases in which they are not expressly criminalized on the basis of their sexual orientation or gender identity, they may face a heightened risk of encountering the criminal justice system. For example, transgender women are arbitrarily profiled and targeted for sex work.[[fn:76]] The Working Group has noted that transgender women experience disproportionate levels of poverty and economic insecurity because of the discrimination that they face in accessing employment.[[fn:77]] (i) Women who use drugs", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 76, "text": "Ibid., para. 34."}, {"n": 77, "text": "A/HRC/44/51, para. 17."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(h) LBTQI+ women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 56, "n": 53, "text": "The Working Group has highlighted the discriminatory and disproportionate impact on women of punitive approaches to the drug problem. Women may receive disproportionate sentences under regimes that do not take level of involvement into account and may have fewer opportunities to negotiate reduced sentences or plea bargains owing to their lowly status within criminal networks. Furthermore, pregnant women suspected of drug use can be involuntarily detained and forced to undergo medical treatment, often without sound medical evidence that they have a drug dependency or that the fetus is at risk.[[fn:78]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 78, "text": "A/HRC/41/33, paras. 32 and 39."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(i) Women who use drugs"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 57, "n": 54, "text": "Women in sex work are likely to face deprivation of liberty because of laws and social attitudes that seek to control women’s morality and sexuality. In States in which sex work is criminalized, women are disproportionately affected and targeted by law enforcement agents. When sex work is not criminalized, they may be prosecuted and incarcerated for other offences, including loitering, vagrancy and public indecency, and for migration-related infractions. In some States, they may be confined to “re-education” institutions, designed to “cure” them of “deviant behaviour”.[[fn:79]] Criminalization of women sex workers increases their vulnerability to violence and compounds their exclusion from essential services.[[fn:80]] The Working Group recommended that States ban laws and practices policing, targeting, punishing or confining women in relation to sex work.[[fn:81]]", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 79, "text": "Ibid., para. 36."}, {"n": 80, "text": "A/HRC/44/51, para. 43."}, {"n": 81, "text": "A/HRC/41/33, para. 80 (c). See also A/HRC/WG.11/39/1."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(j) Sex workers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 58, "n": 1, "text": "Impact and main contributions to the advancement of gender equality (a) Thematic reports", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "B. Women’s and girls’ rights between progress and regressions", "(j) Sex workers"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 59, "n": 55, "text": "In its thematic analysis, the Working Group has endeavoured to spotlight the principal root causes of discrimination against women and girls, while also identifying encouraging practices and providing guidance to States and other stakeholders on how to make further progress towards achieving gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(a) Thematic reports"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 60, "n": 56, "text": "The responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire indicate that its reports have continued to influence the language of resolutions adopted by the Human Rights Council. For instance, one State indicated that the thematic reports had served as a basis for the preparation of the Council’s annual resolution on the elimination of discrimination against women and girls. In addition, the Working Group’s reports have been referenced by some regional human rights mechanisms. Moreover, they have been used by United Nations agencies and have informed the 2023 report by the Secretary-General to the Commission on the Status of Women.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(a) Thematic reports"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 61, "n": 57, "text": "In addition, the reports have been used to inform the development of national public strategies, policies and programmes. For example, in one country, the analysis and recommendations contained in the Working Group’s thematic report on gendered inequalities of poverty have contributed to the debate and development of a public strategy on care. In another country, the recommendations contained in the Working Group’s report on women’s human rights in the changing world of work have been used to elaborate a national labour policy, as well as to design targeted actions in support of the economic empowerment of women and girls from marginalized communities. In the same country, other reports by the Working Group have inspired sensitization campaigns on “new masculinities” and the implementation of a programme for the development and dissemination of comprehensive sex education.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(a) Thematic reports"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 62, "n": 58, "text": "Lastly, one State indicated that certain judicial decisions, including one decriminalizing abortion, had been inspired by the Working Group’s reports.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(a) Thematic reports"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 63, "n": 59, "text": "The Working Group assessed the situation of women’s and girls’ human rights in Poland, Greece, Romania, Kyrgyzstan, Maldives, Afghanistan, Malta and Mauritania, in collaboration with the States concerned and other stakeholders, noting achievements, challenges and pathways to progress and putting forward recommendations for further advancement towards the elimination of discrimination against women and girls. It met with representatives of central and local authorities and women’s and girls’ rights organizations and with women and girls themselves. In the preparation phase, it engaged with United Nations country teams, including UN-Women, when present, and built on the recommendations made by international and regional human rights mechanisms. Furthermore, in 2023, the Working Group undertook its first-ever joint country visit, together with the Special Rapporteur on Afghanistan.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(b) Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 64, "n": 60, "text": "Some of these country visits contributed to triggering important changes. For example, in the light of the concerns raised and the recommendations formulated by the Working Group, one State amended its legislation to recognize that sex without consent is rape. Another State started developing an implementation plan based on the Working Group’s recommendations.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(b) Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 65, "n": 61, "text": "The Working Group has tried to ensure a follow-up to its country visits, within the limits of the resources available. In 2023, it sent follow-up letters to the States visited and looks forward to their cooperation. It thanks the six States that have responded, as well as the civil society organizations that have provided inputs.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(b) Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 66, "n": 62, "text": "In its communications, the Working Group has continued to collaborate with other mandate holders, sending joint communications whenever relevant in the light of the cross-cutting human rights issues involved. It has maintained its practice of using such communications as a tool to start a dialogue with concerned actors on widespread discriminatory legal approaches and practices, such as restrictions on women’s mobility due to requirements of “male guardianship”. Between 1 April 2018 and 21 October 2023, the Working Group sent 498 communications, 487 of them jointly with other mandate holders. In total, 251 substantive replies were received.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(c) Communications"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 67, "n": 63, "text": "The communications have contributed to bringing about positive changes in national legislation and practices. For example, one State reported that the Working Group’s communications had been important in drawing attention to certain legislative provisions and practices that discriminate, directly or indirectly, against women and girls and that they had consequently informed national efforts to change those provisions and practices, including in areas such as establishing the minimum age for marriage. They had also contributed to counteracting regressions in family law. In another State, the Working Group’s communications contributed to the adoption of a piece of legislation providing for safe, legal and affordable access to abortion. In yet another, a communication sent by the Working Group helped to bring about the distribution of free sanitary pads to underprivileged primary and secondary school students, women in vulnerable situations and prisoners.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(c) Communications"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 68, "n": 64, "text": "The responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire highlight that the urgent appeals that the Working Group has sent jointly with other mandate holders have helped to raise awareness about the restrictions faced by women human rights defenders and have even achieved the release of at least two of them from prison.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(c) Communications"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 69, "n": 65, "text": "The Working Group has continued to use its sessions as an opportunity to engage with States, civil society organizations and other mechanisms working on women’s and girls’ human rights in an effort to strengthen collaboration, establish synergies and seek their contribution to the preparation of its thematic reports.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(d) Working Group’s sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 70, "n": 66, "text": "To facilitate access to its sessions for stakeholders outside Geneva, the Working Group has increasingly used online tools and held two sessions at the regional level, in Addis Ababa and Bangkok. It has also created a microsite that includes graphic, summarized and user-friendly versions of its thematic reports.[[fn:82]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 82, "text": "See https://unworkinggroupwomenandgirls.org/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(d) Working Group’s sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 71, "n": 67, "text": "The Working Group has used public statements to sustain efforts at the international, regional and national levels directed at strengthening women’s and girls’ human rights. It has continued to make use of amicus briefs to offer national courts expert advice on issues of domestic law that are directly related to States’ international human rights obligations to eliminate discrimination against women and girls. The responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire testify to the usefulness and impact of interventions of this kind. In one country, the Working Group’s intervention contributed to the decriminalization of abortion; in another, it contributed to the reinsertion into formal education of girls who had been expelled from school due to pregnancy; in yet another, it contributed to ensuring justice for women who had been arbitrarily detained because of their sex work.[[fn:83]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 83, "text": "The Working Group’s submissions to national courts are available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/wg-women-and-girls/submissions-courts."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(e) Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 72, "n": 68, "text": "The Working Group has continued to develop guidance documents, formerly known as position papers, on certain themes, with a view to promoting greater conceptual clarity and filling any protection gaps left by underdeveloped interpretation of standards. Over the past six years of work, the Working Group has issued a position paper on gender equality and gender backlash and guidance documents on men’s accountability for gender equality, on eliminating discrimination against sex workers and, earlier in 2024, on the draft articles on prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity, which included the recommendation that gender apartheid be included as a crime against humanity.[[fn:84]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 84, "text": "All position papers and guidance documents can be accessed, respectively, from https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/wg-women-and-girls and https://www.ohchr.org/en/special-procedures/wg-women-and-girls/resources."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(e) Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 73, "n": 69, "text": "Furthermore, the Working Group has contributed to various international and regional processes by providing written and/or oral inputs, including, for example, on the ILO Violence and Harassment Convention, 2019 (No. 190), draft general recommendation No. 40 of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, the Committee on World Food Security Voluntary Guidelines on Gender Equality and Women’s and Girls’ Empowerment in the context of Food Security and Nutrition and the draft directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on violence against women and domestic violence, and by participating in trainings and consultations with a broad range of actors.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(e) Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 74, "n": 70, "text": "The Working Group has continued to contribute to the dialogue among States within the framework of the Commission on the Status of Women by contributing formally to the Commission’s general discussions. Moreover, the Working Group is a member of the Platform of Independent Expert Mechanisms on the Elimination of Discrimination and Violence against Women[[fn:85]] and chaired the Platform in 2023. Within that framework, it joins forces with the other United Nations and regional independent expert mechanisms that have a mandate related to women’s and girls’ human rights to curb rollbacks and advance gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 85, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/edvaw."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(e) Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0075", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 75, "n": 2, "text": "Lessons learned and opportunities for enhanced action", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "(e) Other tools"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0076", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 76, "n": 71, "text": "The Working Group faces a challenge in ensuring a systematic follow-up to its work, including its communications and country visits, due to the limited resources available and, to a certain extent, to the limited degree of engagement of the States concerned, a challenge that is shared by other mandates. The responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire suggest that, despite its efforts, the visibility and dissemination of its work are limited. New strategies to reach out to women and girls from marginalized communities and facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination should be explored, in collaboration with national and local actors. Similarly, current engagement with girl activists should be institutionalized and a methodology for engagement with them should be devised.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "2. Lessons learned and opportunities for enhanced action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0077", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 77, "n": 72, "text": "The Working Group considers that regional human rights mechanisms and national human rights institutions are key allies in its work. A strategy to facilitate their regular cooperation, as well as their involvement in the follow-up and dissemination of the Working Group’s work, would be desirable. Moreover, the Working Group believes that it is crucial to intensify collaboration with other special procedures, as was done, inter alia, to address the situation of women’s and girls’ rights in Afghanistan and Gaza and to call for an independent investigation into allegations of sexual violence in Israel and Palestine.[[fn:86]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 86, "text": "See, for example, A/HRC/53/21; OHCHR, “Gaza: UN experts call for prioritisation of gender-responsive humanitarian interventions”, press release, 21 February 2024; OHCHR, “Israel/oPt: UN experts appalled by reported human rights violations against Palestinian women and girls”, press release, 19 February 2024; OHCHR, “Occupied Palestinian territory and Israel: UN experts call for permanent ceasefire to protect rights and futures of women and girls”, press release, 14 December 2023; and OHCHR, “UN experts urge States to unite for peace and push for ceasefire in Gaza”, press release, 8 December 2023."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "2. Lessons learned and opportunities for enhanced action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0078", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 78, "n": 1, "text": "Committing to substantive gender equality", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "C. Taking stock of the Working Group’s work", "2. Lessons learned and opportunities for enhanced action"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0079", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 79, "n": 73, "text": "As the Working Group embarks on a new six-year mandate, it will continue to focus on counteracting the escalating gender backlash through all its working methods. At the same time, as an overarching framework, it will develop an understanding of substantive equality for women and girls and the concrete implications that it holds for States and other actors in the face of contemporary challenges. Substantive equality requires not only ensuring de facto equality between women and men and girls and boys, but also committing to a conception of transformative equality, in other words, the transformation of elements of society, culture, politics and the economy that create barriers to equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "1. Committing to substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0080", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 80, "n": 74, "text": "The principle of substantive equality is central to the international human rights framework and human dignity. It involves ensuring equality of opportunity, as well as equality of results. It requires addressing discrimination in laws, policies and practices; redressing disadvantage; addressing stigma; providing reasonable accommodations for the particular needs of women and girls; combating harmful stereotypes, prejudice and violence; adopting positive measures, when necessary; and making the structural changes necessary for women and girls to fully participate in all areas of life.[[fn:87]] Substantive equality involves an affirmative ideological commitment to human dignity for all and a further practical commitment on the part of States and other actors to engage in the sometimes difficult and intensive work of achieving it.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "See Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, arts. 1–5 and 24; Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 25 (2004); and A/43/38. See also A/HRC/53/39; and Sandra Fredman, Discrimination Law, 3rd ed. (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2022)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "1. Committing to substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0081", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 81, "n": 75, "text": "On the basis of that framework, the Working Group will devote its annual thematic reports and other analyses to identifying and addressing the specific challenges to the advancement of substantive gender equality in all spheres of life. It will do so with renewed 86 See, for example, A/HRC/53/21; OHCHR, “Gaza: UN experts call for prioritisation of genderresponsive humanitarian interventions”, press release, 21 February 2024; OHCHR, “Israel/oPt: UN experts appalled by reported human rights violations against Palestinian women and girls”, press release, 19 February 2024; OHCHR, “Occupied Palestinian territory and Israel: UN experts call for permanent ceasefire to protect rights and futures of women and girls”, press release, 14 December 2023; and OHCHR, “UN experts urge States to unite for peace and push for ceasefire in Gaza”, press release, 8 December 2023. 87 See Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, arts. 1–5 and 24; Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 25 (2004); and A/43/38. See also A/HRC/53/39; and Sandra Fredman, Discrimination Law, 3rd ed. (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2022). GE.24-07559 dedication and a focused recognition of the various intersectional identities of women and girls.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "1. Committing to substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0082", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 82, "n": 2, "text": "Challenging the challenges to substantive gender equality", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "1. Committing to substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0083", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 83, "n": 76, "text": "The responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire and the inputs gathered through the regional consultations provide a comprehensive overview of the many challenges that globally impede full delivery on the world’s commitments to end discrimination against women and girls, beyond those stemming from the gender backlash described above.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "2. Challenging the challenges to substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0084", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 84, "n": 77, "text": "Patriarchal power structures continue to perpetuate discrimination and inequality in all aspects of women’s and girls’ lives, often intersecting with other grounds of discrimination and power relations, including on a racial, ethnic or caste basis. Where advancements have taken place, including in areas such as political representation, education and the legal recognition of sexual and reproductive health rights, implementation gaps – often caused by a mix of lack of political will, non-harmonization of national frameworks with relevant international standards, insufficiently allocated resources and capacity, lack of support measures and the promotion of restrictive or regressive interpretations of existing legal guarantees, among other factors – hamper progress in practice and are frequently compounded by limited accountability for violations of women’s and girls’ rights. Attitudinal barriers, notably on the part of enforcement authorities, adversely affect access to justice and contribute to impunity and the normalization of discrimination and violence.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "2. Challenging the challenges to substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0085", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 85, "n": 78, "text": "States and other stakeholders pointed out further obstacles to advancing gender equality, ranging from the disparate and disproportionate impact of climate change and environmental degradation on women and girls to the gender bias and discrimination inherent in artificial intelligence algorithms and technology design, the digital divide and online violence and harassment, among others. They emphasized the urgent need to invest in social protection measures to address, inter alia, gender gaps in employment, remuneration and pensions and the lack of universal access to early childhood education or childcare and their cost, alongside overarching concerns about the gendered dimensions of the care economy. More broadly, they pointed to the need for integrated approaches to tackle the root causes of inequalities and for a focus on collective rights, including the right to food sovereignty, the right to development and rights to territories, lands and resources.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "2. Challenging the challenges to substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0086", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 86, "n": 79, "text": "In addition, they highlighted the situation of particular groups of women and girls, such as those living in conflict and post-conflict situations or under occupation, rural and Indigenous women and girls, refugees, displaced and migrant women and girls, Dalit women and girls, older women, and women and girls with disabilities, stressing the need for targeted attention. They furthermore shed light on the marginalization, abuse and criminalization of women using drugs and sex workers.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "2. Challenging the challenges to substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0087", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 87, "n": 80, "text": "Taking into account the above, the Working Group sets out, as a starting point, to focus its next annual reports on the thematic areas outlined below. These are subject to change depending on the social or political momentum concerning women’s and girls’ rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "2. Challenging the challenges to substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0088", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 88, "n": 81, "text": "Across the world, women perform three quarters of unpaid care work.[[fn:88]] This outsized responsibility for care is due to the prevalence of traditional gender norms and stereotypes about women’s role in the family and society and is compounded by the absence of adequate normative and policy frameworks to promote and ensure the recognition, reduction and redistribution of unpaid care work. The life opportunities and choices of women and girls are consequently deeply constrained, and their enjoyment of a wide range of human rights, including the rights to work, social security, education, health, rest and leisure, is adversely affected. At the same time, paid care workers – the majority of whom are women and many of whom are migrant workers – often face precarious working conditions, rights violations and exploitation as a result of an overall lack of reward for care work and limited representation, social dialogue and collective bargaining.[[fn:89]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 88, "text": "ILO, Care Work and Care Jobs for the Future of Decent Work (Geneva, 2018)."}, {"n": 89, "text": "ILO, “From global care crisis to quality care at home: the case for including domestic workers in care policies and ensuring their rights at work”, policy brief (March 2024). See also https://globalallianceforcare.org/en/."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "(a) Care and its gendered dimensions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0089", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 89, "n": 82, "text": "The Working Group has previously highlighted that the dominant economic growth-based models of development thrive on women’s and girls’ “depletion”, through their filling of care gaps, and the draining of care resources from poorer nations, through globalized care chains.[[fn:90]] As the world faces increasing demands for care owing to changes in family structures, ageing societies and an increase in women’s employment in certain countries, as well as the impacts of climate change,[[fn:91]] the Working Group will examine more closely current challenges and policy approaches to the global care crisis with a view to promoting a human rights-based, feminist, intersectional approach to care, one that is conducive to greater gender equality and protective of the socioeconomic rights of workers. In so doing, it will take into account women’s and girls’ role as “carers for the planet”.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 90, "text": "See, for example, A/HRC/53/39."}, {"n": 91, "text": "ILO, Care Work and Care Jobs for the Future of Decent Work; ILO, Care at Work: Investing in Care Leave and Services for a More Gender Equal World of Work (Geneva, 2022); and UN-Women, “The climate-care nexus: addressing the linkages between climate change and women’s and girls’ unpaid care, domestic and communal work”, working paper (New York, 2023)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "(a) Care and its gendered dimensions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0090", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 90, "n": 83, "text": "Digital technologies are rapidly and increasingly transforming lives and societies, bringing about both opportunities and challenges with regard to the advancement of gender equality.[[fn:92]] In its previous reports, the Working Group has highlighted the gender-related digital divide, restrictions on access to digital devices faced by women and girls and online violence and harassment, as well as the challenges and opportunities created by technology for women’s employment, political participation and privacy, inter alia.[[fn:93]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 92, "text": "See, for example, E/CN.6/2023/3."}, {"n": 93, "text": "See A/HRC/44/51, A/HRC/50/25 and A/HRC/53/39."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "(b) Gender equality in our digital lives"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0091", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 91, "n": 84, "text": "As the use of digital technologies, as well as their design and technical content, are affected by social, economic and political factors, it is crucial to recognize and address the distinct effects of digitalization on women and girls and pursue an intentionally gender-responsive approach to the design and implementation of digital technology, including in the development of artificial intelligence.[[fn:94]] Otherwise, discriminatory social norms and stereotypes will be reinforced and inequalities will be amplified and perpetuated through biased digital platforms and algorithmic tools.[[fn:95]] In one of its future reports, the Working Group will thus explore discrimination against women and girls in the digital sphere and the impact of current and future developments on their rights, well-being and potential.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 94, "text": "See E/CN.6/2023/3."}, {"n": 95, "text": "See UN-Women, “Placing gender equality at the heart of the Global Digital Compact” (New York, 2024)."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "(b) Gender equality in our digital lives"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0092", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 92, "n": 85, "text": "In 2022, an estimated 614 million women and girls were living in conflict-affected countries.[[fn:96]] The Secretary-General has underscored that post-conflict reconstruction and recovery efforts significantly underfund women’s priorities.[[fn:97]] Women and girls also continue to be sidelined in peace processes, despite the fact that they are the primary victims and contrary to the call made by the Security Council in resolution 1325 (2000) on women and peace and security.[[fn:98]] In 2022, of 18 peace agreements reached, only one was signed or witnessed by a representative of a women’s group or organization.[[fn:99]] However, a gendered analysis of post-conflict needs is crucial to defining interventions – including in areas such as access to education, health care and equal work opportunities – that ensure the sustainability of peacebuilding and reconstruction efforts, while addressing the structural conditions that make women vulnerable to violence and other human rights violations during conflicts.[[fn:100]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 96, "text": "S/2023/725, para. 2."}, {"n": 97, "text": "Ibid., para. 58."}, {"n": 98, "text": "See African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Study on Transitional Justice and Human and Peoples’ Rights in Africa (2019)."}, {"n": 99, "text": "S/2023/725, para. 8."}, {"n": 100, "text": "See African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Study on Transitional Justice and Human and Peoples’ Rights in Africa."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "(c) Gender justice in post-conflict situations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0093", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 93, "n": 86, "text": "Impunity for atrocities committed against women and girls is still prevalent.[[fn:101]] In one of its previous reports, the Working Group noted that, while some progress had been made in investigating and prosecuting crimes of sexual violence in situations of conflict, many violations of sexual and reproductive health rights continued to be either neglected or tolerated and to occur with impunity.[[fn:102]] More generally, the collapse of the law in post-conflict situations risks resulting in the masculinization of the law.[[fn:103]] Against this overall background, the Working Group will examine women’s and girls’ access to substantive justice in transitional phases.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [{"n": 101, "text": "S/2023/725, para. 1."}, {"n": 102, "text": "A/HRC/47/38, para. 35."}, {"n": 103, "text": "See https://www.ungeneva.org/en/news-media/meeting-summary/2013/02/committee-elimination-discrimination-against-women-discusses-0."}], "section": ["II. Thematic analysis: escalating backlash against gender equality and urgency of reaffirming substantive equality and the human rights of women and girls", "D. Setting the vision for the coming years of the mandate: women’s and girls’ substantive equality", "(c) Gender justice in post-conflict situations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0094", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 94, "n": 87, "text": "Despite some advancements, no country has achieved gender equality. Humanity is in the midst of a backlash aimed at curtailing the equal enjoyment by women and girls of their rights in all major areas of life. The backlash is escalating and undermining current achievements and prospects for further progress, reaching extreme proportions in certain countries, including the regime of gender apartheid imposed by the Taliban in Afghanistan. However, the Working Group cannot overemphasize the transformative force of millions of women and girls worldwide and of their movements and allies that strive to advance women’s and girls’ rights, resist pushbacks and build just, inclusive, peaceful and sustainable societies for all, despite, and often in reaction to, the many barriers that they continue to face. They are an inspiration to everyone and the main reason for hope and optimism for the future.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0095", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 95, "n": 88, "text": "The status quo that denies half of the world’s population their human rights and fundamental freedoms is unacceptable. States must be held accountable for failures to respect, protect and fulfil women’s and girls’ rights to substantive gender equality. States must also be held accountable for failing to cooperate and contribute to the equality of women and girls outside their borders. They must ensure the equal recognition, enjoyment and exercise of all human rights and fundamental freedoms and work together to build substantive gender equality, as required under international human rights law. Other actors, such as those in the private sector, should support these efforts and respect and protect women’s and girls’ rights. The realization of substantive gender equality cannot be further delayed.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0096", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 96, "n": 89, "text": "International, regional and national human rights mechanisms should develop coherent, systematic, comprehensive and coordinated efforts to reaffirm the universality of women’s and girls’ rights, as well as the inalienable, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated nature of all human rights, with a view to pushing back on denials and retrogressions with regard to women’s and girls’ rights and misinformation campaigns. 100 See African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights, Study on Transitional Justice and Human and Peoples’ Rights in Africa. 101 S/2023/725, para. 1. 102 A/HRC/47/38, para. 35. 103 See https://www.ungeneva.org/en/news-media/meeting-summary/2013/02/committee-eliminationdiscrimination-against-women-discusses-0. GE.24-07559", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Counter the gender backlash"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0097", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 97, "n": 90, "text": "States and international and regional organizations should uphold an integrated approach to the advancement of gender equality, encompassing the elimination of discrimination against women and girls in the family, culture, the economy and sexual and reproductive health rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Counter the gender backlash"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0098", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 98, "n": 91, "text": "States should:\n(a) Consider recognizing gender apartheid as a crime against humanity in the draft convention on prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity;\n(b) Leverage feminist foreign policies to promote gender equality in all forums;\n(c) Address the specific impacts of business activities on women and girls, incorporate a gender perspective into all measures to regulate business activities and seek business cooperation and support to implement women’s and girls’ rights;\n(d) Ensure that the situation of human rights of women and girls in other countries is central to their policy decisions and engagement with those countries;\n(e) Promote and pursue international cooperation to ensure women’s and girls’ rights, including through institutional capacity-building.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Counter the gender backlash"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0099", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 99, "n": 2, "text": "Eliminate discrimination and commit to achieving substantive gender equality", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "1. Counter the gender backlash"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-56-51-0100", "docId": "a-hrc-56-51", "idx": 100, "n": 92, "text": "States should eliminate discriminatory laws, policies and practices, including those that discriminate against women and girls on the grounds of tradition, culture or religion, and should take proactive measures to achieve substantive gender equality, including by:\n(a) Identifying and addressing, with the full and meaningful participation of the women and girls concerned, the specific challenges faced by distinct groups of women and girls who, because of multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination, experience compounded inequality;\n(b) Recognizing the sexual and reproductive health rights of women and girls as essential, fully integrating them into crisis prevention, response, assessment, management, recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction plans and providing comprehensive sexuality education;\n(c) Recognizing, reducing and redistributing unpaid care and domestic work, while ensuring decent work, representation, social dialogue and collective bargaining for paid care workers;\n(d) Guaranteeing universal, accessible, adequate, available, gender-responsive and comprehensive social protection;\n(e) Providing effective remedies, including in situations of conflict and other crises, and ensuring accountability for violations of women’s and girls’ rights;\n(f) Establishing appropriate participatory monitoring and evaluation mechanisms and disaggregated intersectional data collection to oversee the implementation of relevant programmes and policies, assess their impacts and adopt any corrective measures needed, including with regard to sufficient fund allocation and gender budgeting;\n(g) Embarking on a feminist, human rights-based review of socioeconomic policies and strategies with a view to designing and implementing the necessary reforms towards realizing substantive equality;\n(h) Regulating private service providers, including education and health-care providers, to ensure that the services that they provide are accessible to all, are adequate and are regularly assessed in order to meet the needs of women and girls;\n(i) Establishing parity, including through temporary special measures, to ensure the equal representation of women in public, political and economic decision-making and leadership and adopting the support measures required to make their participation effective;\n(j) Addressing discrimination against women and girls in the digital world and ensuring that technology responds to the needs of women and girls, including by protecting their rights to expression, participation and privacy;\n(k) Creating an enabling, supportive environment in which civil society, women’s and girls’ movements and other stakeholders can advance gender equality and ensuring protection for human rights defenders, access to effective remedies and prompt and impartial investigations into alleged violations.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2024, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations", "2. Eliminate discrimination and commit to achieving substantive gender equality"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report consists of thematic analysis and recommendations on the gendered dimensions of care and support systems. In the annex, an update is provided on the main activities of the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls from the time of the submission of its previous report[[fn:1]] until April 2025.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A/HRC/56/51."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The Working Group expresses its gratitude to all stakeholders for their valuable contributions to the preparation of the present report, which included responding to a questionnaire, submitting supporting documentation and participating in regional and thematic consultations.[[fn:2]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "Inputs from States, civil society organizations and national human rights institutions are available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/2024/call-inputs-mandate-working-group-discrimination-against-women-and-girls."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "Research has long demonstrated that care and support work is vital to the economy and to society.[[fn:3]] However, due to entrenched gender stereotypes and patriarchal social norms,[[fn:4]] care responsibilities fall disproportionately on women. Often, care and support work is not recognized as work, and when it is, it remains undervalued, underpaid and underrepresented.[[fn:5]] Women perform 76.2 per cent of all unpaid care work. They also comprise over 70 per cent of workers in the health sector, one of the major areas of the care economy.[[fn:6]] This both reflects and reproduces the gender division of labour.[[fn:7]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 3, "text": "Silvia Federici, Wages Against Housework (Power of Women Collective and Falling Wall Press, 1974); Marilyn Waring, If Women Counted (Harpercollins, 1988); Arlie Hochschild, The Second Shift (Viking, 1990); and Diane Elson, Value: The Representation of Labour in Capitalism (Verso, 2015)."}, {"n": 4, "text": "See A/HRC/56/51."}, {"n": 5, "text": "International Labour Organization (ILO), Decent Work and the Care Economy (Geneva, 2024), p. 23."}, {"n": 6, "text": "Healthcare workers make up a significant portion of paid care workers, but not the whole portion. There are also paid domestic workers, social workers and education workers who are not included in these statistics. See ILO, Decent Work and the Care Economy."}, {"n": 7, "text": "See A/HRC/53/39."}], "section": ["II. Contextual and conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "Care is understood as “the act of caring for oneself, for others and for the planet, and which includes providing support and assistance to those who require it to enable their participation in society with dignity and autonomy”.[[fn:8]] Support is understood as “the act of providing help or assistance to someone who requires it to carry out daily activities and participate in society,” in a way that such assistance meets recipients’ basic needs while also enabling their participation in society with dignity and autonomy.[[fn:9]] Care work includes “direct” or “relational” care, such as care of children, the sick, older persons, and persons with disabilities, as well as “indirect care”[[fn:10]] occurring within and outside the home.", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 8, "text": "United Nations, “Transforming care systems in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals and Our Common Agenda”, United Nations system policy paper (2024), p. 4."}, {"n": 9, "text": "Ibid., p. 4; A/HRC/58/43, para. 5; and A/HRC/34/58, paras. 13 and 16."}, {"n": 10, "text": "International Labour Organization (ILO), Decent Work and the Care Economy, p. 19."}], "section": ["II. Contextual and conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Households, market-based, public sector and community-based/non-profit organizations are the main institutions that provide care and support. When States and markets transfer the responsibility and cost of care and support onto families, this increases the workload for women and girls. The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic exposed this most starkly.[[fn:11]] Nevertheless, conventional accounts of the economy neglect the importance of care work to the functioning of States and markets.[[fn:12]] The Working Group has proposed a model of a feminist human rights-based economy as key to achieving gender equality and sustainable development.[[fn:13]] The present report builds on this past work, calling for public investment in gender-responsive, human rights-based transformation of care and support systems. As populations age, many countries are facing labour shortages in the care sector, with Africa most acutely affected.[[fn:14]] Consequently, there is a growing interest in artificial intelligence to automate care work.[[fn:15]] However, because artificial intelligence relies on “big data” which often reflects and reinforces social inequalities, it risks perpetuating gender, race, class and other inequalities.[[fn:16]] Moreover, artificial intelligence cannot replace direct care and support work which involves human relations and emotions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/Library/Publications/2020/Policy-brief-COVID-19-and-the-care-economy-en.pdf; and Soraya Seedat and Marta Rondon, “Women’s well-being and the burden of unpaid work”, BMJ, vol. 374, No. 1972 (August 2021)."}, {"n": 12, "text": "See A/HRC/44/51."}, {"n": 13, "text": "A/HRC/53/39, para. 59."}, {"n": 14, "text": "Mathieu Boniol et al., “The global health workforce stock and distribution in 2020 and 2030: a threat to equity and ‘universal’ health coverage?”, BMJ Global Health, vol. 7, issue 6 (June 2022). In European countries, nursing professionals and home-based care workers are among the 19 occupations with high-magnitude shortages – see https://www.ela.europa.eu/sites/default/files/2023-12/2021_Labour_shortages_surpluses_report.pdf, p. 9."}, {"n": 15, "text": "Jennifer Rhee, “From ELIZA to Alexa: automated care labour and the otherwise of radical care”, in Feminist AI, Jude Browne et al., eds. (Oxford University Press, 2023), p. 155."}, {"n": 16, "text": "Sharla Alegria and Catherine Yeh, “Machine learning and the reproduction of inequality”, Contexts, vol. 22, issue 4 (November 2023), pp. 34–39. The Working Group’s 2026 thematic report will be devoted to gender equality in our digital lives, including how artificial intelligence can be used to care for communities rather than to exploit them."}], "section": ["II. Contextual and conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "War is the ultimate violation of human rights and poses a direct threat to building care and support systems.[[fn:17]] With 120 conflicts raging around the world today, the Working Group is deeply concerned that some States and non-State actors have deliberately destroyed the civilian care and support infrastructure, including hospitals, schools and housing, and have used starvation and other methods in ways that may amount to war crimes, crimes against humanity and/or genocide, and that this increases women’s and girls’ care and support work amidst massive displacement and hardship, particularly in the Occupied Palestinian Territory and the Sudan.[[fn:18]] The substantive protection of women and children has often been neglected, particularly affecting pregnant women and newborn babies, who do not receive appropriate care.[[fn:19]] The widespread use of rape as a weapon of war, and kidnappings,[[fn:20]] have a disproportionate impact on women and girls, while their care responsibilities intensify amidst armed conflict, displacement, poverty, unemployment,[[fn:21]] food insecurity, drastic reductions in international aid, and increasing restrictions on their movement.[[fn:22]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements-and-speeches/2025/03/turbulence-and-unpredictability-amid-growing-conflict-and-divided."}, {"n": 18, "text": "See https://www.un.org/unispal/document/gaza-un-human-rights-experts-condemn-israeli-decision-to-re-open-gates-of-hell-and-unilaterally-change-conditions-of-truce-deal/ and https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2025/05/horrors-sudan-know-no-bounds-warns-turk-urging-end-conflict."}, {"n": 19, "text": "Fourth Geneva Convention, art. 91. See also https://www.justsecurity.org/92562/a-zone-of-silence-obstetric-violence-in-gaza-and-beyond/."}, {"n": 20, "text": "Hannah Davis, “Sectarian violence simmers in Homs”, New Lines Magazine, 10 March 2025. See also https://euaa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/publications/easo-coi-report-syria-situation-women.pdf."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/press-release/2025/02/three-years-of-full-scale-war-in-ukraine-roll-back-decades-of-progress-for-womens-rights-safety-and-economic-opportunities."}, {"n": 22, "text": "Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations with civil society organizations from Africa and the Middle East. See also Human Rights Watch, “Yemen: warring parties restrict women’s movement”, 4 March 2024."}], "section": ["II. Contextual and conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "The demographic changes underlying the care crisis are accompanied by epidemiological and climatic changes and all of these must be tackled together.[[fn:23]] 23 The countries most at risk of climate change are also those where women and girls are in greatest danger of maternal deaths, child marriage, adolescent pregnancies and gender-based violence.[[fn:24]] Public investments in care and support are needed in order to 13 A/HRC/53/39, para. 59. 14 Mathieu Boniol et al., “The global health workforce stock and distribution in 2020 and 2030: a threat to equity and ‘universal’ health coverage?”, BMJ Global Health, vol. 7, issue 6 (June 2022). In European countries, nursing professionals and home-based care workers are among the 19 occupations with high-magnitude shortages – see https://www.ela.europa.eu/sites/default/files/202312/2021_Labour_shortages_surpluses_report.pdf, p. 9. 15 Jennifer Rhee, “From ELIZA to Alexa: automated care labour and the otherwise of radical care”, in Feminist AI, Jude Browne et al., eds. (Oxford University Press, 2023), p. 155. 16 Sharla Alegria and Catherine Yeh, “Machine learning and the reproduction of inequality”, Contexts, vol. 22, issue 4 (November 2023), pp. 34–39. The Working Group’s 2026 thematic report will be devoted to gender equality in our digital lives, including how artificial intelligence can be used to care for communities rather than to exploit them. 17 See https://www.ohchr.org/en/statements-and-speeches/2025/03/turbulence-and-unpredictabilityamid-growing-conflict-and-divided. 18 See https://www.un.org/unispal/document/gaza-un-human-rights-experts-condemn-israeli-decisionto-re-open-gates-of-hell-and-unilaterally-change-conditions-of-truce-deal/ and https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2025/05/horrors-sudan-know-no-bounds-warns-turk-urgingend-conflict. 19 Fourth Geneva Convention, art. 91. See also https://www.justsecurity.org/92562/a-zone-of-silenceobstetric-violence-in-gaza-and-beyond/. 20 Hannah Davis, “Sectarian violence simmers in Homs”, New Lines Magazine, 10 March 2025. See also https://euaa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/publications/easo-coi-report-syria-situation-women.pdf. 21 See https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/press-release/2025/02/three-years-of-full-scale-warin-ukraine-roll-back-decades-of-progress-for-womens-rights-safety-and-economic-opportunities. 22 Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations with civil society organizations from Africa and the Middle East. See also Human Rights Watch, “Yemen: warring parties restrict women’s movement”, 4 March 2024. 23 Bruce Barrett, Joel W. Charles and Jonathan L. Temte, “Climate change, human health, and epidemiological transition”, Preventative Medicine, vol. 70 (2015), pp. 69–75. 24 See https://www.unfpa.org/press/global-climate-crisis-putting-women-and-girls-extreme-dangerunfpa-warns-new-data. GE.25-07091 address these problems rooted in gender inequality. At the same time, care and support policies are critical to building alternatives to current extractive and exploitative models of economic development.[[fn:25]] Public investments in quality healthcare and childcare and other care and support services have economic multiplier effects and benefit green economies through the creation of low-carbon care jobs.[[fn:26]]", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "Bruce Barrett, Joel W. Charles and Jonathan L. Temte, “Climate change, human health, and epidemiological transition”, Preventative Medicine, vol. 70 (2015), pp. 69–75."}, {"n": 24, "text": "See https://www.unfpa.org/press/global-climate-crisis-putting-women-and-girls-extreme-danger-unfpa-warns-new-data."}, {"n": 25, "text": "United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), The climate-care nexus: addressing the linkages between climate change and women’s and girls’ unpaid care, domestic and communal work (New York, November 2023)."}, {"n": 26, "text": "Amanda Novello, “Building narratives for a caring green economy” (Feminist Green New Deal Coalition, 2021); and United Nations, “Transforming care systems in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals and Our Common Agenda”, p. 7."}], "section": ["II. Contextual and conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "Ensuring the autonomy and dignity of both those providing and those requiring care and support is key to the fulfilment of human rights. Women’s and girls’ identities, experiences and challenges are shaped not only by gender, but also by disabilities, age, class, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and immigration status, among other factors.[[fn:27]] The Working Group approaches care and support systems from an intersectional feminist perspective that aims to eliminate gender discrimination and advance gender equality as a precondition for all human rights.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 27, "text": "A/HRC/38/46, para. 11."}], "section": ["II. Contextual and conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "Advancing gender equality in care and support systems is more urgent than ever in the context of an escalating backlash against gender equality.[[fn:28]] With aging populations and declining birth rates, many governments today promote pronatalist and “family-oriented” policies.[[fn:29]] However, tasking women with “reproducing the nation” threatens their hard-won rights, including in the areas of sexual and reproductive rights and efforts to combat gender-based violence.[[fn:30]] Achieving substantive equality involves transforming cultural norms separating care responsibilities from gender roles. Policies to ensure an egalitarian redistribution of care work are needed for a transformative change in States that uphold care and support as organizing principles. The Working Group notes that holistic approaches are necessary to ensure that care and support systems are economically, socially and environmentally sustainable. The Working Group refers specifically to the CREATE framework that it set forth in its recent Guidance Document on Substantive Gender Equality, which provides a comprehensive and actionable road map for achieving transformative substantive gender equality. Each letter in the name “CREATE” represents a pillar of action that States and other stakeholders are called upon to undertake in order: (a) to counter harmful social norms, discrimination, and violence; (b) to redress socioeconomic inequalities; (c) to eliminate legal and structural barriers; (d) to adopt proactive laws and policies; (e) to transform institutionalized patriarchal power structures; and (f) to enhance the participation and agency of women and girls.[[fn:31]] The present report builds on the momentum created by Human Rights Council resolution 54/6 and the subsequent report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on the human rights-based approach to care and support, which defines key terms and analyses the relevant international human rights standards.[[fn:32]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "See A/HRC/56/51."}, {"n": 29, "text": "Yakın Ertürk, “Care crisis, anti-gender authoritarianism and feminist possibilities”, Feminist Dissent (forthcoming)."}, {"n": 30, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/03/turkey-withdrawal-istanbul-convention-pushback-against-womens-rights-say."}, {"n": 31, "text": "See A/HRC/WG.11/42/1."}, {"n": 32, "text": "A/HRC/58/43, paras. 6 and 33."}], "section": ["II. Contextual and conceptual framework"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Caring for others is intrinsically valuable, yet it remains largely unrewarded in material terms. Daily, women contribute an estimated 12.5 billion hours of unpaid care work, adding at least US$10.8 trillion in value to the global economy. If paid, unpaid 25 United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), The climate-care nexus: addressing the linkages between climate change and women’s and girls’ unpaid care, domestic and communal work (New York, November 2023). 26 Amanda Novello, “Building narratives for a caring green economy” (Feminist Green New Deal Coalition, 2021); and United Nations, “Transforming care systems in the context of the Sustainable Development Goals and Our Common Agenda”, p. 7. 27 A/HRC/38/46, para. 11. 28 See A/HRC/56/51. 29 Yakın Ertürk, “Care crisis, anti-gender authoritarianism and feminist possibilities”, Feminist Dissent (forthcoming). 30 See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/03/turkey-withdrawal-istanbul-conventionpushback-against-womens-rights-say. 31 See A/HRC/WG.11/42/1. 32 A/HRC/58/43, paras. 6 and 33. childcare and housework would equal 9 per cent of global gross domestic product (GDP).[[fn:33]] If a minimum wage were paid, the total value of unpaid care work would be three times the financial value of the global tech industry.[[fn:34]] While this represents a significant contribution, the disproportionate share of unpaid physical, mental and emotional care and support work by women and girls undermines their ability to fully realize their human rights.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 33, "text": "ILO, Care Work and Care Jobs for the Future of Decent Work (Geneva, 2018)."}, {"n": 34, "text": "Clare Coffey et al., “Time to care” (January 2020), cited in Oxfam, Takers not Makers (January 2025), p. 40."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Care work’s invisibility, undervaluation and relegation to the private or family sphere, and the weak recognition of the centrality of unpaid care work to the overall economy, result in a lack of public investment, and an increase in women’s unpaid care labour. Described as both the root cause and the consequence of gender discrimination,[[fn:35]] gender stereotypes portray girls and women as primarily responsible for serving and nurturing others. This shapes the gendered division of labour, with consequences of gender discrimination in the provision and receipt of care and support.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 35, "text": "See Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, arts. 3, 11, 13 and 14 for the relationship between the care economy and rural women, employment and social benefits. See also https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2Fhrbodies%2Fcedaw%2Factivities%2FGeneral-Recommendation-41-gender-stereotypes.docx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights", "A. Right to equality and non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "When care work is regarded as “women’s work”, women are seen as more likely to need leave to take care of families and thus less attractive to employers. Men who want or need to provide care work face challenges such as workplace policies and gender stereotypes.[[fn:36]] The transformation of sexist stereotypes and “the recognition of the common responsibility of men and women in the upbringing and development of their children”[[fn:37]] are thus key to ensuring that women and girls can enjoy their human rights. Gender equality can be transformational for men through their greater participation in care and support, more holistic experiences of fatherhood, and more equal and fulfilling intimate partner relations, and through a closer relationship with dependents.[[fn:38]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 36, "text": "Brigid Schulte, Providing Care Changes Men, 4 February 2021."}, {"n": 37, "text": "Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, art. 5. See also the introduction to and art. 10 of the Convention."}, {"n": 38, "text": "See A/HRC/WG.11/37/1."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights", "A. Right to equality and non-discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "While the right to education is a human right respected in most countries,[[fn:39]] girls too often interrupt their education to take care of household chores or of family members, or have to struggle to “balance” these different responsibilities, depriving them of their time for play and leisure.[[fn:40]] Poverty and child labour, including paid and unpaid care labour, drive high dropout and out-of-school rates for girls.[[fn:41]] The lived experiences shared during the Working Group’s consultation with girls (aged from 14 to 18) highlighted the persistent links between poverty, displacement, child marriage and excessive care work, which also have negative impacts on the girls’ mental health and on their ability to stay and/or succeed in school. 33 ILO, Care Work and Care Jobs for the Future of Decent Work (Geneva, 2018). 34 Clare Coffey et al., “Time to care” (January 2020), cited in Oxfam, Takers not Makers (January 2025), p. 40. 35 See Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, arts. 3, 11, 13 and 14 for the relationship between the care economy and rural women, employment and social benefits. See also https://view.officeapps.live.com/op/view.aspx?src=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2Fsites%2Fd efault%2Ffiles%2Fdocuments%2Fhrbodies%2Fcedaw%2Factivities%2FGeneral-Recommendation41-gender-stereotypes.docx&wdOrigin=BROWSELINK. 36 Brigid Schulte, Providing Care Changes Men, 4 February 2021. 37 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, art. 5. See also the introduction to and art. 10 of the Convention. 38 See A/HRC/WG.11/37/1. 39 For exceptions, see, for example, A/HRC/53/21. 40 Views expressed during the consultation with girls from Asia, Africa and the Middle East. See also Plan International, Real Choices, Real Lives – Out of Time: The Gendered Care Divide and its Impact on Girls (2024). 41 Kelly Yotebieng, What we know (and do not know) about persistent social norms that serve as barriers to girls’ access, participation and achievement in education in eight sub-Saharan African countries (New York, United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative, 2021), p. 9; and African Union Strategy for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment 2018–2028, p. 24. GE.25-07091", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "For exceptions, see, for example, A/HRC/53/21."}, {"n": 40, "text": "Views expressed during the consultation with girls from Asia, Africa and the Middle East. See also Plan International, Real Choices, Real Lives – Out of Time: The Gendered Care Divide and its Impact on Girls (2024)."}, {"n": 41, "text": "Kelly Yotebieng, What we know (and do not know) about persistent social norms that serve as barriers to girls’ access, participation and achievement in education in eight sub-Saharan African countries (New York, United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative, 2021), p. 9; and African Union Strategy for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment 2018–2028, p. 24."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights", "B. Right to education"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Unpaid care and support work leads to women’s concentration in informal, part-time, low-wage and often non-union employment, negatively impacting their overall earnings.[[fn:42]] Unpaid care work is the primary reason for women being outside of the labour market,[[fn:43]] with men more likely to cite other reasons, such as education and health. Of the 748 million people not participating in the global labour force due to care responsibilities in 2023, 708 million were women.[[fn:44]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 42, "text": "See A/HRC/44/51."}, {"n": 43, "text": "See https://www.ilo.org/resource/news/unpaid-care-work-prevents-708-million-women-participating-labour-market; and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Joining Forces for Gender Equality: What is Holding us Back? (Paris, 2023)."}, {"n": 44, "text": "ILO, The impact of care responsibilities on women’s labour force participation, statistical brief, 29 October 2024, p. 1."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights", "C. Right to employment and economic participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "The lack of public investment in affordable and high-quality childcare, including especially for children with disabilities, was a recurring issue brought up during the regional consultations. Women’s disproportionate share of unpaid care work, which causes time poverty, exhaustion, and caregiver burnout, accounts also for the pay gap between men and women, which is higher for women of colour and Indigenous women.[[fn:45]] Current trends suggest that the pay gap will not close for another 134 years.[[fn:46]] Once women and girls become mothers, their unpaid care work and financial and care needs increase, but their earnings decrease due to the motherhood penalty.[[fn:47]] By contrast, men benefit from a “fatherhood bonus”.[[fn:48]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "American Association of University Women, The not so simple truth about the gender pay gap, 2025 update."}, {"n": 46, "text": "World Economic Forum, Global Gender Gap Report 2024 (Geneva, 2024)."}, {"n": 47, "text": "See A/HRC/53/39."}, {"n": 48, "text": "YoonKyung Chung et al., The parental gender earnings gap in the United States (United States Census Bureau, November 2017); and A/HRC/44/51."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights", "C. Right to employment and economic participation"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Women’s ability to enjoy their right to health depends on a complex set of factors, including their levels of unpaid care work. The kinds of care work performed, and their repetitive or menial nature, vary not only between caregivers in high- and low-income countries, but also among different income groups within countries.[[fn:49]] While direct unpaid care work, such as playing with children, may be stress-reducing and fulfilling, women who lack the financial means to outsource are burdened with indirect care, such as time-consuming and physically demanding domestic tasks, leading to fatigue and stress. Women who perceive household tasks and childcare as highly stressful have higher cortisol levels and slower recovery to normal cortisol levels than women who report low stress from this kind of unpaid work,[[fn:50]] partially explaining adverse mental health outcomes, including depression. Moreover, cognitive and emotional involvement, along with a lack of leisure, self-care, and communication with family and friends, can lead to distress, depression and anxiety.[[fn:51]] Single parents, including those who are single mothers by choice, and homosexual couples, may experience added pressures and not discuss their needs as pregnant people and parents.[[fn:52]]", "labels": ["Children", "LGBTI+", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 49, "text": "UN-Women, “Caring families, caring societies”, in Progress of the World’s Women 2019–2020: Families in a Changing World, pp. 140–173."}, {"n": 50, "text": "A. Sjörs, T. Ljung and I.H. Jonsdottir, cited in Soraya Seedat and Marta Rondon, “Women’s wellbeing and the burden of unpaid work”, BMJ, vol. 374, No. 1972 (August 2021)."}, {"n": 51, "text": "Bruce S. McEwen, “Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: understanding the protective and damaging effects of stress and stress mediators”, European Journal of Pharmacology, vol. 583 (April 2008), cited in Soraya Seedat and Marta Rondon, “Women’s well-being and the burden of unpaid work”."}, {"n": 52, "text": "Views expressed during regional consultations. See Elia Psouni, Julia Berg and Hanna Persson, “Solo mothers’ by choice experiences during pregnancy and early parenthood: thoughts and feelings related to maternal health services”, Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare, vol. 33 (September 2022)."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights", "D. Right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "During health and environmental crises, an excess share of unpaid care and support work further undermines women and girls’ meeting of their own health needs and leads to an increased risk of gender-based violence. The COVID-19 pandemic revealed how women and girls suffered from excessive unpaid care, social isolation, decreased access to health and social services, and intensification of gender-based violence.[[fn:53]] Women and girls face exacerbated stigma, discrimination and social marginalization as caregivers for persons living with illness and ill-health, including HIV and rare diseases, while they may also be living with such illnesses themselves.[[fn:54]] Such stigma and discrimination undermine their access to healthcare services. When water becomes depleted and polluted, due to environmental degradation caused by extractive industries, women and girls, who are typically responsible for collecting water, must travel longer distances. Polluted water sources can also lead to illnesses among family members, further increasing care work.[[fn:55]] Such increases in unpaid care work may exacerbate physical and mental exhaustion and time poverty of women and girls.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "UN-Women, Measuring the Shadow Pandemic: Violence against Women During COVID-19 (2021)."}, {"n": 54, "text": "See https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/hiv-and-aids."}, {"n": 55, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights", "D. Right to health"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "Social security requires high-quality public services, which are indispensable to care and support systems.[[fn:56]] To ensure an equal sharing of unpaid care and support work, and gender equality, it is necessary to combine maternity, paternity, parental and family benefits with access to quality childcare services. Norwegian policies, combining specific incentives for both fathers and mothers to take paternity leave and ensuring that no household pays more than “6 per cent of total taxable income for a place in kindergarten”, exemplify how institutional change can lead to a more egalitarian distribution of care work.[[fn:57]] Similarly, availability of rights-based rehabilitation and long-term care and support services, assistive devices, and accessible housing and infrastructure are important supplements to disability benefits and old-age pensions to promote the autonomy of persons with disabilities and older persons and their independent living, and thus to alleviate unpaid care and support needs for caregivers.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 56, "text": "A/HRC/53/39, paras. 44–47. See also Sustainable Development Goals, target 5.4."}, {"n": 57, "text": "Written contribution from Norway."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights", "E. Right to social security"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "Women’s care work also has an impact on their underrepresentation in politics. In 2024, women worldwide held only 27 per cent of seats in national parliaments and 35.5 per cent of seats in local governments. A total of 107 countries have never had a woman Head of State.[[fn:58]] Unpaid care work consumes time and energy, preventing women from engaging in public life. In turn, women’s underrepresentation leads to a lack of attention and resources for issues that directly impact them: including high-quality childcare and long-term care and support, sexual and reproductive health and gender-based violence, and migrant labour policies. 52 Views expressed during regional consultations. See Elia Psouni, Julia Berg and Hanna Persson, “Solo mothers’ by choice experiences during pregnancy and early parenthood: thoughts and feelings related to maternal health services”, Sexual and Reproductive Healthcare, vol. 33 (September 2022). 53 UN-Women, Measuring the Shadow Pandemic: Violence against Women During COVID-19 (2021). 54 See https://www.unwomen.org/en/what-we-do/hiv-and-aids. 55 Ibid. 56 A/HRC/53/39, paras. 44–47. See also Sustainable Development Goals, target 5.4. 57 Written contribution from Norway. 58 See https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/explainer/2024/09/five-actions-to-boost-womenspolitical-participation. GE.25-07091", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 58, "text": "See https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/explainer/2024/09/five-actions-to-boost-womens-political-participation."}], "section": ["III. The impact of unpaid care and support work on women’s and girls’ rights", "F. Right to participate in political and public life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "Due largely to gender stereotypes, women are overrepresented in the care sector, which is often seen as a natural extension of women’s unpaid care work and thus undervalued by association.[[fn:59]] This has implications for wages, job quality, career advancement, pensions and retirement savings.[[fn:60]] Women are overrepresented among paid care and support workers, including in healthcare (as nurses, nurses’ aides and home health aides), childcare (as preschool teachers, teacher’s assistants and daycare workers), care for older persons, disability support (as assisted living facility staff, home care providers and professional personal assistants), social work (as social workers, counsellors and case managers) and domestic work (as nannies, cooks and cleaners). Women in paid care, especially healthcare workers and domestic workers, including migrant women, are at higher risk of gender-based discrimination and violence in their workplaces.[[fn:61]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 59, "text": "In the current context of inflation and rising food prices, mentioned by participants during the regional consultations, women’s lower earnings pose serious problems."}, {"n": 60, "text": "A/HRC/44/51, para. 14."}, {"n": 61, "text": "UN-Women policy brief, From evidence to action: tackling gender-based violence against migrant women and girls (2021); and May-Elizabeth Pere-ere Ajuwa et al., “Workplace violence against female healthcare workers: a systematic review and meta-analysis”, BMJ Open, vol. 14, No. 8 (August 2024)."}], "section": ["IV. Gender inequalities in paid care and support work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "Sixty-seven per cent of workers in the health and care sector worldwide are women. Average earnings in the sector are lower than in other sectors.[[fn:62]] Women comprise 70 per cent of the global health workforce yet occupy only 25 per cent of senior roles in healthcare.[[fn:63]] Female health workers are clustered into lower-status and lower-paid roles, and are further disadvantaged by horizontal occupational segregation driven by gender stereotypes branding some jobs suitable for women (e.g. nursing) or men (e.g. surgery). Vertical and horizontal occupational segregation and women’s concentration in lower-paid roles within the healthcare sector explain much of the gender pay gap (25 to 26 per cent) in the sector.[[fn:64]] Different titles and types of healthcare and nursing professionals serve to create precarity, extending social protection to some and denying it to others, such as in the case of “nurses that are not technically nurses”.[[fn:65]] In Asia and Southern Africa, women, as the majority of community health workers, provide essential services under tremendous resource constraints, but are not paid. Even those who are paid (e.g. in India) do not usually have social security benefits.[[fn:66]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "ILO and World Health Organization, The Gender Pay Gap in the Health and Care Sector: A Global Analysis in the Time of COVID-19 (2022)."}, {"n": 63, "text": "WHO, Delivered by Women, Led by Men: A Gender and Equity Analysis of the Global Health and Social Workforce (2019)."}, {"n": 64, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 65, "text": "Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations."}, {"n": 66, "text": "Working Group’s consultations in Asia and the Pacific and in Africa. See also Madeleine Ballard et al., “Payment of community health workers”, The Lancet Global Health, vol. 10, issue 9 (September 2022)."}], "section": ["IV. Gender inequalities in paid care and support work", "A. Healthcare work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "Women are often “at the front lines” in hospitals, where they experience harassment and violence.[[fn:67]] 67 Research from different countries demonstrates an association between being a female healthcare worker and an increased risk of workplace violence, with younger women being at higher risk. While patients, patients’ relatives, colleagues and supervisors are the main perpetrators of workplace violence, sexual harassment against nurses tends to be perpetrated by physicians.68 59 In the current context of inflation and rising food prices, mentioned by participants during the regional consultations, women’s lower earnings pose serious problems. 60 A/HRC/44/51, para. 14. 61 UN-Women policy brief, From evidence to action: tackling gender-based violence against migrant women and girls (2021); and May-Elizabeth Pere-ere Ajuwa et al., “Workplace violence against female healthcare workers: a systematic review and meta-analysis”, BMJ Open, vol. 14, No. 8 (August 2024). 62 ILO and World Health Organization, The Gender Pay Gap in the Health and Care Sector: A Global Analysis in the Time of COVID-19 (2022). 63 WHO, Delivered by Women, Led by Men: A Gender and Equity Analysis of the Global Health and Social Workforce (2019). 64 Ibid. 65 Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations. 66 Working Group’s consultations in Asia and the Pacific and in Africa. See also Madeleine Ballard et al., “Payment of community health workers”, The Lancet Global Health, vol. 10, issue 9 (September 2022). 67 May-Elizabeth Pere-ere Ajuwa et al., “Workplace violence against female healthcare workers: a systematic review and meta-analysis”. 68 Ibid., pp. 5–7.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 67, "text": "May-Elizabeth Pere-ere Ajuwa et al., “Workplace violence against female healthcare workers: a systematic review and meta-analysis”."}], "section": ["IV. Gender inequalities in paid care and support work", "A. Healthcare work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "The care crisis is currently “managed” by a transnational and racialized gendered division of care labour taking place in the context of racism, xenophobia and anti-immigrant discourse and policies. Eighty per cent of the 67 million domestic workers in the world are women, and one out of five are migrants, the vast majority of whom are from the global South.[[fn:69]] Domestic work comprises 2.3 per cent of global employment, and 4.5 per cent of female employment worldwide.[[fn:70]] Migrant domestic workers face widespread human rights violations due to their isolation and dependent structural position in labour markets, and to stereotypes related to their national, religious and ethnic backgrounds. Women migrant domestic workers experience long working hours, sexual and gender-based violence, confiscation of passports, forced labour and wage theft. When they are victims of crimes, the law is often not enforced in their favour, and the rates of prosecution and the fines are too low to deter violators.[[fn:71]] As reported during the Working Group’s Asia-Pacific consultation: “We have a variety of very good laws that simply are not implemented.”", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 69, "text": "See https://www.iom.int/news/iom-releases-guidelines-labour-recruiters-migrant-domestic-workers."}, {"n": 70, "text": "Charlotte Junghus and Anna Olsen, Making Decent Work a Reality for Domestic Workers: Progress and Prospects in Asia and the Pacific Ten Years After the Adoption of the Domestic Workers Convention, 2011 (No. 189) (ILO, Bangkok, 2021)."}, {"n": 71, "text": "Views expressed during the Working Group’s Middle East and North Africa and Asia-Pacific consultations."}], "section": ["IV. Gender inequalities in paid care and support work", "B. Domestic work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "Risks and vulnerabilities are further aggravated for migrant domestic workers in an irregular situation, not least because they often risk deportation if they contact State authorities to seek protection from an abusive employer. Access to justice is a major challenge for migrant domestic workers who live with their employers, as is in some instances required by law, and who may lack the relevant language skills and other resources. In many countries, the existing minimum wage laws do not apply to migrant workers, and migrant domestic workers suffer from hunger and lack of proper sleeping quarters and privacy. Participants in the regional consultations also reported an exclusion of domestic workers in general, and migrant domestic workers in particular, from labour laws, including in relation to the minimum wage and to social security. Additionally, during armed conflicts and natural disasters, migrant domestic workers are excluded from shelters.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Gender inequalities in paid care and support work", "B. Domestic work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Some forms of agricultural work, such as growing, harvesting and processing food for one’s family, and caring for animals and crops, can be considered care work. In the global South, rural women make up at least half of the agricultural workforce, working on family and community plots, in formal and informal employment.[[fn:72]] Despite their key roles in fishing or growing food for family consumption and income,[[fn:73]] women are undervalued, underpaid and underrepresented.[[fn:74]] The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates that female-headed households suffer significantly more income declines due to heat stress and floods compared to male-headed households.[[fn:75]] By the middle of this century, climate change could drive up to 158 million additional women and girls into poverty, exceeding the total number of men and boys affected by a figure of 16 million.[[fn:76]] Men’s migration to urban areas for employment often leaves women as the sole or primary managers of the family’s subsistence and cash-crop farms. When land is unavailable for farming and foraging, food security and livelihoods are threatened. When soil is depleted, and water is polluted, women tend to work harder, longer, or further from home to make a living.[[fn:77]] Women’s displacement from agricultural jobs pushes them into seeking highly precarious forms of daily domestic work.[[fn:78]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 72, "text": "Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), The Status of Women in Agrifood Systems (Rome, 2023)."}, {"n": 73, "text": "Oxfam International, Position paper on gender justice and the extractive industries (March 2017), p. 6."}, {"n": 74, "text": "Shalmali Guttal, Food systems transformation through feminist climate justice, Feminist Climate Justice Think Pieces No. 4 (New York, UN-Women, 2024)."}, {"n": 75, "text": "FAO, The Unjust Climate: Measuring the Impacts of Climate Change on Rural Poor, Women and Youth (Rome, 2024)."}, {"n": 76, "text": "Laura Turquet et al., Feminist Climate Justice: A Framework for Action (New York, UN-Women, 2023)."}, {"n": 77, "text": "Oxfam International, Position paper on gender justice and the extractive industries, pp. 6 and 7."}, {"n": 78, "text": "Input from Women’s Action Network (Sri Lanka)."}], "section": ["IV. Gender inequalities in paid care and support work", "C. Agricultural work"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "Despite providing most of the unpaid and paid care work, women and girls do not receive the care and support they need, due to poverty, social isolation, multiple forms of discrimination, poor access to housing, healthcare and social services, violence, and lack of opportunities to contribute to and participate actively in society.[[fn:79]] Colonial legacies, decades of neoliberal policies and the privatization of healthcare have left large numbers of people who cannot afford healthcare behind, increasing women’s time spent taking care of sick people, and negatively impacting women’s opportunities for decent jobs[[fn:80]] and their ability to receive needed care.[[fn:81]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 79, "text": "Women with Disabilities Australia, “The status of women and girls with disability in Australia”, position paper (November 2019)."}, {"n": 80, "text": "A/HRC/53/39, para. 21. See also Lourdes Benería, Günseli Berik and Maria S. Floro, “Paid and unpaid work: meanings and debates”, in Gender, Development and Globalization: Economics as if All People Mattered (New York, Routledge, 2016)."}, {"n": 81, "text": "African Union Strategy for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment 2018–2028, p. 25."}], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "These challenges are compounded for women with disabilities who provide care and support. In addition, they face unique gender-specific challenges as both providers and receivers of care and support. Societal attitudes often perpetuate stereotypes that view women and girls with disabilities either as a burden or solely as caregivers, neglecting their dignity, autonomy, agency and social inclusion. Moreover, their perspectives and rights are often not represented by either the gender or disability movements, leaving them with no voice in shaping the policies that directly affect their lives, including on care and support systems. Girls with disabilities are at risk of harmful practices, which are often justified by sociocultural and religious customs.[[fn:82]] The marriage of girls with disabilities, especially intellectual disabilities, is often justified under the pretext of providing future security, care and financing.[[fn:83]] Girls with disabilities experience social isolation, and segregation and exploitation inside the family, including being excluded from family activities, prevented from leaving home and attending school, and forced to perform housework. Despite advocacy by women with disabilities, disability policies and insurance continue to neglect gender issues.[[fn:84]] For instance, in Australia, only 37 per cent of participants in the National Disability Insurance Scheme,[[fn:85]] an otherwise progressive policy that serves 600,000 persons with disabilities, are women and girls.[[fn:86]] The gender gap in accessing disability services is compounded for those living in rural areas.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 82, "text": "These include “mercy killings”, infanticide, accusations of “spirit possessions”, and feeding and nutrition restrictions. See Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 3 (2016), para. 36."}, {"n": 83, "text": "Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 3 (2016), para. 36."}, {"n": 84, "text": "Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations."}, {"n": 85, "text": "See https://www.ndis.gov.au/understanding/what-ndis."}, {"n": 86, "text": "See https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/disability/people-with-disability-in-australia/contents/people-with-disability/prevalence-of-disability."}], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support", "A. Women and girls with disabilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "Gender bias in identifying support needs for women and girls with disabilities creates barriers to accessing support.[[fn:87]] Lack of gender-disaggregated data hampers efforts to identify and address gender-specific needs and outcomes. For example, an estimated 80 per cent of autistic girls remain undiagnosed by the age of 18.[[fn:88]] Autistic individuals, especially women and gender-diverse people, face significant barriers to healthcare, compounded by gender bias within the system.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 87, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 88, "text": "Robert McCrossin, “Finding the true number of females with autistic spectrum disorder by estimating the biases in initial recognition and clinical diagnosis”, Children, vol. 9, No. 2 (February 2022), p. 272."}], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support", "A. Women and girls with disabilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "Placing care and support responsibilities solely on women undermines the rights of persons with disabilities who require care and support. Depriving caregivers of rest and time for self-care undermines not only the health and well-being of caregivers but also the quality of care and support they can provide. It may lead to neglect or abuse of persons with disabilities whom they support. Depriving caregivers of opportunities for employment and a livelihood may also lead to destitution of the household. This may be further exacerbated when caretakers themselves are persons with disabilities. Additionally, persons with disabilities and those providing care and support for them are often stigmatized and ostracized. Disability rights advocates emphasized that the needs and rights of persons with disabilities as caregivers and the needs of family caregivers of persons with disabilities often “fall between the cracks of both the disability movement and the women’s rights movement”.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support", "A. Women and girls with disabilities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "Many older women who need care and support often also provide care for others.[[fn:89]] In many countries, grandmothers are the primary care providers for grandchildren.[[fn:90]] In parts of Africa where public services are severely lacking, older women often care for orphaned and/or sick family members and those with HIV.[[fn:91]] Yet, older women face challenges in accessing care and support for themselves. The gender gap in earnings results in a gap in pensions and savings and increased poverty among older women.[[fn:92]] In many countries, publicly provided long-term care is not available to all and/or is not of good quality.[[fn:93]] Older women without resources or livelihoods may find themselves involuntarily isolated in the home or a substandard care facility.[[fn:94]] Responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire indicate that lack of regulation of employment conditions in care homes, high costs and low quality of care are common problems.[[fn:95]] Even in countries that invest in research and policy on long-term care, the gendered dimensions of long-term care needs are neglected.[[fn:96]] In addition, older LBTQI+ women experience distinct challenges and discrimination in accessing institutional care.[[fn:97]]", "labels": ["Children", "Children in alternative care", "Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations. See also Cong Zhang et al., “The rise of maternal grandmother childcare in urban Chinese families”, Journal of Marriage and Family, vol. 81, No. 5 (2019), pp. 1174–1191."}, {"n": 90, "text": "State responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire indicate that some States (e.g. Singapore) provide tax relief for “working mothers who engage the help of their parents, grandparents, parentsin-law or grandparents-in-law to take care of their children”."}, {"n": 91, "text": "Input from Scalabrini Centre (South Africa). See also UN-Women, Landscape of care work in Uganda (2024)."}, {"n": 92, "text": "Marta Roig and Daisuke Maruichi, Economic well-being at older ages: prospects for the future (policy brief), Department of Economic and Social Affairs, January 2023."}, {"n": 93, "text": "Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations. See also the written contribution from Uganda."}, {"n": 94, "text": "A/HRC/41/33, paras. 28 and 55. See also A/HRC/53/39."}, {"n": 95, "text": "Mimi Alphonsus, “Calls grow to regulate elders’ homes as Lanka’s elderly population increases”, The Sunday Times, 28 January 2024."}, {"n": 96, "text": "Kristina Chelberg and Linda Steele, “Hidden in plain sight: women and gendered dementia dynamics in the Australian Aged Care Royal Commission”, Journal of Aging Studies, vol. 71 (December 2024)."}, {"n": 97, "text": "Input by Kaos GL (Türkiye). See also https://www.17mayis.org/images/publish/pdf/yaslaniyoruz-lubunya-anket-gorusmeler-ve-calisma-raporu-16-05-2022.pdf; and A/75/258, para. 12."}], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support", "B. Older women"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Dominant economic growth-based development models thrive on women’s and girls’ “depletion” and the draining of care resources from poorer to richer nations through a “global care chain”.[[fn:98]] As poverty, unemployment, climate change and armed conflict “push” many to migrate, the demands for care and support owing to changes in family structures, aging societies, and an increase in women’s employment in middle- and high-income countries “pull” women into the care sector in these countries. In their responses to the Working Group’s questionnaire and the consultations, migrant women from all regions reported a lack of social protection, including a lack of access to hospitals, to maternity benefits and to retirement/pension benefits. For undocumented migrant women and girls, these problems are compounded, in the context of rising anti-immigrant and xenophobic rhetoric and policies, which increase their risk of experiencing human rights violations.[[fn:99]] Policies that purport to “protect” women, such as restrictions on women migrating for work, violate their human rights.[[fn:100]] Despite such bans, women migrate, for economic reasons and to escape human rights violations, including gender-based violence. However, irregular migration increases their vulnerability and their risk of exploitation and human trafficking.[[fn:101]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons affected by natural disasters", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 98, "text": "See A/HRC/44/51."}, {"n": 99, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/07/racism-and-xenophobia-put-human-rights-human-trafficking-victims-risk-un."}, {"n": 100, "text": "See https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/%40asia/%40ro-bangkok/%40ilo-kathmandu/documents/publication/wcms_792239.pdf."}, {"n": 101, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/07/racism-and-xenophobia-put-human-rights-human-trafficking-victims-risk-un."}], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support", "C. Migrant women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "The lack of gender-responsiveness in most social protection schemes is apparent in their exclusion of sexual and reproductive health services and health conditions, failure to provide for leave and benefits for domestic violence-related harms, and absence of support for women and girls in their roles as carers or as care-receivers throughout their life cycle, and in making benefits contingent on the rights holders’ marital and formal employment status or on specific documentation that is inaccessible to women.[[fn:102]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 102, "text": "See A/HRC/53/39."}], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support", "C. Migrant women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "Women of colour, Indigenous women and migrant women are at increased risk of institutionalization, incarceration and detention. In addition to having distinct needs in prison and detention systems, including for arrangements to be made for the care of their children,[[fn:103]] women and girls are also impacted when they visit, deliver food, and advocate for the well-being of incarcerated family members and their children. Women provide their relatives deprived of liberty with the necessary goods for subsistence, which the State should guarantee.[[fn:104]] They often face discrimination, and experience health problems due to high levels of stress, anxiety and anguish, undue financial burdens imposed on family 96 Kristina Chelberg and Linda Steele, “Hidden in plain sight: women and gendered dementia dynamics in the Australian Aged Care Royal Commission”, Journal of Aging Studies, vol. 71 (December 2024). 97 Input by Kaos GL (Türkiye). See also https://www.17mayis.org/images/publish/pdf/yaslaniyoruzlubunya-anket-gorusmeler-ve-calisma-raporu-16-05-2022.pdf; and A/75/258, para. 12. 98 See A/HRC/44/51. 99 See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/07/racism-and-xenophobia-put-human-rightshuman-trafficking-victims-risk-un. 100 See https://www.ilo.org/sites/default/files/wcmsp5/groups/public/%40asia/%40ro-bangkok/%40ilokathmandu/documents/publication/wcms_792239.pdf. 101 See https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2021/07/racism-and-xenophobia-put-human-rightshuman-trafficking-victims-risk-un. 102 See A/HRC/53/39. 103 See the United Nations Rules for the Treatment of Women Prisoners and Non-custodial Measures for Women Offenders (the Bangkok Rules). 104 Ibid. members, such as specific health examinations at entry and exit, and problems with regular visits in safe and dignified conditions.[[fn:105]]", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 103, "text": "See the United Nations Rules for the Treatment of Women Prisoners and Non-custodial Measures for Women Offenders (the Bangkok Rules)."}, {"n": 104, "text": "Ibid."}, {"n": 105, "text": "Principles and Good Practices on the Protection of the Rights of Women Relatives of Persons Deprived of their Liberty (Bogotá Principles), International Network of Women Relatives of Persons Deprived of their Liberty, October 2022."}], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support", "D. People deprived of liberty and their family members"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "Due to gender inequality, discriminatory development, and legacies of colonialism, slavery, racism and environmental destruction, women in rural areas have been excluded from meaningful health, education and employment opportunities.[[fn:106]] Rural areas often lack doctors, meaning that women’s and girls’ basic healthcare needs are underserved, while their excessive unpaid care and support work increases. Rural women and girls also face challenges in realizing their sexual and reproductive health rights. For girls aged from 15 to 19, maternal conditions are among the top causes of disability.[[fn:107]] Fertility rates are higher, and more teenage births occur, in rural areas than in urban areas.[[fn:108]] Access to contraceptives is low, while maternal mortality and morbidities, such as obstetric fistula and uterine prolapse, are high.[[fn:109]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 106, "text": "See A/HRC/53/39."}, {"n": 107, "text": "World Health Organization, Global Health Estimates 2020: Deaths by Cause, Age, Sex, by Country and by Region, 2000–2019 (Geneva, 2020)."}, {"n": 108, "text": "Mathias Lerch, “Regional variations in the rural-urban fertility gradient in the global South”, PLOS One, vol. 14, No. 7 (2019). See also https://www.choiceforyouth.org/assets/Docs/198f89dc19/PositionPaper_CSW_DEF.pdf and https://www.apa.org/pubs/reports/rural-women-summary.pdf."}, {"n": 109, "text": "See A/HRC/47/38 and https://www.choiceforyouth.org/assets/Docs/198f89dc19/PositionPaper_CSW_DEF.pdf."}], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support", "E. Rural women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "Older women face distinct challenges in accessing basic healthcare in rural areas as their children tend to live in urban areas for jobs.[[fn:110]] People living in rural areas tend to suffer more from home and farm accidents and resulting disabilities, as they lack insurance and access to healthcare. Worldwide, millions of women work as agricultural workers, sometimes in dangerous conditions involving machinery, rugged terrain and transportation infrastructure-related challenges.[[fn:111]] The dangers include exposure to pesticides, and heat stress, which increases the risk of certain gendered harms, especially for menstruating and pregnant women.[[fn:112]] The rate of labour informality in agriculture is 93.6 per cent, and agricultural workers tend to be excluded from existing legal provisions and social protections.[[fn:113]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 110, "text": "Kevin Kinsella, “Urban and rural dimensions of global population aging: an overview”, The Journal of Rural Health, (2001) vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 314–322."}, {"n": 111, "text": "Views expressed in the Working Group’s Middle East and North Africa consultation. See also ILO and FAO, Extending Social Protection to Rural Populations: Perspectives for a Common FAO and ILO Approach (Geneva, 2021)."}, {"n": 112, "text": "European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, “Reproductive effects caused by chemical and biological agents”, 23 November 2012."}, {"n": 113, "text": "ILO, Women and Men in the Informal Economy: A Statistical Picture, third edition (Geneva, 2018)."}], "section": ["V. Gender discrimination against women and girls who require care and support", "E. Rural women and girls"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "The World Health Organization defines self-care as the ability of individuals, families and communities to promote their own health, prevent disease, maintain health, and cope with illness – with or without the support of a health or care worker.[[fn:114]] Although self-care is not explicitly codified in human rights documents, it has been a vital theme in feminist scholarship and advocacy.[[fn:115]] Self-care is a crucial dimension of the rights to health, bodily autonomy, and rest and leisure, and thus is indispensable for achieving gender equality in care and support systems. Unequal care responsibility significantly compromises women’s ability to care for themselves. When caregivers – whether paid or unpaid – are unable to maintain their own health and well-being, the quality of care they provide inevitably suffers. When women and girls are cared for and supported by others, it is also important that they have space and autonomy to exercise self-care of their choice, including through peer support. Ensuring time, space and resources for self-care is thus not a luxury, but a necessary precondition for dignified care relationships and for the fulfilment of human rights.", "labels": ["Persons deprived of their liberty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 114, "text": "See https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/self-care-health-interventions."}, {"n": 115, "text": "Laura Pautassi, “El cuidado como cuestión social desde un enfoque de derechos” (Care as a social issue from a rights-based perspective), Serie Mujer y Desarrollo, No. 87 (Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, October 2007), cited in Laura Pautassi, “The right to care: from recognition to its effective exercise” (Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, March 2023)."}], "section": ["VI. Self-care and collective care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "Systematic violations of bodily autonomy and sexual and reproductive health rights, as well as restrictions on movement outside the home, limit women and girls in their ability to self-care. Nearly half of the women in 57 developing countries are denied the right to decide whether to have sex with their partners, to use contraception or to seek healthcare.[[fn:116]] The autonomy of women and girls with disabilities is often further denied.[[fn:117]] Nearly half of all pregnancies, totalling 121 million each year globally, are unintended, with over 60 per cent of these ending in abortion. An estimated 45 per cent of all abortions are unsafe, causing 5 to 13 per cent of all maternal deaths. More than 30 countries restrict women’s right to mobility outside the home.[[fn:118]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 116, "text": "United Nations Population Fund, State of World Population 2021 – My Body Is My Own: Claiming the Right to Autonomy and Self-Determination."}, {"n": 117, "text": "Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, general comment No. 3 (2016)."}, {"n": 118, "text": "Ibid."}], "section": ["VI. Self-care and collective care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The right to leisure, essential for ensuring self-care, is a human right that recognizes the risks of working excessive hours without adequate rest, not only for individuals but also for their families.[[fn:119]] Time poverty is a pervasive social condition that disproportionately impacts women, and girls, largely due to their unpaid care responsibilities,[[fn:120]] with significant consequences for health and well-being, contributing to negative physical and mental outcomes.[[fn:121]] Time poverty also affects communities, as individuals’ lack of time weakens social ties and limits opportunities to connect and to support and care for one another.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 119, "text": "Universal Declaration of Human Rights, art. 24."}, {"n": 120, "text": "Plan International, Real Choices, Real Lives – Out of Time: The Gendered Care Divide and its Impact on Girls; and Make Mothers Matter, “Time poverty and the motherhood penalty”, 9 July 2024."}, {"n": 121, "text": "Elizabeth Hyde, Margaret E. Greene and Gary L. Darmstadt, “Time poverty: obstacle to women’s human rights, health and sustainable development”, Journal of Global Health, vol. 10, No. 2 (November 2020)."}], "section": ["VI. Self-care and collective care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "One example of collective care was developed by women activists who offered each other emotional grounding as well as advice on how to eat and live well during the AIDS epidemic in Africa in the 1990s.[[fn:122]] This model of collective care as essential to self-care is also reflected in the work of human rights defenders such as the Mesoamerican Initiative of Women Human Rights Defenders, who offer collectivist alternatives for the protection, self-care and safety of women.[[fn:123]] This approach extends to care for the planet. When vital resources such as air, water and land become scarcer and polluted, everyone’s health deteriorates, and women’s unpaid care work increases.[[fn:124]] Self-care and collective care are possible through the preservation of vital natural resources and the creation of a social and physical infrastructure of care that enables people to exercise rights that are directly relevant to self-care: the rights to rest and leisure, and the rights to bodily autonomy, and health, including sexual and reproductive health.[[fn:125]]", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Persons living with HIV/AIDS", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 122, "text": "Written contribution from the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS)."}, {"n": 123, "text": "See https://im-defensoras.org/en/2022/12/protecci%C3%B3n-integral-feminista/."}, {"n": 124, "text": "Oxfam International, Position paper on gender justice and the extractive industries, p. 1."}, {"n": 125, "text": "See A/HRC/47/38."}], "section": ["VI. Self-care and collective care"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "There are some promising developments and good practices for the recognition, reduction and redistribution of unpaid care work, and for rewarding more fairly and representing in decision-making those in paid care work.[[fn:126]] Since 2008, Ecuador has recognized care done in the home as productive work and committed to “provide services for childcare, care for persons with disabilities, and other services as needed for workers to be able to perform their labour activities”, referring to “the joint responsibility and reciprocity of men and women in domestic work and family obligations”.[[fn:127]] Since the 2020 reform of its Social Security Act (art. 201), Mexico allows both male and female caregivers who are rights holders of contributory schemes to enrol their children in childcare services.[[fn:128]] The Government of Canada passed a law in 2024 that enshrines a right to care for all children, implementing this with the “$10-a-day childcare”.[[fn:129]] The Canadian policy also focuses on the rights of Indigenous communities and children to high-quality, affordable and accessible childcare.[[fn:130]] In Tunisia, Law No. 37, adopted in 2021, regulates domestic work, extends social security to those providing unpaid care in the home, and prohibits child employment.[[fn:131]] In China, article 1088 of the Civil Code (2020) provides financial compensation for the spouse providing more childcare or care for older persons in the family in a divorce situation.[[fn:132]] At the municipal level, promising models include the Manzanas del Cuidado in Bogotá, where women spend time in job training, sports or studying, while staff take care of their family members, with these services offered free of charge; in addition to the expansion of affordable childcare facilities.[[fn:133]] Civil society campaigns, such as Men Care, function across different regions to transform cultural norms to encourage a more equal distribution between men and women in caring for children.[[fn:134]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 126, "text": "For other promising practices, see A/HRC/58/43 and A/HRC/55/34."}, {"n": 127, "text": "Art. 333 of the Constitution of Ecuador, cited in UN-Women, Global Gender Equality Constitutional Database. See also arts. 325 and 329."}, {"n": 128, "text": "Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations. See also https://www.unicef.org/innocenti/media/10246/file/UNICEF-Innocenti-GRASSP-MexicoReport-December-2024.pdf, p. 28."}, {"n": 129, "text": "Views expressed in the Working Group’s consultations. See also Government of Canada, Toward $10-a-day: early learning and childcare, available at https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/campaigns/child-care.html; and https://globalnews.ca/news/10328712/national-child-care-system-legislation/."}, {"n": 130, "text": "Working Group’s consultations."}, {"n": 131, "text": "Working Group’s consultations. See also Avocats sans frontières, “Towards stronger protection for domestic workers in Tunisia: challenges and recommendations”, policy brief, 22 June 2023."}, {"n": 132, "text": "See https://en.humanrights.cn/2024/04/17/2412743810154240a2937e9f3f510b47.html."}, {"n": 133, "text": "Working Group’s consultations with participants from Latin America and Spain, and from Eastern Europe and Western Asia. See also the written contribution from the Colombian Ombudsman’s Office, and the National Care Strategy of Colombia."}, {"n": 134, "text": "See A/HRC/WG.11/37/1, and https://www.mencare.org."}], "section": ["VII. Promising practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "There are also some promising models of publicly provided non-institutional long-term care and support services, including home-based primary care and geriatric evaluation for veterans, and respite care benefits for caregivers, in the United States of America and Norway. While home care services and nursing homes often remain too expensive for most older people, many governments acknowledge the need for home-based care, and some (e.g. Estonia) have reformed their welfare policies to allow older people to “age in place”.[[fn:135]] Responses to the Working Group’s survey show that government policies including national-level direct compensation such as allowances and payments, and indirect compensation such as tax relief and tax credit policies, may help family caregivers. In Ethiopia, where formal social safety nets are lacking, Indigenous community-led initiatives increasingly engage in care and support.[[fn:136]] In Asia, there is a trend towards developing 126 For other promising practices, see A/HRC/58/43 and A/HRC/55/34. 127 Art. 333 of the Constitution of Ecuador, cited in UN-Women, Global Gender Equality Constitutional Database. See also arts. 325 and 329. 128 Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations. See also https://www.unicef.org/innocenti/media/10246/file/UNICEF-Innocenti-GRASSP-MexicoReportDecember-2024.pdf, p. 28. 129 Views expressed in the Working Group’s consultations. See also Government of Canada, Toward $10-a-day: early learning and childcare, available at https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-socialdevelopment/campaigns/child-care.html; and https://globalnews.ca/news/10328712/national-childcare-system-legislation/. 130 Working Group’s consultations. 131 Working Group’s consultations. See also Avocats sans frontières, “Towards stronger protection for domestic workers in Tunisia: challenges and recommendations”, policy brief, 22 June 2023. 132 See https://en.humanrights.cn/2024/04/17/2412743810154240a2937e9f3f510b47.html. 133 Working Group’s consultations with participants from Latin America and Spain, and from Eastern Europe and Western Asia. See also the written contribution from the Colombian Ombudsman’s Office, and the National Care Strategy of Colombia. 134 See A/HRC/WG.11/37/1, and https://www.mencare.org. 135 Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations, and written contributions received from civil society organizations. See also the document of the National Audit Office of Estonia available at https://www.riigikontroll.ee/DesktopModules/DigiDetail/FileDownloader.aspx?FileId=19686&AuditI d=6596. 136 Written contribution from the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission. GE.25-07091 community-based social care that is provided through collaboration between formal care institutions and informal care, which plays a critical role in caring for older persons at home in their own community.[[fn:137]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 135, "text": "Views expressed during the Working Group’s consultations, and written contributions received from civil society organizations. See also the document of the National Audit Office of Estonia available at https://www.riigikontroll.ee/DesktopModules/DigiDetail/FileDownloader.aspx?FileId=19686&AuditId=6596."}, {"n": 136, "text": "Written contribution from the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission."}, {"n": 137, "text": "Sasakawa Peace Foundation, Community-based Care for Older Persons (2019)."}], "section": ["VII. Promising practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "The fact that migrant workers are increasingly visible and organized,[[fn:138]] and the efforts to provide skills training for them, are also promising developments.[[fn:139]] Migrant domestic workers participating in the Asia-Pacific consultation pointed to ongoing efforts, and the need, to create fair and ethical recruitment systems to protect migrant domestic workers, giving the example of a system implemented in Jordan that involves migrant women’s advocacy as a good practice. “One-stop service centres” in many national healthcare institutions in Sri Lanka offer a good practice for care and support of survivors of gender-based violence.[[fn:140]] There are also promising models of community-based care and support for survivors of gender-based violence, such as SASA! in Uganda and Oxfam Novib’s programme in Mozambique, which work with community activists to conduct culturally appropriate awareness-raising on gender inequality and violence to challenge gender stereotypes and transform gender roles.[[fn:141]] Feminist legal scholarship that is aimed at centring care in international law is also a promising exploration of the connections between self-care and collective care.[[fn:142]]", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 138, "text": "See https://medium.com/iom-development-fund-newsletter/raising-the-voices-of-migrant-domestic-workers-in-jordan-a-project-by-migrants-for-migrants-51c143269b21."}, {"n": 139, "text": "These specific projects were mentioned in the Asia-Pacific consultations. See https://thailand.iom.int/promise-programme."}, {"n": 140, "text": "Written contribution from Women’s Action Network (Sri Lanka)."}, {"n": 141, "text": "Michau (2008), cited in Kelly Yotebieng, What we know (and do not know) about persistent social norms that serve as barriers to girls’ access, participation and achievement in education in eight sub-Saharan African countries, p. 9."}, {"n": 142, "text": "See https://www.durham.ac.uk/news-events/latest-news/2024/12/new-project-puts-care-at-the-centre-of-international-law-research/."}], "section": ["VII. Promising practices"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "Transforming care and support systems is essential for eliminating discrimination against women and girls and achieving substantive gender equality. Existing care and support policies are inadequate and services are often inaccessible and/or unaffordable, preventing many women and girls from enjoying their basic human rights. This structural deficit stems from the absence of universal social protection and assistance amidst persistent poverty, deepening inequality, armed conflict, militarization, and recurring economic, ecological and health crises. While the consequences of these failures affect everyone, women and girls – who provide three quarters of all unpaid care globally – are disproportionately affected by the deficit in care and support provision.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "Emerging demographic and political trends, including aging populations, intensifying gender backlash, and the resurgence of pronatalist and “family-oriented” policies, are likely to further increase the unequal share of unpaid care and support and human rights violations for women and girls, especially those experiencing poverty and marginalization, including women and girls with disabilities, older women, rural and minority women and girls, and women migrant domestic workers.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "Colonial legacies and violence, along with discrimination based on race, colour, gender, descent, and national or ethnic origin, continue to compound the structural care deficit. These factors shape global care chains sustained by migrant women’s labour. In order to build care and support systems that work for all, these historical and structural injustices and inequalities must be addressed through appropriate remedies and reparations. The current extractive, profit-driven economic system must 137 Sasakawa Peace Foundation, Community-based Care for Older Persons (2019). 138 See https://medium.com/iom-development-fund-newsletter/raising-the-voices-of-migrant-domesticworkers-in-jordan-a-project-by-migrants-for-migrants-51c143269b21. 139 These specific projects were mentioned in the Asia-Pacific consultations. See https://thailand.iom.int/promise-programme. 140 Written contribution from Women’s Action Network (Sri Lanka). 141 Michau (2008), cited in Kelly Yotebieng, What we know (and do not know) about persistent social norms that serve as barriers to girls’ access, participation and achievement in education in eight subSaharan African countries, p. 9. 142 See https://www.durham.ac.uk/news-events/latest-news/2024/12/new-project-puts-care-at-the-centreof-international-law-research/. be transformed and a social system centred on care for people and the planet should be promoted.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Care and support are provided through four main institutions: the family, the market, the public sector and community-based/non-profit organizations. In the context of care and support, any transfer of responsibility and cost from the State and the market onto families means an increased workload for women and girls. Conversely, strengthened public investment by States in gender-responsive, inclusive and human rights-based care and support systems is essential for States to meet their obligations under international human rights law.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "The COVID-19 pandemic exposed the persistence and depth of structural and gendered inequalities in the existing care and support systems, and the vital nature of care to the well-being of societies. However, the world is still off track to achieve gender equality by 2030, especially regarding unpaid care and domestic work, decision-making regarding sexual and reproductive health, and gender-responsive budgeting. Women’s health services continue to be poorly funded. Women, as unpaid and paid care and support workers and as those requiring care and support, remain woefully underrepresented in decision-making. This situation is unsustainable and undermines both gender equality and the well-being of societies. The international community, and States, must urgently address these obstacles to equality, and eliminate all forms of discrimination to ensure that all people requiring care and support and all people who provided these can enjoy their human rights. It is vital to invest in an enabling social care infrastructure, including but not limited to paid care leave, in-home support services, respite care and community resource centres, along with the public provision of high-quality care and support services, and to ensure that caregivers and those requiring care and support find the time, energy and resources to exercise self-care and collective care.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "Advancing gender equality and building more robust care and support systems are intricately linked and are critical to other goals such as reducing poverty, and promoting the health, education, social protection and well-being of all people. An intersectional feminist and human rights-based approach to care and support is needed to achieve these goals and to close the structural care deficit. This approach is premised on the idea that care is vital to the functioning of society, including the economy, which itself should support human dignity, human rights and the well-being of all people. Harmful gender stereotypes and cultural norms must be transformed, and caring for others must be promoted as a foundational value decoupled from gender. Policies must engage men and boys in caregiving roles and foster shared responsibility for care within households and communities.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "Given the relationship between existing gender inequalities and women’s and girls’ disproportionate care work as detailed in the present report, equal treatment before the law is not enough to meet the critical needs of people who need and provide care. International and regional human rights mechanisms must be strengthened to hold States accountable for their obligations to eliminate discrimination and build gender-responsive and inclusive care systems. Holistic approaches are necessary to ensure that care and support systems are economically, socially and environmentally sustainable. The above-mentioned CREATE framework[[fn:143]] can serve as a comprehensive and actionable road map for States in this regard.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 143, "text": "A/HRC/WG.11/42/1."}], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "A. Conclusions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "States should take measures to build gender-responsive, inclusive, human rights-based and sustainable care and support systems to realize human rights for all people and to achieve gender equality, inter alia by:\n(a) Recognizing care and support as vital to the sustainability of societies, economies and the planet, and essential to both the achievement of gender equality and the enjoyment of all other internationally recognized human rights;\n(b) Respecting, protecting and fulfilling the rights of those providing and requiring care and support and fully recognizing their dignity, autonomy and agency, and ensuring substantive gender equality in care and support systems in compliance with all relevant international human rights and labour standards applicable to each country;\n(c) Making care and support work visible and valued as a central pillar of the overall economy, and meeting the needs of women and girls as providers and recipients of care, as well as their needs for self-care;\n(d) Taking appropriate measures to implement the 5R framework of recognizing the value of care and support work and the rights of those providing and requiring care and support; reducing unpaid care and support work, without compromising care and support for those requiring them; redistributing unpaid care and support work between households and the State, business and the community, and between genders; rewarding paid care and support workers; and ensuring the representation and participation of those providing and requiring care and support and their organizations;\n(e) Transforming harmful gender stereotypes that reinforce restrictive roles and contribute to discrimination against women and girls;\n(f) Promoting the equal participation of boys and men in unpaid and paid care and support;\n(g) Recognizing the distinct care and support needs of different groups, including girls, older women, women and girls with disabilities and those with rare diseases, and ensuring their dignity, autonomy and agency;\n(h) Ensuring the participation of women and girls facing intersecting forms of discrimination – especially those with disabilities, rural women, older women and migrant and refugee women – in the design, implementation and monitoring of care and support systems, and continuous data collection and research on care and support needs.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Persons with disabilities", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "States should strengthen legal, labour and economic protections for paid and unpaid care and support workers, inter alia by:\n(a) Guaranteeing the rights of paid care workers, including decent wages, safe working conditions, social protection and collective bargaining, in conformity with all international human rights and labour standards applicable to each country;\n(b) Ensuring the representation and participation of care worker organizations, including those of domestic workers, community health and care workers, and migrant workers, in policymaking, and ensuring their equal treatment and protection in line with international human rights and labour standards;\n(c) Promoting gender-responsive employment and macroeconomic policies that create decent jobs, including through the formalization of informal care jobs and enterprises, and the prevention of informalization of formal ones.", "labels": ["Migrants"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "States should provide gender-responsive and universal basic care and support, including healthcare, education and social protection, for their populations, inter alia by:\n(a) Enabling women to make pregnancy-related decisions that will enhance their life choices and ability to enjoy their rights;\n(b) Guaranteeing universal and gender-responsive social protection, including universal child, maternity/paternity/parental and pension benefits; and taking into consideration disability-related extra costs and expanding the coverage to informal and migrant workers;\n(c) Supporting the care responsibilities and needs of rural women, including those in agricultural sectors, by investing in rural infrastructure, transportation, childcare and health services to alleviate poverty and ensure access to education and decent work opportunities;\n(d) Involving community and women’s organizations in gender-responsive budgeting for public services, infrastructure and social protection.", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "States should actively work for systemic change to develop a care-centred administration, economy and community, inter alia by:\n(a) Upholding international humanitarian law to ensure that civilians are not harmed, and that healthcare and humanitarian workers and civilian care infrastructure are not targeted in armed conflict;\n(b) Shifting public resources away from militarization and towards building societies rooted in human rights and ecological sustainability;\n(c) Taking a holistic and systemic perspective that links social reproduction, economic production and ecological regeneration;\n(d) Supporting self-care and collective care initiatives through legislation and public services that enable those providing and requiring care and support to enjoy their rights to leisure, rest, health, community inclusion and equal participation in public, social and cultural life;\n(e) Protecting human rights defenders, including women’s rights defenders and environmentalists whose work involves care for people and the planet;\n(f) Reforming public budgets and taxation to fund care and support systems that are economically, ecologically and socially sustainable, focusing on distributive justice and fair fiscal policies, including proportional and progressive taxation for high-income earners and corporations;\n(g) Integrating care and support into national sustainable development and climate strategies;\n(h) Collecting and disseminating data on care and support work that is disaggregated by income, sex, age, race, ethnicity, migration, Indigenous and minority status, disability, geographical location and other relevant characteristics in order to measure the scope and value of, and the need for, paid and unpaid care and support to inform policy and legal design.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "The international community, including international financial institutions, should:\n(a) Advance equitable trade and investment policies, and debt cancellation or debt relief, to prioritize gender-responsive resource redistribution, human rights and well-being;\n(b) Ensure corporate accountability for environmental pollution and tax evasion, inter alia.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 55, "n": 56, "text": "Corporations and the States and regional and international organizations exercising jurisdiction and control over them should:\n(a) Implement the 2024 International Labour Organization (ILO) resolution concerning decent work and the care economy to ensure the realization of human rights, including by actively working to end discrimination against women and girls;\n(b) Create workplace cultures and practices, including remote and hybrid work, and shorter work weeks, that balance work and home lives, with the recognition that “flexible working time” arrangements do not necessarily benefit women workers or gender equality, but must be designed intentionally for these outcomes;\n(c) Recognize the value of the skills developed through care and support work in recruitment policies;\n(d) Collaborate with other employers and local governments to develop care and support services for workers, families and communities.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["VIII. Conclusions and recommendations", "B. Recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 56, "n": 1, "text": "At its fortieth session, held in New York from 29 April to 3 May 2024, the Working Group met with the UN Secretary-General, the Assistant Secretary-General for Human Rights, academics, civil society organizations, and the private sector. It also met with representatives of the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), the Expert Mechanism on the Right to Development (EMRTD), and Member States. The third annual session of the Working Group in 2024 was cancelled due to the UN liquidity crisis.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 57, "n": 2, "text": "From 14 to 18 October 2024, the Working Group held a regional convening for Southern Africa. During the convening, it met with judges, academics, civil society representatives, and girls’ organizations, as well as representatives of the South African Commission for Gender Equality, the UN Resident Coordinator’s Offices in Southern Africa, and African regional institutions. The Working Group also held a hybrid discussion with Afghan women human rights defenders on the codification of gender apartheid.[[fn:1]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A/HRC/WG.11/40/1."}], "section": ["I. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 58, "n": 3, "text": "At its forty-first session, held in Geneva from 13 to 17 January 2025, the Working Group held meetings with Member States, the High Commissioner for Human Rights, the President of the Human Rights Council (HRC), the Committee on the Rights of the Child, civil society organizations, and girls from various regions. It also organized a launch event for its guidance document on conscientious objection to abortion,[[fn:2]] as well as consultations on care and support with UN agencies and OHCHR representatives. On this occasion it also published a guidance document on gender equality and gender backlash.[[fn:3]] In April 2025, it further published a guidance document on substantive gender equality, which introduces the CREATE Framework – a comprehensive and actionable road map to guide States and other relevant actors, including international economic institutions and business enterprises, in achieving transformative substantive gender equality.[[fn:4]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "A/HRC/WG.11/41/1."}, {"n": 3, "text": "A/HRC/WG.11/41/2."}, {"n": 4, "text": "A/HRC/WG.11/42/1."}], "section": ["I. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 59, "n": 4, "text": "The Working Group visited the Dominican Republic from 22 to 31 July 2024 and Thailand from 2 to 13 December 2024. It thanks the Governments for their cooperation and encourages States to respond positively to its requests for visits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 60, "n": 5, "text": "The Working Group addressed several communications to Governments and other stakeholders, individually or jointly with other mandate holders. The communications concerned discriminatory laws and practices; the rights of women human rights defenders; women deprived of liberty; women and girls affected by armed conflict; gender-based violence, both online and off-line; violations of sexual and reproductive health rights; and gendered impact of fiscal policies mandated by international financial institutions, among others. The Working Group issued press releases, both individually and jointly with other mandate holders, the human rights treaty bodies and regional mechanisms.[[fn:5]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "All communications are available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TmSearch/TMDocuments, and press releases at Latest | OHCHR."}], "section": ["III. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-59-45-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-59-45", "idx": 61, "n": 6, "text": "Members of the Working Group undertook numerous other activities in their official capacity. In particular, the Chair presented an oral report to the General Assembly at its seventy-ninth session, addressed the Commission on the Status of Women at its sixty-ninth session and participated in a panel discussion on violence against children at the forty-fifth ordinary session of the African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (ACERWG). Moreover, members of the Working Group participated in meetings of the HRC President’s Advisory Board on Gender Equality, the High-Level Political Forum 2025 Expert Group Meeting on SDG 5, meetings organized by the United Nations Convention Against Corruption (UNCAC) Coalition, an expert meeting on the situation of Afghan women and girls convened by UN-Women Afghanistan, and the HRC Panel discussion on States’ obligations concerning the role of the family in supporting the human rights of its members. The Working Group continued to actively participate in the Platform of Independent Expert Mechanisms on the Elimination of Discrimination and Violence against Women.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2025, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0001", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 1, "n": 1, "text": "The present report consists of thematic analysis and recommendations on women’s and girls’ rights and artificial intelligence (AI) and related digital technologies. In the annex, an update is provided on the main activities of the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls from the time of the submission of its previous report[[fn:1]] until April 2026.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "A/HRC/59/45."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0002", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 2, "n": 2, "text": "The growth of AI and related digital technologies has profoundly transformed the landscape in which women and girls exercise their human rights. The use of AI across the public and private sectors is already compounding existing patterns of discrimination. The impact is increasingly felt by women and girls as these technologies are integrated into the institutions, platforms and digital infrastructure of everyday life. This is particularly true for women and girls facing intersecting forms of discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, age, disability, immigration status, sexual orientation, gender identity and other aspects of status or identity.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0003", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 3, "n": 3, "text": "The Working Group stresses that the design and deployment of all digital technologies, including AI tools, must be grounded in feminist and gender-responsive approaches and in compliance with international human rights law, principles and standards.[[fn:2]] Yet, despite well-documented gender biases and discrimination in AI, existing regulatory frameworks and private sector approaches to AI devote minimal or no attention to gender-responsive design or the integration of gender expertise. Too many AI products neither adequately prevent harm to women and girls nor support the active realization of their rights. Closing this gap requires urgent regulatory action, institutional and corporate accountability, sustained funding and the systematic inclusion of feminist gender expertise within public and private sector institutions. The rapid expansion of discourse on AI has also diverted attention from unresolved digital inequalities, even as consensus builds on the obligation of States to ensure access to the Internet and basic digital technology as a public good.[[fn:3]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 2, "text": "A/HRC/56/68, paras. 59–63."}, {"n": 3, "text": "A/HRC/17/27, para. 66."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0004", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 4, "n": 4, "text": "For the purposes of this report, the Working Group relies upon the definition of an AI system used by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD): “a machine-based system that, for explicit or implicit objectives, infers, from the input it receives, how to generate outputs such as predictions, content, recommendations, or decisions that can influence physical or virtual environments”.[[fn:4]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 4, "text": "See https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2024/03/explanatory-memorandum-on-the-updated-oecd-definition-of-an-ai-system_3c815e51/623da898-en.pdf."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0005", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 5, "n": 5, "text": "Feminist, gender-responsive and human rights based approaches to digital technology recognize the gender-unequal nature of societies, the resulting biases in the data on which AI systems are trained and the gendered power dynamics that shape technological design and development.[[fn:5]] The Working Group is particularly concerned about the way in which AI intensifies existing harms for women and girls through its integration into the infrastructure, institutions and technologies of daily life. These harms are compounded by persistent structural barriers, namely the male-dominated nature of the professional field, accountability deficits for violations by private sector actors, inadequate regulation and the market logics that normalize or incentivize discriminatory and misogynistic features. As one participant in consultations with civil society participant observed, misogyny is not a design flaw; it is a feature of systems that are designed to capture and maintain attention in a patriarchal world.[[fn:6]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 5, "text": "See Catherine D’Ignazio and Lauren Klein, “Introduction: why data science needs feminism”, in Data Feminism (Cambridge, Massachusetts, MIT Press, 2020); and Judy Wajcman and Erin Young, “Feminism confronts AI: the gender relations of digitalisation”, in Feminist AI: Critical Perspectives on Algorithms, Data, and Intelligence Machines, Judy Browne and others, eds. (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2023)."}, {"n": 6, "text": "See also Wajcman and Young, “Feminism confronts AI”."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0006", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 6, "n": 6, "text": "At the same time, the Working Group recognizes the genuine potential of AI and related technologies to promote gender equality and to begin addressing historical inequalities. In the present report, the Working Group identifies three preconditions for ensuring that AI and digital technology advance, rather than undermine, the meaningful realization of women’s and girls’ rights: bridging the digital divide; harnessing AI and digital technologies to bolster rather than undermine women’s and girls’ human rights; and promoting the meaningful participation and leadership of women and girls in public and political life.[[fn:7]] These preconditions do not provide an exhaustive account of needed reforms, but rather identify the systemic changes most likely to have a meaningful and immediate impact. The report also addresses the gendered dimensions of emerging global deliberations on AI redlines, domains in which AI is causing and will continue to cause impermissible harm. The findings should be read alongside the Working Group’s CREATE framework, a practical and actionable tool for achieving substantive gender equality in the digital sphere, including in the regulation of AI.[[fn:8]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 7, "text": "See D’Ignazio and Klein, “Introduction: why data science needs feminism”."}, {"n": 8, "text": "See A/HRC/WG.11/42/1."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0007", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 7, "n": 7, "text": "In preparing this report, the Working Group conducted consultations with Member States, United Nations entities, over 100 civil society actors, women and girls, academics, the private sector and technologists.[[fn:9]] Several themes emerged across regional consultations: the importance of participatory approaches to AI development with the meaningful inclusion of marginalized communities; the value of pluralistic understandings of knowledge; and serious concerns about the extractive and exploitative power dynamics involved in data cultivation and processing.[[fn:10]] The Working Group expresses its deep gratitude to all stakeholders for their contributions. While no written submissions were received from private sector actors, several companies participated in bilateral and multi-stakeholder discussions with the Working Group. The Working Group underscores the need for more systematic engagement of the private sector with human rights and feminist stakeholders.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 9, "text": "Submissions received are available at https://www.ohchr.org/en/calls-for-input/2025/call-inputs-2026-thematic-report-gender-equality-digital-space-and-age."}, {"n": 10, "text": "Regional consultations with Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa, Western Europe and others, Eastern Europe and Asia and the Pacific."}], "section": ["I. Introduction"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0008", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 8, "n": 8, "text": "The international human rights obligations of States on gender equality that are applicable to AI and related digital technologies are robust and well established. They include, among others, the obligations contained in articles 1–3, 5, 7, 8 and 11–13 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, which articulate binding obligations to eliminate discrimination in all fields and require proactive measures to address indirect and structural discrimination, including where AI systems produce disparate or exclusionary outcomes, as further elaborated upon by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women in its general recommendations No. 35 (2017) on gender-based violence against women and No. 36 (2017) on the right of girls and women to education; articles 2, 3, 17, 19, 25 and 26 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which protect privacy, freedom of expression, equality before the law, political participation and effective remedy, all of which are being increasingly affected by AI-enabled surveillance, profiling, content moderation and automated decision-making; and articles 2, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13 and 15 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, which impose duties to ensure non-discriminatory access to work, education, social protection, health and scientific progress as AI systems are integrated into core public services.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Regulation of artificial intelligence and women’s and girls’ rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0009", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 9, "n": 9, "text": "These protections are further reinforced through articles 1, 2, 5 and 6 of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, which are particularly relevant where AI systems produce racially discriminatory outcomes that intersect with and compound gender-based discrimination; articles 2, 3, 12, 13 and 16 as elaborated upon by the Committee on the Rights of the Child in its general comment No. 25 (2021); articles 1, 7, 11, 14, 16, 25, 33 and 55 of the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families; and articles 5, 9, 22 and 27 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. The Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights further establish the responsibility of private sector actors – including AI developers and technology companies – to respect human rights and provide access to remedy across their operations and value chains.", "labels": ["Children", "Migrants", "Persons with disabilities"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Regulation of artificial intelligence and women’s and girls’ rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0010", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 10, "n": 10, "text": "Complementary protections are reflected in regional instruments, including the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (European Convention on Human Rights) (arts. 8, 10 and 14), the European Social Charter (Revised) (arts. 1, 3, 11, 14, 30 and E), the Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence Convention (arts. 3, 4 and 17), the American Convention on Human Rights (arts. 1, 11, 13, 23 and 24), the Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence against Women (arts. 6 and 7), the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (arts. 2, 3, 9 and 13) and the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (arts. 2, 9 and 13). The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action remains a foundational normative reference for this mandate, affirming the indivisibility of women’s rights and the structural conditions necessary for their realization.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Regulation of artificial intelligence and women’s and girls’ rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0011", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 11, "n": 11, "text": "Together, these instruments affirm that States may not outsource or dilute their human rights obligations to the private sector, or through the use of AI tools or products. Persistent gaps arise not only from the lack of dedicated instruments on technology and the lack of human rights law standards in the field, but also from inadequate implementation, weak regulation, insufficient gender-responsive interpretation and limited accountability in the face of rapidly expanding technological power.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Regulation of artificial intelligence and women’s and girls’ rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0012", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 12, "n": 12, "text": "Despite this robust normative foundation, existing regulatory efforts have devoted limited attention to the impact of AI on women and girls and its potential for redressing existing gender inequalities. Most international, regional and multilateral standards and principles offer only passing reference to addressing “gender” or “gender inequalities”,[[fn:11]] and while most AI regulations emphasize non-discrimination, only some explicitly acknowledge gender-based threats.[[fn:12]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 11, "text": "See OECD Principles on Artificial Intelligence (2019), and Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence, Belgrade Ministerial Declaration, 4 December 2024."}, {"n": 12, "text": "See https://cset.georgetown.edu/publication/china-gen-ai-training-data-safety-standard-draft/, https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/recommendation-ethics-artificial-intelligence and https://www.coe.int/en/web/artificial-intelligence/the-framework-convention-on-artificial-intelligence."}], "section": ["II. Regulation of artificial intelligence and women’s and girls’ rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0013", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 13, "n": 13, "text": "These gaps are compounded by the concentration of AI design and development, in a small number of countries and regions. The Working Group is deeply concerned that among the dominant actors, both State and private sector, the prevailing emphasis remains on enabling market-driven, growth-focused models underpinned by decentralized, non-binding and voluntary approaches to regulation. The European Union and Council of Europe have adopted the most comprehensive regulatory efforts that strongly emphasize protections for privacy rights, risk-based approaches, the right to equality and non-discrimination and an explicit requirement that activities throughout the life cycle of AI systems respect gender equality.[[fn:13]] These efforts are welcome, but they remain the exception, not the norm, and their gender provisions must be strengthened and enforced.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 13, "text": "Artificial Intelligence Act, arts. 27, 48 and 95 (2) (e); and Council of Europe Framework Convention on Artificial Intelligence and Human Rights, Democracy and the Rule of Law, arts. 10 and 11."}], "section": ["II. Regulation of artificial intelligence and women’s and girls’ rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0014", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 14, "n": 14, "text": "Regional bodies have also made important contributions. The African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights has emphasized the need to address the risk of AI exacerbating income inequality and its use in conflict.[[fn:14]] The Inter-American Commission on Human Rights has highlighted the need to protect freedom of expression and has approved the Inter-American Model Law to Prevent, Punish and Eradicate Gender-Based Digital Violence against Women.[[fn:15]] The Economic Commission for Europe has published guidance for integrating gender-responsiveness and ethical considerations into technical standards for AI systems.[[fn:16]] These regional efforts reflect growing recognition of the gendered dimensions of AI, but they remain fragmented and uneven.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 14, "text": "See https://achpr.au.int/en/documents/2025-04-08/draft-study-human-peoples-rights-artificial-intelligence-robotics."}, {"n": 15, "text": "See https://www.oas.org/en/mesecvi/docs/Interamerican%20Model%20Law%20Gender%20based%20Digital%20Violence%201.pdf."}, {"n": 16, "text": "See https://unece.org/sites/default/files/2025-11/2517467_E_PDF_WEB_updated.pdf."}], "section": ["II. Regulation of artificial intelligence and women’s and girls’ rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0015", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 15, "n": 15, "text": "Large technology companies have simultaneously been granted broad discretion in determining approaches to AI design, development, use and transfer. While some companies have expressed support for transparency, fairness, privacy and accountability, including commitments to addressing gender inequality, the way in which they implement these stated values and collect, use and implement user data remains opaque and largely unverifiable. There is no evidence that technology companies are systematically engaging with affected communities or integrating feminist approaches throughout AI life cycles. Some participate in the B-Tech Project of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, which supports the implementation of the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, although implementation lags well behind what is required.[[fn:17]]", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 17, "text": "See https://www.ohchr.org/en/business-and-human-rights/b-tech-project."}], "section": ["II. Regulation of artificial intelligence and women’s and girls’ rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0016", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 16, "n": 16, "text": "Within the United Nations system, there has been growing engagement with AI governance. Special procedure mandate holders have examined the effects of AI on other human rights, such as freedom of expression, freedom from racial discrimination, freedom from poverty, freedom from violence, cultural rights, the right to peaceful assembly and association and the right to health.[[fn:18]] The Human Rights Council and General Assembly have repeatedly acknowledged the impact of digital technologies, including AI, on human rights.[[fn:19]] The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has produced recommendations, including a dedicated section on gender, although these recommendations lack binding force.[[fn:20]] The General Assembly and the Secretariat have also supported efforts such as the Global Digital Compact and High-level Advisory Body on Artificial Intelligence, establishing an independent scientific panel to facilitate global dialogue.[[fn:21]] These efforts are important foundations, but there have been no coordinated efforts to produce the binding, gender-responsive standards that the moment demands.", "labels": ["Persons living in poverty"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 18, "text": "See A/74/493, A/80/278, A/HRC/38/47, A/HRC/41/41 A/HRC/53/65 and A/HRC/56/68. See also https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/expression/statements/2025-10-24-joint-declaration-artificial-intelligence.pdf."}, {"n": 19, "text": "See, for example, Human Rights Council resolution 59/11."}, {"n": 20, "text": "See https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000381137."}, {"n": 21, "text": "See General Assembly resolution 79/325, https://www.un.org/global-dialogue-ai-governance/en and https://www.un.org/digital-emerging-technologies/ai-advisory-body."}], "section": ["II. Regulation of artificial intelligence and women’s and girls’ rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0017", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 17, "n": 17, "text": "Regulation of AI is necessary and urgent. As this report documents, harms are not prospective. Around the world, women and girls are already experiencing and responding to them. AI governance can only become gender-responsive if it is grounded in the principles of inclusion, meaningful participation, accountability, substantive equality, transparency and oversight.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Regulation of artificial intelligence and women’s and girls’ rights"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0018", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 18, "n": 18, "text": "True substantive gender equality in the digital age depends on equal access to technology and the proactive elimination of its impact on existing and emerging disparities across economic, social and political life.[[fn:22]] 22 State obligations to ensure women’s equal enjoyment of their human rights extend to private actors within their jurisdiction, as outlined above. Based on extensive consultation and research, the Working Group identifies in the present section the preconditions to such equality, including immediate and deliberate measures that States must take to address systemic disparities in healthcare, social protection, employment and justice. Each is necessary to ensure that AI and digital technologies advance, rather than compromise, the human rights of women and girls. 16 See https://unece.org/sites/default/files/2025-11/2517467_E_PDF_WEB_updated.pdf. 17 See https://www.ohchr.org/en/business-and-human-rights/b-tech-project. 18 See A/74/493, A/80/278, A/HRC/38/47, A/HRC/41/41 A/HRC/53/65 and A/HRC/56/68. See also https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/expression/statements/2025-10-24-jointdeclaration-artificial-intelligence.pdf. 19 See, for example, Human Rights Council resolution 59/11. 20 See https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000381137. 21 See General Assembly resolution 79/325, https://www.un.org/global-dialogue-ai-governance/en and https://www.un.org/digital-emerging-technologies/ai-advisory-body. 22 The importance of the preconditions was reinforced in all regional consultations. GE.26-06271", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "section": ["III. Preconditions for gender-equal digital futures"], "footnotes": [{"n": 22, "text": "The importance of the preconditions was reinforced in all regional consultations."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0019", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 19, "n": 19, "text": "An intersectional and gender-responsive approach to closing the digital divide is the first precondition to ensuring that AI does not entrench existing structural inequalities that underpin gender-based discrimination. All of the regional consultations for the report have shown that the development and deployment of AI is occurring in contexts where the gender digital divide has already resulted in unequal access to the Internet and digital technologies, intensifying the exclusion of women and girls from access to information, education, economic opportunities and other features of development. This divide is compounded for those living in rural areas, with low incomes or low socioeconomic status, older women and those belonging to minority and historically marginalized groups.[[fn:23]] Absent concerted efforts to address this divide, the integration of AI into essential services and decision-making systems risks deepening existing inequalities across all areas of life.[[fn:24]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 23, "text": "A/HRC/53/39, para. 40."}, {"n": 24, "text": "In addition, the regional consultations with Asia and the Pacific included discussions of the fact that even in States where national identity laws allow changes to gender markers, that recognition does not always extend to other welfare platforms now using AI."}], "section": ["III. Preconditions for gender-equal digital futures", "A. Equal access to technology"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0020", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 20, "n": 20, "text": "States can address these risks through a holistic approach to Internet access that provides for meaningful community-centred connectivity,[[fn:25]] encompassing affordability, reliability and quality of access and shaped by the broader enabling environment, including infrastructure and reliable electricity provision.[[fn:26]] This must be paired with addressing the gendered digital skill gaps and discriminatory sociocultural norms.[[fn:27]] For example, the Working Group’s global consultation with young women and girls revealed that girls often had later access to digital technologies and AI than boys, especially in rural and low-income areas; lacked the support needed to use such tools safely; encountered embedded biases, including male-default outputs, and stereotypical representations; and experienced the exclusion of their lived realities, particularly for girls out of school or girls with disabilities.", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 25, "text": "See https://www.apc.org/en/glossary/meaningful-community-centred-connectivity."}, {"n": 26, "text": "See https://www.internetsociety.org/blog/2025/10/what-is-meaningful-connectivity/."}, {"n": 27, "text": "See https://data.unicef.org/resources/ictgenderdivide/."}], "section": ["III. Preconditions for gender-equal digital futures", "A. Equal access to technology"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0021", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 21, "n": 21, "text": "The second precondition is ensuring that AI and related digital technologies enable the exercise by women and girls of their economic, social and cultural rights. The most persistent barriers to gender equality include unequal economic participation and limited access to resources and safety nets. This precondition is therefore necessary to ensure that AI does not further entrench structural inequality. The rapid proliferation of AI tools has raised serious concerns about gendered labour exploitation.[[fn:28]] The deployment of AI depends, in a significant part, on the underpaid, unrecognized labour of countless women and girls engaged in data work, particularly across Africa and Asia. These workers are frequently exposed to traumatic and graphic content under exploitative labour conditions.[[fn:29]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 28, "text": "See A/HRC/44/51."}, {"n": 29, "text": "A/78/161, para. 9. See also submission by Centre for Intellectual Property and Information Technology Law."}], "section": ["III. Preconditions for gender-equal digital futures", "B. Women’s and girls’ economic, social and cultural rights and technology"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0022", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 22, "n": 22, "text": "This dynamic reflects a broader trend often referred to as “digital colonialism”, whereby the exploitation of labour, including women’s and girls’ labour, in the global majority fuels technological development and economic growth in the global minority.[[fn:30]] At the same time, women and girls remain disproportionately vulnerable to job displacement by AI and other technologies, especially in women-dominated sectors such as health and care, business administration and clerical support.[[fn:31]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 30, "text": "Regional consultations with Latin America and the Caribbean and Africa."}, {"n": 31, "text": "International Labour Organization, “Gen AI, occupational segregation and gender equality in the world of work”, research brief, March 2026, pp. 5 and 6."}], "section": ["III. Preconditions for gender-equal digital futures", "B. Women’s and girls’ economic, social and cultural rights and technology"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0023", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 23, "n": 23, "text": "With gender impact assessments and meaningful regulation, however, AI can enhance women’s and girls’ access to economic opportunities and social services, advancing multiple rights under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (art. 2), the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (arts. 2, 6, 12 and 13), the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (arts. 1–3, 5, 11 and 12)[[fn:32]] and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (arts. 9 and 27). AI can, for example, expand financial inclusion,[[fn:33]] support navigation of employment processes – including for women with disabilities[[fn:34]] – connect women to new markets and widen access to banking, investment and money-management tools. AI-driven automation also holds potential to reduce labour-intensive unpaid care and support work and to increase the autonomy of those who require care and support.[[fn:35]] Due attention should be paid to ensuring that this does not dehumanize caregiving.[[fn:36]] AI tools can expand access to education through generative research, language learning and personalized feedback and lessons.[[fn:37]] However, this use is not without risk: biased algorithms can steer women and girls toward education and employment outcomes that replicate gendered discrimination, such as AI tutors discouraging girls from studying science, technology, engineering and mathematics and the gender stereotyping of certain professions.[[fn:38]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 32, "text": "See also general recommendation No. 28 (2010), paras. 9 and 10."}, {"n": 33, "text": "A/HRC/44/51, paras. 22 and 23."}, {"n": 34, "text": "Consultations with young women and girls."}, {"n": 35, "text": "A/HRC/58/33, para. 51."}, {"n": 36, "text": "A/HRC/36/48, para. 47; and A/HRC/59/45, para. 5."}, {"n": 37, "text": "Consultations with young women and girls."}, {"n": 38, "text": "Regional consultations with Middle East and North Africa and West and Central Africa, and consultations with young women and girls. See also https://achpr.au.int/en/documents/2025-04-08/draft-study-human-peoples-rights-artificial-intelligence-robotics."}], "section": ["III. Preconditions for gender-equal digital futures", "B. Women’s and girls’ economic, social and cultural rights and technology"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0024", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 24, "n": 24, "text": "AI and digital technologies can be particularly effective in addressing barriers to women’s and girls’ access to health, including through improved diagnosis, interventions and expanded access to medical information and telemedicine, particularly in rural, fragile or conflict-afflicted settings or in areas with limited access to resources.[[fn:39]] Given that more women and girls are likely to be misdiagnosed or to have symptoms dismissed, such technologies hold real potential to bridge long-standing disparities and improve quality of life where healthcare is otherwise unavailable.[[fn:40]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 39, "text": "Regional consultations with Middle East and North Africa and West and Central Africa."}, {"n": 40, "text": "See submission by Uzbekistan. See also Maya Dusenbery, Doing Harm: The Truth About How Bad Medicine and Lazy Science Leave Women Dismissed, Misdiagnosed, and Sick (San Francisco, HarperOne, 2019)."}], "section": ["III. Preconditions for gender-equal digital futures", "B. Women’s and girls’ economic, social and cultural rights and technology"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0025", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 25, "n": 25, "text": "Realizing these benefits requires that AI language models be trained on underrepresented and Indigenous languages to ensure that all women and girls, not just those who speak dominant languages, are able to have access to and benefit from such technologies.[[fn:41]] Such training of AI language models is also essential to ensure the inclusion of the diversity of sources of knowledge and culture, including traditional knowledge, secure the intellectual property rights of all cultural bearers and protect against cultural erasure and convergence, which amplifies dominant, uniform images and voices and risks homogenization.[[fn:42]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 41, "text": "Regional consultations with Africa, Middle East and North Africa, West and Central Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean. See also Yolanda Botti-Lodovico, “Against all odds: increasing African women’s influence on AI innovation and policy”, Tech Policy Press, 31 October 2024; Mia Marzotto, “The latest from TWB’s language technology initiative”, Translators without Borders, 13 July 2020; and https://www.policylab.tech/_files/ugd/0e03be_3d496084e8dc409087c3da2597b65c14.pdf (in Spanish)."}, {"n": 42, "text": "A/HRC/58/60, para. 43. See also https://www.cell.com/patterns/fulltext/S2666-3899(25)00299-5?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2666389925002995%3Fshowall%3Dtrue and https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000381137."}], "section": ["III. Preconditions for gender-equal digital futures", "B. Women’s and girls’ economic, social and cultural rights and technology"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0026", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 26, "n": 26, "text": "The third precondition is ensuring that AI facilitates, rather than undermines, women’s and girls’ equal participation in public and political life, a right firmly grounded in 32 See also general recommendation No. 28 (2010), paras. 9 and 10. 33 A/HRC/44/51, paras. 22 and 23. 34 Consultations with young women and girls. 35 A/HRC/58/33, para. 51. 36 A/HRC/36/48, para. 47; and A/HRC/59/45, para. 5. 37 Consultations with young women and girls. 38 Regional consultations with Middle East and North Africa and West and Central Africa, and consultations with young women and girls. See also https://achpr.au.int/en/documents/2025-0408/draft-study-human-peoples-rights-artificial-intelligence-robotics. 39 Regional consultations with Middle East and North Africa and West and Central Africa. 40 See submission by Uzbekistan. See also Maya Dusenbery, Doing Harm: The Truth About How Bad Medicine and Lazy Science Leave Women Dismissed, Misdiagnosed, and Sick (San Francisco, HarperOne, 2019). 41 Regional consultations with Africa, Middle East and North Africa, West and Central Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean. See also Yolanda Botti-Lodovico, “Against all odds: increasing African women’s influence on AI innovation and policy”, Tech Policy Press, 31 October 2024; Mia Marzotto, “The latest from TWB’s language technology initiative”, Translators without Borders, 13 July 2020; and https://www.policylab.tech/_files/ugd/0e03be_3d496084e8dc409087c3da2597b65c14.pdf (in Spanish). 42 A/HRC/58/60, para. 43. See also https://www.cell.com/patterns/fulltext/S2666-3899(25)002995?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2666389925002 995%3Fshowall%3Dtrue and https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000381137. GE.26-06271 international human rights law, including under articles 7, 8, 13 and 14 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. As civic engagement and political discourse increasingly migrate to digital spaces, the ability to speak, organize and advocate online has become essential; without it, women and girls are effectively excluded from the arenas in which influence and power are exercised and futures are shaped. The Working Group has previously reported on the contemporary threats of technology, including AI, to women’s political, economic, social, and cultural rights, particularly women’s rights to be elected and hold political office, women’s right to work amid technological and demographic changes[[fn:43]] and structural barriers to girls’ and young women’s participation in activism.[[fn:44]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "section": ["III. Preconditions for gender-equal digital futures", "C. Women’s and girls’ equal and meaningful participation and leadership in public and political life"], "footnotes": [{"n": 43, "text": "A/HRC/44/51, para. 19."}, {"n": 44, "text": "A/HRC/50/25, para. 9."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0027", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 27, "n": 27, "text": "When designed and adopted without recognition of gendered risks, AI tools can become significant obstacles to women’s and girls’ full participation in public life, introducing forms of exclusion and risk across political, civic and economic spheres.[[fn:45]] The convergence of technologies such as spyware with AI is becoming an omnipresent risk for women activists, civil society and human rights defenders.[[fn:46]] When adopted in these ways, AI impedes women’s full realization of their rights as guaranteed under international law, contrary to the obligations referred to above.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 45, "text": "Regional consultations with Middle East and North Africa, West and Central Africa, Eastern Europe and Latin America and the Caribbean."}, {"n": 46, "text": "See, for example, concerns expressed in communications OTH 62/2023 and ISR 11/2021. All communications mentioned in the present report are available from https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/Tmsearch/TMDocuments."}], "section": ["III. Preconditions for gender-equal digital futures", "C. Women’s and girls’ equal and meaningful participation and leadership in public and political life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0028", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 28, "n": 28, "text": "This is not a speculative risk. AI-enabled abuse is already reshaping women’s and girls’ participation in public life. Women politicians are targeted through technology-facilitated gender-based violence and disinformation that seeks to shame, discredit, and silence them. Three quarters of women journalists surveyed by UNESCO have experienced online violence, resulting in self-censorship, mental health issues, and, for one in four, offline attacks.[[fn:47]] This abuse unfolds against a backdrop of women and girls withdrawing from public and cultural life in response to online harassment,[[fn:48]] a trend exacerbated by the rise in “manosphere” culture, characterized by rigid masculine norms that emphasize dominance and intersect with rising issues of social stress, depression and distrust of institutions among young men in particular.[[fn:49]]", "labels": ["Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 47, "text": "See https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000383788."}, {"n": 48, "text": "Plan International, Inc., The Truth Gap: The State of the World’s Girls 2021 (Woking, 2021), p. 26."}, {"n": 49, "text": "Discussed during the regional consultations with Western Europe and others."}], "section": ["III. Preconditions for gender-equal digital futures", "C. Women’s and girls’ equal and meaningful participation and leadership in public and political life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0029", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 29, "n": 29, "text": "The impact of AI tools extends far beyond public figures. AI tools that can spread discrimination, disseminate threats, sow confusion and exacerbate digital divides that threaten women’s voting rights have been well documented, including by the United Nations.[[fn:50]] AI is also increasingly being used to regulate voting. A 2024 survey of African countries found that a number are using AI tools for voter authentication and registration,[[fn:51]] posing serious risks of disenfranchising women, especially rural women, who are less likely than men to have access to the Internet and devices and digital literacy skills.[[fn:52]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 50, "text": "See https://www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/governing_ai_for_humanity_final_report_en.pdf."}, {"n": 51, "text": "See https://www.idea.int/news/artificial-intelligence-and-integrity-african-elections."}, {"n": 52, "text": "Regional consultations with Africa and Latin America and the Caribbean."}], "section": ["III. Preconditions for gender-equal digital futures", "C. Women’s and girls’ equal and meaningful participation and leadership in public and political life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0030", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 30, "n": 30, "text": "These challenges demand urgent attention and deliberate reform of how AI tools are developed, deployed and governed. The protection of women’s political rights and girls’ right to participation is a core obligation of States under international human rights law.[[fn:53]] That obligation cannot be delegated to or replaced by voluntary action by private actors. When designed, regulated and applied responsibly, AI products can be used to create new opportunities for communication, connection and exchange. In India, attempts are being made to democratize access to AI literacy,[[fn:54]] and in Nigeria, platforms are being used with the aim of providing a virtual market for small-scale vendors where women users are already outnumbering men by three to one.[[fn:55]] AI-powered information verification can improve the quality of public discourse and counter discriminatory misinformation: Code4Africa, for example, has used AI-driven tools to track gender representation in the media, map online hate speech, especially against women leaders and politicians, and identify misinformation that harms women, in the areas of health, safety and leadership.[[fn:56]] Real-time translation and other accessibility tools can expand reach and enable women to build, scale up and share their ideas, particularly benefiting women with fewer resources and less access to global audiences. Because AI technologies can be leveraged from home, they may be especially transformative for women and girls who face barriers to or risks in engaging physically in public and political life.[[fn:57]]", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 53, "text": "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 1, 3 and 26; Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, art. 7; and Convention on the Rights of the Child, arts. 12 and 15."}, {"n": 54, "text": "See https://www.futureskillsprime.in/course/yuva-ai-for-all/."}, {"n": 55, "text": "See https://www.bii.co.uk/en/news-insight/insight/articles/what-does-impact-mean-to-people-reached-by-our-investment/#:~:text=Impact=%20more%20inclusive%20business%20models,%5D%20to%20support%20my%20family.%E2%80%9D."}, {"n": 56, "text": "See https://codeforafrica.org/."}, {"n": 57, "text": "See A/HRC/50/25."}], "section": ["III. Preconditions for gender-equal digital futures", "C. Women’s and girls’ equal and meaningful participation and leadership in public and political life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0031", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 31, "n": 31, "text": "Moreover, women’s access to justice and accountability can also be enhanced through AI, which can support the strengthening of justice mechanisms at all levels, by, for instance, improving public access to legal knowledge and litigants’ access to appropriate resources and counsel. For example, the Instituto Mexicano de Derechos Humanos y Democracia (Mexican Institute for Human Rights and Democracy) has developed an AI agent that reviews criminal proceedings and sentences in cases of violence against women and girls for human rights issues, with a view to verifying whether the proceedings complied with the rights of victims and applied a gender perspective, and identifying possible cases of discrimination.[[fn:58]] Other examples of such initiatives include tools such as Safe YOU and HerSafeSpace,[[fn:59]] which provide survivor-centred access to emergency assistance and other support services. These tools can also support the monitoring, mapping and analysis of patterns of human rights abuses or harms that affect women and girls.[[fn:60]] This usage is demonstrated in the work of organizations such as Ushahidi in Kenya, WITNESS Africa and Zindi in Zimbabwe, which offer resources including user-generated activism maps and guidance for communities to respond to and mitigate the harmful impact of generative AI. In doing so, AI can support the disaggregation of human rights data and improve understanding of the impact of violations not only on women broadly, but on specific communities of women.[[fn:61]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 58, "text": "See submissions by Mexico City Human Rights Commission and Brain Builders Youth Development Initiative."}, {"n": 59, "text": "See https://safeyou.space/en and https://hersafespace-gbv.org/about.html."}, {"n": 60, "text": "See https://www.lawyershub.org/news/post/the-role-of-ai-in-preventing-monitoring-human-rights-abuses-during-electoral-processes-in-africa."}, {"n": 61, "text": "See https://geneva-academy.ch/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/GHRP-AI-Decoded.pdf."}], "section": ["III. Preconditions for gender-equal digital futures", "C. Women’s and girls’ equal and meaningful participation and leadership in public and political life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0032", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 32, "n": 32, "text": "These possibilities underscore both the urgent need and genuine potential for States to establish regulatory frameworks, oversight mechanisms and public-interest infrastructure that ensure AI supports, rather than suppresses, women’s and girls’ full and equal participation in public life.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["III. Preconditions for gender-equal digital futures", "C. Women’s and girls’ equal and meaningful participation and leadership in public and political life"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0033", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 33, "n": 33, "text": "There has been a growing global call to establish AI redlines: that is, unacceptable risks in the development, deployment and use of AI that are in need of urgent intervention.[[fn:62]] It is critical that gender equality and the rights of women and girls are fully integrated into these discussions. The present section highlights the gendered dimensions of issues that have come to the forefront of the debate on AI redlines, including in the use of AI in armed conflict, mass surveillance and infringement of privacy, the environmental impact of AI and technology-facilitated gender-based violence. This list of issues is not exhaustive, and refers 54 See https://www.futureskillsprime.in/course/yuva-ai-for-all/. 55 See https://www.bii.co.uk/en/news-insight/insight/articles/what-does-impact-mean-to-peoplereached-by-ourinvestment/#:~:text=Impact=%20more%20inclusive%20business%20models,%5D%20to%20support %20my%20family.%E2%80%9D. 56 See https://codeforafrica.org/. 57 See A/HRC/50/25. 58 See submissions by Mexico City Human Rights Commission and Brain Builders Youth Development Initiative. 59 See https://safeyou.space/en and https://hersafespace-gbv.org/about.html. 60 See https://www.lawyershub.org/news/post/the-role-of-ai-in-preventing-monitoring-human-rightsabuses-during-electoral-processes-in-africa. 61 See https://geneva-academy.ch/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/GHRP-AI-Decoded.pdf. 62 See https://red-lines.ai/. GE.26-06271 to a range of uses of AI that should be prohibited entirely and others that require regulation and oversight. Failure to embed a gender-responsive understanding of potential proscriptions in AI, and to develop redlines focused on women’s and girls’ rights, will have devastating consequences, compounding harms already being experienced while generating new threats to women and girls.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines"], "footnotes": [{"n": 62, "text": "See https://red-lines.ai/."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0034", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 34, "n": 34, "text": "The use of AI is reshaping the conduct, scale and consequences of armed conflict, with profoundly harmful implications for gender equality and the rights of women and girls. As States and non-State actors deploy AI in weapons systems, military planning, surveillance and information operations, these technologies risk intensifying pre-existing patterns of militarization, gender-based discrimination and vulnerability. While AI may offer potential benefits for gender-responsive humanitarian intervention and post-conflict accountability, its rapid militarization – combined with weak regulation, opaque design and entrenched algorithmic bias – threatens to erode core protections under international humanitarian law and human rights law. The Working Group is deeply concerned that AI is being deployed in armed conflict without adequate regulation, safeguards or meaningful gender analysis, and that its harmful and discriminatory impact falls disproportionately on women and girls, including through the subsequent militarization of domestic law enforcement spaces.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "A. Gendered toll of artificial intelligence during armed conflict"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0035", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 35, "n": 35, "text": "Weaponized AI has expanded and accelerated conflict, introducing unprecedented risks to civilians and amplification of gendered harm.[[fn:63]] Lethal autonomous weapons, which use AI to select and engage targets without requiring human intervention after activation, represent the most urgent conflict-related threat posed by AI.[[fn:64]] These systems exponentially magnify the lethality of warfare, reinforce gender-based power imbalances and threaten the legal and moral foundations of the international order.[[fn:65]] Their deployment has been linked to heightened collateral harm to women and children, in contravention of the international humanitarian law requirements of distinction, proportionality, military necessity and meaningful human control.[[fn:66]] The unpredictability and remote nature of these weapons, including AI-powered stalker drones, intensify fear and trauma while restricting women’s and girls’ freedom of movement, cutting off access to vital services and increasing risks of domestic or intimate partner violence.[[fn:67]] These risks are compounded for women of colour and women with disabilities, who face a heightened risk of misrecognition and misclassification by AI-enabled weapons systems.[[fn:68]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 63, "text": "S/2025/556, para. 50."}, {"n": 64, "text": "See concerns expressed in communication ISR 25/2025."}, {"n": 65, "text": "See submission by Ombudsman’s Office of Colombia, and https://unidir.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/UNIDR_Gender_Lethal_Autonomous_Weapons_Systems_LAWS_Factsheet.pdf."}, {"n": 66, "text": "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 2, 6 and 17; and Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), art. 51 (5) (b). See also A/79/88, para. 46; and CCW/GGE.1/2024/WP.4."}, {"n": 67, "text": "See https://www.cmi.no/publications/file/9373-conflict-and-domestic-turmoil-a-review-of-intimate-partner-violence-in-conflict-settings.pdf."}, {"n": 68, "text": "A/79/88, annex I, p. 60; and Ana Beduschi, “Harnessing the potential of artificial intelligence for humanitarian action: opportunities and risks”, International Review of the Red Cross, vol. 919, June 2022."}], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "A. Gendered toll of artificial intelligence during armed conflict"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0036", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 36, "n": 36, "text": "Unlike other applications of AI, the catastrophic potential of fully autonomous weapons cannot be controlled through regulation alone. The opacity of AI decision-making is incompatible with the context-specific judgment required to comply with international humanitarian law and further impedes justice and accountability.[[fn:69]] 69 The Working Group emphasizes the extreme risks posed by fully autonomous weapons to women and girls in conflict-affected settings and joins the international call for a comprehensive ban of such weapons.70 63 S/2025/556, para. 50. 64 See concerns expressed in communication ISR 25/2025. 65 See submission by Ombudsman’s Office of Colombia, and https://unidir.org/wpcontent/uploads/2024/08/UNIDR_Gender_Lethal_Autonomous_Weapons_Systems_LAWS_Factshee t.pdf. 66 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 2, 6 and 17; and Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), art. 51 (5) (b). See also A/79/88, para. 46; and CCW/GGE.1/2024/WP.4. 67 See https://www.cmi.no/publications/file/9373-conflict-and-domestic-turmoil-a-review-of-intimatepartner-violence-in-conflict-settings.pdf. 68 A/79/88, annex I, p. 60; and Ana Beduschi, “Harnessing the potential of artificial intelligence for humanitarian action: opportunities and risks”, International Review of the Red Cross, vol. 919, June 2022. 69 See submission by Stop Killer Robots. 70 A/79/88, paras. 74–77; and CCW/GGE.1/2024/WP.5, para. 11. See also https://automatedresearch.org/state-positions/. GE.26-06271", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "A. Gendered toll of artificial intelligence during armed conflict"], "footnotes": [{"n": 69, "text": "See submission by Stop Killer Robots."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0037", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 37, "n": 37, "text": "The threats to women’s and girls’ rights posed by AI extend beyond the enabling of fully autonomous weapons. AI also enables expanded surveillance, targeted harassment and weaponized disinformation that exacerbates armed conflict, generating a disproportionate impact on women and girls. States increasingly deploy AI-driven tools, such as facial recognition technology and predictive behaviour modelling, to monitor their populations and to repress dissent before, during and after armed conflict.[[fn:71]] Generative AI technologies and other forms of digital violence, such as doxing, have been weaponized to target and silence women journalists, human rights defenders, peacebuilders and survivors of sexual violence and abuse.[[fn:72]] Disinformation, including AI-generated deepfakes, is further used to incite violence, stoke intergroup tensions and blackmail survivors and families.[[fn:73]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 71, "text": "See A/78/520."}, {"n": 72, "text": "See submission by Women in Media (Ukraine)."}, {"n": 73, "text": "S/2024/671, para. 85; S/2025/556, para. 16; and regional consultations with Middle East and North Africa, West and Central Africa and Asia and the Pacific."}], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "A. Gendered toll of artificial intelligence during armed conflict"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0038", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 38, "n": 38, "text": "The harmful effects reflect choices by States, companies and the international community. Deployed responsibly and with attention to algorithmic bias, AI could complement efforts to strengthen relief, recovery and accountability for violations of the rights of women and girls in conflict settings.[[fn:74]] AI tools can support anticipatory humanitarian responses that meet the needs of women and girls, who are more likely to die from secondary effects of war than direct violence.[[fn:75]] Automated chatbots have been adopted to provide guidance on aid provision and to provide survivors of sexual violence with access to information and reporting without fear of stigmatization,[[fn:76]] and AI is increasingly being applied to document war crimes and estimate violations in remote or otherwise inaccessible areas.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 74, "text": "Regional consultations with Asia and the Pacific."}, {"n": 75, "text": "See https://www.preventionweb.net/news/mitigating-gender-based-violence-risks-how-anticipatory-action-supports-safety-and-access."}, {"n": 76, "text": "Regional consultations with Middle East and North Africa and West and Central Africa. See https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2019/5/feature-using-ai-in-accessing-justice-for-survivors-of-violence."}], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "A. Gendered toll of artificial intelligence during armed conflict"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0039", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 39, "n": 39, "text": "However, incomplete and biased data, lack of regulation, violations of the right to privacy and insufficient safeguards against malicious use continue to threaten the potential of these applications for women and girls.[[fn:77]] For instance, the growing reliance on automated documentation of war crimes risks obscuring gendered patterns of harms by privileging highly visible violations such as the destruction of infrastructure. Women and girls may also struggle to gain access to digital applications and services, particularly amid conflict-related Internet blockades, electricity blackouts and sanctions.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 77, "text": "Regional consultations with Middle East and North Africa and West and Central Africa. See concerns expressed in communication SDN 6/2022. See also Alexa Koenig and Ulic Egan, “Hiding in plain site: using online open-source information to investigate sexual violence and gender-based crimes”, in Technologies of Human Rights Representation, Alexandra S. Moore and James Dawes, eds. (Albany, State University of New York Press, 2022)."}], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "A. Gendered toll of artificial intelligence during armed conflict"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0040", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 40, "n": 40, "text": "Crucially, AI cannot deliver gendered peace, replace institutional accountability or dismantle structural patterns of violence and militarization. There remains an urgent need to ban fully autonomous weapons and to regulate all AI-enabled military systems through binding international standards that ensure meaningful human control, civilian protection and gender-responsive oversight.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "A. Gendered toll of artificial intelligence during armed conflict"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0041", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 41, "n": 41, "text": "The development, training and deployment of AI systems are generating significant environmental costs that exacerbate global climate change,[[fn:78]] 78 including the vast consumption of water for the construction and operation of data centres, increased carbon 71 See A/78/520. 72 See submission by Women in Media (Ukraine). 73 S/2024/671, para. 85; S/2025/556, para. 16; and regional consultations with Middle East and North Africa, West and Central Africa and Asia and the Pacific. 74 Regional consultations with Asia and the Pacific. 75 See https://www.preventionweb.net/news/mitigating-gender-based-violence-risks-how-anticipatoryaction-supports-safety-and-access. 76 Regional consultations with Middle East and North Africa and West and Central Africa. See https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/stories/2019/5/feature-using-ai-in-accessing-justice-for-survivorsof-violence. 77 Regional consultations with Middle East and North Africa and West and Central Africa. See concerns expressed in communication SDN 6/2022. See also Alexa Koenig and Ulic Egan, “Hiding in plain site: using online open-source information to investigate sexual violence and gender-based crimes”, in Technologies of Human Rights Representation, Alexandra S. Moore and James Dawes, eds. (Albany, State University of New York Press, 2022). 78 See United Nations Environment Assembly resolution 7/9 of 12 December 2025. GE.26-06271 emissions and a substantial rise in electronic waste.[[fn:79]] These environmental harms, and their consequences, fall disproportionately upon women and girls.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "B. Artificial intelligence and its gendered environmental impact"], "footnotes": [{"n": 78, "text": "See United Nations Environment Assembly resolution 7/9 of 12 December 2025."}, {"n": 79, "text": "See Peng Wang and others, “E-waste challenges of generative artificial intelligence”, Natural Computational Science, vol. 4, No. 11 (November 2024); and Casey Crownhart, “AI will add to the ewaste problem: here’s what we can do about it”, MIT Technology Review, 28 October 2024."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0042", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 42, "n": 42, "text": "The acceleration of climate change by AI is deepening existing structural forms of gender discrimination and inequality. Women and girls represent up to 80 per cent of those displaced by climate change and natural disasters and are 14 times more likely to die in the aftermath of a natural disaster.[[fn:80]] Climate-induced disasters further give rise to heightened levels of gender-based violence, increased rates of child marriage and deteriorating sexual, reproductive and maternal health outcomes.[[fn:81]] The Working Group has received information from women-led organizations and women environmental defenders documenting the use of AI by State and non-State actors to amplify and accelerate the spread of misinformation and technology-facilitated gender-based violence directed against women environmental defenders.[[fn:82]]", "labels": ["Children", "Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 80, "text": "See https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/women-science-not-silence-pioneering-change-global-climate-crisis."}, {"n": 81, "text": "See https://www.unfpa.org/news/five-ways-climate-change-hurts-women-and-girls."}, {"n": 82, "text": "See submission by Fundación Multitudes."}], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "B. Artificial intelligence and its gendered environmental impact"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0043", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 43, "n": 43, "text": "One of the most acute gendered costs of AI arises from the intersection of AI-driven water consumption and existing water scarcity. An estimated 9.5 per cent of the women and girls globally reside in countries experiencing high or critical water stress.[[fn:83]] Further strain on water supplies threatens local food security, undermining agricultural yields, household food supplies and socioeconomic stability.[[fn:84]] Women and girls bear a disproportionate burden of food and water scarcity; women and girls experiencing drought, for example, are compelled to spend more time collecting water, with corresponding reductions in time available for education and economic participation.[[fn:85]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 83, "text": "See https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2023-07/from-commodity-to-common-good-a-feminist-agenda-to-tackle-the-worlds-water-crisis-2-page-spread-en.pdf."}, {"n": 84, "text": "See https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/feminist-climate-justice-a-framework-for-action-overview-en.pdf."}, {"n": 85, "text": "See ibid. and https:/www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/CSW/66/EGM/Expert%20Papers/Erika%20RAMOS_CSW66%20Expert%20Paper.pdf."}], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "B. Artificial intelligence and its gendered environmental impact"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0044", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 44, "n": 44, "text": "These effects disproportionately fall upon women and girls in the global majority. A high concentration of data centres are being constructed in drought-affected global-majority communities, often without the consent of and despite protests by local populations.[[fn:86]] In sub-Saharan Africa, reduced access to water for agricultural purposes has forced some women to seek alternative livelihoods, which has increased their vulnerability to sexual exploitation.[[fn:87]] Indigenous women and girls whose lands and resources are directly affected are among the most likely to experience the most severe impact of AI-induced environmental degradation, including targeting, intimidation or harassment for their activism, protest and legal challenges.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 86, "text": "Regional consultations with Latin America and the Caribbean."}, {"n": 87, "text": "Regional consultations with Africa."}], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "B. Artificial intelligence and its gendered environmental impact"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0045", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 45, "n": 45, "text": "In the light of the harms caused by the unchecked proliferation of AI data centres, the Working Group joins the call by the Special Rapporteur on the human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation for a moratorium on the development of data centres and for greater transparency on the harmful impact of existing centres,[[fn:88]] including information assessing the gendered impact.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 88, "text": "See A/HRC/60/30."}], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "B. Artificial intelligence and its gendered environmental impact"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0046", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 46, "n": 46, "text": "Current frameworks for AI data governance do not adequately capture the gender-differentiated climate effects of AI systems, and thereby seriously constrain effective intervention or prevention. At the foundation of climate-responsive AI systems lies a critical absence of gender-disaggregated environmental data, compounded by a broader lack of regulatory standards or oversight mechanisms guiding how States should identify, prevent 79 See Peng Wang and others, “E-waste challenges of generative artificial intelligence”, Natural Computational Science, vol. 4, No. 11 (November 2024); and Casey Crownhart, “AI will add to the e-waste problem: here’s what we can do about it”, MIT Technology Review, 28 October 2024. 80 See https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/women-science-not-silence-pioneering-change-globalclimate-crisis. 81 See https://www.unfpa.org/news/five-ways-climate-change-hurts-women-and-girls. 82 See submission by Fundación Multitudes. 83 See https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2023-07/from-commodity-to-common-good-afeminist-agenda-to-tackle-the-worlds-water-crisis-2-page-spread-en.pdf. 84 See https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/feminist-climate-justice-a-framework-foraction-overview-en.pdf. 85 See ibid. and https:/www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/ CSW/66/EGM/Expert%20Papers/Erika%20RAMOS_CSW66%20Expert%20Paper.pdf. 86 Regional consultations with Latin America and the Caribbean. 87 Regional consultations with Africa. 88 See A/HRC/60/30. GE.26-06271 and respond to gender-differentiated climate effects.[[fn:89]] 89 As the Technology Executive Committee of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change has demonstrated, AI systems designed to model or mitigate climate risks that are built on incomplete or biased data produce tools that replicate and reinforce exclusion.[[fn:90]] The Working Group cautions that where predictive and mitigative systems fail to account for women’s heightened vulnerability to climate change, they perpetuate a cycle in which women remain invisible in both technological design and climate governance, bearing the brunt of environmental degradation while being systematically excluded from the digital decision-making processes that shape efforts seeking to remediate it.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "B. Artificial intelligence and its gendered environmental impact"], "footnotes": [{"n": 89, "text": "See https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/2021-11/Policy-brief-Gender-and-age-inequality-of-disaster-risk-en.pdf."}, {"n": 90, "text": "See https://unfccc.int/ttclear/tec/AI4climate.html."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0047", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 47, "n": 47, "text": "When designed and deployed responsibly, however, AI tools may support holistic strategies for climate resilience[[fn:91]] and gender equality. AI-powered satellite monitoring has strengthened women-led community initiatives that track deforestation in the Amazon, empowering local climate stewardship.[[fn:92]] AI and digital technologies can also be harnessed to identify infrastructure gaps and inform the design of systems resilient to climate change and natural disasters. Where grounded in gender-inclusive design and governance, AI-driven early warning systems can strengthen women’s access to timely disaster information, allowing for quicker evacuation decisions and better coordination of household and community resources.[[fn:93]]", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 91, "text": "See https://www.unesco.org/ethics-ai/en/articles/how-ai-policy-can-accelerate-climate-action."}, {"n": 92, "text": "See Christina Fernández Aguilar, “Betty Rubio, the tech-savvy Kichwa leader defending threatened territory”, Mongabay, 10 December 2021."}, {"n": 93, "text": "See Ashfaq Ahmad Shah and others, “Gender perspective of flood early warning systems: peoplecentered approach”, Water, vol. 14, No. 14 (July 2022); and Grey Nearing and others, “Global prediction of extreme floods in ungauged watersheds”, Nature, vol. 627, No. 8004 (21 March 2024)."}], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "B. Artificial intelligence and its gendered environmental impact"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0048", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 48, "n": 48, "text": "As digital technologies and AI tools increasingly mediate social interaction and public discourse, technology-facilitated gender-based violence has become a central threat to women’s and girls’ rights. Over the past decade, multiple United Nations bodies have identified its proliferation to endemic levels.[[fn:94]] In 2024, UNESCO found that 58 per cent of women and girls have experienced online harassment.[[fn:95]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 94, "text": "A/61/122/Add.1 and A/61/122/Add.1/Corr.1, para. 105; A/77/302, paras. 4 and 7; and A/79/500, para. 4."}, {"n": 95, "text": "See UNESCO, Red Teaming Artificial Intelligence for Social Good: The Playbook (Paris, 2025)."}], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "C. Technology-facilitated gender-based violence and discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0049", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 49, "n": 49, "text": "The Working Group stresses that technology-facilitated gender-based violence is not an isolated set of online abuses but a structural tool of discrimination that restricts women’s and girls’ participation in public, political and civic life. Virtual violence often mirrors and amplifies patterns of violence and repression in physical public spaces.[[fn:96]] By driving women and girls out of digital spaces, technology-facilitated gender-based violence entrenches inequality, undermines autonomy and weakens the conditions necessary for inclusive democratic engagement, threatening their human rights in contradiction with the requirements of article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and article 7 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women.[[fn:97]] The impact of such violence extends far beyond individual harm, shaping who can speak, lead and be heard. Without the requisite interventions, this harm promises to grow over time, as digital platforms become ever more central to public participation. Moreover, because the private sector lacks an inherent incentive to address these discriminatory harms, a profound governance gap has emerged which poses a serious threat to the human rights of women and girls. The Working Group thus emphasizes that without urgent action by States to ensure the equal participation of women and girls online, freedom of expression and meaningful democratic deliberation will continue to erode.", "labels": ["Persons affected by natural disasters", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 96, "text": "See Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 35 (2017). See also Shahrazad Odeh, “A violent network: gender-based violence against Palestinian women in virtual space”, 7amleh – The Arab Center for the Advancement of Social Media, November 2018."}, {"n": 97, "text": "See also Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, general recommendation No. 35 (2017)."}], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "C. Technology-facilitated gender-based violence and discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0050", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 50, "n": 50, "text": "Despite the global and increasing prevalence of technology-facilitated gender-based violence, and notwithstanding the emergence of nascent regional instruments,[[fn:98]] many States lack adequate legal or technical frameworks to address these new forms of digital violence.[[fn:99]] Less than 40 per cent of States have legal protection against technology-facilitated gender-based violence,[[fn:100]] and survivors face barriers to reporting, investigation and remedy.[[fn:101]] For example, police may be uninformed about new criminal offences designed to accommodate forms of technology-facilitated gender-based violence, and may try to fit cases within traditional criteria of domestic violence.[[fn:102]] Public prosecutors, judges and social workers may require special training to recognize forms of technology-facilitated gender-based violence, including those enabled by AI, such as deepfakes and non-consensual intimate image abuse.[[fn:103]] Law enforcement departments may lack the technical equipment necessary to address technology-facilitated gender-based violence, such as tools related to the gathering of electronic evidence.[[fn:104]] States also fail to consider historical, contextual and culturally grounded understandings of non-consensual intimate image abuse in legal reform efforts. Nudity-focused definitions of intimacy may fail to capture the harms affecting women and gender-diverse people in some communities,[[fn:105]] and existing colonial-era laws on indecent exposure, which penalize women and girls whose images are non-consensually shared, further discourages them from reporting the abuse.[[fn:106]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 98, "text": "See, for example, https://www.oas.org/en/mesecvi/docs/LeyModeloViolenciaPolitica-EN.pdf, https://achpr.au.int/en/adopted-resolutions/522-resolution-protection-women-against-digital-violence-africa-achpr and https://rm.coe.int/grevio-rec-no-on-digital-violence-against-women/1680a49147."}, {"n": 99, "text": "Regional consultations with Eastern Europe, Africa and Asia and the Pacific."}, {"n": 100, "text": "See https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/press-release/2025/11/digital-violence-is-intensifying-yet-nearly-half-of-the-worlds-women-and-girls-lack-legal-protection-from-digital-abuse."}, {"n": 101, "text": "See United Nations Development Programme, Analysis of the Legislation Related to Technology-facilitated Gender-based Violence (2024)."}, {"n": 102, "text": "Ibid., p. 48."}, {"n": 103, "text": "Ibid., pp. 50 and 51."}, {"n": 104, "text": "Ibid., p. 49."}, {"n": 105, "text": "See submission by Chayn."}, {"n": 106, "text": "See Sarai Chisala-Tempelhoff and Monica Twesiime Kirya, “Gender, law and revenge porn in subSaharan Africa: a review of Malawi and Uganda”, Palgrave Communications, vol. 2, article No. 16069 (2016)."}], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "C. Technology-facilitated gender-based violence and discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0051", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 51, "n": 51, "text": "Data on and documentation of technology-facilitated gender-based violence remains uneven. There are major gaps concerning women and girls who experience multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination, including migrants, refugees, LGBTIQ+ persons and those from rural areas or racial or religious minority backgrounds, as well as significant regional gaps.[[fn:107]] As legal frameworks are incomplete or fragmented, States often fail to collect standardized and disaggregated data on the prevalence of technology-facilitated gender-based violence.[[fn:108]] 108 Technology companies hold data concerning incidents and moderation, yet very few publish disaggregated metrics or make data sets available for research, and their definitions and moderation practices vary widely.[[fn:109]] 109 Social barriers exacerbate these gaps: for example, there is underreporting by marginalized groups due to stigmatization, lack of awareness of what constitutes technology-facilitated gender-based violence, language or digital barriers, lack of remedy,[[fn:110]] fear of retaliation111 and distrust of justice systems. 98 See, for example, https://www.oas.org/en/mesecvi/docs/LeyModeloViolenciaPolitica-EN.pdf, https://achpr.au.int/en/adopted-resolutions/522-resolution-protection-women-against-digital-violenceafrica-achpr and https://rm.coe.int/grevio-rec-no-on-digital-violence-against-women/1680a49147. 99 Regional consultations with Eastern Europe, Africa and Asia and the Pacific. 100 See https://www.unwomen.org/en/news-stories/press-release/2025/11/digital-violence-is-intensifyingyet-nearly-half-of-the-worlds-women-and-girls-lack-legal-protection-from-digital-abuse. 101 See United Nations Development Programme, Analysis of the Legislation Related to Technologyfacilitated Gender-based Violence (2024). 102 Ibid., p. 48. 103 Ibid., pp. 50 and 51. 104 Ibid., p. 49. 105 See submission by Chayn. 106 See Sarai Chisala-Tempelhoff and Monica Twesiime Kirya, “Gender, law and revenge porn in sub-Saharan Africa: a review of Malawi and Uganda”, Palgrave Communications, vol. 2, article No. 16069 (2016). 107 See https://www.svri.org/sites/default/files/attachments/2018-0724/ICRW_TFGBVMarketing_Brief_v8-Web.pdf. 108 See https://www.unfpa.org/publications/measuring-technology-facilitated-gender-based-violencediscussion-paper. 109 See https://forum.generationequality.org/sites/default/files/2024-01/GBVTechnologyFacilitated_11JAN24.pdf. 110 Regional consultations with Africa. 111 Regional consultations with Eastern Europe. GE.26-06271", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "C. Technology-facilitated gender-based violence and discrimination"], "footnotes": [{"n": 107, "text": "See https://www.svri.org/sites/default/files/attachments/2018-07-24/ICRW_TFGBVMarketing_Brief_v8-Web.pdf."}, {"n": 108, "text": "See https://www.unfpa.org/publications/measuring-technology-facilitated-gender-based-violence-discussion-paper."}, {"n": 109, "text": "See https://forum.generationequality.org/sites/default/files/2024-01/GBV-TechnologyFacilitated_11JAN24.pdf."}, {"n": 110, "text": "Regional consultations with Africa."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0052", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 52, "n": 52, "text": "The absence of a comprehensive global understanding of the landscape of technology-facilitated gender-based violence has hampered effective and coordinated intervention. Protectionist or punitive approaches that focus narrowly on legal or criminal consequences, without attention to the underlying goals and impact of that violence, risk being both misguided and disempowering for women and girls. Interventions designed solely to shield women and girls from online harm, without the parallel aim of ensuring that they can fully inhabit and lead in digital spaces, may inadvertently reinforce their exclusion. Effective interventions must therefore pursue two goals simultaneously: preventing online gender-based violence and ensuring accountability for it, while actively building digital communities in which women and girls can participate, speak and lead on equal terms.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "C. Technology-facilitated gender-based violence and discrimination"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0053", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 53, "n": 53, "text": "The erosion of privacy in digital and AI-enabled environments has had a uniquely gendered impact, exposing women and girls to heightened risks of surveillance, control and harm. While international human rights law protects privacy, freedom of expression, equality before the law, political participation and effective remedy, implementation and application of existing privacy frameworks have not kept pace with technological change, leaving individuals with significantly weaker protections than in the predigital era.[[fn:112]] For women and girls, these gaps directly threaten autonomy and equality and compound other forms of gender-based discrimination.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 112, "text": "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 2, 3, 17, 19, 25 and 26."}], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "D. Digital governance, mass surveillance and the right of women and girls to privacy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0054", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 54, "n": 54, "text": "While AI-powered applications may provide women and girls with valuable tools for health tracking, education and business, they typically rely on the collection of vast amounts of personal, sensitive data, encompassing data on behaviour, demographic information, gender identity, religious affiliation, health data, relationship status and sexual orientation.[[fn:113]] The absence of transparency, of meaningful informed consent and of adequate regulation undermines women’s agency over their personal information and digital identities and can threaten their safety and livelihoods.[[fn:114]] Without immediate regulatory intervention, these tools will continue to erode the digital and bodily autonomy and equality of women and girls.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 113, "text": "General Assembly resolution 75/176, preamble (p. 4)."}, {"n": 114, "text": "Submission by Tattle."}], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "D. Digital governance, mass surveillance and the right of women and girls to privacy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0055", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 55, "n": 55, "text": "Of particular concern are AI-facilitated surveillance technologies that are weaponized to target women and girls who do not conform to patriarchal gender norms with regard to dress codes expression or public or political engagement. States frequently deploy such technologies, including AI-driven biometrics,[[fn:115]] 115 facial recognition technology[[fn:116]] 116 and spyware,117 under the guise of national security[[fn:118]] and morality enforcement.[[fn:119]] Private actors, with unprecedented access to sensitive data, further enable this weaponization by selling data to Governments and private defence corporations.120 112 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, arts. 2, 3, 17, 19, 25 and 26. 113 General Assembly resolution 75/176, preamble (p. 4). 114 Submission by Tattle. 115 In all regional consultations, concern was articulated over AI processing of biometric information. 116 See concerns expressed in communication IRL 3/2022; and A/HRC/46/56. 117 For example, it was reported in the regional consultations with Eastern Europe that NSO Group’s spyware technology Pegasus was being used by Governments against human rights defenders. See also concerns expressed in communication SRB 1/2025, A/HRC/52/39 and https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/terrorism/sr/2022-12-15/position-paperunsrct-on-global-regulation-ct-spyware-technology-trade.pdf. 118 It was reported in the regional consultations with Western Europe and others that national security was being used to circumvent the progress made towards banning technologies whose purpose contravened widely accepted principles of international law. 119 See https://oecd.ai/en/incidents/2023-01-10-6a41. 120 It was reported in the regional consultations with Western Europe and others that civilian data was repurposed by companies building commercial and military AI systems. GE.26-06271", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "D. Digital governance, mass surveillance and the right of women and girls to privacy"], "footnotes": [{"n": 115, "text": "In all regional consultations, concern was articulated over AI processing of biometric information."}, {"n": 116, "text": "See concerns expressed in communication IRL 3/2022; and A/HRC/46/56."}, {"n": 118, "text": "It was reported in the regional consultations with Western Europe and others that national security was being used to circumvent the progress made towards banning technologies whose purpose contravened widely accepted principles of international law."}, {"n": 119, "text": "See https://oecd.ai/en/incidents/2023-01-10-6a41."}]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0056", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 56, "n": 56, "text": "Women marginalized on the basis of race, ethnicity, religion, gender identity or socioeconomic status face heightened digital surveillance.[[fn:121]] Black and Brown women, including women of African descent,[[fn:122]] Indigenous women, Muslim women[[fn:123]] and migrant women[[fn:124]] are disproportionately monitored and policed, as AI systems amplify stereotypes that portray certain women as criminalized, masculinized or aggressive. Access to digital technologies can itself be weaponized, by being withheld to impede communication, information-sharing and documentation, a pattern often observed in armed conflict or under autocratic regimes.", "labels": ["LGBTI+", "Migrants", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 121, "text": "The Special Rapporteur on contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance has described the international human rights framework applicable to technology, AI and racial discrimination (A/HRC/56/68, paras. 59–65)."}, {"n": 122, "text": "A/HRC/57/70, para. 29."}, {"n": 123, "text": "See concerns expressed in communication CHN 14/2020 and https://www.ohchr.org/en/documents/country-reports/ohchr-assessment-human-rights-concerns-xinjiang-uyghur-autonomous-region."}, {"n": 124, "text": "A/75/590, paras. 9 and 19. It was reported in the regional consultations with Eastern Europe that border use of AI-enabled technology to gather sensitive information on migrants was possible without knowledge or consent and was driving women and girls to migrate via more dangerous routes."}], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "D. Digital governance, mass surveillance and the right of women and girls to privacy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0057", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 57, "n": 57, "text": "Safeguarding human rights in the digital age requires that the use of AI and digital technologies be guided by principles of digital autonomy and participatory governance. The Working Group echoes the assertion by the Special Rapporteur in the field of cultural rights that communities whose heritage is digitized should retain control over their cultural data and be involved in further digitalization processes, while still allowing for open access to digital cultural heritage.[[fn:125]] This is especially urgent for Indigenous women and girls, whose data must be collected, processed and utilized only with their meaningful informed consent and in accordance with their right to self-determination.[[fn:126]]", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 125, "text": "A/HRC/58/60, para. 54."}, {"n": 126, "text": "A/HRC/EMRIP/2025/2, para. 93. Participants at the regional consultations with Latin America and the Caribbean reported that Indigenous Peoples struggled to access culturally relevant data, even while data were continuously gathered on their communities without their knowledge and consent. See also https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000387814 (in Spanish)."}], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "D. Digital governance, mass surveillance and the right of women and girls to privacy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0058", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 58, "n": 58, "text": "When State and non-State actors deploy these technologies in ways that undermine the rights of women and girls to privacy, freedom of movement, freedom of expression or participation in public life, any justifications rooted in security, efficiency and administrative convenience must be critically assessed and scrutinized. The Working Group is unequivocal: there is no justification for the use of such technologies for mass surveillance and suppression of women and girls. Such uses cannot be justified under the strict tests of legality, necessity and proportionality and must be categorically prohibited in line with the requirements of international law, including articles 2, 17 and 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Gender equality and artificial intelligence redlines", "D. Digital governance, mass surveillance and the right of women and girls to privacy"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0059", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 59, "n": 59, "text": "AI and related digital technologies are reshaping the conditions under which women and girls exercise their human rights, often in ways that entrench discrimination, exclude marginalized groups and amplify existing power asymmetries. While AI holds the potential to advance gender equality, such benefits will not be realized in the absence of deliberate, rights-based, feminist and gender-responsive regulation and governance. International human rights law establishes obligations, yet persistent gaps in global regulation and technical standards have allowed systemic failures of accountability to persist. Closing those gaps – and ensuring that technological development serves rather than undermines the realization of human rights for all – is not a future aspiration. It is a present obligation.", "labels": ["Migrants", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusion and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0060", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 60, "n": 60, "text": "The Working Group calls on States and all stakeholders to prioritize a substantive gender-equality approach to the digital space, strengthening multilateral cooperation while urgently addressing harms from rapidly developing technologies, including AI.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusion and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0061", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 61, "n": 61, "text": "The Working Group recommends that States:\n(a) Promote equitable access to AI and digital technologies, guaranteeing affordable and reliable Internet connectivity and recognizing it as a public good; and ensure that access is supported by inclusive, community-driven and gender-sensitive measures, including by monitoring and addressing gendered disparities through the collection of disaggregated and intersectional data and their integration into national AI strategies and digital policies;\n(b) Ensure that all governance of AI is grounded in human rights law and feminist principles that advance substantive gender equality, integrating these approaches throughout the AI life cycle and ensuring women’s equal participation and leadership and the meaningful involvement of affected groups, particularly marginalized communities, including by establishing clear institutional processes and standards for the systematic integration of human rights and feminist approaches into AI legislation and regulation, requiring gender-responsive human rights due diligence by AI developers and technology companies, strengthening oversight by providing adequate resources and independent oversight that includes enforcement of equality and non-discrimination, and safeguarding civil society engagement, including through political, financial and institutional support to women-led and girl-led organizations and women human rights defenders;\n(c) Immediately cease the development and deployment of all lethal autonomous weapons systems, urgently advance a binding treaty prohibiting lethal autonomous weapons systems, and develop and endorse global frameworks governing the use of AI in armed conflict overall; this includes, as recommended by the International Committee of the Red Cross, ensuring that existing international humanitarian law is the starting point for all normative development,[[fn:127]] and undertaking meaningful engagement with civil society and other stakeholders on women, peace and security to develop feminist approaches rooted in the principles of conflict prevention;\n(d) Recognize data centres as gendered environmental infrastructure, including requiring gender-responsive environmental and human rights impact assessments prior to licensing that include attention to Indigenous women and women in climate-vulnerable regions, mandating public reporting by companies that includes the meaningful participation of affected communities, women’s organizations and Indigenous Peoples, preventing reprisals against women environmental defenders and guaranteeing access to effectives remedies, such as the right to challenge permits, access to information and compensation, and establishing a moratorium on the development of new data centres in regions experiencing high or critical water stress;[[fn:128]]\n(e) Strengthen and harmonize national legislation and mechanisms to address technology-facilitated gender-based violence and its impact on women’s and girls’ human rights, including those who experience multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination, including migrants, refugees, LGBTIQ+ persons, and those from rural areas or racial, or religious minority backgrounds; this includes ensuring regulation, transparency, access to justice, prevention, accountability and effective remedies for survivors, amending legal and policy frameworks to address the systemic impact of AI-enabled harms, establishing binding obligations with regard to transparency and accountability for digital platforms and AI companies on gender-based harms, and providing regulators with investigative and enforcement powers and the authority to impose effective and proportionate sanctions; this also includes investing in building the capacity of public sector actors, grounded in feminist principles of care, accountability and survivor-centred practice, ensuring rapid response and effective redress mechanisms for harms caused by AI and digital technologies, and strengthening international cooperation and cross-border mechanisms to strengthen access to justice;\n(f) Enact and enforce legislation protecting privacy and personal data, strictly regulating the collection, use and retention of personal and identifying data through AI, prohibiting non-consensual data-sharing for profit or unlawful targeting, including by addressing gender data gaps and data set bias, and prohibiting the collection, processing or sharing of health information, including reproductive data, with public or private actors for profit, law enforcement or any other purpose without clear, specific and revocable consent;\n(g) Enact and enforce legislation regulating AI-enabled surveillance, in alignment with international human rights standards, prohibiting mass, arbitrary and intrusive surveillance practices without due process or oversight, especially those targeting women and girls belonging to marginalized communities, with a particular focus on the bias, stereotyping and discriminatory outcomes perpetuated by such technologies.", "labels": ["Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 127, "text": "See https://www.icrc.org/sites/default/files/2025-04/ICRC_Report_Submission_to_UNSG_on_AI_in_military_domain.pdf."}, {"n": 128, "text": "A/HRC/60/30, para. 106."}], "section": ["V. Conclusion and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0062", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 62, "n": 62, "text": "The Working Group recommends that the United Nations:\n(a) Address the gender digital divide by prioritizing funding for initiatives led by women-led civil society organizations, women and girl community members and women rights defenders, and earmarking funding for technology training, particularly for women and girls, as part of operational and developmental support;\n(b) Advance the development of guidance and capacity-building initiatives that promote gender-responsive approaches to AI governance, including in the area of AI and exploitative digital labour practices, and assist States in integrating equality, non-discrimination, transparency and accountability into AI policy and regulatory frameworks, including by facilitating coordination within United Nations entities on gender-responsive approaches and supporting the meaningful participation and leadership of women and girls;\n(c) Develop actionable guidance on incorporating Indigenous knowledge systems into climate-resilient AI, centring the meaningful leadership and participation of Indigenous women in relevant research, negotiations and decision-making forums;\n(d) Develop and endorse global frameworks governing the use of AI in armed conflict, recognizing how AI technologies amplify gender discrimination, including by advancing a binding treaty to prohibit lethal autonomous weapons systems; this includes ensuring that existing international humanitarian law is the starting point for all normative development;\n(e) Produce sector-specific due diligence guidance for States, investors and companies on data centres with a dedicated focus on gender-differentiated environmental effects, including by supporting the development of international standards for gender-responsive AI environmental governance; and develop guidance on the protection of women environmental defenders from AI-enabled targeting and reprisals;[[fn:129]]\n(f) Build capacity for existing United Nations independent investigative mechanisms to be able to account for AI-enabled surveillance and technology-facilitated gender-based violence and support independent monitoring and reporting on the use of AI to criminalize, profile or target women and girls, including on the basis of gender, race, ethnicity, religion, immigration status, political speech, sexual orientation or gender identity; this requires the United Nations to ensure that it undertakes gender-responsive human rights due diligence in all technical assistance and capacity-building to States in the context of counter-terrorism and of preventing and countering violent extremism which is conducive to terrorism;[[fn:130]]\n(g) Develop gender-responsive international guidelines on requiring that AI systems obtain informed and revocable consent from users before collecting, retaining, sharing or processing data or likeness.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "LGBTI+", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 129, "text": "See the Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights."}, {"n": 130, "text": "See A/76/261, A/HRC/52/39 and https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/issues/terrorism/sr/un-sr-ct-ai-position-paper-dec-2025.pdf."}], "section": ["V. Conclusion and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0063", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 63, "n": 63, "text": "The Working Group recommends that the private sector:\n(a) Broaden women’s and girls’ access to AI and digital technologies in ways that promote safe use and expand access to benefits, accounting for gender-based privacy concerns and persistent digital divides, including for women and girls in rural areas, women and girls living in poverty and women and girls with disabilities;\n(b) Establish transparent, systematic and gender-responsive human rights due diligence before and during the design, throughout the deployment and throughout the full life cycle of AI systems, including by conducting mandatory gender impact assessments, building cross-functional teams that include human rights and gender expertise and establishing transparent grievance mechanisms for gender-based algorithmic harms throughout the full AI life cycle;\n(c) Address structural technical and social biases in data sets by investing in inclusive, representative and locally grounded data sets that reflect linguistic diversity and contextual meanings, developed in collaboration with civil society and affected communities;\n(d) Protect the labour rights of all workers involved in AI development and deployment, with particular attention to vulnerable workers, including women and girls employed as data annotators and content moderators, ensuring adequate wages and benefits, safe working conditions and accessible grievance procedures to report violations;\n(e) Invest in and contribute to the well-being of communities hosting data infrastructure, with particular attention to women, girls and Indigenous Peoples, including by conducting consultations to obtain the free, prior and informed consent of Indigenous Peoples prior to creating data infrastructure in their territories, incorporating Indigenous and other traditional knowledge systems and languages into project design and supporting climate-resilient AI technologies;\n(f) Apply human rights and environmental due diligence throughout the full AI life cycle, ensure gender-responsive impact assessment with regard to water, energy, emissions and labour, comply with applicable legal standards and provide affected communities with accessible mechanisms for grievance and remedy;\n(g) Safeguard user privacy and autonomy by prohibiting the collection and sharing of personal data with third parties without explicit, informed consent, and cease the development and sale of AI systems that enable mass or arbitrary surveillance, particularly when deployed to identify, target or criminalize women and girls on the basis of speech, race, gender identity, immigration status or gender expression;\n(h) Strengthen AI transparency on social media platforms through cooperation between teams working on gender, human rights and trust and safety, and ensure that users are offered a clear, easily accessible and persistent choice to opt out of profiling-based recommendation systems.", "labels": ["Indigenous peoples", "LGBTI+", "Persons living in poverty", "Persons with disabilities", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["V. Conclusion and recommendations"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0064", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 64, "n": 1, "text": "At its forty-second session, held in New York from 26 to 30 May 2025, the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls held meetings with the Secretary-General, the Assistant Secretary-General for Human Rights, Member States, UN Women, UNFPA, UNICEF, the Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Violence against Children, civil society, as well as domestic workers from China and Latin America. It also organized a launch event for its guidance document on substantive gender equality and held consultations for this present report, including with the Meta Oversight Board and the Global Compact.", "labels": ["Children", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0065", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 65, "n": 2, "text": "The third annual session of the Working Group in 2024 was cancelled due to the UN liquidity crisis and in lieu of the session the Working Group held a regional convening for the Balkans in Serbia, from 29 September to 3 October 2025. During the convening, it met with civil society, academia, attorneys and judges, women and girls human rights defenders, journalists and United Nations agencies in Belgrade and Novi Sad, as well as online in a hybrid format.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0066", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 66, "n": 3, "text": "At its forty-third session, held in Geneva from 19 to 23 January 2026, the Working Group held meetings with the High Commissioner, Member States and regional groups, civil society, and Afghan women human rights defenders. It also organized launch events for its guidance document on the rights of women and girls in family life, and for the OHCHR publication titled “Advancing women’s rights and gender equality: the fifteenth anniversary of the Working Group on discrimination against women and girls.” The Working Group also engaged in consultations for this present report with UNICEF, UN Women, OHCHR colleagues, and students from the European University for Well-Being.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["I. Sessions"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0067", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 67, "n": 4, "text": "The Working Group visited the Republic of Zimbabwe from 28 July to 8 August 2025 and the Republic of Armenia from 16 to 25 March 2026. The report on the visit to Zimbabwe is an addendum to this report, while the one on Armenia will be presented to the Human Rights Council in June 2027. The Working Group thanks the Governments for their cooperation and encourages States to respond positively to its requests for visits.", "labels": [], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["II. Country visits"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0068", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 68, "n": 5, "text": "The Working Group addressed nearly 90 communications to Governments and other stakeholders, individually or jointly with other mandate holders, of which 13 were led by the Working Group. The communications concerned a wide range of subjects, including: discriminatory laws and practices; allegations of violations of the rights of women human rights defenders, journalists, and politicians; women and girls facing multiple and intersecting forms of discrimination, including migrant, asylum-seeking, refugee and internally displaced women, women belonging to racial or ethnic minorities or Indigenous Peoples, and LBTQI+ women; women and girls affected by armed conflict; women deprived of liberty; and violations of sexual and reproductive health rights. The Working Group issued nearly 80 press releases and statements, both individually and jointly with other mandate holders, the human rights treaty bodies and regional mechanisms, of which 12 were led by the Working Group[[fn:1]]. The press releases and statements addressed, inter alia, the impact of armed conflict, forced displacement, occupation, and aid restrictions on women and girls, including in the occupied Palestinian territories; the situation of women and girls in Afghanistan and the call for recognition of gender apartheid in the Treaty on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Humanity; justice, truth, reparations and accountability for serious and historical violations, including for survivors of the so-called “comfort women” system established and controlled by the Japanese Imperial Army during World War II; the exclusion of women from peace and security processes, including in Haiti; violations against women human rights defenders, refugee and migrant women and girls, and LBTQI+ women; the reaffirmation of the central role of gender in advancing human rights and equality; and the call for urgent overhaul of global care and support systems to advance gender equality and human rights.", "labels": ["Internally displaced persons", "Migrants", "Persons affected by armed conflict", "Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [{"n": 1, "text": "All communications are available at https://spcommreports.ohchr.org/TmSearch/TMDocuments, and press releases at Latest | OHCHR."}], "section": ["III. Communications and press releases"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0069", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 69, "n": 6, "text": "Members engaged actively with multilateral, regional and expert processes concerning the human rights of women and girls. The Chair presented an oral report to the General Assembly at its eightieth session and during the opening segment of the seventieth session of the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW). In the context of CSW, the Chair of the Working Group participated in a preparatory Expert Group Meeting ahead of the seventieth session. At CSW, the Working Group co-organized five side events: “Envisioning Equality: The Case for Egalitarian Family Law Reform,” co-organized with the Global Campaign for Equality in Family Laws (GCEFL), UN Women, and the Permanent Mission of Sweden; “Automating Justice: Can Artificial Intelligence Increase Women’s and Girls’ Access to Justice?” co-organized with the Permanent Missions of the Republic of Korea, Estonia, and the European Union; “Access to Justice Denied: Women Facing the Death Penalty,” co-organized with the World Coalition Against the Death Penalty, the Advocates for Human Rights, Penal Reform International, Harm Reduction International, Just Futures Collaborative, Witness to Innocence, Anti-Death Penalty Asia Network, Women Beyond Walls, and the Permanent Missions of Switzerland, Canada, and Mexico; “Strengthening Access to Justice for Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights in a Complex Global Context,” co-organized with the Center for Reproductive Rights, and the Guttmacher Institute; “Algorithmic Bias, Gender Justice, and Descent-Based Discrimination: Ensuring AI Works for All Women and Girls,” co-organized with the Global Forum of Communities Discriminated against Based on Work & Descent (GFoD), The Inclusivity Project (TIP), the European Union Delegation to the United Nations and the Permanent Mission of the Republic of Albania. Additionally, Members participated in six CSW side events. Other engagements included participation in the opening of a panel discussion on the African Union Convention on ending violence against women and girls during the eighty-third ordinary session of the African Commission; two meetings of the Human Rights Council President’s Advisory Board on Gender Equality; the twenty-fourth, twenty-fifth, twenty-sixth, and twenty-seventh meetings of the Platform of Independent Expert Mechanisms on Discrimination and Violence against Women (EDVAW Platform), as well as a meeting of the EDVAW Platform with the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and the Gulf Cooperation Council; high-level events marking the twenty-fifth anniversary of the Women, Peace and Security Agenda in Brussels, Madrid and Vienna; and the Eleventh Glion Human Rights Dialogue on Beijing+30.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0070", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 70, "n": 7, "text": "A significant area of engagement concerned gender equality in digital spaces. Members participated in events and discussions on countering gendered disinformation; automating justice; algorithmic bias; gender bias in justice systems; and descent-based discrimination in AI systems. Additional activities included participation in a United Nations B-Tech Project roundtable on business and human rights in technology contexts, a conference on AI’s impact on women’s rights from the perspective of international human rights law, and discussions with a private-sector actor in China on environmental, social and governance measures to improve gender equality.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0071", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 71, "n": 8, "text": "As one of its key priority areas, the Working Group remained active on the situation of women and girls in Afghanistan, and in particular efforts to advance recognition, codification and accountability in relation to gender apartheid. Members participated in a series of high-level conferences, strategic convenings and public advocacy initiatives, including the second high-level international conference on advancing gender justice and accountability for women of Afghanistan, an event on the consequences of the education ban on schoolgirls in Afghanistan, a strategic convening on countering gender apartheid with international law, and a high-level dialogue on “Gender Apartheid as a Crime Against Humanity”. Members also engaged with accountability pathways through participation in the Permanent Peoples’ Tribunal for Women of Afghanistan in Madrid, the judgment announcement of the Tribunal in The Hague on the occasion of its fifty-fifth session, the HearUs 2025 event on promoting accountability for women in Afghanistan in Madrid, a panel in Ottawa on global solidarity to end gender apartheid, and the high-level conference “Four Mechanisms, One Purpose: Advancing Accountability for Restoring Women’s Rights in Afghanistan”, including discussion of the International Court of Justice mechanism in the Afghanistan case. Public outreach on these issues was further pursued through media and online advocacy, including a social media video statement on gender apartheid in Afghanistan disseminated by UNICEF Junior Team Berlin and a radio interview on accountability for women and girls in Afghanistan, including gender persecution.", "labels": ["Refugees & asylum-seekers", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0072", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 72, "n": 9, "text": "Members of the Working Group also advanced work on care and support systems and women’s economic participation. This included engagement in Human Rights Council side events on the precarity of undervalued gendered labour and on discriminatory laws and practices affecting women’s economic participation; a conference on Indigenous women, care and the environment in Mexico City; the commemoration of the International Day of Care and Support; and the launch of the Turkish translation of the Working Group’s 2025 thematic report on the gendered dimensions of care and support systems.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0073", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 73, "n": 10, "text": "Furthermore, Members advanced work on substantive equality in relation to women and girls affected by caste- and descent-based discrimination. In that connection, they participated in a dialogue with UN Women and the GFoD in preparation for a UN Women policy brief, and a side event held in the margins of the High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development at which that policy brief was launched.", "labels": ["Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Other activities"]}, {"id": "a-hrc-62-48-0074", "docId": "a-hrc-62-48", "idx": 74, "n": 11, "text": "Sexual and reproductive health rights and the rights of women and girls in family life remained central to the Working Group’s activities. Members participated in events on surrogacy, conscientious objection, strengthening access to justice for sexual and reproductive health rights in a complex global context, and SOGI. They also contributed to discussions and training on sexual and reproductive health rights in African academic settings and to activities related to women’s equal right to participate in the judiciary and women’s access to justice. In addition, members participated in initiatives concerning child, early and forced marriage and unions, including the first in-person meeting of the Child, Early and Forced Marriage and Unions and Sexuality Working Group, a global consultation on OHCHR guidelines on preventing and responding to child and forced marriage, and a global webinar on laws and policies to address such practices. The Working Group also submitted an amicus curiae to the Constitutional Court of Ecuador in proceedings concerning the criminalization of abortion, arguing that criminalization violates international human rights law and constitutes discrimination against women and girls. From 7 to 11 July 2025, the Working Group participated in a series of meetings in Brazil (in São Paulo, Brasília and Goiás) on sexual and reproductive health rights as well as the impacts of police violence, at the invitation of Conectas Direitos Humanos. This included exchanges with the Health Ministry, the Human Rights Ministry and the Racial Equality Ministry, the National Council for the Rights of Children and Adolescents, the National Council of Justice, the National Commission on Population and Development, the Federal Public Prosecutor’s Office and the Public Prosecutor’s Office of Goiás, the Public Defender’s Offices of the State of São Paulo, Brasília and Goiás, Advisory Offices of the Federal Supreme Court, parliamentarians, UN Agencies, and NGOs. Academic engagement, training and public outreach also formed an important part of the Working Group’s activities. Members delivered lectures, presentations and interactive sessions at, inter alia, Central South University of China, the European University Institute, the Institute Louis Joinet Summer University, Makerere University, Renmin University of China, the University of Calabar, the University of Murcia, the University of Pennsylvania Carey Law School, the University of Pretoria, the University of the Western Cape and Yale Law School. They also engaged with students through the Model United Nations Club of the Aga Khan International School, as well as with students, young people and civil society through career panels, training programmes and workshops. Moreover, from 22 to 24 April 2026, the Working Group Chair, alongside the Independent Expert on sexual orientation and gender identity, organized the Strategic Retreat “Gender and International Law-Making: Regressing on Rights and Changing Political Landscapes at the United Nations” at Yale Law School for Member States interested in prioritizing issues of gender equality and women’s rights in multilateral negotiations and forums at the United Nations.", "labels": ["Adolescents", "Children", "LGBTI+", "Women/girls"], "type": "sp", "committee": "WG Discrimination against Women and Girls", "committees": ["WG Discrimination against Women and Girls"], "year": 2026, "footnotes": [], "section": ["IV. Other activities"]}] \ No newline at end of file